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REPORT 


OF THE 


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BRITISH ASSOCIATION 


FOR THE 


ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE; 


HELD, AT 


EDINBURGH IN AUGUST 1871. 


LONDON: 
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 
1872, 


PRINTED BY 


TAYLOR AND FRANCIS, RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET. 


CONTENTS. 


Oxssects and Rules of the Association ...........00sseesaeeie ee 
Places of Meeting and Officers from commencement .........555 XXiV 
Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association from 

RGMTAPACHCEIEMY) fs /crels she Sere es biNe a8 oad das tae Gh 4 tgh OA Het Lads XXX 
Biv AOTUTES 6 his bk adh Ais RES Hess Lov ER Wat fatten XXXIX 
Lectures to the Operative Classes ...........05 meee ees acees ‘ xii 
Table showing the Attendance and Receipts at previous Meetings. . xiii 
Treastifer’s ACGOUNE iii ices t kee e case ect sees eel eek xliv 
Officers and Council, 1871-72 cccs ec ic ieee ease ete tte eteeen xly 
Unicers of Sectional Committees 2.0... .. 0. . eect eee xlyi 
Report of the Council to the General Committee..............45 xlyii 
Report of the Kew Committee, 1870-71 0... 0... cece ees 1 
Recommendations of the General Committee for Additional Reports 

and Researches in Science. ii. eid ci eee eee ete ect ease ee lxix 
Synopsis of Money Grants... .... sac vecdeuseuesteecesuss inns xxiv 
General Statement of Sums paid on account of Grants for Scientific 

RMSE Ss. Fates aot s ers as bis nah, yore kk il 4 ae MOD lxxvi 
Arrangement of the General Meetings ...... Levi tedsssedeus an lxxxiii 


Address by the President, Sir William Thomson, Knt., LL.D., F.R.S.  Ixxxiy 


REPORTS OF RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. 


Seventh Report of the Committee for Exploring Kent’s Cavern, Devon- 
shire,—the Committee consisting of Sir Cuartus Lyn, Bart., F.R.S., 
Professor Puituirs, F.R.S., Sir Jonn Luszocx, Bart., FR. S., JoHN 

a 2 


li CONTENTS. 
Evans, F.R.S., Epwarp Vivian, Groréz Busk, F.R.S., Witt1am Boyp 
Dawetns, F.R.S., Wreriam Aysurorp Sanrorp, F.G.S., and Wii11Am 
PENGELLY, FR.S. (Reporter) .....0c cece ee cece cece ee ce eisae 


Fourth Report of the Committee for the purpose of investigating the rate 
of Increase of Underground Temperature downwards in various Locali- 
ties of Dry Land and under Water. Drawn up by Professor Evererr, 
at the request of the Committee, consisting of Sir Wirr1am THomson, 
F.R.S., Sir Cuartes Lyett, Bart., F.R.S., Professor J. Crurx Maxwett, 
F.R.S., Professor Puitites, F.R.S., G. J. Symons, '.M.S., Dr. Batrour 
Srewart, F.R.S., Professor Ramsay, F.R.S., Professor A. Grrxre, 
F.R.S., James Guatisoer, F.R.S., Rev. Dr. Granam, E. W. Bryyey, 
F.R.S., Grorez Maw, F.G.S., W. Peneetry, F.R.S.,8.J.Macuin, F.G.8., 
Epwarp Hutt, F.R.S., and Professor Evurrrr, D.C.L. (Secretary) .. 


Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1870-71. By a Com- 
mittee, consisting of Jamus Guatsuer, F.R.S., of the Royal Observa- 
tory, Greenwich, Roperr P. Gree, F.G.S., F.R.A.S., Arexanper 8, 
Herscuet, F.R.A.S., and Caartzs Brooxr, F.R.S., Secretary to the 
Mekeorolapical Sockehy.. =. a\. 5. ei sees Pane stones eee ate eats Siaieeee em 


Fifth Report of the Committee, consisting of Henry Woopwarp, F.G.S., 
F.Z.8., Dr. Duncan, F.R.S., and R. Eruepipen, F.R.S., on the Struc- 
ture and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea, drawn up by Henry 
RWoopmamn; BUGS BUZ.6. ain oscis oo chino aes eee aes 


Report of the Committee appointed at the Meeting of the British Asso- 
ciation at Liverpool, 1870, consisting of Prof. Jevons, R. Dupiny 
Baxter, J. T. Danson, James Hrywoop, F.R.S., Dr. W. B. Hopeson, 
and Prof. Watry, with Epmunp Macrory as their Secretary, ‘ for the 
purpose of urging upon Her Majesty’s Government the expediency of 
arranging and tabulating the results of the approaching Census in the 
three several parts of the United Kingdom in such a manner as to 
admit of ready and effective comparison ” 


© @ « be « a @ fou "saw 6 ye. © nv) ere eie 


Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of Superintending 
the Publication of Abstracts of Chemical Papers. The Committee con- 
sists of Prof. A. W. Witt1amson, F.R.S., Prof. H. E. Roscor, F.R.S., 
Prof. KE. Franxianp, F.R.S. 


C2 


Report of the Committee for discussing Observations of Lunar Objects 
suspected of Change. The Committee consists of the Rey. T. W. 
Wess and Epwarp Crosstry, Secretary 


Second Provisional Report on the Thermal Conductivity of Metals. By 
Prof. Tarr 


Report on the Rainfall of the British Isles, by a Committee, consisting of 
C. Brooxz, F.R.S. (Chairman), J. Guatsuer, F.R.S., Prof. Pures, 
F.RS., J. F. Bareman, C.E., F.R.S., R. W. Myzyz, C.E., F.BS., 
T. Hawxsrey, C.E., Prof. J. C. Apams, F.R.S., C. Tomnryson, E-B.S., 


Prof. Sytvuster, F.R.S., Dr. Poxx, F.R.S., Rogurs Finny, C.E., and 
G. J. Symons, Secretary 


a ee er CCI aC Ne NCS CC i uC Oe Ph he keene Cheol: bh ta 


SOAPS CE CEE 6 ae 8 e's 6 6 48 Fe. a haw! wien |e 16) © (wins) eens 


Third Report on the British Fossil Corals. By P. Marry Duncan, 
F.BS., F.G.8., Professor of Geology in King’s College, London ..... 


14 


26 


53 


57 


59 


60 


97 


98° 


116 


CONTENTS. 


Report on the Heat generated in the Blood during the process of Arteria- 
lization. By Arrnur Gamexn, M.D., F.R.S.E., Lecturer on Physiology 
in the Extra-Academical Medical School of Edinburgh............ 


Report of the Committee appointed to consider the subject of Physiolo- 
PPE SeICHUMCNGHWON J) 2. ens ee gees Mase cwdt pes erscce. 


Report on the Physiological Action of Organic Chemical Compounds. By 
Bengsamin Warp Ricuarpson, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. .0.... eee eee 


Report of the Committee appointed to get cut and prepared Sections 
of Mountain-Limestone Corals for the purpose of showing their Struc- 
ture by means of Photography. The Committee consists of Jamzs 
Tomson, F.G.S., and Prof. Harxnuss, F.RS. 1.2... ke ee ee es 


Second Report of the Committee appointed to consider and report on the 
yarious Plans proposed for Legislating on the subject of Steam-Boiler 
Explosions, with a view to their Prevention,—the Committee consisting 
of Sir Wittram Farrsarrn, Bart., C.K., LL.D.,{F.R.S., Jounw Penn, 
C.E., F.R.S., Freperick J. Bramwertt, C.E., Huea Mason, Samuren 
Riesy, THomas Scuorrerpd, Cuartes F, Breyer, C.E., Tomas WEzsTErR, 
Cr and, Lavineron BE. Frercamn, CB. 20.560 dees toes eccase 


Report of the Committee on the “Treatment and Utilization of Sewage,” 
consisting of Ricnarp B. Granruam, C.E., F.G.S. (Chairman), Pro- 
fessor D. T. Ansrep, F.R.S., Professor W. H. Corrretp, M.A., M.B., J. 
Baitey Denton, C.E., F.G.S8., Dr. W. H. Grisert, F.R.S., Jonn THorn- 
nt Harrison, C.E., Taomas Hawxstey, C.E., F.G.8., W. Hors, V.C., 
Tieut.-Col. Lracu, R.E., Dr. W. Oprine, F.R.S., Dr. A. Vortcxer, 
F.R.S., Professor A. W. Wittramson, F.R.S., F.C.S., and Sir Jonny 
Meenas, Dart, MP. WBS. (Preasurery). . ec ows eee wees wee 


Betters from M, Lavorstmmr to Dr. BLACK .....02 ccc cece ess scccees 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Anton Domry, Professor Rox- 
LEston, and Mr. P. L. Scrater, appointed for the purpose of promoting 
the Foundation of Zoological Stations in differert parts of the World: 
See porier,, Dr. DOHRM, oo. pete a ras eeepc HOO Ge canoe ote 


Preliminary Report on the Thermal Equivalents of the Oxides of Chlo- 
qeue, “By James Dewar, F.BSB.. e005 See ts. te eee es 


Report on the practicability of establishing “ A Close Time ” for the pro- 
tection of indigenous Animals. By a Committee, consisting of Prof. 
Newton, M.A., F.R.S., Rev. H. B. Tristram, F.R.S., J. E. Hantine, 
F.LS., F.Z.8., Rey. H. Barnes, and H. E. Drussrr (Reporter) .... 


Report of the Committee on Earthquakes in Scotland. The Committee 
consists of Dr. Brycz, F.G.S., Sir W. Tomson, F.R.S., D. Minye- 
Home, F.R.S.E., P. Macrarpans, and J. BrouGH ......-..+..-45- 


Report on the best means of providing for a uniformity of Weights and 
Measures, with reference to the Interests of Science. By a Committee, 
consisting of Sir Joun Bowrrye, F.R.S., The Right Hon. Sir C. B. Ap- 
DERLEY, M.P., Samvet Brown, F.S.S., Dr. Farr, F.R.S., Franx P. 
Fextowns, Professor Franknanb, F.R.S., Professor Hennessy, F.R.S., 
‘James Herwoon, F.B.S., Sir Roperr Kang, F.R.S., Professor Leonz 


ili 
Page 


137 


144 


145 


165 


166 


166 
189 


192 


193 


197 


197 


iv CONTENTS. 


Levi, F.S.A., F.S.8., C. W. Smvrens, F.R.S., Colonel Syxzs, F.RB.S., 
M.P., Professor A. W. Wrttramson, F.R.S., James Yates, F.R.S., Dr. 
Grorce Grover, Sir Josepx Wurrwortn, Bart., F.R.S., J. R. Naprer, 
H. Drecxs, J, V. N. Bazatcerre, W. Surra, Sir W. Farrzaren, Bart., 
F.R.S., and Joun Rosryson :—Professor Lzone Levi, Secretary 


Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of promoting the 
extension, improvement, and harmonic analysis of Tidal Observations. 
Consisting of Sir Witt1am Tomson, LL.D., F.R.S., Prof. J. C. Apams, 
F.R.S., J. OrpHam, Witr1Am Parkes, M. Inst. C.E., Prof. Ranxre, 
LL.D., F.R.S., and Admiral Ricwarps, R.N., F.RS.....50-:229223 


NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS 
OF 


MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS. 


MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 
Address by Professor P. G. Tarr, M.A., F.R.S.E, President of the Section .. 


MATHEMATICS. 


Mr. Ropert Stawett Batx’s exhibition and description of a Model of a 
Conoidal Cubic Surface called the “ Cylindroid,” which is presented in the 
Theory of the Geometrical Freedom of a Rigid Body ..............004. 


Professor CayLEy on the Number of Covariants of a Binary Quantic ...... 
Mr, W, K. CirrForp on a Canonicai Form of Spherical Harmonics .,...... 
Mr. J. W. L, GuaisHER on certain Definite Integrals .........+.eeeeeeees 


—_——_—_——_———— on Lambert’s Proof of the Ivrationality of 7, and on 
the Ivrationality of certain other Quantities ........cseee ee eeeeee eevee 


Mr. C. W. MerriFretp on certain Families of Surfaces ........0+000+ cous 
Mr. F. W. Newman on Doubly Diametral Quartan Curves ......-+esseeees 
Professor PursER’s Remarks on Napier’s original Method of Logarithms. ... 
Mr. W. H. L. Russext on Linear Differential Equations..........0s0e0005 
——_————— on MacCullagh’s Theorem ...........ssseeeseeee 
Mr. J. J. Sytvester on the Theory of a Point in Partitions ..........++.. 


Sir W. THomson on the General Canonical Form of a Spherical Harmonic of 
the nth Order .,..., STROM E ckea o’ efe\n a a-e ae Ge ans tnd ake retake: «his ga elute setae 


Page 


. 198 


201 


1 


CONTENTS, v 


GENERAL Paystcs, 


Page 

Mr. Ropert Stawett Batx’s Account of Experiments upon the Resistance 
of Airto the Motion of Yortex=rings .....25 becuse ees eetceeclecgerbess 26 
Mr. H. Deacon’s Experiments on Vortex-rings in Liqnids ............. bey P29 
Professor J. D. EvERETT on Units of Force and Energy............0..005 29 

Dr. J. H. Guapstone and ALFRED TRIBE on the Corrosion of Copper Plates 
Rep EAETOL SULUAE  yaraig-etceierorstelelarole love's see he & oldie, ciaverele Phebe ewietsiaeelel 29 
ML Janssun’s Remarks on Physics ........002.ccc cee c eee cveceeueeccues 29 

Mr. T. M. Lrypsay and W. R. Smiru on Democritus and Lucretius, a aoe 
tion of Priority in the Kinetical Theory of Matter...............5. siaisies, 


Professor JAMES THomsoNn’s Speculations on the Continuity of the Fluid State 
of Matter, and on Relations between the Gaseous, the Liquid, and the Solid 


“UNOPS pn gcogeady abate a oeo 6 iS esi OREO eee Sa Debs DEE eee paribus co i 50 
———_—_—_—_——— Observations on Water in Frost Rising against 

Gravity rather than Freezing in the Pores of Moist Earth ............. . dt 

Astronomy. 

Professor CLirForp on the Secular Cooling and the Figure of the Earth .... 34 
Dr. Gix’s Observations on the Parallax of a Planetary Nebula............ 3 
M. Janssen on the Coming Solar Eclipse ........... 0. cc cece cece ee eeees 34 
Mr. J. Norman Lockyer on the Recent and Coming Solar Eclipses........ 34 
Mr. R. A. Proctor on the Construction of the Heavens...............05. 34 
Professor OSBORNE REYNOLDS on Artificial Coronas........... 0. see eee eee 3 
Mr. H. Fox Tatzor on a Method of Estimating the Distances of some of the 

HILO BL, SUTS Shee aa Pe Oke Sie rae ca one Cee ee nemo amemetony 54 
Professor Cartes V. ZENGER on the Nutoscope, an Apparatus for showing 

Graphically the Curve of Precession and Nutation ............eee cers 36 

Lieut. 


Mr. Puttre BrawAm’s description of a Set of Lenses for the Accurate Cor- 
SMP MANGL SISBOh ore yn ues < o s\one osc Sate eae id ee Va Leela cua be 


Mr. THomas“STEVENSon’s description of a Paraboloidal Reflector for Light- 


houses, consisting of silyered facets of ground-glass; and of a Differential 
_. MOTAT Pondoiglad H6abi of Shinto oda up ot opin ooooticlooobinsiac ont 5 ror 


Professor G. G. Sroxss’s Notice of the Researches of the late Rey. William 
Vernon Harcourt; on the Conditions of Transparency i in Glass, and the Con- 
nexion between the Chemical Constitution and Optical en of dif- 


, ©9 
vom 


PMI CIBBEES™ 5), 0... Ss vise teetanles Doses cscs ee vas Brat era. carat veers 38 

Mr. G. Jounstone Stoney on one Cause of Transparency... .eeceseeeeee. Al 
——______—— on the advantage of referring the positions of 

Lines in the Spectrum to a Scale of Wave-numbers.......+.ssseeeeeeee 42 
Professor Wi1LLIAM Swan on the Waye-lengths e the Spectra of the Hydro- 

GLO TOME deb bindebSnapipemodeinc oo unboliveanGonerccpuemommonr oconmboenare 45 

The AsB& Moreno on the Poste Photographique........+.++5 tetveweeees 44 


Mr. R. Surron’s Account of a New Photographic Dry Process.....+...... 44 


vi CONTENTS. 


- Page 


Heat. 


Mr. Donatp M‘Faruane’s description of Experiments made in the Physical 
Laboratory of the University of Glasgow to determine the Surface Conduc- 


tivity for Heat of a Copper Ball ..............00ccecaees Bpoui AanbSt 
Mr. Wirt1Am Lapp on a Respirator for Use in Extinction of Fires ........ 
Professor BALFouR StEwanT on the Temperature-equilibrium ofan Enclosure 
in which there is a Body in Visible Motion.........ccceceeeescccecees 


Professor Cx. V. ZENGER on a new SteaM-gauge ...sscsscsevseevsseveees 


ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. 


Mr. Tuomas Bioxam on the Influence of Clean and Unclean Surfaces in Vol- 


LACE ANCIAGIE araee atelete peices fete eteitictee levers icloss «sha Sane COG OUbooaddodae: , 
Mr. Latimer CLarxk on a new Form of Constant Galvanic Battery ........ 
Dr. J. P. JoutE’s Notice of and Observations with a New Dip-circle ...... 
Professor Tarr on Thermo-electricity...........ccceeceee ceeees abbas Be 
Mr. C. F. Variry on a Method of Testing Submerged Electric Cables...... 


Professor Cu, V, ZENGER on a New Key for the Morse Printing Telegraph .. 


METEOROLOGY. 
Dr. Buys Bauuor on the Importance of the Azores as a Meteorological Sta- 
LOL, es assis agep th ety ovals #\sce 'dinle.4'> iaisis Dive wet Wiagthe Gime jacneem ae ea 


Dr. ALEXANDER Brown on the Mean Temperature of Arbroath. Lat.56°33'35"' 
North, Long. 2° 35' 30” W. of Greenwich 


Dr. Witi1am B, Carpenter on the Thermo-Dynamics of the General Oceanic 
AGM AGOH OF, G'S ae sos wie nance eee eas eee aac Veen eet ea ee 


Rev. Professor CHa.iis on the Mathematical Theory of Atmospheric Tides . 
Professor Cotprne’s Remarks on Aérial Currents.......... #9 enous asia 
Professor J. D. Everett on Wet- and Dry-bulb Formule ......... v's oan la 


—_———————_—— on the General Circulation and Distribution of the 
Atmosphere ... 00000. Baka sycamore cheecesmins dareln ta iois/ ste errs olarsieters AIRES Ge oe ate 


M. JANssEN’s Observations Physiques en Ballon 


Mr. W. PENGELLY on the Influence of the Moon on the Rainfall ..... S006 
Mr. R. Russevxt on the Inferences drawn by Drs. Magnus and Tyndall from 
their Experiments on the Radiant Properties of Vapour ............ dace 


Mr, Wititam A, Trait on Parhelia, or Mock Suns, observed in Ireland .. 


Tuk PRroGREss oF SCIENCE. 


Lieut.-Col. A. Strange on Government Action on Scientific Questions .... 
Rey. W, TuckwE.t on the Obstacles to Science-Teaching in Schools ...... 


CHEMISTRY. 


Address by Professor ANDREWS, F.R.S.L, & E., President of the Section.... 


Mr. Tuomas ArNswortTH on the Facts developed by the Working of Hama- 
tite Ores in the Ulyerstone and Whitehaven Districts from 1844-71,..... 


59 


66 


CONTENTS. 


Dr. AxprEws on the Dichroism of the Vapour of Iodine 
on the Action of Heat on Bromine................0000055, 


Professor Apsoun’s Remarks upon the Proximate Analysis of Saccharine 
RM fala alse eth ie’ stare alt vo.0.8 ft ary eM T wioaeelbid a aI, 


M. Gustav Biscuor on the Examination of Water for Sanitary purposes 
Mr. Pump Brawam on the Crystallization of Metals by Electricity........ 


Mr. J. Y. BucHanan on the Rate of Action of Caustic Soda on a watery Solu- 
Pememermmararentc Acid at NOOF Co ase as oiaye «0 0je «su sus wgarecbraenm cen ts 


Dr. F. Cracr-Catverrt on the Estimation of Sulphur in Coal and Coke.... 


Mr. Joun Daze and Dr. T. E. Toorre on the Existence of Sulphur Di- 
LU STLEE 5 5 HE SERRE RB eR ae a aig saa ea? 


Mr. Henry Dracon on Deacon’s Chlorine Process as applied to the Manufac- 
ture of Bleaching-powder on the larger Scale 


Professor DELFFS on Sorbit 


a BE o Ore 0 © 6 60s 0). 8.18. ole) aval wh wale) © 


vs ela ek 8 Bee ofa a ee ale, 5, 6,6 0) Oidlelnieintaluia’ sie.ele,u) a) acutelete a 


Dr. J. H. Guapstonr and ALFRED Tripe’s Experiments on Chemical Dy- 

MT A. 30 tall lax Abielea,) eWicteee 1. Habe O AMIR eT 
Dr. J. H. Guapstone on Crystals of Silver .......ccccccscccccsuccuce 
PreOHIN GOODMAN Om FABTIN 6.62. cece oye ogee sneubinces oho ooh Oper ic 


Mr. Wittram Harxness’s Preliminary Notice on a New Method of Testing 
Beret at WOOO Nu Rite: ce. fechas on os cmitin vie «icing pats dsdieais.a wdoues a o% oie 


The Rey. H. Higuron on a Method of Preserving Food by Muriatic Acid .. 
Dr. J. Styciuarr Hoxpen on the Aluminous Iron-ores of Co, Antrim 


Professor N. Story Maskrtyye on the Localities of Dioptase 
—_—— on Andrewsite .......... ° 
Dr. T. Morrar on Ozonometry............ sibipo.Lc 


ee ee ee ee er 


Dr. T. L. Purpson on Regianic Acid 


0 Pee enee 


Dr. J. Emerson Reynoxps on the Action of Aldehyde on the two Primary 
Ureas 


et soe NEP ERE SUS) Ore TENS) Sata: e) etaile chee) 's 6 eis eota atecale! a) ‘sterpial ele) e! cals ataliea: w eie nc 


——_——_—————— on the Analysis of a singular Deposit from Well- 
“EEL pe ican CS as St ie Een Co IOI A eeaceic track rice rico" tr Seon oR 


Dr. Orro Ricutenr on the Chemical Constitution of Glycolic Aleohol and its 
Heterologues, as viewed in the new light of the Typo-nucleus Theory .... 


Mr. Witi1amM CHANDLER ROBERTS on the Molecular arrangement of the Alloy 
of Silver and Copper employed for the British Silver Comage........... 


Mr. E. C. C. Sranrorp on the Retention of Organic Nitrogen by Charcoal . . 
Mr. Jonn Smytu, Jun., on Improvements in Chlorimetry . Ae 
Dr. T. E. Toorrx’s Contributions to the History of the Phosphorus Chlorides 
Mr. C. R, C. Trcuzornz on the Dissociation of Molecules by Heat . 


Mr. C. Tomumson on the behaviour of Supersaturated Saline Solutions when 
exposed to the open air ........ eUatet at atatsh clave e's: a'eto' aver 


Mr. J. A. WANKLYN on the Constitution of Salts........... eon i cise ace 


ar C. Gizpert WHEELER on the Recent Progress in Chemistry in the United 
tates eeeeverereret eee treet ee ease eene 


sores erereeereoe eer eee ape ses 


Vill CONTENTS. 


: Page 
Mr. C. R. A. Wriaur and Cuartns H. Presse on the Oxidation products 
of the Essential Oil of Orange-peel, known as “ Essence de Portugal” ..,, 83 
Mr. C. R. A. Wricut on certain new Derivatives from Codeia.,..... » angina 
GEOLOGY. 
Address by AncHIBALD Gerxim, F.R.S., President of the Section .......... 87 
The Rey. J. F. Buaxe on the Yorkshire Lias and the Distribution of its 
PACT OUIUOS PME pomp site eof evo oets's one's evele oie. ote: ehevetoncterevel er ctetctis test toEstee 90 
Mr. D. J. Brown on the Silurian Rocks of the South of Scotland .......... 93 
on the Upper Silurian Rocks of the Pentland Hills and 
Mdpsmiah aso ire oe Jame Mert tsa leeia ce cs ys arene sifee oot stare rmaeenes 93 
Dr. Ropert Brown’s Geological Notes on the Noursoak Peninsula and Disco 
Nsland ins Worth iGmpenland..) ris stete"s sisis s'ale s'sie vlelele ober <a.a'e aein ae seiner 94 
Dr. Bryce on certain Fossils from the Durine Limestone, N.W. Suther- 
LEFTY bl el OI oP 4 ee erereccuategsictepcabcsets sis Gnevatore’s. retehhe sie ateune aint Po acieth Leet 
Mr. W. CarruTHERs on the Vegetable Contents of Masses of Limestone 
occurring in Trappean Rocks in Fifeshire, and the conditions under which 
RNG yATS VOSOR VC sete arte ol syeiaiche yo 66's ines a fa oye olay sha ttas Cees ayelala Cae iaumetotels 94 
Mr. Joun Curry on the General Conditions of the Glacial Epoch ; with Sug- 
gestions on the formation of Lake-basing./...........cccessccecccccncs 95 
Mr. R. DarnTREE on the General Geology of Queensland ...........0.+0- 95 
Mr. W. Boyp Dawes on the Relation of the Quaternary Mammalia to the 
Slacial emda. wk seis Fave och seg et oe lacie cine sores irate Steet 95 
Prof. Grrxre on the Progress of the Geological Survey in Scotland ........ 96 
Mr. D. Grieve on the Fossiliferous Strata at Lochend near Edinburgh .... 98 
Mr. G. J. Grieve on the position of Organic Remains near Burntisland .... 98 
Sir Ricuarp GrirritH, Bart., on “The Boulder Drift and Esker Hills of 
Ireland,” and “ On-the position of Erratic Blocks in the Country”........ 98 
The Rey. J. Gunn on the Agency of the Alternate Elevation and Subsidence 
of the Land in the formation of Boulder-clays and Glaciers, and the Exca- 
vation of Valleys‘and ‘Baws ). «gist sgaiea's 005; 6 oe3 vale eres ered oa created 100 
Mr. Joun HENDERSON on the Age of the Felstones and Conglomerates of the 
Pentland” Halls Gh) cela ie? a dele gat. Rae Ses bp a ska Cin 6 eae eee 101 


Professor Epwarp Hurt and Mr. Wittram A, Trartx on the relative ages 
of the Granitic, Plutonic, and Volcanic Rocks of the Mourne Mountains and 
Shiexe@roob, Co. Down, ireland aia.) 2 ..ch ne sammie cohort le ee 101 


The Rey. Dr. Hume on the Coal-beds of Panama, in reference mainly to their 
Economic Importance 


CC er ar 


Mr. Cuarries LapwortH and James Witson on the Silurian Rocks of the 
Counties of Roxburgh and Selkirk 


Mr. Coartes Lapwortu on the Graptolites of the Gala Group .......... 104 
Mr. P. W. Stuart MenteEaru on the Origin of Voleanoes....... ‘othe ce 104 
Mr. L. C. Mratx’s further Experiments and Remarks on Contortion of Rocks 106 


Mr. Jonn Mixer on the so-called Hyoid plate of the Asterolepis of the Old 
Bred Sandstone: crceristek sie Meetere seta al x sibatais Soe eitaieaien s/t trae - 106 


Mr. D. Mitne-Home on the Conservation of Boulders..........- cena ae 107 


te ki S. Mrrcueiy’s further Remarks on the Denudation of the Bath 
alitel soe A 


See ene rene Cee eee eee ween eevee Ce eeee 


CONTENTS, ix 


P. 
Dr. Morrat on Geological Systems and Endemic Disease .,..+..+seeseees 107 


Dr. James Murre on the Systematic Position of Sivatherium giganteum, Faule. 


BON os ols, «oa gre, eran tigrathiais in aprrats eis grate etn gen srekeks Sa Cauvete aha ache arpa 108 
Mr. C, W. Pracu’s Additions to the list of Fossils and Localities of the Car- 
boniferous Formation in and around Edinburgh.........seseeeeeeeeeees 109 
L’Aspé Ricwarp on Hydro-Geology ......eeec eee eeeeeeees palaeiskieis Sep ANS! 
The Rey. W. S. Symonps on the Contents of a Hyzwna’s Den on the Great 
MEME EILCHOTON SORA: fas ae figs 6 cs gig tedeang as tge ended fuse 109 
——_——_——_— on a New Fish-spine from the Lower Old Red 
meer at Eley, DrcConstare . sss se eee k a csc ete s bene e es .. 110 
Mr. J. 8S. Taynor on the later Crag-Deposits of Norfolk and Suffolk........ 110 
Mr. James THomson on the Stratified Rocks of Islay ......,. paar ea cage eel LO 
Prof. Traquatr’s Additions to the Fossil Vertebrate Fauna of Burdiehouse, 
TERE TDI Oriol RS ea AO UoDHABOanbia, dAcoaneess S93: 111 
Professor W. C. Wittramson on the Structure of the Dictyorylons of the 
MPMMRERECOR IE osc pnw eee eee as cue ne 9 owe Y dmeeamMdery cette fears Te 111 
—_——_—- on the Structure of Diploxylon, a Plant of the 
Warboniferous Rocks vi)... eccccdencee sce. Fe FeteeMa leer atabal ete feleie, al sti have 112 
Mr. Henry Woopwarp on the Discovery of a new and very perfect Arachnide 
from the Ironstone of the Dudley Coal-field .......... cece ece eee eens 112 
—_—_———-—— on the Relics of the Oarboniferous and other old 
PME SIUCED ate eeelel aides shva'eee sep irene taste Mets eek poses ete es 113 
BIOLOGY. 


Address by Dr. ALLEN THomson, F.R.SS. L. & E., President of the Section.. 114 


Dr. CoarLTON BAsTIAN on some new Experiments relating to the Origin of 
MS Re ay. Nes ee awa ek RON Re age oc ateeh ee ete as eras re ara loneers 122 


Dr. F, Crace-Catvert on the Action of Heat on Germ-life ...........04+ 122 
on Spontaneous Generation, or Protoplasmic Life .. 123 


Dr. Joun Doveat on the relative Powers of various Substances in preventing 
the Generation of Animalcules, or the Development of their Germs, with 
special reference to the Germ Theory of Putrefaction ..........00eeeues 124 


Sir Water Exxior on the advantage of Systematic Cooperation among Pro- 
vincial Natural-History Societies, so as to make their observations available 
MBI TRIS ES: ATION ANY 2 ia cn, oatale, vie mitts «,susbetala;seurd puedstesa/m Ys Glen: uis.g0-0.% 124 


Dr. Burpon Sanperson and Dr. Frrrrer on the Origin and Distribution of 
Microzymes (Bacteria) in water, and the circumstances which determine 


their Existence in the Tissues and Liquids of the Living Body .......... 125 
Mr. T. B. Grierson on the Establishment of Local Museums ............ 126 
Borany. 

Professor BALFouR on the Cultivation of Ipecacuanha in the Edinburgh Bo- 
tanic Garden for transmission to India..........es0e0e0% sonata teieeaia sakes 127 
Mr. Rospert Brown on the Flora of Greenland .......... exp va, atena teria’ > aisvenp 128 


——__——_-——-——-. on the Geographical Distribution of the Floras of North- 
BYESE AMOTICR oe ececssssecececs nc Se Seamntenbadoed cd i at anneates 


x CONTENTS. 


Page 
The Rey. THomas Brown on Specimens of Fossil-wood from the Base of the 
Lower Carboniferous Rocks at Langton, Berwickshire........ neopets 128 
Professor A. Dickson’s Suggestions on Fruit Classification. ......++6+..+++ . 128 
Mr. W. T. TutsELTon DyER on the minute Anatomy of the Stem of the 
Screw-Pine, Pandanus utilis so... ccccvccccccesencsssscenees satereisie othe 128 
on the so-called ‘ Mimicry’ in Plants ........ 128 
Mr, A. G. Mork on Spiranthes Romanzoviana, Cham. ..ccccccscecceceeres 129 
———— on Eriophorum alpinum, Linn., as a British Plant ........ 129 


Dr. James Munrtre on the Development of Fungi within the Thorax of Living 
Ii Kis go oantee te Sono bdr eps ase adddon SP Ia ee Saneoies aid og 129 


Dr. J. Brrxseck Nevins on the Changes which occur in Plants during the 
ripening of the Seeds, in order to ensure the access of the Air and Light as 
well as Heat, which are generally requisite for this purpose, without the 


loss of the Seeds before the ripening is completed ..........0.eesee eevee 130 
—_—_—_—_——-—— on the Nature of the Cruciferous fruit, with refer- 

NICO NTO! EE OPEV EPI 7, 0xa1 falar efaceies sveceis ace: ove: sj cdeverajocsietrs«,sc0ysieystesateds ett eereN 180 

Mr. J. Sapien on the Species of Grimmia (including Schistidium) as repre- > 

sented in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh..........ccceeeeseeeeeeeees 181 
Mr. Nem Srrwanrt’s Observations on the intimate Structure of Spiral ducts 

in Plants and their relationship to the Flower ........cseeseeseeeeeees 131 
———_—_—_—_——_ Inquiry into the Functions of Colour in Plants during 

different Stages of their Development........... ale legecevesnieseieh ee eer 131 


Prof. W. C. Wrix1AMson on the Classification of the Vascular Cryptogamia, 
as affected by recent Discoveries amongst the Fossil Plants of the Coal- 


measures ...... Jaane Hoes Tivoo" S500 OODOe a Terennen sieiegerare Spdddote Poe tail 
ZooLoey. 
Professor J. Duns’s Notice of two Specimens of Echinorhinus spinosus taken 
in the Firth of Forth .......... HOD OUOEEOHOORMC HS NOnOMT. Ma Tccqg 7b OC 132 
—————__——- on the Rarer Raptorial Birds of Scotland.............. 132 
Dr. GriERSON on the Carabus nitens of the Scottish Moors........++++++5: 132 
Mr. W. SavititE Kent on the Zoological Results of the Dredging Expedition 
of the Yacht ‘ Norma’ off the Coast of Spain and Portugal in 1870 ...... 132 
Mr. A. W. Lewis’s Proposal for a Modification of the strict Law of Priority 
in Zoological Nomenclature in certain cases .......0ee0e0s ea sat. ture. oe 138 
Dr. Curist1An LUTKEN on some resent Additions to the Arctic Fauna (a new 
Antipathes and a new Apodal Lophioid) ........... ce eee eee eens tein tt 138 
Mr. A. G. More on the occurrence of Brown Trout in Salt Water.......... 183 
—— on some Dredgings in Kenmare Bay ........seeeeeesunes 138 
Mr. C. W. PEAcH on the so-called Tailless Trout of Islay ...........0000. 188 
Colonel Prayrair on the Hydrographical System of the Freshwater Fish of 
A @CTIa |. citemieis iio’ 5 SH OS DODO AGO DOO BDAMODOn DO 6 cd ondcetcn Ae nici ve. 134 
Dr. P. L. ScuaTrr’s Remarks on a favourable occasion for the establishment 
of Zoological Observatories........cssscceccsccscccsccvess Fiorano sc 134 
Professor WYVILLE THoMSON on the Structure of Crinoids ...... Gc 18 


— on the Paleeontological Relations of the Fauna 
of the North ‘Atlanti¢sgeseccicccccccacedaeaendeues cede eaten 184 


CONTENTS. x1 

Page 
Mr. Rotanp Tren on a curious South-African Grasshopper, Trrachypetra 
bufo (White), which mimics with much precision the appearance of the 


stones among which it lives ...........- Sitoose  -5 SRS Ac oS CRO GOEe 154 
Professeur VAN BENEDEN sur les Chauves-souris de l’époque du Mammouth 

et de Vépoque actuelle ..... cece cece ee ee eens a Borer nin SSSA nik 135 
The Rey. R. B. Wartson’s Notes on Dredging at Madeira .......ceeeeseee 137 


ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 


Professor A. BucHANAN on the Pressure of the Atmosphere as an Auxiliary 


Force in carrying on the Circulation of the Blood .......+.seeeeeveeeee 
Dr. Joun Curenr’s Experimental Inquiry into some of the Results of Inocu- 
lation in the lower Animals ..........000eeeees Sideiateeisteente = pndaqode .. 138 
Professor W. H. Frowrnr on the Composition of the Carpus of the Dog .,., 188 
Dr. ARTHUR GAMGEE on the Magnetic and Diamagnetic Properties of the 
SUOOUL sscUR OGG jedgde SoacoorePicddommgt EUV Us Sree tarentr ee ates Segeiclo rn 138 
Sir Duncan Grsp on the Uses of the Uvula .........+..45 SRN NESSY SII 
——__ on some Abnormalities of the Larynx........+se+05 Pena loo 
Professor Humpury on the Caudal and Abdominal Muscles of the Crypto- 
DDEAHEM 6,60. .4:0 » A dade Sou e oot aodto bao Bob bo cao con se ddpraaeen nodose 140 
Mr. E. Ray LAnKEsTER on the Existence of Hemoglobin in the Muscular 
Tissue, and its relation to Muscular Activity ........ 2 uO OCPOKRDEROAICIG OF 140 


Mr. B. T. Lown on the Ciliated Condition of the Inner Layer of the Blasto- 
derm in the Ova of Birds and in the Omphalo-mesenteric Vessels ...,..., 140 


Professor A. MACALISTER on the Bearing of Muscular Anomalies on the Dar- 
winian Theory of the Origin of Species ...... Wares ae ace itve Lens neal cee LO 


Dr. M‘Kenprick on a New Form of Tetanometer ..........+ 


Dr. Witu1aM Manrcer on the Nutrition of Muscular and Pulmonary Tissue 
in Health and in Phthisis, with Remarks on the Colloid Condition of Mat- 
32s orion ‘Goode capduor Ae OB. DOIN. 0 DIDIDE- DIDOOSCK GUhOOD= aie Spee LAO 


Dr. Epwarp Smirx on Dietaries in the Workhouses of England and Wales. 141 


Professor STRUTHERS on some Rudimentary Structures recently met with in 
the Dissection of a large Fin-Whale .............0.. Fir cougae 


eeeeee 


——_———_——- on the Cervical Vertebree in Cetacea ...........+0+.. 142 
Professor R. H. Traquair on the Restoration of the Tail in Protopterus an- 
MECLENS weevsvuveee sete eeeees Pee eater eter ene ee resent tesenesvenne 


Dr. J. Barry Tuxe and Professor RUTHERFORD on the Morbid Appearances 
noticed in the Brains of Insane People 


Professor TURNER on the Placentation in the Cetacea..... Sp ocean pire 144 
—_-—____—_——’s Notes on the Cervical Vertebree of Steypirethyr (Bale- 
proper a, Std AIA) <i s(0 oisisivisre viele cttie clr tiele ele vu eierlereicle vid wv urea gerd y vielerebls's 144 


Dr. M. Warson’s Contributions to the Anatomy of the Thoracic Viscera of 
cud DIGI EBBSRRGGcen oc esse 4c dcdrdeadsootee densonea errs nade e! 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 
Professor TurNER’s Address to the Department of Anthropology .......... 144 
_ Dr. Joun Beppox on the Anthropolygy of the Merse.......... h Boudec ee 16 
on Degeneration of Race in Britain .i.ssveseeseseeees 148 


Dr. Cuarnock on Le Sette Communi, a German Colony in the neighbourhood 
Of Vicenza, .ssssseeees Oe Ee OV Rae ees 8.78 6 8 ee 0 8 Oe 8 ee PAS eos e288 88 8 148 


xii CONTENTS. 
rs 


Dr. CHaRnock and Dr. CarTER BLAKE on the Physical, Mental, and Philo- 
logical Characteristic of the Wallons ............eeee eens ootses bisér: 148 


Dr. Eugene A. Conwkit on an Inscribed Stone at Newhaggard, in the 
Gonnty Of Meath es fic tac scion sje% ects elm aiviele'e.c ois « Blvisit +s sna mame 149 


Mr. W. Boyp Dawxrs on the Origin of the Domestic Animals of Europe., 149 
on the attempted Classification of the Paleolithic 


Age by means of the Mammalia ...... cece eee cece e eee e ene eeneeees 149 
Mr. Wattrer Denpy on a Gleam of the Saxon in the Weald............-- 150 
Mr. J. W. Frower on the Relative Ages of the Flint- and Stone-Implement 

Pemodsan Bneland cs, a,c sss s ewes oe BEE ath Diokt ottordioavdorude 150 
Sir Duncan Grps on Centenarian Longevity.........0005 sacral gfbatic oe 151 

on the Fat Woman exhibiting in London,.....:.. PTs giet 152 
Mr. GrorGE Harris on the Hereditary Transmission of Endowments and . 
Oualiiies of diulerenh KINGS Oy sss ese os cass 030s seleale's on 2 ater seas 162 


——________— on the Comparative Longevity of Animals of different 
Species and of Man, and the probable Causes “which mainly conduce to pro- 


mote this:differencosss27.2 Fes Ss. Pees heer sets ORI OD Ud ooo ‘gsr doe 
Mr. J. W. Jackson on the Adantean Race of Western Europe ....... vith: dee 
Mr. J. Kartyzs on the Anthropology of Auguste Comte .............0085 . 153 
Mr KR. King on the happs. . si... csattcis attases siecrseccossttieesanes) 15S 


Lieut.-Col. Forprs Lestie on Megalithic Circles iiss sii eeieieiene ees L654 
on Ancient Hieroglyphic Sculptures ....,..... 165 
Rey. J. MeCann on the Origin of the Moral Sense .......:.. beeacttbians 200 


Mr. W. D. Micuet1, Is the Stone Age of Lyell and Lubbock as yet at all 
PrOvVEN sy Sey 2h set cit botaweeaeaet sa 06 hee ashes Oe .. 155 


Mr. M. MoGeridGe on Bones and Flints found in the Caves at Mentone and in 
the adjacent Railway Cutune .. isa. scces or tesen besst ose seine see 155 


Mr, J. Wotre Murray ona Cross traced upon a hill at Cringletie, near Peebles 156 
Mr. GroreGr Perris on Ancient Modes of Sepulture in the Orkneys,,....., 156 


Mr. Joun S. Poenf on an Expedition for the Special Investigation of the 
Hebrides and West Highlands, in search of EKyidences of Ancient Serpent- 
WOrship 550606. 6008 60500845 COR eee Rte A othe GR 5024 6 veevswe 158 


——_____——_—— on some indications of the Mamners and Customs of the 
early Inhabitants of Britain, deduced from the Remains of their towns and 


WIMBVCS pisisis soa She bie oe afloat 163.00 666966 F088 Coareeaty sieves 459 
The ApBé RrcHarD on the Discovery of Flint Implements in Bey pt, at Mount 
Sinai, at Galgala, and in Joshua’s Tomb...... $4 5,8, 5 bhok SOc Srl ee eure vee 160 
Professor STRUTHERS on Skulls presenting Sagittal Synostosis ...:..1...... 160 
The Rey. W. S. Symonps on Implements found in King Arthur’s Cave, near 
Whitchurch ¢<.5s.a0cseons SWRA SK aa séuebesvets WSSGT DO EUVERSE ESS 160 
Professor TURNER on Human and Animal Bones and Flints from a Cave at 
Oban, Argyleshire ,...2.,.stseterevivsscess iG OGoE a eeu teatime 
Mr. C. Srantmuanp WAKE on Man and the Ape wisiisiiscesiseess tveaes 162 


The Rey. W. WEBSTER on certain Points concerning the Origin and Relations 
of the Basque Racé, ,,iieiseiseveeechesenssaneertetsrveecsseeeswes Oe 


CONTENTS. Xili 


GEOGRAPHY. 


Address by Colonel Henry Yutz, C.B., President of the Section,......... 162 
Major-General ABRAMoF on the Principality of Karategin ...........00... 174 
Major Basevr on Minicoy Island .............0000008 PevEhtee hens ere bey 174 
Captain L. Brive on the Ruined Cities of Central America ......:14..... 175 
Dr. Ropert Brown on the Interior of Greenland ............ Sigidlidinh i ols 175 
Captain Curmmo on Cagayan Sulu Island .............ccsccecececceeeee 176 
Dr. CopeLAND on the Second German Arctic Expedition...........0.es005 176 
Captain F. Exron on the Limpopo Expedition ............cccceueeceees 178 
Mr. CurisTOpHER GEORGE on a Self-replenishing Artificial Horizon ...... 178 
Dr. Ginspure’s Further disclosures of the Moabite Stone .......... sions L79 


Dr. J. D. Hooxer’s Ascent of the Atlas Range..i....ciccsscsessssvssaas 179 
Ipranim Kian’s Journey from Yassin to Yarkand ..iis.seiseesssssssses 180 


Captain‘B. Loverr on the Interior of Mekran ....4...cscsuceseesausais 180 
Colonel R. MacnaGan on the Geographical Distribution of Petroleum and 
allied PROMUCtA Miva cide c ake aa caeeastaenteaesd eaeerecwe saat .ss 180 
Dr. R. J. Mann on the Formation of Sand-bars...............0.35 stiteebow 184 
Panpir Manpuat’s Report on Badakolan .............0eceseees Lekasuae 184 
Mr. C. R. Manxuam on the Eastern Cordillera, and the Navigation of the 
Beem SULT Lesher skeet ts bit rate baa SEO TL OT Rca iti citrine a 184 
——————— on the Geographical Positions of the Tribes which 
formed the Empire of the Yncas .......... TUE s wObrtE TTT ebee as LBS 


Captain Mizzs on the Somali Coast. i.i.iccicisasecsveaes vowed ea seavii 186 


Rey. F. O. Morris on the Encroachments of the Sea on the East Coast of 
Yorkshire..... cies abies 2 A 


Mr. S. Mossman on the Inundation and Subsidence of the Yang-tsze River, 
in China 187 


Archimandrate PaLLapius’s Letters from Vladivostok and Nikolsk, South 


er 


Mesttl Districhs ices sasisckaveetaseteaeeetts bittes beaae bs eeiaes 187 
Mr. E. H. Parmer on the Geography of Moab ..... Weegee rea vevass 187 
Captain H. 8. Parmer on an Acoustic Phenomenon at Jebel Nigiis, in the 

Peninsula OF Sinal vies eseiies cewees ees aieinliis oaks x Ge tteeneih aves 188 
Capt. A. Putxan’s Notes on British Gurwhal ........... vere NET S18 
Dr. Raz on the Saskatchewan Valley ........csscccccsessesas seecttises 189 
Mr. W. B. Ricwarpson on the Volcan de Agua, near Guatemala........,, 189 
Major EK. C. Ross, A Journey through Mekran ..............45 Misletrete whee OO 
Mr. Grorce Sr. Carr on the Topography of Ancient Jerusalem,......... 189 
Mr. TRELAWNEY SAUNDERS on the Himalayas and Central Asia .......... 189 
Major SLADEN on Trade Routes between Burmah and China.............. 189 
Commander A. Dunpas TAYLOR on the Proposed Ship-Canal between Ceylon 

Sil: LOTTE Gr Gin Se eOOIIOI Rus O.cs OL DERE tant EE eOm Or fotrencdee 


Capt. Ward on the American Arctic Expedition .........eisssseeeeseses 190 


M. ArTrHuUR WERTHERMAN on the Exploration of the Headwaters of the 
MAEANON: viii sa vies 0a a5 Sanvaisreier Te arnievahre inert © Hilario: sie iacel Sion 


Colonel Henry YvLE_on Captain Garnier’s Expedition up the Camboja,,,, 190 


Xiv CONTENTS. 


ECONOMIC SCIENCE anp STATISTICS. 


Page 
Address by Lorp Nravzs, one of the Lords of Session, President of the Sec- ca 


LCL See eee aloiateteleelele Cisse Stelelvlel a ateisete)s sv cvievevseceereseses 
Colonel Sir J. E. ALEXANDER on Sanitary Measures for Scottish Villages .. 200 
Lyp14 E. Becker on some Maxims of Political Economy as applied to the 


Employment of Women, and the Education of Girls .:......... samen vali 
Mr. Wii1am Bortey on Land Tenure ...........seceeeseeuceues AG pp ae 202 
Mr. Tuomas J. Boyp on Educational Hospital Reform: The Scheme of the 

aidinpurgh Merchant’ Company... ..:ssi20rs+csacssccesce eee canvas 20s 
Mr. Samvuret Brown on the Measurement of Man and his Faculties........ 210 
Sheriff CLecHorn on the Wellington Reformatory ..,........ soveess OL 


Mr. F. P. Fettowes on a proposed Doomsday Book, giving the Value of the 
Governmental Property as a basis for a sound system of National Finance 
and Accounts ...,.. Ron Anpo nade ride sicehalelededy, ini ?s’e atalol ctaleietcie aaa ols inialel oad 


Mr. Wittr1am Hove on Political Economy, Pauperism, the Labour Question, 
amidtiie Aiigior Dear oo vic o a.w stein oic:e secre sid © s4 wae eae ceiefas sine poke 


Mr. A. Jyram-Row on the present state of Education in India, and its bear- 
ings on the question of Social Science..........ccceuceeceuces x als acy jatar eee 


Mr. Caantes Lamport on Naval Efficiency and Dockyard Economy ...... 212 
Mr. W. M‘Bran on the Edinburgh Industrial Home for Fallen Women, Aln- 


wick Hill, near Liberton ..... ye elelelete ais (eva ei fenels slali ia vielecehe ete Seon 
Mr. James MErkiE on the Mode for Assessing for the Poor-Rates ........ 213 
Mr. W. A. PETERKIN on the Administration of the Poor Law ........ ‘aie 


Mr. GrorGE SEron on the Ilegitimacy of Banffshire ...........eeeeeeee. Q14 
on the Expediency of recording Still-Births .,........ 215 


on certain Cases of Questioned Legitimacy under the 
Operation of the Scottish Registration Act (17 & 18 Vict. c. 80) ........ 217 


Dr. Georcr Saar on Indian Statistics and Official Reports .........+.... 220 
Mr, Wit11am STEPHENSON on the Scientific Aspects of Children’s Hospitals 221 
Mr. G, Jounstone Stoney on the Relation between British and Metrical 


Measures ...... Bo, SoSEAISS So cOUe oro eae sis" oils aco eae epee me ae 
Mr. W. Taytor on the Manual Labour Classes of England, Wales, and 

COWANd .3. esse ene Haroon Sod dato wi bonoGson ones BE chee Fos ocho 223 
Mr. JAMES VALENTINE on Census Reform.......... SODOT ste eeeeeeseene 220 
Mr. R. Barwey WALKER on the Organization of Societies, nationally and locally 

considered ........0. sisisteteteie ebekelafeysay Kean gid a Se oe Bc aseisielchelels ine soa 
Mr. Witt1am Westeartu on the Law of Capital ........0ceeene soseeee 220 


MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 


Address by Professor FLnEMInG JENKIN, F.R.S., President of the Section ., 225 


Mr, Puiir Brawam on an Apparatus for working Torpedoes............0. 229 


Mr. F. J. Bramwei1’s Account of some Experiments upon a “ Carr’s Disin- 
tegrator” at work at Messrs. Gibson and Walker's Flour-mills, Leith .,,, 229 


—— 


CONTENTS, 


Mr. A. B. Brown on a direct-acting Combined Steam and Hydraulic Crane . 
Mr, ALExaNDER BucHan on the Rainfall of Scotland 


Beet ec neces sess save nae 


——————— 0 the Rainfall of the Northern Hemisphere in July, 
as contrasted with that of January, with Remarks on Atmospheric Circula- 
tion . 


on the Great Heat of August 2nd—4th, 1868...... 
Mr, THomas Carr on a new Mill for Disintegrating Wheat 
Sema Hoveess on the Corliss Engine ........6cccesccetecsscveeewsees 
Me. By F. Farris on the Gauge of Railways .....0...00cccccecccsceues 


Mr. A, E. Frercuer on the Rhysimeter, an Instrument for Measuring the 
Speed of Flowing Water or of Ships 


Ce 


2 


My, Lavineton E. Frercner on Steam-boiler Legislation 
Mr, THomas GiLLotrT on Designing Pointed Roofs 


©) ofe eh, a) 9) oe. uefa) se 


Cr 2 


Mr. James Lrstte’s Description of a Salmon-ladder meant to suit the vary- 
“ing levels of a Lake or Reservoir 


Mr. J. D. Morrison on a new System of Warming and Ventilation........ 
Mr. R. A. Peacock on Chain-Cable Testing, and proposed New Testing-Link 
Mr. E. C. C. Stanrorp on the Carbon Closet System 


Mr. C. WiLi1Am StzmMens on the Steam Blast 


GeV daeceriavtennewecsonnnsnenepe 


Mr. Tomas STEVENSON, Automatic Gauge for the Discharge of Water over 
ERR e tat Pd Wiley 2 FP) aA See. VOLS POLST PORT EL oR 

——_—__— —— Thermometer of Translation for recording the Daily 
Changes of Temperature 


oe) 6 eae ONS oft se oes 0 eee wee GO ee we De eos eee me Bee 


Mr. Micuax Scorr on improved Ships of War 
Mr. W. THomson on a Road Steamer 


CC mC re Se ee er 


GTA, BR ele Sle) 0) a! Bala ab ce ees. 8 oie le alee. 0) 6he a5 8:8 


APPENDIX. 


The Rey. Rosert Boog Warson’s Notes on Dredgings at Madeira........ 


Mr. B. T. Lownu on the Ciliated Condition of the Inner Layer of the Blasto- 
derm and of the Omphalo-mesenteric Vessels in the Ege of the Common 
Fowl 


ee Si sey 8) "Pee ws) Te lhei yee!) bie oon a ns Baek ola) By CUNO ihe mur On el Ay pm). © ol Dh Be. oh eite, 64.2) m6, 0, ey ene, 


2 
232 


241 


ERRATA IN REPORT FOR 1870. 


Page 
x, after line 32, insert ANATOMY AND Pnystonocy. 
xi, a 37, ,,  Ernnonoagy ann AnTHRopoLocy. 
XY, a 25, ,, Address by Mr. John Evans to the Department of Ethno- 
logy and Anthropology. 


xxxii, line 31, for Glasgow read Edinburgh. 
129, Transactions of Sections, after line 11, insert ANATOMY AND PuysioLocy. 
143, - a és is 390, 4, ErmnoLocy anp AnrmRorococy. 


ERRATUM IN THE PRESENT VOLUME. 


Page 177, Transactions of the Sections, line 33, for 0°58 read O58. 


OBJECTS AND RULES 


or 


THE ASSOCIATION. 


OBJECTS. 


Tuer Assocrattion contemplates no interference with the ground occupied by 
other institutions. Its objects are:—To give a stronger impulse and a more 
systematic direction to scientific inquiry,—to promote the intercourse of those 
‘who cultivate Science in different parts of the British Empire, with one an- 
other and with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a more general attention to 
the objects of Science, and a remoyal of any disadvantages of a public kind 
which impede its progress, 


RULES, 


Admission of Members and Associates. 


All persons who haye attended the first Meeting shall be entitled to be- 
come Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation to con- 
form to its Rules. 

The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical So- 
cieties publishing Transactions, in the British Empire, shall be entitled, in 
like manner, to become Members of the Association. 

The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees, of 
-Philosophical Institutions shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem-~* 
bers of the Association. 

All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by its Council 
or Managing Committee shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem- 
bers of the Association. 

Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the General 
Committee or Council, to become Life Members of the Association, Annual 


Subscribers, or Associates for the year, subject to the approval of a General 
Meeting. 


Compositions, Subscriptions, and Privileges. 
Lire Mempers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Ten Pounds. They 


shall receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association which may be pub- 
1871. b 


Xvill RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. 


lished after the date of such payment. They are eligible to all the offices 
of the Association. 

Annvat Sunscrreers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds, 
and in each following year the sum of One Pound. They shall receive 
gratuitously the Reports of the Association for the year of their admission 
and for the years in which they continue to pay without intermission their 
Annual Subscription. By omitting to pay this Subscription in any particu- 
lar year, Members of this class (Annual Subscribers) lose for that and all 
future years the privilege of receiving the volumes of the Association gratis: 
but they may resume their Membership and other privileges at any sub- 
sequent Meeting of the Association, paying on each such occasion the sum of 
One Pound. They are eligible to all the Offices of the Association. 

Assoctates for the year shall pay on admission the sum of One Pound. 
They shall not receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association, nor be 
eligible to serve on Committees, or to hold any office. 


The Association consists of the following classes ;— 


e 

1. Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid 
on admission Five Pounds as a composition. 

2. Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, haye paid on ad- 
mission Ten Pounds as a composition. 

3. Annual Members admitted from 1831 to 1839 inclusive, subject to the 
payment of One Pound annually. [May resume their Membership after in- 
termission of Annual Payment. ] 

4, Annual Members admitted in any year since 1839, subject to the pay- 
ment of Two Pounds for the first year, and One Pound in each following year. 
[May resume their Membership after intermission of Annual Payment. | 

5, Associates for the year, subject to the payment of One Pound. 

6. Corresponding Members nominated by the Council. 

And the Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual 
volume of Reports, gratis, or to purchase it at reduced (or Members’) price, 
according to the following specification, viz. :— 


1. Gratis —Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo- 
sition for Annual Payments, and previous to 1845 a further 
sum of Two Pounds as a Book Subscription, or, since 1845, a 
further sum of Five Pounds. 
New Life Members who have paid Ten Pounds as a composition. 
Annual Members who haye not intermitted their Annual Sub- 
scription. 


2. At reduced or Members’ Prices, viz. two-thirds of the Publication 
Price.—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a 
composition for Annual Payments, but no further sum as a 
Book Subscription. 

Annual Members who have intermitted their Annual Subscription. 
Associates for the year. [Privilege confined to the volume for 
that year only. ] 


3. Members may purchase (for the purpose of completing their sets) any 
of the first seventeen volumes of Transactions of the Associa- 
tion, and of which more than 100 copies remain, at one-third of 
the Publication Price. Application to be made at the Office 
of the Association, 22 Albemarle Street, London, W. 


eet ie 


RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. xix 


Volumes not claimed within two years of the date of publication can only 
be issued by direction of the Council. 
Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries. 


Meetings. 


The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The placé 
of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee two years in 
advance ; and the Arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the Officers of 
the Association. 


General Committee. 


The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Mceting, or 
longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the 
following persons :— 

Crass A. Purmanent Members, 


1. Members of the Council, Presidents of the Association, and Presidents 
of Sections for the present and preceding years, with Authors of Reports in 
the Transactions of the Association. 

2. Members who by the publication of Works or Papers haye furthered 
the advancement of those subjects which are taken into consideration at the 
Sectional Meetings of the Association. With a view of submitting new claims 
under this Rule to the decision of the Council, they must be sent to the Assistant 
General Secretary at least one month before the Meeting of the Association. 
The decision of the Council on the claims of any Member of the Association to 
be placed on the list of the General Committee to be final. : 


Crass B. Temporary MemBers, 


1. Presidents for the time being of any Scientific Societies publishing Trans- 
actions or, in his absence, a delegate representing him. Claims wnder this Rule 
to be sent to the Assistant General Secretary before the opening of the Meeting. 

2. Office-bearers for the time being, or delegates, altogether not exceeding 
three, from Scientific Institutions established in the place of Meeting. 
Claims under this Rule to be approved by the Local Secretaries before the 
opening of the Meeting. 

3. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and who 
are specially nominated in writing, for the Meeting of the year, by the Pre- 
sident and General Secretaries. 

4. Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections, 


Organizing Sectional Committees™. 


The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the several Sections 
are nominated by the Council, and have power to act until their names are 
submitted to the General Committee for election. 

From the time of their nomination they constitute Organizing Committees 
for the purpose of obtaining information upon the Memoirs and Reports 

likely to be submitted to the Sections+, and of preparing Reports thereon, 


* Passed by the General Committee, Edinburgh, 1871. 
t Notice to Contributors of Memoirs.— Authors are reminded that, under an arrange~ 
ment dating from 1871, the acceptance of Memoirs, and the days on which they are to be 


XX RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. 


and on the order in which it is desirable that they should be read, to be pre- 
sented to the Committees of the Sections at their first Mecting. 

An Organizing Committee may also hold such preliminary Meetings as the 
President of the Committee thinks expedient, but shall, under any circum- 
stances, meet on the first Wednesday of the Annual Meeting, at 11 a.m., to 
settle the terms of their Report, after which their functions as an Organizing 
Committee shall cease. , 


Constitution of the Sectional Committees*. 


On the first day of the Annual Meeting, the President, Vice-Presidents, 
and Secretaries of each Section having been appointed by the General Com- 
mittee, these Officers, and those previous Presidents and Vice-Presidents of 
the Sectign who may desire to attend, are to meet, at 2 p.m., in their Com- 
mittee Rooms, and enlarge the Sectional Committees by selecting individuals 
from among the Members (not Associates) present at the Meeting whose as- 
sistance they may particularly desire. The Sectional Committees thus con- 
stituted shall have power to add to their number from day to day. 

The List thus formed is to be entered daily in the Sectional Minute-Book, 
and a copy forwarded without delay to the Printer, who is charged with 
publishing the same before 8 a.m. on the next day, in the Journal of the 
Sectional Proceedings. 


Business of the Sectional Commitiees. 


Committee Meetings are to be held on the Wednesday at 2 p.u., on the 
following Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Monday, and Tuesday, from 10 to 
11 a.m., punctually, for the objects stated in the Rules of the Association, 
and specified below. 

The business is to be conducted in the following manner :— 

At the first meeting, one of the Secretaries will read the Minutes of last 
year’s proceedings, as recorded in the Minute-Book, and the Synopsis of 
Recommendations adopted at the last Meeting of the Association and printed 
in the last volume of the Transactions. He will next proceed to read the 
Report of the Organizing Committee +. The List of Communications to be 
read on Thursday shall be then arranged, and the general distribution of 
business throughout the week shall be provisionally appointed. At the close 
of the Committee Meeting the Secretaries shall forward to the Printer a List 
of the Papers appointed to be read. The Printer is charged with publishing 
the same before 8 a.m. on Thursday in the Journal. 

On the second day of the Annual Meeting, and the following days, the 


read, are now as far as possible determined by Organizing Committees for the several 
Sections before the beginning of the Meeting. It has therefore become necessary, in order 
to give an opportunity to the Committees of doing justice to the several Communications, 
that cach Author should prepare an Abstract of his Memoir, of a length suitable for in- 
sertion in the published Transactions of the Association, and that he should send it, toge- 
ther with the original Memoir, by book-post, on or before .. .sssesssseseeeeerseeeeee , addressed. 
thus—‘“ General Secretarics, British Association, 22 Albemarle Street, London, W. For 
Section ....... ” Tf it should be inconvenient to the Author that his Paper should be read 
on any particular days, he is requested to send information thereof to the Secretaries in a 
separate note. 

* Passed by the General Committee, Edinburgh, 1871. 

t This and the following sentence were added by the General Committee, 1871. 


RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. xxi 


Secretaries are to correct, on a copy of the Journal, the list of papers which 
have been read on that day, to add to it a list of those appointed to be read 
on the next day, and to send this copy of the Journal as early in the day as 
possible to the Printers, who are charged with printing the same before 8 a.M. 
next morning in the Journal. It is necessary that one of the Secretaries of 
each Section should call at the Printing Office and revise the proof each 
evening. 

Minutes of the proceedings of every Committee are to be entered daily in 
the Minute-Book, which should be confirmed at the next meeting of the 
Committee. 

Lists of the Reports and Memoirs read in the Sections are to be entered 
in the Minute-Book daily, which, with all Memoirs and Copies or Abstracts 
of Memoirs furnished by Authors, are to be forwarded, at the close of the Sec- 
tional Meetings, to the Assistant General Secretary. 

The Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections become ew officio temporary 
Members of the General Committee (vide p. xix), and will receive, on ap- 
plication to the Treasurer in the Reception Room, Tickets entitling them to 
attend its Meetings. 

The Committees will take into consideration any suggestions which may 
be offered by their Members for the advancement of Science. They are 
specially requested to review the recommendations adopted at preceding 
Meetings, as published in the volumes of the Association and the communi- 
cations made to the Sections at this Meeting, for the purposes of selecting 
definite points of research to which individual or combined exertion may be 
usefully directed, and branches of knowledge on the state and progress of 
which Reports are wanted; to name individuals or Committees for the exe- 
‘eution of such Reports or researches ; and to state whether, and to what de- 
gree, these objects may be usefully advanced by the appropriation of the 
funds of the Association, by application to Government, Philosophical Insti- 
tutions, or Local Authorities. 

In case of appointment of Committees for special objects of Science, it is 
expedient that all Members of the Committee should be named, and one of 
them appointed to act as Secretary, for insuring attention to business. 

Committees have power to add to their number persons whose assistance 
they may require. 

The recommendations adopted by the Committees of Sections are to be 
registered in the Forms furnished to their Secretaries, and one Copy of each 
is to be forwarded, without delay, to the Assistant-General Secretary for pre- 
sentation to the Committee of Recommendations. Unless this be done, the 
Recommendations cannot receive the sanction of the Association. 

N.B.—Recommendations which may originate in any one of the Sections 
must first be sanctioned by the Committce of that Section before they can be 
referred to the Committee of Recommendations or confirmed by the General 
Committee. 


Notices Regarding Grants of Money. 


Committees and individuals, to whom grants of money have been entrusted 
by the Association for the prosecution of particular researches in Science, 
are required to present to each following Meeting of the Association a Report 
of the progress which has been made ; and the Individual or the Member first 
named of a Committee to whom a money grant has been made must (pre- 
an to the next meeting of the Association) forward to the General 

1871. ¢ 


XXil RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. 


Seeretaries or Treasurer a statement of the sums which have been expended, 
and the balance which remains disposable on each grant. 

Grants of money sanctioned at any one meeting of the Association expire 
a week before the opening of the ensuing Meeting ; nor is the Treasurer 
authorized, after that date, to allow any claims on “account of such grants, 
unless they be renewed in the original or a modified form by the General 
Committee. 

No Committee shall raise money in the name or under the auspices of the 
British Association without special permission from the General Committee 
to do so; and no money so raised shall be expended except in accordance 
with the rules of the Association. 

In each Committee, the Member first named is the only person entitled to 
call on the Treasurer, W. Spottiswoode, Esq., 50 Grosvenor Place, London, 
S.W., for such portion of the sums granted as may from time to time be 
required. 

In grants of money to Committees, the Association does not contemplate 
the payment of personal expenses to the members. 

In all cases where additional grants of money are made for the continua- 


tion of Researches at the cost of the Association, the sum named is deemed 


to include, as a part of the amount, whatever balance may remain unpaid on 
the former grant for the same object. 

All Instruments, Papers, Drawings, and other property of the Association 
are to be deposited at the Office of the Association, 22 Albemarle Street, 
Piccadilly, London, W., when not employed in carrying on scientific inquiries 
for the Association. 


Business of the Sections. 


_The Meeting Room of each Section is opened for conversation from 10 to 
11 daily. The Section Rooms and approaches thereto can be used for no notices, 
exhibitions, or other purposes than those of the Association. 

At 11 precisely the Chair will be taken, and the reading of communica- 
tions, in the order previously made public, be commenced. At 3 p.m. the 
Sections will close. 

Sections may, by the desire of the Committees, divide themselves into 
Departments, as often as the number and nature of the communications de- 
livered in may render such divisions desirable. 

A Report presented to the Association, and read to the Section which 
originally called for it, may be read in another Section, at the request of the 
Officers of that Section, with the consent of the Author, 


Duties of the Doorkeepers. 


ib To remain constantly at the Doors of the Rooms to which tiey are ap- 
pointed during the whole time for which they are engaged. 
2.—To require of eyery person desirous of entering the Rooms the exhibi- 
tion of a Member's, Associate’s or Lady’s Ticket, or Reporter’s Ticket, 
signed by the Treasurer, or a Special Ticket, signed by the Assistant- 
General Secretary. 
3.—Persons unprovided with any of these Tickets can only be admitted to 
any particular Room by order of the Secretary in that Room. 
No person is exempt from these Rules, except those Officers of the Asso- 
ciation whose names are printed in the Programme, p. 1, 


se 


ee 


Ee 


"RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XX1ll 


Duties of the Messengers. 


To remain constantly at the Rooms to which they are appointed, during 
the whole time for which they are engaged, except when employed on mes- 
sages by one of the Officers directing these Rooms. 


Committee of Recommendations. 


The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee, which 
shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional Committees, 
and report to the General Committee the measures which they would advise 
to be adopted for the advancement of Science. 

All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Researches, 
and Reports on Scientific Subjects shall be submitted to the Committee of 
Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the General Committee 
unless previously recommended by the Committee of Recommendations. ° 


Local Committees. 


Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association to 
assist in making arrangements for the Meetings. 

Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers those 
’ Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire. 


Officers. 


A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries, and a 
Treasurer shall be annually appointed by the General Committee. 


Council. 


In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall be ma- 
naged by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The Council may 
also assemble for the despatch of business during the week of the Meeting. 


Papers and Communications. 


The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to reserve 
his right of property therein. 


Accounts. 


The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors 
appointed by the General Committee. 


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_ 6981 ‘81 snSny ‘saLaxq 
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*sost ‘61 snduy ‘HOTMAON 


see ne ence ence enceceseaesseeasassseessan ceases SEUTNT 


“sua “lod “a’W ‘ddaMOOH NOLIVG Hdasor 


‘Tomo Sputpyy uouRD “0x7 
*y'Jw ‘uojdui019 ydasor *aayy 
‘ajdurdreq pyeuog “iq 


ie a ile On | aries Oa § “anit own “bsg oqIeL xoT ‘H 4 


REPORT—187 1, 


XXX 
Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association. 
Date and Place. Presidents. Secretaries. 
MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. 
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, I.—MATHEMATICS AND GENERAL PHYSICS, 
1832. Oxford ...... Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S....;)Rev. H. Coddington. 
1833. Cambridge |Sir D. Brewster, F.R. cit babes Prof. Forbes. 
1834. Edinburgh |Rev. W. Whewell, THURS spstinacae' Prof. Forbes, Prof. Lloyd. 
SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS, 
1835. Dublin ,.....{Rev.:Dr. Robinson..............60. Prof. Si W. R. Hamilton, Prof. 
Wheatstone, 
1836. Bristol ...... Rev. William Whewell, F.R.S..../Prof. Forbes, W. 8. Harris, F. W. 
Jerrard. 
1837. Liverpool ...|Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S............. W. S. Harris, Rey. Prof. Powell, Prof. 
Stevelly. 
1838. Neweastle...\Sir J. F, W. Herschel, Bart.,/Rey. Prof. Chevallier, Major Sabine, 
E-.R.S. Prof. Stevelly. 
1839. Birmingham|Rev. Prof. Whewell, F.RB.8. ....../J. D. Chance, W. Snow Harris, Prof. 
Stevelly. 
1840. Glasgow ...|Prof. Forbes, F.R.S. ..........000+- Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. Stevelly, Arch. 
Smith. 
1841. Plymouth.../Rey. Prof. Lloyd, F.R.8, .|Prof. Stevelly. 
1842. Manchester |Very Rev. G. Peacock, D.D.,|Prof. M ‘Culloch, Prof. Stevelly, Rev. 
E.R.S. W. Scoresby. 
1843. Cork......... Prof. M‘Culloch, M.R.1.A. --/J. Nott, Prof. Stevelly. 
1844. York......... The Earl of Rosse, RGB: f2 005s Rev. Wm. Hey, Prof. Stevelly. 
1845. Cambridge, |The Very Rey. the Dean of Ely .|Rev. H. Goodwin, Prof. Stevelly, G. 
G. Stokes. 
1846. Southampton|Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart.,)John Drew, Dr. Stevelly, G. G. 
F.RB.S. Stokes. 
1847. Oxford ...... Rey. Prof. Powell, M.A., F.R.S. .|Rey. H. Price, Prof. Steyelly, G. G. 
Stokes. 
1848. Swansea ....|Lord Wrottesley, F.R.S. ........./Dr. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes. 
1849. Birmingham|William Hopkins, F.R.S........../Prof. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes, W. 
Ridout Wills. 
1850. Edinburgh..|Prof. J. D. Forbes, F.R.S., 8ec.|W. J. Macquorn Rankine, Prof. 
. R.S.E ae iy Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. 
Sto 
1851. Ipswich...... Rev. W. Whewell, D.D., F.R.S.,|S. J nea W. J. Macquorn Rankine, 
&e. Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes. 
1852. Belfast ...... Prof. W. Thomson, M.A., F.R.S.|Prof. Dixon, W. J. Macquorn Ran- 
L. & E, kine, Prof. Stevelly, J. Tyndail. 
1853; Hull eeys.., The Dean of Ely, F.R.S. ...,...../B. Blaydes Haworth, J. D. Sollitt, 
Prof. Stevelly, J. Welsh. 
1854. Liverpool...|Prof. G, G, Stokes, M.A., Sec.|J. Hartnup, H. G. Puckle, Prof. 
RS. Stevelly, J. Tyndall, J. Welsh. 
1855. Glasgow ...|/Rev. Prof. Kelland, M.A., F.R.S./Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. D, Gray, Prof. 
L. & B. ; Tyndall. 
1856. Cheltenham|Rev. R. Walker, M.A., F.R.S. .../C. Brooke, Rev. T. A. Southwood, 
Prof. Stevelly, Rev. J. C. Turnbull. 
1857. Dublin ...... Rey.T. R. Robinson, D.D.,F.R.S.,/Prof. Curtis, Prof. Hennessy, P. A. 


M.R.LA, 


Ninnis, W. J. Macquorn Rankine, 
Prof. Stevelly. 


ee 


PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS, 


XXX 


— En SS 


Date and Place. 


1858. 


1859. 


1860. 


1861. 
1862. 


1863. 


1864. 
1865. 


1866. 
1867. 


1868. 
1869. 
1870. 


1871. 


1832. 


1833. 
1834, 


1835. 


1836. 


1837. 


1838. 


1839. 
1840. 


1841. 


1842. 
1843. 


1844. 
1845 


y 
1846.Southampton|Michael Faraday, D.C.L., F.R.8.|Dr. Miller, 


1847. 


Leeds 


Aberdeen ... 
Oxford ...... 
Manchester . 
Cambridge... 


Neweastle... 


Birmingham 


Nottingham 
Dundee...... 
Norwich ... 


Liverpool ... 


Edinburgh . 


Presidents. Secretaries. 


Rey. W.Whewell, D.D., V.P.R.S./Rev. S. Earnshaw, J. P. Hennessy, 


Prof. Stevelly, H. J, 8. Smith, Prof. 

Tyndall. 

P. Hennessy, Prof. Maxwell, H.J.8. 

RS. Smith, Prof. Stevelly. 

Rey. B. Price, M.A., F.RB.S....... Rey. G. C. Bell, Rev. T. Rennison, 
Prof. Stevelly. 

G. B. Airy, M.A, D.C.L., F.R.8.|Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. 8. 
Smith, Prof, Stevelly. ay 

J.58. 


Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A., F.R.S.)Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. 
Prof. W. J. Macquorn Rankine,|Rev. N. Ferrers, Prof, Fuller, F. Jen- 


The Earl of Rosse, M.A., K.P.,|J. 
E.R.S 


Smith, Prof. Stevelly. 


C.E., F.BS. kin, Prof. Steveliy, Rev. C. T. 
Whitley. 
Prof. Cayley, M:A., F-.R.S.,/Prof. Fuller, F. Jenkin, Rev. G. 
F.R.AS Buckle, Prof. Stevelly. 


W. Spottiswoode, M.A., F.R.S.,|Rev. T. N. Hutchinson, F. Jenkin, G. 

F.R.AS. 8. Mathews, Prof. H. J. 8. Smith, 
J. M. Wilson. 

Prof. Wheatstone, D.C.L., F.R.S./Fleeming Jenkin, Prof. H. J. 8. Smith, 
Rey. 8. N. Swann. 

Rey. G. Buckle, Prof. G. OC, Foster, 
Prof. Fuller, Prof. Swan. 

Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. R. Harley, 
R: B. Hayward. 

Prof. G. C. Foster, R. B. Hayward, 
W. K. Clifford. 

Prof. W. G. Adams, W. K. Clifford, 
Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. W. Allen 
Whitworth. : 

Prof. W. G. Adams, J. T. Bottomiey, 
Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. J. D. 
Everett, Rev. R. Harley. 


CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 


Prof. Sir W. Thomson, D.C.L., 
Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S... 
Prof. J. J. Sylvester, LL.D., 


F.RB.S. 
J. Clerk Maxwell, M.A., LL.D., 
E.RB.S. 


Prof. P. G. Tait, F.R.S.E. ...... 


COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, I1.—CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY. 


Oxford 
Cambridge.. 
Edinburgh... 


Dublin 
Bristol 


Liverpool... 
Newcastle... 


Birmingham 


Glasgow ... 
Plymouth... 
Manchester. 


few eeenee 


Oxford 


John Dalton, D.C.L., F.RB.S....... James F. W. Johnston. 

John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S....,../Prof. Miller. 

Dy SHO Ped vederorscssovsnsccasecnensee Mr. Johnston, Dr. Christison. 
SECTION B.——CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY. 


Dr. T. Thomson, F.R.S. .........|Dr. Apjohn, Prof. Johnston. 


Rev. Prof. Cumming.......0..000- Dr. Apjohn, Dr. C. Henry, W. Heraz 
path. 

Michael Faraday, F.RB.S. .........|Prof. Johnston, Prof. Miller, Dr. 
Reynolds. 

Rey. William Whewell, F.R.S....|Prof. Miller, R. L. Pattinson, Thomas 
Richardson. 


Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S. ........- 


......|Golding Bird, M.D., Dr. J. B. Melson. 
Dr. Thomas Thomson, F.R.S. ... 


Dr. R. D. Thomson, Dr. T. Clark, 
Dr. L. Playfair. 
Dr. Daubeny, F.R.S. ........-2.:--.(J- Prideaux, Robert Hunt, W. M, 
Tweedy. 
John Dalton, D.C.L., F.B.S....... Dr. L. Playfair, R. Hunt, J. Graham. 
.....|R. Hunt, Dr. Sweeny. 


R. Hunt, W. Randall. 


Rey.W.V.Harcourt, M,A., F.R.S.|B. C. Brodie, R. Hunt, Prof. Solly. 


XXX 


REPORT—187 


iE. 


1848. 

1849. 
1850. 
1851. 
1852. 
1853. 
1854. 


1855. 
1856. 


1857. 
1858. 
1859. 
1860. 


1861. 
1862. 


1863. 
1864. 
1865. 
1866. 
1867. 
1868. 
1869. 
1870. 


Date and Place. | Presidents. Secretaries. 
Swansea ...'Richard Phillips, F.R.S. .........2. H. Henry, R. Hunt, T. Williaa. 
Birmingham John Percy, M.D., F.R.S.......... R. Hunt, G. Shaw. 
Edinburgh .|Dr. Christison, V.P.R.S.E. ....../Dr. Anderson, R. Hunt, Dr. Wilson. 
Ipswich ...'Prof. Thomas Graham, F.R.S....\T. J. Pearsall, W. 8. Ward. 
Belfast ...... Thomas Andrews, M.D., F.R.S. ./Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Hodges, Prof. 
Ronalds. 
(sft Dae eee Prof. J. F. W. Johnston, M.A.,/H. 8. Blundell, Prof. R. Hunt, T. J. 
F.R.S Pearsall. 
Liverpool ...| Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D., F.R.S.|\Dr. Edwards, Dr. Gladstone, Dr. 
Price. 
Glasgow ...|Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B., F.R.S. .|Prof. Frankland, Dr. H. E. Roscoe. 
Cheltenham |Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S. ...... J. Horsley, P. J. Worsley, Prof. 
Voelcker. 
Dublin ...... Prof. eet, M.D., F-.R.S.,!Dr. Davy, Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Sul- 
M.R.L. livan. 
Leeds ...... Sir J. i 'W. Herschel, Bart.,|Dr. Gladstone, W. Odling, R. Rey- 
D.C.L. nolds. 
Aberdeen ...|Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B., F.R.S..|J. 8. Brazier, Dr. Gladstone, G. D. 
Liveing, Dr. Odling. 
Oxford ...... Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S. ...... A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing, 
A. B. Northcote. 
Manchester .|Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D., F.R.S./A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing. 
Cambridge .|Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D., F.R.S.|H. W. Elphinstone, W. Odling, Prof. 
Roscoe. 
Newcastle...|Dr. Alex. W. Williamson, ¥.R.S.|Prof. Liveing, H. L. Pattinson, J. C. 
Stevenson. 
aBAEH coeacasee W. Odling, M.B., F.R.S., F.C.S.)|A. V. Harcourt, Prof. Liveing, R. 
Biggs 
Birmingham Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D.,V.P.R.S./A. v Harcourt, H. Adkins, Prof. 
Wanklyn, A. Winkler Wills. 
Nottingham|H. Bence Jones, M.D., F.R.S. ...|J. H. Atherton, Prof. Liveing, W. J. 
Russell, J. White. 
Dundec _...|Prof.T. Anderson, M.D., F.R.S.E.|A. Crum Brown, Prof. G. D. Liveing, 
W. J. Russell. 
Norwich ...!Prof.E.Frankland, F.R.S.,F.C.S./Dr. A. Cram Brown, Dr. W. J. Rus- 
soll, F. Sutton. 
Exeter ...... Dr. H. Debus, F.R.S., F.C.S. ...!Prof. A. Crum Brown, M.D., Dr. W. 
J. Russell, Dr. Atkinson. 
Liverpool.. ‘er e E. Roscoe, B.A., F.R.S.,|Prof. A. Crum Brown, M.D., A. E. 
Fletcher, Dr. W. J. Russell, 
Edinburgh Prof . “Andrews, M.D., F.B.S. |\J. T. Buchanan, W. N. Hartley, T. E. 


1871. 


1832, 


Thorpe. 


GEOLOGICAL (ann, unrit 1851, GEOGRAPHICAL) SCIENCE. 


COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, III.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY. 


Oxford ...... 


R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......... 


1833, Cambridge .|G. B. Greenough, F.R.S. 


1834, Edinburgh . “Prof Jameson 


1835. 
1836. 


1837. 


1838. 
1839. 


eee weer ener eesareees 


John Taylor. 

.. |W. Lane! John Phillips. 

Prof. Phillips, T. Jameson Torrie, 
Rey. J. Yates. 


SECTION C.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY. 


Dublin ...... OCU ocncsepcssseste vine emtcs Captain Portlock, T. J. Torrie. 

Bristol ...... Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.— Geo-| William Sanders, 8. Stutchbury, T. J. 
graphy. R.1.Murchison,F.R.S.|_ Torrie. 

Rey.Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.— Geo-|Captain Portlock, R. Hunter.—Gco- 
graphy. G.B.Greenough,F.R.S.| graphy. Captain H. M. Denham,R.N. 

C. Lyell, F.R.S., V.P.G.S.—Geo-|W. C. Trevelyan, Capt. Portlock.— 

graphy. Lord Prudhope. Geography. Capt. Washington. 
Birmingham a br. “Bakland, E.R. 5 Geo-'George Licyd, M.D., H. E. Strickland, 
graphy. G.B,Greenough,F.B.8.| Charles Darwin. 


Liverpool... 


Newcastle... 


PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. 


Tate and Place. 


1840. 


1841. 
1842. 
1843. 
1844. 
1845. 


Glasgow 


Plymouth . 
Manchester 
Cork 
York 


Cambridge }. 


1846. Southampton 


1847. 
1848. 
1849. 
1850. 


. Ipswich 
2. Belfast 


. Hull 
. Liverpool . 


5. Glasgow 
1856. 
1857. 
1858. 
1859, 
1860. 
1861. 
1862. 
1863. 
1864, 
1865, 


Oxford ...... 
Swansea 
Birmingham 


Edinburgh * 


Cheltenham 


seeeee 


Manchester 
Cambridge 
Newcastle . 
Bath 


Birmingham 


Presidents. 


ee eg ee F.R.S.— Geogra- 


phy. G. B. Greenough, F.R.S. 


1H. T. De la Beche, F.R.S. 


R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......... 


Richard E. Griffith, F.R.S., 
M.R.LA. 

Henry Warburton, M.P., Pres. 
Geol. Soe. 

Rey. Prof. Sedgwick, M.A., F.R.S. 


LeonardHorner,F.R.S.— Geogra- 
phy. G. B. Greenough, F.R.S. 


Very Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S. 


...(Sir H. a De la Beche, C.B., 
E.R 


Sir Charles Lyell, F.R.S., F.G.S.' 


.|Prof. Edward Forbes, F.R.S. 
... (Sir R.I. Murchison, F.R.S. ..... 


Sir Roderick I. Murchison,F.R.8. 


XXX 


Secretaries. 


W. J. Hamilton, D. Milne, Hugh 
Murray, H. E. Strickland, John 
Scoular, M.D. 

W.J. Hamilton, Edward Moore,M.D., 
R. Hutton. 

E. W. Binney, R. Hutton, Dr. R. 
Lloyd, H. B. Strickland. 

Francis M. Jennings, H. ©. Strick- 
land. 

Prof.:Ansted, E. H. Bunbury. 


Rey. J. C. Cumming, A. C. Ramsay, 
Rev. W. Thorp. 

Robert A. Austen, J. H. Norten, M.D., 
Prof. Oldham.— Geography. Dr. C. 
T. Beke. 

Prof. Ansted, Prof. Oldham, A. C. 
Ramsay, J. Ruski 


Starling Benson, Prof. Oldham, Prof. 
Ramsay. 

J. Beete des, Prof. Oldham, Prof. 
A.C. Ramsay. 

A. Keith Johnston, Hugh Miller, Pro- 
fessor Nicol. 


SECTION C (continued),—GEOLOGY. 


.../William Hopkins, M.A., F.R.S... 
Lieut.-Col. Portlock, R.E., F.R.S. 


Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S. .........06. 


Prof, A. C. Ramsay, F.R.S. . 
The Lord Talbot de Malahide ... 
William Hopkins, M.A., LL.D., 
E.BS. 
../Sir Charles Lyell, LL.D., D.C.L., 
E.R.S 
Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, LL.D., 
E.BS., F.G.S8. 
D.C.L., 


Sir R. Murchison, 
LL.D., F.R.S., &e. 

J. Beete Jukes, M.A., F.RS.... 

..|Prof. Warington W. Smyth, 
E.R.S., F. GS. 

ae re ‘Phillips, LL.D., F.BS., 


rae Murchison, Bart.,K.C.B. 


C. J. F. Bunbury, G@. W. Ormerod, 
Searles Wood. 

James Bryce, James MacAdam, Prof. 
M‘Coy, Prof. Nicol. 

Prof. Harkness, William Lawton. 


..|John Cunningham, Prof. Harkness, 


G. W. Ormerod, J. W. Woodall. 


James Bryce, Prof. Harkness, Prof. 


Nicol. 


..|Rev. P. B. Brodie, Rev. R. Hepworth, 


Edward Hull, J. Scougall, T.Wright. 

Prof. Harkness, Gilbert Sanders, Ro- 
bert H. Scott. 

Prof. Nicol, H. C. Sorby, E. W. 
Shaw. 

Prof. a eee Rev. J. Longmuir, H. 


Eye 
Prof. eee Edward Hull, Capt. 
Woodall. 
Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, T. Ru- 
pert Jones, G. W. Ormerod. 


...|Lucas Barrett, Prof. T. Rupert Jones, 


Hi. C. Sorby. 
E. F. Boyd, John Daglish, H. C. Sor- 
by, Thomas Sopwith. 
We B. Dawkins, J. Johnston, H. C. 
Sorby, W. Pengelly. 
Rev. P. B. Brodie, J. Jones, Rev. E. 
Myers, H. C, Sorby, W. Pengelly. 


* At the Meeting of the General Committee held in Edinburgh, it was agreed “That the 
subject of Geography be separated from Geology and combined with Ethnology, to consti- 
tute a separate Section, under the title of the ‘‘ Geographical and Ethnological Section,” 
for Presidents and Secretaries of which see page xxxvi. 


XXXIV 


RePort—187 


F. 


Date and Place. 


1866. Nottingham 
1867. Dundee...... 
1868. Norwich ... 
1869, Exeter 
1870. Liverpool... 


1871. Edinburgh .. 


1832. Oxford ...... 
1833. Cambridge * 
1834. Edinburgh 


1835. Dublin ...... 
1836. Bristol 
1837. Liverpool .. 
1838. Newcastle... 


1839. Brimingham 
1840. Glasgow 


1841. Plymouth... 
1842, Manchester 


1 SAB GON ..i/,%. 
14? Vork......... 


1845. Cambridge 


1846. Southampton) 


1847. Oxford....... 


Presidents. 


Prof.A.C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.B.S8. 
Archibald Geikie, F.R.S., F.G.S. 
R. a - Godwin-Austen, F.R.S., 
Prot e ‘Harkness, E.R.S., F.G.S.| 


Secretaries. 


R. Etheridge, W. Pengelly, T. Wil- 
son, G. H. Wright. 

Edward Hull, W. Pengelly, Henry 
Woodward. 

Rey. O. Fisher, Rey. J. Gunn, W. 
Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood. 
W. Pengelly, W. Boyd Dawkins, Rey. 

H. H. Winwood. 


Sir Philip de M. Grey Egerton,/W. Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood, 


Bart., M.P., F.R.S 
Prof. a Geikie, ERS. Gas 


W. Boyd Dawkins, G. H. Morton. 


\R. Etheridge, J. Geikie, J. MeKenny 


Hughes, L. C. Miall. 


BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES. 
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, IV.—ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, PHYSIOLOGY, ANATOMY. 


Rey. P. B. Dunean, F.G.S. 
Rey. W. L. P. Garnons, F.LS... 
Prof,; Graharitegiis.cch sae sisudsesses 


Wiss inc Deny jeesssteccasscnecsass 
Sir W. Jardine, Bart.......... sane 
Prof. Owen, F.R.S. 


eee eee eee 


...\sir W. J. Hooker, LL.D .......... 


John Richardson, M.D., F.R.S.. 

Hon. and Very Rey. W. Herbert, 
LL.D., F.L.S. 

William Thompson, F.L.S. ...... 


Very Rey. The Dean of Manches-) 


ter. 
Rey. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S. ...... 
Sir J. Richardson, M.D., F.R.S. 


H. E. Strickland, M.A, F.R.S.... 


..|Rey. Prof. J. 8. Henslow. 
.|C. C. Babington, D. Don. 
W. Yarrell, Prof. Burnett. 


J. Curtis, Dr. Litton. 

J. Curtis, Prof. Don, Dr. Riley, 8. 
Rootsey. 

C. C. Babington, Rey. L. Jenyns, W. 
Swainson. 

J.E. Gray, Prof. Jones, R. Owen, Dr. 
Richardson. 

E. Forbes, W. Ick, R. Patterson. 

Prof. W. Couper, E. Forbes, R. Pat- 
terson. 

J. Couch, Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson. 

Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson, J. A. 
Turner. 

G. J. Allman, Dr. Lankester, R. Pat- 
terson. 

Prof. Allman, H. Goodsir, Dr. King, 
Dr. Tankester. 

Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston. 

Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston, H. 
Wooldridge. 

Dr. Lankester, Dr. Melville, T. V. 
Wollaston. 


SECTION D (continued),.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY. 


[For the Presidents and Secretaries of the Anatomical and Physiological Subsections 
and the temporary Section EH of Anatomy and Medicine, see pp. xxxv, xxxyvi.] 


1848. Swansea 


1849. Birmingham 
1850. Edinburgh. . 


1851. 
1852. Belfast ...... 
U5 ie 5 bad ee Be 


1854. Liverpool .. 
1855. Glasgow 


Tpswich...... 


..[L. W. Dillwyn, FBS. «0.0.0.0... 


| William Spence, F.R.S............. 
Prof. Goodsir, F.R.S. L. &E, ai 


‘Rey. Prof. Henslow, M.A., F.R.S. 
W. Ogilby 
iC. C. Babington, M.A., F.RB.S... 


eeee PCOS eee eee eee rere 


Dr. R. Wilbraham Falconer, A. Hen- 
frey, Dr. Lankester. 
Dr. Lankester, Dr. Russell. 


Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D., Dr. Lan- 


kester, Dr. Douglas Maclagan. 
Prof. Allman, F. W. Johnston, Dr. E. 
Lankester. 
Dr. Dickie, George C. Hyndman, Dr. 
Edwin Lankester. 


.|Robert Harrison, Dr. B. Lankester. 


.|Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S....... 
...|Rey. Dr. Fleeming, F.R.S.E. 


Isaac Byerley, Dr. E, Lankester. 
..(William Keddie, Dr. Lankester. 


_* At this Meeting Physiology and Anatomy were made a separate Committee, for 
Presidents and Secretaries of which see p- XXXV. 


Se 


PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES 


OF THE SECTIONS. XXXV 


Date and Place. 


—-. 


1856. 


Presidents. 


Cheltenham .|Thomas Bell, F.R.S., Pres.L.$.... 


Secretaries. 


Dr. J. Abercrombie, Prof. Buckman, 
Dr. Lankester. 


1857. Dublin ...... Prof. W.H. Harvey, M.D., F.R.8./Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Dr. EH. Lankester, 
Robert Patterson, Dr. W. E. Steele. 
1858. Leeds......... C. ©. Babington, M.A., F.R.S....,Henry Denny, Dr. Heaton, Dr. E. 
Lankester, Dr. H. Perceval Wright. 
1859. Aberdeen .../Sir W. Jardine, Bart., F.R.S.E. .| Prof. noe M.D., Dr. BE. Lankester, 
Dr. Ogilvy. 
1860. Oxford ...... Rey. Prof. Henslow, F.LS. ....../W. 8. Church, Dr. E. Lankester, P. 
L. Sclater, Dr. E. Perceval Wright. 
1861. Manchester..|Prof. C. C. Babington, F-R.S. ...|Dr. T. Alcock, Dr. E. Lankester, Dr. 
P. L. Sclater, Dr. E. P. Wright. 
1862. Cambridge...|Prof. Huxley, F.R.S._ ......... Alfred Newton, Dr. E. P. Wright. 
1863. Newcastle ...|Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S. ....../Dr. E. Charlton, A. Newton, Rev. H. 
B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright. 
1864. Bath ......... Dr. John E. Gray, F.R.S. ...... H. B. Brady, C. E. Broom, H. T. 
Stainton, Dr. E. P. Wright. 
1865. Birmingham/T. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S. ......[Dr. J. Anthony, Rey. C. Clarke, Rev. 
H. B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright. 
SECTION D (continued).—BIOLOGY *. 

1866. Nottingham.|Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S.—|Dr. J. Beddard, W. Felkin, Rev. H. 
Physiological Dep. Prof. Hum-| B. Tristram, W. Turner, E. B. 
phry, M.D., F.R.S.—Anthropo-| Tylor, Dr. E. P. Wright. 
logical Dep. Alfred R. Wallace, 

: E.R.GS. 

1867. Dundee...... Prof, Sharpey, M.D., Sec. R.S.—|C. Spence Bate, Dr. 8. Cobbold, Dr. 
Dep. of Zool. and Bot. George| M. Foster, H. T. Stainton, Rey. H. 
Busk, M.D., F.R.S8. B. Tristram, Prof. W. Turner. 

1868. Norwich .../Rev. M. J. Berkeley, F.L.S.—|Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, G. W. Firth, Dr. 
Dep. of Physiology. W. H.| M. Foster, Prof. Lawson, H. T. 
Flower, F.R.S. Stainton, Rey. Dr. H. B. Tristram, 

Dr. B. P. Wright. } 
1869. Exeter ...... George Busk, F.R.S., F.L.S.—[Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, Prof. M. Foster, 
Dep. of Bot. and Zool.C. Spence) M.D., E. Ray Lankester, Professor 
Bate, F.R.S.—Dep. of Ethno.| Lawson, H.'T’. Stainton, Rey. H. B. 
Bi. B. Tylor. Tristram. 

1870. Liverpool ...|Prof. G. Rolleston, M.A., M.D.,)Dr. T. S. Cobbold, Sebastian Evans, 
E.\R.S.,F.L.8.—Dep. Anat.and| Prof. Lawson, Thos. J. Moore, H. 
Physio. Prof. M. Foster, M.D.,) T. Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tristram, 
F.L.S.—Dep. of Ethno. J.| C. Staniland Wake, E. Ray Lan- 
Evans, F.R.S. kester. 

1871. Edinburgh |Prof.Allen Thomson,M.D.,F.R.S.|Dr. T. R. Fraser, Dr. Arthur Gamgee, 
—Dep. of Bot. and Zool. Prof.| E. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson, 
Wyville Thomson, F.R.S.—| H. T. Stainton, C. Staniland Wake, 
Dep. of Anthropo. Prof. W.| Dr. W. Rutherford, Dr. Kelburne 
Turner, M.D. King. 

ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCES. 
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, V.— ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 

1833, Cambridge...|Dr. Haviland .........:.c0ceeeee ey-+[Dr. Bond, Mr. Paget. 

1834. Edinburgh...|Dr. Abercrombie ..........6.0000 |Dr. Roget, Dr. William Thomson. 

: SECTION E. (UNTIL 1847.)—ANATOMY AND MEDICINE. 

1835. Dublin ...... Dr Pritchard) Saville sess Dr, Harvison, Dr. Hart. 

1836. Bristol. ...... Dr: Roget, F-RS. ....ce00 aikdeoe Dr. Symonds. 

1837. Liverpool ...|Prof. W. Clark, M.D. ............ Dr. J. Carson, jun., James Long, Dr. 

J. R. W. Vose. 


-* At the Meeting of the General Committee at Birmingham, it was resolved :—‘ That the 
title of Section D be changed to Biology;” and “That for the word ‘Subsection,’ in the 
rules for conducting the business of the Sections, the word ‘ Department’ be substituted.” 


XXXVI 


REPORT—1871. 


Date and Place. 


1838. Newcastle ... 
1839. Birmingham 


1840. Glasgow ... 


1841, 


1842. Manchester. 
1843. 


1844. 


1850. 
1855. 
1857. 
1858. 
1859. 
1860. 
1861. 
1862. 
1863. 


1864. B 
1865. Birminghmf. | 


Plymouth... 


Cork; ..cs.ss 
MORK, on, ose 


Edinburgh 


Leeds 


Oxford ...... 
Manchester. 
Cambridge . 
Newcastle... 
ath 


see eeeee 


Presidents. 


T. E. Headlam, M.D. 
John Yelloly, M.D., F.R.S. ...... 
James Watson, M.D................ 


P. M. Roget, M.D., Sec.R.S. 
Edward Holme, M.D., F.LS. ... 


Sir James Pitcairn, M.D.......... 
J. ©. Pritchard, M.D. ............ 


Secretaries. 


\T. M. Greenhow, Dr. J. R. W. Vose. 

Dr. G. O. Rees, F. Ryland. 

Dr. J. Brown, Prot. Couper, Prof. 
Reid. 


...|Dr. J. Butter, J. Fuge, Dr. R. S. 


Sargent. 
Dr. Chaytor, Dr. R. S. Sargent. 
Dr. John Popham, Dr. R. 8. Sargent. 
I. Erichsen, Dr. R. S. Sargent. 


SECTION E,— PHYSIOLOGY. 


1845. Cambridge .|Prof. J. Haviland, M.D. ......... 
1846.Southampton/Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.......... 
1847. Oxford* .,./Prof. Ogle, M.D., F.R.S.'.........;Dr. Thomas K. Chambers, W. P. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS 
Prof. Bennett, M.D., F.R.S.E. 


..|Prof, Allen Thomson, F.R.S. ... 


Prof. R. Harrison, M.D. ......... 
Sir Benjamin Brodie, Bart..F.R.S. 
Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec.R.S. ... 
Prof. G. Rolleston, M.D., F.L.S. 
Dr. John Davy, F.R.S.L. & E.... 
Cembiebaret, IMD: i. .scstessea0se5 hs 
Prof. Rolleston, M.D., F.R.S. ... 


Dr. Edward Smith, LL.D., F.R. 
Prof. Acland, M.D., LL.D., F.R. 


Dr. R. 8. Sargent, Dr. Webster. 
C. P. Keele, Dr. Laycock, Dr. Sargent. 


Ormerod. 


OF sECTION D. 


Prof. J. H. Corbett, Dr. J. Struthers. 
Dr. R. D. Lyons, Prof. Redfern. 

C. G. Wheelhouse. 

Prof. Bennett, Prof. Redfern. 

Dr. R. M‘Donnell, Dr. Edward Smith. 
Dr. W. Roberts, Dr. Edward Smith. 
G. F. Helm, Dr. Edward Smith. 

|Dr. D. Embleton, Dr. W. Turner. 
J.S. Bartrum, Dr. W. Turner. 

Dr. A. Fleming, Dr. P. Heslop, Oliver 
Pembleton, Dr. W. Turner. 


GEOGRAPHICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL SCIENCES. 
[For Presidents and Secretaries for Geography previous to 1851, see Section O, p. xxxii.] 


1846.Southampton 


1847. 
1848. 
1849. 
1850. 


1851. 
1852. 
1853. 
1854. 
1855. 
1856. 


Oxford ...... 
Swansea 
Birmingham 


ETHNOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS 


|Dr. Pritchard saareocge.scstessccnst 
‘Prof. H. H. Wilson, M.A. 


OF sEcTIoN D. 


Dr. King. 

Prof. Buckley. 

G. Grant Francis. 
Dr. R. G. Latham. 


Edinburgh. ./Vice-Admiral Sir A. Malcolm ...{Daniel Wilson. 


Belfast ...... 
Liverpool... 
Glasgow 
Cheltenham 


SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY. 
Ipswich ...|Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S., Pres.'R. Cull, Rey. J. W. Donaldson, Dr. 
R.G 


.G.S. 
Col. Chesney, R.A. D.C.L., 
E.RB.S. 
R. G. Latham, M.D., F.R.S. 


Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L., 
F.R.S 


...(Sir d. Richardson, M.D., F.R.S. 


Col. Sir H. C. Rawlinson, K.C.B. 


Norton Shaw. 
'R. Cull, R. MacAdam, Dr. Norton 
Shaw. 


... R. Cull, Rev. H. W. Kemp, Dr. Nor- 


ton Shaw. 

[Richard Cull, Rev. H. Higgins, Dr. 
Ihne, Dr. Norton Shaw. 

‘Dr. W. G. Blackie, R. Cull, Dr. Nor- 


ton Shaw. 
R. Cull, F. D. Hartland, W. H. Rum- 
| sey, Dr. Norton Shaw. 


* By direction of the General Committee at Oxford, Sections D and E were incorporated 
under the name of “Section D—Zoology and Botany, including Physiology” (see p. xxiv). 
The Section being then vacant was assigned in 1851 to Geography. 

t Vide note on preceding page. 


ee 


as en ee 


— 


PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. 


XXXVil 


Presidents. 


Date and Place. 


1857. Dublin ;..... Rey. Dr. J. Henthawn Todd, Pres. 
R.1.A. 

1858. Leeds ...... Sir R. I. Murchison, G.C.St.S., 
F.RB.S. 


1859. Aberdeen ...!Rear-Admiral Sir 

Ross, D.C.L., F.R.S 
1860. Oxford....../Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L., 
1861. Manchester. 


E.R.S. 
Jobn Crawfurd, F.R.S..........00- 
1862. Cambridge . 


Francis Galton, F.R.8: ............ 


1863. Neweastle.../Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B., 
E.RS. 

1864. Bath......... Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B., 
F.R.S. 


1865. Birmingham 
1866. Nottingham 


Major-General Sir R, Rawlinson, 
M.P., K.C.B., F.R.S. 

Sir Charles Nicholson, Bart., 
LL.D. 


Sir Samuel Baker, F.R.G:S. ...... 
Capt. G. H. Richards, R.N,, F.R.S. 


1867. Dundee 
1858. Norwich ... 


James Clerk 


Secretaries. 

R. Cull, 8. Ferguson, Dr. R. R. Mad- 
den, Dr. Norton Shaw. 

R. Cull, Francis Galton, P. O’Cal- 
laghan, Dr. Norton Shaw, Thomas 
Wright. 

Richard Cull, Professor Geddes, Dr. 
Norton Shaw. 

Capt. Burrows, Dr. J. Hunt, Dr. C. 
Lempriere, Dr. Norton Shaw. 

Dr. J. Hunt, J. Kingsley, Dr. Norton 
Shaw, W. Spottiswoode. 

J. W. Clarke, Rey. J. Glover, Dr. 
Hunt, Dr. Norton Shaw, T. Wright. 

C. Carter Blake, Hume Greenfield, 
C. R. Markham, R. 8. Watson. 

H.W. Bates, C. R. Markham, Capt. 
R. M. Murchison, T. Wright. 

H. W. Bates, S. Evans, G. Jabet, C. 
R. Markham, Thomas Wright. 

H. W. Bates, Rev. E. T. Cusins, R. 
H. Major, Clements R. Markham, 
D. W. Nash, T. Wright. 

H. W. Bates, Cyril Graham, C. R. 

Markham, 8. J. Mackie, R. Sturrock. 

T. Baines, H. W. Bates, C. R. Mark- 

ham, T. Wright. 


SECTION E (continwed).— GEOGRAPHY. 


1869. Exeter 


F.R.G.S. 


Sir Bartle Frere, K.C.B., LL.D.,/H. W. Bates, Clements R. Markham, 


J. H. Thomas, 


1870. Liverpool ...|Sir R, I. Murchison, Bt., K.C.B.,/H. W. Bates, David Buxton, Albert 


LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S. 


J. Mott, Clements R. Markham. 


1871. Edinburgh. |Colonel Yule, C.B., F.R.G.S. ...|Clements R. Markham, A Buchan, 


J. IL. Thomas, A. Keith Johnston. 


STATISTICAL SCIENCE. 
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, VI.—STATISTICS. 


1833. Cambridge .|Prof. Babbage, F.R.S. ............ 
1834. Edinburgh .|Sir Charles Lemon, Bart. ......... 


J. E. Drinkwater. 
Dr. Cleland, C. Hope Maclean. 


SECTION F.—STATISTICS. 


1835. Dublin 


Charles Babbage, F.R.S. ... 
1836. Bristol 


Sir Charles Lemon, Bart., F.R.S. 


tenes eeeees 


1837. Liverpool...|Rt. Hon, Lord Sandon 


eee een eens 


1838. Neweastle...|Colonel Sykes, F.R.S. 
1839. Birmingham|Henry Hallam, F.R.S. 


Pete ee eeene 


1840. Glasgow ...|Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon, E.RB.S., 
M.P. 
1841. Plymouth.../Lieut.-Col. Sykes, FR.S. ......... 
1842, Manchester |G. W. Wood, M.P., F.L.S. ...... 
1843. Cork ..,...... Sir C. Lemon, Bart., M.P. ...... 
1844, York..... ».../Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S., F.L.S. 
1845. Cambridge .|Rt. Hon. The Earl Fitzwilliam... 
1846. Southampton|G. R. Porter, F.R.S. 


1871. 


eee e ee eet enone 


iW. Greg, Prof. Longfield. 

Rev. J. E. Bromby, C. B. Fripp, 
James Heywood. 

W. R. Greg, W. Langton, Dr. W. C. 
Tayler. 

W. Cargill, J. Heywood, W. R. Wood. 

F. Clarke, R. W. Rawson, Dr. W. C. 
Tayler. 

C. R. Baird, Prof. Ramsay, R. W. 
Rawson. 

Rev. Dr. Byrth, Rev. R. Luney, R. 
W. Rawson, 

Rev. R. Luney, G. W. Ormerod, Dr. 
W. C. Tayler. 

Dr. D. Bullen, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler. 

J. Fletcher, J. Heywood, Dr. Laycock. 

|J. Fletcher, W. Cooke Tayler, LL.D, 

J. Fletcher, F. G. P.-Neison, Dr. W. 
C. Tayler, Rey. T. L, Shapcott. 

d 


XXXvVili REPoRT—1871., 


Date and Place. Presidents. Secretaries. 
1847. Oxford ...... Travers Twiss, D.C.L., F.R.S. ...|Rey. W. H. Cox, J. J. Danson, F. G. 
P. Neison. 
1848. Swansea ...|J. H. Vivian, M.P., F.R.S. ......|J. Fletcher, Capt. R. Shortrede : 
1849. Birmingham|Rt. Hon. Lord Lyttelton ......... Dr. Finch, Prof. Hancock, F, G. P. 
Neison. 
1850. Edinburgh ..|Very iy. eee John Lee, /|Prof. Hancock, J. Fletcher, Dr. 


- Ipswich...... Sir John > Boileau, Bart. .... 
. Belfast ...... His Grace the Archbishop of|Prof. Hancock, Prof. Ingram, James 


V.P.R. Stark, 


.-|d- Fletcher, Prof. Hancock. 


Dublin. MacAdam, Jun. 
1853. Hull ......... James Heywood, M.P., F.R.S..../Edward Cheshire, William Newmarch. - 
1854. Liverpool ...|Thomas Tooke, F.R.S. ...........- E. Cheshire, J. T. Danson, Dr. W. H- 


1856. Cheltenham |Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, M.P. .../Rev. C. H. Bromby, E. Cheshire, Dr. 
W. N. Hancock Newmarch, W. M 
Tartt. : 
1857. Dublin ...... His Grace the Archbishop of|Prof. Cairns, Dr. H. D. Hutton, W. 
Dublin, M.R.1.A. Newmarch. 
1858. Leeds......... Edward Baines RECT EEL COTE, T. B. Baines, Prof. Cairns, 8. Brown, 
Capt. Fishbourne, Dr. J. Strang. 
1859, Aberdeen ...|Col. Sykes, M.P., F.R.S. ........./Prof. Cairns, Edmund Macrory, A.M. 
Smith, Dr. John Strang. 
1860. Oxford ...... Nassau W. Senior, M.A. ......... Edmund Macrory, W. Newmarch, 
Rey. Prof. J. E. T. Rogers. 
1861. Manchester |William Newmarch, F.R.S. ....../David Chadwick, Prof. R. C. Christie, 
E. Macrory, Rey. Prof. J. E. T. 
Rogers. 
1862. Cambridge. .|Edwin Chadwick, C.B. ............ H. D. Macleod, Edmund Macrory. 
1863. Newcastle ...|William Tite, M.P., F.R.S. ..(T. Doubleday, Edmund Macrory, 
Frederick Purdy, James Potts. 
1864. Bath.......... nr Farr, M.D., D.C.L.,/E. Macrory, E. T. Payne, F. Purdy. 
E.RS. 
1865. Birmingham|Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, LL.D.,|G. J. D. Goodman, G. J. Johnston, 
M.P E. Macrory. 
1866. Nottingham |Prof. i. HDS Rogers... oi. 1.000.052 R. Birkin, Jun., Prof. Leone Leyi, E. 
Macrory. 
1867. Dundee...... M. E. Grant Duff, M.P. ......... Prof. Leone Leyi, E. Macrory, A. J. 
Warden. 
1868. Norwich ...\Samuel Brown, Pres. Instit. Ac-[Rev. W. C. Davie, Prof. Leone Levi. 
tuaries. 
1869. Exeter ...... ‘Rt. Hon. Sir Stafford H. North-|Edmund Macrory, Frederick Purdy, 
cote, Bart., C.B., M.P. Charles T. D. Acland. 
1870. Liverpool...|Prof. W. Stanley Jevons, M.A. ../Chas. R. Dudley Baxter, ©. Macrory, 
J. Miles Moss. 
1871. Edinburgh |Rt. Hon. Lord Neaves.............! J. G. Fitch, James Meikle. 
MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 
SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 
1836. Bristol ...... |Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S..../T. G. Bunt, G. T. Clark, W. West. 
1837. Liverpool .../Rey. Dr. Robinson Roddagtaawssvcases Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster. 
1838, Newcastle ...|Charles Babbage, F.R.S. ........./R. Hawthorn, C. Vignoles, T. Webster. 
1839. Birmingham Prof. Willis, F.R.S., and Robert|W. Carpmael, William Hawkes, Tho- 
Stephenson. mas Webster. 
1840, Glasgow ...\Sir John Robinson..:...s0ccccecee0e J. Scott Russell, J. Thomson, J. Tod, 
C. Vignoles, 


5. Glasgow ...../R. Monckton Milnes, M.P. ..... 


Duncan, W. Newmarch. 
J. A. Campbell, E, Cheshire, W. New- 
march, Prof. R. H. Walsh. 


SECTION F (continued).—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS, 


PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS: XX¥X1X 


Date and Place. Presidents. Secretaries. 
1841. Plymouth...|John Taylor, FVR.S. .........000068 Henry Chatfield, Thomas Webster. 
1842. Manchester .|Rey. Prof. Willis, F.R.S. .........\J. F. Bateman, J. Scott Russell, J. 
Thomson, Charles Vignoles. 
1843. Cork ......... Prof. J. Macneill, M.R.I.A......./James Thomson, Robert Mallet. 
S44, York «..,..+: John Taylor, F.R.S. .........0.0:- Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster. 
1845, Cambridge ..|George Rennie, F.R.S. ..........6- Rev. W. T. Kingsley. 


1846, Southampton/Rey. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S. ./William Betts, Jun., Charles Manby. 
1847. Oxford ...... Rey. Prof. Walker, M.A., F.R.S.|J. Glynn, R. A. Le Mesurier. 

1848. Swansea ..... Rev. Prof. Walker, M.A., F.R.S./R. A. Le Mesurier, W. P. Struvé. 
1849. Birmingham|Robert Stephenson, M.P., F.R.8.|Charles Manby, W. P. Marshall. 
1850. Edinburgh ..|Rev. Dr. Robinson. ......+........ |Dr. Lees, David Stephenson. 

1851. Ipswich...... William Cubitt, FR.S........0.... John Head, Charles Manby,. 

1852, Belfast ...... John Walker,C.E., LL.D., F.R.S.\John F. Bateman, C. B. Hancock, 
Charles Manby, James Thomson. 
1853. Hull ...... ++-|William Fairbairn, C.E., F.R.S..|/James Oldham, J. Thomson, W. Sykes 


Ward. 
1854. Liverpool .../John Scott Russell, F.R.S. .......John Grantham, J, Oldham, J. Thom- 
son. 
1855. Glasgow ...|W. J. Macquorn Rankine, C.E.,|L. Hill, Jun., William Ramsay, J. 
EBS. homson. 
1856. Cheltenham |George Rennie, F\R.S. ............ C. Atherton, B. Jones, Jun., H. M. 
Jeffery. 
1857. Dublin ...... The Right Hon. The LHarl of|Prof. Downing, W.T. Doyne, A. Tate, 
Rosse, ¥.R.S. James Thomson, Henry Wright. 
1858. Leeds......... William Fairbairn, F.R.S. ......|J. C. Dennis, J. Dixon, H. Wright. 
1859. Aberdeen ...|Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S. .|R. Abernethy, P. Le Neve Foster, H. 
Wright. 
1860. Oxford ...... Prof. W. J. Macquorn Rankine,|P. Le Neve Foster, Rey. F. Harrison, 
LL.D., F.R.S. Henry Wright. 
1861. Manchester .|J. F. Bateman, C.E., F.R.S....... P. Le Neve Foster, John Robinson, H. 
Wright. 


1862. Cambridge ..|William Fairbairn, LL.D., F.R.S.)W. M. Fawcett, P. Le Neve Foster. 
1863. Newcastle .../Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S. . ms Neve Foster, P. Westmacott, J. 
. Spencer. 
1864. Bath ......... J. Hawkshaw, F.R.S. ...........- P. Le Hove Foster, Robert Pitt. 
1865. Birmingham|Sir W. G. Armstrong, LL.D.,|P. Le Neve Foster, Henry Lea, W. P. 
F.R.S. Marshall, Walter May. 
1866. Nottingham |Thomas Hawksley, V-.P.Inst.|P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, M. 
C.E., F.G.S. A. Tarbottom. 
1867. Dundee...... Prof. W. J. Macquorn Rankine,|P. Le Neve Foster, John P. Smith, 
LL.D., E.R.S. W. W. Urquhart. 
1868. Norwich ...|G. P. Bidder, C.E., F.R.G.S. .../P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, C. 
Manby, W. Smith. 
1869. Exeter ...... C. W. Siemens, E,R.S. ............ P. Le Neve Foster, H. Bauerman. 
1870. Liverpool ...|Chas. B. Vignoles, C.E., F.R.S. .|H. Bauerman, P. Le Neve Foster, T. 
King, J. N. Shoolbred. 
1871, Edinburgh |Prof. Fleeming Jenkin, F.R.S....|H. Bauerman, Alexander Leslie, J. P, 
Smith. 


List of Evening Lectures. 


Date and Place. Lecturer. Subject of Discourse. 
1842, Manchester .| Charles Vignoles, F\R.S.......... The Principles and Construction of 
Atmospheric Railways. 
Sir M. T. Brunel ........s:00008--| The Thames Tunnel. 
R, I. Murchison, ..................| The Geology of Russia. 
1843. Cork ....1.:::| Prof. Owen, M.D., F-B.S. ......] The Dinornis of New Zealand. 
Prof. E. Forbes, F.RS. ...,.... | The Distribution of Animal Life ia 
the AXgean Sea. 


Dr, Robinson ...csss..sscseess-44-| Lhe Earl of Rosse’s Telescope. 
: d 2 


xl 


Date and Place. 


1844. 


1845. 


Yorko scutes: 


Cambridge .. 


1846.Southampton 


1847, 


1848. 


1849. 


1853. 


. Ipswich.... 


. Belfast 


. Aberdeen . 


. Oxford 


Oxford ...... 


Swansea 


Birmingham 


50. Hdinburgh. 


. Liverpool ... 


. Glasgow...... 


. Manchester . 


2, Cambridge . 


REPORT—1871. 
Lecturer. Subject of Discourse. 
Charles Lyell, F.R.S. .........0.- Geology of North America. 


Dr. Falconer, F.R.S. ............ 
G. B. Airy, F'.R.S., Astron. she: 
R. I. Murchison, BR. inte 

Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R. 8. 
Charles Lyell, ERS. ras codeenee 
W. KR. Grove, F.R.S. 


sere eeeereee 


Rey. Prof. B. Powell, F.R.S. . 
Prof. M. Faraday, F.R.S. 


Hugh E. Strickland, F.G.S. 


...| John Perey, M.D., F.R.S. 


W. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S. 
Dr. Faraday, F.R.S......+......4.- 
Rey. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S. 


Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D.., 
F.R.S.E. 


Dr. Mantell, F.R.S.......sc0ccee0e 


... Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. 


G. B. Airy, F.R.S., Astron. Roy. 
Prof. G.G. Stokes, D.C.L., F.R.S. 


Colonel Portlock, R.E., F.R.S. 


Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D., F.R.S. 
E.G.S. 


Robert Hunt, F.R.S. ............ 
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.... 
Col. &. Sabine, V.P.R.S. ......... 


Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. ... 
Lieut.-Col. H. Rawlinson 


Col. Sir H. Rawlinson ............ 


W. RB. Grove, F.R.S. ...00s000 
Prof. W. Thomson, F.R.S. ..... 
Rev. Dr. Livingstone, D,C.L. .. 
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D., ERS. 


Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. ... 


.| Sir R.I. Murchison, D.C.L. .... 


Rey. Dr. Robinson, F.R.S. .... 
Rev. Prof. Walker, F.R.S. ...... 


Captain Sherard Osborn, R.N. . 
Prof. W. A. Miller, M.A., F.R.S. 


G. B. Airy, F.R.S., Astron. Roy. . 
Prof. Tyndall, LL.D., F.B.S. .. 
Prof, Odling, IaSeenereeate peeeee 


The Gigantic Tortoise of the Siwalik 
Hills in India. 

Progress of Terrestrial Magnetism. 

Geology of Russia. 

-| Fossil Mammalia of the British Isles. 

..| Valley and Delta of the Mississippi. 

Properties of the Explosive substance 
discovered by Dr. Schénbein ; also 
some Researches of his own on the 
Decomposition of Water by Heat. 

.| Shooting-stars, 

Magnetic and Diamagnetic Pheno- 
mena. 


...| The Dodo (Didus ineptus). 


.| Metallurgical operations of Swansea 
and its neighbourhood. 


...| Recent Microscopical Discoveries. 


Mr. Gassiot’s Battery. 

Transit of different Weights with 
varying velocities on Railways. 

Passage of the Blood through the 
minute vessels of Animals in con- 
nexion with Nutrition. 

Extinct Birds of New Zealand. 

Distinction between Plants and Ani- 
mals, and their changes of Form. 

Total Solar Helipse of July 28, 1851. 

Recent discoveries in the properties 
of Light. 

Recent discovery of Rock-salt at 
Carrickfergus, and geological and 
practical considerations connected 
with it, 


;|Some peculiar phenomena in the Geo- 


logy and Physical Geography of 
Yorkshire. 

The present state of Photography. 

Anthropomorphous Apes. 

Progress of researches in Terrestrial 
Magnetism. 

Characters of Species. 

Assyrian and Babylonian Antiquities 
and Ethnology. 

Recent discoveries in Assyria and 
Babylonia, with the results of Cunei- 
form research up to the present 
time. 

.| Correlation of Physical Forces, 

.| The Atlantic Telegraph. 

Recent discoveries in Africa, 

The Tronstones of Yorkshire. 

The Fossil Mammalia of Australia. 

..| Geology of the Northern Highlands. 

.| Electrical Discharges in highly rare- 
fied Media. 

Physical Constitution of the Sun. 

Arctic Discovery. 

Spectrum Analysis. 

The late Eclipse of the Sun. 


.| The Forms and Action of Water, 


Organic Chemistry, 


LIST OF EVENING LECTURES, rh 


Date and Place. Lecturer, Subject of Discourse. 
1863. Newcastle- | Prof. Williamson, F.R.S. ...... The chemistry of the Galvanic Bat- 
on-Tyne. tery considered in relation to Dy- 
namics. 
James Glaisher, F.R.S. .........| The Balloon Ascents made for the 
British Association. 
1864. Bath ......... Prof. Roscoe, F.R.S........:000000 The Chemical Action of Light. 
Dr. Livingstone, F.R.S. .......0+ Recent Travels in Africa. 
1865. Birmingham] J. Beete Jukes, F.R.S............ Probabilities as to the position and 


1866. 


1867. 


extent of the Coal-measures beneath 
the red rocks of the Midland Coun~ 
ties. 
Nottingham.| William Huggins, F.R.S..........) The results of Spectrum Analysis 
applied to Heavenly Bodies. 
Dr. J. D. Hooker, F.R.S..........| Insular Floras. 
Dundee...... Archibald Geikie, F.R.S.......... The Geological origin of the present 
Scenery of Scotland. 
Alexander Herschel, F.R.A.S....| The present state of knowledge re- 
garding Meteors and Meteorites. 


1868. Norwich ....| J. Fergusson, F.R.S. oe... Archeology of the early Buddhist 
Monuments. 
Dr. W. Odling, F.R.S. ........... Reverse Chemical Actions. 
1869. Exeter ......| Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D., F.R.S.| Vesuvius. 


J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S.......| The Physical Constitution of the 
Stars and Nebule. 


. Liverpool ...| Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.| The Scientific Use of the Imagination. 


Prof. W. J. Macquorn Rankine,| Stream-lines and Waves, in connexion 


LL.D., F.R.S. with Naval Architecture. 
1871. Edinburgh |F. A. Abel, F.R.S. .....cccceeeeeeee On some recent investigations and ap- 
plications of Explosive Agents. 
Pee Ley lOr eb evielonenssese races: On the Relation of Primitive to Mo- 
dern Ciyilization. 
Lectures to the Operative Classes. 

1867. Dundee...... Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.| Matter and Force. 

1868. Norwich ....] Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S. ...| A piece of Chalk. 

1869. Exeter ...... Prof. Miller, M.D., F.R.S. ......{ Experimental illustrations of the 
modes of detecting the Composi- 
tion of the Sun and other Heavenly 
Bodies by the Spectrum. 

1870. Liverpool ...] Sir John Lubbock, Bart., M.P.,| Savages. 


xlii REPORT—1871. 


Table showing the Attendance and Receipts 


Date of Meeting. Where held. Presidents. 
Old Life | New Life 
Members. | Members. 
POST CD27 neg:| MOLK. .ctnccncentvesnsge The Earl Fitzwilliam, D.C.L. ... Ape 
Rog2,OUMe Co) oil OXPOLG (ace setasdesa2- The Rey. W. Buckland, F.R.8. .. wee 
1333, June 25 ...|Cambridge ......... The Rey. A. Sedgwick, F.R.S.... aaa 
1834, Sept. 8 ...| Hdinburgh ......... Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.C.L. ...... ee 
ROSG PAUP ATO? yss| DUDLI Nis. Jeeeecssenss The Rey. Provost Lloyd, LL.D. wwe 
Tsg6,,Aur. 22.7.) BYIstol  scscaseenmeoees The Marquis of Lansdowne ...... a 
1837, Sept. 11 ...| Liverpool ............ The Earl of Burlington, F.R.8. . is 
| 1838, Aug. 10 ...! Newcastle-on-Tyne..) The Duke of Northumberland... dns 
1839, Aug. 26 ...| Birmingham ......... The Rey. W. Vernon Harcourt . TY, 
1840, Sept. 17 ...| Glasgow ............ The Marquis of Breadalbane ... 354 a 
1841, July 20 ...| Plymouth ............ The Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S.... 169 65 
1842, June 23 ...| Manchester ......... The Lord Francis Egerton ...... 323 169 
SSM PATI Ty ee COLK stacass gente sacsis The Harl of Rosse, F.R.S. ...... 109 28 
HOAA (Sept. 26...) YORK ....csssenceearess The Rev. G. Peacock, D.D. ...... 226 150 
1845, June rg ...|Cambridge ......... Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart. . 313 36 
1846, Sept. to ...|Southampton ...... Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Bart. 241 Io 
Mody veune 23. 5...) OXf0rd vseccsascsesns: Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart. ...... 314 18 
1848, Aug. 9...... Swansea .........000..- The Marquis of Northampton... 149 3 
1849, Sept. 12 ...| Birmingham ......... The Rey. 'T. R. Robinson, D.D.. 227 12 
1850, July 21 ...|Hdinburgh ......... Sir David Brewster, K.H. ...... 235 9 
TORT WY G2: sc0.0- IPSWICH searasccns.tsar G. B. Airy, Esq., Astron. Royal . 172 8 
MeSzmwseptyt ..+| Bellasis .sretidnc=.%4 Liecut.-General Sabine, F. B.S. ... 164 Io 
GSC Dg cae GLU ceisehectsstassya William Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S. . 141 13 
1854, Sept. 20 ...| Liverpool ............ The Karl of Harrowby, F.B.S. .. 238 23 
1855, Sept. 12 ...| Glasgow ..........:: The Duke of Argyll, F.R.S. ...... 194 33 
1856, Aug. 6...... Cheltenham ......... Prof. C. G. B. Daubeny, M.D.... 182 14, 
MSG 7 eAUeAZ Orv scl Diblin: 1.5 /ncssesesens The Rey. Humphrey Lloyd, D.D. 236 15 
TSSS WN pb. 228 w.c}| Mueeds 222. ,c5.c2-.caeee Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L. ... 222 42 
1859, Sept. 14 ...| Aberdeen ............ H.R.H. The Prince Consort ... 184 27 
K260; dune 27 ...) Oxford ...........-+.- The Lord Wrottesley, M.A....... 286 21 
1861, Sept. 4 ...| Manchester ......... William Fairbairn, LL.D.,F.R.S. 321 113 
moO2,1OCh. it 5... Cambridge ......... The Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A. ... 239 15 
1863, Aug. 26... Newcastle-on-T'yne ..| Sir William G. Armstrong, C.B. 203 36 
POOAS INE Pt MUG he ptl WEBUN. wn eneesestcessnnc Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., M.A.... 287 40 
1865, Sept. 6  ...| Birmingham ......... Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., LL.D.... 292 44 
1866, Aug. 22 ...| Nottingham ......... William R. Grove, Q.C., F.R.S. 207 31 
1367, Sept.4 ...| Dundee ........:..3..- The Duke of Buccleuch, K.C.B. 167 25 
MSCS AUCs EO! sen) NORWAGM | ess. e-ans Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, F.R.S. . 196 18 
WAeg, PAUP. 18 4c] Wxebersseaaeeestes es Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L. ...... 204, 21 
1870, Sept. 14 ...| Liverpool ............ Prof. T. H. Huxley, LL.D....... 314 39 
BOX pen Ue. 2) nenee Hdinburgh ......... Prof. Sir W. Thomson, LL.D.... 246 28 


ATTENDANCE AND RECEIPTS AT ANNUAL MEETINGS. xhil 


at Annual Meetings of the Association. 


. Attended by Amount /S¥™s paid on 
. Account of 
secerved Grants for 
Old New during the) Qoiontifi 
Annual | Annual | Associates.} Ladies. |Foreigners.| Total. | Meeting. Dats me 
: urposes. 


Members. | Members. 


tae se Qi eo Me Petes «| Beeps aeeme 
He Re uae re Ber GOP Gb lie Wore ssene gwetat arate 
as ee fcc ies aa BEI Pa SA he jos Sr 20 0 O 
: $k ecall tbe good 67 “a (0 
Togo) theses saa 434 14. 0 
500 oot 1840 Genet. g18 14 6 
1100* SK: ZA0O" Bit Weeeces ss 956 12 2 
34 DAQGM SP cok cateos 1595 11 O 
Se igs dec ae 40 Tae te ~|\F settee: oe 1546 16 4. 
46 317 Ate 60* Me Bore. lites. spas 1235 10 II 
75 376 331 331* 28 MR ae SoehscCae 1449 17 8 
71 185 Gor 160 onc USBI dimesceto. nice 1565 10 2 
45 190 gt 260 ees ATE | reco ee 981 12 8 
94 22 407 172 35 7 yhye pace cron 839 9 9 
65 39 270 196 36 Berm Cle srewege 685 16 o 
197 40 495 203 3 Tp lfou weal | adoceoe. 208 5 4 
54 25 376 197 15 929 7o7 00| 275 1 8 
93 338) 447 237 22 1071 96300] 35919 6 
128 42 510 273 44 1241 1085 00} 345 18 0 
61 47 244, 141 37 710 62000] 391 9 7 
63 60 510 292 9 1108 1ogs 00] 304 6 7 
56 57 367 236 6 876 g03 00 | 205 0 O 
121 121 765 524 be) 1802 1882 00 | 33019 7 
142 Io1 1094. 543 26 2133 2311 00| 48016 4 
104. 43 412 346 9 T1115 1o98 OO} 73413 9 
156 120 goo 569 26 2022 2015 00] 507 15 3 
111 gt 710 509 1g 1698 1931 00] 618 18 2 
125 179 1206 821 22 2564 27820 0| 684 11 I 
177 59 636 463 47 1689 16040 0| 1241 7 O 
184. 125 1589 791 15 3139 39440 0/1111 5 10 
150 57 433 242 25 1161 1089 0 © | 1293 16 6 
154 209 1704 1004. 25 3335 3640 0 0 | 1608 3 10 
182 103 1119 1058 13 2802 2965 00] 1289 15 8 
215 149 766 508 23 1997 222700] 1591 7 10 
218 10S 960 771 II 2303 2469 00|175013 4 
193 118 1163 771 7 - 2444 2613 0 0 | 1739 4 0 
226 117 720 682 145 2.004. 2042 00 | 1940 0 O 
229 107 678 600 17 1356 1931 00 | 1572 © O 
393 195 1103 gio 14 2878 3096 00 | 1472 2 6 
311 127 976 754 21 24.63 2575 0 0 


* Ladies were not admitted by purchased Tickets until 1843. 
t Tickets for admission to Sections only. ¢ Including Ladies: 


xliv 


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LIST OF OFFICERS. xlv 


OFFICERS AND COUNCIN, 1871-72. 


TRUSTEES (PERMANENT). 


General Sir EpwarpD Sabine, K.C.B., R.A., D.C.L., Pres. B.S, 
Sir PHILIP DE M. Grey EGeERrOoN, Bart., M.P., F.2R.S. 


PRESIDENT. 


SIR WILLIAM THOMSON, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.SS.L. & E., Professor of Natural Philosophy in 
the University of Glasgow. 


VICE-PRESIDENTS. 

His Grace The DUKE oF BuccLevcn, K.G., D.C.L., | Sir RopErtcK I. Muncutson, Bart., K.C.B., 

E.R.S. G.C.82.8., D.C.L., F.R.S. 
The Right Hon. The Lorp PRovosr of Edinburgh. | Sir CHARLES LYELL, Bart., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.8. 
The Right Hon. Jonn Ina@uis, D.C.L., LL.D., Lord | Dr, Lyon PLAYFAIR, M.P., C.B., F.R.S. 

Justice General of Scotland. Professor CHriSTISON, M.D., D.C.L., Pres. R.S.E. 
Sir ALEXANDER GRANT, Bart., M.A., Principal of | Professor BALFOUR, F.R.SS. L. & E. 

the University of Edinburgh. 


PRESIDENT ELECT. 
DR. W. B. CARPENTER, LL.D., F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S. 


VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT. 
The EArt or CuIcHESTER, Lord Licutenant of the | The Right Hon. The DukE oF DEVONSHIRE, K.G., 


County of Sussex. D.C.L., F.R.S. 
The DUKE or NoRFOLK. Sir Jonn LubBocK,Bart.,M.P.,F.R.S.,F.L.8.,F.G.8. 
The Right Hon. The DUKE oF Ricumonp, K.G., | Dr. SHarpry, LL.D., Sec. R.S., F.L.S. 

P.C., D.C.L. J. PREsrwicu, Esq., F.R.S., Pres. G.S, 


LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT BRIGHTON, 


CuARLES CARPENTER, Esq. 
The Rey. Dr. GRIFFITH. 
HENRY WILLE1T, Esq. 


LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT BRIGHTON. 
WILLIAM HENRY HALieEtTt, Esq., F.L.S. 


ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. 


BATEMAN, J. F., Esq., F.B.S. MERRIFIELD, C. W., Esq., F.R.S. 

BEDDOE, JouN, M.D. NortHucorr,Rt.Hon.Sir SrarrorpH.,Bt.,M.P. 
Debus, Dr. H., F.R.S. * Ramsay, Professor, LL.D., F.R.S. 

Evans, Joun, Esq., F.R.8. RANKINE, Professor W. J. M., LL.D., F.R.S. 
Fircu, J. G., Esq., M.A. Siemens, C. W., Esq., D.C.L., F.R.S. 
Foster, Prof. G. C., F.R.S. Snuwon, Dr. Jorn, D.C.L., F.R.S. 

Foster, Prof. M., M.D. SPRACHEY, Major-General, F.R.8. 

GALTON, FRANCIS, Esq., F.R.S. SrRANGE, Licut.-Colonel A., F.R.S8. 
Gassior, J. P., Esq., D.C.L., F.R.S. Sykes, Colonel, M.P., F.R.S. 
Gopwin-AustTEy, R. A. C., Esq., F.R.S. TYNDALL, Professor, LL.D., F.R.S. 

Hirst, Dr. T, A., F.R.S. WALLACE, A. R., Esq., F.R.G.S. 

HuGains, WILLIAM, Esgq., D.C.L., F.R.S. WHEATSTONE, Professor Sir C., F.R.S. 
JEFFREYS, J. G., Esq., F.R.S. WILLIAMSON, Professor A, W., F.R.S. 


Lockyer, J. N., Esq,, F.R.S, 


EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. 
The President and President Elect, the Vice-Presidents and Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and 
Assistant General Secrctarics, the General Treasurer, the Trustees, and the Presidents of former 
years, viz. :— 
Rey. Professor Sedgwick. The Rey. HW. Lloyd, D.D. Professor Phillips, M.A., D.C.1T. 
The Duke of Devonshire. Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L. William R. Grove, Esq., F.R.S. 
The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D. Sir W. Fairbairn, Bart., LL.D. The Duke of Buccleuch, K.B. 
G. B. Airy,Esq.,AstronomerRoyal.| The Rev. Professor Willis, F.R.S. | Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, D.C.L. 
General Sir E. Sabine, K.C.B. Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B., LL.D. | Professor Stokes, C.B., D.C.L. 
The Earl of Harrowby. Sir Chas. Lyell, Bart., M.A.,LL.D.| Prof, Huxley, LL.D. 
The Duke of Argyll. 
GENERAL SECRETARIES. 
Dr. THOMAS THOMEON, I'.R.S., F.L.S., The Atheneum Club, Pall Mall, London, 8.W. 
Capt. DouUGLAS GALTON, C.B., R.E., F.R.S., 12 Chester Street, Grosvenor Place, London, 8.W. 


ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY. 
GEORGE GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., Harrow. 


GENERAL TREASURER. 
WILLIAM SPOTTISWOODE, Erq., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., 0 Grosvenor Place, London, 8. W. 


AUDITORS. 
G. Dusk, Esq., F.R.S. Warren De La Rue, Esq., D.C.L., F.R.S. John Evans, Esq., F.R.S. 


xlvi REPORT—1871. 


OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT THE 
EDINBURGH MEETING. : 


SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 


President.—Professor P. G. Tait, F.R.S.E. 

Vice-Presidents.—Professor J. C. Adams, F.R.S.; Professor Cayley, F.R.S.; Rev. 
Professor Challis, F.R.S.; J. P. Gassiot, D.C.L., F.R.S.; Professor R. Grant, 
LL.D., F.R.S.; Dr. Joule, D.C.L., F.R.S.; Professor J. Clerk Maxwell, LL.D., 
F.R:S. ; Professor W. J. M. Rankine, LL.D., F.R.S. L. and E. ; Dr. Spottiswoode, 
F.R.S.; Rey. Professor Kelland, F.R.SS. L. and E.; Professor Stokes, D.C.L., 
F.R.S. ; Professor Sylvester, LL.D., F.R.S. 

Secretaries.—Professor W.G. Adams, F.G.S.; J. T. Bottomley, M.A., F.C.S. ; 
Professor W. K. Clifford, M.A.; Professor J. D. Everett, F.R.S.E.; Rev. R. 
Harley, F.R.S. 


SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY, INCLUDING THEIR APPLICATIONS TO 
AGRICULTURE AND THE ARTS. 


President.—Professor T. Andrews, M.D., F.R.SS. L. and E. 

Vice-Presidents—Professor Abel, F.R.S.; Professor Apjohn, F.R.S.; Professor 
Crum Brown, M.D., F.R.S.E.; Dr. Ronalds, F.R.S.E.; Professor H. E. Roscoe, 
F.R.S.; Dr. J. Stenhouse, F.R.S.; James Young, F.R.S.E. 

Secretaries—J, Y. Buchanan, F.R.S.E.; W.N. Hartley; T. E. Thorpe, F.R.S.E. 


SECTION C.—GEOLOGY. 

President.—Professor Archibald Geilie, F.R.S., F.G.S. 

Vice-Presidents.—Dr. J. Bryce, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. ; Thomas Davidson, F.R.S.; Sir 
Richard Griffith, Bart., F.R.S.; Professor Harkness, F.R.S.; D. Milne Home, 
F.R.S.E. ; J. Carrick Moore, F.R.S.; William Pengelly, F.R.S.; J. Prestwich, 
F.R.S., Pres. G.S. Lond. ; Professor J. Young, M.D. 

Secretaries—R. Etheridge, F.R.S., F.G.8.; Ai Geikie, F.R.S.E.; T. M‘Kenny 
Hughes, M.A., F.G.8.; L.C, Miall. 


SECTION D.—BIOLOGY. 


President.—Professor Allen Thomson, M.D., F.R.SS. L. and E. 

Vice-Presidents.—Professor Wyville Thomson, F.R.S.; Professor W. Turner, 
M.B., F.R.S.E.; Professor Owen, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.; Professor Huxley, 
LL.D., F.R.S.; Dr. Beddoe; Dr. Hughes Bennett; Dr. Carpenter, LL.D., 
F.R.S.; Dr. Sharpey, F.R.S. 

Secretaries.—Dr. 'T. R. Fraser, F.R.S.E.; Dr. Arthur Gamgee, F.R.S.E.; E. Ray 
Lankester, B.A. ; Professor Lawson, M.A.; H. T. Stainton, F.R.S.; C. Stani- 
land Wake, Dir. A.I.; Dr. W. Rutherford, F.R.S.E.; Dr. Kelburne King. 


SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY. 


President.—Colonel H. Yule, C.B., F.R.G.S. 

Vice-Presidents—Sir Walter Elliot, K.C.S.I.; Sir Arthur Phayre, K.C.S.L; 
Major-General Sir Andrew Waugh, F.R.S.; Dr. Rae, M.D.; Admiral Sir 
Edward Belcher, K.C.B.; Sir James Alexander, K.C.M.G. 

Secretaries.—Clements R. Markham, C.B., Sec. R.G.S.; A. Buchan, F.R.S.E. ; 
J. H. Thomas, F.R.G.S.; A. Keith Johnston, F.R.G.S. 


SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 


President.—Lord Neavyes. 

Vice-Presidents.—The Lord Advocate, Sir John Bowring, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S. ; 
Samuel Brown, Baron Eotyés, of Pesth; Edward 8. Gordon, M.P.; Sir Alex- 
ander Grant, Bart.; Sir Willoughby Jones, Bart.; James Heywood, M.A., 
F.R.S.; Duncan M‘Laren,!M.P.; Sir William Stirling Maxwell, Bart.; Lyon 
Playfair, M.P., LL.D.; W. Neilson Hancock, LL.D. ; General Sir Andrew Scott 
Waugh, K.C.B., F.R.S. 

Secretarves.—J. G, Fitch, M.A,; James Meikle, F.LA., F.S.8. 


REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. xlvi 


SECTION G.—-MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 

President.—Professor Fleeming Jenkin, C.E., F.R.S. 

Vice-Presidents.—J. F. Bateman, F.R.S.; Admiral Sir E. Belcher, K.C.B.; F. J. 
Bramwell, C.E.; Peter Le Neve Foster, M.A.; Professor W. J. Rankine, 
LL.D., F.R.S.; C. W. Siemens, D.C.L., F.R.S.; Thomos Stevenson, F.R.S.E. ; 
Professor James Thomson, LL.D. , 

Secretaries—H. Bauerman, F.G.S.; Alexander Leslie, C.E.; J. P. Smith, C.E. 


Report of the Council for the Year 1870-71, presented to the General 
Committee at Edinburgh, on Wednesday, August 2nd, 1871. 


At each of their meetings during the past year the Council have as usual 
received a report from the General Treasurer, as well as one from the Kew 
Committee. A résumé of these Reports will be laid before the General 
Committee this day. 

The Council have had under their consideration the several resolutions, five 
in number, referred to them by the General Committee at Liverpool. They 
beg to report as follows upon the action they have taken in each case :-— 

First Resolution—“ That the discontinuance of the maintenance of Kew 
Observatory by the British Association having been determined on, the 
President and Council be authorized to communicate with the President and 
Council of the Royal Society, and with the Government, so that the future 
use of the buildings may in 1872 be placed at the disposal of the Royal 
Society, in case the Royal Society should desire it, under the same con- 
ditions as those buildings are at present held by the British Association.” 

A copy of this resolution was forwarded by direction of your Council 
to the President and Council of the Royal Society. The following is the 
reply which one of your General Secretaries has received from Dr. Sharpey, 
Secretary of the Royal Society :— 

“The Royal Society, Burlington House, 
July 8, 187 


« Dear Dr. Hirst,—In reply to your letter of the 10th December, 1870, 
enclosing a copy of a resolution of the General Committee of the British 
Association relative to the future occupation of the buildings at Kew now 
held by the British Association, I am directed to acquaint you that the 
_ President and Council of the Royal Society are ready to take possession of 
_ the Observatory at Kew on the terms it is at present held from Her Majesty’s 
Government, as stated in a letter dated 26th March 1842, addressed to the 
President of the British Association from the Office of Woods, &c., viz. :— 
‘ during the pleasure and upon the conditions usual on such occasions, that 
no walls shall be broken through, and no alterations made that can affect 
the stability of the building, and alter its external appearance, without the 
previous sanction of the Board of Works.’ I have further to acquaint you 
that the President and Council have appointed a Standing Committee of 
Fellows of the Royal Society for the management of the Kew Observatory 
in accordance with the terms of the Gassiot Trust, consisting of the following 
gentlemen :— 


Mr. Warren De La Rue. Sir Edward Sabine. 
Mr. Francis Galton. Colonel Smythe. 

Mr. Gassiot. Mr. Spottiswoode. 
Admiral Richards. Sir Charles Wheatstone. 


and that £600 from the income of the Gassiot Fund has been placed at the 
disposal of that Committee to meet the expenses of the establishment for the 
ensuing year. “T remain, yours very truly, 

(Signed) “ W. Saarpry, M.D., Secretary R. S.” 


xlyili REPORT—1871. 


Through the munificence of Mr. Gassiot, therefore, the Association can, 
without detriment to science, give up possession of the Kew Observatory at 
once instead of in 1872, as was originally contemplated. Your Council 
accordingly recommend that Government should be informed without 
further delay of the desire of the Association to see the direction and 
maintenance of the Kew Observatory transferred to the Royal Society. 

Second Resolution.—* That the Council be empowered to cooperate with 
the Royal and Royal Astronomical Societies, in the event of a new appli- 
cation being made to Government to aid in the observation of the Solar 
Eclipse of December 1870.” 

On the 4th November a Joint Committee of the Royal and Royal Astro- 
nomical Societies decided to make a second application; on the 5th of 
November your Council selected a few of their body to accompany the new 
deputation to Government which the above two Societies had resolved to 
send. The necessity for any such deputation was subsequently obviated 
through the intervention of private individuals, and, as is well known, aid 
was promptly and liberally granted by Government to the Eclipse Ex-~ 
pedition. 

Third Resolution.“ That the Council be requested to take such steps as 
they deem wisest, in order to urge upon Government the importance of 
introducing scientific instruction into the elementary schools throughout the 
country.” 

A Committee of your Council haying considered the subject, recommended 
the appointment of a deputation to wait upon the Lord President of the 
Council in order to urge upon him the desirability of including elementary 
natural science amongst the subjects for which payments are made by the 
authority of the Revised Code. The Council accordingly formed themselves 
into a deputation, and on the 13th of December 1870 had an interview with 
the Right Hon. W. E. Forster, M.P., Vice-President of the Committee of 
Council on Education, who was pleased to express his concurrence with the 
objects of the deputation and his willingness to carry out those objects so far 
as circumstances would permit. 

Fourth Resolution. That the Council of the British Association be 
authorized, if it should appear to be desirable, to urge upon Her Majesty’s 
Government the expediency of proposing to the legislature a measure to 
insure the introduction of the metric system of weights and measures for 
international purposes.” 

The Council deemed it expedient to postpone the consideration of this 
resolution. 

Fifth Resolution —* That it is inexpedient that new institutions, such as 
the proposed Engineering College for India, should be established by Govern- 
ment, until the Royal Commission now holding an inquiry into the relation 
of the State to scientific instruction shall have issued their report. That the 
Council of the British Association be requested to consider this opinion, and, 
should they see fit, to urge it upon the attention of Her Majesty’s Govern- 
ment.” 

The Committee appointed without loss of time to consider and report on 
this resolution were informed at their first meeting that the arrangements 
for the establishment of the College had been virtually completed. Your 
President, however, in accordance with the wishes of this Committee, entered 
into unofficial communication with the authorities at the India Office, relative 
to the proposed examination for entrance into the new Engincering College, 
and succeeded thereby in gaining for natural science, as compared with 


REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. xlix 


classics, a recognition, in the form of allotted marks, which it previously did 


not possess. 
Your Council has given considerable attention to the important question 


(raised at the last mecting) of a revision of the regulations relating to the 


proceedings of the several Sections at the annual meetings of the Association. 
Hitherto, it has been justly urged, these proceedings, from not haying been 
sufficiently pre-arranged, have frequently been of too desultory and mixed 
a character. It is hoped that by a proper observance of the Revised Regu- 
lations which are this day to be submitted to the General Committee for 


_ approval, and by increased vigilance on the part of the Sectional Committees, 


~ 


_ much of this may be obviated, and that greater prominence may be given to, 


and a fuller discussion secured for, the really important communications 
which are annually made to the several Sections. 
The Council has pleasure in informing the General Committee that the 


Association at length possesses a central office in London. The Asiatic 


Society has, in consideration of a yearly rent of £100, granted to the Asso- 
ciation entire possession of four of their rooms at 22 Albemarle Street, and 
the use of another room for meetings of the Council and Committees. Your 
Council, moreover, acting under the power given to them by the General 
Committee at Liverpool, have engaged Mr. Askham as clerk at a salary of 
£120 ayear. He is in attendance daily, and there transacts much of the 
business which was formerly done at the office of Messrs. Taylor and Francis, 
the printers to the Association. With the exception of certain works of 
reference, the whole of the books and MSS. formerly deposited at Kew have 
been transferred to 22 Albemarle Street, and are being catalogued and 
rendered available for reference by Members of the Association. One of the 
four rooms not at present in use has been sub-let. to the London Mathe- 
matical Society. 

The Council having been informed by Dr. Hirst of his desire at the close 
of the present Meeting to resign his office as Joint General Secretary of the 
Association, appointed a Committee, consisting of the General Officers and 
former General Secretaries, to select a successor. This Committee unani- 
mously recommended the appointment of Captain Douglas Galton, C.B., 
F.R.S. The Council, entirely agreeing with the Committee as to the high 
qualifications of Captain Galton for the office, cordially recommend his 
election by the General Committee at their meeting on Monday next. 

The Council cannot allow this occasion to pass without expressing their 
sense of the great services rendered to the Association by Dr. Hirst; but 
they abstain from saying more, as they are unwilling to anticipate a more 
mature expression on the part of the General Committee. 

_ The Council have added the following names of gentlemen present at the 
last Meeting of the Association to the list of Corresponding Members :— 


Professor Van Beneden. H. H. the Rajah of Kolapore, 
Dr. Crafts. M. Plateau. 
Dr. Anton Dohrn. Professor Tchebichef. 


Governor Gilpin, Colorado. 


The General Committee will remember that Brighton has already been 
selected as the place of meeting next year. Invitations for subsequent 
meetings have been received by your Council from Bradford, Belfast, 
and Glasgow. 

The Council, lastly, recommend that the name of Professor Balfour be 
added to the list of Vice-Presidents of the present Meeting. 


1 REPORT—1871. 


Report of the Kew Committee of the British Association for the 
Advancement of Science for 1870-71. 


The Committee of the Kew Observatory submit to the Council of the British 
Association the following statement of their proceedings during the past 
year :— 


(A) Work ponz py Kew OxnsERVATORY UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE 
Britisn Assocration, 


1. Magnetic work.—In their last Report the Committee stated the plan on 
which they proposed to reduce their Magnetic observations ; they now report 
that with reference to the reduction of the Magnetic Disturbances from 
January 1865 to December 1869, the period following that which has already 
been published, the discussion of Declination and Horizontal Force Disturb- 
ances is nearly ready for presentation to the Royal Society, and that of the 
Vertical Force is in progress ; when that is completed, the whole period, 1865 
to 1869 inclusive, will have been discussed at Kew. The tabular statement, 
which is herewith presented (see Appendix I.), exhibits the exact state of 
the reduction. 

Two Dipping-needles by Dover and one by Adie have been tested for Mr. 
Chambers, Superintendent of the Colaba Observatory; and one needle has 
been procured from Dover and tested for Prof. Jelinek, of Vienna. 

A Dip-circle by Dover has been verified and forwarded to Prof. Jelinek, 
who ordered it on behalf of the K. K. militiir-geographisches Institut. 

Major-General Lefroy, Governor of Bermuda, haying applied for the loan 
of a Dip-circle, one has now been prepared for his use, and will be forwarded 
to Bermuda as soon as possible. A Dip-circle has been obtained from Dover, 
and, after verification, will be forwarded to the Survey Department, Lisbon. 

At the request of Prof. Jelinek the Committee have undertaken to examine 
a Dip-circle by Repsold. It is of a large size and has eight needles, but Prof. 
Jelinek reports that the results obtained by them are very discordant. 

Copies of certain specified magnetograph curves have been made and for- 
warded to the late Sir J. Herschel, M. Diamilla Miiller, of Florence, and Senhor 
Capello, of Lisbon, at the request of those gentlemen. 

The usual monthly absolute determinations of the magnetic elements con- 
tinue to be made by Mr. Whipple, the Magnetic Assistant. 

The Self-recording Magnetographs are in constant operation as heretofore; 
also under his charge. 

2. Meteorological work.—The meteorological work of the Observatory 
continues in the charge of Mr. Baker. 

Since the Liverpool Meeting, 113 Barometers (including 17 Aneroids) have 
been verified, and 2 rejected ; 1320 Thermometers and 215 Hydrometers have 
likewise been verified. 

Two Standard Thermometers have been constructed for Owens College, 
Manchester, one for the Rugby School, one cach for Profs. Harkness and 
Eastmann, of the Washington Observatory, four for Dr. Draper, of the New 
York Central Park Observatory, one for Major Norton, of the Chief Signal 
Office, Washington, one for Mr. G. J. Symons, and three for the Meteorolo- 
gical Committee. 

Three Thermograph Thermometers have been examined for Mr. Chambers, 
of the Colaba Observatory, and three for the Meteorological Committee. 


REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. li 


Two Standard Barometers have been purchased from Adie, and tested at 
Kew, one of which has been forwarded to the Chief Signal Office, Washington, 
and the other to Prof. Jack, of Fredricton, New Brunswick. 

Tubes for the construction of a Welsh’s Standard Barometer on the Kew 
pattern, together with the necessary metal mountings, and a Cathetometer, 
have been made under the superintendence of the Committee for the Chief 
Signal Office, Washington. 

The Committee have likewise superintended the purchase of meteorological 
instruments for Owens College, Manchester, and for the Observatory attached 
to the University of Fredricton, New Brunswick. 

The Kew Standard Thermometer (M. 8. A.), divided arbitrarily by the late 
Mr. Welsh, and employed for many years past as the standard of reference 
in the testing of thermometers, was accidentally broken on the 3rd of January. 
Since then a Kew Standard, of the ordinary construction, made in 1866, and 
which had been compared on several occasions with M. 8. A., has been used 
to replace it. 

Copies of some of the meteorological observations made at Kew during the 
years 1869 and 1870 have been supplied to the {Institution of Mining 
Engineers at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, and the Editor of Whitaker’s Almanac, 
the cost of the extraction being paid by the applicants in both instances. 

A set of self-recording meteorological instruments, the property of the 
Meteorological Committee, have been erected in the Verification-house, and 
are now undergoing examination.~ 

The self-recording metereological instruments now in work at Kew will be 
again mentioned in the second division of this Report. These are in the 
charge of Mr. Baker. 

3. Photoheliograph.—The Kew Heliograph, in charge of Mr. Warren De 
La Rue, continues to be worked in a satisfactory manner. During the past 
year 362 pictures have been taken on 205 days. The prints from the 
negatives alluded to in last Report have been taken to date, and the printing 
of these has become part of the current work of the establishment. A paper 
by Messrs. Warren De La Rue, Stewart, and Loewy, embodying the position 
and areas of sun-groups observed at Kew during the years 1864, 1865, and 
1866, as well as fortnightly values of the spotted solar area from 1832 to 
1868, has been published in the Philosophical Transactions, and distributed 
to those interested in solar research. A Table exhibiting the number of 
sun-spots recorded at Kew during the year 1870, after the manner of 
Hofrath Schwabe, has been communicated to the Astronomical Society, and 
published in their ‘ Monthly Notices.’ 
An apparatus is being constructed under the direction and at the expense 

of Mr. Warren De La Rue, and it will shortly be erected on the Pagoda in 
_ Kew Gardens, in order to be employed in obtaining corrections for optical 
distortion in the heliographical measurements. 

4. Miscellaneous work.—Kxperiments are being made on the heat produced 
by the rotation of a disk in vacuo. 

A daily observation has been made with the Rigid Spectroscope, the 

_ property of Mr. J. P. Gassiot. 

_ Observations have been made with two of Hodgkinson’s Actinometers, 
the property of the Royal Society, in order to compare them with the 
Actinometers deposited at the Observatory, for reference, before forwarding 
them to India. 

The Committee have superintended the purchase of optical apparatus, 
chemicals, &c. for the Observatories at Coimbra and Lisbon. 


In REPORT—187 1. 


An inventory has been made of the apparatus, instruments, &c. at present 
deposited in the Observatory, and forms Appendix ITI. of the present Report. 

In Appendix II. a list is given of the books at present in the Observa- 
tory, the property of the British Association. 

List B (Appendix II.) is a rough inventory of books, the property of the 
British Association, which have been transferred from the Observatory to the 
rooms of the Association in London for the purpose of being catalogued. 


(B) Work poye at Kew As THE CrntrRaL OBSERVATORY OF THE 
MereoroLogicaL CoMMITTEE, 


1. Work done at Kew as one of the Observatories of the Meteorological Com- 
mittee—The Barograph, Thermograph, Anemograph, and Rain-gauge are 
kept in constant operation, Mr. Baker is in charge of these instruments. 

From the first two instruments traces in duplicate are obtained, one set being 
sent to the Meteorological Office and one retained at Kew. As regards the 
Anemograph and Rain-gauge, the original records are sent, while a copy by 
hand of these on tracing-paper is retained. The tabulations from the curves 
of the Kew instruments are made by Messrs. Page and Nigby. 

2. Verification of Records.—The system of checks devised by the Kew 
Committee for testing the accuracy of the observations made at the different 
Observatories continues to be followed, as well as the ruling of zero lines in 
the Barograms and Thermograms suggested by the Meteorological Office. 
Messrs. Rigby and Page perform this work, Mr. Baker, Meteorological 
Assistant, having the general superintendence of the department. 

3. Occasional Assistance.—The Meteorological Committee have availed 
themselves of the permission to have the occasional services of Mr. Beckley, 
Mechanical Assistant at Kew; and he has lately been visiting the various 
Observatories of the Meteorological Committee. 

The self-recording Rain-gauge, as mentioned in the last Report, has been 
adopted by the Meteorological Committee, and instruments of this kind haye 
been constructed for the various Observatories. 

A series of comparative observations was commenced in April 1870 of 
two Anemometers erected in the grounds attached to the Observatory, 
in order to compare the indications of a large and small instrument; but as 
a discussion of the result showed them to have been greatly affected by the 
influence of the neighbouring buildings, the instruments were dismounted 
in January last and re-erected in an open part of the Park, at a distance 
from the Observatory. Three months’ observations were made in this posi- 
tion, and as these proved satisfactory, the instruments have been dismounted. 
The cost of this experiment has been defrayed by the Meteorological 
Committee. Owing to his duties in Manchester, and to a railway accident, 
Dr. Stewart has not been able during the last year to devote much time 
to the Observatory. During his absence his most pressing duties were dis- 
charged by Mr. Whipple in an efficient manner. 


The Observatory was honoured on the 9th of July by a visit from the 
Emperor and Empress of Brazil. Their Majesties were received, on behalf 
of the Committee, by Sir E. Sabine and Mr. W. De La Rue. 

In the unavoidable absence, through illness, of Dr. Balfour Stewart, the 
Emperor was conducted over the Observatory by the above-named gentlemen, 
and the various instruments &c. were explained by Mr. Whipple and the 
other members of the staff of the Observatory. 


Hourly Tabulations from 
Traces. 


By Tabula- |By Subsidiary 
tor. 


ae ontal Declination. 


Vertical 
Force. 


REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE, 


Scale. 
1865 
1866 
1867 
1868 
1869 
1870* 


1865 
1866 
1867 
1868 
1869 
1870* 


1865 
1866 
1867 
1868 
1869 
1870* 


APPENDIX I. 


Tabular statement showing state of Magnetic Reductions at the present date. 


Correct 
Monthly 
Means. 


eeneee 


eeveee 
seeeee 
sevens 


see eee 


liti 


Disturb- Lunar 
ances ex- | Diurnal 
cluded and! Variation 
aggregated.| Tables. 
1865 1865 
1866 1866 
1867 1867 
1868 1868 
1869 1869 
TEGO 0 ices 
SEGA ier a Be) 
TRG ha gels rye 

1868 
TEBQ USE |e se 


Tables of 
Secular and 
Annual 
Variation. 


Solar 
Diurnal 
Variation 
Tables. 


ences 


oeeees 
feeeee 
wet eee 
eevase 
weraee 


eenee 
eeeeee 
eeeeee 
eee eee 
tereee 


* The reduction of the tabulations for the year 1870 is being performed in Sir E. Sabine’s 
Arrears of Work. 


office. 


Hourly Tabulations from 


Traces. 


By Tabula- |By Subsidiary 
tor. 


1859 
1860 
1861 
1862 
1863 
1864 


1858 
1859 
1860 
1861 
1862 
1863 
1864 


(1858 

1859 
1860 
1861 


1858 


Declination. 


Horizontal 
Force. 


Ls Vertical Force. 
n 


Scale. 


1858 
1859 
1860 
1861 
1862 


Correct 
Monthly 
Means. 


1858 
1859 
1860 
1861 


Beeeee 
seeeee 
fee eee 
eens 


Se enee 


Disturb- 
ances ex- 
cluded and 
aggregated. 


1858 
1859 


teeeee 


Lunar 
Diurnal 
Variation 
Tables. 


1858t 


seeeee 


eeeeee 


Tables of 
Secular and 
nual 
Variation. 


t These have been already published by Sir EH. Sabine. 


Solar 
Diurnal 
Variation 
Tables. 


seeeee 
tenons 
aeeeee 


serene 


liv REPORT— 1871. 


APPENDIX IL. 


BOOKS AT PRESENT IN THE KEW OBSERVATORY, 


THE PROPERTY OF 


THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. 


LIST A. 


Books to be retained at Kew for reference. 


British Association Reports, 1 vol. for the following years :— 
1831-32, 1833, 1834, 1835, 1836, 1837, 1838, 1839, 
1840, 1841, 1842, 1843, 1844, 1845, 1846, 1847, 
1848, 1849, 1850, 1851, 1852, 1853, 1854, 1855, 
1856, 1857, 1858, 1859, 1860, 1861, 1862, 1863, 
1864, 1865, 1866, 1867, 1868, 1869. 


Philosophical Transactions .......0.cccescsceseueee 88 vols. 
si i (AbsigntiE) e055 OT eee 6%; 
Proceedings of the Royal Society .................05- 12 5; 
Royal Society Catalogue of Scientific Papers .......... 4 9 
Philosophical Magazine (half-yearly) ................ 21 Ss 
93 aa (anbount) «4.4.45 00s e-eeae 11 parts. 
Logarithmic Tables (various) ..........000eeceeueee 6 vols, 
Royal Astronomical Society’s Proceedings ............ 13 45 
Buchan’s Meteorolopy.\ yy .sc acd vh save 8d baa ser apes 2 5 
Dalton’s “eget te Peis ee 5,3. di 
Kaemtz’s Bie ein La pueiaters ish = es iGo sce vere daeee ee 1 
Moveordlonial Papers sibs ass eus saa esubee ONE 27 nos. 
Metoordlozy OF Bineland ...5s40s00. 0+. sess 0mm ceed 18 nos. 
Papers relating to the Meteorological Department of the 
Sitar NRE og icky bev & ph)» omaha Ee 39! 
Instructions for taking Meteorological Observations (Col. 
D TERM ities svi 5).hs vs s se 4 ee Ce ea 1 vol. 
Quarterly Weatger Reports ..........cccueceeevues 3 vols, 
Brertish A TNBBI tues ee ciek sak st «lohes URE ey eee 2 


REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. lv 


Miller’s Elements of Chemistry............... Ae, of 2 vols. 
Williamson’s Chemistry for Students ...-............ 1 vol. 
Elements of Chemistry (Sir R. Kane) ................ 1 ae 
Mathematics (Royal Military Academy Course) ........ 2 vols. 
Kuler’s Letters on Mathematics and Physics .......... 2 ee 
Barlow on Magnetic Attraction..........5.....-+--06- 1 vol. 
Treatise on Electricity (De La Rive) ................ 3 vols. 
iwaodnouse’s Astronomy «00. Las es erte ll oe eens 1 vol. 
The Heavens (Guillemin, edited by Norman Lockyer) .. 1 ,, 
Art of Photography (Lake Price) ...............-006- 4 Fie 
Meteorological Tables, Smithsonian (Guyot) .......... as 
Treatise on Mathematical Instruments (Heather) ...... 1 ,, 
Sabine’s Pendulum and other Experiments ............ 2 vols. 
Bmaverers AStFONOMY: £52... see fe oe oa ee ee ne DS ex 
Timbs’s Year-Book of Facts, 1861-1871 .............. le 
Wayiors Scientific Memoirs: . 2.0)... we ld ee ee on pipes a 
Manual of Surveying for India, by Capts. Smythe and 
PINT RSET HA ANE CSL pans ole olga aan 1 vol. 
Nichol’s Cyclopedia of Physical Science .............. Be sg 
Admiralty Manual of Scientific Enquiry .............. Me 
Dictionary of Terms of Art (Weale).................. eer 
Magnetic and Meteorological Observations at :— 
te Helonai.: 4 i. 25 mn eNa ane os Fa ROTATE 3 'ekenet es\‘eF 3 vols. 
SL OTOH LOC? teeta M aT alate. Soe ie fon c¥er PEt he reis casele.s Diggs 
ELODARUGTS ARAVA True og enIBS Gea deve Be 5, 
Rape DOG eOd Tepe 63.24. OU ced MMe ood od as 1 vol. 


Observations during Magnetic Disturbances, 1840-1841.. 1 ,, 
Magnetic and Meteorological Observations, Unusual Dis- 

RRM ATOON Ha. SAAN SR oa eles /oie laos erawiedaie'e Masi 
Plates to Magnetic and Meteorological Observations .... 1 ,, 
Report of the Astronomer Royal to the Board of Visitors.. 40 nos. 


Theory of Errors of Observations, by Airy ............ 1 vol. 
Wodirunters Conic Sections’ 22.22... oe. ek eailscwecees a istaiat 
Shaimbotion Of Heat (Dove) 252%... 055 secs tlesesecee LES 
Bantam ONCEIRY) Lah Lies hs TE Lo Ee Cen atper sav encts aye cefeisia.e es 
Camus on the Teeth of Wheels............ 00.2 e evens sy 
Simmonds’s Meteorological Tables .............00005 OBES 
Observations of Sun-spots (Carrington) .............. . are 
RUE CPA ERUREOUPNIEL “POS 3/512 2.8 iS eacd ates capgesra daar hei Mlesavesoia) ase ie. 
Symons’s British Rainfall and Meteorological Magazine. . 
Expériences sur les Machines 4 Vapeur (Regnault) .... 2 ,, 
Cours Elémentaire de Chimie (Regnault) ............ _ ee 


e2 


lvi REFORT—1]87]1. 


LIST B. 
Books to be sent to the London Office, 22 Albemarle Street. 

British Association Report, 1831-32 ...........%.... 20 vols 
55 _ ESSA, «60a toate pater 20 Key 

5 x DOE So ose peer nte 20) hes 

5 a 1,839 6 din ti ascagt aide ey eee 20:5 ss 

os Ns IBSG  tetuit. ale ts ain Wee + 

oA =y NEST corshpinaittt ade systrtalt Gene 20-55 

6 7 1B oi its Ethel tc sep eee 20 55 

5, a DSO wish tahoe hanacctels eee 2D ei 

: a: DE i. o's 0.5 ah ieee eres 20 sy 

‘ a DAL 5 teats te alta Ae es, Teen OE nine 2D sab gg 

hs 2 Se eee T Ber Te rt 2 20 5, 

- * EEL sliver » reidhe ayer} SRC eR | ee 

es 2 NES eae ks Sap aah eiciuta: sag CeO 205; 

i = ABAD, 8 fecthidtts ts athosantie 20) i535 

3s 3 LAG, 5): ei nsinth hey Some 20:i 453 

i i LGET.t: SEY PER Ey. ieee hae LO. 55 

e s3 BAB in FS lon be Secs BE Bae LO, aes 

. iy MD injec Shs 3s 2 oe 1 ee 

fi: 33 PSU © 2 ee ol tage 18", 

o es LEI 0: whan aiw ee, chante 19 «; 

ss ¥ TB BE). sn « «ate Oa eh ee ae 20° 55 

ES ws Lets 5 are ns pes Fee Soe ft Pheags 

” ” 1854 Buc faye aye exes) és leluie) ble elei bun 21 ” 

be a ae 5... an ne Oe eee 22+ gs 

” is AE aE nie's's,24 Singers gthsicoels 28 setheg 

a 53 ibe a a ey: Tapes, 22 segs 

te _ POG nae siacuhuslih Rd oe 22. say 

~ 3 UAE cs wires dee eek pees Dee das 

” ai LEGO": .. . Uinehby date Tee B20: 4 

- Es PS Ros Gu eaee eee 

by 3 EGO2'S. : ahaaee dnt dicate eae wa. es 

- + 1BCS BL Ete toa sh cena eee 2 cas 

- ; Eel OAS elnino a 23 95 

by * TSG Cores. soc nt eae 22, 

5 53 IBGG lee foc de aatatt tae oe ie 

55 sg UE og Son it. AE inn € See 22 5, 

“ - Lbs Re PO ee nena 22 was 

s a WG Ss sp ad Sa eins ee 22. 5 
Lalande’s Catalogue (MS. Calculations) 2 Maa eee Le 
=} a (MSccepy)’.". .: 222558 eee os 

La Place’s Celestial Mechanics ...................... 1 vol. 
Armagh Eliges pr Stars 2.0 civ... pa caP ic ede lt ee 
Radcliffe Observatory Catalogue of Stars for 1845 ...... toe 
Paramatta Catalogue of 7358 Stars .................. se 
Groombridge’s Catalogue of Circumpolar Stars.......... 3 vols 
Edinburgh Astronomical Observations ................ 4s 


Astronomical Observations at the Cape of Good Hope.... J 


REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. 


(MSS.) Apparent Places of Principal Stars ............ 1 vol. 
British Association Catalogue (MS. copy).............. Dg! 
(MSS.) British Association Catalogue (Calculations) .... 24 vols. 
(MSS.) British Association Catalogues, Synonyms and Notes 23 ,, 
(MSS.) Lacaille’s Catalogue (Calculations) ............ 24: ° 55 
Lacaille’s Catalogue (MS. GOAN vias. se EE ms wares RE 1 
Proceedings of the Royal Institution of Great Britain.... 33 nos. 
Ordnance Survey, Comparisons of Standards of Length . .. 2 vols 
Radcliffe Observatory, Meteorological Observations .... 3. ,, 
Makerstoun, Meteorological Observations and Tables .... 10 ,, 
"3 Abstracts of Meteorological Observations .. 3. ,, 
Srmpridee: Observations. ... 6s cccee cece vo sageesns Siow; 
Pisytairs Natural;Philosophy ......... #/2.<f. mtn Buss, 
ised a Algebraical. Problems: ... 2... 2. es cee de ees Ager 
Lectures on Quaternions (Sir W. Hamilton) .......... Vai 
Meteorological and Nautical Observations at Melbourne 

TGR NAL CLOMLD sr eyeter a wer taciw cA ciokas do, aw crsvaraelcevaewens tetas d bareery 
Mastery of Languages (Prendergast) ...........00e8- Matis, 
La Place’s Analytical Mechanics .............0.0000> lived ves 
Levelling in England and Wales ............eeeeeeee Hiss 

(Abstract)eth ten nares : ear r 

Levelling i in Scotland. Ea Sar ais ana eerd hat, 2 Laeey 

nr GADSiVACE)P sci Se etetellstenetetsy oiiele + = Tings 

Pasley on Measures, Weights, and Money ............ bits 

Cork Savings-bank Tables............ccce eee ee eees Dish 

Weld’s History of the Royal Society................-- a 
Bombay Magnetical and Meteorological Observations, 

i 52 NA rue Par a oe a be aa kes LLL oe aR AE AL Ps 
Meteorological Results, Toronto ..........ee cece eee Binos 
Pmeeriwich OUSCEVAGIONS. «.12.. sess sods teeepee cence BBG 4; 

Se (Appendices &e.) .......0 40. 125 ,, 
Catalogue of Reference, Manchester Free Library ...... Leiinss 
Brisbane’s Star Catalogue ......... 2. cee cece ee eee 2 ake 
Johnson and Henderson’s Star Catalogue.............. 2 
(MSS.) Hartnup Star Catalogue ............--.-000. Leis: 
ieyces Sine Catalosue oo) fie D. Ae Sie) dee. Uy ie 5 
Wrottesley s Star Catalogue... 0.0666 2. NU tie 5! 
Taylor’s Ra aE Barhy SO RO ALE MESED Runa sat. Ts ro he as 
Everest’s Survey of India Rick BOR coi Soe Soe owe 23); 
Manis Survey iy 12. HOS. ees Ed 8 Gers 
Extension of Triangulation into Belgium and France.... 2. ,, 
Verification and Extension of Lacaille’s Arcof Meridian .. 2 ,, 
Schlagintweit’s India and High Asia ................ Aimy 
Proceedings of Institution of Mechanical Engineers .... 8 ,, 
5 Ss na Ste UIOSS 
Modern Geology Exposed A ORR REN. 2 1 vol. 
Melbourne Magnetic and Meteorological Observations ... 3 vols 
Extracts from the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India 5 ,, 
Madras Meteorological Observations LE SETI a 2 ee 
Ee Bt ee eg ee Ret 33 nos. 
Calcutta Hourly Meteorological Observations .......... Aptis 


Bengal Meteorological Reports PENSE, b= ktiesks Stahgh Od 0 aa i) 


lviii REPORT—1871. 


Statistics of New Zealand ............ ce eeeccececece 9 nos. 
Tide Tables for English and Irish Ports ...........-.. a 
Reports and Transactions of the Devonshire As ociation.. 3 vols. 
Annual Reports of the Royal Polytechnic Society ...... LT 3 
Transactions of the Historic Society of Lancashire and 
CHOSHITON 2 cicode iiece ate chases ee AIMED eel en paaeele Lvl 
Transactions of the Royal Scottish Society of Arts ...... 10 sys 
Results of Trials on H.M. Ships ........-.-eceeeeeee Ags 
Trigonometrical Survey of England and Wales ........ Sia 
Determination of Longitudes of England and Wales .... 2 ,, 
La Place’s Mathematical Works .........e.eeeseeees Ge Gs 
Lagrange’s ¥ pate isuiveisescar eel o HOR ae Otis 
Euler’s Mathematical Works..........0cseceecceuses 4 
Simpson’s,, a eee ce ein thd hs Di lags 
Dupin’s 5s ZUR old Ries BMG 1 vol. 
Carnot’s EF ea elt dogeion t. Sante Joie TDioags 
Shipbuilding, by Rankine... 2... ccscce eens de wills sa: 
Dublin Magnetical and Meteorological Observations .... 1 ,, 
Maxima and Minima (Ramchundra) ...........-.0505 Dart, 
Meteorological Results Toronto, 1862 .........0+5 005 thas 
Army Meteorological Register ..........--22+---+--- LAS 


Mathematical Tracts from Library of the late Mr, Christie 

Magnetical and Meteorological Observations at Lake 
Athabasca. 

Sundries (English Pamphlets). 


U. S. Coasts Survey, Report of Superintendent ........ 26 vols. 
Annals of the Dudley Observatory ........ see reeees Megs 
Transactions of the Albany Institute .........0s0005: B45 
Proceedings of the American Geological and Statistical 

Ramey.) oie os< J5 Reese's Wes yess EN RR RES 1O how 
Reports of the National Academy of Sciences ....,..... By Sy 
Documents of the U. 8. Sanitary Commission .,........ isles 
State Transactions of the Historic Society of Wisconsin... 6 ,, 
Report of Geological Reconnaisance of Arkansas........ Qoigi 
Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History,... 45  ,, 

a of the American Association for the Advance- 

mont of Science)... a. 0cavcrwe osetia walenn lass 
Monthly Report of the Commissioners of the Revenue of 

TR Aa 5s os Gee ed es coe eo AO ee Bag 
Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and 

Bitiences :Aeniees See Sera ache cocaine fone 20. 53 
Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society...... BO 
Papers relating to Harvard College .........-++--++0: G0n0g 
Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Phila-_ - 

ELL AER geen aR Sg, egy a Pi lie 
Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections ...........++++- PO oie 

s Contributions to Knowledge..........0+-: 26ui5; 
Memoirs of the American Academy .........-+-s0+405 Bwaj 
Washington Astronomical and Meteorological Observa- 

4100S . Vaeeas ceo ee “PE CASS; Soa ee Quik 
Maury’s Sailing Directions .........0cseesseeeerees Siaw 


Transactions of the American Philosophical Society .... 6 ,, 


REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE, lix 


Sundry Volumes (various subjects) ..........+++ +) LO "Vols. 
Smithsonian Reports ......... ee cess rene erence eees Bo ,, 
Explorations and Surveys, Senate, U.S.A. ........--.- 4 ,, 
Reports of the Department of Agriculture, U.S. | ae i tats a 
Geology of Towa... 1.1... se ce eee t ee ee eet rene tnees Bs, 
Catalogue, Army Medical Museum, U.8.A........-.+-- de '55 
Sundries, (American Pamphlets.) 

Bulletin de la Société de Géographic........ eee ee eens 4D 

5 i Bee AIDE ee ee 4 84 nos 
Mémoires de l’Académie de Dijon ..........++ eee 13 vols. 
Bulletin de la Fédération de la Société de Horticulture de 

Mminiquaicse seeks ec Geeta os eee eee ees agers esd lila 
Actes de la Société Helvétique ........... Pere bat caer 
Mémoires de l’Académie Royale de Metz.........-.... 3 
Résumé Météorologique pour Genéve and Le Grand St. 

IRORN ANGUS a Watatgse acters Sats eee eet tale SR ETS = 
Extraits de ’ Académie Royale de Bruxelles .......... 10 nos. 
Bulletin de la Société Vaudoise........ cece eee ee eee a 
Mémoires de la Société des ScienceS.......-.20-05000- ‘(ats 
Revues des Cours Scientifiques ........ secre eee sees iS jee 
Panhellenium..sc;c2cccesrseteee shee het Pagia gees 20 ,, 
Quetelet sur le Climat de la Belgique ............-4-, Ife ees 
Extraits de l’Académie de Belgique .........-+---005- 54 ,, 
Commission Hydrométrique de Lyon .......-.-0+5-55 RG}; 
Bulletin de 1’Association Scientifique de France ........ 140 ,, 
Mémoires de Académie des Sciences et Lettres de Mont- 

palliom fo. REEL E TE. Pe ie Seas OEY 
Atlas Météorologique de l’Observatoire Impérial, 1866- 

TOGO OR, 28 POS PED aU Oe PRE tds ok 4 ,, 
La Belgique Horticole ..........2eceeeceeeerseeers GN; 
Compte Rendu Annuel ......... 6c cece eee e ee tenes 15 vols. 
Annales de l’Observatoire Physique Central (Russia) ,... 35 ,, 
Annuaire Magnétique et Météorologique (Russia) ...... eee 
Annuaire Météorologique de France ......-++seeeees Pivy, 
(CISTI: Jao RII iis Ie ceo beacuse Rca Sa a ae Aoi 
ifeseNtondes; ESG3—/0)-2, 26.) ey ss cs ccs end ete ove es Bie, 4 
Tables de la Lune, par Hanseen ........5-sseseeeees 1 vol. 
Traité de Calcul Différential, par Lubbe .............. Lees 
Histoire Céleste, par Lalande ........ eee e ee eee eee 1 no. 


Sundries. (French Pamphlets.) 

Oversigt over det K. D. V. Selskabs af Forchhammer.... 33 ,, 
Videnskabernes Selskabs Skrifter.........2 eee eeeeee 6 vols. 
Sundries. (Dutch Pamphlets.) 

Archives Neerlandaises. 


Meteorologische Waarnerningen ..........++eeeeeees BONS; 
Helsingfors Magnetical and Meteorological Observations.. 6 ,, 
Acta Societatis Scientiarum Fennice .............+., Bites 

Fe ss Indo-Neerlandsch.........+ Biosys 
Norsk Meteorologisk Aarbog.......... 00.0 seer cree Acie, 


Meteorologische Jagttagelser paa Christiania Obserya- 
AGRAUITII Sg Sic vw ABU gee aM a aN atla Dn OHS oe) onan Bb 3 


lx REPOoRT—1871. 


. Meteorologische Beobachtungen Aufgezeichnct auf Chris- 


GiehHE MODBEEVATOTIOM « «cis. saa. 0. en), > 2) apebs totes 3 vols. 
Beretning om en Botanisk Reise af H. L. Lorensen...... Cuates 
Index Scholarum in Universitate Christiania .......... Goon 


Sundries. (Norwegian Pamphlets.) 
Sitzungsberichte der Mathematisch Naturwissenschaftliche 

Classe der Akademie der Wissenschaften.......... 280 .,, 
Sitzungsberichte der K. B. Akademie der Wissenschaften 78  ,, 
Mittheilungen der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Bern 11 ,, 
Monatsberichte der K, P. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu 


IB Elise pee rot tec etove eet nena ishines Gh ais axe Ren TOE le 80 ,, 
Annalen fiir Meteorologie und Erdmagnetismus ........ Gen; 
Beobachtungen Meteorologische an der Wiener Stern- 

SWAEUO ge < ie eys eb te dvs cite ORE Oty oiela Es chaste ee ee BO aes 
Verhandlungen der Allgemeinen Schweizerischen Gesell- 

schaft der Naturwissenschaften...............e0% IG s., 
Zeitschrift der Osterreichischen Gesellschaft fiir Mete- 

PUR IG pe ake io atl i os oye,o hse 5 ceed ar hs eee ae SOI ea55 
Reise der Osterreichischen Frigatte Novara, Magnetische 

(BEOPACHGUN OEM | 2 2 yas. c.-uays se bye SabaseNay Retna Sines 
Magnetische Beobachtungen in Wien .............25- A 
Tageblatt der 32 Versammlung der N. W. A. in Wien, 

SID ee oan te soos hea eit ale GEER Ede pee 


Jahrbucher der K.-K, Central Anstalt fiir Meteorologie und 
Erdmagnetismus in Wien. 1856-1859, 1 of each, 


tSGG—ISGOF hol eAgh! Ay. Met ran.e sentysuleteteciee = ot 10 nos. 
Det Kongelige Norske Univyersitets Aarberetunger, 1856 

bo UG58 et. Se. esse b attain 9 cl, ris tice fags 8 vols. 
Travaux de la Commission pour fixer les mesures et les 

poids de l’Empire de Russie .............2.e0e0: Sie. 
Abhandlungen der Math-Physikal Classe der K. B. Aka- 

demie der Wissenschaften, .)....55 003 seesaw eels « -t 


Bulletin der Akademie der Wissenschaften der Miinchen. 47 7 
Sundries. (German Pamphlets.) 


Annaes do Observatorio do Infante D. Luiz............ AG. x55 
Trabalhos ¥ Bost teh Yee SEE REECE Dittys 
Mémoires de Académie Reale de Sciences de Lisboa Sy tt 
Annaes da Academia das Sciencias Lisboa ............ 12545 
Coimbra, Observacoes Meteorologicas ..........00000 4 Oe 
Sundries. (Portuguese Pamphlets.) 

Rassian\ NeauticaliMagamney by silsind. 2s sds 4 sale ae GS iis 
Harmonia Mensuram. 

SEES VATE W. CLAMS wes. vo cusvslsleis sraveue sane tei siete eevee ae 1 vol. 
Specdiam Hartwellianum. «oc... . ....0.» s+ «@eieiggenees ‘Bee 
Diverse Machine( Ramelli) ........ ixanicameine es aateek dey 3 
Memorie dell’ I. R. Istituto Lombardo................ 5 vols. 
Memorie della Societa Italiana delle Scienze .......... Sm gs 
Memorie dell’ Osservatorio del Collegio Romano........ 10:38 
Memorie del Reale Istituto Lombardo ................ Al tie 
Atti dell’ Accademia Pontificia de’ Nuovi Lincei........ 90 nae 


REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTYE. lxi 


Atti della Reale Accademia delle Scienze di Napoli...... 7 vols. 
Bulletino Meteorologico dell’ Osservatorio del Collegio 

ROMANO ap fepeee se idale: cero chao Ae, Sata dey Mae, oft Gn Be) Shs Orr. 
Giornale dell’ I. R. Istituto Lombardo................ 44 ,, 
Rendiconti del Reale Istituto Lombardo .............. LL Zele, 


Sundries. (Italian Pamphlets.) 


APPENDIX TER 


Inventory of Apparatus and Instruments at present in the Kew 
Observatory, with the names of Owners ov Funds by which 
they were purchased. May 1871. 

[Abbreviations adopted in col. 2:—Brit. Assoc. for British Association; Don. Fund for 

Donation Fund; Gov. Grant for Government Grant Fund; Met. Com. for Meteoro- 


logical Committee; Par. Ex. Fund for Paris Exhibition Fund; Roy. Ast. Soe. for 
Royal Astronomical Society ; Royal Soc. for Royal Society. ] 


Entrance Hall. Eaves ofppe 
urchase A 
Bird’s Mercurial Thermometer ..........0+05 - Royal Soap 
Captain Kater’s Hygrometer, by Robinson ....+... 3 
Dr. Lind’s Portable Wind Gauge .............. a4 
Huygens’s Aerial Telescope (twelve parts)........ by 
itayecens 8 Object-glass ...... 1. ese ee es oleate is 
Huygens’s Object-glass, with two Eye-glasses by 
oO ae ee eee ee 2 } 2 
Flamsteed'’s Object-glass (Venetian) ............ sf 
Dollond’s 42-inch Transit, with a cast-iron stand .. 3 
Short’s 36-inch Reflecting Telescope, with an Object- 
glass Micrometer by Dollond (nine parts) ...... 2 
Kater’s Convertible Pendulum, with the Agate Planes ¥ 
Captain Sabine’s Cylindrical Pendulum, vibrating on ] 
Planes; with the Knife-edges................ if 2 
Apparatus, with Leaden Balls, by Paull of Geneva | 
SRIF) be 5s adores Oraednah Moran « » wtctariotak tt J is 
Nairne and Blunt’s 12-inch Dipping Needle (two 
on re eco eerr © genie } 1 
A 12-inch Variation Needle..............0..00+ 9 
Dr. Godwin Knight’s Battery of Magnets ........ re 
Air-Pump, with Double Barrel ................ By 
Nairne’s Air Condenser (three parts) ............ 5 


Ramsden’s Great Theodolite, with other Instruments 
and Apparatus employed by Major-General Roy in 
the Trigonometrical Survey (sixty-six parts, in four ” 
SSeS) TRCOBUNCTO. , occ susie nei aede class 4a 


Ixii REPORT—1871. 


Cary’s Large Levelling Instrument(twenty-one parts) Royal Soc. 
Troughton and $i 


CEN Y DALLA) | se ate gnie'n eles aunt Steep a orice a or sx a3 
Adams’s 5-inch pee he (two parts) .......... F 
Bowles’s Trigonometer (four parts) ............ 5 
Troughton’s Repeating Circle, of 1 foot diameter .. 3 
Ramsden’s 10-inch Protractor, with Vernier to 1’.. is 
Bird’s 12-inch Astronomical Quadrant (fifteen parts) 2 
Mordyer s Hydrometetcc. stvulve ws we epee ees ote 55 
Cole’s Orrery, explanatory of Eclipses............ ee 
Mw iManerss (COMPASSES i atel-teeynvlct.te rs) ghereucesbarsnetieere : 
Armed Loadstone .|. 2-1. ps cis s dale pe oN Ay hee ge. a 
ihe (Certs sbrass Unstrumenterve ts «te ste + erste ieee es 
Curious Steel Callipers for very accurate measure- 

ment, by Paull of Geneva: 1777 ............ ‘3 
Rowning’s Universal Constructor of Equations ..,. _ 
Chronometer Stove, for ascertaining the Infiuence of 

Temperature on the Rate of Chronometers (six a: 

PALES) “Teer ee debe cic ets = aim Beker We Rint: ea 
Wedgewood’s Pyrometer ; or Thermometer for mea- 

suring high degrees of heat (sixty-six parts).... } "a 
Tyo purom= Brass Pilloys. 3s sts sy epee ee 28 : 
Bird’s 4-feet Refracting Telescope ...........+++ * 
Dies tiydrenicter 3.5 Hoes «ck. ee ee eR es 
Hadley’s Metal for a Newtonian Reflector, with 

several wooden Eyepieces, but without Tube or <3 

Mounting). 2s hss ease beta gra. seed eee eens 


Troughton and Simms’s 6-inch Circular Protractor. . 


Baily’s Pendulum, No.2 :. sy; .neoee ss 47 FERS Roy. ‘Ast. Soc, 


Standard Wrought-iron bar used in Mallet’s Expe- ‘ 
rimenta, 1838-41842...0 4.060 iesessseieens ae } Brit, Astbh, 
Observing Telescope used by Schlagintweit. 
Experimental Tubes employed in the construction of Gas; Cees 
Welsh’s Standard Barometers ......,...65.. OF) Va aan 
Six 39-inch Glasp Slabs. 
Sixty Lamp Chimmbys? 995 5\'25..5G) 72a vive seo Brit. Assoc, 
Hight 14-inch Magnets. 
Sundry Lamps, Plate Boxes, Daguerotypes and Ap- 
paratus employed with Ronalds’s Self-recording + Donat. Fund. 
Barograph and Magnetograph................ 
Sundry Chemical Apparatus used with Addams’s Car- Got aS 
bonic acid Gas Generators ........-.0055000. OF, Baas 
Three large Magnetometers with Marble Slabs, Pil- 
lars, Reading Telescopes, &c. 
Two Thermometer Testing-jars (damaged)........ Brit. Assoc. 
Two 6-inch Bull’s-eye Lenses. 
Sir W. Thomson’s Portable Atmospheric Electro- } Prof. Sir W. 
metery cok . deeded cd ey ca fd LP eee Thomsen. 
Sir W. Thomson's Recording Atmospheric Electro- 


meter 2.5. FUER es Ra ”? 


Various pieces of Electrical Apparatus .......... SirF.Ronalds. 


Sundry Lenses, 


REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE, 


Galton’s Dial Anemometer, with Battery, &c. 
erMBEIar HOTEOM 6 (cod ee ee Ce SE 
Heliostats and Reflectors used in Mr. Galton’s Sex- 
tant Testing Apparatus ............4. es aa 
Apparatus for Trisecting an Arc. 
Mamssures Hysrometer . nie coed. cee ee 
Seven-inch Protractor, by Jones. 
Marine Barometer. 
Two Patent Compensated Barometers, by Harris. 
One 30-inch Steel Bar. 
Two Kriel’s Self-recording Barometers, with Spare 
EM Niche So choke soca ei Pakage 2 a] 8m ge 
Tube of Ronalds’s Photo-barograph 
Glass Receiver (damaged). 
Model of Sheerness Tide-gauge ..........y0eee: 
Mallet’s Model of the Descent of Glaciers. 
Several Models, not named. 
Appold’s Automatic Hygrometer..............., 
Appold’s Automatic Temperature Regulator 
Lindley’s Patent Central Thermometer, 
Lindley’s Model of Fire Escape. 
Perspective Instrument 
Barrow’s Dip Circle, No. 
epmson’s. G-inch Circle . ... os s.ne\: vais eas tye 
Two Unifilars and a Declinometer, by Gibson 
Seven Tripods 
Balance of Torsion. 
A Watchman’s Clock. 
Oertling’s Balance 
RMMPEAHONA css oi ae sc ke es NY Cees OF 
Wooden Wind-pressure Gauge 
SUPER OAT oii ac es Sg sees os ss Be wy 
Ronalds’s Atmospheric Electrical Apparatus ...... 
Model of Mr. De La Rue’s Tower for supporting 
Huyghen’s Aerial Telescope-lenses_ .......... 
Model of a design for Photoheliograph Mounting .. 
Leyden Jars 


Sep e sees wine € ays sue Oe gel wl 


ey 


eee clas lelylale eh6 «ays ae) «, asia «es 8 8 Spiel. wi 


2 


CY 


Ce ous @ eieteve s tle g ee ee whe whe Oe 8 go ds 


Testing Room, 


Six frames exhibiting Kew and Lisbon Magnetic 

UGVES , < . Aoted e ern Ene as Eee eens eee we 
Two Welsh’s Standard Barometers 
BRM TERDOLOE “(es <0ren Soh MRR Ooh ye ae ales od 
Receiver for testing Barometers, with Air-Pump, &c. 
Apparatus for testing Thermometers ........,... 
Newman’s Standard Barometer, No. 34 
aeons Mural-Qaadrant. «2 vciwsiadss os eRe oils R% 
Spare Tubes for Standard Barometer construction . . 
Thomson’s Galyanometer and Apparatus employed by 

Dr. Stewart in Rotating Disk experiments 
Siemens’s Air-Pump 
Sprengel’s Air-Pump 


ed 


Ce 


i 


lxili 


Met. Com. 
Sir E. Sabine. 


} Geogr, Soc. 


SirF. Ronalds. 


Brit. Assoc. 
Goy. Grant. 


Royal Soe. 


Royal Soc, 


3) 


Sirk’. Ronalds, 
Sir E. Sabine, 


Goy. Grant. 


99 


9 
Sir I. Sabine. 
Gov. Grant. 


Par, Ex.Fund. 
Brit. Assoc. 
Mr. Gassiot. 


Brit, Assoc. 
Gov. Grant. 


5) 
Observatory. 
Gov. Grant. 


+E} 


lxiv REPORT—1871. 


Parts of Ronalds’s Magnetographs .............. 

Air-Thermometer (incomplete) _................ 

MSS., Books, Papers, Documents, and Correspondence 
referring to Meteorological work. 


Transit Room. 


Thermometer-waxing Apparatus ...........005 
Photographic Paper Waxing Apparatus.......... 
Thomson’s Atmospheric Recording Electrometer .. 
PRELIM GOT APE estes Pie ote aoin aie ioe ee relayevere ag ee tetere 
Chronometen;-ATHOW . ss. chase ccsec ech eee eee 
Envariahle Pennine Aes aes Seat ot aos Silo 
Pendutara: (NONO: cet nce skis fctess.e Mera, steed, oye ets 
Dig Ree POY SOL psc vicisic eh a einls os so Oe aes se 
Declinometer, by Robinson and Barrow.......... 
Five Daniell’s Hygrometers.............0.0000 
Four Declinometers (various makers)............ 
AE iebetell EATIAOR. Bay i ete yareis smre oan wine ene mie 
iite, COLT BTORLORA s niciy cists tgs + ashe asialcinateps, 0 cc ot 
Three Herschel’s Actinometers ..............4. 
LO=nch vAvammth: COMPASS che sie sv.0 + veers co cle ere 
Vertical Force Magnetometer ..........:....05- 
PURO ORTAL «<< Stanaiaie a6 oo eleysssiee Sook sie Seinen 
Three Dip Circles and one Fox’s Circle .......... 
Several old Observing Telescopes and incomplete 

Maenewe AGparaous. <i. ia hie. vss ceed anecae 
Photographic Paper, waxed and unwaxed ........ 
Sundry Bottles, Chemicals, and Apparatus employed 

in the ordinary work of the Observatory ...... 


Computing Room. 


Dividing Engine by Perreaux, and Apparatus em- 
ployed in the construction of Standard Thermo- 
TG) AES 5 oii ig 6 OG aOND oO non ue s\eeso 

Standard Thermometers, divided and undivided.... 

Evaporation Gauge (exhibited at Paris).......... 

Portable Barometer, by Newman .............. 

Gay-Lussac Barometer, by Bunter. 

Troughton and Simms’s Mercurial Standard Ther- 
TRON es BiB oe Sai MEO Sos aeipcio! 

Newman’s Spirit Thermometer for very low Tempe- 
FO NW ES «at Bo oo Aon eno hitOr ppg i Oar 

Jones a di yprameter eile <'. cs . sce aereeeee ens 

Net ot HariMasnets (NX) 5.5. cs. sean wae 

Pair of Levelling Staves, by Jones.............. 

Sundry old Thermometers. 

Thermometer, by Greimerites.s 2100.68 Doses 

Dry and Wet Thermometer, from Hobarton. 

Thermometer, No. 2, from Greenwich Observatory. 


Actinometer “Vubemeerercericcs 14... 2k ee oe ee 


Gov. Grant. 


” 


Brit. Assoc. 
Met. Com! 


Goy. ‘tant? 
Royal Soc. 


Sir Ee Satine! 


Goy. Grant. 
Brit. Assoc. 


Par. Ex.Fund, 
Sir E. Sabine. 


Royal Soe. 


kb 


Rey. C, Hodg- 
kinson. 


REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. lxv 


SG 20 GN Se PR Royal Soe. 

: Rev. C. Hodg- 
BUM RCIINOMICLELS occa csc ee eis to tele Me ome 1 eiatbn: 
PimecrActimometers 26. sie aden t es Mees os Royal Soc. 
Ten Hydrometers. 
Spirit-level used in Pendulum experiments ...... Gov. Grant. 
Small Boiling-point Apparatus ................ Par.Ex.Fund. 
Two Mountain Thermometers. 
One Regnault’s Hygrometer .........0.ceeeeee Goy. Grant. 
One Daniell’s Hygrometer. 
Several Declinometers, by various makers ........ Sir E. Sabine. 
Several Unifilars, by various makers ............ “ 
Several Dip Circles, by various makers .......... = 
Two Altazimuth Instruments.................. Admiralty. 
Repeating Circle, by Dollond .................. Sir E. Sabine. 
Vertical Force Magnetometer.............2.24. 3 


Sundry Magnets, Dip Needles, Magnet Fittings, In- 
ertia Bars, Rings, &c., belonging to various instru- e 


Fee SPE EMER SRMEE OF Nas a esto 0 sp Sy casi:dus, ev syrssedhe do ousy sash arsdaned ofS 
Magnets and Needles in use at the Observatory... . a 
ae reRae beg DVL Cc er V5, sad syeuisvros wy ok saw pe aeerak eke Na one Gov. Grant. 
TEE ea it a 
Jars and Standard Solutions used in Hydrometer- 
Pe a aids ola,» sor x athg dann oper Alans wank yaniv Brit. Assoc. 


9 


Chemicals and Chemical Apparatus used in the Ob- 
BSA VELLD EVM’ sf ef ictss 5) «gates (aGiede ioe alone eRe ahehaiajaheyagorehoys 
Apparatus employed by Prof. Clerk Maxwell. 


Telescope support, by Goloz............0000 ene Royal Soc. 
0 Rn ea A 3 
Eg Sa ee A Ge 4 
EIS ges a a ae a A rf 
Model of Hydraulic Anemometer .............. Mr. Galton. 
Several Rules and Scales in use ..............0- Brit. Assoe. 
Box of Ozonometer Papers. 

Meeemetoprapht Curves... 0... ps ciccnncedeccers Brit. Assoc. 
Magnetic Observation-books ............ce0e0- cf 

MS. Papers of Magnetic Reductions ............ ” 

MS. Papers on various subjects ...............- 


Roy. Soe. and 
Brit. Assoc. 
Wood Engrayings of Magnetograph Drawings .... Brit. Assoc. 


Surplus copies of Publications issued by Observatory 


iis South Hail. 
Cooke’s Sextant Testing Apparatus.............. Gov. Grant. 
Shelton’s Astronomical Regulator, with Gridiron Pen- Baral 
UNE eee ck Bee rt aga 
Gas Governors and Regulators ......... Rrinevers, Ae Don. Fund. 


Masnetocraphs -.6 066i cc ccien ely. prtarce,, GQOY.. Grant. 
Earthenware Stove .........0000: Soe te ire ce > Brite eAssace 


Ixvi REPORT—1871. 


DeflectinsrAGparatys (toys va os es bees ose ae te Brit. Assoc. 

Eee UE Yee ce bes tens oe bees eae Met. Com. 

Ie UePeMETOSEOPOs. ..2. . 2 <e cs sieg 2's ss eset ate Mr. Gassiot. 
Pendulum Room. 

Vacuum Chamber and Vibrating Apparatus ...... Admiralty, 

Observing "elescOpe ©: <se;./2te teres = ep Bieaecauaiohe Simp 5s 

Shelton’s Astronomical Regulator .............. Royal Soc. 

Transit House. 
Portable Transit Instrument ............004. .. Sir E. Sabine. 


Apparatus for determining Scale value of Levels .. Mr. Adie. 


Lower Photographic Room. 
Baths, Dishes, Bottles, and Chemical Apparatus.... Gov. Grant, 


Chemicalsiand Paper ..............8% sawed. Brit. Assoc, 

Brintine by aM Gs Le eerie sete ss) apne Pla edoeS m 
Meteorological Room. 

Engle s Wc aryids ste eee eee se Eee eee Brit. Assoc. 

Barograph, Thermograph, and Anemograph Curves.. Met. Com. 

DAO {auplicnlesys Vk ee. ote se thee Sree ne oe: Brit. Assoc. 


Tabulations of ditto (duplicates). 

Scales, Rules, &c., employed in tabulating Curves.. Met. Com. 

Post Cases, MSS. and Documents in connexion with 
the Meteorological Committee’s work.......... } 

Working Drawings of Instruments. 

Observatory Correspondence. 


Raripure end Parnes th ¥ oe": Ol Pes hevgen Met. Com. 
Sun Room. 

pron Pichares (NGPREVES) ¢. ic cas Wie aus sacs o's 0 0 tress Gov. Grant, 

San chierares (Prints) 4.4 ite «Gs 0a,0 ays ase pia eres 


” 
Thirty-seven Vols. Schwabe’s Observations (MSS.).. Roy. Ast. Soe, 
Sundry Papers connected with Solar Research. 
Sundry Volumes of Kew Electrical and Meteoro- 
logical Observations (MSS.). 
Surplus Lithographed and Engraved copies of Kew 


i Goy. Grant. 
apneuc Coryes “fs 22. 7's fs as pekh ine thant 
Photo-galvanographed Plates of Curves, by Paul 

PPCIBUH Taw yes saad eee ts = SCS eee OALe fd eee * 
Spare Magnets for Magnetographs .............. Mr. Adie. 
One Marnchic Tabulators fos.cb oy scsjs Manel bs oe Brit. Assoc. 
yo senctic Babulators 2. dens: scis ages «00 eee ee re 


Old Observing Clock. 
Parts of old Electrical and Meteorological Apparatus Brit. Assoc. 


Parts of old Royal Society Apparatus............ Royal Soc. 
Solar Photographic Room. 
Anemograph with Blank sheets ............+44: Met. Com. 


Baths, Dishes, Printing-frames, Bottles, Paper, Che- 


REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. lxvil 


micals, Glass, &c., used in connexion with the Pho- 


EAMEUOEUUPI m, Biiiccces Cheats ts sees. s i Fa Goy. Grant. 
Dome, 

Photoheliograph .....5..c0000005 bene dagen on Don. Fund. 

Robinson’s Registering Anemometer (dismounted) Brit. Assoc. 
Roof. 

Old Pressure Anemometer (incomplete).......... Brit. Assoc. 


Old Rain-gauge (incomplete) 
Magnetic Observatory. 


Declinometer : toys 
Dip Circles \ ee eRe id Sk ee Cee eae et Sir E. Sabine. 
Sundry Apparatus employed in Magnetic Determina- \ 

ES GES Shs vs Ghd x EB) § 608-6 sates Ayo s an Kale ‘: 
Stone Pillars ....... bid cetnid 3) obo.) bos oe vin of 

Workshop (No. 1). 
Whitworth Lathe 
Planing Machine \ Deh Cewek Se es Bs oso oe ON Don. Fund. 
Holtgapfiel Latho ... ccs cec eves cede ee ceces ... SirF.Ronalds. 
_ 5 ae ive be bap Kanes Ke vd .s.- Don. Fund. 
[S22 Deen teat Ree eae ere oo Wire rs te Brit. Assoc. 
Surfaces and Straight Edges ..............0005 Gov. Grant. 
GrINGsONG iv ye cscs sees denscens rr eee te Brit. Assoc. 
| Se ee ee eo ee a eMs,.a-alstomagtet Pe 
Usstings and Tools ............. L Sear aseorbeek: Sc 9 
Workshop (No. 2). 
Electro-magnet and Battery ............-..0-. Sir E. Sabine. 
Carbonic-acid Gas Generators .............00+55 Goy. Grant. 
Ronalds’s Barograph (incomplete) .,............ Ee 
SEES CT EERS fi ick cued diistees >'s Mens Mr. Atkinson. 
memerrowing Pablo: 24... 6. £04 idaue ze ee cise: Gov. Grant. 
oS VASES AID dee ie ss 
Sundry Packing-cases. 
Enclosure. 

Self-recording Rain-gauge ...........e0eeeseue Met. Com. 
Beasn-sauge (Ordinary)... -~ ssi. cyis yp oit ow este Brit. Assoc. 
Eworial Anemometers : 1353.00 Xo oss vise aaa oe Met. Com, 


Mowing Machine and sundry other Garden Tools.. Brit. Assoc. 


Verification House. 
Stone Pillars for erecting Self-recording Magneto- 


Don. Fund. 
Sa eee cs A gee ete ee 
Self-recording Barograph, Thermograph, and Anc- Rat, Com 
mograph (undergoing examination)............ 4 ; 


In the Custody of B. Loewy, Hsq., 11 Leverton Street, N.W. 
Mr. De La Rue’s Micrometer for measuring Astronomical Photo- 


graphs (in use for measuring the photographs obtained with 
the heliograph). 


REPORT—1871. 


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RCOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE, ]xix 


RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL CoMMITTEE AT THE EDINBURGH 
Meerine In Aveust 1871. 


[When Committees are appointed, the Member first named is regarded as the Secretary, 
except there is a specific nomination. ] 


That in future the division of the Section of Biology into the three Depart- 
ments of Anatomy and Physiology, Anthropology, and Zoology and Botany 
shall be recognized in the programme of the Association Meetings, and that 
the President, two Vice-Presidents, and at least three Secretaries shall be 
nominated, and that the Vice-Presidents and Secretaries who shall take 
charge of the organization of the several Departments shall be designated 
respectively before the publication of such programme. 

Dr. R. King’s motion, “that a Subsection for Ethnology be formed,” was 
rejected. 

That the Apparatus, Instruments, &c. mentioned in Appendix III. of the 
Report of the Kew Committee for the past year be transferred to the charge 
of the Royal Society. 

That the Electrical Apparatus belonging to the British Association, now in 
possession of the Committee of Electrical Standards, be placed in the Physical 
Laboratory of Cambridge, in charge of the Professor of Experimental Physics, 
the apparatus remaining the property of the Association and at the disposal 
of the Committee. 

[For Regulations relating to Organizing Sectional Proceedings, vide p. xix. ] 


Recommendations Involving Grants of Money. 


That the sum of £300 be placed at the disposal of the Council for main- 
taining the establishment of the Kew Observatory. 

That Professor Cayley, Professor H. J. S. Smith, Professor Stokes, Sir W. 

Thomson, and Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher be a Committee for the purpose of re- 
porting on Mathematical Tables, which it may be desirable to compute or 
reprint ; that Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher be the Secretary, and that the sum of 
£50 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 
_ That Mr. Edward Crossley, Rev. T. W. Webb, and Rey. R. Harley be a 
Committee for discussing Observations of Lunar Objects suspected of change; 
that Mr. Crossley be the Secretary, and that the sum of £20 be placed at 
their disposal for the purpose. 

That Professor Tait, Professor Tyndall, and Dr. Balfour Stewart be a 
Committee for the purpose of investigating the Thermal Conductivity of 
Metals ; that Professor Tait be the Secretary, and that the sum of £25 be 
placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That the Committee on Tides, consisting of Sir W. Thomson, Professor J. C. 
Adams, Professor J. W. M. Rankine, Mr. J. Oldham, Rear-Admiral Richards, 
and Mr.W. Parkes, be reappointed; that Colonel Walker, F.R.S., Superintendent 
of the Trigonometrical Survey of India, be added to the Committee ; and that 
the sum of £200 be placed at their disposal to defray the expenses of calcula- 
tion during the ensuing year. 

That the Committee for reporting on the Rainfall of the British Isles be 
reappointed, and that this Committee consist of Mr. Charles Brooke, Mr. 

Glaisher. Professor Phillips, Mr. G. J. Symons, Mr. J. F. Bateman, Mr. R. 
ieee Mr. IT. Hawksley, Professor J. C.. Adams, Mr. C. Tomlinson, 
fae 7 


lxx | REPORT—1871. 


Professor Sylvester, Dr. Pole, Mr. Rogers Field, Professor Ansted, and Mr. 
Buchan ; that Mr. G. J. Symons be the Secretary, and that the sum of £100 
be placed at their disposal for the purpose, 

That a Committee on Underground Temperature, consisting of Sir William 
Thomson, Professor Everett, Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., Professor J. Clerk 
Maxwell, Professor Phillips, Mr. G. J. Symons, Professor Ramsay, Professor 
Geikie, Mr. Glaisher, Rev. Dr. Graham, Mr. George Maw, Mr. Pengelly, 
Mr. 8. J. Mackie, Professor Edward Hull, and Professor Ansted, be appointed ; 
that Professor J. D. Everett be the Secretary, and that the sum of £100 be 
placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That the Committee on Luminous Meteors, consisting of Mr. Glaisher, 
Mr. R. P. Greg, Mr. Alexander Herschel, and Mr. C. Brooke, be reappointed, 
and that the sum of £20 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Dr. Huggins, Mr. J. N. Lockyer, Dr. Reynolds, Professor Swan, and 
Mr. Stoney be a Committee for the purpose of constructing and printing tables 
of Inverse Wave Lengths, Mr. Stoney to be reporter; and that the sum of 
£20 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Professor A. W. Williamson, Professor Roscoe, and Professor Frank- 
land be a Committee for the purpose of superintending the Monthly Reports 
of the progress of Chemistry; and that the sum of £100 be placed at their 
disposal for the purpose. 

Professor A. W. Williamson, Sir W. Thomson, Professor Clerk Maxwell, 
Professor G. C. Foster, Mr. Abel, Professor Fleeming Jenkin, Mr. Siemens, 
and Mr. R. Sabine, with power to add to their number, be a Committee for 
the purpose of testing the New Pyrometer of Mr. Siemens, by whom the 
chief instrument will be supplied; and that the sum of £30 be placed at 
their disposal for the purpose. 

That Dr. Gladstone, Dr. C. R. A. Wright, and Mr. Chandler Roberts be a 
Committee for the purpose of investigating the chemical constitution and 
optical properties of essential oils, such as are used for perfumes ; that Mr, 
Chandler Roberts be the Secretary, and that the sum of £40 be placed at 
their disposal for the purpose. 

That the Committee, consisting of Professor Crum Brown, Professor Tait, 
and Mr. Dewar, be reappointed for the purpose of continuing experiments on 
the Thermal Equivalents of the Oxides of Chlorine ; and that the sum of £15 
be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Dr. Duncan, Mr. Henry Woodward, and Mr. Robert Etheridge be a 
Committee for the purpose of continuing researches in Fossil Crustacea; that 
Mr. Woodward be the Secretary, and that the sum of £25 be placed at their 
disposal for the purpose. - 

That Sir C. Lyell, Bart., Heafeksor Phillips, Sir J. Lubbock, Bart., Mr. J. 
Evans, Mr. E. Vivian, Mr. W. Pengelly, Mr. G. Busk, Mr. W. B. Dawking, 
and Mr. W. A. Sandford be a Committee for the purpose of continuing the 
Exploration of Kent’s Cavern, Torquay; that Mr. Pengelly be the Secretary, 
and that the sum of £100 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Professor Harkness and Mr. James Thomson be a Committee for the 
purpose of continuing the investigation of Carboniferous Corals with the view 
of reproducing them for publication ; that Mr. Thomson be the Secretary, and 
that the sum of £25 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Mr. G. Busk and Mr. Boyd Dawkins be a Committee for the purpose 
of assisting Dr. Leith Adams in the preparation of Plates illustrating an 
account of the Fossil Elephants of Malta; that Mr. Busk be the Secretary, 
and that the sum of £25 be placed at their disposal fer the purpose. 


RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. Ixx1 


That Professor Harkness, Mr. William Jolly, and Dr. J. Bryce be a 
Committee for the purpose of collecting Fossils from localities of difficult 
access in North-western Scotland, that the specimens be deposited in the 
Edinburgh Industrial Museum, and that duplicates be deposited in such 
Museum as the Association may designate ; that Mr. William Jolly be the 
Secretary, and that the sum of £10 be placed at their disposal for the 
- purpose, 

That Professor Ramsay, Professor Geikie, Professor J. Young, Professor 
Nicol, Dr. Bryce, Dr. Arthur Mitchell, Professor Hull, Sir R. Griffith, Bart., 
Dr. King, Professor Harkness, Mr. Prestwich, Mr. Hughes, and Mr. Pengelly 
be a Committee for the purpose of ascertaining the existence in different 
parts of the United Kingdom of any Erratic Blocks or Boulders, indicating on 
Maps their position and height above the sea, as also of ascertaining the 
nature of the rocks composing these blocks, their size, shape, and other par- 
ticulars of interest, and of endeavouring to prevent the destruction of such 
blocks as in the opinion of the Committee are worthy of being preserved ; 
that Mr. Milne Holme be the Secretary, and that the sum of £10 be placed 
_ at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Mr. Stainton, Professor Newton, and Sir John Lubbock be a Com- 

mittee for the purpose of continuing a Record of Zoological Literature ; that 
Mr. Stainton be the Secretary, and that the sum of £100 be placed at then 
disposal for the purpose. 
. That Professor Balfour, Dr. Cleghorn, Mr. Robert Hutchinson, Mr. Alexander 
Buchan, and Mr. John Sadler be a Committee for the purpose of taking Ob- 
servations on the effect of the Denudation of Timber on the Rainfall in North 
Britain ; that Dr. Cleghorn be the Secretary, and that the sum of £20 be placed 
at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Dr. Sharpey, Dr. Richardson, and Professor Humphry be a Com- 
mittee for the purpose of continuing investigations on the Physiological 
Action of Organic Chemical Compounds ; that Dr. Richardson be the Secretary, 
and that the sum of £25 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Professor Michael Foster, Mr. W. H. Flower, and Mr. Benjamin 
Lowne be a Committee for the purpose of making Terato-embryological 
inquiries ; that Mr. Lowne be the Secretary, and that the sum of £20 be 
placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Professor M. Foster, Dr. Arthur Gamgee, and Mr. E. Ray Lankester 
be a Committee for the purpose of investigating the amount of Heat gene- 
rated in the Blood in the Process of Arterialization; that Dr. Gamgee be the 
Secretary, and that the sum of £15 be placed at their disposal for the 
purpose. 

- That Professor Christison, Dr. Layeock, and Dr. Fraser be a Committee for 
the purpose of investigating the Antagonism of Poisonous Substances; that 
Dr. Fraser be the Secretary, and that the sum of £20 be placed at their disposal 
_ for the purpose. 

That Sir R. I. Murchison, Bart., the Rev. Dr. Ginsburg, Mr. Hepworth 
Dixon, Rey. Dr. Tristram, General Chesney, Rev. Professor Rawlinson, and 
Mr. John A. Tinné be a Committee for the purpose of undertaking a Geogra- 
phical Exploration of the country of Moab; and that the sum of £100 be. 
placed at their disposal for the purpose, in addition to the sum of £100 
granted last year, but not expended because it was found to be insufficient 
for the purpose. . Be mx: , . 

" That the Metric Committee be reappointed, such Committee to consist of 
Sir John Bowring, The Right. Hon. Sir Stafford H. Northcote, Bart., C.B., 
f2 


Ixxil REPORT—1871. 


M.P., The Right Hon. Sir C. B. Adderley, M.P., Mr. Samual Brown, Dr. Farr, 
Mr. Frank P. Fellowes, Professor Frankland, Mr. James Heywood, Profes- 
sor Leone Levi, Mr. C. W. Siemens, Professor A. W. Williamson, Dr. George 
Glover, Sir Joseph Whitworth, Bart., Mr. J. R. Napier, Mr. J. V. N. 
Bazalgette, and Sir W. Fairbairn, Bart.; that Professor Leone Levi be the 
Secretary, and that the sum of £75 be placed at their disposal for the pur- 
pose of being applied solely to scientific purposes, printing, and corre- 
spondence. : 

That Professor W.J. Macquorn Rankine, Mr. Froude, Mr. C. W. Merrifield, 
Mr. C.W. Siemens, Mr. Bramwell, Mr. L. E. Fletcher, and Mr. James R. Napier 
be a Committee for the purpose of making experiments on instruments for 
Measuring the Speed of Ships and Currents by means of the difference of 
height of two columns of liquids; that Mr. Fletcher be the Secretary, and 
that the sum of £30 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Mr. R. B. Grantham, Professor Corfield, M.B., Mr. J. Bailey Denton, 
Dr. J. H. Gilbert, Mr. J. Thornhill Harrison, Mr. William Hope, Lieut.- 
Col. Leach, Dr. A. Voelcker, and Professor A. W. Williamson be a 
Committee for the purpose of continuing the investigations on the “ Treat- . 
ment and Utilization of Sewage ;” that the balance of the funds raised by 
the Committee appointed at Exeter, and now in the hands of the General 
Treasurer, be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 


Applications for Reports and Researches not involving Grants of Money. 


That the Committee, consisting of Dr. Joule, Sir W. Thomson, Professor Tait, 
Professor Balfour Stewart, and Professor J. C. Maxwell, be reappointed to 
effect the determination of the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat. 

That Sir W. Thomson, Professor Everett, Professor G. C. Foster, Professor 
J. C. Maxwell, Mr. G. J. Stoney, Professor Fleeming Jenkin, Professor 
Rankine, Mr. Siemens, and Mr. Bramwell be a Committee for the purpose of 
framing a nomenclature of Units of Force and Energy. 

That Professor Sylvester, Professor Cayley, Professor Hirst, Rey. Professor 
Bartholomew Price, Professor H. J. 8. Smith, Dr. Spottiswoode, Mr. R. B. 
Hayward, Dr. Salmon, Rey. R. Townsend, Professor Fuller, Professor Kel- 
land, Mr. J. M. Wilson, and Professor Clifford be reappointed a Committee 
(with power to add to their number) for the purpose of considering the pos- 
sibility of improving the methods of instruction in elementary geometry; and 
that Professor Clifford be the Secretary. 

That Mr. W. H. L. Russell be requested to continue his Report on recent 
progress in the theory of Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Functions. 

That Mr. Carruthers, Dr. Hooker, Professor Balfour, and Mr. Dyer be a 
Committee for the purpose of investigating the Fossil Flora of Britain. 

That Rey. Canon Tristram, Professor Newton, Mr. H. E. Dresser, Mr. J. E. 
Harting, and Rev. H. F. Barnes be reappointed a Committee for the purpose 
of continuing the investigation on the desirability of establishing “a close 
time” for the preservation of indigenous animals; and that the Rey. Canon 
Tristram be the Secretary. 

That Dr. Rolleston, Dr. Sclater, Dr. Dohrn, Professor Huxley, Professor 
Wyville Thomson, and Mr. E. Ray Lankester be a Committee for the purpose 
of promoting the foundation of Zoological Stations; and that Dr. Anton 
Dohrn be the Secretary. 

That the Committee appointed last year “ to consider and report on the 
various plans proposed for legislating on the subject of Steam-boiler Explosions 


RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. Ixxili 


with a view to their prevention” be requested to continue their labours ; 
such Committee to consist of Sir W. Fairbairn, Bart., Mr. John Penn, Mr. 
F. J. Bramwell, Mr. Hugh Mason, Mr. Samuel Rigby, Mr. Thomas Schofield, 
Mr. C. F. Beyer, Mr. T. Webster, Q.C., Mr. Lavington E. Fletcher, and Mr. 
Edward Easton, with power to add to their number. 

That Mr. Bateman, Mr. Le Neve Foster, Mr. Merrifield, Mr. Edward 
Easton, Mr. F. J. Bramwell, Mr. W. Hope, and Mr. H. Bauerman be a 
Committee to consider the mode in which new inventions, and claims for 
reward in respect of adopted inventions, are examined and dealt with by the 
different Departments of Government, and to report on the best means of 
removing any real causes of dissatisfaction, as well as of silencing unfounded 
complaints. 

That a Committee be appointed— 

1°, to consider and report on the best means of advancing science by 
Lectures, with authority to act, subject to the approval of the 
Council, in the course of the present year, if judged desirable. 

2°, to consider and report whether any steps can be taken to render 
scientific organization more complete and effectual. 

That the Committee consist of the following Members, with power to add 
to their number :—Professor Roscoe, Professor W. G. Adams, Professor 
Andrews, Professor Balfour, Mr. Bramwell, Professor A. Crum Brown, Mr. 
Dyer, Sir Walter Elliot, Professor Flower, Professor G. C. Foster, Professor 
Geikie, Rev. R. Harley, Professor Huxley, Professor Fleeming Jenkin, Dr. 
Joule, Colonel Lane Fox, Dr. Lankester, Mr. J. N. Lockyer, Dr. O’Callaghan, 
Professor Ramsay, Professor Balfour Stewart, Mr. Stainton, Professor Tait, 
Mr. J. A. Tinné, Dr. Allen Thomson, Sir Wiliam Thomson, Professor 
Wyville Thomson, Professor Turner, Professor A. W. Williamson, Dr. Young ; 
and that Professor Roscoe be the Secretary. 


Resolutions involving Applications to Government. 


That the President and Council of the British Association be authorized to 
cooperate with the President and Council of the Royal Society, in whatever 
way may seem to them best, for the promotion of a Circumnavigation Expe- 
dition, specially fitted out to carry the Physical and Biological Exploration of 
the Deep Sea into all the Great Oceanic areas. 

That the President and General Officers, with power to add to their 
number, be requested to take such steps as may seem to them desirable in 
order to promote observations on the forthcoming Total Solar Eclipse. 


Communications ordered to be printed in extenso in the Annual Report 
of the Association. 


That the letter of Lavoisier to Black, referred to in the Address of the 
President of the Chemical Section, be printed in the Annual Report; and 
that the letter dated 19th November, 1790, be published in facsimile. 

That Mr. Bramwell’s paper ‘‘On Experiments made with Carr’s Disinte- 
grating Flour-mill” be printed 7m ewxtenso in the Transactions of the Associa- 
tion. 

Resolutions referred to the Council for consideration and action 

if it seem desirable. 


That it is desirable that the British Association apply to the Treasury for 
funds to enable the Tidal Committee to continue their calculations. 


Ixxiv REPORT—187 1. 


That it is desirable that the British Association should urge upon the 
Government of India the importance for navigation and other practical pur- 
poses, and for science, of making accurate and continued observations on tho 
Tides at several points on the coast of India. 

That the Council of the Association be requested to take such steps as to 
them may seem most expedient in support of a proposal, made by Dr. Buys 
Ballot, to establish a telegraphic meteorological station at the Azores. 

That the Council be requested to take into consideration the desirability of 

the publication of a periodic record of advances made in the various branches 
of science represented by the British Association. 
_ That the Council of this Association be requested to take such steps as may 
appear to them desirable with reference to the arrangement now in contem- 
plation to establish “leaving Examinations,” and to report to the Association 
-on the present position of science-teaching in the public and first-grade 
schools. 

That the Council be requested to take such steps as they deem wisest in 
order to promote the introduction of scientific instruction into the elementary 
schools throughout the country. 


Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Purposes by 
the General Committee at the Edinburyh Meeting in August 1871. 
The names of the Members who would be entitled to call on the 

- General Treasurer for the respective Grants are prefixed. 


Kew Observatory. 
The Council.—Maintaining the Establishment of Kew Obser- 


Bopygiory? CMa veri s Bas. 24h ees peel rsee ea eee 300 0 0 
Mathematics and Physics. 

- Cayley, Professor.—Mathematical Tables ................ 50 0 0 
*Crossley, Mr.—Discussion of Observations of Lunar Objects.. 20 0 0 
*Tait, Professor—Thermal Conductivity of Metals.......... 25 0 0 
-*Thomson, Professor Sir W.—Tidal Observations .......... 200 0.0 
= Brooke, Min-——brtish Raininile = sss Pee eon eee ee 100 0 0 
*Thomson, Sir W.—Underground Temperature ............ 100 0 0 
*Glaisher, Mr.—Luminous Meteors ................c0eee- 20.0 0 
Huggins, Dr.—Tables of Inverse Wave-lengths .......... 20 0 0 


Chemistry. 
*Williamson, Prof. A. W.—Reports of the Progress of Chemistry 100 
. Williamson, Prof. A. W.—Testing Siemens’s new Pyrometer. 30 
Gladstone, Dr.—Chemical Constitution and Optical Properties 
of Essential Oils 
*Browyv, Dr. Crum.—Thermal Equivalent of the Oxides of 
Chicrine”. eee eee ee ees | es ee, Meena oe oe 15 


ey 

=) 
o| so" o-oo 
ole er oo 


* Reappointed, 


— 


SYNOPSIS OF GRANTS OF MONEY. Ixxv 


Geology. : & ss. d. 
rae TOMWaAN gs a cst sie ee eek Ms ses Sica are « 1020 0 0 
*Puncan, Dr.—Fossil Crustacea ...5.:........; Pi ee 25 0 0 
*Lyell, Sir C., Bart.—Kent’s Cavern Exploration .......... 100 0 O 
*Harkness, Professor.—Investigation of Fossil Corals........ 25 0 0O 
*Busk, Mr.—Fossil Elephants of Malta (renewed) .......... 25 0 0 
Harkness, Professor.—Collection of Fossils in the North-west 
RMON 7, < sx eleecate Get ROKR Ls cer: itaale eee eee 10 0 0 
Ramsay, Professor.—Mapping Positions of Erratic Blocks and 
Re SS PTET ys Ae ee eee 5 cam RES oe manliness LG >'O-<Q 
Biology. 
*Stainton, Mr.—Record of the Progress of Zoology.......... 100 te 
*Balfour, Professor.—Effect of the Denudation of Timber on 
the Rainfall in North Britain (renewed) .............. 20 0 0 
*Sharpey, Dr.—Physiological Action of Organic Compounds... 25 0 0 
Foster, Professor M.—Terato-embryological Inquiries ...... 20 -0 0 
Foster, Professor M.—Heat Generated in the Arterialization 
pra blood.(part renewed) . <0... 2 .accancneceseccees BS. Or 60 
Christison, Professor.—Antagonism of Poisonous Substances... 20 0 0O 


Geography. 
*Murchison, Sir R. Bart.—Exploration of the Country of Moab 100 0 0 


Economic Science and Statistics. 
*Bowring, Sir J.—Metric Committee ..........7... Eee 75 0 0 


Mechanies, 


Rankine, Professor.—Experiments on Instruments for Mea- 
suring the Speed of Ships and Currents .............. 30 0 0 


Total....£1620 0 0 


* Reappointed. 


Place of Meeting in 1873. 


It was resolved that the Annual Meeting of the Association in 1873 be 
held at Bradford. 


Ixxvl 


RnEPORT—1871. 


General Statement of Sums which have been paid on Account of Grants 
for Scientific Purposes. 


Seema. 
1834. 

Tide Discussions sscccoccccssssesee 20 0 0 
1835. 

Tide Discussions: ....cscecseceseses 62 0 0 


British Fossil Ichthyology ...... 105 0 0 


£167 0 0 
1836. 
Tide Discussions .......+++ sovepene 63 0.0 
British Fossil Ichthyology ...... 105 0 0 
‘Thermometric Observations, &c. 50 0 0 
Experiments on long-continued 
Heat ....scccvecsccccsccsees Saeanes fal, 0 
Rain-Gauges .eccccsseseees Fodeivdate 913 0 
Refraction Experiments ......... 15 0 0 
Lunar Nutation..,.....++. sessseareemOO Oi a0 
Thermometers .es.scscsesseverseeee 15 6 0 
£434 14 0 
1837. 
Tide Discussions ...seccscrerereree 284 1 0 
Chemical Constants ....se.sseeeee 24 13 6 
Lunar Nutation........sccccecseeee 70 O 0 
Observations on WaveS.........0 100 12 0 
Tides at Bristol.....c.sseccrecteoeee 150 0 0 
Meteorology and Subterranean 
Temperature .....cccsceesseseesee 89 5 0 
Vitrification Experiments....,.... 150 0 0 
Heart Experiments .......+ cacsece, «8. 4, 6 
Barometric Observations ......... 30 0 0 
Barometers seccscssesscscsssreresee 11 18 6 
6918 14 6 
1838. 
Tide Discussions .....+...+ asccssquae eo OratO 
British Fossil Fishes ...... coovee LOO 0° 0 
Metecrological Observations and 
Anemometer (construction)... 100 0 0 
Cast Iron (Strength of) ......... 60 0 0 
Animaland Vegetable Substances 
(Preservation Of) see...seeseeees ee 
Railway Constants .....0..se00e «- 41 12 10 
Bristol Tides......... Seaccesne corwas) 00. 0°70 
Growthof Plants ...sesccc.sss0050c 40 0 «0 
Mud in Rivers ....... weseasevenesas 3.6 6 
Education Committee .......0.. 50 0 0 
Heart Experiments ...000....00035 5 3 0 
Land and Sea Level........ eassese 26% #8, 7 
Subterranean Temperature ...... 8 6 0 
Steam-vessels..........00+ ceaerceece - 100 0 0 
Meteorological Committee ...... SE9)..5 
Thermometers ...cccccvcssserssseee 16 4 0 
£956 12 2 
1839. 
Fossil Ichthyology.........0 egsees 110 0 0 
Meteorological Observations at 
Plymouth 1... .c0<.snecsccseswssnas 63 10 0 
Mechanism of Waves ........s006 144 2 0 
Bristol Tides ...cccsssssegssvessseses OO 18 G 


£ a a, 

Meteorology and Subterranean 
Temperature ......e000+. dectpssap etl elo 
Vitrification Experiments... 9 4 7 
Cast-Iron Experiments............ 100 0 0 
Railway Constants ...cccccosseeee 28 7 2 
Land and Sea Level......... coors 204 1 4 
Steam-vessels’ Engines.......+.... 100 0 0 
Stars in Histoire Céleste ...... ». dol 18 6 
Stars in Lacaille ..... seucuiewssaew oa BuO LES 
Stars in R.A.S. Catalogue......... 6 16 6 
Animal Secretions........ Sevoesds so 10-4050 
Steam-engines in Cornwall ...... 50 0 0 
Atmospheric Air ...... dcckateactie oOo ee 
Cast and Wrought Iron...... eeeeee 40 0 0 
Heat on Organic Bodies ........ 3 0 0 
Gases on Solar Spectrum ....... so ee 20> a0 

Hourly Meteorological Observa- 
tions, Inverness and Kingussie 49 7 8 
Fossil Reptiles ......seccsecoserese 118 2 9 
Mining Statistics ......s00e0--, 50 0 0 
S595, 10 

1840. 

Bristol Tides ........0ce+0s sccoseeeee 100 0 0 
Subterranean Temperature ...... 13 13 6 
Heart Experiments ...ccccssessees 18.19 0 
Lungs Experiments ......+++... we 8H13) 10 
Tide Discussions ...... pedaenaden oo 00) 10:20 
Land and Sea Level .......,...+006 6.11.4 
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ......... 242 10 0 
Stars (Lacaille) ...sec.sceossesssceee 415 0 
Stars (Catalogue) ......... Syttoses 264 0 0 
Atmospheric Air .......++ ssecorss! MLO, ie BaD 
Water on Iron ......s0008 deedeetuny 10 0 0 
Heat on Organic Bodies ......... 7 0 0 
Meteorological Observations..... se R226 
Foreign Scientific Memoirs ...... ey 
Working Population ....++......04. 100 0 9 
School Statistics....... easesveceseses 50 0 0 
Forms of Vessels ...sccccsssseecees 184 7 0 

Chemical and Electrical Pheno- 
Mena oo... Secerees evsscssecesea oe EOL NO 50 

Meteorological Observations at 
Plymouth 252... cces0 soecssoseee 80 0 O 
Magnetical Observations ....,.... 185 138 9 
£1546 16 4 
ee ec a 

1841, 

Observations on Waves...... cesses OO 0 0 

Meteorology and Subterranean 
Temperature ....... setereresereee 8 8 O 
Actinometers......+++.0. seevecease - 10 0.0 
Earthquake Shocks ...,.....s0s00+ Lier 10 
Acrid PoIsonsis-snee---cese=e Soe 6 0 0 
Veins and Absorbents ..........4. 3.0 «0 
Mud in Rivers ....... “paces seosee OO) OO 
Marine Zoology......+ Seneavcosereus 15428 
Skeleton Maps, .<.2-c.s2..t.<cesens «220007 6 
Mountain Barometers ...s0....00. 618 6 
| Stars (Histoire Céleste)........00 185 0 0 


GENERAL STATEMENT. 


& 8. d. 
mtirs (Lacaille)/s.sicccsccsesssccerse 79 5 0 
Stars (Nomenclature of) ........ 17 19 6 
Stars (Catalogue Of) ......ss0e0000e 40 0 0 
Water on Iron ........c.see00s * 50 0 0 
Meteorological Observations at 

MGWEENEES \cecovsccaccssses oe 20 0 0 
Meteorological Observations (re- 

MIMCLION OFM Seesseccsccsesesscree 25 0 0 
Fossil Reptiles ......sscssecseeeeeee 50 0 0 
Foreign Memoirs ......+0+...00 coef 62, 1 0Fx0 
Railway Sections ..........00...... 38 1 6 
POEMS OF VERSEIS! ....ccceeseesceses 193 12 0 
Meteorological Observations at 

PIYMOuth 5.....000...0000e Seacece 55 0 0 
Magnetical Observations Boorcehe 6118 8 
Fishes of the Old Red Sandstone 100 0 0 
Tides at Leith ...... eatencaseg ie Ne 50 0 0 
Anemometer at Edinburgh ...... 69 1 10 
Tabulating Observations ......... 9 6 8 
Races Of Men cecsccocssosereseree 5 0 0 
Radiate Animals ..........00. 2 0 0 

£1235 10 11 

1842, 

Dynamometric Instruments ...... 113 11 2 
Anoplura Britanniz ...,........... 52 12 0 
Tides at Bristol....,......s00+e Jats On OUP O 
Gases on Light... peeetcenset 30 14 7 
Chronometers ....... Agarasdee sages 26 17° 6 
Marine Zoology.........++++ Pearse cme A wed hy 
British Fossil Mammalia ......... 100 0 0 
Statistics of Education .......... Sor 20 TOO 
Marine Steam-vessels’ Engines... 28 0 0 
Stars (Histoire Céleste)............ 59 0 0 
Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. of) ..... LOW 01.0 
Railway Sections ......... 3 10 0 
British Belemnites...... soe 0 0 
Fossil Reptiles (publication of 

Report) ...... Meee eacieann daa snap 210 0 0 
Forms of Vessels .s+.....sseseeeeee 180 0 0 
Galvanic Experiments on Rocks 5 8 6 
Meteorological Experiments at 

Plymouth .........seceseeees nena Gor 080 
Constant Indicator and Dynamo- 

metric Instruments ........... 90 0 0 
Force of Wind ............. srderseeu yO. -O.'O 
Light on Growth of Seeds ...... 8 0 0 
PIEAMPELALISEICS: 00. .0s0sesssecceeres 50 0 0 
Vegetative Power of Seeds ceases Sa ul 
Questions on Human Race ...... 7 9 0 

£1419 17-8 


1843. 
Revision of the Nomenclature of 
Stars ..... 
Reduction of Stars, British Asso- 
ciation Catalogue .... 
Anomalous Tides, Frith of Forth 
Hourly Meteorological Observa- 
_ tions at Kingussie and Inverness 
Meteorological Observations at 
Plymouth .........0 secncesccees 
Whewell’s Meteorological Ane- 
mometer at Plymouth .,....... 


ewe e eee ee rereeseeesenene 


2 0 
25 0 
120 0 
77 12 
55 (0 
10 0 


oo o 


Metecrological Observations, Os- 
ler’s Anemometer at Plymouth 
Reduction of Meteorological Ob- 


SETVationSs J.....c0ce sees wancansey 
Meteorological Instruments and 
Gratuities ....ceccesese Saaate'e ean 
Construction of Anemometer at 
INVEENESS: Waeews sesseccebcecees ces 
Magnetic Cooperation .......++... 
Meteorological Recorder for Kew 
Observatory Seclasacseunaleseas we 


Action of Gases on Light ........ 
Establishment at Kew Observa- 
tory, Wages, Repairs, Furni- 
ture and Sundries........ eves ° 
Experiments by Captive Balloons 
Oxidation of the Rails of Railways 
Publication of Report on Fossil 
Reptiles’.cncnssnben is Aisineisidaasiasis 
Coloured Drawings of Railway 


Sections ..,....0..008 Beemseeane pee 
Registration | “of Earthquake 
Shocks ...... eseammnmnactceedcs ee: 
Report on Zoological Nomencla- 
CUTE sessecseceee eeeeesecvescees eee 


Uncovering Lower Red Sand- 
stone near Manchester . 

Vegetative Power of Seeds ... 

Marine Testacea (Habits of ) 


eeeecece 


eee 


Marine Zoology....ssssescsceees pans 
Marine Zoology........++ nanan RON DE 
Preparation of Report on British 

Fossil Mammalia .........0000. . 


Physiological Operations of Me- 
dicinal Agents ...scscecsesseeees 
VitaliStatisticg) .scccccaswstecse 
Additional Experiments on the 
Forms of Vessels ...sssssssoeses 
Additional Experiments on the 
Forms of Vessels .sssessessenees 
Reduction uf Experiments on the 
Forms of Vessels ...... Srabetees 
Morin’s Instrument and Constant 
Indicator) Winse.sis =n ae dena waveis 
Experiments on the Strength of 
Materials 


eeeee 


Pee O tere erent eereeseae 


£1565 10 


Ixxyli 


£ 8s. a. 
20 0 0 
30 0 0 
39 6 0 
56 12 2 
10 8 10 
50 0 0 
18 16 1 
138 , 45.7 
81 8 0 
20 0 0 
40° 0 0 
14718 3 
30 0 0 
10 0 

4 4 6 
5 3 8 
10 0 0 
10 0 0 
2 V4 
100 0 0 
20 0 0 
36 5 8 
70 0 0 
100 0 0 
100 0 0 
69 14 10 
60 0 0 


bo 


1844. 
Meteorological Observations at 
Kingussie and Inverness ...... 
Completing Observations at Ply- 
mouth ...... 
Magnetic and Meteorological: Co- 
QPETAUOM “srscssescecsteceesesd 
Publication of ‘the British Asso- 
ciation Catalogue of Stars...... 
Observations on Tides on the 
East coast of Scotland ......... 
Revision of the Nomenclature of 
Stars ...... Beasone satan eevee 1842 
Maintaining the Establishmentin 
Kew Observatory .e.esccssseenes 
Instruments for Kew Observatory 


see 


12 0 0 
35 0 0 
25 8 4 
35 0 0 
100 0 0 
2 9-6 
11717 3 
56 7 3 


Ixxvili REPORT—1871. 
; : ei seas oo 8. de 
Influence of Light on Plants....... 10 0 0 Computation of the Gaussian 
Subterraneous Temperature in Constants for 1829....... seoseee 50 0 O 
Ireland) c-ssceseseey sesseeseeeeseee 9 OQ 0 | Maintaining the Establishment at 
Coloured Drawings of “Railway Kew Observatory ...s+ese0ee0008 146 16 7 
SECHONS:.-sssswushareveTsu les sees 15 17 6 | Strength of Materials.......0000... 60 0 0 
Investigation of Fossil Fishes of Researches in Asphyxia............ 616 2 
the Lower Tertiary Strata ... 100 0 0 | Examination of Fossil Shells...... 10 0 0 
Registering the Shocks of Earth- Vitality of Seeds ........0008 1844 215 10 
UIMKCH dae sesssteursacas-5 1842 23 11 10 | Vitality of Seeds ............1845 712 8 
Structure of Fossil Shells.......... 20 0 0] Marine Zoology of Cornwall.. 10 0 0 
Radiata and Mollusca of the Marine Zoology of Britain ..... 10 0 0 
- @gean and Red Seas.....1842 100 0 0] Exotic Anoplura .........+5 -1844 25 0 0 
Geographical Distributions of Expenses attending Anemometers 11 7 6 
Marine Zoology.........++ 1842 10 0 0] Anemometers’ Repairs.......... 2 8 6 
Marine Zoology of Devon and Atmospheric Waves .....00000.5 & 3 8 
Cornwall aicvstccssssaees seseeeee 10 0 0] Captive Balloons ........+. 1844 819 38 
Marine Zoology of Corfu ......« 10 0 0] Varieties of the Human Race 
Experiments on the Vitality of 1844 7 6 8 
Seeds 25.0.5 SycenPusasesevasensbars 9 0 3| Statistics of Sickness and Mor- 
Experiments on the oe of tality In Yorks ssscessessesespasslel cu OMe 
EGOS! Geeta ssyeese SSA ey CPS a} “£685 16.0 
Exotic Anoplura ......... soocccsee 15 0 O i oa 
Strength of Materials ............ 100 0 0 1847. 
Completing Experiments on the Computation of the Gaussian 
Forms of Ships ......s00.s00066. 100 0 0 Constants for 1829 .,...... wee 50 0 0 
Inquiries into Asphyxia ......... 10 © 0} Habits of Marine Animals ..... » 10 0 0 
Investigations on the Internal Physiological Action of Medicines 20 6 0 
Constitution of Metals .......... 50 0 0 | Marine Zoology of Cornwall .., 10 0 0 
Constant Indicator and Morin’s Atmospheric Waves .....+...+0: seetuetO, ote gs 
ITBERUMENE abssccstersvoesad S22si010) »Sinbi|| Vitality of Seeds’ ...-coseeetereeee St A din dl 
~ £981 12 8 | Maintaining the Establishment at 
ee Kew Observatory .....s.5005.5-. 107 8 6 
1845. £208 5 4 
Publication of the British Associa- 
tion Catalogue of Stars........ 851 14 6 SR 1848. 
Meteorological Observations at Maintaining the Establishment at 
Inverness ...... OTT dies BOMB MIT Kew Observatory seecseeeereeres 17115 11 
Magnetic and Meteorological Co- Atmospheric WAVES esrssseonsnere, 3 10 9 
Operation ...sseeseeeee Ne Sore: Vitality of Seeds asatercedeedenter = 9°15 0 
Meteorological Instruments at Completion of Catalogues of Stars 70 0 0 
Edinburgh........ sieavaleted 18 11 9g | On Colouring Matters... 5 0 0 
Reduction of Anemometrical Ob- On Growth of Plants...eserere 15 0 0 
servations at Plymouth......... 25 0 0 £275 1 8 
Electrical Experiments at Kew 
Observatory .....+. er Oe ke a , aoa 
Maintaining the Establishment in Electrical Observations at Kew 
Kew Observatory .......6 sponses 49 915 20 Observatory ...... sesssseeeeeneee 50 0 0 
For Kreil’s Barometrograph...... 25 0 © | Maintaining Establishment at 
Gases from Iron Furnaces ...... Say yea ditto ae ncereoceesecseseeeeeeseesese iG 2h 
The Actinograph ....... veseeeeeeee 15 0 0 | Vitality of Seeds ......... trees 5 81 
Microscopic Structure of Shells... 20 0 0| On Growth of Plants... tecececere oo Ue 
Exotic Anoplura .....s00...-1843 10 0 0 Registration of Periodical Phe- 
Vitality ORSCEDE..oscseccees.. 1843 veal (ie g nomena rere erry see eeenses sees 110). ‘Osun 
Vitality of Seeds......,..... 1844 7 0 0 | Billon account of Anemometrical 
Marine Zoology of Cornwall...... 10 0 0 Observations sscciistscséasoccetes) 1G ae 
Physiological Actionof Medicines 20 0 0 £159 19 6 
Statistics of Sickness and Mor- 1850 are 
Barthquake Shocks wecowl8i3_15 14 8 | Maintaining the Establishment a 
—— Kew Observatory ......e00.000. 255 18 0 
_£880 9 9 | transit of Earthquake Waves... 50 0 0O 
1846. Periodical Phenomena .,.......... 15 0 0 
British Association Catalogue of Meteorological Instrument, 
Stars .ecccceccesecccerseesoee 1844 211 15 0 | AZOLES sissssccorrsecccrevecsesess 25 0 0 
Fossil Fishes of the London Clay 100 0 0 £345 18 0 


GENERAL STATEMENT. 


a) 8. ide 
1851. 

Maintaining the Establishment at 

Kew Observatory (includes part 
of grantin 1849) ........ ceases 309 
MBcory Of Heat.....cicesecseossseses 20 

Periodical Phenomena of Animals 
BME LANtS 2. cceccecbes aineobich o) WD 
Vitality of Seeds ...sccsccssceceoee 5 
Influence of Solar Radiation...... 
Ethnological Inquiries ............ 12 
Researches on Annelida ........ aT ae 


m= bo 
m bo 


i) 

o 
cjoooano 
sjoooro 


1852. 

Maintaining the Establishment at 

Kew Observatory (including 

balance of grant for 1850) ... 
Experiments on the Conduction 

BRIE EAEU conecr \aesoacapsisaee aagadt a2 
Influence of Solar Radiations ... 
Geological Map of Ireland ...... 15 
Researches on the British Anne- 


MHMEtractes-<cessepapecascaseness) 20 0. 0 
Vitality of Seeds ........ ssvoscoree 10 6 2 
Strength of Boiler Plates ......... 10 0 O 

£304 6 7 
1853. 
Maintaining the Establishment at 
Kew Observatory ....... fexeeees’ £65 90-0 


Experiments on tie Infiuence of 
DIAPERAGIALION .oscccrcstesecsoee 15 0 0 
Researches on the British Anne- 


1 AES Soeeeeeee Hicszescest eee toes 0 
Dredging on the Last Coast of 
DCOMANG Sevc.cosscccsscccesdsavoses 10 0 0 
Ethnological Queries ............ 5 0 0 
£205 0 0 
1854. 


Maintaining the Establishment at 
Kew Observatory (including 


balance of former grant) ...... 830 15 4 
Investigations on Flax ..... attests? Li O10 
Effects of Temperature on 

Meconght Tron ....0.s..c<bvee0s08 co MONOD 
Registration of Periodical Phe- 

nomena ...... Laeneoccccccencence «+ 10 0 0 
PMS ATINelida .....se.cassasesese’ 10) 0° 0 
Vitality of Seeds ... averse) PUD S 
Conduction of Heat ...... stcsnevtane AIBN LO 

£380 19 7 
1855. 
Maintaining the Establishment at 

Kew Observatory ..... paeear ar ag 425 0 0 
Earthquake Movements ......... 10 0 0 
Physical Aspect of the Moon...... Is Beas 
BVTEALIEVSOL SEEDS 2... .csccccsecceen pC Peary et} 
Map of the World......... eossesese 15 0 0 
Ethnological Queries.,... ... ..... 5 0 0 
Dredging near Belfast ............ 4 0 0 

£480 16 4 
oe 


F 1856. 
Maintaining the Establishment at 
Kew Observatory :-— 
1854......£ 75 0 0 
1855......£500 0 a ce ee 


So Saas 
Strickland’s Ornithological Syno- 

NY-MS 2.0000 eT oscertsenesese + 100 0 0 
Dredging and Dredging Forms... 913 9 
Chemical Action of Light ......... 20 0 0 
Strength of Iron Plates .......+.... 10 0 0 
Registration of Periodical Pheno- 

MENA seveeseeecs sebesvesccsennes iva 10 20)e8 
Propagation of Salmon ....46....... 10 0 0 

£734 13 9 
1857. 


Maintaining the Establishment at 


Kew Observatory eesesssesereese 300 0 0 
Earthquake Wave Experiments... 40 0 0° 
Dredging near Belfast ............ 10 0 0 
Dredging on the West Coast of 

Scotland.........06 Shipae Sie cides c's LO) Ge 6 
Investigations into the Mollusca 

Of California ....r..ccccssrecsseese 10 0 0 
Experiments on Flax we... 5 0 0 
Natural History of Madagascar... 20 0 0 
Researches on British Annelida 25 0 0 
Report on Natural Products im- 

ported into Liverpool ......... 10 0 0 
Artificial Propagation of Salmon 10 0 O 
Temperature of Mines ........... gee Teed 
Thermometers for Subterranean 

Observations seecsecsrssssesenee 5 7 4 
Life-Boats COCR COs eet eeeeroseneseceees 5 0 0 

£507 15 4 
1858. 
Maintaining the Establishment at 

Kew Observatory ........s.s000. 500 0 0 
Earthquake Wave Experiments... 25 0 0 
Dredging on the West Coast of 

scotland!” isessssescesssvesesce oe LO 0 fi 
Dredging near Dublin ............ 5 0 0 
Watality of Sccae eerits.shecccscsaz cg iO 
Dredging near Belfast ............ 18 13 2 
Report on the British Annelida... 25 0 0 
Experiments on the production 

of Heat by Motion in Fluids... 20 0 0 
Report on the Natural Products 

imported into Scotland......... 10 0 0 

£618 18 2 
1859. 
Maintaining the Establishment at 

Kew Observatory .........4. sw» 500 0 O 
Dredging near Dublin ............ 15 0 0 
Osteology of Birds.,,.,.....0.00... 50 0 0 
Irish Tunicata ........ Reeacere tonsa) eit a Oe 
Manure Experiments ........... 20 0 0 
British Medusidee ......... susboasee 5 0 0 
Dredging Committee.............++ an |) 
Steam-vessels’ Performance...... 5 0 0 
Marine Fauna of South and West 

oblreland |’. .cecgss.ccc-s seve 10 0 0 
Photographic Chemistry eee 10 0 
Lanarkshire Fossils ...... 4, ous, One 
Balloon Ascents,,.........-s00000--. 39 11 0 

“fee 


1860. 

Maintaining the Establishment 
of Kew Observatory............. 500 0 0 
Dredging near Belfast.......... pee LG) 1G) oO 
Dredging in Dublin Bay........... 15 0 0 


Ixxx 


REPORT—187]1. 


‘ 25 oh ak 
Inquiry into the Performance of 

Steam=-vessels....cssserssssesses o- 124 0 0 
Explorations in the Yellow Sand- 

stone of Dura Den..........00+. 20 0 0 
Chemico-mechanical Analysis of 

Rocks and Mineyrals...... Weaces 25 0 0 
Researches on the Growth of 

LEGIT + paperceccnc ocean addecwoe> OLOL 0140 
Researches on the Solubility of 

Dal iSdeviwerscsecerce ca CORREO OO 30 0 0 
Researches on the Constituents 

of Manures... sococonsves 25 0 0 
Balance of Captive Balloon Ac- 

COUNUS, sicccsetescssevsocsecessceses, 0 Ula (6 

£1241 7 0 
1861. 
Maintaining the Establishment 

of Kew Observatory ...csccseeee 500 0 0 
Earthquake Experiments,,....... 25 0 0 
Dredging North and East Coasts 

OLSCOUANG ecscikteessteadinees.ch? (20 2n0INIO 
Dredging Committee :— 

1860 ...... £50 0 0 72 0 0 

ESB1 ccive022 addin tA 
Excavations at Dura Den..... 20 0 0 
Solubility of Salts .........ceceeeee. 20 0 0 
Steam-vessel Performance ...... 150 0 0 
Fossils of Lesmahago  ......e00cee 15550 40 
Explorations at Uriconium ..... = 0) 10, 40, 
Chemical Alloys ....cccsesecevees 20) 20:20 
Classified Index to the Transac- 

TIQUS uacasecaressisesseessvsncessae 100 0 0 
Dredging in the Mersey and Dee 5 0 0 
PDIP MCILClE ress cn gsceasinsctessinceaages 30 0 O 
Photoheliographic Observations 50 0 0 
IEMISOUOLACE osccsstectseesenvaseoss we 20 a a0) 
Gauging of Water.......... devvnnne 10 0 0 
Za PING NSCENtStsncteassapeneretsewe One JL 
Constituents of Manures ......... 2p 0. 0 

SLi SS st0 
1862. 
Maintaining the Establishment 

of Kew Observatory ............ 500 0 0 
RatentWuaWSy. caress esesestes eee 2t 6 0 
Mollusca of N.-W. America...... 10 0 0 
Natural History by Mercantile 

MATING areeasacrecaresssteens saaaty Dw or O 
Tidal Observations ........ cosseme, 000. (0 
Photoheliometer at Kew ........ By AOD) 30 
Photographic Pictures of the Sun 150 0 0 
Rocks of Donegal ........0..sce008 25 0 0 
Dredging Durham and North- 

umberland Songeicisescegon cores, 20 0 O 
Connexion of Storms......... hae 20 0 0 
Dredging North-east Coast ‘of 

Scotland......... sacrecrecsscccssee 6 § _6 
Ravages of Teredo .....css0cessse 311 6 
Standards of Electrical Resistance 50 0 0 
Railway Accidents ............00 10 0 0 
Balloon Committee ............... 200 0 0 
Dredging Dublin Bay ............ 10570 0 
Dredging the Mersey ............ o 0 0 
Prison Diet | ceseesdciceeseete nsec 20 0 0 
Gauging of Water........sseeee0e 1210 0 


25 oR eh 
Steamships’ Performance......... 150 0 0 
Thermo-Electric Currents ...... DOO 
£1293 16 6 
1863. 
Maintaining the Establishment 

of Kew Observatory............ 600 0 0 
Balloon Committee deficiency... 70 0 0 
Balloon Ascents (other expenses) 25 0 0 
Fi NYOZO8 «ic etassswaceanideeceaeherees 25 0 0 
Coal TOSsils casissnctsndteeeeee woe cen 20 ORO 
ELEMRIN 2 Siscipwsisncarsessenceie Aono oc 20 0 0 
Granites of Donegal............+5 Peete i (8) 
Prison Dietsaerea- ees cesescessussne V2 OREO 
Vertical Atmospheric Movements 13 0 0 
Dredging Shetland .,............. 50 0 0 
Dredging North-east coast of 

Scotland (5)... csacosscacaseeeene 25 0 0 
Dredging Northumberland and 

Duran. ci es esecs sneer eee 17 310 
Dredging Committee superin- 

TENGeNce ..ces..-cee. svsetcansess LOL eo 
Steamship Performance ......... 109 0 0 
Balloon Committee ............... 200 0 0 
Carbon under pressure............ LOO 0) 
Volcanic Temperature ............ 100 0 0 
Bromide of Ammonium ......... 8 0:40 
Electrical Standards............... 100 0 0 

Construction and distribu- 

HON... tinacwesecah ate eaBeee 40 0 90 
Luminous Meteors ............... 17 0 0 
Kew Additional Buildings fer 

Photoheliograph ......s0...00 100 0 0 
Thermo-Llectricity ....... ausahese 15: -<Om0 
Analysis of Rocks  ......s.ss.. 4, 2e8i G0 
Hydroida .,..... siasunerdeyeenes ie hO On 

£1608 3 10 
1864. 
Maintaining the Establishment 

of Kew Observatory.......s000: 600 0 0 
CoaliFassils, dsicockicessas comes 20 0 0 
Vertical Atmospheric Move- 

TMentS, ccna. cebinessvutees seuer ale OMMOMEO 
Dredging Shetland ............. - 75 0 0 
Dredging Northumberland ...... 25 0 0 
Balloon Committee ......cccsesees 200 0 0 
Carbon under pressure............ 10 0 0 
Standards of Electric Resistance 100 0 0 
Analysis of Rocks....0.....60+ oones 10 0: 0 
HUA VOW asiearesnsededonsesacesesees - 10 70/80 
AsikhamtaiGift ies svanessen' ees ese D0 O40 
Nitnitesof Amylec:2...ctesancauees 10 0 0 
Nomenclature Committee ....., 5 0 0 
Rain-Gaueesisisacccsssesesessness aos 19) 15s 
Cast- Iron. Investigation pe estate 20 0 0 
Tidal Observationsinthe Humber 50 0 6 
Spectralehaysttacrenscacs: tsa 45 0 0 
Luminous Meteors ............4. 20-0 0 

£1289 15 8 
1865. 7 are 
Maintaining the Establishment 

of Kew Observatory............ 600 0 0 
Balloon Committee ..,............ 100 0 0 
Flydroida 4s.sessecess toutegereseenc ee ion nO mmG 


SS 


GENERAL STATEMENT, 


1867. 
Maintaining the Establishment 


£ s.d. 
PRAMI=GAU ECS ..... o.s0csecnvoesrare 30 0 0 
Tidal Observationsinthe Humber 6 8 0 
Hexylic Compounds...........++. - 20 0 0 
Amyl Compounds...... sigsoene vas - 20 0 0 
MEOEHIOTA  .sscessexessooneses gavek (20. OF RO 
American Mollusca ...... addpapees 3 9 0 
MAnIC ACIGS ......00sensevengoaee 20 0 0 
Lingula Flags Excavation ...... 10 0 0 
MEIEY DECKS «20.0200. 0000 caaatoned 50 0 0 
Electrical Standards............... 100 0 0 
Malta Caves Researches ......... 30 0 0 
Oyster Breeding ............+0++y¢ 25 0 0 
Gibraltar Caves Researches 150 0 0 
Kent's Hole Excavations...... -- 100 0 0 
Moon’s Surface Observations... 35 0 0 
Marine Fauna ...........scesesese 2520 0 
Dredging Aberdeenshire ......... 25 0 0 
Dredging Channel Islands ...... 50 0 0 
Zoological Nomenclature......... 5 0 0 
Resistance of Floating Bodies in 

DG atiteocnss 3.057 ccs co vccnse 100 0 0 
Bath Waters Analysis ...........+ 810 0 
Luminous Meteors ....... Kester 40 0 0 

£1591 7 10 
1866. 
Maintaining the Establishment 

of Kew Observatory............ 600 0 0 
Lunar Committee............008.8 64 13 4 
Balloon Committee ......... “Scope hie {0 wt) 
Metrical Committee...... deseneesne 90 10)'0 
British Rainfall......... mca conc 50.0 0 
Kilkenny Coal Fields ............ 16 0 0 
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-Bed ...... 15 0 0 
Luminous Meteors ............... 50 0 0 
Lingula Flags Excavation ...... 20 0 0 
Chemical Constitution of Cast 

Mee acces iacesceccceasanese 50 0 0 
Amyl Compounds.................. 25 0 0 
Electrical Standards............... 100 0 0 
Malta Caves Exploration......... 30 0 0 
Kent’s Hole Exploration ......... 200 0 0 
Marine Fauna, &c., Devon and 

DPR UE se aisiss cc seascticedse sens 2a. OF 'O 
Dredging Aberdeenshire Coast... 25 0 0 
Dredging Hebrides Coast........ - 50 0 0 
Dredging the Mersey ............ 5 0 0 
Resistance of Floating Bodies in 

ETE aetse ce ccanscsccacsecsesenc 50 0 0 
Polycyanides of Organic Radi- 

2 coancnecd eae noeeppeneeeeee cae, 20 ONO 
MIP MOTHS... 0000 ccsseeceecnsceoe 10 0 0 
Trish Annelida ......... as peceanaer Los 1OG 

_ Catalogue of Crania............... 50 0 0 
Didine Birds of Mascarene Islands 50 0 0 
Typical Crania Researches ...... 30 0 0 
Palestine Exploration Fund...... 100 0 0 

£1750 13 4 


of Kew Observatory............ 600 0 0 


Meteorological Instruments, Pa- 
lestine 


50 0 0 


Lunar Committec..........s0e0000. 120 0 0 


Mi 


& Saeds 
Metrical Committce............... 0540050 
Kent’s Hole Explorations ...... 100 0 0 
Palestine Explorations...... vonre 00 0 O 
Insect Fauna, Palestine ...:..... 30 0 0 
British Rainfall............... boceeerOOl.Orn 0 
Kilkenny Coal Fields ...... ete (GY) 
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-Bed ...... 25 0 0 
Luminous Meteors .............5+ 50 0 0 
Bournemouth, &c. Leaf-Beds... 30 0 0 
Dredging Shetland ............+5 75 0 0 
Steamship Reports Condensation 100 0 O 
Electrical Standards.......... 2.2 LOO RO, <0 
Ethyle and Methyle series ...... 25 0 0 
Fossil Crustacea ........- Daseleiiie 2h 0 
Sound under Water ............+. nt 24k, eet 
North Greenland Fauna ......... 7 0 0 
Do. Plant Beds... 100 0 0 
Tron and Steel Manufacture 25, 0 0 
Patent Laws ...... Madi tstesveedsnese) GO 206 )0 
£1739 4 O 
1868. 

Maintaining the Establishment 

of Kew Observatory............ 600 0 0 
Lunar Committee....... Agere nc pecs LAN MI aK) 
Metrical Committee....... cocbioue 50 0 0 
Zoological Record ...... Schade 100 0 0 
Kent’s Hole Explorations ...... 150 0 0 
Steamship Performances......... 100 0 0 
British Rainfall ....... bnbconaeede 50 0 0 
Luminous Meteors ............ toe OO OF 0 
Organic Acids ........... Pocpodacee GO OF 0 
Fossil Crustacea ~secvccs..scce.. 20) 0 0 
Methyl series e....0.000s. ae es OEtO 
Mercury and Bile................+ 25 0 0 
Organic remains in Limestone 

ROCKS, . repcesees dec tts ons oa 25 °0' 0 
Scottish Earthquakes ..........+ <20) 0" "0 
Fauna, Devon and Cornwall ... 30 0 0 
British Fossi] Corals..............- 50 0 0 
Bagshot Leaf-beds ............ eto OnnO 
Greenland Explorations ......... 100 0 O 
RossiliHlonay.cuosdesenceuerceseecs 25 0 O 
Tidal Observations ............... 100 0 0 

_ Underground Temperature...... o0e OF ® 
Spectroscopic investigations of 

Animal Substances ...........- 0 0 
Secondary Reptiles, &e. ......... 30 0 0 
British Marine Invertebrate 

HEE) ccpoercaracesnece sedan weet 100 0 0 

£1940 0 0 
1869. 
Maintaining the Establishment 

of Kew Observatory............ 600 0 0 
Lunar Committee...... Seeciconsece 50 0 O 
Metrical Committee............... 25 0 0 
Zoological Record...............405 100 0 0 
Committee on Gases in Deep- 

We Water’ -...s0sassserseeseree 25 0 0 
ButishRaintall:<:, é.::.0easnanteare 50 0 0 
Thermal Conductivity of Iron, 

CLC rege saaploos ste eet cao sec nee 30 0 0 
Kent’s Hole Explorations ...... 150 0 0 
Steamship Performances......... 30 0 0 


Ixxxii 
; & 8. da. 
Chemical Constitution of Cast 

Tron Wit civcuvas Sieve. 80 0 0 
Iron and Steel Manufacture ... 100 0 O 
Methyl Series ......... Fesleeasaal 30 0 0 
Organic remains in Limestone 

Rocks; ..1scecoes dente decavtaiveT 10 0 0 
Earthquakes in Scotland......... 10 0 0 
British Fossil Corals ............. 50 0 0 
Bagshot Leaf-Beds ........ ecdeee 30 0 0 
Fossil Flora -sirseees veertusteee ewe 25 0 0 
Tidal Observations ........6...06- 100 0 0 
Underground Temperature ...... 30 0 0 
Spectroscopic Investigations of 

Animal Substances ......... se D200 
Organic Acids ........ wtadtectedesd 12 0 0 
Kiltorcan Fossils ...........00se008 20 0 0 
Chemical Constitution and Phy- 

siological Action Relations ... 15 0 0 
Mountain Limestone Fossils...... 25 0 0 
Utilization of Sewage ............ 10 0 0 
Products of Digestion ............ 10 0 0 

£1622 0 0 
1870. 

Maintaining the Establishment of 

Kew Observatory ...... sdesaseyo 600 
Metrical Committee........ stay (20 
Zoological Record ..sse+cseeeeeee 100 
Committee on Marine Fauna ... 20 
Ears in Fishes ........-0s+«ss wevatz 20, 
Chemical nature of Cast Iron... 80 
Luminous Meteors .......seceeees 


Heat in the Blood ... 

British Rainfall....scssecssecstevecs 
Thermal Conductivity of Iron &e. 20 
British Fossil Corals...........0. 50 


Kent’s Hole Explorations ...... 
Scottish Earthquakes ......s00048 4 


oqooocococoocoo 


eoooococecooco 


REPORT—1871. 


£1572 


£ 
Bagshot Leaf-Beds ...ss..sseee088 15 
Fossil Flora ...... PP htt it Po 25 
Tidal Observations ....0+...+e6.5. 100 
Underground Temperature...... 50 
Kiltorcan Quarries Fossils ...... 20 
Mountain Limestone Fossils ... 25 
Utilization of Sewage «........+6. 50 
Organic Chemical Compounds. i930 
Onny River Sediment ..........++ 3 
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat 50 
1871. 
Maintaining the Establishment of 
Kew Observatory .........s..00. 600 
Monthly Reports of Progress in 
Chemistry: «....sessdera severe OO 
Metrical Committee............00. 25 
Zoological Record...............00. 100 
Thermal LTEquivalents of the 
Oxides of Chlorine ............ 10 
Tidal Observations ......... vséaes- LOO 
Koss WlOta gs...) -ccvcssereees Booey 2a) 
Luminous Meteors ............ ee 30 
British Fossil Corals........... nee POD 
Heat in the Blood = ....6....6....: 7 
British Rainfall...............0.c005 50 
Kent’s Hole Explorations ...... 150 
Fossil Crustacea ...csecsceceeseee 25 
Methyl Compounds ...,........... 25 
Lurlar Objects: .csscsssissscecceacess 20 
Fossil Corals. Sections, for Pho- 
tographing.......cccccccessesevens 20 
Bagshot Leaf-Beds ............54- 20 
Moab Explorations ......... Bogor 100 
Gaussian Constants ..........00006 40 
£1472 


wnj;yooce coooonsocococoe ooo o 


e;jooccoocoeoocoeos 


cloococooscoccoo® 


alocoo ooococonmccoeo eec o 


a 


GENERAL MEETINGS. Ixxxiii 


General Meetings. 


On Wednesday Evening, August 2, at 8 p.m., in the Music Hall, Professor 
T. H. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., President, resigned the office of Pre- 
sident to Professor Sir William Thomson, LL.D., F.R.S., who took the Chair, 
and delivered an Address, for which see page lnxxiv: 

On Thursday Evening, August 3, at 8.30 p.m., in the Music Hall, Bo A 
Abel, Esq. F.R.S., Director of the Chemical Department, Royal Arsenal, 
Woolwich, delivered a Discourse on “Some Recent Investigations and Ap- 
plications of Explosive Agents.” 

On Friday Evening, August 4, at 8 p.m., a Soirée took place in the Uni- 
versity Library. 

On Monday Evening, August 7, at 8.30 p.m., in the Music Hall, E. B. 
Tylor, Esq., delivered a Discourse on “The Relation of Primitive to Modern 
Civilization.” 

- On Tuesday Evening, August 8, at 8 p.a., a Soirée took place in the Museum 
of Science and Art. 

On Wednesday, August 9, at 2.30 p.m., the concluding General Meeting 
took place, when the Proceedings of the General Committee, and the Grants 
of Money for Scientific purposes, were explained to the Members. 

The Meeting was then adjourned to Brighton*. 


* The Meeting is appointed to take place on Wednesday, August 14, 1872. 


ADDRESS 


OF 


Sirk WILLIAM THOMSON, Kyr., LL.D., F.R.S., 


PRESIDENT. 


For the third time of its forty years’ history the British Association is 
assembled in the metropolis of Scotland. The origin of the Association is 
connected with Edinburgh in undying memory through the honoured names 
of Robison, Brewster, Forbes, and J ohnston. 

In this place, from this Chair, twenty- one years ago, Sir David Brewster 
said :—‘ On the return of the British Association to the metropolis of Scot- 
* land I am naturally reminded of the small band of pilgrims who carried 
* the seeds of this Institution into the more genial soil of our sister land.” 

; “Sir John Robison, Professor J ohnston, and Professor J. D. 
<< « Forbes were the earliest friends and promoters of the British Association. 
“ They went to York to assist in its establishment, and they found there the 
“very men who were qualified to foster and organize it. The Rev. Mr. 
«‘ Vernon Harcourt, whose name cannot be mentioned here without grati- 
“ tude, had provided laws for its government, and, along with Mr. Phillips, 
“the oldest and most valuable of our office-bearers, had made all those 
‘*‘ arrangements by which its success was ensured. Headed by Sir Roderick 
** Murchison, one of the very earliest and most active advocates of the 
« Association, there assembled at York about 200 of the friends of science.” 

The statement I have read contains no allusion to the real origin of the 
British Association, This blank in my predecessor’s historical sketch J am 
able to fill in from words written by himself twenty years earlier. Through 
the kindness of Professor Phillips I am enabled to read to you part of a 
letter to him at York, written by David Brewster from Allerly by Melrose, 
on the 23rd of February, 1831 :— 

“« Dear Sir,—I have taken the liberty of writing you on a subject of con- 
* siderable importance, It is proposed to establish a British Association of 
“men of science similar to that which has existed for eight years in Ger- 
“many, and which is now patronized by the most powerful Sovereigns of that 
“part of Europe. The arrangements for the first meeting are in progress; and 
** it is contemplated that it shall be held in York, as the most central city for 
“ the three kingdoms. My object in writing you at present is to beg that you 
« would ascertain if York will furnish the accommodation necessary for so 


ti 


ADDRESS, Ixxxy 


* Jarge a meeting (which may perhaps consist of above 100 individuals), if 
“the Philosophical Society would enter zealously into the plan, and if the 
** Mayor and influential persons in the town and in the vicinity would be 
“likely to promote its objects. The principal object of the Society would 
“ be to make the cultivators of science acquainted with each other, to stimu- 
“late one another to new exertions, and to bring the objects of science more 
“before the public eye, and to take measures for advancing its interests 
« and accelerating its progress.” 

Of the little band of four pilgrims from Scotland to York, not one now 
suryives. Of the seven first Associates one more has gone oyer to the 
majority since the Association last met. Vernon Harcourt is no longer with 
us; but his influence remains, a beneficent and, surely therefore, never dying 
influence. He was a Geologist and Chemist, a large-hearted lover of science, 
and an unwearied worker for its advancement. Brewster was the founder of 
the British Association ; Vernon Harcourt was its law-giver. His code re- 
mains to this day the law of the Association. 

On the eleventh of May last Sir John Herschel died, in the eightieth year of 
his age. The name of Herschel is a household word throughout Great Britain 
and Ireland—yes, and through the whole civilized world. We of this genera- 
tion have, from our lessons of childhood upwards, learned to see in Herschel, 
father and son, a presidium et dulce decus of the precious treasure of British 
scientific fame. When geography, astronomy, and the use of the globes were 
still taught, even to poor children, as a pleasant and profitable sequel to “read- 
ing, writing, and arithmetic,” which of us did not reyere the great telescope 
of Sir William Herschel (one of the Hundred Wonders of the World), and 
learn with delight, directly or indirectly from the charming pages of Sir John 
Herschel’s book, about the sun and his spots, and the fiery tornadoes sweeping 
over his surface, and about the planets, and Jupiter’s belts, and Saturn’s rings, 
and the fixed stars with their proper motions, and the double stars, and 
coloured stars, and the nebule discovered by the great telescope? Of Sir 
John Herschel it may indeed be said, nil tetiyit quod non ornavit. 

A monument to Faraday and a monument to Herschel, Britain must have. 
The nation will not be satisfied with any thing, however splendid, done by 
private subscription. A national monument, the more humble in point of 
expense the better, is required to satisfy that honourable pride with which 
a high-spirited nation cherishes the memory of its great men. But for 
the glory of Faraday or the glory of Herschel, is a monument wanted ? 
No! 

What needs my Shakespere for his honoured bones 
The labour of an age in piled stones ? 

Or that his hallowed reliques should be hid 
Under a star-ypointing pyramid ? 

Dear son of memory, great heir of fame, 

What need’st thou such weak witness of thy name! 
Thou, in our wonder and astonishment, 

Hast built thyself a live-long monument. 


And, so sepulehred, in such pomp dost lie, 
That kings for such a tomb would wish to die. 


With regard to Sir John Herschel’s scientific work, on the present occa- 
sion I can but refer briefly to a few points which seem to me salient in his 
physical and mathematical writings. First, I remark that he has put 
forward, most instructively and profitably to his readers, the general theory 
of periodicity in dynamics, and has urged the practical utilizing of it, espe- 

1871, g 


Ixxxvi REPORT— 1871. 


cially in meteorology, by the harmonic analysis. It is purely by an appli- 
cation of this principle and practical method, that the British Association’s 
Committee on Tides has for the last four years been, and still is, working 
towards the solution of the grand problem proposed forty-cight years ago by 
Thomas Young in the following words :— 

* There is, indeed, little doubt that if we were provided with a sufficiently 
“ correctseries of minutely accurate observations on the Tides, made not merely 
“¢ with a view to the times of low and high water only, but rather to the heights 
“ at the intermediate times, we might form, by degrees, with the assistance 
* of the theory contained in this article * only, almost as perfect a set of tables 
“ for the motions of the ocean as we have already obtained for those of the 
“« celestial bodies, which are the more immediate objects of the attention of 
‘* the practical astronomer.” E 

Sir John Herschel’s discovery of a right or left-handed asymmetry in the 
outward form of crystals, such as quartz, which in their inner molecular 
structure possess the helicoidal rotational property in reference to the plane 
of polarization of light, is one of the notable points of meeting between 
Natural History and Natural Philosophy. His observations on ‘ epipolie di- 
spersion’. gave Stokes the clue by which he was led to his great discovery of 
the change of periodic time experienced by light in falling on certain substances 
and being dispersively reflected from them. In respect to pure mathematies 
Sir John Herschel did more, I believe, than any other man to introduce into 
Britain the powerful methods and the valuable notation of modern analysis, 
A remarkable mode of symbolism had freshly appeared, I believe, in the 
works of Laplace, and possibly of other French mathematicians ; it certainly 
appeared in Fourier, but whether before or after Herschel’s work I cannot 
say. With the French writers, however, this was rather a short method of 
writing formule than the analytical engine which it became in the hands 
of Herschel and British followers, especially Sylvester and Gregory (com- 
petitors with Green in the Cambridge Mathematical Tripos struggle of 1837) 
and Boole and Cayley. This method was greatly advanced by Gregory, who 
first gave to its working-power a secure and philosophical foundation, and so 
prepared the way for the marvellous extension it has received from Boole, 
Sylvester, and Cayley, according to which symbols of operation become the 
subjects not merely of algebraic combination, but of differentiations and in- 
tegrations, as if they were symbols expressing values of varying quantities. 
An even more marvellous deyelopment of this same idea of the separation of 
symbols (according to which Gregory separated the algebraic signs + and — 
from other symbols or quantities to be characterized by them, and dealt with 
them according to the laws of algebraic combination) received from Hamilton 
a most astonishing generalization, by the invention actually of new laws of 
combination, and led him to his famous ‘ Quaternions,” of which he gave 
his earliest exposition to the Mathematical and Physical Section of this As- 
sociation, at its meeting in Cambridge in the year 1845. Tait has taken up 
the subject of quaternions ably and zealously, and has carried it into phy- 
sical science witha faith, shared by some of the most thoughtful mathematical 
naturalists of the day, that it is destined to become an engine of perhaps 
hitherto unimagined power for investigating and expressing results in 
Natural Philosophy. Of Herschel’s gigantic work in astronomical observa- 
tion I need say nothing. Doubtless a careful account of it will be given 
in the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society of London’ for the next anniyer- 
sary meeting, 

* Young's; written in 1825 for the Supplement to the ‘ Encyclopadia Britannica,’ 


ADDRESS. Ixxxvil 


In the past year another representative man of British science is gone. 
Mathematics has had no steadier supporter for hglf a century than De 
Morgan. His great book on the differential caleulus was, for the mathema- 
tical student of thirty years ago, a highly prized repository of all the best 
things that could be brought together under that title. I do not believe 
it is less valuable now; and if it is less valued, may this not be because it 
is too good for examination purposes, and because the modern student, 
labouring to win marks in the struggle for existence, must not suffer himself 
to be beguiled from the stern path of duty by any attractive beauties in the 
subject of his study ? 

One of the most valuable services to science which the British Association 
has performed has been the establishment, and the twenty-nine years’ 
maintenance, of its Observatory. The Royal Meteorological Observatory of 
Kew was built originally for a Sovereign of England who was a zealous 
amateur of astronomy. George the Third used continually to repair to it 
when any celestial phenomenon of peculiar interest was to be seen; and a 
manuscript book still exists filled with observations written into it by his 
own hand. After the building had been many years unused, it was 
granted, in the year 1842, by the Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Woods 
and Forests, on application of Sir Edward Sabine, for the purpose of con- 
tinuing observations (from which he had already deduced important results) 
regarding the vibration of a pendulum in various gases, and for the purpose 
of promoting pendulum observations in all parts of the world. The 
Government granted only the building—no funds for carrying on the work 
to be done in it. The Royal Society was unable to undertake the main- 
tenance of such an observatory; but, happily for science, the zeal of in- 
dividual Fellows of the Royal Society and Members of the British Asso- 
ciation gave the initial impulse, supplied the necessary initial funds, and 
recommended their new institution successfully to the fostering care of the 
British Association. The work of the Kew Observatory has, from the 
commencement, been conducted under the direction of a Committee of the 
British Association ; and annual grants from the funds ef the Association have 
been made towards defraying its expenses up to the present time. To the 
initial object of pendulum research was added continuous observation of the 
phenomena of meteorology and terrestrial magnetism, and the construction 
and verification of thermometers, barometers, and magnetometers designed 
for accurate measurement. The magnificent services which it has rendered 
to science are so well known that any statement of them which I could at- 
tempt on the present occasion would be superfluous. Their value is due ina 
great measure to the indefatigable zeal and the great ability of two Scotchmen, 
both from Edinburgh, who successively held the office of Superintendent of 
the Observatory of the British Association—Mr. Welsh for nine years, until 
his death in 1859, and Dr. Balfour Stewart from then until the present 
time. Fruits of their labours are to be found all through our volumes of 
Reports for these twenty-one years. 

The institution now enters on a new stage of its existence. The noble 
liberality of a private benefactor, one who has laboured for its welfare with 
self-sacrificing devotion unintermittingly from within a few years of its crea- 
tion, has given it a permanent independence, under the general management 
of a Committee of the Royal Society. Mr. Gassiot’s gift of £10,000 secures 
the continuance at Kew of the regular operation of the self-recording instru- 
ments for observing the phenomena of terrestrial magnetism and meteorology, 

‘without the necessity for further support from the British Association. 
g 2 


Ixxxvill REPORT—1871. 


The success of the Kew Magnetic and Meteorological Observatory affords 
an example of the great gain to be earned for science by the founda- 
tion of physical observatories and laboratories for experimental research, 
to be conducted by qualified persons, whose duties should be, not teach- 
ing, but experimenting. Whether we look to the honour of England, as a 
nation which ought always to be the foremost in promoting physical science, 
or to those yast economical advantages which must accrue from such esta- 
blishments, we cannot but feel that experimental research ought to be made 
with us an object of national concern, and not left, as hitherto, exclusively 
to the private enterprise of self-sacrificing amateurs, and the necessarily 
inconsecutive action of our present Governmental Departments and of casual 
Committees. The Council of the Royal Society of Edinburgh has moved for 
this object in a memorial presented by them to the Royal Commission on 
Scientific Education and the Advancement of Science. The Continent of 
Europe is referred to for an example to be followed with advantage in this 
country, in the following words :— 

“On the Continent there exist certain institutions, fitted with instruments, 
*‘ apparatus, chemicals, and other appliances, which are meant to be, and 
** which are made, available to men of science, to enable them, at a moderate 
“* cost, to pursue original researches.” 

This statement is fully corroborated by information, on good authority, 
which T have received from Germany, to the effect that in Prussia *‘ every 
* university, every polytechnical academy, every industrial school (Realschule 
and Gewerbeschule), most of the grammar-schools, in a word, nearly all the 
schools superior in rank to the elementary schools of the common people, are 
‘* supplied with chemical laboratories and a collection of philosophical in- 
** struments and apparatus, access to which is most liberally granted by the 
‘* directors of those schools, or the teachers of the respective disciplines, to 
“‘ any person qualified, for scientific experiments. In consequence, though 
“there exist no particular institutions like those mentioned in the me- 
“ morial, there will scarcely be found a town exceeding in number 5000 
“ inhabitants but offers the possibility of scientific explorations at no other 
“ cost than reimbursement of the expense for the materials wasted in the 
“¢ experiments.” 

Further, with reference to a remark in the Memorial to the effect that, in 
respect to the promotion of science, the British Government confines its 
action almost exclusively to scientific instruction, and fatally neglects the 
advancement of science, my informant tells me that, in Germany, “ professors, 
‘‘preceptors, and teachers of secondary schools are engaged on account of 
«their skilfulness in teaching ; but professors of universities are never engaged 
“unless they have already proved, by their own investigations, that they are 
“to be relied upon for the advancement of science. Therefore every shilling 
‘spent for instruction in universities is at the same time profitable to the ad- 
“vancement of science.” 

The physical laboratories which have grown up in the Universities of 
Glasgow and Edinburgh, and in Owens College, Manchester, show the want 
felt of Colleges of Research; but they go but infinitesimally towards sup- 
plying it, being absolutely destitute of means, material or personal, for ad- 
vancing science except at the expense of volunteers, or securing that volunteers 
shall be found to continue even such little work as at present is carried on. 

The whole of Andrews’ splendid work in Queen’s College, Belfast, has 
been done under great difficulties and disadvantages, and at great personal 
sacrifices ; and up to the present time there is not a student’s physical 


ee 
“ec 


ADDRESS. Ixxxix 


laboratory in any one of the Queen’s Colleges in Iveland—a want which 
surely ought not to remain unsupplied. Lach of these institutions (the 
four Scotch Universities, the three Queen’s Colleges, and Owens College, 
Manchester) requires two professors of Natural Philosophy—one who shall 
be responsible for the teaching, the other for the advancement of science by 
experiment. The University of Oxford has already established a physical 
laboratory. The munificence of its Chancellor is about to supply the Univer- 
sity of Cambridge with a splendid laboratory, to be constructed under the 
eye of Professor Clerk Maxwell. On this subject I shall say no more at 
present, but simply read a sentence which was spoken by Lord Milton in the 
first Presidential Address to the British Association, when it met at York in 
the year 1831 :—“ In addition to other more direct benefits, these meetings 
« fof the British Association], I hope, will be the means of impressing on the 
*¢ Government the conviction, that the love of scientific pursuits, and the 
_ © means of pursuing them, are not confined to the metropolis ; and I hope 
“ that when the Government is fully impressed with the knowledge of the 
« oreat desire entertained to promote science in every part of the empire, they 
“« will see the necessity of affording it due encouragement, and of giving every 
‘* proper stimulus to its advancement.” 

Besides abstracts of papers read, and discussions held, before the Sec- 
tions, the annual Reports of the British Association contain a large mass 
of valuable matter of another class. It was an early practice of the Associa- 
tion, a practice that might well be further developed, to call occasionally for 
a special report on some particular branch of science from a man eminently 
qualified for the task. The reports received in compliance with these invita- 
tions have all done good service in their time, and they remain permanently 
useful as landmarks in the history of science. Some of them have led to 
vast practical results; others of a more abstract character are valuable to 
this day as powerful and instructive condensations and expositions of the 
branches of science to which they relate. I cannot better illustrate the two 
kinds of efficiency realized in this department of the Association’s work than 
by referring to Cayley’s Report on Abstract Dynamics * and Sabine’s Report 
on Terrestrial Magnetism f (1838). 

To the great value of the former, personal experience of benefit received 
enables me, and gratitude impels me, to testify. In a few pages full of 
precious matter, the generalized dynamical equations of Lagrange, the 
great principle evolved from Maupertuis’ “least action” by Hamilton, and 
the later developments and applications of the Hamiltonian principle by 
other authors are described by Cayley so suggestively that the reading of 
thousands of quarto pages of papers scattered through the Transactions of the 
various learned Societies of Europe is rendered superfluous for any one who 
desires only the essence of these investigations, with no more of detail than is 
necessary for a thorough and practical understanding of the subject. 

Sabine’s Report of 1838 concludes with the following sentence :—‘ Viewed 
“in itself and its various relations, the magnetism of the earth cannot 
be counted less than one of the most important branches of the physical 
«history of the planet we inhabit; and we may feel quite assured that the 
«“ completion of our knowledge of its distribution on the surface of the earth 


* Report on the Recent Progress of Theoretical Dynamics, by A. Cayley (Report of the 
British Association 1857, p. 1). 

+ Report on the Variations of the Magnetic Intensity observed at different points of the 
Earth’s Surface, by Major Sabine, F.R.S. (forming part of the 7th Report of the British 
Association). 


xc REPORT—1871. 


“‘ would be regarded by our contemporaries and by posterity as a fitting 
« enterprise of a maritime people, and a worthy achievement of a nation 
‘«< which has ever sought to rank foremost in every arduous and honourable 
“ undertaking.” An immediate result of this Report was that the enterprise 
which it proposed was recommended to the Government by a joint Committee 
of the British Association and the Royal Society with such success, that 
Capt. James Ross was sent in command of the ‘Erebus’ and ‘Terror’ to 
make a magnetic survey of the Antarctic regions, and to plant on his way 
three Magnetical and Meteorological Observatories, at St. Helena, the Cape, 
and Van Diemen’s Land. A vast mass of precious observations, made 
chiefly on board ship, were brought home from this expedition. To deduce 
the desired results from them, it was necessary to eliminate the disturbance 
produced by the ship’s magnetism; and Sabine asked his friend Archibald 
Smith to work out from Poisson’s mathematical theory, then the only avail- 
able guide, the formule required for the purpose. This voluntary task 
Smith executed skilfully and successfully. It was the beginning of a series 
of labours carried on with most remarkable practical tact, with thorough 
analytical skill, and with a rare extreme of disinterestedness, in the intervals 
of an arduous profession, for the purpose of perfecting and simplifying the 
correction of the mariner’s compass—a problem which had become one of 
vital importance for navigation, on account of the introduction of iron ships. 
Edition after edition of the ‘Admiralty Compass Manual’ has been pro- 
duced by the able superintendent of the Compass Department, Captain 
Evans, containing chapters of mathematical investigation and formule by 
Smith, on which depend wholly the practical analysis of compass-obser- 
vations, and rules for the safe use of the compass in navigation. I firmly 
believe that it is to the thoroughly scientific method thus adopted by the 
Admiralty, that no iron ship of Her Majesty’s Navy has ever been lost 
through errors of the compass. The ‘ British Admiralty Compass Manual’ 
is adopted as a guide by all the navies of the world. It has been translated 
into Russian, German, and Portuguese ; and it is at present being translated 
into French. The British Association may be gratified to know that the 
possibility of navigating ironclad war-ships with safety depends on applica- 
tion of scientific principles given to the world by three mathematicians, 
Poisson, Airy, and Archibald Smith. 

Returning to the science of terrestrial magnetism, we find in the Reports 
of early years of the British Association ample evidence of its diligent culti- 
vation. Many of the chief scientific men of the day from England, Scotland, 
and Ireland found a strong attraction to the Association in the facilities which 
it afforded to them for cooperating in their work on this subject. Lloyd,Phillips, 
Fox, Ross, and Sabine made magnetic observations all over Great Britain ; 
and their results, collected by Sabine, gave for the first time an accurate and 
complete survey of terrestrial magnetism over the area of this island. I am 
informed by Professor Phillips that, in the beginning of the Association, Her- 
schel, though a “ sincere well-wisher,” felt doubts as to the general utility and 
probable success of the plan and purpose proposed ; but his zeal for terrestrial 
magnetism brought him from being merely a sincere well-wisher to join actively 
and cordially in the work of the Association. ‘In 1838 he began to give effec- 
“tual aid in the great question of magnetical Observatories, and was indeed 
“foremost among the supporters of that which is really Sabine’s great work. 
** At intervals, until about 1858, Herschel continued to give effectual aid.” 
Sabine has carried on his great work without intermission to the present 
day; thirty years ago he gave to Gauss a large part of the data required 


ADDRESS. XC 


for working out the spherical harmonic analysis of terrestrial magnetism over 
the whole earth. A recalculation of the harmonic analysis for the altered 
state of terrestrial magnetism of the present time has been undertaken by 
Adams. He writes to me that he has “already begun some of the introduc- 
“tory work, so as to be ready when Sir Edward Sabine’s Tables of the values 
“ of the Magnetic Elements deduced from observation are completed, at once 
“to make use of them,” and that he intends to take into account terms of 
at least one order beyond those included by Gauss. The form in which 
the requisite data are to be presented to him is a magnetic Chart of the 
whole surface of the globe. Materials from scientific travellers of all 
nations, from our home magnetic observatories, from the magnetic obser- 
vatories of St. Helena, the Cape, Van Diemen’s Land, and Toronto, and 
from the scientific observatories of other countries have been brought to- 
gether by Sabine. Silently, day after day, night after night, for a quarter 
of a century he has toiled with one constant assistant always by his side 
to reduce these observations and prepare for the great work. At this moment, 
while we are here assembled, I believe that, in their quiet summer retirement 
in Wales, Sir Edward and Lady Sabine are at work on the magnetic Chart 
of the world. If two years of life and health are granted to them, science 
will be provided with a key which must powerfully conduce to the ultimate 
opening up of one of the most refractory enigmas of cosmical physics, the 
cause of terrestrial magnetism. 

To give any sketch, however slight, of scientific investigation performed 
during the past year would, even if I were competent for the task, far ex- 
ceed the limits within which I am confined on the present occasion. <A 
detailed account of work done and knowledge gained in science Britain 
ought to have every year. The Journal of the Chemical Society and the 
Zoological Record do excellent service by giving abstracts of all papers 
published in their departments. The admirable example afforded by the 
German “Fortschritte” and “Jahresbericht” is before us; but hitherto, so far 
as I know, no attempt has been made to follow it in Britain. It is true that 
several of the annual volumes of the Jahresbericht were translated; but a 
translation, published necessarily at a considerable interval of time after the 
original, cannot supply the want. An independent British publication is for 
many obyious reasons desirable. The two publications, in German and 
English, would, both by their differences and by their agreements, illustrate 
the progress of science more correctly and usefully than any single work 
could do, even if appearing simultaneously in the two languages. It seems 
to me that to promote the establishment of a British Year Book of Science is 
an object to which the powerful action of the British Association would be 
thoroughly appropriate. 

In referring to recent advances in several branches of science, | simply 
choose some of those which have struck me as most notable. 

Accurate and minute measurement seems to the non-scientific imagination 
a less lofty and dignified work than looking for something new. But nearly 
all the grandest discoveries of science have been but the rewards of accurate 
measurement and patient long-continued labour in the minute sifting of 
numerical results. The popular idea of Newton’s grandest discovery is that 
the theory of gravitation flashed into his mind, and so the discovery was 
made. It was by a long train of mathematical calculation, founded on 
results accumulated through prodigious toil of practical astronomers, that 
Newton first demonstrated the forces urging the planets towards the Sun, 
' determined the magnitudes of those forces, and discovered that a force fol- 


KCl REFORT—1871. 


lowing the same law of variation with distance urges the Moon towards the 
Earth. hen first, we may suppose, came to him the idea of the universality of 
gravitation ; but when he attempted to compare the magnitude of the force onthe 
Moon with the magnitude of the force of gravitation of a heavy body of equal 
mass at the earth’s surface, he did not find the agreement which the law he 
was discovering required. Not for years after would he publish his discovery 
asmade. Itis recounted that, being present at a meeting of the Royal Society, 
he heard a paper read, describing geodesic measurement by Picard which 
led to a serious correction of the previously accepted estimate of the Earth’s 
radius. This was what Newton required. He went home with the result, 
and commenced his calculations, but felt so much agitated that he handed 
over the arithmetical work to a friend: then (and not when, sitting in a 
garden, he saw an apple fall) did he ascertain that gravitation keeps the Moon 
in her orbit. 

Faraday’s discovery of specific inductive capacity, which inaugurated the 
new philosophy, tending to discard action at a distance, was the result of 
minute and accurate measurement of electric forces. 

Joule’s discovery of thermo-dynamic law through the regions of electro- 
chemistry, electro-magnetism, and elasticity of gases was based on a delicacy 
of thermometry which seemed simply impossible to some of the most dis- 
tinguished chemists of the day. 

Andrews’ discovery of the continuity between the gaseous and liquid states 
was worked out by many years of laborious and minute measurement of phe- 
nomena scarcely sensible to the naked eye. 

Great service has been done to science by the British Association in pro- 
moting accurate measurement in various subjects. The origin of exact 
science in terrestrial magnetism is traceable to Gauss’ invention of methods 
of finding the magnetic intensity in absolute measure. I have spoken of 
the great work done by the British Association in carrying out the ap- 
plication of this invention in all parts of the world. Gauss’ colleague in 
the German Magnetic Union, Weber, extended the practice of absolute 
measurement to electric currents, the resistance of an electric conductor, 
and the electromotive force of a galvanic element. He showed the rela- 
tion between electrostatic and electromagnetic units for absolute mea- 
surement, and made the beautiful discovery that resistance, in absolute elec- 
tromagnetic measure, and the reciprocal of resistance, or, as we call it, “ con- 
ducting power,” in electrostatic measure, are each of them a velocity. He 
made an elaborate and difficult series of experiments to measure the velocity 
which is equal to the conducting power, in electrostatic measure, and at the 
same time to the resistance in electromagnetic measure, in one and the same 
conductor. Maxwell, in making the first advance alone a road of which 
Faraday was the pioneer, discovered that this velocity is physically related to 
the velocity of light, and that, on a certain hypothesis regarding the elastic 
medium concerned, it may be exactly equal to the velocity of light. Weber’s 
measurement verifies approximately this equality, and stands in science 
monumentum wre perennius, celebrated as having suggested this most grand 
theory, and as having afforded the first quantitative test of the recondite 
properties of matter on which the relations between electricity and light 
depend. A remeasurement of Weber’s critical velocity on a new plan by Max- 
well himself, and the important correction of the velocity of light by Fou- 
cault’s laboratory experiments, verified by astronomical observation, seem to 
show a still closer agreement. The most accurate possible determination of 
Weber's critical velocity is just now a primary object of the Association’s 


ADDRESS. XClll 


Committee on Electric Measurement ; andit is at present premature to specu- 
late as to the closeness of the agreement between that velocity and the 
velocity of light. This leads me to remark how much science, even in its 
most lofty speculations, gains in return for benefits conferred by its applica- 
tion to promote the social and material welfare of man. Those who perilled 
and lost their money in the original Atlantic Telegraph were impelled and 
supported by a sense of the grandeur of their enterprise, and of the world- 
wide benefits which must flow from its success; they were at the same time 
not unmoved by the beauty of the scientific problem directly. presented to 
them; but they little thought that it was to be immediately, through their 
work, that the scientific world was to be instructed in a long-neglected and 
discredited fundamental electric discovery of Faraday’s, or that, again, when 
the assistance of the British Association was invoked to supply their elec- 
tricians with methods for absolute measurement (which they found necessary 
to secure the best economical returu for their expenditure, and to obviate 
and detect those faults in their electric material which had led to disaster), 
they were laying the foundation for accurate electric measurement in every 
scientific laboratory in the world, and initiating a train of investigation which 
now sends up branches into the loftiest regions and subtlest ether of natural 
philosophy. Long may the British Association continue a bond of union, 
and a medium for the interchange of good offices between science and the 
world ! 

The greatest achievement yet made in molecular theory of the proper- 
ties of matter is the Kinetic theory of Gases, shadowed forth by Lucretius, 
definitely stated by Danicl Bernoulli, largely developed by Herapath, made 
a reality by Joule, and worked out to its present advanced state by Clausius 
and Maxwell. Joule, from his dynamical equivalent of heat, and his expe- 
riments upon the heat produced by the condensation of gas, was able to 
estimate the average velocity of the ultimate molecules or atoms composing 
it. His estimate for hydrogen was 6225 feet per second at temperature 60° 
Fahr., and 6055 feet per second at the freezing-point. Clausius took fully 
into account the impacts of molecules on one another, and the kinetic energy 
of relative motions of the matter constituting an individual atom. He in- 
vestigated the relation between their diameters, the number in a given 
space, and the mean length of path from impact to impact, and so gave the 
foundation for estimates of the absolute dimensions of atoms, to which I shall 
refer later. He explained the slowness of gaseous diffusion by the mutual 
impacts of the atoms, and laid a secure foundation for a complete theory of 
the diffusion of fluids, previously a most refractory enigma. The deeply 
penetrating genius of Maxwell brought in viscosity and thermal conductivity, 
and thus completed the dynamical explanation of all the known properties 
of gases, except their electric resistance and brittleness to electric force. 

No such comprehensive molecular theory had ever been even imagined 
before the nineteenth century. Definite and complete in its area as it 
is, it is but a well-drawn part of a great chart, in which all physical 
science will be represented with every property of matter shown in dyna- 
mical relation to the whole. The prospect we now have of an early 
completion of this chart is based on the assumption of atoms. But there 
ean be no permanent satisfaction to the mind in explaining heat, light, elas- 
ticity, diffusion, electricity and magnetism, in gases, liquids, and solids, and 
describing precisely the relations of these different states of matter to one 
another by statistics of great numbers of atoms, when the properties of the 
atom itself are simply assumed. When the theory, of which we have the first 


xciv REvorr—1871!, 


instalment in Clausius and Maxwell’s work, is complete, we are but brought 
face to face with a superlatively grand question, what is the inner me- 
chanism of the atom ? 

In the answer to this question we must find the explanation not only 
of the atomic elasticity, by which the atom is a chronometric vibrator ac- 
cording to Stokes’s discovery, but of chemical affinity and of the differences 
of quality of different chemical clements, at present a mere mystery in 
science. Helmholtz’s exquisite theory of vortex-motion in an incompressible 
frictionless liquid has been suggested as a finger-post, pointing a way 
which may possibly lead to a full understanding of the properties of atoms, 
carrying out the grand conception of Lucretius, who “admits no subtle 
“ethers, no variety of elements with fiery, or watery, or light, or heavy 
« principles; nor supposes light to be one thing, fire another, electricity a 
“ fluid, magnetism a vital principle, but treats all phenomena as mere pro- 
“erties or accidents of simple matter.” This statement I take from 
an admirable paper on the atomic theory of Lucretius, which appeared in 
the ‘ North British Review’ for March 1868, containing a most interesting 
and instructive summary of ancient and modern doctrine regarding atoms. 
Allow me to read from that article one other short passage finely describing 
the present aspect of atomic theory:—* The existence of the chemical 
«atom, already quite a complex little world, scems very probable; and 
“ the description of the Lucretian atom is wonderfully applicable to it. We 
“are not wholly without hope that the real weight of each such atom may 
«some day be known—not merely the relative weight of the several atoms, 
«but the number in a given volume of any material; that the form and 
«motion of the parts of cach atom and the distances by which they are 
«separated may be calculated ; that the motions by which they produce heat, 
«electricity, and light may be illustrated by exact geometrical diagrams ; and 
“ that the fundamental properties of the intermediate and possibly constituent 
«medium may be arrived at. Then the motion of planets and music of the 
“ spheres will be neglected for a while in admiration of the maze in which 
“the tiny atoms run.” 

Even before this was written some of the anticipated results had been par- 
tially attained. Loschmidt in Vienna had shown, and not much latter Stoney 
independently in England showed, how to deduce from Clausius and Max- 
well’s kinetic theory of gases a superior limit to the number of atoms in a 
given measurable space. I was unfortunately quite unaware of what Loschmidt 
and Stoney had done when I made a similar estimate on the same founda- 
tion, and communicated it to ‘Nature’ in an article on “The Size of 
Atoms.” But questions of personal priority, however interesting they may be 
to the persons concerned, sink into insignificance in the prospect of any gain 
of deeper insight into the secrets of nature. The triple coincidence of inde- 
pendent reasoning in this case is valuable as confirmation of a conclusion 
violently contravening ideas and opinions which had been almost universally 
held regarding the dimensions of the molecular structure of matter. Che- 
mists and other naturalists had been in the habit of evading questions as to 
the hardness or indivisibility of atoms by virtually assuming them to be in- 
finitely small and infinitely numerous. We must now no longer look upon 
the atom, with Boscovich, as a mystic point endowed with inertia and the 
attribute of attracting or repelling other such centres with forces depending 
upon the intervening distances (a supposition only tolerated with the tacit 
assumption that the inertia and attraction of cach atom is infinitely small and 
the number of atoms infinitely great), nor can we agree with those who haye 


a ee, 


ADDRESS. XCV 


attributed to the atom occupation of space with infinite hardness and strength 
(incredible in any finite body); but we must realize it as a piece of matter 
of measurable dimensions, with shape, motion, and laws of action, intelligible 
subjects of scientific investigation. 

The prismatic analysis of light discovered by Newton was estimated by 
himself as being “the oddest, if not the most considerable, detection which 
** hath hitherto been made in the operations of nature.” 

Had he not been deflected from the subject, he could not have failed 
to obtain a pure spectrum; but this, with the inevitably consequent 
discovery of the dark lines, was reserved for the nineteenth century. 
Our fundamental knowledge of the dark lines is due solely to Fraun- 
hofer. Wollaston saw them, but did not discover them. Brewster laboured 
long and well to perfect the prismatic analysis of sunlight ; and his observa- 
tions on the dark bands produced by the absorption of interposed gases and 
vapours laid important foundations for the grand superstructure which he 
scarcely lived to see. Piazzi Smyth, by spectroscopic observation performed 
on the Peak of Teneriffe, added greatly to our knowledge of the dark lines 
produced in the solar spectrum by the absorption of our own atmosphere. 
The prism became an instrument for chemical qualitative analysis in the 
hands of Fox Talbot and Herschel, who first showed how, through it, the 
old “blowpipe test” or generally the estimation of substances from the 
colours which they give to flames, can be prosecuted with an accuracy 
and a discriminating power not to be attained when the colour is judged 
by the unaided eye. But the application of this test to solar and stellar 
chemistry had never, I believe, been suggested, either directly or indirectly, 
by any other naturalist, when Stokes taught it to me in Cambridge at some 
time prior to the summer of 1852. The observational and experimental 
foundations on which he built were :— 

(1) The discovery by Fraunhofer of a coincidence between his double dark 
line D of the solar spectrum and a double bright line which he observed in 
the spectra of ordinary artificial flames. 

(2) A very rigorous experimental test of this coincidence by Prof. W. H. 
Miller, which showed it to be accurate to an astonishing degree of minuteness. 

(3) The fact that the yellow light given out when salt is thrown on burning 
spirit consists almost solely of the two nearly identical qualities which con- 
stitute that double bright line. 

(4) Observations made by Stokes himself, which showed the bright line D 
to be absent in a candle-flame when the wick was snuffed clean, so as not to 
project into the luminous envelope, and from an alcohol flame when the spirit 
was burned in a watch-glass. And 

(5) Foucault’s admirable discovery (L’Institut, Feb. 7, 1849) that the 
voltaic are between charcoal points is “a medium which emits the rays D 
“on its own account, and at the same time absorbs them when they come 
«from another quarter.”’ 

The conclusions, theoretical and practical, which Stokes taught me, and 
which I gave regularly afterwards in my public lectures in the University of 
Glasgow, were :— 

(1) That the double line D, whether bright or dark, is due to vapour of 
sodium. 

(2) That the ultimate atom of sodium is susceptible of regular elastic vi- 
brations, like those of a tuning-fork or of stringed musical instruments ; that 
like an instrument with two strings tuned to approximate unison, or an ap- 
proximately circular elastic disk, it has two fundamental notes or vibrations 


* 


xevl REPORT—1871. 


of approximately equal pitch; and that the periods of these vibrations are 
precisely the periods of the two slightly different yellow lights constituting 
the double bright line D. 

(3) That when vapour of sodium is at a high enough temperature to be- 
come itself a source of light, each atom executes these two fundamental 
vibrations simultaneously ; and that therefore the light proceeding from it is 
of the two qualities constituting the double bright line D. 

(4) That when vapour of sodium is present in space across which light 
from another source is propagated, its atoms, according to a well-known 
general principle of dynamics, are set to vibrate in either or both of those 
fundamental modes, if some of the incident light is of one or other of their 
periods, or some of one and some of the other; so that the energy of the 
waves of those particular qualities of light is converted into thermal vibra- 
tions of the medium and dispersed in all directions, while ight of ali other 
qualities, even though very nearly agreeing with them, is transmitted with 
comparatively no loss. 

(5) That Fraunhofer’s double dark line D of solar and stellar spectra is due 
to the presence of vapour of sodium in atmospheres surrounding the sun 
and those stars in whose spectra it had been observed. 

(6) That other vapours than sodium are to be found in the atmospheres 
of sun and stars by searching for substances producing in the spectra of 
artificial flames bright lines coinciding with other dark lines of the solar 
and stellar spectra than the Fraunhofer line D. 

The last of these propositions I felt to be confirmed (it was perhaps 
partly suggested) by a striking and beautiful experiment admirably adapted 
for lecture illustrations, due to Foucault, which had been shown to me by 
M. Duboscque Soleil, and the Abbé Moigno, in Paris in the month of 
October 1850. A prism and lenses were arranged to throw upon a screen 
an approximately pure spectrum of a vertical electric arc between charcoal 
poles of a powerful battery, the lower one of which was hollowed like a cup. 
When pieces of copper and pieces of zine were separately thrown into the 
cup, the spectrum exhibited, in perfectly definite positions, magnificent well- 
marked bands of different colours characteristic of the two metals. When 
a piece of brass, compounded of copper and zinc, was put into the cup, 
the spectrum showed all the bands, each precisely in the place in which 
it had been seen when one metal or the other had been used separately. 

It is much to be regretted that this great generalization was not pub- 
lished to the world twenty years ago. I say this, not because it is to be 


regretted that Angstrém should have the credit of having in 1853 pub- 
lished independently the statement that ‘an incandescent gas emits lumi- 
«« nous rays of the same refrangibility as those which it can absorb”; or that 
Balfour Stewart should have been unassisted by it when, coming to the 
subject from a very different point of view, he made, in his extension of the 
“Theory of Exchanges”*, the still wider generalization that the radiating 
power of every kind of substanee is equal to its absorbing power for every 
kind of ray; or that Kirchhoff also should have in 1859 independently dis- 
covered the same proposition, and shown its application to solar and stellar 
chemistry ; but because we might now be in possession of the inconceivable 
riches of astronomical results which we expect from the next ten years’ 
investigation by- spectrum analysis, had Stokes given his theory to the 
world when it first occurred to him. 

To Kirchhoff belongs, I believe, solely the great credit of having first 


* Edin, Transactions, 1858-59. 


: 


ADDRESS. Xevil 


actually sought for and found other metals than sodium in the sun by the 
method of spectrum analysis. His publication of October 1859 inaugurated 
the practice of solar and stellar chemistry, and gave spectrum analysis an 
impulse to which in a great measure is due its splendidly successful cultivation 
by the labours of many able investigators within the last ten years. 


To prodigious and wearing toil of Kirchhoff himself, and of Angstrém, we 
owe large-scale maps of the solar spectrum, incomparably superior in minute- 
ness and accuracy of delineation to any thing ever attempted previously. These 
maps now constitute the standards of reference for all workers in the field. 
Pliicker and Hittorf opened ground in advancing the physics of spectrum 
analysis and made the important discovery of changes in the spectra of 
ignited gases produced by changes in the physical condition of the gas. The 
scientific value of the mectings of the British Association is well illustrated 
by the fact that it was through conyersation with Pliicker at the Newcastle 
mecting that Lockyer was first led into the investigation of the effects of varied 
pressure on the quality of the light emitted by glowing gas which he and 
Frankland have prosecuted with such admirable success. Scientific wealth 
tends to accumulation according to the law of compound interest. Every addi- 
tion to knowledge of properties of matter supplies the naturalist with new 
instrumental means for discovering and interpreting phenomena of nature, 
which in their turn afford foundations for fresh generalizations, bringing 
gains of permanent value into the great storehouse of philosophy. Thus 
Frankland, led, from observing the want of brightness of a candle burning in 
a tent on the summit of Mont Blanc, to scrutinize Davy’s theory of flame, 
discovered that brightness without incandescent solid particles is given to a 
purely gaseous flame by augmented pressure, and that a dense ignited gas 
gives a spectrum comparable with that of the light from an incandescent solid 
or liquid. Lockyer joined him ; and the two found that every incandescent 
substance gives a continuous spectrum—that an incandescent gas under 
varied pressure gives bright bars across the continuous spectrum, some of 
which, from the sharp, hard and fast lines observed where the gas is in a 
state of extreme attenuation, broaden out on each side into nebulous bands 
as the density is increased, and are ultimately lost in the continuous spec- 
trum when the condensation is pushed on till the gas becomes a fluid no 
longer to be called gaseous. More recently they have examined the influence 
of temperature, and have obtained results which seem to show that a highly 
attenuated gas, which at a high temperature gives several bright lines, gives 
a smaller and smaller number of lines, of sufticient brightness to be visible, 
when the temperature is lowered, the density being kept unchanged. I cannot 
refrain here from remarking how admirably this beautiful investigation har- 
monizes with Andrews’ great discovery of continuity between the gaseous 
and liquid states. Such things make the life-blood of science. In contem- 
plating them we fecl as if led out from narrow waters of scholastic dogma to 
a refreshing excursion on the broad and deep ocean of truth, where we learn 
from the wonders we sce that there are endlessly more and more glorious 
wonders still unseen. 

Stokes’ dynamical theory supplies the key to the philosophy of Frank- 
land and Lockyer’s discovery. Any atom of gas when struck and left to 
itself vibrates with perfect purity its fundamental note or notes. In a 
highly attenuated gas each atom is very rarely in collision with other 
atoms, and therefore is nearly at all times in a state of true vibration. 
Hence the spectrum of a highly attenuated gas consists of one or more 
perfectly sharp bright lines, with a scarcely perceptible continuous gradation 


XCVili REPORT—1871. 


of prismatic colour. In denser gas each atom is frequently in collision, but 
still is for much more time free, in intervals between collisions, than engaged 
in collision ; so that not only is the atom itself thrown sensibly out of tune 


during a sensible proportion of its whole time, but the confused jangle of © 


vibrations in eyery variety of period during the actual collision becomes more 
considerable in its influence. Hence bright lines in the spectrum broaden 
out somewhat, and the continuous spectrum becomes less faint. In still 
denser gas each atom may be almost as much time in collision as free, and 
the spectrum then consists of broad nebulous bands crossing a continuous 
spectrum of considerable brightness. When the medium is so dense that 
each atom is always in collision, that is to say never free from influence of 
its neighbours, the spectrum will generally be continuous, and may present 
little or no appearance of bands, or even of maxima of brightness. In this 
condition the fluid can be no longer regarded as a gas, and we must judge 
of its relation to the vaporous or liquid states according to the critical 
conditions discovered by Andrews. 

While these great investigations of properties of matter were going on, 
naturalists were not idle with the newly recognized power of the spectro- 
scope at their service. Chemists soon followed the example of Bunsen 
in discovering new metals in terrestrial matter by the old blow-pipe and 
prism test of Fox Talbot and Herschel. Biologists applied spectrum analysis 
to animal and vegetable chemistry, and to sanitary investigations, But 
it is in astronomy that spectroscopic research has been carried on with 
the greatest activity, and been most richly rewarded with results. The 
chemist and the astronomer have joined their forces, An astronomical ob- 
servatory has now, appended to it, a stock of reagents such as hitherto was 
only to be found in the chemical laboratory. A devoted corps of volunteers 
of all nations, whose motto might well be whigue, have directed their artil- 
lery to every region of the universe. The sun, the spots on his surface, 
the corona and the red and yellow prominences seen round him during 
total eclipses, the moon, the planets, comets, auroras, nebule, white 
stars, yellow stars, red stars, variable and temporary stars, each tested by the 
prism was compelled to show its distinguishing colours. Rarely before in 
the history of science has enthusiastic perseverance directed by penetra- 
tive genius produced within ten years so brilliant a succession of dis- 
coveries. It is not merely the chemistry of sun and stars, as first sug- 
gested, that is subjected to analysis by the spectroscope. Their whole laws 
of being are now subjects of direct investigation; and already we have 
glimpses of their evolutional history through the stupendous power of this 
most subtle and delicate test. We had only solar and stellar chemistry; 
we now have solar and stellar physiology. 

It is an old idea that the colour of a stur may be influenced by its motion 
relatively to the eye of the spectator, so as to be tinged with red if it moves 
from the earth, or blue if it moves towards the earth. William Allen Miller, 
Huggins, and Maxwell showed how, by aid of the spectroscope, this idea may 
be made the foundation of a method of measuring the relative velocity with 
which a star approaches to or recedes from the earth. The principle is, first to 
identify, if possible, one or more of the lines in the spectrum of the star, with a 
line or lines in the spectrum of sodium, or some other terrestrial substance, 
and then (by observing the star and the artificial light simultaneously by 
the same spectroscope) to find the difference, if any, between their refran- 
gibilities. From this difference of refrangibility the ratio of the periods of 
the two lights is calculated, according to data determined by Fraunhofer from 


a 


_ ADDRESS. XC1x 


comparisons between the positions of the dark lines in the prismatic spectrum 
and in his own “ interference spectrum ” (produced by substituting for the 
prism a fine grating). A first comparatively rough application of the test by 
Miller and Huggins to a large number ef the principal stars of our skies, 
including Aldebaran, a Orionis, 3 Pegasi, Sirius, a Lyre, Capella, Arcturus, 
Pollux, Castor (which they had obseryed rather for the chemical purpose than 
for this), proved that not one of them had so great a velocity as 515 kilometres 
per second to or from the earth, which is a most momentous result in respect 
to cosmical dynamics. Afterwards Huggins made special observations of 
the velocity test, and succeeded in making the measurement in one case, 
that of Sirius, which he then found to be receding from the earth at the rate 
of 66 kilometres per second. This, corrected for the velocity of the earth at 
the time of the observation, gave a velocity of Sirius, relatively to the Sun, 
amounting to 47 kilometres per second. The minuteness of the difference to 
be measured, and the smallness of the amount of light, even when the brightest 
star is observed, renders the observation extremely difficult. Still, with 
such great skill as Mr. Huggins has brought to bear on the investigation, 
it can scarcely be doubted that velocities of many other stars may be 
measured. What is now wanted is, certainly not greater skill, perhaps not 
eyen more powerful instruments, but more instruments and more observers. 
Lockyer’s applications of the velocity test to the relative motions of different 
gases in the Sun’s photosphere, spots, chromosphere, and chromospheric pro- 
minences, and his observations of the varying spectra presented by the same 
substance as it moves from one position to another in the Sun’s atmosphere, 
and his interpretations of these observations, according to the laboratory 
results of Frankland and himself, go far towards confirming the conviction 
that in a few years all the marvels of the Sun will be dynamically explained 
according to known properties of matter. 

During six or eight precious minutes of time, spectroscopes have been ap- 
plied to the solar atmosphere and to the corona seen round the dark disk of 
the Moon eclipsing the Sun. Some of the wonderful results of such obser- 
vations, made in India on the occasion of the eclipse of August 1868, were 
deseribed by Professor Stokes in a previous address. Valuable results have, 
through the liberal assistance given by the British and American Govern- 
ments, been obtained also from the total eclipse of last December, notwith- 
standing a generally unfavourable condition of weather. It seems to have 
been proved that at least some sensible part of the light of the “corona” is a 
terrestrial atmospheric halo or dispersive reflection of the light of the glow- 
ing hydrogen and “helium” * round the sun. I belieye I may say, on the 
present occasion when preparation must again be made to utilize a total 
eclipse of the Sun, that the British Association confidently trusts to our 
Goyernment exercising the same wise liberality as heretofore in the interests 
of science. . 

The old nebular hypothesis supposes the solar system, and other similar 
systems through the universe which we see at a distance as stars, to have 
originated in the condensation of fiery nebulous matter. This hypothesis 
was invented before the discovery of thermo-dynamics, or the nebule would 
not have been supposed to be fiery; and the idea seems never to have 
oceurred to any of its inventors or early supporters that the matter, the con- 
densation of which they supposed to constitute the Sun and stars, could haye 


* Frankland and Lockyer find the yellow prominences to give a very decided bright line 
not far from D, but hitherto not identified with any terrestrial flame. It seems to indicate 
a new substance, which they propose to call Helium, 


Cc REPORT—1871. 


been other than fiery in the beginning. Mayer first suggested that the heat 
of the Sun may be due to gravitation: but he supposed meteors falling in 
to keep always generating the heat which is radiated year by year from the 
Sun. Helmholtz, on the other hand, adopting the nebular hypothesis, showed 
in 1854 that it was not necessary to suppose the nebulous matter to have 
been originally fiery, but that mutual gravitation between its parts may 
have generated the heat to which the present high temperature of the Sun is 
due. Further he made the important observations that the potential energy 
of gravitation in the Sun is even now far from exhausted; but that with 
further and further shrinking more and more heat is to be generated, and 
that thus we can conceive the Sun even now to possess a sufficient store of 
energy to produce heat and light, almost as at present, for several million 
years of time future. It ought, however, tu be added that this condensation 
can only follow from cooling, and therefore that Helmholtz’s gravitational 
explanation of future Sun-heat amounts really to showing that the Sun’s 
thermal capacity is enormously greater, in virtue of the mutual gravitation 
between the parts of so enormous a mass, than the sum of the thermal capa- 
cities of separate and smaller bodies of the same material and same total 
mass. Reasons for adopting this theory, and the consequences which follow 
from it, are discussed in an article ‘‘ On the Age of the Sun’s Heat,” published 
in ‘ Macmillan’s Magazine’ for March 1862. 

For a few years Mayer’s theory of solar heat had seemed to me probable ; 
but I had been led to regard it as no longer tenable, because I had been in 
the first place driven, by consideration of the very approximate constancy of 
the Earth’s period of revolution round the Sun for the last 2000 years, to 
conclude that “The principal source, perhaps the sole appreciably effective 
“ source of Sun-heat, is in bodies circulating round the Sun at present inside 
‘¢ the Karth’s orbit” * ; and because Le Verrier’s researches on the motion of 
the planet Mercury, though giving evidence of a sensible influence attributable 
to matter circulating as a great number of small planets within his orbit 
round the Sun, showed that the amount of matter that could possibly be as- 
sumed to circulate at any considerable distance from the Sun must be very 
small; and therefore “if the meteoric influx taking place at present is 
“ enough to produce any appreciable portion of the heat radiated away, it 
“ must be supposed to be from matter circulating round the Sun, within very 
“ short distances of his surface. The density of this meteoric cloud would 
“have to be supposed so great that comets could scarcely have escaped as 
“‘ comets actually have escaped, showing no diseoverable effects of resistance, 
‘‘after passing his surface within a distance equal to one-eighth of his radius. 
«‘ All things considered, there seems little probability in the hypothesis that 
“ solar radiation is compensated to any appreciable degree, by heat generated 
«by meteors falling in, at present; and, as it can be shown that no chemical 
«theory is tenablet, it must be concluded as most probable that the Sun is 
‘* at present mere an incandescent liquid mass cooling ” f. 

Thus on purely astronomical grounds was I long ago led to abandon as 
very improbable the hypothesis that the Sun’s heat is supplied dynamically 
from year to year by the influx of meteors. But now spectrum analysis gives 
proof finally conclusive against it. 

Each meteor circulating round the Sun must fall in along a very gradual 


* “On the mechanical energies of the Solar System.” Transactions of the Royal Society 
of Edinburgh, 1854; and Phil. Mag. 1854, second half year, 
“‘ Mechanical Hnergies” &e. 
t ‘Age of the Sun’s Heat” (Macmillan’s Magazine, March 1862), 


ADDRESS, cl 


spiral path, and before reaching the Sun must have been for a long time 
exposed to an enormous heating effect from his radiation when very near, 
and must thus have been driven into vapour before actually falling into the 
Sun. Thus, if Mayer’s hypothesis is correct, friction between vortices of 
meteoric vapours and the Sun’s atmosphere must be the immediate cause of 
solar heat ; and the velocity with which these vapours circulate round equa- 
torial parts of the Sun must amount to 435 kilometres per second. The 
spectrum test of velocity applied by Lockyer showed but a twentieth part of 
this amount as the greatest observed relative velocity between different 
vapours in the Sun’s atmosphere. 

At the first Liverpool Meeting of the British Association (1854), in ad- 
vancing a gravitational theory to account for all the heat, light, and motions 
of the universe, I urged that the immediately antecedent condition of the 
matter of which the Sun and Planets were formed, not being fiery, could not 
have been gascous; but that it probably was solid, and may have been like 
the meteoric stones which we still so frequently meet with through space. 
The discovery of Huggins, that the light of the nebuli, so far as hitherto 
sensible to us, proceeds from incandescent hydrogen and nitrogen gases, and 
that the heads of comets also give us light of incandescent gas, seems at first 
sight literally to fulfil that part of the nebular hypothesis to which I had 
objected. But a solution, which seems to me in the highest degree probable, 
has been suggested by Tait. He supposes that it may be by ignited gaseous 
exhalations proceeding from the collision of meteoric stones that Nebulze and 
the heads of comets show themselves to us; and he suggested, at a former 
meeting of the Association, that experiments should be made for the purpose 
of applying spectrum analysis to the light which has been observed in 
gunnery trials, such as those at Shoeburyness, when iron strikes against iron 
at a great velocity, but varied by substituting for the iron various solid 
materials, metallic or stony. Hitherto this suggestion has not been acted 
upon ; but surely it is one the carrying out of which ought to be promoted 
by the British Association. 

Most important steps have been recently made towards the discovery of the 
nature of comets, establishing with nothing short of certainty the truth of a 
hypothesis which had long appeared to me probable, that they consist of groups 
of meteoric stones, accounting satisfactorily for the light of the nucleus, 
and giving a simple and rational explanation of phenomena presented by 
the tails of comets which had been regarded by the greatest astronomers as 
almost preternaturally marvellous. The meteoric hypothesis to which I have 
referred remained a mere hypothesis (I do not know that it was ever even 
published) until, in 1866, Schiaparelli calculated, from observations on the 
August meteors, an orbit for these bodies which he found to agree almost 
perfectly with the orbit of the great comet of 1862 as calculated by Oppolzer ; 
and so discovered and demonstrated that a comet consists of a group of 
meteoric stones. Professor Newton, of Yale College, United States, by examin- 
ing ancient records, ascertained that in periods of about thirty-three years, 
since the year 902, there have been exceptionally brilliant displays of the 
November meteors. Jt had long been believed that these interesting visi- 
tants came from a train of small detached planets circulating round the Sun 
all in nearly the same orbit, and constituting a belt analogous to Saturn’s 
ring, and that the reason for the comparatively large number of meteors 
which we observe annually about the 14th of November is, that at that 
‘time the earth’s orbit cuts through the supposed meteoric belt. Professor 
Newton concluded from his investigation that there is a denser part of 

1871. h 


cli REPORT—1871. 


the group of meteors which extends over a portion of the orbit so great 
as to occupy about one-tenth or one-fifteenth of the periodic time in 
passing any particular point, and gave a choice of five different periods for 
the revolution of this meteoric stream round the sun, any one of which would 
satisfy his statistical result. He further concluded that the line of nodes 
(that is to say, the line in which the plane of the meteoric belt cuts the plane 
of the Earth’s orbit) has a progressive sidereal motion of about 52'-4 per 
annum. Here, then, was a splendid problem for the physical astronomer ; 
and, happily, one well qualified for the task, took it up. Adams, by the 
application of a beautiful method invented by Gauss, found that of the five 
periods allowed by Newton just one permitted the motion of the line of nodes 
to be explained by the disturbing influence of Jupiter, Saturn, and other 
planets. The period chosen on these grounds is 33; years. The inves- 
tigation showed further that the form of the orbit is a long ellipse, giving 
for shortest distance from the Sun 145 million kilometres, and for longest 
distance 2895 million kilometres. Adams also worked out the longitude 
of the perihelion and the inclination of the orbit’s plane to the plane of the 
ecliptic. The orbit which he thus found agreed so closely with that of 
Temple’s Comet I. 1866 that he was able to identify the comet and the 
meteoric belt *. The same conclusion had been pointed out a few weeks 
earlier by Schiaparelli, from calculations by himself on data supplied by 
direct observations on the meteors, and independently by Peters from ealeu- 
lations by Leverrier on the same foundation. It is therefore thoroughly 
established that Temple’s Comet I. 1866 consists of an elliptic train of minute 
planets, of which a few thousands or millions fall to the earth annually about 
the 14th of November, when we cross their track. We have probably not 
yet passed through the very nucleus or densest part; but thirteen times, in 
Octobers and Noyembers, from October 13, a.p. 902, to November 14, 1866 
inclusive (this last time having been correctly predicted by Prof. Newton), 
we have passed through a part of the belt greatly denser than the average. 
The densest part of the train, when near enough to us, is visible as the head 
of the comet. This astounding result, taken along with Huggins’s spectro- 
scopic observations on thie light of the heads and tails of comets, confirms 
most strikingly Tait’s theory of comets, to which I have already referred ; 
according to which the comet, a group of meteoric stones, is self-luminous 
in its nucleus, on account of collisions among its constituents, while its “ tail” 
is merely a portion of the less dense part of the train illuminated by sunlight, 
and visible or invisible to us according to circumstances, not only of density, 
degree of illumination, and nearness, but also of tactic arrangement, as of a 
flock of birds or the edge of a cloud of tobacco-smoke! What prodigious diffi- 
culties are to be explained, you may judge from two or three sentences which 


* Signor Schiaparelli, Director of the Observatory of Milan, who, in a letter dated 31st 
December 1866, pointed out that the elements of the orbit of the Aawgust Meteors, caleu- 
lated from the observed position of their radiant point on the supposition of the orbit 
being avery elongated ellipse, agreed very closely with those of the orbit of Comet IT. 1862, 
calculated by Dr. Oppolzer. In the same letter Schiaparelli gives elements of the orbit 
of the November meteors, but these were not sufficiently accurate to enable him to identify 
the orbit with that of any known comet. On the 21st January, 1867, M. Leverrier gave 
. more accurate elements of the orbit of the November Meteors, and in the ‘ Astronomische 
Nachrichten’ of January 9, Mr. C. F. W. Peters, of Altona, pointed out that these elements 
closely agreed with those of Temple’s Comet (I 1866), calculated by Dr. Oppolzer; and 
on February 2, Schiaparelli haying recalculated the elements of the orbit of the meteors, 
himself noticed the same agreement. Adams arrived quite independently at the conclusion 
that the orbit of 333 years period is the one which must be chosen out of the five indi- 
cated by Prof. Newton, His calculations were sufficiently advanced before the letters. 


ADDRESS. cll 


I shall read from Herschel’s Astronomy, and from the fact that even Schiaparelli 
seems still to believe in the repulsion. “There is, beyond question, some 
profound secret and mystery of nature concerned in the phenomenon of 
“their tails. Perhaps it is not too much to hope that future observation, 
“ borrowing every aid from rational speculation, grounded on the progress of 
* physical science generally (especially those branches of it which relate to 
* the ethereal or imponderable elements), may enable us ere long to penetrate 
“this mystery, and to declare whether it is really matter in the ordinary 
* acceptation of the term which is projected from their heads with such 
* extraordinary velocity, and if not impelled, at least directed, in its course, 
“ by reference to the Sun, as its point of avoidance” *. 

“Tn no respect is the question as to the materiality of the tail more for- 
« cibly pressed on us for consideration than in that of the enormous sweep 
“which it makes round the sun in perihelio in the manner of a straight and 
rigid rod, in defiance of the law of gravitation, nay, even, of the received laws 
* of motion”’*. : 

«The projection of this ray . . . to so enormous a length, in a single day, 
conveys an impression of the intensity of the forces acting to produce such 
“a velocity of material transfer through space, such as no other natural phe- 
“nomenon is capable of exciting. It is clear that if we have to deal here with 
“matter, such as we conceive it (viz. possessing inertia), at all, it must be under 
“the dominion of forces incomparably more energetic than gravitation, and 
“quite of a different nature” rT. 

Think, now, of the admirable simplicity with which Tait’s beautiful ‘“ sea- 
bird analogy,” as it has been called, can explain all these phenomena. 

The essence of science, as is well illustrated by astronomy and 
cosmical physics, consists in inferring antecedent conditions, and an- 
ticipating future evolutions, from phenomena which have actually come 
under observation. In biology the difficulties of successfully acting up 
to this ideal are prodigious. ‘The earnest naturalists of the present day 
are, however, not appalled or paralyzed by them, and are struggling boldly 
and laboriously to pass out of the mere “ Natural History stage” of 
their study, and bring zoology within the range of Natural Philosophy. 
A very ancient speculation, still clung to by many naturalists (so much so 
that I have a choice of modern terms to quote in expressing it), supposes that, 
under moteorological conditions very different from the present, dead matter 
may have run together or crystallized or fermented into “germs of life,” 
or “organic cells,” or “protoplasm.” But science brings a vast mass of in- 
ductive evidence against this hypothesis of spontaneous generation, as you 
have heard from my predecessor in the Presidential chair. Careful enough 
scrutiny has, in every case up to the present day, discovered life as antecedent 
to life. Dead matter cannot become living without coming under the influ- 
ence of matter previously alive. This seems to me as sure a teaching of science 
as the law of gravitation. I utterly repudiate, as opposed to all philosophical 
uniformitarianism, the assumption of “ different meteorological conditions ”— 
that is to say, somewhat different vicissitudes of temperature, pressure, 


referred to appeared, to show that the other four orbits offered by Newton were inadmissible. 
But the calculations to be gone through to find the secular motion of the node in such an 
elongated orbit as that of the meteors were necessarily very long, so that they were not 
completed till about March 1867. They were communicated in that month to the 
: orleans Philosophical Society, and in the month following to the Astronomical 
ociety. 
* Herschel’s Astronomy, § 599. 
T Herschel’s Astronomy, 10th edition, § 589. 
h2 


Civ” REPORT— 1871. 


moisture, gaseous atmosphere—to produce or to permit that to take place by 
force or motion of dead matter alone, which is a direct contravention of what 
seems to us biological law. Iam prepared for the answer, “our code of 
‘ biological law is an expression of our ignorance as well as of our know- 
“ledge.” And I say yes: search for spontaneous generation out of inorganic 
materials; let any one not satisfied with the purely negative testimony, of 
which we have now so much against it, throw himself into the inquiry. Such 
investigations as those of Pasteur, Pouchet, and Bastian are among the most 
interesting and momentous in the whole range of Natural History, and their 
results, whether positive or negative, must richly reward the most careful 
and laborious experimenting. I confess to being deeply impressed by the 
evidence put before us by Professor Huxley, and I am ready to adopt, as an 
article of scientific faith, true through all space and through all time, that 
life proceeds from life, and from nothing but life. 

How, then, did life originate on the Earth? Tracing the physical history 
of the Earth backwards, on strict dynamical principles, we are brought to a 
red-hot melted globe on which no life could exist. Hence when the Earth 
was first fit for life, there was no living thing onit. There were rocks solid and 
disintegrated, water, air all round, warmed and illuminated by a brilliant Sun, 
ready to become a garden. Did grass and trees and flowers spring into exist- 
ence, in all the fulness of ripe beauty, by a fiat of Creative Power? or did vege- 
tation, growing up from seed sown, spread and multiply over the whole Earth ? 
Science is bound, by the everlasting law of honour, to face fearlessly every pro- 
blem which can fairly be presented to it. If a probable solution, consistent 
with the ordinary course of nature, can be found, we must not invoke an abnor- 
mal act of Creative Power. When a lava stream flows down the sides of Vesu- 
vius or Etna it quickly cools and becomes solid; and after a few weeks or. 
years it teems with vegetable and animal life, which for it originated by the 
transport of seed and ova and by the migration of individual living creatures. 
When a volcanic island springs up from the sea, and after a few years is 
found clothed with vegetation, we do not hesitate to assume that seed has | 
been wafted to it through the air, or floated to it on rafts. ITs it not possible, 
and if possible, is it not probable, that the beginning of vegetable life on the 
Earth is to be similarly explained? Every year thousands, probably mil- 
lions, of fragments of solid matter fall upon the Earth—whence came these 
fragments ? What is the previous history of any one of them? Was it created 
in the beginning of time an amorphous mass? ‘This idea is so unacceptable 
that, tacitly or explicitly, all men discard it. It is often assumed that all, 
and it is certain that some, meteoric stones are fragments which had been 
broken off from greater masses and launched free into space. It is as sure 
that collisions must occur between great masses moving through space as it 
is that ships, steered without intelligence directed to prevent collision, could 
not cross and recross the Atlantic for thousands of years with immunity from 
collisions. When two great masses come into collision in space it is certain 
that a large part of each is melted; but it seems also quite certain that in 
many cases a large quantity of débris must be shot forth in all directions, 
much of which may have experienced no greater violence than individual 
pieces of rock experience in a Jand-slip or in blasting by gunpowder. Should 
the time when this Earth comes into collision with another body, comparable 
in dimensions to itself, be when it is still clothed as at present with vege- 
tation, many great and small fragments carrying sced and living plants and 
animals would undoubtedly be scattered through space. Hence and because 
we all confidently believe that there are at present, and have becn from time 


* 


ADDRESS, CV 


immemorial, many worlds of life besides our own, we must regard it as pro- 
bable in the highest degree that there are countless secd-bearing meteoric 
stones moving about through space. If at the present instant no life existed 
upon this Earth, one such stone falling upon it might, by what we blindly 
call natural causes, lead to its becoming covered with vegetation. I am fully 
conscious of the many scientific objections which may be urged against this 
hypothesis ; but I believe them to be all answerable. I have already taxed 
your patience too severely to allow me to think of discussing any of them on 
the present occasion. The hypothesis that life originated on this Earth 
through moss-grown fragments from the ruins of another world may seem 
wild and visionary ; all I maintain is that it is not unscientific. 

From the Earth stocked with such vegetation as it could receive meteorically, 
to the Earth teeming with all the endless variety of plants and animals which 
now inhabit it, the step is prodigious ; yet, according to the doctrine of conti- 
nuity, most ably laid before the Association by a predecessor in this Chair 
(Mr. Grove), all creatures now living on earth have proceeded by orderly 
evolution from some such origin. Darwin concludes his great work on ‘ The 
Origin of Species’ with the following words :—“ It is interesting to contem- 
“ plate an entangled bank clothed with many plants of many kinds, with 
“‘ birds singing on the bushes, with various insects flitting about, and with 
“worms crawling through the damp earth, and to reflect that these elabo- 
“‘ rately constructed forms, so different from each other, and dependent on 
“‘ each other in so complex a manner, have all been produced by laws acting 
“around us.” . . . . “There is grandeur in this view of life with its 
“ seyeral powers, having been originally breathed by the Creator into a few 
“ forms or into one ; and that, whilst this planct has gone cycling on accord- 
‘ing to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms, 
“most beautiful and most wonderful, have been and are being evolved.” 
With the feeling expressed in these two sentences I most cordially sympathize. 
I have omitted two sentences which come between them, describing briefly 
the hypothesis of “the origin ef species by natural selection,” because I 
have always felt that this hypothesis does not contain the true theory of 
evolution, if evolution there has been, in biology. Sir John Herschel, in 
expressing a favourable judgment on the hypothesis of zoological evolution 
(with, however, some reservation in respect to the origin of man), objected to 
the doctrine of natural selection, that it was too like the Laputan method of 
making books, and that it did not sufficiently take into account a continually 
guiding and controlling intelligence. This seems to me a most valuable and 
instructive criticism. I feel profoundly convinced that the argument of 
design has been greatly too much lost sight of in recent zoological specula- 
tions. Reaction against the frivolities of teleology, such as are to be found, 
not rarely, in the notes of the learned commentators on Paley’s ‘ Natural 
Theology,’ has I believe had a temporary effect in turning attention from the 
solid and irrefragable argument so well put forward in that excellent old book. 
But overpoweringly strong proofs of intelligent and benevolent design lie 
all round us ; and if ever perplexities, whether metaphysical or scientific, turn 
us away from them for a time, they come back upon us with irresistible 
force, showing to us through Nature the influence of a free will, and teaching 
us that all living keings depend on one eycr-acting Creator and Ruler. 


—. aa he antl gs 


bec sono Strparnaaee a abisieed: Ait Yo noe wen ial 
Meshes deuce tse dl ual sorgpol ; St gt 
G lupe daewerng dé: tn Thy baa ttn ia 
a eed Abgien Hi nogd. 31 ited Bunion dou. Mtoe 
KES emi oe av-qities. (rartin. fer tes ari até it Desk i 
RRA ol Sy are hotel ah oct Liss atial cater yon ott 
babies sralsi- eo fin ash of ate de! Started tL intthy 
Bee tB98> Bee Ra Seber’ elo sb out telly Oh temmged mt 
oo OS ie a tentigran tif ai cieadigyed onto nelbaapary 
, ie oboe aii Ehurer, tortiaga Yo erslud ob: sites u Abinder rere se ant 9 


Ss he Sa c: Sapisicwes dest si dedads nt wie dai ieart Debeeng 
me, Wer estiypinnt wi isgo id: Saad Se aged ad vee af swe « 1 fen Lodsdinsl 
aay ipa slong baanaphg hi idee atictegit Lin Ae yagi a 
: dea tosa thins . dill ant. gctifatovrces vtige: eas tgihory +i pin odd RE. 
| PEs AP thesia noe wilaloe t oT eid bed 
re G8: Byiiadoen uyrnd lives wavmATTL. wom: meaty ah, 
ere aewtieds tieks il eihighines civil wiuiy, Gina ape, 
PMT TOL gil tiiul) wal AsL:o vpn gate (fh Meat 
yay ea, visto: Senedd’ gctsicr titted head rota, donend Bh aegendl 
ihiy ‘aedse pnt tilt: etioweat relate ct Hever sodeod,. cls pte whey ik.“ a 
tool eidbepdh rialberidsiyodiuen ocach odicdguordt eaten Dy atte 
} Binet alii so ator lem itify: oF Janae ‘ionyeaee seelieae 
Li alonera greed Tie -Seatt rinoenton! ie a ote 0h : tae 
y traky apis ae yin deve ai oni ah SMe shut 7 * 


re ieaarsest dienlep abt}, idficien. fot Pe iy ind oe Agpartyat 
wai Ftp’ 6 ssigarie Wik pont andl cersy: Yel wk dead ead 
“era bng (A ah ding Phir o. 4h wert Late h 


oa af thaifir. y Tae. wD ohgeries nee crs oral ail ea 2 
ay Dlitiaah sete) ett acted ihe or polmen ond 
a, Aer Ay, nO dsfewa leonnce eis, 0 Ree 
2, Solty stab IE doves medi abeardtons ri. wirld) dnd ats) epee 
a . PRE i? hye “ith nar: i> toad rat mead cro tree 0 4 
1s lets (eit! pes ee mag rat aif ins Petinaeaiet( volarage sh, Gal ee 
i aon sneak Ob Diepenket aniguicnetst Sttomae tail We 


wading score hott apntivstse beni mec a 
‘hegaineca + {cowieobaee oobetbe aulind: apf Remi ites Grea sisal he @ Aheape 
Méanleyr inva hb ob beer AE: apaettenily ; vena if 


gl? tele footages Hers TAR» fae 
ie Jeipoginn’, Tod! Sowa daria ook r 


Z fet fed wrndert mets: a hemtinsl “ai a 
Td pptiy ries atest: y cent heepertad aay 
ult whine) +:4; ile ond 


sara xi ini ' 


REPORTS 


ON 


THE STATE OF SCIENCE. 


REPORTS 


ON 


THE STATE OF SCIENCE. 


Seventh Report of the Committee for Exploring Kent’s Cavern, Devon- 
shire,—the Committee consisting of Sir Cuartus Lyset, Bart., 
F.R.S., Professor Puiiurres, F.R.S., Sir Joun Lussock, Bart., 
F.R.S., Joun Evans, F.R.S., Epwarp Vivian, Grorce Busk, 
F.R.S., Witt1am Boyp Dawkins, F.R.S., Wittiam AysHFrorpD 
SanrorD, F.G.S., and Witu1amM Pencetty, F.R.S. (Reporter). 


Dvcrine the year which has elapsed since the Sixth Report was sent in 
(Liverpool, 1870), the Committee have without intermission carried on 
their researches, and have strictly followed the mode of working with which 
the exploration was commenced in 1865. The Superintendents have con- 
tinued to visit the Cavern, and to record the results daily; they have, as 
from the beginning, sent Monthly Reports to the Chairman of the Com- 
mittee ; the work has been carried on by the same workmen, George Smerdon 
and John Farr, who have discharged their duties in a most efficient and 
satisfactory manner; and the Cavern is as much resorted to as ever by visitors 
feeling an interest in the researches. 

In June 1871, Mr. Busk, a Member of the Committee, spent some time 
at Torquay, when he visited the Cavern accompanied by the Superintendents, 
who took him through all its branches, explored and unexplored. Having 
carefully watched the progress of the work, and made himself familiar with 
all its details, he spent some time at the Secretary’s residence, examining and 
identifying a portion of the mammalian remains which had been disinterred. 

In November 1870 the Superintendents had also the pleasure of going 
through the cavern with Mr. W. Morrison, M.P., who takes so active an 
interest in the exploration of the caves near Settle in Yorkshire. 

Besides the foregoing, and exclusive of the large number attended by the 
guide appointed by the proprietor, Sir L. Palk, Bart., M.P., the Cavern has 
been visited during the year by the Earl and Countess Russell, Sir R. Sin- 
elair, Bart., Sir C. Trevelyan, Mr. C. Gilpin, M.P., Governor Wayland, U.S., 
Colonel Ward, Major Bryce, U.S., Rev. Mr. Dickenson, Rev. E. N. Dumble- 
ton, Rey. J. P. Foster, Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing, Dr. Ashford, Dr. Tate, and 
es S. Bate, R. Bellasis, L. Bowring, W. R. A. Boyle, W. Bridges, 

1871. B 


o REPORT—1871. 


C. Busk, A. Champernowne, Channing, Chaplin, F. A. Fellows, T. Fox, 
T. Glaisher, J. Harrison, Howard, W. Jones, C. Pannel, Richie, W. Spriggs, 
KE. B. Tawney, G. H. Wollaston, and many others. 

Smerdon’s Passage—The Committee stated in their last Report that, in 
excavating the “North Sally-port,’” they had been led to a third External En- 
trance to the Cavern, in the same limestone cliff as the two Entrances known 
from time immemorial, but at a considerably lower level, where it was com- 
pletely buried in a great talus of débris. After adding that it had not been 
thought necessary, or desirable, or even safe to dig through the talus to the 
open day, they stated the facts which left no doubt of their having pene- 
trated to the outside of the Cavern. During the winter of 1870-71, the 
question of the existence of the third Entrance was put beyond all doubt; 
for, after a considerable rainfall, that portion of the talus which the workmen 
had undermined fell in, and thereby laid open the Entrance. This cavity 
was at once filled up, in order to prevent any one from intruding into the 
Cavern. 

It was also stated last year that the new or low-level opening was the 
External Entrance not only of the North Sally-port, but of another and 
unsuspected branch of the Cavern, to which had been given the name of 
«“Smerdon’s Passage,” the exploration of which had been begun. 

This Passage was found to consist of two Reaches, the first, or outermost, 
being about 25 feet long, from 3 to 10 feet wide, and having a northerly 
direction. Near its entrance, or southern end, there are in the roof a few 
circular holes, from 6 to 12 inches in diameter, apparently the mouths of 
tortuous shafts extending for some distance into, or perhaps through, the 
limestone rock, The roof itself and the adjacent portions of the wall bear 
traces of the long-continued erosive action of running water, but below the 
uppermost 12 or 18 inches the walls have many sharp angular inequa- 
lities. Further in, the roof has an irregular fretted aspect, apparently the 
result of the corrosive action of acidulated water, whilst the walls retain the 
angular appearance just mentioned. 

The Second Reach runs nearly east and west, is about 32 feet long, some- 
what wider than the first, and its roof is several feet higher. At its outer or 
eastern end the roof and walls are much fretted; further in, there are holes 
in the roof similar to those just mentioned, with the exception of being 
larger. Some of them contain a small quantity of soil, resembling 
Caye-earth, and firmly cemented to the wall; whilst adjacent to others 
there is a considerable amount of stalactitic matter. Still further in, the 
roof, which has the aspect of a watercourse, is covered with a thin veneer 
of white stalactite; and near the inner end there is a considerable hole in 
the roof containing a large accumulation of the same material. 

At the western or inner end of this Second Reach, the limestone roof gave 
place to one consisting of angular pieces of limestone cemented with carbo- 
nate of lime into a very firm concrete. In breaking this up, the workman 
thrust his iron bar up through it, and found he had thereby opened a pas- 
sage into the easfern end of that branch of the Cavern known as the “Sloping 
Chamber,” the concrete floor of which was at the same time the roof of the 
Passage. 

At the outer or eastern end of the Second Reach there was found another 
Low-level Entrance, about 20 feet from that previously mentioned, and 
having no marks of the action of water. 

Narrow ramifications extend through the limestone rock from both Reaches 
of Smerdon’s Passage (westward from the first, and southwards. from the 


ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 3 


second) and intersect one another; their roofs are also perforated with holes, 
and exhibit traces of the action of running water, 

Throughout both Reaches there were in certain places strips of Stalag- 
mitic Floor extending continuously across from wall to wall, and varying 
from a quarter of an inch to 6 inches in thickness. The most important 
of these strips was about 8 feet long. Elsewhere the Cave-earth was either 
completely bare, or had on it here and there what may be called conical 
scales of stalagmite, from 3 to 12 inches in diameter at the base, and from 
1 to 4 inches in thickness at the centre. From them, and generally near 
the middle, there not unfrequently rose one or more rudely cylindrical 
masses of the same material, sometimes 9 inches high, 6 inches in circum- 
ference, and locally known as ‘“ Cow’s Paps.” In almost every instance of 
the kind there depended from the limestone roof, vertically over them, a 
long, slender, quill-like tube of stalactite, occasionally reaching and uniting 
with the “Paps.” Such tubes occurred also in certain places where there 
were no “ Paps,” and in some spots there was quite a forest of them, ex- 
tending from the roof to the Stalagmitic Floor. Wherever it was possible 
to excavate the deposit beneath without breaking them, they were left 
intact. In some cases the Stalagmitic Floor, or the Cave-earth where the 
latter was bare, reached the roof; and where this was not the case, the unoc- 
eupied space was rarely more than a foot in height. 

About midway in the Second Reach there was on each wall a remnant 
of an old floor of stalagmite, about 8 inches above the floor found intact, 
fully 6 inches thick, about 6 feet in length, and within a few inches of the 
roof, 

The mechanical deposit in the Passage was the ordinary red Cave-earth, 
in some places sandy, but occasionally avery compactclay. It contained a 
considerable number of angular fragments of limestone, numerous blocks of 
old crystalline stalagmite, and a few well-rolled pebbles of quartz, red grit, 
and flint. The masses of limestone were not unfrequently of considerable 
size; indeed one of them required to be blasted twice, and another three 
times, in order to effect their removal; and some of the blocks of stalagmite 
measured fully 15 cubic feet. 

From the entrance of the First Reach to about 10 feet within it, the 
upper surface of the Cave-earth was almost perfectly horizontal; but from 
the latter point it rose irregularly higher and higher, until, at the inner end 
of the Second Reach, the increased height amounted to about 9 feet. There 
were no tunnels or burrows in the deposit, such as occurred in both the 
Sally-ports, and were described in the Fifth and Sixth Reports (1869 and 
1870). Near the inner end of the Second Reach the Caye-earth adjacent to 
the walls was cemented into a concrete. 

The deposit in the lateral ramifications of the Passage was the same typi- 
cal Cave-earth, containing blocks of old crystalline stalagmite and angular 
pieces of limestone, but without any Stalagmitie Floor. 

It was stated in the Sixth Report (1870), p. 26, that at the third External 
Entrance, 2. ¢. the first of the low-level series, the deposits were of two 
kinds—the ordinary Cave-earth, with the usual osseous remains, below; and 
small angular pieces of limestone, with but little earth and no fossils, above. 
Materials of precisely the same character, and in the same order, were found 
at the new low-level Entrance, at the eastern end of the Second Reach of 
Smerdon’s Passage, as already stated. 

Besides a large number of bones, portions of bones, and fragments of 
antlers, a total of fully 2900 teeth were found in the Passage andits rami- 

B2 


A REPORT—1871. 


fications, of which 700 were reported at Liverpool*. The remaining 2200, 
exhumed since the end of August 1870, belonged to different kinds of animals, 
in the ratios shown in the following list :— 


Ayena i. 666s. 335 per thousand. | Bear 2.4..5..%. 18 per thousand. 
Horse IE PP. 295 5 Oa are a ac 12 A 
Rhinoceros .... 161 a Ton, #2520 RAS on by 
“Trish Elk”.... 55 55 Reindeer ...... 5 M 
Ome Cie ren 2a 35 Z, Wolf “7. 24 eya 4 z 
Meer!) LPF I4 27 4 ar) as 2 
Badger)! 22 “5 Rabbit ¢ View A 1 Pe 
Elephant ...... 20 + Dog (?) .. less than 1 E 


On comparing the foregoing list with those given for the Sally-ports in 
the Sixth Report (pp. 19 and 24), it will be found to differ from them in 
containing neither Sheep nor Pig, and in the diminished prevalence of Rabbit 
and Badger. 

Many of the teeth are in fragments of jaws, which have, in most cases, 
lost their condyles and their inferior borders. They belong to individuals of 
all ages, from the baby Elephant, whose molar crown was no more than ‘8 
inch long, and the Hyzna, whose second set had made their appearance 
before the dislodgement of the first, to the wasted remnant of an adult tooth 
of the Mammoth, and the canine of the Bear worn quite to the fang. 

Many of the bones and teeth are discoloured, a large number are gnawed 
(generally, no doubt, by the Hyzena, but occasionally by some smaller animal), 
and a considerable proportion of them, at all levels, are more or less covered 
with films of stalagmitic matter. On some of the specimens are peculiar 
markings, produced perhaps by fine rootlets of trees having grown round 
them. Some marked in this way were found with living rootlets surround- 
ing them. 

Coprolitic matter was by no means abundant, only one example of it 
having been met with in the entire Passage. 

In various parts of the Passage considerable heaps of small bones, some- 
times agglutinated, were found here and there on the surface, or but little 
below it. In one instance as many as 8400 were picked out of 120 cubic 
inches of material. 

At the junction of the two Reaches of the Passage, a large ledge or cur- 
tain of limestone projected downwards from the roof considerably below the 
usual level. On the inner or northern side of it there was found a wheel- 
barrow full of bones, fragments of bones, and teeth, of a considerable variety 
of animals, all huddled together. 

It was stated in the First Report (Birmingham, 1865+) that the Cayve- 
earth was excavated in “ Parallels,” the length of which was thesame as 
the width of the Chamber &c., where this was not excessive, breadth in- 
variably 1 foot, and depth 4 feet, where this gave the men sufficient height 
to work in comfort, or 5 feet where it did not; that each parallel was 
divided into successive horizontal “ Levels,” a foot in depth ; and that each 
level was subdivided into lengths or “ Yards,” each 3 feet long and, from 
what has been stated, a foot square in the section, thus rendering it easy 
to define and record the position of every object discovered. 

Smerdon’s Passage and its lateral branches contained 78 “Parallels” of 


* See Sixth Report, 1870, p. 27. t See pp. 19, 20. 


_ —— ed 


ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 5 


Cave-earth, and, as it was necessary to excavate to the depth of 5 feet*, a 
total of 390 separate “ foot-levels.”” The following Table shows the distri- 
bution of the teeth of the different kinds of animals in the various “ Paral- 
lels” and “ Levels.” 


| _|# Bi 
3S : 2 H 4 3) oe] 
q g So | F o | 4 : . | os 2 7S la. 
aol ea loset all meces x | © 1S.) 3 mel ich Wtete lai leet = 
BS ot | u : o rs 2 oS 4 .S I Oo |+/-Q} 40 
Hitia@ lr |/é6/Als@lelalaelslie/e eligea 
Sreiloles es: 71| 68| 60| 29 | 43/23/14] 27) 99/14/11} 11| 9 \1lels 
icc ..... aa 44092 16 }-16) oF IL |e | @l mie, bei ioe 
aaa Bal | 49/11/23) 7| 2) 1 ot or at Pees len 
> 43| 37| 83/16/13} 7| 2] 9/10] 4] 6] 4] 4/0 Ile 
mike... 98} 922} 9/13] 7/...1 51 5| 4/ 21 5/3 
RRB icy cao, FON AERO IO eve Goh Bila WasBiles 4ahe Behucde by Bok ae 
Total Levels ...|188|176/139| 49 | 71 | 33 | 15 | 40 | 34 | 18 | 13 | 14 | 10 /1l2l3 


By way of explanation, it may be stated that teeth of Hyzna, for exam- 
ple, were found in 71 of the 78 “parallels,” at all “levels,” and in 188 
*‘ foot-levels,” or very nearly one half of the total number ; and,so on for the 
other kinds of animals. 

A glance at the Table shows that, in the case of the most prevalent 
animals—Hyzena, Horse, and Rhinoceros—their teeth were most frequently 
met with (not necessarily met with in greatest numbers) in the second 
“ foot-level,” below which they were less and less frequent as the level was 
lower ; that the Badger was most frequently met with in the uppermost 
*< foot-level,” and never found below the third; that teeth of Lion were not 
found in the uppermost “level,” and occurred most frequently in the third; 
that those of Wolf did not present themselves in the lowest or fifth “ foot- 
level; ” that Bat and Rabbit were restricted to the uppermost “ level,” the 
former to one “parallel” and the latter to two; and that the Hyena had 
the widest distribution, both as regards “ parallels” and “levels.” 

Twelve Flint flakes and chips were found in the Second Reach of the 
Passage—=3 in the first or uppermost “ foot-level,”’ 3 in the second, 3 in the 
third, and 4 in the fourth; there were none in the First Reach, or in the 
lateral branches. Compared with the fine specimens met with in previous 
years in other parts of the Cavern, they are perhaps of but little value. 
Some of them are rather chert than flint, and with one exception (No. 3554) 
—a well-designed but roughly finished lanceolate implement—they are all 
of the prevalent white colour. 

In the Second Reach there was also found a lance-shaped bone tool 

_ (No, 3428), 2-7 inches long, 1-1 inch broad at the butt end, flat on one face and 
uniformly convex on the other, reduced to a thin edge all round the margin 
except at the butt end, where it was cut off sharply but somewhat obliquely, 
tapering gradually to a rounded point, and -4 inch in greatest thickness. In 
short, it closely resembled in form and size many of the lanceolate flint im- 
plements of the Cavern series, with the single exception that it was not cari- 
nated on the convex face. It was found on October 5th, 1870, in the first 
“foot-level” of Cave-earth, lying with 6 teeth of Hyzna, 1 of Rhinoceros, 


_ * In two or three “ Parallels” it was requisite to go to the depth of 6 feet, in order to 
pass under the “Curtain” of limestone mentioned above. 


6 REPORT—1871. 


1 of Bear, 1 of Horse, 1 of “ Irish Elk,” 2 jaws of Badger containing four 
teeth, bones and fragments of bone, some of which were gnawed and some 
invested with films of stalagmite. 

It has been already stated that at its eastern extremity the Second Reach 
of Smerdon’s Passage terminated in a “ low-level”? External Entrance, filled 
with true Cave-earth below, above which lay an accumulation of small an- 
gular stones with but little earth. In the lower deposit the ordinary mam- 
malian remains were found, including teeth and bones of Hyzna, Horse, 
Rhinoceros, “ Irish Elk,” Ox, Elephant, Bear, and Reindeer; but the only 
thing met with in the materials above was an amber bead, ellipsoidal in form, 
but somewhat thicker on one side than the other, -9 inch in greatest dia- 
meter and ‘5 inch in least, and haying at its centre a cylindrical perforation 
about *2 inch in diameter. 

The excavation of Smerdon’s Passage was completed on December 31st, 
1870, after very nearly five months having been expended on it. From its 
prevalent narrowness, the labour in it had been attended with much dis- 
comfort ; but probably no branch of the Cavern had, on the whole, yielded 
a larger number of mammalian remains. 

Minor Ramifications of the North Sally-port.—It was stated in the Sixth 
Report (1870)*, that there were one or two ramifications of the North Sally- 
port which had not been excavated, having been passed intentionally in the 
progress of the work. To these attention was given on the completion of 
Smerdon’s Passage, and they were taken in the order of their proximity to 
the “‘ Third External Entrance,’’—the first discovered of the low-level series. 

The first was a small opening in the east wall of the last Reach of the 
North Sally-port, having its limestone floor very slightly above the top of 
the deposit in that Reach. It proved to be a tunnel in the limestone, having 
a rudely triangular transverse section, from 2°5 to 3 feet in height and 
breadth, and extending eastwards or outwards towards the hill-side for 
about 8 feet, where it terminated in material of the same character as that 
found above the Cave-earth in the first and second low-level External En- 
trances, from the first of which it was about 12 feet distant. There is no 
doubt that it is a third of these low-level Entrances, and, to use the time- 
honoured phraseology in descriptions of Kent’s Hole, it may be termed the 
“Oven” Entrance. It contained but little deposit, and the only noteworthy 
objects found in it were one tooth of Horse, a few bones and bone fragments, 
and a grit pebble. 

The second of these small lateral branches was in the south wall of the 
immediately preceding or penultimate Reach of the Sally-port, and was 
too narrow to admit of being excavated in “ Parallels” and “ Levels.” In 
it were found 7 teeth of Hyzna, 10 of Horse, 3 of Rhinoceros, 1 of Bear, 
1 of Lion, 1 of “ Irish Elk,” 1 of Ox, 16 of Badger in parts of 4 jaws, 10 of 
Rabbit in parts of 2 jaws, portion of an antler, a right femur of Beaver, 
bones and fragments of bone, a bit of charcoal, and a grit pebble. It is 
noteworthy, perhaps, that the fine specimen of Beayer’s jaw meutioned last 
yeart was found about 4 or 5 feet from the femur just named, and in the 
fourth “ foot-level.” 

The third and last of these lateral ramifications was near that part of the 
Sally-port termed the “Isiands”t. It yielded 2 teeth of Hyena, 1 of 
Horse, 3 of Rhinoceros, 1 of Bear, 3 of “ Irish Elk,” 4 of Deer, 2 of Badger, 
4 of Rabbit, an astragalus of Ox, bones and bone fragments, and, in the 
uppermost ‘‘ foot-level,” 2 land-shells, 


* See p. 25. t See Sixth Report, 1870, p. 24. t Ibid. p. 21. 


————? 


ae 


—— oe 


ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 7 


- On January 17th, 1871, the workmen finally and gladly emerged from the 

labyrinth of low narrow passages in which they had been engaged from day 
to day from November 13th, 1869, or upwards of 14 months. In this time 
they had not only excavated and taken to the day the deposits, to the depth 
of 5 feet, in all the extensive and ramifying branches known as the North 
Sally-port and Smerdon’s Passage, and exhumed eartloads of the remains of 
various animals, including 5900 of their teeth, as well as 20 flint implements 
and flakes, but, beyond the first Reach of the Sally-port (27 feet long), they 
had actually discovered the whole of these branches, including three new 
entrances to the Cavern itself, and had thus added greatly, not only to the 
extent of Kent’s Hole, but to a knowledge of its structure. 

The completion of these branches concluded the excavation, to the depth 
of 4 feet generally, and 5 feet in some instances, below the Stalagmitic Floor, 
of the whole of the Eastern Division of the Cavern. 

The Cavern Entrances.—Before proceeding to a description of the branch 
which next engaged attention, it may be of service to devote a few words to 
the Entrances of the Cavern, of which there are now known to be five (two 
at a high and three at a low level), all in the eastern side of the hill, and 
within a horizontal distance of 53 feet. Those at the high-level (known 
from time immemorial) are about 53 feet apart, almost exactly on the same 
level, and about 189 feet above mean tide. The most northerly of them is 
that invariably spoken of in all early descriptions of the Cavern as “ The 
Entrance.” Those of the lower series are also at very nearly the same level 
with one another, but from 18 to 20 feet below the former two. Being 
lower in the sloping hill-side, they are about 24 feet outside or east of the 
vertical plane passing through the higher entrances. The most southerly 
ones in the two series are nearly in the same east and west vertical plane. 

In order to distinguish them, they are respectively termed :— _ 

1. **The Entrance,’’=the more northerly of the upper series, and, from its 
form, sometimes termed the “Triangular Entrance.” It opens into the 
“ Vestibule.” 

2. The “ Arched Entrance,”=the more southerly of the upper series. 
It opens into the ‘* Great Chamber.” 

3. The “ First Low-level Entrance,”=the middle one of the lower series— 
the first discovered. It opens into the “ North Sally-port” and the “ First 
Reach of Smerdon’s Passage.” 

4, The “ Second Low-level Entrance,”=the most northerly of the lower 
series—the second discovered. It opens into the “‘ Second Reach of Smerdon’s 
Passage.” 

5. The “Oven Entrance,”=the most southerly of the lower series—the 
last discovered. It opens into the “ North Sally-port.” 

The Sloping Chamber.—That branch of the Cavern termed the “ Sloping 
Chamber” by Mr. M‘Enery was, prior to the Committee’s exploration of 
the “ Great Chamber,” the largest apartment in it, and is still, perhaps, more 
ealeulated than any other to impress visitors. It is the only connexion of 
the two great divisions of the Cavern, and measures 80 feet from east to 
west, 25 in greatest breadth, and, since the excavation of its deposits to the 
depth of 4 feet below the base of the Stalagmitic Floor, 25 in greatest 
height. Its name was derived from its floor, which, from 20 feet from its 
eastern side, sloped rapidly towards its western side, falling as much as 14 
feet in 60, or at an average angle of 13°-5. Its ceiling sloped more 

rapidly still, being, as already stated, 25 feet high near the eastern wall, but 
not more than 6 feet at the western. This ceiling, though representing the 


8 REPORT—1871. 


dip of the limestone strata in a general way, is extremely rugged,—here re- 
treating into deep cavities whence huge masses of limestone have fallen, and 
there ornamented with numerous and heavy masses of Stalactite. Indeed 
the finest Stalactites in the Cavern occur in it ; and one known as the “‘ Chan- 
delier” has always been much admired. A very strong light is required, 
however, to bring out all the features of the ceiling. 

During the autumn of 1866, the upper, or eastern, or level portion of this 
Chamber was explored, and the results were described in the Third Report 
(Dundee, 1867). Mr. M‘Enery, too, had made extensive, no doubt his most 
extensive, diggings near the foot of the incline, where he “ succeeded in sink- 
ing a shaft to the depth of 30 feet at the bottom of the slope, with the view 
of reaching the original floor ”*, which, however, was not realized. Having 
broken the floor for his shaft, and finding the work very laborious, he availed 
himself of the opening thus made to extend his diggings eastward, keeping 
just beneath the floor, which he left spanning his broken ground like an 
arch, 

As it was obvious that a very considerable amount of deposit still remained 
intact, it was decided, on the completion of Smerdon’s Passage, to resume the 
excavation, not only in the hope of obtaining some of the paleontological 
treasures with which, according to Mr. M‘Enery, the Chamber abounded, but 
also as a pre-requisite to the exploration of the “ Wolf’s Den” and the “ Long 
Arcade,” into which it opened on the north and south respectively. 

The uppermost deposit, as in the adjacent parts of the Cavern, was the 
Black Mould so frequently mentioned in all previous Reports; and as the 
Chamber was the only capacious apartment near the Entrance, and the only 
road to the Western Division of the Cavern, which, from some cause, seems 
to have been more attractive than the Eastern to visitors in, at least, all 
recent times}, it might have been expected that many comparatively modern 
objects of interest would have been found in the Mould. In reality,how- 
ever, such objects were by no means abundant—a fact which may be ex- 
plicable, perhaps, on the hypothesis that they had been collected by Mr. 
M‘Enery and other early explorers. The only things found in this deposit 
(which, it may be stated, was of inconsiderable depth) were shells of cockle, 
limpet, and pecten ; two potsherds—one black and of coarse clay, the other 
brown, in which the clay was finer; a flint chip and a core of the same ma- 
terial ; a spindle-whorl of fine-grained micaceous grit, 1°5 inch in diameter, 
‘5 inch in thickness, and having its external edges rounded off; and a bone 
awl, 3:7 inches long, ‘7 inch broad at the butt end, and partially covered 
with a film of stalagmite. 

Beneath the Black Mould came the ordinary floor of granular and lami- 
nated stalagmite, in which, as well as in the deposit beneath, the rugged 
character of the ceiling suggested that a considerable number of large masses 
of limestone would be found. Their presence in the floor, moreover, was 
indicated by the nature of its upper surface, which, though a continuous 
sheet, with one exception to be noticed hereafter, was so very uneven 
as to induce an early guide to the Cavern to confer on it the appellation of 
the ‘“ Frozen Billows.” Accordingly, the Floor proved to be, with an excep- 


* See Trans. Devon. Assoc. vol. iii. p. 248 (1869). 

t The following fact seems to be confirmatory on this point:—There are in the various 
branches of the Western Division (sometimes in places of difficult access) numerous 
initials and dates on the limestone walls and on bosses of stalagmite—some engraved, 


some smoked, and some merely chalked—while there are extremely few in the Eastern 
Division, 


ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 9 


tion here and there, a brecciated mass composed of large and small pieces of 
limestone and blocks of the well-known old crystalline stalagmite, all ce- 
mented together and covered with a sheet of the cementing material. 

Near the upper part of the slope, and on its southern margin, a space about 
14 feet long and varying from 3 to 12 feet broad was without any trace of 
floor, but occupied with large loose pieces of limestone. Elsewhere the sheet 
was perfectly continuous until reaching the area in which Mr. M‘Enery had 
dug his shaft. The Floor commonly measured from 12 to 30 inches in thick- 
ness, but adjacent to the southern wall it was fully 3 feet, and contained few 
or no stones. 

On being broken into small pieces and carefully examined, it was found 
to contain 2 teeth of Horse, a portion of a jaw, 2 bones, and half of a frac- 
tured flint nodule. About 30 feet down the slope, a series of dark parallel 
lines were observed in the Floor, the uppermost being about 2 inches below 
the upper surface. On the advance of the work, they proved to be continuous 
downward, and to have a greater and greater thickness of stalagmite over 
them. On careful examination, it was found that each represented what for 
a time had been the upper surface of the Stalagmitic Floor of the Chamber, 
and was due to the presence of comminuted charcoal and other dark-coloured 
extraneous matter. Such a “charcoal streak” also occurred, according to 
Mr. M‘Enery, in the “ Long Arcade,” within a few feet of the same spot*. 
The workmen were directed to detach a specimen of the Floor where the 
streaks were well displayed, and in doing so were so fortunate as to make 
their fracture at a place where a large cockle-shell lay firmly imbedded in 
the lowest streak, at a depth of about 8 inches below the surface. Whilst 
splitting up the Stalagmite on May 16th, 1871, two specimens of well-marked 
fern-impressions were found in it, about 3 inches below the surface, Nothing 
of the kind had ever been noticed before. 

Below the Stalagmite, as usual, lay the Cave-earth, in which, as was an- 
ticipated, pieces of limestone were unusually abundant. Some of them 
~ieasured several feet in length and breadth, and were fully 2 feet thick. 
There were also numerous blocks of the old crystalline stalagmite, measuring 
in some instances upwards of 4 cubic yards, and not unfrequently projecting 
from the Cave-earth into the overlying granular floor. Though they were 
carefully broken up, nothing was found in them. 

In that portion of the Cave-earth which was found intact, there occurred, 
as usual, remains of the ordinary Cave-mammals, including about 550 teeth, 
which may be apportioned as in the following list :— 


Meeeenia....... 25... 39 per cent. | Reindeer.......... 2 per cent. 
lig 1) See 285 ap Osere ta. ie arte eisions 2 BS 
Rhinoceros ........ 14 ¥ Hlephant.. ..ccee sO . 
MM st. ee eee 4 “*s Wrage Ae foe st st ce i Fe 
men Blk” ...... ee leah INEGI tess atk) ahs s Sore 1 A 

_ ASS aoe tons Dog (?) only one tooth. 


It is, perhaps, worthy of remark that though wild animals still frequent 
Kent’s Hole, and there is reason to believe that some of them have in recent 
times carried in the bones of others on which they preyed, though the Sloping 
Chamber is near and between the two high-level Entrances, though the 
Floor was broken up and thus gave the readiest access to the Cave-earth, and 
though Mr. M‘Enery discontinued his labours upwards of 40 years ago, of 
which more than 30 were years of quietude in the Cavern, there is in the 


* See Trans. Devon. Assoc. vol. iii. pp. 236, 261, 262 (1869), 


10 . REPORT—1871.. 


foregoing list not only neither Sheep nor Pig, but neither Badger, Rabbit, 
Hare, nor Vole, all of which have been found in other branches, in deposits 
accessible to burrowing animals. 

In the Cave-earth there were also found 52 flint implements, flakes, and 
chips,—-3 of them in the first or uppermost foot-level, 16 im the second, 15 in 
the third, and 18 in the fourth or lowest. Though none of them are equal 
to the best the Cavern has yielded in previous years, there are some good 
lanceolate implements amongst them. 

No. 3693 is of light brown translucent flint, 1-85 inch in length, *9 inch in 
greatest breadth, -175 inch in greatest thickness, nearly flat on one side, and 
carinated on the other. It was found with a few bones in the first foot- 
level, amongst loose stones, where there was no Stalagmitic Floor over it; 
hence it may be doubted whether it belongs to the Paleolithic series—a doubt 
strengthened by the modern aspect of the implement. 

No. 3754, of the usual white flint, is 4-2 inches long, -9 inch in greatest 
breadth, -3 inch in-greatest thickness, both longitudinally and transversely 
concave on one side, has a medial ridge on the other, from which, at about 
an inch from one end, a second ridge proceeds, and has a thin but uneven 
edge. It was probably pointed at each end, but has unfortunately been 
broken at one of them. It was found on March the 6th, 1871, in the second 
foot-level, with splinters of bone, beneath a Stalagmitic Floor 18 inches 
thick. 

No. 5430, also of white flint, as somewhat irregular in form, but 1 may be 
termed rudely lanceolate; it is 2°7 inches in length, 1°5 inch in extreme 
breadth, -3 inch in greatest thickness, slightly concave on one face and ir- 
regularly convex on the other. It was found on March 30th, 1871, with 2 
teeth of Horse, 1 of Hyzena, and fragments of bone, in the second “ foot- 
level,” without any Stalagmitic Floor over it. 

No. 3732, a whitish flint, is 2°3 inches long, 1-1 inch in breadth, which is 
nearly uniform from end to end, slightly concave on one face, convex on the 
other, on which there are three slight, parallel, longitudinal , ridges, sharply 
truncated at both ends, but primarily thin at the sides. It was found on 
February 27th, 1871, in the third “ foot-level,” with a tooth of Hyena and 
fragments of bone, without any Stalagmitic Floor over it. 

No. 5435, a slightly mottled white flint, is 2-1 inches long, 1-1 inch broad, 
‘4 inch in greatest thickness, flat on one face, strongly ridged on the other, 
abruptly truncated at one end, but thin everywhere else; and retains its width 
almost to the opposite end, which is bluntly rounded. It was found on 31st 
March, 1871, with a portion of Deer’s jaw and fragments of bone, in the 
third “ foot-level,” beneath a Stalagmitic Floor, 2 feet thick. 

No. 3687, a mottled flint with white prevailing, is 2°6 inches long, 1-2 
inch in greatest breadth, -3 inch in greatest thickness, broadest near the 
middle, whence it tapers in both directions, somewhat pointed at one end 
but not at the other, nearly flat on one face and convex on the other, on 
which there are two ridges—one subcentral and the other nearly marginal. 
It was found on February 7th, 1871, in the fourth or lowest foot-level, with 
1 tooth of Horse, 1 of Hyena, and a fragment of bone, without any Stalag- 
mitic Floor over it. 

No. 5475 so closely resembles No. 3732, mentioned above, as to need no 
further description. It was found February 27th, 1871, with 1 tooth of Hyena 
and fragments of bone, in the fourth “ foot-level,” but had no Stalagmitie 
Floor over it. 

In this connexion may be mentioned a piece of calcareous spar, which 


ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. il 


appears to have been tised as a polishing-stone. It was found March 8th, 
1871, with 2 teeth of Hyena, 2 of Horse, 3 of Rhinoceros, gnawed bones, 
and a flint flake, in the fourth “ foot-level,’’ having over it a Stalagmitic Floor 
18 inches thick. No such specimen had been noticed before. 

A piece of burnt bone was found on the 22nd of the same month, with 
fragments of bone and fxcal matter, in the second “ foot-level,” having a 
Stalagmitic Floor over it. 

Mr. M‘Enery appears to have excavated beyond the limits of his shaft, not 
only in an easterly direction, as has been already stated, but also, at least, 
north and south of it. So far as can be determined, the shaft was first sunk, 
and the material taken out lodged between it and the western wall of the 
Chamber, after which he undertook what may be called the adjacent hori- 
zontal diggings, and filled up the shaft with a portion of the excavated matter, 
thereby rendering it impossible to determine the exact site of the shaft itself, 
He does not appear to have taken outside the Cavern any portion of the deposit 
in order to ensure its more complete examination; hence it is not probable 
that all its contents were detected. Indeed, when speaking of his researches 
in this Chamber, he says, “ It was feared that in the ardour of the first search, 
facts of importance might have been overlooked. The mass of mould thrown 
up on the former occasion was therefore a second time turned over and care- 
fully searched, but nothing new was brought to light ’’*. 

This mass the Superintendents decided on taking out of the Cavern, 
partly to facilitate the excavation of deposits certainly intact beyond, and 
also because it was thought likely to be lodged on unbroken ground. Though 
there seemed but little prospect of finding any thing by subjecting it to a 
third search, such a search was nevertheless made, and did not go unre- 
warded. The heap, though mainly of Cave-earth, included fragments of the 
granular Stalagmitic Floor and portions of the Black Mould, and yielded 
hundreds of bones and portions of bones (one having an artificial hole lined 
with stalagmitic matter), fragments of antlers, the largest fragment of an Ele- 
phant’s tusk that the Committee have met with, 143 teeth of Hyzena, 153 of 
Horse, 45 of Rhinoceros, 27 of Deer, including “ Irish Elk ” and Reindeer, 6 
of Bear, 5 of Ox, 5 of Sheep, 3 of Elephant, 3 of Wolf, 3 of Dog (?), 2 of Fox, 
2 of Pig, and 1 of Lion, a few marine shells, several fragments of black pot- 
tery, 4 pieces of stalagmite with fern-impressions, and 13 flint implements 
and flakes,—all, with one exception, of the prevalent white colour, and two 
of them decidedly good specimens of the strongly ridged lanceolate forms. 
In short, the virgin soil, in some parts of the Cavern, has been less pro- 
ductive than was this mass which had been twice carefully searched, but by 
eandle-light only. 

As was thought probable, the mass of dislodged materials proved to be 
lying on ground which had never been broken. Between Mr. M‘Enery’s 
shaft and the west wall of the Chamber there was a space of at least 17 
feet; and at 14 fect from the wall the Cave-earth was found to have not 
only the ordinary granular Stalagmitic Floor overlying it, but to be de- 
posited on another and necessarily an older Floor of the same material, but 
which, instead of being granular, was made up of prismatic crystals—posses+ 
sing, in short, the characters both of position and structure of the Old Crys- 
talline Floor found in the “ Lecture Hall” and “ South-west Chamber,” and 
described in the Fourth Report (Norwich, 1868),—a remnant, in situ, of the 
Floor which had furnished the large blocks of stalagmite found in the Cave-~ 


* See Trans. Devon. Assoc. vol, iii. p. 289 (1869). 


12 REPORT—1871. 


earth in the Sloping Chamber, as already stated. From the point where it was 
first seen, it was everywhere continuous up to the western wall. Its thickness 
has not been ascertained; for though it was partially broken up in cutting 
the four-feet section, the bottom of it was not reached. No objects of any 
kind were found in it. Had Mr. M‘Enery’s excavations been carried but a 
yard further west he must have encountered it, and would have been enabled 
to solve the problem of the blocks which he so often found in the Cave- 
earth, 

The Committee are most anxious to guard against the impression that, in 
any of the foregoing remarks, they have been unmindful of the service which 
Mr. M‘Enery rendered to science, or have the most remote wish to depre- 
ciate the value of his long-continued labours. Indeed, when they remember 
that the means at his disposal must have been very limited, and that he was 
amongst the pioneers in cavern searching, they cannot but feel that the 
extent and results of his investigations are richly entitled to the warmest 
praise. 

They venture, however, to take this opportunity of stating that, in order 
to a thorough and satisfactory investigation, cavern-deposits should be ex- 
cavated, not by sinking occasional shafts, but continuously in a horizontal direc- 
tion, to a uniform depth not exceeding 5 or at most 6 feet at first; that 
the material should be carefully examined in situ, and then taken to day- 
light for re-examination. Through not following the first, Mr. M‘Enery 
failed to understand the exact historical order of the Cavern-deposits ; and 
through not being able to accomplish the second, he passed over many speci- 
mens calculated to have modified his conclusions, and which he would have 
been delighted to have found. For example, when speaking of the Sloping 
Chamber, he says, “ The [Stalagmitic] crust is thickest in the middle... . 
for opening the excavation, the same means were employed as to break up 
a mass of ancient masonry. Flint blades were detected in it at all depths, 
even so low as to come in contact with the fossil bones and their earthy 
matrix, but never below them” *. During the last six months, however, the ex- 
cayations made in the same Chamber, and in the immediate neighbourhood of 
his, have brought forth Flint implements from every level of the Cave-earth 
to which the work has been carried, and they were actually found in 
greatest numbers in the lowest levels. To this may be added the fact that 
in his heap of refuse-matter, which he had twice examined, there were, as 
has been already said, upwards of a dozen flint blades, such as he stated 
never occurred 7m the Cave-earth. Had the soil been examined in daylight, 
they could not have been overlooked; for, instead of being specimens of 
little value, they are better far than some of those which he figured ; and it 
is but right to add that many of those found by the Committee were thus 
detected. 

Again, Mr. M‘Enery was keenly watchful for extraneous objects in the 
Stalagmitic Floor; and, from his silence on the question, it may be safely 
concluded that he never saw fern-impressions in it; nevertheless his refuse- 
heap contained four small slabs of the floor, in each of which was a 
well-marked impression, requiring not additional manipulation, but simple 
daylight for their detection. Indeed every specimen of this kind has been 
recognized outside the Cavern only. 

The four slabs just mentioned, as well as the two found by the Committee 
in the Floor they broke up, have been submitted to Mr. W. Carruthers, 


* See Trans. Devon. Assoc. vol. iii. p. 247 (1869). 


ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. lo 


F.R.S8., of the British Museum, who has kindly furnished the following note 
respecting them :— 
“ British Museum, 10 July, 1871. 

“ The ferns are specimens of Pteris aquilina, Linn., and have belonged to 
very luxuriant plants; they do not differ from those now growing in Eng- 
land. It is possible that the fragment ;,, may be another species, but it 
is too imperfect to determine, and it may only be a barren portion of the 
Pteris, with shorter and broader pinnules than the other specimens. 

(Signed) « Wa. CARRUTHERS.” 


Returning for a moment to the Old Crystalline Stalagmitic Floor beneath 
the Cave-earth, it was observed that, like the modern and granular one, it 
had here and there on its upper surface conical bosses rising above its gene- 
ral level, and that there were corresponding protuberances vertically above 
them on the upper floor. The same fact had been noticed in the other 
branches of the Cavern where the two Floors occurred in the same vertical 
sections,—a fact apparently warranting the conclusion that the drainage 
through the Cayern-roof underwent no important change during the entire 
period represented by the two floors and the intervening Cave-earth. 
When to this it is added that such bosses are, at least in most cases, verti- 
cally beneath Stalactitic pendants on the ceiling, it may be further inferred 
that the ancient and modern lines of drainage are, in the main, identical. 

On the completion of the work in the Sloping Chamber, on July 11, 
1871, the excavation of the “‘ Wolf’s Den,” which opens out of its northern 
side, was begun. It was in this Den that Mr. M‘Enery found the canines 
of Machairodus latidens, which have excited so much attention. No such 
specimens haye been met with during the present investigation up to this 
time. 

The Committee, believing it possible that the subject might prove to be 
‘connected with their researches, have from time to time mentioned the 
-occasional occurrence of living animals in the Cavern*. Indeed, Kent’s 
Hole is not better known to the paleontologist as a store-house of mamma- 
Jian remains, than to the Devonshire naturalist as a home of the Great 
Horseshoe Bat (Rhinolophus ferrum-equinum, Leach) ; and every visitor, be- 
fore the present exploration, must have frequently seen them hanging from 
the walls of the more retired branches. The following facts have presented 
themselves during the last twelve months :— 

Whilst the excavation of one of the lateral branches of Smerdon’s Passage 
was in progress, a considerable number of fresh spindle-shaped feeces, about 
*6 inch long and -2 inch thick, were observed lying on the surface of the 
Cave-earth, while between it and the roof there was an interspace just 
sufficient to allow an animal about the size of a Badger to pass. 

The workmen having observed that the candles were much nibbled during 
their absence, that the greasy wooden candlesticks were sometimes carried off 
and some of them, after a few days, found secreted in small holes, set a suit- 
ably baited gin for the suspected offender. Their efforts were rewarded the 
next morning by finding a rat dead in the trap. 

Old newspapers cc. are occasionally sent to the Cavern for the purpose of 
wrapping up small boxes of specimens, or such delicate objects as need more 
than ordinary care. On November 28th, 1871, the workmen, using in this way 
a part of a copy of the ‘ Saturday Review,’ unintentionally left one complete 
and sound sheet, 7. ¢. two leaves, near the spot where they had been at work. 


* See Reports Brit. Assoc. 1869, p. 204, and 1870, p. 27. 


14. ei REPORT—1871, 


The next morning they found the paper precisely where they had left it, 
but with about one-fifth of one of the leaves gone, and the broken margin 
of the remainder apparently nibbled. There was nothing to prevent the 
whole from being taken off, and it was noted that, though left in a preca- 
rious position, it had not fallen down. The broken leaf was then torn off 
and preserved, whilst the unbroken one was allowed to remain as a further 
experiment. The next morning no trace of it was to be seen. That eyen- 
ing a rat-trap was set at the spot, and very near it another leaf of paper was 
placed, haying on it a small stone, which it was supposed a rat, but not 
a smaller animal, might be capable of moving. The next morning the 
paper was found where it had been put, but very much nibbled, whilst the 
trap and the grease with which it was baited appeared to have not been 
touched. Before leaving work, the men baited the trap with a tempting end 
of candle, and placed it on a leaf of paper; whilst another leaf, weighted 
with a lump of earth, was placed near. On the following morning both 
pieces of paper were found to be considerably eaten or torn; and it was 
noted that the injury done to the former was within the margin of the trap 
placed on it, whilst the trap itself, as well as its bait, remained unaffected, 
further than that there were on it a few spindle-shaped feces about a quar- 
ter of an inch long. There can be no doubt that some animal, probably 
smaller than a rat, carried off the missing leaf to a recess in the Cavern, 
where it may serve to make its nest comfortable, and perhaps hereafter to 
puzzle a cavern searcher who may discover it. 


Fourth Report of the Committee for the purpose of investigating the 
rate of Increase of Underground Temperature downwards in vari- 
ous Localities of Dry Land and under Water. Drawn up by Prof. 
Everett, at the request of the Committee, consisting of Sir Wm. 
Tomson, F.R.S., Sir Coartes Lye, Bart., F.R.S., Prof. J. Churx 
Maxwe tt, F.R.S., Prof. Puruures, F.R.S., G. J. Symons, F.M.S., 
Dr. Batrour Stewart, F.R.S., Prof. Ramsay, F.R.S., Prof. A. 
Geikiz, F.R.S., James Guatsner, F.R.S., Rev. Dr. Granam, 
E. W. Binney, F.R.S., Grorcze Maw, F.G.S., W. PEence.ty, 
F.R.S., 8. J. Mackin, £.G.S., Epwarp Huu, F.R.S., and Prof. 
Everert, D.C.L. (Secretary). 


In last year’s Report, the intention was expressed of boring down at the 
bottom of Rosebridge Colliery, if the Association would provide the necessary 
funds. The circumstances were exceptionally inviting, and the Association 
very liberally granted the sum asked. The Secretary thereupon paid two 
visits to Rosebridge, descended and to some extent explored the colliery, in 
company with Mr. Bryham, and, after a careful study of the plans and sec- 
tions, agreed upon a particular spot where the bore was to be sunk. Tra- 
cings of the plans and sections were kindly sent by Mr. Bryham, who in 
every way cooperated most cordially, and gave much valuable assistance in 
arranging the scheme of operations. Several weeks elapsed, which were 
occupied in making and testing a very large spirit thermometer, suitable for 
reading in the bad light of a mine, and capable of being read, by estimation, 


i 


ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 15 


to the hundredth of a degree, from 90° to 110° F.; and on the 7th 
November the Secretary wrote to Mr. Bryham requesting him to commence 
operations. Unfortunately, during this brief interval, circumstances had 
changed. Ina neighbouring pit, where the workings were in the same seam of 
coal as at Rosebridge, though less deep by 200 yards, a considerable quantity 
of water was found in sinking into the strata underlying this seam. This 
was a very unexpected circumstance; and as any irruption of water at the 
bottom of Rosebridge pit, which is now quite dry, would be a most serious 
affair, Mr, Bryham was afraid to risk the experiment of boring down. Sub- 
sequent reflection has only confirmed him in the opinion that such a step 
would be hazardous, and the Committee have accordingly been most reluc- 
tantly compelled to renounce the plan. Mr. Bryham’s final refusal was 
received on the 28th February. 

Professor Ansted read a paper last year, in the Geological Section of the 
Association, upon the Alpine tunnel, commonly called the Mont-Cenis tun- 
nel, and in that paper some interesting statements were made regarding its 
temperature. Since that time, Professor Ansted has interchanged very 
numerous letters with the Secretary, and has furnished much valuable in- 
formation, gathered from Prof. Sismonda, of Turin, and from M. Borelli, the 
resident engineer of the tunnel. Observations which appear to be reliable 
have been made in bore-holes in the sides of the tunnel, and the tempera- 
tures thus observed have been compared with the estimated mean tempera- 
ture at the surface overhead, which in the highest part is a mile above the tun- 
nel, or 2905 metres above sea-level. It is directly under this highest part that 
the highest temperature is found in the walls of the tunnel, namely 299-5 C., 
or 85°:1 F., which is 9° F. lower than the temperature found at the bottom 
of the Rosebridge shaft at the depth of only 815 yards. But though the 
tunnel is at more than double this depth from the crest of the mountain 
over it, we must bear in mind that the surface-temperatures are very dif- 
ferent. In a paper published by the engineer of the tunnel, M. F. Giordano, 
the mean temperature of the air at the crest of the mountain (Mont Frejus) 
is calculated to be —2°-6 C., or 27°°3 F. Assuming this estimate to be 
correct, we haye a difference of 57°8 F. between the deepest part of the tun- 
nel and the air at the surface vertically over it; assuming further, as we did 
in the case of Rosebridge in last year’s Report, that the surface of the hill itself 
has a mean temperature 1° F. lower than that of the air above it, we have a 
difference of 56°-8 F., and the thickness of rock between is 1610 metres, or 
5280 feet (exactly a mile). This gives, by simple division, a rate of increase of 
1° F. for 93 feet ; but a very large correction must be applied for the con- 
yexity of the ground; for it is evident that a point in the ground vertically 
under a steep crest is more exposed to the cooling influence of the air than 
a point at the same depth beneath an extensive level surface. No correction 
for convexity would be needed if the temperature of the air decreased up- 
wards as fast as the temperature of the internal rock; but this is very far 
from being the case, the decrease being about 34 times more rapid in the 
rock than in the air. To form an approximate notion of the amount of this 
correction, we must determine, as well as we can, the forms of the succes- 
sive isothermal surfaces in the interior of the mountain. The tendency is 
for all corners and bends to be eased off as we descend, so that each suc- 
ceeding isothermal surface is flatter than the one above it. Accordingly, if 
we have a mountain rising out of a plain, without any change of material, the 
 isothermals will be further apart in a vertical through the crest of the moun- 
tain than under the plain on either side; they will also be further apart 


16 RrEPORT—1871. 


at the highest part of this vertical, that is close under the crest, than at a 
lower level in the same vertical. It would be absurd to pretend to fix the 
amount of the correction with accuracy; but it seems not unreasonable to 
estimate that, in the present case, the numer of isothermals cut through by a 
vertical line descending from the crest of the ridge to the tunnel itself is 
about seven-eighths of the number which would be cut through in sinking 
through an equal distance in level ground, other circumstances being the same. 
Instead of 1°in 93 feet, we should thus have 1° in 7 of 93, that is, in 81 feet. 

This is a slow rate of increase, and is about the same as Mr. Fairbairn 
found at Dukenfield. The rocks penetrated by the tunnel consist of highly 
metamorphosed material, and are described as belonging to the Jurassic 
series. No fossils have been found in them. For two-thirds of the length 
of the tunnel, beginning from the Italian end, they are remarkably uniform, 
and it is in this part that the observations have been taken. The following 
account of them has been given by Prof. Ansted (Pop. Sci. Review, Oct. 
1870, p. 351) :—‘ The rocks on which the observations have been made are 
absolutely the same, geologically and otherwise, from the entrance to the 
tunnel, on the Italian side, for a distance of nearly 10,000 yards. They 
are not faulted to any extent, though highly inclined, contorted, and sub- 
jected to slight slips and slides. They contain little water and no mineral 
veins. They consist, to a very large extent indeed, of silica, either as 
quartz or in the form of silicates, chiefly of alumina, and the small quantity 
of lime they contain is a crystalline carbonate.” 

This uniformity of material is very favourable to conduction, and the high 
inclination of the strata (in which respect these rocks resemble those at 
Dukenfield) also appears to promote either conduction proper or aqueous con- 
vection, which resembles conduction in its effects. As regards Mons. Gior- 
dano’s estimate of the mean air-temperature at the crest, it is obtained in 
the following way :—The hill of San Theodule is 430 metres higher, and 
the city of Turin is 2650 metres lower than the crest; the temperature of 
the former has been determined by one year’s observations to be —5°-1 C., 
and that of the latter is 12°5 C. Ifa decrease of 1° C. for every 174 metres 
of elevation be assumed (1° F. for 317 feet), we obtain, either by com- 
parison with San Theodule or with Turin, the same determination —2°-6 
for the air-temperature at the crest of the ridge over the tunnel. 

This mode of estimating the temperature appears very fair, though of 
course subject to much uncertainty ; and there is another element of uncer- 
tainty in the difference which may exist between the air-temperature and 
the rock-temperature at the summit. 

These two elements of uncertainty would be eliminated if a boring of 
from 50 to 100 feet were sunk at the summit, and observations of tempera- 
ture taken in it. The uncertain correction for convexity would still remain 
to be applied. It would therefore be desirable also to sink a boring, of about 
the same depth, in the plateau which extends for about a quarter of the 
length of the tunnel, beginning near the Italian end, its height above the 
tunnel being about a third of a mile. 

In November last, when very little information had reached this country 
respecting the temperature-observations in the tunnel, an urgent appeal was 
addressed, jointly by your Committee and by the Geographical Society (of 
which Prof. Ansted is Foreign Secretary), to M. Sismonda, requesting him 
to use his influence with the Italian authorities to-secure a series of accu- 
rate observations of the temperature in the sides of the tunnel, before time had 
been allowed for this temperature to undergo sensible change from its original 


ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 17 


value. It was also suggested that the mean temperature of the surface 
overhead should be examined by boring. 

M. Sismonda speedily replied, stating that he fully recognized the impor- 
tance of such experiments, and had already made arrangements with the 
Government at Turin, and with the contractors for the railway works, to 
have them carried out as fully and fairly as possible. Had the communica- 
tion reached him at a time of year when he could have travelled without 
great inconvenience, he would have gone to the spot himself; but as that 
was now impossible, the Government Commissioner for the works, M. Salva- 
tori, had undertaken to see the experiments carried through by employés 
under his orders. M. Sismonda further stated that, from the commence- 
ment of the tunnel, the Academy of Sciences of Turin had instituted a series 
of scientific observations in it, in which observations of temperature were 
included. The results of these observations he promised to forward as soon 
as they were completed and tabulated. 

On the receipt of the final refusal to bore down at the bottom of Rose- 
bridge Colliery, inquiries were instituted as to the feasibility of executing a 
similar operation in the deepest part of the Alpine tunnel. The contractors 
have, however, declined to grant permission, as the operation would involve 
additional encumbrance of the very narrow space in which their works are 
proceeding. It appears that.a length of a mile or more in the deepest part 
of the tunnel has not yet been opened out to the full width, so that oppor- 
tunity may yet be given to excavate a lateral heading and bore down, if the 
Association encourage the plan. 

Mr. G. J. Symons has repeated his observations in the Kentish Town 
well, at every fiftieth foot of depth, from 350 to 1100 feet, which is the 
lowest point attainable. As the water begins at the depth of 210 feet, all 
these observations may be regarded as unaffected by the influence of the 
external air, and they have now been sufficiently numerous at each depth 
to render further verification needless. The following are the results finally 
adopted, and they do not differ materially from those first published (Report 
for 1869). 


Depth, in | Tempera- | Difference | Difference | Difference | Feet per 
feet. ture. for 50 feet. | from 69°-9. from 1100 ft.| degree. 
ft. j ft. - ft. 
Pe ao 1-9 13-9 750 54-0 
: 115i) 12:0 700 58°3 
450 59-0 
1:0 10:9 650 59°6 
500 60-0 
9 9-9 600 60°6 
550 60-9 2 
3 9:0 550 61:1 
600 61:2 
“il 8°7 500 57°5 
650 61:3 = 
4 15 8:6 450 52°3 
700 62:8 
F 6 roi 400 56°3 
750 63°4 ~ 
; 3 65 350 53'8 
800 64-2 
; ‘8 5:7 300 52-6 
850 65:0 ¢ 
900 65-8 8 4:9 250 51:0 
1:0 4] 200 48-8 
950 66°38 
1:0 31 150 48-4 
1000 67°8 
1-2 2-1 100 476 
Bee? walt pontine 9 9 50 55:6 
1100 69-9 


1871. c 


18. REPoRT—1871. 


The numbers in the last column are the quotients of those in the two pre- 
ceding, and denote the average number of feet of descent for 1° F. of in- 
crease, as deduced from comparing the temperature at each depth of obser- 
vation with the temperature at the lowest depth. The earlier numbers in 
this column of course carry more weight than the later ones. The amount 
of steadiness in the increase of temperature of the water is best seen by 
inspecting the third column, which shows that the freest interchange of heat 
occurs at about the depth of 600 feet. This must be due to springs. The 
soil, from the depth of 569 to that of 702 feet, is described as “light-grey 
chalk, with a few thin beds of chalk-marl subordinate.” The soil consists 
in general of chalk and marl, from 325 to 910 feet, and below this of sandy 
marl, sand, and clay (see list of strata in last year’s Report, p. 41). The 
mean rate of increase in the former is a degree in 56 feet, and in the latter 
a degree in 49 feet. The mean rate of increase from the surface of the 
ground to the lowest depth reached is certainly very nearly 1° F. in 54 feet. 

Mr. David Burns, of H.M. Geological Survey, has furnished observations 
taken in the W. B. lead-mines, at and near Allenheads, Northumberland, by 
the kind permission of Thomas Sopwith, Esq., F.R.S., and with the valuable 
assistance of Mr. Ridley, Underground Surveyor, who continued the obser- 
vations after Mr. Burns had left. 

The mineral for which these mines are worked is galena. There are very 
extensive old workings at a lower level than the present workings, and filled 
with water, which is kept down by pumping; but the quantity daily pumped 
out is very small in comparison with the whole, so that the change of water 
is slow. 

From the offices of the lead-mines a small windlass with a supply of fine 
brass wire was obtained, which enabled the thermometer to be lowered 
steadily and quickly. 

The first observations were taken in Gin-Hill shaft, 8rd June, 1871. The 
observers proceeded as far down in the works as they were able, and took 
their station in a level leading from the shaft, 290 feet from the surface of 
the ground, and 38 feet above the surface of the water in the shaft. 

The following observations were then made :— 


Depth under Depth in Temperature. 
ground. de: water. Fahr. 
ft. iyi a 
SD cucerte keen - La ani sara at CuRi a i, 49°3 
OAs OR ap ss es dial, ae Alar tc engese i 49-2 
LOU ei dx oe kN GZ, te he sev cae 51:2 
5) Ma 8 aR ay. OP SF... te ee 51:2 
cL Ls Sr 1 pa RRR ch 51:3 
BA Peas tates EE ot. ac. aoe 51:3 


The mean temperature at the shaft mouth for the year ending 31st May 
1871, was 44°-3, as derived from daily observations of maximum and mini- 
mum thermometers, without applying a correction for diurnal range. Add- 
ing 1° to this, to obtain the probable mean temperature of the surface of 
the ground, and taking the temperature at 400 feet of depth as 51°-3, Mr. 
Burns computes that the rate of increase downwards is 6° in 400 feet, or 1° 
in 66:6 feet. The data for this calculation are obviously in many respects 
very uncertain. 

On the 21st June Mr. Ridley took observations in another shaft in the 
same workings, called the High Underground Engine Shaft. It is sunk 


ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 19 


from a level at the depth of 398 feet below ground, and the surface of the 
water in it is 899 feet down the shaft, or 797 feet below the surface of the 
ground. There are pumps in the shaft, but they had been stationary for more 
than 24 hours before the observations were made. Immediately after the 
observations they were started, and when they had been working for some 
time the temperature of the water lifted was found to be 65°-2. They draw 
their water at a depth of 957 feet below the surface of the ground. 
The following were the observations :— 


Depth under Depth in Temperature. 
ground. water. Fahr. 
ft ft. 

a ee OURS. J a, eae 65-1) 
oT eee LOGEE 2.22.22 be. 64-9 f 
RS as AS, laws DURE Eo siok wa ae « 65:4 
2.) EOE eee GUODRTS eins aoe 65:7 
ot Ferre I aS Sp RP 65:4 


The thermometer could not be lowered beyond 857 feet without risk of 
losing it, by getting fast in the wooden framework with which the pumps 
were secured. Mr. Burns thinks that some of the temperatures here re- 
corded are too low, from the index being shaken down by reason of the im- 
pediments presented by the upper portions of the framework. The surface 
of the ground over this shaft is about 300 feet higher than over Gin-Hill 
shaft. IPf we allow 1° for this increase of height, and call the temperature of 
the surface of the ground 44°-3, as against 45°-3 at Gin Hill, we have, by 
comparison with the observed temperature 65°7 at the depth of 857 feet, 
an increase of 21°-4 in 857 feet, or 1° in 40 feet. 

On the 6th July Mr. Ridley took observations in another sump or under- 
_ ground shaft at Slitt mine, Weardale. This shaft is sunk from the lowest 
level in the working, and had been standing full of water during the five 
months which had elapsed since it was sunk. The only source of disturbance 
was a little water running along the level across the top of the shaft, so as 
to enter the shaft (so to speak) on one side and leave it on the other. This 
may affect the temperature at 3 feet, but could scarcely affect the tempera- 
ture at 53 feet, which may be regarded as very reliable. 

The following are the obseryations ;— 


Depth under Depth in Temperature. 
ground. water. Fahr. 
ft. ft. 
BRED (sin, s\019 ARO aie SO 62) ae 64:5 
Ae ene oy Re Se ee 64:5 
20, Seeegoneegpaedaileae Tenis, achat sloces + 65:1 
Se pth cde aan D2 oneness eon 64°9 


Mr. Burns says “the surface-temperature at Slitt mine will be nearly the 
same as that at Gin-Hill shaft, judging from their relative elevations, 
aspects, and ‘exposure to the winds.” Assuming it then to be 45%3, and 
reckoning the temperature at 660 feet as 65°,we have an increase down- 
wards of 19°-7 in 660 feet, or 1° in 33:5 feet. The only datum that seems 
doubtful here is the surface-temperature. If, instead of 45%3, it be assumed 

°° . 
“i { ae , 1t gives an increase of 1° in a l feet, 

Mr. Ridley has also taken observations in Breckon-Hill shaft, which is 
near the river Allen, about 14 mile from Gin-Hill shaft, and at an elevation 

c2 


20- REPORT—1871. 


not much above the bottom of the valley, but 1174 feet above sea-level. It 
was sunk some years ago, and has since stood nearly full of water, At the 
time of the observations the surface of the water was 24 feet down the 
shaft. The following are the observations taken in this shaft on June 
13th :-— 


Depth under Depth in Temperature. 
ground. water. Fahr. 
ft. ft. x 
5) UN ee ate OEE aoa, « eee 47-2 
DOP Perseve¥. etree. PA NRT IE ici Gia 47-2 \ 
AOOw iy, Ho Setepsth. IH: AG Me SN Soh Se 46:9 
NC Bao Re aoice GO 82.1. ye bats 46°8 
LIME: Shae eats L260 Cages site cee eee 46°8 
AOR. 3 I oer 126 46°7 
200 i CAND 8 ere 46-6 
POUMER: Soss Sis clo ate AGM M tte s sere 46:8 
B00 Bi. n alain? Sonat GME. 0 Sut ea. 46°8 
2 Rader lg aad er 2) ah eatresshe C 46:9 


These observations were taken early in the morning, when the air and 
springs were so cold as to allow the maximum thermometer to be cooled below 
the temperature of the shaft. In order to test more thoroughly the apparent 
uniformity of temperature from 100 feet down to 350 feet, Mr. Ridley took 
a second series of observations, extending from the 22nd to the 27th June. 
In these observations the thermometer was lowered in a tin case filled with 
water colder than that of the shaft. The thermometer was supported within 
the case in a vertical position by a wooden frame, and prevented from shak- 
ing about. It was allowed to remain at each depth several hours, was then 


lifted, and read with all possible care. The following are the observations - 


thus obtained :— 


Depth under Length of Temperature before Temperature after 
ground. immersion. immersion. immersion. 
ft. h m = 
AD shits soridleae tee 3D, Discs ded dee AZO, ussesaaernte 46-5 
O2BN Macioe sexe EL 20 rege bobse AAO ore Seibert 46°5 
TARE ovo incke Td 40 > Meeasn. aust. ADA cdh. oo 46°6 
gs sine Mio OR EIR erate eee AGT as aes 46-6 
DAD cota AORY 6 2 AAO ARr CL aere eri cS eae 46°6 
OP) toasts alee tre ES AO! sxe Mh os Ad Siete 46°6 
5 eee Res 22 ae 5 aes aie AVA . isda 46:6 


Here the temperature is even more uniform than in the first series. As 
to the causes of this uniformity, Mr. Burns remarks that the shaft is not 
connected with any working, but is cut through solid strata. It is a 
few yards to the east of the Allen, while, in the bed of that stream, and 
making a great spread on the west side of the valley, is a bed of limestone 
nearly 70 feet thick, and dipping at an angle of about 10° to the east. The 
top of this limestone was cut in the shaft about 40 feet down, which occa- 
sioned a great influx of water into the shaft, and drained a strong spring on 
the other side of the river. 

It will be observed that the chief difference between the two sets of ob- 
servations is just at the place where this limestone was cut. The second set 
were taken after and during much rain, and the first set after a week of very 
little rain. It appears probable that the difference of temperature at this 


a a 


ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 21 


depth was due to the difference of temperature of the surface-water which 
soaked in through the limestone in the two cases. As regards the tempera- 
tures at depths exceeding 200 feet, it would appear that, in times of compa- 
rative drought (as in the first set), the heat of the soil at the greater depths 
has time to produce a little augmentation in the temperature of the water 
before it soaks away. 

This shaft is obviously not adapted for giving any information as to the 
rate of increase downwards. Collecting the best determinations from the 
other shafts we have :— 


Depth of Temperature. Calculated 
thermometer. Fahr. eau: 
ft. ‘ t. 
Gin-Hill Shaft.......... ‘1 lp Doebea Si eo ea 1 in 66-6 
High Underground Engine 857 ...... Coes ote osieks dmg 
“S) ihn) Gr GGOs messes csr ac Gb cae. lin 33°5 


Mr. Burns considers that little or no weight should be attached to the first 
of these determinations, as a pumping-engine was working in a neighbouring 
shaft communicating with it at the time when the ebservations were taken. 
The jump of 2° in descending from 340 to 390 feet also renders the inter- 
pretation of these observations difficult. 

The closeness of the temperatures in the other two shafts, at depths differ- 
ing by about 200 feet, suggests the idea that they are both fed by the same 
spring, and that the temperatures indicated are the temperature of the origin 
of the spring slightly modified by the different temperatures of the strata 
through which it has passed; but their positions appear to render this im- 
possible. 

Mr. Burns’s opinion from all the observations is that the mean rate of in- 
crease downwards at Allenheads is about 1° in 35 feet ; but this cannot at 
present be held as proved. 

The strata consist mainly of alternate beds of sandstone and shale, with a 
few beds of limestone intermixed. In Slitt mine there is also a bed of 
basalt 158 feet thick, overlying the vein of fluor-spar in which the workings 
are carried on, the workings being 55 feet down in this vein. 

Preparations are being made for taking observations in the dry part of the 
mines, by making shallow bores at different levels, inserting the thermometer, 
plugging up the hole for a few days, and then reading. 

Another gentleman connected with H.M. Geological Survey, Mr. R. L. 
Jack, has taken observations in a bore at Crawriggs, Kirkintilloch, near 
Glasgow. They were taken on the 29th November 1870, the temperature 
of the air being 34°. The surface of the water in the bore was 6 feet below 
the surface of the ground, the latter being 200 feet above sea-level. The 
following were the observations :— 


Depth from surface Time of lowering Time of withdrawing Temperature. 

of ground. thermometer. thermometer. Fabr. 
feet. hm h m 
ee 12 52 pm 1 7pm 47 
LOOMS ene Le aes ee Ie ion 481 
AE ai ock fac i LE ae Rr Ons DRI, os saalect ser sua 49} 
1) ee by OSE 5 ceil coe at Sc 7 eee a 50 
AU) rash Be sects I) OO DADS) 03 i 50 
IO a aan chan eee ee re a BG ey aed oor 503 
BAD aboie. ofa: i's SA os sve haih carols OU is Sein ipog tee 51 


_ A few feet below 350 feet an obstruction in the bore prevented further 


22 REPORT—1871. 


observations ; but the bore continues for about 70 feet further. We have 
here a total increase of 4° in 300 feet, which is at the rate of 1° in 75 feet ; 
but the intermediate steps are so irregular that not much weight can be 
attached to this determination. 

The Secretary has corresponded with the Smithsonian Institution respect- 
ing the great bore at St. Louis, which was described in last year’s Report, 
and also respecting the Hoosac Tunnel which passes under a mountain and 
will be 4? miles long, but the correspondence has not yet led to any definite 
result. . 

It was stated in last Report that application had been made to General 
Helmersen, of the Mining College, St. Petersburg, for information regarding 
the temperature of a very deep bore in course of sinking at Moscow, as well 
as regarding underground temperatures in Russia generally. A long delay 
occurred, owing to the General being absent from home for seven months, 
and not receiving the communication till his return; but shortly after his 
return he dispatched a very polite answer, from which the following passages 
are extracted :—“ We have an artesian well in St. Petersburg, bored in the 
Lower Silurian strata. At the depth of 656 English feet this well stops at the 
granite, a granite which perfectly resembles that of Finland. The lowest 
portion of these Silurian strata is merely a degraded granite, a grit combined 
with débris of felspar. About 353,000 hectolitres of water flow from the 
well per diem, and this water issues with a constant temperature of 9°8 
Reaumur. .. i. 4% You are doubtless aware of the existence of a series 
of observations on the temperature of the soil at the bottom of a well which 
was sunk in the town of Yakoutsk in Eastern Siberia. This well has shown 
us that the soil of Siberia, at least in this part of its great extent, is frozen 
to a depth of 540 English feet. The mean temperature of Yakoutsk is 
—8°2 R. Atthe depth of 100 feet the temperature of the soil was found to 
be —5°-2. From this depth to the bottom the temperature increased at the 
rate of 1° R. for every 117 feet; whence it would follow that the soil at 
Yakoutsk is frozen to the depth of about 700 feet. 

‘“‘It appears to me a very interesting circumstance that, according to ac- 
counts just received by the Academy of Sciences from Baron Maydel, traveller 
in the country of the Tchukchees [des Tschouktschi], there are found in 
those regions layers of ice, quite pure, alternating with sand and clay. The 
interesting letter of the Baron will shortly be printed in the publications of 
the Academy. It was in making excavations in search of mammoths that 
Maydel made this discovery.” 

If we assume the temperature of the surface of the soil at St. Petersburg 
to be 39°17 F., which, according to ‘ Herschel’s Meteorology, is the mean 
temperature of the air at the Magnetic and Meteorological Observatory, and 
if we take the temperature of the water as that of the bottom of the well, 
we have an increase downwards of 14°-88 F. in 656 feet, which is at the rate 
of 1° F. in 44-1 feet. If, on the other hand, we suppose the surface of the 
ground to be 4° F. warmer than the air (and the difference at Yakoutsk ap- 
pears to be greater than this), we deduce an increase at the rate of 1° F. in 
60 feet. 

The rate of increase at Yakoutsk from the depth of 100 feet to the bottom 
of the frozen well at 540 feet is given above by General Helmersen as 1° R. 
in 117 feet. This is 1° F. in 52 feet. 

An account of the Yakoutsk well is given in ‘Comptes Rendus,’ tome vi. 
1838, p. 501, in an extract from a letter by Erman (fils), who visited Ya- 
koutsk when the well had attained a depth of 50 feet. He gives the tem- 


ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 23 


perature at this depth from his own observations, and the temperatures at 
77, 119, and 382 feet from the subsequent observations of the merchant to 
whom the well belonged. His figures differ very materially from those given 
above; but it may fairly be presumed that General Helmersen’s account is 
the more accurate. 

Before the receipt of General Helmersen’s letter, the following communi- 
cation respecting the Moscow boring had been received by the Secretary from 
Mons. N, Lubimoff, Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of 
Moscow. 

« December $3, 1870. 

« Dear Srr,—lI beg your pardon for not having replied sooner to your letter. 
I am sorry to say that the information which I can now communicate is very 
deficient. The great bore of Moscow is not yet terminated, and the experi- 
ments on temperature which have been made hitherto are but of a preli- 
minary kind. It was in the hope of renewing the measurements under more 
satisfactory conditions that I delayed my answer; but as certain circum- 
stances did not permit me to resume the observations, which are therefore 
deferred to the spring of 1871, I must restrict myself to describing the old ones, 

« These were made, on my commission, by M. Schiller, B.A., in April 1869. 
The bore was then about 994 feet deep, and, from 56 feet to the bottom, 
full of water. A mercury thermometer of a peculiar kind was constructed, 
on an idea of my own. It consisted of a capillary tube of thick glass, ter- 
minating below in a large reservoir; at the upper end a funnel-like piece 
was adjusted, into which the mercury flowed off as soon as the temperature 
rose above a certain value [sketch annexed]. The whole was placed within 
a closed case, which was plunged to a chosen depth into the bore, and re- 
versed by means of a special arrangement. It was then brought again to the 
right position and drawn up to the surface, a portion of mercury having 
flowed away. Here the thermometer was plunged into a water-bath, the 
temperature of which was so regulated that the mercury attained the end of 
the capillary tube ; this was then the temperature required. 

“« The measurements were made at the depths of 175, 350, 525, 700, 875, 
and 994 feet. From 350 feet to the bottom the temperature throughout the 
bore was found to be nearly constant, namely 10°-1 C., with deviations of 
+0°1. The temperatures of the upper parts of the bore were not quite 
precisely ascertained, the chief attention being given, in these first experi- 
ments, to the deeper parts. The air-temperature at the surface for the time 

17 - ,. 23 April ; Bb: bls 
a April to ee varied between +7°5 and —1°9 C, 

‘* As soon as the boring is completed, and the present impediments removed 
from the bore, the observations will be resumed, and perhaps some new 
methods will be applied for the sake of verification, though the above de- 
seribed apparatus, previously tried, seemed to give very exact results. 

“I shall be very glad to communicate to you, as soon as possible, the re- 
sults of the new experiments. As to underground temperatures for Russia 
in general, there is, so far as I know, no place where regular and trustworthy 
observations have been made [should be made in original] except the Central 
Physical Observatory at St. Petersburg, the results of which are published by 
Dr. Wild, Director of the establishment, in his printed Annual Reports.” 

From the sketch annexed to the description in Professor Lubimoff’s letter, 
it appears that the enlargement at the open end of the capillary tube is quite 
‘sudden, and not likely to retain any mercury when inverted. The idea of 
error from this cause may therefore be dismissed; but the instrument’is en- 


24 REPORT—1871. 


tirely unprotected against the pressure of the water in which it is immersed, 
and it is important to consider what effect this pressure will have. 

In thermometers of the ordinary construction this pressure acts only ex- 
ternally, and produces much greater diminution of the internal volume than 
when, as in Prof. Lubimoff’s thermometer, it acts both externally and in- 
ternally, a mode of action with which we are familiar in the case of Cirsted’s 
plezometer. 

From Regnault’s experiments it appears that the apparent compression of 
mercury in glass, when the pressure is thus applied, is -000001234 per atmo- 
sphere, whereas the apparent expansion of mercury in glass for heat is‘0000857 
per degree Fahrenheit. The latter number is 69 times the former ; it there- 
fore appears that a pressure of 69 atmospheres would be required to falsify 
the indications of Prof. Lubimoff’s thermometer to the extent of 1° F. The 
actual pressure at the bottom of the well is less than the half of this, and 
therefore should only produce an error of a few tenths of a degree. This, 
however, is on the assumption that the glass undergoes no change of figure, a 
condition which may easily fail of being fulfilled, owing to the want of perfect 
uniformity in the glass. 

Mr. Donaldson has written from Calcutta to the effect that the thermo- 
meter which was sent to him has been entrusted to a competent observer, 
who has taken numerous observations with it, which will be sent shortly. 

M. Erman’s letter above referred to is immediately followed in the ‘ Comptes 
Rendus’ by an account, by M. Walferdin, of some observations, which appear 
to be very reliable, taken in artesian wells in the basin in which Paris is 
situated. They were taken with maximum thermometers of the kind in- 
vented by Walferdin himself, in which the mercury overflows into a reservoir 
when the temperature exceeds a certain limit, the thermometers being her- 
metically sealed in glas¥ tubes to protect them from pressure. 

The observations which he first describes were taken in a well, newly 
sunk to the depth of 263 metres, at St. André, about 50 miles to the west of 
Paris, and which failed to yield a supply of water. The temperature was 
carefully observed at the depth of 253 metres by means of two thermometers, 
which were allowed to remain at that depth for ten hours. Their indications 
agreed to ‘03 of a degree Centigrade, and gave a mean of 17°95 C. For the 
sake of comparison, M. Walferdin observed the temperature at the bottom of 
a well 75 metres deep, situated at a distance of only 13 metres from the other 
well, and found it 12°-2C., showing a difference of 5°-75C. in 178 metres, which 
is at the rate of 1° C. in 30-95 metres, or 1° F. in 56-4 feet. He mentions that 
he also employed two Six’s thermometers (deux thermométrographes) enclosed 
in copper tubes to protect them from pressure, but both of these gave erroneous 
indications. The copper case of one was imperfect, and allowed a little water 
to enter. This one read 1°25 too high, owing probably to the effect of 
pressure; the other read 2°-15 too low, owing probably to the index being 
shaken down. 

The temperature at the depth of 400 metres in the puits de Grenelle at 
Paris was observed on two different occasions. The indications were 23°5 
on the first and 23°-75 on the second occasion; and these M. Walferdin com- 
pares with the constant temperature 11°-7 in the caves of the Observatory at 
the depth of 28 metres. Taking the mean of the two observations, 23°°6, we 
have a difference of 11°-9 in 372 metres, which is at the rate of 1° C. in 31-2 
metres, or 1° F, in 56:9 feet. 

Observations in the well of the Military School, at a distance of 600 metres 
from the puits de Grenelle, showed a temperature of 16°-4 C. at the depth of 


ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 25 


173 metres. This gives, by comparison with the Observatory caves, an in- 
crease at the rate of 1° C. in 30°85 metres, or 1° F. in 56°25 feet. 

These three determinations are in wonderfully close agreement with each 
other. All three wells are sunk in the chalk of the Paris basin. In the 
case of the St. André well the thicknesses of the different strata were :— 


metres. 
Plas Cla Ye oo ste. ags sispce 3 souk 13°52 
Whitesehnallc « sxirc ty annals 122°46 
OUSREEY ICRU oman niga Bila al 29°24 
GIAMCONIE boven cca tet sane ocokenieys 13:64 
GHECNSANG on. cf5 shee bisis) alte ait: 84:36 

263:22 


The thermometer which the Committee have been employing for the last 
three years is a Phillips’s maximum, having so fine a bore that the detached 
column of mercury which serves as the index is sustained in the vertical 
position by capillary action, and will bear a moderate amount of shaking 
without slipping down. Numerous instances, however, have occurred in 
which the index has slipped in consequence of jerks or concussions sustained 
by the thermometer in hauling it up from a depth. During the past six 
months the Secretary has been in correspondence with Messrs. Negretti and 
Zambra respecting a proposed modification of the maximum thermometer 
known by their name, which occurred to him more than a year ago, and was 
described by him privately to some meteorological friends at the last Meeting 
of the Association. It was then supposd to be new, but it now appears that 
Messrs. Negretti and Zambra have made something of the kind for the last 
fourteen or fifteen years. Several changes, however, were necessary before 
the thermometer was adapted to the uses of the Committee, and the first 
complete instruments were received in June last. They are enclosed, like the 
thermometers previously used, in hermetically sealed tubes, for protection 
against pressure, and they have the advantages (1) of being able to bear 
more severe jolts without derangement of their indications, and (2) of pre- 
senting to view a much broader column of mercury, so as to be more easily 
read in a dim light. 

The instrument is to be used in a vertical position, with the bulb uppermost. 
Between the bulb and the stem there is a contraction, through which the 
mercury will not pass except under pressure. It is set by holding it with 
the bulb end lowest, and tapping this end on the palm of the hand, till the 
part between the contraction and the bulb is full of mercury. It can then 
be held with the bulb up, and the mercury in the stem will run down to the 
lower end, from which the graduations begin. In this position, the top of 
the column indicates the temperature of setting, which must be lower than 
the temperature intended to be observed. 

The instrument is then to be lowered into the bore to any required depth, 
and allowed to remain there for about half an hour, to ensure its taking the 
temperature of the surrounding water. The expansion of the mercury in 
the bulb with heat will force a portion of the liquid through the contraction, 
and subsequent cooling in hauling up will not cause any of it to return. 
The portion which has thus escaped from the bulb into the stem will usually 
be found remaining close to the contraction, when the thermometer has been 
hauled up. The instrument must then be gently inclined, so as to make the 
bulb end slightly the lowest, when the mercury in the stem will all unite 
‘into one column, which will run down to its place on again raising the bulb. 
The head of the column will then indicate the required temperature. 


26 | REPORT—1871. 


Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1870-71. By a Com- 
mittee consisting of James. GuaisHer, F.R.S., of the Royal 
Observatory, Greenwich, Roprrt P. Gruc, F.R.S., ALEXANDER 
S. Herscuegr, F.R.A.S., and Cuartes Brooks, F.R.S., Secre- 
tary to the Meteorological Society. 


Tue object of the Committee being, as in the previous year, to present a 
condensed Report of the observations which they have received, and to indi- 
cate the progress of Meteoric Astronomy during the interval which has 
elapsed since their last Report, the reviews of recent publications relating to 
Meteoric Science which will be found in the sequel are preceded by a state- 
ment of the results obtained by the observers, who have during the past 
year contributed a valuable list of communications on the appearances of 
luminous meteors and regular observations of star-showers to the Com- 
mittee. The real heights and velocities of thirteen shooting-stars obtained 
by the cooperation of Mr. Glaisher’s staff of observers at the Royal Obser- 
vatory, Greenwich, during the simultaneous watch for meteors on the nights 
of the 5th to 12th of August last, are sufficiently accordant with the real 
velocity of the Perseids (as already previously determined by similar means, 
in the year 1863) to afford a satisfactory conclusion that the results of direct 
observation are in very close agreement with those derived from the astro- 
nomical theory of the August meteor-stream. Shooting-stars were observed 
to be more than usually frequent on the nights of the 17th of August and 
24th of September last, accompanying on the latter night a rather brilliant 
display of the Aurora. On the nights of the 18th—20th of October last the 
sky was so generally overcast as to conceal the view of any meteoric shower 
which may have taken place on that well-established meteoric date. But on the 
mornings of 13th—15th of November last a satisfactory series of observations of 
the November star-shower (so far as its return could be identified) recorded 
at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, and at several other British stations, 
concurs with very similar descriptions of its appearance in the United States 
of America in showing the rapid decrease of intensity of this display since 
the period of greatest brightness, which it attained in the years 1866 and 
1867. Notices of the extreme brightness with which it was visible in the 
following year (1868) are extracted from astronomical and meteorological 
journals kept in Switzerland and Scotland. A short view of the sky on the 
night of the 12th of December last was obtained at Birmingham, where the 
accurate divergence of the meteors observed by Mr. Wood from the radiant 
point in Gemini of the December meteors sufficed to verify the periodical 
return of that meteoric current. The state of the sky was not favourable 
for observations of meteors on the first two nights of January; but during 
two hours, when the sky was clear, on the night of the 20th of April last, 
the well-known group of April meteors was noted, on the periodical date, 
diverging in considerable numbers, and with the characteristic features of 
brightness, and leaving a persistent streak from the direction of a nearly fixed 
centre in the constellation Lyra. One meteor of the shower, simultaneously 
observed at Birmingham and Bury St. Edmunds, afforded sufficiently accu- 
rate materials for calculating its real distance from the observers, and the 
length and velocity of its visible flight relatively to the earth. The com- 
bined observations of the regularly recurring meteor-showers during the 
past year having at present proved successful in contributing some valuable 
materials to their history, the Committee propose to resume during the 
coming year a systematic watch for their return, and to provide observers 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 27 


of the regular star-showers of August and November, and those of smaller 
interest and abundance in January, April, October, and December, with 
suitable maps and instructions to enable them to obtain, without unnecessary 
pains bestowed in preparations or expense, the most careful and complete 
records of their extraordinary displays. In order that the operations of the 
Committee may thus continue to be systematically directed towards the 
objects which have acquired important interest from the discovery of the as- 
tronomical connexion of shooting-stars with the orbits of comets, introducing 
the strictest methods of inquiry into the laws of their appearance, the Com- 
mittee earnestly desire the renewal, in the coming year, of the support which, 
since its first formation, by their correspondence and cooperation, observers 
have hitherto freely contributed to the British Association. 

Notices of the appearance of twenty-two fireballs and small bolides have 
during the past year been received by the Committee, fourteen of which 
were compared to the apparent size and brightness of the moon, and the 
latter include three detonating meteors of the largest class. -Descriptions of 
some of the largest of these meteors are contained in the accompanying list 
and in the following paragraphs of the Report. No notice of the fall of an 
aérolite during the past year has been received, although the occurrences of 
large meteors during the months of autumn and spring, preceding April last, 
were more than ordinarily frequent. Of one of these, which appeared with 
unusual prilliancy in Cornwall, Devonshire, and the south-western counties 
of England on the evening of the 13th of February, it is possible to estimate, 
at least approximately, the locality and the real elevation of its flight. 
Careful observations of such phenomena when they appear are, however, 
again recommended by the Committee to all observers who may have the 
necessary astronomical skill, and the rare opportunity to note their brilliant 
courses by the stars. 

In the discussion of some papers on Meteoric Astronomy which follow the 
foregoing observations, it will be seen that in the hands of its talented origi- 
nator, Prof. Schiaparelli, the cosmical theory of periodical shooting-stars has 
received fresh and valuable illustrations, and the apparently inexplicable 
grouping of radiant-points for several successive days in the neighbourhood 
of ageneral centre of divergence, if notexplained, appears to depend upon effects 
of planetary disturbances of a single meteoric stream from which the parasitic 
radiant-points have been derived. The discussion of such examples is sim- 
plified, and their complete explanation is, perhaps, not beyond the reach of 
the persevering application with which skilled astronomers in every country 
are now bent on the solution of the complicated and intricate geometrical 
problems presented to them by the distribution and features of the known 
radiant-points of shooting-stars. To a brief description of this interesting 
memoir are added, at the close of the Report, some notices of works which 
have recently appeared on the more general branches of meteoric science. 


I. METEORS DOUBLY OBSERVED. 


1. A Table of the real heights of sixteen shooting-stars doubly observed in 
England during the meteoric shower of August 1870, independently of the 
observations recorded at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, was presented 
in the last volume of these Reports. A comparison of the observations made 
on that occasion at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, with those recorded 

at the other stations, enables the real paths of thirteen meteors (ten of 
‘which are new to the former list), seen by Mr. Glaisher’s staff of observers, 
to be satisfactorily determined; and the real heights and velocities of the 


28 REPORT—187]1. 


meteors thus identified, together with the particulars of the observations 
from which they are concluded, are entered in the Table opposite. 

The accompanying diagram (drawn on the same scale as that in the last 
Report) readily exhibits to the eye the actual heights at appearance and dis- 
appearance (or the heights of the centres of the visible paths of the meteors 
Nos. 1, 4, 9) above the earth’s surface. The last vertical line on the right 
represents (as in the last Report) the average height at first appearance and 
that at disappearance of all the meteors regarded as identified in the present 
list, of which the approximate heights of those points have been satisfactorily 
ascertained. The resulting average heights are :— 


At first appearance. At disappearance. 
Of 16 meteors in the last Report.... 74-1 B.S. miles. 6 


Of 10 meteors in the present list .. 71-7 55 54-4 
Of 20 meteors observed in Aug. 1863 81-6 sd 57-7 
Fig. 1. 


Reference numbers. 
1 2846 “SMO OL 12.518 


Heights above the earth’s surface in British statute miles. 
Heights above the earth’s surface in British statute miles. 


Heights at appearance and disappearance of thirteen shooting-stars simultaneously ob- 
served at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, and at other stations in England, August 
6th-11th, 1870. (Nos. 1, 4, 9 are calculated heights at the centres of the real paths.) 


The present average heights are somewhat less than those observed in the 
year 1863; but they agree more closely with the general average height at 
first appearance, 70-05 miles, and that at disappearance, 54-22 miles (as given 
in the Report for 1863, footnote on p. 328), of nearly all the shooting-stars 


[To face page 28. 


—(B.) Birmingham; (H.) Hawkhurst, Kent; (L.) Regent’s Park, 
ust, 1870. 


ee 


& 
o 
2 . 
5 Velocity | Position of the radiant-point. 
» ||in B.S. 
° miles Observers, Remarks, &e. | 
5 per 
Se), fe Xpprosimats by 
3S . pproximate by 
a R. A. Deel the stars. 
eet ay 
= © { G. L. Schultz. 
«| conser Ml) RGABG sis sconcra |Meerccerccccce Aare | W. H. Wood 
2 15 195 | +64 | « Draconis......... {RP Gee 
{ W. Barber Course apparently 
gel| sees | terete | cereee | ceeeeeeeeeeeeeees FE Howlett. ascending? 
W. C. Nash. { A very doubtful 
PRISE SSE FOL TN |)  PaaieNsinetie-nesisises dM Crumplen, 1 accordance. 
5.| 123? 26 | +58 |e Cassiopeix ...... {a eee Be 
: W. C. Nash. 
6! 73? Sol) |! 4-54. |'@ Bersei ....2.-.005. ‘A. @: Heseebel. 
: Pg aa B 
7; 123? 23 | +58 |e Cassiopeix ...... 1 Lie ae Eas 
g2? 27 | +62 | 6 Cassiopeiz ...... ee Ae a Marriott, W. Barber. | 
hanes 40 | +71 | Custos Messium... es de aaa Biaoitet 
W. Barber. 
Ce es se A. S. Herschel. | 
Th 
oe re 462 |B Camelopardi... ve Wats Marriott, W. Barber. | 
: ae: ht, W. M t, W. Barb 
39 4ov | 4257, hq? Bersel.....-:..0-+00 yas ieee: pedo giciic 
52 54 | +67 | B Camelopardi... (i pe 
37 Average velocity and position of the 
miles | 46 | +62 | Camelopardi ... radiant-point of the Perseids, 
per sec. Nos. 11, 12, 13 


[To face page 28. 


Real Heights aud Velocities of Shooting-stars simultaneously observed at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich (Gr.), and at other stations in England—(B.) Birmingham; (H.) Hawkhurst, Kent; (L.) Regent's Park, 
London; (M.) Manchester ; (T.) East Tisted, Hants—on the nights of the 6th-11th August, 1870. 


; z - 
Ble|é Obseryed points of s E 
q & e Approxi- | 4Pparent 2 3 Computed heights and places of Lenath | Velocity | Position of the radiant-point. 
2 || & | APPS: | agnitude, ane Se z cnet, [in B. 8, 
lele|3 sete as per Colour. Rimes, ANG x Disappear- | © 3 on pat’ | miles Observers, Remarks, &. 
jels|e| fixed stars, its duration, Ppearance. | ““onee. | 3 Appearance. Disappearance. | 188 S:| her 
Bale || 2 Ke, Bal 2 * | second. 
g|8 N. wn |ea| 8 |BS. B.S. N. | Approximate by 
B ala BoA! Dect, |B A+! pect, | “| Z| atiles.|N: 19t:| Long. |ariies,| N: lat) Long. R.A) Decl.| — the stars, 
hms 
} | g{|Gr| xn 1 28 2 Bluish. (9° | +70 contre] of | NG BE ell lbs jG. TL. Schultz, 
3 B. ua 2 15) z * Yellow. 2 t4e ia lesen (71 | 52 50]0 208. | cen! ‘ ma MSY || oncecco. |" ecree |W. HE Wood 
| | 19 10 1 uish white, 175 17o | + 7, 4 ‘ Cc, 
2.| s{ x. Heed Catal eee lish white. ate? a aH } 77|53 22/1 49W.| 56 |53 8|1 32W.| 29 15 | 195 | +64 | © Draconis........ RP. Gre wee | 
|} Gr.| 10 25 2 ite. 27 | + +38 2 we Ey ent 
| 3 rof T. |(10 =o 3) S ; 29 i é a } 6r 51 39)2 3H. | 80 | sr s6]1 19K. | 42 {f Howlett. { ascending? 
10{|9%| 10 29 2 > 160 | +65] 170 | +56 W. t f th?) }veeeee | seseee | renee W.C. Nash. j A very doubtful 
* L. |(10 28 30) ik fans 145 | +80] 185 | +66 (10 | 51 43/0 14 W.|centre} of | path?) T. Crumplen, |_ accordance. 
|of| Gr | Bluish white. ? 2 W. Marriott, W. Barber. 
| sped|slis 3 oy) 3 | Mw” | guroma, | 3s | Sey (28 | 58] 38 |, [poetse ale som | se [oe fo som | rast | saat | a6 | +38 ecominin 110s etre 
| -|o!|Gr-| 10 49 45 | Jupiter. | Yellowish. Fino atroak. 60 | +67| 140 | +80] 1o | 12 the C. Nash. 
6-19) | F. |(10 49 0)|>Capella, | Orange-red. } second. 88 | +69 | 155 | +62| 25 | 15 | g0|53 |x x5E.| 4x |52 4/0 7W.| 100? | 752 | so | +54)a Perse... ALS Horschel 
7 10f oe Gs 55 19 2 Bluish white, | Bright streak, | 18 13 Ul see i \\ SH \ 1357 52 30/2 3E.| 75 |51 s4]057H.] 862 | 123? | 23 | +58 | Cassiopeim {1 Gramplen et 
10 56 0) 3 : fant receceer) 20 5 2 Cel leet lire Dheelen “ = | 
)Gr.| 11 1 go 2 : 7 | +56'| 344 |\+4a| 10 | 07 Gi ee T. Wright, W. Marriott, W. Barber. 
| 8 ref 2 ie ° 0) 3 Bl vie ai 27 | +72 | 27 | +80 8 o'6 } 5) Sols | Biase saa case Las i er Ae eet (AS 
} r.| 10 37 50 ct uish white. 1 | +59 1 ABZ | cee | O'S a sentre| of: ||-path'?) ||), waxes eth tos M LS ‘ 
} %H™4) (10 46 0)) 2 Yellow. 332 | +08 | 317 | +61 06 | (4s Seay GI Hearts) GL Wye) GE) | aechs [ORM nie \a8. Cla 
| xo. |rx | GF) 39 39 20 Yellowish. ine streak, | 242 | +66 | 267 | +40 35il| \eoaa| eee |e Co Voserlegar|| coo |) cen Ae ae lee ee | 
| *" |" 1] H. | (10 37 0) a hite, 2 seconds, 235 | +58 | 232 | +38 Ci l eeotea| Pesca | (i Seat 7 ais " es 
ol Gr. in 4 18 1 Bluish. Fine streak. | 347 | +45 | 333 | +30 5 |l alsx a7lo soe. | sr Js aloaB| 3: = | ae ee liens, ie Wright, W. Marriott, W. Buster. 
[| H. (1x 2 0)| «Lyrw. | Orange-yellow. | Bright, 3 seconds. 345 | +71 | 305 | +64 o8 A or gfe inci 
1, J) Gre] 12 38 2 i Yollowish. fine streak. 15 | +65 | 325 | +63 o7 E E >, 457 | 9 Persei. {Te Wright W- Marriott; S 
} 72-14) la 36 30)| 3 White. None. 165 | +81 | 193 | +69 ora) |p) S20 SE Sapo. 2a te) 330) ata |S Se 5 SO ADS esa | A. S. Herschel. 
| Gr.| 11 45 0 2 Bluish. Streak. 450 | +45} 344 | +28 \ 6 8 a) <6 67 |B Camelopardi.., {i LES. 
| a3.jtr{ H. |(11 43 30) 3 et ce None. 327. | +78 | 287 | +67] ...... | 6 ian 26/0 4rE | 38 | 51 14/0 25 EB 2 52 54 | +67 op ‘ALS. Herschel. 
| ¥ (Oe 37 UGE ese seine ae 
| Average heights and length of path (omitting doubtful values, marked thus ?), in British statute miles ........... | 787 fewssssesren] S44 | path, 71 miles.) 304 eae zo lasbes Ee rane op a Ge 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 29 


simultaneously observed until the beginning of that year. The average 
velocity of the Perseids, relatively to the earth, observed in the year 1863 
was 34-4 miles per second, and that of the three Perseids satisfactorily well 
observed in the present list is 37 miles per second. In his original letters to 
Father Secchi on their connexion with Tuttle’s comet (Comet IIJ., 1862), 
now universally accepted as a true basis of their cosmical theory, Prof. 
Schiaparelli calculated, from the known elements of the comet’s orbit, that 
the velocity with which the Perseids enter the earth’s atmosphere (allowing 
for a very minute influence of the earth’s attraction) is 38 miles per second. 
That the direct determination of the velocities of the August shooting-stars 
which were made last year should, in this instance, so exactly agree with the 
value found by calculation (although from the small number of identifiable 
meteors the probable error of the determination is rather large), is, from the 
great scale and general excellence of the observations, at least provisionally, 
a successful confirmation of the astronomical theory of the August meteors, 
and a satisfactory conclusion from the simultaneous watch. 

2. During the corresponding observations of the meteor-shower of No- 
vember last, in which the observers of Mr. Glaisher’s staff at the Royal 
Observatory, Greenwich, also took an important share, the coincidence of 
the times of appearance and of the other particulars of a single meteor only 
of the shower simultaneously observed at Greenwich and at Tooting, near 
London, could be established, the descriptions of which, as given by the 
observers at those stations, were as follows :— 


No. Approximate : 
. Place of | Magnitude Appearance, 
lane Date. eer nGaeneAtionlaa pcbaiaes Colour. Duration. |Apparent course. streak, &e. 
1870 hm s 
7 |Nov.15; 1 5 56 Royal |=Istmagni-| Bluish | 0:7 seconds. |From@ Urse#Ma-| Left a streak. 
A.M. Observatory,| tude star. white. joris, passed a 
Greenwich. little belowPo- 
laris, in the di- 
rection of B 
Cephei. 
(8) | » 15] 15 0 | Tooting, =Sirius. White. Short (From _between|Lefta long streak 
| A.M, London, duration. the ‘Pointers’|} lastingasecond 
8.W. of the Great} or two. 
Bear, shot one- 
third of the 
way towards a 
Cygni. 


7 
(8) 


PAG ool en 5, 56 
Pegi i's 0 


Greenwich...|Length of path 15°. Observer, WM. MARRIOrT. 


Tooting ...... Meteor fairly well observed. Observer, H. W. JACKSON. 


The apparent paths of the meteor among the constellations present a con- 
siderable parallax in the right direction of displacement, as seen from the 
two observers’ stations, to lead to a positive determination of its real altitude 
above the earth. The concluded path of the meteor is nearly horizontal at 
a height of about fifteen miles above the earth’s surface. The small distance 
(only seven miles) between the two stations, greatly increasing the effect of 
the errors most difficult to avoid in the observation and description of such 
transitory phenomena, must, however, for the present be regarded as pre- 
cluding certainty from the conclusion, which would otherwise attach to this 
unusually low elevation of a meteor’s real path. 


30 


REPORT—1871. 


3. Preparations for observing the meteors of the 20th of April last were 
also made at many stations in England and Scotland with only partial 
A meteor of the April shower was, however, observed simul- 
taneously at Birmingham and Bury St, Edmunds, of which the following 
descriptions were recorded :— 


success. 


Approximate! piace of | Magnitude a Appearance, 
? 
No. | Date. foo ie ation? (is mee ate Colour. Duration. Apparent course. oak, Ke. 
1871. hm 
(6) | Apr.20| 118 P.M. |Birmingham|=Ist magni-}| Blue. 1:25 second. | From A, Hercu-/The meteor in- 
tude star. lis to y Draco-| creased in size. 
nis—8°, 
hm s 
(9) y» 20) 111015 Thurston, | =1lst mag- White. 3 seconds. [From 4aDraco-|Small in the] 
P.M. near nitude nis,¢é Urse Ma-| first, growing) © 
Bury St. Ed-| star. joris, crossing] brighter in the 
munds. tUrseMajoris,| last half of its 
to % (k& 12)) course. Lefta 
Lyncis. slender streak 
at first, which 
remained 2 se- 
conds on the 
last half of its 
| course. i 
» 20) BL & ..c | pigeaicshnt Length of path 11°. One-third of the sky overcast. Observer, W. H. Woop. 
5 20.) 1110 sia) asi ...| Length of path 45°. Sky very clear. Observer, A. 8. HERSCHEL. 
4 


Although the times at both the stations were uncertain to rather more 
than a minute from true Greenwich time, and the approximate times of the 


meteor’s appearance recorded at the two stations differ from each other by 


rather more than two minutes, yet the very similar descriptions of its ap- 
pearance at the two stations, and the fact that no other meteor at either 
station preceded it or followed it within a quarter of an hour, during a very 
attentive watch, as well as the good agreement together of the apparent 
paths recorded by the two observers, render it scarcely possible to doubt that 
the same meteor was simultaneously observed. The apparent length of path 
and duration are, however, much longer at Bury St. Edmunds than at Bir- 
mingham, where the meteor was seen foreshortened near the radiant-point ; 
and on this peculiar circumstance Mr. Wood (in a letter to Mr. Herschel) 
makes some important remarks, which offer a very interesting field for fur- 
ther observations. ‘My view of the meteor’s course was evidently very 
oblique, and yours, very direct (nearly at right angles), would obscure a faint 
tail to me. There is also another peculiarity which I have observed in 
oblique-visioned courses, that they appear to endure about half the time of 
that obtained by direct vision, which I fancy arises from its invisibility to 
one observer, whilst it is visible to the other in the earliest portion of its flight, 
and the amount of the invisible course to bear some proportion to the recorded 
differences in the durations.” In perfect agreement with this explanation the 
point of disappearance of the meteor is well fixed (by combining the observations) 
at a height of about sixty-five miles above a place near Bourne, in Lincolnshire. 
The observations, on the other hand, do not agree in determining the point of 
first appearance. The first and faint half of the meteor’s apparent path, as 
recorded at Bury St, Edmunds, is placed too far from the north pole of the 
heavens to be nearly comformable to the radiant-point near 6 Lyre (from 
some point near and below which the apparent course of the meteor, as seen 


—————————— LS ee ee ee 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 3l 


at Birmingham, was directed), while this portion of the meteor’s flight 
appears to have entirely escaped observation at Birmingham. Prolonging 
the meteor’s visible flight at Birmingham 7° backwards towards the radiant- 
point, and approaching the point of first appearance at Bury St. Edmunds 
about the same distance towards the north pole of the heavens, the agree- 
ment of the observations in fixing the point of first commencement at a 
height of about eighty miles over the neighbourhood of Norwich is nearly 
as exact as the determination of the place of the meteor’s disappearance. 
The length of its visible path was about seventy-five miles, and its radiant- 
point in Taurus Poniatovii, on the same meridian, was about 40° south of 
the usual radiant-point (QH,) of the April meteors. Although its apparent 
course, as observed at Bury St. Edmunds, evidently denoted it as an erratic 
member of the group, its general resemblance to the other Lyraids observed 
on the same evening was a remarkable feature in its long and striking course. 
Adopting Mr. Wood’s suggestion of (provisionally) increasing the duration, 
as observed at Birmingham, from 1°25 to 2 seconds in the simple proportion 
of the increased length of the apparent course, prolonged towards the radiant- 
point, and adopting 23 seconds (the average between this duration and that 
recorded at Bury St. Edmunds) as the time of flight, the resulting velocity, 
relative to the earth, of this single member of the April meteoric stream 
doubly observed on the night of the 20th of April last, was, within very few 
miles, about thirty miles per second. The theoretical velocity of the same 
meteors (see the Note on the last page of this Report) is not quite thirty miles 
per second. 

4, Several observations of the very brilliant fireball observed in Devyon- 
shire and in the south-western counties of England on the evening of the 
13th of February last were collected and compared together by Mr. Wood, 
the result of whose investigation will shortly be given, with descriptions of 
that meteor, as the most probable conjecture, from the materials at present 
at their disposal, arrived at by the Committee respecting its real height and 
the locality of its nearest approach to the British isles. 


II. Larner Mereors. 
In addition to the conspicuous meteors described in the accompanying list, 
the following descriptions of remarkable meteors have appeared, or were 
communicated to the Committee by the observers :— 


1. 1870, Nov. 1, 115 30™ p.m., London. “I saw a splendid meteor last 
night, at 115 30™, through the blind of my bedroom window. The whole room 
was illuminated, and the meteor must have been at least half as large as the 
moon. I went to the window quickly, but could see no trail. The path 
must have been, say, 5° to the right of a Aurige, ending 10° to left of a, B 
Geminorum. I only saw the end. 

“T, Crumpten, London, N.W., Noy. 2nd, 1870.” 


2. 1870, Nov. 4, shortly before 3" a.m. (local time), Agra, India :— 

Extraordinary Meteor.—“ The following account of an extraordinary me- 
teor occurs in a letter I received from a brother who is a missionary stationed in 
Agra. He does not give the exact place where he was at the time, but it 
must have been very near to Agra. The letter is dated Agra, 24th November, 
1870. <A missionary from Allahabad was with him when he saw it. 

“* Mills Hill, Chadderston, near Manchester. Rosert Gryson. 


** Agra, Nov. 24, 1870.—I recently saw a marvellous meteor. I was in 
camp, and had risen for an early march a few minutes before 3 a.m. on 


32 REPORT—187 1. 


November 4th. I was standing under the shade of a cluster of trees, when 
a sudden flash of light fell around. Two or three camp fires were blazing 
near, and at first I thought it might be a sudden flare up from one of them ; 
but on casting my eyes up towards the heavens, I saw a large oval light, 
stationary. It appeared to be composed of a large number of irregularly 
shaped, differently sized stars, yet so closely packed as to form one light, yet 
giving the whole a sort of dappled appearance. At first I was struck dumb 
with amazement—thought it must be some mental illusion, or that my eyes 
were playing me false. But as I gazed it remained steadily fixed. : 
of Allahabad, was with me. I roused him; he was soundly asleep, and some 
seconds passed in waking him up. In the interval it appeared to have been 
lengthened, nearly, though not quite, by a straight line, and as we gazed it 
assumed the shape of a large magnet, with the upper limb rather shorter than 
the other. It then gradually expanded, diminishing in brightness as it in- 
creased in size, assuming a wavy, serpentine form, though keeping much to 
a horseshoe shape, until it became so attenuated as to be no longer visible. 
It must have continued in sight five minutes. It was seen by all the ser- 
vants; and one of them cried out, ‘ Bhagwauka seela hae,’ by which he ap- 
peared to mean that in his opinion the Almighty was amusing Himself with 
fireworks ; literally, ‘It is God’s sport or amusement.’ ”—Nature, Jan. 12th, 
1871. 

3. 1870, Dec. 20, 6" 40™ p.w., Hawkhurst. Kent.— This evening at 
6" 40™ I noticed the descent of a beautiful meteor. It appeared to start 
almost from the zenith towards the §S.S.E., and it was visible for about three 
seconds. It had very much the appearance of a sky-rocket in its flight, but 
without any explosion, and it displayed vivid red and orange colours. The 
evening was very dark, but the stars were visible; the meteor did not in- 
crease the amount of light in the place where I was walking. According 
to my ‘star-map,’ I should lay down its course as follows.” [See the sketch 
of the meteor’s course. |—T. Humpnrey, Hawkhurst, Dec. 20th, 1870. 


e ° 
° 
° 
Pegasus 
og? 
° 
° ° 
° o Od Pisces 
Ss Cetus 


4, 1871, Feb. 13, 95 4™ p.m., Bristol—‘‘I saw a very brilliant meteor 
last evening, February 13th, at 9 4™. During the time that it continued 
visible the whole of the sky was illuminated by the light it emitted. The 
first appearance of the meteor was not witnessed, but the direction and 
situation of the latter portion of its path was approximately determined. It 
passed through the S. part of Orion, just under Rigel, so [see sketch] :— 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 33 


_It disappeared near B, which is equal to about R.A. 4" 10™, Decl. 8. 15°. 
At A it left a train about 2° in length, which endured for ten minutes. In 
that portion of the sky near which the meteor disappeared many stratus 
clouds were visible. 

« P.S.—I omitted to state that the brilliancy of the meteor excelled that 
of any of the planets. When at its brightest the light was about equal to that 
of aclearfull moon. Ionly saw the disappearance.” —W11.1Am F, Dennrne, 
Bristol, February 14th, 1871. 


At Rugby the meteor was observed very bright at about 9" 10™ p.m., and 
it was described as “‘ starting from near @ Orionis, and proceeding towards a 
point a little north of y Eridani, when it was lost behind a belt of cloud.” 
(Communicated to ‘ Nature,’ February 16th, 1871, by J. M. Witson.) 

These two descriptions of its visible path (apparently from the relative 
positions of the stations) are so similar that little can be certainly concluded 
from them regarding the real distance of the meteor. 

At Exeter “a brilliant meteor traversed the constellation of Orion, ap- 
pearing near the Belt and passing from south to west. The direction was 
south-west, altitude 35°, Its light equalled or exceeded that of full moon, 
and it left a train of colours for some time.” (‘ English Mechanic,’ Feb. 24th.) 

At Torquay, “‘ The meteor started near Bellatrix in Orion, altitude 35°, 
passing due west, leaving in its track a brilliant train of colours, green pre- 
dominating.” (Jbid., March 3rd.) 

The meteor was also seen at Callington, in Cornwall, casting a brilliant dif- 
fused light, and occupying two seconds in its transit. (Jbid.) 

By comparing together the foregoing observations of its course, and obtain- 
ing an approximate estimation of its real height, Mr. Wood is led to adopt 
the following provisional positions of its visible track. The meteor first 
appeared at an elevation of fifty-five miles over the English Channel, seventy 
miles 8.8.W. from Torquay. It thence descended, with an inclination of 
16°, to a height of thirty-five miles over a point sixty-four miles west of 
Torquay, thus describing, from 8.E. by 8. to N.W. by N., a path of eighty 
miles in two seconds, across the centre of the county of Cornwall, terminating 
at its western coast, near St. Columb Minor. The radiant of the meteor was 
near a Hydre. As the meteor was probably distinctly seen in Cornwall, the 
Scilly Isles, and in the south of Ireland, additional descriptions of its appa- 
rent course from those places, as seen from points considerably west of the 
place where'it appears to have approached the earth, would afford the best 
materials for verifying the present approximate conjecture of its real path. 
As seen at Torquay, it was notably described by an observer to Mr. Greg as 


lighting up the whole bay and presenting a magnificent appearance. 
1871. D 


34. REPORT—1871. 


5. 1871, July 31st, 94 27" p.m., Bristol.—« 1 observed a meteor of some 
prilliancy on Monday evening last, July 31st, at 9" 27™. It was first seen a 
little above 8 Pegasi, and passing downwards obliquely, it went about 3° east 
of a Pegasi, and disappeared when it reached a point somewhere near R.A. 13°, 
N. Declin. 29°. It left no train of light that was perceptible, and I suppose 
that the meteor was visible for about three seconds. As far as could be 


Date.| Hour. Caan ct Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. | Apparent Course, | 
1870.|h m 
Sep. 12|10 25 p.m.|Camden Town, |3 x 3}, large disk... Blue............ Slow moving.../Began near # Ursa] 
London. Majoris, and ends} 
ed near Cor C 
roli. 
» 23} 8 10 p.m.|Birmingham ...|One-third diameter|Pale blue...... About 2 secs...|Commenced at 
of the full moon, a=66, 6=+8 
or 2X Q. 
Oct. 2) 10 8 p.m.|Ibid ........eeeee Sash 4-dde dung .....|Silvery-white..|3 seconds...... a= 0= 
From 92°+44° 
to 116 +37 
», 29/12 15 am.|Glasgow ......... =59P Ss sta Pesca REG fcdngopases 0:4 second ...|\Commenced at 
Caroli. 
Noy.13) 9 37 59 [Royal Observa-|> 2%  ese-.sseeeeves Yeilowish...... 3 seconds...... Passed midway bes 
tory, Green- tween @ and 
wich. Draconis, a 
continued 
path parallel tod 
and n Urse Ma 
joris. : 
» 21} 9 35 p.m.|Glasgow ......6 Wo ctecseeaacossates White... theses 3 seconds...... From 4 (6, 6) Aw 
rige to o U 
Majoris. 
» 20/9 0 p.m./Scarborough .../Apparent shape and Bluish .........)-+++ssseeesseerees Descended from 
size of the half- point about 
moon. above the S.W 
1871. horizon. 
Mar. 1)10 10 p.m./Charing Cross, |> 2  ..sesecerserees Brilliant white|About 3 secs...|From near 6 Canit 
London. Minoris to about 
5° or 6° east 
and at the sax 
altitude as, « O} 
onis. 
» 17\About 10 40/Paris, Rochelle,|Splendid meteor ...|Green ......... 20 SeCONdS .,.|-c...ceaccensesnss 
p-m. &c., France. 
(local time). 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 


85 


judged it was of a red colour, and somewhat star-like in appearance. At the 
time of its appearance the sky was rather cloudy and misty, and the meteor 
was not, therefore, seen advantageously. It did not seem to explode at the 


time of its extin 


ction. 


Park, Bristol, August 2nd, 1871. 


ge Meteors, 1870-71. 


. DENNING 


I have sent the above particulars thinking they may 
be useful for comparison with other results.””—Wittam F 


, Cotham 


Appearance; Train or 
Sparks. 


very large globular nu- 
cleus. Seen through 
haze, which dimmed its 
light. 

globular nucleus, with- 
out tail or streak. 


cleus pear-shaped, with 
short adhering white 
tail, projecting dull-red 
fragments forwards on 
its course; increasing 
and exploding at maxi- 
mum brightness. 


ft a very fine streak ... 


ft no streak............ sae 


€ meteor only seen as it 
assed behind the edge 
f a cloud. 


cleus pear-shaped, fol- 
owed by a short train 
or a second. Point of 

i appearance near 
jouses, which concealed 
he neighbouring star 


Length of Path and 
Direction. 


25°; downwards to left... 


>10°; directed from Ca- 
pella, radiant F). 


From radiant F, ............ 


5° while in sight; directed 
from @ Urse Majoris. 
40° 


Pree E Teer eee ee 


15°; from radiant in Taurus 


Fell perpendicularly | 


rocyon. 
explosion; but many 
parks projected from 
he nucleus. Left a lu- 


han an hour. 


TPO RRO Tere ete eet ereretereteans 


Sky clear. 


Remarks. 


The stars scarcely visible through 
haze, but recognized sufficiently 
near the meteor’s path. 


View of the end of its course in- 
tercepted when at an altitude 
of 4° or 5°. 


From radiant « Tauri. End of 
path hidden by houses. 


eer enees POO e eee eee ee ee ernst ansaseee 


lit up all the heavens. 


extremely bright in the full 
moonlight. 


p-m., >, from near the ze- 
nith, with a remarkably long 
duration, to near the S.W. hori- 
zon. Bright gold colour at 


last, leaving a brilliant train 
visible for 3 or 4 minutes (‘ The 
Times,’ Mar. 21st). 


Observer and 
References &c. 


T. Crumplen. 


W. H. Wood. 


.|Id. 


Robert Maclure. 


..|T. Wright. 


Robert Maclure. 


Appeared with two flashes, which|T. H. Waller. 


The meteor appeared/F. H. Ward. 


.|Seen also at Chichester, 10" 30™|/Messrs. Prevost, 


Samberg, and 
other  obser- 
vers (‘ Comp- 
tes Rendus,’ 
March 20th, 
1871). 


36 REPORT—1871. 

Date.| Hour. Be ahs pal Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. | Apparent Course. ; 
1871.|h m ; ; | 
Mar.18/12 20 a.m.|Turin and other|Apparent diameter)Brilliant white|About 2 mi- Passed directly over 
(local time).| places in Pied-| of full moon. nutes. Very| the townof Turin 
mont. protracted from the moun- 
course, and| tains near Susa, 
slow speed.| towards the op j 

posite horizon. 
» 23] 6 35 p.m. Broadstairs Disk of apparent/Nucleus green,|.........+++4++-|First appearance at 
(Kent). size of Sirius, in-| with red a point about 30° 
cluding his rays.| train. above the N. } E,| 
horizon. 

» 24) 4 25 a.m.|Volpeglino, and|Nucleus 25’ diame-|Brilliant white/Slow and (From a Cygni, a 
(local time).) other stations) ter. stately mo-| cross « Andros) 
in Piedmont. tion. meds, to near ¢ 


Apr.11} 9 46 p.m.| 


Ibid, Moncalieri, 


Nucleus 10’ diame- 


Bluish white... 


Piscium, or 
a — 

From 309°-+45° 
to 10+ 7 


o= 


- cc 


(local time).| Piedmont. ter. From 211°—10° 
to 223 +28 — 
[From 221 —11 
to lll +28 — 
From 175 +15 
to 111 +32] _ 
» 12} 8 15 p.m.|Lodi; Moncalieri,/ Very large and bril- Reddishe: then) sess <ovecseress From 111 + 7 | 
(local time).| Piedmont. liant. bright blue. to 105 + 2° 
», 14/11 39 p.m.|TheObservatory,|= 2} ....+seeeeeereree WWHHIte: seesscasclecees stevens .eee-| From 98 +70 
(local time).| Naples. to 15 +39 
», 22/10 37 30 |Moncalieri, irae inchs dunseapis==|nsphentss'sm dees |¢esolresac iesasinnae From 233 +23 
.m. Piedmont. to 18+88 
(local time). (Polaris) 
{From 212 +20. 
to 87 +445] 


6. Meteors of the largest class, as described in the foregoing list of such 


occurrences, were more than ordinarily frequent during the months of March 
and April last, appearing principally on the nights of the 17th—18th and 
23rd-24th of March, and on those of the 11th and 12th of April last. On 
the first of these dates two fireballs were observed in France and Italy, the 
former of which was also seen in the south of England, at Chichester. A 
large meteor was seen in Kent and Essex, on the second date, a few minutes 
after sunset; and two detonating meteors were observed at Urbino, and were 
generally visible in Italy on the same night. The third detonating meteor 
of which accounts haye reached the Committee, made its appearance in Pied- 
mont on the evening of the 12th of April last. Professor Serpieri and Mr. 
Denza, at the Observatories of Urbino and Moncalieri, near Turin, are collect- 
ing sufficient details of these large meteors to calculate their real course. 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 


37 


Appearance ; Train or 
Sparks. 


of stars. Left an im- 
mensely broad and 
bright streak, which re- 
mained visible for 10" 
or 15", 

ucleus followed by a 
train of red sparks. Ex- 
ploded, projecting many 
luminous fragments. 


eftafew bright red sparks 
and a very persistent 
ruddy streak on its whoie 
_ course. 


ucleus very brilliant. At 
az Bootis it paused for 
an instant, and advanced 
with irregular motion 
towards its termination. 
Left a briliiant streak. 


eft a reddish streak for! 
20 seconds. 

ucleus followed by a 
bright streak, which re- 
mained visible for 33 
minutes, 


Length of Path and 
Direction. 


ucleus an elongated mass Horizontal, from W.N.W. 


to E.S.E. 


15°; descending towards 
the east, at an inclina- 
tion of about 45°. 


see eeene PO dee eee w were eee ee estes 


ee ee ee rere re ree erry 


Remarks. 


The meteor was also seen at Ley- 

ton, Essex, a few minutes after 

sunset, appearing in the E.N.E., 

and taking a southerly direction. 

(J. F. Duthie, ‘ Nature,’ Mar. 

30th, 1871.) 

|Burst with a violent detonation; 
heard about 4 a minute after 
its disappearance. [Seen and 
heard at Urbino, where it was 
preceded at 22 a.m. by a per- 
fectly similar detonating meteor 
equally brilliant, and leaving a 
persistent streak.—A, Serpt- 
ERI. | 

[The last two apparent positions 
are those at Alessandria, and 


Observer and 
References &c. 


Letter in Turin 
newspaper (by 
F. Denza) of 
Mar. 31st. 


Communicated 
by Jas. Chap- 


man, 


Letter in Turin 
newspaper of 
March  3lst, 
1871, by F. 
Denza. 


Communicated 
by F. Denza. 


Volpeglino, where the meteor 
was also observed. ] 


Burst with a detonation, which 
was heard in houses with closed 
doors. 


Fee eta ne weesernes ewe eeeeeese ee eeenee eee 


(The last apparent position is that! 
observed at Volpeglino (Tor- 
tona), where the meteor was 
also seen, and its bright streak 
remained visible for one minute. | 


1804, November 24 .. 
1864, June 26 
1865, February or March 
1866, October 5 
1867, January 19..... 
1868, May 22 
1868, November 
1868, December .. 
Date unknown 


III. A&éRoxrres. 


Date 


4. <)/e a, 6.0) 6, a 
se eee eee 


. San Luis Potosi, Mexico. 


Volynia, Russia. 
Gorruckpore, India. 
Ahmednuggur, Bombay. 
Khetrie, Rajpootana, India 
Slavetic Croatia. 

Danville, Alabama, U.S. 
Frankfort, Alabama, U.S. 
Goalpara, Assam. 


The following dates of aérolitic falls appear to have escaped notice in the 
Catalogue (Report for 1860) and in subsequent Reports :— 


38 REPORT—1871. 


The analysis of the last of these meteorites by Mr. Tschermak (Jahrbuch 
fiir Mineralogie, for 1871, p. 412) shows approximately the following com- 
position :— 

Tron. Hydrocarbon. Olivine. Enstatite. | Magnetic Pyrites. 
8-49 +0:85 +61:72 +30-01 +(traces) =101:07. 

The occurrence of carbonaceous matter in the meteorites of Hessle, Upsala 
(Ist January, 1869), was recently also recognized by Nordenskjold, who 
found in them a black flocculent substance, containing 71 per cent. of 
carbon. (The ‘Academy,’ August 15th, 1871.) 


TY. Merrortc SHowers. 

1. Meteor-showers in January and February 1837.—From the tracks of 
meteors recorded in the last annual Catalogue of the British Association, and 
in the ‘ Bulletin of the Moncalieri Observatory’ for November 1869, observed 
during the months of January and February of that year, Mr. Greg has 
established the existence of the following old, and of one new radiant-point, 
which made their appearance in those months :— 


Position of radiant- Report for 1868, p. 401. 
; : point. Number of 
Duration of meteoric meteors 
shower in 1869. mapped. Position. 
cb j Duration. 
a. | 6. | By the stars. a. | 6. | By the stars. 


Jan. 9-19, and Jan. < 8 «ont “| 20,2 a) & i 
ay Goeh6 72|+ 2\s, z, Orionis... |14 (Italian)..| (AG, |Dec. 20 to Feb.6.| 63 /+20\a Tauri)? 


: 

4 
Symbols, durations, and positions of the same 
meteor-showers in the British Association 

P 

‘ 

. 

i 

e 


Jan. 29 to Feb. 6 ...... 223 |+54\/In Quadrans...|7 (Italian)...| Kg |Jan. 2-3........... 232 |+49 ¢ Quadrantis. 
Feb. 11-20 (chiefly) ...| 194 |+15\e Virginis ...... 8 (English)..| Sq |March 5-17 ...... 190|+ ly Virginis. 
Feb. 11-16 (chiefly) ...| 103 |—25/6 Canis Majo-|10 (English) P, |January............ 105 |—27 6 Canis Majoris. 


ris. and Italian).| 113 [February ......... 105 |—45|Puppis, Argo. 


A succession of radiant-points near the apex of the earth’s way following 
the appearance of the November shower, of which the general meteor-shower 
LH (Report for 1868, p. 403) from the head of Hydra, lasting until the 
12th of December, presents a parallel instance, is remarkably described in the 
following MS. note, recorded by the late Sir J. Herschel during his residence 
at the Cape:—“ Cape of Good Hope, 1837, January 2nd, 1" 30™ M. T. [2. e. 
from midnight]. A meteor=second-magnitude star crossed the zenith, leav-- 
ing a train. Course right from the apex in the east, whence they have all 
come since November 12th. N.B. This has been extremely remarkable and 
well-sustained; really very few exceptions. 

«February 1-5.—The meteors now chiefly go from 8.W. to N.E.” 

The tendency of radiant-points to group themselves in families so as to 
make newly observed centres difficult to distinguish from older ones appear- 
ing nearly on the same date, is well seen by the examples of the new radiant- 
point in Orion, and of the extensions (apparently) of old radiant-points, pointed 
out by Mr. Greg. Some attempts to explain this singular peculiarity and 
the striking instances of groups of radiant-points in the months of January 
and February have recently been published by Professor Schiaparelli, a fur- 
ther account of whose speculations on their probable history will be found at 
the close of this Report. 


= 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 89 


2. The Meteor-shower of November 1868, which was seen in its greatest 
brilliancy in the United States of America, and which was also partially 
recorded at Glasgow, by Professor Grant, between 5 and 6 o’clock on the 
morning of the 14th of November, was observed at the same hours in the 
north of Scotland, and described in the ‘Journal of the Scottish Meteorolo- 
gical Society’ (for December 1868) :—‘‘ Meteors and Falling-stars.—The star- 
shower of the 13th and 14th of November was observed at many of the 
stations. In the north it was very fine. Mr. Clark, the observer at North 
Unst, writes :—‘On the morning of the 14th there was a great falling of 
shooting-stars from all directions of the sky ; it was something like a shower 
of stars.’ And the Rev. Dr. Hamilton observes that at Bressay ‘ There 
was an extraordinary meteoric shower, which continued from 3" 30™ a.m. of 
the 13th [? 14th] till the sun rose, and the number of stars or meteors falling 
was innumerable.’” The following descriptions of its appearance in Swit- 
zerland are given by Dr. Rudolf Wolf in his ‘Astronomical Contributions’ :— 
©1868, November 13th: from 12" 5™ to 127 15™ 1 saw four, from 122 15™ 
to 12" 30™ nine, and from 12” 30™ to 12" 40™ two brilliant meteors radia- 
ting from the constellation Leo. The sky (up to the latter time quite clear) 
then clouded over from the east, and all further view of the meteors at 
Ziirich was prevented. Mr. Rieder, at Klosters, reports:—‘As an unusual 
phenomenon I have to state that at 4° 15™ on the morning of the 14th of 
November, 1868, an extraordinary number of shooting-stars were visible in 
the western sky; from five until six o’clock a real rain of shooting-stars took 
place, diffusing such great brightness that one might easily have read by 
their light. Several of the meteors left streaks of bright light in the sky, 
which remained visible for two or three seconds.’ At Engelberg ‘from five 
until after six o’clock a.m. on the morning of the 14th of November, repeated 
flashes of lightning were perceived, and shortly before five o’clock a swiftly 
passing flash, like a ball of light, was observed, whilst the sky was com- 
pletely overcast.’” An admirably compiled history of the November pheno- 
menon in the year 1868, comprising the exact details of observations at all 
the places where it was well observed, and notices of its general description 
at piaces in all parts of Europe, the United States of America, and the 
Atlantic, where it was witnessed, is published in his Memoirs V. and VI., on 
‘Shooting-stars of November 1868 and August 1869,’ by Sig. F. Denza. The 
same volume contains (in the sixth memoir) an equally full collection of obser- 
vations and theoretical deductions of great value regarding the appearance of 
the August meteor-shower in the year 1869. Among the latter may be cited 
the suggestion of Professor Newton*, borne out by the observations of the 
shower made in America, and by those of Professor Serpieri at Urbino in 
that yeart, that the radiant- region of the Perseids is in reality a narrow, 
elongated space extending from near the cluster at y Persei to the star B 
(B. A. C. 1058) Camelopardi. The radiant-region of the Leonids in the pre- 
vious year was similarly observed by Professor Newton to be better repre- 
sented by a short line extending between the stars e, y Leonis, from about the 
star «, in the centre of the Sickle (B. A. C. 3423), to the latter star, than by a 
single point. The direction of elongation of the radiant-region i is towards the 
sun’s apparent place, a conclusion which is regarded by Prof. Newton as throw- 
ing light of some importance upon the theory of the November meteor-stream. 


* Bulletins of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Belgium, ser. 2. vol. xxvi. 1868, 
p. 450, 451. 

+ Letter from Prof. Serpieri to Prof. Schiaparelli, January 5th, 1870; communicated 
to the Royal Institute of Sciences of Lombardy. 


40 REPORT—1871. 


3. The August Shower in 1870.—In the ‘ Meteorological Bulletin’ of the 
Moncalieri Observatory for October 1870, the first results of observations in 
Piedmont on the star-shower of the 10th and 11th of August last are com- 
municated. As already observed in the last Report, the frequency of the 
meteors did not exceed the ordinary average of the shower, and they were 
somewhat more frequent on the night of the 10th than on that of the 11th 
of August. They appeared to proceed from several radiant-points, besides 
the principal one of the shower, in Perseus. Among the contemporaneous 
radiant-points, T,, F, (the former occurring in August in Pegasus, and the 
latter usually appearing in Auriga in the latter part of September) were 
observed to be conspicuous. 

4, The November Shower in 1870.—The preparations made for recording 
the return of the November meteors in 1870 were in a great measure disap- 
pointed by the cloudy state of the sky at several of the English stations. 

The following letter from Mr. Backhouse announced a more favourable 
condition of the sky at Sunderland on the morning of the 14th of November 
than that which prevailed at Manchester, Birmingham, York, and London, 
where no meteors of the shower could be observed :— 

“ Between 2” 20™ and 3? 42™ a.m., on the 14th, I watched for meteors; I 
only saw seven in fifty-six minutes, watching in a cloudless sky. Of these 
only four belonged to the shower. I enclose the particulars. I did not 
watch much on the morning of the 15th. It was mostly cloudy, and I saw 
no meteors.’—Of the conformable meteors two left trains, one was station- 
ary close to, and the others radiating very nearly from, the small star x 
Leonis. The unconformable meteors appeared with short courses in and near 
the constellation Taurus, and of these one was as bright as Sirius. It was 
of a yellow colour, describing a path of 3°, near e Arietis, from the direction 
of the Pleiades, and it left no streak. 

Five meteors, from undetermined radiant-points, were seen through breaks 
in the clouds by Mr. J. E. Clark, at York, on the morning of the 14th, and 
two Leonids of some brightness, in a watch of one hour (interrupted by the 
clouds), on the morning of the 15th of November. 

On the morning of the 14th of November the sky was clear at Glasgow 
from 2" 10™ until 5° 15™ a.m., and twenty-six meteors were recorded by 
Mr. A. S. Herschel, of which twenty-one were conformable. Of the latter 
the paths of eleven, prolonged backwards, crossed, and of five passed close to 
the curve of Leo’s sickle. Seven meteors left persistent streaks, which were 
faintly visible in the full moonlight. The proportion of magnitudes of the 
conformable meteors was :— 

Of meteors equal to or brighter than a 1st-mag. x; oo do.; 3rd do.; 4th do. 
Number of meteors seen ....00...ceeeeeees 3 7 5 
Meteors of smaller magnitudes were rendered net by the moon’s light ; 
and the most striking conformable meteor of the shower, recorded at 
4 25™ a.M., was as bright as Sirius. It described a course of 25°, directed 
nearly from p Leonis, in three-quarters of a second, and left a broad streak 
on its whole path for two seconds. The following numbers of conformable 
and unconformable meteors were recorded in the half-hours ending at 
hm hm hm hm hm hm 


1870, November 14th, A.M.........00. 240 310 340 410 440 510 
Conformable meteors ...........s0000+- I 4 6 2 5 3 
Unconformable meteors ............... I ° ° 4 ° ° 


In the first and last half-hours the sky was partially concealed by clouds ; 
at 3" 38™ a.m. a group of three first-, second-, and third-magnitude meteors, 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 4) 


leaving streaks directed from Leo, appeared almost together. In the next 
half-hour two meteors, directed apparently from Cor Caroli, appeared to be 
unconformable to the Leo radiant. The remaining unconformable meteors 
all proceeded from the direction of a radiant-point in Taurus. At 5" 15™ a.m. 
the sky became completely overcast ; but a shooting-star from the direction 
of Leo, of first magnitude, was observed by Mr. R. Maclure, at 6" 20™ a.m., 
through an opening of the clouds. On the morning of the 15th the sky at 
Glasgow was again completely overcast. 

On the evening of the 13th a bright meteor (described in the above List) 
was seen at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, and three vivid flashes of 
light, between 12" 15™ and 12° 30™ a.m., on the 14th, which must have pro- 
ceeded from large meteors, at an altitude of about 20°, due 8. were seen 
through the clouds, which from this time overspread the sky during the 
remainder of the night. On the morning of the 15th a clear sky enabled 
Mr. Glaisher’s staff of observers to make continuous observations of the 
meteors visible in the bright moonlight, from midnight until 5° 33™ a.n., 
when the sky was again quite obscured by clouds. Fifty-three meteors were 
recorded, in this interval by the five observers, the apparent paths of forty- 
five of which were traced upon a map. Of the meteors so recorded, twenty- 
eight proceeded from the usual radiant-point in Leo, eight from a radiant- 
point situated apparently not far from Cor Caroli, seven from a radiant-point 
between Taurus and Musca, and two meteors from uncertain radiant-points. 

The following were the numbers of the meteors observed in the successive 
half-hours ending at 

hm hhm hbhmhthmhbhbmshdhm 

1870, November 15th, A.M.... 1230 I 130 2 230 3 330 4 430 5 530 Total 
Number of meteors seen...... Del 2A) Getizenr as Ab Mee iG. FSi ks 53 
A very beautiful meteor of bluish-white colour, and of the apparent size and 
brightness of Jupiter, proceeding apparently from the direction of the radiant- 
point in Musca, descended towards the east, at 4° 45™ 25° a.m., through an 
are of more than 25°, in about three seconds, leaving a streak of light upon 
its course. Most of the conformable meteors left a persistent train, but none 
of those observed rivalled this fine meteor in brightness or in length of 
course. The proportion of apparent magnitudes of the remaining meteors, 
seen during the watch is shown in the following list :— 

Brighter than first-magnitude stars; =1stdo.; =2nddo.; =3rddo. Total 
Number of meteors seen...... 6 24. 17 5 52 
From these descriptions of the meteor-shower it appears that, on both the 
mornings of the 14th and 15th of November, the number of the conformable 
meteors considerably exceeded that of the unconformable meteors which 
appeared during the hours of the continued watch; but that the scale of the 
shower, as it was observed in England, was very far inferior to the brightness 

with which it was recorded in the preceding year. 

At Tooting, near London, Mr. H. W. Jackson observed on the mornings of 
the 14th, 15th, and 16th of November, and noted one shooting-star on the 
night of the 13th, but failed, on account of haze and clouds, followed by rain 
during the morning of the 14th, in securing another observation. Between 
midnight and 1" 55™ a.m., on the morning of the 15th, eight meteors were 
carefully observed and mapped, and four or five smaller meteors were seen, 
all but two of which (of short course, near the radiant-point in Taurus) were 
conformable to the Leo radiant-point. Of these, the brightest, at 1" 5™ a.m., 
which left a long streak, was simultaneously observed at Greenwich. Of the 
two unconformable meteors, that which appeared at 12” 7™ a.m. was white 


42 REPORT—1871. 


and nearly as bright as Jupiter, moving for two seconds in a slightly curved 
course from 7 to ~ Orionis, and leaving a short streak upon its track. 
Flashes of faint reddish lightning were perceived at 12" 28™ and 12" 53™ a.m. 
Between 12" 30™ and 1° 30™ a.m. on the morning of the 16th some meteors 
were observed, but did not appear to present features worthy of special note. 

At Newhaven, in the United States, three observers noted, in three hours, 
thirty-one meteors, of which only six were conformable to the radiant-point 
in Leo. On the following morning (the 14th) Professor Newton, with five 
other observers, obtained the following enumeration of the meteors visible in 
the half-hours ending at 1870, November 14th, a.m. :— 

hm h hm hhmhhm h hm hm 

(1870, November 13th, P.M.... 1130 12) 1230 I 130 2 230 3 330 345* Totals 


Conformable meteors ......... ° I 5 PITOnvT2 sigh iS wSawie aeem 79 
Unconformable meteors ...... 6 8 4 Fie BEEO « iy The oa i7 eig ey 2 74. 


After 3" 45™ the sky was so nearly overcast that regular counting was 
abandoned, while in open spaces of the sky it was still apparent that up to 
six o’clock no marked increase in the number of the meteors had taken place. 
After half-past five, however, the clouds already began more nearly to cover 
the sky. (American Journal of Science and Arts, vol. i., January 1871.) 

5. Meteor-shower of December 12th, 1870.—The state of the sky was not 
generally favourable for observations, Mr. H. W. Jackson reporting from 
Louth that on the nights of the 12th and 13th the sky was overcast, with 
frequent rain from 8" 30™ p.m. on the night of the 12th. At Glasgow, York, 
and Manchester it was equally obscured. At Birmingham Mr. W. H. Wood 
was more fortunate in securing a short view of the sky on one of the periodic 
nights, and the following is his description of the shower :— 

“The overcast state of the skies from the 10th to the 13th permitted only 
of a partial view of the character of the shower, which occurred during a 
temporary clearance of the sky for one hour only, from 11" 30™ p.m. on the 
12th to 12" 30™ a.m. on the 13th. Five meteors were recorded in three- 
quarters of an hour, radiating accurately from radiant G (@ Geminorum). 
Meteors white or blue, and trainless (one observer).” A list of the recorded 
paths, and a description of the meteors seen, accompanies Mr. Wood’s report. 
The position of the radiant-point from which the meteors approximately 
diverged was near the stars « and 6, in Gemini. 

No observations were recorded, owing to a cloudy state of the sky, on the 
shower-meteor nights of the 1st and 2nd of January, 1871. 

6. Meteor-shower of April 20th, 1871.—The last well-marked appearance 
of the April meteor-shower, to the annual occurrence of which attention 
was first drawn by Herrick, in the United States, took place on the morning 
of the 21st of April, 1863+, when, for a few hours, meteors were observed 
by Mr. Wood, at Weston-super-Mare, to be as frequent as in a moderately 
bright August star-shower. Two Julian intervals of four years each haying 
elapsed since that occurrence, the astronomical conditions of its reappearance 
suggested special preparations and a simultaneous watch, which were ac- 
cordingly made for its return. Besides the staff of observers at the Royal 
Observatory, Greenwich, Mr. Glaisher’s son, Mr. James Glaisher, volunteered 
to take part in the observations at Cambridge, where Professor Adams also 
offered his aid, to join in recording the shooting-stars which might be visible at 
the Observatory. The other observers who awaited the display were those 
who have most frequently assisted the Committee by their recorded observa- 
tions at Glasgow, York, Manchester, Birmingham, and London. Such, how- 


* In a quarter of an hour. t, Report for 1863, p. 325. 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 43 


ever, was the unfavourable state of the sky which prevailed during the 
forty-eight hours intended to have been devoted to the watch (and which 
continued to prevent further observations during the last remaining nights 
of the months of April), that with the exception of a few meteors of the 
shower observed by Mr. Wood at Birmingham, and of the corresponding 
group of meteors recorded by Mr. Herschel at Bury St. Edmunds, no un- 
broken series of observations were received. The sky first became quite clear 
at the latter place at 9" 30™ p.m., and the following numbers of meteors were 
seen in the half-hours ending at— 

hem bee hime hh, himy shy hom 
1871, April 20.........p.M.930 10 1030 11 1130 12 (12 304M. April 21). Total. 
Number of meteors seen ... 3 I 3 I II 6 25 
All but eight of their apparent paths, projected upon a map, when prolonged 
backwards, pass across a circular area about 15° in width, of which the 
centre is at a point in R. A. 267°, N. Decl. 35°. Nine of these conformable 
meteors left bright trains. Of the eight unconformable meteors, four are 
widely erratic meteors of the same shower, and the remaining four moving 
in the opposite direction were directed from an unknown radiant-point in the 
south. The path of one of the latter was remarkably serpentine in the latter 
portion of the meteor’s course. The following are the numbers of meteors of 
the different magnitudes observed :— 

As bright as Jupiter or Sirius. As Ist mag. star. 2nd. 3rd. 4th. Sth. Total. 

3 4 5 5 4 4 25 
The last meteor was observed at 12" 35™ a.m. on the 21st. The sky then 
rapidly clouding over did not permit the progress of the shower, at Bury St. 
Edmunds, to be further watched. On the previous and on the following 
night the sky was also cloudy. 

At Birmingham Mr. W. H. Wood recorded the appearance of nine 
shooting-stars between the hours of 10" 20™ and 11"30™ p.m. on the night of 
the 20th of April, five of which were noted in the first, and four in the latter 
half of the watch ; five meteors diverged from the constellation Lyra, three 
from that of Corona, and the remaining meteor moved transversely to the 
former ones from the neighbourhood of Polaris. The numbers of meteors 
seen of different magnitudes were, 1=Sirius, 2=I1st mag.x, 1=38rd do., 
5=4th do.: total 9 meteors. The brightest meteor of the shower moved with a 
nucleus of brilliant blue, flickering light, about the brightness of Sirius, from the 
direction of Corona. Soon after half-past 11 o’clock the sky became over- 
cast, and remained so at 1° and 25 a.m. on the morning of the 21st, when 
regular watching was abandoned. The maximum, as far as could be ascer- 
tained from these observations, occurred after midnight on the morning of 
the 21st; the rate of apparition for one observer, while the sky was clear, 
being seven or eight per hour between ten and eleven o’clock, and twelve or 
fifteen per hour during the half-hour immediately before and that imme- 
diately after midnight. Between 11° 15™ and 11" 45™ p.m. on the night of 
the 21st, Mr. Wood observed no meteors at Birmingham, although one-third 
of the sky was visible, quite clear, through the broken clouds. The appear- 
ance of the April shower in this year appears, therefore, to have taken place 
on the date and at about the hour expected for its return, from the time 
of its last conspicuous appearance. 

7. Meteor-shower of July 1871.—At sea, between Norway and England, 
Mr. A. 8. Herschel watched for the periodical meteors (first pointed out by 
_ Capocci, at Naples) on the night of the 16th of July. The sky was perfectly 
clear from 11" p.m. until 2" a.m. on the morning of the 17th of July, and 


44, REPORT—1871. 


seventeen meteors were observed, six in the first, six in the second, and 
five in the third hour of the watch. On the night of the 17th the sky was 
again clear; but three meteors only were observed in three-quarters of an 
hour, between 105 55™ and 11° 40™ p.m. The meteors observed on both 
nights were small, and appeared generally with short courses near a radiant- 
region around 7 Herculis, from which they appeared to diverge. The num- 
ber of meteors seen of the different magnitudes were, 2=1st mag.x, 4=2nd, 
4=drd, 6=4th, 4=5th: total 20 meteors seen in 3? hours by one observer, 
in a clear sky, with no moon. 


Y. Papers RELATING TO MerEoric ASTRONOMY. 


1. Under the title ‘ Aleuni Resultati Preliminari tratti dalle osservazioni 
di Stelle Cadenti publicate nelle Effemeride degli anni 1868, 1869, 1870;’ 
Professor Schiaparelli communicates, in connexion with the three Catalogues 
of Shooting-Stars observed in Italy, published in the Ephemeris of the Milan 
Observatory for the years 1868, 1869, and 1870, a first report on the radiant- 
points obtained by mapping the meteor-tracks contained in them from Janu- 
ary to June. For a convenient nomenclature of the radiant-points, the year 
is divided into seventy-two pentads, of five days each, of which six are con- 
tained in every month. While the first five pentads in every month are 
complete, the sixth, and last, consists of three, four, five, or six days, ac- 
cording to the length of the month to which it belongs. Since, however, the 
observations for a single night of the year only (collected from all the years) 
are combined together to detect the radiant-points, of which several may 
occur in each pentad, the letters of the alphabet added to the Roman num- 
ber of a pentad (thus, XIX.) designate the radiant-points in those pentads in 
the order in which they were successively discovered by Professor Schia- 
parelli. Besides a strict separation of meteors observed on one from those 
observed on the next following or on the next preceding night, to avoid the 
risk of confusing together meteors belonging to different radiant-points under 
a false assemblage of two radiant-points into a single meteoric-shower, Pro- 
fessor Schiaparelli distinguishes as different meteor-currents those whose 
radiant-points, as shown by laying down the recorded paths, are more than 
10° apart. The precision with which the radiant-points must be determined 
(from the shooting-star observations of a single night) is necessarily very 
great, in order that this rule may be rigorously applied. Even omitting the 
errors of observation (which are frequently considerable), it is found that 
different meteoric showers present different characters of radiation. In some 
the radiant-region is small, and the meteor-tracks prolonged backwards meet 
nearly in a point, when it is called “ exact”; in others it is larger, the meteor- 
tracks prolonged backwards crossing each other in a confused manner over a 
considerable apparent space, in which case it is called “ diffuse.’ The 
shooting-stars which make their appearance within the radiant-region (when 
this is rather large) may appear to be moving in every variety of opposite direc- 
tions, and their paths are usually noticed to be extremely foreshortened by 
perspective in this position. Lastly, if they diverge from two or more points 
the character of the radiation is said to be double or multiple; and it ap- 
pears probable, on certain theoretical grounds, which will be shortly stated, 
that a diffuse radiant-region in general arises from the close assemblage of 
many radiant-points together into a multiple group. The November meteor- 
shower is an example of exact, and the August star-shower an instance 
either of multiple or of diffuse radiation, according to the various descriptions 
of the observers who have examined the direction of its radiant-point most 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 45 


attentively. Meteoric showers composed principally of very small shooting- 
stars are confined to the parts of the heavens immediately surrounding the 
radiant-point; while those consisting of large meteors spread far from the 
centre of divergence, the meteors (apparently from their brightness) being as 
plainly visible when they are seen by transverse as when they are seen fore- 
shortened by very oblique vision. Meteor-showers of the former kind are 
called “contracted” ; and of the latter kind “extended” (stretta; larga). The 
foregoing are the principal terms employed by Professor Schiaparelli in de- 
scribing the meteor-showers of which the positions of the radiant-points have 
now been published. The explanation of the phenomena of “ diffuse ” and 
“multiple ” radiant-points is ingeniously supplied by Professor Schiaparelli 
in the following manner. A very small nebular mass of meteoroids or of 
cometoids haying been deflected from its original parabolic (or very excen- 
tric) into an orbit of moderate period round the sun by the attraction of some 
powerful planet in its path, the foremost and swiftest particles of the stream 
produced by this disturbance gradually gaining, and the slowest losing 
ground on the central particles of the mass, an elongated form of the mass is 
gradually assumed directed along the line of the meteoric orbit. The dif- 
ference of velocity, or of periodic time, between the foremost and hindmost 
particles of the row is sufficient to ensure the gradual lengthening of the line, 
until the foremost particle joins with the last in forming a continuous ring or 
wreath of meteoric substance closing the orbit of the original meteoric cloud. 
Should the two ends, before meeting each other (as must usually be the case), 
have undergone different perturbations from the action of the planets, in- 
stead of exactly overtaking the retreating end, the foremost end of the wreath 
will overlap it, and the meteor-stream will begin to assume the form of a 
spiral curve of a single coil. When the foremost end has gained two revolu- 
tions upon the retreating one, a spiral of two coils will be produced; and 
continuing this process during many revolutions gained by one end of the 
coil upon the other, the wreath of meteoroids, without losing its continuity, 
will at last form an endless hoop, or belt, of many strands overlying and 
interlacing with each other in as many conyolutions as the fastest particles 
haye gained revolutions in their course upon the slower ones. The direction 
and velocity of the particles in one of the strands will also differ as widely as 
their positions from those of particles in a neighbouring strand, and the whole 
wreath, without ever losing its perfect continuity from end to end, will cross 
and recross itself in constantly going and returning waves. In these stages 
of transformation a meteoric stream would successively exhibit the characters 
of double and multiple radiant-points. Supposing the same process to con- 
tinue, and new’ perturbations of the stream to be constantly deflecting par- 
ticles from the front or rear into different courses, these particles overtaking 
each other at the point where the earth passes through the stream would 
produce the mixed assemblage of radiant-points and of directions of the 
meteors of the August shower, which give it the character of multiple or of 
diffuse radiation. In the following list of radiant-points those marked with 
an asterisk (*) were described in the last Report (1870, p. 98) ; those at the 
end of the list are not included by Prof. Schiaparelli in his present list, which 
only represents the most important radiant-points observed, at present, in the 
first half of the year. In the cases where their identity with radiant-points 
in Heis’s list, or in that of the British Association, is suggested by Pro- 
fessor Schiaparelli, the position and duration of those radiant-points are 
_ added for comparison in the same columns of the Table. 

t Report for 1868, p. 401 e¢ seg. 


46 


REPORT—1871. 


List of the Principal Meteorie showers occurring in the first half of the year whose radian 
points are derived from observations of shooting-stars in Italy, published in the Ephemerid 


of the Milan Observatory, for the years 1868, 1869, and 1870. 


Sign or 
Symbol. 


Via. 
VI 2. 
Vic. 


VIg*. 
[AG,. 
Vid. 


Vie. 


VI f*. 
[M,, » 
Vila. 
X a*, 


[As; 4 


By G. V. Schiaparelli. | 


betes oe Character of Characters of the Meteors, 
: radiation. General Remarks, &c. 
shower, 
a é 
eee [act. 
Jan. 6 ...... 199/+58 |Contracted and ex-|Observed in 1868 and 1869 ......... 
Jan. 6 ...... E75 | 7-48 )|ccovscccsscteotsvevslecs eae etter) FF mconasadco 
184)/+28 ..(Jan. 11, 1 
Jan. 11-12 ve Et D/O banive dacengee paper enasisters Jan. 12, 1869 Beiep ator ot 
Jan. 1-25... fe ise ROVE eer seebe bien ae Maximum Jan. 24......secssecseeees 
Jan. 12 ...) 197/+59 |Contracted and ex-|Jan. 12, 1869 (traces on Jan. 11, 
act. 1869), possibly a continuation of 
Ila. 
Jan. 18 232/+36 |Most certain and\A splendidly well-defined meteor- 
exact. shower. Jan. 18 (traces on Jan. 
19), 1869. 
Jan. 19 198|+28 .../Jan. 1g (traces on the 18th), 1869. 
Jan. 19 DZO}\- A ONP|secteasarcweasececenc ses Many small meteors Jan. 19 (no 
trace on the 18th), 1869. 
Jan. 19 200/+58 |Contracted and ex-|Jan. 19 (no traces on 18th), 1869; 
act. apparently independent of IL a, 
IIl4, and V%é from absence of 
intermediate meteors. 
Jan. 21 BOGE AOU | ott baaetsiags Basle dee Jan. 21 (no trace on 19th and 20th), 
1869. Independent of the ra- 
diants IV d, VI a. 
Jan. 24 200/+56 |Uncertain to 5° ;/)Jan.24, 1868, many meteors. ?Con- 
diffuse, perhaps} nected with VI a, VI 2%: see 
multiple. the following Table (p. 48). 
Jan. 25-27| 205/+47 |Uncertain to 5°...\Chiefly Jan. 27, 1868. (Perhaps 
identical with the last ?) 
Jan. 29 198|+54 |Extended; diffuse,|Jan. 29, 1868. No traces of this 
perhaps multiple.) shower on Jan. 28. 
Jan. 28 236\125 |Extended; confus-|Jan. 28, 1868. ? If connected with 
ed, but distinct. Vid Jan. 30; no intermediate 
meteors. 
Jan, 28 67\+25 |Diffuse............... Jan. 28, 1868. [Probably identical 
with the next.] 
Dec.20-Feb.| 68)/+20 |Elongated and dif-/Maximum Dec. 24.....s000...00e+0000- 
6. fuse. 
Jan. 30 225|+34 |Extended, uncer-|Jan. 30, 1868. ?Connected with 
tain to 10°. Vic, Vle; but no intermediate 
meteors with IV a. 
Jan. 31 221\+28 |Contracted; well-|Jan. 31, 1868. ?Connected in one 
defined. group with IV a, IV c, VIc and| 
VId: see following Table (p. 48). 
Jan. 31 134/+40 |Few meteors ...... Jan. 31, 1868. ‘Traces on preced- 
ing evenings. 
Jan. 2—Feb.| 128/40  |...........escuseoeees Maximum Jan. 25-31 .........00- nee 
9: 
Bebe iesaas 153|+21 |Contracted and ex-/Feb. 3, 1869; a few traces on pre- 
act. ceding nights. 
Feb. 16 74\+48 |Apparently double|Feb. 16, 1868. Traces on the 15th. 
(71/+41) | and exact. A few meteors only from the se- 
cond radiant-point. Identical 
with the next. 
Feb..9-17 .| (73-0, |Well-detined ‘and|‘s.......-...sssne:ctes ce tee eee 
-| limited. 


Authority. 


” 


” 


R. P. Greg 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 


47 


Date and 
2¢ Aand duration of 
* | shower. 
fA,  |Feb. 15-28 
Vl a*, |Mar. 20 ... 
‘M,. |Mar. 16-31 
IX a. |Mar. 31- 
Apr. 2. 
[X 2%, Apr. 2-3... 
@. —\Apr. 9 ««. 
BADE. Qreccs.s 
c*, |Apr. 10 
a*, |Apr. 11 
§,. Apr. 1-15. 
Fe Apr. 20 ... 
Hse a|Apr: 20. ... 
6¥, jApr. 14 ... 
Ta*. |Apr.25 . 
Va*. |Apr. 30- 
May 1. 
Q.. —‘|Apr. 23- 
June 4 
May 1-31 


Apparent 
Position. 


142 


237 


237 
235 


232 
280 


Character of 
radiation. 


Characters of the Meteors, 
General Remarks, &e. 


seen een aw meee west eeeenee 


Centre of an elon- 
gated radiant-re- 
gion. 


Penne eee ee ee rereeeeeees 


Well - determined 
and exact. 


Well-defined ...... 


May 1, 1868 


Mar. 20, 1868. From #=130° 
6=+46° to a= 162°d=+60°; 
evidently identical with the next. 

Mar. 31, 868 ) Endures threedays. 

April 2, 1868 + Perhaps connected 


and 1869... ) as a twin-radiant 
with the next. 
Apr. 2, 1868) Distinct from but 
and 1869 {may belong to the 
Apr. 3, 1868 { same familyas Greg’s 
Apr. 9, 1869 J} QH, with centre near 
a Herculis. 
Apr. 9,1869. Twin-radiant with 
the last. 


Apr. 10, 1869. Traces on Apr. 9. 
?Ifconnected with XXI 0; no in- 
termediate meteors. 

Apr. 11, 1869; no traces on adja- 
cent nights: belongs to the same 
family as the two next. 


......Apparently belonging to the same 


family as XX ¢ and XXI 8, 

Apr. 14, 1868 and 1869. Connect- 
ed by no meteors with XX ¢, 
among many observed on inter- 
mediate nights. 

Apr. 25,1868. Appears to have no 
connection with any other me- 
teoric shower. 

Apr. 30, 1867 | Apparently —_con- 
and 1868... } nected or identical 

with the two next. 

June 13, 1869. On this and pre- 

vious evening some meteors from 

direction of Vega (Zezioli). 


June 14, 1869. Perhaps identical 
or of the same system with the 


Authority. 


Heis. | 
Schiaparelli. 


Heis.] 
Schiaparelli. 


Heis. 
Heis.] 


Schiaparelli. 


R. P. Greg.] 


Heis. ] 
Schiaparelli. 


BoP OCRO TCG At iitdacg Coere Ug minlcna aly doin paciptlelp nia eters aie tas ata Schiaparelli. 


many of the foregoing radiant-points, although separated from each other in position, or 
ghts in which no intermediate meteors were observed, nevertheless possess in common 
features of very close resemblance, they are regarded by Professor Schiaparelli 


48 REPoRT—1871. 


as forming, in some cases, distinct meteor-systems or families of radiant- 
points, of which the principal, occurring in the first half of the year, may be 
grouped as follows :— 


Families or groups of Radiant-points. 


Sym- Position.) General |S ¢ lieeene Position.| General | Refer- 
bol. Date. centre. = a bol. Dale; centre. | ence. 
a.| 0. a.| 6. 
° ° ° ie] 
vee Jan. 6.../199/+58 _ | XIX a Bere 31-|261/+48 ed iy 
-| 2» 12 ++/197/459! Between | | ir 22 | |Schiapa- 
We)» r9~nee.t sg anad || ERA AR 23 eset gE | Poll 
vied Ee see line Urs 2Xx5 ae : Bake, Ar 
» Hoc aa | : SQveey 
Via. | ,, 25-27/205|+47 a. ce [QH,.|Mar. 15-|268)+25)/In Cerbe-|R. P. 
VIO. | ,, 29.../198/+54 Apr. 23 rus. Greg. | 
IV a. |Jan. 18.../232/+36| porvoe \ | XXT a.JApr. 11 .|193/4+-11| Between |Schiapa. 
IVe.|,, 19--.|220)+40 Gece. S|| (Sy. |Apr.1—15/185| +22] 6 and e |Heis. | 
Vic. |,, 28.../236|-+25|7 aa &. [S,. |Apr. 20 .|199|+14) Virginis |Heis. | 
Vid. |.,, 30...|225|+34 Se os ese Se > S 
Vie i 31...|221/ +28 § Boots. I) 3 XX ¢.|Apr. 10 .|163/-+-47]....0000 Schiapa- 
XXTI b)Apr. 14 .|167/+47].....000 relli 
[M,. |Apr. 20 .|/160)+49]............ Heis.] 


Should the effect of planetary perturbations, which retarded the return of 
Halley’s comet in the year 1859 nearly one month from the time of its perihelion 
passage, as calculated by D’Alembert and Clairault, also explain the wide differ- 
ence between the separate coils of spiral meteoric streams apparently encoun- 
tered by the earth in the meteor-systems of which the above groups or families 
of radiant-points appear to present unmistakable examples, a new field of 
investigation in meteoric astronomy, and of future observation and research, 
is beginning to unfold itself in these new and interesting discoveries. _ 

2. On Comets and Meteors, by Professor Kirkwood, Indiana University, 
U.S. (read before the American Philosophical Society, November 19, 1869). 
In an able treatise on ‘‘ Meteoric Astronomy,” already noticed in these 
Reports (for 1868, p. 418), a short Appendix (B) at the end of the volume 
on “Comets and Meteors” expresses the views on their connexion which 
Professor Kirkwood communicated, so long ago as July 1861, to the ‘ Danville 
Quarterly Review’ for December in that year. ‘‘ Different views are enter- 
tained by astronomers in regard to the origin of comets, some believing them 
to enter the solar system ab extra, others supposing them to have originated 
within its limits. The former is the hypothesis of Laplace, and is regarded 
with fayour by many eminent astronomers. ....... Now, according to 
Laplace’s hypothesis, patches of nebulous matter haye been left nearly in 
equilibrium in the interstellar spaces. As the sun in his progress ap- 
proaches such clusters, they must, by virtue of his attraction, move towards 
the centre of our system, the nearer portions with greater velocity than the 
more remote. The nebulous fragments thus drawn into our system would 
constitute comets; those of the same cluster would enter the solar domain at 
periods not very distant from each other. ... If we adopt Laplace’s hy- 
pothesis of the origin of comets, we may suppose an almost continuous fall of 
primitive nebular matter toward the centre of our system—the drops of 
which, penetrating the earth’s atmosphere, produce sporadic meteors, the 
larger aggregations forming comets. The disturbing influence of the planets 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 49 


may have transformed the original orbits of many of the former as well as of 
the latter into ellipses. It is an interesting fact that the motions of some 
luminous meteors (or cometoids, as, perhaps, they might be called) have been 
decidedly indicative of an origin beyond the limits of the planetary system. 
But how are the phenomena of periodic meteors to be accounted for in ac- 
cordance with this theory ? 

“The division of Biela’s comet into two distinct parts suggests several 
interesting questions in cometary physics. The nature of the separating 
force remains to be discovered; ‘but it is impossible to doubt that it arose 
from the divellent action of the sun, whatever may have been the mode of 
operation. A signal manifestation of the influence of the sun is sometimes 
afforded by the breaking up of a comet into two or more separate parts, on 
the occasion of its approach to the perihelion’*. No less than six such in- 
stances are found distinctly recorded in the Annals of Astronomy, viz.:—1. 
Ancient bipartition of a comet.—Seneca. 2. Separation of a comet into a 
number of fragments, 11 B.c.—Dion Cassius. 3. Three comets seen simul- 
taneously pursuing the same orbit, 4.p. 896.—Ohinese Records. 4. Probable 
separation of a comet into parts, A.v. 1618.—Hevelius. 5. Indications of 
separation, 1661.—AHevelius. 6. Bipartition of Biela’s Comet, 1845-46. 

«In view of these facts it seems highly probable, if not absolutely certain, 
that the process of division has taken place in several instances besides that 
of Biela’s Comet. May not the force, whatever it is, that has produced one 
separation again divide the parts? And may not this action continue until 
the fragments become invisible? According to the theory now generally 
received, the periodic phenomena of shooting-stars are produced by the inter- 
section of the orbits of such nebulous bodies with the earth’s annual path. 
Now there is reason to believe that these meteoric rings are very elliptical, 
and in this respect wholly dissimilar to the rings of primitive vapour which, 
according to the nebular hypothesis, were successively abandoned at the solar 
equator; in other words, that the matter of which they are composed moves 
in cometary rather than in planetary orbits. May not our periodic meteors 
be the débris of ancient but now disintegrated comets, whose matter has be- 
come distributed round their orbits?” 

These views, announced in the year 1861, were afterwards completely 
established by the calculations of Professor Newton and Professor Schia- 
parelli regarding the real orbital velocities of shooting-stars, proving them 
to move, generally, in parabolic, or cometic, rather than in planetary orbits ; 
and by the astonishing discovery in the year 1866, by Professor Schiaparelli, 
of the almost absolute identity of the orbit of Tuttle’s Comet (III. 1862) with 
that of the August, and of the orbit of Temple’s Comet (I. 1866) with that 
of the November meteor-stream, supposing (as the researches of Professor 
Newton and Professor Adams amply prove) that the latter, and presumably 
also the former of those meteor-clouds revolve in elliptic orbits of such 
considerable length, as not to differ much from the comets in their times 

of revolution. In his communication to the American Philosophical Society, 
Professor Kirkwood retraces the recent researches of Hoek, Leverrier, and 
Schiaparelli respecting the probable circumstances of the introduction of 
comets and periodical shooting-stars ab ewtra into the limits of the planetary 
system. The disturbing force by which their cosmical orbits were converted 
‘into elliptic ones of short periods (it is found in harmony with the preceding 
theory) was probably the overpowering attraction of one of the larger planets 
near to which the cosmical bodies first entered the limits of the solar system. 


* Grant's ‘ History of Physical Astronomy,’ p. 302. 
£371. z 


50. REPORT—1871. 


In the following Table Professor Kirkwood compares together the aphelion 
distances of the several known comets of short periods with the mean dis- 
tances of the several larger planets from the sun :— 


x =| a2 a = 
ae ions so Bore 
‘Z| Comets. ‘s E ae Comets. 8 
cn | D a= w 
6g a3 Oo”, ad 
paeaes et oe ramers 2 | ae Eee 
1, |Encke’s ...| 4°09 1. Peter’s (1846, VI.)....... 9°45  Saturns’s mean 
2. 1819, IV..-.| 4°81} 2. |Tuttle’s (1858, I.) ......| 10°42} distance 9°54. 
3. |De Vico’s...| 5°02 & S vr Dias «1G ae ail _———— 
4, |Pigott’s 4 Sa « 11867, Lis. serceccceseseerees| 19°28 3 
G ey oo rin | 2. November Meteors...... 19°65 ee pt 
5, |1867, 11. ...| 5:29) 25 || 3. 1866, Leessersesceresererees 19°92 12283 
6. |1743, I..... 532] 8S | —— See Ter a — 
7. |1766, I. ...) 547) s3 | 1. |Westphal’s (1852, 1V.).| 31°97 
8. |1819, TIT...) 5°55) 2 g 2. |Pons' (1812) ...sececeeee 33°41 
9. |Brorsen’s | 5°64) = 9 3. Olbers’ (1815).....0+--++- | 34°05 | Neptune’s mean 
10. ‘D’Arrest’s.| 5°75} 33 4. |De Vico’s (1846, IV.)...| 34°35 | distance 30°04. 
11. |Faye’s ......| 5°93] & 5. |Brorsen’s (1847, V-) -+-| 35°07 
12. Biela’s ...... 6'19| G6. |Halley’s ...cccsecsresseees | 35°37 


It is also evident that the passage of the solar system through a region of 
space comparatively destitute of cometic clusters would be indicated by a 
corresponding paucity of comets. Such variations of frequency are, indeed, 
found not only in the records of comets, but also of meteoric showers which 
have been accidentally recorded, the greater number of the latter having 
been observed during the five centuries between 700 4.p. and 1200 a.p., and 
again in those following a.p. 1700, suggesting that during the former and, 
perhaps, again during the present period the solar system is passing through 
a cosmical or meteoric cloud of very great extent,—not less, indeed, on the 
received speed of the sun’s proper motion, than fourteen times the width of 
Neptune’s orbit. Professor Kirkwood adds, in particular reference to the 
August meteor-system, “The fact that the August meteors, which have been 
so often subsequently observed, were first noticed in 811 {see M. Quetelet’s 
Catalogue of Star-showers] renders it probable that the cluster was intro- 
duced into the planetary system not long previously to the year 800. It may 
be also worthy of remark that the elements of the comet of 770 4.p. are not 
very different from those of the August meteors and of the third comet of 
1682”*. With regard to the sun’s passage through 
a meteoric cloud of the above-considered dimen- 
sions and constitution it is noticed that the num- 
ber of cometary perihelia found in the two qua- 
drants of longitude towards and from which the sun 
is moving is 159, or 62 per cent., and that of peri- 
helia in the two other quadrants is 98, or 38 per 
cent., showing their tendency to crowd together 
about the direction of the sun’s proper motion in space. The large excess of 


* The interval between the perihelion passage of 770 and that of 1862 is equal to 9 
periods of 121°36 years. Oppolzer’s determination of the period of 1862, III., is 121-5 
years. Hind remarks that the elements of the Comet of 770 are “rather uncertain,” but 
says “that the general character of the orbit is decided.” It may be worthy of remark 
oN a great meteoric shower, the exact date of which has not been preserved, occurred ir 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 51 


the number of the cometary perihelia closest to the sun in the forward qua- 
lrants, relatively to the direction of his proper motion in space, is also re- 
garded as indicating the direction of the sun’s motion through the meteor- 
loud in a manner which the facts of observation evidently corroborate. 

3. On the Periods of certain Meteoric rings. By Professor Kirkwood (read 
0 the American Philosophical Society, March 4, 1870).—According to the 
»omputed elements of the Comet I. 1861 (by Oppolzer), first shown by Dr. 
Edmund Weiss (Astron. Nachr. no. 1632) to agree very closely with those of 
hhe April meteor-stream, its periodic time of revolution is 415:4 years. On 
he other hand, Professor Kirkwood points out that, without accepting a shorter 
yeriodic time of revolution, the former April displays recorded in ancient 
imes do not agree with the time of revolution of the comet. Adopting a 
veriod of about 281 years for the cycle of returns of the April shower, the 
vhole of the dates of its appearance selected by Professor Newton as agreeing 
vell with those of its most recent appearance in the present century are re- 
resented with perfect accuracy by the following scheme :— 


Dates of former appearances. Interval in years. 
Pera 02687 tO. 8.6. 1520.2. odicensacacbences 672*000=24 periods of 28-000 years each. 
B.C. 15 £O A.D. 582 ...ccccesee seeneee 597;000=21 9 28-429 % 
D. 582 to AD. 1093°71 tween 
3 ; 1093 and soe) pd © opas Saison } ce ba a ze 28429 2 
BeDeLOOS7 0A tO 1222 TAZ sesvasscecrecs 28'429= 1 ¥ 28°429 PA 
AWD. 1222°143 tO 1803......sssseeceseereee 680°857=24 Fp 28-369 * 


The periodical time of 28} years corresponds to an ellipse whose major 
xis is 18:59, and whose aphelion distance is very nearly equal to the mean 
listance of the planet Uranus. A remark of Mr. Du Chaillu is here believed 

to be rightly recalled, that he observed the April meteors in the equatorial 
parts of Africa almost as brilliant, and leaving streaks more enduring than 
those of the great November meteor-shower (of which he was also an ob- 
server in England, in the year 1866). If the date of Mr. Du Chaillu’s obser- 
vation was about the year 1860, a corroboration of Professor Kirkwood’s 
cycle of 283 years repeated twice since the great display of those meteors in 
the year 1803 would be thence derived. The April meteor-shower was also 
sufficiently bright in the year 1863 to make its approach to an epoch of 
maximum brilliancy in about that year a somewhat probable conjecture. 

Among the formerly recorded star-showers which appear to have certainly 

been connected with the December meteor-system, Professor Kirkwood points 
out a notice of such an occurrence in the year a.p, 901. Others are found 
to have taken place in the years 930, 1571, 1830, 1833, and 1836, with an 
apparent maximum in the year 1833, when as many as ten meteors were 
seen simultaneously. Finally, pretty abundant displays of the shower were 
observed in the years 1861, 1862, and 1863, with a probable maximum in 
the year 1862. These dates indicate a period of about 293 years, thus— 


GOL ito’ ‘930....... teseeese I period of 29'000 years, 
930 to 1571.... 22 93 29°136- (5 
1571 to 1833.... 9 “ SOLUTE: | 159 
1633 to "¥862.......... I RS 29°000_—l—=», 


A third meteoric shower, that of the 15th-21st of October, presents, again, 

a similar period of revolution. The recorded dates of apparitions which cor- 

respond in the times of their appearance with the present meteor-showers of 

the 15th-21st of October are the years a.p. 288, 1436 and 1439, 1743, and 

1798, on each of which occasions a great number of shooting-stars were 
E2 


52 REPORT—1871. 


seen. The periodic time of 273 years is well indicated by these dates, 
thus :— 


A.D. 288 tO 1439...+.00- Sree pc 42 periods of 27°405 years each. 
1439 tO 1743.-.ceceereeerereeeees II 9 27°636 i 
1743 tO 1798....0eeeeeeeeereeees 2 99 27°500 +3 


«Tf these periods are correct, it is a remarkable coincidence that the 
aphelion distances of the meteoric rings of April 18th—20th, October 15th- 
21st, November 14th, and December 11th—13th, as well as those of the 
comets 1866 I., and 1867 I. are all nearly equal to the mean distance of 
Uranus.” 

4. Beitriige zur Kenntniss der Sternschnuppen, von Dr. Edmund Weiss 
(Sitzungsberichte of the Imperial Academy of Vienna for January 16, 1868) 
presents a short summary of the mathematical problems required to be 
solved in the determination of the parabolic orbit, and the actual relative 
speed of the meteors’ course in the atmosphere, from the known position of 
the radiant-point ; and shows how approximate calculations of the velocities 
of shooting-stars have led to discoveries, in proving certain periodical meteor- 
currents to be intimately connected with comets of which the orbits have 
recently been determined*. 

5. The Fuel of the Sun, by W. Mattieu Williams, F.C.S. (8vo, 222 pp. 
Simpkin and Marshall).—An attempt to explain convulsions of the sun’s sur- 
face by planetary disturbances of a universal atmosphere collected in greatest 
density about the larger bodies of the solar system, and agitated by tides 
arising from their several attractions, is the theory for the establishment of 
which a collection of the greatest interest of recent observations of solar 
physics has been brought into a small compass by the author of the work, 
and is well directed to explain the chief phenomena of solar physics. The 
corona is regarded (Chapter XIII.) as originating in solar projectiles driven 
from its surface with eruptive violence. In the following chapter the source 
of meteorites is conjectured to be the solar projectiles which thus pass beyond 
the boundaries of the zodiacal light ; some of which being confined to revolve 
in two principal orbits outside of that luminary, and in several intermediate 
zones of irregularly and more thinly scattered projectiles, may be regarded 
as giving rise to the August and November, as well as to other minor and 
more or less regular meteoric displays. Somewhat more important specu- 
lations and descriptions of the meteorology of the moon and planets, as well 
as of the distribution of the nebulw, suggesting the stellar origin of some of 
those bodies, occupy the greater portion of the remainder of the work. 


* The velocity of the April meteors, or Lyraids, of the 20th of April meteoric shower, — 
relatively to the earth, is given in Dr. Weiss’s list of radiant-points and relative velocities of 
cometary orbits, in the above paper, as 1-585, that of the earth in its orbit being unity. 
Adopting the value of 18°6 miles per second for the earth’s mean orbital velocity, this gives 
the relative velocity of the Lyraids, or April shower-meteors, 29-5 miles per second ; very 
nearly that observed (30 miles per second) in the case of the only shooting-star of the shower 
doubly observed, as described in this Report, on the night of the 20th of April last. 


ON FOSSIL CRUSTACEA. 53 


Fifth Report of the Committee, consisting of Henry Woovwarp, F.G.S., 
F.Z.8S., Dr. Duncan, F.R.S., and R. Eraeripner, F.R.S., on the 
Structure and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea, drawn up by 
Henry Woopwarp, F.G.S., F.Z.S. 

Suyce I had last the honour to present a Report on the Structure and Clas- 

sification of the Fossil Crustacea, I have published figures and descriptions of 

the following species, namely :— 
Drcaropa BracuyuRa. 
1. Rhachiosoma bispinosa, H. Woodw. Lower Eocene, Portsmouth. 
2. echinata, H. W. Lower Eocene, Portsmouth. 
3. Paleocorystes glabra, H. W. Lower Eocene, Portsmouth. All figured 
and described in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxvii. p, 90, pl. 4. 
Drcaropa Macrura. 
4. Scyllaridia Belli, H.W. London Clay, Sheppey. Geol. Mag. 1870, 

vol, vii. p. 493, pl. 22. fig. 1. 


AMPHIPODA. 

5. Necrogammarus Salweyi, H. W. Lower Ludlow, Leintwardine. Figured 

and described Trans. Woolhope Club, 1870, p. 271, pl. 11. 
Isopopa. 

6. Palega Carteri, H. W. Lower Chalk, Dover, &c. Geol. Mag. 1870, 
vol. vii. p. 493, pl. 22. fig. 1. 

7. Prearcturus gigas, H. W. Old Red Sandstone, Rowlestone, Hereford- 
shire. Trans. Woolhope Club, 1870, p. 266. 

Merostomata. 

8. Hurypterus Brodie, H. W. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 1871, August. 

Trans. Woolhope Club, 1870, p. 276. 
PHYLLOPODA. 

*9. Dithyrocaris tenuistriatus, M°Coy. Carboniferous Limestone, Settle, 
Yorkshire. 

10. Dithyrocaris Belli, H. W. Devonian, Gaspé, Canada. 

11. Ceratiocaris Ludensis, H. W. Lower Ludlow, Leintwardine. 

12. Ceratiocaris Oretonensis, H. W. Carboniferous Limestone, Oreton, 
Worcestershire. 

13. Ceratiocaris truncatus, H.W. Carboniferous Limestone, Oreton, Worces- 
tershire. 

Figured and described in the Geol. Mag. 1871, vol. viii. p. 104, pl. 3. 

14, Cyclus bilobatus, H. W. Carboniferous Limestone, Settle, Yorkshire. 

15. torosus, H. W. Carboniferous Limestone, Little Island, Cork. 

16. —— Wrightii, H. W. Carboniferous Limestone, Little Island, Cork. 

17. Harknesst, H. W. Carboniferous Limestone, Little Island, Cork. 
ais. radialis, Phillips. Carboniferous Limestone, Settle, Yorkshire, 
Visé, Belgium. 

*19. Cyclus Rankini, H. W. Carboniferous Limestone, Carluke, Lanarkshire. 
[*20. “ Brongniartianus,’ De Kon. Carboniferous Limestone, York- 
shire, Belgium. | 

21. Cyclus Jonesianus, H. W. Carboniferous Limestone, Little Island, 
Cork. (These latter figured and described in the Geol. Mag. 1870, vol. vii. 
pl. 23. figs. 1-9.) 

{Those marked with an asterisk have been already figured, but have been 

redrawn and redescribed in order to add to or correct previous deseriptions. 


54 REPORT—1871. 


Thus, for example, “ Cyclus Brongniartianus” proves upon careful examina- 
tion to be only the hypostome of a Trilobite belonging to the genus Phillipsia. 
Dithyrocaris tenuistratus is identical with Avicula paradowides of De Koninck, 
&e. 

ae noticing the occurrence of an Isopod, Pulega Carteri, from the 
Kentish, Cambridge, and Bedford Chalk, Dr. Ferd. Roemer, of Breslau, has 
forwarded me the cast of a specimen of the same crustacean from the Chalk 
of Upper Silesia. This, together with the example from the Miocene of 
Turin, gives a very wide geographical as well as chronological range to this 

enus. 
A still more remarkable extension of the Isopoda in time is caused by the 
discovery of the form which I have named Prearcturus in the Devonian of 
Herefordshire, apparently the remains of a gigantic Isopod resembling the 
modern Arcturus Baffinsii. 

I have also described from the Lower Ludlow a form which I have referred 
with some doubts to the Amphipoda, under the generic name of Necrogam- 
marus. 

Representatives both of the Isopoda and Amphipoda will doubtless be 
found in numbers in our Paleozoic rocks, seeing that Macruran Decapods 
are found as far back as the Coal-measures*, and Brachyurous forms in the 
Oolites +. 

Indeed the suggestion made by Mr. Billings as to the Trilobita being fur- 
nished with legs (see Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxyi. pl. 31. fig. 1), if 
established upon further evidence, so as to be applied to the whole class, 
would carry the Isopodous type back in time to our earliest Cambrian rocks. 

I propose to carry out an investigation of this group for the purpose of 
confirming Mr. Billings’s and my own observations, by the examination of a 
longer series of specimens than have hitherto been dealt with. In the mean 
time the authenticity of the conclusions arrived at by Mr. Billings having 
been called in question by Drs. Dana, Verrill, and Smith (see the American 
Journ. of Science for May last, p. 320; Annals & Mag. Nat. Hist. for May, 
p- 366), I have carefully considered their objections, and have replied to 
the same in the Geological Magazine for July last, p. 289, pl. 8; and I may 
be permitted here to briefly state the arguments pro and con, seeing they are 
of the greatest importance in settling the systematic position of the Trilo- 
pita among the Crustacea. 

Until the discovery of the remains of ambulatory appendages by Mr. Bil- 
lings in an Asaphus from the Trenton Limestone (in 1870), the only appen- 
dage heretofore deteeted associated with any Trilobite was the hypostome or 
lip-plate. 

From its close agreement with the lip-plate in the recent Apus, and also 
from the fact of the number of body-rings exceeding that attained in any 
other group save in the Entomostraca, nearly all naturalists who have paid 
attention to the Trilobita in the past thirty years have concluded that they 
possessed only soft membranaceous gill-feet, similar to those of Branchipus, 
Apus, and other Phyllopods. 

The large compound sessile eyes, and the hard, shelly, many-segmented 
body, with its compound caudal and head-shield, differ from any known 
Phyllopod, but offer many points of analogy with the modern Isopodst ; and 


* Anthrapalemon Grossartii, Salter, Coal-measures, Glasgow. 

t Paleinachus longipes, H. Woodw., Forest Marble, Wilts. 

$ It should always, however, be borne in mind that as the Trilobita offer, as a group, no 
fixed number of body-rings and frequently possess more than twenty-one segments, they 


a ae 


» piteemeees 


ON FOSSIL CRUSTACEA. 55 


one would be led to presuppose the Trilobites possessed of organs of loco- 
motion of a stronger texture than mere branchial frills. 

The objection raised by Drs. Dana and Verrill to the special case of ap- 
pendages in the Asaphus assumed by Mr. Billings to possess ambulatory legs, 

- is that the said appendages were merely the semicalcified arches in the inte- 
gument of the sternum to which the true appendages were attached. 

A comparison, which these gentlemen have themselves suggested, between 
the abdomen of a Macruran Decapod and the Trilobite in question is the 
best refutation of their own argument. 

The sternal arches in question are firmly united to each tergal piece at the 
margin, not along the median ventral line. If, then, the supposed legs of the 
Trilobite correspond to these semicalcified arches in the Macruran Decapod, 
they might be expected to lie irregularly along the median line, but to unite 
with the tergal pieces at the lateral border of each somite. In the fossil we 
find just the contrary is the case ; for the organs in question occupy a definite 
position on either side of a median line along the ventral surface, but diverge 
widely from their corresponding tergal pieces at each lateral border, being 
directed forward and outwards in a very similar position to that in which we 
should expect legs (not sternal arches) to lie beneath the body-rings of a fos- 
sil crustacean. The presence, however, of semicalcified sternal arches pre- 
supposes the possession of stronger organs than mere foliaceous gill-feet ; 
whilst the broad shield-shaped caudal plate suggests most strongly the posi- 
tion of the branchiz. In the case of the Trenton Asaphus I shall be satis- 
fied if it appears, from the arguments I have put forward, that they are most 
probably legs—feeling assured that. more evidence ought to be demanded be- 
fore deciding on the systematic position of so large a group as the Trilobita 
from only two specimens*. 

With regard to the embryology and development of the modern King- 
Crab (Limulus polyphemus), we must await the conclusions of Dr. Anton 
Dohrn before deciding as to the affinities presented by its larval stages to 
certain of the Trilobita, such relations being only in general external form. 
Dr. Packard (Reports of the American Association for the Advancement of 
Science, August 1870) remarks, ‘The whole embryo bears a very near resem- 
blance to certain genera of Trilobites, as Trinucleus, Asaphus, and others ;” 
and he adds, “ Previous to hatching it strikingly resembles Trinucleus and 
other Trilobites, suggesting that the two groups, should, on embryonic and 
structural grounds, be included in the same order, especially now that Mr. E. 
Billings has demonstrated that Asaphus possessed eight pairs of 5-jointed 
legs of uniform size.” 

Such statements are apt to mislead unless we carefully compare the cha- 
racters of each group. And first let me express a caution against the too 
hasty construction of a classification based upon larval characters alone. 

Larval characters are useful guide-posts in defining great groups, and also in 
indicating affinities between great groups; but the more we become acquainted 
with larval forms the greater will be our tendency (if we attempt to base our 
classification on their study) to merge groups together which we had before 
held as distinct. 


have, as a matter of course, been considered as belonging to a much lower group than the 
Tsopoda, in which the normal number of somites is seven. Whilst admilting the justice of 
this conclusion, we do not think it affords any good ground for rejecting the proposition 
that the Isopoda may be the direct lineal descendants of the Trilobita. 

* One in Canada and one in the British Museum, both of the same species. 


56. REPORT-—1871. 


To take a familiar instance: if we/compare the larval stages of the Com- 
mon Shore-Crab (Carcinus menasy with Pterygotus, we should be obliged 
(according to the arguments of Dr. Packard) to place them near to or in the 
same group. 

The eyes in both are sessile, the functions of locomotion, prehension, and 
mastication are all performed by one set of appendages, which are attached 
to the mouth; the abdominal segments are natatory, but destitute of any 
appendages. 

Such characters, however, are common to the larve of many crustaceans 
widely separated when adult, the fact being that in the larval stage we find 
in this group what has been so often observed by naturalists in other groups 
of the animal kingdom, namely, a shadowing forth in the larval stages of 
the road along which its ancestors travelled ere they arrived from the remote 
past at the living present. 

If we place the characters of Limulus and Pterygotus side by side, and 
also those of Trilobita and Isopoda, we shall find they may be, in the present 
state of our knowledge, so retained in classification. 


1; 
Pterygotus (Fossil, extinct). Limulus (Fossil, and living). 

1. Eyes sessile, compound. 1. Eyes sessile, compound. 

2. Ocelli distinctly seen. 2. Two ocelli distinctly seen. 

3. All the limbs serving as mouth- | 3. All the limbs serving as mouth- 
organs. organs. 

4, Anterior thoracic segments bear- | 4. All the thoracic segments bear- 
ing branchiz or reproductive ing branchie or reproductive 
organs. organs. 

5, Other segments destitute of any | 5. Other segments destitute of any 
appendages. appendages. 

6. Thoracic segments wnanchylosed. | 6, Thoracic segments anchylosed. 

7, Abdominal segments freeand well | 7, Abdominal segments anchylosed 
developed. and rudimentary. 

8, Metastoma large. 8. Metastoma rudimentary. 

LE, 
Trilobita (Fossil, extinct). Isopoda (Fossil, and living). 

1. Eyes sessile, compound. 1. Eyes sessile, compound. 

2. No ocelli visible. 2. No ocelli visible. 

3. Appendages partly oral, partly | 3. Appendages partly oral, partly 
ambulatory, arranged in pairs. |- ambulatory, arranged in pairs. 

4, Thoracic segments variable in| 4, Thoracic segments usually seven, 
number, from 8 even to 28, free free and movable (animal 
and movable (animal semetimes sometimes rolling into a ball). 
rolling into a ball). 

5, Abdominal series coalesced to | 5. Abdominal somites coalesced, and 
form a broad caudal shield, forming a broad caudal shield, 
bearing the branchize beneath. bearing the branchiz beneath. 

6. Lip-plate well developed. 6. Lip-plate small. 


Should our further researches confirm Mr. Billings’s discovery fully, we may 
propose for the second pair of these groups a common designation, meantime 
we give the above as representing the present state of our knowledge. 


ON THE CENSUS. 57 


Report of the Committee appointed at the Meeting of the British 
Association at Liverpool, 1870, consisting of Prof. Jrvons, R. 
Dupiry Baxter, J. T. Danson, James Hrywoop, F.R.S., Dr. 
W. B. Hopeson, and Prof. Waney, with EymMunD Mtoe, as 
their Secretary, “for the purpose of urging upon Her Majesty’s 
‘Government the expediency of arranging and tabulating the results 
of the approaching Census in the three several parts of the United 
Kingdom in such a manner as to admit of ready and effective 
comparison.” 


Your Committee after their appointment held meetings in London, and 
agreed upon the following Memorial :— 


“ Untrormity of Pian for the Census of the Unitrep Kinepom. 


“To the Right Honourable Henry Austin Bruce, M.P., &c. &c., Her Ma- 
jesty’s Principal Secretary of State for the Home Department. 


“Memorial of the Committee of the British Association, appointed in Liver- 
pool, September 1870, for the purpose of urging upon Her Majesty’s 
Government the expediency of arranging and tabulating the results 
of the approaching Census in the three several parts of the United 
Kingdom in such a manner as to admit of ready and effectual com- 
parison. 


“Your memorialists beg respectfully to represent that the value of statistical 
information depends mainly upon the accuracy and expedition with which 
comparisons can be made between facts relating to different districts. 

«They also consider that the ease and rapidity with which researches in the 
census tables can be made is one principal object to be held in view in de- 
termining the form of their publication. They therefore desire that not 
only should the enumeration of the people be conducted in all places in an 
exactly uniform manner, so far as is compatible with the terms of the 
several Census Acts, but that there should be no divergence in the modes of 
tabulating and printing the results. They wish that the tables for England, 
Scotland, and Ireland should form as nearly as possible one uniform and 
consistent whole. 

“Your memorialists could specify a great many points in which there was 
divergence between the tables for 1861, but they will mention only a few 
of the more important cases. 

«1, The detailed population tables of England, Scotland, and Ireland differ 
as regards the periods of age specified.“ The Scotch report gives twenty-one 
intervals of age, the Irish report generally twenty-two, and the English 
only thirteen. Either one-third of the printed matter in the Scotch and 
Trish tables is superfluous, or that in the English tables deficient. 

«2. The classification of occupations is apparently identical in the three 
reports, but there is much real discrepancy between the Irish and English 
reports, rendering exact comparison difficult. 

«*3. In the Irish report there is no comparison and classification of occupa- 
tions according to age, classification according to religions being substituted, 
although such a classification could not be made in England or Scotland. 

‘4, In the appendix to the English report appears a table (No. 56), giving 


58 . REPORT—1871. 


most important information as regards the numbers of the population at 
each year of age. Inconvenience has been felt from the want of similar in- 
formation concerning the populations of Scotland and Ireland. 

“<5, In the appendix to the Irish report they find some interesting Tables 
(I1., III., and IV.), to which there is nothing exactly corresponding in the 
other reports, so far as they have been able to discover. 

«6. The tables, even when containing the same information, are often 
stated in different forms and arrangements, seriously increasing the labour 
of research. 


«Your memorialists therefore beg to suggest :— 

«J, That the principal body of tables relating to the numbers, age, sex, 
birthplace, civil condition, and occupation of the people should be 
drawn up and printed in an exactly identical form for the three 
parts of the United Kingdom. 

“TI. That while the Commissioners may with great advantage continue 
to exercise their free discretion in drawing up such minor tables 
as appear to have special interest for distinct localities, they should 
agree to prepare in a uniform manner such minor or summary 
tables as may be of importance as regards all the parts of the 
United Kingdom. 

“ TIT. That a general Index of Subjects should be prepared for the whole 
of the reports, appendices, and tables, so that an inquirer can readily 
ascertain where the corresponding information for different parts 
of the United Kingdom is to be found, without making, as hitherto, 
three independent searches through a mass of complex and 
almost unindexed information. 

“Tt would appear that the officers engaged in superintending the Census of 
1861 acted to a certain extent in concert and agreement. 

“Your memorialists beg respectfully to request that those officers be in- 
structed, on the present occasion, to confer with each other prior to drawing 
up the tables for 1871, with a view of preserving perfect uniformity in their 
operations, and avoiding all such divergencies in the three reports as are not 
required by the Census Acts or the essential differences of the three 
Kingdoms. 

‘«<Sioned on behalf of the Committee, 8th December, 1870. 


«OW. Srantey Jevons, F.S.S., 
President of the Statistical Section of the British Association for 
the Advancement of Science, Liverpool, 1870. 
« James Heywoop, M.A., F.R.S., 
Vice-President of the Statistical Society. 
« Jacop Watey, F.S.S., > 
One of the Secretaries of the Statistical Society. 
«¢Epmp. Macrory, M.A., 
Secretary of the Committee of the British Association for a Uni- 
formity of Plan in the Census Tables of the United 
Kingdom.” 


The above memorial was immediately presented to the Right Hon. H. A. 
Bruce, M.P., Her Majesty’s Principal Secretary of State for the Home De- 
partment, and has been by him referred to the Registrars General for their 
report thereon. 


ON ABSTRACTS OF CHEMICAL PAPERS. 59 


The returns of the Census having only recently been collected, too little 
time has as yet elapsed for the perfect arrangements of the tables to be 
completed, but your Committee have reason to believe that the recommenda- 
tions contained in the above memorial will ultimately be, to a considerable 
extent, adopted by Her Majesty’s Government. 


Postscript.—Since the above Report was drawn up, the Committee have 
received a formal reply from the Home Office (dated 26th September, 1871), 
informing them that the Home Secretary ‘has desired the Registrar General 
for Scotland, and has requested the Lord Lieutenant to desire the Census 
Commissioners in Ireland, to frame their tables in conformity with those 
submitted by the Registrar General for England and Wales, and approved 
by Mr. Bruce, as far as circumstances will admit; and that with this view 
he has instructed the above-mentioned officers to place themselves in com- 
munication with the Registrar General for England and Wales.” 


Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of Superintending 
the Publication of Abstracts of Chemical Papers. The Committee 
consists of Prof. A. W. Wiu.tamson, F-.R.S., Prof. H. E. Roscor, 
F.R.S., Prof. E. Franxuanp, F.R.S. 


Tuer Committee are glad to be able to announce that regular monthly re- 
ports of the progress of Chemistry have been published since April Ist, 1871, 
by the Chemical Society. These Reports have been rendered, as far as pos- 
sible, complete by abstracts, more or less full, of all papers of scientific in- 
terest, and of the more important papers relating to applied chemistry. The 
abstracts have been made by chemists, most of whom are members of the 
Society, whose zeal for the science has induced them to undertake the work 
for the small honorarium which the Council has been able to offer. A 
numerous Committee of Publication has been formed, whose Members gra- 
tuitously undertake the revision of the proofs and a comparison of the ab- 
stracts with the original papers. 

The Reports are edited by Mr. Watts, each monthly part being bound up 
with the corresponding number of the Chemical Society’s Journal. Each 
volume will be furnished with a full index, and will give a complete view of 
the progress of Chemistry during the year. 

The Committee feel that their thanks are due to all those gentlemen en- 
gaged in the work for having already so far succeeded in accomplishing a 
task of such difficulty and importance, and they confidently hope that their 
continued exertions will still further perfect the details of the scheme so as 
gradually to increase the usefulness of the Reports. 

It is right to state that the funds of the Chemical Society available for 
the purpose of the Reports, although so opportunely aided by a grant of 
_ £100 from the British Association, were insufficient to defray the necessary 
expenses, and that voluntary contributions to the amount of upwards of 


60 . REPORT—1871. 


£200 have been received towards the cost of publication for the first year, 
up to April 1872. 

There is good reason to believe that the expectations entertained of the 
usefulness of these Reports will be fully realized by their continuance on the 
present system, and that they will be found largely to conduce to the pro- 
gress of the science wherever the English language is spoken. 


Report of the Committee for discussing Observations of Lunar Objects 
suspected of Change. The Committee consists of the Rev. T, W. 
Wess and Evwarp Crosstey, Secretary. 


Tar Committee have much pleasure in presenting their first Report on the 
above subject. Though much attention has been given of late years to a 
large number of lunar objects, your Committee felt that they could not 
accomplish their purpose better than by confining their Report to the discus- 
sion of a limited and well-observed portion of the lunar surface. No person 
seeking to discover evidence of geologic change would be constantly travel- 
ling over the whole surface of our globe, but would of necessity confine his 
attention to a small area for a considerable period of time. This has been 
the course adopted on the moon. Plato, a vast crater, containing 2700 
square miles, in 51° N. lat. and 10° E. long., has presented a most interest- 
ing and important variety of features, which we have endeavoured to photo- 
graph, so to speak, with pen and pencil, with a view, if not at once to obtain 
our ultimate object, at least to lay out the groundwork for future observers. 

The Report has been carefully drawn up by Mr. W. R. Birt on behalf of 
the Committee. Time has only permitted the discussion of the observations 
of the bright spots and craterlets seen on the floor of Plato; whereas your 
Committee consider that it is equally important that the observations of the 
numerous streaks, with the faults and other peculiar features noticed on the 
floor and walls of this fine formation, should be likewise discussed, in order 
that something like a complete description of this object as observed at the 
present time may be presented to the Association for the use of future sele- 
nographers. 

Your Committee would therefore request that a further grant of £20 may 
be placed at their disposal for this purpose during the ensuing year. 


Report on the Discussion of Observations of Spots on the Surface of the 
Innar Crater Plato. By W. R. Brrr. 


Tn executing the task confided to me of discussing certain observations of 
the spots on the lunar crater Plato, one of the first points which I deemed 
it important to ascertain was the effect which the intensity of the sun’s 
light as a function of his altitude might produce on the visibility of the spots. 
The number of spots actually observed between April 1869 and April 1871 
inclusive, amounted to 37, the greater portion (21) having been discovered in 
this interval. In order to become acquainted with phenomena possibly con- 
nected with an increase of light on the floor of the crater, the observations 
have been arranged under intervals of twelve hours, from sunrise to sunset 
on Plato, and a ledger formed for each interval, the number of which 
is 31. From these ledgers the results in Table II. have been deduced, 
viz. the mean number of spots visible during each interval, and the actual 
number of spots observed during each interval. For illustrating the results 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUNAR OBJECTS. 61 


the curves in fig. 1 have been projected. The first curve is that of solar 
altitudes at the moon, epoch the equinoxes, locality 50° north or south lati- 
tude. The second curve is that of the mean number of spots visible during 
each interval. 


Fig. 1. 
OK) Ui gle tors. 17 
| 
| 


30° 30° 


20° 20° 
10° 10° 


0° No. 1 


Ene 7 9) PLie eis pip My erior © QUNt 2a yb a7 use SL 
Curve No. 1. Solar altitudes. Latitude 50° at equinoxes, 
Curve No. 2. Curve of mean number of spots visible each interval. 


Taste I. Solar Altitudes at Moon. 


Latitude 50°. Latitude 55°. 

peer Winter. Equinoxes. | Summer. Winter. Equinoxes. Summer. | a 
Val. | Val. 
h om k ° i Ws ° end es tou ° ee ht) a “ h 
Re Wlesaves: <>< +555 si Peturtceee 1 10 35 | sseeeeceseeceee | cescerevaeeeees 1 15 28 0 
12 A444 4 3 54 50 5 5 35 2 15 52 3 29 32 445 6 12 
24 6 36 48 TAS Ge eS aoe v7 & 41 19 6 57 29 8 13 24 | 34 
36 | 10 26 0 | 11 88 10 | 12 & 6 9 6 19 | 10 22 6 | 11 38 48 | 36 
48 14 10 0O 15 23 20 16 36 30 12 24 10 13 42 0O 14 59 30 48 
60 17 46 50 19° 2; 0 | 20 16 20 15 35 40 16 55 «600 18 13 40 60 
72 21 14 40 22 31 20 | 23 47 30 18 38 40 19 59 0 21 19 20 72 
84 24 31 O 20 49 30 | 27 7 50 21 30 30 22 52 30 24 14 20 84 
96 27 33 30 28 54 20 | 30 14 60 23 4 50 25 33 +O | 26 56 40 | 96 
108 | 30 19 30 sl 42 40 > 58 30 | 26 32 40 27 58 20 29 23 40 | 108 
120 | 32 46 0 34 11 30 30 386 40 | 28 38 30 30. 65 «640 ) 120 
132 34 50 0 | 36 17 30 37 «450—CO0 | 30 24 0 5L 53 0 33 21 50 | 152 
144 36 28 20 Bie Dt 50. 39: 27 20" | 31 47. 10 33 17 40 34 47 50 | 144 
156 | 37 38 30 9 9 10 | 40 40 40 | 32 46 30 | 34 17 50 | 35 49 20 | 156 
168 38 18 30 39 50 30 | 41 22 20 33 20 0 34 52 .0 | 36 24 0O | 168 
Mer.| 38 27 51 | 40 0 O 41 32 9 33 27 51 356000 36 32 «9 | Mer. 

| 


62 REPORT—187]. 


TasreE II. Ordinates of Curve of Spot frequency. 


No. Interval. Altitude. Mean. | Number. One 
h h ° ° 
1 0 to 12 == % 6 1-0 1 1 
2 (NE EE pete ae ag ae 15 7 
3 24 5, 36 35 9 59 14 6 
4, 36 ,, 48 i » 18 59 14 8 
ay 48 , 60 cE es |i 6-4 15 9 
6. 60 , 72 15. ,, 21 71 13 7 
if 72. Bt 18 ,, 24 12-0 27 6 
8 84 ,, 96 22 ,, 28 101 oT if 
96 ,, 108 Bb, OL 116 27 9 
10 108 ,, 120 28 ,, 34 10:7 21 6 
11 120. ,,. 182 Bl ,, 36 75 13 4 
12 132 ,, 144 33 ,, 38 12°4 33 8 
13 144 ,, 156 35 ,, 40 7-4 17 5 
14 156 ,, 168 a: gg Det 9-2 19 6 
15 168 ,, Mer. 38 ,, AZ 85 19 8 
16 Mer. ,, 168 42 ,, 38 5:0 9 4 
17 168 ,, 156 Al BY 9:3 21 9 
18 156 ,, 144 40 ,, 35 12-2 93 5 
19 144 ,, 182 38 ,, 33 9-1 25 8 
20 132 5, 120 36 ., 81 63 9 3 
21 120; ;, 108 34. ,, 28 6:0 8 3 
22 108 ,, 96 31 |, 25 9:0 20 6 
23 SY eoea tem i eae 52 12 5 
24. BA. 72 24 5 18 | 130 23 3 
25 72, 6 | 21,715 | 110 21 4 
26 60 , 48 ee wl. 10:0 15 2 
27 48 ,, 36 ee onid SAC 6:3 11 3 
28, 36 ,, 24 Shae mic 58 13 6 
29 24 12 BP 8-0 13 2 
30 1D xs Ae Bj, = 5:0 if 2 
31 — ,° 12 3:0 3 i 


We may regard the various maxima of the spot-curve as indicative :— First, 
of a greater number of observations during the intervals which furnish the 
maxima. It is true the column of observations may countenance this view ; 
but it does not hold in all cases, neither are the greater number of obserya-~ 
tions so pronounced as the maxima of the curve. Second, of a clearer state 
of the earth’s atmosphere than usual, enabling us to see more spots than 
when it is ordinarily translucent. This may to some extent explain the 
occurrence of maxima separated by several intervals, and probably those in- 
stances where we haye a larger number of spots with a smaller number of 
observations. Third, of an actual increase of visibility of the spots them- 
selves at different and widely separated epochs, the observations of such 
increased visibility falling at those intervals at which the maxima were re- 
corded. The following are the epochs at which the greatest number of spots 
were observed corresponding with the maxima of the curve :— 

First maximum. Interval 2. 1870, Jan. 10, 12 spots, 15 for the whole 
interval, from 7 opservations. 


Tnterval. 


Altitude 


| 0* | 1° 


1 the commencement of these observations.) 


[he spots marked « were discovered previous t 


34 | 35) 36 


Sums. Means. 


Sums 
Visibility 


6o to 72 
72 84 
84 ,, 96 
96 108 


108, 120 | 


Sums 


Visibilit, 


Sums 
Visibility 


Sums before) Meridian 


1 


} 1 
03] *03)....- 


pees 


bese 


OS OH 


we pan 


Mer. to 163 


168 ,, 156 
156 4 144 
144. 132 


132 4, 120 


Sums 


Visibility... 


120 to 108 
1o8 ,, 96 
96 » 84 
Fs 

84 4 72 
7z 60 


Sums . 
Visibility... 


60 to 48 
48, 36 
36 5 24 
24 4 12 


Sums . 
Visibility. 


| Sums after (Meridian 


40» 37 
49 5 35 
38 33 
36 zy 
34 1 28 
31 25 
28 4, 22 
24, 18 
a1 15 
7 40 
13 7 
94 3 
Under 5 


Second m 
whole inters 
Third ma: 
interval, fro; 
Third ma: 
interval, fro 
Fourth m: 
whole intery 
Fifth max 
interval, fro; 
Sixth mas 
interval, fro1 
en we 
is comparat 
visible at a) 
evening. T 
spots depen 
mination, ot 
ever, trace 
the maxima 
above, that 1 
the appearar 
of spots hay 
ever, derived 
the appearar 
By dividir 
groups, and 
data for cor 
spot for each 
60 to 120 hi 
tudes 31° to 
60 hours, alt 
From the re 
have a bird’: 
rally the visi 
spot No. 1, t 
tive of solar 
bility. Dur 
visibility, wh 
hours of the 
allow us to « 
fluenced in 
their first de 
which these 
Nos. 5, 14, 
from 60 ho 
frequently s 
peculiarities 
bility of cert 
of intensity 
connected w 
series of ob: 
the variatior 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUNAR OBJECTS. 63 


Second maximum. Interval 7. 1870, March 13, 17 spots, 27 for the 
whole interval, from 7 observations. 

Third maximum. Interval 12, 1870, May 13, 27 spots, 33 for the whole 
interval, from 8 observations. 

Third maximum. Interval12. 1870, Jan. 15, 22 spots, 33 for the whole 
interval, from 8 observations, 

Fourth maximum. Interval 19. 1869, Dee. 20, 19 spots, 25 for the 
whole interval, from 8 observations, 

Fifth maximum. Interval 22. 1870, Nov. 11, 13 spots, 20 for the whole 
interval, from 6 observations. 

Sixth maximum. Interval 24. 1870, Sept. 14, 16 spots, 23 for the whole 
interval, from 3 observations. 

When we take the mean numbers of spots seen at each interval, the curve 
is comparatively flat, rising but little above the mean line of 7-9 spots 
visible at any interval, and this is about the mean number visible on any 
evening. The flatness of the curve is not accordant with an increase of 
spots dependent on an increase of solar altitude or greater angle of illu- 
mination, otherwise the apex would be much more decided. We may, how- 
ever, trace from the number of spots actually seen and contributing to 
the maxima of the spot-curve, as well as from the observations adduced 
above, that the change of illuminating angle does exercise an influence on 
the appearance of spots, inasmuch as on a few occasions the largest number 
of spots have been seen with higher illuminations, The actual curve, how- 


frequently seen from 120 to 60 hours before sunset. These, as well as the 
peculiarities of the other curves, strongly suggest that the variations of visi- 
bility of certain spots are not to any great extent dependent upon an increase 
of intensity of solar light, but rather upon some agency more particularly 
connected with the spots themselves. It is important to remark that another 
series of observations may furnish totally different diurnal curves, should 
the variations in visibility depend upon local lunar action. 


64 REPORT—1871. 


In nearly every case the spots seen during the first 60 hours of the luni- 
solar day have increased during the day in visibility, 7. e. they were seen less 
frequently during this group of 
intervals than during the succeed- 
ing sixty hours. This increase, 
however, has not been regular, 
which it would have been from 
changes of illuminating angle 
alone, some spots haying been 
seen, as before stated, more fre- 
quently during the second group 
of intervals, while others have de- 
clined in visibility and not at- 
tained their maxima until the 
period 120 to 60 hours before sun- 
set. The diurnal curves of spots 
Nos. 14, 5, and 16 in the first 
category, and those of Nos. 9 and 
11 in the second, have already 
been referred to; that of spot No. 
22 (fig. 3) differs from the others 
by its showing an increase of visi- 
bility from sunrise to 120 hours 
before sunset. The visibilities of 
many spots are lower during the 
last 60 hours of the luni-solar 
day. 

The curves of visibility during 
the luni-solar day are essentially 
different from the curves of visi- 
bility as deduced from the obser- 
vations of twenty-four lunations, 
although both lead to the same 
Bebe wa result; and from both a very im- 
Diurnal Curves of Visibility. Spots on portant conclusion rel be drawn, 

Plato. viz. that upon assuming other agen- 


| 
eer a it 


cies to be in operation than changes — 


of illuminating angle, such as present activity, the epochs at which such 
activity was manifested varied to such an extent, and were so far separated 
from each other in time, as to coincide, in the case of spots Nos. 14, 5, and 16, 
with the period in the luni-solar day of 60 to 120 hours after sunrise, while 
the activity manifested by spots Nos. 9, 11, and 22 occurred at a later period 
of the luni-solar day, 120 to 60 hours before sunset. So far-as the varia- 
tions of visibility of spots Nos. 14, 5, 16, 9, 11, and 22 are concerned, 
they do not appear to depend exclusively on changes of illuminating angle, 
even if a certain intensity of solar light contributes generally to render the 
spots visible. 

While the four craterlets Nos. 1, 3, 30, and 17 are visible during the whole 
of the luni-solar day, the spots on their sites are seldom seen until the sun 
attains an altitude of about 30°, and then they appear as “ bright round 
disks ;” and this characteristic attaches as well to the craterlets as to other 
spots when the sun attains this altitude. With altitudes between 30° and 
40° a different class of phenomena is manifested ; the sharp and distinct cha- 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUNAR OBJECTS. 65 


TABLE VY. 
Visibility. 
No ie hi h h h h h h by ek 
*! 0 to 60 | 60 to 120 | 120 to Mer. | Mer. to 120 | 120 to 60 | 60 to 0 
0. 04 14 ‘06 ‘07 14 
1.| 1:00 1-00 1:00 1:00 1-00 1:00 
2. 14 ‘06 O4 05 06 
ay eed 1:00 84 ‘96 81 87 
4, 93 1:00 ‘O07 ‘93 86 44 
5. 43 83 S72 7D 57 37 
6. 11 47 29, By 24 25 
TB O7 11 28 14 19 19 
8. 03 03 Ay 
9. 29 36 7.5) so, 52 BM 
10. 04 11 ‘16 04 05 
11. 21 23 19 14 43 12 
12 06 ‘07 05 06 
13 O4 25 “25 Dil 29 25 
14 36 75 66 64 43 25 
15 06 aA 09 06 
16 07 56 63 61 33 19 
17 79 1:00 ‘91 96 81 94. 
18 19 06 14 24. 19 
19 07 22 22 18 12 
20 04 14 09 04 
21 ‘14 03 : 
22 04 22 28 36 43 12 
23. 07 03 ‘12 18 05 
24 =i “12 suteT 05 
25. 07 22 37 me) 09 
26 ae ¥e ee ‘04 06 
27 04 3 end 06 
28, a eye ‘04 06 
29. 04 ile 03 a 
30 29 47 34 29 38 31 
31 04. a 1) oi la | 09 12 
32. 07 25 22 alt 14 
33 2 ase 03 07 05 
34, 04 mot 03 ae 
35. a, 03 “a 
36. Rr 03 


racter of the craterlets is no longer observed. Some put on a hazy appearance, 
and they all assume the same aspect as those spots which have not been 
observed as craterlets. This state of things continues until the declining 
latitudes approach the limit at which the crater form was lost in the advan- 
cing day, then it once more appears accompanied by a disappearance of most 
of those spots which came into visibility as the sun rose higher. We have 
an analogous phenomenon to this in the well-known crater Aristarchus. 
Shortly after sunrise its outline is sharp and distinct, while its interior is 
partly covered with a well-marked shadow and partly glowing in strong 
sunlight. As the sun rises above its horizon these characteristics are lost ; 
the ridge extending from it to Herodotus becomes brighter, and to some eyes, 
and with some instruments, it is confounded with the interior, the whole ap- 
ane as a very vivid brush of light. The exact solar altitude at which the 
1871. F 


66 REPORT—1871. 


change takes place is as yet undetermined; but there can be no question 
that it is of the same nature as that of the appearance of the spots on Plato 
greatly intensified. 

The result of the discussion may be briefly stated as being very strongly 
suggestive of the existence of present lunar activity, the exact nature of 
which requires further and more extensive observations to determine. In- 
timately connected with the spot-changes are the variations of appearance 
and intensity of reflective power of the streaks and markings on the floor of 
Plato. In the observers’ and other notes which form the Appendix to this 
Report will be found allusions to the connexion between the spots and streaks ; 
but it manifestly requires a similar discussion of the streaks and markings to 
arrive at a definite conclusion on the subject. Most of the observers have 
furnished observations of these interesting phenomena, so that a discussion 
of them could at once be proceeded with if it should be the pleasure of the 
Association to carry on the inquiry. The principal results of the discussion 
of the spot-observations relative to visibility, irrespective of solar altitudes, 
and treated in pairs of lunations from April 1869 to November 1870, based 
on 1594 observations during 20 lunations, are contained in Lunar Map Cir- 
cular VIII.; and some further remarks occur in a paper on the subject, 
published in the Philosophical Magazine, March 1871. This discussion, on 
an entirely different principle to that employed in the preparation of the 
present Report, and leading to a similar result, tends to confer on both a 
character in which confidence may be placed, for either without the other is 
incomplete ; together they point to present lunar action as the originating 
agency producing the phenomena. 


Fie. 4. 


Although measurements for position of such delicate objects as the spots 
on Plato are difficult to execute, Mr. Gledhill has succeeded in obtaining 
three sets of micrometrical measures, on September 13 and December 9, 
1870, and on May 1, 1871, a combination of which has enabled me to draw 
the outline of the crater, and to insert from these measurements four streaks 
and the sector as seen generally by Mr. Gledhill. The streaks are Z, e, a, 
and 3, The streaks £ and e are rather westward of their places as given on 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUNAR OBJECTS. 67 


the tinted plate in the ‘Student’ of April 1870, p. 161. The spots whose 
positions have been determined by measures are Nos. 1, 4,3, and 17. The 
effect of the measures is to bring them closer together and more towards the 
centre of the crater than in the printed plans. On each occasion that the 
measures were made, a diameter of the crater passing through spots Nos. 1 
and 4, from A to B, was measured, also one at right angles to this from C 
to D, passing through No. 1. All the remaining measures of spots and 
streaks were referred to these diameters, spot No. 1 being the origin of 
the coordinates, and the longest diameter being considered as unity. The 
ratios of the means of the measures were determined to be as follows :— 


Parallel Parallel 
Spot or Streak. Og a: Sle Pa Gi 


Longest diameter A toB = 1:000 No. 38................00008 060 126 
Aw Ih peel teehee Ul Sh 179 130 
Spot No. 1. Sector east end......... “409 168 
To east border B ...... = ‘519 sone WEStONGs.saseee 181 ‘247 
», west border A...... = ‘481 Both on border. 

» South border€ ... = ‘309 Streak Z...............00 055 
» north border D... = °309 S52} Gtecavtueteneccete 317 158 

», spot No. 4 ......... = ‘182 3», base)on Als \sceee. 123 
Streak « W. end ...... “412 158 
fu) greets, Cri. aaeeae “119 306 

» fonborder ... ‘337 


In order to plot the spots that have been laid down by alignment and 
estimation, it is necessary to align with the measured spots, and particularly 
with objects on the border, a process that will be adopted in the preparation 
or a monogram of Plato. 


APPENDIX. 


Oxsservers’ Notes. 


These are arranged in each interval of 12 hours according to season, so as 
to give increasing altitudes of the sun from © — 4 =270°. Winter in the 
northern hemisphere. 

Interval 0 to 12 hours. 


1869, Oct. 13, 7° (O— 93 =76° 24'-8, Oct. 124 21").—Ten hours after the 
epoch of sunrise at the equator in E. long. 4° 0'-6, the first streak of sun- 
light was seen by Mr. Gledhill to fall on the floor of Plato through the gap 
in the west wall between B. & M.’s peaks 6 and e, the W. extremity lying 
on or near the fault from N.W. to 8.E., and bringing into visibility the cra- 
terlet No. 3, which is seen earliest of all the spots. Mr. Gledhill gives the 
sun’s azimuth equal to 87° 31’, the altitude being equal to the angle formed 
by the height of the depression in the wall between the peaks above the 
point of the floor on which the sun’s rays first impinge. 


Interval 12 to 24 hours. 


1870, July 6, 8".—Twelve hours and a half after epoch of sunrise at the 
equator, EH. long. 4° 11'5, O— 9, July 5, 19, 30=354° 54-4, Mr. Gledhill 
again witnessed the first streak of sunlight fall on the floor of Plato, and 
observed spot No. 3 just within it, and remarked that the streak lay parallel 
with the longest diameter, and did not incline from No. 3 as it did in January. 
{On the 13th of October, 1869, at 7", Mr. Gledhill remarked that the streak 
was a little inclined to the N., and not quite parallel with the rim.] At 9" 
of July 6, 1870, Mr. Gledhill remarked that a line through the two gaps or 

F2 


68 REPORT—187]. 


breaks in the 8. and N. borders passed through the western ends of the 
earliest streaks of light thrown on the floor. This line appears to be coinci- 
dent with the great fault crossing Plato. With reference to this I have the 
following note :—‘ This phenomenon, the western extremities of the streaks 
falling in a line with the breaks in the N. and 8. borders, was well observed 
in January 1870. An elevation of the ground in the direction of this fault 
has been seen. It would, however, appear that differences in the lengths of 
the streaks would depend not on any unevenness of the ground, but on the 
relative depths of the gaps in the W. border.’ 

1870, January 10, 2" to 8"\—From ten to sixteen hours after epoch of sun- 
rise at the equator, E. long. 4° 61, @ — Q, Jan. 9, 164, equal to 170° 27':8. 
This was by far the finest observation of sunrise on Plato by no less than 
seven observers, viz. Messrs. Gledhill, Pratt, Elger, Neison, Birmingham, 
Joynson, and Birt. Mr. Gledhill’s record is so full and so interesting that 
a reproduction of it will convey a vivid impression of the progress‘of illu- 
mination of a lunar formation as the sun rises upon it. 

Jan, 10, 2". Cloudless. Terminator just on the E. border of Plato; can 
just see the outline of the crater, which now lics in deep shadow. On the 
E. side the lofty steep wall just N. of a triangular formation marked II Ev? 
glowed intensely in the solar rays. 

3", The E. wall from the great breaks in the S. and N. borders appeared 
as a bright narrow band. The curved outline of the N.E. border was bright, 
sharp, and narrow, but the lower slope within could not be seen. I could 
fancy that the W. part of the floor is, if possible, deeper in shadow than the 
E. half. {This phenomenon has often been witnessed, and has been attri- 
buted to the reflection of the strong light of the eastern interior from the 
dark floor. Upon attentively contemplating this degradation of shadow near 
its eastern boundary, it will often be seen that it is not simply a reflection 
from the floor, but apparently the illumination of a something above the 
floor.—W. R. B.] 

3° 45". A bright narrow broken line was seen between the two breaks on 
the E. and N.E. The outline of II E¥? is not yet visible. 

4" 18™. At this moment (12 hours 18 minutes after epoch) the first streak 
of light fell upon the floor. Within it and near its western extremity was 
seen No. 3 as two elevated objects, very near each other, but quite distinct. 
I could not detect shadow between them after hard gazing, although it was 
easily seen to the N.E. of the lower object. The streak was three times the 
breadth of the two objects together where it enclosed them, and it became 
broader near the N.E. border of Plato; it was brightest about and to the 
west of No. 3, and inclined a little downwards at the E. end. * *« * The 
two components of No. 3 are of the same size apparently, are equally but 
not very bright; they lie nearly E. and W. of each other, but the E. com- 
ponent is a very little to the N. of the other. 

4° 30™. The streak widens. I could not detect motion in it. I now care- 
fully placed the wire on the great gap in the west border ; the line passed 
along the axis of the streak. The west angle of the streak is not sharp, but 
rounded, and lies a little beyond No. 3. The lower of the cones of No. 3 
touches the lower edge of the streak. It now assumed a fan shape, being 
broadest at the E. end, which is now more than halfway to the E. border. 

4°40". The streak is now much wider. I think I see a minute elevation 
a little to the E. of No. 3 and in the streak. The two components of No. 3 


are now bright and sharp, with shadow on the east. Another streak has — 


been barely visible or suspected for a few minutes; it lies to the 8. of the 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUNAR OBJECTS. 69 


former and near the 8, border. It runs parallel with the northern streak, 
is about half its length, and has its western extremity over a point a little 
HK. of No. 3. It is narrow, and extremely faint and difficult. A minute or 
two later it was seen better, also a still fainter and narrower line to the 
north of it, which is parallel with it and the northern streak. The most 
southern streak produced to the E. would graze the southern edge of II Ey2, 

4" 50™. Now the shadows from the W. wall take shape. The south sha- 
dow, which extends up to the 8. border, goes directly into the gap at the 8. 
edge of IJ EY, The next pointed shadow to the N. of this goes direct to 
the middle of II E¥; it is extremely pointed at its E. end for more than 
half its length, and is suddenly wider at the W. end. [This appears to indi- 
cate that the peak which throws the shadow is very needle-like.] I cannot 
be quite sure that this shadow for the next 10™ or 15™ really extended up 
to the E. border. It became so faint and narrow and line-like that it could 
not be well seen near the border. Then, again, the floor for some distance 
(say a distance equal to the width of II E¥?) lay in rather dark shadow. 
The floor between the shadows was not bright up to the E. border of Plato; 
all along the foot of the E. slope a dark shadow lay, and this interfered with 
an exact determination of extremities of shorter shadows from the W. wall. 
The next shadow to the north was a broad parallel-sided belt, which pro- 
ceeded to the E. border as such. Its upper or S. edge extended to the N. 
end of II E¥?, and its lower or N. edge cut the border of Plato just below, or 
to the north of IT E¥?. A line through No. 3 to the gap in the 8.E. border 
cuts the W. angles of the two southern bright spaces between the shadows. 

5". No. 3 lies on the lower edge of the lowest bright space or upper edge 
of the lowest shadow. The shadow still clings to or is in contact with No. 3, 
and either extends to the E. of it, or No. 3 throws a shadow to the E. The 
floor along the E, border is still dusky ; it is brightest at that part in line 
with No. 3, 

55", A very fine narrow shadow is now seen to stand off from the sha- 
dow below and in contact with No. 3; it is this which touches No. 3. 

5°15™, The upper shadow is now clearly pointed, and falls short of the 
border. [This is probably the shadow of the peak between B. & M.’s y and 
6.] I still see a minute elevation just to the N.E. of No. 3. It is now just 
on the tip of the lowest pointed shadow, and about halfway from 3 to the 
N.E. border. [This spot is No. 32; it was discovered in streak B by Mr. 
Elger on December 15, 1869.—W. R. B.] 

5» 45™, Floor at the foot of the E. border is still dark, except at the ex- 
treme N. The long broad shadow is now retiring from the E. border, and is 
seen faintly bifurcated ; the lowest or northern fork is the longer, but this 
broad shadow still seems to have its N. and §. edges parallel. 

6". Now the dark shadow on the S. border breaks up, and a fine pointed 
shadow separates from its northern side, which if produced goes quite into 
the gap at the southern edge of II E¥?. The bright W. angle above this 
shadow goes back towards the W. until under the great gap in the S. border. 
The great central shadow is now easily seen bifurcated ; the lower peak is 
the longest, and reaches nearly up to the east border. The tip of the shorter 
shadow to the N, reaches just to No. 3; the next to the N. is rather longer. 

6" 20. The object to the N.E. of 3 (32) is easy, elevated, and bright. Now 
4 is seen, also a large elevated object (7) about halfway from it to the N. 
extremity of II E¥2, and on this line. 

_ 6°30". The great 8. band of shadow goes straight into the gap at the 8. 
end of II E¥?. The E. portion of the floor for some distance from the foot 


70 REPORT—1871. 


of the slope is still dusky. The shadow of the N.E. component of No. 3 is 
easy, and les to the N.E. A line from the lower edge of the shadow in the 
great gap of the west border along the lower edge of the central shadow 
goes into the gap at the N. end of II E¥?. This shadow is now finely bifur- 
cated ; the lower or northern peak is the longer. 

8. Spot No. 1 is now seen as a large striking object. It seems to be in 
the path of the upper fork of the central shadow, and looks like the shadow 
of one of Jupiter’s satellites on the disk. [In Mr. Birmingham’s sketch of 
May 19, 1869, O— 8 =286° 37':3, the upper or southern fork of the central 
shadow is longest, while in the present series of observations the northern is 
the longest. This is not a solitary instance of variation in the shadow of this 
peak. Mr. Birmingham is in agreement with Mr. Gledhill in referring spot 
No. 1 to the upper or southern fork. In my paper on the spots and shadows 
of Plato (Transactions of Sections, p. 17, ‘ Report of British Association for 
the Advancement of Science,’ 1869), I remark that Rosse and Birmingham 
have drawn No. 1 with the shadow of 6 just receding from it. Challis’s 
shadow of 6 terminates by a straight line; neither fork was visible, for he 
carefully measured the two angular points. Rosse drew the termination of 
the shadow as from two pinnacles upon the summit, with No. 1 between 
them. These variations are doubtless azimuthal; nevertheless they are of 
great importance, as we hope presently to show. | 

8 5™. Spot No. 1 is a large, lofty, very prominent cone. Close to the N.E. 
component of No. 3, and to the N.E. of it, is seen a black shadow curved to 
the N.E., with a bright elevated object close to the curve. I see the two 
components of No. 3 as bright distinct objects; then, close to the N.E. foot 
of the N.E. component, comes a large circular shadow quite black, embracing 
a bright object to the N.E. 

8° 15™. Spot No 4 is already getting rather difficult and hazy, although it 
lies far away in the bright eastern floor. Spot No. 17 is now seen just on 
the lower edge of the uppermost pointed shadow. No. 1 is bright and large, 
free from the long shadow. Shadow still lies on the eastern floor at the foot 
of the slope. Mr. Pratt, the same evening, Jan. 10, noticed a peculiar feature 
of the eastern part of the floor corroborative of Mr. Gledhill’s observation of 
the dip to the foot of the east border. He says, “A peculiar feature of the 
eastern part of the floor in sunlight observed. Between what was probably 
the eastern margin of the sector 6 and the foot of the interior slope of the 
E. rim was a decidedly darker tint, as if that part of the floor was lower 
than the rest, and perhaps falling towards the border; the western margin 
followed very closely the form it would have if the whole space between the 
sector 6 and the border were depressed.” In my own record, Jan. 10, 4" 48™, 
the Crossley equatorial 7-3-in. aperture, eye-piece No. 4, power 122, with 
slot, I say :—‘‘ The 8. spire of sunlight apparent; it is directed towards the 
middle of II E¥*. Neither of the spires of light reach the border, indicating 
the floor to dip near the border.” 

Mr. Gledhill summarizes his observations, under the head of “ points de- 
termined,” as follows :— 

First. The position, size, alignment, and order of development of the 
streaks [of sunlight, as distinguished from those that make their appear- 
ance afterwards] which first fall on the floor. They are evidently the solar 
rays passing through the gaps on the border. 

Second. The floor on the E. at the foot of the inner slope lies in shadow 
more or less deep until the giant shadows from the W. border have retreated 
westward beyond the centre of the erater. 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUNAR OBJECTS. 71 


Third. That spots Nos. 1, 3,17, the object halfway between No. 4 and 
the K. border (7), the object halfway + between No. 3 and the E. border 
(32), the object (if any) just to the E. of No. 3 (81), and the object S.W. of 
No. 1 at a considerable distance away are all elevated objects. 

[Some time subsequently to these observations I received from Mr. Gled- 
hill a drawing of nine crater cones seen on Jan. 10, 1870. They were Nos. 
1, 3, 30, 4, 7, 9, 11, 17, and 32. I have not received any confirmation of 
the object a considerable distance 8.W. of No. 1.—W. R. B.] 

Fourth. The order in time of the appearance of the shadows. 

Fifth. The time to a minute when light first falls on the floor. 

[The discussion of the observations by intervals shows that the sun’s light 
first falls upon the floor of Plato from ten to thirteen hours after the sun has 
risen at 4° 61 of E. long. on the equator according to season: a simple 
computation of the epoch of sunrise at this longitude and ©— Q will be a 
guide to ascertain the illumination of Plato within twenty-four hours of the 
epoch.—W. R. B.] 

Siwth. The interval between the appearance of light on the floor and the 
distinct perception of the shadows from the W. border is about twenty-five 
or thirty minutes. 

Seventh. The great northern streak of sunlight is seen some fifteen minutes 
before the southern streaks are detected. This may be caused either by dif- 
ference in elevation of the gaps in the W. border, or difference in level of the 
floor, or both may unite to produce the effect. 

Whatcan cause the duskiness of the eastern floor except depression of the floor? 
_ 1870, Jan. 10,9"0™. Mr. Elger saw spot No. 1 close to the shadow of the 
peak situated on the 8. of the great gorge or opening in the W. wall. At 
9°10™ the N. peak of this shadow was about clearing it; at the same time 
spot No. 4 could just be seen. Mr. Elger remarked that the shading round 
spot No. 1 was much darker than the central portion of the floor, and that 
this dark shading could be traced in an easterly direction to about one fourth 
of the distance between the spots 1 and 4: “this,” says Mr. Elger, “ would 
appear to indicate a fall in the surface of the floor from No. 1 towards 
the E. in section” (fig. 5). Schroter, if I re- Fig: 5. 
member rightly, alludes to some observations indi- 

‘cating similar irregularities in the floor. From 

Mr. Elger’s observation, combined with one of Mr. W pa ebaees E 
Gledhill’s to be noticed under Feb. 9, 1870, it would 

appear that spot No. 1 is situated on the ridge marking the great fault. (See 
interval 24" to 36".) 

1870, May 8, 8" to 10". Close of first interval of twelve hours. Epoch 
7* 21" 20". Mr. Elger writes, ‘‘ On the evening of the 8th, between 8" and 
10", I had a fine view of sunrise; the air was remarkably steady ; shadows 
and minute details seen to perfection.” 

1870, May 18. Mr. Elger writes :—“ Re your statement as to the dip of 
the floor. Is there reliable evidence that the N.E. and S.E. areas of the 
floor are lower near their respective borders than towards the spotless central 
area? In January last I saw spot No. 1 in contiguity with the shadow of 
No..2 peak (western wall); the surface of the floor east of No, 1 was then, 
of course, seen under very oblique light. Judging from the shading and 
-general aspect of the surface in the neighbourhood of No. 1, there appeared 
to be a very rapid fall from spot No. 1 to spot No. 4; if this be so, the 
stem of the ‘ trident’ would be a depression in the surface.” 

1870, April 9. Twenty-three hours after epoch of sunrise at 4° 4:7 on 


72 REPORT—187 1. 


equator, E. long., Mr. Elger records spots Nos. 1 and 17 in contiguity with 
shadows of high peaks on west wall [y and é]: Nos. 1, 3, 4 very plain [seen 
also by Mr. Pratt], 17 faint, 25 only glimpsed, 7 suspected; no markings 
seen. Mr. Pratt records on same day shadows of y, ¢, and e on floor nearly 
similar to 1869, Noy. 12, excepting that 6 showed a second point south of 
chief one, and that of e did not exhibit a cleft. 

The importance of such careful observations as those which have furnished 
the data for this interval cannot admit of question. The determination of 
the epoch at which the floor first becomes illuminated, as compared with the 
epoch of an easily computed phenomenon (sunrise at a given longitude on 
the equator), places at once within our reach the means of ascertaining when 
the appearances witnessed during the interval 10 to 24 hours after sunrise, 
at 4° EK. long. on the equator, will be repeated*, This is, however, a small 
result compared with the forms and progressions of the shadows ; for by their 
aid, especially if well sketched, and their lengths carefully measured, or even 
estimated in parts of those of the three measured peaks y, 6, and e, the dis- 
tance of the west wall from the terminator being at the same time ascer- 
tained, the irregularities of the west wall at sunrise, and by a similar process 
those of the east wall at sunset, may be obtained with tolerable precision by 
B. & M.’s method described in ‘ Der Mond,’ § 65, p. 98, and in the Report 
of the Lunar Committee of the British Association, ‘ Report,’ 1867, p. 15. 
We have thus the power, by multiplying such observations, of becoming inti- 
mately acquainted with the breaks and gaps, the elevations and towering 
pinnacles of the wall, and are in a position for handing down to our suc- 
cessors details that may enable them to detect changes, if such should occur, 
of sufficient magnitude to become perceptible. The shadows which I enu- 
merated on Jan. 10, 1870, were six,—the longest y, one between y and ¢, 
6 with its two peaks or saddle form, one south of e, and e. Mr. Joynson, of 
Liverpool, gives in his drawing of the same date two peaks to 6. The irre- 
gularities both of the floor and border have come out by these observations 
with marked distinctness, and tend greatly to settle for the present epoch 
the main features. If, however, changes are in progress, they may be, as on 
the earth, extremely slow. 

The appearances recorded on January 10, 1870, being so different to that 


witnessed by Bianchini, August 16, 1725, the following translation, by my 


friend Mr. Knott, from Bianchini’s work ‘ Hesperi et Phosphori Nova Phe- 
nomena’ (Rome, 1728), will doubtless be read with interest :— 

** Under the auspices of the Cardinal de Polignac, two large telescopes, 94 
and 150 Roman palms long, by Campini, were prepared and erected, and on 
the 16th of August, 1725, the following observations of Plato were made. 

** Although on that night we were only able to turn the telescope 150 
palms long, on the moon we detected, in the lunar spot named Plato, a 
phenomenon not previously observed. The moon was at the time a little 
past its first quadrature with the sun, which it had attained on the previous 
day, and the spot Plato fell on the periphery of solar illumination, where is 
the boundary of light and darkness in the lunar hemisphere exposed to the 
sun. ‘The whole of the very elevated margin, which on all sides surrounds 
the spot like a deep pit, appeared bathed in the white rays of the sun. The 
bettom of the spot, on the other hand, was still in darkness, the solar light 
not yet reaching it; but a track of ruddy light, like a beam, crossed the 

* The longitudes of the terminator at 60° N. latitude on the equator, and at 60° S. lati- 


tude, Greenwich, midnight, during the lunation, are given monthly in the ‘ Astronomical 
Register.’ 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUNAR OBJECTS. 73 


middle of the obscure area, stretching straight across it from one extremity 
to the other, with much the same appearance as in winter in a closed cham- 
ber the sun’s rays admitted through a window are wont to present, or as 
they are seen in the distance when cast through openings in the clouds, or 
like comets’ tails at night in a clear sky stretched cut at length in space, as 
we remember to have seen in the one which in the years 1680 and 1681 was 
so conspicuous to all Europe. This appearance, never before seen by me in 
this or any other lunar spot, is represented in the figure which I give below. 


Fig. 6. 


©], 2. The lunar spot named Plato, and the ruddy ray of the sun thrown 
across its dark floor from the margin of the spot 1, white and turned towards 
the sun. It was thus observed at Rome on the Palatine Mount, Aug. 16, 
1725, at 13 hour after sunset, with the 150-palm telescope of J. Campini. 

“It is proposed to astronomers and physicists, for their consideration and 
judgment, whether this is to be taken as an indication of an aperture piercing 
the border of the spot which is turned towards the sun, through which opening 
the rays are cast and appear as through a window; or whether it is rather to be 
thought that they are refracted rays, which are bent from the top of the border 
towards the bottom, and appear of a ruddy tint as they are wont to do in our 
own atmosphere at sunrise and sunset, and so give reason for admitting the ex- 
istence of some denser fluid like an atmosphere surrounding the lunar globe.” 

I have the following remarks on the above, dated June 4, 1867 :— 

«‘ Bianchini appears to have been one of the earliest observers who noticed 
‘detail’ more particularly. Hevel, Riccioli, Cassini, and others aimed more 
at delineating the entire surface, which of course included much detail that 
is becoming more and more valuable every day ; still such observations as 
Bianchini’s, recorded in his ‘ Hesperi et Phosphori,’ are of great value, espe- 
cially as the appearances described and delineated could not find place in a 
more general work.” 

Schroéter, in his ‘ Selenotopographische Fragmente,’ vol. 1. p. 334, §§ 256, 
257, refers to the observation of Bianchini, and also to one of Short’s in 1751, 
April 22, It would appear that Bianchini’s suggestion of an aperture or hole 
in the W. rim of Plato was not verified by Short, who seems to have observed 


7%: REPORT—187]. 


the shadows of the three peaks y, é, and e of B. & M., which are represented 
by Schréter in t. xxi. The,shadows of these and other peaks on the W. wall 
have been very frequently observed of late years. 

T am not aware that Bianchini’s observation has been verified. The pecu- 
liar appearance which he has delineated depends not only on libration, but 
also on the angle which the terminator makes with the meridian; for it is 
clear that the direction of the terminator must form a tangent to a line pass- 
ing equally through the depression in the wall to produce the appearance 
seen by Bianchini; and it is highly probable that it is of very rare occur- 
rence, as seen from the earth, the variation in. the angle of terminator with 
meridian being as much as 3°. 

While transcribing the above (April 22, 1871) I have considered the Bian- 
chini phenomenon more closely. During the year 1870 the opportunities 
for observing sunrise on Plato were comparatively numerous, and certainly 
not the slightest appearance of Bianchini’s streak was detected ; on the other 
hand, the positions of the earliest rays of sunlight on the floor have been 
determined, with some degree of precision, for the portion of the luni-solar 
year during the period of the observations. If the configuration of the W. 
wall is different now from what it was in Bianchini’s time, the phenomenon 
may be explained by the supposition that the gap or pass N. of the peak 6 
was lower than at present, and has been raised by “ landslips” on one or 
both sides, which are of extensive occurrence on the moon as recognized by 
Nasmyth; the absence of further observations by Bianchini on the same 
evening, however, leaves the matter in doubt. 

Short records, in the Phil. Trans. for 1751, p. 175, that on April 22, 
1751, he saw a streak projected along the flat bottom of Plato. Soon after 
he saw another streak parallel to the first, but somewhat lower [or northerly ], 
which in a very short time divided into two. He found a gap in the wall 
opposite the first streak, and also one in the direction of the lower one. 

Not only is Bianchini’s observation at variance with modern observations, 
but Short’s also. The order of appearance of the streaks of sunlight on the 
floor on Jan. 10, 1870, is, first, the broad streak through the wide gap ; 
second, the southern streak north of the peak y. The appearances of Short’s 
streaks were in the reverse order. 

The following record of observations by Schréter on July 30, 1789, at 
9" 48", kindly translated by Mr. Gledhill, will illustrate Mr. Elger’s obser- 
vation on January 10, 1870 :— 

‘ Selenotopographische Fragmente,’ § 250, vol. i. p. 329. “A different, 
more beautiful, and more magnificent view of Plato is obtained when, with 
the rising sun, the first traces of an extremely faint twilight are seen on the 
grey floor of the crater, and when the first beams of light are thrown over 
the mountains into the plain below. This view of Plato, which lasts only 
for a few minutes during the slow monthly rotation, and for which one may 
wait for a year and yet not see it, I saw on the 30th of July, 1789, 9 48”. 
As in the 8th figure of t. xxi., the terminator had advanced from W. to E. as 
far asa, 3. To the W. of this the greatest part of the border lay in the 
light of day [or on the day side], and only the small portion to the E. of «, 
( was illuminated on the night side. The whole inner grey surface, on the 
contrary, was still hidden by the shadows of the lofty mountains on the 
border, and on the §. border there was also a low spot filled with shadow. 
While I was observing the shadows of the inner surface with power 161, I 
became aware of something to the E. of the middle of the floor, as if the dark 
surface were in a kind of fermentation, A few seconds later I saw here in 


Se eS ee CU ee 


a 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUNAR OBJECTS. 75 


two places an extremely distinct unveiling or brightening which closely re- 
sembled a very faint twilight. Both places appeared dark, blackish, and con- 
trasted so slightly with the other night-shadows, that at first | was uncertain 
whether or not I perceived a real difference in the obscurity. Meanwhile, 
after a few seconds both the light-spots became somewhat brighter, changed 
their form continually, until they soon became larger and notably brighter, 
and assumed the appearance given in fig. 8 ; and as no very marked change 
occurred while the observation was being made, I was by this time able to 
sketch them in their present clearer colour and increased size ; but even yet 
they appeared a dark grey, so that, according to my arbitrary scale and a 
yery approximate estimation, they were placed at only 3°, or at most 3°. 

“ Doubtless these present but always very dark colours were half-shadows, 
and were found there because in these two places only a part of the rising 
sun was visible over the irregular elevations on the western border; and 
these half-shadows I have often seen in the course of my observations when 
the terminator passes across grey surfaces. Soon after, the surface threw off 
the mask of night, and in a few minutes I could distinguish the line-like 
shadows lying across the whole floor thrown by the peaks on the western 
wall. If one, however, compares the shape of these two somewhat bright 
spots on the map with the position and shadows of the west border, and re- 
flects that these bright spots, as I saw them, were surrounded by the shadows 
of night on the east, there can no longer be any doubt (if a different reflec- 
tion of the light has no share in the matter) that the floor is not perfectly 
flat, but that these two places are somewhat more elevated; and with this 
supposition the observations given before quite agree.” 

The following notes have been kindly furnished by Mr. Pratt, relative to 
the foregoing description of sunrise :— 

« Jan. 10, 3". On 1870, March 10,1 have notes of the same phenomenon, 
which I believe I forwarded at the time, recording the inability I experienced 
to rid myself of the idea that I was witnessing a true twilight. My observa- 
tion of it extended over twenty-five minutes, at the end of which time I 
perceived the faintest trace of the formation of the spires.” 

“Jan. 10, 4" 18", spot No. 3. Query. Is the brightest spot of the streak, 
here mentioned as seen inclined to the north of No. 3, and I presume in close 
proximity to it, my spot No. 30? As far as I can understand the localities 
are identical.” 

“Jan. 10, 4" 50™, shadow of peak y. On a similar occasion I have ob- 
served the thin thread of the shadow lying across II E¥?, and have watched 
it slowly shortening and travelling down the interior slope of the rim, and had 
a good view of it lying on the floor just in contact with the foot of the slope.” 

“Jan. 10, 8", shadow of peak §. I do not remember to have ever seen 
the shadow of 6 otherwise than with the northern fork the longest.” 

On Bianchini’s light-streak Mr. Pratt remarks :—‘“ Bianchini’s ruddy spire 
of light, which he observed at Rome, 1725, Aug. 16, and thought to be sun- 
light shining through an aperture in the west wall, would the want of 
achromaticity in his 150-palm telescope account for the colour? Still his 
unique view may prove valuable some day; and it is stimulating to perse- 
verance on our part to multiply observations with our comparatively luxu- 
rious instruments to find such unwieldy telescopes capable of so much in the 
hands of a careful observer. I wonder if the crater G on the west exterior 
slope was recorded so long since, as its clean-cut form, as I have sometimes 
seen it, is suggestive of recent formation, and its locality such as to easily 
account for the filling-up of the aperture Bianchini supposed.” 


76 REPORT—1871. 


[The crater G is not seen in Bianchini’s drawing of 1725, August 16, nor 
in that illustrating his observations of 1727, August 23 and September 22.— 
W. R. B. 

Mr. ae: remarks, that in Short’s observation of 1751, April 22, the first 
streak of sunlight was on the upper part of the floor, followed soon after by 
a parallel streak somewhat lower. “It is important,” says Mr. Pratt, “to 
learn what kind of telescope Short used during the observation; for as he 
was chiefly a maker of the Gregorian form, and as that construction does not 
invert the image, it may be possible his term lower may mean southerly in- 
stead of northerly, thus being in accord with modern observations.” 

‘The very interesting translation of Schréter’s notes of 1789, July 30, and 
his discovery of something on the eastern half of floor, as if a kind of fer- 
mentation was going on, and his discovery a few seconds later of an unveil- 
ing or brightening, closely resembling twilight, remind me,” says Mr. Pratt, 
‘very forcibly of my own observations before mentioned. The half-shadows 
of Schroter also remind me of what I have very often seen, as he describes ; 
but I cannot understand his explanation of them. As far as I can see, half- 
shadows presuppose an atmosphere; and a well-authenticated course of ob- 
servations of them would be good proof of the latter’s presence.” 

[If by the term “ half-shadow” be meant the penumbral fringe of every 
true shadow, the rays of light emerging from opposite limbs of the sun, 
crossing beyond the object casting the shadow and then diverging, will fully 
explain such a fringe. In the case of the sun rising above the mountains, 
the reverse phenomenon occurs, viz. a gradual darkening fringe skirting the 
illuminated surface arising from less and less light arriving from the sun’s 
disk ; a true twilight is occasioned by the particles of an atmospheric medium 
being illuminated by the sun’s rays while the luminary is below the horizon, 
and such I believe I have on several occasions witnessed.—W. R. B.] 


Interval 24 to 36 hours. 


1870, May 9. Mr. Gledhill describes spot No. 1 as easy; a fine sharp 
crater, with raised walls, much black shadow within, the east inner slope 
bright: he also records 3 and 17 as presenting the same appearance as 
No.1. On October 3, at about 12" earlier illumination, Mr. Gledhill did not 
observe the crater character of these objects, but describes them as elevated 
objects.. This is remarkable, as on Oct.3 the moon’s latitude was 1° to 2°S., 
while on May 9 it was 3° N., libration carrying Plato further from the eye, 
yet the crater character was more distinct. Mr. Elger records No. 17 as seen 
by glimpses. 

As regards spots 13 and 19, the following remarks of Mr. Elger are inter- 
esting :—‘* The northern portion of the floor, including streak a, was noted 
as equally light ; the streak could not be traced.” Mr. Gledhill writes, a not 
to be distinguished from the bright floor all along the north border. Mr. 
Elger found the same locality “ all ight on the 10th.” 

1870, February 9. Mr. Gledhill first saw spot No. 4, its bright W. wall 
only. He says, “‘ This object seems to have lower walls than 1, 17, or 3.” 
Mr. Gledhill writes: “ For a few minutes I saw what appeared to be a very 
low ridge running from N. to 8. across the floor of Plato. It runs from the 
N. border to spot 3, then curves to No. 1, and again bends back to the E. 
and reaches No. 17, and thence goes on to the S. border.” [The low ridge 
mentioned by Mr. Gledhill is, so far as I know, new. It is not coincident 
with the great fault from N.W. to S.E. From a drawing subsequently sent 
to me by Mr. Gledhill, it would indicate a fracture, having its origin at spot 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUNAR OBJECTS. ‘ ee 


No. 1, diverging N.E. and §.E. to spots Nos. 3 and 17, and extending from 
them in opposite directions to the N. and 8. borders.] At 5.30 Mr. Gledhill 
recorded that spot No. 4 is already indistinct ; there is a dull yellow patch 
about it. No. 3 at this early stage of illumination Mr. Gledhill found to be 
single; he looked in vain for the other two adjacent spots, Nos. 30 and 31. 

1870, Oct. 3. Mr. Gledhill records Nos. 1, 3, 17, and 30 as elevated ob- 
jects. Mr. Elger found no trace of 3. 

1870, March 11. Mr. Gledhill describes spots Nos. 1 and 3 as bright, cir- 
cular. 

Interval 36 to 48 hours. 


1870, April 10. Mr. Gledhill records spot No. 1 as a large, sharp, cir- 
cular crater, with internal shadow on W. side; also Nos. 3 and 17 as circular 
eraters. Mr. Elger records Nos. 16 and 25 as frequently glimpsed. 

1870, July 7. Mr. Whitley observed Nos. 1, 3, and 17 as craterlets, 4 a 
white spot, and glimpsed No. 11 very faint. On the same evening Mr. Neison 
recorded the floor as very dark, the spots indistinct, not visible continuously ; 
and Mr. Elger could just trace the “ sector.” 

1870, Jan. 11, 7.20. Mr. Gledhill describes spot No. 1 as a large round 
erater, larger than Linné, quite bright and circular, a very fine easy object. 
At 7.30 the same evening, he says “ Linné also is now seen as a crater, with 
some shadow within on the west.” At 7.45 Mr. Gledhill writes: “ Now the 
N.E. inner slopes of craters Nos. 1 and 3 glow in the bright sun, while the 
S.W. znner slopes are in shadow. It is the N.E. inner slope which so often, 
in bad definition, comes out as a bright disk or semidisk.” 

1869, August 16. Mr. Pratt thus writes:—‘“ Of these difficult objects 
[the spots], seven were seen many times during the hour; No. 1 often well 
defined as a crater, Nos. 3 and 4 as well-defined craters as No. 1, but accom- 
panied with a nebulous light, perhaps caused by the companion spots to each, 
which, however, were never clearly defined owing to the minuteness of the 
objects and the short periods of definition clear enough. They both had a 
similar appearance.” 

1870, September 4. Mr. Neison records No. 4 as just observable, and 14 
very faint. 

Interval 48 to 60 hours. 


1870, May 10. Mr. Gledhill records spots Nos. 1, 3, and 17 as elevated 
craters with little internal shadows. Mr. Elger records No. 5 as seen only 
by glimpses much fainter than 17; 16 and 14 easy. 

1871, March 1. Mr. Gledhill records spot No. 1 as a crater brightest on 
the inner E. wall. 

1870, August 6. Mr. Elger noticed the west portion of the floor of an 
even light colour. It is on this portion that the spots Nos. 13, 19, and 22, 
which have decreased of late in visibility, are situated. On the 24th of 
March, 1870, Mr. Gledhill observed the reverse, viz. the west part of the 
floor exhibited the darkest tint. It was, however, less in extent than the 
light portion given by Mr. Elger, and was seen under the opposite illumina- 
tion. See intervals 108" to 96", and 12" to 0" *, 

1870, October 4. Mr. Gledhill records No. 1 as an elevated object. Mr. 
Elger found No. 14 more easy than 5 and 17; it was not seen by Gledhill, 
Nos. 3, 30, and 17 were seen as bright disks by Gledhill. 


* These reversed tints are quite in accordance with the surface of the floor dipping on 
each side from the line of “ fault” crossing Plato from N.W. to 8.H, 


78 REPoRT—1871. 


Interval 60 to 72 hours.- 
1870, July 8. Mr. Gledhill records Nos. 1 and 17 as bright spots badly seen. 
Mr. Elger records No. 5 as seen only by glimpses, but brighter than No. 1. 
1869, August 17. Mr. Pratt inserted the positions of the spots observed 
hy him “ by independent estimation,” also “ their relative positions with re- 
spect to light streaks” were very carefully determined as follows :— 
No. 
1. On the dark surface near the junction of two streaks. 
3. In the middle of a light streak. 
4. In the middle of a light streak (sector) *. 
17. On the dark surface close to a light streak (W. edge of sector). 
13 and 19. In the middle of a light streak. 
14. Near the margin of a light streak. 


Interval 72 to 84 hours. 

1870, April 11. Mr. Elger records No. 5 nearly as bright as 17, which 
he regarded as fainter than at last lunation; 14 and 16 were easy, 24 and 
25 seen by glimpses. Mr. Gledhill records Nos. 1, 3, 30, and 17 as bright 
circular disks. Mr. Pratt detected the six spots which he observed with 
difficulty. 

1870, March 13. Mr. Gledhill writes : “ Unless I am very much mistaken 
indeed, 34 was an easy object, 7. e. No. 1 came out easily ‘ double ;’ also, as 
the E end of the floor slopes to the east, spots Nos. 6 and 7 may be seldom 
seen on this account (?).” To this I add: “This may be the case while the moon 
is passing from perigee to apogee.” Mr. Gledhill says further: “ No 3 (and 
30) very easy, wide, double; 3 is the larger, both equally bright : 30 is not 
seen nearly so often as 3; when only one is seen it is 3.” 

1870, June 9. Mr. Elger recorded 5 as brighter than 17. 

1870, February 11, 6.30. Mr. Gledhill found spots Nos. 1 and 17 as very 
sharp bright disks, but could not detect interior shadows ; he describes Nos. 
1,17, and 3 as sparkling. Of No. 1, he says, it often comes out double ; 
last year I often saw it thus. I am now almost sure I see a minute object 
close to the west of it (34). 


Interval 84 to 96 hours. 

1870, December 4. Mr. Elger writes:—‘‘ The marking connecting the 
middle and east arm of trident, which was, I believe, first seen by Mr. 
Pratt last spring, I found a very easy object, fully as bright as the brightest 
portions of the < trident ;’ it follows the curvature of the south border, and 
crossing the last arm of the trident, terminates about halfway between the 
latter and the west limit of the ‘sector’ During the May and June luna- 
tions, I had faint glimpses of it; but it was then a very much more difficult 
object than it is now.” 

The apparition of this streak appears in some way to be connected with 
spot No. 5, the variations in visibility of which are considerable. As, from 
the discussion of visibility, the connexion of these variations with illumi- 
nating, visual or atmospheric (terrestrial), changes appears to be untenable, 
it may be suggested that, if the first maximum, Aug.—Sept. 1869, resulted 
from increased activity, ejecta may have been thrown out and produced the 
faint streak which was seen on the west of No. 5 by fwo observers. At or 
about the second epoch of increased activity, a larger quantity of ejecta 
* * Mr. Gledhill has frequently observed spot No. 4 at the angle formed by the con- 


verging sides of the “sector.” 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUNAR OBJECTS. 79 


may have been thrown out, producing a brighter streak, extending eastward 
as well as westward. The most interesting circumstance connected with 
this streak is its conformity in direction to that of the south border, as if 
some peculiarity of the surface existed in the neighbourhood of No. 5, of a 
depressed character, which received the outflow or outthrow of the ejecta. 
Another noteworthy circumstance is, that this streak was not recorded 
earlier than May 18, 1870. 

1870, September 6. Mr. Gledhill records Nos. 1, 3, 17, and 30 as bright 
disks, also that definition was good, and that the streaks and spots seemed to 
stand out in relief. 2 

1869, November 15. Mr. Gledhill writes :—“The spots Nos. 1, 17, and 3 do 
not appear as a mere white spot on the floor of Plato would do. There is a 
sharpness and clearness of contour and a brightness (uniform) of surface 
which could only belong to a crater or peak. TI have often been struck with 
this. This remark applies to them whenever they are well seen. I can 
only liken them to the small round disks of bright stars seen in the transit- 
instrument. Spot No. 4 never looks like Nos. 1,17, or 3.” To this I append 
the following query :—Do the clearness and sharpness of the contour of spots 
_ Nos. 1, 17, and 3 result from seeing the shadowless interiors of the craterlets? 
Tf so, on what agency does the appearance of the mere white spots depend ? 
Do Nos. 1, 17, and 3 vary in this respect with good states of our atmosphere ? 
Mr. Pratt records a spot new to him on the N.W. of 3, about half as far from 
3 as is 4 on the opposite side, and aligning with 3 and 4; he speaks of it as 
exceedingly small. I have numbered it 29. He-also observed spot No. 8, 
which he describes as fainter than 29, and situated about one third the dis- 
’ tance from 3 towards 4. On this evening Mr. Pratt very carefully scru- 
tinized No. 3 and its immediate neighbourhood ; the following are his notes 
transmitted to me :—“ First. The second spot, which I have always ob- 
served with 3 (and which I learn from Mr. Birt I have always placed in the 
same relative position as has Mr. Dawes, who discovered it, and of whose 
alignment I was before quite unaware), is exceedingly close to 3 on the 
N.E. TI estimate the distance at 2”, and its position with respect to 1 was 
very carefully judged to be 145° to 150°, reckoning from S. round by E., 
which I afterwards found by comparison to be about the angle represented 
in my former sketches. Second. A third spot, 8.E. of 3, and twice as far 
from it as Mr. Dawes’s, was observed. Its relative size was judged to be 
one fourth, while that of the second spot was one third of 3. The direction 
was from 3 towards 4.” [This spot I take to be 8—W. R. B.]. ‘Another 
peculiarity in 3 was, that it was just included by the light streak, but still 
quite on its edge, as was also its smallest companion. I now determined 
very carefully the colour of the immediate localities of all spots visible. After 
independently noting it for each spot, I found on summing up that the 
whole were upon the light streaks, with the exception of No. 1, around and 
towards which the light streak was softly shaded off.” 

1870, July 9. Mr. Whitley glimpsed spot No. 17 with difficulty. 


Interval 96 to 108 hours. 
1870, April 12. Mr. Gledhill records Nos. 1, 3, and 30 as bright circular 
disks, 17 as a bright disk, also 6, but seen only once or twice. Mr. Pratt records 
No. 1 as very dense and bright, 3 and 4 as hazy, and 16 and 22 difficult. 
1870, May 12. Mr. Gledhill records Nos. 1, 3, and 17 as fine bright disks, 
No. 4 a spot, but seldom seen. Marking a, Mr. Gledhill records as the 
brightest, and Mr. Elger mentions the part east of No. 16 as very bright 


80 eeean ar. 


and well defined ; this, as well as the remarks of Mr. Elger on May 9, may 
tend to throw some light on the decreased visibility of Nos. 13 and 19 (see 
Interval 24 to 36 hours). On this evening Mr. Whitley observed and described 
the markings, giving a sketch of the same. Mr. Elger’s sketch of the north 
part of Plato and Mr. Whitley’s are not in accordance. The time at which Mr. 
Whitley made his observations is not mentioned; Mr. Elger’s 8.45 to 11. 

1870, March 14. Mr. Elger writes: ‘‘ The markings were not well seen ; 
the eastern arm of the ‘ trident’ was the brightest, and could be traced from 
the south rim to No. 1, passing to the west of No. 5: the marking y was 
very plain, the rest of the markings were faint and difficult to make out.” In 
contrast with this indistinctness on Plato, Mr. Elger says, “ [In spite of the hazi- 
ness of the sky, the markings and minute details of the Mare Imbrium were seen 
with unusual distinctness]. In the ‘English Mechanic,’ No. 312, March 17, 
1871, p. 602, article ‘“ Mars,” by F.R.A.S., the author speaks of the indi- 
stinctness and partial dimming on the surface of the planet, accompanied by 
the presence of dark lines in its spectrum, coincident with those referable 
by Father Secchi to the vapour of water. The indistinctness and dimming 
of detail are alike distinguishable on Mars and the Moon; and in addition we 
have on the Moon a number of spots becoming vividly bright with a high 
sun. From Dr. Huggins’s observations, the spectral lines of the vapour of 
water are absent in the lunar spectrum. 

1870, June 10. Mr. Elger recorded No. 17 decidedly brighter than No. 5 and 
equal to No. 3; 14 only glimpsed once or twice; 16 and 25 frequently seen. 

1869, December 15. This evening Mr. Elger discovered spot No. 32. He 
described it as N.E. of spot No. 3, nearly aligning with 17 and 4, and situ- 
ated on a brush of light (Gledhill’s streak 3), extending from No. 3 to the 
N.E. rim of Plato. 

1871, March 3. Mr. Pratt observed 16 spots, viz. 1, 3, 4; 5, 14, 17, 21, 
20, 23, 29, 0, 18, 18, 19, 7, 6, arranged according to relative brightness. 
Of these Mr. Pratt speaks of Nos. 20 and 21 as being far above their usual 
brightness. Situated as they are near the north border, the Moon going 
north in latitude, they were not in the most favourable position for observa- 
tion ; their great brightness is therefore remarkable, and connected with this 
is an increase of brightness in the streak a. The new streak between Nos. 5 
and 17 Mr. Pratt saw with ease, joining the east arm of the “ trident” with 
the “ sector” from closely south of 17 to opposite 5. 

1870, October 6. Mr. Gledhill records Nos. 1, 17, and 30 as fine bright 
disks; Nos. 5and6 equal. Mr. Elger observed Nos. 14 and 16, not seen by 
Mr. Gledhill ; 14 was equal to 5. 


Interval 108 to 120 hours. 

1870, September 7. Mr. Gledhill records Nos. 1 and 3 as fine sparkling 
disks, and 4 as a hazy spot. Mr. Neison records Nos. 1, 3, 4, and 5 pretty 
distinctly visible; 17 brilliant but not well defined; 14 and 16 faint and 
very faint respectively. 

1869, November 16. Mr. Gledhill says, “I never saw the floor so bright. 
The spots 1, 17, 9, 3, and 30 appeared just like small stars in the transit- 
instrument on a windy night.” At 10, 11, and 12 hours Mr. Gledhill 
remarked that spots Nos. 3, 1, 9, and 17 formed a sparkling curve, and were 
fine easy objects, seen at a glance at any moment; he says they were very 
striking. On the contrary, he speaks of spots 23, 16, 19, 13, and 14 as very 
difficult objects ; none were ever easy objects. Of 9 and 11 he says, “I 
never saw them so easily and well as to-night.” The following notes are 


* 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUNAR OBJECTS. 81 


important :—“ Nos. 1, 3, and especially 17 (which surpasses all in sharpness, 
and perhaps in brightness sometimes) are fine easy objects, with moderate 
altitudes. Now Linné never appears like these except when near the even- 
ing terminator. As to y Posidonius I never see it sharp and crater-like 
(white and bright) when the sun is up. I could not see it at all the other 
day when the morning terminator was a degree or two from it.” Of white 
spots Mr. Gledhill remarks: “I called some spots mere white spots, because I 
have never seen them otherwise ; by-and-by I may catch them near the 
terminator, and have reason to change the term. I fancy that when the 
terminator is a morning one the effect on objects differs from that given by 
the evening terminator.” 
Interval 120 to 132 hours. 


1871, March 4. Mr. Neison saw spot No. 14 very indistinct, and barely 
brighter than a longitudinal steak running in a direction from No. 13 to past 
No. 14, which was then situated upon it. It appeared to have its origin at 
the point of convergence of Gledhill’s @ and 6. On the same evening, Mr. 
Gledhill recorded 6 but not 6. On March 4, Mr. Neison saw No. 16 (once 
only) as a peculiar light-marked spot on a patch of broken light trending 
westward. Mr. Neison also recorded parts of the N.W. and 8.E. portions 
of the floor indistinct from broken light and light streaks. 

1870, June 11. Mr. Elger recorded spots Nos. 5 and 16 as seen only by 
glimpses. 

Interval 132 to 144 hours. 

1870, April 14. Mr. Gledhill records Nos. 1, 3, 4,17, 9, 11, and 30 as 
bright round disks. Mr. Elger writes, under date of April 26, 1870, relative 
to his observations of April 14, as follows :—‘“ That the visibility of the spots 
is connected with the position and brightness of the markings (as you sug- 
gest) is, I think, most probable: it is clear that the spots at present known are 
mainly confined to the districts occupied by the markings, and that the floor 
of Plato is divided by the latter 
into three nearly equal areas, A, 
B,C,ason sketch. Areas A and C 
are covered with markings, but 
area B is devoid of them. If 
we compare the number of spots 
in area B with the number of 
spots in areas A and C, we shall 
find that there are only two spots 
(23 and 11) in area B, while in 
area A there are ten, and in area 
C no less than twenty-three. It 
is true that small portions of the 
areas A and C are without 
markings; but the spots within those areas are, without an exception, situ- 
ated either upon the light streaks or close to their borders. These facts 
seem to me very suggestive, and point to an intimate relation between the’ 
spots and markings. As observations accumulate, your present belief in a 
connexion between the phenomena will, I think, be placed beyond doubt.” 
In connexion with the above, the following quotation from a letter by Mr. 
Pratt, dated 1870, April 22, is interesting :—« Very curious the difficulty 
there is in observing such delicate detail; possibly instruments and eyes will 
ly, independently of the mental bias and accumulation of pre- 

1871. @ 


82 REPORT—1871. 


vious impressions; and I rather fear that telescopes much larger than my 
own cannot help us out of the difficulty.” 

The difficulty to which Mr. Pratt alludes is particularly felt with regard 
to that indispensable method of determining positions “‘ measurement.” Mr. 
Gledhill has executed some measures of the positions of the principal spots 
and the extremities of the light markings, and Mr. Pratt has aligned several 
of the spots with objects on the border ; but so exceedingly delicate are the 
details, and so seldom is the state of the atmosphere sufficiently translucent 
and free from agitation, that to obtain an approximate plan of the spots and 
markings from measurement is necessarily a work of time. Pending this, 
in the above sketch both spots and markings have been inserted, partly on 
alignment and partly by estimation. The two light regions are well sprink- 
led with spots, as pointed out by Mr. Elger; and it is not a little interesting 
to notice that the nearly spotless area coincides with the region between 
the “trident” and the “sector,” with its prolongation to “ Webb’s Elbow” 
near the N.W. border. In the absence of more accurate detail, which is likely 
to be obtained from Mr. Gledhill’s measurements, the sketch (fig. 7) will serve 
as a guide for ascertaining if the spots and markings preserve their relative 
positions ; and in this connexion the remarkable change of locality, if it be so, 
of spot No. 5 may be mentioned, Mr. Elger having seen and recorded on three 
oceasions (1870, March 14, May 13, and October 10) its position on the eastern 
edge of the eastern arm of the “trident.” It is possible there may be two. 
neighbouring spots in this locality which have not yet been seen together. The 
importance of recording with every observation of spot No. 5 its position with 
regard to the eastern arm of the “trident” is obvious. The light streak 
supposed to be connected with No. 5 is too far south, or the spot is too far north, 
on the sketch. 

1870, May 13. Vide “ Indications of intermittent visibility” (p. 88). 

1870, January 15. Mr. Gledhill observed as many as 22 spots, the second 
greater number seen on any one occasion. Vide “ Indications of inter- 
mittent visibility.” Spots Nos. 1,3, and 17 are described as very easy, large, 
bright, sharp objects; No. 4 as jumping into view and not steadily seen. 
No. 34 was discovered this evening; it has not been observed since 
March 13, 1870, when it was recorded as an easy object. 

1869, August 20, 21, and 23. Mr. Gledhill gives three spots close to the 
N.W. border, which he has marked 13, 19, and 16. No. 16 being too far 
east for that spot, I have regarded itas 20; if, however, Mr. Gledhill really 
saw 16, its degree of visibility would be slightly increased. On August 23 
Mr. Pratt gives 16 in its proper position, and he observed the same number of 
spots as Mr. Gledhill; but Mr. Gledhill saw No. 12 and 31, which Mr. Pratt 
did not see, Mr. Pratt recording Nos. 7 and 30, not seen by Mr. Gledhill. 

1870, September 8. Mr. Neison records spot No. 4 as a flat indistinct 
spot; 17 sharp but bright, darkening on one side, and showing traces of a 
crater-formation. 

Interval 144 to 156 hours. 

1870, August 10. Mr. Neison records spot No. 3 as apparently oval ; tho 
longer axis of the ellipse is in the direction of No. 31. 

1870, October 8. Mr. Elger mentions No. 14 as very easy, 16 easy, and 
17 seen only occasionally. 

Interval 156 to 168 hours. ; 

1870, May 14. Mr. Elger recorded No. 16 easy; 5, 14, and 17 faint; 25 
and 32 seen by glimpses. Mr. Gledhill records 1, 17, 3, and 6 as bright 3 
disks, 4 not well seen, and 5 as a bright spot. ; 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUNAR OBJECTS. 83 


- 1870, September 9. Mr. Elger recorded No, 5 faint, 17 especially faint, 
14 and 22 glimpsed, and 14 difficult. ; 


Interval 168 hours to Meridian Passage. ‘A 

1870, June 18. Mr. Gledhill has this remark: ‘‘ For some time I have 

thought that when power 115 was used, spot No. 4 was almost at any time 

to be seen, or at any rate a condensation of the ‘sector’ at its apex was 

seen. On applying 240, however, the appearance vanishes, and no con-- 
densation or spot is seen, or perhaps only sometimes and at intervals.” 


Interval Meridian Passage to 168 hours. 


1870, July 13. Mr. Gledhill records No. 1 as very bright. aid 


1870, September 10. Mr. Elger records Nos: 25 and 16 as easy, No. 14 

as seen by glimpses. f 
Interval 168 to 156 hours. 

1870, August 12. Mr. Neison records “a spot seen on the border of No, 
3, very small and hardly visible except at intervals, but pretty bright on 
edge only of the light marking.” Mr. Neison suspected it to be No. 31, 
which it undoubtedly is according to the position which he has accorded to 
it on the diagram. Mr. Neison was the only observer who detected No. 81 
during this lunation, on the 10th and 11th of August, as an elongation of 
No.3. Mr. Elger, Mr. Gledhill, and Mr. Pratt appear to have missed it. Query, 
was the group Nos. 3, 30, and 31 in greater activity about this time? 
Mr. Neison has this note, “3. Faint indications of its being a crater very 
distinct.’’ Mr. Pratt records: “During the long period since I last saw 
the light streaks I have had little opportunity to study former sketches, and so 
was free in a measure of the bias of them. Yet on sketching those seen, 
the forms, positions, and directions coincide with former drawings, notably 
the trident a, 6, n, 1.” Mr. Pratt also notices a remarkable increase in. 
brightness of spot No. 22, so as to attract especial attention. Neither, 
Messrs. Elger, Neison, Ormesher, nor Gledhill noticed this spot, although 
they were observing on the same evening as Mr. Pratt, who further re- 
marks “that in moments of best definition the area comprised between 
Nos. 19, 1, and 4 was not nearly so well displayed as the rest of the floor, 
giving a strong impression of an obscuring medium located there.” [This 
observation of the streak 7, the existence of which has been questioned, is 
perfectly independent of any suspicion of its non-existence, as it occurred 
some months before the question was raised. | 

1870, October 10. Mr. Elger found spot No. 5 on the E. edge of the KE, 
arm of the “trident ;” its position, as given by Mr. Pratt, is on the W. 
edge of the E. arm. He also found that Nos. 5 and 14 were far inferior 
to 17. Spot No. 25 was easy. Mr. Elger did not see spots Nos. 9, 11, 18, 
23, nor 30 recorded by Mr. Gledhill, nor did Mr. Gledhillsee No. 14. Fora 
special note on the position of spot No. 5, which Mr. Elger also saw on the 
E. edge of the “trident” on May 13, 1870, see Interval 132 to 144 hours. — 

1870. On the 12th of August, and on September 7, 11, and 12, Mr, 
Neison made a series of observations with apertures yarying from 4 to 53 
inches, with differences of 3 of an inch. 

Pnches 2. cviiees fn 4 4 4 5 5 
pois i. .eeaiwess 4 rs Fs 3 6 2 

The spots seen were Nos. 1, 3, 4, and 17 with 4 and 42 inch apertures, the 
Same and No. 5 with 43 and 43; with 5 inches aperture spot No. 14 was 
detected and marked as faint, and with 53 inches No, 16 was discerned: 

G2 


84 , REPORT—1871. 


the last two, Nos. 14 and 16, were in all cases marked as “ faint,” some- 
times extremely so. 

These seven spots are precisely those which have the highest degrees of 
visibility for 18 lunations, as under :— sige 

RUE sows s 1 3 4 i ae 5 14° 6 
Visibility .. 1:000 897 ‘887 :830 -510 -433 -294 

From these observations, it appears that spots Nos. 1, 3, 4, and 17 may 
be detected with instruments between 4 and 41 inches of aperture, that spot 
No. 5 requires an extra half inch, or 43 to 5, and that 5 and 5} will bring 
out spots No. 14 (5 inches) and 16 (5 inches), 

Aperture, of course, is an important element of visibility; and as these 
spots are seen with apertures under six inches, as the observations increase, 
and the normal degrees of visibility become well determined, variations in 
the visibility of these spots may be detected with instruments of 6 inches 
aperture, provided the observations extend over a sufficiently long period. 


Elements of Visibility. 
Iunar.—Brightness and size of spots. 
Terrestrial.—Clearness and steadiness of atmosphere. 
Instrumental.—Goodness of figure of object-glass or mirror, and extent 
of aperture. 
Physiological.—Keenness of eyesight. 


Interval 156 to 144 hours. 

1870, July 14. Mr. Gledhill records No. 1 as a fine, large, bright spot, 
No. 17 as a small bright spot, Nos. 3 and 30 as bright spots, and No. 5a 
bright spot, seen now and then. Mr. Ingall records No. 1 as very plain 
and sharp, No. 4 as steadily seen, and Nos. 3, 31, 30 a misty spot, probably 
consisting of these three. 

1869, August 23. Mr. Pratt records that ‘‘spots Nos. 1, 3, 4, 17, 6, and 14 
were very bright compared with their usual appearance, and all easily seen. 
No. 4 was not well defined; there was a persistent oval light round it (N.W. 
and §.E), and I several times believed it to be double, but could not be positive 
it was so. So remarkably clear was the vision that several times as many as 
four or five spots were held in view at once, without looking directly for 
them, and two or three times as many as six were so seen, viz. Nos. 1, 3, 
4,17, 5, and 14; again, Nos. 1, 3, 4, 17,6, and 5. Nos. 4, 7, 6, 17 were 
@ group seen together, and Nos. 5, 14, 22, and 1 were a similar one ; yet 
still so exceedingly delicate are the fainter spots and the fainter traces of 
light on the floor that it needs a most concentrated attention to see either. 
In looking for the faint spots the faint traces of light will escape notice ; 
again, when looking for the latter, the former are most likely not to be 
seen. This exceeding delicacy too interposes a serious difficulty im aligning 
them with objects on or near the border: the eye cannot hold so wide a 
view and at the same time retain a sufficiently correct impression of objects 
at once so faint and small. These remarks do not apply to the easier spots 
and light streaks. Once, for a few minutes, a narrow, dark, straight line, 
like a pencil-mark, was visible from m towards Ztambleta (i.e. from N.W. 
to §.E.], probably the crack Mr. Birt has discovered. . It was not seen 
again this evening.” 

1870, September 11. Mr. Neison records No. 1 as very distinct, No. 3 as 
distinct and brilliant, Nos. 5 and 14 as faint, 5 as rather so, 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUNAR OBJECTS. 85 


Interval 144 to 132 hours. 

1871, March 8. Mr. Ormesher records a spot near the S.W. border, 
which he queries “14, a long way off” from its position. Is it a spot not 
before recorded ? 

1870, August 13, Mr. Gledhill records spots Nos. 3 and 17 as fine bright 
disks, No. 1 as a fine, large, bright disk, and No. 4 as a nebulous object. 
Mr. Pratt remarks that “on this evening, as well as in 1870, August 12, 
the tint of the dark portions of the floor was much intensified close to the 
rim. It was the case all round, but especially so between 6 and Z, between 
e and ¢, and between and 7.” 

1869, December 20. Mr. Pratt places a spot nearly due north of No. 1 
on the diagram of this evening, which he queries as 23. I query it as un- 
certain. Spots Nos. 1, 0, 23, and 16 very nearly align. ‘The line passing 
through Nos. 1, 0, and 23 passes slightly west of No. 16. Mr. Pratt’s spot 
is very decidedly east of this line. [1871, March 31. The spot registered 
by Mr. Pratt on Dec. 20, 1869, not having been reobserved, it is probable 
that it may have been, as Mr. Pratt queried, No. 28. I have now entered 
it as such.—W. R. B.] 


Interval 132 to 120 hours. 
1870, September 12. Mr. Neison records of No. 22, “a spot very faint, 
and difficult to make out in the midst of a patch of light.” 


Interval 108 to 96 hours. 1 

1870, July 16. Mr. Gledhill records spot No. 1 as “a fine, large, bright disk; 
looks like an elevation ;” also Nos. 3 and 17 as bright disks. I have made 
the following note on the Form :—“9 and 0. These do not appear in their 
precise localities, especially 0. It may be that the spot thus marked by 
Mr. Gledhill is a new one.” 

1870, December 12. Mr. Pratt writes: “A faint crepuscular kind of 
shade has crept over the western part of the floor, and is deepest near the 
western border ; but the gradation is very delicate, 12 hours to 12 hours 40 
minutes.” [1870, March 24. Mr. Gledhill noticed a darker tint at the west 
part of the floor, and furnished a tinted sketch: see remarks under this 
date (p. 87); also Mr. Elger’s observations of the same portion of the floor 
being light, under date 1870, August 6, interval 48 to 60 hours. | 

1870, November 11. Mr. Gledhill records spots Nos. 1, 3, 30, and 17 as 
bright spots. On the 13 of September (same interval) he recorded them as 
“bright or fine craters ;” with the exception of Mr. Neison’s record on 
August 12 of No. 3 as a suspected crater (interval 168 to 156 hours), this in- 
terval (108 to 96 hours) is the earliest in the declining day that the four have 
been seen as craters. The terminator is recorded as west of Fracastorius. 

1870, September 13. Mr. Gledhill records spots Nos. 1, 17, and 30 as 
bright or fine craters, and says of 17, “fine crater as 1 and 8;” but of 3 
he says, “fine disk.” I have marked 3 as a crater. 


Interval 96 to 84 hours. 

1870, August 15. Mr. Pratt records that the darker margins of the 
“shaded parts of the floor are still visible as on the 12th and 13th August, 
but not in such striking contrast. 

1870, October 13. Mr. Pratt records spot No. 1 as brilliant, the others 
‘dimmer than usual. 
Interval 84 to 72 hours. 

1869, August 26, Mr. Pratt remarked a decided difference in definition 


86 r REPORT—1871. 


in different parts of the floor, even in so contracted an area, the whole 
northern half being less well defined, the south-east part the best so by 
far. ‘Traces of the line from m to Rambleta were caught, and the floor 
appeared wnlevel, the central and south parts appearing highest, and the 
south-west part next so. This, Mr. Pratt says, requires confirmation. 

_ 1870, September 14. Mr. Gledhill records No. 3 as a fine wide double spot 
(i.e. 3 and 30). Mr. Neison (same day) remarks as follows of Nos. 1, 
3, and 17, seen by Mr. Gledhill as craters: No. 1 not very distinct; No. 3 
sharp and shaded, not very bright; No. 17 very distinct. 


Interval 72 to 60 hours. 


1870, August 16. Mr. Pratt observed 3 spots only this evening. On 
October 14 (same interval) 16 were observed, 9 by Mr. Gledhill and 7 by 
Mr. Pratt, in addition. They both record the definition of the border as 
“good;” Mr. Pratt says, “ with interruptions.” On August 16, Mr. Pratt 
records the definition of the border as ‘‘bad.’”’ The following remark of Mr. 
Pratt is interesting in connexion with this paucity of spots :—* The darker 
parts or shaded portions of the floor were just perceptible with attention. 
‘ Tint of floor’ medium, much paler than on the 13th inst.” 


Interval 48 to 36 hours. 


1870, August 17. Mr. Gledhill records No, 1 as a fine, large, open crater, 
3 and 30 as craters, 17 as a small crater, and 4 as a bright but not de- 
finite spot. 
Interval 36 to 24 hours. 


1870, March 23. Mr. Gledhill writes: ‘“‘ The shadow of the elevated ob- 
ject on the east border (the rock Z), close to the N. of W. II E¥, was on 
the floor, and the adjacent floor to the N.W. was very bright, much brighter 
than a or the ‘sector,’ and it extended one third of the distance from the 
border to spot No. 4, as in sketch.” Mr. Gledhill could not determine its 
form, but considered that it was the streak y intensified. 

1870, July 19. Mr. Gledhill observed the four craters 1, 17, 3, 30 only; 
he described No. 1 as a large circular crater with raised walls, but not 
much brighter than the floor. 

1869, August 28. Mr. Pratt writes: “The tuven of the floor was con- 
spicuously divided by the line from m to ¢, the ground sloping east and 
‘west of this line, the eastern part being brighter than the part on its west, 
while the locality of spot No. 4 was judged to be the highest of the whole 
‘floor.’ In connexion with this remark of Mr. Pratt it may be well to 
‘notice that, combined with Mr. Elger’s observations on 1870, Jan. 10, of 
-a depression in the floor east of No. 1 (see Interval 12 to 24 hours), the two 
suggest that this depression does not extend so far as No, 4. Again, com- 
paring this observation of the western part of the floor being darker than 
the eastern, which is in accordance with Mr. Gledhill’s on March 24, 1870 
(see Interval 12 to 0 hours), it would appear that Mr. Elger’s observa- 
tion of the bright western area on 1870, May 9 and 10 and August 6, was 
an intensified brightness of the ordinary brilliancy of the floor, sloping to the 
west. The Intervals 24 to 36 and 48 to 60 hours, the season spring, with 
the sun’s altitude about 14°, seem to indicate that the increased brightness 
-was quite independent of illuminating angle. 

Speaking of the apparent changes observed, not only on Plato, but over 
a wider range, between August 16 and 28, 1869, Mr. Pratt says: ‘‘ Thus, 
among apparent changes of a particular character, and restricted to certain 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUNAR OBJECTS. 87 


small localities, there does appear to have been a wider and more gene- 
ral disturbance in the brightness and definition of objects, all which dis- 
turbance appears to be confined to the low-lying lands of that part of the 
moon‘observed, Not that changes were not visible in high regions; but 
these are more easily referred to changes of illuminating and visual angle, 
while the disturbances above mentioned are not so easily accounted for, 
especially those changes in the visibility of the light-streaks on the floor 
and the striking differences of brightness of the spots.” 

1869, October 26. In connexion with Mr. Gledhill’s return of this date 
I remark, “ ‘Crater Row’ being so well seen, and the border of Plato so sharp 
and distinct, it is remarkable that spots Nos. 5, 6, 7, 13, 14, and 16 should 
not haye been well and easily seen, although it appears they were seen, also 
that spot No. 3 should have been seen single, and that only sometimes, when it 
was seen double the previous night.” 

1870, November 14. Mr. Gledhill observed Nos. 1, 3, 30, and 17 as 
craters, and says, “ they look like bright elevated rings.” 


Interval 24 to 12 hours. 

1870, March 23. See ante, Interval 36 to 24 hours. 

1869, September 27. Mr. Gledhill recorded a broad band of brightness 
parallel to the north border, enclosing spots Nos. 13, 19, and 16; he does 
not say they were seen as well as the bright band, I haye, however, re- 
corded them as having been seen. 


Interval 12 to 0 hours or sunset. 

1870, November 15. The four craterlets Nos. 1, 3, 30, and 17 are de- 
scribed by Mr. Gledhill as elevated crater-cones. 

1870, March 24. Mr. Gledhill writes:—“Terminator on N.E. end of 
Apennines ; the eastern shadows lie on the floor. A line drawn along 
the west edge of the ‘sector,’ and produced to the north border, separates 
the bright east part of the floor from the darker west part; the inner slope 
of the west wall glows in sunlight, while the floor near it is the darkest 
portion of the crater [Plato].” See p. 95, line 9, 


ApprrionaL Norns, 
Differences of Visibility of neighbouring Objects. 

1869, August 26, 11 hours 30 minutes. Definition frequently exceed- 
ingly good but disturbed, with much boiling at times. Mr. Pratt has fur- 
nished the following record :— 

“There was a marked difference between the M. Imbriwn, the M. 
Serenitatis, and the M. Frigoris, in respect of the visibility of minute objects 
on their surfaces. The Mare Imbrium was literally covered with small white 


spots and streaks. The three streaks from Aristillus to the south border of 


Plato were again traced. Archimedes had roughly four light streaks E. and 
W., and about nine or ten easily discerned white spots. Beer and Mddler 


‘and neighbourhood looked invitingly for a close study. 


*The Mare Serenitatis was of a dull grey, with few white spots ae 


comparatively few features visible. Of those visible all were very indistinct, 
‘EXCEPT THE MORE ELEVATED oNES; thus, of the small objects round Tiwi 


most were invisible, a few indistinct, even I HK, I H9, I Hy3 [the three small 
craters N.W. of Linné] were almost obscured. Linné itself a cloudy white 


‘spot, with knot of light in centre, but not nearly so bright as when seen 


on the 23rd inst. Posidonius y was brighter and half the size of Linné. 
Bessel was tolerably clear. About half the number of white spots S.E. of 


88 REPORT—1871. 


‘Bessel. were very indistinctly seen, the remainder invisible. Posidonius, 
just within the terminator, was fairly defined. Sulpicius Gallus and one 
or two near it on the pleateau were clear; so that the MoRE AN OBJECT WAS 
RAISED above the general level of the Mare the clearer was its definition, 
while those on the level of it were more or less obscured. 

“The Mare Frigoris was very hazy indeed ; even close to the foot of the 
north slope of Plato objects could not be defined, while those raised a little 
above the Mare were remarkably well defined indeed. The whole northern 
slope of Plato appeared everywhere rugged and uneven.” 


Indications of intermittent Visibility and of possible voleame Activity. 


On the evening of the 13th of May, 1870, no less than twenty-seven spots 
were seen on the floor of Plato, 26 by Mr. Pratt, and an extra one by Mr. 
Elger. This extraordinary display occurred between 132 and 144 hours 
_ after the terminator had passed 4° E. long. It is, however, not a little 
remarkable that, on the same evening, Mr. Gledhill, at Halifax, observed 
four spots only. The great number seen by Mr. Pratt, as compared with 
the small number seen by. Mr. Gledhill, is doubtless due to a fine state of 
the earth’s atmosphere at Brighton. 

With regard to the streaks seen by Mr. Pratt on the same evening he 
remarks—“ I could not see the small streaks on the western part of the floor, 
and sometimes even my old ‘trident’/and the streak « were so indistinct as to 
be difficult. What was the cause? Surely not the earth’s atmosphere; 
for at the same time spots could be seen. Perhaps we shall discover that 
spots are raised at a higher level than light streaks, and thus visible when 
streaks are obscured.” 

This remark of Mr. Pratt’s is important: certainly the state of the earth’s 
atmosphere could not have affected the two classes of objects in different 
ways. If the intensity of the spots depended upon the purity of our atmo- 
sphere, one would think that the brightness of the streaks would also have 
been increased ; but in Mr. Pratt’s experience it was not so. Mr. Elger 
‘speaks of some as bright and others faint. Mr. Gledhill, with a bad atmo- 
sphere, speaks of them as bright ; but he saw only four spots. Are the spots 
really brighter than the streaks ? But, then, why do both vary in brightness ? 

Mr. Pratt having perused [carefully] the M8. has furnished me with the 
following remarks :— 

“May it not be well to mention that, on the occasion referred to, 1870, 
May 18, I observed fifteen streaks, one of which was a new one. [This 
was the streak from spot No. 5 towards No. 14.] This number was much 
above the average, the curious fact being that although so many were per- 
ceptible with attention, yet the increase in their brightness was in a lower 
ratio than that of the spots. There are two possibilities which may affect the 
discrepancy | difference |between the notes of Mr. Gledhill and myself in relation 
to thestreaks:—First, the times at which we observed may have been different. As 
for myself, I tested the chance of working with any thing like satisfaction once 
at least every half hour during the whole of the evening, and before I tried for 
the last time, at 11 hours, had been unable to perceive either one spot or streak. 
Secondly, priority of observation bestowed on objects of one class may detract 
from the estimated brilliancy of the other class. In my own case, immediately 
I went to the telescope, at 11 hours, I saw several spots conspicuously, and in 
consequence searched for spots alone for nearly an hour. A search for so long a 
time for one class possibly may, in a slight measure, reduce the sensibility of 
-the eye for objects of the other class, whether spots or streaks.” 

The following extracts from Mr. Pratt’s letter, dated 1870, May 19, are 


a 


7 al 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUNAR OBJECTS. 89 


interesting :—‘ Some spots having at different times been observed as cra- 
terlets, their character as volcanic is settled in my own mind. Whether 
all spots are analogous I should be glad to know; but on the supposition of 
such similarity existing, the suggestion naturally arises whether the light 
streaks be not scoriz or lava, or a mixture of both, resulting from the action 
of the craterlets with which they seem to be connected.” 

A comparison of the curves for the 20 lunations, April 1869 to November 
1870, is suggestive of the craterlets being a distinct class of objects. The 
phenomena characterizing the cratelets, as indicated by the curves, differ 
very materially from the phenomena manifested by the spots; for example, 
in the correspondence of the maxima at the time of the supposed outbreak 
of Aug.—Sept. 1869, we have an increase of visibility in spots, the behaviour 
of the craterlets being altogether different. Certain neighbouring spots, to 
which allusion has been made, declined greatly in visibility, and were very 
seldom seen during a period in which the craterlets were almost always 
visible; and in connexion with this it may be remembered that craterlets 
are characterized by high degrees of visibility, while of many spots which 
have large ranges the normal degrees of visibility are low. 

That a connexion exists between the streaks and spots is, as Mr. Pratt 
remarks, “self-evident ;” and Mr. Elger has shown that most of the spots 
occur on the streaks. Now as both spots and streaks vary in brilliancy and 
visibility, may not the steaks consist, as Mr. Pratt suggests, of ejecta from 
the volcanic orifices of the craterlets? The increased brightness of the 
streaks in the neighbourhood of the border has been frequently noticed, as 
well as the unevenness of the floor. It may be possible that newly ejected 
matter (especially if it be of the character of “broken glass,” suggested, I 
believe, by Dr. Huggins as explanatory of the appearance of Linné) may 
reflect light more strongly, and thus contribute to the brighter appearance 
of the streaks about the time at which the craterlets manifest increased 
activity, and this may become so great as even to conceal the craterlets 
themselves. On the other hand, although we are perfectly ignorant of any 
meteorological or chemical action occurring at the surface of the moon, it 
may be permissible to suggest that, if such action be possible, the reflective 
power of the ejecta may become impaired, and the streaks in consequence 
rendered less bright. 

It is exceedingly difficult to conceive that volcanic action can be in existence 
on the moon’s surface without “vapour” of some kind escaping from the 
orifices. If this be the case, condensation must follow, and the orifice may be 
covered by the condensed vapour, the upper surface of which may strongly 
reflect the light and produce the appearance of a spot when not in a state of 
actual eruption ; and this spot may be seen on a surface covered with ejecta, 
the reflective power of which has been impaired since it left the orifice. 

One of the brightest portions of the floor of Plato is the S.E., which is 
characterized by the “sector” or “fan.” On the 10th of January, 1870, 
Mr. Gledhill observed as many as nine crater-cones on the eastern part of 
the floor, viz. Nos. 1, 9, 11, 17, 4, 3, 30, 7, and 32. It is easily con- 
ceivable that ejecta from some of these may be the perennial source of the 
. reflective power of the “ sector.” 

“Tt is, as far as I can see,” says Mr. Pratt, “not at all proven that it is 
impossible that they, the spots, may not be small acting volcanos at this 
present moment; and you will please credit me with having noted that, on 
the 13th of May, although the spots were very greatly in excess of their 
-usual brightness, the relative brilliancy of the light streaks was not nearly 


90 vie REPORT—1871. 


in the same proportion, indeed not so high as on some nights when fewer 
spots have been visible. The supposition of Schroter of an exceedingly low 
atmosphere, confined to the lower regions, seems to me especially consonant 
with the above observations, for the following among other reasons :— 

“4 thin atmosphere, the only possible detection of which is confined to the 
lower parts of the floor [that is within the mountainous enclosure of Plato}, 
may obscure the streaks partially [to effect this there must be condensed 
material of some kind] without affecting the spots, which, if craterlets, are 
raised more or less above the level of the streaks [the low fogs, the upper sur- 
faces of which are at a less elevation than ordinary buildings are high, may be 
cited as examples]; for such an atmosphere would probably be rendered more 
dense by and during the supposed activity in the spots, which on that night 
were unusually bright and, according to the hypothesis, in action, [It must 
not be forgotten that on comparing the observations of Mr. Pratt with those 
of Mr. Gledhill, the presumption is that the unusual number and brilliancy 
of the spots was simply the effect of a finer atmosphere at Brighton as 
compared with that at Halifax. The phenomenon which is at variance with 
this is the less brilliancy of the streaks as recorded by Mr. Pratt; still we 
have the bright streaks of Mr. Gledhill supporting the hypothesis of the effects 
of the earth’s atmosphere.| Hence after a subsidence of the brightness of the 
spots and the restoration of the normal state of the atmosphere, we might 
expect to see the streaks come out more distinctly.” 

It will be remarked that, in my suggestions above, the increased bright- 
ness of the streaks is supposed to depend upon the eraterlets actually 
ejecting material, while the increased brightness of the spots depends upon 
the escape of vapour. I have not quoted Mr. Pratt’s remarks for the 
purpose of controverting them; they appear to me to be exceedingly 
valuable, and in the present state of selenological inquiry it is important 
to canvass every view that may be put forward. It is quite consonant with 
both our views that increased activity in a spot may, and doubtless does, 
manifest itself by increased brilliancy ; and it is not unlikely that the forma- 
tion of a spot in the way suggested over a volcanic orifice otherwise invisible 
may precede an actual eruption, contributing to an increased brilliancy of 
the streaks if they really result from volcanic ejecta. 

On the agencies capable of affecting the visibility of objects on the moon 
Mr. Pratt remarks :—‘ To my own mind the only likely agencies that can 
exist in the moon capable of affecting the visibility of objects are the every- 
where-denied lunar atmosphere and real volcanic activity; as far as I can 
learn, the observations of some fayour the one agency, while other observations 
do the same for the other, at the same time that different observers 
alternately deny the possible existence of either. Surely they are very 
closely related. If volcanic activity be established, can it exist without 
an atmosphere? While if a low atmosphere be established, would not the 
stronger objection to present volcanic activity be removed? The hope that 
persistent and minute observation of a suitable region might produce a 
result sufficient either to weaken or strengthen the supposition has been at 
once the impetus and bond which has induced me to give a large share of 
attention to Plato. We may not have attained such a result even yet; but 
possibly continued application may be rewarded. I hope so. The close 
study of typical species is generally the best method of acquiring a good 
knowledge of genera.” 

Mr. Pratt further adds: —*‘ The reverse of what I have here stated I have 
‘several times observed, viz. that the light streaks on those occasions were 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUNAR OBJECTS. 91 


much brighter relatively to their best state than were the spots, of which 
generally at those times few have been discernible.” 

1870, May 13. Mr. Pratt has not only specified the order of brightness as 
follows :— 


Spots No.: 1. 4. 3. D: 17. 14. 22. 6. 13. 16. 

Visibility: 1:000 892 ‘897 -510 830 483 175 -222 +156 -294 
Spots No.: 20. 23. 18. 19. 29. 0. 24. 21, oO 10. 
Visibility: -046 046 072 ‘150 -036 046 ‘057 026 :222 -062 
Spots No.: 2. 25. 30. 31. 12. ike 

Visibility: 046 ‘144 +139 031 031 -113 


which we can compare with the degree of visibility for the 18 lunations as 
given immediately under the number of each spot (from this comparison we 
see that the brightness on May 13 was not strictly accordant with the 
visibility), but he has described the character of visibility by the words easy, 
conspicuous, &c., thus forming with the spots not seen eight classes of objects, 
an analysis of which may be interesting. 


Class I. contains one spot only, No. 1, deg. of vis, = 1-000, 
Pratt. Exceedingly bright and dense, 
Elger. Unusually bright. 
Gledhill. Bright spot. 

Class II. contains one spot only, No. 4, deg. of vis. = 
Pratt. Bright but hazy. 
Elger. No remark, 
Gledhill. Spot. 

Class ITI. contains one spot only, No. 3, deg. of vis. = +897. 
Pratt. Distinct; he inserts 5 between 3 and 17. 
Elger. 3 and 17 nearly equal. 
Gledhill. Bright spot. 


Class IV. contains four spots, viz. Nos. 17, 5, 14, 22,— 


No. Pratt. Elger. Gledhill. Vis. 
Ave Conspicuous. Nearly equal to 3. Bright spot. 830 
Very faint on east 
5. border of eastern Not seen. -510 
arm of * trident.” 

14. a Seen by glimpses. = 433 
22. a Not seen. 3 175 


Mr. Pratt observed the three components of the group 3, 30, 31: he 
described 30 and 31 as steadily seen; they occur in Class*VI. Mr. Pratt 
accorded to spot No. 22 a high degree of brightness on this evening, and 
described it as “ conspicuous:”’ neither Mr. Elger nor Mr. Gledhill detected 
it; this doubtless depended upon the state of our own atmosphere. It may, 
however, be remarked that the spot was less visible on May 13, 1870, as 
compared with its visibility in August 1869, when it was seen by every 
observer. 

The position of spot No. 5, as observed by Mr. Pratt on August 26, 1869, 
was on the west border of the eastern arm of the “ trident.” The spot No 5, 

_ discovered by Challis, and possessing a normal visibility of -510, has been so 
frequently observed as almost to warrant its stability of position; and should 
its relative position, as regards the eastern arm of the trident, be found to 

_ vary, it will afford evidence of a probable variation in the position of the 

arm. Schroter’s drawings of the Mare Crisium indicate similar movements 
of the streaks from Proclus over the Mare, 


92 REPORT—1871. 


Class V. contains eight spots, viz. Nos. 16, 6, 13, 19, 18, 20, 23, 29. 


No. Pratt. Elger. Gledhill. Vis. 
16. Easy. Easy. Not seen. "294 

6. + Not seen. a -222 
13. ” ” ” “156 
19. ” ” ” 150 
18. ” ” ” 072 
20. 53) ” ” “046 
23. ” ” eB) 046 
29. ” ” ” 036 


Of the spots in this class, and which Mr. Pratt describes as easy, one 
only, No. 16, was seen by Mr. Elger. This spot has a higher degree of 
visibility than 22 in Class IY., “ conspicuous ;” and this is perhaps another 
indication that the visibility of No. 22 on May 13 did not wholly depend 
upon the state of the earth’s atmosphere. 

The normal degrees of visibility in this class range from -294 to -036, 
furnishing a strong indication that they were seen in consequence of a fine 
state of the earth’s atmosphere. 


Class VI. contains five spots, viz. Nos. 9, 30, 24, 31, 21. 


No. Pratt. Elger. Gledhill. Vis. 

9. Minute. Not seen. Not seen. 222 
30. Steadily. ey 3 +139 
24. Bs Seen 3 or 4 times. ,, ‘057 
31. 55 Not seen. $5 “031 
21, ” ” ” 026 


The same remark may be applied to this class as to Class V., viz. that the 
spots were seen in consequence of a fine state of the earth’s atmosphere. 
The two spots Nos. 9 and 30, with comparative high degrees of visibility, 
are very frequently seen by Mr. Gledhill, and doubtless were not seen by 
him in consequence of the bad state of the atmosphere at Halifax. 


Class VII. contains six spots, viz. Nos. 25,7, 10, 2, 0, 12. 


No. Pratt. Elger. Gledhill. Vis. 
25. .. Frequently glimpsed. Not seen. ‘144 
ic ax NOt Seen. e “113 
1 yee 5s a 062 
2. Hazy. 55 a ‘046 
OS gees 5s as “046 
12. ; ; ‘031 


Spot No. 25, vis. *144,is frequently seen by Mr. Elger. 
In addition to the above, Mr. Elger frequently glimpsed No. 32. The 
WHOLE of the above spots, as well as the streaks recorded by Mr. Pratt, were 
observed three separate times at intervals of about twenty minutes. The 
majority was seen much oftener. 
The following spots were not seen on the evening of May 13 :— 
Spot: 11. 34. Si lbnia GBy. »2T.b 1t26) > QB aaa 
Vis.: 144 -026 -015 -015 -010 -010 -005 -005 -005 
With the exception of spot No. 11, which is frequently seen by Mr. 
Gledhill, these spots were doubtless concealed by or, rather, required a still 
finer state of the atmosphere to bring them out. It is difficult to say why 
Mr. Pratt did not detect spot No. 11 when he saw thirteen spots with lower 
degrees of visibility. It is one of those spots to which special attention 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUNAR OBJECTS. 93 


should be directed. Of the remainder, three have been observed once only 
by Mr. Gledhill, viz. Nos. 26, 28, and 35; two have been observed twice, 
viz. Nos. 27 and 33; two thrice, both old spots, viz. 8 (Gruithuisen) and 15 
(Dawes); and one, No. 34, six times between January 15 and March 18, 1870*. 

In his letter dated 1870, May 19, Mr. Pratt says that “ spot No. 8 could 
not be recovered even with the most minute attention.” Of spot No. 1 he 
says, “it was brighter than I haye seen it before, guite round and dense, 
much like the image of a star on a good night surrounded by the very least 
trace of a ring of light. [Neither] internal nor external shadows could be 
seen, although I constantly expected a slight glimpse.” 


Spot No, 22. 


; In reference to this spot Mr. Pratt writes, under date 1870 August 26, as 
ollows :— 

*« Spot No. 22, according to my observations, has manifested a remarkable 
inerease of brightness, and those parts of the shaded portions of the floor of 
Plato which are nearest to the rim have come out more conspicuously darker 
than the rest than I remember to have previously noted. The tint of the 
floor, toe, has progressively paled. These three phenomena [the increased 
brightness of spot 22, the intensification of the darker parts of the floor near 
the rim, and the progressive paling of the floor] may possibly be connected 
by a common cause; for certainly in this lunation there is somewhat of a 
coincidence amongst them; for instance, spot 22 is intensely bright at the 
time the marginal portions of the shaded parts are most conspicuously dark, 
and these two, again, coincide with the time when the general tint of the 
floor is at its darkest. Again, after August 12 and 13, spot 22 decreased in 
relative intensity, although I am not ready to hazard the assertion that it 
had on August 16 positively declined to its usual intensity, as it was not 
seen. [It was on this evening that Mr. Pratt observed three spots only.] 
Two similar instances, I believe, I have noted before, when 22 manifested a 
singular brightness at sunrise. But the connexion between the visibility of 
the deeper-tinted margin and the general deepening of colour is perhaps more 
close still, as both certainly paled after August 13. The perplexity seems to 
be that the variation in intensity of the margin is relative in respect of the 
general colour ; and if differences of angles of illumination and vision do affect 
the general tint, it might be supposed that they would in the same manner 
affect the margin and so produce no relative variation of intensity.” 

In connexion with the relative intensity of which Mr. Pratt speaks, the 
state of the border is somewhat important. August 12 and 13, when the 
marginal portions of the floor were intensified in colour, Mr. Pratt recorded 
of the border :— Definition fair at times, with much tremor, wind N.E.” 
This was on the 12th. On the 13th the record is: “ Border, definition bad, 


* The history of spot No. 34 is curious ; the following are the only records which exist 
of it. The observations were all made by Mr. Gledhill with the Halifax 93-inch equatorial 
in the Observatory of Edward Crossley, Esq. 

1870, January 15, 10 to 13 hours. “I am continually thinking I see an object close to 
No. 1 and to the west of it.” 

February 11, 6.45. “No. 1 often comes out double ; last year I often saw it thus. Iam 
- now almost quite sure I see a minute object close to the west of it.” 

February 12, 6.0. “Saw 9, 11, 30, and object close west of No. 1.” 

March 12, 6 to 8 hours. No. 34 mentioned as having been seen. 

March 13, 6 to 12 hours. “Unless I am very much mistaken indeed 34 is an easy 
object, 7. e. No. 1 comes out easily double.” 

There are no records after this date. Instruments less than 9-inches aperture are not 
likely to redetect it. 


94 REPORT— 1871. 


much boiling, wind N.E.” On the 12th, definition fair, the floor was recorded 
as “very dark.” On the 13th it was dark, but not so much so as on the 
12th. On the 16th, as well as on the 15th, the definition of the border was 
“bad.” These records clearly throw a doubt upon the supposition of the 
“‘ paling” having resulted from some lunar action, inasmuch as when the 
deeper tint was observed the definition was “good,” the “tremor” and 
“boiling” having a tendency to confuse the portions of the floor, On the 
other hand, spots have been much more numerous with bad definition than 
3 as observed by Mr. Pratt on the 16th; and this would lead to the supposition 
that the apparent extinction of the spots with a pale floor was in some 
way differently connected than by a deteriorated state of the earth’s atmo- 
sphere. I have often observed that the passage of a thin cloud over the 
moon has greatly contributed to intensify the tints of the darker portions of 
the surface; but in this case the intensification has been general and not 
partial, as it would be if dependent upon local lunar action. 

Mr. Pratt records a case of partial obscuration which was well seen on 
August 13. “It appeared,” says Mr. Pratt, on this wise. A general view 
of the floor showed it much speckled and streaked in other parts ; but over 
the area specified [Mr. Pratt has not mentioned the particular part of the 
floor; but from what follows I apprehend it must be in the neighbourhood of 
No. 3] there seemed an absence of markings; close attention, however, 
enabled some to be seen, but not nearly so richly as the remainder of the 
floor, and we know well enough that that particular area is not wanting in 
markings. The evening’s view has just occurred to memory when I first 
discovered that spot 3 was a triple one, and had a remarkable view of its 
neighbourhood [Qy. Was this on May 13 ?], therefore exactly the reverse 
being the case. August 13 seems as conclusive a proof as one observer is 
likely to obtain in a year’s work.” 

Of four observers on the same evening, two record No. 38, and the other 
two appear not to have seen it. Taking them in chronological order, Neison, 
9.5 to 9.15, records it as distinct; Pratt, 10.30 to 12.30, did not observe 
it; Ormesher, 11.0 to 11.30, does not show it in his drawing; Gledhill, 
14", records it as a bright disk: he also records 30. As these observations 
are not contemporaneous, with the exception of Ormesher’s, haying been 
made while Pratt was observing, it appears, from its absence in both their 
records, that from 10.30 to 12.30 it was really not visible ; and this tends to 
support Mr. Pratt’s idea that for the time it was hidden by something like 
an obscuring medium. What this could have been it is difficult to surmise. 
The remark, however, of Neison that 30 was not to be seen between 9.5 
and 9.15 is interesting in connexion with Gledhill recording both spots at a 
later epoch, 14”, and also detecting five not seen by Pratt, viz. 3, 30, 9, 11, 
18. Neison suspected he saw 14, not recorded by Gledhill nor Pratt, but 
seen by Ormesher. Pratt saw 22, not seen by either of the others. The 
case of 14 is a little perplexing ; iit might, however, have been missed by 
Pratt on account of the bad definition. With regard to the greater number 
of spots seen by Gledhill, two circumstances may have contributed to this 
result, the larger aperture of Mr. Crossley’s instrument and the epoch at 
which Mr. Gledhill observed. It may possibly be found that the greater 
number of spots recorded after the sun’s meridian passage at Plato depend 
upon the. steadiness and purity of the air mostly experienced after midnight. 


Sunset and Sunrise on Plato. 
Extracts from Mr. Pratt’s notebook, 1870, Oct. 17, 11" to 12% Defini« 


7 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUNAR OBJECTS. 95 


tion fair, with boiling. * « Plato is a grand and striking sight. Tint of 
floor medium. More than half the floor in shadow. Terminator just in- 
cluding the W. rim. The rim of the crater on the N. exterior slope finely 
seen. In three parts the rim appeared broken down to level of floor—close 
to m, opposite to c, and nearly so at W. II E¥? [the breaks at m and op- 
posite c are in the line of the well-known fault crossing Plato from N.W. 
to S.E.]. ¢ was throwing a long spire of shadow the full length of the 
floor at 11" 40". That part of the floor contiguous to the W. and 8.W. 
rim was deeply shaded, with streaks of shade running towards the centre of 
the floor. Between the break near c and the shadow of ¢ a straight shading 
as of a narrow valley was well seen. [These shadings appear to be roughly. 
coincident with the dark spaces on the floor as seen under high illumination, 
the straight shading being, as Mr. Pratt suggests, between the “sector” and 
the E. arm of the “trident.” Is there really a valley here running into 
the central depression between 1 and 4, seen by Mr. Elger in January, 1870, 
and observed much earlier by Schréter?] Between these shadings and the 
shadow of the K. rim were three roundish lighter regions, the higher parts of 
the floor giving the appearance of a strongly marked convexity.” 

** A strong suspicion arises that the apparently higher portions of the 
floor are the light streaks usually seen, and the highest parts are spots 1, 17: 
and 5.” Mr. Pratt further suggests that the light streaks are coincident 
with formations analogous to “spurs” from the chief centres of the residual. 
activity on the floor. 

{t is not a little remarkable that on the occasion of such a very favourable 
oblique illumination the craterlets 1 and 17 should not have been detected 
by Mr. Pratt; both have raised rims of the nature of true volcanic cones, 
and 1 has been seen, and I believe 17 also, with interior shadows and bright 
interiors facing the sun. Mr. Pratt does not appear to have seen even the 
remotest semblance of a shadow. The spots properly so called do not appear 
generally until the sun has attained an altitude of 20°. If craterlets are 
recorded as spots earlier, it is probably in consequence of bad definition 
confusing the crater-form appearance. Is it possible that on the two 
occasions mentioned by Mr. Pratt, Oct. 17 and Nov. 1, the craterlets 1, 17, 
3, and 4 were by some means concealed? As regards Nov. 1, the observation 
of the crater-cones as the shadows gradually recede from E. to W. is very 
frequent ; indeed the surface of Plato as it just emerges out of night appears 
to be in a very different state to what itis about mid-day ; objects are much 
sharper, and it is difficult to conceive of any agency so affecting such visible 
objects as to render them invisible at a time when they are generally most 
conspicuous. So far as contemporaneous observations are capable of throwing 
light on this phenomenon, three spots only were recorded on the same even-= 
ing; No. 1 by Mr. Elger, who noticed it from 9* to 9" 5™, near the shadow 
of the summit of the middle peak of the W. wall, three hours later than 
Mr. Pratt’s observation. Mr. Gledhill at 6", same as Mr. Pratt, says, “Moon 
so low and air so thick that very little light from moon can reach us;’’ he 
says also, “I see 3 as double elevated cones [?.e. 3 and 30]. No other objects 
can be seen.” Mr. Neison, 5.10 to 8.15 [probably 8.10 to 8.15] succeeded 
_in seeing 3 only, which he records as very faint. He does not give the state 
of the atmosphere as to definition ; but from his remarking that “ a deep cleft 
in west edge of wall was very distinctly seen,” I should suppose that it was 
pretty good. Taking the four sets of observations it would appear that at 
sunrise on Plato Nov. 1, 1870, some agency was in operation capable of 
concealing the craterlets; and combining these observations with those of 


96 REPORT—1871. 


Oct. 17, it would also appear that the same agency was in operation at the 
time of the previous sunset. 

1870, Nov. 1, 6" to 6" 40". “A grand view again. Definition fair at 
times. The margin of the eastern end of the floor very distinctly shaded, 
showing that end to be convex as well as the western. This shading did not 
conform to the general form of rim, but ran inwards (as shown in the 
sketch); and three places on the floor were much brighter than the rest, 
which was free from shading (their localities I have no doubt are those of 
spots 3, 4, and 17), while the next bright parts of the floor are suggestive 
of the light streaks; and the shading or lower part coinciding with the 
narrowing of the streak between 4 and 3 as seen under higher illumination 
in a measure supports the impression.” 

The dip of the floor towards the border, as mentioned by Mr. Pratt, is 
now well established by numerous observations, also the comparatively 
greater elevation in the neighbourhood of the fault crossing Plato from 
N.W. to S.E. These characteristics will probably afford some clue towards 
framing a theory of the formation of the plain and rampart. Starting with 
the now acknowledged principle that the moon manifests on a large scale the 
operation of volcanic forces, we may first inquire as to their modus operandi 
in the forms we observe. So far as we know, volcanos and earthquakes are 
closely connected, and there is great reason to believe that both are the 
results of expansion occasioned by the intumescence of material beneath the 


Fig. 8. 
A c B 


crust or surface. It was, I believe, Scrope who first called attention to the 
effect of the expansion of an intumescent mass elevating the superincumbent 
material; and Hopkins, twenty-two years later, clearly showed that when 
the surface was elevated to the point at which the tension and cohesion just 
balanced each other, the slightest increase of tension ruptured the surface 
and produced fissures, which might be considerably augmented by earthquake- 
waves accompanied by the sudden subsidence of the tract between two 
principal lines of fissures. In applying this reasoning to the explanation of 
the formation of “ Plato,” the remarks of Scrope are so much to the point 
that a transcription of them is essential to the due apprehension of the 
forces concerned. 

In chapter x. of his ‘Considerations of Volcanos,’ p. 205 (1825), Serope, 
speaking of M. de Buch’s opinion that the intumescence and rise of the 
basalt elevated the superincumbent strata, says: “TI differ from him, inas- 
much as I conceive the intumescence and rise of the basalt to be not 
the cause but the result of the elevation of the overlying strata. 

“A general fact, noticed by M. de Buch himself, proves this most 
thoroughly, viz. that wherever the basalt appears, the strata are invariably 
found dipping towards it, which is wholly inexplicable under the idea that 
the basalt eleyated them. . .. If, however, we suppose the expansion of 
the subterranean bed of crystalline rock to have taken place at a great depth, 
elevating the overlying strata irregularly along the line of yarious fissures, 


- 


THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF METALS. 97 


as for example at A and B (fig. 8), it is clear such fissures will open outwardly ; 
but in the interval of two such fissures, as at C, another must be found opening, 
on the contrary, downwards, that is, towards the confined and heated lava, 
which in consequence must intumesce and fill the space afforded to it, and 
perhaps force its way through some minor cleft upon the external surface of 
the elevated rocks.” 

Plato we know to be a large cavity in an elevated region, between the 
Mare Imbrium and the Mare Frigoris, connected with the mountain-studded 
region of the Alps on the west, and descending with a precipitous slope 
towards the east. The whole of the surface around Plato is exceedingly 
rugged, containing at least the remains of three craters of more ancient date. 
It is the floor of Plato only that presents any appearance of a recent character ; 
and even this when viewed by very oblique light is far from being level. 
The sketch (fig. 8) to which reference has already been made is intended to con- 
vey some idea of the successive steps by which it is probable that Plato has 
arrived at its present form. It is roughly drawn to scale, which is somewhat 
too small, and, consequently, the height of the rim rather exaggerated; the 
extent being 316,800 English feet, the height, under 4000 feet (7. e. of the 
rim exclusive of the four pinnacles), will be nearly J;th part. The letters 
A and B are placed over the supposed foci of expansion, the arrows indi- 
eating the direction of the elevating movements, the dotted line showing the 
extreme height to which the surface could be raised without fracture. Over 
A and B, and above C, are placedthe three main fissures resulting from the in- 
creased tension and the general breaking up of the elevated mass, and which 
might have been accompanied with an almost immediate subsidence, as sug- 
gested by Hopkins, Report Brit. Assoc. 1847, p. 64, in the following passage :— 
“Tf the intumescence of the subjacent fluid, and consequently its supporting 
power, were immediately afterwards diminished by the escape of elastic 
vapours, there would be an immediate subsidence.” Such a subsidence, or 
rather a succession of subsidences, would fully account for the formation of 
the floors of most craters; and the upwelling of lava from numerous small 
orifices would tend to produce such a floor as we observe on Plato. The 
section presents all the characteristics of the walled plain under considera- 
tion, the dip towards the border being strongly indicative of the main line of 
fissure opening outwardly at the foot of the rampart. It may be well to 
mention that no new principle is introduced in this explanation, which is 
based upon the views of two leading geologists, after comparing them with 
phenomena that have been assiduously and repeatedly observed. 


Second Provisional Report on the Thermal Conductivity of Metals. 
By Prof. Tarr, 


Suxce the date of the former Report the Committee have obtained a splendid 
set of Kew standard thermometers. With these, complete sets of observa- 
tions, at very different temperatures, have been made on iron, two specimens 
of copper, lead, german silver, and gas-coke. As great difficulty was found 
in keeping the source of heat at a constant high temperature in the statical 
experiments, they were repeated from day to day till satisfactory results 
were obtained. But a simple and ingenious device of Dr. Crum Brown (con- 
sisting in making the descending counterpoise of a small gas-holder nip an 
india-rubber tube) supplied so very great an improvement in steadiness of 
ai that it was considered advisable to repeat all the statical expe- 
ie H 


98 REPORT—1871. 


riments with this modification. This has accordingly been done, during the 
present summer, but it has not yet been possible to perform the large amount 
of calculation necessary to obtain final results. It may be stated, however, 
that the results as a whole will not differ very considerably from those for- 
merly obtained, so far, at least, as can be judged from a comparison of the 
graphic representations of the experiments. 


Report on the Rainfall of the British Isles, by a Committee, consisting 
of C. Brooxs, F.R.S. (Chairman), J. GuatsHer, F.R.S., Prof. 
Puiuutps, F.R.S., J. F. Bateman, C.H., F.R.S., R. W. Myint, 
C.E., F.R.S., 'T. Hawxstey, C.E., Prof. J. C. Avams, F.R.S., C. 
Tomuinson, F.R.S., Prof. Sytvester, F.R.S., Dr. Pots, F.R.S., 
Rocers Fie.p, C.E., and G. J. Symons, Secretary. 


Your Committee have much pleasure in reporting that the organization 
under their supervision is believed to be in a generally efficient state. With 
a staff of observers, numbering nearly two thousand, spread over the whole 
extent of the British Isles, there can, however, be no question that, to ensure 
perfect efficiency and uniformity of observation, a systematic inspection of 
stations is absolutely necessary. In a paper read before the Society of Arts 
in 1858, Mr. Bailey Denton appears to have considered that there should be 
one inspector to about each 200 stations; at that rate we ought to have ten. 
The Meteorological Committee of the Royal Society have made it a rule to 
have all their stations inspected each year. On the most moderate com- 
putation it is indisputable that at least one inspector of stations is required 
for our large body of observers, the whole of whose time should be devoted 
to travelling. 

Ever since their appointment your Committee have felt and acted upon 
this conviction; but want of funds has prevented them from employing a 
regular inspector, and obliged them to rely solely upon the unpaid services of 
their Secretary. Even under these adverse conditions considerable progress 
has been made with the work, and upwards of 400 gauges had been visited 
and examined previous to the Liverpool Meeting. At that Meeting, how- 
ever, the Association only granted half the sum for which we asked, and we 
have consequently (most reluctantly) been obliged to stop this important 
and useful work. 

As an interim measure, and with a view to ascertaining in what districts 
inspection is most requisite, it has been suggested that a schedule of ques- 
tions as to the positions of their rain-gauges should be sent to every observer. 
The Committee unanimously approved of the suggestion, and annex a copy of 
the Circular and Schedule they are about to issue. 

British Association Rainfall Committee, 
62 Camden Square, London, N.W. 

Srr,—The above Committee feel that it is most important that precise in- 
formation as to the position of all the rain-gauges in the British Isles should 
be promptly obtained. They are aware that under present circumstances it 
is impossible that each gauge should be personally inspected, and have there- 
fore instructed me to ask you to fill up the accompanying form, which I 
shall be obliged by your returning as soon as possible. 

As an indication of the kind of information which the Committee desire 
to collect, I have filled up one form for my own gauge; but there are of 
course many subjects not touched upon in the specimen which will be ac- 


i i en ee ee a a 


ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 99 


ceptable in others, such as distance from the sea and from lofty hills, as 
well as their direction, &c. 

The Committee will also be glad of any suggestions as to the conduct of 
rainfall work, and of information respecting any stations or old observations 
not included in the list published by them in 1866, and of which I shall be 
happy to send you a copy if you have not already received one. 

Yours very truly, 
G. J. Symons, Secretary. 


[Illustration of mode of filling up return. ] 


POSITION AND PARTICULARS OF THE RAIN-GAUGE 


At [Camden Square, London, | 
In the County of [Middlesex. ] 


Year in which observations were first made (1858. ] 

Hour of observation [9a.m.] If entered against the day of observation, or 
the one preceding {Preceding}. 

Position [In garden, 120 ft. by 24 ft. | 

Surrounding objects, their distances and heights :— 


Distance. Height. 
N. [Wall a peat lne 5 ft.] 
N.E. {House .. 92 ft. 40 ft. ] 
E. [Wall .» 215, ft. 5 ft.] 
S.E. [Wall eg ire 5 ft.] 
S. [Wall ee A 5 ft. ] 
S.W. [Summer House .. 24 ft. 7 ft.] 
W.  [Raspberry-bushes does 'O She 3 ft. | 
N.W.[ Wall 12 ft. 5 ft.] 
Inclination of ground [Quite level, but in N. E. rises 30 ft. in ; mile.] 
Height of Ground above sea-level [111] ft. as determined by [Level ling from 


Ordnance Bench-mark]. 

Height of top of gauge above ground [0] ft. [6] in. 

Pattern of gauge. (If similar to any on plate, quote the number; if not, 
give sketch.) [Similar to No. X., but the bent tube is made straight, 
and a jar inserted for the purpose of ensuring more accurate mea- 
surement. | 

Have the same gauge and measuring-glass been used throughout? ([No.] 

Has the gauge always been in the same position? [No.] 

the previous position [800 yards further west. | 

If not, state briefly < the reason for the alteration [Growth of trees. ] 

the supposed effect [None perceptible. ] 


REMARKS, 
[Measuring-glass broken in 1861, and a new tested one obtained, the 
rainfall of each day until its arrival being bottled separately, and mea- 
sured by the new glass. | Signed, [G. J. SYMONS. ] 


_ Another branch of investigation which has been arrested by the same 

cause is the relative amount of rain falling in different months, or, as we have 

usually termed it, the ‘‘ monthly percentage of mean annual rainfall.” Several 

articles upon the subject have appeared in our previous Reports; and last 

year we pointed out that the observations for the decade 1860-69 offured 

data of completeness unparalleled, either in this or any other country, the 
2 


100 REPORT—1871. 


result of which we had hoped to have submitted to the present Meeting. 
Excepting in our own Reports, we are not aware that the seasonal distribu- 
tion of rain in this country has received any attention, while on the Con- 
tinent it has at all times been looked upon as almost equally important with ~ 
the gross amount. 

Although several short and interrupted sets of observations have been 
made in Northern Derbyshire, the rainfall of that hilly district has not 
hitherto been examined with the thoroughness which its importance deserves. 
We have in previous Reports urged the desirability of several additional 
stations being established ; and as no one else undertook the work our Secre- 
tary did so, and by the assistance of the observer at Buxton, and Mr. 
Hazlewood, of Castleton, was enabled to commence several sets of rain- 
gauge observations in the district. Some others are still required, which, if 
our funds permit, we intend to add. 

Pit-gauges.—In our last Report we drew attention to the fact that a gauge 
of which the orifice was horizontal, level with the ground, but in a small pit 
or excavation, had at Calne collected about 5 per cent. more than one of which 
the receiving surface was one foot above the ground; whence it followed 
that as a great many rain-gauges (the majority in fact) are placed with their 
apertures a foot above the surface, the records of all these gauges were 
below what they would have been if placed in pits as just described. We 
gave some reasons which appeared to us to prevent the general use of pit- 
gauges, and added the following concluding remark on page 176 :— 

“This result appears so startling that further experiments will be con- 
ducted on the subject.” 

The funds at our disposal have not allowed us to do so; but fortunately the 
Rey. F. W. Stow, M.A., has tried one pair of gauges mounted in this manner 
at Hawsker, on the Yorkshire coast, a few miles south of Whitby. The 
following are the results during 1870 :— 


Tastz I.—Experiments with Pit-gauges. 


Hawsker, 1870. Brit.Assoc. Report, 1869-70. 

Months. cae Rei aes rea Ratio. cept % Difference. 
January ....| 1:°610 ner irae) 110 113 — 3 
February....| 1:995 2-300 115 109 + 6 
MisiiG hs os pa 1-052 1-293 123 107 +16 
2. a enaer 0-370 0-390 105 105 0 
be a Minch sas Sieg eee 3 
sine gas 2-650 2-705 102 102 0 
ealiy’ 7 Siceoc te te 0-920 0-977 106 103 + 3 
August ....| 1:887 1-908 101 103 — 2 
September ..| 0°845 0-934 110 103 7 
October ....| 5°000 5053 101 102 = 1 
November ..| 3°043 3°234 106 106 0 
December ..| 5°230 6-420 123 108 +15 
Wotals i aca 24-602 | 26:984 
Means...... pays & egy 109°3 105-5 + 38 


ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES, 101 


Of course it was not to be expected that the results of a single year should 
agree exactly with the mean of two other years, still less when the size of 
gauge used was different, and the locality so opposite as the inland district 
of Calne and the rock-bound Yorkshire coast. We therefore look upon it as 
satisfactory that in only four months out of eleven do the ratios at Calne and 
Hawsker differ more than 3 per cent. In April, June, and November they 
are identical. The Calne results are thus strongly confirmed ; and it may be 
considered as certain that pit-gauges always exceed those at one foot, 
although the precise amount of excess remains to be determined. 

In our last Report we expressed the hope that we should this year be able 
to state the result of the discussion of all the rainfall registers which were 
absolutely continuous from January 1, 1860, to December 31, 1869. We 
have the pleasure of doing so in two respects, viz. (1) with reference to their 
bearing on the question of the existence or otherwise of secular variation of 
rainfall in the British Isles, and (2) as data indicative of the distribution of 
rain over the country. 

The secular variation of rainfall, or the relative dryness and wetness of 
different years and groups of years, is one of the most important and difficult 
branches of rainfall work. It has been treated in our Reports for 1865, and 
very fully in that for 1866. In the latter we gave the calculations in detail, 
from which the values shown on the accompanying diagram were obtained. 
Referring to that Report for full explanation, we have only now to mention 
that the subsequent years 1866 to 1869 have been computed in the same 
manner and added to the diagram (fig. 1). We may also remark that various 
observations collected since its publication have confirmed the general accuracy 
of the curve quite as much as could have been anticipated, On the present 
occasion we do not intend to discuss the relative rainfall of different years, but 
the relation of the fall during the ten years 1860-69 to previous decades. 
For this purpose we have grouped the yearly values in decennial periods, 
similar to those adopted in our 1867 Report, whence we obtain the following 
result :— 


Taste II.—Ratio of Rainfall in each ten years since 1730 to the Mean of 
sixty Years, 1810-69. 


Period. Ratio. Period. Ratio. 
1730-39 89-9 1800-09 88-2 
1740-49 70:6 1810-19 98:6 
1750-59 85:5 1820-29 103°2 
1760-69 91-1 1830-39 101-4 
1770-79 103-5 1840-49 102°6 
1780-89 93°5 1850-59 95:2 
1790-99 96°5 1860-69 101-5 


Having previously pointed out the peculiarities of the earlier portion of 
the curve, it is only necessary on the present occasion to call attention to the 
last forty years, whence it will be seen that, according to this mode of inves- 
tigation (which is principally based on English returns), three out of the four 
decades had a rainfall nearly identical, and the other (1850-59) considerably 
_below them, the deficiency being nearly 7 per cent. 

This result is based on a combination of records, as fully explained in our 
1866 Report. We proceed to examine how far it is corroborated by individual 
stations, but are at once confronted by the paucity of stations of which per- 
fectly continuous records for even half a century exist. We therefore con- 
fine ourselves to the forty years, from 1830 to 1869, for which period we 


1871. 
jo “gue0 Log 


‘TROT 


REPORT 


“R-N9RT *A-NCRT *6-0F8T *6-088T | *6-028T | “6-OT8T | “6-008T | *6-06LT | *6-08LT | “6-OLLT “6-09LT | *6-09LT | “B-OFLT “B-OSLT “6-9 LET | 


*uBaTYy TO “4M99 197 


| “6-098T 


102 


‘698 ‘A’V OL 96L4T ‘AV WOU 
‘NIYE@ ocOsTLY & SEIN T SNOTILVO LOA Te 


[Sy 


ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 103 


have twelve perfect records at widely separated stations. The mean fall in 
each decade and in the whole period, and the ratio of each decade to the 
whole period at each station, is given in Table III. 


1840-9. 


ee 

oO}  F* OF Jet 
wo Be CO NN 
| 


From careful examination of Table III., it appears that the amount of 
rain which fell in the ten years 1830-39 was very similar to that which 
fell in the ten following years, the difference being a decrease, but scarcely 
one per cent. The investigation in our 1866 Report shows an increase of 
1-2 per cent. ; and examination of returns ceasing in 1850, and therefore not 
quoted in either Report, show several cases of absolute identity. 

With one investigation leading to a decrease of 1 per cent., another to an 
increase of the same amount, and a third to identity, we are led to the con- 
clusion that the two decades may be considered to show similar results. 
This is a much more important fact than it at first appears; and for this 


Taste I1J.—Comparison of the Rainfall in each Decade since 1829 with 
the Mean Rainfall of forty years, ending with 1869. 


Mean Rainfall in each 10 years. Mean 
Station. Rainfall, 
1830-39. | 1840-49. | 1850-59. | 1860-69. | 1830-69. 
in. in. in. in. in. 
Epping ..... 25:84 26:99 23:18 24-13 25-04. 
Exeter Institution | 28-92 29°35 26-91 31-76 29°24 | 
Tavistock ...... 52°81 54-27 49:18 53°17 52°36 | 
iE live: ln 34°51 31:88 30°71 33°31 | 32-60 
Kendal os... 56°22 51:18 44-9] 53°32 51-41 | 
Point of Ayre....| 28:26 | 28:20 | 29-01 | 30-61 | 29-02 | 
Rhinns of Islay ..| 34:07 33°79 30°58 33:43 | 32:97 | 
Isle of May...... 21-96 20-94 15:21 20-48 19°65 | 
Buchanness...... 26-40 26°84 23-40 25°59 | 25°56 
Kinnairdhead ....| 19°66 22-01 22-05 24:17 | 21-97 
Island Glass ....| 33°23 34:98 31-92 81:13 | 32°81 
Start Point...... 27-39 25-05 93°77 31:37 | 26°89 
Mea TIS§ 1:20. beic.e ase 32:44 aya be 29-24 32°71 31:63 
Ratio of Means ..| 102°6 101-6 92-5 103-4 


104 REPORT—1871., 


Taste IIT. (continued). 


| 
Ratio of Rainfall in each 10 years’ to 40 | 
Station. years’ Mean. | 
1830-39. | 1840-49, | 1850-59. | 1860-69. | 
| Bp pune eee 103 —-||)=—«:108 93) a) oo 
| Exeter Institution} 99 | 100 92 109 
| Tavistock ...... LOR 3 204 94 101 
Halifaw: 5400s: 106 | 98 94 102 
Kendal ii... = 109 | 100 87 104 
Point of Ayre.... 97 97 100 106 
| Rhinns of Islay ..| 103 102 93 102 
| Isle of May ....| 112 107 78 103 
Buchanness...... 103 105 92 100 
Kannairdhead.... 90 100 100 110 
Island Glass ....| 101 107 97 oe | 
Start Point...... 102 |= 93 88 Laie | 
| | 
Mean Ratios....| 102-2 101°8 92:3 103°7 
| 


reason: while there are only about a dozen registers complete for the four 
decades, there are thirty-eight which are complete for the last three decades. 
Now that we have found the relation between the first two decades, the re- 
turns for the thirty years are rendered almost as instructive as those for 
forty years. 


Fig. 3. 
ne Dp, 1871 Report. 1871 Report. 
1866 Report, England. All stations. 


1840-9. 1850-9. 1860-9, | 1840-9. 1850-9. 1860-9. | 1840-9. 1850-9, 1860-9. 


3 100 
: oP 


We have therefore compiled Table IV., which differs from Table III. only 
in its being for thirty years instead of forty, and in giving observations from 
thirty-eight stations instead of twelve. 


ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 


105 


| Tanen TY.—Comparison of the Rainfall in each Decade since 1839 with the mean 
; Rainfall of thirty years ending 1869. 


4 : ; Mean | Ratio of Rainfall in 
i Mean ae in each) Rain- each decade to 30 
Division., County. Station. Ae pal fall. years Mean, 
b 1840-49, '1850-59, |1860-69. |1840-69, |1840-49. 1850-59, |1860-69. 
7 in, in, in. in. 
II. | Sussex ......... Chichester Infirmary ...! 29°10 | 26°67 | 29°03 28°27 | 103 94 | 103 
” a podereens + (Chilgrove)...| 33°41] 32°23] 33°22 32°95 | 101 98 | tor 
Be | lertah iss J..2-%: Hemel Hempstead ......! 25°86 | 26°43] 26°39| 2623] 99 | ror | 100 
Ne HSOX oo... Pp pings oy. ckssase ees 26°99} 23°18| 24°13| 24:77] 109 94 97 
” Nortollc,  ...... Diss (Dickleburgh)...... 25°05 | 22°31| 22'22| 23:19] 108 96 96 
Ae Wilts -..| Salisbury (Baverstock) | 31°09 | 28°69| 30°25 3o°or | 104 96 100 
” Devon. ..s:2:2:: Tavistock (West St.) ...] 54°27] 49°18] 53°17] 52:21] 104 94 | 102 
” «Baar Exeter Institution ...... 29°35 | 26°91 | 31°76] 29°34 100 92 | 108 
” 2 CaeRERERe Honiton(Broadhembury)| 35°14} 32°75 | 34°56| 34:15 | 103 96 | 101 
VI. | Worcester ...| Tenbury (Orleton) ...... 28°41 | 28°82] 30°90) 29°38| 97 98 | 105 
VII. | Nottingham...| Welbeck ............... +e-| 25°44] 23°29] 24°64] 24°46] 104 95 | Ior 
VUI. | Lancashire ...| Bolton (The Folds).....) 46:46| 44:01 48°98 | 46:48 | 100 95 | 105 
IX. | Yorkshire ...| Redmires .............066.. 40°75 | 37°86| 39°68) 39:43] 103 96 | 101 
” ” ---| Halifax (Well Head) ...! 31°88) 30°71| 33°31] 31°97| 100 96 | 104 
” s REAPS CULLO UE  sueawasiaganaaier wilce 43°41 | 35°51! 41°35] 4o°og| 108 89 103 
” ” Beall VOR caine ecororenecceber 25°42 | 22°02| 24°48] 23°97] 106 92 102 
X. Durham ...... Bishopwearmouth ......! 19°94} 16°91 | 20°25] 19°03| 105 89 | 106 
» Westmoreland] Kendal...............s00s »-| 52°18] 44°gI |. 53°32 | 49°80| 103 go | 107 
XI. | Isle of Man ...| Point of Ayre...........| 28:20 29:01] 30°61 29'27| 96 99 | 105 
XII. | Wigtown ...... Mull of Galloway, L.H.| 20°67| 22°52 | 27°66| 23°62] 88 95 117 
XIII. | Haddington...) Haddington.....2......... 23°77| 24°35 | 25°63| 24°58| 97 99 | 104 
” Edinburgh ...| Inveresk ............0.000. 25°81 | 24°72| 29°02| 26°52] 97 93 110 
EVA ABUL... 20260550: Bladda ThA css.esceseac 40°02 | 35°23] 40°14] 38°46| 104 gz | 104 
” 1 Mull of Cantire, L.H. | 45°76} 41°19} 44°17] 43°71 | 105 94 | Ior 
” So» wer xepeedar Rhinns of Islay, L.H. | 33°79} 30°58| 33°43] 32°60] 104 94 | 102 
BEV L WPRICE TE Ji... 0c ce Isle of May, L.H. ......| 20°94 15°21} 20°48] 18°88] 411 81 | 108 
” Bente ...5. 80) MeanstOns <A educated’ 35°74] 39°21 | 43°99] 39°65} 90 99 | 111 
XVII. | Kincardine ...| Girdleness, L.H.......... 23°14 19°71| 22°72| 21°86| 106 go | 104 
Aberdeen ...... Buchanness, L.H. ...... 26°84.) 23°40| 25°59| 25'28| 106 93 | 101 
Rd cece Kinnairdhead, L.H. ...| 22°01 | 22°05 | 24°17! 22°74] 97 97 | 106 
p ERRORS oe. ok: ce --| Island Glass, L.H........ 34°98 | 31°92] 31°13 | 32°68} 107 98 95 
Maso scksh Barrahead, L.H.......... 31°60 | 32°67] 31°73] 32°00] 99 | 102 99 
Sutherland ...) Cape Wrath, L.H. ...... 38°86 | 36°94! 39°37| 38°39| 108 96 | 103 
Caithness ......! Dunnethead, L.H. ...... 27°39 | 22°09] 25°40| 24°96| 110 88 | 102 
Orkney......... Start Point, L.H. ...... 25°05 | 23°77) 31°37| 26°73| 94 89 117 
Pe Shetland ...... Sumburghhead, L.H. ...| 25°43 | 25°22] 2645] 25°70| 99 98 | 103 
XXII, | Dublin......... Black Rock ............... 23°20 | 21°78] 27°10| 24°03} . 96 gI | 113 
(XXII. | Antrim.........! Belfast Linen Hall...... 29°44.| 30°01 | 36°77} 32°07| 92 94 | 114 
Abstract of Tasre IV. 
England and Wales, 19 stations ...,., oBeccngaenou chs 33°23 | 30°60 | 33°28 | 32°37 | 102°8 | 94°7 | 102°5 
otlAnG aU StALIONS. G00, ...ccc..cade-eedpeousneae ses-| 29°52 | 27°69 | 30°73 | 29°31 | 100°9 | 94°0 | 105°1 
Ireland, 2 stations ................00 Ae Bea see sone 26°32 | 25°90 | 31°93 | 28°05 | 94°0 | 92°5 | 113°5 
MMeanirOt tite"above 2.1.5. ..6.c.sceececcecsecsgesdacets 29°69 | 28°06 | 31°98 | 29°91 | 99°2 | 93°7 | 107°0 
BRUNOL SS/StAGIONS ...c.0seesccceeecssserongeassvess 31°21 | 29°05 | 32°07 | 30°78 | 1Q1'5 | 9473 | 104°2 


From the above Table the remarkable similarity of the results obtained 


by the two dissimilar modes of investigation is rendered so obvious that it 


106 REPORT—1871. 

is unnecessary to dwell further upon it. We now proceed to the second 
part of our investigation, namely, to consider the distribution of the rain- 
fall of the last decade, during which we have nearly four hundred perfect 
sets of observations. As each set of observations comprises more than a 
thousand entries, and the following Table contains the result of nearly half a 
million observations, it is probable that it contains some slight percentage of 
error, but we have no suspicion of the existence of any which appreciably 
affect the results. 

The head-lines of the following Table sufficiently explain its contents. 


Taste V.—Mean Rainfall at 325 Stations during the ten years 1860-69. 


Height of Rain-gauge.| yyoan 
County. Station. gecaar = 
ground. aes 1860-69" 
ft. in. feet. inches. 
Drvisron I. 
Middlesex .:|\Camden:Town: . .. 2.665041 O» Gra) eetkO0 25-681 
Drvisron II. 
Surrey: .0; ++. Weybridge Heath ........ OG 150 | 25°051 
ea ee ee es Croydon (Tanfield Lodge) ..| 0 8 155 )926:383 
Ee See es »  (Waldronhurst)....| 35 0 237 =| 24:388 
See 2 Ses Winbledom’. 23.035 05 3% 3.0 160 | 23-476 
_ .| Kew Observatory ........ 1 3 19 | 23-282 
Kentss <5..15- - 9s Hythe (Horton Park)...... 1 4 350 | 32°677 
ME Sede s 02 PPOTIBTIG RON yeas, «aqautendioss. suajers 10 71 | 28-258 
epee. cs OETES Maidstone (Linton Park) 0...8 296 | 27-559 
An bas ee eck ss (Hunton Court)..| 0 6 80 | 25:998 
BUssex.s. 5, : West Thorney [Emsworth]..| 0 8 10? | 26°875 
os tox SAE (Chichester Museum ...... 0 6 50 | 29-026 
3) 0% Sees a (Shopwyke) «| 112 61 | 29-194 
5 "Ds ae eee a (West Dean)....| 1 6 250 | 37-082 
Pigme2 2 9» (Chilgrove)...... 0 6 284 | 33-224 
<5 Se + eee Arundel (Dale Park)...... 3.5 316 | 33-732 
9) 1 See Hastings (High Wickham)..| 2 0 212 | 26-373 
gp 92 . Seaiee Maresfield Rectory........ 1 3 250 | 32-199 
PREPS «GR Ne cS (Forest Lodge) ..| 1 2 259 | 31-479 
Hampshire ....| Isle of Wight (Osborne) 0 8 172 | 30-725 | 
Ps ..| Fareham (North Brook)....| 0 2 26? | 33-906 | 
> 2g) Petersfield (Tiss) ......-. ae | Seas 38-033 
- ..|Selborne (The Wakes) 4 0 400 | 34-427 
3 Pus PA SYAEBL ORR 15 ee ses « 30 325 | 27-036 
Berkshire ....| Reading (Englefield) ...... +0 190 | 25-726 
2 ....|Long Wittenham ........ I-20 170 | 27-379 
Diviston III. 
Herts «vile «; her Bayfordbary,| << 0s dessnes 0 4 250 =| 25-011 
Ro ehicehts ceareierels St. Albans (Gorhambury) ..| 2 9 eb 27:849 | 


ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 


Taste V. (continued), 


County. 


| 


| Drviston III. 
| (continued). 
Herts 


eee ee ee 


se ee ewe 


ae 


a a | 


Cambridge Sar s| 


| ” 
| 


Drviston LY. 


oe ee ewes 


oy) AIO SSeS 


Divisron VY. 
Wiltshire. 


-| Althorp House 
.| Wellingborough .......... 


Station. 


HemelHempstead( Nash Mills) 
Tring (Cowroast) 
Hitchin 
Royston 
High Wycomb 
Radcliffe Observatory...... 
Banbury (High Street) .... 


ee eee eee 
6 8 he wires aye) 6) og See a 
ee 


at ef Sierisuel iv, < epre 


Kimbolton (Hamerton) .. 
Cardington 


99 ee 
ee 


Ely ( ‘Stretham) 


eLeiw ¢, mie 6 a) ee 


@ «1 Wisbeach (Harecroft House) 


Bigpiie +. sie acee cece eee 
Dainty s,s Fe 2 APPEL 
Braintree (Bocking) 
Saffron Walden (Ashdon) .. 
Hadleigh (Aldham) ; 
Bury St. Ed. (Abbeygate) . 
» (Westley) 
» (Barton Hall) 
sp ACMUEOEE) 5. «i Seenehs 
Diss (Dickleburgh)........ 
Downham Market (Outwell) 
a” », (Fincham) 
Norwich Institution 
¥ (Cossey) 
(Honingham Hall) 
Fakenham (Bamere) «fps 
Balkhary,.. sta otiearotuetades 


ey 


see eae 


ee 


eee eee 


ed 


ee D 


Baverstock . 10.0deees eon 


Salisbury Plain (Chiltern Ho.) 
Swindon (Penhill) 


ee eee wae 


Above 


ground. 


ft. int 


DHORDOLKWKhLODWOALRNO 


[s) 
WMOOTMRDOCOCSOSANOSCOBRBSOBSCAS 


3 0 
4 0 
0 10 


Height of Rain-gauge. 


Above sea. 


feet. 


250 
395 
238 
266 
225 
207 
350 
310 


170 


106 
109 
142 


ae 


360 
20? 
234 
200 
300 


"940? 


216? 
145? 
84? 
120 
16 
100 
53 


88 


150 
39 
43 
60 


300 


380? 


107 


Mean 
Annual 
Rainfall, 


1860-69. 


inches. 


26°388 
27:594 
23°922 
23°569 
25°705 
26°129 
26222 
23°349 
24-092 
23°132 
22-487 
21-760 
18-170 
20-609 
24-037 


24-132 
20-466 
22-750 
23-984 
23-056 
25°469 
23°962 
23°522 
23-680 
24°835 
22°223 
22:637 
23°139 
227169 
24:035 
23°975 
25:097 
23-875 
23°232 
19°559 | 


30-247 
29-279 
28-592 


108 


County. 


| Drviston V. 
(continued). 


Worcester .. 


9 


REPORT—1871. 


TBE V. (continued). 


Morset:.. <> «ac 
\ Devon's .. os 


a ee a 
ee 


WE mise her's < ofa 
Somerset ..... 


Dryiston VI. 


Gloucester .... 


_..| Clifton (South Parade) . . 
. .| Gloucester (Quedgeley) .... 
.| Cirencester (Further Barton) 


.| Burford [Tenbury]........ 
...-| Ludlow (Knowbury) ...... 
....| Shiffnal (Haughton Hall) . 

ia] SUPEWIAUEY eos! so! oe sees’! 
..| Oswestry (Hengoed) 
:| Northwick Park .......... 
.| Worcester (Lark Hill) 


Height of Rain-gauge. 


Station. 


Above 

ground. 

ft. in. 

Bela Poet or sh aon ous «pile < 0.3 
Plymouth (Saltram) ...... 0 3 
(Harm) "2 ,°°. So: a0 

Plympton StMary(Ridgeway)| 0 6 
Tavistock (Library) ...... 20: °G 
x (West Street)....| 4 6 
Rover Piaesy: 2.50 ete A Me 
Coryton Lew Down ...... 6 0 
Exeter Institution ........ i cum fs 
Cullompton (Clyst Hydon)..| 1 0 
(Bradninch) Fen 

Honiton (Broadhembury) . i a 
South Molton (Castle Hill)... 3.5 
Barnanapfe’ joss a hi oe itty 0 6 
teistieia heh sts ot te tS 5 0 
Pepzanee™ <.ics Agee oe oa 
Redruth (Tehidy Park) ....) 0 6 
Truro (Royal Institution) ..| 40 0 
gp  MCPererh) . .. . «25 se0s 1 
Bodmin (Castle Street) ....| 2 6 
pre(OVarlezean)....... 2 6 
Wadebridge(Treharrock Ho.)) 2 9 
Langport (Long Sutton)....| 0 10 
E. Harptree (Sherborne Res.)) 1 0 


Bristol (Small Street)...... 25 


5. = ( Pnils dnt.) 


Ross (Archenfield)........ 
ve (uoeklands) oS oe 
Leominster (West Lodge) .. 


eee eee 


ners : Oe 
Warwick..... 


Tenbury (Orleton)........ 
| Birmingham (Edgbaston) . 


a 
WHODORUREFOCONOACO 


Above sea. 


feet. 


60 
96 
94 
116 
283 
286 
92 
445 
155 
200 
234 
400 
200 
43 
116 
94 
160 
56 
190 
338 
550 
303 
50 
338 


40 
192 
50 
420 
250? 
150 
250 
100? 
1000? 
355 
192 
470 
137 
200? 
510 


Mean 


Annual 


Rainfall, 
1860-69. 


inches, 


32°248 
44-813 
42°888 
48-646 
43°356 
53°170 


43-126 | 


45-941 
31°757 


32-694 | 


38-060 


34562 | 


47-118 
39:°905 


37°872 | 


41-507 
41-229 
42:877 
42:556 
47-708 
54557 
39°301 
28:574 
42-097 


30°549 
32°955 


34:085 | 


27°421 
32°612 
28°211 
33°591 
27°105 
26°744 
28°530 
24-870 
19:499 
35:°647 
28°017 
28-039 
30-900 


30°562 


ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 109 


Tasie V. (continued), 


Height of Rain-gauge.|  yfoan 


f Annual | 
County. Station. Above Rainfall, | 
goa | Po | Neee-en. | 
ee iT ft. in, feet. inches. 
Leicestershire ..| Wigston ...............- 0.6 220 | 25:165 
Pe ..| Thornton Reservoir ...... Bee 420 | 25-611 
99 ..| Waltham Rectory ........ 8 560 | 24-319 
ed ¢-| Belvewr Castle... .sstikentt| & 8 237 | 24-476 
Tangoln ...... Granthamis 4 a.2 5925) ssveyets's:<'s OnnG 179 | 22-407 
, Sats Tiiniceln: 6 7h. sielncpahaye capetornd 3 6 26 | 20°870 
_. “aes Markel Basen... .< » é<hysrens 3.6 100 | 23-429 
re Gainsborough...... si-egsiiae 2 76 | 21-659 
are Stockwith ... 3.6 21 | 21-347 
ee Brigg . : 3 6 16 | 24118 
Be. fe wore yrs POM) ace. «- cess aver eferors 15 0 42 | 21-391 
a BarNgeD yes, «)- + «pispse F seephene 3. 6 51 | 22-163 
| aa Brigg (Appleby Vic.)...... 0 9 60 | 24-097 
eis. «. guaty « NeweHolland) 5. «6s ei =) decd 3. 6 18 | 22-665 
Nothnugham. ..|Southwell .....<.+.-%--| , 14,0 2002 | 20:844 
i ....| Welbeck Abbey .......... 4.0 80 | 24-636 
* eee)! WIGERBODY. 23. 61} ct: in ster: Buf 127 | 22-469 
- MRT RCGOTE fi) chs) 0 code: srs ofan 3.6 52 | 22-743 
Derby ........ EAE. dig.d <7 oun eral 6 0 180 | 26-807 
eee @hiesterfield') 20 0. tense 3 6 248 | 26-930 
See Kilnarsh (Norwood) ...... 3 6 238 | 24-591 
-9 “sae Combs Moss ............ 3 6 1669 | 49-620 
Masts s og » Reservoir ....:... 3 6 710 | 50-008 
Sarees Chapel-en-le-Frith ...... 3.6 965 | 41-947 
() SS geeooe Wroodhegdi ae oes a: ages 3 6 878 | 52-188 
Drviston VIII. 
Cheshire ...... Bosley Minns ...:..9905%° 3 6 1210 | 32-849 
5 eee > Weservoir -::32::3: 3.6 590 | 32°043 
Beene 5 LS). Macclesfield.............. 3.6 539 =| 34:5386 
SEES :, (Park Green) ..| 2 1 450 | 36-746 
Bee £6. Bollington (Spond’s Hill) ..| 3 6 1279 | 37-464 
Se Whaley “.. (2520 Aepete 3 6 602 | 43-894 
RS Marple Aquednet ........ 3 6 321 | 34:810 
Mee » Lop Lecktipe fryer 3 6 543 | 35-254 
Se Godley Reservoir ........ Pra 500 33°979 
ae Mottram (Matley’s Field) ..| 3 6 399 | 37°732 
\ ieee Newton 2. .is:2¢22223.9% 3 6 396 | 31°633 
oy Arnfield Reservoir .:.:...: pote a 575 | 37-232 
mi. Aaa Rhodes Wood Reseryoir....| 1 0 520 46°323 
mon}. AL, Woodhead > HIPPO 680 | 51-828 
Lancashire ....| Denton 99 segiher 8 324 | 32-974 
3 ....| Gorton y AEN) 2898 263 | 33-712 


110 


County. 


Drvisron VIII. 
(continued). 


Lancashire . 


Drvisron IX. 


Yorkshire, W. R. 


A Pe 
bo bd 


REPORT—187 1. 


TaBLeE V. (continued). 


..| Manchester (Old Trafford). . 


a (Ardwick) 
~ (Piccadilly) .... 


o Oldham (Waterhouses) ... 


= (Gas-works)...... 
(Strines Dale) .. 


. .| Bolton (The Folds)...... 7 


po Chennont) *Fs2 tor 
wn (Heabea yee srry Fes 


...+| Rochdale (Nagden Dane) .. 
...| Ormskirk (Rufford) ...... 
.. | Preston (Howiek)*::%.. 5: 
...+| Blackpool (South shore).... 
sind DUTY RUTAL 23 02 Skee, ee 
. ..| Clitheroe (Downham Hall). . 
...| Lancaster (Caton) ........ 
..-|Cartmel (Holker) ........ 


Sheffield (Broomhall Park). . 
edietsr se hee ce eee 


fst. 1 ee ee ey 
Dunford Bridge .......... 
Saddleworth Station ...... 
Standedge. oJ sions ys sins 
Huddersfield (Longwood) . 
a se a 
Halifax (Warley Moor) . 
se (CWell Head) .... 
»» (Midgeley Moor) .. 
», (Ovenden Moor) .. 
Leeds (Leventhorpe Hall) .. 
sy al Seebeck) au ci avy.) 6+ 
York (Bootham).......... 
Settle ........-.. ese eee, 


.| Hull (Beverley Road)...... 
PRIOR N Siee She dos os ee a. 


Height of Rain-gauge. 


Above 
ground. 


ft. 


in. 


DAMDBDABAOAMRDOOAGCOCR°cCcCON 


a or 
- Bs WROEOORODBOS 


WOSDOROOSO: 


Above sea. 


feet. 


Mean 
Annual 
Rainfall, 
1860-69. 


inches, 


34°727 
32597 
36°775 
40-898 
36°133 
377123 
36-007 
48-981 
56-610 
44-210 
44-132 
34-999 
38°303 
32°994 
48:560 
44786 
43°944 
45-625 


31-276 
39-684 
28°159 
23°990 ~ 
56°177 
41:968 
53°700 
34-008 
32°121 
46-330 
33°313 
50-000 
46-090 
23-261 
22-853 
24-479 
41°349 
60-075 
25-024 
27-455 
31:105 | 


| 


County. 


Division X. 


Durham ...... 
Northumberland 


Drviston XI. 


Glamorgan 
Cardigan...... 
Brecknock . 


a 


Isle of Man.... 
Guernsey 2 
Alderney...... 


Drviston XII. 
Wigton 


a 


Kirkcudbright. 
Dumfries. a : 


SF) 3 te ewer 


.| Seathwaite 
..| Ullswater (Watermillock) .. 
.| Bassenthwaite (Mirehouse). . 
-| Cockermouth (Whinfell Hall) 


...+|{ Cardiff (Ely) 
.| Hay 


.| Cargen [Dumfries] 


ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES, 


TasLeE V. (continued). 


Station. 


se ee wee 


| Bishopwearmouth 
| Allenheads 
Shotley Hall» jictascarjt slad:.- 
Bagwell @: ... . cotints oan tant 
Wylam. Ball... ad os ot 
North Shields (Wallsend) .. 

- (Rosella Place) 
Stamfordham ............ 
Hexham (Parkend) 
Lilburn Tower 


i 


see eee 
se ee ee ew ae 


Carlisle (Bunker’s Hill) .... 
Kendal (Kent Terrace) .... 


.| Windermere (The Howe) .. 
.| Appleby 


Ce 


WALES AND THE ISLANDS. 


JEON TS) ey ai Clete eg aie 
(Pen-y-maes)........ 
Rhayader (Cefnfaes) ...... 
Hawarden [Chester] ...... 
Holywell (Maes-y-dre) .... 
Llandudno (Warwick House) 
Point of Ayre 


ee 
ey 


SCOTLAND. 


Mull of Galloway ........ 
Stranraer (South Cairn).... 
Corsewall 

Little Ross 


ee 


Fi 


Dumfries (March Hill Cott.)| 0 


Westerkirk (Carlesgill) .... 
Wanlockhead 


eer ere ee eer sense 


...++| Kelso (Springwood Park) .. 


0 
1 


Opn: oO BR: 


Above 
ground. 
ft, in, 

0 9 

0 3 

0 6 
oO 4 

0 6 

1 0 

ibe 10) 

0 4 

6 0 

5,6 

3 6 

Oo. 7 

2 0 

6 0 

4 6 

2 

Ide D 


SCORDONTNOOROS 


Height of Rain-gauge. 


Above sea. 


feet. 


1369 
312 
87 
96 
100 
124 
400 
76 
300 
422 
720 
310 
265 
184 
146 
470 
442 


420 
317 
880 


400 


204 


lll 


Mean 
Annual 
Rainfall, 
1860-69. 


inches. 


20-247 
51:160 
28°494 
28-874 
26°900 
26-640 
26-065 
27°637 
33°550 
28-657 
154-046 
59-910 
53°756 
57°366 
27-616 
53°322 
87:°923 
35°994 


42-016 
45°183 
31-680 
44-980 
26:443 
24-430 
31-004 
30-609 
37°177 
28°624 


27-656 
49-603 
37°027 
26°981 
44-372 
37045 
60-092 
66-628 
24-663 


Om 


County. 


Dryiston XIII. 


Selkirk ...... 
Peebles ...... 
Berwick ...... 
| Haddington. pf. 
” ‘ 
Edinburgh .... 


Drvision XLY. 
| Lanark: ..44'¥. 


Sis) 9; we 06 8 


Drviston XY. 


Dumbarton .... 
Stirling, |: a. - 


REPORT—187 1. 


TABLE V. (continued). 


Height of Rain-gauge. 


Station. ‘Kbove 
ground. 
ft. in 

Bowl Uo vccer rere reterateteters's i 
Penicuick (N. Esk Reservoir)) 0 6 
Lauder (Thirlestane Castle)... 0 3 
Dunse (Mungo’s Walls)....| 0 6 
Prestonkirk (Smeaton) ....) 13 0 
...| Haddington (Millfield) ....| 4 0 
8.) Hast Danton: «4 is. ece ened 0 3 
Cobbinshaw Reservoir Ue 
vo | Unvereshe. fauna ete Fe 2 0 
Hamilton (Auchinraith)....) 4 9 
§ (Bothwell Castle)... 18 0 
Glasgow (Cessnock Park) ..| 4 4 
3» (Observatory) ....| 0 1 
Baillveston y+... etree ees 0 3 
Shotts (Hillend House) ....| 7 0 
Ayr (Auchendrane House)..| 2 3 
Largs (Mansfield) ........ 0 6 
Gorbals, W. W. (Ryat Lynn) 0 5 
os (WaulkGlen)| 0 5 

: (Middleton)... 0 5 
Mearns (Nether Place) ....| 0 6 
Greenock (Hamilton Street) | 0 6 
Loch Long (Arddaroch) ....| 0 10 
Falkark (Kerse)!i% 2... ssf END) 
Stirling (Polmaise Gardens) |’ 0 2 
Plaga 5.8: ILE, Foe oo ios 3.3 
Castle Towardssieecee..%. 4 0 
Lochgilphead (Callton Mér)..| 4 6 
Inverary Castle .......... O 781: 
Appm (dards). o Asie Bie 0 3 
Ardnamurchan: .........°. 3.6 
Cantire, Mull of.......... rectarte 
Campbeltown (Devaar)....| 3 4 
Rhinns of Islay’:'... 5.0... 3.0 
Lismore (Mousedale) ...... 3.4 
Mull, Sound of .......... 0 6 
Tyree (Hynish) .......... LAk8 


Above sea. 


feet. 


537 
1150 
558 
267 
100 
140 
90 
863 
90 


150 
146 
29 
180 
230 
620 
96 
30 
310 
280 
550 
360 
50 


80 


12 
55 
65 
65 
30 
15 
82? 
279? 
752? 
742 
37? 
12? 


Mean 
Annual 
Rainfall, 


1860-69. | 


inches. 


33°033 | 


38°014 
29:977 


28-494 | 
23-263 


25°630 
23:767 


37-450 — 
29-016 


31°951 


28-885. | 


37°958 
44-411 
46°471 
33°445 
44-825 
48-920 
47°801 
49-845 
56°682 
507143 
66°156 


78°321 
32-960 
41:300 
40-141 
54554 
54253 
67:370 
63-640 
45594 
44-166 
47:312 
33°434 
46°215 
72159 
79-992 


County. 


or 


Divisrion XVI. 


ee 
Ce 
ee ed 
whee ates 
a 
were wees 
se eee eee 
eee ee 
Pie 61a eFqne. 0 
er 
Se 
ec 
a 
ee wee ewes 
ee ee rene 
re 
Ce 


ee eee eee 


Division XVII. 


| Kineardine .. 


Weeedeari 


ee ee ewes 


Division XVIII. 
Ross & Cromarty 


... | Lochleven Sluice 


..| Brechin (The Burn) 
.... | Girdleness 
....| Braemar 
....| Aberdeen (Rose Street) .... 
....| Alford (Castle Newe) 

..| Kinnaird Head 
. ..| Buchanness 


....| Barrahead 

...| 9. Uist (Ushenish) 
.| Harris (Island Glass) 
.| Rona 


ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 


Taste V. (continued). 


Station. 


ee 


BAUER oh che een nee 
Leven (Nookton) 
Isle of May 
O05 05: SA Fa 
Dunblane (Kippenross) . 
Deanston House 
Eanriek Castle: odes ed. vs die 
Bridge of Turk .......... 
Auchterarder House ...... 
(Trinity ig 
Loch Barnhead (Stronvar) . 
Perth Academy 
Scone Palace 
BURY soe ey creporeacae eae etal as 
Craigton 
Kettins 


ee 


Ce ee ee ee 


ee 


ee 
ee 


Ce 


ee eeee 
a 88) 6 0 oo, 8) 6 8 6 «we 


Sekai ie) 66, e aeuy'v) te) 6, way orcs: 


a 
ee 
ee 


Gordon Castle 


oe eee ere eens 


Isle of Lewis (Stornoway) .. 
(Bernera) .... 


39 
Cromarty 


© we ei 6) elisital ie) et 6) 6 («) elie 


.| Isle of Skye (Oronsay) 


+4 (Kyleakin) .. 
(Raasay) 


(Portree) 


? 
CY I, Ce hh 
oy 6)sa, e/a, ine) tel me ap oY ,0 s 
Dy, s) ol) el erate 


«ee eae 


Ce 


ee 


Height of Rain-gauge. 


113 


Mean 


Above | Above sea. 
ground. 

ft ink feet. 
0 10 ten 
0 6 Dy 
0 6 80 
Pare 182 
0 6 60 
0 4 100 
0 4 130 
0 0 igaeies 
0 6 270 
2S 162 
QO 1 133 

64 5 83 
2-6 80 
(0) 3 35 
0 38 481 
1 0 218 
0 38 570 
2 0 60 
0 6 235 
a 17 86 
Te | 1114 
0 4 95 
3.04 64 
1 6 60 
oe Siler 
0 6 15 
3A 28 
0 6 ayy 
0 2 3? 
1, 4 80 
iS 80 
ome) 640? 
0 4 aay ae: 
3.«A4 50? 
On. .6 20) 
3.«O0 104 


Annual 
Rainfall, 
1860-69. 


inches. 


35:780 
28°589 
28:988 
20-482 
61-820 
36165 
43-991 
48°805 
61:890 
34315 
35°324 
82:434 
23°584 
29°182 
29°729 
34876 
33°172 
35°187 
29-050 


34-910 
22°718 
33°404 
29°433 
33°500 
24-168 
25:588 
29-192 


31°792 
68°027 
25°941 
72:359 
82-067 
77:120 
104-261 
31°726 
43-905 
31°129 
39:°470 
27:084 


| 


114 REPORT—1871. 


TasBLe YV. (continued). 


| Height of Rain-gauge-| yyoan 
; aa Wilco tel! 
County. Station, Wises Rainfall, 
ground. ALES: 1860-69. 
Pee feet. i 5 
Recunox XIX; ft. in eet inches 
Sutherland ....| Golspie (Dunrobin Castle) ..| 0 3 6 | 27-692 
» owisis| Cape Wet 2 6 ssscssasecv 3 6 355 ? | 39-371 
Caithness...... Wick (Nosshead) ........ 3.4 127? | 24-699 
en se |: DunnethGad "5 iaacesss¢ oe 3 6 300? | 25-401 
iG. bs Mek Pentland Skerries ........ 3) 1S 72?) 28-763 
Orkney ...:.; Hoy (Graemsay East) ....| 3 4 27? | 39-007 
yim ba cea | a ee Os, West). .... vat 37? | 32°693 
el ere |Shapinsay (Balfour Castle)..| 0 6 50 | 32-408 
Brkt’ b:. fhish Pomona (Sandwick) ...... 2 0 7 38°853 
eat. aehk Sanda (Start Point) ...... 0 6 29?) 31:371 
ale Te North Ronaldshay ........ 3.4 212} -31:015 
Shetland ...... Sumburghead ............ 3 4 265? | 26-454 
ue bx wks Bressay Lighthouse ...... 0 4 60 | 36-488 
Diviston XX. sats 5 
CGE sor a4 | Cork (Royal Institution) ..| 50 0 70 | 34-771 
Pons Cant ee La a ee ae Sys seas | cemegend, 
Waterford ....| Waterford (Newtown) ....| 4 0 60 | 40-669 
CIBTS Suess. MSlinlog ie Ue eeein aoe vi «i 5 0 123 | 47-654 
Drviston XXI. 
Queen’s County..| Portarlington ............ ie 240 | 36°857 
King’s County..| Tullamore .............. 3 0 235 | 27-938 
Wicklow ......| Bray (Fassaroe) .......... 5 0 250 | 41°822 
Dapha,.'. sss... Black Rock (Rockville) ....| 29 0 90 | 27-096 
Drviston XXII. 
Fermanagh ....| Enniskillen (Florence Court); 11 0 300 | 44368 
ATMBEN j.. 2%... 5 Armagh Observatory ...... de 208 | 32-014 
Antrim ...... Belfast (Queen’s College) ..| 7 4 68 | 34-225 
Pens odor Ross », (Linen Hall) ...... 4 0 12° | 36°767 


Before accepting these decennial averages (1860-69) as data indicative of 
the distribution of rain over the country, we have to offer a few prefatory 
remarks. The difference between the amount collected by any two rain- 
gauges depends on at least four separate and distinct conditions, three of 
which must be ascertained and corrected for before the fourth can be accu- 
rately determined. 

The conditions are :—(1) length of series of observations ; (2) correction for 
secular change ; (3) height of gauges above ground. 

(1) Even if there were no other evidence in existence than the accompany- 


ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 115 


ing diagram (fig. 1) of the fluctuations of rainfall, we feel that it would suffi- 
ciently prove the impossibility of determining accurately the rainfall at any 
place except by observations continued over a long series of years at that 
place, or by differentiation from some proximate long-continued series. 

(2) It does not follow that simultaneous observations, even for ten years, 
giving for example a mean difference between two stations of five inches, 
prove that the rainfall at the one station is greater than the other by that 
amount, although if they are not very distant the one from the other it 
would probably be a safe assumption. 

(3) Before mean results can be given with any pretensions to accuracy and 
finality, they must be corrected for the elevation of the rain-gauge above the 
ground, 

The above remarks sufficiently show that the mere average of the fall of 
rain measured during ten or more years does not necessarily give the true 
mean rainfall at that place. 

Let us take as an example the highest amount recorded in the Table 
(Seathwaite), which had during the ten years (1860-69) an average of 
154 inches; many persons would say at once that that was therefore the 
mean rainfall at that station. It is, however, nothing like it. From 
Table II. and fig. 2 we see that the rainfall over England, generally, 
during those ten years was 1:5 per cent. above the average, upon which 
evidence we are bound to reduce the observed mean in that proportion, 
and then the average becomes 152 inches instead of 154, Even this, how- 
ever, is not correct; for we pointed out in condition (2) that the same 
years, or groups of years, are not similarly wet in all parts of the country. 
Referring, therefore, to Table IY. we find that at the nearest station to 
Seathwaite, Kendal, the decade in question was 7 per cent. above the thirty- 
year mean ; hence, on the supposition that the Kendal values are applicable 
to this station, we have to reduce 154 inches by 7 per cent. instead of by 
1-5 per cent., and hence the probable mean comes out 141-8 inches. 

Now most fortunately we can test the accuracy of this calculation in three 

ways. 
(1) The mean fall at Seathwaite in the previous decade was 126-98 ; from 
the Kendal observations the fall in that decade was 10 per cent. less than 
the mean ; therefore 591109 ) we find the probable mean comes 
out 141-1 from this decade, and 141°8 from that of 1860-69. They thus 
agree within less than an inch, or one half per cent. 

(2) The fall at Seathwaite has now been continuously observed for twenty-six 
years, viz. from 1845 to 1870 inclusive; the mean of the whole twenty-six 
years’ observations is 140-03, 

(3) This value, corrected according to the Table in our 1866 Report, becomes 
aoe’ exactly with that indicated by the decades 1850-59 and 

This example proves three points :—(1) the great degree of accuracy which 
is attainable by proper methods; (2) the care requisite to secure it ; (3) the 
serious errors inseparable from the use of mere arithmetical averages without 
reference to secular changes. 

These observations, however, must of course be taken as general results, 
and not be construed as having any bearing on the relative rainfall even of 
proximate stations, the rainfall of which will vary considerably according to 
‘local circumstances. 

Hence it will be seen that the probable average at Seathwaite is 141 inches 

12 


116 REPORT—1871. 


instead of 154, or 7 per cent. less. A similar, but generally less correction, 
may be required for other stations. The figures in Table V. must not there- 
fore be considered as showing the mean fall at the several stations, but only 
as approximations generally pretty close. The data in our possession, if cor- 
rected in accordance with the method explained, would afford more accurate 
results, but the investigation is altogether beyond our present resources. 
Large tracts of Ireland, and even of Scotland, are still without observers ; 
much has recently been done to remedy these deficiencies, but there are still 
many localities where observations are very much wanted; we shall gladly 
receive any offers of assistance from those who have residences or property in 
those parts, and our Secretary will readily advise them as to instruments. 


Third Report on the British Fossil Corals. By P. Martin Duncan, 
F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in King’s College, London. 


Introduction.—There can be no doubt that the paleontology of the Madre- 
poraria of the Paleozoic strata is in a condition of profound confusion. 
When these Reports were commenced, the very excellent descriptions and 
classification of the Paleozoic Corals by MM. Milne-Edwards and Jules Haime, 
strengthened by those of M. de Fromentel, appeared to have satisfied pa- 
leontologists, and they were received and adopted without much demur. 
But during the last three or four years a series of more or less important 
attacks has been made upon the views of those distinguished authors ; 
consequently opinions respecting many important matters in the paleontology 
of the Paleozoic corals are in a very unsatisfactory state. 

L. Agassiz, A. Agassiz, and now Count Pourtales would remove the Ta- 
bulata from the list of Madreporaria. Mr. Kent and I doubt the propriety 
of establishing the Tabulata as a group. Count Keyserling demurred years 
since at receiving the long septaless Tubulata amongst the Madreporaria, 
and, after due examination, I agree with him in relegating them to the Al- 
cyonaria. 

Working amongst the Rugosa, I have shown that they do not invariably 
characterize Paleozoic strata, for some of the types have persisted, and no 
reasonable doubt can be entertained concerning the descent of the Jurassic 
Coral-fauna from the Paleozoic. 

The genus Palwocyclus has been shown not to belong to the Fungide, 
but to the Cyathophyllide. Genera with the hexameral arrangement of 
septa have been found in Carboniferous and Devonian strata. 

Lindstrém’s interesting researches respecting the operculated condition of 
some Paleozoic corals require most careful study and much following up, 
and the assertion of L. Agassiz respecting the hydroid relationship of those 
Rugosa which have tabule demands further inquiry *. 

Ludwig, of Darmstadt, has added to the confusion by not acknowledging 
the received classification in the least; and in his able enthusiasm (anti- 


* G. Lindstrom, pamphlet translated by M. Lindstrém from the original Swedish, 
‘Geological Magazine,’ 1866, p. 356. He notices that Guettard first described an oper- 
culum in a rugose coral, and that then Steenstrup saw one in a Cyathophyllum mitratum. 
Lindstrém produces evidence respecting the genera Goniophyllum, Calceola, Zaphrentis, 
Hallia, and Favosites (see also p. 406 et seg.). : 


ON THE BRITISH FOSSIL CORALS. 117 


Gallican enough) he alters generic and specific names, employing sesqui- 
pedalian Greek, and even absorbing the original authors (‘ Paleontogra- 
phica,’ H. von Meyer, 1866). 

Thus he confuses Stromatopora concentrica, Goldfuss, with the Madre- 
poraria, and calls it Lioplacocyathus concentricus. Fortunately Ludwig gives 
a plate of it (tab. lxxii. fig. 1), and thus proves the total absence of all 
structures which differentiate the Madreporaria, After thus dignifying a 
rhizopod, we may be prepared for any thing. 

The same author figures a form which is clearly that of Heliolites porosa, 
and calls it by the extraordinary name of Astroplacocyathus solidus, Ldwg. 
It appears that this naturalist studied this eminently cellular type from a 
cast, hence the term solidus. Again, in tab. lxxi. fig. 2, Ludwig delineates a 
good specimen of Cyathophyllum hexagonum, Goldfuss, 1826, and with sur- 
passing coolness names it Astrophleothylacus vulgaris, Lawg. He then con- 
founds a species of Lithostrotion and Smithia Hennali, E. & H., in one genus, 
Astrophleocyclus, Ldwg. 

The student of the Silurian corals will be surprised perhaps to find that, 
according to Ludwig, Halysites catenularia, Ed. & H., the Catenipora escha- 
roides of Lonsdale, is transformed into Ptychophleolopas catenularia, Ludwig, 
doubtless on the principle that having found such a very distinguished generic 
title, the compiler of it has the right to eclipse the discoverers of the form. 
Cheetetes, which some of us consider to belong to the Aleyonarian group, as 
it has no septa, Ludwig decorates with the title “‘ Liophlaocyathus.” 

In his sixty-ninth plate, fig. 5, there is a very good representation of a 
coral ordinarily known as Acervularia Troscheli, Ed. & H. This form was 
inaccurately described by Goldfuss, who called it Cyathophyllum ananas. Now 
the authorship is settled by this Alexander, who cuts the knot by claiming 
the species as his own, under the title of Astrochartodiscus ananas, Ludwig ! 

Then Pleurodictyum problematicum, Goldfuss, is altered into Taeniocharto- 
cyclus planus, Ldwg. 

To render matters easier to the student, Ludwig associates Acervularia 
lucurians and Cyathophyllum helianthoides in one genus, Astroblascodiscus, 
and of course places his name after the species. Then Cyathophyllum cespi- 
tosum becomes, under the same lexicographic hands, <Astrocalanocyathus 
cespitosus, Ludwig! In another place Cyathophyllum helianthoides, Gold- 
fuss, just mentioned under the term Astroblascodiscus, appears as -Astro- 
discus. Lonsdale’s Cystiphyllum cylindricum is turned into Liocyathus ca- 
tinifer, Ldwg. 

This author, moreover, appears to hold a brief against the belief in the 
quadrate arrangement of the septa in the Rugosa, and, in a manner which is 
excessively arbitrary and artificial, terms such and such septa primaries, so 
as to reduce the cycles to sixes. In spite of the evidence of great industry 
given by Ludwig, I cannot accept his classification, nor do I find his hypo- 
thetical septal readings consistent with facts. Nevertheless, Ludwig has 
contributed to our knowledge of Permian corals, and has discovered some 
species of genera hitherto supposed to characterize the Carboniferous forma- 
tion in the Upper Devonian of Germany. 

The nature of this Report must therefore be very different to those already 
presented to the Association. Those reports relating to the Corals of the 
Mesozoic strata were essentially founded upon observed facts, and upon data 
which had been more or less before the geological world for years; the 
‘generalizations embodied in them were established upon very satisfactory 
details, But in the present instance there is much uncertainty; there are 


118 REPORT—1871, 


vast accumulations of details to be worked out without the existence of a 
satisfactory classification, and, in fact, the whole subject of the Palaeozoic 
Madreporaria is in too transitional a state for an exhaustive report to be made 
upon them. 

In presenting this Report, therefore, I hope the Association will consider 
that I have not yet completed my task, and that it will allow me to continue 
my work and to present other reports when occasion offers. No further 
grant will be required, as the future reports will deal more with the results 
of other labourers than with my own. . 

The present Report is divided into four parts. 

I. The consideration of the alliances of the Neozoic and the Paleozoic 
Coral-faunas. 

II. The classification of the Perforata. 

III. The classification of the Tabulata, 

IY. The Rugosa. 

In order to avoid useless repetition of well-known facts, I have referred 
to them by giving their bibliography, except when they are contained in 
inaccessible works. 

I. The Paleozoic corals of Great Britain have been the subject of many 
admirable works ; they have been largely treated of in the ‘ Monograph of 
the British Fossil Corals’ (Paleeontographical Society) by MM. Milne-Edwards 
and Jules Haime, and by M‘Coy in Sedgwick’s great work. Phillips, 
Lonsdale, King, Sam. Woodward, Parkinson, Martin, Fleming, Portlock, 
Sowerby, and Pennant have described species in their well-known works, 
and Kent, James Thomson, and I have contributed some information on 
the subject of the Scottish corals. But, with the exception of the labours of 
the last three persons, the literature of the Paleozoic Corals will be found very 
accessible in the monograph already noticed; any omissions, and a con- 
siderable number of new species will be published in my Supplement to that 
monograph, which I trust will appear year after year, especially as the 
Supplement to the Mesozoic Corals is now complete (Palzontographical 
Society). 

The Y taées range and the horizontal distribution of the species of corals 
have been worked out by Robert Etheridge, F.R.S8., in a work which is now 
in course of publication (Cat. of Brit. Fossils). 

MM. Milne-Edwards and Jules Haime classified the British Palaeozoic 
Corals amongst the sections Aporosa, Tabulata, Tubulosa, and Rugosa. The 
great section Perforata is not represented in the British strata, but it is in 
the equivalerit American beds. 

The only representative of the Aporosa in their classification was one of 
the Fungide, Palwocyclus being the genus. It is a Silurian form, and no 
others of the family have been discovered in the other Palaeozoic rocks. The 
genus has been the subject of a memoir in the Philosophical Transactions, 
1867, where its rugose affinities are pointed out, and its cyathophylloid na- 
ture also. But the Aporosa are nevertheless represented in the Devonian and 
Carboniferous rocks by the genera Battersbyia and Heterophyllia (Phil. 
Trans. 1867). 

The alliances of these forms and of some of the Rugosa with the Jurassic 
Coral-fauna have been noticed in my Supplement to the Brit. Foss. Corals 
(Pal. Soe.), part “‘ Liassic,” and in the Essay in the Phil. Trans. of 1867*. 


* The Panastrmacen, Genera Battershyia and Heterophyllia (Phil. Trans. 1867, p. 643 
et seg., P. M. Duncan).—The so-called ccenenchyma of Battershyia inequalis, Kd. & H., 
is like that of Battersbyia grandis, nobis, and B. gemmans, nobis. It is really nothing 


ON THE BRITISH FOSSIL CORALS, 119 


I do not consider that the Tubulosa belonged to the Madreporaria, but 
that they were Alcyonarians. 

It is very certain that some Aporose, Perforate, and Rugose corals have 
tabule, and that their existence cannot remove the forms from their re- 
eeived zoological position into the separate section of Tabulata. 

Thus the well-known Aporose coral of the deep sea, Lophohehia pro- 


more than portions of Stromatopora which enclose the corallites and grow simultaneously 
with them. 

T have altered the generic characters of Battersbyia, in consequence of a careful exami- 
nation of the old and the two new species. It is as follows:—Corallum fasciculate and 
branching ; corallites tall, cylindrical, unequal in size and distance; septa numerous and 
following no apparent cyclical order. 

Endotheca yery abundant: it is vesicular, and there are no tabule, Hpitheca, costa, 
and ceenenchyma wanting. The wall is stout, and the septa spring from wedge-shaped 
processes. The columellary space is occupied by vesicular endotheca. Gemmation extra- 
ealicular and calicular from buds having only five septa. 

There are three species :— 


Battersbyia insequalis, Duncan. pond Limestone ; 


grandis, Duncan. found in pebbles, 
gemmans, Duncan, and not 77 si¢z. 


In Battersbyia gemmans the buds which develop more than five septa grow into coral- 
lites, which are destined to bud again from the external wall, and the buds which de- 
velop five septa produce other buds from their interseptal loculi; the buds thus developed 
resemble the corallites with more than three septa. This curious alternation of gemma- 
tion has not been noticed in any other genus. 

The genera Battersbyia and Heterophyllia (Phil. Trans. loc. cit.) have much in common, 
They have a stout wall, a vesicular and dissepimental endotheca, delicate septa, very irre- 
gular in their number, and neither tabular epitheca nor a quaternary septal arrangement. 

The genus Battersbyia has nothing to ally it to the Rugosa or the Tabulata. Hetero- 
phyllia has in some of its species the solitary septum or vacancy which is so often observed 
in the Cyathophyllidx. Its costal wall and endotheca connect it with the Mesozoic and 
recent Astreide. 

The singular septal development of Battersbyia is witnessed in the fasciculate Liassic 
Astreide. The pentameral arrangement of the Battersbyian septa is not unique, for 
Acanthocenia Rathieri, D’Orb., of. the Neocomian has only five septa, and so have the 
species of Pentacenia, all of which are from the same great formation, The proper Liassic 
and some of the Lower Oolitic Thecosmiliz and Calamophylliz represent and are allied 
by structure to Battersbyia. The highly specialized characters of the Heterophyllie, espe- 
cially of H. mirabilis, could hardly be perpetuated during great and prolonged emigra- 
tions, so that the genus appears to be without representatives in the secondary rocks. Its 
alliance to Battersbyia, however, is evident enough. 

The genus Heterophyllia, M‘Coy, was examined by me in 1867, and the study of several 
new species of it rendered a fresh diagnosis requisite. 

The following description of the diagnosis appeared in my essay on the genera Hetero- 
phyllia, &c., already noticed :— 

“The corallum is simple, long, and slender, The gemmation takes place around the 
calicular margin, and is extracalicular. The septa are either irregular in number and 
arrangement, or else are six in number and regular. The cost are well developed, and 
may be trabecular, spined, and flexuous. The wall is thick; there is no epitheca, and the 
endotheca is dissepimental.” 

The genus may be subdivided into a group with numerous septa, and a group with six 
septa. — 

it the first the rugose type is faintly, and in the last the hexameral arrangement is well 
observed. 

The dense wall and the dissepimental endotheca prove that the type of the Mesozoic 
Coral-fauna was foreshown. 

The endotheca varies in quantity in the different species, and it resembles the tabular 
arrangement ; but even when this is the case and the cross structures are well developed 
and numerous, they do not stretch over the axial space, so as to shut out cavities 
as if they were floors; they do not close in the whole of the visceral and interlocular 


120 REPORT—1871. 


lifera, Pallas, sp., may have some of its corallites subdivided by perfect 
tabule ; the species of Cyathophora of the Oolites also ; yet it would be a most 
objectionable and improper proceeding to remove these genera from their 
recognized alliances. I found an Astrwopora in the Museum at Liver- 
pool with tabula; and Mr. Kent has pointed out the perforate affinities of 
Koninckia and of the form he has published. Some Rugosze have perfect 
tabula, others have them not; and in Cyclophyllum and Clisiophyllum dis- 
sepiments exist in some parts of a corallum and not in others, where they 
are replaced by tabule. This interesting fact may be gleaned from James 
Thomson’s sections taken from the Scottish corals. ; 

Nevertheless there are forms which are essentially tabulate, and not rugose, 
but which, so far as their hard and septal structures are concerned, may 
be aporose in one instance and perforate in another ; for instance, Columnaria 
and Favosites. These forms may still provisionally be considered Tabulata. 

Alliances.—The Lower Cretaceous and Neocomian corals appear to connect 
the oldest and the newest faunas, and to form an excellent starting-point 
both for the study of the Tertiary as well as for the Paleozoic forms. It 
will be readily observed that the succession of genera and species from the 
lower Cretaceous horizon to the present day is gradual; and that although 
many forms died out, still the general appearance of the consecutive faunas, 
such as those of the Middle and Upper Cretaceous, the Nummulitic, the Oli- 
gocene, the Miocene, the Pliocene, and of the two great faunas of the present 
day, presents a remarkable similarity of what is usually called “facies.” 
The similarity between the Lower Cretaceous fauna and that of the Miocene 
has been treated of elsewhere *, and the analogies of the mid-tertiary corals 
and those of the Pacific also. Moreover since the last Report was read the. 
distinction between reef, deep-sea, and littoral corals has been more satisfac- 
torily established, and the reason why consecutive faunas upon the same 
areas could not possibly be identical, even as regards the genera, has been 
explained +. 

As the Coral-faunas are studied from those of recent date backwards in 
time, extinct forms are met with which gradually fill up the spaces in the 
very natural received classification, and itis perfectly evident that the existing 
species were foreshadowed in the past. A great number of existing species 
lived in the so-called Pliocene, and not a few in the Miocene ft. Reuss’s 
admirable researches amongst the vast reefs which are of an intermediate age 
between the Flysch and the typical coral districts of the Miocene age, have 
carried back the homotaxis of the existing coral areas to a time which has 
hardly been recognized by British geologists, but whose fossils are clearly 


cavities in a horizontal plane. In some species the dissepiments are curved, and are as 
incomplete as when they are more or less horizontal in others, and vesicular endotheca 
exists, more or less, in nearly all the forms. 
There are no true tabule, and the dissepiments do not interfere in any way with the 
passage of the septa from the lowest part of the corallum to the calice. 
There are eight species of Heterophyllia :— 
Heterophyllia grandis, M‘Coy. Heterophyllia M‘Coyi, Duncan, 
— ornata, MZ‘ Coy. Lyelli, Duncan. 
granulata, Duncan. —— mirabilis, Duncan. 
angulata, Duncan. Sedgwicki, Duncan. 


The first two are found in the Carboniferous limestone of Derbyshire, and the others in 
the Scottish Carboniferous strata (see Phil. Trans. 1867, p. 643 et seq.). 

* ‘West-Indian Foss. Corals (P. M. Duncan, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. xxiv. p. 28). 

t Coral Faunas of Europe (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. xxvi. p. 51 ef seq.). 

$ Corals of Poreupine Expedition (Proc. Royal Society, xviii. p. 289). 


ON THE BRITISH FOSSIL CORALS. 121 


represented at Brockenhurst. In the great reefs of the Castel-Gomberto 
district there are the remains of a larger coral-fauna than that which now 
exists in the Caribbean Sea; and although a profound Flysch exists between 
them and the reefs in the Oberburg district, indicating great oscillations of 
the area and vast changes in the life of the time, still the genera which con- 
tribute so largely to the formation of modern reefs are found represented in 
abundance in the lowest reefs, which clearly belong to the Nummulitic period. 

Our Eocene corals and those found at Brockenhurst are the stunted off- 
shoots of the faunas which flourished at Oberburg and in the Vicentine, but 
nevertheless some of their species are closely allied to those of much later 
geological date. 

Without the assistance of the labours of Reuss and D’Achiardi zoophytolo- 
gists could not have imagined that the well-known coral-faunas of the Hala 
Mountains of Sindh, of the Nummulitic deposits of the Maritime Alps and 
Switzerland, and of the London and Paris basins were but fractions of a 
fauna which was probably richer in species than any modern coral tract; and 
this welcome aid proves the impropriety of neglecting foreign palxontology, 
even when writing reports like the present, and which treat of the produc- 
tions of the rocks of a small area. The impossibility of comparing with any 
satisfaction the Nummulitic coral-fauna and that of the Upper Chalk is 
obvious; because the Nummulitic fauna, so far as it is known to us, was 
either a reef or a comparatively shallow-water one, whilst the corals of the 
Upper Chalk were dwellers in a deep sea, where reef species cannot and 
could not exist. We must seek to compare the Upper Cretaceous corals with 
the deep-sea forms of the Nummulitic, but unfortunately they are not yet 
found*, 

The Lower Cretaceous corals of Great Britain were the contemporaries of 
the reef-builders of the Gosau and equivalent formations, and thus deep-sea 
and reef species were contemporaneous, as they are at the present time, but they 
were separated by wide distances. The comparison of the reef-fauna and that 
of the deep sea is in this instance as futile as it would be at the present time ; 
but we may compare the reef-fauna of Gosau with that of the Nummulitic, 
Oligocene, Miocene, and existing reefs, and not without benefit and good 
results, for there are persistent species which unite the whole together. 

A comparison may also be instituted between the deep-sea coral-faunas of 
the Chalk and those which flourished at corresponding depths in the succeed- 
ing geological epochs. Thus, thanks to Messrs. Wyville Thomson, Carpenter, 
and Jeffreys, I have been able to assert the extraordinary homologies between 
the deep-sea Cretaceous corals and those which now exist to the west of these 
islands. These results are being published by the Zoological Society. The 
present arrangement of coral genera in and about reefs was foreshadowed as 
early as the Kocene, and such assemblages of genera existed in those old reefs as 
would characterize the coral life of atolls in the Caribbean Sea and in the raised 
reefs of the Pacific Ocean. The genera Madrepora, Alveopora, Porites, Helias- 
trea, and Millepora were represented in the Oberburg, and their species con- 
stitute the bulk of existing reefs. It is important to be thus able, from the 
labours of MM. Milne-Edwards, J, Haime, and Reuss, to determine the 
existence of Perforate and Tabulate corals in the earliest tertiaries, for inter- 
esting links are thus offered to the paleontologist by which the older and 
the newer faunas are connected. Such researches diminish the importance 

of the break between the early Tertiary fauna and the present, and also, to a 


* See P. M. Duncan on anew Coral from the Crag, and on the persistence of Cretaceous 
types in the deep sea (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, xxvii. pp. 369 & 434), 


122 REPORT—1871. 


certain extent, that between the Paleozoic and recent faunas. Thus the find- 
ing of species of the great Perforate genus Madrepora in the Oberburg 
carries the genus a step further back than their discovery in the Oligocene 
of Brockenhurst, and when taken into consideration with the presence of 
the Stephanophyllia, a perforate simple coral, in the Crag, Eocene, and Lower 
Cretaceous deposits, and with Actinacis, a highly developed compound form, 
in the Lower Cretaceous strata of Gosau, the immense break between the 
next form of the family and the existing is materially diminished. The next 
form is not met with until the Carboniferous deposits of Indiana are reached 
in a downward course ; and we owe to the late Jules Haime the knowledge 
of the structures of Paleacis cuneiformis, Haime, MS., from Spurgeon Hill, 
Indiana. It is indeed remarkable that the vast coralliferous strata which 
intervene between the Carboniferous and the Lower Chalk should not present 
a satisfactory proof of the existence of those members of the existing great 
reef-building family. There is a curious fact which may be taken for what 
it is worth in considering the absence of genera which have been represented 
in some ancient deposits and which have not been found in intermediate 
strata. Thus the existing West-India reefs contain abundance of the species 
of the genus Madrepora and Millepora; indeed they, with the forms of 
Porites, constitute the bulk of the formations. Now, although Porites is 
common in the Miocene reefs of the area, the others are very rare, for the 
coral structures were principally composed of tabulate forms and Heliastreans, 
Yet we know that before the Miocene reefs flourished, Madrepore and Mille- 
pore were common enough; they were living all the while in other coral 
tracts. But the break between the Paleozoic and the Lower Cretaceous forms 
cannot be bridged over without investigating the value of the classification 
which separates the most closely allied “subfamily of the Perforata, although 
the Perforata are found in the Great Oolite. 

II. The Perforata characterized by a porous coenenchyma and other tissues 
present many modifications of their hard parts. Some approach the Aporosa, 
and others would hardly be considered corals by the uninitiated on account of 
the sponge-like reticulations of the skeleton. The genus Madrepora is defined 
as follows by MM. Milne-Edwards and Jules Haime :— 

The corallum is compound and increases by budding. The ecenenchyma 
is abundant, spongy, reticulate, slightly or not at all distinguishable from 
the walls, which are very porous. The visceral chambers are subdivided by two 
principal septa, which meet by their inner margins, and are more developed 
than the others. 

The septa, especially the two largest, although perforated, are continuous, 
and very often lamellar. 

MM. Milne-Edwards and Jules Haime distinguish the Poritide in the fol- 
lowing manner :— 

The corallum is compound, and entirely formed of a reticulate coonenchyma, 
which is formed of trabecule and is porous. The corallites are fused 
together by their walls, or by an intermediate coonenchyma, and they multiply 
by budding, which is usually extracalicular and submarginal. 

The septal apparatus i is always more or less distinct, but never completely 

lamellar, and is formed by a series of trabecule, which constitute by their 
union a sort of lattice-work. The walls present the same structure as the 
septa. The visceral chambers sometimes have rudimentary dissepiments, 
but are never divided by tabule. 

This family is divided into two subfamilies— 

1. The Poritine, with a rudimentary or absent coenenchyma. 

2, The Montiporine, with a well-developed ccenenchyma. 


‘ahh 


ON THE BRITISH FOSSII. CORALS. 123 


Tt will be noticed, when specimens of Montiporine and Madrepore are 
compared, that the distinction is in the absence of the two large and not 
very perforate septa in the case of the first-mentioned group, and it is clear 
that the excessively trabecular character of its septa, coonenchyma, and walls 
is characteristic. Moreover the Montiporine are recent forms. 

The genus Litharcea amongst the Poritine approaches Madrepora, however, 
and its septa are often so lamellar that they resemble those of some Helias- 
treans amongst the Aporosa. Here the distinction between the forms 
becomes limited. The two great septa are not extended to the median line in 
Litharea, and there is scanty cconenchyma, but still there is some. The colu- 
mella of Litharea is simply formed by the union of trabecule from the septal 
ends. 

Now Protarea vetusta, Hall, and Protarea Verneuili, Kd. & H., Lower Silu- 
rian corals from Ohio, only differ from the species of Litharea by having more 
aporosesepta and some ccenenchymal protuberances*. It is necessary, however, 
on account of the comparatively late appearance (so far as our investigations 
has as yet gone) of Madrepora and Litharea, whilst admitting the extraor- 
dinary relation of the last-named genus to Protarwa, to examine another of 
the Jurassic Perforata. 

The genus Microsolena of the Poritins carries the excessively trabecular 
type of the Poritinse as far back as the Great Oolite; it is of course one of 
the extreme forms, and most remote from Madrepora. It has more or 
less confluent septa, and nothing like the styliform columella of Protaraa. 
Thus Paleacis, a form of the Madreporine, and Protarcea, a type of the 
Poritine, are still unsatisfactorily disconnected by intermediate species with 

_their allies in the secondary rocks. But, on the other hand, it is something 
to be able to show an anatomical connexion between the Protaree of the 
Lower Silurian and the Microsolene of the Jurassic and of the Litharee of the 
Nummulitic rocks, and between Paleacis and the Turbinarians of the group 
Madrepora, of which <Actinacis is the oldest (Lower Chalk)?. It shows that 
the reticulate or perforate corals existed amongst the first known coralliferous 
rocks, that the scheme of their organization has been perpetuated to the 
present day through many kinds of variations, but with a great break, which 
is owing to the imperfection of the geological record. 

III. The Tabulata, which form such large portions of many modern reefs, 
were, as has been already noticed, in existence during the Miocenef, the 
Oligocene §, and the Eocene||._ They were, of course, not found amongst 
the deep-sea deposits of the Cretaceous period, such, for instance, as our 
White Chalk; but Reuss found the genera in the reefs of Gosau. Heliopora 
Partschi, Reuss, sp.; H. macrostoma, Reuss, sp. ; Polytremacis Blainvilleana’; 
P. bulbosa, d’Orb.: these are not uncommon in the reefs which were in 
relation with the Hippurites, and the last coral genus lived during the 
Eocene. Reuss established a genus in 1854 for some compound, massive 
corals, with prismatic corallites with thick imperforate walls. The calices 
are without radiating septa and have no columelle. The tabulx are very 
irregular, some being complete and others uniting obliquely with their neigh- 
bours. The septa are represented by trabecule. This Lower Cretaceous 
genus he named Stylophyllum, and will be considered further on. 


* See Hist. Nat. des Corall. vol. iii. p. 185, 

+ M. Lindstrom has lately described a Ca/ocystis, a perforated coral from the Silurian. 
t See Duncan, West-Indian Fossil Corals (Q. J. Geol. Soc.) ; Reuss, Corals of Java, &e. 
-§ Reuss, op. ci¢,, and Duncan (Pal. Soc. Tertiary Corals of Brockenhurst). 

|| MM. Milne-Edwards and Haime, Hist. Nat. des Corall. &e. 3 


124. REPORT—1871. 


Pocillopora, so common a genus amongst the Indo-Pacific reefs, was found 
in the West-India Miocene, the Javan deposits, and at Turin and Dax. It 
is considered to be allied to Canites by Milne-Edwards, but Jules Haime 
doubted the Zoantharian characters of the last-named genus, which is Pale- 
ozoic. Seriatopora, a modern genus, does not appear to have been found 
fossil; but it is closely allied, according to the received opinion, with Rhab- 
dopora, Dendropora, and Trachypora, all Paleozoic genera, the first being 
Carboniferous and the others Devonian. Millepora, the great reef-building 
genus of the West Indies, can be traced into the Lower Tertiaries, and is 
closely allied to the #Heliopora already mentioned, and by structure to the 
Heliolites of the Paleozoic period. 

Between the Lower Cretaceous reefs and the Paleozoic there were the 
Devonian, the Oolitic, the Lower Liassic, the Rheetic, and the St. Cassian and 
the Muschelkalk reefs, but not a trace of a tabulate coral has been recorded 
from them, in spite of the affinities of the modern and most ancient genera 
of the Devonian. Cyathophora has tabule, but its alliances are with the 
Astreide. On examining the lists published in my last Report, the absence 
of tabulate corals in the whole of the Mesozoic strata of Great Britain will be 
apparent, and I have not been able to distinguish any foreign forms belonging 
to that vast age (except our Holocystis elegans, Ed. and H.), of which notice 
will be taken in treating of the Rugosa and the species of Columnastrea. 

Just as the Thecide, Favositide, and Halysitinze formed the reef-builders of 
the tabulate fauna of the Paleozoic times, so Milleporidze and Seriatoporidee 
contribute to the recent reef-fauna ; but these last genera had species in the 
Palwozoic fauna, so the break of the end of the Permian or Carboniferous 
periods was not complete so far as the Tabulata were concerned. The ab- 
sence of them from the successive secondary reefs that have been examined 
by palzontologists has probably been produced by the destructive fossilization 
which is so common in existing reefs, and by the real absence of the forms 
from certain reef-areas of which there is an example (see ‘ West-Indian Fossil 
Corals,’ Duncan). 

The Tabulata were as abundant in the Paleozoic periods as during the 
Tertiary epochs, and the ancient and modern genera and species have certain 
characters which differentiate them more or less from all other coral forms. 

MM. Milne-Edwards and Jules Haime characterize the Tabulata as fol- 
lows (Hist. Nat. des Corall. iii. p. 223) :— 

The corallum is essentially composed of a well-developed mural system, and 
the visceral chambers are divided into a series of stages by transverse floors, 
which act as complete diaphragms. 

The septal apparatus is rudimentary, and is either completely deficient or 
only represented by trabecule which do not extend far into the intertabular 
spaces. 

The lamellar diaphragms, floors, or tabule, which close the visceral 
chamber of the corallite at different heights, differ from the dissepiments of 
the Astraidee by not depending in any manner upon the septa, by closing 
completely the space below, for they stretch uninterruptedly from side to 
side, instead of simply occupying the interseptal loculi. 

The septal apparatus does not affect the Rugose type, but that character- 
istic of the Perforata and Aporosa. The forms classified under the section of 
the Tabulata are very numerous, and hence the importance of determining 
whether they can be undoubtedly allied with the rest of the Actinozoa. 

Many years have elapsed since Agassiz expressed his opinion, founded upon 
direct observation, that the Afidlepore, an important genus of the Tabulata, 


ON THE BRITISH FOSSIL CORALS, 125 


were not Actinozoa, but Hydrozoa, and lately he has reasserted this state- 
ment. If Millepora is one of the Hydrozoa, those tabulate forms which 
resemble it in structure, such as eliolites, must reasonably be asso- 
ciated with it in classification. The importance, then, of determining this 
point is very great, and unfortunately it is accompanied by many difficulties. 
Before proceeding to criticise Agassiz’s remarks, it is necessary to examine 
the nature of the structures of the genera associated with Millepora, or, in 
fact, to review the classification of the Tabulata, and to note their affinities 
with the other sections. Milne-Edwards and Jules Haime divide the Tabulata 
into four families :—Milleporide, Seriatoporide, Favositide, Thecide. 

The principle upon which this classification is founded is philosophical and 
natural to a certain degree. ‘The first two families have more or less ccenen- 
chyma between the corallites, and the last two have little or none, the co- 
rallites being soldered together by their walls. 

The genus Pocillopora unites the two divisions, for it belongs to the Favo- 
sitide, and yet has a compact coenenchyma on the surface of the corallum. 

The classificatory value of the presence of coonenchyma in the whole of the 
Madreporaria may be estimated by examining the scheme of MM. Milne- 
Edwards and Jules Haime. 

When treating of the Madreporids (Hist. Nat. des Corall. vol. iii. p. 91), 
they subdivide them into Eupsammine without an independent coenenchyma, 
Madreporine and Turbinarine with a very abundant coenenchyma. 

The Poritide they subdivide into the Poritinee without coenenchyma, and 
the Montiporine with an abundance of that structure in the spongy or 
alveolar form. 

The Euphylliaceee (Ed. & H. op. cit. pp. 184 & 197) have such genera 
as Barysmilia and Dichocenia, associated with Dendrogyra, Gyrosmilia, Pa- 
chygyra, Rhipidogyra, which have or have not much ccenenchyma. 4 

The Stylinacee are divided into independent, ‘‘ empatées,” and agglomerate. 
The independent genera have no coenenchyma; the ‘‘ empatées” possess it in 
the extreme so as to merit the term peritheca. 

The agglomerate have an excess of exotheca, but some genera are admitted 
which are united by their walls, and are therefore without exotheca or ce- 
nenchyma. Thus Phyllocenia has an exotheca quite ccenenchymatous, and 
Astrocenia has none. The corallites of Hlasmocenia have large mural ex- 
pansions, and those of Aplocenia are soldered by their walls. Heteroceenia 
and Pentacceenia present the same anomalies, 

The Astreeinz present such genera as Aphrastrewa and Septastrea, the one 
with and the other without extramural tissue, and Heliastrea and Solenastrea 
with and Jsastrea without the same structure. 

_ It is then evident that the presence or absence of coenenchyma had different 
significations in the estimation of the distinguished French zoophytologists. 

It is evident that the structure of the corallites of Isastraee and their defi- 
ciency in ccenenchyma in comparison with the Heliastree and Solenastreese. 
cannot be of any very great organic significance ; for the corallites of Heli- 
astra occasionally grow so close together as to produce absorption of the 
exotheca and costee, and the same occurs in the Astroccenie. The presence 
of exotheca, peritheca, and ccenenchyma (for they are grades of a particular 
structure) depends very much upon the habits of the corallum, and the notion 
of teleology can hardly be separated from the consideration of this presence 
and absence. Certainly to separate great groups by the presence or absence 
- of coenenchyma is not natural. It may be very useful to the classificatory 
student, because the limitation of forms is the prevailing want; but it is not 


126 REPORT—1871. 


so to the biologist, for these mixed and unnatural limitations and separations 
only form gaps in his argument, which require bridging over, 

The Favositide and Thecide, Paleeozoic forms, may then be separated, for 
the purposes of classification, from the Milleporide and Seriatoporidee, which 
are almost all post-Paleozoic ; but this limitation is not to impede the plain 
course of the paleontologist, who studies from a biological point of view; 
nor is it to stand in the way of the assertion, that the break between the 
Paleozoic and younger Tabulata is almost nit. 

The genus Millepora belongs to the Milleporide, and the ccenenchyma of its 
species is very abundant. It is of “a very irregular and spongy structure, 
rather than tubular” (Ed. & H.). The calices are of very different dimen- 
sions on the same corallum. There are no distinct septa, nor is there a 
columella. The tabule are horizontal. These are the diagnostics of the 
genus according to Milne-Edwards and Jules Hame. A careful examination 
of the calices of good specimens determines that the trabecule, of which the 
coenenchyma is composed, often projects into them, in the position of septa; 
but there is nothing like the regular arrangement as seen in Heliopora, or 
in the Poritide of the Perforata. The cells of the coenenchyma may occa- 
sionally be seen to open into the space above the last tabula. 

The absence of septa and this relation of the ccenenchyma to the gastric 
space are most important. The tubular nature of much of the coonenchyma 
is evident, and longitudinal sections of some size prove that the spongy nature 
of it is by no means constant nor uniform. 

In Heliopora, belonging also to the Milleporide, the ecenenchyma is very 
abundant, and covered here and there with rounded pores arranged more or 
less regularly and separated by papillose granules. These grains are the 
extremities of cylindrical “tigelles” which cireumscribe the tubules, the 
calice of which is open at the surface. The calices are circular. The septa 
are slightly developed, and there are twelve of them. The tabule are well 
developed and horizontal (Ed. & H.). The nature of the coenenchyma and 
the distinct septa distinguish this genus from the last. Both of the extinet 
species have a papillose or striated structure running over the cceonenchymal 
surface. In all the species the septa do not project far into the calice; but 
the amount of projection is not sufficient, as a structural peculiarity, in any 
case to determine more than a specific distinction. Hence MM. Milne- 
Edwards and Jules Haime when they separate, in their scheme of the Millepo- 
ride*, Millepora and Heliopora and other genera from Heliolites, Propora, 
and Lyellia, the particular Paleozoic genera, they can only be permitted to do 

'so on the plea that the plan renders the genera readily distinguishable. The 
projection or non-projection is not sufficient to determine a generic difference. 

Now Heliolites has a beautiful ccenenchyma, very geometric, and not irre- 
gular and spongy ; its cellules are placed regularly and symmetrically. In 
most of the species the septa are distinct, and project far inwards, but in 
Heliolites Grayi they are almost rudimentary. 

The genus Polytremacis links Heliolites and Heliopora together, for its 
coenenchyma is that of the second, and the septa resemble those of the first- 
named genus. Polytremacis is not older than Heliopora in the secondary 
ages, and the septal distinction which cannot expel Heliolites Grayi from 
its genus, and which is improperly allowed to distinguish Polytremacis and 
Heliopora, and these and Heliolites, may well have been produced by varia- 
tions in a succession of early secondary forms, 


* Op, cit. p. 225, 


ON THE BRITISH FOSSIL CORALS. 127 


The septal development of Heliolites is exaggerated in Propora, a genus 
from the Upper Silurian, and which perhaps lasted into the Carboniferous, 
The cost in this genus are well developed, but the ccenenchymal cells are 
less geometric than in Heliolites. The structural relations are of the closest, 
and the generic distinction is not of the usual generic value. Another 
Upper Silurian genus, Lyellia, represents these symmetrical Milleporide 
in America. The corallite walls are subcostulate and not so costulate as in 
Propora. The septa (12) are well developed, as in Heliolites and Propora and 
Heliopora, and the ccenenchyma is perfectly vesicular—spongy, in fact, like 
Heliopora. Here, then, in the distant and British and Northern European 
Silurians, there were closely allied forms varying amongst themselves, but 
more than the secondary types, the variation having some sort of likeness in 
both instances. It is impossible not to acknowledge the genetic affinities of) 
all these genera except Millepora, of which more will be said, or to hesitate 
to assert that there has never been a break in the Tabulata, and that the Re- 
cent and Paleozoic Heliopora and Heliolites are very closely allied, the one 
being the descendant of the other*. -Awopora is a tertiary genus, and its 
immense columella, which fills up the corallite inferiorly and leaves but little 
room in the calice around it, of course prevents the tabule from reaching 
across the axial space. The tabule come in contact with but do not perfo- 
rate the columella, so that this structure grows progressively without any 
reference to them; they do not form floors upon which a columella is deye- 
lopedy. There are no septa, and the coenenchyma is reticulate in the ex- 
treme. No living analogue of this genus exists, and exception may be taken 
whether it be a true coral. It has no Paleozoic representatives, 

Battersbyia is a very remarkable Paleozoic genus, and has been examined 
by met. MM. Milne-Edwards and Jules Haime§ classify it with the Mil- 
leporidee, but apparently only provisionally ; but it will be noticed elsewhere. 
I haye associated Battersbyia and Heterophyllia together as a new division 
of the Aporosa of the Astreeide, under the name of the Palastraeacer, which 
are noticed in the first part of this Report. 

The Fayositide are divided by MM. Milne-Edwards and Jules Haime into 
the following subfamilies: Favositine, Cheetetinee, Halysitine, Pocilloporine, 
All are presumed to present the following family characteristics :—‘ The 
corallum is formed essentially of the lamellar walls of the corallites, and 
possesses hardly any or no ccenenchyma. ‘The visceral chambers are divided 
by tabulz, which are numerous and well developed.” 

The subfamilies without any ccenenchyma, and those whose corallites form a 
massive corallum, are the Favositine and the Cheetetine, and the genera whose 
corallites are not united on all sides the Halysitine. The Pocilloporins 
constitute the ccenenchymal subfamily. One of the great difficulties of the 
zoophytologist appears strongly enough whilst investigating these Tabulata, for 
the question constantly arises, and can only be answered yery unsatisfactorily, 
are such and such forms really Actinozoa? are they not Polyzoa, Hydrozoa, 
or of some class which has become extinct, and which has no modern repre- 
sentatives ? 

Some genera are characterized by the absence of septa. Thus Cheetetes | 
has long basaltiform corallites, numerous tabule which do not correspond in 


their plane throughout the corallum, no septa, and the reproduction is fissi- 
parous, i 


* See Huxley’s Address, Geol. Soc. 1870. : 
t Pal. Soc. Tertiary Corals, 3rd*Series, P. M. Duncan, pl. vil, figs, 11-15, 
¢ Phil. Trans, 1867, § Op, cit, p. 244. t 


128 REPORT—1871. 


Keyserling considered the genus to belong to the Alcyonaria amongst the 
Actinozoa; but MM. Milne-Edwards and Jules Haime, considering the great 
analogy between Chetetes and Favosites, and particularly with Beaumontia, 
‘ou la présence de cloisons n’est pas contestable”*, determined its position 
to be amongst the true Tabulata. 

The same authors now recognize the necessity of separating Chetetes from 
Monticulipora, and assert that the members of the last-named genus increase 
by gemmation. 

The genus Dania differs from Chetetes in haying the tabule on regular 
planes which traverse the whole corallum. This peculiarity is hardly of 
generic value. 

Stellipora (Hall) is not generically different from Monticulipora, and the 
truth of this assertion can be estimated by comparing the diagnosis of the 
genera given by MM. Milne-Edwards and Jules Haime ft. 

The differentiation of Dekayia (Ed. & H.){ and of Labechia is also unsatis- 
factory, and their more or less mammillated coenenchyma ranges them together 
by the side of Stellipora as subgenera of Monticulipora. 

Now Jules Haime, when investigating the Oolitic Polyzoa, classified forms 
without septa and with tabule, like Chetetes or Monticulipora, as Polyzoa, 
and the beautiful Stellipore were especially included. 

Now the question arises, are there any recent Polyzoa whose soft parts 
have been examined that have tabule? From our knowledge of the recent 
Polyzoa, it is unsafe to answer this in the affirmative. There is a freshwater 
species which is said to have tabule, but the assertion requires confirmation. 
The classification, then, of these forms amongst the Polyzoa must be deferred, 
and I propose to decide against it now. 

Beaumontia, the genus noticed above, is distinguished by MM. Milne- 
Edwards and Jules Haime § as follows :—‘‘ This genus is distinguished from 
all other Chetetine by the formation of its tabule, which are irregular or 
vesicular, and it thus resembles Michelenia, belonging to Fayositine.” The 
presence of septa belonging to three cycles is asserted by the same authors, 
and this fact must remove the genus quite out of the neighbourhood of septa- 
less forms. 

The genera of the Chetetine were formerly Chetetes, Monticulipora, Dania, 
Stellipora, Dekayia, Beaumontia, and Labechia. It has been shown that 
Stellipora, Dekayia, and Labechia are subgenera of Monticulipora, that Dania 
cannot be separated from Chetetes, and that Beawmontia has no correct affinity 
with the others, and that it belongs to another family. 

The genera should stand thus :— 


CH2TETINE. 


Chatetes. Subgenus Dania. 

Monticulipora, Subgenus Stellipora. 
- Dekeayia. 
of Labechia. 


But the subgeneric names should be dropped. 
' This result is interesting because it eliminates Beawmontia and makes a 
compact series, the affinities of which are not Polyzoan, but which may be 
Alcyonarian or Hydrozoan. 

The long tabular or basaltiform corallites of Chetetes and its allied forms, 


* Op. cit. pp. 271. F Op. cit, vol. iii. pp. 272, 281. 
¢ Ibid. p. 283. § Op. cit, vol. iii. p. 282. 


ee a a 


ON THE BRITISH FOSSIL CORALS. 129 


and their more or less horizontal and perfect tabule, recall the Tubiporins 
amongst the order of the Alcyonaria. 

The Alcyonaria are Actinozoa which are separated by MM. Milne-Edwards 
and Jules Haime from the Zoantharia on account of the pinnate structure of 
the tentacles, and from these important organs being invariably eight in 
number. 

The zoantharian tentacles, on the contrary, are simple or irregularly rami- 
fied, and increase in number with age. 

The Alcyonaria are divided into the families of the Aleyonide, the Gorgo- 
nid, and the Pennatulide. 

The first two families have an adherent corallum, and the last consists of 
free forms. 

The Alcyonide haye no hard central axis, but this characterizes the 
Gorgonide. 

Now the Cornularine, Telestine, and Aleyonine, subfamilies of the Aley- 
nide, are clearly allied to the Tubiporine by their soft structures; but the 
hard external structures of this subfamily are only faintly shown in the spi- 
culate scoriaceous conditions of the external tegument of Nephthya, Spoggodes, 
and Paraleyonium. The polypes of Nephthya and Paraleyonium enter their 
spiculate and dense external covering when they contract; but the hard 
structures of Spoggodes celosia, Lesson, are very slightly developed. 


Tusrrora (pars), Linneus. 


Tubipora, Lamarck. 

The genus has been examined by MM. Milne-Edwards and Jules Haime 
with their usual care and acumen. 

The specimens of Zubipora are so common that the descriptions of these 
authors concerning the hard parts of the corallum can readily be followed. 

The corallites are formed principally by a tabular wall, the tissue of which 
is calcareous and readily fractured. There are no septa, but there are ru- 
dimentary tabula, which cut off the visceral cavity into more or less perfect 
stages. The corallites are cylindrical, and usually attain an equal height ; 
but they do not touch each other, for they are united by a peritheca, which 
is only seen here and there in distinct floors. The budding takes place 
from the connecting peritheca, which is therefore a true ccenenchyma, and 
not like that of Solenastrea. Were the corallites in contact the appearance 
of Cheetetes would be presented ; so that the presence of the coenenchyma is 
the differentiating structure. It is only of generic value, and thus there is 
a yery strong reason for associating the Chietetine and all the other fossils 
with long tubular structures, no septa, and tabule with the Alcyonide in the 
subfamily Tubiporine and near the genus Zubipora. These remarks are 
subject, of course, to the consideration whether the views of Agassiz already 

noticed are correct. 

Reuss’s genus Stylophyllum (Gosau Chalk) cannot be associated with the 
Aleyonide, for the species has septa. The corallites are united by their 
walls without there being a coenenchyma, and the walls are imperforate. The 
junction of the corallites takes place by means of an epitheca. 

The junction may occur at any part of the corallite. 

The resemblance of Stylophyllum to some of the Halysitinze (Ed. & H.)* 
‘necessitates an examination of their structural peculiarities. ~ 

* * Op. cit, vol. iii, p. 286. 


1871, 3 x 


130 REPORT—1871. 


MM. Milne-Edwards and Jules Haime differentiate the Halysitine as 
follows :— 

“The corallum is compound, but its corallites unite imperfectly, and 
constitute lamellar expansions or long fasciculi; they are either free on two 
sides, or are united together by ‘eapansions murales,’” 

The septa are small, but usually very distinct; finally the walls are well 
developed and aporose. 

The genera are :—Halysites, Fischer ; Syringopora, Goldfuss ; Thecostegites, 
Ed. & H. (Harmodites, Michelin); Conostegites, Ed. & H.; Fletcheria, Ed. 
& H. 

Halysites. The species are invariably formed by corallites which are joined 
on two sides, and which in transverse outline resemble links of a chain. 
The epitheca is very strong, and unites the corallites perfectly where 
they are in contact from the base to the calice. Septa12. Tabule 
horizontal and well developed. (Silurian.) 

Thecostegites. The corallites have septa, horizontal tabule, and an exotheca 
unites them, and it is more or less tabular in structure, and exisis in 
stages like the Zubipora. In’Z. parvula the coenenchyma is nearly 
compact. (Devonian.) 

Conostegites. There are numerous septal striee, which mark also the smooth 
and convex surfaces of the tabule. The tabule are more or less infun- 
dibuliform, and the epitheca unites the corallites here and there. 

Syringopora. The corallum is fasciculate ; the corallites are cylindrical and 
very long, parallel, and free laterally, except where horizontal tubes 
connect them. The walls are well developed, and clothed with a strong 
epitheca; septa exist. The tabule are infundibuliform. 

Fletcheria. The corallum is fasciculate; the corallites are cylindrical, close, 
and long. The epitheca is complete; septa exist. Tabule horizontal 
and well developed. No intercorallite tubes or expansions of epitheca. 
Gemmation calicular. 

It is evident that some of these genera are very slightly allied; for in- 
stance, Syringopora and Fletcheria, and both of them and Halysites. 

Halysites, with its stout epitheca and simple tabule with non-tubular 
joints, is a very definite form. 

Thecostegites should belong to the Milleporide. 

Oonostegites, with infundibuliform tabule, is related to Halysites as Miche- 
linia is to Favosites. 

Fletcheria is altogether aberrant. 

The Halysitinee comprehend, according to this analysis, Halysites, Fischer ; 
Stylophyllum, Reuss; Conostegites, Ed. & H. 

The genera Syringopora and Fletcheria will be considered further on. 
wae subfamily of the Pocilloporinse contains the genera Pocillopora and 

‘aenites, 

Pocillopora has septa (and my specimens show 12), which, even in fossil 
specimens, mark the top of the tabule. There is a columellary swelling on 
its tabule. The ceenenchyma is very stout and thick in old portions of the 
corallum, less so where growth has just ceased, and the coenenchyma barely 
exists where the corallites or calices are developing. It is cellular at first,. 
and then fills up with calcite and other coral salts. 

Fossil forms have been described by Reuss and myself from the Cainozoic 
formations. 

_ Ceenites resembles Pocillopora in a certain density of its coenenchyma, but 
differs in only haying three tooth-like septa, like the genus Alveolites. 


ON THE BRITISH FOSSIL CORALS. 131 


The number of septa and the habit of growth of the two genera separate 
them very widely ; and the propriety of connecting the last-named one with 
the Milleporide must be considered. 

There are four genera in the family of the Seriatoporide :—Seriatopora, 
Dendropora, Rhabdopora, Trachypora. 

The family is characterized by the continual growth of the lower parts of 
the corallites and the rarity of tabule. 

Seriatopora is a recent genus, and therefore those associated with it must 
be carefully examined. 

Dendropora, Michelin, is clearly too closely allied to Rhabdopora to be 
separated generically. 3 

Rhabdopora, formed for the Dendropora megastoma, M‘Coy, by MM. Milne- 
Edwards and Jules Haime, has only one species, the diagnosis of which is as 
follows :— 

Rhabdopora megastoma, M‘Coy, sp.—The corallum is branching. Branches 
four-sided, starting from the stem at an angle of 70°, and very equal. Cce- 
nenchyma granulated or subechinulated and obscurely striated. Calices in 
vertical series on each face of the branches. Septa (teeth) 12 in number and 
subequal. : 

It is impossible to separate this from Seriatopora, for the four-sided suture 
of the branches is only a specific (if that) distinction. 

Trachypora appears to be an Alcyonarian. 

The distinction between Pocillopora and Seriatopora is not generic, and 
therefore these genera and Dendropora (for Dendropora and Rhabdopora 
are equal, and the first name is the oldest) are absorbed in one. Oken’s 
name Acropora (1815) may be used as the generic term :—AcRoPporA 
(Seriatopora, Lamarck ; Pocillopora, Lamarck ; Dendropora, Michelin ; Rhab- 
dopora, Ed, & Haime). 

All the species of the absorbed genera should take the generic name of 
Acropora, and the family becomes that of the Acroporine. Thus the sharp 
distinction between the recent and Paleozoic forms is partly smoothed down, 
and the old Dendropore and Rhabdopore were doubtless the ancestral 
forms of the recent Acropore. Ccnites cannot be associated with the 
family. 

The family of the Thecides is characterized by well-formed septa, which 
are prolonged throughout the visceral chamber, well-developed tabule, which 
grow like dissepiments upon the sides of the septa, and these last do not 
spring from the upper surface of the tabul, asin some Tabulata. The walls 
are solid, compact, and united. 

The corals contained in the family are all Silurian forms, so far as is 
known at present. 

Thecia, Kd. & Haime. It is a most remarkable fact that this genus, the 
species of which have no true wall, but a dense ceenenchyma between septal 
prolongations or costs, should here give the family name. Thecia Swinder- 
niana, Goldfuss, sp., has been called Agaricia, Porites, Astreopora, and Palco- 
pora by different authors, so that its classificatory position may well be a 
matter of doubt. It is not in the least allied to Columnariz, which has solid 
walls, and which fulfils all the characteristics of the Thecide. 

In Theeia, Ed. & H., there is a long visceral cavity surrounded by a dense 
tissue, as in Millepora, through which the septa, or rather the costa, run. 

What is the structure of Plasmopora and Propora but that of Theeia 
‘slightly modified. The genus clearly must be associated with them amongst 
the Milleporidic. 

K2 


132 REPORT—1871. 


Columnaria is a fine form; the great septa (12 to 18) and tabule, with 
the compact walls, distinguish it at once. Col. alveolata is a Lower Silurian 
form, C. Gothlandica is Upper Silurian. It is a most important genus, and 
its affinities will be noticed. 

The Favositide have a massive corallum without coenenchyma, septa, and 
perforate walls; that is, there are openings which permit the visceral cavity 
of one corallite to communicate with that of another in several places. The 
following genera are included by MM. Milne-Edwards and Jules Haime :— 
Favosites, Emmonsia, Michelinia, Remeria, Koninckia, Alveolites. 

Favosites is the typical genus. In some species the mural foramina are 
scanty in number, in others numerous; and they are even in relation with 
the angles of the wall, especially in /. alveolaris. 

The earliest species of the genus are Lower Silurian, for instance :—F’. Goth- 
landica, F. multipora, F. aspera, F. Forbesi (which ranges through to the 
Upper Silurian), and F, fibrosa (haying the same vertical range, and is found 
as a Devonian fossil). 

F. Hisingeri has the same range as F. fibrosa. F. cristata and F. cervi- 
cornis are the same, and the range is from the Upper Silurian of England 
to the Devonian of Russia. 

The species which are Devonian, and do not range above or below, are :— 
F. Goldfussi, F. basaltica, F. polymorpha, F. alveolaris, F. pediculata, F. Tehi- 
hatchefi, and F. mammillaris. The only known Carboniferous Favosites is 
F. parasitica, and it is a degenerate form. 

F. Gothlandica has rounded processes encircling the mural pores, and the 
projections formed upon one fit against those of the neighbouring corallite. 
F, multipora has three vertical series of pores, and its walls are almost as per- 
forate as some Alveopore. 

The tabule are almost universally horizontal in the Favosites, but some are 
wavy in their course; and the septa are a series of vertical spines which vary 
in size according to the cycle, and are often referable to three cycles in six 
systems. In some there is a faint columellary swelling on the tabule. 

A careful examination of the species proves that the earliest known forms 
are as highly developed as the Devonian, but that the species parasitica is_ 
dwarfed. 

Emmonsia has imperfect tabule. The tabule are vesicular at the sides, 
or dissepimental, and they communicate more or less with each other. 

Remeria has infundibuliform tabule, and the species is Devonian. 

Koninckia is an Upper Cretaceous form; it has thin and nearly horizontal 
tabule, thin walls very much perforated, and six series of large spiny septa. 

Michelinia has irregular and vesicular (dissepimental) tabulee, and simple 
strie for septa (Devonian and Carboniferous). The alliance of AMichelinia, 
Remeria, and Emmonsia is very evident. Mr. Kent has written a most 
interesting description of Favositipora (Kent), Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. 1870, 
vol. vi. p. 384, which unites the Favositine and the Favositide. 

Alveolites offers the same objection to being united to avosites that.Canites 
does to Pocillopora; in fact Alveolites is a Canites with perforated walls, 
and it is proposed to deal with both genera by disassociating them from their 
recognized families, 

Syringopora I propose uniting with the Favositide, as it has tubular 
connexions between the visceral centres of the corallites, which are fore- 
shadowed in J, Gothlandica. 

After this analysis of the Tabulata, it is necessary to state the opinions of 
Prof, Agassiz respecting their Hydrozoan characteristics, 


ON THE BRITISH FOSSIL CORALS, 133 


Prof. Agassiz (senior) writes as follows in the ‘ American Journal of Science 
and Arts,’ 2nd series, vol. xxvi. p. 140, November 1858 :-— 

“The animals of Millepora are Hydroid Acalephs and not polyps;” that 
is to say, they are Hydrozoa and not Actinozoa. The résumé of several letters 
to Dana is given at the same place. “JI have seen,” writes Agassiz, “in 
the Tortugas something very unexpected. Millepora is not an actinoid polyp 
but a genuine Hydroid, closely allied to Hydractinia. This seems to carry 
the whole group of Favositids over to the Acalephs, and displays a beautiful 
array of this class from the Silurian to this day.” 

Dana adds a note to this statement. “The drawings of Professor Agassiz 
which have been sent us for examination are so obviously Hydractinian in 
most of their characters that no one can question the relation. With re- 
gard to the reference of all the Favositide (a group including Fuvosites, 
Fenestella, Pocillopora, &e., as well as the minuter Millepora, Chetetes, &e.) 
to the Acaleph class, direct evidence is not yet complete, as the animal of the 
Pocillopora has not been figured by any author on zoophytes. From the 
specimens of the species of this genus which I procured in the Pacific, I never 
obtained a clear view of the polyps, and hence made no figure. The brief 
description on page 523 of my Report may be reasonably doubted until con- 
firmed by new researches. The much larger cells in Pocillopora, Favosites, 
and Jenestella than in Millepora, and the frequently distinct rays in these 
cells, are the characters I had mentioned to Prof. Agassiz as suggesting a 
doubt as to their being Acalephs, and to this what follows above relates.” 

Agassiz observes, in a subsequent letter, after observing that the Sidero- 
poree obviously are polyps, ‘‘ There are two types of radiating lamelle which 
are not homologous. In true polyps (excluding Favositide as Hydroids) the 
lamelle extend from the outer body-wall inward along the whole height of that 
wall, and the transverse partitions reach only from one lamella to the other, 
so that there is no continuity between them, while the radiating lamelle 
are continuous from top to bottom in each cell. In Milleporide the partitions 
are transverse and continuous across the cells; so are they in Pocillopora and 
in all Tabulata and Rugosa; while the radiating lamellae, where they exist, 
as in Pocillopora and many other Favositide, rise from these horizontal 
floors, and do not extend through the transverse partitions; indeed they are 
limited within the spaces of two successive-floors, or to the upper surface of 
the last. A careful comparison of the corallum of Millepora and Pocillopora 
with that of Hydractinia has satisfied me that these radiating partitions of 
the Favositide, far from being productions of the body-wall, are foot-secre- 
tions, to be compared to the axis of the Gordonia corallum &c., and their 
seeming radiating lamelle to the vertical groove or keel upon the surface of 
the latter, which, reduced to a horizontal projection, would also make the 
impression of radiating lamellz in the foot of the polyp. If this be so, you 
see at once that apparent radiating lamelle of the Favositide do no longer 
indicate an affinity with the true polyps, but simply a peculiar mode of 
growth of the corallum; and of these we have already several types, that of 
Actinoids, that of Alcyonoids, that of Bryozoa, that of Millepora, and other 
corallines, to which we now add that of Hydroids. Considering the subject 
in this light, is there any further objection to uniting all the Favositid with 
the Hydroids? Sideropora and Alveopora being of course removed trom the 
Favositide. It is a point of great importance in a geological point of view, 
and for years I have been anticipating some such result, as you may see by 

" comparing my remarks in the ‘ American Journal,’ May 1854, p-315. Ifall 
the Tabulata and Rugosa are Hydroids, as I believe them to be, the class of 


134 REPORT—1871. 


Acalephs is no longer an exception to the simultaneous appearance of all the 
types of Radiata in the lowest fossiliferous formations, and the peculiar cha- 
racters which these old Hydroid corals present appears in a new and very 
instructive aspect.” 

A. Agassiz includes the Tabulata amongst the Hydrozoa. He notices 
“that the absence of radiating partitions in the Tabulata seems to show 
without much doubt that their true place is among the Hydroids.” It is 
true that Prof. Agassiz has not observed the Medusa-buds on the specimens 
he has figured, yet the Hydroid character of the animal and their similarity to 
Halocheris-like Hydroids is very striking (Havard Catalogue, 1865, p. 219). 

Prof. Alexander Agassiz informs me that his father still holds these opinions, 
and that new researches have satisfied him about the correctness of the 
drawings which have been lately reproduced. “ Willepora is not. an actinoid 
polyp, but a genwine Hydroid, closely allied to Hydractinia.” 

This very strong expression of opinion is founded upon the appearance 
presented by the polyps of Millepora alcicornis, the drawing of which has 

been reproduced by A. Agassiz. Now the distinction between the Actinozoa 
and the Hydrozoa is well marked; in the first the generative apparatus is 
included in the gastric and perigastric cavities, and in the last the digestive 
and generative organs are perfectly apart. very variety of tentacular and 
disk apparatus may exist in either, but the external development of the gem- 
mules, ova, and embryonic forms. must be recognized before any Ceelenterate 
| animal can be associated with the Hydrozoa. 

Here is the point at which Agassiz fails. His researches are only sug- 
gestive, until the generative organs are recognized on the protruded polypes 
of Millepora, and until the mesenterico-ovarian layers are proved not to exist 
within the calices. The external resemblance of the Millepore polypes to the 
sterile Hydractinia is evident. 

The remarks upon Favositide, Sideropore, and other genera, made by 
Agassiz in consequence of the assumption that Millepora is Hydrozoan, are of 
doubtful value ; and I must refer back to my analysis of the Tabulata to show 
how a confused classification between both classes imperils research. Sidero- 
pora is nota tabulate form even. A careful examination of Columnaria satis- 
fies me that Agassiz’s description of the lamelle fails in that genus; and inas- 
much as the wavy lines of Gorgonia and Corallium are connected with the water 
system of the species, they can have no possible relation with the radiate 
amellz or groovings of the Milleporan calices. The homologues of the grooves 
are the depressions and irregular interstriated portions on top of the ccenen- 
chyma between the calices in the Tabulata. 

The perforate walls and the septa of the true Favositidsee seem to remove 
them from the range of the remarks of Agassiz, which may well deserve 
attention, so far as Millepora is concerned, for it is a genus with, marked 
distinctions from all other corals. 

It is not reasonable to include the Rugosa, because some of them haye no 
tabulz, and others have them so much like dissepiments, or associated with 
dissepiments, that we are impressed with the unimportance of the differen- 
tiations established by the presence of horizontal tabule. 

It is most important that the minute structure of the Milleporide should 
be thoroughly investigated, and any report on the Palaeozoic corals must be 
very incomplete without a detailed description of its study. 


ON THE BRITISH FOSSIL CORALS. 1385 


Section TABULATA. 

Families. 

Milleporide, Coenenchyma cellular. 

Acroporide, Coenenchyma compact. 
Favositide. Walls perforated. 

Without ccenenchyma .. ; Halysitide. Walls imperforate. 
Alveolitide. Septa tridentate. 


With ccenenchyma .... { 


Genera. 
Millepora*. 
Heliolites, Helioporat, Polytremacis. 
Propora, Plasmopora, Thecia. 


MILLEPORIDZ...... Lyellia. 
Thecostegites. 
| Awopora. 
onus ...... { Monee Seriatopora, Pocillopora, Dendropora, Rhab- 


Favosites, Koninckia, Favositipora, genus noy. (Kent). 
Michelinia, Remeria, Emmonsia. 
| Syringopora, 
| Aulopora. 
Halysites. 
Stylophyllum. 
Hatysitip#® ...... < Conostegites. 
Columnaria. 
_Beaumontia. 
Alveolites. 
{ Coenites. 
| Fistulipora. 


FAayositip@ ...:.. 


IGVEOLITIDA ...... 


Incerte sedis ...... Fletcheria. 


ALCYONARIA, 
Cheetetes. Monticulipora. Dania. Stellipora. Labechia, 


IY. The Rugosa.—MM. Milne-Edwards and Jules Haime observe (op. cit. 
vol. iii. p. 323), ‘that this division comprchends simple and compound 
corals, and that the septal apparatus never forms six distinct systems, and 
appears to be derived from four primitive elements. Sometimes this dispo- 
sition is shown by the great development of four principal septa, or by the 
existence of four depressions which occupy the bottom of the calice and 
take on a cross-like look. In other instances there is observed only one of 
these depressions or excavations, or one large septum interferes with the 
regularly radiate and star-shape of the septal arrangement. Finally, there 
are instances where no traces of distinct groups or systems of septa can be 
recognized, and where the septa are represented by numerous stris arising 
on the upper surface of the tabule or dissepiments near the calicular mar- 
gin.” They continue as follows :— The corallites are always perfectly di- 
stinct amongst themselves, and are never united by independent ccenenchyma. 
The walls are in general very slightly developed. The visceral chamber is 


* Millepora is a most aberrant genus if it is one of the Madreporaria Tabulata. I have 
not yet satisfied myself about the Hydroidean characteristics of its soft parts; but an 
" examination of the ccenenchyma of a series of species throws great doubt upon the Ma- 
dreporarian affinities. ; 
+ The relation of Heliopora to Heliolites is of the closest. 


136 REPORT—1871. 


ordinarily occupied by a series of tabule or vesicular endotheca, and the 
endotheca often occupies the greater part of the corallum. The septal 
lamin, although generally very incomplete, are never perforated or ‘ pou- 
trellaire ;’ finally, their lateral faces are not furnished with synapticule, and 
are only rarely granular. : re 

«‘ The individual corallites increase by gemmation, and never by fissiparity. 
The buds are generally calicular, and this form of gemmation may continue 
in the same individual. In some cases the gemmation is lateral.” 

The originators of the “ Rugosa” divide them into four families :— 


1. Stauridee. 3. Cyathophyllide. 
2. Cyathoxonide. 4. Cystiphyllidee. 


In criticising this classification some definite plan must be adopted, which 
should refer to the philosophy of the classification of the Aporosa and Per- 
forata. In fact the scheme of generic subdivision and differentiation adopted 
in the Neozoic corals can be made to apply to those of the Paleozoic age. 
Thus an essential distinction is made amongst the Neozoic corals by the 
simple or compound nature of the corallum. Simple Caryophylline constitute 
a series of genera, and the compound forms are separated as Coenocyathi, 
Now in the Paleozoic genus Cyathophyllum, MM. Milne-Edwards and Jules 
Haime admit, in direct opposition to the Neozoic scheme, both simple and 
compound forms. ‘This, I think, is an error, but only an error of classifica- 
tion, for there can be no reasonable doubt of the intimate genealogical 
relation of the simple and compound genera of Cyathophyllum. 

Families *. 

1, Sravrx.—Genera: Stawria, Holocystis, Polycelia, Metriophyllum, 
Conosmilia. 

Of these Holocystis is a Lower Greensand form, and Conosmilia is Austra 
lian and Tertiary. 

MM. Milne-Edwards and Jules Haime place the Stauride first in their 
list of families ; but it would have made the classification more simple if the 
second family took their place ; and I propose to change the order of arrange- 
ment, but proceed at present in the recognized method. 

There is a well-developed wall in the Stauridz ; the septa are continuous 
from the top to the bottom of the calice, and are eminently quaternary in 
their arrangement. The endotheca assumes the vesicular structure between 
the septa, and then crosses over in the form of horizontal tabule. The 
Stauride approach the Cyathophyllide more than the Cyathoxonide; and, 
indeed, the only essential distinction between the first two families is in the 
truly lamellar state of the septa in the first instance, and in the incomplete 
condition of them in the second. Nevertheless it should constitute a family 
distinction. 

Two of the Stauridian genera are compound, and three are simple forms. 

Stauria, which as yet has not been found in British strata, has neither cclu- 
mella nor coste, whilst Ho/ocystis has both of these structures. There is no 
reason why the last-named genus should not be the lineal descendant of the 
rience Both were probably shallow-water forms in the neighbourhood of 
reefs. 

The simple forms Conosmilia and Polycclia are closely allied, and the 
presence of the first in the Australian Tertiaries, and of the other in the Euro- 


* See Hist. Nat. des Coralliaires, vol. iii, p. 825 e¢ seg. (Milne-Edwards and Jules 
Haime). 


ON HEAT GENERATED IN THE BLOOD. 137 


pean Permian, is highly suggestive. The remaining form, Metriophyllum, 
offers a great difficulty, for if the received classification be adopted, the genus 
is very aberrant. Thus Metriophyllwm has not four principal septa, but the 
septa are arranged in four groups, a gap or kind of septal fossula being be- 
tween each group. The British Devonian species (IM. Battersbyi, Ed. & H.) 
was founded upon a transverse section of a slab, and therefore the entire 
nature of the septa could hardly be determined. The question arises at once, 
what do those septal fossule mean? And another follows very naturally, are 
they in relation with the primary septa? 

I think that they denote a difference in the physiology of the polype, for 
they would permit of a deeper development of the visceral cavity and an 
enlarged condition of the ovarian apparatus. Moreover, these fossule may 
have much to do with the growth of the coral in calibre and in septal num- 
ber; and, furthermore, Lindstrém’s admirably suggestive paper on the oper- 
culated structures, necessitates much attention being paid to them. Can 
there be any genealogical classification which will connect in one family 
such different forms as Metriophyllum and Polycelia? I think not. 

Eliminating, then, Metriophyllum from the Stauride, I propose to permit 
the genus to remain per se for the present. 

2. Cyarnoxonrpa.—Genera: Cyathowonia, Paleozoic; Haplophyllia(Pour- 
tales) and Guynia (Duncan), recent. 

This group has no endotheca, and resembles the Turbinolide amongst the 
Neozoic corals, but it has the quaternary arrangement of the septa. 

All the forms are simple. Cyathowonia preceded the others, and all are 
closely allied. The foreshadowing of the Neozoic forms in the Paleozoic 
Cyathoxonide is evident enough. 


Report on the Heat generated in the Blood during the process of 
Arteriahzation. By Anruur Gamern, M_D., F.R.S.E., Lecturer on 
Physiology in the Extra-Academical Medical School of Edinburgh. 


In a Report which was submitted to the British Association in Liverpool 
last year*, I very shortly alluded to the objects which I had in view in com- 
mencing an investigation on the very obscure subject of the heat generated 
during the arterialization of blood. 

I pointed out that two methods of research suggested themselves as likely 
to elicit facts which would lead to a solution of the problem, and I stated 
that both these methods had been employed by previous observers. 

The first method, which would at first sight appear likely to furnish us 
with most important data, consists in ascertaining the temperature of the 
blood in the right and left ventricles of the heart of living animals. If our 
methods of experimenting were free from the great fallacies which are in- 
troduced when we are compelled to interfere, in a serious manner, with the 
central organ of the circulation, and if it resulted that the left side of the 
heart contained blood warmer than that of the right side, we should be driven 
to the conclusion either that during the process of absorption and combina- 
_ tion of the oxygen of the air a very perceptible evolution of heat had oc- 


* Report of the Liverpool Meeting, p. 228, 


138 REPORT—1871. 


curred, or that within the pulmonary vessels considerable oxidation processes 
of the blood contained in them had taken place. If, on the other hand, the 
temperature of the left side were the same as that of the right side, or lower, 
the question would still remain an open one; for heat might be evolved in 
the lungs, and yet the quantity might be insufficient to counterbalance the 
loss of heat due to the evolution of large quantities of watery vapour, of car- 
bonic acid, and to the heating of the air which we daily inspire. 

The first method, or that which consists in ascertaining the temperature 
of the two sides of the heart, need scarcely be touched upon at present; and 
I shall merely confine myself to the statement that, in the hands of the most 
experienced and reliable physiologists, and specially in those of Professor 
Claude Bernard, it has led to the curious result that the blood which 
reaches the left ventricle is colder than that which leaves the right. This 
result would, at first sight, appear to prove that if any heat be evolved in 
the lungs, its amount is not sufficient to compensate the losses to which I 
have already alluded, and rendered it absolutely essential that fresh experi- 
ments should be conducted by a second method, which consists in ascer- 
taining whether, when venous blood removed from the body is agitated with 
oxygen or atmospheric air, any changes occur in its temperature, 

The first step in the inquiry consisted in ascertaining the specific heat of 
blood, for none of the experiments previously made had led to trustworthy 
results. Dr. Crawford had, in the last century, advanced a theory of animal 
heat which was based upon an assumed difference in the specific heat of 
arterial and venous blood: he supposed that the former possessed a very high, 
and the latter a comparatively low specific heat ; so that in becoming arte- 
rialized in the lungs, the heat resulting from the condensation, solution, and 
probable chemical combination of oxygen with the blood became latent, 
being, however, evolved as the blood circulated through the body, when, 
becoming venous, it acquired a continually diminishing specific heat. Dr. 
John Davy, in his ‘ Researches, Physiological and Anatomical,’ vol. i. p. 141, 
in a chapter entitled “ On the Capacities of Venous and Arterial Blood for 
Heat,” described experiments which contradicted the hypothesis of Crawford 
as to the difference in the specific heat of the two varieties of blood, although 
the extraordinary discrepancies between different experiments rendered it 
impossible that any calculations could be based upon Dr. Davy’s results. In 
his experiments, Dr. Davy made use of defibrinated blood, employing for the 
determination of specific heat the methods of mixture and rate of cooling. 

In the experiments which I performed last year, and which are published 
in the last volume of the Reports of the British Association, I made use 
of the method of mixture, taking care to adopt all the precautions which 
modern experience has suggested. Making use of the perfectly fresh blood 
of the ox, which was sometimes venous, sometimes arterial, I obtained re- 
markably concordant results, the mean of which gave 1:02 as the coefficient 
of the specific heat of blood. Having made this determination, I could pass 
to the experiments intended to determine whether, in being arterialized, 
blood which is perfectly venous becomes hotter. 

As a preface to my own researches on this subject, it is incumbent upon me 
to allude to all the observations which have been made on this subject. In 
the second volume of Dr. Davy’s ‘ Researches, Physiological and Anatomical,’ 
at p. 168 a section is devoted to the following question :—“ When oxygen ts _ 
absorbed by the blood, is there any production of heat?” 

«To endeayour to determine this point,” says Dr. Davy, “ of so much in- 
terest in connexion with the theory of animal heat, a very thin vial, of the 


ON HEAT GENERATED IN THE BLOOD. 139 


capacity of eight liquid ounces, was selected and carefully enveloped in bad 
conducting substances, viz. several folds of flannel, of fine oiled paper, and 
of oiled cloth. Thus prepared, and a perforated cork being provided holding 
a delicate thermometer, 2 cubic inches of mercury were introduced, and im- 
mediately after it was filled with venous blood kept liquid as before described. 
The vial was now corked and shaken; the-thermometer included was sta- 
dionary at 45°. After five minutes that it was so stationary the thermometer 
was withdrawn ; the vial, closed by another cork, was transferred to a mercu- 
rial bath, and 13 cubic inch of oxygen was introduced. The common cork 
was returned, and the vial was well agitated for about a minute: the ther- 
mometer was now introduced; it rose immediately to 46°, and, continuing 
the agitation, it rose further to 46°-5, very nearly to 47°. This experiment 
was made on the 12th of February, 1838, on the blood of the sheep. On the 
following day a similar experiment was made on the venous blood of man. 
The vial was filled with 11 cubic inches of this blood, its fibrine broken up in 
the usual manner, and with 3 cubic inches of mercury; the temperature of 
the blood and mercury was 42°:5, and the temperature was the same after 
the introduction of 3 cubic inches of oxygen. The temperature of the room 
being 47°, a fire having shortly before been lit, the vial was taken to an ad- 
joining passage, where the temperature of the air was 39°. Here the vial 
was well agitated, held in the hand with thick gloves on as an additional 
protection ; after about three quarters of a minute the thermometer in the 
vial had risen a degree, viz. to 43°°5.” Dr. Davy relates two other experi- 
ments, of which the first was performed on the venous blood taken from the 
jugular vein of asheep, the second on arterial blood. The three experiments 
with venous blood showed that when agitated with mercury and air for the 
space of a minute, venous blood was heated to the extent of 1° Fahr., whilst 
the arterial blood was heated only half a degree. 

Dr. Davy quotes Sir Charles Scudamore, who, in his ‘ Essay on the Blood,’ 
at p. 59, states that venous blood cools much more slowly in oxygen gas than 
in atmospheric air; that the same blood divided into two cupping-classes, 
“ after an interval of eight minutes from the beginning of the experiment,” 
exhibited a difference of 8°,—that exposed to oxygen being 85°, that to atmo- 
spheric air 77°. 

H. Nasse, in his article on Animal Heat in the fourth volume of Wagner’s 
‘Handworterbuch der Physiologie’ (1842), quotes Marchand to the effect 
that when oxygen is shaken with blood the latter is heated. 

In a paper entitled “ On the Relative Temperature of Arterial and Venous 
Blood,” Mr. W. B. Savory, having described at considerable length observa- 
tions on the temperature of the two sides of the heart, describes others 
performed with a view to check the accuracy of the experiments of Dr. 
John Davy, and states the conclusions to which he was led by his own 
experiments, viz.:—Ist, that when venous blood is treated, as was done by 
Dr. Davy in his experiments, with oxygen, its temperature was usually raised 
from 1° to 13° or 2°; 2ndly, that when venous blood was treated in a similar 
manner with hydrogen or carbonic acid, its temperature was as frequently 
raised, and generally to the same extent ; drdly, that similar experiments 
upon arterial blood usually yielded the same results; 4thly, that in all cases 
the increase of temperature seemed to be the result of the agitation. In 
concluding his paper, Mr. Savory remarked, “‘ At present there is no evi- 
dence upon which we can safely venture further into this inquiry. If, as I 
‘conclude from my experiments, arterial blood is warmer than venous, the 
increase of temperature must occur in the lungs as a result of those changes 


140 REPORT—1871. 


which the blood there undergoes. Of the nature of those changes, little or 
nothing is known.” 

In my early researches, conducted during the months of May and June 
1869, I had attempted to determine, by means of comparatively simple con- 
trivances, whether any heat was evolved during arterialization, making use of 
delicate thermometers. At first I used a glass bottle furnished with a tubu- 
lature, near the bottom in which a cork, perforated and furnished with a glass, 
tube closed by india-rubber tubing anda clip, was inserted. The neck of the 
bottle was furnished with a cork perforated in two places ; through one of 
the perforations a delicate Centigrade thermometer passed into the centre of 
the flask, whilst into the other was inserted a bent glass tube through which 
gas might be introduced into the apparatus. The bottle which I have de- 
scribed was filled with venous blood, both the tubes communicating with its 
interior being closed. It was then maintained at a temperature varying be- 
tween 30° and 35° C. for many hours, until it had assumed the characteristic 
cherry-red coloration which indicates the complete removal of the loosely 
combined oxygen of the blood. The apparatus having been allowed to cool, 
it was invested with a jacket of felt. An india-rubber tube was made to 
connect the upper glass tube with a hydrogen gasometer, whilst the lower 
tube being opened, the hydrogen expelled any required quantity of blood. 
The apparatus was then shaken and the temperature determined. Then by 
a repetition of the process (followed in the introduction of hydrogen) pure 
oxygen gas was made to displace more of the blood, and the process of shaking 
repeated as before. The results of such experiments were eminently unsatis- 
factory, varying obviously with the amount of mechanical work which was 
formed by the experiments, and which yet did not admit of exact deter- 
mination. 

In some experiments I observed a heating which amounted to 0°-3 C.; in 
other cases the difference in the readings, before the introduction of oxygen 
and after it, seemed to point to a cooling instead of to a heating. To 
give an idea of the indefinite and perplexing results which I obtained, I 
shall cite the details of an experiment performed on the 23rd of June, 1870, 
by Professor Tait and myself, the apparatus used being a tin vessel resem- 
bling in principle-the one of glass which I have already described. This 
vessel was covered with felt, and, when shaken, it was held by means of a 
very strong iron clamp. Having been filled with sheep’s blood, it was placed 
in an air-oven and maintained for a period of twelve hours at a temperature 
which oscillated between 100° and 110° Fahr. It was afterwards placed in 
the room in which my experiments were carried on; but in order to make 
it cool more rapidly, its felt covering was taken off, and it was placed in 
water at a temperature of 15°C. It was dried, again covered with felt, 
and fixed in its clamp. Hydrogen was then made to expel 45 cubic 
inches of blood, which was found by spectroscopic examination to exhibit the 
single band of reduced hemoglobin ; after shaking the blood and hydrogen 
in the apparatus, its temperature was found to be 17°-8 C., then 18° C., the 
temperature of the air being 20°4 C. 10 cubic inches of blood were then 
drawn off and replaced by oxygen, which was brought in contact with the 
blood by shaking; the temperature rose to 18°-1 C. : more oxygen was intro- 
duced and the shaking repeated, the temperature rising to 18°25, 18°4, 18°-5, 
18°-6, 18°6, 18°-55, 18°°7, 18°75, 18°-77. At the conclusion of the experi- 
ment the quantity of blood which had been arterialized was found to be 360 
cubic centims. This experiment merely gave one of many results ; for as long 
as I followed this method I was quite unable twice to determine the same 


ON ILEAT GENERATED IN THE BLOOD. 144 


amount of heat as the result of oxygenation of the blood. The amount of 
heating in a given time depended upon several important factors, as the dif- 
ference between the temperature of the blood in the experimental vessel and 
that of the surrounding air, upon the amount of blood contained in the appa- 
ratus, and the space through which the vessel was moved during its agitation, 
no less than upon the number of the agitations. 

To describe, or even to give the results of a series of experiments so emi- 
nently unsatisfactory, would be a mere waste of time; it will be sufficient 
for me to state, however, that I clearly came to the conclusion that, like those 
who had preceded me, I had obtained no positive proof of the heating of 
blood when it absorbs oxygen, there having been as great a heating when 
water as when blood was experimented upon. 

In commencing new experiments this year, I did so with the conviction 
that, in order to obtain results of any value, my apparatus should be so con- 
structed and my experiments so conducted as to preclude the possibility of 
any appreciable rise in temperature resulting from the mechanical work of 
shaking. Then I decided upon discarding thermometers, and making use of 
thermo-electric junctions of great delicacy. 

The galvanometer employed in the research was one resembling one of 
Sir Wm. Thomson’s older forms, constructed especially for Professor Tait, 
eyery possible precaution haying been taken to avoid a trace of iron in 
the coils and framework. The wire was drawn through agate plates 
from electrolytic copper, covered with white silk and formed into four coils, 
each adjusted to produce the maximum effect with the least resistance, 
those parts of the coils nearest the magnets being made of finer wire. 
The astatic system vibrated under the earth’s force once in eight seconds ; 
but as this was much too delicate for my purpose, I placed near the in- 
strument a bar-magnet, which reduced the period of vibration to 3°-4. 

The thermo-electric junctions which I employed were made by twisting 
very thin iron and copper wire together, the free ends of the copper wires 
being immersed into the mercury pools of a very simple form of commu- 
tator placed in the circuit, which enabled me, with the greatest ease, to 
reverse the current flowing along the wires. 

The apparatus actually employed in my experiments consisted of an 
upper glass vessel, which I may call the blood reservoir, to wliich was con- 
nected a lower vessel, also of glass, and in which the blood, which was the 
subject of experiment, could be brought in contact with the gases which 
were intended to act upon it. 

The upper vessel was a glass bulb of a pyriform shape, and had a capacity 
of about 150 cubic centimetres. Above and below it was drawn out, so as to 
present two tubes, the upper of which was bent at right angles and furnished 
with a piece of india-rubber tubing, which admitted of being closed by a clamp, 
whilst the lower was furnished with a very accurately ground stopcock. In 
the side of the bulb was a round tubulature, which could be closed with a cork, 
through which passed a thermo-electric junction. The lower, or mixing- 
vessel, was cylindrical in shape, and possessed four apertures. The upper one 
was closed by a cork, bored so as to allow of the passage of a glass tube, 
attached above by means of an elastic tube to the stopcock of upper vessel or 
reservoir, and made of sucha length as to reach to the bottom of the mixing- 
yessel. Near the upper aperture was a second lateral one, into which a 
_ glass tube had been fused. This glass tube could be connected, by means of 
a metallic tube and stopcocks, either with a Sprengel mercurial aspirator or 
with an oxygen or hydrogen gasometer. A third lateral aperture was 


7 


142 REPORT—1871. 


closed with a cork, perforated (like the one which closed the upper vessel) 
by a second thermal junction. A fourth aperture in the mixing-yessel, 
closed by a stopcock, enabled it to be emptied. 

In determining with such an apparatus whether heat is generated when 
venous blood becomes arterial, the upper vessel is disconnected from the 
lower at a point below the glass stopcock previously described; it is com- 
pletely filled with water, and then the water is displaced by a stream of 
pure hydrogen gas admitted through the upper tube. 

The lower glass tube is then connected with the vessel which contains the 
blood to be experimented upon. The upper tube, through which hydrogen had 
been admitted, is now connected to the Sprengel pump, which rapidly sucks 
the blood into the vessel, without the slightest possibility of its coming in 
contact with oxygen. The upper vessel is either partially or completely filled 
with blood, but it always is ultimately left in connexion with a hydrogen 
gasometer. 

The mixing-vessel (the lowest aperture of which has been closed by india- 
rubber tubing and clip) is now connected to the Sprengel pump, and a va-~ 
cuum is formed into which hydrogen is allowed freely to flow. The vacuum 
is renewed three or four times consecutively, hydrogen being allowed to flow 
into the apparatus each time. The object of this is to exclude traces from 
the lower vessel of atmospheric oxygen. 

The stopcock which connects the upper and lower vessels is opened, and 
venous blood is allowed to flow into the lower vessel. In actual work both 
the upper and lower vessels are thickly covered with wadding. The upper 
one is firmly fixed in a clamp, and constitutes a reservoir, which, except 
when the atmospheric changes in temperature are abnormally sudden, main- 
tains during limited periods of time a constant temperature. The lower tube 
being connected to the stopcock of the upper by means of a flexible india- 
rubber tube, admits of being completely tilted, or, if necessary, shaken. 

As soon as the lower vessel contains the blood to be experimented upon, 
the thermal junctions are brought in connexion with the galvanometer, 
The amount of deviation on the graduated scale, and the direction of the 
deviation, at once tells the experimenter whether the upper or the lower 
junction be the hotter. The lower vessel is thoroughly shaken, then, after 
some time, the temperature of its contents is determined by reading on the 
scale placed in front of the galvanometer. The tube and its contents are 
then repeatedly tilted, a reading of the galvanometer being taken after each 
set of five tilts. After a certain time the lower vessel has assumed a constant 
temperature, and readings, at the interval of two or three minutes, show no 
perceptible change. I may remark that the galvanometer which, through 
the kindness of Prof. Tait, was placed at my disposal was so set that in my 
various experiments one division of the divided seale corresponded to the 
100th or the 120th of a degree Cent. The first observations made with my 
apparatus were intended to determine whether such an amount of agitation 
as would be required to communicate a thoroughly arterial colour to perfectly 
venous blood would heat the fluid to a perceptible extent, in consequence of 
the mechanical work expended in the agitation. 

In preliminary experiments I found that venous blood assumed a beauti- 
ful arterial hue, when it was mixed with oxygen contained in the mixing- 
vessel, by successively tilting the tube twenty times. In each tilt the tube 
containing blood and oxygen was completely reversed. In other preli- 
minary experiments I found that when the tube contained thoroughly arte- 
rialized blood or water, the process of tilting had no influence on the 


a FY 


eres 


ON HEAT GENERATED IN THE BLOOD. 143 


temperature of the contained fluid. It was, therefore, obvious that any heat- 
ing which might occur in the process of tilting or shaking in subsequent 
experiments could not be referred to the mechanical work expended in the 
tube and its contents. 

My next experiments consisted in determining whether, when agitated 
with a neutral gas, as, for example, hydrogen, any material change in the 
temperature of the blood occurred; they led to the result that when agi- 
tated with hydrogen gas no heating of the blood results, it being always 
remembered that the mechanical agitation to which the blood and the 
neutral gas were subjected was the same as in my experiments with blood 
and oxygen. 

In my systematic experiments on the heat generated during the process 
of arterialization, the following observations were always made :— 

1. The temperature of the lower as contrasted with the upper vessel was 
determined after the latter had been exhausted. 

2. The temperature-observations were repeated after shaking with hy- 
drogen. 

3. After the renewal of a vacuum, 

4, After admission of oxygen in the mixing-vessel. 

5. After oxygen had been thoroughly shaken with the blood. 

The results of my experiments on very numerous samples of venous blood 
have led to the conclusion that whilst, as I have previously mentioned, no 
heat is evolved on agitating blood with hydrogen, there is, on agitation with 
oxygen, always a slight evolution of heat. 

To determine the exact heating, when venous blood of varying gaseous 
composition is arterialized, appears to be most desirable. We should espe- 
cially attempt to determine the heating observed when the average venous 
blood contained in the right ventricle and directly drawn from it is ar- 
terialized. The first and most important datum to be ascertained appeared 
to me, however, to be the heating which takes place when blood which has 
been thoroughly reduced, 7. e. which contains no loosely combined oxygen 
and exhibits Stokes’s spectrum, is completely arterialized. 

From five sets of experiments on the heat developed during the arteriali- 
zation of perfectly reduced blood, I arrived at the conclusion that the mean 
rise of temperature during the absorption of oxygen amounted to 0°-0976 C, 
The maximum heating found was 0°111 C., and the minimum 0°:083 C. 

The research, of which the above are the results, was conducted in the 
Physical Laboratory of the University of Edinburgh; and I have to express 
my thanks to Professor Tait for the uniform kindness with which he helped 
me by advice, assistance, and apparatus in ascertaining the facts which are 
recorded in this Report. I intend to extend these researches very greatly. 
It is most desirable that in future experiments venous blood of known com- 
position be employed, and that the amount of oxygen absorbed and CO, 
evolved be ascertained after each experiment. I propose likewise to increase 
the period during which the blood is agitated, making use of an arrangement 
whereby the mechanical work performed in the agitation may be precisely 
determined. 


144. REPORT—1871. 


Report of the Committee appointed to consider the subject of 
Physiological Experimentation. 


A Comurrren, consisting of ten individuals, having been appointed at the last 
Meeting of the British Association, held at Liverpool, to consider the subject 
of Physiological Experimentation, in accordance with a Resolution of the 
General Committee hereto annexed, the following Report was drawn up and 
signed by seven members of the Committee. 


Report. 

i. No experiment which can be performed under the influence of an anas- 
thetic ought to be done without it. 

ii. No painful experiment is justifiable for the mere purpose of illustrating a 
law or fact already demonstrated ; in other words, experimentation with- 
out the employment of anesthetics is not a fitting exhibition for teaching 
purposes. 

iii. Whenever, for the investigation of new truth, it is necessary to make a 
painful experiment, every effort should be made to ensure success, in 
order that the suffering inflicted may not be wasted. For this reason, 
no painful experiment ought to be performed by an unskilled person 
with insufficient instruments and assistance, or in places not suitable to 
the purpose, that is to say, anywhere except in physiological and patho- 
logical laboratories, under proper regulations. 

iv. In the scientific preparation for veterinary practice, operations ought not 
to be performed upon living animals for the mere purpose of obtaining 
greater operative dexterity. 

Signed by :—M. A. Lawson, Oxford. G. M. Humpury, Cambridge. 
Jonun H. Batrour, : 
ARTHUR GAMGEE, \ Aa tied. 
Wirt1aM Frower, Royal College of Surgeons, London. 
J. Burpon Sanperson, London. 
Grorce Roxiuston, Secretary, Oxford. 


Resolutions referred to in the Report. 


That the Committee of Section D (Biology) be requested to draw up a 
statement of their views upon Physiological Experiments in their various 
bearings, and that this document be circulated among the Members of the 
Association. < 

That the said Committee be further requested to consider from time to time 
whether any steps can be taken by them, or by the Association, which will 
tend to reduce to its minimum the suffering entailed by legitimate physiolo- 
gical inquiries; or any which will have the effect of employing the influence 
of this Association in the discouragement of experiments which are not clearly 
legitimate on live animals. 


The following resolution, subsequently passed by the Committee of Section 
D (Biology), was adopted by the General Committee :— 

“That the following gentlemen be appointed a Committee for the pur- 
pose of carrying out the suggestion on the question of Physiological Expe- 
riments made by the General Committee,—Professor Rolleston, Professor 
Lawson, Professor Balfour, Dr. Gamgee, Professor M. Foster, Professor 
Humphry, Professor W. H. Flower, Professor Sanderson, Professor Mac- 
alister, and Professor Redfern ; that Professor Rolleston be the Secretary, 
and that they be requested to report to the General Committee,” 


PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF ORGANIC CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS. 145 


Report on the Physiological Action of Organic Chemical Compounds. 
By Bensamin Warp Ricuarpson, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. 


Tue plan I have heretofore followed, of passing under review the practical 
results of the labours chronicled in previous Reports, cannot be carried out 
this year. The review itself would now become so comprehensive that it 
would occupy all the time allowed for the reading of the Report to the ex- 
clusion of the new matter to be brought forward. I shall therefore proceed 
at once to the description of new research. 


CutoraL HypRATE. 


It is two years since the substance called chloral hydrate (the physio- 
logical properties of which had been previously discovered by Liebreich) was 
introduced into this country at the Norwich Meeting of this Association. 
During the first year of the employment of chloral hydrate the enthusiasm 
connected with the learning of its value prevented, in some degree, all fair 
criticism as to its real values and dangers. The year immediately past 
has afforded time for calmer and more judicial observation, greatly, as I think, 
to the advantage of the public, since it has given to the professors of medical 
art the opportunity of learning that the new agent placed in their hands, 
blessing as it is to humanity, is not an unalloyed blessing, but one that has 
engendered a new and injurious habit of narcotic luxury, and has added 
another cause to the preventible causes of the mortality of the nation. 

Recognizing these truths, I have felt it a duty to devote some part of the 
labours of this Report to the elucidation of questions which haye become of 
public, not less than of scientific importance, and to these I would now ask 
attention. 

1. Ihave endeayoured to ascertain what is a dangerous and what a fatal 
dose of chloral hydrate. The conclusion at which I have been able first to 
arrive on this point is, that the maximum quantity of the hydrate that can 
be borne, at one dose, bears some proportion to the weight of the animal 
subjected to its influence. The rule, however, does not extend equally to 
animals of any and every class. The proportion is practically the same in 
the same classes, but there is no actual universality of rule. A mouse weigh- 
ing from three-quarters of an ounce to an ounce-will be put to sleep by one 
quarter of a grain of the hydrate, and will be killed by a grain. A pigeon 
weighing twelve ounces will be put to sleep by two grains of the hydrate, and 
will be killed by five grains. <A guineapig weighing sixteen ounces will be 
put by two grains into deep sleep, and by five grains into fatal sleep. A 
rabbit weighing eighty-eight ounces will be thrown by thirty grains into 
deep sleep, and by sixty grains into fatal sleep. 

The human subject, weighing from one hundred and twenty to one hundred 
and forty pounds, will be made by ninety grains to pass-into deep sleep, and 
by one hundred and forty grains into a sleep that will be dangerous. 

From the effects produced on a man who had of his own accord taken a 
hundred and twenty grains of the hydrate, and who seemed at one period to 
be passing into death, I was led to infer that in the human subject one 
hundred and forty grains should be accepted as dangerous, and one hundred 
and eighty as a fatal dose. Evidence has, however, recently been brought 
before me which leads me to think that, although eighty grains would 
in most instances prove fatal, it could, under very favourable circumstances, 
be recovered from. 

1871. L 


146 ; REPORT—1871. 


Dr. Hills, of the Thorpe Asylum, Norwich, has, for example, favoured me 
with the facts of an instance in which a suicidal woman took no less than 
four hundred and seventy-two grains of the hydrate dissolved in sixteen ounces 
of water, and actually did not die for thirty-three hours. Such a fact, ably 
observed as it was, is startling ; but it does not, I think, militate against the 
rule that one hundred and forty grains is the maximum quantity that 
should, under any circumstances, be administered to the human subject. 

2. Asecond point to which my attention has been directed is, what quan- 
tity of hydrate of chloral can be taken with safety at given intervals for a 
given period of time, say of twenty-four hours. To arrive at some fair con- 
clusion on this subject, I calculated from a series of experiments the 
time required for the development of symptoms from different doses of the 
hydrate, the full period of the symptoms, and the time when they had entirely 
passed away. Great difficulties attend this line of investigation; but I may 
state, as a near approximation to the truth, that an adult person who has 
taken chloral in sufficient quantity to be influenced by it, disposes of it at the 
rate of about seven grains per hour. In repeated doses, the hydrate of chloral 
might therefore be given at the rate of twelve grains every two hours for 
twenty-four hours, with less danger than would occur from giving twelve 
times twelve (144) grains at once; but I do not think that amount ought, 
except in the extremest emergencies, to be exceeded even im divided 
quantities. 

38. A third point to which I have paid attention is, the means to be adopted 
in any case when, from accident or other cause, a large and fatal dose of 
chloral hydrate has been administered. I can speak here with precision. It 
should be remembered that this hydrate, from its great solubility, is rapidly 
diffused through all the organism. It is in vain, consequently, to attempt its 
removal by any extreme measures after it has fairly taken effect. In other 
words, the animal or person under chloral, like an animal or person in a 
fever, must go through a distinct series of stages on the way to recovery or 
death ; and these stages will be long or short, slightly dangerous or intensely 
dangerous, all but fatal or actually fatal, according to the conditions by which 
the animalis surrounded. One of the first and marked effects of the chloral is 
reduction of the animal temperature ; and when an animal is deeply under the 
influence of the agent, in the fourth degree of narcotism of Dr. Snow, the tem- 
perature of its body, unless the external warmth be carefully sustained, will 
quickly descend seven and even eight degrees below the natural standard. 
Such reduction of temperature is itself a source of danger ; it allows conden- 
sation of fluid on the bronchial pulmonary surface, and so induces apnea, 
and it indicates a period when the convulsion of cold (a convulsion which 
sharply precedes death) is at hand. 

I offer these explanations in order to indicate the first favourable condition 
for the recovery of an animal or man from the effects of an extreme dose of 
chloral hydrate. It is essential that the body of the animal be kept warm, 
and not merely so, but that the air inspired by the animal be of high tempe- 
rature. The first effort to recovery, in short, should consist in placing the 
animal ina warm air. This fact is perfectly illustrated by experiment on 
the inferior animals. In the pigeon an air of 95° Fahr. is most favourable, 
in the rabbit an air at 105° to 110°, in the dog the same. In man the 
air to be breathed should be raised and sustained at 90° Fahr. at least*. 


* T have no doubt it will be found, as the chronicle of deaths from chloral hydrate in- 


creases, that the mortality from the agent will be greatest when the thermometrical 
readings are the lowest, and vice versd. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF ORGANIC CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS. 147 


The next thing to be remembered in the recovery of persons under the 
fatal influence of chloral hydrate is to sustain the body by food. I find that 
under even deep sleep from the narcotic, although the process of waste is less 
than is common under natural conditions of rest, there is still a very con- 
siderable waste in progress, which, if not made up, is against recovery. I 
find also that the digestive and assimilating powers, though impaired during 
sleep from chloral, are not arrested, but may be called into fair action with so 
much advantage, that if two animals be cast into deep sleep by an excessive 
quantity of the narcotic, and one be left without food and the other be artifi- 
cially fed on warm food, one fourth of the chance of recovery is given to the 
animal that is supplied with food. In the human subject warm milk, to 
which a little lime-water has been added, is the best food. Milk is very easily 
administered mechanically, and it should be administered in the proportion 
of half a pint every two hours*. 

4. The fourth point to remember is to sustain the breathing; in the 
inferior animals the question of life or death can be made to turn on this 
pivot. But the artificial respiration must be carried out with great gentle- 
ness; it must not be done by vehement movements of the body or compres- 
sions of the chest, but by the simple process of inflating the lungs by means 
of small bellows, through the nostrils. I have devised, in the course of the 
researches conducted chiefly for the Association, various instruments for 
artificial respiration, viz. a small double-acting bellows, a small syringe, and 
a double-acting india-rubber pocket-bellows ; but I have lately made an ob- 
servation which leads to a simpler method still, 7.e. I merely attach to a 
single hand-bellows a nostril-tube, and gently inflate the lungs, letting the 
elasticity of the chest-wall do the work of expiration. A little valve near 
to the nostril-tube effectually stops all back currents from the lungs into 
the bellows. For the human subject, five charges of air from the bellows 
should be given at intervals of five seconds apartT. 

There is another subject of public interest connected with the employ- 
ment of chloral hydrate. I refer to the increasing habitual use of it as a 
narcotic. As there are alcoholic intemperants and opium-eaters, so now 
there are those who, beginning to take chloral hydrate to relieve pain or to 
procure sleep, get into the fixed habit of taking it several times daily and in 
full doses. I would state from this public place, as earnestly and as forcibly 
as I can, that this growing practice is alike injurious to the mental, the 
moral, and the purely physical organization, and that the confirmed habit 
of taking chloral hydrate leads inevitably to confirmed disease. The diges- 
tion gets impaired ; natural tendency to sleep and natural sleep are impaired ; 
the blood is changed in quality, its plastic properties and its capacity for 
oxidation being reduced; the secretions are depraved; and, the nervous system 
losing its regulating, controlling power, the muscles become unsteady, the 
heart irregular and intermittent, and the mind uncertain and irritable. To 
erown the mischief, in not a few cases already the habitual dose has been the 
last, involuntary or rather unintentional suicide closing the scene. 

I press these facts on public notice not a moment too soon, and I add to 
them the facts, that hydrate of chloral is purely and absolutely a medicine, 


- and that whenever its administration is not guided by medical science and 


experience, it ceases to be a boon, and becomes a curse to mankind. 


* This question of feeding is applicable to all forms of accidental narcotic poisoning. 
Tn every such case the poisoning is a distinct process, and the recovery turns largely on the 
sustainment of the animal force by supply of food and of external warmth. 

+ Dr. Richardson exhibited the different instruments described. 9 

L 


148 REPORT—187], 


Awnnyprovs CHLORAL. 


The hydrate of chloral, of which I have treated above, is made from 
another substance, called anhydrous chloral, by the addition to the latter of a 
certain proportion of simple water. Anhydrous chloral was discovered 
by Liebig in 1832, and is formed by the process of passing chlorine through 
absolute alcohol. It is a colourless oily fluid, of specific gravity 1502, at 
64° Fahr. It boils at 93° Cent. (199° Fahr.); its composition is C, HCl, O, and 
its yapour-density, taking hydrogen as unity, is 73. It dissolves in ether, 
alcohol, and hydride of amyl. 

The yapour of anhydrous chloral is irritating and painful to an extreme 
degree when it is inhaled, and the substance has consequently not attracted 
attention as a subject for physiological study. Having, however, a pure 
specimen of it prepared by Dr. Versmann, I thought it was worth while to 
make a research with it. The results have proved worthy of the trouble ; in 
fact I have rarely derived from so simple an investigation so rich a practical 
result. It would be inferred @ priori that anhydrous chloral in the liquid 
state would be, like its vapour, a powerful irritant to the skin and mucous 
membrane. I soon found, however, that this was not the fact, that I could 
apply the fluid freely to my own skin and to the tongue without injury, and 
that the caustic action is extremely mild, even when the substance is applied 
to a moist surface. If a quarter grain of it (anhydrous chloral) be placed 
upon the skin of the frog in adry atmosphere, there is a rather quick ab- 
sorption, followed by the formation of a white film of the hydrate of chloral 
beneath the skin, which film soon disappears by absorption, the symptoms 
following the absorption being the specific narcotic symptoms of chloral 
hydrate. The animal soon falls into adeep sleep with complete muscular 
exhaustion. 

If in higher animals, birds and rabbits, anhydrous chloral be injected sub- 
cutaneously, the same phenomena are indicated, the quantities for producing 
the specific effects being the same as are required for the hydrate. 

It is clear from these observations that anhydrous chloral, when brought 
into contact with the exposed surfaces of the body, abstracts water from the 
part with which it is in contact, becomes conyerted into the hydrate, and is 
directly absorbed into the body, producing the same symptoms as the pre- 
pared hydrate produces when it is introduced into the organism. 

As anhydrous chloral is soluble in amyl hydride, ether, and many other 
volatile fluids, I tried whether any of it could be carried over with the vapour 
of amyl hydride, and whether, if it were administered in this way, it would 
produce prolonged narcotism by being transformed into the hydrate in the 
lungs and taken up into the blood. 

The result of the experiment was to show that in frogs, guineapigs, and 
pigeons general narcotism can be so induced, and that the narcotism is pro- 
longed far beyond what follows from the simple inhalation of amyl hydride. 
But I observed that when the solution used contained so little as twenty 
minims of anhydrous chloral to an ounce of the hydride, the vapour given off 
was irritating to breathe ; and when I breathed it myself I found it caused dry- 
ness of the throat and a sense of constriction, which lasted several minutes. A 
weaker solution than that named is too slow in its action, and I therefore can 
hardly at this moment recommend that anhydrous chloral should be ad- 
ministered by inhalation. It is possible, nevertheless, that in course of time 
the agent may be found serviceable when administered in the manner de- 
scribed. It is probable that much smaller quantities, administered for a much 


eee ee se 


PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF ORGANIC CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS. 149 


longer time, would be serviceable in sustaining a slight narcotism. It is pro- 
bable that in some chronic diseases of the throat or bronchial passages, where 
the effect of a local narcotic would be desirable, this mode of practice may 
find favour from its success. Again, it may be that in disease of the lungs 
themselves, where there is loss of structure (cavity), anhydrous chloral may be 
inhaled in minute quantities with advantage. I name these points in order 
to call the attention of fellow physicians to the mode of administration I 
have ventured to suggest. 

Connected also with anhydrous chloral is another reasonable suggestion ; 
I mean the plan of applying the agent as a narcotic caustic to unnatural 
growths and ulcerating fungoid surfaces. I find that by applying the fluid 
to my arm freely there is destruction of the epidermis (scarf skin), so that 
without any pain the epidermis peels off, almost dry, at the point where the 
fluid has been placed; and that when on this exposed surface some of the 
fluid is applied, the true skin is in turn affected, so that in a day or two 
what the ancients called an issue may be developed, the tissues destroyed 
coming away in the form of scales. The surgeon will at once see the prac- 
tical utility of an agent possessing these properties, and he may in some 
instances subcutaneously inject the fluid if the outward employment of it be 
too slow. 

It is a very curious experiment to subject freshly drawn blood to anhy- 
drous chloral, and to observe microscopically the changes that ensue. The 
action of the chloral is to extract water both from the liquor sanguinis and 
the corpuscles, and to form crystalline chloral hydrate. Into this formation 
the shrinking corpuscles sink, While the fibrine remains free from precipi- 
tation ; but if water be added, so as to dissolve and remove the hydrate that 
has been formed, the corpuscles are to some extent restored, and the fibrine 
coagulates and separates in the usual way. 


MeETACHLORAL. 


Under favouring conditions anhydrous chloral is converted into an in- 
soluble substance, to which the name of “ metachloral” has been applied. 
The change sometimes occurs spontaneously, as it has done in a specimen 
now on the table; but it is always effected when chloral is brought into 
contact with sulphuric acid. Dr. Versmann has made for me some beautiful 
specimens of metachloral by this last-named process. 

Metachloral is a white substance, easily reducible into a fine powder, but 
insoluble in water and in alcohol. It is isomeric with chloral itself, being 
merely different in respect to physical condition. When it is treated with 
an alkali it yields, as chloral does, an alkaline formate and chloroform. 
These facts led me to ask whether, in the animal body, metachloral would 
undergo decomposition and produce specific narcotic effects ; and here, again, 
a series of results were obtained of great interest. Administered to birds in 
the form of pilule, and to other animals either in the same form or in sus- 
pension in gum emulsion, the metachloral, so insoluble in water, is found to 

undergo solution in the animal secretions, and to produce the same narcotic 
effects as the chloral hydrate, viz. narcotism, muscular prostration, and de- 
crease of animal temperature. 

In the pigeon from ten to fifteen grains are sufficient to take full effect. 
The animal in the course of an hour becomes drowsy, and in an hour and a 
half is in a perfect sleep, from which, nevertheless, it may be roused, to fall 
back again into sleep with great rapidity; the sleep lasts from three to four 


150 REPORT—1871. 


hours. The temperature of the body undergoes considerable change, falling, 
in the pigeon, full five degrees Fahrenheit, and remaining so reduced that a 
period of eight and even nine hours is required for its complete restoration 
to the natural standard. On frogs the effect of metachloral is equally marked. 
A frog weighing ten drachms is fairly narcotized in thirty minutes by a dose 
of a quarter of a grain, the insensibility continuing many hours and closely 
simulating death. During the period of deep insensibility the muscles re- 
main in the most extreme state of flaccidity, but do not fail to respond to 
the galvanic stimulus. 

To rabbits comparatively larger doses of metachloral may be administered 
by the mouth without exciting any effect whatever. Toa large rabbit weighing 
eight pounds, ten grains may be given with absolute freedom from symptoms 
of narcotism ; but when the dose is increased to twenty grains a very distinct 
effect is produced. About one hour following upon the administration the 
animal sinks into sleep precisely as if he had taken chloral hydrate, and 
passes through all the stages of narcotism and recovery in the same way. 

The action of metachloral is full of interest in a physiological point of 
view, and goes far, I think, to sustain Liebreich’s original view of the action 
of chloral hydrate, viz. that the narcotism produced by it is due to the action of 
chloroform liberated within the body. On this view metachloral is first 
changed in the body, under the influence of alkali, into the soluble condi- 
tion, after-which it passes into the hydrate, and then into alkaline formate 
and chloroform. It is thus slower than the hydrate and slower than the 
anhydrous chloral in its action, but in the end the effects from it are the same, 
Metachloral admits of being employed medicinally; it may be combined 
with morphia, quinine, and other alkaloids, and will, I think, be found to 
possess many useful medicinal qualities. 


BromaL HypRATE. 


When bromine is made to act upon chlorine, a substance called bromal is 
the product. It is an oily substance like chloral, and when acted upon by 
alkalies is decomposed into formiate of the alkali employed, and into bromo- 
form, the analogue in the bromine of chloroform in the chlorine series, The 
composition of bromal is C,HBr,O. When it is treated with water a crys- 
talline substance, bromal hydrate, is produced. The composition of bromal 
hydrate is C,H Br, 02H, 0; it is the analogue in the bromine of the chloral 
hydrate in the chlorine series. Bromal hydrate has an odour somewhat like 
chloral hydrate; its crystals are very soluble in water, and it may be ad- 
ministered in solution by the mouth or by hypodermic injection. 

Very soon after the discovery of the action of chloral hydrate I commenced 
a research on the physiological properties of the bromal hydrate. Two other 
observers also moved in the same path, and have preceded me in recording 
what they had observed. One of these is Dr. Steinann, of Berlin, the other 
Dr. John Dougall, of Glasgow. In their researches nearly the same class of 
inquiries were instituted as in my own, the same animals were subjected to 
observation, and practically the same results were obtained. 

In order to produce marked effects from bromal hydrate, much smaller 
doses are required than of the corresponding chloral compound ; five grains 
of the former are equivalent to ten of the latter. After an efficient dose the 
symptoms produced resemble in many respects the symptoms that follow 
chloral; 7. e. there is great muscular prostration and a kind of nareotism, at- 
tended, however, with very slight insensibility, except in cases in which the 
dose has been dangerously large. In extreme cases only is there really deep 


PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF ORGANIC CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS. 15] 


anesthesia ; in all cases there is sudden and extreme decrease of the animal 
temperature, In birds, rabbits, guineapigs, as well as in the human subject, 
these phenomena are observable. But there are other symptoms belonging 
to bromal hydrate which are peculiar to it, and which render its practical 
utility, according to our present knowledge of it at any rate, doubtful, It is 
intensely irritating ; it causes great difficulty of respiration ; it so suddenly 
and effectually reduces the animal temperature that the accumulation of fluid 
in the bronchial canals, from condensation, is a source of positive danger, 
and altogether its internal employment would be unwise. I agree with 
Drs. Steinann and Dougall as to the mode of its action, and, with them, 
attribute the phenomena to the effects of the bromoform that is liberated in 
the body after the dose has been administered; I agree also with Dougall 
that the cause of death, when the dose is fatal and slow, is due to asphyxia. 
I attribute the asphyxia primarily to the fall of temperature of the body, and 
secondarily to condensation of water in the bronchial passages. 

One condition I have noticed which seems not to have fallen under the 
attention of the learned observers I have named, viz. that in birds a large 
dose of the bromal hydrate may destroy life almost instantaneously by 
an intense convulsion, amounting, in fact, to suddenly developed tetanus. 

The chief interest at this moment attaching to bromal hydrate is the dif- 
ference that is seen in its action, in comparison with the action of chloral 
hydrate. It illustrates how a difference of chemical elementary constitution 
and of weight modifies physiological action; how the heavier bromine in 
combination with carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and water differs in action 
from chlorine in similar combination, The science of therapeutics will ulti- 
mately rest on these distinctions. 


Nirrire or Amyt. 


At the Meeting of the Association held at Newcastle-on-Tyne in 1863, I 
introduced this curious and potent substance to the notice of the Association, 
and explained, as best I could, its history and its physiological properties. 
Every year since then some new fact of interest has attached to the sub- 
stance, and the immediate past year is not different in this respect from 
those that have preceded it. The first observer of the action of nitrite of 
amyl on the animal functions was Professor Guthrie, F.R.S., then of Edin- 
burgh, and now of the School of Mines, London. Professor Guthrie observed, 
while working in the laboratory with nitrite of amyl, that the inhalation of 
its vapour produced flushing of the face, rapid action of the heart, a peculiar 
breathlessness, such as occurs after fast running, and disturbance of cerebral 
action. These facts, most ably described by the Professor, became known 
to Mr. Morison, a dentist in Edinburgh, who thought from them that the 
substance might be made of service for the treatment of persons who were ~ 
suffering from faintness. He therefore brought some of the compound to 
the College of Dentists, a Society then existing in London, and the Council 
of that institution referred the whole subject to me, with a request that I 
would report to them. The task was readily undertaken, and the study con- 

nected with it has not been completed at this hour. 

' I take the liberty of mentioning these details for the sake of historical 
accuracy. From the circumstance that I have introduced nitrite of amyl 
_ greatly into medical practice, and have been year after year treating of its 
action, it has been all but universally believed that I made the earliest 
observations upon it; I would correct this error: I have worked industriously 
with nitrite of amyl, have studied carefully its mode of action, and have sug- 


152 REPORT—1871. 


gested many new applications of it; but the credit of the earliest observa~ 
tions, as I stated at Newcastle, belongs strictly to Professor Guthrie. 

It will be remembered by some that in one of my early papers on nitrite 
of amyl I pointed out that the effects observed were clearly due to an in- 
duced paralysis of the vascular system, of the terminal part of that system, 
and that the heart passed into vehement motion, not, as I at first had thought, 
because it was excited by the agent, but because the resistance to its action 
being removed, it ran down like a clock in which the resistance to the 
spring is broken by the removing of the pendulum or the pallets. I 
further explained that the seeming over-action produced by the nitrite was 
in truth no evidence of power or tension of muscle, but that in truth, under 
the influence of the nitrite, the muscular system is brought into extreme 
relaxation, so that the substance might be used as a remedy for the relief 
even of tetanic spasm. These views have been sustained by later observa- 
tion. It remained, however, still to discover how far the relaxation of ves- 
sels from nitrite of amyl extended to the functions of special organs of the 
body; and during the present year I have followed up this line of research 
in respect to the changes producible by it in the pulmonary organs, the lungs. 
The study has been most fruitful, and will, I think, as it is followed up, open 
quite a new field of accurate and sound observation as to the mode in which 
many diseases of the lungs take their origin. 

As there may be many here who are not conversant with the nature and 
properties of nitrite of amyl, I may say briefly, in respect to it, that it is an 
amber-coloured fluid, having the odour of ripe pears, and, although requiring 
a high temperature for ebullition, volatilizing very readily on exposure to 
the air, 

When taken into the body nitrite of amyl produces intense flushing of the 
face, throbbing and sensation of fulness in the head, rapid action of the heart, 
and in time a sense of breathless exhaustion. In my previous Reports I 
have entered at length into details of its action, of which the following is a 
summary. 

The nitrite, though insoluble in water, will enter the body and produce 
its specific action by any channel of the body, by the cellular tissue, stomach, 
blood. It produces general muscular paralysis, affecting directly or indirectly 
all the motor centres. 

It exerts no primary action on the sensory centres, and therefore does not 
produce anzesthesia, 

Its paralyzing action seems first to be directed to the organic nervous 
centres, by which the vascular tension is reduced. It acts, in fact, after the 
cM of an emotional shock, leading quickly to paralysis of the minute 
vessels. 

It prevents oxidation by its presence, and possesses distinct antiseptic 
powers. It produces a peculiar tarry condition of the blood, but does not 
materially impede coagulation. 

It neutralizes the tetanic action of strychnia, and removes tetanic spasm. 

On reviewing these inferences of former years, as thus detailed, I see no 
occasion to change one of them; indeed I believe they have, on the whole, 
all been confirmed by other observers. The admirable experiments of Dr. 
Brunton on the action of the nitrite on vascular tension call for special re- 
cognition. There is, however, one observation in my Report of 1864 I would 
like to correct. Speaking at that time of the action of the nitrite on the 
muscles, I remarked that it first excites the muscular system, and then para- 
lyzes it, Iam in doubt now whether the muscular excitement of which I 


PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF ORGANIC CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS. 1538 


spoke in 1864 is a true excitement due to the influence excited by the agent 
on the motor centres. I think, from my own sensations, it is rather due to an 
indirect or mental impression, that it indicates a vehement desire to escape 
from the influence of the agent, like the excitement of fear or frenzy. 

Let me from these points turn to the observations of the past year. I 
observed long ago, in making dissections of the bodies of animals that had 
died from amyl nitrite, that the condition of the lungs varied much, that 
sometimes the lungs were of milky whiteness, sometimes of leaden hue, 
and again of deep dark red hue. It occurred to me at last that these differ- 
ences were not accidental, but that they depended upon the mode in which 
the agent destroyed the life of the animal. Thereupon I made direct inquiry 
into this subject, and was led to discover that I could, practically, modify the 
circulation of the blood, passing over the lung from the right to the left 
heart, as I pleased ; in other words, I learned that the vessels of the lungs 
are influenced by the nitrite in the same manner as the vessels of the skin. 

The observation thus stated led me naturally a step further. I inquired 
as to results of different temporary lesions that might be inflicted on the 
pulmonary organs by the nitrite, and what extremity of lesion could be 
recovered from under conditions favourable to recovery. I commenced this 
research in February last, and have carried it on without intermission from 
that time: the results of the labour have been most instructive. 

There are four distinct conditions of lung producible by nitrite of amyl; 
there may be more, but I know of these :— 

1. If the animal be destroyed by an overwhelming dose of the agent, so 
that it dies instantly, as it might die from syncope, the lungs are left 
absolutely bloodless and of pure whiteness. The right side of the 
heart is in this case paralyzed ; but exposed to the air immediately after 
death it often recovers its power of contraction. In this instance the 
death is really by syncope; the nervous paralysis is extended immediately to 
the heart, probably from paralysis of the sympathetic supply, and the right 
ventricle failing to pour out its blood to the lung, the death is so instan- 
taneous that there is no time left for the production of any organic change. 

2. If the death be comparatively slow, if it be preceded by a short interval 
of muscular prostration, and if it occur from paralysis of the muscles 
of respiration, then the lungs are left charged with dark tarry blood, 
but they contain air and are free of congestion. Here the lungs and heart 
have failed together, and the balance of the pulmonary circulation has been 
fairly maintained. 

3. If the effect of the nitrite be more definitely prolonged, there is pro- 
duced intense general congestion of the pulmonary vascular system, a con- 
gestion so intense that the lungs, full of blood, dark and heavy, will not 
float in water. The cause of death in this instance is progressive neural 
paralysis of the pulmonary vessels ; it is the equivalent of congestion of the 
lungs from long expose to extreme cold. 

4. The above may all be considered as acute changes in the pulmonary 
structures, and the two first-named changes are immediately fatal. The 
last need not be; as it occurs from prolonged and sustained action of the 
nitrite, in quantities insufficient to kill directly, the effects of sustained con- 
gestion may be traced out from day to day for many weeks. 

To be accurate in the observations made on this subject, I constructed a 
glass house or chamber of a capacity of three cubic feet, and so ventilated it 
that the air could be kept charged with the vapour of the nitrite. In this 
chamber rabbits and guineapigs were housed. They were carefully fed, 


154 REPORT—1871. 


supplied with abundance of air, and well protected from cold. The intro- 
duction of the vapour was so moderated that the same quantity was made 
to undergo diffusion each day. 

The first fact that became well established was, that cold and a low baro- 
metric pressure greatly assisted the action of the vapour, and frequently led 
to sudden death from congestion of lung and accumulation of fluid in the 
bronchial tubes. 

A second fact, of singular interest, was the degree to which recovery from 
extreme congestion of lung would take place, on simply withdrawing the 
animal from the influence of the agent. When the lungs were so obstructed | 
that what is called rale from accumulation of mucous fluid in the bronchial 
surface was most marked, there was invariably a rapid recovery on removal 
to fresh and warm air. 

A third fact relating to the lesions induced, beyond mere congestive lesions, 
is also of deep interest. The lesions were primarily all of one kind; they 
were hemorrhagic, and consisted of red spots and patches, in which blood 
was effused and coagulated in the connective tissue. The position of the 
hemorrhage was singular. In three cases it was only in the extreme point 
of the apices of the lungs; in four other cases lower portions of lung were 
involved, but in these the apices were the seats also of hemorrhagic disease. 
It would appear, in fact, as if these points of lung were least resistant to the 
force of the circulation. 

In the animals observed these distinct hemorrhagic changes were usually — 
fatal, so that the further result of the local neural paralysis could not be 
carried out as could be wished. In two eases, nevertheless, we had other 
results worth recording, 

In one instance there was clearly an cedema of the lung structure: in 
another the pleural membrane was raised in four or five granulated points, 
round each of which there was effused blood. Dr. Sedgwick, who took the 
lungs of this animal for careful microscopic inspection, reported to me that 
there were plastic exudations in various parts of both lungs, and that the 
granulations of which I have spoken consisted of effused plasma beneath 
the pleura. 

I am well content to leave these observations as I have written them 
above, with but two observations more. It has been suggested by an 
accomplished. and acute English physician, Dr. Eade, of Norwich, that 
pulmonary consumption may be’ primarily due to pulmonary vascular para- 
lysis. My experiments do not enable me at this stage to endorse Dr, 
Bade’s hypothesis as to the primary origin of consumption, but certainly 
they indicate to what extent nervous deficiency will go in favouring the 
hemorrhages, congestions, and exudations which attend tubercular disease. 

The concluding observation this year with nitrite of amyl relates to the 
fact that the nitrite atmosphere, when it is not too much charged with 
the vapour, exerts a certain curative effect. Three rabbits were brought to 
me with a skin disease resembling leprain man. They were emaciated and 
feeble, the fur on the back along the whole length of the spine had been cast 
off, and the skin was covered over this part with white ashy scales. 

Placing these animals in an atmosphere of nitrite of amyl, I noticed that, as 
the agent took effect, the scaly white skin on the back became red and 
flushed. In a day or two the scales disappeared, the fur began to extend, 
and the general health to improve. In a month all the animals had entirely 
recoyered. 

There are many local conditions of disease in man and other animals in 


\ 


PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF ORGANIC CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS. 155 


which the essence of cure lies in reestablishing a good capillary circulation. 
It may be, therefore, that by administering the nitrite of amyl, or the other 
organic nitrites, secundum artem, we may make them further agents in the 
eure of disease, and thereby add another progress to physiological as distin- 
guished from empirical medicine. 


Nitrate or Ernyt, 


In one of my previous Reports I touched incidentally on certain of the 
nitrates of the organic series of compounds. These substances differ from 
the nitrites simply in that they contain an additional equivalent of oxygen. 
It is a very interesting study to follow the difference of physiological action 
upon so simple a change of chemical constitution; and this year I studied 
once more this difference from two of the representatives of the nitrate 
series, viz. from nitrate of ethyl and nitrate of amyl. 

Nitrate of ethyl, to which I first refer, is a fluid, almost colourless, and 
yielding an agreeable odorous vapour. It has a specific gravity of 1-112, a 
boiling-point of 85° C. (185° F.), and a vapour-density of 45. . Its composi- 
tion is C,H, NO,. It is made by dropping 10 grms. of absolute alcohol into 
20 grms. of colourless concentrate nitric acid in a platinum vessel surrounded 
by a freezing-mixture. Mr. Ernest Chapman was kind enough to make me 
a fine specimen of this nitrate, with which my experiments have been con- 
ducted. 

Nitrate of ethyl was used in experiment, physiologically, in 1848, by the late 
distinguished Professor of Midwifery in the University of Edinburgh, Sir 
James Simpson. Sir James considered that it possessed some anmsthetic 
properties. It has for many years, I may say centuries, also been used in 
medicine, in combination with alcohol, under the name of nitric ether, and 
so employed has been considered valuable for its diuretic properties. ; 

I find, on using it in the undiluted form, that it may be introduced into the 
system either by inhalation, by hypodermic injection, or by the stomach, and 
that the effects which follow its administration in large doses are closely analo- 
gous to those induced by nitrite of amyl, 7. ¢. it produces rapid action of tho 
heart, some pulsation of the vessels of the head, flushing of the face, and 
muscular prostration. In the strict sense of the word, it is not an anesthetic $ 
when administered in an extreme dose, there is no evidence of insensibility, 
until death is imminent. In all cases the motor force is overcome com- 
pletely long before the sensory organs are influenced. The paralysis of the 
vessels is slower than from nitrite of amyl; the danger of using the agent is 
consequently much less ; and as the effects are more prolonged, the substance 
becomes very manageable in medical practice. 

When the administration of the nitrate is carried up to death, the con- 
dition induced in all the vascular organs is an intense congestion. In 
this congestion the lungs and the kidneys specially share; and I think there 
is no doubt that the well known diuretic action of the substance is due 
altogether to the paralysis of the renal vessels it produces. It alters much 
less than the nitrites the colour of the blood, interferes in no way with the 
process of coagulation, and is eliminated rapidly from the body both by the 
lungs and the kidneys. Administered to the production of complete prostra- 
tion, it reduces the animal temperature in a definite degree. In pigeons the 
temperature goes down five and even six degrees, in rabbits three degrees, 
and in guineapigs from two to three degrees, Like the nitrites, nitrate of 
ethyl reduces the tetanic spasm of strychnia; and I would suggest that in 
tetanus, and other acute diseases of spasmodic character, it might be used 


156 REPORT—1871. 


with great advantage; but it must be given for this purpose in very different 
proportions to those in which it is now commonly prescribed. The best 
plan would be to administer it by inhalation until a decided influence over 
the motor action is manifested. In pharmacy it would be convenient to 
keep the nitrite in the pure and simple state, leaving the dilution of it, in 
alcohol, to the judgment of the physician, 


Nitrate oF AMYL. 


Nitrate of amyl, C, H,, NO,, is a pale amber-coloured fluid, of not very 
agreeable odour. It has a specific gravity of 0-992, a boiling-point of 138° C, 
(280° F.), and a vyapour-density-of 66°. It is made by acting with strong 
nitric acid, 30 grms., on urea nitrate, 10 grms., adding afterwards 40 grms. 
of pure amylic alcohol. I am again indebted to Mr. Ernest Chapman for 
a specimen of nitrate of amyl, freed as far as possible from nitrate of butyl, 
from all trace of which it can with difficulty be separated, 

In the nitrate of amyl we haye a substance differing chemically from 
nitrite of amyl in having an additional equivalent of oxygen, and differing 
physically in that it is heavier and of higher boiling-point. It enters the 
body readily by all channels, and in its general effects it agrees with the 
nitrite, except that a longer time is required for the development of sym- 
ptoms from it, and a longer time is demanded for the process of recovery from 
its influence. The quantity necessary to produce decisive results is the same 
as with the nitrite; but the nitrate is not so pleasant a substance to admi- 
nister, and when administered by inhalation is not so conveniently applied. 
Whether the nitrate of amyl has any real advantages over the nitrite is a 
question on which I would prefer not to speak at length, until larger oppor- 
tunities than I have yet had of proving it have been afforded me. 


SULPHO-UREA. 


In my last Report I treated on the physiological properties of certain of 
the organic sulphur compounds, viz. sulphur alcohol, mereaptan, and sulphide 
of ethyl. Recently a very curious and interesting sulphur compound has 
come before me for experiment; I mean a crystalline substance known by 
the name of sulpho-urea. Sulpho-urea was first made, I believe, by Prof. 
Reynolds, and it has since been produced in London, in Dr. Thudichum’s 
laboratory, by Mr. Charles Stewart, to whom I am indebted for the speci- 
mens with which I have conducted my researches. Unfortunately the 
manufacture is difficult, owing to the necessity for many recystallizations, so 
that I have only been able to work with six drachms; but the results, as 
far as they go, deserve notice. Mr. Stewart has kindly given me the fol- 
lowing note in regard to the preparation of sulpho-urea: 

*« About a kilogram of pure ammonium sulphocyanate is dried at 100° C., 
powdered, and dried again. Slight loss by sublimation occurs. When per- 
fectly dry, it is heated gradually by a paraffin bath to 170° C., and maintained 
at that temperature for two hours. The mass is then allowed to cool to 
110° C., treated with one and a half times its bulk of boiling water, decanted 
from a small quantity of black matter (it is impossible to filter it, as it de- 
stroys paper filters), and set aside to crystallize. The crystals are long, fibrous, 
satiny needles; they are drained, pressed strongly in Hessian cloth, and 
purified by recrystallization from water. The productis then dissolved in 
boiling alcohol, filtered from a little ammonium sulphate which remains undis- 
solved, and set aside to crystallize. Two more crystallizations from alcohol 


« 


PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF ORGANIC CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS. 157 


render it practically free from sulphocyanate. The crystals from alcohol are 
hard, opaque, white prisms: from water they are long, fibrous, silky needles. 
Both forms are anhydrous.” I present specimens of both varieties. 

“ From the mother liquors more of the urea may be recovered by the same 
process. The last mother liquors, containing mainly sulphur urea, but also 
much sulphocyanide, may be evaporated down, and heated again to 170°, as 
above, with fresh sulphocyanide of ammonium, to furnish more urea.” 

Sulpho-urea is much less soluble in water than ordinary urea, requiring 
twice its own weight, at 60° F., for solution. It has a saline bitter taste, 
compared by some to the taste of magnesian sulphate. It differs simply from 
ordinary urea in that in it sulphur replaces oxygen. P 


Urea. Sulpho-urea. 
CN 0 CN g 
OS tte NG 


In order to determine the difference of action of the two ureas, a series of 
comparative experiments were carried out. The results may be thus epito- 
mized :— 

On frogs and rabbits sulpho-urea differs materially from common urea in 
its action, 7. e. when used in the same quantities. The first produces definite 
convulsive action, with coma and convulsion ; the second produces, in frogs, 
coma without convulsion, and in rabbits nothing more than a slight and gentle 
soporific condition, which lasts for a very short time, and can be broken at 
any moment by the simple act of moving or calling out to the animal. 

In frogs sulpho-urea induces the saline cataract, common urea does not. 

To produce any decided physiological effect with sulpho-urea, the proportion 
used must not be less than thirty grains to the pound weight of the animal. 
In three experiments n which it was administered to young rabbits, to the 
extent of producing slight soporific effects, it reduced the animal tempera- 
ture two degrees Fahrenheit within the interval of an hour. 

The impression I haye gathered in respect of sulpho-urea is, that it is a 
saline narcotic, and as such it may prove of use in medicine; but the great 
point of physiological interest in connexion with it lies in the difference 
indicated, by its means, between the action of oxygen and sulphur in com- 
bination with the same elements, C, N, H, in the same form. ‘The difference 
may be due to the difference of weight, or it may be due to difference of solu- 
bility ; the elements, oxygen and sulphur, producing the distinction by virtue 
of their physical qualities of weight or solubility ; or it may be due to the 
special qualities of the elements. I offer these thoughts as again bearing upon 
the general question of chemical composition in relation to the physiological 
action of chemical substances, 


Cunor-ErnyiiIpErne—MonocnuLorvrerrep Cunoripe or Ernyre. 


Tn the year 1852 Dr. John Snow introduced as an anesthetic the mono~ 
chloruretted chloride of ethyle. He administered the vapour of this substance 
many times to the inferior animals and to the human subject, and he came 
to the conclusion that the vapour was equivalent in value to chloroform, and 
had an advantage over chloroform, viz. that it rarely if ever produced vomit- 
ing; it did not usually excite the stomach, he observed, even if it were ad- 
ministered after food. In 1870 the distinguished Liebreich, who evidently 
was not aware of Snow’s research, reintroduced this anesthetic under the 
name of chlor-ethylidene. Chlor-ethylidene yields a sweet etherial vapour, 


158 REPoRT—1871. 


less pungent than vapour of chloroform, but still pungent ; the vapour burns 
in air. The specific gravity of the fluid is 1-174, the vapour-density 49, the 
boiling-point 64° C. (149° F.). The composition is C,H,Cl, It differs 
from Dutch liquid, which in other respects it resembles, in not being de- 
composed by an alcoholic solution of potassa (Snow). 

I had already seen chlor-ethylidene in use in 1852, and had added Snow’s 
memoir upon it (during the writing of which, by the way, he was taken with 
his fatal seizure) in my edition of his works on anesthesia, published in 
1858 ; but since the subject has come up again I have travelled once more 
over the same ground. [ obtained a specimen of chlor-ethylidene, adminis- 
tered it several times for the production of anesthesia, and am bound to say 
of it that it.is a very good anesthetic. It resembles bichloride of methylene 
very much in its a¢tion, produces vomiting as rarely, but is less rapid than 
the bichloride, being of higher boiling-point and yielding a heavier vapour. 

On inferior animals I find that when carried to extremity it arrests the 
respiration before it arrests the action of the heart; and I also find that 
recovery from its extremest effects is comparatively casy. In one of my 
lectures during the past winter session I restored life in a rabbit, by careful 
artificial respiration, seven minutes and a half after all signs of natural re- 
spiration had been abolished by the vapour of chlor-ethylidene. 

I would give to chlor-ethylidene a prominent place amongst anesthetics. 
It would take the place of either chloroform or bichloride of methylene 
efficiently ; it is safer than chloroform, and excites vomiting less frequently ; 
it is less rapid in action than methylene bichloride, not more effective, and 
possesses, I think, about the same value in matter of safety. 


HyDRAMYLE; 


At the Meeting of the Association at Exeter I placed before this Section a 
fluid called hydride of amyl. The fiuid had a specific gravity of -625, and it 
boiled at 30° C. (86° F.). Its composition was stated to be C,H,,H. I de- 
scribed then that this vapour was a quickly acting anzsthetic. 

During the present year I have experimented largely again with this 
hydride, with the view of rendering it applicable for the production of rapid 
anesthetic sleep, for short operations, such as extraction of teeth. In 
this research I found one or two difficulties in the way. The fluid was 
too light to be manageable on every occasion; that is to say, it escaped 
from the inhaler, as a gas, by the mere warmth of the breath, and the vapour 
had also an odour which to the majority of persons was objectionable. 

I set to work to obviate these difficulties, first by slightly weighting the 
fluid, and secondly by making an inhaler that should more effectually restrain 
the liquid as it was undergoing evaporation. In both attempts I have suc- 
ceeded well. 

In making good bichloride of methylene we put finely pulverized zine into 
a retort and pour upon it absolute alcohol and chloroform, using afterwards 
a heat not exceeding 120°F., in order to distil over the product. I modified 
this process by diluting the mixture of chloroform and alcohol with eight times 
the volume of hydride of amyl. This mixture is poured upon the zine, 
with the result of an instant vehement action without any application of 
heat; after a free evolution of gas, which lasts some minutes, there dis- 
tils by this method a fluid which contains pure hydride of amyl and pure 
bichloride of methylene. If the distillation be carried on at 98° F., the fluid 
that comes over has the specific gravity of ordinary ether (*720), a most 
agreeable odour, and rapid anesthetic action. I have now administered this 


PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF ORGANIC CHEMICAL CoMPOUNDS. 159 


fluid, in vapour, forty-six times for short operations on the human subject, 
and in the average of cases have produced the required insensibility within 
fifty seconds. In one instance insensibility was produced, a firm tooth was 
extracted, and perfect recovery occurred in forty seconds. As yet there has 
neither been vomiting nor other untoward symptom during the adminis- 
tration. 

There is, however, a peculiarity in the action of this vapour to which I 
ought carefully to refer, viz. that insensibility from it intensifies after the 
inhalation of it is withdrawn. Thus in administering, whenever there is the 
least indication of its effects, such as winking of the eyelids or drop of the 
hand, the sign is given to stop the administration. The operator may now 
wait a few seconds and then proceed. The inhaler I have constructed for 
the administration of this new anwsthetic is before the Meeting. It is a simple 
hollow cone made of leather, and is furnished with two light silken valves 
for entrance of air and exit of vapour and breath. It is lined with domette 
set on a light frame or ring of metal. When the inhaler is not in use it 
forms a case for holding safely, in a bottle, four fluid-ounces of the anesthetic 
liquid. This quantity is sufficient for twenty operations, of from one and a 
half to three minutes’ duration, two drachms being the amount necessary 
for an operation not exceeding three minutes’ duration. 

The vapour described above will become, I believe, should experience 
confirm its safety, of general application as an anesthetic for short opera- 
tions; for long operations it will probably not replace the heavier anesthetics. 
I am indebted to Mr, Ernest Chapman for the suggestion of the abbreviated 
name hydramyle. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL NOTES. 


In the course of the researches detailed in the preceding pages I have again, 
as in previous researches, been led to notice certain simple facts which lie in 
the path of inquiry, and which, though not necessarily belonging to it, are 
too prominent to be passed by without notice. I shall therefore offer a few 
notes bearing on three topics ;| and this the more readily, because it is rarely 
the case that so many eminent physiologists as are now present, each one 
interested in the subjects to be named, meet together to take part in dis- 
cussion. 


Errecr oF soME Naxcortc Vaprours ON THE MINUTE CIRCULATION OF TIE BxooD. 


I have taken occasion several times to observe the effect of narcotic vapours 
on the minute circulation of the blood. I prefer to use the term ‘ minute 
circulation ” because it embraces the minute arterial and venous, as well as 
the capillary circulation. 

In these researches the web of the foot of the frog was selected for obser= 
vation, and I think on the whole with advantage. The following particulars 
were carried out in every case :— 

. (a) A large healthy frog was chosen, and one in which the web was very 
clear. (b) The same microscopic power, and that low—the inch or half-inch 
object-glass and A eye-piece (Ross)—was always employed. (c) The tempera- 
ture of the air was kept the same during periods of observation, and the work 
was conducted during the same hours each day, viz. between the hours of 
2and5p.m. (d) The observations were never hurried ; they occupied an 
average of three hours each, and every change of scene in the vessels through 
the various stages of narcotism and of recovery were carefully and systema- 


160 REPORT—1871. 


tically noted. (e) The animals were placed for narcotism in the small glass 
chamber now before the Members. The chamber as it is was finally con- 
structed, after many essays, by my friend Dr. Sedgwick, and it answered 
admirably. The animal was placed, without any restraint, in the chamber ; 
one foot was then gently drawn out on to the stage attached to the 
chamber, and the web was extended over the small glass plate. The 
animal being thus prepared, the web was brought under the microscope and 
the circulation examined. (f) The part of the circulation to be observed 
was so selected as to include a good view of an artery, a vein, and the 
smaller intermediate capillary vessels. (g) When the natural condition 
of the circulation was well observed the chamber was closed by the sliding 
cover, and through it the narcotic vapour, the effect of which upon the 
circulation was to be investigated, was gently passed. The vapour was driven 
over with hand-bellows from a small Junker’s apparatus, manufactured by 
Messrs. Krohne and Sesemann*. By counting the strokes of the bellows it 
was possible to maintain the same current of vapour at all times. (h) And 
lastly, the web was sustained in the same condition of moisture, so as to pre- 
vent errors of observation due to evaporation from the tissues. 

Such were the precautions taken; and I am inclined to think they were 
sufficient, although it will be a great satisfaction to me and an aid in my future 
labours to hear of any amendments or additions that may be suggested. 
The narcotic vapours used in the research were hydramyle, chloroform, bi- 
chloride of methylene, and absolute ether. In some particulars these acted 
precisely in a similar way, in other particulars they acted in a way more or 
less peculiar to themselves. 

The first fact I would notice as common to the action of all the vapours 
used is, that no obvious change in the physical characters of the blood-cor- 
puscles, red or white, was ever observable; neither was there any noticeable 
difference in the relationships of the red and white corpuscles to each other. 
The red corpuscles held their ways so long as there was motion in the centre 
of the blood-streams, while the white ones rolled along by the sides of vessels 
in the same manner as they did before the narcotism. 

Another fact common to the action of all the vapours used was, that the 
first sign of arrested movement of the circulation commenced in every case 
on the venous side of the circulation, and consisted of a sort of pulsation or 
to-and-fro movement of the current through the vein; soon upon this the 
venous current became obviously slower and the vein dilated, while the 
arterial current remained, often for a long time, unchanged. 

In every case the minute circulation remained long in force after the 
respiration had entirely ceased, and after all evidence of the continuance of 
life had entirely ceased. On the average the animals ceased to breathe for 
one hour and thirty minutes after the deep narcotism had set in ; yet all the 
while the minute circulation was still playing with more or less of efficiency, 
and so long as it continued the chances of recovery were nearly certain. The 
cessation of the minute circulation was, on the other hand, the sign and proof 
of irrevocable death. 

There was still another effect common to all the narcotics used. The cir- 
culation through the capillaries often stopped altogether, and for considerable 
intervals of time, when the reduction of the circulatory power was greatest. 
Under this condition the circulation, such as it was, was maintained by the 
arteries, in which the blood moved to and fro with occasional slow steady 


* Dr. Richardson here fitted up the apparatus, including small chamber, hand-bellows, 
and Junker’s bottle, and showed the method by which it was worked. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF ORGANIC CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS. I61 


onward movements. In the veins, too, there were now and then short moye- 
ments, first as of impulse towards the heart, and then of retreat backwards ; 
these movements in the veins were succeeded invariably by an increased and 
more perfect action of the arteries. During this state the capillaries may be 
said to have become almost indistinct, that is to say, no movement of cor- 
puscles through them, into the veins, indicated their course ; as channels they 
were left empty and transparent, and the return of the corpuscular current 
through them was at all times proof of the speedy return of the activity 
of life. 

The changes named above were common to the action of all the narcotics 
named; but there were some striking changes peculiar to the substances 
themselves to which I must refer. The peculiarities were traceable, as it 
seems to me, to the weight, the solubility, and the chemical composition of 
the substance that was employed to produce the narcotic state. 

When the substance was very light, of low boiling-point, and insoluble, 
the effect of arrest of the circulation was most rapidly developed, and at the 
same time was most rapidly removed. Thus hydramyle, the lightest, the first 
to boil on elevation of temperature, and the most insoluble, produced the 
quickest arrest of the venous current ; but from its influence the animal was 
equally quick to recover, the general signs of recovery being secondary to 
the local return of the circulation. 

When the substance was light and of low boiling-point, but comparatively 
soluble in blood, the time required to produce the slowing of the venous cir- 
culation was prolonged after the insensibility of the animal was complete ; 
after even respiration had stopped, the extreme changes in the circulation 
were slowly developed; and although the insensibility might be deep and 
continuous, like to death itself, the actual temporary arrest of the arterial 
current was imperfectly pronounced. Absolute ether, which has a very low 
specific weight (720) and a very low boiling-point (94° F.), but which is solu- 
ble in blood to the extent of not less than eleven parts in the hundred, pro- 
duced perfectly all the effects immediately named above. When the substance 
inhaled was comparatively heavier, of a higher boiling-point, insoluble, and 
contained as one of its elements an irritant, there was introduced a new 
phase, that is to say, the arterial vessels, as the animal came under the in- 
fluence of the narcotic, were reduced in calibre. The changes of the circula- 
tion in this case were first marked in the retardation of the blood through 
the veins, then the vein increased in diameter, and there were signs of 
regurgitation of its blood; these indications were followed by what may 
be called irregular movements in the capillaries, and by reduction of calibre 
of the arteries. It was observed, nevertheless, that the narrowing of the 
arterial vessels, though well marked, was never so extreme as to prevent mo- 
tion of blood in them; that is to say, the degree of arterial contraction was 
limited. I consider this to be due to the circumstance that the animal had 
always ceased to breathe, and the further absorption of the narcotic vapour 
had consequently also ceased, by the time that the action of the vapour upon 
the arterial vessels was developed. 

_ During the period when the size of the arterial vessel was reduced, the 
motion of the blood in the capillary vessels fed by the arterial supply was 
modified; the blood flowing through the capillary channels moved less 
steadily, and was forced, if I may so express the fact, in pushes, as if there 
were intervals of relaxation of the arterial vessels during which the resis- 
tance to the impelling power of the heart slightly and slowly yielded. 
After a time the circulation of the blood through the artery became slower, 

1871. M 


TOE = 1205 --. REPOoRT—1871..- 


the capillaries were left empty, the venous current ceased, and the condition 
of temporary suspension of all circulation, except slowly, in the arterial 
supervened. The effects here named were well marked from the action of 
the chlorides; they were seen under the influence of bichloride of methy- 
lene, they were still more definite under chloroform. 

To sum up, if my observations be correct, the action on the systemic cireula- 
tion of the narcotic vapours named was seen to be primarily on the venous cur- 
rent or, I should more correctly say, was primarily manifested in the retar- 
dation of the venous current, secondly in the capillary, and finally in the 
arterial current. During recovery, moreover, the return of a steady onward 
current was manifested in the veins before it was restored in the capillary- 
channels. This order of events coincides purely with the order of pheno- 
mena of death under the influence of narcotic vapours, as obseryed both in 
man and the lower animals. It is, I think, the invariable fact that the right 
side of the heart in such fatal cases is the first to cease its action, and in 
animals, when the heart is exposed to the air soon after the death, the right 


side is the first to recommence action. From these facts the inference, I _ 


think, is clear that the arrest of the circulation begins, during the narcotism, 
in the retardation of the venous current, secondly in the capillary, and 
lastly in the arterial current. 

The course of recovery, when recovery takes place, appears to be preceded 
by some act of relief to the venous column of blood. The motion that re- 
mains in the arteries is not the first to increase, the circulation through the 
capillary is not first manifested ; that which happens, as a distinct sign of 
recovery, is @ movement onward by the veins; as this movement improves 
the movement through the arteries improves, the capillary vessels refill, and 
the circuit of the minute circulation is steadily and perfectly restored. 

From these observations on the minute systemic circulation when the 
body is under the influence of a narcotic vapour of the irritant class, I infer 
that the changes of circulation observed do not proceed immediately from an 
action exerted by the narcotic vapour upon the extreme systemic vessels, but 
form an obstruction commencing on the venous side, and in the lesser or 
pulmonary circulation. When a warm-blooded animal is suddenly killed by 
a large dose of the vapour of chloroform, the lungs are invariably found 
blanched, the right side of the heart engorged with blood, and the left side 
empty of blood. ‘We see in these conditions that of necessity, in the extreme 
parts of the systemic circulation of the animal, there has been retardation of 
the blood through the veins ; and we may infer on the fairest, nay completest, 
evidence that the return of motion, which is seen commencing in the veins in 
the systemic circuit, is due to a returning current in the breathing-organs ; 
in other words, the renewal of the active life of the animal recommences in 
passive breathing. The same order of phenomena happens, precisely, during 
the recovery of a warm-blooded animal, after apparent death from chloro- 
form, under the influence of artificial respiration ; for so soon as the animal 
recommences to breathe, however faintly, its return to life is secured. 

The position then assumed, that the primary arrest of the column of blood 
during fatal narcotism is in the lesser circulation, we have to ask whether the 
arrest commences in the heart or in the lungs. The commonly accepted 
view has been that it commences in failure of the right side of the heart; 
but I incline to think that this view is incorrect, and that the positive source 
of failure is in the peripheral circulation of the lung. The vapour inhaled 
impresses, I think, immediately the minute circulation, and acts not by 
absorption into the blood, but by simple and instant contact with the minute 


| 
: 
. 
. 
| 
' 


PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF ORGANIC CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS. 168 


pulmonary vessels; so that there is immediate resistance to the passage of 
blood through them. Three well-observed facts support this opinion :—Ist, 
the fact already dwelt upon, that in cases of rapid death the lungs are emptied 
of blood; 2nd, that the arrest of the systemic circulation commences on the 
venous side of the circulation, and is attended with ‘filling of the veins; 
8rd, that immediately after the death of the animal, if the chest be opened 
and the heart exposed, the right side of the heart, relieved of pressure, will 
immediately recommence to contract vigorously, showing that it is not itself 
paralyzed, but is restrained from action by mechanical resistance to its column 
of blood. 

If the theory of the action of narcotic vapours thus propounded be cor- 
rect, we ought to draw from it this practical lesson, that in introducing 
new narcotic vapours into practice, the utmost care should be taken to select 
those only that are negative in respect to their action upon the vessels of the 
minute circulation. A gas or vapour that asphyxiates but does not irritate 
may be safer than a gas or vapour that does not asphyxiate and does 
irritate; for the former, when it kills, kills by a secondary process that is 
preceded by a series of symptoms foretelling the danger; while the latter, 
when it kills, kills often by instantly shutting off the column of blood that 
is making its way to the air, and by so oppressing the heart that every 
attempt at action, under the condition produced, increases the injury. 


On ConyutstvE Movements purtne Narcorism. 


T have endeavoured to show in the last section that under narcotism from 
certain narcotic vapours, the vapours of the chlorine series specially, there 
are two orders of cessation of the circulation,—the one primary, beginning in 
the lesser or pulmonary, the other secondary, beginning in the larger or 
systemic circulation. Coincidently with these changes I have, I think, 
obseryed, when there-has been time for the development of the phenomena, 
4+wo distinct sériés of convulsive movements or paroxysms of convulsion. 
T haye noticed the same fact in drowning, and also in fatal sudden hemor- 
rhage, as in the process of killing animals, such as sheep. The phenomena 
may at any time be observed at the abattoir; they are in fact perhaps best 
seen in cases of rapid fatal hemorrhage; and I am led to the conclusion that 
they have one common interpretation as to cause, the hemorrhagic convul- 
sions eing the purest type of all. The convulsive actions, primary and 
secondary, are due, as it seems to me, to disturbance of the balance of supply 
of blood to the‘nervous and muscular centres. As a mechanism, the mass of 
neryous matter is the centre of reserved force, while the mass of muscle is 
the moving centre, the two centres being connected by an intervening nervous 
cord, and each supplied with the same blood. The two centres are held in 
counterpoise, as it were, by the blood. If there be, then, any disturbance of 
support in either centre, it will be indicated in change of function in the 
moving centre, in change of motion. 

When we draw blood from the systemic circuit, or when through the 
lesser circulation we arrest the free current of blood through the systemic 
_ eireuit, we destroy the balance previously existing between the muscular and 
nervous centres. If we could so exhaust the body that both centres should 
be exhausted together evenly, it is possible that there would be no change of 
motion in the moving centre ; and, indeed, in some cases of disease we see the 
gradual and equal exhaustion without manifestation of the convulsive pheno- 
mena. But in cases of extreme and sudden break of balance, it follows neces- 
sarily that the balance shall-be broken unevenly. It is in the muscular system 


mu 2 


164. REPORT—1871. 


that the failure of blood is first felt. The nervous centres, protected from the 
eifects of sudden pressure by their envelopment of bony structure, feel the 
shock of the exhaustion secondarily. Thus the muscle suffering a reduced 
resistance of blood to the nervous stimulus, contracts as if it had received an 
excess of stimulus, and the phenomenon of primary convulsion is developed ; 
in hemorrhage this convulsion immediately precedes deliquium or syncope. 
In brief time, the nervous centres themselves becoming exhausted, the con- 
vulsions cease, and none but the muscular movements of the organic life, 
respiration and circulation, remain. These while they last feed still in a 
passive state the nervous centres and muscular centres ; and if the cause of 
exhaustion at this stage be stopped and the body be resupplied with means 
of life, recovery takes place without the necessary return of convulsive ac- 
tion ; but if the exhaustion proceed, then follows the secondary phase, the 
failure of the organic system, and with that a repetition of the phenomenon 
of primary failure, viz. a second general convulsion, terminating in death. 

The conyulsion of hemorrhage is, I repeat, the typical form of the condi- 
tions I have portrayed ; but in death from chloroform and similar narco- 
tics, the phenomena are sometimes equally striking. The convulsion and 
rigidity which mark the second degree of narcotism indicate the first 
break of balance between the nervous and the muscular centres; the 
period of the third and fourth degrees of narcotism, during which there is 
complete paralysis of voluntary and of conscious power, marks the interval 
when all life is suspended on the organic or vegetative nervous system; the 
final convulsion that precedes death marks and proclaims the moment when 
the organic force itself breaks down, leaving the whole organism motionless 
and, as we say, dead. 


On ConDENSATION OF WATER ON THE Broncuiat SuRFACE DURING NARCOTISM. 


It has occurred to me often to observe that the physiological action of nar- 
cotic vapours during inhalation is greatly modified by the condition of the 
atmospheric air in respect to its dryness and its moisture. When the atmo- 
sphere is extremely dry, the action of a narcotic vapour is greatly increased, 
and recovery from its effects is remarkably easy ; on the contrary, when the air 
is saturated with water vapour the action is impeded ; and ifthe air be at the 
same time cold and moist, the process of narcotism is often greatly impeded, 
while recovery after it has been established is prolonged in proportion. 
But the fact I wish particularly to bring forward is, that when the body of 
an animal becomes profoundly narcotized, and the insensibility is long main- 
tained, during conditions in which the air is cold and moist, there oceurs not 
unfrequently an actual condensation of water in the minute bronchial pas- 
sages, which condensation leads to as low asphyxia, and, if it be continued, to 
actual death. This accident is best seen in cases of narcotic poisoning from 
hydrate of chloral; it may also be observed after poisoning from opium and 
other narcotics, as well as after long exposure to extreme cold. 

There are two causes at work to produce the condensation: the one is the 
obstacle to evaporation of watery matter from the surface of the animal 
membrane into the air; the other the deficiency of force, in an animal whose 
general temperature is reduced, to raise the vapour of water from the blood, 
and to expel it from the pulmonary organs in the state of vapour. 

Whenever in any case condensation of water, from the causes named, is 
set up, the danger continues in an increasing ratio; for the condensation 
tends to shut off the air from contact with the blood, the temperature of the 


ON SECTIONS OF MOUNTAIN-LIMESTONE CORALS. 165 


body (dependent always on the perfection of the respiratory process) decreases, 
and at last the respiratory change is prohibited altogether. 

It isimportant in the extremest degree to remember the fact thus named in 
the treatment of cases of poisoning during which the animal heat is reduced. It 
will often turn the scale, in such instances, in favour of return to life, simply 
to place the body in a warm and dry air. 

The fact is also of great interest, in a practical and physiological point of 
view, in relation to the phenomena of some exhaustive diseases. The cold 
sweats that are seen on the surface of the body in syncope, in the later stages 
of phthisis pulmonalis, and on the approach of death in many diseases, as 
also the chest-rattles, are due to the cause I have named!above—condensation. 
They are evidences that the body has not sufficient power or force to produce 
a rapid natural evaporation of water from the exhaling surfaces, 


Report of the Committee appointed to get cut and prepared Sections of 
Mountain-Limestone Corals for the purpose of showing their struc- 
ture by means of Photography. The Committee consisis of JAMES 
Tuomson, F.G.S., and Professor Harxnuss, F.R.S, 


Iy our Report of last year we gave in detail the probable additions to our 
present list of fossil corals from the Mountain Limestone. 

During the past year we have had several hundred specimens cut. 
Although, many of these have been more or less spoiled, and their internal 
structure’crushed and broken to such an extent that their specific characters 
cannot with any degree of certainty be made out, yet many of them reveal 
important structural characters which will enable us to add both genera and 
species to those before indicated. Many of the specimens cut have well- 
preserved calices, which will enable us to figuré and describe both their 
internal structure and external aspect, with a degree of certainty hitherto 
unknown. 

Although much progress has been made, we are convinced that many other 
facts will be revealed by further investigation; and we hope the Committee 
will be reappointed in order that we may continue this important inquiry. 

We have not added any additional photographic plates to those exhibited 
last year at Liverpool. We were desirous of getting as large a number of 
specimens cut as the sum at our disposal would permit, in order that we 
might select the most characteristic generic forms for further plates. 

At Liverpool we indicated that we were in the hopes of reproducing the 
most delicate structures by another process, which would be more serviceable 
for the purpose of publication. In this we are glad to state that we have 
been successful. By a simple process we are enabled to transfer the details 
of both genera and species to copper plates, from which any number of 
copies can be reproduced, of which we will avail ourselves when we are ready 
to publish in extenso. (Two plates so prepared were exhibited.) 

We have placed in the British Museum and the Hunterian Museum of 
Glasgow duplicates of a number of the cut specimens which have already 
been described ; other duplicates will be sent when they have been described 
and named. 


166 er __. »REPorT—1871.. 


Second Report of the Committee appointed to consider and report on 
' the various Plans proposed for Legislating on the subject of Steam- 
Boiler Explosions, with a view to their Prevention,—the Commiitee 
consisting of Sir Witu1am Farrparrn, Bart., C.H., LL.D., P.RS., 
Joun Penn, C.H., F.R.S., Freperick J. Bramwet., C.E., Hucu 
Mason, Samurt Ricsy, Toomas Scnoriep, Cuarzes F, Bryer, 
C.E., Tuomas Wesster, Q.C., and Lavineton E. Frercuer, C.E, 


Src the first Report on the subject of “ Steam-Boiler Legislation” was pre- 
sented to the Meeting of the British Association, held last year at Liverpool, 
the Parliamentary Committee ‘‘ appointed to inquire into the cause of Steam- 
Boiler Explosions and the best means of preventing them” haye presented 
their Report. 

The consideration of the result of the Parliamentary Committee’s inquiry 
clearly becomes one of the most important duties in reporting to the British 
Association on “the various plans proposed for legislating on Steam-Boiler 
Explosions, with a view to their Prevention.” Unfortunately, however, the 
Parliamentary Report has been so recently published that there has not been 
time for its due consideration, or for the Committee appointed to treat on 
this subject to meet and confer thereon, Under these circumstances it has 
been thought best not to attempt to enter upon the subject on the present 
eccasion,. but to postpone doing so until next year, after having an opportu- 
nity of watching-the development of the measure, and its working when 
carried into actual practice ;.and therefore, in order that they might be in a 
position to report thereon to.the next Meeting of the British Association, the 
Committee.would beg to suggest their reappointment. 


Report of the Committee on the “ Treatment and Utilization of Sewage.” 
Consisting of Ricuarp B. Grantuam, C.E., F.G.S. (Chairman), 
- Professor D. T. Anstep, F.R.S., Professor W. H. Corriexp, M.A., 
M.B., J. Batter Denton, C.H., F.G.S., Dr. W. H. Giipert, F.R.S., 
Joun THoRNHILL Harrison, C.E., THomas Hawks ey, C.E., F.G.S., 
W. Hor, V.C., Lieut.-Col. Leacu, R.E., Dr. W. Ovuine, F.R.S., 
Dr. A. Voricxer, 7.R.S., Professor A. W. Witutamson, F.R.S., 
F.C.S., and Sir Joun Lussocs, Bart., M.P., F.R.S. (Treasurer). 


Tur Committee, upon its reappointment at Liverpool last September (1870), 
proceeded at once to consider the. subjects which seemed to demand imme- 
diate attention in furtherance of the investigation which had been again 
entrusted to it. ote 

The first steps taken were to endeavour to procure information from the 
towns where works have been constructed for the application of sewage to 
land by irrigation, and from the places where the dry earth or Moule’s system 
is in operation. 

In order to commence the inquiry, a list of towns was prepared, to each of 
which a printed form of queries was sent; but only eight places have answered 
the circular on irrigation, and only one that relating to the dry-earth process. 
The answers from the towns have been tabulated, and the Table will be found 
at the end of this Report (Appendix A). 

During the construction of the present tanks at Breton’s Farm in the winter, 
very accurate observations could not at all times be made; but nevertheless, 
during the extreme frost, samples were taken of the sewage and of the 
effluent water. The temperature of both, and also the temperature of the 


ee ee a oe 


— 7) oe 


ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 167 


atmosphere, was observed.’ Similar observations Were made at Croydon and 
Norwood (see Section I.). 

The observations as to the quantity and quality of the sewage and effluent 
water have been continued at Breton’s Farm, with slight interruptions, as 
stated above, from the Meeting of the British "Association at Liverpool down 
to the present time. The results of the gaugings are recorded in the Tables 
which will be found in Section IT. of this Report. 

The Committee has visited several sewage-farms, and examined the various 
methods that are pursued at them with a view to determining the practical 
conditions upon which the success of sewage-farming depends. They have 
had samples of sewage and of effluent water collected, and have had analyses 
made of them, which latter, with the remarks of the Committee, will be found 
in Section III. 

The phosphate process of Messrs. Forbes and Price has been also examined 
by a Member of the Committee, and a description of the process, with an 
analysis of the effluent water from this process, is given in Section IV. 

Analyses of the soil which has passed once and twice through earth-closets 
haye been furnished by another Member; and the manner in which this 
process is carried out at Lancaster, with the results attained there, is dée- 
scribed in Section V. 

An ox which had been fed for the previous 22 months entirely on sewage- 
grown produce was slaughtered on July 15th at Bréton’s Farm, and the carcass 
examined by Dr. Cobbold and Professors Marshall and Corfield, in the presence 
of several Members of the Committee, with a view to ascertain the presence or 
absence of Entozoa in any stage of their existence. The results of this exami- 
nation, and Dr. Cobbold’s report, will be found appended (Appendix B). 
~ The attention of the Committee has been drawn to certain anomalies in 
the figures given in the list of rainfalls in the ‘Tabulation compiled from 
returns furnished by 200 towns selected for Classification,” at the end of last 
year’s Report. 

On referring to the original returns, it has Been found that the Paes 
given in the Table are correctly taken from them, 


Sxcrion I.—A Comparison of Results obtained in the purification of Sewage at 
three Irrigation Farms during the severe frost of last winter. 
1. Breton’s Farm, near Romford. 

The following analyses show the composition of average samples of sewage 
and effluent water collected on the farm on January 2nd; each sample was 
made by collecting five portions at different times, and mixing them in pro- 
portion to the flow at the time. 


Solid matter. Ammonia. 
Nitrogen 
: : as 
In solution. In suspension. Gianna: aateaben 
=e | a Actual. | Albu- and 
Driedat| After |Driedat} After minoid.| nitrites, 


100°C. | ignition. | 120°C, | ignition, 


Town sewage, temp. : : : ’ 2 
WEE eget C) f | 8760) 47-60 | 27°66) 6:52 | 11°60 | 5-084] 0-294 


Sewage from trough, 
temp. 46° BF, (= }| 98°20} 50°80 | 8:05} 1:60 | 11:999 | 5-628) 0-524 


drains B and C, 
temp. 40°°5 F, (= 
Beer eG.)"fiteteease 


66°60] 47:40 | ...... | eee 815 | 0:143| 0059} 1-208 


Effluent water a 


168 REPORT—1871. 


The sewage, after passing through the tank and pump, contains more solid 
matters in solution but much less in suspension than the sewage as it comes 
from the town; the agitation causes some of the suspended matter to pass 
into solution ; and it will be noticed that the amount of albuminoid ammonia 
in solution is nearly doubled, showing that a considerable amount of nitro- 
genous organic matter formerly in a state of suspension has been dissolved. 

This sewage is very much stronger than the average summer sewage, 
which only contains from 2°5 to 4 parts of actual ammonia in 100,000; and 
so one would hardly expect it to be so satisfactorily purified (especially _con- 
sidering the extreme frost and the want of growth) as the sewage was 
during the summer. 

Nevertheless the purification was very satisfactory indeed ; for the effluent 
water only contained 0-143 of actual ammonia, instead of 5-628, while the 
albuminoid ammonia was reduced from 0-524 to 0:059. 

From this we see that very little nitrogen passes away in the form of 
ammonia or of organic nitrogen, even in winter, when vegetation has least 
to do with the purification. 

Some of it passes away, however, in the form of nitrates and nitrites; but 
the amount which is thus lost is very little greater in the winter than in the 
summer, being 1-208 part in winter and about 1:106 part in summer in 
100,000 parts. 

Thus it appears that, with an underdrained soil, the sewage being obliged 
to pass through several feet of soil before it escapes, (1) oxidation goes on in 
winter as well as in summer, and almost all nitrogen lost is lost in an oxidized 
and inoffensive form, and (2) this loss is very slightly greater in winter with 
a very strong sewage than in summer with a weaker one; so that sewaging 
in the winter would appear to entail no extra loss of manure. 


2. Beddington Farm, Croydon. 
Three samples of Croydon sewage, taken from Beddington Fields, 3rd Jan- 
uary, 1871. 
The analyses show that the sewage applied to this farm contained on 


January 3rd, 1871, just about the same quantity of ammonia as that applied 
to Breton’s Farm on the day before. 


Solid matter. Ammonia. Nitrogen 
Chiesa as nitrates 
‘ Albu- and 
In In Actual. ae nitrites. 


suspension.| solution. 


From open drain near gas- } 
works, direct from filters, 7 Kin rar es f 
before being applied to 48°70 | 15:70 | 5360 | 5440 | 0-188 | None. 
landiectwccwetsscsteotctcees. 

Taken at crossing of the 
road near farm buildin Al 

From the confluence of two 
Outtalle sc  Arcccessesrasseens | 


AZT OS iecnses 3°69 2384 | 0-064 | 0:242 
45°30 Saewed 3°82 0744 | 0045 | 0-305 


The effluent water contained 0-744 part of ammonia, or between five and 
six times as much as that at Breton’s Farm ; the albuminoid ammonia was 
less in actual amount in the effluent water ; but the reduction was from 0-188 
to 0-045, or to one fourth of the original amount ; while in the last ease it 
was from 0°524 to 0:059, or to between one eighth and one ninth of the 
original amount contained in the sewage as pumped on to the land. The 
nitrates and nitrites in the effluent water were in insignificant amount, thus 


ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 169 


showing that the nitrogen that is lost on this farm is lost for the most part 
in the form in which it came on to the land, and that mere surface-action 
(which is relied upon here) is not sufficient to cause the oxidization of the 
ammonia and organic matters contained in the sewage. At the same time 
the amount of purification effected was certainly very considerable, 


3. Norwood Farm. 


Samples of sewage and effluent water collected from Norwood Fields on 
January 5th, 1871. 

The sewage employed on this farm was very strong, containing as much 
as 7°42 parts of ammonia in the 100,000. 


Solid matter. Ammonia. 
Nitrogen 
A as 
Tnisolntion, Se eneenE Chlorine. nitrates 
| cm Actual.| Albu- an 
Driedat| After |Driedat| After minoid.| vitrites, 


100° C. | ignition. | 120°C. | ignition. 


1.15 p.m, temp. p| 71°70] 28-40 | 37:20] 14:84} Not | 7-42 | 0:264 
42° F.(=5°°5 C.) deter- 
Effluent water, | mined, 


Sewage, collected ms 


lected” at 12.45 : : Te aaa ; 
paat., temp. 34° F. {| 22°30] 29°40 | 082} 062 | 17°38 | 2-056| 0-060} 0-961 


(=1°16.) ...... 


It will be seen that more than two parts of actual ammonia escaped ag 
such in the effluent water, while nearly one fourth of the albuminoid am- 
monia also escaped unaltered. At the same time a considerable amount of 
nitrogen was lost as nitrates and nitrites, showing that a certain amount of 
oxidizing action was going on. 

Thus there was a considerable loss of nitrogen, both in its original forms 
and also as nitrates and nitrites. 

It must be remembered that this sewage was very strong, and that in this, 
as in the other two cases, the samples were taken under the most disadvanta- 
geous conditions during a very severe frost, when growth was at its minimum. 

The purification is in every case very considerable ; but these comparative 
results speak volumes in favour of underdraining sewage-farms, and of so 
obliging all the sewage to pass through the soil. 

Some interesting results were observed as regards the temperature of the 
sewage and effluent water. 

At Breton’s Farm in the winter the temperature of the sewage was 46° F., 
that of the effluent water 40° F. = 4°-4 C., a reduction of 5° or 6° only ; while 
at Beddington Farm the temperature of the sewage was 42° F., and that of 
the effluent water 34° F.=1°1 C., a reduction of 8°. 

Thus with percolation through the soil the reduction is during the winter 
much less than with surface-flow. 

On the other hand, we have observed that sewage is always cooled (sco 
Table, Section II.) during the hottest weeks in summer by percolation 
through the soil, and almost always heated (sometimes considerably so) by a 
surface-flow during the summer. 

These results are favourable to percolation through the soil as opposed to 
mere surface-flow, both in summer and winter. 

Percolation causes a considerable cooling in the summer, while in winter 
it does not cool the effluent water so much as surface-flow docs. 


REPORT 


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“1871. 


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171 


ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 


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173 


ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 


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‘ON 


ON THE TREATMENT, AND- UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 175 


Remarks on Results:of Gaugings.—The whole of the gaugings taken from 
the 12th of June 1870 to the 15th of July 1871 (a period of 399 days) have 
been calculated and tabulated, with the following results :— 

Town Sewage.—The sewage received on the farm from the town of Rom- 
ford during the aboye period has been _ 


85;999,445 gallons =383, 926 tons, 


and the number of days on which it has been delivered is 373, giving an 
average quantity ‘of 


230,562 gallons= 1029 tons per day. 


This quantity does not, however, represent the total discharge from thé 
town of Romford, because, fram the middle of November 1870 to the middle 
of April 1871, the day-sewage only was delivered on to the farm, the night- 
sewage being allowed to run on to the meadows at Wybridge between the 
farm and the town; and for sixteen days.in February and March the whole 
of the sewage was so disposed of, and there are no means of estimating the 
quantity during this period... 

Respective flow of Day- and Naghtsea ge.—Since the 15th of April last, 
the new tanks being completed, and the sewage, with a few exceptions, being 
received continuously on the farm, it has been possible to calculate the re- 
spective flow of sewage during the working hours of the day and during the 
remaining period, and the ‘following are the figures :— 


allons. tons, 
Day-sewage (average time 10 hours).... 139,153 = 6213 
Night-sewage (average time 14 hours) .. 143,645 = 6414 
Totals. sissvss 282,798 = 12622 


The day-sewage is calculated on the basis of gaugings in the sewer during 
the working hours of the day ; the night-sewage is obtained by calculating 
the difference of quantities in the tanks between the times of stopping the 
pump one day and starting the next, allowing for the effluent water entering 
the tanks in the meantime. 

By equalizing the time of day- and night-sewage (12 hours each) -and 
computing the quantities on the basis of the above nguree, the following is 
the result :—- 


gallons. tons, 

Day-sewage, 12 hours ...... 163,329 = 729 
Night-sewage, 12 hours .... 119,469 = 5333 
282,798 = 12623 


According to these latter figures the night-sewage would be to the day as 
79 to 100, or the day to the night as 137 to 100. 

It should be borne in mind that the night-sewage of Romford fluctuates 
very much, owing to the Brewery frequently sending down a large quantity 
of water after working. hours; this-is especially the case on Saturday nights, 
as’a reference to the detailed records will show. 

Diluied Sewage pumped.—The diluted sewage pumiped includes, as was 
explained in the last Report, a certain amount of effluent water, which flows 
into the tanks, and is there mixed with the sewage as it comes from the town. 
The engine has worked 366 days during the above period; the average time 


176 REPORT—1871. 


of working since April 15th was 10 hours per diem. The total quantity 
pumped has been 


gallons. tons. 
96,944,653 = 432,788 
Average per diem.... 264,876 = 1,182 


Effuent Water discharged.—Owing to floods at the outlets of the pipes, 
the quantities of effluent water discharged could not always be gauged. On 
the 343 days during which the observations could be taken, 


39,449,178 gallons=176,112 tons 
were discharged, being 
115,012 gallons=5133 tons per day. 


Assuming this to be the average quantity for the whole period, the total 
quantity intercepted from the lower subsoil and discharged through the pipes 
would be 

45,889,788 gallons=204,865 tons, 


or 47:3 per cent. of the sewage pumped. 

Rainfall,—The rainfall at Breton’s during the total period of 399 days 
has been 22-64 inches, or on 1213 acres about 62} million gallons, equal to 
277,900 tons, or 2287 tons per acre, 

Temperatures.—It will be seen that the temperatures of sewage and effluent 
water have been very uniform as compared with that of the air, being lower 
during extreme heat and higher during extreme cold. This was very notice- 
able during the severe frost of last winter. In one week, when the mean 
noon-day temperature of the air was 28°5, that of the sewage received, 
sewage pumped, and effluent water was 43°. The ranges of variation over 
the total period have been ;— 


Atmosphere ........ 28-5 to 76 = AG 5 
Town-sewage........ 43 ,, 66 = 23 
Sewage pumped ...... 43, 67 = 24 
Effluent water ...... 4) ,, 64 ‘= 23 


A remarkable feature in the record of temperatures is the extremely slow 
rate at which the temperature of the effluent water fell, and the length of 
time which elapsed before it recovered again. The first week that the 
average temperature at noon fell below the freezing-point was the one ending 
31st December, when the average temperature of the air was 28°°5 F., and 
that of the effluent water was 43°; and after this, although the former rose, 
the latter fell, so that in the week ending February 4th the average tempera- 
ture of the air was 36°, and that of the effluent water 41°. The next week 
the temperature of the air was 44°, the second weck 47°, and the third week 
47°, yet it was not until the third week that the temperature of the effluent 
water recovered to 43°, 


Suction III.—(a) Observations on the Sewage-Farm at Tunbridge Wells. 


Before describing the results of the investigation by the Committee, it is 
desirable to state that, in the selection of the land to be irrigated at Tunbridge 
Wells, it has been a sine gua non condition that it should be at such a level 
that the sewage should reach it by gravitation; and to this end two farms 


te 


ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. a¢7 


have been Jaid out, one to the north and the other to the south of the town, 
and an outfall sewer made to each. 

Underdrainage has not been uniformly adopted on both farms; but where 
it previously existed, a peculiar arrangement has been made for the reappli- 
cation of the drainage-water. 

The distribution of the sewage is chiefly effected by what is known as the 
catchwater system, which is necessarily, under ordinary conditions, accom- 
panied by an overflow, in preference to its application in smaller quantities, 
sufficient to satisfy the demands of vegetation and to wet the land thoroughly 
without any overflow; while the absence of storage-reservoirs necessitates 
the continuous application of the sewage to some parts of the land by night 
as well as by day. 

The population of Tunbridge Wells is 19,410. 

The total quantity of sewage discharged is 1,000,000 gallons per 24 hours, 
of which about 400,000 gallons are supplied to the northern farm, and about 
600,000 gallons to the southern one. 

The northern sewage is applied to 123 acres of land, which have cost 
£21,000, and the southern to 167 acres, which have cost £27,000. 

To deliver the sewage from the two main outlets of the town to the land, 
culverts or conduits, with precipitating-tanks for the separation of the 
larger portions of the solid matter from the liquid, have been constructed in 
a very substantial manner. ‘The deliyering-conduits on the north, extending 
for a length of two miles with the precipitating-tanks, have costi£2587 13s. 1d., 
while those on the south (of which the length is three miles) have cost 
£5809 17s. 8d. The tanks on the north farm have cost £833 3s. 9d., those 
on the south £1188 ds. 1d. 

Thus the total cost of external delivering works amounts to £10,418 19s. 7d., 
which, added to the cost of the land, will be £58,418 19s. 7d., or £201 8s, 11d. 
per acre. 

The solid matter collected in the tanks is removed from time to time, and 
used on the farms as additional manure. The tanks are not covered; and 
there is consequently a strong smell in their proximity, which is not dis- 
coverable in any other part of the farms. 

The sewage having been delivered on to the land, is conveyed from one part 
to another by open main carriers and iron pipes, the former following contour- 
lines, and the latter partaking of the nature of inverted siphons in order to 
cross existing valleys or hollows. 


The cost of these internal works per acre has been— 


Por Carrictsi Siren. atte. alten £18 13 0 
Drain 220% Hae. ver, were 312 0 
Tron pipes iv Jas, .ee ens om 4 6 0 
Grubbing andtrenching .. 316 0 
Beads, ...08,momeer pore eo aa) 
Wire fences Aes ar Ue 5 se 2 
Oe italy ot, 3 cnretete aa ew eee £38 0 O per aere. 
Ora Otay OL Tse aves en <6 £239 8 11 per acre. 


The soil of nearly the whole of the northern farm is of a stiff clayey cha- 
“tacter, manifestly requiring underdrainage. It had for the most part been 
drained by the late owners before the Commissioners of Tunbridge Wells 
purchased it; but owing to the work being done as ordinary farm-drainage 
1871, N 


178 REPORT—1871. 


independently of surface preparation, it was soon found that the sewage 
descended to the drains so rapidly as to prevent its profitable distribution on 
the surface. It was stated to the Committee that when this effect was dis- 
covered it was determined that the drains should be stopped by digging down 
to them and plugging them, the result of which then was to keep the soil in 
a state of saturation, and to allow the unpurified sewage to pass over the 
surface into the stream. The engineer employed by the Commissioners has 
since superseded this state of things by adopting the special mode of treat- 
ment referred to, which consists of intercepting the existing drains at the 
depths at which they were originally laid, and bringing the underdrainage 
water to the surface by outlet drains discharging into lower carriers for re- 
distribution. ; 

At the time of the inspection by the Committee the lowest carriers were 
receiving effluent liquid of an impure character from the surface, at the same 
time that the underdrainage water was being discharged into them in the 
way described. 

The land of the southern farm is not generally of so heavy a description 
as that of the northern, though portions of it contain clay. Other parts are 
peaty, and are naturally very poor. Wherever the engineer has considered 
it necessary to drain the subsoil, this has been effected in a manner similar 
to that adopted on the northern farm. 

The striking features in the case of Tunbridge Wells are :— 

1. Instead of concentrating the sewage at one farm under one manage- 
ment, it has been divided, in accordance with the watersheds, into two parts, 
involving two separate systems of works and management. 

2. The main conduits and carriers are more than ordinarily substantial, 
and are therefore expensively constructed; and, following contour-lines on 
the surface, have a tortuous course, and so must interfere with approved cul- 
tivation. 

3. The character of the underdrainage, being designed for the redelivery 
of the sewage on to a lower surface by drains gradually getting nearer and 
nearer to it, must necessarily prevent alike a frequent and deep working of 
the surface-soil. 

4. The sewage being run over the surface of the land on the catch- 
water system (by night as well as day), with the intention of reapplying the 
overflow, its distribution is necessarily unequal both in quantity and quality, 
the first land sewaged receiving more than it requires, while the last must 
suffer from a deficiency unless there is a positive waste of sewage, as the 
analyses really show that there is. 

These several features illustrate the advantage of combining with the 
services of the civil engineer and the chemist those of the practical agricul- 
turist when laying out a sewage-farm. If they were not pointed out by the 
Committee thus early in the progress of sewage-irrigation, they might be a 
source of disappointment and surprise to those who contemplate the utilization 
of the sewage of their own towns by this the most profitable mode of treat- 
ment at present known, when properly conducted. While saying this, it 
is desirable to point out the superior character of the works carried out at 
Tunbridge Wells, and at the same time to express approval of the enterprising 
manner in which they have been undertaken by the Local Authority. 


a 


a 


ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 


Remarks on the Analyses of the Sewage and Effluent Water from the 
Irrigation Farms at Tunbridge Wells. 


North Farm.—tIn 100,000 parts. 


part of the flow per minute, by a measure graduated to 


Drage f from main 


sewer, 


1871 (average 


Solid matter. 


In solution. 


In suspension. 


Dried at tek 


100°C, | ign 


Dried at 
120° C. 


After 
igni- 
tion. 


53°6 | 27:7 


23°62 


19:68 


Samples taken in the uaa of 
of a gallon. 


To 


0 


Ammonia, 


In solution. 


In suspended 
matter, 


Albu- 


Actual. minoid, 


Actual, | Albu- 


minoid. 


179 


To00 


| temp. 58°5 F). 
| Effluent — water 
| taken from 7 
| drains of Italian | 
Rye-grass, and $ 
mixed 4th al 
SthJuly (average 
temp. 57° F).... 
Waterfromstream 
above theeflluent | 
drains on 6th 
July. (No sew- 
age water had en- 
tered the stream 
for two days 
above the point 
where the sam- 
ples were taken ; 
average temp. 
OL 1) Geena 


ANSW OW QOHT | Sececs | seeese PAY POS steeve iy soanee trace, 


collected 
July 4th & 5th, 
1 


Pos er alah corey 2 0:008| 0°02 | i006] sucies 0-42 


(Total nitrogen in effluent water 1-99.) 


The sewage from the main, while containing a comparatively small amount 
of total solid matter in solution, contains a very large proportion of 
“actual”? ammonia, and also of “ albwninoid” ammonia, when both the sus- 
pended and dissolved matters are taken into account; it is a rich sewage 
whether the proportion of nitrogenous matters to the total solids or to the 
bulk of the sewage itself be considered. The chlorine is in fair average 
amount. 

The analysis of the average effluent water shows that while the total solids 
are diminished in amount, the diminution is due to the retention by the soil 
and vegetation of the more volatile constituents, as the weight of ash left 
after ignition of the solid matters was greater in the case of the effluent 
water than in that of the sewage. This may be due to (1) concentration by 

- the evaporation which takes place from the sewage of the soil and from the 
plants, or (2) to solution of salts already in the soil: that the latter cause is 
more probably the true one, we see from the diminished amount of chlorine, 

_ which, although it may not necessarily indicate dilution with ordinary sub- 
_ soil water to a great extent, still would certainly not lead us to conclude that 
any concentration had taken place. That dilution with underdrainage water 
actually does take place has been already pointed out, P 

N 


180 REPORT—1871. 


The amount of ammonia in the effluent water is too high, amounting to 
more than one seventh of that in the same volume of sewage, while albu- . 
minoid ammonia still remains to the extent of one fifth of the original amount ; 
and the almost total absence of nitrates and nitrites in the effluent water 
shows the want of conditions favourable to oxidation ; so that the purification 
of the sewage here, although considerable, is not so satisfactory as could be 
wished, or as might be effected by making filtration through the soil an essen- 
tial feature in the process. 


South Farm.—In 100,000 parts. Samples taken in the proportion of yy 
part of the flow per minute, by a measure graduated to ;1; of a gallon. . 


Solid matter. ~ Ammonia. 


In suspended | Nitro- 


In solution. In suspension. | Chlo- In solution. untied gen as 
rine. nitrates 
Ssh Gils | =a eee an 
. After . After nitrites, 
Dried at] ~ "= |Dried at} “ Albu- Albu- 
100° C. ia 120° C. aoa, Actual. | ninoid. Actual minoid. 
10n. 10n 


Sewage from main | 
sewer at high 
rocks before en- 
tering the tanks $| 44-40} 26-90] 19:54] 7:30 | 9-48 | 7:20 | 0-75 | 0:00 | 0-40 
on the 6th and 
7th July, 1871 | 
(temp. 62° F.), ) 

Effluent water from ) 
field of man- 
golds and two | 

| 


fields of mea- 
dow-land, all 
mixed, 7th and 
8th July (ave- 
rage tempera- 
ture 62°°5 F.)... 
Water from al 
stream outside 
the farm-boun- 
dary above all 
the effluent 1S :60)|, W240! le. eae 2:62: |-:0:008} 0-016)! ...5 0) eee trace 
drains, taken 8th 1 
July (tempera- 
ture 63° F.) ... 


SS 20} a2sO0|| Cassano | Breckes 8:06 | 3°20 | 0:26 | ....0 


The results attained on the southern farm are, as shown by the above ana- 
lyses, very unsatisfactory, and at the same time very reliable, as the slight 
diminution of the chlorine in the effluent water would lead us to believe that 
the loss of water due to evaporation had been about balanced by the influx 
of underdrainage water, so that no great amount, at any rate, of concentra- 
tion had taken place. 

We notice at once the large amount of “actual” and of “ albuminoid ” 
ammonia which escapes unoxidized in the effluent water. No less than four 
ninths of the “actual” ammonia and more than one third of the “albu- 
minoid” ammonia, in the same volume of sewage, escapes in the effluent 
water, while the amount of nitrates and nitrites is very small ; the effluent 
water is very impure indeed. 


The analyses show distinctly that at these two farms, as at present man-~. 


ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE, 181 


aged, more sewage is applied than can be purified by the surface-flow, even 
when that takes place through thick vegetation (as in the case of the samples 
from the fields of Italian rye-grass on the northern farm), and much more 
than can be purified under less advantageous conditions (as in the case of 
the samples from the field of mangolds on the southern farm, although the 
water from this field was mixed with that from two of meadow-land); and 
they show, too, that the valuable matters that are not utilized are not only 
thrown away, but are thrown away in their crude condition, not having been 
subjected to the oxidizing action necessary to convert them into innocuous 
nitrates and nitrites. 

Lastly, we must notice the fact that the temperature of the effluent water 
of the northern farm is only slightly (less than one degree Fahr.) below 
that of the sewage, while the effluent water of the southern farm is actually 
half a degree Fahr. warmer than the sewage. This clearly shows that the 
pee has not been subjected to the cooling which percolation through soil 
entails, 


(6) Observations on the Sewage-Farm at Earlswood designed for the 
Utilization of the Sewage of Red Hill and Reigate. 


This sewage-farm consists of about 70 acres of Earlswood Common, of 
which, it was stated, about 50 acres abutting on a tributary of the river 
Mole have been laid out for irrigation. It is intended very shortly to add 
more land to that already prepared from properties adjacent, 

The soil is for the most part a clayey loam. The higher ground next the 
Common is rather freer in character, while the lower part appears to increase 
in density as it nears the outfall. 

The surface, which has rather a steep fall in its higher part, gradually be- 
comes more level as it descends, and has a very slight fall indeed as it ap- 
proaches the outfall. 

Before the sewage is delivered to the land for irrigation it passes through 
one of Latham’s patent extractors, an ingenious invention for the separation 
of the solid from the liquid parts. The liquid sewage is delivered from the 
extractor by covered conduits, from which it is directed right and left into 
the highest carrier. The land laid out for irrigation is divided into three 
series of beds or slopes separated by roadways, on the upper side of each of 
which is a surface-drain to receive the effluent liquid as it passes off the beds 
above, and on the lower a main carrier to deliver the sewage for distribution 
to the series of beds below. The three series are divided rectangularly into 
nearly equal-sized blocks, to be again subdivided by minor or inner carriers, 
laid out partly on the catchwater and partly on the ridge-and-furrow form. 
The surface of the highest land of the uppermost series of beds is about 24 
feet above the surface of the lowest land in proximity to the outfall-stream. 

None of the land is underdrained, and the lowermost beds appear to be in- 
capable of underdrainage ata sufficient depth unless the stream receiving the 
water to be discharged is appropriately deepened at very considerable cost. 

In answer to inquiries, it was stated that after heavy rains the lowest 
portions of the irrigated lands are swamped by the backing of the water 
which collects on their surface when the soil itself is in a state of complete 
saturation. At the time of the inspection by the Committee (July 11th), the 
sewage had collected in pools on the surface of the irrigated beds in a man- 
ner injurious to the crop under treatment. The work of irrigation is designed 
so that the sewage applied to the higher land may be reapplied on the sur- 


182 ‘-REPORT—1871. 


face of lower lands with a view to its further purification. The sewage as it 
passed off the first surface was observed to be far from clear to the eye, and 
it was not perfectly so when leaving the second surface. When it was ulti- 
mately discharged at the outfall it was still cloudy, but this was partly 
accounted for by the heavy rains of the previous day. The analyses of sam- 
ples of effluent water taken at different points, hereafter referred to, will show 
the extent of purification effected. 

Though the land had not been drained, it gave indications of a natural 
capability of drainage in the escape of the sewage from the sides of the car- 
riers or drains, which are from 10 to 14 inches deep. The line of saturation 
was clearly shown in those shallow cuts to be nearly identical with their 
depth, and the liquid was seen oozing out of the land at some parts in a 
clarified condition, and at others accompanied by a slimy matter, some spe- 
cimens of which have been microscopically examined by Mr. M. C. Cooke, 
M.A., whose report is here given, 


Microscopical Examination of Slime and Mud from Bottom and Sides of 
Carriers at Harlswood Farm. 


The fluid specimen of deposit sent to me for microscopical examination was the 
only one in a fit condition to report upon as to “the insects and animalcule to be 
found therein.” Obviously dried mud would give no satisfactory result as to living 
animals, since the majority of them would be dead and shrivelled beyond all power 
of determination. 

I have examined the wet deposit by the aid of the microscope, and find it to 
contain a few Diatoms belonging to several genera and species, but in a compara- 
tively small proportion to the volume of material. The Desmidiaces were also 
represented by a species of Closterium, of which I detected but a few individuals. 
Confervoid threads were also but sparingly scattered through the mass. Altogether 
there was a smaller percentage of unicellular Algw than I expected to have 
found. Living vegetable matter was comparatively rare. 

The animal inhabitants of the mud were numerous, especially of certain kinds. 
There were a few examples of that common Thysanurous insect, Achorutes aqua- 
ticus, sometimes so plentiful in the liquid draining from heaps of manure. The 
larvee and pups of small Diptera I am unable to name in those stages, but their 
proportion was not large. Of Fuglena viridis there was no lack ; and any stagnant 
puddle, especially in the neighbourhood of farmyards, would have yielded an equal 
proportion. Infusorians were scarce; a few solitary individuals of Vorticella mi- 
crostoma, and one or two specimens of Paramecium, were about all that I observed. 
But there was one group of animal organisms most abundantly represented, and 
these were the Annelids. When the mud was exposed to the light and sun, the 
surface became active with these creatures; about the diameter of a piece of 
cotton-thread, and from half an inch or less to nearly 2 inches in length, they 
wriggled over the whole surface. Some white, others pink, and a few of a deep 
blood-red were mingled together like eels, wriggling and scriggling in every drop 
that could be taken up and placed on a slide for examination. Skins without in- 
habitants were almost as plentiful; and it seemed to be impossible to get a drop of 
the material in the field of the microscope without either the worms themselves or 
empty skins. (Signed) M. C. Cooxr, M.A. 


It appears to the Committee that the existence of the exuded matter de- 
scribed by Mr Cooke is mainly, if not wholly, due to the fact that the subsoil 
is kept in a saturated condition by the want of underdraining ; and they desire 
to add their belief that with land thus saturated with sewage certain atmo- 
spheric conditions exist which may be attended by malaria more or less in- 
jurious to health. It need hardly be said that if the effluent liquid passing 
from a Sewage-farm at a time when vegetation is in a luxuriant state, and 
Waen evaporation is more than ordinarily active (which was the case when 


ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE, 


exceedingly objectionable. 


ae ee 


portion of 


oe 
o 


Solid matter. 


Tn solution. In suspension. | Chlo- 


rine. 


After 
igni- 
tion. 


After 
gni- 


Dried at i 
tion. 


Dried at 
100° C. 120°C. 


‘|Sewage at the | 

| point where | 
it enters the 

| extractor. | | 
| Average flow 
130 gallons 
per minute 

| (tempera- | | 

ture 58° F.)| ) 

Sewage | 

) 

| 

4 


18:00 | 6:40 


* 

passing 
through the 
extractor 
and before 
application 
to land 


4:16 6:04 


taken in 

twelve por- 
tions every 
two, hours, 
after it had 
passed over 
one field of 


17-80 4-40 


_ portions at 

_ the outfall, 

after it had 
assed over 
two fields of 
rye-grass. 

_ Average flow 
152 gallons 
per minute 


tore 63° ¥.)|) 


am 
oe 
I 
— 
So 
oo 
ix] 
=] 


| 35:80 EO oie dah in os 


183 


the Committee viewed the land), is not clear to the eye nor sufficiently 
pure to be admitted into rivers, there must be times when it may become 


It is to be remarked in this case, moreoyer, that there was (on July 
15th, 1871) more liquid passing off the land at the outfall than there 
was sewage delivered to it for application, due possibly to the passage of 
the recent rainfall through the porous soil of the higher part of the farm. 
This fact would, in the absence of the analyses of Dr. Russell, have led 
to the conclusion that the effluent liquid was purer than usual. 


Observations on the Analyses of Sewage and Effluent Water from the 
Red Hill and Reigate Sewage-Farm. 


In 100,000 parts. Samples taken 14th and 15th July, 1871, in the pro- 
ro part of the flow. 


Ammonia. 
: In suspended | Nitro- 
In solution. Rr Aa gen as 
nitrates 
and. 
Albu- Albu- | Bitrites. 
Actual. | inoia. | Actual. eal 
2°76 | 0-12 | 0:00 | 0-12 
2:55 | O14 | 0:00 | 0-09 | .---- 
Tes aOR le eceee les ectae 0:08 
O92 OO orectct lioeease 0:07 


Total nitrogen. 


In sus- 
Fa sol 4) pended 
* | matter, 
291 | 0:03 
1:35 
1-23 


This is decidedly 2 weak sewage, as it does not contain one third of. the 
quantity of “actual” ammonia, nor one fourth of that of “albuminoid” 
ammonia that the samples of Tunbridge Wells (North Farm) contain ; the 


184 REPORT—1871. 


smaller amount of chlorine also shows this. The fact is, that a very largo 
quantity of subsoil water is admitted into the sewers. 

The effect of the ‘ extractor” is to reduce the total suspended matters 
by slightly more than one third of their amount, the amount of solid 
matter in solution is slightly lessened, and a quarter of the nitrogenous 
organic matters in suspension pass into solution ; these are effects not in any 
way due to the action of the machine except as an agitator. 

The effect on this sewage of a flow over one field of rye-grass, as shown 
by the analysis of an average sample made by mixing twelve samples 
in the proportions indicated by the amount of flow at the time of collecting, 
was as follows :— 

The suspended matters, being very small in amount, were not determined. 
The solid matters in solution were reduced in total amount, the reduction 
being chiefly due, as in the case of the Tunbridge-Wells farms, to the re- 
tention by the soil and plants of the more volatile substances, as the amount 
of solid matters left after ignition is practically the same in the effluent 
water asin the sewage. The lessening of the chlorine by more than one 
fourth of its original amount would point to the fact, already referred to, 
that a considerable amount of subsoil water dilutes the effluent water; but 
notwithstanding this dilution, the effluent water contains more than half as 
much “ actual” ammonia as the same bulk of sewage (after passing through 
the extractor), and a quarter as much “ albuminoid” ammonia, while the 
amount of nitrogen escaping as nitrates and nitrites is insignificant. 

This effluent water is therefore not purified in a satisfactory way at all. 

But the most interesting point about these analyses is the comparison of 
the effluent water which had passed over two fields of rye-grass with that 
which had only passed over one. 

On a prima facie view, it would have been expected that the former 
would have been much purer than the latter; but in this case, on the con- 
trary, we find that the effluent water which has passed over two fields 
contains, in the same bulk,— 

1. More than one fifth more solid matter in solution, 

2. More than one third more fixed solids, 

3. More “ albuminoid” ammonia, viz. 0°10 instead of 0-06, 

4, Rather more chlorine, 

5. Very slightly less nitrogen as nitrates &c., 

6. More than one fourth less “ actual” ammonia, than the effluent water 
which had passed over one field of rye-grass. 

This shows us :— 

1. That by passing over an additional field, the sewage has been strength- 
ened instead of weakened, except as regards “ actual ” ammonia. 

(That this strengthening is probably due chiefly to evaporation through 
the agency of the plants, is shown by the increase in albuminoid ammonia, 
and by the fact that the actual ammonia is the only constituent lessened in 
amount to any extent.) 

2. That the nitrogenous organic matters, as shown by the amount of al- 
buminoid ammonia, are increased. 

3. That no additional oxidizing action took place. These results are what 
might have been anticipated from the description of the farm already given. 

The soil, not being underdrained, is saturated with sewage, and the 
effluent water flowing off one ficld on to another, already saturated with 
sewage, can only concentrate itself by evaporation or by solution of matters 
in the upper layer of the soil, 


ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE, 185 


There is this, then, against the catchwater-system, that if the fields are 
not underdrained the land will become saturated with sewage, and the 
effluent water will then pass off in an impure condition; and not only so, 
but the present example shows that after a second application the water 
may (except as regards actual ammonia) contain a greater amount of solu- 
ble impurities than it did before; and, above all, the nitrogenous organic 
matter (as indicated by the albumenoid ammonia) is not diminished, but 
rather increased, in spite of the active growth going on in the month of July. 

The temperature of the effluent water from the first field was considerably 
(43° Fahr.) higher than that of the sewage, and that from the second field 
half a degree higher than that from the first, a sufficient proof that percola- 
tion through the soil does not take place. 


It may seem almost superfluous for the Committee, after so many years 
of general experience throughout the country, to argue in favour of the sub- 
soil drainage of naturally heavy or naturally wet land with impervious sub- 
soil for the purposes of ordinary agriculture ; but some persons have strongly 
and repeatedly called in question the necessity of draining land when ir- 
rigated with sewage ; and the two farms at Tunbridge Wells, to a great ex- 
tent, and more especially the Reigate Farm at Earlswood, have been ac- 
tually laid out for sewage-irrigation on what may be called the “ satura- 
tion” principle ; so that it appears to the Committee desirable to call atten- 
tion to the fact, that if drainage is necessary where no water is artificially 
supplied to the soil, it cannot be Jess necessary after an addition to the rain- 
fall of 100 or 200 per cent. But a comparison of the analyses of different 
samples of effluent waters which have been taken by the Committee from 
open ditches into which effluent water was overflowing off saturated land, 
and from subsoil-drains into which effluent water was intermittently perco- 
lating through several feet of soil, suggests grave doubts whether effluent 
water ought ever to be permitted to escape before it has percolated through 
the soil, 


Sxcrron LY.—The Phosphate Process. 


A Member of the Committee was present at an experiment which was 
performed with the phosphate process of Messrs. Forbes and Price at 
Tottenham on March 25th, 1871. His description of the experiment is as 
follows :— A 

The Tottenham sewage, after passing through some depositing tanks which 
had been constructed for the lime-process, was pumped up, at the rate of 
about 800 or 1000 gallons per minute (as stated), along a carrier into a tank 
100 yards long and of gradually increasing breadth. This tank took thrce 
hours to fill. 

As the sewage passed along the above mentioned carrier, the chemicals 
were mixed with it in the following way :— 

Two boxes were placed over the carrier, one a few yards further along it 
than the other; the first contained the phosphate mixture, and the second 
milk of lime. Men were continually stirring the contents of each box, 
which were allowed to run continuously into the sewage as it passed under- 
neath the boxes. 

The phosphate mixture was stated to be made by powdering the native 
phosphate of alumina, mixing it with sulphuric acid in the proportion of a 
ton of phosphate to from 12 to 13 ewt. of the acid, and dissolving the mass 
in water. 


186 REPORT—1871. 


The amount of the preparation added to the sewage was not ascertained, 
but it was stated to be certainly much less than the proportion indicated by 
previous experiments (1 ton of crude phosphate to 500,000 gallons of sewage). 

The result of this addition was to deodorize the sewage to a very consider- 
able extent indeed; and when some of it was placed in a precipitating glass, 
and allowed to stand, a speedy separation of the suspended matters took 
place. 

The milk of lime is added to precipitate the excess of phosphate added, 
and just sufficient milk of lime is allowed to flow in to neutralize the sewage, 
the reaction of which to test-paper is observed from time to time after the 
addition of the milk of lime. 

During the passage of the sewage thus treated through the large tank, 
the suspended matters were very completely deposited, and the supernatant 
water ran over the sloping edge of the tank at its extreme end bright and ° 
clear, and almost odourless. 

Some of this water was collected, and was kept sealed up in a stone jar 
until July 24th, when it was analyzed by Dr. Russell, with the following 
result :— 


Sample of Effluent Water taken from Tottenham Sewage, treated March 
25th, 1871. Parts per 100,000. 


Solid matter in solution. Ammonia. | Nitrogen | 
| -,| Sulphu- 
Dried at After l | Chlorine. Re phe bere) 
inoi e8, a 
100°C. ienitian. Actual. | Albuminoid. | ds hydrogen 
99-00 76:30 B17 | O16 | 845 | None. | a trace | None. 


Tt was found, after the lapse of four months, quite sweet and without 
smell. ‘The suspended matter was in very small quantity, and consisted 
merely of a little whitish flocculent matter, doubtless lime due to the slight 
excess used on the day when the sample was collected. The water was quite 
clear, and only on looking through a considerable depth could a brownish 
tint be detected. 

The analysis of it shows that it contains as much actual ammonia as 
ordinary dilute London sewage, and also a certain amount of albumenoid 
ammonia. 

Tt contains the merest trace of phosphoric acid, as indicated by the molyb- 
date-of-ammonia test, and no sulphuretted hydrogen, nor any nitrates or 
nitrites. 

Some of the deposit had been taken out of the tank, and was drying in a 
shed, the water which separated from it forming little pools on the surface of 
the mass; both this water and the precipitate itself were free from all offen- 
sive smell. 

It appears, then, that the suspended matters are entirely removed by this 
process, but the actual ammonia and, to a certain extent, the soluble organic 
matters are neither removed from the sewage nor oxidized; but an odourless 
precipitate is produced, which contains all the phosphate added, and contains 
it doubtless in the form of flocculent phosphate of alumina, the value of 
which, as a manure, is somewhat doubtful, being certainly not so great as 
the value of corresponding quantities of flocculent phosphate of lime. 

The valuable constituents of sewage, with the exception of the suspended 
matter and the phosphoric acid, are not precipitated by this process, and 
cannot be utilized unless the effluent water be afterwards used for irrigation, 


peat eee 


ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 187 


in which case the milk of lime would not be added, and the clarified sewage 
would still contain a quantity of phosphoric acid. 

The advantage of this use of it, if it were found to answer from an econo- 
mical point of view, would be the deodorization of the deposit in the tanks 
and of the sewage itself, which is certainly at present a great desideratum, 
especially as regards the tanks, 


Sxcrron V.—The Dry Earth System. 


The Committee did not consider that it was its duty to undertake the 
examination of every plan that might be proposed for the treatment or uti- 
lization of excretal matters, but only those which were already well before 
the public, and known, or supposed, to be affording something like satisfactory 
results. It had sent out forms of questions with a view of procuring in- 
formation respecting the results obtained in the use of Moule’s earth- 
closets, and there was every desire on the part of the Committee not to 
neglect the examination of any system which promised results satisfactory to 
the community. 

Of eight forms of questions sent out relating to Moule’s system, only one 
had been filled up and returned, and that one was from Lancaster. It ap- 
peared that about 23 lbs. of soil were used per head per day. The manure 
obtained is afterwards mixed with other town refuse, and the mixture is sold 
at 5s.aton. The analysis of the manure published by the Rivers Pollution 
Commission showed, however, that it did not contain more nitrogen than 
good garden-mould. It was stated to have been applied at the rate of about 
6 tons per acre to grass land; but the produce of hay was by no means large. 
It should be added, however, that even at Lancaster, the only place where an 
attempt has been made to carry out the system on a large scale, some of the 
conditions prescribed by Mr. Moule, and essential to its success as a means of 
avoiding nuisance and injury to health, are entirely neglected. - Thus there 
is an average of twenty-four persons using each closet; and instead of any 
arrangement for the deposit of earth on the fecal matters after every use of 
the closet, a quantity of soil is thrown once a day over the matters collected ; 
and the result is, that the product is removed in a very offensive condition. 

On behalf of the Committee, Dr. Gilbert has himself made some trials with 
Moule’s earth system: 14 cwt. of air-dried and sifted clayey soil were set 
apart for the experiment. From one third to one half of the whole was used 
before it was necessary to empty the pit. When removed the mass appeared 
uniformly moist throughout, and (excepting in the case of the most recent 
portions near the surface) neither fecal matter nor paper was observable in it ; 
nor was the process of emptying accompanied by any offensive smell. After 
exposure and occasional turning over on the floor of a shed, the once-used 
soil was resifted, and again passed through the closet. 

Below are given the percentages of moisture and of nitrogen in the soil 
under the various circumstances of the trial :— 


Before use, | After using | After using 


once, twice. 

Percentage of moisture (at 100°C.) in air-dried 7 
MCh BICEAS SOIL svete. ck: ove sactcsse essence stebbes 8-440 9-970 7-710 
Percentage of nitrogen in air-dried and sifted soil 0:067 0-216 0:353 
Percentage of nitrogen in soil dried at 100° C. ... 0:073 0:240 0:383 


Calculated upon the air-dried condition, the increase in the percentage of 


188 - rEerort—1871. 


nitrogen was only about 0-15 each time the soil was used; and, even after 
using twice, the soil was not richer than good garden-mould. It is obvious, 
therefore, that such a manure, even if disposed of free of charge, would bear 
carriage to a very short distance only. It may be added that the percentage 
of nitrogen in the soil after using once, as given above, agrees very closely 
with that recorded in the report of the Rivers Pollution Commissioners, as 
found by them in the manure obtained, under professedly the same system, 
at Lancaster. 

In conclusion, when it is borne in mind how small is the proportion of the 
nitrogen voided in the 24 hours that is contained in the fieces, how small is 
the proportion of the total urine that is passed at the same time, and how great 
is the dilution of the manurial matters by the amount of soil required, it is by 
no means surprising that the manure produced is of such small value as the 
results would show. It is obvious, too, that our domestic habits and practices 
would have to be entirely revolutionized to secure the collection and absorp- 
tion of the whole of the urine, which contains by far the larger proportion of 
the valuable manurial matters voided. Moreover, assuming 2 or 23 Ibs. of 
soil to be required for each use of the closet, if the whole of the liquid, as 
well as the solid excretal matters, were to be absorbed, there would pro- 
bably be required from 9 to 10 lbs. of soil per head per day, or about 14 ton 
per head per annum. ‘This, for London, taking the population at three and 
a quarter millions, would represent a requirement of about five million tons 
of soil per annum, or nearly 14,000 tons per day; and the quantity to be 
removed would, of course, be considerably greater. This illustration is 
sufficient to show the impracticability of any such system for large popula- 
tions. Nevertheless it may readily be admitted that it would be of great 
advantage, in a sanitary point of view, in the cases of sick rooms, detached 
houses, or even villages, and that it might be even economical where the earth 
for preparation and absorption, and the land for utilization, are in close 
proximity. 

APPENDIX B. 


Report on the Post-mortem Examination of an Ow. 
By Dr. T. Spencer Consporn, F.R.S. 


Your Committee having invited me to examine the carcass of an ox fed 
for two years past on sewage-grown grass at Mr. Hope’s farm near Romford, 
I have to report the perfect freedom of that animal from internal parasites 
of any kind. 

I attribute this marked negative result to the following circumstances :— 
First, the animal did not graze on the farm, but was fed exclusively upon 
vegetable products cut and carried from the land. Secondly, the porous na- 
ture of the soil and subsoil alike would rapidly carry off the sewage, and thus 
ensure the passage of parasitic germs into the soil itself. Thirdly, I noticed 
on the irrigated portions of the farm a remarkable absence of those-molluscan 
and insect forms of life which frequently play the part of intermediary 
bearers. Fourthly, the only mollusks I detected were examples of Lymneus 
pereger ; these were obtained from a small pit of water to which the sewage 
had no access, and when examined after death were not found to contain 
any cercarian larve. Fifthly, the flaky vegetable tufts collected by me 
from the sides of the furrows occupied by sewage-currents consisted chiefly 
of Batrachospermum moniliforme, in the filaments of which were numerous 
active free nematodes, but no ova of any true entozoon. Sixthly, the sewage 
had a strong smell of beer, suggesting the presence of sufficient alcohol to 


APPENDIX A. 
Tabular Statement of Information received relating to Sewage-irrigation 1 


Average daily 
Population. water-supply 8 Ew A G x 
: perbesd. ALN 
Character or Quality. Conveyance, ‘Treatment, Application to Land, Disposal. 
Whether applied r 
Naste of Town. 5 lAverage daily| to other lands nea Hues | Taal wewage ; 
Of (Contributing) From | From ‘On what terma tnanure than, 18 all sewage- What is i pti 
4 _ discharge fro wi . along the course shot | water a ~ ld Avera Quantity | Description of = a 
[district | direetiy to | water- | other | Somtown | One | Wor eeieed Aispored of bY [rine sewers and = conor | eatrained | TER NET! prow | Cost _|fewagewater, Wate tuPPiied | What ar |donewithit! 16 ieused | numberot | towhich | soiland subsoil,| Describe | On what tenure | 1 
pewered.| the sewage. | works jsourcen.| “Sewers. leuiface water! water is the town. if's0, on what |Flow conveyed. eer PRUE or otherwise |""\enarated | applied. |Per 1000) plied Te land, in winter |are made for| tinued wet, | 98am after | acresto | *¢Wageis | &c., and how draining. held, fe 
is discharged) admitted riaushter) Led terms. he vances) “treated. | “Tatter? fons. as wellasin {disposal dur-| when the | Ping once |which sewage *Pplied. fe Te ee ee 
into sewers. | into sewers, | scharge refuse summer, night | ing frost? | ground is | “tilized? | is applied LA} nee. 
Rata we wees and day? saturated ? daily, 
| galls | galls, is. 
i rable. i i |S mallon-aeei|iacsaeenen «Js , the\Carted on to\By open |......_.|Farm - yard! eres, — 
ALDERSHOT | 5,000 $000 variable. variable. aeen S Not. |Slaughterhouse |... sees ere with the [eat 2 miles .... pase TR ey Gees Woe vei decane (The. sewage Sread vera a9 << |1} to Moor land and/From 4 to 6 feet|Lease forl6 years,|Let . 
Oy 000 oye ; pes. ter deposi-| when dry, Superphos,| Brapa ares, gravel. A fall] “deep where 
| 235, pip p perp over decply| EH AO Beroae| Ee ect 
ted in @ act.) phate, pot-) Joughed thefarm. Laid| ‘Onna’, Neoeas. 
tling tank. ash, lime. land in win-| Se aoeral| 
Pers to 1 ocre_ac-| 
carding to form 
and fall of sur- 
face. 
16,437 | 16,437 apes 657,000 Nil. ‘Admitted, Not. (| Not. i Nok | aseer-(Strained...- (There is wary}issss0%r02+:-..-44. {Ves ......0..0../None ..... Not provided|No ........). --|193 ........|Loam, —subsoilltand drains to|Leasehold ......|Local 
| 2 ‘used 8 ma? cs [eee The) the outfall on| 
land is favour-| the river. 
es) able as regards) 
levelling, which| 
is being com- 
; A leted. 
CARLISLE...) 32,000 | $2,000 [28 to 33)... Leese ~--s+| Admitted. [Cotton and wool-[Leaso of 15 years Not. eRe HIE seseene ate Not..sssses pensessarenaltye prstsee INO vases. fag rN SE Reon. cc s| Nodiferenes It dlssppears)a/=-. 10... 48 fect of fine|Naturally self: |Lease 15 yearn, [ent 
i ani , dye- team- | i 2 5 ‘ial soil ‘ined. i 
works, &e. Ali] rent of £5, the acre, only in the day- FcR See ee ct 
discharge into] lessee being at time. gravels. Levels 
sewers. all expense and| enitoTias 


risk. 


| 
CBELTEN- 40,000 | Estimated, | Abt 15 | uncer- About [Not definite-|Admitted by Slaughterhouses. Included in rent Yes, 200 acres.|Sewer-pipes. |Onc sewer SAllthoworks|Strained at Sold at 2+, 


a Regularly applied|Allowed to |Flows as |Where con-|Probably 10. |About 300 ..|Clayey. Surface 130 acres, free- 
HAM. 36,000 tain. | 1,000,000 | ly known. | percolation.| ‘There are but) of land. ‘Owners pay 10%, miles, the| cost £7,000.) tanks. per cubie| without inter-| flow over | usual. Land) venient to| undulating. hold. ' About 
few manufacto-| per acre per an- other 19) yard. riers, mission. land as | has good) do «o. Contour or 200 acres be- 
ries. num, and pre-, mile. usual, and| fall, and is catchwater ear- Jong to adjoin- 
pare land them. is much | seldom sa- riers arc formed) ing owners, who) 
Hstiees purified. | turated. in parts, in| pay for sewage. 
others ridges 
ee and furrows. 
50,000 | 50,000 Sto 13 1260 Admitted. [Dye-works and |Lease of 7 years Occasionally ; no \Covered sewer|516 yards Strained by|Manufactur-|Surfuce irri- 4d. ....'Portion of -|Applied — to)Nodifference|Passed over|About one |400 . Light land, over-|By deep carriers|Frechold and —_|Let 
| millions. slaughterhouses! toCompy..who| special terms. | and open ca- patent pro-| edandsold,| gation, the manure] fallowland.| made. Sa-| successive | tenth of ing graveland| No subsoil leasehold. cor 
pay Eiper ner pal. cess. produced turation of| areas until] whole area, clays drains. 
for land, and) on farm. Jandconsi-| completely| 
£7 per acre for, dered an} purified. 
sewage, with 5| advantage. 
} per cent. on| 
outlay on new 
works. 
400 8,300 ‘Water | Local 150,000 430 Admitted. |Slaughterhouses |Retained by town, Not. Brick sewer. 5 .«.|Biltered ....|Used on high By open and| 1 payee to)Passed on to|Passed overAbout one « «+++. |Stiffsoil on brick |Not drained. It|Lease .......,..|Auth 
Co, | Bd. to &e. Innd that is) covered car-| fallow and) land. Sa-| successive | tenth of earth. was, but  the| 
30 56 200,000 not irriga-| riers, meadow | turation | revs until] wholearea, drains were 
| ted. land, aids purifi-| purified, taken up, as the 
} cation. sewage passed] 
| into them un- 
—— purified. 
20,917 | 20,917 15 800,000 1571 Admitted, |Slaughterhouses. /To Lord War-|. .|Pumped up 2} miles (Works not completed.) . [Works not | completed.) - 
wick, at a rent) through 18- 
| of £450 per an- in. iron pipes. 
num for 30) 
ears. 
50,000 | 21,000 2¢ | None. |in dry wes-| 300 | Not. inten- |Staughterhouses. |ktZtained by town, Not. feet cesteese|icceseeesees|Strained..../Mixed with],...........| ... [Works not yet} complete. Porjtion of farm jonly in operation.) ------|...++ssss0++ 70atpresent,|Loam, overlying) Partunderdrained)Part lease, part Locs 
to weather, tionally. town ashes, 300 bein wel. Part purchased. 
22,000 824,796 acquired. | level, part hilly.| 


[Lo face page 188. 


COST OF P 
PE RE 


EFFLUENT WATER. 


Relative level 


Sewage applied. 


To what crops. 


Forming land 
of the sewage 
for distribution 
outfall and the i 
Machinery of sewage over 
point where Carriers. ° 
sewage” | 9) ee 
aseie en cultivation. 
Sewage outfall is No} informaltion. 
on the Iand, 


Not ascertained, 


12feet below... say £250, Nil. 


———————— 

One outfall!2feet! ......+.+ | Estimated at £2 105, 
abore land, the per acre, 

other 30 feet, 


~ A few feet above. |.. 
| 


‘Nearly level .. BO .sesne-e (BIB. 


Outfall 125 feet 
below land. 


eeeee (Outfall & feet |... ....6 
abore land, 


[Average tons| 

per acre ap~ 

plied to each| 
crop. 


Average pro-| 5, 
duce por | 4, How, 
Mer T | disposed of, 


Quantity. | What 


‘comes of it, 


be- 


post profit) 
stat! 9F loss per} 
Total capital! tyead of the 

sate population 
Pereentenee| on the dis-) 


posal of the| 


sewage. —|disagreeable?the eattle fed) on the land that 
‘on the pro- | can be traces to | any way af- 


HEALTH. 


Is smell per- been thestate 
ceptible or | of health of among labourers }i 


duce? |the use of sewage? 


What has |Has any diseascits the health! 
been produced of the inha- 


itante of the) General advantages. 
locality in 


fected. 


and turnips, 


Rye-grass and 
Various root 
crops: 


Permanent grass 


Chiefly grass 
Tani 


-|Rye-grass, rye, 
mangel, potn-| derably 


tocs, carrots, 


ages, broccoli 
onions, celery 
French beans, 
artichokes, &e 


-|Rye-grass, man: 
eireaiatoes| 


cabbages, &e, 


Tian rye-graas. 


als cab- 


-\Old turf and Ita- 


Grass, cahbages,|Not —_regis- 
rhubarbjPrene| tered. = 
beans, aspara- 

onions, 
leeks, _ violet, 
mint, Swedes, 


» Varies consi- 


~ Varis 


|The Local Board | has nothing 


6000 .......|Not record-/Public auc- 
cd. tion. 
4|Notascer-|......,.....)All grazed by, 
tained. eattle and! 
sheep. 
Cannot be |Not known; 
stated ac-] crop 
curately. | partly 
grazed. 


-|€27 per ncre 


Not record-|Private sale. 
ed. Sold) 
on ground, 


About £20 Sold and con- 
perscreall) sumed on) 
round, farm, 
gross re: 
ceipts. 


last year. 


to do with the farming, b 


Not known, Runs 


Not known. |Flows 
river, 


Nil. 


none. 


the 
Rav 


tut has contra cted to 


Flows 
river 


‘of the flow) 
‘on to the| 
Jand. 
Passed into 
the river) 
Wandle. 


.|Ultimately 
passes — tol 


bourn 


into). 
the Black- 
water, 


to 


is 


river 
en 


delive 


into £10,000 bor- 
if. | rowed, 


Probab 1y|Passes off in-|,... 
two thirds) to brooks, 


‘About £3000, 
exclusive of] makes | 


lond. 


‘About £2,500/Total nett 


rthewholeof| the sewage 


-|Cannot be 


stated at 
present. 


Company, 


rofit, 
‘own gets 
the work) 
done  free| 
of cost. 


profit esti- 
mated at 
£170 last! 
year, 


The faey Very good. |No ..........05 No Sanitary state ofeamp and 
is Sor 4 barracks vastly im- 
times as proved,” ‘The land pro- 
strong as luces fair crops under 
ordinary sewage, which before 
town sew. produced nothing what- 
age, and) ever, 

the smell! 

is percep-| 

tle fa 

summer. 
«|Not._ascer-|Scarcely ato com-|ng No, 
tained. any time,| plaints have SEs 
Impercep-| reached the 
tible when| Board. 
crops are| 
growing. 
| 
ve|No <-..--+-|Good -.....1No cose {NO .....0--|Land very much improved 
in value, 


Scarcely, ex-/Extremely | None whatever. 
ceptinvery| good. 

hot wea-| 
ther. 


Not when |Good, When| None whatever. 
solids are | epidemics 

separated. | are — rife 

discase al-| 

ways takes) 

mild form, 


Only when|Extremely | None...------+ 
filters are|_ good. 
foul, 


‘of Leamingio|n, as before) stated, 


stance | sewage has enabled the) 
known, | authorities to purify the) 
streams so as to remove| 
all complaints. — The 
yearly nett cost is much| 
ess than when disinfec- 
tants were used with very) 
unsatisfactory results, 
Health of \Greater certainty in the| 
neighbour-| production of crops. 
hood im-| Larger yield of crops. 
proved. 


{" in- |The application of the! 


Health of |Greater certainty in the| 
neighbour-| production of crops and] 

hood im-| farger yield of erops. 
proved. 


No. 


LETTERS FROM M. LAVOISIER TO DR. BLACK. 189 


destroy the vitality of ordinary parasitic germs, though it was abundantly 
manifest that the free nematodes had suffered nothing in consequence. 

As some guarantee for the efficient manner in which the carcass of the ox 
was examined, I may mention that the superficial muscles, with their asso- 
ciated areolar and aponeurotic coverings, were particularly investigated, 
portions of certain muscles, such as the scaleni and sterno-maxillaris, being 
dissected through and through. All the viscera were likewise scrutinized, 
especially the brain, lungs, liver, bladder, kidneys, paunch, reed, cecum, and 
other natural divisions of the intestinal canal. The animal was not exces- 
sively fat, whilst its muscles were well developed and of a deep carneous lustre. 

84 Wimpole Street, London, T. Spencer Cosson, M.D., F.R.S. 

July 18, 1871. 
Remarks by the Committee. 

With regard to the examination of the carcass of the ox, which had been 
fed for twenty-two months on sewaged produce at Breton’s Farm, those mem- 
bers of the Committee who were present and examined it with Dr. Cobbold 
concur in his statement as to its perfect freedom from internal parasites of 
all kinds; and they can also subscribe to most of his observations with regard 
to the possible reasons for this immunity. They wish especially to draw at- 
tention (1) to the fact, that on this farm there is “a remarkable absence of 
those molluscan and insect forms of life which frequently play the part 
of intermediary bearers” to entozoal larve : it would appear that the sewage 
drives these creatures away or kills them; and (2) to the composition of the 
“flaky vegetable tufts” collected from the sides of the carriers ; these contained 
*“numerous active free nematodes, but no ova of any true entozoon.” 

But the Committee cannot support the opinion expressed by Dr. Cobbold, 
that the strong smell of beer which the sewage had (caused of course merely 
by hop waste) would suggest “the presence of sufficient alcohol to destroy 
the vitality of ordinary parasitic germs,” as the quantity of alcohol which 
would be necessary for this purpose in so large a bulk of sewage would be 
enormous, and especially as, as Dr. Cobbold says, “ it was abundantly mani- 
fest that the free nematodes had suffered nothing in consequence.” 

It appears, then, that, as far as this one case goes (and it is certainly as con- 
clusive as a single case could possibly be), there is no evidence that entozoal 
forms of life are to be found on the farm at allin any stage of their existence, 
or in the flesh of an animal fed exclusively for twenty-two months on sewaged 
produce grown on the farm. 


Letters from M. Lavoisier tv Dr. Buack. 
[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in the Annual Report.] 
Paris le 19 Septembre, 1789. 
Monstevr,—C’est un membre de l’académie Royale des Sciences de Paris 
qui vous écrit a titre de Confrére: c’est un des plus zélés admirateurs de la 
profondeur de votre génie et des importantes révolutions que vos découvertes 
ont occasionnées dans les Sciences, qui profite, pour avoir l’honneur de yous 
écrire, de Voccasion de M. de Boullogne qui va finir son éducation 4 Edim- 
bourg. Permettez-moi de yous le recommander. II joint 4 d’heureuses dis- 
positions un grand désir de s’instruire et il regarde comme un grand bonheur 
pour lui d’ayoir une occasion pour se présenter & yous. Il a bien youlu, 
Monsieur, se charger de yous remettre un exemplaire d’un ouvrage que je 
Viens de publier; vous y trouyerez une partie des idées dont yous ayez jetté 


190 REPORT—1871. 


le premier germe: si vous avez la bonté de donner quelques instants 4 sa 
lecture, vous y trouverez le développement d’une Doctrine nouvelle que je 
crois plus simple et plus d’accord avec les faits que celle du Phlogistique. Ce 
n’est au surplus qu’en tremblant que je le soumets au premier de mes juges 
et a celui dont j’ambitionnerais le plus le suffrage. 
J’ai Vhonneur d’étre trés-respectueusement, 
. Monsieur, 
Votre trés-humble et trés-ob¢issant Serviteur, 


AVI 


—— 


Paris, 24 Juillet, 1790. 

Monstrvr,—J’apprends avec une joye inexprimable que vous voulez bie 
attacher quelque mérite aux idées que j’ai professé le premier contre la doc- 
trine du phlogistique. Plus confiant dans vos idées que dans les miennes 
propres, accoutumé 4 vous regarder comme mon maitre, j’étois en défiance 
contre moi-méme tant que je me suis écarté sans votre aveu de la route que 
vous avez si glorieusement suivie. Votre approbation, Monsieur, dissipe mes 
inqui¢tudes et me donne un nouveau courage. 

Cette Lettre, Monsieur, vous sera remise par M. Terray intendant de Lyon 
neveu du Ministre des finances de ce méme nom et mon parent; il conduit & 
Edimbourg son fils, jeune homme d’espérance et destiné a posséder une grande 
fortune, pour y finir son éducation et suivre les lecons des professeurs célébres 
de luniversité d’Edimbourg. Permettez-moi, Monsieur, de yous le recom- 
mander. L’intérét que vous voudrez bien prendre a lui sera un premier titre 
qui l’annoncera d’une maniére ayantageuse et j’ai lieu de ecroire qu’il ne se 
rendra pas indigne de vos bontés, 

Je ne serai pas content jusqu’a ce que les circonstances me permettent de 
vous aller porter moi-méme le témoignage de mon admiration et de me ranger 
au nombre de vos disciples. La révolution qui s’opére en France devant na- 
turellement rendre inutile une partie de ceux attachés 4 l’ancienne adminis- 
tration, il est possible que je jouisse de plus de liberté; et le premier usage 
que j’en ferai sera de voyager et de voyager surtout en Angleterre et 4 Edim- 
bourg pour vous y voir, pour vous y entendre et profiter de vos lumiéres et 
de vos conseils. 

J’ai commencé un grand nombre d’ouvrages et de travaux ct j’aspire 4 un 
Etat de tranquillité qui me permette d’y mettre la derni¢re main. 

J’ai Vhonneur d’étre treés-respectueusement, 

Monsieur, 
Votre trés-humble et trés-obéissant Serviteur, 


Vt t 
Mi bias ee 


de l’académie des sciences. 


EE EE es 


LETTERS FROM M. LAVOISIER TO DR. BLACK. 191 


Paris, le 19 Novembre, 1790. 


M. Trrray, Monsieur, m’a remis, en arrivant 4 Paris la lettre que vous 
m/’avez fait Vhonneur de m’écrire le 24 Octobre; il ne pouyait me faire un 
présent qui me fit plus agréable. J’ai cru que vous ne désapprouyeriez pas 
que je la communiquasse 4 |’Académie des Sciences ; elle n’a pas moins admiré 
V’élégance du style que la profondeur de philosophie et la candeur qui regne 
dans votre lettre, et elle a méme désiré qu’elle fit déposée dans ses registres ; 
mais je n’y ai consenti, qu’A condition qu'il m’en serait remis une copie cer- 
tifiée du secrétaire. J’ai une autre grace 4 vous demander, mais sur laquelle 
je dois attendre votre aveu; c’est de vouloir bien me permettre d’en publier 
la traduction dans les Annales de Chimie. 

M. Gillan a été témoin, depuis son séjour 4 Paris, de quelques expériences 
que j’ai faites sur la respiration et il a bien voulu y concourir. Nous nous 
sommes assurés des faits suivans : 

1°, La quantité d’air vital ou gaz oxigéne qu’un homme en repos et & 

jeun consomme, ou plutot convertit en air fixe ou acide carbonique, pendant 
- une heure est de 1200 pouces cubiques de France environ, quand il est placé 
dans une température de 26 degrés. 

2°. Cette quantité s’éléve 4 1400 pouces, dans les mémes circonstances, si 
la personne est placée dans une température de 12 degrés seulement. 

3°. La quantité de gaz oxigéne consommée, ou convertie en acide carbo- 
nique, augmente pendant le tems de la digestion et s’éléve 4 1800 ou 1900 
pouces. 

4°, Par le mouvement et l’exercice on la porte jusqu’é 4000 pouces par 
heure et méme davantage. 

5°. La chaleur animale est constamment la méme, dans tous ces cas. 

6°, Les animaux peuvent vivre dans de lair vital ou gaz oxigéne, qui ne 
se renouyelle pas, aussi longtems que l’on le juge 4 propos, pouryu qu’on ait 
soin d’absorber, par de l’alcali caustique en liqueur, le gaz acide carbonique, 
& mesure quil se forme; en sorte que ce gaz n’a pas besoin, comme on le 
eroyait, pour étre salubre et propre 4 la respiration d’étre mélangé avec une 
certaine portion de gaz azote ou Mophete. 

7°. Les animaux ne paroissent pas souffrir dans un mélange de 15 parties 
de gaz azote et d’une partie de gaz oxigéne, pourvu qu’on ait de méme la 
précaution d’absorber le gaz acide carbonique, par le moyen de V’aleali 
caustique, & mesure qu'il est formé. 

8°. La consommation du gaz oxigéne et sa conversion en acide carbonique 
est la méme dans le gaz oxigéne pur et dans le gaz oxigéne mélé de gaz 
azote, en sorte que la respiration n’est nullement accélérée en raison de la 
pureté de Vair. 

9°. Les animaux vivent assez longtems dans un mélange de deux parties de 
gaz inflammable et d’une de gaz oxigéne. 

10°. Le gaz azote ne sert absolument a rien dans V’acte de la respiration 
et il ressort du poumon en méme quantité et qualité qu’il y est entré. 

11°. Lorsque par l’exercice et le mouvement on augmente la consommation 
de gaz oxigéne dans le poumon, la circulation s’accélére ; ce dont il est facile 
de s’assurer par le battement du poulx: et en général lorsque la personne 
respire sans se géner, la quantité de gaz oxigéne consommée est proportion- 
nelle 4 l’augmentation du nombre des pulsations multiplié par le nombre des 
inspirations. 

Ul est bien juste, Monsieur, que vous soyez un des premiers informés des 
progres qui se font dans une carriére que vous ayez ouverte, et dans laquelle 


192 REPORT—187]. 


nous nous regardons tous comme vos disciples. Nous suivons les mémes ex- 
périences, et j’aurai l’honneur de vous faire part de mes découvertes ultérieures. 
J’ai Vhonneur d’étre avec un respectueux attachement, Monsieur, 
Votre trés-humble et trés-obdissant Serviteur, 


ee ee 
ae 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. ANton Donry, Professor 
Roxtiuston, and Mr. P. L. Scrater, appointed for the purpose of 
promoting the Foundation of Zoological Stations in different parts 
of the World :—Reporter, Dr. Dourn, 


Tur Committee beg to report that since the last Meeting of the British 
Association at Liverpool steps have been taken by Dr. Dohrn to secure the 
moral assistance of some other scientific bodies, and that the Academy of 
Belgium has passed a vote acknowledging the great value of the proposed 
Observatories. Besides this, the Government at Berlin has given instruction 
to the German Embassy at Florence and to the General Consul at Naples to 
do everything to secure success to Dr. Dohrn’s enterprise. Next October 
the building at Naples will be commenced under the personal superintendence 
of Dr. Dohrn, who will be accompanied by the assistant architect of the 
Berlin Aquarium. The contractors agree to finish the building in one year, 
so that in January 1873 the Aquarium in Naples may be expected to be in 
working order. 

The Naples Observatory being thus arranged for, the Committee beg leave 
to draw the attention of the British Association to the importance of esta- 
blishing a Zoological Station in the British Islands, and to the opportunity 
which is now offered for such a proposition in consequence of the cessation 
of the grant to the Kew Observatory. In the same way as the Association 
took the initiative in the foundation of the Meteorological Observatories, so 
may they legitimately and with every prospect of success take in hand the 
foundation of Zoological Observatories. Until a recent date the Association 
has given considerable sums of money to dredging-explorations ; but, in con- 
sequence of the advance of Zoological Science, some of the problems to be 
solved are so much changed and their nature is of such a character as to 
demand the assistance of the Association in other directions. The careful 
study of the development and the habits of marine animals can only be 
carried on by aid of large aquariums and cumbrous apparatus, which an 
individual could hardly provide for himself. This, and the copious supply 
of animals for observation, can be provided by such a cooperative institution. 
There can be little doubt of the convenience to naturalists, and of the per- 
manent benefit to science, which would result from the foundation of a 
Zoological Station in the British Isles. 


THERMAL EQUIVALENTS OF THE OXIDES OF CHLORINE. 193 


Preliminary Report on the Thermal Equivalents of the Oxides of 
Chlorine. By James Dewar, F.R.S.E. 


Dvurine the course of the last Meeting of the British Association, I took 
occasion to lay before the Chemical Section two short notes bearing directly 
on the subject of Thermal Equivalents ; they were respectively entitled 
* Thermal Equivalents and Fermentation,’ and ‘ Observations on the Oxides 
of Chlorine.” In the first-mentioned communication it was proved that the 
decomposition of sugar into carbonic acid and alcohol was a reaction taking 
place without any great evolution of heat, if we accepted the thermal equi- 
valent of sugar as determined by Frankland, along with the similar value 
of alcohol obtained from Fayre and Silbermann’s researches; and con- 
sequently the heat of fermentation must be derived from some other source 
than the sugar molecule itself,—the continued hydration of the alcohol pro- 
duced, the secondary decompositions taking place, and the transformations 
of the ferment itself being the three available sources of supply. 

The note on the oxides of chlorine had special reference to the heat 
evolved during the decomposition of these oxides. The researches of Fayre 
and Silbermann having shown that the formation of hypochlorous acid and 
of chlorie acid is attended with a large absorption of heat, it became in- 
teresting to ascertain if in this series of oxides we had a regular increment 
of absorption in passing from the lowest member of the series to the highest 
member, just as Andrews had found a similar relation to hold for certain 
oxides of the same metal, whose successive formation was attended with an 
evolution of heat. I suggested it would be interesting to make a complete 
examination of the thermal relations of these bodies along with the similar 
derivatives of bromine and iodine, and with this object in view I ac- 
cepted a grant in order to prosecute these researches; and although my 
spare time has been variously occupied during the past year, I have found 
opportunity to make a considerable number of preliminary observations in 
connexion with this subject. 


Heat absorbed during the Solution of Salts belonging to this Series per 


equivalent, 
Units. Heat units. 
NOW ee Tid FR Peo 4320 KCI1O, 10,100 
15: eee eee 4900 KBrO, 9,680 
OTD Ae Fseavrrs hte 4800 KIO, 5,300 


Comparing the solution-values of chloride of potassium and bromide of 
potassium with the corresponding values obtained for the chlorate and 
bromate, the latter salts are observed to have a very much higher solution 
thermal equivalent ; whereas, comparing iodide of potassium with iodate, we 
haye only a slight increase in the latter salt. The highest absorption- 
values are therefore connected with the acids whose formation is attended 
with an absorption of heat. It will be interesting to find how these sub- 
stances act with regard to the absorption of radiant heat, and if a similar 
relation is maintained. 

The method I proposed to adopt in examining the thermal relation of the 
oxides of chlorine was based on the easy and rapid decomposition of dilute hy- 
' driodic acid, whose thermal equivalent in aqueous solution has been carefully 
determined. Isoon found, however, chloric acid did not appreciably decom- 
pose dilute hydriodic acid when the strength of the respective acids in 
a solution amounted to a half gramme equivalent per litre, nor did I 

, 0 


194 REPoRT—1871. 


succeed better when I substituted hydrochloric acid for the hydriodic. A 
few experiments were made on the action of magnesium on chloric acid, 
with the view of ascertaining its thermal value from the oxidation of the 
nascent hydrogen ; but, so far as my experiments extended, the results did 
not agree satisfactorily. 

I had recourse then to the direct action of iodine on chloric acid, which 
T found acted easily on a solution of twice the normal strength, at a tempe- 
rature of 80° C., although it did not act on a dilute aqueous solution in the 
cold. The reaction only taking place readily at a temperature of 80° C., 
complicates very much the mode of procedure, necessitating, as it does, a 
very constant temperature. 

A series of observations gave as a mean 35,500 heat units evolved per 
equivalent of iodine acting on excess of chloric acid. This number repre- 
sents the heat evolved in the transformation of chloric acid into iodic acid; 
and by subtracting from it the thermal value of the latter acid, we obtain 
the heat evolved from the decomposition of the chloric acid. The thermal 
value of iodic acid is very readily obtained through the reaction of dilute 
hydriodic acid, thus— 

10,+5HI=5HO-+ 61, 


which takes place with extreme rapidity in dilute solution, evolving 16,000 
units per equivalent of hydriodic acid decomposed. 

Assuming, then, the thermal value of hydrogen to be 34,000 units, and that 
of hydriodic acid to be 15,000, we obtain on calculation 15,000 units evolved 
during the formation of a molecule of iodic acid in aqueous solution. This 
number agrees very closely with that of A. Ditte’s for the formation of iodie 
acid as found through the oxidation of phosphorus. Subtracting the number 
found for the formation of dilute iodic acid from the former number ex- 
pressing the action of iodine on dilute chloric acid, we have the number 
20,500 left for the thermal value of dilute chloric acid. Favre estimated 
the thermal value of dilute chloric acid as high as — 65,254 per equivalent— 
this result being based“on the action of chlorine on concentrated caustic 
potash, thus, 

6KO+ 6C1=5KC1+ KCIO,, 


and inserting in the equation the known values of oxide of. potassium and 
chloride of potassium, and further correcting for dilution. . It is obvious, 
however, where we have one atom of a compound formed for five atoms of 
another whose thermal value is not very accurately known, we multiply 
any error enormously. 

In looking over Favre’s original paper, in the ‘ Journal de Pharmacie’ for 
1853, on this subject, I observed that he mentioned a very curious observa- 
tion with reference to the heat evolved during the saturation of hypochlorous 
acid with dilute oxide of potassium. He shows that an equivalent of 
caustic potash, when neutralized with an equivalent of hypochlorous, gives 
rise to an evolution of 10,768 heat units; but if two molecules of hypo- 
chlorous acid were employed per equivalent of caustic potash, he found an 
evolution of 22,114 heat units. The additional heat evolved is not due to the 
formation of an acid salt, because, on adding another atom of caustic potash, 
we obtain the normal amount of heat due to the saturation of the acid. It 
is reasonable to suppose, therefore, that the additional atom of hypo- 
chlorous acid induces the following reaction :— 


3KO ClO=2KCI1+ KO ClO,, 


a 


THERMAL EQUIVALENTS OF THE OXIDES OF CHLORINE. 195 


-a decomposition that is well known to occur in certain conditions. As- 
suming this equation to be correct, and employing the following thermal 
numbers admitted by Favre— 


Formation of KO 76,238 per equivalent. 


: 9 KO with ClO = 10,678 3 
; is KCl =. 97,091. f 
: KO with C10, = 15,187 a 

f Cl with O =— 7,370 # 

5 KO GIO condensing= 11,436 45 


we obtain for the formation of an equivalent of aqueous chloric acid 
—12,661 heat units. This number is only about one-fifth part of the former 
number admitted by Favre. 

There is yet another mode of arriving at the thermal value of chloric 
acid. Frankland recently made a series of observations on the heat evolved 
during the.oxidation of many. organic substances through the action of 
chlorate of potash, and had necessarily to deduce from the total heat evolved 
the heat due to the decomposition of the chlorate of potash employed; his 
highest result amounts to 5500 heat units evolved per equivalent of chlo- 
rate of potash decomposed. Now it is easy, from the admitted decomposition 
and with the aid of this result, to calculate the thermal value of chloric 
acid. 


KO C10,=KCl+ 0,. 


Formation of KCl ~  — =101,000 
spaah i IG = 76,238 
» KOwith C10, = 15,187 


% KO ClO, solution = 10,100 


101,525+4+ X+5500=101,016. 
X=— 6009. 


The various determinations of the thermal value of chloric acid are inserted 
in the following Table, along with a reference to the reaction on which the 
‘determination is based :— 


Action of chlorine on concentrated caustic potash = —65,234 (Favre). 

- Condensation of hypochlorous acid = — 12,661 (Favre). 
Decomposition of chlorate of potash =— 6 000 (Frankland). 
Action of iodine on chloric acid 2690, 000 (Dewar). 


The great difference in these results shows that even with the greatest 
care experimenters are apt to differ on the intricate subject of thermal values, 
and that before a satisfactory conclusion can be arrived at-with reference to 
the true thermal value of chloric acid further experiments ought to be made. 

A series of observations have been made on chlorous acid and on the per- 
oxide of chlorine. 

Chlorous acid was obtained by the action of benzol sulphuric acid on 
chlorate of potash, and-.after washing it was passed directly into water, in 
order to obtain a dilute solution. 

The analysis of the solution has invariably differed from that of a ‘solution 
of pure chlorous acid; and it seems absolutely BeceeaTys in order to ensure 

Aa Or 2 


- - 


196 REPORT—1871. 


the purity of the aqueous solution, that the acid be previously lique- 
fied, and its vapour passed slowly into water, as has been recommended 
by Brandeau. As the cold weather had all vanished before I could secure 
time to enter on this investigation, I saw it was hopeless to prepare the 
liquid acid readily and thus ensure a pure product, but made a few observa- 
tions on the purest product I could obtain—the highest number I have 
obtained per equivalent of chlorous avid, ClO,, acting on hydriodic acid 
amounting to 111,000 units, the following reaction taking place, thus, 


ClO, +4HI=HC1+3HO-+T,. 


It is easy to calculate the heat absorbed during the formation of dilute 
chlorous acid, and it is found to amount to —27,800 heat units. 

Similar observations haye been made on peroxide of chlorine obtained 
from the action of oxalic acid on chlorate of potash. The aqueous solution 
of the gas has always contained appreciable quantities of free chlorine, and 
the value obtained will necessarily require some correction. One equivalent 
of ClO, acting on hydriodic acid evolves 120,000 heat units; the following 
reaction takes place :— 


ClO,4+5HI=HCl+4H0O +1... 


When the requisite numbers are inserted in the above equation, the result 
is found to be 19,800 heat units absorbed for the formation of an equivalent 
of peroxide of chlorine. 

The thermal values of chlorous acid and of peroxide of chlorine are likely 
to require considerable correction, because I have not found that strict uni- 
formity in the results I should have liked. This is owing in great part to the 
difficulty of procuring a pure product, and the great tendency to secondary 
decomposition. The mode of conducting the experiments may also have con- 
siderable influence on the results. The above experiments were made with 
the relative proportions of the oxides of chlorine and of hydriodic acid that 
would completely neutralize each other, so as to precipitate the iodine in the 
free state. A series of experiments made in presence of excess of hydriodic 
acid, the requisite correction being made for the solution of the iodine, 
would be important, and these I intend to execute along with further ob- 
servations on this subject. 

The following observations haye been made in connexion with this re- 
port :— 


Action of dilute Me on dilute HICIO.65:... mumteaentls e nothing 
ay 55 HClO, srebineh lake ESR nothing 
Ss io, ey HO. ..oivesws eee — 730 
5 KHO 59 LOS oe 15,000 
I 5 FICIO: -caghth: ee 36,500 
5 HI a HOO: Ut ek den See nothing 
5 HI 35 HIO, (per eq. of Arie . 16,000 
4 CHO™.: 5 HI (per eq. of Cl1O,) . - 111,000 


& CIOs as, HI (per eq. of C10.) 2% 120,000 


y 


EARTHQUAKES IN SCOTLAND. 197 


Report on the practicability of establishing “A Close Time” fcr the 
protection of indigenous Animals. By a Committee, consisting of 
Prof. Newton, M.4., F.R.S., Rev. H. B. Tristram, F.R.S., J. E. 
Hartine, F.L.S., F.Z.S., Rev. H. Barnes, and H. E. Dresser 
(Reporter). 

Your Committee has great pleasure in reporting that the object for which it 
was appointed has continued to excite attention in the public prints during 
the past year, aud that in the direction indicated by its last Report—the 
protection, namely, of these birds generally coming under the term “ Wild 
Fowl.” There appears to be a widespread disposition among all classes to 
extend in their favour the provisions of the ‘ Sea-Birds’ Preservation Act,’ in 
proof of which your Committee may cite two facts :—1, the establishment in 
the county of Sussex (chiefly through the instrumentality of Mr. T. J. Monk, 
of Lewes) of an Association whose members pledge themselves to abstain 
from destroying Woodcocks in the breeding-season, which Association has 
met with great encouragement from the principal landed proprietors in the 
county ; and 2, the rapid growth of a well-founded belief that some steps are 
absolutely necessary to stop the netting or shooting of Plovers during the 
same season to ensure a continuance of the supply of their eggs, which 
form, as is well known, a valuable commodity. 

Your Committee is fully aware of the danger of attempting to legislate on 
this subject before the proper time; but from the assistance which has been 
promised in various influential quarters, it entertains a sanguine hope that 
some decided step may be taken next year; and believing that the warmest 
supporters of the principle of establishing a Close Time for indigenous 
animals will readily listen to the recommendations of your Committee, it 
respectfully prays that your Committee may be reappointed. 


Report of the Committee on Earthquakes in Scotland. The Committee 
consists of Dr. Bryce, F.G.S., Sir W. Tuomson, F.R.S., D. Minne- 
Homn, F.R.S.E., P. Macrartane, and J. Broveu. 


Very little worthy of record has occurred during the past year. ‘There 
has been no earthquake or other disturbance in the Comrie district similar 
to those noticed in last Report. From other districts, however, slight shocks 
of earthquake have been reported—from Lochaber in the end of November 
and from the upper part of the Frith of Clyde in April. The latter occurred 
during the night, was noticed by few, and doubt has been expressed by some 
in regard to it. But as the same region was certainly agitated on more 
than one occasion during the conduct of the previous inquiry instituted by 
the Association, of which Dr. Buckland and Mr. Milne-Home had the 
charge, there is no improbability in such an occurrence ; very little informa- 
tion, however, that could be depended upon was obtained. In regard to 
the other earthquake-shock there is less doubt. The district in which it 
was felt comprises the Spean Valley and the lower part of the Great Glen, a 
region in which some of the most severe of our earthquakes have been from 
time to time experienced. In the present case, however, no change was 
produced on the surface, or in the position of objects (see Rep. by Mr. D. 
Milne-Home, Brit. Assoc. Rep. 1840) ; and without recording instruments 


198 _- REPoRT—1871. 


it has been found impossible to state, with any approach to certainty, whence 
the undulations emanated, or to estimate the intensity of the shocks. It is 
much to be desired that the additional duty of taking observations of this 
kind should be undertaken at such stations of the Scottish Meteorological 
Society as are situated in the districts where earthquakes have been so often 
experienced. Such a measure, however, would necessitate the adoption of a 


seismometer of a much simpler construction than that at Comrie, belonging . 


to the Association—one which should occupy a small space, and be little 
liable to derangement, while capable of recording feeble shocks. Your Com- 
mittee regrets that the hope expressed in last Report, in regard to the con- 
structing of such an instrument, has not been realized ; but they confidently 
hope that this important object will be accomplished in the course of the 
coming year. By permission of the Association, communications might then 
be opened with the Council of the Meteorological Society in regard to their 
placing such a seismometer at a number of their stations within the areas liable 
to disturbance, and establishing new stations with this express object where 
such do not now exist. Such a combined system of observations would bring 
the various areas into close relations with one another, and would possess 
every advantage over an inquiry limited to a single locality. 
(Signed). Janes Bryce, M.A., LL.D. 


Report on the best means of providing for a uniformity of Weights and 
Measures, with reference to the Interests of Science. By a Com- 
mittee, consisting of Sir Joun Bowrine, F.R.S., The Right Hon. Sir 
C. B. Apper.ey, M.P., Samurt Brown, F.S.8., Dr. Farr, F.R.S., 
Frank P. Frettowes, Professor FRANKLAND, F.R.S., Professor Hrn- 
nessy, F.R.S., James Heywoop, F.R.S., Sir Rozurt Kanu, F.R.S., 
Professor Lrone Levi, F.S.A., F.S.S., C. W. Siemens, F.R.S., 
Colonel Syxzs, F.R.S., M.P., Professor A. W. Wituiamson, F.R.S., 
James Yates, F.R.S., Dr.Grorce Grover, Sir Josrpn Wuitwortn, 
Bart., F.R.S., J. R. Naprer, H. Dircss, J. V. N. Bazaterrre, 
W.Smitn, Sir W. Farrzarrn, Bart., F.R.S., and Joun Rosinson:— 
Professor Luone Levi, Secretary. 


Your Committee have much pleasure in reporting that the fifth and last 
Report of the Royal Commissioners to inquire into the condition of the 
Exchequer, now Board of Trade, Standards has now been published, and 
the general question of uniformity of weights and measures in this and other 
countries has thus been placed before Her Majesty’s Government in all its 
bearings. Your Committee are much gratified at the large amount of infor- 
mation the Commissioners have collected on the progress of the Metric System 
in different countries, and only regret that they did not recommend a bolder 
course than the “permissive legislation of its use. The Commissioners, it 
should be remembered, were not expressly instructed to inquire into ‘the 
Metric System; but one of the points referred to them being to inquire and. 
report whether any and what additions to the existing official Standards of 
Weights and Measures are now required, they understood that that involved 

cexpression of their opinion as to the establishment or continued prohi- 


- UNIFORMITY OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 199 


bition of the Metric System into this country, and they reported accordingly 
on the subject. 

The Commissioners assumed that “ there is no immediate cause requiring 
a general change in the existing system of legal weights and measures of 
the country for the purposes of internal trade,” and regarded the question 
of introducing the Metric System only in the aspect of facilitating inter- 
national trade and scientific researches ; but your Committee are of opinion 
that in so doing the Commissioners have not sufficiently taken into account 
the bearings of the general question on education, on scientific workmanship, 
and on the general economies of the nation. The Royal Commissioners have 
recommended the legalization of the Metric System, and that, in order to 
facilitate the use of the same, Metric Standards accurately verified, in relation 
to the primary Metric Standards at Paris, should be deposited in the Standard 
Department of the Board of Trade. But although your Committee consider 
the carrying out of such recommendation a decided advance over the present 
anomalous state of the law, past experience leads them to fear that no general 
uniformity will ever be arrived at by merely permissive legislation, and that 
unless the use of Metric Weights and Measures is to become general at no 
distant period, the reform will have no fair chance of success. As the late 
Master of the Mint properly said, in the Standard Commission (Fifth Report, 
p-xxx), “Although the general introduction of MetricWeights and Measures for 
trade purposes might in the first instance be made permissive only, yet their 
use should, to some extent, be made compulsory, else the mere permission to 
use them in the home trade of this country would be practically a dead 
letter.” Your Committee have already reported on the decided advantages 
of the Metric and Decimal system in economizing time and facilitating the 
teaching of arithmetic in the schools, in effecting mechanical valuations, 
and in Chemistry and Pharmacy. But neither of these advantages can be 
realized to the full extent until the new system of Weights and Measures, 
with its divisors and multiples, become identified with our ideas of dimen- 
sions and quantities. Your Committee admit that this must be the work 
of time; but all the more necessary is it to make provisions for the same, 
by inserting in any measure on the subject clauses fixing a time when the 
use of the new system will become binding. Your Committee therefore 
greatly regret that the Bill introduced in the House of Commons by Mr. 
J. B. Smith to establish the Metric System of Weights and Measures, and 
fixing a time when the use of the same shall become compulsory, has not re- 
ceived the cordial support it deserved. But a majority of five only against 
the Second Reading, in a small House, so late in the Session, must not be 
accepted as conclusive evidence of the deliberate opinion of the Legislature 
on the subject. : 

Pending the final settlement of this important question, your Committee 
are gratified in finding that, in consequence of representations made by them 
to the Right Hon. Mr. W. E. Forster, Vice-President of the Committee of 
Council on Education, the Educational Code of this year for the first time 
prescribes “ that in all schools the children in Standards VY. and VI. in Arith- 
metic should know the principles of the Metric System, and be able to ex- 
plain the advantages to be gained from uniformity in the method of forming 
multiples and submultiples of the Unit.” Your Committee are convinced 
that the School is the proper place for,initiating this useful reform ; and in 
view of the immense economy of time which would be gained in the teach- 
ing of arithmetic, your Committee would urge that teachers should at once 
commence introducing the subject in the Schools, To advance this desirable 


200 REPORT—1871. 


object, your Committee have had a Conference at the Lecture Theatre of the 
Kensington Museum in June last, when valuable testimony was given of the 
. progress made in instructing children on the subject in the United States 
by Prof. Nathaniel Allen, and in Bombay by Mr. T. B. Kirkham, both 
gentlemen connected with the Education Departments of the respective 
countries. Your Committee have forwarded copies of the resolutions passed 
at the Conference, with copy of a little treatise on the Theory and Practice 
of the Metric System, to the Head Master of every Public and Endowed 
School, and they are preparing to do the same to all the principal Elemen- 
tary Schools in the Kingdom. It is much to be desired that all the works 
on arithmetic, and especially those which have acquired much reputation, 
should contain the necessary information on the Metric System, and your 
Committee are glad to report that this has already been done to a large ex- 
tent. Your Committee have also represented to the London School Board 
the desirableness of introducing the Metric System in the Schools established 
or supported by the Board, and they have been informed that the subject 
will shortly be considered by Prof. Huxley’s Committee. Your Committee 
will correspond in a similar manner with the other School Boards, and they 
trust that by these means they will secure the general teaching of the system. 
Your Committee have forwarded a copy of the Mural Standard con- 
structed by Casella to the Industrial Museum in Edinburgh, and they have 
also sent one to Newcastle. Your Committec have not yet been able to 
obtain the set of Metric Standards which they ordered, and they are glad to 
find from the following communication that the same will prove most useful 
for scientific researches :— 
Pilton, Barnstaple, 
July 27, 1871. 
Dear Srr,—I have been for some time conducting a series of observa- 
tions on the specific gravity of minerals and rocks. As the greatest possible 
accuracy is indispensable, it is of course a matter of some importance that I 
should employ the weights which afford the most exact results. I find that 
calculations of this nature can be done with far more accuracy, and in about 
a quarter of the time, by using the Metric System; but althongh I have 
made numerous inquiries, I have hitherto failed in my endeavour to procure 
a verified set of Metric Weights. May I venture to suggest that it would 
very much tend to promote the object which the Committee of the British 
Association have in view if they would procure one or two sets of verified 
weights for the purpose to such Members as may require the use of such 
standards for scientific investigation, and thus afford them the means of 
comparing and verifying their own weights with the recognized standards of 
the Association. 
I remain, dear Sir, yours faithfully, 
Prof. Leone Levi. TownsHEnD M. Hatt. 


Your Committee are convinced of the great utility of the suggestion ; but 
they will require a larger grant, since, as will be seen in the Fifth Report 
of the Standard Commissioners, £50 was paid by that Commission for a set 
of Metric Standards made of brass by Deleuil, of Paris. 

Your Committee regret that the war in France has suspended the opera- 
tion of the International Standard Commission at Paris for the construction 
and verification of primary international Metric Standards. That movement 
arose from resolutions, expressing such a want, passed by the International 
Gcodesical Conference held at Berlin in 1867, the Academy of Sciences of 


TIDAL OBSERVATIONS. 201 


St. Petersburg, and the Academy of Sciences in Paris; and we trust that 
by that means each country will possess a prototype copy of the Metre, 
made in relation to the Metre of the Archives in Paris, all the copies being 
made of the same material, compared by the same method and instru- 
ments, at the same temperature, and preserved in the same manner. Her 
Majesty’s Government had deputed Prof. Airy, the lamented Prof. Miller, 
and Mr. Chisholm, the Wardens of the Standards, to attend the Inter- 
national Commission. Your Committee have reason to believe that it is of 
the utmost importance to continue to give to this question unremitting at- 
tention, and they are convinced that their action has been eminently useful 
in guiding the Legislature, both of this country, of the Colonies, and even 
of other countries, to the great question of uniformity of Weights and Mea- 
sures and Coins in the interest of Science. In pursuance of this object, your 
Committee are anxious of diffusing as much information as possible. Especially 
they are desirous of supplying those who conduct scientific researches with 
the means of carrying them on in Metric Weights and Measures, as the most 
universally known, the most exact, and the most economical as regards time ; 
for which purpose they would be glad to purchase one or two sets of Metric 
Standards. And for these, and other purposes, they suggest the reappoint- 
ment of the Committee, with a grant of at least £75. The advantage of 
introducing a universal system of Weights and Measures is well admitted. 
Men of Science of all countries, to a large extent, use already a universal 
vocabulary in this respect ; and your Committee trust that the British Empire 
will ere long throw on the side of such a reform the immense weight of her 
example and influence. 


Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of promoting the 
extension, improvement, and harmonic analysis of Tidal Observa- 
tions. Consisting of Sir Witu1am Tuomson, LL.D., F.R.S., Prof. 
J.C. Apams, F.R.S., J. OtpHam, WittiaM Parkes, M. Inst. C.E., 
Prof. Ranxine, LL.D., F.R.S., and Admiral Ricnarps, R.N., 
F.R.S. 


Report drawn up by Mr. E, Roberts. _ 


82. Tur work performed for the Tide Committee since the last Meeting 
of the British Association has consisted chiefly in the evaluation of tide- 
components in a similar manner to that described in the previous Reports. 
83. Mr. Parkes having again placed the tracings of the curves of the 
Kurrachee (Manora) self-registering tide-gauge at the disposal of the Com- 
mittee, a second year’s observations have been read off and completely re- 
duced. In addition to the tide-components evaluated for Liverpool and 
Ramsgate, others (named for brevity J and Q) have been introduced to 
correct the lunar diurnal (declinational) tides for parallax. These com- 
ponents have been found to have sensible values for Kurrachee, where the 
diurnal tides are comparatively ldrge. The solar elliptic semidiurnal (R and 
_ T) components have also been included, now that two complete years’ ob- 
servations were available. The whole of the values of these tide-components 
is contained in the previous Report (§ 67), the work having been completed 
before the Report was printed. The correcting of the calculated heights 
(§ 70) for these additional components will doubtless bring them still nearer 


202 . REPORT—1871. 


to the recorded high and low waters. It is contemplated correcting them 
before the printing of the Report, and if this is done, the results will be con- 
tained in it. 
84. The comparison between the calculated and recorded heights for Liver- 
_pool (§ 68) not being considered as good as might have been expected from 
the labour bestowed on them, it was determined to continue the analysis of 
the Liverpool Tides, with the view, if possible, of detecting the cause of the 
largeness of some of the differences. Accordingly three years’ observations 
__ in continuation of the year 1866-67 were read off and completely analyzed. 
The results are as follow, and the results of the previous years are also 
given for the sake of comparison :— 


Year 1857-58. 1858-59. 1859-60. 1866-67. 1867-68. 1868-69. 1869-70. 


2 ality ofthe ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. 
A,= 16°7192 1678208 16°8289 16°8998 17°0862 17°4877 17°1350 
1h Coes 27°°9 27°°0 18°°4 18°4 Toca 20°°6 
Series 8. 
f- $$ It = =i oe 


1857-58. 1858-59. 1859-60. 1866-67. 1867-68. 1868-69, 1869-70. 
R, 070453 00696 070844 0'0470 00349 00399 0°0276 
Ee 00-08 59°°78 56°°S5 39°°04 66°°18 1o1°'28 124°°38 
mo Shea Bone: 371938 372304 peers 32287 3°0516 
€ Arh) ree id 10°°08 11°°63 11°°3I 11°38 r37°63 
R, o'0612 0'0600 0°04.76 0°0475 00678 00640 070508 
6 °322°°23 330°°18 294.°°73 B14 32 S27 TD 298°49 ® 312°°61 


Series M. 


= $$ eee 
1857-58. 1858-59. 1859-60. 1866-67. 1867-68. 1868-69. 1869-70. 
R, oro1g92 0°0626 0'0092 0'0396 o'01g4. 0'0603 o'0841 
ey 9332719 266°°69 970 a7 358°°02 259°°28 322° °82 317°°18 
R, 976745 98124. 9°8930 "10'2713-__ 10°2648 10°I210 10°1443 
€ 326°10 = 25°45) —323°°99 325955 = 326985 328%°38 = 329°'4o 
ig | TOSS 00984. O'1525 00862 o°1022 o1158 oloi4 
€, 330° = 15°04 321% 7E © 335°27 27°43 324°°76 31323 
R, 0°6847 0°6573 0°6371 0°7 643 0°7238 07018 0°7196 


€, 220°°34 217°°68 221°°30 224.°°19 222°°50 223 °°68 227°°87 
R, o1812 01887 0°2093 0°2057 0°1936 o°1883 0°2200 
6, 342°°76 = 348°2" 343° 17 = 343° 348°"52 35391 3°47 


R, 00582 00808 00658 0'0667 0°0670 0'0665 0°0770 
ig 202238 278° 17 259°°39 282°°09 280°°89 295°°60 293°°50 


Series MS. 


1857-58. 1858-59. 1859-60. 1866-67. 1867-68. 1868-69. 1869-70. 
R, 04379 0°3488 03879 0°4635 O41 53 0°4.080 0°3957 
€, 270°°68 265°°36 270°°49 269°°45 271°°86 269°°75 272°°96 


* Tis the average inclination of the Moon’s orbit to the Earth’s equator, or the mean 
maximun declination, for the period. 


Rk, 


€ 


R, 


€, 


Series K. 
aa 1 Ss ee Sa ~ 
1857-58. 1858-59. ~ 1859-60. 1866-67. 1867-68:-. 1868-69. 1869-70. 
0°3930 03978 0°3853 0°3278 0°2939 0°3116 9°34.04 
283°°95 283°°08 273°°18 281°°60 0 285°°'77 282°°75 285°°13 
1850 1°2742 1°0995 0°6336 ,0°7701 0'7346 0'7882 
5°98 0°40 349°°6r 9°03 6°63 359°'16 4°25 
Series O. 
—__————. — A. oo ——_— ———_—. —~ 
1857 —d8. 1858-59. 1859-60, 1866-67. 1867-68. 1868-69. 1869-70. 
0°44.10 0°4.136 0'4519 03058 0°2694. 0°3374 O°3214 
316°°69 316°°28 318°°81 312°°74. 312°°63 310°°38 307°'96 
Series P. 
LL ee oe ee ee a ed cr a 
1857-58. 1858-59, 1859-60. 1866-67. 1867-68. 1868-69, 1869-70. 
01250 0°1339 071306 o'14.09 0°1357 0°1333 0°0935 
101°'96 105°°75 98°°61 88°43 109°°17 84°21 77°08, * 
Series L. 
$s. —, 
1857-58. 1858-59. 1859-60. 1866-67. 1867-68. 1868-69. 1869-70. 
05069 0'7849 0°3459 o'6015 075842 O°5129 04671 
157°'93 168°°91 144°°51 124°'08 DET ST 159°°39 I51°°91 
Series N. 
1857-58. 1858-59. 1859-60. 1866-67. ~1867-68. 1868-69. .1869-70. 
18608 1°7607 1'9716 2°1608 19124 1°3307 1°8917 
303°°52 © 308972 303°°98 = gor?"59 «= 308714 307°°39-— 305°*06 
Series R. Series T. 
SS ae SSE See —_ 
*1857-58 & 1858-59. 1858-59 & 1859-60. 1857-58 & 1858-59. 1858-59 & 1859-60. 
071006 00818 0°3490 o'1208 
14.6°°45 146°°60 67°°97 36°°78 
Series \. 
Aen a 
1857-58. 1858-59. 1859-60. 1866-67. 1867-68. 1868-69. 1869-70 
04091 02262 o'1165 02369 0'2166 O°1977 O'1913 
141°°68 134.°°46 Ig9g1°'08 175°°95 180°°68 138°°54 132°°16 
Series v. 
Cc = = Se St Ge te Pen eee ee 
1857-58. 1858-59. 1859-60. 1866-67. 1867-68. 1868-69. 1869-70. 
0°7423 0°6303 072841 0°7 182 O'5051 0°1423 0°69 12 
307°°91 284°'o1 261°"09 278°°43 267°°42 311°°51 332°°41 
Series pu. 
Ee a eee “a” ————— 
57-58. 1858-59. 1859-60. 1866-67. 1867-68. 1868-69. 1869-70. 
0'2860 0'2259 0°3076 0'2561 0'2278 0'2576 0°2303 
+ 3172 42°04 32°55 32°42 31°94 64°20 39°°64, 


TIDAL OBSERVATIONS. 


7 204 REPORT—1871. 


/ 85. It will be seen, on comparing the results contained in the previous 

y Report with the above, that the chief tides (the lunar and solar semidiurnal) 
are now more retarded by about 4° than during the years previously analyzed. 
The calculated heights in the comparison should therefore more nearly repre- 
sent the heights about eight-minutes after the hours assigned to them. An 
examination of the differences will show this to be the case. A fresh caleu- 
lation and due allowance made for atmospheric pressure would doubtless very 
considerably reduce the discrepancies. 

86. The gradual increase in the height of the mean level of the water (A,), 
probably arising from the filling in of the bed of the river and consequent 
increase of friction, will account for some portion of this increased retarda- 
tion. There was a very violent rise in the mean level for the year 1868-69, 
amounting to four tenths of a foot; it, however, in the following year had 
again subsided to about its anticipated height. The uncertainty in the mean 
level of the water is an element which must at times seriously affect the 
differences between calculated and recorded heights in any method of com- 
putation of heights from a fiwed datum. With respect to these changes now 
taking place in Liverpool Bay, the following extract contains the substance 
of the Marine Surveyor’s report, dated October 2nd, 1871, and confirms the 
results determined by the preceding reductions :— 

“The result of the survey of the channels of the river for the current year 
shows that the changes rendered necessary in the arrangements of the light- 
ing and buoyage are more important in their immediate effect on the course 
of navigation than any which have occurred .for some years. The present 
Queen Channel was opened in 1854, but was not buoyed for navigation pur- 
poses until two years afterwards. Since that time the process of advance 
from southward to northward of the Great Burbo Bank had been very 
gradual for the first ten years, but more rapid recently, so that the advance 
had extended to about half a mile. At the same time the North Channel 
had widened in the same proportion, and there was no appreciable narrowing 
of the channel in that direction. On the north side, however, during the 
last four years, the changes had been more rapid, and the buoys had been 
altered twice within that period. It was now necessary that the Bell Beacon 
should be removed northward one third of a mile, and also that the Formby 
light-ship should be removed one third of a mile westward. Thus the Bell 
Beacon buoy would be brought into a direct line with the Crosby light-ship. 
The bar was in a satisfactory state, and the whole of the channels were in 
as safe a condition as they had been for many years, being deeper as well as 
more straight and not narrower than formerly.” 

87. It is very much to be regretted that the authorities at Liverpool 
have chosen the George’s landing-stage for a tide-float, affected as it must 
be (sometimes to a considerable extent) by the ever-varying weight it has to 
bear. This will affect the whole of the tide-components evaluated, but more 
especially the solar components, and will account for the different values of 
the solar semidiurnal tide, which, judging from the corresponding lunar 
component, should agree within much narrower limits. It is therefore 
thought that, should it be determined to again discuss the Liverpool tides, 
it will be better to take the tide-curves as self-rcgistered at Helbre Island 
at the mouth of the Dee, in preference to those cf George’s Pier. The Helbre 
Island tide-curyes it is considered will give much superior results. 

88. Through the kindness of the United States’ Coast Survey Office, two 
years’ tide observations, taken at Fort Point, San Francisco Bay, California, 
being a continuation of the observations already analyzed (§ 66), have been 


\ 


received. The results of the analysis of 
in § 66 being also included for the sake o 


TIDAL OBSERVATIONS. 


205 


these observations (those contained 
f comparison) are as follow :— 


Year 1858-59. 1859-60. 1860-61. 
ft. ft. ft. 
A,=8'7103 $:2651 81608 
E =§28%o 26°'9 Zn OrAi 
Series 8, Series M. 
Se a 
1858-59. 1859-60. 1860-61. 1858-59. 1859-60. 1860-61. 
R, 00146 yerysmall. very small, 0'0539 0°0808 00863 
€ SET COGEs TE seats eo Bladetcs 46°°30 189°°37 B2> 070 
R, 04067 0°3802 0°3824 1°6694. 16215 1°6645 
€&  —-334°°24335°°8O— 336°'45 330°°81 331°°30 © 328°°72 
EE vdcrts | MP ssee 1 f Sh re verysmall. verysmall.’ very small. 
en etscsBU 0 Macccc PEN sec.ce sBecen MG Weg (a Weadees 
R, very small. very small. very small. 0°0616 o'0712 0°0698 
TO anipsonte e  Einicon: a aieehaance 23°°32 26°73 11°15 
Series MS. 
SE eae I 
1858-59. 1859-60, 1860-61, 
R, 0'0248 0°0325 00315 
€, 22033 12°25 22°°81 
Series K. 
1858-59, 1859-60. 1860-61 
R, 1°3370 1°3036 1°2925 
€, —-196°"45 197°°43 196°°36 
R, o°1759 o°1716 O°1351 
€  335°°21 327°°63 325°°37 
Series O. Series P. 
Gna Se i SSeS SS SS 
1858-59, 1859-60. 1860-61. 1858-59. 1859-60. 1860-61. 
R, 08917 o'8511 08784 0°3672 0°3659 0°3869 
By 35768. 35752. 35298 16°°52 15°"90 13°°52 
Series L. Series N. 
1858-59. 1859-60. 1860-61. 1858-59. 1859-60. 1860-61. 
R, o'059t C0370 0°0506 S393 0°3494 C545 
6,  102°°63 183°°00 170°'16 303°°46 305°°53 302°°51 
Series R. Series T. 
name SSN ee a ee ee SN 
1858-59 and 1859-60, 1858-59 and 1859-60. 
R, 00076 R, o°0142 
€,  164°°00 €,  277°°90 
Series i. Series ». 
1858-59. 1859-60. 1860-61. 1858-59. 1859-60. 1860-61, 
R, 0°0372 0°0275 O'OI121 o'1044 0'0387 0°04.37 
5 188°°30 156°°39 144°°18 287°°23 272°°46 349°°59 


206. REPORT—1871. — 


Series pu. 


oe 
1858-59. 1859-60. 1860-61. 


ts O02 57 _ 010311 00252 
€, 25434 «= 20614 209°°53 
Series J. Series Q. 
SSS SaaS as SS ig ie Sey. 
.1858-59. 1859-60, 1860-61. -- 1858-59. 1859-60. 1860-61. 
R, o'0819 00376 00565 O° 1706, o'1056 0°1332 
~ €, 213°°98 = 208°-29 ~_-183°"40 353°°03) -331°°34 8°93 


89. Here again we have an abrupt diminution in the height of mean level 
for the first two years, which the following extract. from a letter received 
from J. EK. Hilgard, Ksq., fully explains :— 

“The change in the mean-level reading at Fort Point is a matter of much 
“annoyance to us. The tidé-gauge was put up in a small building near the 
“end of a wharf, and the tide-staff used for comparison was.close to it. Now 
‘“‘it Was observed after the observations had continued some time~that the 
“wharf was settling,—tt least the part where the gauge stood. Then the 
“‘ gauge was moved to a point a little nearer to the shore believed to be firm, 
gs but 7 we think the whole wharf. settled and continued to do so for years. 
«There seems to be a bog formation underlying the surface deposit at that 
“place. There is probably-no way of ascertaining the amount of settling 
‘except from the observations themselves. We are now having frequent 
“levellings made, referring the tide-staff to a rocky ledge further inland.” 

It is contemplated including the new tide-components now evaluated 
in the calculation. of the tide-heights shown in § 69, doubtless to their 
improvement. 

90. It having come to the knowledge of the Tide.Committee that the United 
States’ Coast Survey Office was in possession of a series of hourly tide observa- 
tions. taken at CatIsland in the Gulf of Mexico, and which were of a very 
remarkable and interesting character, it was thought a favourable opportunity 
of testing the value of a harmonic analysis for the evaluation of the com- 
ponents of the tides of this place, which appeared very complicated apd pe- 
““culiar. Application having been made, a series of about thirteen months 
were received through the kindness of J. HE. Hilgard, Esq. These are now 
in course of reduction. 

The following results represent the tide-components as far as they have at 
present been evaluated. Datum 10 feet below datum of United States’ Coast 
Survey :-— 

Year 1848. A,=4°8574 ft. IT=18°-45 


Series S. Series M. Series L. Series N. 
R, 070442 oho) (on hana Meco nl) wl Ptodsdic 
€, 10°'04 OS 2T cee Manet csnae 
R, 0°0677 O'I195 00118 00269 
65 23°°80 10°75 222°°40 39°57 


- Series K. SeriesO. Series P. SeriesJ. Series Q. 
R, 04627 0°3855 or1559 00292 0'0733 


Gi Se zO 224.°°29 230°°65 28°22 205 82 
Hides Sshepsolagn te USxdccg ™ mamemnOGuen nn Malctlecbuicn = Mem Mboonde 
65 FUNG Fo ae eaersss <5 Ltvnas Steevie. tsa ebeard 
Retardation of phase of Spring-tides oa! 5a 


Coincidence of phase of Declinational tides of 6" 15™ atten saaaine ByEece 


TIDAL OBSERVATIONS. 207. 


91. It is extremely interesting to find that, although the lunar. and 
solar semidiurnal tides are very small in value. the series of means from 
which they were obtained were extremely regular and good, and the conse- 
quent determination of the phase of spring-tides from their respective epochs 
is probably correct within afew minutes. The proportion between the am- 
plitudes of the lunar and solar semidiurnal tides is the nearest to equality 
yet obtained, being in the ratio of 11 to 6. The comparatively large value 
of R, of Series 8 is undoubtedly a genuine tide, but the smallness of the cor- 
responding value of Series M must forbid the conclusion of its being purely 


astronomical. It is perhaps produced by temperature or wind, its time of 


maximum being about 40 minutes after noon. There are also indications of 
a similar and large annual tide of 0:3 foot amplitude, and maximum about 
July, which is also probably meteorological in its origin. The proportion 
between the lunar and solar diurnal (Declinational) tides (R, of Series O 
and P) will be, on the assumption of the variation of R, of Series O being as 
the square of the sine of the declination, about 4 to 1. 

92. The following are the values of the long-period tides which have been 
obtained since the Edinburgh Meeting :— 


R € 
ft. = 
Solar annual tide (elliptic and meteorological) ... 0'2.74. 144°50 - 
Solar semiannual tide (declinational and meteoro- 

IPIOAM EY actetanemat ors xcrsrctctodetanmiede sae iasccnercee o°128 35°02 
Lunar monthly tide (elliptic) ..............seeeeeeee or106 | 304717 
Lunar fortnightly tide (declinational) ............ see 0'043 136°69 
Luni-solar fortnightly tide (synodic) ............64 0°099 336°26 


The above epoch for the solar annual tide would place the maximum about 
August 16. 


sty Sault at a. 


EE wotet | 


4 
at 


NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS 


OF 


MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS. 


MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 


Address by Professor P. G. Tarr, M.A., F.R.S.E., President of the Section. 


Iy opening the proceedings of this Section my immediate predecessors have ex- 
ercised their ingenuity in presenting its widely differing She ee subjects from 
their several points of view, and in endeavouring to coordinate them. What 
they were obliged to leave unfinished, it would be absurd in me to attempt to com- 
plete. It would be impossible, also, in the limits of a brief address to give a de- 
tailed account of the recent progress of physical and mathematical knowledge. 
Such a work can only be produced by separate instalments, each written by a spe- 
cialist, such as the admirable “ Reports’’ which form from time to time the most 
valuable portions of our annual volume. 

I shall therefore confine my remarks in the main to those two subjects, one in 
the mathematical, the other in the purely physical division of our work, which are 
comparatively familiar to myself. I wish, if possible, to induce, ere it be too late, 
native mathematicians to pay much more attention than they have yet paid to 
Hamilton’s magnificent Calculus of Quaternions, and to call the particular notice 
of physicists to our President’s grand Principle of Dissipation of Energy. I think 
that these are, at this moment, the most important because the most promising 
parts of our field. 

If nothing more could be said for Quaternions than that they enable us to exhibit 
in a singularly compact and elegant form, whose meaning is obvious at a glance 
on account of the utter inartificiality of the method, results which in the ordinary 
Cartesian coordinates are of the utmost complexity, a very powerful argument for 
their use would be furnished. But it would be unjust to Gantanaens to be con- 
tent with such a statement; for we are fully entitled to say that in al/ cases, even 
in those to which the Cartesian methods seem specially adapted, they give as sim- 
ple an expression as any other method ; while in the great majority of cases they 
<A a vastly simpler one. In the common methods a judicious choice of coor- 

inates is often of immense importance in simplifying an investigation; in Qua- 
ternions there is usually no choice, for (except when they degrade to mere scalars) 
they are in general utterly independent of any particular directions in space, and 
select of themselves the most natural reference lines for each particular problem. 

- This is easily illustrated by the most elementary instances, such as the following :— 
“The general equation of Cones involves merely the direction of the vector of a point, 
_ while that of Surfaces of Revolution is a relation between the lengths of that vector 
and of its resolved part parallel to the axis; and Quaternions enable " by a mere 


1871. 


ae 


t 
? 


2 REPORT—1871. 


mark to separate the ideas of length and direction without introducing the cumbrous 
and clumsy square roots of sums of squares which are otherwise necessary. 

But, as it seems to me that mathematical methods should be specially valued in 
this Section as regards their fitness for physical applications, what can possibly 
from that point of view be more important than Hamilton’s y? Physical ana- 
logies have often been invoked to make intelligible various mathematical processes. 
Witness the case of Statical Electricity, wherein Thomson has, by the analogy of 
Heat-conduction, explained the meaning of various important theorems due to 
Green, Gauss, and others; and wherein Clerk-Maxwell has employed the proper- 
ties of an imaginary incompressible liquid (devoid of inertia) to illustrate not 
merely these theorems, but even Thomson’s Electrical Images. [In fact he has 
gone much further, having applied his analogy to the puzzling combinations pre- 
sented by Electrodynamics.] There can be little doubt that these com arisons 
owe their birth to the small intelligibility, per se, of what has been called La- 

2 


GENE Si td? 
place’s Operator, dat aye am which appears alike in all theories of attraction at 


a distance, in the steady flow of heat in a conductor, and in the steady motion of in- 
compressible fluids. But when we are taught to understand the operator itself we are 
able to dispense with these analogies, which, however valuable and beautiful, 
have certainly to be used with extreme caution, as tending very often to confuse 
and mislead. Now Laplace’s operatoris merely the negative of the square of Hamil- 
ton’s vy, which is oe intelligible in itself and in all its combinations ; and 
can be defined as giving the vector-rate of most rapid increase of any scalar func- 
tion to which it is applied—giving, for instance, the vector-force from a potential, 
the heat-flux from a distribution of temperature, &c. Very simple functions of 
the same operator give the rate of increase of a quantity in any assigned direction, 
the condensation and elementary rotation produced by given displacements of the 
parts of asystem, &c. For instance, a very elementary application of y to the theory 
of attraction enables us to put one of its fundamental principles in the following 
extremely suggestive form :—If the displacement or velocity of each particle of a 
medium represent in magnitude and direction the electric force at that particle, 
the corresponding statical distribution of electricity is proportional everywhere to 
the condensation thus produced. Again, Green’s celebrated theorem is at once 
seen to be merely the well-known equation of continuity expressed for a hetero- 
geneous fluid, whose density at every point is proportional to one electric potential, 
and its displacement or velocity proportional to and in the direction of the electric 
force due to another potential. But this is not the time to pursue such an inquiry, 
for it would lead me at once to discussions as to the possible nature of electric 
phenomena and of gravitation. I believe myself to be fully justified in saying 
that, were the theory of this operator thoroughly developed and generally known, the 
whole mathematical treatment of such physical questions as those just mentioned 
would undergo an immediate and enormous simplification; and this, in its turn, 
would be at once followed by a proportionately large extension of our knowledge*. 


* The following extracts from letters of Sir W. R. Hamilton have a perfectly general 
application, so that I do not hesitate to publish them :—‘‘ De Morgan was the very first 
“person to notice the Quaternions zz print; namely in a Paper on Triple Algebra, in the 
“Camb. Phil. Trans. of 1844. It was, I think, about that time, or not very long after- 
“wards, that he wrote to me, nearly as follows:—‘I suspect, Hamilton, that you have 
“ caught the right sow by the ear!’ Between us, dear Mr. Tait, I think that we shall begin 
“the suparine of it!!” “You might without offence to me, consider that I abused the 
“license of hope, which may be indulged to an inventor, if I were to confess that I expect 
“the Quaternions to supply, hereafter, not merely mathematical methods, but also phy- 
“sical suggestions. And, in particular, you are quite welcome to smile if I say that it 
‘‘ does not seem extravagant to me to suppose that a ful] possession of those @ priori prin- 
“‘ ciples of mine, about the multiplication of vectors (including the Law of the Four Scales 
“and the conception of the Extra-spatial Unit), which have as yet been not much more 
“than hinted to the public, micut have led (I do not at all mean that in my hands they 
“ever would have done so) to an Anticipation of the great discovery of OzRsTED.” 

_ “It appears to me that one, and not the least, of the services which quaternions may be 
“expected to do to mathematical analysis generally, is that their introduction will compel 


QE eee 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 3 


' And this is but one of the claims of Quaternions to the attention of physicists. 
When we come to the important questions of stress and strain in an elastic solid, 
we find again that all the elaborate and puzzling machinery of coordinates com- 
monly employed can be at once comprehended and kept out of sight in a mere 
single symbol—a linear and vector function, which is self-conjugate if the strain 
be pure. This is simply, it appears to me, a proof either that the elaborate machinery 
ought never to have been introduced, or that its use was an indication of a com- 
paratively savage state of mathematical civilization. In the motion of a rigid solid 
about a fixed point, a quaternion, represented by a single symbol which is a func- 
tion of the time, gives us the operator which could bring the body by a single 
rotation from its initial position to its position at any assigned instant. In short, 
whenever with our usual means a result can be obtained in, or after much labour 
reduced to, a simple form, Quaternions will give it at once in that form; so 
that nothing is ever Jost in point of simplicity. On the other hand, in numberless 
cases the Quaternion result is immeasurably simpler and more intelligible than 
any which can be obtained or even expressed by the usual methods. And it is not 
to be supposed that the modern Higher Algebra, which has done so much to sim- 
plify and extend the ordinary Cartesian methods, would be ignored by the general 
employment of Quaternions; on the contrary, Determinants, Invariants, Xe. 
present themselves in almost every Quaternion solution, and in forms which 
have received the full benefit of that simplification which Quaternions generally 
produce. Comparing a Quaternion investigation, no matter in what department, 
with the equivalent Cartesian one, even when the latter has availed itself to the 
utmost of the improvements suggested by Higher Algebra, one can hardly help 
making the remark that they contrast even more strongly than the decimal 
notation with the binary scale or with the old Greek Arithmetic, or than the 
well-ordered subdivisions of the metrical system with the preposterous no-systems 
of Great Britain, a mere fragment of which (in the form of Tables of Weights and 
Measures) forms perhaps the most effective, if not the most ingenious, of the many 
instruments of torture employed in our elementary teaching. 

It is true that, in the eyes of the pure mathematician, Quaternions have one 
grand and fatal defect. They cannot be applied to space of m dimensions, they are 
contented to deal with those poor three dimensions in which mere mortals are 
doomed to dwell, but which cannot bound the limitless aspirations of a Cayley or a 
Sylvester. From the physical point of view this, instead of a defect, is to be re- 
garded as the greatest possible recommendation. It shows, in fact, Quaternions 
to be a special instrument so constructed for application to the Actual as to have 
thrown overboard everything which is not absolutely necessary, without the 
slightest consideration whether or no it was thereby being rendered useless for 
applications to the Inconceivable. 

he late Sir John Herschel was one of the first to perceive the value of Qua- 
ternions; and there may be present some who remember him, at a British Asso- 
ciation Meeting not long after their invention, characterizing them as a ‘ Cornu- 
copia from which, turn it how you will, something valuable is sure to fall.” Is it not 
strange, to use no harsher word, that such a harvest has hitherto been left almost 
entirely to Hamilton himself? If but half a dozen tolerably good mathematicians, 
such as exist in scores in this country, were seriously to work at it, instead of 
spending (or rather wasting’) their time, as so many who have the requisite leisure 
now do, in going over again what has been already done, or in working out mere 
details where a grand theory has been sketched, a very great immediate advance 
would be certain. From the majority of the papers in our few mathematical 
journals one would almost be led to fancy that British mathematicians have too 
much pride to use a simple method while an unnecessarily complex one can be 


“those who adopt them (or even who admit that they may be reasonably adopted by other 
- persons) to consider, or to admit that others may usefully inquire, what common grounds 
*can be established for conclusions common to quaternions and to older branches of ma- 
“thematics.” 
“ Could any thing be simpler or more satisfactory? Don’t you feel, as well as think, 
“that we are on a right track, and shall be thanked hereafter? Never mind when.” 


1* 


4 REPORT—1871]. 


had. No more telling example of this could be wished for than the insane delusion 
under which they permit Euclid to be employed in our elementary teaching. They 
seem voluntarily to weight alike themselves and their pupils for the race; and a 
cynic might, perhaps without much injustice, say they do so that they may have mere 
self-imposed and avoidable difficulties to face instead of the new, real, and dreaded 
ones (belonging to regions hitherto unpenetrated) with which Quaternions would too 
soon enable‘them to come into contact. But this game will certainly end in disaster. 
As surely as Mathematics came to a relative stand-still in this country for nearly a 
century after Newton, so surely will it do so again if we leave our eager and 
watchful rivals abroad to take the initiative in developing the grand method of 
Hamilton. And it is not alone French and Germans whom we have now to 
dread, Russia, America, regenerated Italy, and other nations are all fairly entered 
for the contest. 

The flights of the imagination which occur to the pure mathematician are in general 
so much better described in his formule than in words, that it is not remarkable to 
find the subject treated by outsiders as something essentially cold and uninteresting, 
while even the most abstruse branches of physics, as yet totally incapable of 
being popularized, attract the attention of the uninitiated. The reason may 
perhaps be sought in the fact that, while perhaps the only successful attempt to 
invest mathematical reasoning with a halo of glory—that made in this Section by 
Prof. Sylvester—is known to a comparative few, several of the highest problems 
of physics are connected with those simple observations which are possible to the 
many. The smell of lightning has been observed for thousands of years, it required 
the sagacity of Schonbein to trace it to the formation of Ozone. Not to speak of 
the (probably fabulous) apple of Newton, what enormous consequences did he 
obtain by passing light through a mere wedge of glass, and by simply laying a lens 
ona flat plate! The patching of a trumpery model led Watt to his magnificent 
inventions. As children at the sea-shore playing with a “roaring buckie,” or in 
later life lazily puffing out rings of tobacco-smoke, we are illustrating two of the 
splendid researches of Helmholtz. And our President, by the bold, because simple, 
use of reaction instead of action, has eclipsed even his former services to the Sub- 
marine Telegraph, and given it powers which but a few years ago would have been 
deemed unattainable. 

In experimental Physics our case is not hopeless, perhaps not as yet even alarm- 
ing. Still something of the same kind may be said in this as in pure Mathematics. 
If Thomson's Theory of Dissipation, for instance, be not speedily developed in this 
country, we shall soon learn its consequences from abroad. The grand test of our 
science, the proof of its being a reality and not a mere inventing of new terms and 
squabbling as to what they shall mean, is that it is ever advancing. There is no 
standing still; there is no running round and round as in a beaten donkey-track, 
coming back at the end of a century or so into the old positions, and fighting the 
self-same battles under slightly different banners, which is merely another form of 
stagnation (Kinetic Stability in fact). ‘A little folding of the hands to sleep,” 
in chuckling satisfaction at what has been achieved of late years by our great 
experimenters, and we shall be left hopelessly behind. The sad fate of Newton’s 
successors ought ever to be a warning to us. Trusting to what he had done, they 
allowed mathematical science almost to die out in this country, at least as com- 
pared with its immense progress in Germany and France. It required the united 
exertions of the late Sir J. Herschel and many others to render possible in these 
islands a Boole and a Hamilton. If the successors of Davy and Faraday pause to 
ponder even on their achievements, we shall soon be again in the same state of 
ignominious inferiority. Who will then step in to save us ? 

Even as it is, though we have among us many names quite as justly great as any 
that our rivals can produce, we have also (even in our educated classes) such an 
immense amount of ignorance and consequent credulity, that it seems matter for 
surprise that true science is able to exist. Spiritualists, Circle-squarers, Perpetual- 
motionists, Believers that the earth is flat and that the moon has no rotation, 
swarm about us. They certainly multiply much faster than do genuine men of 
science, This is characteristic of all inferior races, but it is consolatory to re- 
member that in spite of it these soon become extinct. Your quack has his little 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 5 


day, and disappears except to the antiquary. But in science nothing of value can 
ever be lost ; it is certain to become a stepping-stone on the way to further truth. 
Still, when our stepping-stones are laid, we should not wait till others employ 
them. ‘Gentlemen of the Guard be kind enough to fire first” is a courtesy 
entirely out of date; with the weapons of the present day it would be simply 
suicide. 

There is another point which should not be omitted in an address like this. For 
obvious reasons I must speak of the general question only, not venturing on ex- 
amples, though I could give many telling ones. Even among our greatest men of 
science in this country there is comparatively little knowledge of what has been 
already achieved, except of course in the one or more special departments culti- 
vated by each individual. There can be little doubt that one cause at least of this 
is to be sought in the extremely meagre interest which our statesmen, as a rule, 
take in scientific progress. While abroad we find half a dozen professors teaching 
parts of the same subject in one University (each having therefore reasonable leisure), 
with us one man has to do the whole, and to endeavour as he best can to make some- 
thing out of his very few spare moments. Along with this, and in great part due 
to it, there is often found a proneness to believe that what seems evident to the 
thinker cannot but have been long known to others. Thus the credit of many 
valuable discoveries is lost to Britain because her philusophers, having no time to 
spare, do not know that they are discoveries. The scientific men of other nations 
are, as arule, better informed | certainly far better encouraged and less over-worked ], 
and perhaps likewise are not so much given to self-depreciation. Until something 
resembling the ‘Fortschritte der Physik,’ but in an improved form, and published 
at smaller intervals and with much less delay, is established in this country, there 
is little hope of improvement in this respect. Why should science be imperfectly 
summarized in little haphazard scraps here and there, when mere property has its 
elaborate series of Money-articles and exact Broker’s Share-listsP Such a work 
would be very easy of accomplishment: we have only to begin boldly; we do 
not need to go back, for in every year good work is being done at almost every part 
of the boundary between, as it were, the cultivated land and the still unpenetrated 
forest—enough at all events to show with all necessary accuracy whereabouts that 
boundary lies. 

There is no need of entering here on the question of Conservation of Energy ; 
it is thoroughly accepted by scientific men, and has revolutionized the greater part 
of Physics. The facts as to its history also are generally agreed upon, but differ- 
ences of a formidable kind exist as to the deductions to be drawn from them. 
These are matters, however, which will be more easily disposed of thirty years 
hence than now. The Transformation of Energy is also generally accepted, and, 
in fact, under various unsatisfactory names was almost popularly known before the 
Conservation of Energy was known in its entirety to more than a very few. But 
the Dissipation of Energy is by no means well known, and many of the results of 
its legitimate application have been received with doubt, sometimes even with 
attempted ridicule. Yet it oe to be at the present moment by far the most 
promising and fertile portion of Natural Philosophy, having obvious applications 
of which as yet only a small percentage appear to have been made. Some, indeed, 
were made before the enunciation of the Principle, and have since been recognized 
as instances of it. Of such we have good examples in Fourier’s great work on 
Heat-conduction, in the optical theorem that an image can never be brighter than 
the object, in Gauss’s mode of investigating electrical distribution, and in some of 
Thomson’s theorems as to the energy of an electromagnetic field. But its dis- 
coyerer has, so far as I know, as yet confined himself in its explicit application to 
questions of Heat-conduction and Restoration of Energy, Geological Time, the 
Earth’s Rotation, and such like. Unfortunately his long-expected Rede Lecture 
has not yet been published, and its contents (save to those who were fortunate 
enough to hear it) are still almost entirely unknown. : 

But there can be little question that the Principle contains implicitly the whole 
theory of Thermo-electricity, of Chemical Combination, of Allotropy, of Fluo- 
rescence, &c., and perhaps even of matters of a higher order than common physics 
and chemistry. In Astronomy it leads us to the grand question of the age, or 


6 REPORT—1871. 


perhaps more correctly the phase of life, of a star or nebula, shows us the material 
of potential suns, other suns in the process of formation, in vigorous youth, and in 
every stage of slowly protracted decay. It leads us to look on each planet and 
satellite as having been at one time a tiny sun, a member of some binary or multiple 
group, and even now (when almost deprived, at least at its surface, of its original 
energy) presenting an endless variety of subjects for the application of its methods. 
It leads us forward in thought to the far-distant time when the materials of the 
present stellar system shall have lost all but their mutual potential energy, but 
shall in virtue of it form the materials of future larger suns with their attendant 
planets. Finally, as it alone is able to lead us, by sure steps of deductive reasoning, 
to the necessary future of the universe—necessary, that is, if physical laws for ever 
remain unchanged—so it enables us distinctly to say that the present order of 
things has not been evolved through infinite past time by the agency of laws now 
at work, but must have had a distinctive beginning, a state beyond which we are 
totally unable to penetrate, a state, in fact, which must have been produced by 
other than the now acting causes. 

Thus also, it is possible that in Physiology it may, ere long, lead to results of a 
different and much higher order of novelty and interest than those yet obtained, 
immensely valuable though they certainly are. 

It was a grand step in science which showed that just as the consumption of 
fuel is necessary to the working of a steam-engine, or to the steady light of a 
candle, so the living engine requires food to supply its expenditure in the forms 
of muscular work and animal heat. Still grander was Rumford’s early anticipation 
that the animal is a more economic engine than any lifeless one we can construct. 
Even in the explanation of this there is involved a question of very great interest, 
still unsolved, though Joule and many other philosophers of the highest order 
have worked at it. Joule has given a suggestion of great value, viz. that the 
animal resembles an electromagnetic- rather than a heat-engine; but this throws 
us back again upon our difficulties as to the nature of electricity. Still, even sup- 
posing this question fully answered, there remains another—perhaps the highest 
which the human intellect is capable of directly attacking, for it is simply pre- 
posterous to suppose that we shall ever be able to understand scientifically the 
source of Consciousness and Volition, not to speak of loftier things—there remains 
the question of Life. Now it may be startling to some of you, especially if you 
have not particularly considered the matter, to hear it surmised that possibly we 
may, by the help of physical principles, especially that of the Dissipation of Energy, 
some time attain to a notion of what constitutes Life—mere Vitality I repeat, 
nothing higher. If you think for a moment of the vitality of a plant or a zoophyte, 
the remark perhaps will not appear so strange after all. But do not fancy that the 
Dissipation of Energy to which I refer is at all that of a watch or such-like piece 
of mere human mechanism, dissipating the low and common form of energy of a 
single coiled spring. It must be such that every little part of the living organism 
has its own store of energy constantly being dissipated, and as constantly replenished 
from external sources drawn upon by the whole arrangement in their harmonious 
working together. As an illustration of my meaning, though an extremely inade- 
quate one, suppose Vaucanson’s Duck to have been made up of ps small 
parts, each microscopically constructed as perfectly as was the comparatively coarse 
whole, we should have had something barely distinguishable, save by want of 
instincts, from the living model. But let no one imagine that, should we ever pene- 
trate this mystery, we shall thereby be enabled to produce, except from life, even the 
lowest form of life. Our President’s splendid suggestion of Vortex-atoms, if it be 
correct, will enable us thoroughly to understand matter, and mathematically to in- 
vestigate all its properties. Yet its very basis implies the absolute necessity of an 
intervention of Creative Power to form or to destroy one atom eyen of dead 
matter. The question really stands thus:—Is Life physical or no? For if 
it be in any sense, however slight or restricted, physical, it is to that extent 
a subject for the Natural Philosopher, and for him alone. It would be en- 
tirely out of place for me to discuss such a question as this now and here; 
I have introduced it merely that I may say a word or two about what has been 
so often and so persistently croaked against the British Association, viz. that it 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. ? 


tends to develope what are called Scientific Heresies. No doubt such charges are 
brought more usually against other Sections than against this; but Section A has 
not been held blameless. It seems to me that the proper answer to all such charges 
will be very simply and easily given, if we merely show that in our reasonings 
from observation and experiment we invariably confine our physical conclusions 
strictly to matter and energy (things which we can weigh and measure) in their 
multiform combinations. Excepting that which is obviously purely mathematical, 
whatever is certainly neither matter nor energy, nor dependent upon these, és not a 
subject to be discussed here, even by implication. All our reasonings in Physics must, 
so far as we know, be based upon the assumption, founded on experience, that in 
the universe, whatever be the epoch or the locality, under exactly similar circum- 
stances exactly similar results will be obtained. If this be not granted there is an 
end of Physical Science, or, rather, there never could have been such a Science*, 
To use the word “Heresy” with reference to purely physical reasonings about 
Geological Time, or matters of that kind, is nowadays a piece of folly which even 
Galileo’s judges, were they alive, would shrink from, as calculated to damage none 
but themselves and the cause which of old they, according to their lights, very 
naturally maintained. 

There must always be wide limits of uncertainty (unless we choose to look upon 
Physics as a necessarily finite Science) concerning the exact boundary between the 
Attainable and the Unattainable. One herd of ignorant people, with the sole 
prestige of rapidly increasing numbers, and with the adhesion of a few fanatical 
deserters from the ranks of Science, refuse to admit that all the phenomena eyen 
of ordinary dead matter are strictly and exclusively in the domain of physical 
science. On the other hand, there is a numerous group, not in the slightest degree 
entitled to rank as Physicists (though in general they assume the proud title of 
Philosophers), who assert that not merely Life, but even Volition and Con- 
sciousness are mere physical manifestations. These opposite errors, into neither 
of which is it possible for a genuine scientific man to fall, so long at least 
as he retains his reason, are easily seen to be very closely allied. They are both 
to be attributed to that Credulity which is characteristic alike of Ignorance and 
of Incapacity. Unfortunately there is no cure; the case is hopeless, for great 
ignorance almost necessarily presumes incapacity, whether it show itself in the com- 
paratively harmless folly of the Spiritualist or in the pernicious nonsense of the 
Materialist. 

Alike condemned and contemned, we leave them to their proper fate—oblivion ; 
but still we have to face the question, where to draw the line between that which 
is physical and that which is utterly beyond physics. And, again, our answer is— 
Experience alone can tell us; for experience is our only possible guide. If we at- 
tend earnestly and honestly to its teachings, we shall never go far astray. Man has 
been left to the resources of his intellect for the discovery not merely of physical 
laws, but of how far he is capable of comprehending them. And our answer to 
those who denounce our legitimate studies as heretical is simply this,—A revela- 
tion of any thing which we can discover for ourselves, by studying the ordinary 
course of nature, would be an absurdity. 

A profound lesson may be learned from one of the earliest little papers of 
President, published while he was an undergraduate at Cambridge, where he shows 
that Fourier’s magnificent treatment of the Conduction of Heat leads to formula 
for its distribution which are intelligible (and of course capable of being fully 
verified by experiment) for all time future, but which, except in particular cases, 
when extended to time past, remain intelligible for a finite period only, and then 


* It might be possible, and, if so, perhaps interesting, to speculate on the results of 
secular changes in physical laws, or in particles of matter which are subject to them, but 
(so far as experience, which is our only guide, has taught us since the beginning of modern 
science) there seems no trace of such. Even if there were, as these changes must be of 
necessity extremely slow (because not yet even suspected), we may reasonably expect, from 

‘the analogy of the history of such a question as gravitation, especially in the discovery of 
Neptune, that our work, far from becoming impossible, will merely become considerabl 
more difficult as well as more laborious, but, on that account, all the more creditable when 
successfully carried out, 


8 REPORT—1871. 


indicate a state of things which could not have resulted under known laws from 
any conceivable previous distribution. So far as heat is concerned, modern inyes- 
tigations have shown that a previous distribution of the matter involved may, by 
its potential energy, be capable of producing such a state of things at the moment 
of its aggregation; but the example is now adduced not for its bearing on heat 
alone, but as a simple illustration of the fact that'all portions of our Science, and 
especially that beautiful one the Dissipation of Energy, point unanimously to a 
beginning, to a state of things incapable of being derived by present laws from any 
conceivable previous arrangement. ovale 

I conclude by quoting some noble words used by Stokes in his Address at Exeter, 
words which should be stereotyped for every Meeting of this Association :— 
‘‘ When from the phenomena of life we pass on to those of mind, we enter a region 
“ still more profoundly mysterious. ..... Science can be expected to do but little 
“to aid us here, since the instrument of research is itself the object of investigation. 
“Tt can but enlighten us as to the depth of our ignorance, and lead us to look to a 
“higher aid for that which most nearly concerns our wellbeing.” 


MatTHEMATICS. 


Exhibition and Description of a Model of a Conoidal Cubic Surface called the 
“Qylindroid,”’ which is presented in the Theory of the Geometrical Freedom of 
a Rigid Body. By Rosert Srawett Bart, A.M., Professor of Applied 
Mathematics and Mechanism, Royal College of Science for Ireland. 


We become acquainted with the geometrical freedom which a rigid body enjoys 
by ascertaining the character of all the displacements which the nature of the re- 
straints will permit the body to accept. 

If a displacement be infinitely small, it is produced by screwing the body along 
a certain screw. 

Ifa displacement have finite magnitude, it is produced by an infinite series of 
infinitely small screw displacements. 

For the analysis of geometrical freedom, we shall only consider infinitely small 
screw displacements. This includes the initial stages of all displacements, 

_ To analyze the geometrical restraints of a rigid body we proceed as follows :— 

Take any line in space. Conceive this line to be the axis about which screws are 
successively formed of every pitch from —« to+o. (The pitch of a screw is the 
distance its nut advances when turned through the angular unit.) We endeavour 
successively to displace the body about each of these screws, and record the particular 
screw or screws, if any, about which the restraints have permitted the body to re- 
ceive a displacement. The same process is to be repeated for every other line in 
space. Ifit be found that the restraints have not permitted the body to receive 
any one of these displacements, then the body is rigidly fixed in space. 

If, after all the screws have been tried, the body be found capable of displace- 
ment about one screw only, the body possesses the lowest degree of freedom. 

If one screw (A) be discovered, and, the trials being continued, a second screw 
(B) be found, the remaining trials may be abridged by considering the information 
which the discovery of two screws affords. It is in connexion with the two screws 
that the cylindroid is presented. 

Pose ey may recelve any displacement about one or both of the two screws 

and B, 

The composition of these displacements gives a resultant which could haye been 
produced by displacement about a single screw. 

The locus of this single screw is the conoidal cubic surface which has been called 
the ‘cylindroid” (at the suggestion of Professor Cayley). 

The equation of the eyinded is 


2(2?+-y?) —2ary=0, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 9 


_ Any line (s) upon this surface is considered to be a screw, of which the pitch is 
c+a cos 26, 
where ¢ is any constant, and @ is the angle between s and the axis of x. 

The fundamental property of the cylindroid is thus stated. If any three screws 
of the surface be taken, and if a body be displaced by being screwed along each of 
these screws through a small angle proportional to the sine of the angle between 
the remaining screws, the body after the last displacement will oceupy the same 
position that it did before the first. 

For the complete determination of the cylindroid and the pitch of all its screws, 
we must have the quantities a and c. These quantities, as well as the position of 
the cylindroid in space, are completely determined when two screws of the system 
are known. 

In the model of the cylindroid which was exhibited, the parameter a is 2°6 inches. 
The wires which correspond in the model with the generating lines of the surface 
represent the axes of the screws. The distribution of pitch upon the generating 
lines is shown by colouring a length of 2-6 x sin 26 inches upon each wire. The di- 
stinction between positive and negative pitches is indicated by colouring the former 
red and the latter black. 

It is remarkable that the addition of any constant to all the pitches attributed in 
the model to the screws does not affect the fundamental property of the cylindroid. 

When a rigid body is found capable of being displaced about a pair of screws, it 
is necessarily capable of being displaced about every screw on the cylindroid deter- 
mined by that pair. 

The theorem of the cylindroid includes, as particular cases, the well-known rules 
for the composition of two displacements parallel to given lines, or of two small ro- 
tations about intersecting axes. 

If the parameter a be zero, the cylindroid reduces to a plane, and the pitches of 
all the screws become equal. If the arbitrary constant which expresses the pitch 
be infinite, we have the theorem for displacements, and if the pitch be zero, we 
have the theorem for rotations. 

As far as the composition of two displacements is concerned, the plane can only 
be regarded as a degraded form of the cylindroid from which the most essential 
features have disappeared. 


On the Number of Covariants of a Binary Quantic. 
By Professor Caytey, D.C.L., F.R.S. 


The author remarked that it had been shown by Prof. Gordan that the number 
of the covariants of a binary quantic of any order was finite, and, in particular, 
that the numbers for the quintic and the sextic were 23 and 26 respectively. But 
the demonstration is a very complicated one, and it can scarcely be doubted that a 
more simple demonstration will be found. The question in its most simple form is 
as follows: viz. instead of the covariants we substitute their leading coefficients, 
each of which is a “seminvariant” satisfying a certain partial differential equa- 
tion; say, the quantic is (4, b, GL. Ae, y)”, then the differential equation is 
(a0, +2b0¢....+70x)u=0, which gua equation with x+1 variables admits of n 
independent solutions : for instance, if »=3, the equation is (ad b+2b0e+3cd a)ju=0, 
and the solutions are a, ac—6*, a*d—3abe+ 26°; the general value of uw is w= any 
function whatever of the last-mentioned three functions. We have to find the ra- 
tional non-integral functions of these functions which are rational and integral 
functions of the coefficients; such a function is 


= {(ad—Sabe--2b8)?+ 4(ac—o*)?}, 
=a'd? + 4ac8+ 468d — 36°c?—Gabed, 


and the original three solutions, together with the last-mentioned function a?d?+4 &e., 
constitute the complete system of the seminvariants of the cubic function ; viz. every 
other seminvariant is a rational and integral function of these. And so in the 
general case the problem is to complete the series of the n solutions a, ac—2?, 


10 REPORT—1871. 


a’d —3abe+26', a°e—4a*bd+6ab?c—3b*, &e. by adding thereto the solutions which, 
being rational but non-integral functions of these, are rational and integral functions 
of the coefficients; and thus to arrive at a series of solutions such that every other 
solution is a rational and integral function of these, 


On a Canonical Form of Spherical Harmonics, By W. K. Crirrorp, B.A. 


The canonical form in question is an expression of the general harmonic of order 
n as the sum of a certain number of sectorial harmonics, this number being, when 


nm is even, == and when n is odd, ey, 
Laplace’s operator, oe +5, may be obtained from the tangential equation 
gar : Pichi C pms 5% i! 
of the imaginary circle £?+-n?+¢2=0, by substituting a for £,n, ¢ If, 


therefore, a form U=(a, y, z)” is reduced to zero by this operator, it follows from 
Prof. Sylvester’s theory of contravariants that the curve U=0 is connected by cer- 
tain invariant relations with the imaginary circle. Ifind that U can be expressed 
in the form 
U=A"+B"4+C"4...., 
where A=0, B=0,.... are great circles touching the imaginary circle, the number 
of terms being as above. Now if L=0, M=0 be two such great circles meeting 
in a real point a, and if ¢ be a longitude and @ latitude referred to a as pole, it is 
easy to see that 
L”+M"=/sin” 6sinnd+m sin” 6 cos nd, 


a sum of two sectorial harmonics, which is the proposed reduction. 

When 7 is less than five, exceptions of interest occur. For n=3, if we take a, 6, 
corresponding points on the hessian of the nodal curve U=0 (Thomson and Tait, 
Treatise on Natural Philosophy, § 780), and if we call ¢,, @, the longitudes, 6,, 4, 
the latitudes referred to these poles, we have 

U=lsin’ 6, sin 8, +m sin’ 6, cos 3, 
+nsin® 6, sin3,.+s sin’ 6, cos 39,. 

For n=4, the nodal curve is of the species first noticed by Clebsch, of which 
many most beautiful properties have been pointed out by Dr. Liiroth. The form 
U is expressible as the sum of five fourth powers ; so that if we take a, b real points 
of intersection of two pairs of them, ¢ a real point on the fifth, calling $,, $2, ,y 
4,, 4,, 6, longitudes and latitudes referred to them, we have 

=I sin* 6, sin 4, +m sin‘ 6, cos 49, 
+p sin* 6, sin 4, +¢ sin‘ @, cos 4, 
+rsint 6, 41 $3, 


On certain Definite Integrals. By J. W. L. Guatsuer, B.A., FRAN. 


co fos) 
The integrals \, sin (an)ax, f cos (a”)dx have been evaluated in several different 
ways, and the investigations all present points of interest. The integrals have 


usually been written in the forms S zP—1sin xdz, ° xP—1 cos xdx, deducible by an 


obvious transformation ; and so universally have the latter forms been adopted, that 
the former are not to be found in Prof. De Haan’s Tables. 


The most natural way of obtaining Jy sin xdx and fj cos a"dx is by writing 


p=t(= ¥ —1) in the well-known form of the Gamma Function, 


rorie= ar(145) 
wate Oho = il ay, 
: Pn 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 11 


we thus obtain 


é a ee 1 5) 5 es ( $} 
J sosende—f Snantomen 1 (2+ 3 /—tsm 2har+ 3)3 
0 


and we can equate real and imaginary terms. A curious difficulty, however, here 
presents itself, viz. to decide what value & (which must be integral) has. Ina 
similar case De Morgan determined the proper value of k in the following manner :— 
Put p=cos 6+7 sin 6, then 


fe cos of cos (x” sin 6) +7 sin (x” sin 6) du 

0 
1 a 1 

= { cos (2kn-+6)+isin—(2kn +6) }ra+ *) 


whence 


( e209 cos (um sin B)de=cos = (2he-+0)T (1+ x) 
we 


(c= 054 sin (asin 6)de=sin (Qk +6)r (1+ 2) 
0 n 


Now if 9=0, the last integral vanishes; so that we must have k=O, and 


therefore 
o 1 (: 1 
nd: =< a T = sin ned, =si a 1é 1 es 
{ fad oF ar (44 *) 20 “eaters 2n ( = n 


The above investigation is, however, chiefly valuable as suggestive of the result ; 
it contains no indication of the limits between which» must lie that the last written 
equations may be true and the integrals not infinite. The integrals have also been 

eo 


obtained by differentiating ty e—a* sin ade with regard to a and putting a=0 after- 
wards; but the results obtained are of the form 5, “” sin adx (n integral), and must 


therefore be infinite*. The following investigation of the values of the integrals 
seems of interest, as it is rigorous and discriminates between the finite and intinite 


0 pan n 
values. Integrate if Aa e-* “sin y dx dy with regard to z first, and we find it 


1 osiny, . 
= 4 (res —9 0 
r( Z)) yh Y3 


integrating with regard to a first, we find it 
a2 
i eer T 
={ Liew a ae cosec (2n> 1), 
=0 (2n <1), 
whence 


Ci | 
Pan = € ue 
(. *sinydy (14! = OMe oF 


* This method is also given in De Morgan’s ‘ Differential and Integral Calculus,’ pp. 630, 
576. Some analysts (Oettinger, Bidone, &c.) have not seen any objection to | 2" sinadx being 
finite for all values of x ; but unless we are prepared to write with De Morgan (“Theory of 
S, ns] 

Probabilities,” Encyc. Met.p.436)} e?*%dx= — ag because ( erode - it is difficult to 

ip Jo 2 


0 
see how this can be admitted. 


12 REPORT—1871. 


by taking = =1-— ; (in which 2n> 1, so that m may have any value except such 


as lie between 1 and —1), and using the relation '(#)I'(1—«#)=m cosec am, we 


obtain 
fae onde =T(1+ 1 sing : 
. m Qn 


Similarly, by integrating Ne ie e—2"y cos y dx dy, we find 


ai) 
| cos amdx=T (1+ Leos aa 
m 2m 


20 
(m between 1 and o). 


The author had calculated a Table of the values of {sin nde, { cos andx for 
0 


ao ac 
different values of #; and the curves y= sin atda, y=), cos a*da, as obtained from 


them, were drawn and exhibited to the Section, the discontinuities in each being 

remarked. [The Tables and curves will be found in the ‘ Messenger of Mathema- 

tics,’ 1871.] 

On Lambert’s Proof of the Irrationality of 7, and on the Irrationality of cer- 
tain other Quantities. By J. W. L. Guatsuer, B.A., FLRAS,. 


The arithmetical quadrature of the circle, that is to say, the expression of the 
ratio of the circumference to the diameter in the form of a vulgar fraction with 
both numerator and denominator finite quantities, was shown to be impossible by 
Lambert in the ‘ Berlin Memoirs’ for 1761; and the proof has since been given in 


an abridged and modified form by Legendre in the Notes to his ‘ Eléments de Géo- 
métrie.’ Although Legendre’s method is quite as rigorous as that on which it is 
founded, still, on the whole, the demonstration of Lambert seems to afford a more 
striking and convincing proof of the truth of the proposition ; his investigation 
however, is given in such detail, and so many properties of continued fractions, now 
well known, are proved, that it is not very easy to follow his reasoning, which ex- 
tends over more than thirty pages. The object of the present paper is to exhibit 
Lambert’s demonstration of this important theorem concisely, and in a form free 
from unnecessary details, and to apply his method to deduce some results with 
regard to the irrationality of certain circular and other functions. 

The theorem which Lambert proves, and from which he deduces the irrationality 
of 7, is that the tangent of a rational are (1. e. an are commensurable with the radius) 
must be irrational; and this he demonstrates by means of an expression for the 
tangent as a continued fraction, viz. 

x Lees ee x? 
eS Se Se i 
: y y— 8y— by—Ty—&e ~ © 7 * * * (i) 
adopting an established notation for continued fractions in which that which fol- 
lows each minus-sign is written as a factor, to save room. 
Consider a continued fraction 


B, B, _B, 


Pa ket aad ae Wome 4 er rel) 
and let 2” be the th convergent to it; then we know that 


n 


Py =%_Pn—1tBrPn—o 
a #4 In—1 +B In—2» 
and 
Pu _ Pn—1 _(_)n—1B1B2-+ «Bn +, Pieri 6 00) 
Qn Wn—-1 In—191 
* These results can easily be proved by induction. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 13 


Suppose also that the continued fraction (i) is equal to 5) and let Ri, Rg... Rn... 
be such that 

Ri = a,P —BiQ, 

R,= a2Ri +BoP, 

R3=a3Re+f3Ri, 

R= aénRn—1 +BnRn—2, 


then R,=¢,P—p,Q, as can be shown by induction ; so that 


LE pias = Rn : 
Qi Ge Qh eH 
Now 
P Pn Pn+i Pn Pn+2 Pnii 
jae Eee 
Q on \Gnt1 Inf \Gnt2 Inti BS 
therefore 
P Pp Bi...Bn+i Bi... Bnt+e2 
ee (FD Se (=) ee eye 
on, WnIn+1 In+19n+2 
from (iii). By equating this value of 5 _ ?” to that in (iv), we obtain 
qn 
(—)"+1Rr=Q Pvc =-Satd gy Pissebute | o, a seein 
In+1 In+19n+2 


If P and Q be integers and #1... an...61...@n--. be also all integers, then 
from the equations by which Ri... Rn... are determined, we see that they also 
are integers. 


Now in the case of the continued fraction for tan~, 
4 


ae, =(2n—1)y, 


Ba= —2x, 
In= (22—1)y9n—1—2"Gn_o ; 
and we notice that if x and y be integers, then #1 ...an...1...+An-.. are 80 too, 


and consequently (if P and Q are integers) Ri...Rn... are integers. 
The factor by which Br-+-Br ig multiplied to obtain 81+--r+! jg 
qr 


r+ 
Br+19r =a xvqr 
Q+y  —  (2r+l)yg,—2"9,_, 
a3 = 
es ype? 


(2r+])y—2? 22 
Ur 
which can be made as small as we please by increasing r. 
We can therefore from (v), Q being finite, make R» as small as we please by 
taking n sufficiently large; but if P and Q be both integers, Rn must remain an 


integer whatever value n may have; thus if * be rational, a] ( = tan -) must be ir- 
rational ; but tant =1, so that i cannot be rational. 


The above is in substance Lambert’s demonstration ; alterations have been made 
in points of detail &c., and the notation has been changed. 

It may be noticed that the proof does not (as of course it should not) hold good if 
P and Q be infinite integers; for we cannot make Ry as small as we please in (v) 
if Q be infinite. 


14 REPORT—1871. 


Legendre proves a theorem which is easily seen to follow directly from Lambert's 
mode of investigation, viz. that if in the continued fraction 


ie ee eee infini 
Bw a, TNE (extended to infinity), 


By Bs ..+) regarded as fractions (#1...61..., all integers), be all less than unity, 
a, &, eas : Fe 

then, whether 4,, 6,... be all positive or all negative, or some positive and some 
negative, the value of the continued fraction is irrational. He also remarks that 
x? must be irrational ; for if it =" , we should have, from (i), since tan7=0, 


m m m 


5n— 7— 9n—Ke.’ 
das after some value of r the fractions —” — , _ _ 
es ragie ‘ : (Qr+1)n’ 2r+3’ 
unity, 3 must be irrational if m and m are integers, whence 7° is irrational. 
The expression of tan v in the form of a continued fraction Lambert obtained by 
2 


; : v : 
treating sin v or v— L238 +... and cos v or 1— iat .. in a manner analogous 
. . = 


&c. must be less than 


to that in which the greatest common measure of two numbers is found in arith- 
metic ; and Legendre deduced it from a more general theorem he had proved with 
regard to the conversion of the ratio of two series into a continued fraction. 
It may be obtained very simply by forming the differential equation corresponding 
to y=Acos(W 2x4 B), viz. 
yt y+ 2ay"=0, 
whence y(i)+ (27+ 1)y +1) 4 2ay(i+2)=0 by application of Leibnitz’s theorem. 
From this we have 


therefore ‘ 
AS ee aR 2 ieee Se i 
g aay iM Cea Bi a= 9 aeieed 
whence, after determining B by putting =0 and writing »/ (2x) =v, 


D wv -e 
—— 
ON We Ska 
That Lambert's proof is perfectly rigorous and places the fact of the irra- 
tionality of 7 beyond all doubt, is evident to every one who examines it carefully ; 
and considering the small attention that had been paid to continued fractions pre- 
viously to the time at which it was written, it cannot but be regarded as a very 
admirable work. 
From the continued fraction 


eet) & 1 1 1 
2 1— Qn—-1+4 6n—1+ 10n-1+4 &e.’ 


Lambert showed, in the same memoir, that e” is irrational, so that the Napierian 
logarithm of every rational number is irrational. 


1 


We can obtain a little more information about the irrationality of e*, for we have 
I 


e-1_ 1 ow ve 
2 2a—14 6r+ 10x+4+ &c.’ 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 15 


Now any continued fraction in which all the numerators are unity and all the 
denominators are positive integers must circulate if it be the development of an ex- 
1 


era of the form A+B,/C; so that we see that e*, when z is integral, cannot 
e of this form. 

Taking the expression for the tangent in the form 

1 1 1 1 il + 
z—1+ 14 38e—24 14 52—2+&c. 


cot 2 = 
a 


we see that when w is an integer, cot is irrational, but cannot be of the form 
Bf 


A+BVC. 


1 1 1 v7 (1+eot*= ) 1 
Also, since cosec — = VA (1teot#=), and sec —= _ ss sin— and 
z ih x 1 x 
CoE 
x 


cos + cannot either of them be rational unless cots is of the form B/C, which 


not being the case, sin? and cos! are irrational, and cannot be of the form BC. 
av 
: 2 ¢ js ° 
Since cos— =2costi_] ; cos. cannot be rational unless cos Lipy C, which 
x x x 
would require that cot Ee WA ( f8 , a form which we have shown it cannot 
x — 


have; so that cos” is irrational. Similar results hold good for the hyperbolic 
1 1 1 1 2 2 


sine and cosine ; that is to say, i(e@+e *),i(e’—e *),and3(e*+e *) areirrational. 
It may be remarked that it is easy to show that sin= is incommensurable from 
2 


the series ; for if sin =? then (q even, as of course we may take it) 
q 


p_l 1 9-1 1 2 1 
pea are ae a (— 
2 1.2.3823 k=) 1.2..(q—1)a?—! 1.2..(q4+ 1jat*! : 


whence, multiplying both sides by (1.2... )«7—-1, 
=f ae Zi i 1 
p{l.2...g—1)}27'= integer +(-)( Gane ~ @FDGF2)(G+3)2" +) 


Ones 
(q+ a? 


5) 


and the series on the right-hand side must be intermediate in value to 


and G+D@+2)¢q43)2 , and is therefore fractional ; thus we have 


integer = integer + fraction 
if aie is commensurable. An exactly similar method proves the irrationality of 
x 
ie g nga 
Cos > 3(e"—e *), &c., but gives no result when applied to cos> or 2(e+4e *). Itis 
probably true that both the sine and cosine of every rational arc are irrational, 
though no proof of this has, I believe, been given; and there is, as Legendre has 
remarked, very little doubt that m is not only not the square root of a rational quan- 
tity, but also not even the root of any algebraical equation with rational coefti- 


cients, although the demonstration of this seems difficult. Similar remarks may be 
made with respect to e. 


* This expression can be deduced from (i) by transforming the terms of the latter thus: 


1 1 
9 abies ae ee 
< pe 


16 REPORT—1871. 


An instance of the application of Lambert’s principle is afforded by a theorem 


of Eisenstein (Crelle’s Journal, t. xxix. p. 96), viz. 
1 Gels lel 
Wt4¢st ate epee z 


13> z= PH Fee.’ 
whence the series is always irrational when z is an integer greater than unity. 


The series ss es = .. can be converted into the continued fraction 
Gi 10h Oat 
1 a,? Tee a, 


; so that if after any finite value of r, a,2+-a, is 


_ — —a,+&c. 
= ‘e than athe nie the series is irrational. Also from the equality 
eae Th ee ee by 
nde 0b ee BHI b= 1 oe: 
we see that if after any finite integral by41 is always less than by +1, the sum of the 
series is irrational. 


On the Calculation of e (the base of the Napierian Logarithms) from a 
Continued Fraction. By J.W. L. Guatsuer, B,A., F.R.AS, 


The series by which e is defined, viz. 


1 1 
Iylting age Sb ee eee 


is of a very convergent class, so that it would be reasonable to expect that no 
better formula could be found for its calculation. Taking the series in the form 


1 1 1 
ai8 3. oil .G wha pao! 
ai throwing it into the form of a continued fraction by the usual method, we 
aye> 
se ted Re Se 

e 141424 8+...’ 
and from the manner in which the continued fraction is deduced from the series, it 
is clear that the mth convergent of the former corresponds to n terms of the latter. 
There is, however, a far more convergent fraction from which e can be computed, 
viz. 


eo hs a 1 
= Fo jot =. Pad (i 
2 @) 


a formula given by Lambert (Berlin Memoirs, 1761), who obtained it by per- 
—e-« 
e—r 


forming on # an operation similar to that affording the greatest common 
Dns p g g 


measure of its numerator and denominator. Another investigation is given by 
Legendre in the Notes to his ‘Géométrie ;’ and this is reproduced in the Notes to 
the French translation of Euler’s ‘Introductio ad Analysin.’ It can also be very 
easily obtained from the differential equation 


_ Y _9,Py _ 
yy ae de % 
corresponding to y=e V(@) as the fraction for tan» was found in the previous 
aper. 

: The continued fraction (2) is much more convergent than the series, and I 
was tempted to calculate the value of e from it for two reasons :—(1) In order to 
practically test the advantages of a continued fraction and a series as a formula for 
calculation with respect to the arrangement and performance of the operations ; 
and (2) to decide between two different values of e which have been given—the 
one by Callet in all the editions of his ‘ Logarithmes Portatives,’ and the other by 
Mr. Shanks in his ‘ Rectification of the Circle,’ and Proc. Roy. Soc. vol. vi. p. 397. 
The several convergents to the value of e also seemed to be of value. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 17 


Taking (2) in the form 
as! 
<1 SSeS Re eee | 
sre igep ee 10-p Te ©) 
and writing the convergents”!,?2, ..., so that p,=1, p,=3.... 4=1, Q=1..., 
the convergents were calculated as far as “29 (which corresponds to the quotient 


a 
150). The following Table contains the values of the conyergents as far as 720, 
20 


ate Pn: In. 
3 19 7 
4 193 71 
5 2721 1 001 
6 49 171 18 089 
a 1 084 483 398 959 
8 28 245 729 10 391 023 
9 848 456 353 312 129 649 
10 28 875 761 731 10 622 799 089 
11 1 098 127 402 131 403 978 495 031 
12 46 150 226 651 233 16 977 719 590 391 
13 2 124 008 553 358 849 781 379 O79 653 017 
14 106 246 577 894 593 683 39 085 931 702 241 241 
15 5 739 439 214 861 417 731 2 111 421 691 000 680 031 
16 332 993 721 039 856 822 081 122 501 544 009 741 683 039 
17 20 651 350 143 685 984 386 753 7 597 207 150 294 985 028 449 
18 1 363 322 103 204 314 826 347 779 501 588 173 463 478 753 560 673 
19 95 453 198 574 445 723 828 731 283 35 115 269 349 593 807 734 275 559 


20 | 7 064 900 016 612 187 878 152 462 721 2 599 031 470 043 405 251 089 952 039 

Pyg=5 933 736 817 524 490 649 943 748 885 310 086 922 977 536 976 487 014 058 103 
672 162 883, 

Ys9=2 182 899 784 489 322 239 844 266 493 459 455 750 162 013 065 305 797 591 300 
833 210 159. 


Since pees (22 * Ge / 7 
In Ins 0) Gn Qn+2 YIn+1 


Pn 2 2 ) 
—_ —)jn+1 —— —_—_—_—_+ oa 
qt | ) ‘a Gn+19n+2 


we see thate differs from 2” by less than cae 

In WnYn+1 
272...; so that 135 figures of the result obtained by dividing p,, by g,, are cor- 
rect. On performing the division to 137 places and applying the correction for 


: 2 : 
7 boo, ree ge ciphers) 


the value of e was obtained to 187 decimal places, viz. 


e=2'71828 18284 59045 23536 02874 71352 66249 
77572 47093 69995 95749 66967 62772 40766 
80353 54759 45713 82178 52516 64274 27466 
39193 20030 59921 81741 35966 29043 57..., 


eich agrees with Mr. Shanks’s calculation obtained from the series 
Pan he Bees eee ene 
1871. 2 


Gn In+ y 


172% VELES 


18 REPORT—1871. 


to the last figure; there is therefore no doubt of the accuracy of the result to this 
extent. 
The value given by Callet, in the introduction to his ‘ Tables Portatives,’ starting 
with the ninth group of five, is 
. ». 46928 08355 51550 58417 2...; 
and these figures should be 
. . 47093 69995 95749 66967 6.... 


The thirty-ninth convergent to the continued fraction (3) gives a result as accu- 
rate as that found by summing the first ninety terms of the series (1); but there 
would be no great disparity between the absolute number of figures formed in the 
two calculations. The computation of the convergents was, however, far preferable 
in point of arrangement and convenience to the calculation of the successive terms 
of a series; for not only were the divisions in the latter replaced by multiplications, 
which are far more compact, but the work in the former case ran straight forward 
and required no copying of results. There is also another very great advantage in 
the continued fraction : the great difficulty of performing a piece of work to a consi- 
derable number of decimal places is the inconvenience caused by the length of the 
numbers; and in the above calculation we get roughly 2n figures of the result 
without ever having to use a number more than x figures long in the work: thus 
Pao and g,, contain each 67 figures, and by dividing them we obtain 158 figures 
of the result; this advantage is due to the fact that all the numerators in (3), 
except the first, are equal to unity. It may be remarked that the final division 
was the most laborious part of the work; the calculation of p,, and q,, required 
barely 13,000 figures, the division about 18,000, 

We can compare the number of decimal places afforded by (8) and (1) when n 


is large as follows :—The number of places Pr yields* is equal to the greatest in- 
In 
teger contained in 


log 74+ — log[g{1. 6... (4n—6)} (1.6... (4n—2)}] 


= y2n—6 
=log| 2"~* 41.3... (2n—1 ‘|= ry RI 
a 4n t ies 8 n T(n+1) 
ea os it nents Qan+s ) 2 
eT ee. nr+sen ‘ 
(after substituting VW 2rn n%e—” for T(n +1)) | 
4n—5 
= log 2 : (=)"} = In log * + (4n—5) log 2—log n 


and the number of places obtained from » terms of (1) is equal to the greatest 
integer in 


log I'(n)=n log +3 log 2r—3 log n; 


so that the mth convergent to the continued fraction gives more than twice as many 
decimal places as ” terms of the series. 


On certain Families of Surfaces. By C. W. Merrirtetp, F.R.S. 


The author had already shown that conical and cylindrical surfaces not only 
os the general equation of developable surfaces in differentials of the second 
order, 


t=S?, 
but also that on passing to the differential equation of the third order, there are 


two equal roots in the case of conical surfaces and three equal roots in the case of | 
cylindrical surfaces. 


* See Proc. Roy. Soc. vol. xix. p. 514. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 19 


An examination of the surfaces described by the motion of a plane parabola of 
any order with its diameters parallel to a fixed right line showed that the con- 
dition of a pair of equal roots in the equation of the third order, 


(z +A ay) =o 


considered as an equation in X, was satisfied by all surfaces traced out by a plane 
parabola moving parallel to a fixed line and enveloping any curve in space what- 
ever. As singular cases, he noticed the spindle made by causing a parabola (whether 
fixed or of variable size) to rotate round any diameter, the ruled surface with a 
director plane, and developable surfaces. r 

He also showed that when three of the roots were equal, the surface necessarily 
reduced to a plane or a cylinder. 

These results are, however, restricted by the method of generating the surface. 
In fact, for the case of three equal roots, when the partial differentials of the third 
order are in continued proportion, Mr. Cayley has shown that the resulting equations 
can be integrated and that the integration gives a more general result. 

Note by Mr. CayLey, 
The general integral of the equations 
a 


6 


can be found, viz. %= e gives r= funct. s, and is ig gives s=funct.¢. But 


r 


RIB 


=7 
6 


r= funct. s is integrated as the equation of a developable surface (p instead of z), 
viz. we haye, say, 
p=az+hytg (a and g functions of h) and 


Se Ul a da > dg 
O=a'r+yt+9' (« aE! ae 
Similarly s= funct. ¢ gives 
q=ha+ by tf, 
On stivar, (2%, r= %), 
; dh’ dh 
Observe that the constants have been taken so that Be =h, ay =h; but in order 
ly C 


Le 
that 2 may in the two pairs of equations mean the same function of 2, y, we must 
have a'= ee fo that is 
dh ‘dh 
b= —— — IME _ 
a? f a 


or writing a= oh, g= xh, we have 
dh hd 
p=aphtyh+xh, g=hety\ oy + OK” 


_ where 
ap'ht+y+x'h=0. 
The last equation gives ’ as a function of 2, y; and the values of p, q are then 


such that dz=pdx4qdy is a complete differential, so that we obtain z by the 
integration of this equation. A simple example is 


Bi p=2h’u—hy, g=—he+ylogh, he—y=0; 

at 18 

ete Lit y 

Fit ae Se 

whence 
alias Hive 2 
a= FY log «. a0 


Oe 


20 REPORT—1871. 


We have 

— y sa, t=log 4, 

a=— =4, y=-+, a= i 
and S= eat =— 1), as it should be. 


On Doubly Diametral Quartan Curves. 
By F. W. Newman, Emeritus Professor of University College, London. 


This paper aimed to detail the form of the curves, and point out the simplest modes 
of investigating their peculiarities. It distributed the general equation into three 
groups of five, five, and four families, and was accompanied by seventy-six diagrams. 


If we call 
Aa'+2Dz2y?+ By'+2E2z?+2Fy’? +C=0 


the general equation, the first group of five families is when A or B or both vanish, 
the second group when D or F or both vanish, and these together nearly include 
all the forms. For in the third group, from which either xo term of the original 
equation vanishes, or only ©, three of the families are at once reducible to the se- 
cond group by putting either y°+-f?=y”, else 2°4+e=2"; then the proposed curve 
of (xy) is visibly at most a mere variety of the preceding, being either of the same 
species with, or of a lower species than, that of (xy!) or of (z'y). In the case of 
B=", D=s, F=—f”, this reduction is impossible ; but then by operating on x 
instead of y, it becomes possible unless also Aa”, E=—e"; that is, the method 
fails only when A, B, D are of one sign, and E, F of the opposite. The analysis, 
thus limited, readily yields the same result, that the forms have nothing new. 

A cross division of the species is into Limited and Unlimited loci. All are Cen- 
tric, the origin being the Centre. Finite forms are Monads, Duads, and Tetrads. 

Monads are :—1. A symmetrical oval (say, a Shield), as from 


eytay?+ba=m', 
2, An Oval with undulating sides (Viol or Dumb-bell), as a?y?=(m?—2*)(a?--n*), 
m2>n2, 8. A Lemniscate or Double Loop, as a2y2=(m*—a?)x*. 4, A Scutcheon, 
with four sides undulating, as B?y?=f? + V (mm? —a?)(x? +n), when m?2>n*, and 
f2<mn. 5. Ovals in Contact, as B’y*=(m? —x?)x?, 6. Pointed Hearts, crossing 
obliquely at the centre, as 


By? =mn+6°2* to {[(m?—2?)(x* +n*)}, 


m?—n? = : 
when m?—n? > 2mn, and 6? > =a 7. Hearts in Contact ; the same equation 
mn 


m2 —n? 
2mn 
B2y?=3(m? +n?) + A {(m?—a?) (a? +n*)t, 
when m2>n2. 9. Intersecting Ovals: the same equation as in 8, only with m? =n?. 
All curves are here deemed Monads which can be drawn without taking the pencil 

off the paper. 

Duads are :—1. Twin Ovals (rot singly symmetrical on opposite sides), as 

a*y? =(m?—2?) (@?—n?). 

2. Twin Beans (or Hearts, Dicuamos). 38. Pair of Sandals (Disandalon): this has 
always two double tangents parallel, yet the disposition of the four points of con- 
tact is not the same in all cases. (They form a rectangle when D=0; they are in 
lines diverging from the centre when F=0.) 4. Pair of unsymmetrical Lemniscates, 
which I call Four Kites. 

Tetrads can only consist of unsymmetrical Ovals, symmetrically disposed. 

Of the infinite curves, one very limited class may be called Parabolic, those in 


as before, only with 6?= 8. Intersecting Hearts, as 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 21 


which B=0 and D=0, which reduces the equation to the form a?y?=24+2ha?+ k, 

when the locus is infinite. It has as curvilinear ones the Proximate twin 

Parabolas, a?y?=(x?+h)?. The Species are:—1, Twin Goblets; 2 (when their 

vertices unite), Pointed Goblets or Knotted Parabolic Hour-glass; 3, Parabolic 

eee ; 4, Perfordited Hour-glass (with disk in centre); 5, Hollow-bottomed 
oblet. 

When A=0, we may have asymptotes parallel to the axis of z, and when B=0, 
to the axis of y. Such curves must be treated apart. When a Quartan Hyperbola is 
confined between parallel asymptotes, I call it an Arch, Round-headed or Hollow- 
headed, as the case may be ; they are found, of course, in pairs. A Quartan Hy- 
eg which is confined within diverging asymptotes like the Conie Hyperbola, 

call a Basin; when it crosses or otherwise envelopesits diverging asymptotes, I call 
ita Cup. Cups and basins may be Round-bottomed or Hollow-bottomed. Again, a 
Quartan Hyperbola may lie between an oblique and a vertical asymptote; I then 
call the Hyperbola itself Obigue, equally when it lies between two asymptotes of 
different systems. Such an Hyperbola may cut one, and only one, asymptote ; then I 
call it Paratomous : if it cut both, it is an Oblique Cup. Cups may be Pointed at 
bottom and unite; they may be also in Contact at bottom, or they may intersect. 
Vertical and horizontal asymptotes develope other and simpler forms. Conchoids, 
eed in pairs, generate one class, and Arches another. Arches may intersect, 

asins also may intersect sideways; I call this Paratomy. Such are the elements 
(adding only Studs or Conjugate Points) of which all the loci are composed. 

Four Hyperbolas, of whatever class, are the utmost that can arise as locus of a 
Quartan equation; whether in square, each in one quadrant, or as Cross Arches, 
or as Oblique, or Oblique and Paratomous, or as around and crossing the axes, or 
between unsymmetrical asymptotes, or it may be Cups instead of Basins. 

In the midst of these infinite curves, some one of the Monad or Twin Ovals 
are often found as Satellites. It must be added that when AB=D®* and the 
locus is infinite, we find Oblique Parallel Asymptotes, and even, related to them, 
Oblique Paratomous Arches. 

Such isthe general description of the forms. The investigation is simple. 

We know that a straight line can cut a Quartan at most in four points. This 
often shows what forms are impossible. 


AD 
Put V= | D B F J, then by Conics we know that if V=0, our general equa- 
EFC 


tion will degenerate into the product of two quadratic factors. Besides, if A, B, C 
are positive and E, F negative, and E7-=AC, F*=BC, the equation degenerates 
into two ellipses. 

If F*=BC, and B, F have opposite signs, the curve crosses itself (in a Knot) 
where z=0 and By?+F=0; but if B, F have the same sign, the Knots become 
Studs. Thusif H?=AC,and F?=BC, but E, F have opposite signs, there are two 
Knots on one axis and two Studs on the other. 

We find where the curve crosses its axis, by putting Az‘+2Ez?+C=0 when 
y°=0, and By'+2Fy?+C=0 when 2?=0. Then if AC is positive, E must be ne- 
gative, if there be any vertex inOX. If AC is negative, there are two vertices, 

Put T=Az'!+2D277?+By*; 
“. T+(QE?22+2F%y?+C)=0 
is the equation to the curve. When T is essentially positive, the curve is finite. 
This happens when A, D, B are all of one sign, or when AB— D*> 0, 
When A=0 and B=0, the curve is finite only when D, E, F are of one sign. If 


B=0 
; > Aat+2R2?-+C 
1 81-B F? 


-and the curve is finite when A, D, F are of one sign. If D and F are of opposite 
signs, there are asymptotes parallel to y, viz. 2Dz?+F=0. Indeed now 


T=(Az?+ 2Dy’)z?; 
thus, if A and D have opposite signs, Av?+2Dy2=0 are oblique asymptotes. 


22 REPORT—187 1. 


When A,D, B are finite, solve the equation for y’, regarding B as positive. Put 
g=D?—AB, h=DF—EB, k=F*—CB; 
o By+D22+F=tV (ga't+2h2’ +h). 
For D?— AB>0, we may assume g=1; then for the upper sign we get, as Proxi- 
mate Conic Hyperbola, if D be <1, 
By? Det lk=2 Th. 
If D is negative, we have a second Proximate Conic for the lower sign, 
By? +D2?+F=—2*—h. 


Of course the asymptotes are By?+Da?= +.r%, or only By?+Da*=<". 
If D?—AB=0,' g=0, and the curve is infinite only when 4 is positive: then 


if D ws negative, By24 Da} F=+y 2a 


is two Proximate Conic Hyperbolas, and the asymptotes are oblique and parallel in 
pairs; they do not pass through the centre, but are equidistant from it. 

Evidently if C=0 and E, F have opposite signs, the curve crosses itself in the 
centre; but if C=O and E, F have the same sign, the centre is a mere Stud. 

An undulation of the curve implies a double tangent. Such double tangents 
are always parallel to one axis. [I desire a general proof.] There can be only 
two pairs parallel to one axis. To ascertain whether there is undulation across 
OY, put 2?=0, and try whether 7? is there a maximum or a minimum. 

Making 2’ infinitesimal and & positive (which is implied), 


M&+2haP + gn! Yk Me 4 GRO | ae 


Vk Ok ° Vk’ 
thus for upper sign, 
By?=(Vk—F)+.( 4, —D) a AO® |e 
Vi 2k NR 


whence 7? is a minimum at 2?=0 if ae —D>0, a maximum if a —D<0. Yet 


when ai =D, y’ is a minimum at r=0 if gk—A?> 0, or amaximum if gk—h? <0, 


Now gk—h?=BYV, and we cannot have V=0 without degeneracy. Hence this test 
is final. Also A=D Vk is equivalent to BE7—2DEF+CD?=0. 

If the branch we are investigating is infinite and y” isa minimum, there is no un- 
dulation; but if y? is a maximum, it begins to decrease, yet must afterwards in- 
crease ; hence there7s undulation. On the contrary, if the upper branch be finite 
and y? be a maximum, there is no undulation; but there is undulation if y? bea 
minimum. 


In general, for tangents parallel to the axis of x, putting = =0, we have the ob- 


vious solution 2=0, when there is a vertex on the axis of y. Besides this, we may 
have a double tangent where 


DA (ga'+2ha?+k)=92"+h, 
which yields 


ga? +h h?—gk 
of Gees aa NM (ga'+2ha®+k)=By?+Da?+F. 
Hence at the points of contact 


2 XN > 
gtth=tDy— (YX), ati’=F (Av), 
if h’' =DE—FA. 
When T= (A?x?— py?) (p°x?+-07y?), the curve has oblique asymptotes, \?a?=p*y,?. 
To try whether it ever cut its asymptotes, put y=y,; then at the common point 


Ma? = p?y?, and 2Ea?+2Fy?+C=0. If the a, y hence determined is within the 
limits of the curve, it does thus cut; if not, it does not. 


ae 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 23 


IfT =(A?2? — py?) (p2a?— oy), there are two pair of oblique asymptotes, \2x?= py? 
p’a®=o7y?; and by combining either of them with the second equation i 
2Ez?+2Fy?+C=0, 

we decide on Paratomy. 
When the general equation is given to us in this form and we desire to find the 
Proximate Conics, the most direct method is to assume p?=1, o°’=1, and 


(y?—X?2? —M)(y?— p22? —N)=T+2(Ex?+ F°y?)+MN ; 


whence 
VWN+.°>M=2E, 
N+ M=—2F, 
or 
_ 2(E+F)’) 
M= pe , 
2(E+ Fp’) 
SNe EB 
pP—r 


Then the Proximate Conics are 
y, —\22"?=M, 
Ya — pra? =N. 
These are closer indications of the infinite branches than the asymptotes. PutMN=C', 
j ADE 


DBF 
EFC’ 


But in general it is expedient to put X=ga'+2ha’+h, and study the variations 
of X in the equation By?+Da?+F=+/X. In many cases the lower sign is in- 
admissible; in most it is more restricted than the upper. When we have only the 
upper, evidently there is no undulation across the axis of a; for y® has then but one 
positive value for any given value of 2. 
The forms of X are as follows :— 

X,=n"(m'?—2’), \ X,=n%(a’ +m), ] X, =n7(2?—m?), ) 

X,=(m"—2")(w°—n’,) [ X,=(x+m?)(22+n’), | X= (2° —m?*)(a?-+n2)s 

X,=(m?—2" Jax’, ( X= (a? + m’)22, { X,, =(2?—m’)2?, r 

X,=(m?—2")(a®@—n?), )  X,=(x?+mz)?-+n4, X= (a°—m?) (a*—n?) 

I 
X,,=(@ —m?)+n'. 


=——=()) 


Remarks on Napier’s original Method of Logarithms. By Professor Purser. 


On Linear Differential Equations. By W.H. L. Russert, F.R.S. 


The object of this paper was to explain the progress the author is making in his 
theory for the solution of Linear Differential Equations, especially when the com- 
plete integral involves logarithmic functions. 


On MacCOullagh’s Theorem. By W.H. 1. Russert, F.R.S. 


This paper was intended to sonkty the process given by Dr. Salmon to prove 
MacCullagh’s theorem relative to the focal properties of surfaces of the second order, 


Note on the Theory of a Point in Partitions. By J. J. Sytvester, FBS. 


In writing down all the solutions in positive integers of the indefinite Equation of 
Weight, at2y+3z+...=n, or, in other words, in exhibiting all the partitions 


24. REPORT—1871. 


of m any integer greater than zero, it may sometimes be useful to be provided 
with an easy test to secure ourselves against the omission of any of them. Such 
a test is furnished by the following theorem :— 


S(1—atay—ayz....)=0. 


thus, ex. gr., if x+2y+3zt+4t+....=4, the solutions are five in number, viz. 
(1) y=2, 
Q)z=1; 
(pc —lec—e 
(4) e=2 y=1, 
(5) w=4, 


the values of the omitted variables in each solution being zero. The five corre- 
sponding values of l—a+ay.... are 


1, 1, 0, 1, —3, 
whose sum is zero. 
The theorem may be proved immediately by expressing the denumerant (which 
is zero) of the simultaneous equations 
x+2y+ 32+..,=n, 
{ apyfee..... =0, 


in terms of simple denumerants according to the author’s general method, or by 
virtue of the known theorem, 


(1—#)(1—#)(1—#°).... 
t 3 ‘10 
= Nia aco, allan oes PAT) CREEL Pe aie Oe 
(i-¢) @-a]0-#) G—Ad—-A0- * d—-)d-A0d-Ad-4 
This gives at once the equation 
SR eet t + Z oe 
(i—a(1-#)0—#)... (yd —#)d—*... "df — #7706)... 
Hence the coefficient of ¢” in the above written series for all values of other than 
zero is zero, But it will easily be seen that the coefficient of ¢” in the first term is 31, 
in the second term Sz, in the third Say, &c.; so that 3(1—a+ay....)=0, as was to 
be shown. Thus we have obtained ’for the problem of indefinite partition a new 
algebraical unsymmetrical test supplementing the well-known pair of transcen- 
dental symmetrical tests expressible by the equations 
sH@tyts..)on-1 
Tv Ily Tz... f 
(S—)ety+z. . U(etytz. ..) )=0 = 
Te Uy Hz... 


Gate 


* Subject of course to the conditions that n is greater than 1, If 2, y, z,...,w repre- 
sents any solution in positive integers of the equation 
pa 2+2y+3z...+rw=r, 
it is easy to see that zt: peat 
=(—)et+y+.... +H(etyt... bw) 4 —1, or 0, 
Te lly... . lw 
according as , in regard to the modulus 7+, is congruent to 0, 1, or neither to 0 nor 1, 
for the left-hand side of the equation is obviously the coefficient of x” in the development of 
; l—x 
1+a+a?... +27 cheers? 
On making *=00, this theorem becomes the one in the text. It obviously affords a 


remarkable pair of independent arithmetical quantitative criteria for determining whether 
or not one number is divisible by another. 


Ne al 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 25 


The identity employed in the text is only a particular case of Euler’s identity, 


a oe re tz Bz? 

(1-+-éz)(1+é2)(1+#z)... SLE aa A) ey 
which is tantamount to affirming that the number of partitions of into r distinct 
integers is the same as the number of partitions of n into any integers none greater 
than 7, in which all the integers from 1 to r appear once at least. It has not, I be- 
lieve, been noticed that these two systems of partitions are conjugate to each other, 
each partition of the one system having a correspondent to it in the other. The 
mode of passing from any partition to its correspondent is by converting each of its 
integers into a horizontal line of units, laying these horizontal lines vertically under 
each other, and then summing the columns. Thus, ea. gr., 3,4, 5 will be first ex- 
panded horizontally into 


1s Lede 

Eo! age 

hog ti, de 1 ade 
and then summed vertically into 

oo or a. ds 


This is the method employed by Mr. Ferrers to show that the number of partitions 
of n into 7, or a less number of parts, is the same as the number of partitions of 
into parts none greater than 7, and is, in fact, only a generalization of the method 
of intuitive proof of the fact that 
mXn=nX mM, 

the difference merely being that we here deal with a parallelogram separated into 
two conterminous parts by an irregularly stepped boundary—one filled with units, the 
other left blank, instead of dealing with one entirely filled up with units. 


On the General Canonical Form of a Spherical Harmonic of the nth Order. 
By Sir W. Tuomson, LL.D., D.C.L., F.RASS. L. & E. 
Let H; (2, y, 2), H'; (a, y, 2) ...., or for brevity H, H’, &c., denote 2’4+1 inde- 
eat spherical harmonics of degree #, that is to say, homogeneous functions each 
lfilling the Laplace’s equation 


CH, fH, eH 
pee ggee es wh Me phe thd cea ae at ae 


The formula 
ACES ACHED AS cc Minh. Spee Te yey, Pee, (2) 
where A, A’ are constants, is a general expression for the harmonic of degree 7; 
but it is not a “canonical” expression. Borrowing this designation from Mr. 
Clifford’s previous paper, we may define as canonical constituents for the general 
spherical harmonic of degree 7, any set of particular distinct harmonics fulfilling 
the following conditions :— 


(ln do=0, (JH H'do=0,& 6... 2... 8) 


where Sao denotes integration over any spherical surface having the origin of co- 
ordinates for centre. Supposing now that H, H’.. . actually fulfil these condi- 
tions, let it be required to find, if possible, another canonical form (#, #7’, . . -). 
Tr 
: % =AH+A'H'+&c, 
3)’ =BH+ B’ H’+&e. 
Then, (8) being taken into account, (\ 938 do=0 gives 
AB+A’ B’+ &c. =0. 
Hence the normal linear transformation, with (2/+1)? coefficients 
Big Aly Beas eval ° 
Ee Ee ES cea a 
ee Cy Gr a hs 


26 REPORT—1871. 


subject to the 7 (2i4+1) equations 
AB+A’ B/+A” B’=0 
AC+A' C’+A” C”=0 
BC +B’ C’+B" C"=0 


gives, from any one canonic group, another indeterminately. To find the degree 
of indeterminateness, let absolute magnitudes in canonical forms be ruled by the 
conditions 


{\a do=\\ H"do= ss 
() do=[)h" do =. =1, 


A24 A? A24,, =], 
B?+B24B"+4...=1, 


as in the ordinary transformation of rectangular axes in three dimensions. These 
2i+1 equations with the 7 (27+1) previous, amount in all to (¢+1) (2741) equa- 
tions of condition among (27+1)? coefficients, leaving 7 (27+1) independent vari- 
ables. 

The only canonical form hitherto generally recognized is that of Laplace; con- 
sisting* of 2¢+1 polar harmonics, of which 1 is zonal, 2 (¢—1) are tessaral, 
and 2 are sectorial. In the discussion which followed Mr. Clifford’s paper on 
this form, I remarked that it seemed to be a singular case of the general canonic ; 
notably singular in this respect, that for any one of its constituents the nodal cone 
consists of circular cones having a common axis and planes through this axis. 
The nodal cone of any spherical harmonic of degree 7 is an algebraic surface of 
degree 27+1, and I proposed the question, can canonical forms not be found in 
which the nodal cone of each constituent is not resolvable into circular cones and 
planes? This question is answered by the present communication. 

[A diagram was roughly sketched on the board, to illustrate the nodal cone of a 
harmonic differing infinitely little from a tessaral harmonic ; which, with 27 others 
differing infinitely little from the other 2:—3 tessaral, the two sectorial, and the 
zonal, constituting the polar canonic, would constitute a generalized canonic. | 


we have therefore 


GENERAL Puysics. 


Account of Experiments upon the Resistance of Air to the Motion of Vortea- 
rings. By Rosrert Staweit Batt, A.M., Professor of Applied Mathe- 
matics and Mechanism, Royal College of Science for Ireland. 


The experiments, of which the following is an abstract, were carried out with 
the aid of a grant from the Royal Irish Academy. A paper containing the results 
has been laid before the Academy. 

The author proposed to bring this subject before the Association in order to elicit 
discussion. He would greatly value any suggestions as to the direction in which 
future experimental researches would be likely to prove fruitful. Such suggestions, 
though acceptable from all sources, would come with peculiar usefulness from 
those who are conversant with the profound hydrodynamical problems of vortex 
motion. 

A brief account of one series of the experiments, and a Table embodying them, 
will be given. 

Air-rings, 9 inches in diameter, were projected from a cubical box, each edge of 
which is 2 feet. The use of this box was suggested by Professor Tait (see a 


* Thomson and Tait’s ‘ Natural Philosophy,’ § 781. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. Pi 


paper by Sir William Thomson, Phil. Mag. July 1867; also a paper by the 
Author, Phil. Mag. July 1868). The blows were delivered by means of a pendulum 
called the striker, which, falling from a constant height, ensured that the rings 
were projected with a constant velocity. In the experiments described in the 
present series, this velocity was somewhat over 10 feet per second. The pendulum 
was released to deliver the blow from a pair of forceps, each jaw of which was in 
connexion with a pole of a battery. After the ring had traversed a range varied 
from 2 inches to 20 feet, it impinged upon a target. The blows upon the target 
closed the circuit, which had been opened at the release of the striker. An 
electric chronoscope (devised, it is iRclisved, by Wheatstone) measured the 
interval of time between the release of the striker and the impact upon the 
target. 

The target was placed successively at distances of 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20 
feet from the orifice of the box. Not less than ten observations of the time were taken 
at each range. The probable error of the mean time at each range is in every 
case less than 1 per cent. of the whole amount. A special series of experiments, 
which need not be described, determined the value of the chronoscope readings in 
seconds. 

The observations are next represented in a curve, of which the abscisse are the 
ranges, and the ordinates the corresponding mean chronoscope readings. By 
drawing tangents to this curve, the velocity of the ring at its different points is 
approximately found. 

A second projection is made in which the abscissz are the ranges and the or- 
dinates are the velocities; the points thus determined are approximately ina straight 
line. 

It follows that the rings are retarded as if acted upon by a force proportional 
b the velocity, and an approximate value of the numerical coefficient becomes 

own. 

A more accurate value haying been determined by the method of least squares, 
the results are embodied in the following Table (p. 28), of which a description 
is first given. The Roman letters refer to the several columns of the Table. 

I. contains a series of numbers for convenience of reference. 

II. It was found that the motion of the ring in the immediate vicinity of the 
box was influenced by some disturbing element. The zero of range was therefore 
taken at a point 4 feet distant from the orifice. This column contains the ranges. 

Ill. The interval between the release of the striker and the arrival of the ring 
at a point 4 feet from the orifice is 6-5 chronoscopic units, or about 0:93 second. 
This constant must be subtracted from the mean readings of the time, in order 
to reduce the zero epoch to the instant when the ring is 4 feet from the orifice. 
This column contains the mean readings of the chronoscope corrected by this 
amount. 

IV. When the ranges are taken as abscisse, and the corresponding times as 
ordinates, it is found that a curve can be drawn through or near all the points 
thus produced. To identify the points with the curve, small corrections are in some 
cases required. These corrections are shown in column IV. In the case of experi- 
ment 5 the correction amounts to 0°7 ; this is about 0:09 second. The magnitude 
of this error appears to show that some derangement, owing possibly to a current 
of air or other source of irregularity, has vitiated this result. For the sake of 
uniformity, however, the corrected value has been retained. 

V. This column merely contains the corrected means, as read off upon the curve 
‘determined by the points. 

VI. The value of the chronoscope unit after the first few revolutions is 

. 0'1288 second, 
with a probable error of 0:0002 second. By means of this factor the corrected 
means in column V. are evaluated in seconds in column VI. 

VU. This column contains the time calculated on the hypothesis that the rings 
are retarded as if acted upon by a force proportional to the velocity, the coefficients 
being determined by the method of least squares; the formula is 


t=9:016—6:25 log (27:7—s). 


REPORT—1871. 


28 


9.1 £4 A 10,04 PEEsee “|e. Se. Lgl 1.0— Z.QI gr 8 
6.1 0.$ 2S 00.0 errr oe roen g.b1 £.0+ S.bx Se A °L 
LZ 3.5 6.5 00,0 Cee yaex fF bE a 6.11 1.0— 0.21 ‘oser "9 
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TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 29 


VI. This column shows that the difference between the corrected mean time 
and the calculated time in no case exceeds 


0:01 second. 


IX. The approximate velocities, deduced by drawing tangents to the curve. 
X. The true velocities, calculated from the formula 


ds 
70 368(27-7 —5) 


XI. The retarding force, calculated by 


Experiments on Vortex-rings in Liquids. By H. Deacon. 


On Units of Force and Energy. By Professor J. D. Everert, F.R.S.E. 


The object of the paper was to urge the necessity of giving names to absolute 
units of force and energy, that is, units not varying with locality, like the gravita- 
tion units vulgarly employed (pound, foot-pound, &c.), but defined by reference to 
specified units of length, mass, and time, according to the condition that unit 
force acting on unit mass produces unit acceleration. 

The author proposed that the units of force and of energy (or of work), thus 
related to the metre, gramme, and second, be called respectively the dyne and the 
pone (Stvapts, wovos), and that the names kilodyne, megadyne, kilopone, megapone be 
employed to denote a thousand and a million dynes and pones. The megadyne 
and megapone will thus be the units of force and energy related to the metre, the 
tonne, and the second. 

He also proposed that the units of force and energy related to the foot, the 
pound, and the second be called respectively the Ainzt and the erg *, 


On the Corrosion of Copper Plates by Nitrate of Silver. 
By J. H. Guapstonz, F.A.S., and Atrrep Trisz, F.C.S. 


In some recent experiments in chemical dynamics, the authors had occasion to 
study the action of nitrate of silver on copper plates in various positions. They 
observed that when the plate was vertical there was rather more corrosion at the 
bottom than at the top. Thisis easily accounted for by the upward current, which 
flows along the surface of the deposited crystals, and which necessitates a movement 
of the nitrate-of-silver solution towards the copper plate especially impinging on 
the lower part. It was also found that when the copper plate was varnished on 
one side it produced rather more than half the previous decomposition, and was 
most corroded at the edges of the varnish. By making patterns with the varnish, 
this edge action became very evident. This was explained by the fact that the 
long crystals of silver growing out from the copper at the borders can spread their 
branches into the open space at the side, and so draw their supply from a larger 
mass of solution than the crystals in the middle can do; and increased crystalliza- 
tion of silver means increased solution of copper. This was proved by making the 
varnish a perpendicular wall instead of a thin layer, when the greater corrosion was 
not obtained. In a plate completely surrounded with liquid, the greatest growth of 
crystals is also evidently from the angles. It was likewise observed that if a vertical 
plate be immersed, the lower part in nitrate of copper, and the upper part in nitrate of 
silver, there is greater corrosion about the point of junction. This was attributed 
to the greater conduction of the stronger liquid. 


Some Remarks on Physics. By M. Janssen. 


* Since the reading of the paper, a Committee has been appointed by the Association 
“to frame a nomenclature of absolute units of force and energy.” 


30 REPORT—1871. 


On Democritus and Lucretius, a Question of Priority in the Kinetical Theory 
of Matter, ByT. M. Lrxpsay and W. RB. Surrn. 


Physicists who have recently called attention to the anticipation of modern 
doctrines as to the ultimate nature of matter by the ancient atomists, have looked 
too exclusively to Epicurus and his expositor Lucretius, to the neglect of Demo- 
critus and Leucippus. Democritus had no such expositor as Lucretius, but his 
main views are accessible in the fragments collected by Mullach, and in the well- 
known references of Aristotle, Simplicius, and Laertius. With the help of these 
sources, the paper sketches the main features of the earliest atomic theories. The 
following are leading points :— 

Democritus and Leucippus trace the variety of phenomena to three primitive 
differences in the ultimate elements of nature, viz. differences (1) in Figure, cxja, 
as between A and N; (2) in Order, rags, as AN, NA; (8) in Position, éc1s, as 
Z, N [Arist. Met. A. 4]. From the motion zm vacuo of atoms with these primary 
differences, the whole variety of nature is deduced, generation and corruption being 
merely syncretion and division (ctyxpicis, Sudkpuois) [Ar. De Gen. et Cor. i. 8, 
i, 2, Phys. viii. 9]. All atoms have the same density and the same dp) ris popas 
(specific gravity ?) [Ar. De Ceelo, i. 7, Theophrastus De Sensu, 71]. Hence all 
tend to fall in one downward direction * ; but being ignorant of the law of inertia, 
Democritus supposes that the larger atoms fall faster, impinge on lighter particles, 
and produce a vortex motion (di). In this vortex similars come together and 
cohere, lighter particles go to the surface, and at length worlds (kéopov) are gene- 
rated [ Diog. Laertius, ix. 31]. Epicurus differs from Democritus mainly by main- 
taining that all atoms have equal and invariable downward velocities, and come 
into collision only by fortuitous automatic deflection from the line of fall. The first 
half of this theory /ooks like the first law of motion, but is really as far from being 
in harmony with the laws of acceleration and other known truths as the earlier view. 
As physicists, therefore, Epicurus and Lucretius made no advance on Democritus, 
while by mixing up with legitimate physical speculation the incongruent metaphysical 
notion of chance (not the mathematical notion of chance, which plays a part in the 
modern kinetic theory of gases), they produced that hybrid of physics and meta- 
physics, a materialistic philosophy. It was by adopting the Epicurean doctrine 
of chance that Gassendi, the first of modern atomists, became also the father of 
modern materialism. 


Speculations on the Continuity of the Fluid State of Matter, and on Relations 
between the Gaseous, the Liquid, and the Solid States. By Prof. James 
Tuomson, LL.D. 


Through the recent discovery of Dr. Andrews on the relations between dif- 
ferent states of fluid matter, a difficulty in the application of our old ordinary 
language has arisen. He has shown the existence of continuity between what is 
ordinarily called the liquid state and what is ordinarily called the gaseous state 
of matter. He has shown that the ordinary gaseous and ordinary liquid states 
are only widely separated forms of the same condition of matter, and may be 
made to pass into one another by a course of continuous physical changes pre- 
senting nowhere any interruption or breach of continuity. If, now, there be 
no distinction between the liquid and gaseous states, is there any meaning still 
to be attributed to those two old names, or ought they to be abandoned, and 
the single name the fluid state to be substituted for them both? The answer 
must be that in speaking of the whole continuous state we have now to call 
it simply the fluid state; but that there are two regions or parts of it, meet- 
Ae one another sharply in one way, and merging gradually into one another in a 
different way, to which the names Uiguid and gas are still to be applied. We can 
have a substance existing in two fluid states different in density and other proper- 
ties, while the temperature and pressure are the same in both: and we may then 
find that an introduction or abstraction of heat without change of temperature or 
of pressure will effect the change from the one state to the other, and that the 


* Cf. the argument in Zeller, Phi]. der Griechen, i. 913, ff. 


~4 


Se Te 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 31 


change either way is perfectly reversible. When we thus have two different states 
present together in contact with one another, we have a perfectly obvious distine- 
tion, and we can properly continue to call one of them a liquid state and the other 
a gaseous state of the same matter. The same two names may also reasonably be 
applied to regions or parts of the fluid state extending away on both sides of the 
Biavp or definite boundary, wherever the merging of the one into the other is little 
or not at all apparent. it we denote geometrically all possible points of tempera- 
ture and pressure jointly, by points spread continuously in a plane surface, each 
point in the plane being referred to two axes of rectangular coordinates, so that 
one of its ordinates shall represent the pressure and the other the temperature de- 
noted by that point, and if we mark all the successive boiling- or condensing- 
points of pressure and temperature as a continuous line on this plane, this line, 
which may be called the boiling-line, will be a separating boundary between the 
regions of the plane corresponding to the ordinary liquid state and those corre- 
sponding to the ordinary gaseous state. But by consideration of Dr. Andrews’s 
experimental results (Phil. Trans. 1869), we may see that this separating boun- 
dary comes to an end at a point of temperature and pressure which, in conformity 
with his language, may be called the critical point of pressure and temperature 
jointly; and we may see that from any ordinary liquid state to any ordinary 
gaseous state the transition may be gradually effected by an infinite variety of 
courses passing round the extreme end of the boiling-line. 

Fig. 1 is a diagram to illustrate these considerations and some allied consider- 
ations to which they lead in reference to transitions between the three states, the 


Fig. 1. 


Press ure—> 


gaseous, the liquid, and the solid. This figure is intended only as a sketch to illustrate 
saa ee and is not drawn according to measurements for any particular substance, 
though the main features of the curves shown in it are meant to relate ina general 
way to the substance of water, steam, and ice. AX and AY are the axes of co- 
ordinates for pressures and temperatures respectively ; A, the origin, being taken 
as the zero for pressures and as the zero for temperatures on the Ganoeaay scale. 
The curve L represents the boiling-line. This terminates towards one direction in 
the critical point E;-it passes in the other direction to T, the point of pressure 


o2 REPORT—1871. 


and temperature where solidification sets in. This point T is to be noticed as a 
remarkable point of pressure and temperature, as being the point at which alone 
the substance, pure from admixture with other substances, can exist in three states, 
solid, liquid, and gaseous, together in contact with one another. In making this 
statement, however, the author wishes to submit it subject to some reserve in re- 
spect to conditions not as yet known with perfect certainty. He observes that we 
might not be quite safe in assuming that the melting-point of ice solidified from 
the gaseous state is the same as the melting-point of ice frozen from the liquid 
state, and in making other suppositions, such as that the same quantity of heat 
would become latent in the melting of equal quantities of ice formed in these two 
ways. Such considerations as these into which we are forced if we attempt to 
sketch out the course of the boiling-line, and to examine along with it the corre- 
sponding boundary-lines between liquid and solid and between gas and solid, may 
be useful in suggesting questions for experimental and theoretical investigation 
which may have been generally overlooked before. Proceeding, however, upon 
assumptions such as usually are tacitly made, of identity in the thermal and dyna- 
mic conditions of pure ice solidified in different ways, the anthor points out that 
we must suppose the three curves (namely, the line between gas and liquid, the 
line between liquid and solid, and the line between gas and solid) to meet in 
one point, shown at T in the figure. This point of pressure and temperature for 
any substance may then be called the triple point for that substance. In the figure 
the line T M represents the line between liquid and solid. It is drawn showing in an 
exaggerated degree the lowering of the freezing temperature of water by pressure, the 
exaggeration being necessary in order to allow small changes of temperature to be per- 
ceptible in the diagram. The line TN represents the line between the gaseous and 
the solid states of water substance. The two curves T L and TN, one between gas 
and liquid and the other between gas and solid, have been constructed for water sub- 
stance through a great range of temperatures and pressures by Regnault, from his ex- 
periments on the pressure of saturated aqueous gas at various temperatures above and 
below 0° Centigrade*. He has represented and discussed his results above and below 
the temperature at which the water freezes (which in strictness is not 0° C., butis the 
freezing temperature of water in contact with no atmosphere except its own gas), 
as if one continuous curve could extend for both. As brought out experimentally, 
indeed, they present so little appearance of any discontinuity that the distinctness 
of the two curves from one another might readily escape notice in the considera- 
tion of the experimental results. Prof. Thomson points out, however, that the 
range from temperatures below to temperatures above freezing comprises what 
ought to be regarded as two essentially distinct curves meeting one another in the 
point T; and he further suggests that continuations of these curves, sketched in 
as dotted lines T P and T Q, may have some theoretical or practical significance not 
yet fully discovered. He thinks it likely that out of the three curves at least the 
one, MT, between liquid and solid may have a practically attainable extension past T, 
as shown by the dotted continuation TR. Various known experiments seem to 
render this supposition tenable, whether the condition supposed may have been 
actually realized in experiments hitherto or not. He thinks, too, that there is much 
reason to suppose that the curve LT between gas and liquid has a practically 
attainable extension past T, as shown by the dotted continuation T P. 

In reference to the continuity of the liquid and gaseous states, Prof. Thomson 
showed a model in which Dr. Andrews’s curves for carbonic acid are combined in 
a curved surface, obtained from them, which is referred to three axes of rectangular 
coordinates, and is formed so that the three coordinates of each point in the curved 
surface shall represent, for any given mass of carbonic acid, a pressure, a tempe- 
rature, and a volume, which can coexist in that mass. This curved surface shows 
in a clear light the abrupt change or breach of continuity at boiling or condensing, 
and the gradual transition round the extreme end of the boiling-line. Using this 
model and a diagram of curves represented here in fig, 2, the author explained a 
view which had occurred to him, according to which it appears probable that 
although there be a practical breach of continuity in crossing the line of boiling- 
points from liquid to gas, or from gas to liquid, there may exist, in the nature of 

* Mémoires de l’Académie des Sciences, 1847, pl. viii. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 33 


things, a theoretical continuity across this breach, having some real and true sig- 
nificance. The general character of this view may readily be seen by a glance at 
fig. 2, in which Dr. Andrews’s curves are shown by continuous lines (not dotted), 
and curved reflex junctions are shown by dotted lines connecting those of Dr. An- 


Fig. 2. 


Zero Line for Volumes 
5|0 5\5 6|o G|5 7\0 7\5 
Pres Ste res Z2 AE OS/Aheres 


drews’s curves which are abruptly interrupted at their boiling- or condensing-points 
of pressure. It is to be understood that each curve relates to one constant tempe- 
rature, and that pressures are represented by the horizontal ordinates, and corre- 
sponding volumes of one mass of carbonic acid constant throughout all the curves 
are represented by the vertical ordinates. The author points out that, by experi- 
ments of Donny, Dufour, and others*, we have already proof that a continuation 
of the curve for the liquid state past the boiling stage for some distance, as shown 
dotted in fig. 2, from ato some point 6 towards f, would correspond to states already 
attained. He thinks we need not despair of practically realizing the physical con- 
ditions corresponding to some extension of the gaseous curve such as from ¢ to d 
in the figure. The overhanging part of the curve from e to f he thinks may re- 
present a state in which there would be some kind of unstable equilibrium; and 
so, although the curve there appears to have some important theoretical significance, 
yet the states represented by its various points would be unattainable throughow- 
any ordinary mass of the fluid. It seems to represent conditions of coexistent tem- 
erature, pressure, and volume, in which, if all parts of a mass of fluid were placed, 
it would be in equilibrium, but out of which it would be led to rush, partly into 
the rarer state of gas, and partly into the denser state of liquid, by the slightest 
inequality of temperature or of density in any part relatively to other parts. 


* Donny, Ann. de Chimie, 1846, 3rd series, vol. xvi. p. 167; Dufour, Bibliothéque 
Universelle, Archives, 1861, vol. xii. 


1871. 3 


34 REPORT— 1871. 


Observations on Water in Frost Rising against Gravity rather than Freezing 
in the Pores of Moist Earth. By Professor James Tuomson, LL.D. 


In this paper Prof. Thomson, in continuation of a subject which he had brought 
before the British Association at the Cambridge Meeting in 1862*, on the Disinte- 
gration of Stones exposed to Atmospheric Influences, adduced some remarkable 
instances which he had since carefully observed. In one of these, observed by 
him in February 1864, he showed that water from a pond in a garden had in time 
of frost raised itself to heights of from four to six inches above the water surface- 
level of the pond by permeating the earth-bank, formed of decomposed granite, 
which it kept thoroughly wet, and out of the upper surface of which it was made 
to ascend by the frost, so as to freeze as columns of transparent ice, rather than 
that it would freeze in the earth-pores. The columns were arranged in several 
tiers one tier below another, the lower ones having been later formed than those 
above them, and having pushed the older ones up. From day to day during the 
frost the earth remained unfrozen, while a thick slab of columnar ice, made up of 
successive tiers of columns, formed itself by water coming up from the pond and 
insinuating itself forcibly under the bases of the ice-columns so as to freeze there, 
pushing them up, not by hydraulic pressure, but on principles which, while seem- 
ing not to have been noticed previously to their having been suggested by the 
author at the Cambridge Meeting, appear to involve considerations of scientific in- 
terest, and to afford scope for further experimental and theoretical researches. In 
the case referred to, the remarkable phendepeen showed itself very clearly, of 
water passing from a region of less than atmospheric pressure in the wet pores of 
the earth, into a place in the base of the columns where it was subject to more 
than atmospheric pressure, and subject also to stresses unequal in different direc- 
tions, from its being loaded with the mass of ice and also with some gravel or 
earthy substances above it; and this action went on rather than that the water 
would freeze in the pores of the moist earthy bottom on which the columns stood, 
and which was above the water surface-level of the pond. 


ASTRONOMY. 


Note on the Secular Cooling and the Figure of the Earth. By Prof. Crirrorp. 


Observations on the Parallax of a Planetary Nebula. By Dr. Gut. 


On the Coming Solar Eclipse. By M. Janssen. 


On the Recent and Coming Solar Eclipses. By J. Norman Lockyer, P.2B.S. 
On the Construction of the Heavens. By RK. A. Proctor, B.A. 
On Artificial Coronas. By Professor OsBorne Reyno.ps. 


On a Method of Estimating the Distances of some of the Fixed Stars. 
By H. Fox Tatszor, LL.D., PRS. 

The method proposed in this paper for ascertaining the distances of the stars 
applies only to binary systems, which are not too faint or too close to be well ob- 
served. It has this peculiarity, that it can be applied to remote stars with as much 
accuracy as to nearer ones, always supposing that such remote stars are still bright 


* Brit. Assoc. Rep. 1862, Trans. of Sect. p. 55. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 35 


enough to allow of accurate observation ; whereas the method of determining the 
distance of a star by its parallax becomes more difficult as the distance of the star 
increases, notwithstanding any brightness which it may have. 

The method now proposed is founded on that of spectral analysis. I suppose a 
certain ray, which I will call X, to be chosen as the standard ray, and to be care- 
fully observed at various times in each of the stars of a binary system during an 
interval of some years. The orbit described by the stars around their common 
centre of gravity must not lie in a plane perpendicular to the visual ray joining 
those stars and the earth, nor must it approach that position too nearly, otherwise 
the true result would be masked by the errors of observation, The simplest case 
is that of two stars, equal in mass and brightness, and revolving in circles about 
their common centre of gravity. Supposing such a system of two stars to exist, 
the most favourable case is when the plane of their motion passes through the 
earth, If it does so, the stars will appear to move in straight lines, Supposing 
them to be, when first observed, at their greatest elongation, they will approach 
each other with an increasing apparent velocity, varying as the sine of the time (or 
circular arc described) until they come into apparent conjunction, when one star 
will be hidden by the other for a certain time, after which they will recede from 
each other in like manner as they had approached. But the observer would not 
be able to say with certainty which of the two stars was nearest to him, since the 
same phenomena would be presented if the distances of the two stars were inter- 
changed, and at the same time the direction of their motions reversed. Now 
suppose the method to be applied which I have proposed. At the time of their 
conjunction, or near it, neither star would be approaching the earth, consequently 
the observed deviation of the ray X (if any) from its normal position would be due 
to the proper motion of the system of the two stars relatively to the earth, which is 
a constant quantity to be allowed for in all other observations. Now suppose another 
set of observations to be made at the time of the greatest elongation of the two 
stars. At that time each of the stars is apparently stationary, but in fact one 
of them is approaching and the other receding from the earth with a maximum 
velocity. The observed deviation of the ray X will therefore be different in the 
spectra of the two stars, and (allowance having been made for the proper motion of 
the system) it will appear at once which of the two stars is approaching the earth, 
and the question ofits direct or retrograde orbit will be resolved. At the same time 
the distance of the two stars from the earth will result from the calculation. It 
will be well, perhaps, to take a hypothetical example, which will show how this 
element results from observation. 

I suppose, then, that observation has shown: 

(1) The period of one complete revolution of the binary star round its centre of 
gravity to be fifty years. 

(2) The greatest elongation of the stars to be ten seconds. 

(3) And at the time of this greatest elongation the deviation of the ray X to be 
such as to prove that one of the stars is then approaching the earth at the rate of 
ten miles per second, and the other star receding from the earth at the same rate. 
And this will evidently be their true velocity in their orbit. 

Now 50 years =1,577,880,000 seconds, and therefore since each star moves in 
its orbit at the rate of ten miles per second, it describes in the course of one whole 
revolution of 50 years a circle of 15,778,800,000 miles in circumference. The 
radius of this circle is the distance of the star from the common centre of gravity, 
and therefore the diameter of the circle is the distance of the two stars from each 
other (which in the hypothetical example I have selected is constant), This 
diameter will be found to be about equal to 54 radii of the earth’s orbit. Now, 
when the stars were at their greatest elongation, observation showed their angular 
distance to be ten seconds. Consequently we have only to calculate at what distance 
from the earth a‘length of 54 radii would subtend an angle of 10", and we find 
that this would occur at a distance of 1,113,500 radii. Such, then, is the distance 
of the binary star from the earth, namely, 1,113,500 times the distance which sepa- 
rates the earth from the sun. 

So simple a case as the hypothetical one which I have here calculated is, indeed, 
not likely to occur in practice; most cases would require a greater ae of 

3 


36 REPORT—1871. 


calculation, but the principles involved would be the same. When the distances 
and positions of the two components of a binary star have been carefully observed by 
astronomers for a certain Ratner of years, ithas been found possible in manyinstances 
to determine the elements of their orbit, its ellipticity, the inclination of its plane 
to the ecliptic, the time of one complete revolution, the apparent maximum elonga- 
tion, &e. &c. But the distance of the double star from the earth has hitherto re- 
mained unknown, because that is dependent upon the real size of the orbit, and 
observation (without the spectroscope) gives only the apparent size of it. Knowing 
the elements of the orbit we can, indeed, calculate the velocity of either of the 
stars in the direction of the earth at any moment, relatively to that which it has at 
any other moment. But the determination of the absolute velocity requires the 
distance of the stars from the earth to be known. Nowa few observations (if per- 
fectly correct) of the deviation of the ray X supply this wanting element, viz. the 
actual velocity at the time of observation, and likewise enable us, as I have already 
explained, to eliminate the proper motion of the double star. This might be some- 
times difficult, but geometrical considerations, quite in harmony with those now 
employed by astronomers to determine the other elements of the binary system, 
would undoubtedly effect this also. 

In what I have written above, I have supposed great precision in the observa- 
tions—greater, no doubt, than would be practicable with the optical means now 
in use; but this makes no difference in the theory of the subject, which for a 
certain time may be allowed to pass ahead of its practical realization. It will 
doubtless be remembered that the method of determining the sun’s distance by means 
of a transit of Venus was proposed by James Gregory in his ‘Optica Promota,’ 
and by Halley in his ‘ Catalogus Stellarum Australium,’ nearly 100 years before an 
opportunity offered of testing it by an actual observation. 


On the Nutoscope, an Apparatus for showing Graphically the Curve of 
Precession and Nutation. By Professor Cuartes V, ZENGER. 


In the case of a rapidly revolving solid body two different cases may occur, the 
mass of the solid body being quite uniformly distributed around the axis of rota- 
tion, or, on the contrary, the uniformity being destroyed by the accumulation of 
matter on one side of the axis. 

In the first instance the centrifugal force will act symmetrically on opposite 
sides of the solid body in rotation, and be in equilibrium. It then gives rise to 
the phenomenon of a free axis; that is to say, the axis of rotation steadily holds 
its position during the rotation, because the particles of the body will also have 
the tendency to retain their position while the motion is going on with sufficient 
speed. 

ote facts may best be shown by Fessel’s apparatus, called the gyroscope, in 
which a circular disk is put in rapid rotation round an axis freely movable in every 
direction. 

If there is a force acting only on one side, for instance a weight pressing on the 
axis, or an impulse given to it, the axis will show a lateral motion, and describes 
a cone, or at its extremity a circle. 

But if there is on the disk itself an unequal distribution of the mass, which is 
produced by fastening a small circular disk or sheet of paper with an excentric hole 
upon the axis, the motion becomes more complicated; and if the velocity be con- 
sidered uniform for the short time required fur the axis to describe a circle, there 
will be an additional lateral motion produced by the adhering paper sheet dis- 
turbing the motion, and a small ellipse will be described by the end of the axis 
revolving upon the circle, as is shown in the diagram traced on blackened paper by 
the top of such an apparatus. 

The greater the mass of the disturbing paper sheet, and the more the speed of 
the motion diminishes, the larger becomes the diameter of the ellipse described by 
the top, and the more disturbed are its revolutions on the periphery of the circle, 
both axis of the ellipses becoming much larger. Diminution of the speed origi- 
nates, instead of the circular motion of the top, a spiral motion, and the effect is 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 37 


that the velocity of the disk’s motion decreasing, the top no longer describes a 
circle, but a continuous spiral line, on which the small ellipse revolves, 

These motions, however complicated they may be, may be graphically shown by 
holding a blackened paper to the top of the axis of the apparatus, and causing it 
to approach steadily, when the axis becomes more inclined by the diminution of 
the velocity. ° 

To do this more easily and with more precision, near the rotating disk is placed 
a support, with a brass frame for holding a sheet of blackened paper, exactly at a 
right angle to the support. The top of the inclined axis may be brought into slight 
contact with the blackened surface of the paper by lowering the brass frame on the 
stand by means of a micrometer-screw, so as to maintain the contact for some time. 

The specimens of curves described by the apparatus show that without any 
disturbing force the top describes a circle. ; 

Ifwe put a circular disk excentrically on the axis of the apparatus, it still describes 
a circle, but also an ellipse revolving on its periphery, whose length of axis de- 
pends on the weight of the circular disk fastened to the axis. If the top marks 
for a longer time, instead of a circle a spiral line is described, with ellipses revoly- 
ing on it. 

‘Diagrams were exhibited, showing the same curves, but with heavier circular 
disks on the axis. 

These experiments may be made also by putting on the top of the axis a globule 
of silvered glass, reflecting the light of the sun, or of a lamp, showing at a con- 
siderable distance the pretty designs of the nutation curves. It is very instructive 
to exhibit and explain the complicated phenomena of the luni-solar precession and 
nutation of the earth’s axis by the same apparatus. 

The combined action of the sun and moon’s masses on the earth are represented 
by the small paper sheets put excentrically on the axis of the rotating brass disk 
of the apparatus. 

The sun and moon’s distances from the centre of the earth continually changing, 
produce the same effect as those circular disks put excentrically upon the axis of 
the apparatus, and produce an entirely similar motion of the axis of the earth, 
describing likewise a cone, or a circle on the top of the earth’s axis; and by the 
changing action of the sun and moon at different distances from the earth, there is 
produced an additional small elliptical motion, quite similar to those represented 
im the diagrams exhibited. Similar but still larger elliptical motions are produced 
in the same manner by the combined and varying action of the sun and earth’s 
masses on the moon, known in astronomy as the precession of the nodes of the 
moon, and as the nutation and evection of its axis, 


Lieut. 


Description of a Set of Lenses for the Accurate Correction of Visual Defect. 
up 
By Pure Brawam. 


The lenses shown were plano-spherical and cylindrical. By using planc- instead 
of double spherical lenses, we are enabled to add or diminish the power of any 
given plano-lens to the greatest nicety; so that without multiplying the tools used 
by the lens-grinders, any graduation of focus can be obtained. 

In correcting astigmatic defect, the cylindrical lenses being plano-, and the edges 
oes to the same exact diameter as the spherical, they fit together and act as 
one lens. 


Description of a Paraboloidal Reflector for Lighthouses, consisting of silvered 
facets of ground-glass; and of a Differential Holophote. By Tomas 
Srevenson, F.R.S.L., ML.C.E. 


The superior advantages of the Dioptric as compared with the Catoptric systems 


38 REPORT—1871. 


of illumination for lighthouses are generally admitted. There are, however, many 
cases, such as harbour-lights and ship-lights, where the expense of construction 
becomes a barrier to the employment of refracting apparatus. 

In order to reduce the expense, it occurred to the author that it would be de- 
sirable to revive the old form of mirror, consisting of facets of ordinary silvered 
glass. Instead of making them small and with plane surfaces, the size may be 
much increased; and they may be bent or ground and polished on both faces to 
curyes osculating the parabola, ellipse, or whatever form may be required. If the 
edges of these facets were fixed together by Canada balsam (a substance which has 
nearly the same index of refraction as plate-glass), the large loss of light which 
takes place at the edges of each facet in the old reflectors will be in great measure 
saved. There will not, as formerly, be any refraction of the rays in passing through 
the edges, and thus the whole will become practically monodioptric; or, in other 
words, will be optically nearly the same as if the paraboloid had been made of one 
whole sheet of glass, while the advantage due to accurately curved surfaces, in- 
stead of plane surfaces, will be secured. It would be a further improvement to 
select different points in the flame for the foci of the different facets, so as to 
secure the useful destination of more of the rays. Besides, by grinding each facet 
to different vertical and horizontal curves, the light may be condensed or diverged 
by means of a single agent; and the same result may be effected with different 
totally reflecting plates of flint or other glass cemented to lighthouse prisms with 
Canada balsam, so as to form composite prisms. When coloured lights are wanted, 
the facets would consist of glass tinted to the required hue, so as to render stained 
mufHles or chimneys unnecessary. The economy of the proposed method of con- 
struction will render it peculiarly applicable to harbour-lights and ship-lights. 

The author exhibited a paraboloidal reflector constructed on the method to 
which he referred. The facets were successfully constructed by Messrs. Chance, 
of Birmingham. The pieces of glass having been first bent upon a mould, were 
afterwards ground by rubbing-surfaces worked by machinery of the same kind as 
is employed for dioptric apparatus. The facets were afterwards silvered by the 
patent process of Messrs. Pratt and Co., of St. Helens, Lancashire, who inform the 
author that so long as the paint is not removed from the back of the silvering its 
reflecting power will remain unaltered. 

Differential metallic Mirror and Holophote.—The same construction may also be 
adopted, as the author has already hinted, for producing a differential holophote 
which will, by means of single optical agents, collect, with uniform density in azimuth, 
the whole sphere of diverging rays into any given cylindric sector. For such a pur- 
pose each facet must, in the vertical plane where no divergence is wanted, be 
ground to a parabolic profile, while in the horizontal it must be of such hyper- 
bolic, elliptic, or other curve as will give the required horizontal divergence with- 
out interference with the apparatus for the central cone of rays, which will be 
dealt with according to the requirements of the case, by means either of Fresnel’s 
beehive fixed apparatus or of a differential lens—an instrument which the author 
has elsewhere described. In order to test the practicability of such an arrange- 
ment, a mirror was constructed of small glass facets, which were arranged optically 
on a surface of putty, and which answered the purpose as far as was possible with 
plain pieces of glass. The author sees therefore no great difficulty in making this 
new kind of mirror of separate facets of silvered glass of small size; but he found 
such difficulties in constructing one with a continuous surface that he consulted 
his friend Professor Tait, who kindly gave him his assistance in the solution of 
this difficult problem by supplying the general formula; and he has no doubt, now 
that the simpler form of facet has been so successfully constructed, a differential 
holephote will soon be made. 


Notice of the Researches of the late Rev. William Vernon Harcourt, on the 
Conditions of Transparency in Glass, and the Conneaion between the 
Chemical Constitution and Optical Properties of different Glasses. By 
Professor G. G. Sroxrs, /.R.S. 


The preparation and optical properties of glasses of various compositions formed 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 39 


for nearly forty years a favourite subject of study with the late Mr. Harcourt. 
Having commenced in 1834 some experiments on vitrifaction, with the object stated 
in the title of this notice, he was encouraged by a recommendation, which is printed 
in the 4th volume of the Transactions of the British Association, to pursue the 
subject further, A report on a gas-furnace, the construction of which formed a 
preliminary inquiry, in which was expended the pecuniary grant made by the 
Association for this research in 1836, is printed in the Report of the Association 
for ioe but the results of the actual experiments on glass have never yet been 
ublished. 
$ My own connexion with these researches commenced at the Meeting of the 
British Association at Cambridge in 1862, when Mr. Harcourt placed in my hands 
some prisms formed of the glasses which he had prepared, to enable me to determine 
their character as to fluorescence, which was of interest from the circumstance 
that the composition of the glasses was known. I was led indirectly to observe the 
fixed lines of the spectra formed by means of them ; and as I used sunlight, which 
he had not found it convenient to employ, I was enabled to see further into 
the red and violet than he had done, which was favourable to a more accurate 
measure of the dispersive powers. This inquiry, being in furtherance of the 
original object of the experiments, seemed far more important than that as to 
fluorescence, and caused Mr. Harcourt to resume his experiments with the liveliest 
interest, an interest which he kept up to the last. Indeed it was only a few days 
before his death that his last experiment was made. To show the extent of the 
research, I may mention that as many as 166 masses of glass were formed and cut 
into prisms, each mass doubtless in many cases involving several preliminary 
experiments, besides disks and masses for other purposes. Perhaps I may be 
permitted here to refer to what I said to this Section on a former occasion* as 
to the advantage of working in concert. I may certainly say for myself, and I 
think it will not be deemed at all derogatory to the memory of my esteemed 
friend and fellow-labourer if I say of him, that I do not think that either of us 
working singly could have obtained the results we arrived at by working together. 

It is well known how difficult it is, especially on a small scale, to prepare 
homogeneous glass. Of the first group of prisms, 28 in number, 10 only were 
sufficiently good to show a few of the principal dark lines of the solar spectrum ; 
the rest Fad to be examined by the bright lines in artificial sources of light. 
These prisms appeared to have been cut at random by the optician from the mass 
of glass supplied to him. Theory and observation alike showed that strie interfere 
comparatively little with an accurate determination of refractive indices when 
they lie in planes perpendicular to the edge of the prism. Accordingly the prisms 
used in the rest of the research were formed from the glass mass that came out 
of the crucible by cutting two planes, passing through the same horizontal line a 
little below the surface, and inclined 223° right and left of the vertical, and by 
polishing the enclosed wedge of 45°. In the central portion of the mass the striz 
have a tendency to arrange themselves in nearly vertical lines, from the operation 
of currents of convection ; and by cutting in the manner described, the most 
favourable direction of the strize is secured for a good part of the prism. 

This attention to the direction of cutting, combined no doubt with increased 
experience in the manufacture of glass, was attended with such good results that 
ad it was quite the exception for a prism not to show the more conspicuous dark 
ines. 

On account of the inconvenience of working with silicates, arising from the 
difficulty of fusion and the pasty character of the fused glasses, Mr. Harcourt’s 
experiments were chiefly carried on with phosphates, combined in many cases 
with fluorides, and sometimes with borates, tungstates, molybdates, or titanates. 
The glasses formed involved the elements potassium, sodium, lithium, barium, 
strontium, calcium, glucinum, magnesium, aluminium, manganese, zinc, cadmium, 
tin, lead, thallium, bismuth, antimony, arsenic, tungsten, molybdenum, titanium, 
vanadium, nickel, chromium, uranium, phosphorus, ituedine, boron, sulphur. 

A very interesting subject of inquiry presented itself collaterally with the 
original object, namely, to inquire whether glasses could be found which would 

* Report of the British Association for 1862, Trans. of Sect. p. 1. 


40 REPORT—1871. 


achromatize each other so as to exhibit no secondary spectrum, or a single glass 
which would achromatize in that manner a combination of crown and flint. 

This inquiry presented considerable difficulties. The dispersion of a medium is 
small compared with its refraction ; and if the dispersive power be regarded as a 
small quantity of the first order, the irrationality between two media must be 
regarded as depending on small quantities of the second order. If striz and 
imperfections of the kind present an obstacle to a very accurate determination of 
dispersive power, it will readily be understood that the errors of observation 
which they occasion go far to swallow up the small quantities on the observation 
of which the determination of irrationality depends. Accordingly, little success 
attended the attempts to draw conclusions as to irrationality from the direct obser- 
vation of refractive indices; but by a particular method of compensation, in 
which the experimental prism was achromatized by a prism built up of slender 
prisms of crown and flint, I was enabled to draw trustworthy conclusions as to 
the character in this respect of those prisms which were sufficiently good to show 
a few of the principal dark lines of the solar spectrum. 

Theoretically any three different kinds of glass may be made to form a combi- 
nation achromatic as to secondary as well as primary colour, but practically the 
character of dispersion is usually connected with its amount, in such a manver 
that the determinant of the system of three simple equations which must be 
satisfied is very small, and the curvatures of the three lenses required to form an 
achromatic combination are very great. 

For a long time little hope of a practical solution of the problem seemed to 
present itself, in consequence of the general prevalence of the approximate law 
referred to above. A prism containing molybdic acid was the first to give fair 
hopes of success. Mr. Harcourt warmly entered into this subject, and prosecuted 
his experiments with unwearied zeal. The earlier molybdic glasses prepared were 
many of them rather deeply coloured, and most of them of a perishable nature. 
At last, after numerous experiments, molybdic glasses were obtained pretty free 
from colour and permanent. Titanium had not yet been tried, and about this time 
a glass containing titanic acid was prepared and cut into a prism. Titanic acid 
proved to be equal or superior to molybdic in its power of extending the blue end 
of the spectrum more than corresponds to the dispersive power of the glass; while 
in every other respect (freedom from colour, permanence of the glass, greater abun- 
dance of the element) it had a decided advantage; and a great variety of titanic 
glasses were prepared, cut into prisms, and measured. One of these led to the 
suspicion that boracic acid had an opposite effect, to test which Mr. Harcourt 
formed some simple borates of lead, with varying proportions of boracic acid. 
These fully bore out the expectation ; the terborate for instance, which in dispersive 
power nearly agrees with flint glass, agrees on the other hand, in the relative 
extension of the blue and red ends of the spectrum, with a combination of about 
one part, by volume, of flint glass with two of crown. 

By combining a negative or concave lens of terborate of lead with positive 
lenses of crown and flint, or else a positive lens of titanic glass with negative 
lenses of crown and flint, or even with a negative of very low flint and a positive 
of crown, achromatic triple combinations free from secondary colour may be formed 
without encountering (at least in the case of the titanic glass) formidable curvatures ; 
and by substituting at the same time a titanic glass for crown, and a borate of lead 
for flint, the curvatures may be a little further reduced. 

There is no advantage in using three different kinds of glass rather than two to 
form a fully achromatic combination, except that the latter course might require 
the two kinds of glass to be made expressly, whereas with three we may employ 
for two the crown and flint of commerce. Enough titanium might, however, be 
introduced into a glass to render it capable of being perfectly achromatized by 
Chance’s “ light flint.” 

In a triple objective the middle lens may be made to fit both the others, and be 
cemented. Terborate of lead, which is somewhat liable to tarnish, might thus be 
protected by being placed in the middle. Even if two kinds only of glass are 
used, it is desirable to divide the convex lens into two, for the sake of diminish- 


Ing the curvatures. On calculating the curvatures so as to destroy spherical as 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 41 


well as chromatic aberration, and at the same time to make the adjacent surfaces 
be very suitable forms were obtained with the data furnished by Mr. Harcourt’s 
glasses. ; 

After encountering great difficulties from striz, Mr. Harcourt at last succeeded 
in preparing disks of terborate of lead and of a titanic glass which are fairly 
homogeneous, and with which it is intended to attempt the construction of an 
actual objective which shall give images free from secondary colour, or nearly so. 

This notice has extended to a greater length than I had intended, but it still 
gives only a meagre account of a research extending over so many years. It is 
my intention to draw up a full account for presentation to the scientific world in 
some other form. I have already said that the grant made to Mr. Harcourt for 
these researches in 1836 has long since been expended, as was stated in his Report 
of 1844; but it was his wish, in recognition of that grant, that the first mention 
of the results he obtained should be made to the British Association ; and I doubt 
not that the members will receive with satisfaction this mark of consideration, 
which they will connect with the memory of one to whom the Association as a 
body is so deeply indebted. 


On one Cause of Transparency. By G. Jouxstonz Stonny, M.A., PRS. 


The motion of the ether which constitutes light is known to be subject to four 
restrictions :—First, it is periodic; secondly, it is transversal; thirdly, it is (at all 
events temporarily) polarized; and, fourthly, its periodic time lies between the 
limits which correspond to the extent of the visible spectrum. By temporary 
polarization is meant the persistence of the same kind of wave over a long series of 
waves before waves of another kind succeed, that persistence which the phenomena 
of diffraction have made known to us*. 

And the many respects in which radiant heat and light have been found to be 
identical enable us to say that the first three of the foregoing restrictions apply to 
radiant heat. We also know (see ‘Philosophical Magazine’ for April and for 
July 1871) that the lines in the spectra of gases arise from periodic motions in the 
molecules of the gas, each such motion giving rise to one or more lines corre- 
sponding to terms of an harmonic series. And we know that under certain con- 
ditions these lines dilate and run into one another, so as in many cases to produce 
regions of continuous absorption. All these phenomena may safely be attributed 
to periodic motions in the molecules of the gas, the dilatation of the lines being 
due to perturbations which affect the periodic times. After the periodic time has 
been disturbed (probably on the occasion of the collisions between molecules) it 
seems to settle down gradually towards its normal amount,.thus imparting breadth 
to the corresponding spectral lines. 

The question now naturally presents itself{—What results from motions in the 
molecules which are not periodic, or which are in any other way unfitted to pro- 
duce radiant heat? And here the phenomena of acoustics come to our aid. When 
a bell is struck, more or less regularly, periodic motions are both peered The 
more regularly periodic motions produce the tone of the bell which is heard at a 
distance, while the less regular motions, though they are often very intense, pro- 
duce a clang heard only in the vicinity of the bell; in other words, the energy is 
expended in the neighbourhood of the bell. Similarly, if the molecules of a body 
are engaged in irregular motions, such motions, though they may occasion a violent 
agitation of the others, are mechanically incapable of producing such an undulation 
as constitutes radiant heat. The disturbance is necessarily local; in other words, 
as much energy is restored by the moving ether to the molecules as is imparted by 
the motion of the molecules to the ether. This absence of radiation is one of the 
properties of a transparent body; and the other thermal (or optical) properties of 
transparent bodies may be presumed to depend also on these partially irregular 
motions. Thus Fizeau has proved by experiment that a flow of water of about 


* Rays of common light have been found to interfere, of which one was retarded 15 
millims., or about 30,000 wave-lengths, behind the other, showing what a long series of 
nearly similar waves usually succeed one another in unpolarized light before waves of 
another type come in. 


42 REPORT—1871. 


seven metres per second produced a very sensible effect on the velocity with which 
light was propagated in the direction of the motion; in other words, when the 
molecular motions had a preponderance in one direction, this was found to alter 
the refractive index in that direction. This shows that the molecular motions do 
affect the refractive index; and it is perhaps not too much to presume that the 
phenomena of the irrationality of the spectra produced by prisms of different mate- 
rials of double refraction and polarization in crystals of other than the cubical 
system, and of circular polarization in solids and liquids, will be found to result 
from modifications of the irregular motions either of or within the molecules. 
Other facts appear to confirm this presumption: where from the form of a crystal 
we have reason to suppose that the irregular molecular motions are not symme- 
trically distributed in different directions, there we uniformly find the phenomena 
of double refraction; and in those solids where they are symmetrically disposed 
the refraction becomes double if they are exposed to strain, 7.e. as soon as an 
unsymmetrical distribution of the molecular motions is artificially induced. 

On the whole we appear justified in drawing the probable inference that all the 
phenomena of transparency are intimately associated with the molecular motions 
which want that kind of regularity which would fit them to be the source of 
luminous undulations. What is certain is, first, that certain periodic molecular 
motions do produce the phenomena of opacity in gases; and secondly, that irre- 
gular molecular motions are incapable of producing the effect of opacity, since they 
cannot radiate. By irregular motions, where the phrase occurs in this communi- 
cation, are to be understood motions which are not approximately periodic, or 
which from any other cause cannot set up in the ether such an undulation as that 
which constitutes radiant heat. 


On the advantage of referring the positions of Lines in the Spectrum to a Scale 
of Wave-numbers. By G. Jounstone Stoney, M.A., F.R.S. 


At the last Meeting of the British Association Mr. Stoney made a communica- 
tion, from which it seemed to appear that each periodic motion in the mole- 
cules of a gas will in general (¢.e. unless the motion be a simple pendulous 
one, or else mechanically small) give rise to several lines in the spectrum of the 
gas, and that the lines which thus result from one motion have periods that are 
harmonics of the periodic time of the parent motion. Since that time he has been 
engaged, in conjunction with Dr. Emerson Reynolds, of Dublin, in testing this 
theory ; and in this inquiry it has been found convenient to refer the positions of 
all lines in the spectrum to a scale of reciprocals of the wave-lengths. This scale 
has the great convenience, for the purposes of the investigation, that a system of 
lines with periodic times that are harmonics of one periodic time are equidistant 
upon it; and it has the further convenience, which recommends it for general use, 
that it resembles the spectrum as seen in the spectroscope much more closely than 


the scale of direct wave-lengths used by Angstrom in his classic map. 
The position marked 2000 upon this scale occurs about the middle of the 


spectrum, and corresponds to Angstrém’s wave-length 5000, The numbers which 


Angstrom uses are tenth-metres, z.e. the lengths obtained by dividing the metre 
into 10 parts; and from this it follows that each number on the new scale 
signifies the number of light-waves in a millimetre: thus 2000 upon a map drawn 
to this scale marks the position of the ray whose wave-length is 5,5, of a milli- 
metre. The new scale may therefore be appropriately called a scale of wave- 
numbers. If, then, % be the wave-number of a fundamental motion in the eether, 


its wave-length will bes th of a millimetre, and its harmonics will haye the wave- 


= = &c.; in other words, they occupy the positions 2h, 3k, &e. upon 
the new map. Hence it is easy to see that a system of lines which are equally 
spaced along the map at intervals of % divisions are harmonics of a fundamental 


lengths 


motion whose wave-number is k, whose wave-length is ith of a millimetre, and 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 43 


whose periodic time is zi where 7 is the periodic time of an undulation in the 


zther consisting of waves one millimetre long. If we use Foucault’s determination 
of the velocity of light, viz. 298,000,000 metres per second, the value of this 
constant is 

tT = 3'3557 twelfth-seconds, 


meaning by a twelfth-second a second of time divided by 10’, which, in other 
words, is the millionth part of the millionth of a second of time. 

Thus the proposed numbers give the same information as a list of direct wave- 
lengths, and in a more commodious form for theoretical purposes; while at the 
same time the map of the spectrum drawn to this scale is to be preferred for use 
in the laboratory, because it represents the spectrum formed by a prism with com- 
paratively little distortion. This will be apparent from the following Table of the 
waye-numbers of the principal lines of the solar spectrum :— 


A 13151 || E, | 18967 || F 2057°3 
B 1456-2 || 5, 98:0 || G 2321-7 
C 15239 b, | 19293 h | 2488-3 
D, | 16963 b, 33-4 || H, | 25201 
D, 98-0 b, 354 | H 426 


On the Wave-lengths of the Spectra of the Hydrocarbons. 
By Professor Wrrr1am Sway, LL.D., RSL. 


The author stated that in 1856 he had communicated to the Royal Society of 
Edinburgh a paper, published in yol. xxi. of their Transactions, entitled “ On the 
Prismatic Spectra of the Flames of Compounds of Carbon and Hydrogen.” In 
his observations on these substances he made use of an arrangement (employed by 
him still earlier in 1847) identical with that which, since the publication of Kirch- 
hoff and Bunsen’s researches in Spectrum-analysis, is familiarly known as a ‘ Spec- 
troscope,” namely, an observing telescope, a prism, and a collimator, receiving the 
light to be examined through a narrow slit at its principal focus. 

The observations published in 1856 consist of carefully obseryed minimum devi- 
ations of fourteen dark lines of the sun spectrum, and of twelve bright lines of the 
hydrocarbon spectra, which bright lines were found to be identical in fifteen dif- 
ferent hydrocarbons examined. No absolute coincidences between the lines in the 
solar and terrestrial spectra were observed, except that, long before discovered by 
Fraunhofer, between the double sun-line D and the double yellow line of ordinary 
flames, now, wherever it may be seen, referred to sodium. 

The yellow line was generally present in the hydrocarbon spectra; but, from a 
careful quantitative experiment, it was ascertained that the 2,500,000th part of a 
troy grain of sodium rendered its presence in a flame sensible: and the conclusion 
was then distinctly stated, it is believed for the first time, that whenever or where- 
ever the double yellow line appears it is due to the presence of minute traces of 
sodium. 

In this state the observations of 1856 had remained until lately, when the author 
was requested by his friend Professor Piazzi Smyth to compute the wave-lengths 
of some of the hydrocarbon lines, As no exact coincidence existed between these 
and the lines of the solar spectrum, it was necessary to have recourse to some pro- 
cess of interpolation; and that which suggested itself to the author was founded 
upon Lagrange’s well-known Interpolation theorem. In order to verify as far as 
possible the results, the computation of the wave-lengths of the hydrocarbon lines 
was repeated by interpolating between different groups of sun lines; and the dis- 
crepancies between the numbers so obtained in no case extended beyond the place 
of units in Angstrém’s scale of wave-lengths, where unity expresses the ten mil- 
lionth part ofa millimetre. The subject was brought before the Association in order 


44. REPORT—1871. 


to elicit an opinion whether the results likely to be obtained would be of sufficient 


importance to warrant a more elaborate discussion of the entire series of observa- 


tions with a view to future publication. 


Poste Photographique. By the Azs& Moteno. 


An Account of a New Photographic Dry Process. By RK. Surron. 


Heat. 


Description of Experiments made in the Physical Laboratory of the University 
of Glasgow to determine the Surface Conductivity for Heat of a Copper Ball. 
By Donatp M‘Farnane. 


The experiments described in this paper were made under the direction of Sir 
W. Thomson during the summers of 1865 and 1871. A hot copper ball, having a 
thermoelectric junction at its centre, was suspended in the interior of a closed 
space kept at a constant temperature of about 16° Cent., the other junction was 
kept at the temperature of the envelope, the circuit was completed through a 
mirror galvanometer, and the deflections noted at intervals of one minute as the 
ball gradually cooled. 

The method of reducing the observations was explained at length. The difference 
of the Napierian logarithms of the differences of temperatures of the junctions, 
indicated by the deflections, divided by the intervals of time, gives the rate of 
cooling ; and this, ape ae by a factor depending on the capacity for heat of the 
ball and on the extent of its surface, gives the quantity of heat emitted in gramme 
water units in the unit of time per square centimetre, per 1° of difference of tem- 
peratures. Formule were given which express the results of the experiments very 
closely, and a table calculated by them exhibits the rates of emission for every 5° 
of difference throughout the range. 

The first and second series had a range of from 5° to 25° only, which was too 
small to give decided results; but the third and fourth series, made with a polished 
copper surface and a blackened surface respectively, gave variations in the emissive 
power from ‘000178 at 5° diff. of temperature to -000226 at 60° diff. for the polished 
surface, and from °000252 at 5° diff. to 000328 at 60° diff. for the blackened sur- 
face; and the emissive powers of the two surfaces exhibit throughout a nearly 
constant ratio to each other of about ‘694. 


On a Respirator for Use in Extinction of Hires. 
By Wrt11am Lavo, F.RA.S. 


This instrument combines the advantages of the charcoal and the cotton-wool 
respirators. The respirator is intended to be fitted on the heads of firemen, and it 
will enable a fireman to enter into the midst of any smoke, however dense. There 
is sufficient protection fcr the eyes, by means of glasses. The results of an experi- 
ment with the respirator have been stated by Prof. Tyndall. In a small cellar-like 
chamber, furnaces containing resinous pine-wood were placed, and the wood being 
lighted, a dense smoke was generated. In this room, Prof. Tyndall and his 
assistant, using these respirators, remained for more than half an hour, when the 
smoke was so dense and pungent that a single inhalation through the unprotected 
mouth and nostrils would have been perfectly unendurable. The instrument has 
been tested by Capt. Shaw, chief officer of the Metropolitan Fire Brigade, who 
has taken very great interest in perfecting it, by attaching to it suitable hoods. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 45 


On the Temperature-equilibrium of an Enclosure in which there is a Body in 
Visible Motion. By Prof. Barrour Srewart, /.R.S. 


It is now several years since Professor Tait and the author of this paper came 
jointly to entertain the belief that there is some transmutation of energy, the 
exact nature of which is unknown, when large bodies approach or recede from one 
another. It is desirable to vindicate an idea of this nature, both from the theo- 
retical and the practical point of view—that is to say, we ought, if possible, to 
exhibit it as a probable deduction from those laws of nature with which we are 
already acquainted; and, on the other hand, it ought to be supported by observa- 
tions and experiments of a new kind. In our case the experiments and observations 
have been of a difficult nature, and are yet in progress; it is therefore premature to 
bring them before the notice of the Association. A theoretical vindication of the 
idea has been obtained by Professor Tait, and more recently one has occurred to 
the author of these remarks, which he now ventures to bring forward. Men 
of science are now sufficiently well acquainted with Prevost’s theory of exchanges, 
and its recent extension. We know that in an enclosure, the walls of which are 
kept at a constant temperature, every substance will ultimately attain the very 
same temperature as these walls, and we know also that this temperature-equili- 
brium can only be brought about by the absorption of every particle being exactly 
equal to its radiation, an equality which must separately hold for every individual 
kind of heat which the enclosure radiates. This theoretical conclusion is sup- 
ported by numerous experiments, and one of its most important applications has 
been the analysis of the heavenly bodies by means of the spectroscope. Let us 
now suppose that in such an enclosure we have a body in visible motion, its tem- 

erature, however, being precisely the same as that of the walls of the enclosure. 

ad the body been at rest, we know from the theory of exchanges that there 
would haye been a perfect equilibrium of temperature between the enclosure and 
the body; but there is reason to believe that this state of temperature-equilibrium 
is broken by the motion of the body. For we know both from theory and expe- 
riment that if a body, such for instance as a star, be either rapidly approaching the 
eye of an observer or receding from it, the rays from the body which strike the eye 
will no longer be precisely the same as would have struck it had the body been at 
the same temperature and at rest—just as the whistle of a railway engine rapidly 
approaching an observer will have to him a different note from that which it 
would have had if the engine had been at rest. The body at motion in the 
enclosure is not therefore giving the enclosure those precise rays which it would 
have given it had it been at the same temperature and at rest; on the other hand, 
the rays which are leaying the enclosure are unaltered. The enclosure is there- 
fore receiving one set of rays and giving out another, the consequence of which 
will be a want of temperature-equilibrium in the enclosure, in other words, all 
the various particles of the enclosure will not be of the same temperature. Now, 
what is the consequence of this? The consequence will be that we can use these 
particles of different temperature so as to transmute part of their heat into the 
energy of visible motion, just as we do in a steam-engine ; and if it is allowable to 
suppose that during this process the moving body has retained all its energy of 
motion, the result will be an increase of the amount of visible energy within the 
enclosure, all the particles of which were originally of the same temperature. But 
Sir W. Thomson has shown us that this is impossible; in other words, we cannot 
imagine an increase of the visible energy of such an enclosure unless we acknow- 
ledge the possibility of a perpetual motion. It is not, therefore, allowable to sup- 
pose that in such an enclosure the moving body continues to retain all its energy 
of motion, and consequently such a body will have its energy of motion gradually 
stopped. Evidently in this argument the use of the enclosure has been to enable 
us to deduce our proof from the known laws of heat and energy, and we may alter 
the shape of the body without affecting the result; in other words, we should 
expect some loss of visible energy in the case of cosmical bodies approaching or 
receding from one another. 


On a new Steam-gauge. By Prof. Cu. V. Zunerr. 
This gauge is intended to avoid the defects of common air-gauges, which have 


46 REPORT—1871. 


hitherto prevented the employment of the air-manometer, and at the same time 
to be more accurate and unalterable in its working than the spring gauges now 
commonly used for steam-boilers. In the first place, it is a great defect in the 
common air-gauge that the divisions on the manometric tube diminish rapidly at 
high pressures, and consequently the reading becomes less and less accurate the 
higher the pressure. The new steam-gauge, on the contrary, possesses the same 
degree of accuracy at all pressures, and even enables us to make the accuracy of 
reading greater at higher pressures. 

Another serious defect of the air-manometer is the liability to rupture of the 
narrow column of mercury when the steam is suddenly shut off or turned on. 
This is entirely avoided in the present instrument by the use of two closed vessels 
communicating with each other only by very narrow capillary tubes. Finally, the 
small column of mercury enclosed in the glass tube of common air-manometers is 
subject to capillary depression, and to the disturbing effects of heat upon the air- 
bulb and upon the mercury. 

In the instrument now to be described it is sought to avoid these defects by not 
using capillary tubes for the manometer, and by disposing the air and mercury in 
such a way as to make the effect of heat insensible. 

The air-tube of the manometer consists of a series of tubes of equal leneth, but 
different diameters, joined together by means of a blowpipe, and ending at the 
top in a glass bulb. The lower end is connected by an air-tight screw, joined 
with the first of two iron yessels containing each mercury or some other liquid, 
and communicating only by a very narrow capillary tube or channel. 

The manometric tube is sealed at the bottom, but there are two fine capillary 
openings through the side at points below the surface of the mercury or other 
liquid contained in the two iron vessels. Hence the communication of pressure 
from the steam or other compressed gas, whose pressure is to be measured, and 
which presses directly upon the surface of the liquid in the second iron vessel, can 
only take place through a system of two capillary channels; and the resistance 
which these channels oppose to the motion of the mercury, by which they are 
filled, makes it impossible for sudden changes to occur in the height of the mano- 
metric column, and thus entirely prevents the division of the column or the entry 
of steam or gas into the manometer. 

The capacities of the tubes and of the globe, which compose the manometric 
tubes, are so adjusted that they decrease_in the same ratio in which the pressure 
increases, which is evidently what is required by Mariotte’s law in order that an 
increase of pressure of one atmosphere may cause the first tube to be filled by the 
enclosing liquid, and that a further increase of pressure of the same amount may 
cause the second tube to be filled, and so on, each equal increment of pressure 
causing the same rise of the liquid in the manometric tube. This adjustment of 
the capacities is eflected as follows :—Let the capacity of a manometer, to be di- 
vided so as to show pressures up to, say, four atmospheres, be called unity, and let 
Vj) Voy V3, and v, be the capacities of the first, second, and third tube and of the 
terminal globe respectively, then we haye— 

V,+0.+0;+0v,=1 for one atmosphere. 
2,+v,+0,= 4 for two atmospheres. 
v,+v,=4% for three ” 
v,=+ for four 3 


This gives for the capacities of the tubes and their radii :— 


ane Y= = ; 
1 2 T.2 1 V Qnh 
PRA Wik esol. 
2) 6 5) 3 y= MV 6rh 
1 1 

a on — ; 

Sad lo tay lee 
] 

%=1, =37 ; 


— e 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. A7 


where / is the length of each tube. To prevent accidental breakage of the mano- 
meter, it is fastened to the graduated brass plate, and with it screwed to a glass 
cover { of an inch thick, capable of supporting a pressure of 20 atmospheres. 


ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. 


On the Influence of Clean and Unclean Surfaces in Voltaic Action. 
By Tuomas Broxam, Lecturer on Chenustry, Cheltenham College. 


1. Gas was evolved by the contact of zinc and platinum surfaces, then an equal 
amount from the same surfaces when the platinum had been cleaned by hot oil 
of vitriol; the time was exactly half when the clean surfaces were used; contact of 
the surfaces with the fingers or dipping them in solutions of various substances was 
found to retard the evolution in a very marked degree. 

2. Heating the platinum in a measure cleaned it, but not so satisfactorily as hot 
oil of vitriol. Copper and other metals behaved similarly to platinum. 

3. Platinized silver, from its method of manufacture, appeared to be already 
clean, no advantage being obtained by chemically cleaning it. 

4. Mechanically roughened surfaces of platinum exhibited a decided advantage 
over smooth ones. 

5. The cell of a Smee’s battery, examined by a galvanometer, gave vastly better 
results when the negative plate had been chemically cleaned. 

6. Voltameters, the plates of which had been chemically cleaned, exhibited a 
marked superiority over those not so cleaned ; thus it appears that in all voltaic 
action the results are superior where the surfaces of the negative metals, elec- 
trodes, &c. have been chemically cleaned, and that mere contact with the finger is 
sufficient to modify the evolution of gases from the surface. 


On a new Form of Constant Galvanic Battery. By Latimer Crarx, 0.2. 
(Extracted from a Letter to Sir William Thomson.) 


I have spoken to you several times about a form of battery which can be set up 
under such conditions as to ensure uniformity of tension within limits of about ‘05 
or ‘06 per cent., and that without any special precautions as to the purity of the 
materials employed. I have not yet been able to make the necessary experiments 
for determining its value in absolute units, though I hope shortly to have made 
an independent determination. I have, however, set up about 200 of the 
elements in question, and haye measured them on about 30 different days; 
and from the mean of these experiments, taking the Daniell at 1:079 volts, I make 
this element to be 1:403 volts. In obtaining this result I have had to make care- 
ful measurements of electromotive force of more than 1000 different elements, 
comprising some 40 or 50 different kinds; in fact I have been working at it for 
six years. 

The element in question varies about ‘07 per cent. for each degree Centigrade, 
getting weaker with increased temperature: the temperature at which our com- 
parison with the Daniell’s cell is made is 18° Centigrade. 

The element consists of a cylinder of pure zinc resting on a paste of protosulphate 
of mercury and saturated solution of sulphate of zinc, previously jailed to expel the 
air, the other electrode being metallic mercury, connexion being made with the 
latter by a platinum wire. It is desirable that the materials should be pure; but 
if commercial materials be employed the error does not exceed ‘06 per cent. at first, 
and after three or four hours the value becomes sensibly the same as with pure 
materials. 

The precautions necessary are that the protosulphate of mercury should be free 
from persulphate, and that the solution of persulphate of zinc should be supersatu- 
rated. The elements do not vary sensibly for two or three months, say ‘05 per cent. 

It is essential that the element showld not be worked through small interpolar 


48 REPORT—187 1. 


resistance; but the measurement should be made by the use of a condenser, or, 
infinitely better, by my “ Potentiometer,’ which, with a Thomson’s reflecting 
galvanometer, readily measures to the millionth part of a Daniell’s cell, or very 
much less if required. 


Notice of and Observations with a New Dip-circle. 
By J. P. Journ, LL.D., F.BRS., Fe. 


The method of suspension of the needle, which formed the principal feature of 
the new instrument, was explained. The increased facilities of observation had 
enabled the author to trace the diurnal variation of inclination with greater 
accuracy than he believed had hitherto been done. At Manchester, about the 
summer solstice, the greatest inclination was found to occur at 215 40™ local time, 
and the range extended to 5’. The simultaneous variation of horizontal intensity 
was such as to indicate that the total intensity was very nearly a constant quantity. 


On Thermo-electricity. By Professor Tarr. 


It results from Thomson’s investigations, founded on the beautiful discoveries of 
Peltier and Cumming, that the graphic representation of the electromotive force of 
a thermo-electric circuit, in terms of temperatures as abscissze, is a curve symme- 
trical about a vertical axis. This I have found to be, within the limits of experi- 
mental error, a parabola in each one of a very extensive series of investigations 
which I have made with wires of every metal I could procure. To verify this 
result with great exactness, and at the same time to extend the trial to temperatures 
beyond the range of a mercurial thermometer, I made a graphic representation, in 
which the abscissze were the successive indications of one circuit, the ordinates 
those of another, the temperatures being the same in both. It is easy to see that 
if the separate circuits give parabolas (as above) in terms of temperature, this pro- 
cess also should lead to a parabola, the axis, however, being no longer vertical. 
This severe test was well borne, even to temperatures approaching a dull red heat. 
Unfortunately, it is difficult to procure wires of the more infusible metals, with the 
exception of platinum and palladium, so that I have not yet been able to push this 
test to very high temperatures. I hope, however, with the kind assistance of 
M. H. Sainte-Claire Deville, to have wires of nickel and cobalt, with which to test 
the parabolic law through a very wide range. 

Parabolas being similar figures, it is easy to adjust the resistances in any two 
circuits so as to make their parabolas (in terms of temperature) equal. When this 
is done, if the neutral points be different, it is obvious that by making them act in 
opposite directions on a differential galvanometer we shall have deflections directly 
proportional to the temperature-differences of the junctions. 

It is a curious result of this investigation, that, supposing the parabolic law to be 
true, the Peltier effect is also expressed by a parabolic function of temperature, 
vanishing at absolute zero. 

I was led to this inquiry by a hypothetical application of the Dissipation of 
Energy to what Thomson calls the electric convection of heat, and my result is 
verified (within the range of my experiments), that the specific heat of electricity 
is directly proportional to the absolute temperature. It is scarcely necessary to 
point out that the above results appear to promise a very simple solution of the 
problem of measuring high temperatures, such as those of furnaces, the melting- 
points of rocks, &c. 


On a Method of Testing Submerged Electric Cables. By C. F. Varury. 


On a New Key for the Morse Printing Telegraph. By Cu. V. ZuncEr, Pro- 
fessor of Natural Philosophy at the Polytechnic School in Prague. 


I had devised in 1868 a new automatic key to work the Morse telegraph. 
It produced three marks, viz. a point, a short line, and a long line. It con- 


re rE YS. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 49 


sisted of three levers; by pressing them down steel springs moved along a very 
short, or along longer sheets of conducting material, and formed thus three signs 
of different lengths. Yet there was a certain time required to work the three keys ; 
to obviate it, and to put the telegraphist entirely at his ease as to the speed attain- 
able for him, and to obtain in neh a manner the highest speed possible, I con- 
structed the key in another manner. 

A clockwork arrangement moves a small wooden cylinder, whose steel axis is 
attached to it by a handle, and rotates with great velocity, the rate of velocity 
being accurately indicated by sounding a small bell as often in a second as the 
cylinder will revolve in the same time. 

The wooden cylinder bears three thin circular disks of brass attached to the 
steel axis of the cylinder ; these disks are differently cut out, in such a manner that 
the first is a full circle of 360°, the second a sector of nearly 120°, the rest of the 
circle being covered with an insulating material, viz. wood or india-rubber, to pre- 
vent metallic contact. 

The third disk is only a segment of 10°, the rest being cut out and covered with 
the insulating material. 

Three levers, put in front of the three disks, bear on their ends platinum wires or 
lates that touch the disks during one revolution of the cylinder when pressed 
own. 

From the levers a conducting-plate, uniting them, leads to the printing apparatus, 
and the levers are reduced to their former position by strong steel springs, so that 
they regain rapidly their positions after the pressure of the finger has ceased. What- 
ever be the velocity of the paper and the rollers, and the clockwork moving it, the 
relative length of the sizes and their distances remain unalterably the same. 

In the model presented to the General Post Office, the motion endures for 15 
= hig and, being only a model, it is worked by a spring, and it has no rollers for 
the paper. 

i the working apparatus for telegraphic use, the rollers and whole printing ap- 
paratus are teckel to the key, and the same clockwork moves both the rollers 
and the rotating cylinder, forming thus only one apparatus together. From that 
contrivance we obtain :— 

1. A quite equal distance between the signs, as in printing. . 

2. By putting the fans of the alenksyal in differently inclined positions, the 
velocity may be carried to as great an extent as a clever clerk can manage it. 

3, By using three signs instead of two, the signs for letters, figures, and phrases 
are reduced about one-third, and as much of time and space is spared. 


Merroronoey. 


On the Importance of the Azores as a Meteorological Station. 
By Dr. Buys Bator. 


Tn this paper the author classed his remarks under three heads :—(1) as to the 
importance of the station ; (2) as to the present condition of the question of its esta- 
blishment'; (3) what remains to be done. He showed that, although we have very 
copious results of observations made by vessels crossing the various oceans in all 
directions, there is great deficiency of actual observations at jived points. After 
pointing out the very important position occupied by the Azores, as illustrated by 
the researches of Mr. Buchan and Prof. Mohn with reference to the normal tracks 
of European storms, and also in their lying so completely in the path of merchant 
vessels, Dr. Ballot explained that about five years ago he submitted to the 
British Admiralty a proposal for establishing a chain of barometric stations in the 


'$. and W. of the British Isles, and at the Azores, and obtaining meteorological 


reports from thence, In April 1866 he applied to the Portuguese Government 
and to various learned meteorologists ; and the Director of the Lisbon Observatory 
has been to Holland to consult Dr. Ballot on the subject. 

A concession has been granted for the laying of a cable to the Azores; a learned 


1871. f 


50 , REPORT—1871. 


Portuguese has undertaken to provide the instruments and instruct the observer. 
The only expense involved is the charge for the transmission of the telegraph- 
messages: it would be most unfair that a country like Portugal should bear ail the 
cost (about £350 per annum for one message daily); and Dr. Ballot thinks that it 
should be raised jointly and proportionally by the European Maritime States, all of 
whom would largely benefit by the adoption of the proposal. 


Mean Temperature of Arbroath. Latitude 56° 33' 35" North, Longitude 
2° 35’ 30" W. of Greenwich. By ALEXANDER Brown, LL.D. 


Mean Temperature iff 
Months. Mean temperature. of different Periods. Recess oi 
and 


ey 3] 4 5} 6 7 8 


4 18 | 22 | 26 | 18 | 22 | 26 
peor, Rope: ee8-| 1610: years. |years. years. years. | years.| years.| years. 


° ° ° fe) ° ° ° ° ie} °o ° 

January ...... 33°0| 41°3| 41°0| 36°4| 37°9| 37°5| 364| 366 |—o'4 |—1°5 |—13 
February ...| 42°1| 42°3| 42°7| 36°7| 40°9| 38°4| 37°0| 37°6|—2°5 |—3°9 |—3°3 
March ...... 37°8| 43°6| 389) 40°8| 40°2| 39°9| 39°7| 39°7 |—0°3 |—0°5 |—0'5 
April ws... 47°1| 47°4| 47°7| 48°0| 47°5| 48°0| 43°8| 443 |+0°5|—3°7|—32 
VERY, cca? os 47°4| 52°6| 46°8| 52°3| 49°7| 49°7] 49°2| 49'2| o'0|—0'5 |—o'§ 
JUNE «.seeeeee 55°9| 5773 | 54°6) 57°7| 56°3| 55°9| 55°3| 55°4|—0'4 |—1'0 |—0'9 
OLY ahecesees 540] 60°6| 61'6| 61°0| 59°3} 58°3| 58°2| 58:3 |—1°0|—1'1 |—10 
August ...... 58°6| 59°5| 57°8| 58°4] 58°6) 57°6| 57°2| 57°4|—1:0|—1°4|—1'2 
September ...| 55°7| 54°6| 55°4) 55° | 55°2| 54°3| 53°4| 53°6|—o'9 |—1°8 |— 16 
October ...... 47°7| 45°5| 48°1| 47°7| 47°2| 47°3| 46°8| 46-9 |+o'1 |—04 |—0°3 
November ...! 42°5 | 41°4| 41°6| 40°0| 41°4| 40°8| 40°4| 40°5 |—0'6 |—1°0 |—o'9 
December ...| 38°38] 412] 35°2| 35°3| 37°6| 38°38] 37°9| 37°9 |+1'2 |\+0°3 |+03 

Means...... 46°7| 48°9| 47°6| 47°4| 47°6| 47°0| 46°3 | 464 |—0°6|—1°3 |—1'°2 


The author constructed from his meteorological journals the foregoing Table for 
the purpose of showing the Mean Annual Temperature at Arbroath, in the county 
of Forfar, on the east coast of Scotland. In the Table, columns nos. 1, 2, 3, and 
4 give the monthly mean temperature, and also the annual mean temperature, of 
each of the years 1867, 1868, 1869, and 1870. The warmest of these four years was 
1868, and the coldest the year immediately preceding, namely 1867. The mean 
temperature of 1868, as shown by the Table, was 48°'9, and that of 1867 46°-7, the 
difference between the warmest and coldest year of the four being 2°-2, Column5 
is the mean of the monthly and annual temperature of the four years already men- . 
tioned; column 6 is the mean of 13 years, from 1857 to 1869 inclusive; co- 
lumn 7 is the mean of 22 years, from 1845 to 1866 inclusive; and column 8 is the 
mean of 26 years, from 1845 to 1870 inclusive. The annual mean temperature of 
the 4-year period is 47°-6, of the 13-year period 47°:0, of the 22-year period 46°-3, 
and of the 26-year period 46°4. It will be observed that the annual means of the 
two long periods differ by only one tenth of a degree, and are therefore a near ap- 
proximation to the mean temperature of the locality. 

The thermometers used are the Minimum thermometer of Rutherford and the 
Maximum thermometer of Negretti and Zambra, which have been tested by the 
Standard instruments of the Scottish Meteorological Society. They are attached 
to a wooden frame fixed to a window-sill having a northern exposure. Very great 
care is taken to protect the instruments from the effects of radiation and other 
causes, The thermometers are placed 11 feet from the ground and 70 feet aboye 
the level of the sea, and distant therefrom 783 yards in a direct line, 


ars. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 51 


On the Thermo-Dynamics of the General Oceanie Circulation. 
By Writr1am B. Carpenter, LL.D., M.D., PRS. 


lence of a temperature not much above 32° F. over the bottom of the great Ocean- 
beds, at depths greater than 2000 fathoms. As it has been proved by Temperature- 
soundings made in: the Mediterranean that the temperature of its bottom at like 
depths is about 54° F., it is obvious that depth, per se, has no relation to the pheno- 
menon. And the explanation of it propounded by the author is, (1) that a body of 
Polar water flows over the deepest portions of the Oceanic basins which communi- 
cate with the Arctic and Antarctic areas; (2) that this flow has its origin in the 
action of Polar cold on the water subjected to its influence, whereby a descending 
movement is imparted to the whole mass; besides which, the Polar column, in 
virtue of its greater density, will have a Seon downward pressure than the 
Equatorial column at the same level; (3) that this bottom outflow will produce 
an indraught of the more superficial stratum of Ocean water towards the Polar 
areas; (4) and that a vertical circulation will thus be maintained by difference of 
Temperature alone, carrying the lower cold stratum of Ocean water from the Polar 
towards the Equatorial area, and the upper warm stratum from the Equatorial to- 
wards the Polar. 

A different explanation of the facts, however, has been offered by those who 
regard the Horizontal Circulation, of which the Trade-winds are the primum 
mobile, as the sole cause of the amelioration of the temperature of the Arctic basin, 
by an afflux of warm water; for it has been urged that the driving off of the 
superficial stratum of Equatorial water in the Gulf-stream must produce a partial 
yoid in that area, which will be filled by a deep indraught of Polar water.—This 
appears to the author extremely improbable, on general physical grounds. A 
horizontal movement of surface-water in the open Ocean would not draw up water 
from below, so long as a /ateral influx can keep up its level; so that any such 
horizontal Wind-current must have another horizontal movement to complete the 
circulation. Such a horizontal complement is obvious in the case of the Gulf- 
stream, of which one portion turns round the Azores to re-enter the Equatorial 
current, thus completing the shorter circulation ; whilst the other portion, which 
flows onwards in a N.E. direction, has as its complement the various cold 
surface-currents which are known to set southwards, and of which it is shown by 
recent observations that one tends towards the coast of Mogador, sending an offset 
through the Strait of Gibraltar. ; 

Further, it was argued by the author that the temperature-phenomena obtained 
in recent explorations indicate that a N.E. movement of the upper stratum of 
Oceanic water extends between the coast of Spain and the Faroe Islands to a depth 
of 500 or 600 fathoms, and that while this cannot be attributed to any propulsive 
action derived from the Gulf-stream (the thinned out edge of which is less than 50 
fathoms in depth), it is exactly such a flow as would be anticipated on the hypo- 
thesis of a vertical circulation sustained by opposition of Temperature. 


On the Mathematical Theory of Atmospheric Tides. 
By the Rev. Professor Cuatiis, M.A., LLD., PRS. 


The purpose of the author in this communication was to point out a process of 
analytical reasoning by which the solution of the problem of atmospheric tides 
might be strictly derived from the general equations of hydrodynamics, For the 
sake of simplicity, the surface on which the atmosphere rests was supposed to be 
exactly spherical, the earth was conceived to have no motion of rotation, and the 
tidal motion to be produced by the moon revolving westward in the plane of the 
earth’s equator, at her mean distance (R), and with the mean relative angular 
yelocity (»). Also it was assumed that the relation between the pressure (p) and 
density (p) is at all times and at all points of the atmosphere p=a’p, the effects of 
yariation of temperature not being taken into account. 

As tidal motion is oscillatory, and the oscillations are so small that it is uns 

4% 


52 REPORT—-1871. 


necessary to proceed beyond the first order of small quantities, the following equa- 
tions, expressed in the usual notation, were adopted as being sufficiently general 
and approximate for the purpose :— 


&p ier ap ae &h a dh F (1) 


Pa) de dy? Gi tHlth. Aided taaial cee ee 


a@(dp) _ Xdv 4 Vdy + Bde — a. 49. abt vet «faye ae 
p ( 

The proposed method of solving the problem of tides requires, first, that equa- 
tion (1) should be satisfied by a particular integral of assigned form; and then 
that the arbitrary quantities contained in this integral, together with that arising 
from the integration of equation (2), should admit of being determined by the 
given conditions of the problem. Before giving the details of the method it is 
necessary to state the meanings of the literal symbols. 

The resolved parts of the velocity being wu, v, w at the point xyz at the time ¢, 

dp = udx + vdy + wde. 
The attractions of the earth and moon at the unit of distance being respectively G 
and m, the impressed forces X, Y, Z are the resolved parts of the forces 
G m q zm 


= Ue a sy} 07 
r RY oe 


a being the distance of the particle at 2yz from the moon. The angular distance 
of the moon westward from the meridian of Greenwich at the time ¢ reckoned from 
the Greenwich transit is wt. If be the north latitude, and 6 the longitude west- 
ward, of the point zyz distant by x from the earth’s centre, 


x=7 cosh cos 6, y=r cosd sin 4, s=rsind. 
_ After transforming by these formule the rectangular coordinates in equa- 
tion (1) into the polar coordinates 7, 6, X, for certain specified reasons the author 


assumed that 

rp = f(r) cosh sin 2(6—pt), 
and then found that equation (1) is satisfied by this value of rp if the form 
of f be determined by integrating the equation 


This integration gave, after omitting the extremely small quantity ae -, the fol- 


; 25a" 
lowing value of ¢, containing two arbitrary constants : 
gb = (Cr? + C'r-) cos*A sin (26—pt). 

The remainder of the reasoning depends altogether on this value of @, which 
was considered by the author to be indispensable for the solution of the problem 
of atmospheric tides, and, as far as he was aware, had not been before employed 
for that purpose. 

_ For determining the three arbitrary quantities there are three conditions. That 
introduced by the integration of equation (2) is determined by the condition 
that at either pole of the earth the density has a constant value, because, as may 
be inferred from the expression for @, the aérial columns having their bases at 
the poles are motionless. A second condition is, that at the earth’s surface the 


vertical velocity, = is always zero; so that if b be the earth’s radius, on : 
The third condition necessarily has reference to the circumstances of the fluid at 
its superior boundary, respecting which the author argues as follows :— 

_ That the height of the atmosphere is limited may be inferred from the considera- 
tion that, by the continual diminution of the density with the distance from the 
earth’s surface, the upward molecular repulsion must eventually be no greater than 
the downward acceleration of gravity, in which case there can be no further upward 
action, and the fluid terminates by an abnormal degradation of the density down 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 53 


to zero at the extreme limit. The particles within the superficial stratum subjected 
to this disturbance are maintained in equilibrium by the combined action of mole- 
cular repulsion and the earth’s attraction, till at a small distance from the extreme 
limit, where the abnormal variation of density ceases, the density is such as might 
result from avery small constant pressure applied at all points of a surface bounding 
a terminal density of finite value. (Views of this kind respecting the condition of 
the atmosphere at its superior limit were entertained by Poisson.) On these prin- 
ciples it is easy to find a mathematical relation between the terminal density and 
the height of the atmosphere. The author has, in fact, made the calculation on 
the supposition that the atmosphere is 60 miles high, and obtains a terminal density 
equal to six-millionths of that at the earth’s surface. 

According to the above views a particle at the superior boundary may be sup- 
posed to remain at the surface, and to be of the same density, in successive instants. 

dp 


This condition is expressed by equating the complete differential coefficient (“) 


to zero. By means of this additional equation the value of the constant C can be 
calculated on assuming a certain height for the atmosphere. Supposing the height 
to be 60 miles, the author obtains C=0:000000830 x. 

a arbitrary quantities being determined, the following results are readily 
obtained :— 


Height of tide above the polar column, expressed in feet, 
= 1-084 cos*\+ 1-275 cos*A cos 2(6— pt). 


At the equator, where \=0, difference between high and low tide =2:55 feet, 
Excess of barometer-reading above that at the pole, expressed in inches, 


=0°00117 cos?’ +.0:00139 cos? A cos 2(8—pt). 
At the equator the maximum difference of the barometer-readings=0-00278 in. 


The data employed in calculating these coefficients were :— 
tte I. Big -e2ck: peGilng (9225) ol 
G70 Ros g ~ 82 ~ 389’ 

the density of air =0-C013, the density of mercury =13°568. 

The above determination of the maximum difference of barometer-readings at the 
equator admits of comparison with the results of barometric observations made at 
St. Helena and at Singapore, as given in p. 129 of the Philosophical Transactions 
for 1852. These results agree with the theory in placing the high tide immediately 
under the moon ; but the maximum difference of readings is 0:00365 in. at St. Helena 
and 0:00570in. at Singapore. Both consequently are in excess of the theoretical value 
0:00278 in. But it is to be remarked that the latter depends on the assumption 
that the atmosphere is GO miles high; if it had heen supposed of less height, say 
40 miles, there would have been a closer agreement between the observed and theo- 
retical values. - 

The author’stheory accounts in a remarkable manner for the fact that although 
for the atmosphere high tide occurs under the moon, there is reason to say that for 

~a general ocean of the uniform depth of three or four miles it would be low tide 
under the moon. The explanation giyen by the theory is, that there is a certain 
depth of ocean or height of atmosphere for which the tide becomes infinite, namely, 
when the rate of propagation of waves, as due to the earth’s attraction, is equal to 
the rate of the moon’s relative rotation about the earth. In that case the tide 
would be accumulative, and might be of unlimited amount. This critical depth, 
or height, is shown by the theory to be about 8:4 miles for each fluid. It is because 
the actual mean depth of the ocean is less, and the actual height of the atmosphere 
greater, than this critical value, that the ocean-tide under the moon is the opposite 
of the atmospheric tide. 


Remarks on Aérial Currents. By Prof, Conprye, 


54 REPORT—1871. 


On Wet- and Dry-bulb Formule. By Prof. J. D. Evererr, F.R.S.E. 


The author said August, Apjohn, and Regnault have investigated formule for 
determining the dew-point, by calculation, from the temperatures of the dry- and 
wet-bulb thermometers; but Regnault’s experiments on the specific heat of air 
were not performed till a later date, and all these authors have adopted, in their 
investigations, the value obtained by Delaroche and Berard, which is ‘267, whereas 
the correct value is ‘237. But when this correct value is introduced into Reg- 
nault’s formula, the discrepancies which he found to exist between calculation and 
observation are increased, and amount, on an average, to about 25 per cent. of the 
difference between wet-bulb temperature and dew-point. August and Apjohn 
erred in assuming that all the air which gives heat to the wet bulb (1) falls to the tem-~ 
perature of the wet bulb, and (2) becomes saturated. These two false assumptions 
would jointly produce no error in the result, if the depressions of temperature in 
the different portions of air affected were exactly proportional to their increments 
of vapour-tension, and if some of the air were saturated at the temperature of the 
wet bulb. But it is probable that, when there is little or no wind, the mass of air 
which falls sensibly in temperature is larger than that which receives a sensible 
accession of vapour, and that, in high wind, the supposition that some of the air 
has fallen to the temperature of the wet bulb is more nearly fulfilled than the 
supposition that it has taken up enough vapour to saturate it. The effect of radi- 
ation, which is ignored in the formulze, tends in the same direction as these two 
inequalities, and all three are roughly compensated by attributing to air a greater 
specific heat than it actually has. The discrepancies above referred to are thus 
explained. 


On the General Circulation and Distribution of the Atmosphere. 
By Professor J. D, Everert, F.RS.L. 


The object of this paper was to call the attention of meteorologists to a theory 
which is jointly due to Prof. James Thomson of Belfast, and Mr. Ferrel of Boston, 
U.S.A., and which gives the only satisfactory account of the grand currents of 
the atmosphere, and of the distribution of barometric pressure over the earth’s 
surface, the irregularities arising from the distribution of land and water being 
neglected. Independent proofs were also given of some of Mr. Ferrel’s results, 

In yirtue of the earth’s rotation, with angular velocity o, a body, in latitude A, 
moving along the earth’s surface with relative linear velocity v, tends to describe 
on the earth’s surface a curve concave to the body’s right in the northern and to its 


left in the southern hemisphere, the radius of cuvature of the concavity being 
ee feet, if the velocity is in feet per second. The deflection from a parallel of 


latitude into a great circle is usually negligible in comparison, being represented 
by the curvature of a circle of radius RcotanA, where R is the earth’s radius. 

To keep the moving body in a great circle, or in a parallel of latitude, requires 
a constraining force per unit of mass equal to 2wsind. v, which if the foot and 
second be units, is — ; and this formula applies alike to all horizontal directions 
of motion. 

The air over the extra-tropical parts of the earth has, upon the whole, a relative 
motion towards the east, and therefore presses towards the tropics with a force 
which can be computed by the above formula, if the eastward velocity at each 
parallel is known. If v denote this velocity at any parallel, in feet per second, 
the increase of pressure per degree of latitude at that parallel is 0019» sin\ inches 
of mercury. This is sufficient to account for the observed increase of pressure 
from the poles to the tropics, which may be roughly stated at ‘01 inch per degree. 

Between the tropics, the general movement of the air, relative to the earth, is 
towards the west, and the increase of pressure is therefore from the equator towards 
the tropics. 

If ay stratum of air have less than the average eastward or westward ve- 
locity (relative to the earth) which prevails through the strata above it, it will 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 5D 


not be able to resist the differential pressure from or towards the equator which 
their motion produces. For this reason, the lowest stratum of air, having its 
velocity relative to the earth kept down by friction, generally moves from the 
tropical belts of high barometer to the regions of low barometer at the poles and 
equator. This is the origin of our S.W. winds, and of the prevalent N. W. winds 
of the Southern oceans, which must be regarded as constituting an undercurrent 
towards the pole, beneath a topmost current, also towards the pole, and a middle 
return current. Between the tropics, on the other hand, the motion thus generated 
in the lowest stratum of air coincides with the motion due to difference of tem- 
perature, and this is probably the reason why the trade-winds are more constant 
than the winds of the temperate zones. 

Excess of temperature and moisture in the equatorial regions is unquestionably 
the prime mover of the winds, as has long been believed; but the crossing of the 
winds at the tropic, which has often been coupled with it, is a physical im- 
possibility. 

The tendency of a moving mass of air to swerve to its own right in the northern 
hemisphere explains the well-established law (Buys Ballot’s), that the wind, in- 
stead of blowing at right angles to the isobaric lines, and so running down the 
steepest gradient, usually makes an angle of only 20° or 50° with these lines, 
keeping the region of lower barometer on its left. The rotation of cyclones is an 
example of this law; and the pressure which the spirally inflowing streams exert to 
their own right in virtue of the earth’s rotation is the main cause of the excessive 
central depression. 

Reference was made to Prof. J. Thomson’s paper in the British Association Re- 
port for 1857, and to papers by Mr. Ferrel in the ‘American Mathematical Monthly 
for 1860, and in ‘ Nature,’ July 20, 1871. 


Observations Physiques en Ballon. By M. Janssuy. 


The Influence of the Moon on the Rainfall. By W. Puneutty, F.RS. §. 


The author commenced by stating that though many of the popular beliefs re- 
specting “The Moon and the Weather” were no doubt utterly untenable, Sir J. 
Herschel and M. Arago concurred in the opinion that, on the whole, the rainfall 
was somewhat below the general average about the time of full moon, and that the 
fact was ascribable to the effect of the solar heat ubsorbed by the moon and 
radiated by her to us. He then proceeded to show that the heat thus received by 
us must be greatest when, or very soon after, the moon was full, when she was in 
perigee, and (in the northern hemisphere) when she had north declination; that 
the effect of this heat would be a diminution of the rainfall, not during the lunation 
as a whole, but during a certain portion of it, and therefore an augmentation 
during some other period; that the effect would be variable and never considerable ; 
and that in the northern hemisphere it would be a maximum when the moon was, 
at one and the same time, full, in perigee, and in her highest north declination. 
The paper was illustrated with several tables and diagrams based on rainfall obser- 
yations made at Torquay during eighty-seven complete lwnations ending with 
January 19, 1871. 

The following were amongst the conclusions with which the paper closed :— 

No indication of the moon’s influence on the rainfall can be detected in the data 
furnished by an isolated /unation, or by even a few successive dunations. 

Though it may be doubted whether the rainfall statistics of a period shorter than 
that in which the moon’s nodes complete a revolution, or of a solitary locality, 
would justify general inferences, the data under discussion appear to indicate that, 
in the long run, the moon does somewhat influence the rainfall; that on the 
average the dry period of a /unation extends from the first day before full moon to 
the first day before the third quarter, and the wet period from the day of the first 
quarter to the second day before the full moon; that the moon’s influence on the 
number of wet days is less marked ; and that the rainfalls are, on the whole, rather 
least heavy when the moon has north declination, and when she is in perigee—all 
indications harmonizing well with physical considerations. 


56 REPORT—1871. 


On the Inferences drawn by Drs. Magnus and Tyndall from their Experiments 
on the Radiant Properties of Vapour. By R. Russert. 


The author agreed in the main with Tyndall’s deductions. He endeayoured to 
show that vapour of water had no power of transmitting its radiant heat into space. 
This proposition was supported by arguments from various natural phenomena. 


On Parhelia, or Mock Suns, observed in Ireland. 
By Wriiu1am A. Tratt, of the Geological Survey of Ireland. 


The author began by stating that the above phenomena were analogous to the 
araselenze or mock moons, and though of not unfrequent occurence in northern 
Pe aaae were in these countries of great rarity. The phenomena observed by 
him were seen on the 28th of January, 1869, near the village of Strangford (Co. 
Down), lat. 54° 21’, long. 5° 35’, west of Greenwich, and first appeared as three 
brilliant suns situated in the same horizontal line, about 15° to 20° above the 
horizon, and of equal brightness. The two outer, or mock suns, gradually assumed 
the prismatic colours, and lengthening out joined above, thus forming the “ ordinary 
halo,” in which the red colour was nearest to the real sun. Concentric and exterior 
to it was another prismatic halo, the “extraordinary halo,” which was rather 
fainter, in which also the red colour was innermost. 

Touching this latter externally was the “ circumzenithal halo,” which was by 
far the most brilliant of the three, lying as if horizontally overhead. In this like- 
wise the red colour was next the sun, thus forming the outer periphery of the halo, 
The phenomena began a little after 2 p.m., and lasted only for about half an hour, 
attaining its greatest splendour at 2" 20™ p.m. 

Throughout the duration of the phenomena the sky was of a clear blue colour, 
and almost unobscured ; a few light fleecy clouds were, however, drifting northward, 
slight “ cirrus ” clouds stretched across part of the sky, from E. to W., and through- 
out the whole time the points where the mock suns had first appeared continued 
the brightest. 

With regard to the state of the weather at the time, the day was mild and fine, 
no rain falling till the evening. The sun was warm, but a cold southerly wind 
prevailed. The moon was full on the previous day, and exceptionally high spring- 
tides occurred along the N.E. portion of the Irish coast. 

The barometer fell rapidly ‘7 inch within twelve hours. The wind veered round 
gradually through 140°, and increased in velocity from 6 to 38 miles an hour, the 
thermometer ranging from 42° to 46°, and towards evening the rain descended in 
torrents*. The succeeding ten days or fortnight was characterized by excessively 
bad weather, rain, and storms. 

The author lastly touched on the different theories by which these phenomena 
could be most easily accounted for. 


Tut Progress oF Sctencer. 


Government Action on Scientific Questions. 
By Lieut.-Col. A. Srranex, F.R.S., FRAS. 


The author called attention to the number, variety, and importance of those 
national duties, involving Science, which can be performed by the Executive 
Government alone. He pointed out that the English Government possesses 
as yet no provision for regulating the performance of these duties in a systematic 
manner. He maintained that the requisite provision must consist of two addi- 
tions to the existing administration, neither of which, however, unaccompanied 
by the other would suffice—namely, first, a Minister of Science ; and, second, 


* From Observations at the Armagh Observatory. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 57 


a permanent Consultative Council, to advise the various departments through 
the Minister. His purpose was not to endeavour to uproot the existing 
system, but to graft upon it additions demanded by experience and the progress of 
knowledge. Assuming that the Minister would be appointed for his station, 
parliamentary ability, and political influence, he would need advisers, who should 
be a permanent, well-paid, and therefore a responsible Council of Science, repre- 
senting all the main branches of science, the different arms of the military and 
naval services, commerce, agriculture, and the engineering profession. The Council 
should be quite independent of political influences. The author described the 
mode of election to the Council which he proposed, and in which he would give a 
certain voice to the Scientific Societies. ‘The duties of the Council would be— 
first, to advise the Government on all questions arising in the ordinary routine of 
administration submitted to it by the various departments; second, to advise the 
Government on special questions, such as the founding of new scientific institu- 
tions and the modification or abolition of old ones, the sanctioning of scientific 
expeditions and applications for grants for scientific purposes; third, to consider 
and decide upon inventions tendered to Government for the use of the State; and, 
fourth, to conduct or superintend the experiments necessary to enable it to perform 
these duties. This ao not entirely relieve the Government of all responsibility 
in scientific matters. The advantages to the nation accruing from a sound and 
comprehensive administration of science were incalculable. 

The author referred, for fuller particulars regarding the subject, to his paper 
“On the Necessity for a Permanent Commission on State Scientific Questions,” 
read before the Royal United Service Institution on the 15th of May last, and 
published in No. 64 of the Journal of the Institution. 


Obstacles to Science-Teaching in Schools. By the Rey. W. Tuckwett. 


After describing the slow progress made in scientific teaching since the Report 
of the Public Schools’ Commission in 1864, and declaring that the first-class 
English schools teaching science systematically at the present momentcan b e 
counted on the fingers of one hand, the author proceeded to show that the head 
masters were not altogether to be blamed for this state of things. 

They have inherited an order of tuition some hundred years old, fortified with 
minute, unbroken venerable traditions, looked upon for ages past as the supreme 
instrument and test of intellectual power, whole and complete in itself, supported 
by immense experience, worked by tried machinery. Into the midst of this well- 
mapped, well-proved system is thrust a strange and foreign subject, comprising 
many branches, and demanding multifold appliances, whose value as a mental 
weapon they have had no means of testing; they are called upon to surrender to 
this a portion of the time which already seems too short for other work, and to in- 
augurate a department of school labour over which they can exercise no sort of 
supervision or control. They ask for guidance in the new arrangements which 
they are called upon to form ; whether any one department is educationally funda- 
mental to the rest; whether sciences of experiment should precede or follow those 
of observation; what portions of the old course are to be abandoned; how far the 
Universities, which in many cases stamp the practical value of their work, will 
recognize such abandonment. They look round for accredited teachers and ap- 
proved text-books, for enlightenment as to the amount of apparatus and its cost, 
for details of teaching and of testing, and they look in vain. They must fall back 
upon their own moral consciousness, for no help is tendered to them trom without. I 

lace this helplessness of head masters first on the list of obstacles which we 
five to chronicle; and I plead, for the moment, in their behalf, almost more 
than in behalfof science. For their attitude is frank and cordial; they are prepared 
as a body to meet the demands of the scientific public loyally and with all their 
might. If those who are pressing modern subjects on them will entertain their 
just appeal and try to understand their difficulties, they will prove the best auxiliaries 
science can hope to gain; for they will bring to this new department of their work 
the same energy and wisdom, the same self-sacrificing impartial zeal, which have 


58 REPORT—187]1. 


already won for them the deserved esteem of the community; but if we fail to 
work in harmony with them, their want of sympathy and interest will be simply 
fatal to our schemes. 

Next to this helplessness of head masters came the difficulty of obtaining pro- 
perly trained and certificated science-teachers. With the admirable German 
system, comprising special examination of Candidates for Masterships, not only in 
knowledge, but in teaching power, together with a year of trial in some large 
school before entering on their work, was compared the insufficient test offered by 
the English University Degree, a high test, no doubt, of intelligence and know- 
ledge, but not of power to communicate knowledge or to infuse intelligence. 
Third in rank amongst the obstacles to be surmounted was placed the cost of 
paying science masters; and the School Commissioners, now redistributing the 
endowments of the country, were urged to set apart funds for science-teaching in 
every large school, and to insist on their being faithfully expended for the purpose. 
The necessity of having good teachers was then dwelt on. The first condition of 
success in scientific, as of other teaching, is obviously the teacher. He must be a 
man thorough in his special knowledge, and, if his special knowledge is to be well 
balanced in reference to other subjects, of the widest general culture. He must 
not spend all his time in teaching, but must have leisure to prepare lessons and 
experiments. He must possess the delicate art of handling many pupils, the force 
of manner which attracts them, the enthusiasm which puts and keeps them en 
rapport with him, the insight which reads their minds, the tact which can pre- 
serve discipline without checking inquiry, and, possessing all this and more, he must 
be well and highly paid. 

An exact estimate was offered of the cost of apparatus; and the value of work- 
shops, museums, and other accessories of the kind was dwelt upon. 

After glancing at the action of the universities, the author touched on a grave 
item in the catalogue of difficulties. Granting that scientific teaching is essential 
to a perfect education, the anxious question meets us—How is it to be inserted in 
the curriculum of an established school? We are told that, to meet the demands 
of University competition, the highest pressure is already put upon the time and 
brains of boys; and that if four hours a week are to be accepted as the minimum 
demand of science, classical work must suffer. And, in order to solye this pro- 
blem, some well-known schools have instituted a system of bifurcation, to which 
the author was opposed. If linguistic training is bad without the rationalizing 
aid of scientific study, no less is exclusive science bad when divorced from the 
refining society of literature and philology ; and an admission that certain institu- 
tions stunt particular faculties is oddly followed by a device which causes each to 
work unchecked. The difficulty must be met fairly, and on premises which 
scholars as well as savans can understand. It must be met by asking whether in 
purely classical schools no time is wasted; why it is that in the lower forms 
a boy takes years to master what a clever tutor teaches in a few months at home ; 
why the weapon of analysis, which opens every other chamber of human know- 
ledge, should be discarded in the case of scholarship alone; whether unattractive- 
ness is an inherent vice in Greek and Latin only, or whether, if judicious method 
wakens pleasure and keeps alive attention, that of itself is not economy of time; 
whether, lastly, the day has not arrived when Greek and Latin verse-making may 
not be allowed to disappear. After having written some thousand Greek and 
Latin verses in his own school-days, the author pronounced them waste of time, 
and protested against them altogether. Their elimination from our school system 
will be clear gain in itself, and will set free at once a much larger amount of time 
than is demanded for the prosecution of natural science. 

After enumerating at some length the details essential to the giving a fair 
place to science in education, the paper ended as follows :—“‘The summary of 
what I have to say is this, that our schools, in their readiness to establish science, 
must be aided from without. All questions of funds, of apparatus, of teachers, of 
selected text-books, of coordinated subjects, of University influence, and of united 
action come to the same point at last. We must have central leadership, at once 
commanding and intelligent, if the introduction of science into our schools is to 
be simultaneous and effective. The question has passed out of the realm of general 


Te 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 59 


discussion ; it is ripe, if ever a question was, for detailed and practical settlement. 
There must be within this Association, there must be within this room, men 
qualified in all respects to appreciate the nature of our difficulties, to formulate 
rules for our guidance, to press our pecuniary needs on those who are for a time 
the bursars of our educational endowments, to watch and influence the action of 
the Universities, as on other points, so especially in the projected ‘Leaving Exa- 
minations.’ To them I confidently appeal. I appeal on behalf of countless schools, 
which, ready to admit reform, are helpless to initiate it. I appeal on behalf of those 
few schools which have initiated it, and are endeayouring courageously and honestly, 
but with little of useful concert, with much of wasted force, to work it out. Let it 
once be announced to the educational community that a committee of distinguished 
men, having at heart not merely scientific interests, but the interests of the Uni- 
versities and the Schools, has been armed by this Association to counsel and to assist, 
to recommend and to accredit, to harmonize and to combine, to become, in short, 
the recognized representatives and controllers of scientific education, and they will 
not lack grateful clients, or attain inadequate results. If science is to flourish in 
the land, preliminary knowledge and training, bestowed with care upon our boy- 
hood, must leave our manhood free for original research. If our English educa- 
tion is to be abreast of continental teaching, one half of our mental faculties 
must no longer be suffered to lie dormant. To have removed this great reproach, 
and to have helped this great reform, will be an achievement worthy to take high 
rank even amongst those splendid services to science and to the community which 
give lustre to the British Association.” 


CHEMISTRY. 
Address by Professor Anprews, FBS. L. § E., President of the Section. 


Amupst the vicissitudes to which scientific theories are liable, it was scarcely to 
be expected that the discarded theory of Phlogiston should be resuscitated in’ our 
day and connected with one of the most important generalizations of modern 
science. The phlogistic theory, elaborated nearly two hundred years ago by 
Beecher and Stahl, was not, it now appears, wholly founded in error; on the con- 
trary, it was an imperfect anticipation of the great principle of energy, which 
lays so important a part in physical and chemical changes. The disciple of 
hlogiston, ignorant of the whole history of chemical combination, connected, it 
is true, his phlogiston with one only of the combining bodies, instead of recog- 
nizing that it is eliminated by the minor of all. “There can be no doubt,” says 
Dr. Crum Brown, who first suggested this view, “that potential energy is what 
the chemists of the 17th century meant when they spoke of phlogiston.” “ Phlo- 
giston and latent heat,” playfully remarks Volhard, “ which formerly opposed each 
other in so hot a combat, have entered into a peaceful compact; and, to banish all 
recollection of their former strife, have assumed in common the new name of 
energy.” But, as Dr. Odling well remarks, “in interpreting the phlogistic writings 
by the light of modern doctrine, we are not to attribute to their authors the pre- 
cise notion of energy which now prevails. It is only contended that the phlogis- 
tians had in their time possession of a real truth in nature, which, altogether lost 
sight of in the intermediate period, has since crystallized out in a definite form.” 
But whatever may be the true value of the Stahlian views, there can be no 
doubt that the discoveries which have shed so bright a lustre round the name of 
Black mark an epoch in the history of science, and gave a mighty impulse to 
human progress. A recent attempt to ignore the labours of Black and his great 
contemporaries, and to attribute the foundation of modern chemistry to Lavoisier 
alone, has already been amply refuted in an able inaugural address delivered a 
short time ago from the Chair formerly occupied by Black. The statements of 
Dr. Crum Brown may, indeed, be confirmed on the authority of Lavoisier himself. 
Through the kindness of Dr, Black’s representatives I have heen permitted to 


60 REPORT—1871. 


examine his correspondence, which has been carefully preserved, and I have been 
so fortunate as to find in it three original letters from Lavoisier to Dr. Black. 
They were written in 1789 and 1790, and they appear to comprise the whole of 
the correspondence on the part of Lavoisier which passed between those distin- 
guished men. Some extracts from these letters were published soon after Dr. 
Black’s death by his friends Dr. Adam Ferguson and Dr. Robison ; but the letters 
themselves, as far as I know, have never appeared in an entire form. I will crave 
permission to have them printed as an appendix to this address*, Lavoisier, it 
will be seen, addresses Black as one whom he was accustomed to regard as his 
master, and whose discoveries had produced important revolutions in science. It 
may, indeed, be said with truth that Lavoisier completed the foundation on which 
the grand structure of modern chemistry has since arisen; but Black, Priestley, 
Scheele, and Cavendish were before Lavoisier, and their claims to a share in the 
great work are not inferior to those of the illustrious French chemist. 

Among the questions of general chemistry, few are more interesting, or have of 
late attracted more attention, than the relations which subsist between the che- 
mical composition and refractive power of bodies for light. Newton, it will be 
remembered, pointed out the distinction between the refractive power of a medium 


= 77 2 where p is 
the refractive index, and d the density of the refracting medium. Sir J. Herschel, 
anticipating later observations, remarked, in 1830, that Newton’s function only ex- 
presses the intrinsic refractive power on the supposition of matter being infinitely 
divisible ; but that if material bodies consist of a finite number of atoms, differing 
in weight for different substances, the intrinsic refractive power of the atoms of 
any given medium will be the product of the above function by the atomic 
weight. The same remark has since been made by Berthelot. Later observations 
have led to an important modification in the form of Newton’s function. Beer 
showed that the experiments of Biot and Arago, as well as those of Dulong, on 
the refractive power of gases, agree quite as well with a simpler expression as with 
that given by Newton; and Gladstone and Dale proposed in 1863 the formula 


and its refractive index, and gave for the former the expression 


— as expressing more accurately than any other the results of their experiments 


on the refractive power of liquids. The researches of Landolt and Wiillner have 
fully confirmed the general accuracy of the new formula. An important observa- 
tion made, about twenty years ago, by Delfis has been the starting-point for all 
subsequent investigations on this subject. Delffs remarked that the refractive 
indices of the compound ethers increase with the atomic weight, and that isomeric 
ethers have the same refractive indices. The later researches of Gladstone and of 
Landolt have, on the whole, confirmed these observations, and have shown that 
the specific refractive power depends chiefly on the atomic composition of the 
body, and is little influenced by the mode of grouping of the atoms. These inquiries 
have gone further, and have led to the discovery of the refraction-equivalents of 
the elements. By comparing the refractive power of compound bodies differing 
from one another by one or more atoms of the same element, Landolt succeeded in 
obtaining numbers which express the refraction-equivalents of carbon, hydrogen, 
and oxygen; and corresponding numbers have been obtained for other elements 
by Gladstone and Haagen. The whole subject has been recently discussed and 
enriched with many new observations in an able memoir by Gladstone. As might 
be expected in so novel and recondite a subject, some anomalies occur which are 
difficult to explain. Thus hydrogen appears in different classes of compounds with 
at least two refraction-equivalents, one three times as great as the other; and the 
refraction-equivalents of the aromatic compounds and their derivatives, as given by 
observation, are in general higher than the calculated numbers. 

A happy modification of the ice-calorimeter has been made by Bunsen, The 
principle of the method (to use as a measure of heat the change of volume which 
ice undergoes in melting) had already occurred to Herschel, and, as it now appears, 
still earlier to Hermann; but their observations had been entirely overlooked by 
physicists, and had led to no practical result. Bunsen has, indeed, clearly pointed 


* Ordered by the General Committee to be printed among the Reports. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 61 


out that the success of the method depends upon an important condition, which is 
entirely his own. The ice to be melted must be prepared with water free from 
air, and must surround the source of heat in the a of a solid cylinder frozen 
artificially iz situ. Those who have worked on the subject of heat know how dif- 
ficult it is to measure absolute quantities with certainty, even where relative 
results of great accuracy may be attained. The ice-calorimeter of Bunsen will 
therefore be welcomed as an important addition to our means of research. Bunsen 
has applied his method to determine the specific heats of ruthenium, calcium, and 
indium, and finds that the atomic weight of indium must be increased by one half 
in order to bring it into conformity with the law of Dulong and Petit. He has 
also made a new determination of the density of ice, which he finds to be 0-9167. 

In a report on the Heat of Combination, which was made to this Association in 
1849, the existence of a group of isothermal bases was pointed out. “ As some of 
the bases” (potash, soda, baryta, strontia), it was remarked, “form what we may 
perhaps designate an isothermal group, such bases will develope the same or nearly 
the same heat in combining with an acid, and no heat will be disengaged during 
their mutual displacements.” The latest experiments of Thomsen have given a 
remarkable extension to this group of isothermal bases. He finds that the hydrates 
of lithium, thallium, calcium, and magnesium produce, when all corrections are 
made, the same amount of heat, on being neutralized by sulphuric acid, as the four 
bases before mentioned. The hydrate of tetramethylammonium belongs to the 
same class of bases. Ethylamin, on the other hand, agrees with ammonia, which, 
as has been long known, gives out less heat in combining with the acids than 
potash or soda. An elaborate investigation of the amount of heat evolved in the 
combustion of coal of different kinds has been made by Scheurer-Kestner and 
Meusnier, accompanied by analyses of the coal. Coal rich in carbon and hydrogen 
diseneages more heat in burning than coal in which those elements are partially 
replaced by oxygen. After deducting the cinders, the heat produced by the com- 
bustion of 1 gramme of coal varied from 8215 to 9622 units. 

Tyndall has given an extended account of his experiments on the action of a 
beam of strong light on certain vapours. He finds that there is a marked dif- 
ference in the absorbing-power of different vapours for the actinic rays. Thus 
nitrite of amyl in the state of ,vapour absorbs rapidly the rays of light competent 
to decompose it, while iodide of allyl in the same state allows them freely to pass, 
Morven has continued these experiments in the south of France, and among other 
results he finds that sulphurous acid is decomposed by the solar beam. 

Roscoe has prosecuted the photo-chemical investigations which Bunsen and he 
began some years ago. For altitudes above 10 degrees, the relation between the 
sun’s altitude and the chemical intensity of light is represented by a straight line. 
Till the sun has reached an altitude of about 20 degrees, the chemical action pro- 
duced by diffused daylight exceeds that of the direct sunlight; the two actions 
are then balanced; and at higher elevations the direct sunlight is superior to the 
diffused light. The supposed inferiority of the chemical action of light under a 
tropical sun to its action in higher latitudes proves to be a mistake. According to 
Roscoe and Thorpe, the chemical intensity of light at Para under the equator in 
the month of April is more than three times greater than at Kew in the month of 
August, 

Hunter has given a great extension to the earlier experiments of Saussure on the 
absorptive power of charcoal for gases. Cocoanut-charcoal, according to Hunter's 
experiments, exceeds all other ‘varieties of wood-charcoal in absorptive power, 
taking up at ordinary pressures 170 volumes of ammonia and 69 of carbonic acid. 
Methylic alcohol is more largely absorbed than any other vapour at temperatures 
from 90° to 127°; but at 159° the absorption of ordinary alcohol exceeds it. 
Cocoanut-charcoal absorbs forty-four times its volume of the vapour of water at 
127°. The absorptive power is increased by pressure, 

Last year two new processes for improving the manufacture of chlorine attracted 
the attention of the Section: one of these has already proved to be a success; and 
I am glad to be able to state that Mr. Deacon has recently overcome certain diffi- 
culties in his method, and has obtained a complete absorption of the chlorine. 
May we hope to see oxygen prepared by a cheap and continuous process from 


62 RErPoRT—1871. 


atmospheric air? With baryta the problem can be solved yery perfectly, if not 
economically. Another process is that of Tessier de Mothay, in which the man- 
ganate of potassium is decomposed by a current of superheated steam, and after- 
wards revived by being heated in a current of air. A company has lately been 
formed in New York to apply this process to the production of a brilliant house- 
light. A compound Argand burner is used, haying a double row of apertures; the 
inner row is supplied with oxygen, the outer with coal-gas or other combustible. 
The applications of pure oxygen, if it could be prepared cheaply, would be very 
numerous; and few discoveries would more amply reward the inventor. Among 
other uses it might be applied to the production of ozone free from nitric acid by 
the action of the electrical discharge, and to the introduction of that singular body, 
in an efficient form, into the arts as a bleaching and oxidizing agent. Tessier de 
Mothay has also proposed to prepare hydrogen gas on the large scale by heating 
hydrate of lime with anthracite. 

We learn from the history of metallurgy that the valuable alloy which copper 
forms with zinc was known and applied long before zinc itself was discovered. 
Nearly the same remark may be made at present with regard to manganese and its 
alloys. The metal is difficult to obtain, and has not in the pure state been applied 
to any useful purpose ; but its alloys with copper and other metals have been pre- 
pared, and some of them are likely to be of great value. The alloy with zinc and 
copper is used as a substitute for german silver, and possesses some advantages 
over it. Not less important is the alloy of iron and manganese prepared according 
to the process of Henderson, by reducing in a Siemens’s furnace a mixture of car- 
bonate of manganese and oxide of iron. It contains from 20 to 30 per cent. of 
manganese, and will doubtless replace to a large extent the spiegeleisen now used 
in the manufacture of Bessemer steel. 

The classical researches of Roscoe have made us acquainted for the first time 
with metallic vanadium. LBerzelius obtained brilliant scales, which he supposed to 
be the metal, by heating an oxychloride in ammonia; but they have proved to be 
a nitride. Roscoe prepared the metal, by reducing its chloride in a current of 
hydrogen, as a light grey powder, with a metallic lustre under the microscope. It 
has a remarkable affinity fate for nitrogen and silicon, Like phosphorus, it is a 
pentad, and the vanadates correspond in composition to the phosphates, but differ 
in the order of stability at ordinary temperatures, the soluble trluesa salts being 
less stable than the tetrabasic compounds. 

Sainte-Claire Deville, in continuation of his researches on dissociation, has ex- 
amined the conditions under which the vapour of water is decomposed by metallic 
iron. The iron, maintained at a constant temperature, but varying in different 
experiments from 150° C, to 1600° C., was exposed to the action of vapour of 
water of known tension. It was found that for a given temperature the iron con- 
tinued to oxidize, till the tension of the hydrogen formed reached an inyariable 
value. In these experiments, as Deville remarks, iron behaves as if it emitted a 
vapour (hydrogen), obeying the laws of hygrometry. An interesting set of expe- 
riments has been made by Lothian Bell on the power possessed by spongy metallic 
iron of splitting up carbonic oxide into carbon and carbonic acid, the former being 
deposited in the iron. A minute quantity of oxide of iron is always formed in this 
reaction. 

The fine researches of Graham on the colloidal state have received an interesting 
extension by Reynolds’s discovery of a new group of colloid bodies. A solution 
of mercuric chloride is added to a mixture of acetone and a dilute solution of 
potassium hydrate till the precipitate which at first appears is redissolved, and the 
clear liquid poured upon a dialyzer which floated upon water. The composition 
of the colloid body thus obtained in the anhydrous state was found to be 
( (CH). CO), Hg,0,. The hydrate is regarded by Reynolds as a feeble acid, even 
more readily decomposed than alkaline silicates. A solution containing only five 
per cent. forms a firm jelly when heated to 50°C. Analogous compounds were 
formed with the higher members of the fatty ketone series. In the same direc- 
tion are the researches of Marcet on blood, which he finds to be a strictly collvid 
fluid containing a small proportion of diffusible salts. 

In organic chemistry the labours of chemists have been of late largely directed 


by Se 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 63 


to a group of hydrocarbons which were first discovered among the products of the 
destructive distillation of coal or oil. The central body round which these 
researches have chiefly turned is benzol, whose discovery will always be asso- 
ciated with the name of Faraday. With this body naphthalin and anthracene form 
a series, whose members differ by C, H,, and their boiling-points by about 140°. 
The recent researches of Liebermann have proved, as was before suspected, that 
chrysene is a fourth member of the same series. J may add that ethylene, which 
boils at about —76°, corresponds in composition and boiling-point to a lower 
member of the same series. Kekulé propounded some time ago with great 
clearness the question as to whether the six atoms of hydrogen in benzol are 
equivalent, or, on the contrary, play dissimilar parts. According to the first 
hypothesis, there can be only one modification of the mono- and penta-derivatives 
of ior while three modifications of the bi-, tri-, and tetra-derivatives are 
possible. On the second hypothesis, two modifications of the mono-derivatives 
are possible, and in general a much larger number of isomeric compounds than on 
the first hypothesis. Such is the problem which has of late occupied the attention 
of some of the ablest chemists of Germany, and has led to a large number of new 
and important investigations. The aromatic hydrocarbons, toluol, xylol, &c., 
which differ from one another by CH,, have been shown by Fittig to be methyl 
derivatives of benzol. According to the first of the two hypotheses to which I 
haye referred, only one benzol and one methyl benzol (toluol) are possible, and 
accordingly no isomeric modifications of these bodies have been discovered. But 
the three following members of the series ought each to be capable of existing in 
three distinct isomeric forms. The researches of Fittig had already established 
the existence of two isomeric compounds having the formula C, H,,,—methyl- 
toluol (obtained synthetically from toluol) and isoxylol (prepared by the removal 
of an atom of methyl from the mesytelene of Kane). The same chemist has since 
obtained the third modification, orthoxylol, by the decomposition of the paraxy- 
lylic acid. These three isomeric hydrocarbons may be readily distinguished from 
one another by the marked difference in the properties of their trinitro-compounds, 
and also by their different behaviour with oxidizing agents. Other facts have been 
adduced in support of the equality or homogeneity of position of the hydrogen 
atoms in benzol. Thus Hiibner and Alsbere have prepared aniline, a mono- 
derivative, from different biderivatives, and have always obtained the same body. 
The latest researches on this subject are those of Richter. 

Baeyer has prepared artificially picoline, a base isomeric with aniline, and dis- 
eovered by Anderson in his very able researches on the pyridine series. Of the 
two methods described by Baeyer, one is founded on an experiment of Simpson, in 
which a new base was obtained by heating tribromallyl with an alcoholic solution 
of ammonia. By pushing further the action of the heat, Baeyer succeeded in 
expelling the whole of the bromine from Simpson’s base in the form of hydro- 
bromic acid, and in obtaining picoline. The same chemist has also prepared 
artificially collidine, another base of the pyridine series, To this list of remark- 
able eyeshenical discoveries, another of the highest interest has lately been added 

ift—the preparation of artificial coniine. He obtained it by the action of 
ammonia on butyric aldehyde (C,H,0O). ‘The artificial base has the same com- 
position as coniine prepared from hemlock. It is a liquid of an amber-yellow 
colour, haying the characteristic odour and nearly all the usual reactions of ordi- 
nary coniine. Its physiological properties, so far as they have been examined, 
agree with those of coniine from hemlock; but the artificial base has not yet been 
obtained in large quantity, nor perfectly pure. 

Valuable papers on alizarine have been published by Perkin and Schunck. The 
latter has described a new acid, the anthraflayic, which is formed in the artificial 
preparation of alizarine. Madder contains another colouring principle, purpurine, 
which, like alizarine, yields anthracene when acted on by reducing agents, and has 
also been prepared artificially. These colouring principles may be distinguished 
from one another, as Stokes has shown, by their absorption bands; and Perkin has 
lately confirmed by this optical test the interesting observation of Schunck, that 
finished madder prints contain nothing but pure alizarine in combination with 
the mordant employed. 


64 REPORT—1871. 


Hofmann has achieved another triumph in a department of chemistry which he 
has made peculiarly his own. In 1857 he showed that alcohol bases, analogous 
to those derived from ammonia, could be obtained by replacement from phosphu- 
retted hydrogen ; but he failed in his attempts to prepare the two lower derivatives. 
These missing links he has now supplied, and has thus established a complete 
a between the derivatives of ammonia and of phosphuretted hydrogen. 

he same able chemist has lately described the aromatic cyanates, of which one 
only, the phenylic cyanate (CO, C, H,, N), was previously known, having been 
discovered about twenty years ago by Hofmann himself. He now prepares this 
compound by the action of phosphoric anhydride on phenylurethane, and by a 
similar method he has obtained the tolylic, xylylic, and naphthylic cyanates. 

Stenhouse had observed many years ago that when aniline is added to furfurol 
the mixture becomes rose-red, and communicates a fugitive red stain to the skin, 
and also to linen and silk. He has lately resumed the investigation of this subject, 
and has obtained two new bases, furfuraniline and furfurtoluidine, which, like 
rosaniline, form beautifully coloured salts, although the bases themselves are 
nearly colourless, or of a pale brown colour. The furfuraniline hydrochlorate 
(C,, H,, O, N, Cl) is prepared by adding furfurol to an alcoholic solution of aniline 
hydrochlorate containing an excess of aniline. We have also from Stenhouse 
a new contribution to the history of orcin, in continuation of his former masterly 
researches on that body. He has prepared the trinitroorcin (C,H, (NO,),0,), a 
powerful acid, having many points of resemblance to picric acid. In connexion 
with another research of Stenhouse made many years ago, it is interesting to find 
his formula for euxanthon, which was also that of Erdmann, confirmed by the 
recent experiments of Baeyer. 

The interesting work of Dewar on the oxidation of picoline must not be passed 
over without notice. By the action of the permanganate of potassium on that 
body, he has obtained a new acid which bears the same relation to pyridine that 
phthalic acid does to benzol. Thorpe and Young have published a preliminary 
notice of some results of great promise which they have obtained by exposing 
parafiin to a high temperature in closed vessels. By this treatment it is almost 
completely resolved into liquid hydrocarbons, whose boiling-points range from 
18° C. to 300° C. Those boiling under 100° have been examined, and consist 
chiefly of olefines. In connexion with this subject, it may be interesting to recall 
the experiments of Pelouze and Cahours on the Pennsylvanian oils, which proved 
to be a mixture of carbohydrogens belonging to the marsh-gas series. 

An elaborate exposition of Berthelot’s method of transforming an organic 
compound into a fi yteoeetbtin containing a maximum of hydrogen has appeared in 
a connected form. The organic body is heated in a sealed tube, with a large excess 
of astrong solution of hydriodie acid, to the temperature of 275°. The pressure in 
these experiments Berthelot estimates at 100 atmospheres, but apparently without 
having made any direct measurements. He has thus prepared ethyl hydride 
(C,H,) from alcohol, aldehyde, &c., hexyl hydride (C, H,,) from benzol. Berthelot 
has submitted both wood-charcoal and coal to the reducing action of hydriodic 
acid, and among other interesting results he claims to have obtained in this way 
oil of petroleum. 

By the action of chloride of zinc upon codeia, Matthiessen and Burnside have 
obtained apocodeia, which stands to codeia in the same relation as apomorphia to 
morphia, an atom of water being abstracted in its formation. Apocodeia is more 
stable than apomorphia, but the action of reagents upon the two bases is very 
similar. As regards their physiological action, the hydrochlorate of apocodeia is a 
mild emetic, while that of apomorphia is an emetic of great activity. Other bases 
have been obtained by Wright by the action of hydrobromic acid on codeia. In 
two of these bases, bromotetracodeia and chlorotetracodeia, four molecules of the 
codeia are welded together, so that they contain no less than seventy-two atoms of 
carbon. They have a bitter taste, but little physiological action. “The authors of 
these valuable researches were indebted to Messrs. Macfarlane for the precious 
material upon which they operated. 

We are indebted to Crum Brown and Fraser for an important work on a subject 
of great practical as well as theoretical interest,—the relation between chemical 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 65 


constitution and physiological action. It has long been known that the ferro- 
cyanide of potassium does not act as a poison on the animal system, and Bunsen 
has shown that the kakodylic acid, an arsenical compound, is also inert. Crum 
Brown and Fraser find that the methyl compounds of strychnia, brucia, and thebaia 
are much less active poisons than the alkaloids themselves, and the character of 
their physiological action is also different. The hypnotic action of the sulphate 
of methyl-morphium is less than that of morphia; but a reverse result occurs in the 
case of atropia, whose methyl and ethyl derivatives are much more poisonous than 
the salts of atropia itself. 

Before proceeding to the subject of fermentation, I may refer to Apjohn’s 
chemico-optical method of separating cane-sugar, inverted sugar, and grape-sugar 
from one another when present in the same solution, by observing the rotative 
power of the syrup before and after inversion, and combining the indications of 
the saccharometer with the results of an analysis of the same syrup after inversion. 
Heisch’s test for sewage in ordinary water is also deserving of notice. It consists 
in adding a few grains of pure sugar to the water, and exposing it freely to light 
for some hours, when the liquid will become turbid from the formation of a well- 
marked fungus if sewage to the smallest amount be present. Frankland has made 
the important observation that the development of this fungus depends upon the 
presence of the phosphate, and that if this condition be secured, the fungus will 
appear even in the purest water. 

The nature of fermentation, and in particular of the alcoholic fermentation, has 
been lately discussed by Liebig with consummate ability, and his elaborate memoir 
will well repay a careful perusal. Dr. Williamson has also given a most instructive 
account of the subject, particularly with reference to the researches of Pasteur, in 
his recent Cantor lectures. A brief statement of the present position of the 
question will therefore not be out of place here. It is now thirty-four years since 
Cagniard de La Tour and Schwann proved by independent observations that yeast- 
globules are organized bodies capable of reproduction by gemmation; and also 
inferred as highly probable that the phenomena of fermentation are induced by the 
development or living action of these globules. These views, after haying fallen 
into abeyance, were revived and extended a few years ago by Pasteur, whose able 
researches are familiar to every chemist. Pasteur, while acknowledging that he 
was ignorant of the nature of the chemical act, or of the intimate cause of the 
splitting up of sugar in the alcoholic fermentation, maintained that all fermenta- 
tions properly so called are correlative with physiological phenomena. According 
to Liebig, the development and multiplication of the yeast-plant or fungus is 
dependent upon the presence and absorption of nutriment, which becomes part of 
the living organism, while in the process of fermentation an external action takes 
place upon the substance, and causes it to split up into products which cannot be 
made use of by the plant. ‘The vital process and the chemical action, he asserts, 
are two phenomena which in the explanation must be kept separate from one 
another. The action of a ferment upon a fermentable body he compares to the 
action of heat upon organic molecules, both of which cause a moyement in the 
internal arrangement of the atoms. The phenomena of fermentation Liebig refers 
now, as formerly, to a chemico-physical cause,—the action, namely, which a sub- 
stance in a state of molecular movement exercises upon another of highly complex 
constitution, whose elements are held together by a feeble affinity, and are to some 
extent in a state of tension or strain. Baeyer, who considers that in the alcoholic 
and lactic fermentations one part of the compound is reduced and another oxidized, 
adopts the view of Liebig, that the molecules of sugar which undergo fermentation 
do not serve for the nourishment of the yeast-plant, but receive an impulse from it. 
Allare, however, agreed that fermentation is arrested by the death of the plant; 
and even a tendency to the acetous fermentation in wine may be checked, as 
Pasteur has shown, by heating the wine toa temperature a little below the boiling- 
_- point in the vessel in which it is afterwards to be kept. 

I regret that the limits of an address like the present forbid me to pursue 
further this analysis of chemical work. Had they admitted of abridgment, 
Tshould gladly have described the elaborate experiments of Gore on hydrofluoric 
acid and the iluoride of silver, The important researches of Abel on explosive 

1871. 


66 REPORT—1871. 


compounds will be explained by himself in a lecture with which he has kindly 
undertaken to favour the Association. Mr. Tomlinson will also communicate to the 
Section some observations on catharism and nuclei, a difficult subject, to which he 
has of late devoted much attention; and I am also informed that we shall haye 
important papers on recent improvements in chemical manufacture. 

No one can be more painfully alive than myself to the serious omissions in the 
historical review I have now read, more particularly in organic chemistry, where 
it was wholly impossible to grapple with the large number of valuable works 
which eyen afew months produce. I cannot, however, refrain from bearing an 
humble tribute to the great ability and indomitable perseverance which characterize 
the labourers in the great field of organic chemistry. It would scarcely be pos- 
sible to conceive any work more intelligently undertaken or more conscientiously 
performed than theirs, yet much of it, from its abstruse character, receiving little 
sympathy or encouragement except from the band of devoted men who have made 
this subject the chief pursuit of their lives. They will, however, find their reward 
in the consciousness that they have not lived in vain, but have been engaged, and 
successfully engaged, in the noble enterprise of extending for the benefit of the 
human family the boundaries of scientific nowledge. Nor is there any real 
ground for discouragement. Faraday, Graham, Magnus, and Herschel, who have 
left their impress on this age, were all distinguished chemical as well as physical 
discoverers ; and the relations of the sciences are becoming every day so intimate 
that the most special research leads often to results of wide and general interest. 
No one felt this truth more clearly or illustrated it better in his writings than our 
lamented and distinguished friend Dr. Miller, whose presence used to cheer our 
meetings, and whose loss we all most sincerely deplore. 


Facts developed by the Working of Hematite Ores in the Ulverstone and White- 
haven Districts from 1844-71. By Tuomas Arnsworre. 


On the Dichroism of the Vapour of Iodine. By Dr. Axprews; F.R.S. 


The fine purple colour of the vapour of iodine arises from its transmitting freely 
the red ahd: blue rays of the spectrum, while it absorbs nearly the whole of the 
green rays. The transmitted fight passes freely through a red copper or a blue 
cobalt glass. Butif the iodine vapour be sufficiently dense, the whole of the red rays 
are absorbed, and the transmitted rays are of a pure blue colour; they are now 
freely transmitted, as before, by the cobalt glass, but will not pass through the red 
glass. A solution of iodine in sulphide of carbon exhibits a similar dichroism, and 
according to its density appears either purple or blue when white light is trans- 
mitted through it. The alcoholic solution, on the contrary, is of a red colour, and 
does not exhibit any dichroism. 


On the Action of Heat on Bromine. By Dr. Anvrews, F.R.S. 


If a fine tube is filled one half with liquid bromine and one half with the vapour 
of bromine, and after being hermetically sealed is gradually heated till the tempe- 
rature is above the critical point, the whole of the bromine becomes quite opaque, 
and the tube has the aspect of being filled with a dark red and opaque resin. A 
measure of the change of power of transmitting light in this case may be obtained 
by varying the proportion of liquid and vapour in the tube. Even liquid bromine 
transmits much less light when heated strongly in an hermetically sealed tube than 
in its ordinary state, 


Some Remarks upon the Prowimate Analysis of Saccharine Matters. 
By Professor Avsoun, ARS, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 67 


On the Examination of Water for Sanitary purposes. By Gustav Brscuor. 


The principle of the method consists in evaporating 1 cub. centim. of the water 
to be examined in a cell formed by cementing a glass ring on a slip of plate glass, 
such as used for mounting microscopic objects. By means of certain appliances 
dust is effectually excluded during the evaporation. The temperature at which 
the samples are evaporated (40° to 45° C.) is regulated by a Kemp-Bunsen gas- 
a improved for the purpose by the author. 

f pure water, such as we find naturally, be evaporated, one observes under the 
microscope in the residue essentially colourless, or nearly colourless, dendritic, 
branching, tree-like, and well-defined hexagonal and rhombohedral crystals of 
calcium carbonate. In the case of natural impure water, or if pure water be 
contaminated by adding minute quantities of either sewage or urine, the above 
crystals are no longer perceptible, and, according to the degree of impurity, their 
place is taken by more or less imperfectly defined yellowish-brown or red hexagonal 
or rhombohedral crystals of calcium carbonate, or by hexagonal twin-crystals, or 
triangles with rounded angles, or, finally, drops of fat and the so-called dumb-bells 
(which latter are either fatty matter or germs of fungi) make their appearance. 

If the presence of germs of fungi be doubtful, they are determined by cultiva- 
ting the residue in a damp chamber for some forty-eight hours before it is quite 
rated to dryness. Several well-definable species of fungi have thus been 

roduced. 
i The results of the examination of a number of samples, illustrated by several 
lithographed plates, proved that one-thousandth part of sewage or urine added to . 
pure water so completely altered the appearance of the residue as to lead to the 
conclusion that still more minute quantities of the above impurities can also be 
detected in water by this method. 

On the other hand, the residue of sewage which had been filtered through 
spongy iron (the process to which the author called attention at the last Meeting 
of the Association) exhibited throughout the characteristics of the purest water. 
Professor Voelcker arrived also, by chemical analysis, at the result that the 
sewage filtered through spongy iron was “remarkably free from organic matter, 
containing less organic matter than many excellent drinking-waters,” thus proving 
that analysis and the microscopic examination come to the same conclusion. 

_ Inconcluding, some residues of natural waters exhibited in the plates referred 
to above were explained as to their characteristics. 


On the Crystallization of Metals by Electricity. By Puitir Brawam. 


The author of this paper gave an account of experiments with electricity under 
the microscope. Solutions of neutral metallic salts were placed between terminals 
of the base, and crystals of several metals were formed. The author hopes by the 
Same means to obtain crystals of all. 

The apparatus for regulating the quantity and intensity of the electricity was 
exhibited and explained. 

The author then drew attention to the shape of the crystals, and suggested that, 
being built up of molecules, they might be typical of their elementary forms, 


On the Rate of Action of Caustic Soda on a watery Solution of Chloracetic 
Acid at 100°C. By J. Y. Bucwanan. 


Two sets ef experiments were made. In the one, the composition of the solu- 
tion was expressed by the formula C, H, ClO,+NaHO+159H, O,gjin the-other, by 
C, H, Cl0,-+2NaHO-+159H, O ; 10 cub. centims. of the different. solutions were 
used for every experiment. The results are given in the following Tables :— 


5* 


68 REPORT—1871. 


C,H, C10,+Nall04+150H,0. | C,H, Cl0,+2NaHO+159H, 0. 
| 
Duration of Cit "ClO, panes CIC. 
heating. decomposed. eee decomposed. 
la yaa ' h m 
0 3 6 ee 0 63 
1 9 10 12 O G6 . 
0 0 11 14 0 70 
1 30 14 15 0 ce 
2 0 18 ne 75 
0 O 19 $010 78 
2 30 23 Ah) 81 
0 O 22 24° 0 84 
2 0 26 0 10 36 
0 0 26 0 20 55 
4 0 32 0 380 64 
5 0 37 0 O 64 
0 0 37 I 0) 7 
6 0 43 OF 40 a 
AG 47 1 30 83 
Bo 6 3 iii 8 3 
9 O 57 | Zhen G: 88 
10 O GO | 2 30 90 


The Estimation of Sulphur in Coal and Coke. 
By ¥F, Crace-Catvert, F. 2S. 


The sulphur found in coal or coke often exists in two states, partly as sulphuric 
acid combined with lime, and partly as sulphur combined with iron. The part 
combined with lime, however, does not injure the quality of the iron produced 
when used in the manufacture of that article, as it remains in combination with 
the calcium, whilst the portion existing as sulphuret of iron greatly deterio- 
rates its commercial value. To determine the quantity of sulphur in the former 
state, the author proposes to boil the pulverized coal or coke with a solution of 
carbonate of soda, which decomposes the sulphate of lime or sulphuret of calcium, 
and the sulphur is estimated in the solution. To show the importance of this fact 
in estimating the suitability of coal or coke for use in the manufacture of iron, the 
author gave the following percentage of sulphur as the mean of the determination 
in six samples of coal :— 


Estimated Present in Present in ; 
together. washings. residue. Difference. 
151 “92 64. 87 


Thesé coals by the old process would be condemned as unsuitable for use in the 
blast-furnace, while they are really good coals for the purpose. 

In the residue from the above operation is found the sulphur combined with the 
iron, After attacking with oxidizing aqua regia, the author treats with carbonate of 
soda and heats to!near the fusing-point. By this means there can be no formation 
of an insoluble subsulphate of iron, and the prevention of precipitation by a salt of 
baryta, which occurs in a liquor containing free nitric acid, is avoided. 


On the Evistence of Sulphur Dichloride. By Joun Datzect and T. KE, Toorrn, 
The authors have confirmed the experiments of Hiibner and Guerdnt, who con- 


il 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 69 


élude that, contrary to the opinion of Carius, the compound of sulphur and chlo- 
rine analogous to water does actually exist as an extremely unstable body, readily 
parting with a portion of its chloyine on being gently heated, 


Deacon’s Chlorine Process as applied to the Manufacture of Bleaching-powder 
on the larger Scale. By Henry Duacon. 


On Sorbit. By Professor Detrrs, of Heidelberg. 


Twenty vears ago M. Pelouze (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. 3 ser, xxxv. p. 222) 
discovered a crystallized substance in the fruits of Sorbus aucuparia which he 
called Sordin. Since that time very few chemists have paid attention to this 
substance, and, as far as I know, nobody in my country has succeeded in preparing 
it again. The principal of one of our greatest manufactories of chemical prepara- 
tions, to whom I addressed myself, told me that he never found the least trace of 
the said substance, although he had worked up large quantities of the aboye- 
mentioned fruits for preparing malic acid; and to the same result came M. Byschl 
(Buchnev’s N. Repert. des Pharm. iii. p. 4), who asserts that there is no ready 
formed sorbin in the ripe berries of Sorbus aucuparia. In my two first attempts 
to procure sorbin I also failed; but during last year I succeeded, and at the same 
time I became aware of the reason of my previous failures. When I first tried to get 
sorbin, I thought it advisable to combine the preparation of malic acid with the 
process given by M. Pelouze for getting sorbin, and therefore I separated the 
former by means of acetate of lead. This is the reason, I think, which has 
te the success of myself as well as of other chemists in the preparation 
of sorbin. 

I will not repeat the method of forming sorbin given in all manuals of chemistry ; 
it is sufficient to say that, when I kept strictly to the prescription of M. Pelouze, 
I got.a large quantity of beautiful crystals, a specimen of which was contained 
in the tube exhibited. After I had got these, I tried to obtain the malic acid 
from the residue, but I found that the malic acid had quite disappeared. To this 
I must add that the alcoholic fermentation which takes place after the juice of 
the berries of Sorbus aucuparia has been left a few days in a tepid place is more easily 
“eae by the formation of carbonic acid than by the smell of spirit cf wine. I 
think it, therefore, not improbable that there is a connexion between the disap- 
pearance of the malic acid and the small produce of spirit of wine on the one 
side, and the formation of sorbin on the other. Suppose the malic acid, com- 
monly called dibasic, and therefore apt to form a bimalate of ethyl (=C*H’ O+ 
2C* H? O'+ HO), assimilates two equivalents of water to this compound, you will 
have then the equation 

C' EH’ 04 2C! H? O'!+3HO=C” H” Ov, 
the right-hand side of which gives the composition of sorbin. 

As pertaining to the preparation of sorbin, I have only to add that the dark 
sticky ley in which the crystals are formed can very easily be separated by putting 
both on a brick. After a few days’ repose the brick has absorbed nearly all the 
ley, and the pale yellow-coloured crystals of sorbin, if dissolved in water and left 
to spontaneous evaporation, become very soon colourless. 

The sorbin belongs to the same group as the mannit, quercit, inosit, dulcit, pi- 
crit, &c.; and as the last syllable is always characteristic in chemistry, its name, I 
think, should be changed into sorbit. 

Further experiments are required to prove if the supposed genesis of sorbit is 
true or not; but, in any case, 1 am conyinced that there is no sorbin ready formed 
in the fruits of Sorbus aucuparia. 


On the Detection of Morphine by Iodic Acid. By Prof. Dutrrs. 


Among the poisonous alkaloids which in forensic cases most frequently give 
occasion for chemical investigations morphine occupies the first place. For its 


70 REPORT—1871. 


detection a great many tests have been proposed, most of which, however, have 
little interest for the forensic chemist, particularly as they depend on phenomena 
which may also be produced by other substances beside morphine. It is not in- 
tended here to justify this assertion by a critical examination of all the tests for 
morphine which are liable to the reproach mentioned; it will be sufficient to 
signalize one of them, the iodic acid, as an example. The well-known property of 
this acid, of being reduced by morphine, is certainly adapted to distinguish the 
latter from other alkaloids, but is altogether insufficient to establish the nature of 
morphine, because there are a great many other substances, partly of organic, partly 
of inorganic origin, which likewise reduce iodic acid. Nevertheless I have found 
that iodic acid, with the aid of the microscope, presents a sure means of charac- 
terizing morphine perfectly, because the reaction between this alkaloid and the 
above-mentioned test proceeds under such peculiar appearances that morphine 
cannot be mistaken for any other substance. The process to be adopted for this 
purpose is the following :— 

After the morphine (of which the smallest particle is sufficient) is placed on a 
slip of glass and covered with a glass cover, as much water is added as will fill the 
space between the slip and the cover and extend a little beyond the margin of the 
latter. After the glass slip is put under the microscope and this is directed to the 
morphine, a particle of iodic acid is put into the water at the margin of the covering 
glass. In afew moments a great number of minute spherical yellow molecules, of 
constantly equal diameter, are seen to move in a direction from the iodic acid to 
the sides of the morphine, and soon form in its vicinity numerous colourless needle- 
shaped crystals, mostly united so as to form tufts. or the observation of this 
microscopic metamorphosis a magnifying-power of 300 linear would be the most 
suitable; when a more powerful system of lenses is employed, the difference of the 
focal distances of the morphine and the above-mentioned molecules and crystals 
readily becomes too great for the distinct observation of the whole simultaneously. 
Hence it is also advantageous to place under the covering glass the thinnest possible 
fragment of morphine. 

reserve for another place a more detailed communication on this subject. 


Experiments on Chemical Dynamics. 
By J. H. Guapstone, F.R.S., and Aurrep Trex, /.CS. 


The authors had recently communicated a paper to the Royal Society in which 
they investigated somewhat minutely what takes place when a plate of one metal, 
such as copper, is immersed in a solution of a salt of another metal, such as nitrate 
of silver. ‘They had shown that, while the silver was being deposited on the copper, 
an actual passage of the nitric element towards the more positive metal occurs, 
causing the formation of a dense solution of nitrate of copper inside the crystalline 
deposit, and a consequent downward current, and at the same time an upward 
current of almost pure water from the tips of the crystals. ‘They had shown, also, 
that with solutions of different strengths the chemical action in a given period 
(say ten minutes) is not in direct proportion to the strength ; but, ceteris paribus, 
twice the strength gives three times the chemical decomposition. This augmenta- 
tion had been attributed to an increased conduction of the stronger liquid. In the 
present paper the authors exhibited these phenomena in a dissected form, and 
carried the observations still further. 

Instead of the silver crystals being allowed to grow from the copper into the 
nitrate-of-silver solution, two separate plates were taken, one of copper and the 
other of silver. The copper plate was immersed in nitrate of copper, and the silver 
plate in nitrate of silver, while the two metals were connected by a wire, and the 
two liquids were connected by a porous cell, Silver crystals were gradually formed 
upon the silver plate, while the copper was dissolved; and at the end of some 
hours it was found that all the silver had been removed from solution, and that 
the loss of the copper plate was almost exactly what might be calculated from 
the amount of nitrate of silver originally placed in the other cell. The actual 
numbers were—theoretical 0°412, actual 0:402, The copper nitrate was formed in 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. rah 


the cell with the copper plate, the specific gravity of the liquid haying risen from 
1:015 to 1:047. 

A similar experiment was tried with plates of copper and zinc in sulphate of 
copper and sulphate of zinc respectively. The result was as before, metallic copper 
being deposited on the copper plate, and the sulphate of zinc rising in specific 
gravity from 1:125 to 1-159. 

In order to determine whether the amount of silver deposited depended, not 
merely on the amount of the silver in solution, but also on the amount of copper 
salt that bridged over the intervening space, similar experiments were made in 
which the nitrate of silver was kept constant, but the nitrate of copper was increased 
by equivalent multiples. It was found that the silver deposited increased with the 
increase of the copper salt, being about double when the copper salt was seven 
times as strong, and that the effect of successive additions gradually diminished. 
This is in strict accordance with other experiments, showing that, when the copper 
plate is immersed in a mixture of the nitrates of copper and silver, the amount of 
silver deposited is increased, and increases with each successive addition of copper 
salt, though in a diminishing ratic. 

That this acceleration is not produced by a copper salt only was proved by re- 
peating the experiment with a variety of other nitrates, 

The subjoined Table shows the results, and indicates, at the same time, that the 
increased effect does not depend simply upon the nitric element, which was present 
in the same quantity in all, but likewise on the nature of the salt. 

Size of plate 3230 sq. millims.; volume of solution 72 cub. centims., containing 
2:8 per cent, of nitrate of silver; temperature 18° C.; time 5 minutes. 


: Copper Increase 
Se. gisceived per cent. 
erm. 
GANG OL SILV OE: conc 5 ocsacccsseesececessnecseseseusios 00703 
Ditto +1 equiy. of nitrate of magnesium ......... O'IOIO 436 
o A af CRLCMIM cs ois cpisiedpaas 01003 42°6 
# x a AOGIUM s,.424.0-<0e~ 5 0°0957 361 
” ” 2 COPPEL ......+2+00000. 0°0965 37°2 
7 fi 4 potassium ......... 0°1047 48°9 
” i A strontium ......... o"1040 47°9 
3 5 By GACTOLUTA sss.ees0+es. 0°1030 465 
A of 3 Barta). Asst.ceretes 0'0987 403 
23 A % lead, Vegeresyestes seve 00945 34'4 


On Crystals of Silver. By J. H. Guanstone, /.R.S. 


The crystalline deposit on copper or zinc immersed in silver nitrate forms a 
very beautiful object when viewed under the microscope. The form, colour, and 
general character of it depend very much on the strength of the solution; if weak, 
say 1 per cent., the red metal is presently covered with a growth of small crystals, 
which are quite black; but as the action proceeds some of these crystals grow 
more rapidly than others, especially at the angles of the plate, and the new growth 
is white. If the solution be stronger, say 3 per cent., there is no black deposit, 
but the white silver simulates the appearance of furze-bushes or fern-leaves of 
yaried structure. In much stronger solutions, say 12 per cent., the crystals re- 
minded the author of juniper-branches, and in stronger still they had rather the 
outward form of moss. In nearly saturated solutions the crystals of silver end in 
thick knobs. The crystals at first advance pretty uniformly into the liquid, but 
when they have considerably reduced its strength, there usually happens a stop- 
page of the general advance, and a special growth from one or two points, forming 
long feathery crystals, that sweep rapidly through the lower part of the solution. In 
a1 per cent. solution these are long meandering threads, with tufts like the den- 
dritic appearances in minerals. The crystals are peculiarly beautiful when nitrate 


72 rEportT—1871. 


of copper or of potassium has been previously added to the nitrate of silver. 
Some other forms were described as produced under peculiar circumstances, such 
as long straight threads, of extreme tenuity, often changing their direction at a 


sharp angle. 


Note on Fibrin. By Dr. Joun Goopman. 


The author having read a paper on the above subject at the Meeting of the 
Association in Liverpool last year, has been since that period constantly engaged 
in a long series of experiments establishing the truth of the statements there set 
forth. The following is an epitome of the results obtained. The experiments 
were performed under the microscope :— 

1. Albumen immersed for some short time in cold water loses its characters as 
albumen, and becomes transformed into a substance which the author asserts 
exactly resembles blood-fibrin under the microscope. 

2. This substance exhibits intense attractive powers. 

3. It decomposes peroxide of hydrogen with effervescence. According to the 
author’s views, all these experiments showed that water is the primary source of 
this change, and that until albumen is in some way subjected to the influence of 
water, oxygen can exert no influence in producing this change. 

4, The rapidity or intensity of the transformation was not increased by raising 
the temperature of the water. 

5. Ovalbumen does not per se become transformed into fibrin by the voltaic 
currents, only to such an extent as its water of fluidity is available for this pur- 

ose, 
6, But when diluted with water the entire mass of albumen submitted to the 
current was rapidly transformed into fibrin. 

7. When this substance was submitted to potash it dissolved in three minutes, 
ee blood-fibrin required twelve hours and ovalbumen twenty-four hours for 
solution. 

8, In strong hydrochloric acid both this substance and blood-fibrin dissolved in 
jones four hours, whilst ovalbumen was not completely dissolved in sixteen 
days. 

9. In all acid solutions of this substance, and of blood-fibrin precipitated by 
alkalies, and of alkaline solutions precipitated by acids, the author asserts that he 
invariably finds fibrinous rods and formations perfectly identical in their appear- 
ance one with the other, and without any coagulum peculiar to albuminous preci- 
pitations; whilst on the other hand in similar solutions of albumen similarly pre- 
fa et he finds as invariably a dense flocculent coagulum, without the presence 
of fibrinous rods or other formations. Alkaline solutions, moreover, of albumen 
precipitated by acetic acid gave always a dense white and flocculent coagulum, 
and those precipitated by nitric acid gaye a lemon-yellow precipitate, whilst 
neither white nor lemon-yellow coagula occurred in similar precipitations from 
like solutions of fibrin thus produced as blood-fibrin. The author maintains that 
these experiments show that the substance thus produced by the agency of water 
is genuine fibrin, 


Preliminary Notice on a New Method of Testing Samples of Wood-Naphtha. 
By Witr1am Harxnass, FRM. 


The detection of wood-naphtha, when present in alcohol, is now comparatively 
easy, but the converse problem, viz. the detection of alcohol in wood-naphtha, does 
not seem to have occupied the attention of chemists generally. 

_ Methylated spirit, which is cheaper than wood-naphtha, is the only adulterant 

likely to be used, and any simple mode of determining its presence must be of 
some value to the chemist. One of the most common methods of examining a 
sample of naphtha is to ascertain its boiling-point; but this is not reliable, as 
different samples, even of the same specific gravity, may boil at different tempera- 
tures, varying from 138° F, to 156° F., and yet be free from ethylic alcohol. 

The following method of testing samples was discovered by the author whilst 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 73 


engaged in the preparation of oxalate of methyl. It was noticed that different 
samples of naphtha gave different quantities of this crystalline body. Further 
investigations showed that the presence even of a small quantity of methylated 
spirit or alcohol in the wood-naphtha from which the oxalate was prepared, altered 
in the most striking manner the temperature at which solidification took place. 
Thus, oxalate of methyl prepared from pure wood-naphtha is always solid at a 
temperature exceeding 100° F. This has been confirmed by experiments on all 
kinds of naphtha, English and foreign. 

In samples containing methylated spirit or alcohol, crystallization always takes 
place at a temperature Jess than 100° F., such temperature depending on the per- 
centage of alcohol present. The following are the averages of many experiments :— 


Per cent. of alcohol Oxalate of methyl 
in naphtha. solid at or about. 
(0) 104° Fahr. 
5 2 95 
10 86 
15 76 
20 64 
30 49 
40 27 
50 9 


The test is easily applied. Distil at a moderate heat 1 oz. of the suspected 
spirit, 7 drs. oxalic acid, and 1 oz. sulphuric acid ; collect the crystals, if any, in a 
small beaker, and heat until the crystals melt, then with a thermometer watch 
the temperature at which crystallization again takes place. 

One precaution is necessary: the sample examined, if not miscible with water, 
must be rendered so by filtration through charcoal previous to testing. 


A Method of Preserving Food by Muriatic Acid. 
By the Rey. H. Hiewron, WA, 


As the great objection to preserving articles of food by chemical compounds is 
that it imparts a flavour to them more or less unpleasant, it occurred to the author 
to try whether they could not be preserved in the first instance by muriatic acid, 
and then before use be deprived of their acidity by means of soda or its carbonates. 
The author tried many experiments, and found that in many cases the plan might 
be employed with very good results, the muriatic acid not affecting the most 
delicate flavours, but leaving the article just as it was before, with only a slight 
not objectionable taste of common salt. There are two principal ways of effecting 
the object :— 

1. To dip the meat, fish, or other substance at intervals, if necessary, and expose 
it freely to the air to dry. During this process of drying the coating of muriatic 
acid prevented the approach of decomposition. Meat and fish thus prepared re- 
mained perfectly sweet for many months. The only thing necessary before using 
them was to steep them in a very dilute solution of carbonate of soda till any 
slight traces of the acid were neutralized. 

2, The other plan is to enclose the substance in a close vessel with a small quantity 
of muriatic acid, so as to prevent evaporation. A very small quantity of muriatic 
acid seems to be sufficient to destroy the germs of decomposition—a quantity 
which, when ultimately neutralized by soda, gives a scarcely perceptible flavour 
of salt, A too large quantity of muriatic acid tends itself to decompose the sub- 
stance submitted to its action. 

One application of the plan was described. Ifmeat be cut up small and steeped 
in weak muriatic acid, and when it is thoroughly penetrated boiled in a very 
dilute solution of carbonate of soda, carbonic acid is evolved in the pores of the 
meat, and splits it up into such minute fragments as to produce virtually a solution 
of the meat. 


74 REPORT—1871. 


On the Aluminous Iron-ores of Co. Antrim. 
By Dr. J. Suyctarr Horney, of Larne. 


These ores have only been discovered within the last few years, and exhibit a 
seam both extensive and rich. It lies continuously for about seventy miles along 
the coast and mountain-glens of Antrim, being nearly horizontally interspread 
throughout the basaltic rocks which form the floor of the county, and at an average 
height of 300 feet above the white limestone. 

The elevation above sea-level varies considerably, as among the highest moun- 
tains it is found at a height of over 1000 feet, from which it gradually falls north 
and south as low as 200 feet. The general dip of the beds is south-west. 

_ Dr. Holden gave analyses of the ore, and adds that it is not analogous to any 
known iron deposit in England, and that basaltic rocks, though containing some 
iron in their composition, are not generally associated with large deposits of iron- 
ore. The ferruginous stratum consists of three qualities of ore, which, in descend- 
ing order, are :— “ 
ft Average Metallic Iron 
: per cent. 


IPISOUIEG eee geteis cs eilloveie a's ose ss 008 OPP rcutans 50 

I BYOLIE 06 Si iens tart oid, REN RE CR Pea ent cucte 20 

WG COLAR TE CPUC se ie cies « aso'n e092 BUG an 12 
Total thickness ........ 40 


These graduate into each other. The upper bed, or pisolite, is the richest in iron, 
and working quantities can be mined containing from 380 to 50 per cent. of metallic 
iron. 

Large quantities of this ore have now been raised and shipped to England, 
where it has already made a reputation for itself, in facilitating the production of 
pure iron from the siliceous heematites, The entire absence of phosphorus and 
sulphur, and the presence of a large percentage of alumina, add much to its value, 
both as an iron-ore and a flux. 

When intermixed with the siliceous ores in the smelting-furnace, the effect is to 
soften the slag, producing a “ loose load,” which allows the metal to pass through 
easily, forming a pure “ pig,” and, from a given quantity of the mixed ores, deter- 
mining a higher percentage of metallic iron than could be otherwise obtained. 

It is chiefly used in Lancashire, Cumberland, and South Wales, and is becom- 
ing a necessity where good steel-iron is demanded. To show that an extensive 
source of industry has already been developed, it may be stated that upwards of 
50,000 tons were exported last year, and the quantity will be much greater this 

ear. 
: The discovery of this ore has had the effect of stimulating mineral research in 
the adjoining counties, and Dr. Holden states not in vain, as samples of a good 
siliceous hematite have been shown him, and only wait exploration where they 
were discovered. If found in quantity, no better outlay of capital could be in- 
vested than in the erection of smelting-furnaces on the Antrim coast. 

As suggested by the President of the Section, there could be utilized in the 
‘eee smelting of the ores the large quantity of peat available in the north of 

reland, 


Loealities of Dioptase. By Professor N. Story Masxutyne, /.R.S. 


Dioptase has hitherto only been known as a product of the copper-mine at Altyn 
Tubeh, in the Kirghese steppes of Tartary, if we except certain reputed localities 
in Germany ; it has been recently met with among old specimens that have been 
traced to localities in Chili. 

One of these was among the specimens preserved in drawers at the British 
Museum, which have lately been under careful examination with a view to their 
identification, and another similar specimen was obtained some years since by 
W. G, Lettsom, Esq., the well-known mineralogist, from a dealer at Vienna. 

The crystals on both are minute but distinct, and are those of dioptase. The 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 75 


gangue is a compact micaceous hematite; the locality, traced to an old sale 
catalogue of Heuland’s, is the Rosario Mine, Chili. 

It is singular that other specimens of the same mineral should have been 
found among the specimens preserved in the British Museum. One of these is 
associated with chrysocolla and ochre on a quartzose veinstone, another occurs as 
a thin crust on a schorlaceous rock, both being from a Chilian locality. A specimen 
recently obtained is associated with quartz and eisenkiesel, and is from the Mina 
del Limbo, Del Salado, Copiapo, Chili, 


On Andrewsite. By Professor N. Story Masxeryye, F.2.S. 


A somewhat well-marked group of minerals would seem to justify the designa- 
tion of the Dufrenite group, by reason of their having, as a common constituent 
(or being capable of being so represented), a compound of which the formula is 
R, P,O, +R, H,O0,; R being Fe in the case of Dufrenite. 


Dufrenite being Fe, P,O, + Fe, H,0,, or, in Berzelian symbols, Fe p Fe H,. 
Peganite is Al p Al H, t+ 3H. 

Fischerite is Al Pi HE, + 5H. 

Cacoxene is Fe p Fe H, + 9H. 

Wayellite is 241 P, Al FH, + 9H. 


A mineral recently found in Cornwall, and sent to the British Museum by Mr. 
Talling, may perhaps be referred to this group. It has been analyzed in the 
Museum Pibatatony and Professor Maskelyne named it Andrewsite, im honour of 
the distinguished President of the Chemical Section of the British Association, 
Dr. Andrews, of Belfast. 

Andrewsite occurs in occasional association with a bright green mineral in 
brilliant minute crystals, presenting a strongly marked resemblance to those of 
Dufrenite. This green mineral not haying been as yet, from the small amount 
obtained of it, submitted to an analysis, is only provisionally termed Dufrenite. 

The Andrewsite which it sometimes thus accompanies presents itselfin globular 
forms or in disks with a radiate structure, and in habit curiously resembles Wavyel- 
lite. Its colour is a slightly bluish green ; its surface is generally formed of a very 
thin layer of the mineral provisionally termed Dufrenite, crystals of which occa- 
sionally stand out of the globules. 

The interior of the globules is sometimes homogeneous, and consists of radiating 
crystalline fibres; oftener one perceives an almost sudden transition from an outer 
shell of some thickness, which consists of Andrewsite, into an inner core, formed 
of a brown mineral. 

Seen under the microscope, the two minerals appear to a certain degree to inter- 
penetrate each other, so that the selection of material for analysis is a work of 
much caution. 

The spherules usually stand on the projections of a quartzose veinstone, protruding 
into a hollow, and covered with a mass of limonite, sometimes carrying a drusy 
crust of Gothite, and studded occasionally with a few brilliant little crystals of 
cuprite. The spherules are met with in one or two cases on cuprite formed round 
a nucleus of native copper. Andrewsite, in fact, contains copper, four analyses of 
separate specimens giving the percentages of 10°651, 10-702, 10-917, and 11-002. 

; bhi analyses of Andrewsite have proyed sufficiently concordant to justify the 
ormula, 


3{Fe, P, O,+Fe, H, 0,}+CuP,0,, 
or 3{ Fe P, Fe H,} + Cu, P, 
in which, however, a portion of the ferric phosphate is replaced by ferrous phosphate, 
as in Vivianite is frequently the case with the two phosphates, 


76 . REPORT—1871. 


The parallelism of Chenevixite (Cu, As, O,4Fe, H, O,) with a portion of the 
above formula is worthy of attention, and may justify the formula bemg written as 
2{Fe, P,O,+Fe, H, O,}+Cu; P, O,4+ Fe, H, 0,4 Fe, P, O,. 

A larger supply of the mineral will no doubt soon be forthcoming, when the 
formula may be fixed on the foundation of more certain analyses. The specific 
gravity of this mineral is 3-475, that of Dufrenite being (from Siegen) 3:2 to 3:4. 

The chalkosiderite of Ullmann, the name by which, nearly sixty years ago, he 
designated a thin crystalline coating overlying the radiated variety of the 
Griineisenstein (Dufrenite) of the Hollerter Zug, Sayn, Westphalia, does not 
seem to have been analyzed by him. He states that it contains copper; but the 
subsequent analyses of Griineisenstein do not appear to confirm this statement; 
indeed it appears more nearly to resemble the green crystallized mineral which 
has in this note been provisionally described as Dufrenite, 


On Ozonometry. By T. Morrat, WD., F.GS. 


The author stated that ozone test-papers did not become permanently coloured in 
the neighbourhood of cesspools, and that the brown colour, when formed, is 
removed by the products of putrefaction. He also stated that light, the humidity 
of the atmosphere, and direction of the wind influence the colouring of the test- 
paper. Moisture with heat accelerates the chemical action, while a strong wind 
causes a greater amount of ozone to impinge upon the test-paper in a given time. 
To counteract the effect of these, he recommends that the test-paper be placed as 
far as possible from cesspools, and that it be kept in a box. He next described a 
tube-ozonometer which he had in use, and gave results obtained by an aspirator 
ozonometer, and concluded by stating that the results obtained by the latter imstru- 
ment were not satisfactory. 


On the Photographic Post. By the Annf& Moreno. 


On an Antimony-ore from New Zealand. By Parrison Murr. 


Note on Regianic Acid. By Dr. T. L. Purpeson, F.C.S. 


Regianic acid is one of several new substances which I have obtained at various 
times during the last few years from the fruit of Juglans regia and another species 
of walnut. The green husk of the walnut cedes to benzol a yellowish substance, 
which crystallizes, apparently in very elongated octahedra or feather-like groups 
of prisms. This substance, which I term regianine, is easily decomposed, and 
when treated with alkalies or ammonia, yields splendid red-purple solutions, 
whence acids precipitate a brown flocculent substance (impure regianic acid). The 
latter, redissolved in a weak solution of soda, precipitated again with hydro- 
chloric acid, and washed with boiling water, forms ajet-black amorphous powder of 
great density, which is pure regianic acid. It yields to analysis the composition 

C® H° 07, 
and forms a brown lead-salt, PbO, C®° H° 07, also a jet-black silver-salt, very simi- 
lar in appearance to the acid itself, and with lime a beautiful pink-coloured salt, 
which is precipitated by boiling its solutions with a little ammonia, 

Regianic acid is insoluble in water, but dissolves in alkalies with a beautiful red- 
pun tint, that has no particular action upon the spectrum. It appears to be 
derived from regianine by oxidation, for I extracted all the oxygen from a rolume 
of air by placing in it a little regianine and soda. 


Note on the Action of Aldehyde on the two Primary Ureas. 
By Dr. J. Emerson Rernotrps, 
The action of the dicarbon aldehyde of the fatty series, C,H, O, on certain deri- 


:? 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 77 


vatives of ammonia has of late been studied with considerable care, and most in- 
teresting results arrived at in the course of the investigation. We have been long 
familiar with the reactions of aldehyde with aniline, described by Schiff, who has 
shown that the dyad group, C, H,", or ethyliden, as it is often called, can replace 
successively two distinct proportions of hydrogen in the double molecule of ani- 
line, water being eliminated according to the equations :— 

" C,H, NCL 

2(C,H,, NH,)+C, H,"0= OH? NE i EMO Weis 08.0 it) 

" H,N 4 
2(C, H, NH,)+2(C, H,’ 0)= c H, NC Ht Porno! 0) (2) 


We are also acquainted with analogous reactions which have been obtained with 
amides and aldehydes of the aromatic series ; it therefore appeared to be a matter 
of some interest to examine the action of aldehyde on another class of ammonia de- 
rivatives, the group of so-called wreas. Of these, there are at least two primary 
bodies—one the well-known product of the animal organism, or Wéohler’s beau- 
tiful artificial urea ; and the other, the sulpho-urea, which was discovered a few 
years ago by the author. 

It is unnecessary now to discuss the question of the identity or otherwise of 
Wohler’s and the normal urea ; it is sufficient here to mention that all these experi- 
ments have been made on Wohler’s urea and on the analogous sulphur compound. 

It will be convenient for the present to regard the two ureas just referred to as 
ammonia derivatives respectively of carbonic (according to Dr. Kolbe carbamic) 
and sulpho-carbonic acids; thus— 


Wohler’s urea. ..: .5/.. CO” ae 
Sulpho-urea 9 hs oy eye’ OS? NIL 


the author's object being to attempt the partial or complete replacement of 
hydrogen in each urea by the ethyliden group, according to the equation 


cs{ NE? } +0,H,"0=c8{ Nit } +H,0. 


The chief results arrived at in the course of the inquiry are the following :— 


Action of Aldehyde on the Sulpho- Urea. 


The first experiments were made with the sulpho-urea. A quantity of the pure 
compound was dissolved to saturation in nearly anhydrous aldehyde. The hot 
saturated solution was digested in a hermetically sealed flask, at a temperature of 
100° C., for two hours, The solution was then allowed to cool. No urea-crystals 
were deposited. After two days’ standing, however, a number of minute, spheri- 
eal, subcrystalline masses were found to have attached themselves to the sides of 
the flask, and these gradually increased in quantity, until a considerable amount 
had been obtained. The clear liquid gave a copious white precipitate with water 
and with alcohol. The deposited body was carefully washed with cold alcohol, 
in which it is very slightly soluble, and then purified by solution in a large vo- 
lume of boiling anhydrous alcohol, from which the new body separates out to a 
large extent on cooling, as a somewhat starch-like granular substance, seen under 
the microscope to be made up of extremely minute crystals. The analysis of the 
body gave numbers agreeing well with the formula 


» {NC,H," 
es { Nit, 


and is therefore derived from the urea by the replacement of half the hydrogen 
by ethyliden. 

The new body is but slightly soluble in ether, rather more so in cold alcohol, 
but its solubility in boiling alcohol is much greater. In consequence of its rela- 
tions to these solvents, the substance can be easily purified, It is but very slightly, 


73 REPORT—1871. 


if at all, truly soluble in cold water; but when digested at 100° C. with water, 
solution is obtained (but solution in consequence of decomposition), aldehyde 
being produced, and the urea separated with some ammonium sulphocyanate, ‘The 
essential reaction is probably correctly represented by the equation 


u NH " 
cs” {Nit } +H, 0=08 {xu} +0.H, 0, 


or the converse.of that according to which the ethyliden sulpho-urea is formed ; 
dilute acids and alkalies act in the same way. 

From the alcoholic solution the author obtained a platinum salt and a gold 
compound. » 

Action of Aldehyde on Wohler’s Urea. 

The urea was dissolved nearly to saturation in aldehyde, and the solution di- 
gested in a sealed flask for two hours at 100°C. When cool, the flask was opened, 
and the contents poured into a suitable vessel, and the aldehyde slowly evaporated. 
No crystals of the urea were deposited, but a transparent pasty mass remained 
when the solvent had been almost wholly driven off. After standing for twenty-four 
hours, the residue was found to be white and friable. The mass was powdered, 
and digested in the cold with nearly anhydrous alcohol, in which it is very slightly 
soluble at ordinary temperature, washed with the same liquid, and then boiled 
with alcohol. The filtered solution so obtained deposits, on rapid cooling, a con- 
siderable quantity of a flocculent body, seen under the microscope to be wholly 
made up of minute and considerably modified monoclinic crystals, Analysis gave 


the formula 
(aumNe el. 
co" {nH 


for this body. A platinum compound has been obtained, but no gold salt. 

The new substance is easily decomposed by digestion with water into aldehyde 
and the products of decomposition of the urea. The first stage of the reaction 
may, no doubt, be represented by the equation 


co{ NIE 5 } +H, 0=C0 {nix } 40, H,"0. 


Having succeeded in replacing half the hydrogen in each of these ureas, di- 
rectly and by a very simple reaction, the author endeavoured to go a step further, 
and substitute a hydrocarbon group for the residual hydrogen within the molecule, 
All attempts in this direction have hitherto been fruitless, 

In view of the facts above stated and others well known, proving that half the 
hydrogen only is capable of replacement, and that each atom of nitrogen within 
the molecule of the urea is somewhat differently engaged, we are clearly warranted 
in slightly modifying the rational formula of each urea, in order to bring it into 
more complete harmony with the facts. The extent of the alteration is apparent 
when we write the formule of the ethyliden ureas referred to in this note, thus :— 

NC, H, 
Ethyliden usea| COH 
NH, 
NC, H, 
Ethyliden sulpho-urea { CSH 


On the Analysis of a singular Deposit from Well-water. 
By Dr. J. Emerson Ruynoxps, 


On the Chemical Constitution of Glycolic Alcohol and its Heterologues, as viewed 
tm the new light of the Typo-nucleus Theory. By Orro Ricurer, Ph.D. 
The chemical constitution of glycolic alcohol and its heterologues may be ade 


ee 4 ee 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 79 


quately expressed by means of the following table of rational formule *, where 
the non-essential constituents are separated from the essential constituents by a 
horizontal line :— 


H,, C, 0; H, O.,. Os 
Glycolic alcohol. 2C,; H, O,! 2H, C,; H, O, 
H, C, O, P ed Piet 
Deglycolic alcohol. 2077 BE OF BC); HO; 
H, C, 0, H, O,. 1S Oe 
Glycolite of water. 20,; H, 03: 2H; 20,0 
HC, 0,5 H, O,. H, Ox 
Glycolate of water. 90,; H, 0, 2H; 20, 0, 
1, 0, 0,4 5 Oe. H, O,,. 
Oxyglycolate of water. 2C,; H, 0,! 2H; 20, O, 


So far as the author Imows, the glycolic alcohol, which is the parent molecule 
of this family group, has not yet been obtained in a state of isolation, The ethy- 
len-glycol might at first sight be taken for the missing alcohol, more particularly 
when we couple the decidedly biatomic character of their respective molecules 
with the other, and even more significant fact, that the whole of the glycolic he- 
terologues may be produced by the simple oxidation of the ethylen-glycol. Never- 
theless, and notwithstanding these striking points of resemblance, the author is in- 
clined to believe that these two alcohols are only isomeric; and he grounds this be- 
lief upon the occurrence of a certain class of chemical compounds, among which 
the so-called diethyl-acetal is the most conspicuous and best investigated member 
This diethyl-acetal is strictly isomeric with the diethyl-ether of the ethylens 
glycol, and it is no doubt the missing glycolic alcchol to which we are indebted 
for this curious and instructive case of isomerism. A cursory examination and 
comparison of the subjoined rational formule will suffice in order to prove the 
correctness of this view. 


EC, 0; H, 0,. H, O,. 
Ethylen-glycol. 2H, C,; H, 0,~2C,; H, 0, 
H,,C, 0, H,0,. 27a 
Glycolic alcohol. 2C,; H, 0.' 2H, C,; H, Oj 
He 05,0 2H SH. O., 2H, C,; H, Ox 
Diethyl-ether of ethylen-glycol. oH, oF H, One 20,3 H, aes clad = 
OOF 2H) C;; Hy Os 2H, C,; H, O; 
Diethyl-acetal. 203) HB; OF 3H, ©; 0) 


Ethylen-glycol differs from glycolic alcohol in two essential points :—First, in 
the former compound the two alcoholic constituents are represented as playing 
the coordinate part of principal alcoholic bases, while in the latter compound one 
of these alcoholic bases is represented as playing the subordinate part of adjunct 
to the other base. Secondly, the relative positions which the two alcoholic con- 
stituents occupy in ethylen-glycol are exactly reversed in the glycolic alcohol. A 
mere glance at the two formule which express the chemical constitution of the 
isomeric ether derivatives will enable the reader to complete the analysis of these 
hitherto obscure and unintelligible cases of isomerism, To the second member in 
the family of glycolic heterologues, which is likewise very little known, the author 
has applied the term ‘“deglycolic alcohol,” in order to record the fact that it is 
produced from the primary alcohol by the simple abstraction of two molecules os 
hydrogen from the methylen adjunct of the principal water-base. This secondary 
alcohol, like the majority of the alcohols which occupy the second place in the 


* The following are some of the typical symbols of molecular grouping used in these 
formule : a dot connects the base with its acid, a semicolon the hydrocarbon adjunct with 
its principal, an inverted semicolon the halogen (acid, base, or salt) adjunct with its prin- 
cipal, and a concave curve two principal bases with one another— 


H,=2; C,=12; 0,=16. 


80 REPORT—1871. 


family group of the heterologues of the fatty alcohols, seems, from its want of 
stability, very prone to merge into the isomeric and far more permanent modifica- 
tion of the glycolite of water. In this remarkable metamorphosis the double 
carbon adjunct of the principal water-base becomes first of all converted into an 
acid twin carbon-nucleus, which reunites under this new form with the old water- 
base, whereupon, under the combined influence of base and acid, the remaining 
water-molecule becomes decomposed, so as to surrender its oxygen to the envelope 
of the acid twin carbon-nucleus, while the hydrogen connects itself with the same 
nucleus under the typical form of a hydrocarbon adjunct. It is worthy of note 
that in this singular and characteristic rearrangement of the constituent elements 
the organic molecule has, without loss of substance and without loss of satu- 
rating capacity, passed at one bound from the category of a true and genuine al- 
cohol into the category of a true and genuine water-salt. As regards the two 
remaining heterologues of glycolate of water and oxyglycolate of water, you can- 
not but see that their formation is due to the successive absorption of two mole- 
cules of oxygen by the envelope of the glycolous acid constituent, and that they 
differ from each other in this respect only, that the former contains for its prin- 
cipal constituent formate of water, while the latter contains instead of it oxy- 
formate of water. This oxyformate is a highly interesting isomeric modification 
of the neutral carbonate of water, which, on account of its excessive want of 
stability, cannot be obtained in a state of isolation. The compound before us 
differs from the isomeric neutral carbonate in being decidedly monobasic, while 
the latter is as decidedly bibasic. The cause of this apparent anomaly becomes 
now fully revealed ; for it is plain that one of the two hydrogen-molecules, which 
in the ordinary carbonate of water are both of them readily displaceable by metals, 
has assumed the hydrocarbon form of grouping, in consequence of which it will 
cease to play the part of a basic nucleus; and although it may become eliminated 
or exchanged in obedience to other modes of substitution, it is certain that the 
ordinary process of double decomposition has no control over it. 


The Molecular arrangement of the Alloy of Silver and Copper employed for 
the British Silver Coinage. By Wrt11am Cuanpier Rosrrrs, Chemist of 
the Mint. 


Experiments have demonstrated that when a molten alloy of silver and copper 
is allowed to cool, the composition of the resulting metal is not uniform, the cooling 
being attended with a remarkable molecular rearrangement, in virtue of which 
certain constituents of the molten alloy become segregated from the mass, the homo- 
geneous character of which is thereby destroyed. 

Thus, to take an extreme case, an alloy containing 77:33 per cent. of silver and 
22-67 per cent. of copper was cast in a cubical mould of 42 millimetres. A portion 
cut from the centre of the mass gave on assay 78°318 per cent. of silver, while a 
portion cut from one of the angles was found to contain only 77-015 per cent. of 
silver, showing a difference of 13:03 milliémes. 

Levol proved that the alloy containing 71°89 fe cent. of silver is homogeneous, 
and in all alloys containing more silver than this amount the centre of the soli- 
dified mass is richer than the exterior; on the other hand, in alloys of fineness lower 
than 71°89, the centre contains less silver than the external portions. 

The alloy employed for the British silver coinage contains 925 parts of silver and 
75 parts of copper in 1000 parts of alloy. The metals are melted together and cast 
into bars 18 inches long and 1 inch thick ; these bars are subsequently rolled into 
strips or ribands, and from these ribands the disks of metal to form the coins are 
cut. 

Experiments conducted in the most careful manner proved that the centre of 
the riband contained more silver by two parts in the thousand than the external 
edges. The increase in richness from one edge of the riband to the centre, and 
the corresponding decrease in richness from the centre to the opposite edge, was 
extremely regular, as was shown by the curve or graphic representation of the 
results by which the paper was illustrated. 


— — 


{ 


_ ean hardly be investigated alone. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 81 


On the Retention of Organic Nitrogen by Charcoal. By KH. C. C. Sranvorp. 


Improvements in Chlorimetiy. 
By Joun Suyru, Jun., A.M, MLOBL, PALS. 

The author showed that the use of the milky solution of bleaching-powder in 
chlorimetry is unsatisfactory, and was therefore glad to discover a method of securing 
a clear solution containing all the chlorine by dissolving the sample in an alkaline 
solution. This is conveniently done by adding, say, 10 grammes of bleaching- 
powder to 20 grammes of soda-crystals (Na, CO,+10H, 0), filtering out the 
Be eiated carbonate of lime, which is known to be washed when it no longer 

ischarges the colour of dilute sulphate of indigo, and making up the filtrate by 
water to one litre of fluid. It isa clear colourless liquid of the sp. gr. 1:007, but if 
made of sp. gr. 1:233 it is slightly greenish, having a pleasant oily feeling between 
the fingers, contrasting favourably with the roughness of the decanted solution of 
the bleaching-powder, with which it gives a precipitate. Most satisfactory results 
are obtained from it by all the chlorimetrical methods; and it has the additional 
advantage of showing the amount of lime in the sample, a solution of known 
strength of carbonate of soda being added until a precipitate is no longer formed. It 
is manufactured and used in the north of Ireland for bleaching fine linens; and from 
the ease and accuracy with which the percentage of chlorine was obtained, the 
author was led to investigate the feasibility of converting bleaching-powder into it 
for chlorimetrical purposes, and obtained the above results. 


Contributions to the History of the Phosphorus Chlorides. 
By T. E. Toorex, Ph.D., FRS.E. 


I. On the Reduction of Phosphoryl Trichloride. 


The author has attempted, but without success, to prepare the phosphorus 
chlorides corresponding to the oxychlorides of vanadium discovered by Roscoe. 
He found that when phosphorus oxychloride was heated with metallic zinc in a 
sealed tube to a temperature above the boiling-point of mercury, the phosphorus 
trichloride (P Cl,) was produced. It appears, therefore, that the action of zine at 
a high temperature on phosphoryl trichloride is sensibly different from the action 
of this metal on the corresponding vanadium compound; in the former case the 
at is attended with abstraction of oxygen, in the latter with abstraction of 
chlorine. 

II. On the Preparation of Phosphorus Sulphochloride. 


The author found that perfectly pure phosphorus sulphochloride may be easily 

i by a reaction analogous to that by which phosphoryl trichloride has 

ong been obtained ; that is, by simply substituting P, 8, for P, O, according to the 
following reaction, P,8,+38 P Cl,=5 PS Cl,. 

The materials mixed in this proportion were heated in a sealed tube to about 
150°C. ; inafew minutes combination was quietly effected, and the entire contents 
of the tube were transformed into colowless phosphorus sulphochloride, a mobile 
liquid boiling constantly at 126° at 770 millims barom. Its vapour is extremely 
irritating, but when diluted with air it has an aromatic odour, reminding one of that 
of the raspberry. 


On the Dissociation of Molecules by Heat. 
By C. R. C. Ticupornz, F.C.S., MRLA. 
The term dissociation is applied by the author to specify a certain class of phe- 
nomena somewhat distinct from ordinary decomposition. This latter term is 


' generally applied to any case of molecular change which has been consummated, 


whilst dissociation is used to conyey a passive but present phenomenon. If this 
latter is carried far enough, it ultimately results in a rupture, and thus the phe- 
nomena of decomposition and dissociation are so intimately connected, that they 


1871. 6 


82 REPORT—1871. 


Compound molecules exist in the solid, liquid, and gaseous condition, providing 
that the temperature necessary to convert them into these physical modifications 
is not above the temperature at which their components are dissociated. Thus 
we can easily conceive that a substance A may be of sufficient structural stability 
to pass through all the increasing vibratory action of heat without dissociation of 
its component molecules, until it has passed through the solid, liquid, and far into 
the vaporous condition; whilst a substance B has what the author calls a 
thermanalytic point, or the point where the equilibrium is broken. If it lies 
below 100° C., we have dissociation in the liquid condition among compounds so- 
luble in water. 

A well-known natural group of bases had been studied as regards these phe- 
nomena, viz. the trioxides, alumina, chromic and ferric oxides, and it has been 
found that all the compound molecules of these bases were more or less disso- 
ciated on heating their solutions. 

The ferric compounds are the most easily affected. The solutions of these 
compounds, if pure, are almost colourless; the usual slight tinge being in most 
cases produced by the basic action of the water. By the cautious addition of 
dilute acid, almost colourless solutions will be procured. On the application of 
heat this solution becomes gradually darker and darker, until it becomes a dark 
reddish-brown fluid. If the water fees any considerable proportion to the salt, 
a basic precipitate falls before it has reached the boiling-point. The relative 
amount of the water is of the utmost importance in these phenomena, because its 
basic action lowers the thermanalytic point. The result of the dissociative in- 
fluence of heat when a precipitate is not produced, is the repartitioning of the 
elements by which a basic and an acid salt are produced in the same fluid simul- 
taneously. If these experiments are carried on under pressure, or in the presence 
of a great excess of water, the dissociative influence is so great from the increased 
range of temperature, that anhydrous oxide of iron can be produced in the pre- 
sence of water. 

The compounds of chromium are capable of dissociation in a similar manner, 
and the change of colour produced by heat upon these solutions is due to basic 
condition, and not to the state of hydration of the salt as generally stated. 

The aluminic molecules obey exactly the same rule; but as the thermanalytic 

oint is much higher, and as there is no chromatic change to mark the dissociative 
influence of heat, it is difficult to discern the phenomenon. Under the influence 
of solutions boiling at an increased pressure of 11 or 12 atmospheres alumina was 
procured. The same results may be obtained by increasing the basic condition of 
the solution by a large volume of water. As the pressure raises the boiling-point 
of the water until we reach the thermanalytic point of the molecule, so the basic 
action of the water upon the stylous group lowers the thermanalytic point until 
we get it within the range of 100° C. “If 500,000 to 600,000 times the weight of 
water is used to the amount of salt, a precipitate is produced at 100° C. This pre- 
cipitate is best seen by passing a beam of electric light through the flask. Most 
of the precipitates may be observed by the eye, but not all; they redissolve 
on cooling. 


On the behaviour of Supersaturated Saline Solutions when exposed to the open 
air. By Cuartes Tomurnson, F128. 


It is known that when a vessel containing a supersaturated saline solution is 
opened in a room, it immediately crystallizes provided the temperature be not too 
high. Mr. Tomlinson shows that supersaturated solutions of Glauber’s salt (and 
also of Epsom salts and of alum) may be exposed to the open air of the country for 
many hours, and even be taken out of the flasks in clean metal spoons, without 
crystallizing. From a large number of experiments conducted under various con- 
ditions, the following conclusions are drawn :— 

1. That a highly supersaturated solution of sodic sulphate may he exposed 
to the open air of the country in an uncoyered flask, and in cloudy weather, 
for from twelve to twenty hours, without any formation of the ordimary ten- 
watered crystals, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 83 


2. That if the temperature fall to 40° Fahr. and under, the modified seven- 
watered salt is formed at the bottom of the solution just as in covered vessels, 

3. That if the exposed solution suddenly crystallize into a compact mass of 
needles, a nucleus may always be found in the form of an insect, a speck of soot, a 
black point of carbon, &c. 

4. That if during the exposure rain come on, the solution generally crystallizes 
suddenly in consequence of an active nucleus being brought down: but if the 
flask be put out during heavy rain, when we may suppose all the solid nuclei to 
be brought down, the rain-drops, now quite clean, fall into the solution without 
any nuclear action. 

5. That the young and newly sprouted leaves of trees, such as those of the 
gooseberry and currant, have no nuclear action, 

6. That in clear cloudless weather, when the force of evaporation is strong, the 
solutions by exposure produce fine groups of crystals of the ten-atom salt, just as a 
saturated solution would do if left to evaporate slowly in an open dish. 

7. That if the solution, after being exposed to the open air, be brought into a room, 
it crystallizes immediately under the action of aérial nuclei. 


On the Constitution of Salts. By J. A. Wanxiyy, F.CS. 


Recent Progress in Chemistry in the United States. By C, Gitsert WHEELER. 


On the Oxidation products of the Essential Oil of Orange-peel, known as 
“ Tssence de Portugal.” By C. R.A. Wricut, D.Se., Lecturer on Chemistry 
in St. Mary’s Hospital Medical School, and Caartes H. Presse, Assistant 
Analyst in St. Thomas's Hospital. 


Through the kindness of Messrs. Piesse and Lubin, we haye had the opportunity 
of examining a specimen of pure oil of orange-peel. As stated by Soubeiran and 
Capitaine, and also by Dr. Gladstone, this oil consists mainly of a hydrocarbon of 
formula C,, H,,, boiling at 174° C., and termed Hesperidene. We find that the crude 
oil commences to boil at 175°, and that 97-2 per cent. comes over below 179°; on 
redistillation over sodium this portion all comes over between 175° and 177° 
(uncorrected). The remaining 2°8 per cent. is a soft resin, which does not harden 
on standing, andis perfectly fluid at 100°. It is not volatile without decomposition, 
and after complete volatilization of residual hesperidene is inodorous; in alcohol, - 
even boiling, it is but sparingly soluble, readily soluble in ether, and insoluble in 
water, to which, however, it communicates the aromatic bitter taste of orange-peel. 
It contains no nitrogen, and on combustion gives numbers agreeing with the 
formula ©, H,, O,. 

Hesperidene redistilled over sodium is attacked with violence by concentrated 
warm nitric acid ; by dilution of the acid with its own bulk of water the action 
becomes less violent ; after boiling some hours with an inverted condenser attached, 
the evolution of red fumes and of CO, almost ceases. At this stage the hydro- 
carbon has principally formed a brown resinous substance, becoming a very thick 
viscid liquid at 100°, but setting on cooling to a hard brittle mass. This contains 
much nitrogen and less hydrogen in proportion to the carbon than the original 
substance. Its examination is not yet completed, but the numbers obtained are 
consistent with the supposition that it is derived from the original hydrocarbon by 
addition of oxygen and replacement of hydrogen by NO,,. 

With strong nitric acid this brown resin is further acted on, producing a yellow 
resin not softening at 100°, and containing nitrogen and less carbon and hydrogen 
than the brown resin. Much oxalic acid is also produced, and probably also 
another acid containing nitrogen ; for the snow-white oxalic acid got by precipita- 
tion as lead-salt, decomposition with hydric sulphide, and several recrystallizations 
from water, contained much nitrogen, and yielded (as well as its silver salt) 
numbers not agreeing with but approximating to those required by theory. 

On heating one part of hesperidene with a mixture of three pe potassium 


84 REPORT—1871. 


dichromate, one of sulphuric acid, and thirty of water, an inverted condenser being 
attached, a slow evolution of CO, is noticed. After six or eight hours but little 
action has apparently taken place ; but on distilling the product there is obtained, 
besides unaltered hesperidene, an acid liquid, which yields by neutralization a 
barium salt, giving all the qualitative reactions of acetate, and containing the cal- 
culated percentage of barium ; a little formiate is possibly also produced, as the 
barium salt reduces silver nitrate slightly on boiling. The silver salt got by 
precipitation with strong silver nitrate and recrystallization from boiling water 1s 
pure acetate. 

The action of potassium chlorate and sulphuric acid on hesperidene is very 
energetic, a viscid tarry substance, not yet examined, being produced. 

The production of acetic acid from hesperidene renders a grouping of carbon 
atoms of the following nature probable :— 


CH, 
CH (C; a) 


We hope to be able to gain some further insight into the structure of the group 
C,H,,, and propose to submit to examination several other essential oils, hoping 
that the results may throw some light on the causes of the “ physical isomerism ”’ 
of the turpentine group of hydrocarbons. 


On certain new Derivatives from Codeia. By C. R. A. Wrient, D.Sc., 
Lecturer on Chemistry in St. Mary’s Hospital Medical School. 


When codeia is heated to 100° C. for two or three hours with from three to six 
parts of aqueous hydrobromic acid containing 48 per cent. HBr, there are formed, 
without appreciable evolution of methyl bromide, three new bases, of which the 
two last are produced by a further action on the first. These are— 


Bromocodide C,, H,, Br NO, 
Deoxycodeta Ci, 2 “NO; 
Bromotetracodeia C,, H,, Br N, O,.. 


The two first are soluble in ether, and may thus be separated (after precipitation 
by sodium carbonate) from the last, which is almost insoluble in this medium. By 
agitation of the etherial extract with hydrobromic acid there is obtained a viscid 
liquid, which contains little but bromocodide hydrobromate, if the digestion of the 
codeia have been carried on for a short time only, but contains also much deoxy- 
codeia hydrobromate if the digestion have been continued somewhat longer. This 
latter salt separates in crystals from the viscid liquid on standing, the bromocodide 
hydrobromate furnishing a gummy mass only on standing and evaporation. 

By dissolving the portion insoluble in ether in dilute hydrobromic acid, and 
fractionally precipitating the coloured solution thus got with strong hydrobromic 
acid several times successively, bromotetracodeia hydrobromate is ultimately 
obtained in white amorphous flakes, that become tarry if warmed while moist, 
and colour more or less on drying. When once dry, a temperature of 100°C. does 
not soften the amorphous salt. 

The following reactions explain the productions of thesc three bases from codeia 
hydrobromate— 


Codeia hydrobromate. Bromocodide hydrobromate. 
C,, H,, NO,, HBr + HBr = H,0O + C,, H,, Br NO,, HBr 
Codeia hydro- Bromocodide hydro- Deoxycodeia hydro- = Bromotetracodeia 
bromate bromate. bromate. hydrobromate. 


4(C,,H,,NO,,HBr)+ C,,H,,BrNO,,HBr=C,,H,,NO,,HBr+C,,H,,BrN,0,,,4HBr. 
By the further action of hydrobromic acid on each of the aboye bases methyl 
bromide is copiously evolved, and the following series of products formed :— 
(A) From bromotetracodeia: bromotetramorphia, probably by the reaction— 
Bromotetracodcia. Bromotetramorphia. 


C,, Hy, BrN, O,, + 4HBr = 4CH, Br + C,, H,; BrN, 0,5. 


Meek) 


~ 
nm J 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 85 


(B) From bromocodide: probably at first a lower homologue bromomorphide 
(not yet isolated), converted subsequently into bromotetramorphia and deory- 
morphia by the reaction. 


Bromomorphide. Deoxymorphia. Bromotetramorphia. 


5C,, H,, BrNO, + 4H, O = 4HBr + ©,,H,, NO, + C,, H,; Br, 0,,. 


(C) From deoxycodeia: only blackened tarry substances, not fit for analysis ; 
hence probably the deoxymorphia got in Bis not formed from deoxycodeia pre- 
viously produced. 

Deoxymorphia and bromotetramorphia much resemble in all their properties 
their homologues deoxycodeia and bromotetracodeia; the first gives crystalline 
salts, the second amorphous ones. 

The constitutions of all the above have been verified by analyses of the hydro- 
bromates, hydrochlorates, platinum salts, &c. In qualitative reactions, the deoxy- 
salts are identical with apomorphia salts. 

On treating bromotetracodeia and bromotetramorphia with excess of cold strong 
hydrochloric acid, dissolving in water, and fractionally precipitating by strong 
hydrochloric acid, the bromine in these bases becomes replaced by chlorine, 
yielding the following bodies, that much resemble in all their properties the cor- 
responding brominated salts :— 


Chlorotetracodeia hydrochlorate C,, H,, C1N,0,,, 4HC1 
Chlorotetramorphia hydrochlorate C,, H,;C1N,0,,, 4HCl. 


By digesting codeia for six hours at 100° with hydrobromic acid, there was 
obtained a substance that gave numbers (after treatment with hydrochloric acid) 
intermediate between those required for the two last-named bodies. This may 
have been only a mixture of these two; butit seems very probable that a series of 
products should exist intermediate between these extremes, viz.— 


C,, H,; BrN, O,, = Bromotetramorphia 

C,, H., Br, O,, 

Cro Hyp BEN, O14 

C,, H,, BrN, O,, 

C,, H,, BrN, O,, = Bromotetracodeia 

C,, H,; CIN, O,, = Chlorotetramorphia 

C,, H,, CIN, O,, 

C., H., CIN, O,, = Chlorodicodeia-dimorphia 
C_, H,, CIN, O 

C., H,, CIN, O,, = Chlorotetracodeia. 


Assuming that this substance was not a mixture, it might be termed chloro- 
dicodeia-dimorphia. 

Dr. Michael Foster finds that the tetracodeia and tetramorphia compounds 
produce in adult cats a great excitement of the nervous system, and apparently 
paralyze the inhibitory fibres of the pneumogastric. Apparently the morphia 
compounds are somewhat more potent than the codeia bodies in this case. 

Deoxycodeia and deoxymorphia salts produce in adult cats convulsions more 
epileptic in character than tetanic. No trace of emetic symptoms has been observed 
with any of the salts of this class of bases, which in physiological effect, as 
well as chemical reactions, are almost indistinguishable the one from the other. 

This absence of emetic symptoms conclusively proves that apomorphia is not 
among the products of the action of hydrobromic acid on codeia. From its known 
production from this base by the action of hydrochloric acid, as well as from the 
analytical numbers obtained, the formation of apomorphia has been previously 
looked upon as probable. 

By the action of hydriodic acid containing 55 per cent. HI on codeia in presence 
of phosphorus, a series of substances have been formed that present the composi- 
tions included in one or other of the two general formule, 


4X + nHI + pH, O, 
4Y + nHI + pil, O, 


86 REPORT—1871. 


where X represents a base containing two atoms of hydrogen more than morphia 
Ge =C,, H.. NO.), and Y a base containing one atom of oxygen less than X 
(i.e. = C,,H,,NO,). Simultaneously with the production of these substances, 
iodide of methyl, in quantity representing almost exactly 7; of the carbon in the 
codeia used, is evolved. : . ; 

By allowing the action of 10 parts codeia, 30 of 55 per cent. hydriodie acid, and 
3 of phosphorus, to take place at 100°, a compound is produced separable from the 
viscid liquid resulting from the reaction by addition of water, washing, and drying 
at 100°, and representing in constitution the formula 


4X + 6HI = C,, H,,1,N, Oj.) 401 


Tf, however, the reaction take place at a somewhat higher temperature, a similar 
body containing two molecules of water less is formed, 


4X + GHI — 2H, 0 = Cy, Heal, Nz O19) 4H1; 


whilst if the mixture be allowed to boil rapidly, so as to distil off most of the 
excess of hydriodic acid employed, and ultimately raise the boiling-point to 130° 
or upwards, the product contains four atoms of oxygen less than this last com- 
pound, being 

4Y + 6HI— 2H,0 = C,, H,, I, N, O,, 481. 


Simultaneously with these bodies much phosphorous and phosphoric acids are 
produced. i ; : 
On. dissolving these substances in hot water and cooling, there are obtained 
products apparently crystalline to the eye, but under the microscope consisting of 
coalesced globules only. In this way the following bodies have been obtained :— 


4X + 5HI — 2H, O = C,, H,, IN, O,,, 401 
4X + 4HT — 2H,0 = C,, H,, N,O,,, 4H1 
4Y + 4H1 + 2H,O = C,,H,, N,O,,, 4H1. 

The free bases of some of the foregoing hydricdates have also been obtained. 
They oxidize very readily, forming orange-coloured substances that ultimately 
become black. 

Finally, by the action of hydriodic acid on the three bodies of the formule last 
given, the elements of HI and also of H, O are taken up; the following compounds 
haying been thus obtained, 


4X + 7HI + 10H,O = C,, H,,,1, N,0,., 4H1 
4Y + 7H1+4 8H,O = C,,H,,,1,N,0,,, 400 
4Y¥ + 5HI+ 2H,0=C,,H,, I N,O,,, 401 

The H,O thus taken up remains firmly united to the body of the molecule, 

exposure to a temperature of 100° for days not driving off any water. 

qualitative reactions, all these bodies are very similar: alkalies throw down 
a white precipitate of variable composition in the case of those bases which contain 
iodine united to the molecule of base. In all cases this white precipitate rapidly 
becomes yellow, orange, and finally brown, oxygen being absorbed. In water and 
sodium carbonate these precipitates are but little soluble; in ammonia, and espe- 
cially caustic potash, readily soluble. 

Oxidizing agents (e.g. nitric acid) produce a bright yellow or orange-yellow 
tint. ‘ 

In most of the above reactions, this set of compounds differs much from those got 
by the action of hydrochloric and hydrobromic acids; the free bases of these latter 
derivatives having a tendency to become green by oxidation in the air, and yielding 
red or purple colorations with oxidizing agents. 

ee ange in the experiments phos described formed part of a large 
supply, exceeding twenty ounces, most liberally presented for the ose b 
Messrs, J.P, Metefeflane end'Oo:/lof Ridieibtieate ane 


=? Fe 
‘ 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 87 


GEOLOGY. 


Address by Ancurpaty Geucin, F.RS., President of the Section. 


InsTEap of offering to the Geological Section of the British Association an 
* Seg Address on some special aspect or branch of general Geology, I have 

ought that it might be more interesting, and perhaps even more useful, if I were 
to lay before you an outline of the geology of the district in which we are now 
assembled. Accordingly, in the remarks which I am now about to make, I propose 
to sketch to you the broader features of the geological structure and history of 
Edinburgh and its neighbourhood, dwelling more especially on those parts which 
have more than a mere local interest, as illustrative of the general principles of 
our science. 

It would be as unnecessary as it would be out of place here to cite the long 
array of authors who have each added to our knowledge of the geology ef this 
district, and many of them also, at the same time, to the broad fundamental truths 
of geology. And yet it would be strange to speak here of the rocks of Edinburgh 
without even a passing tribute of gratitude to men like Hutton, Hall, Jamieson, 
Hay Cunningham, Hibbert, Hugh Miller, Fleming, Milne Home, and our late 
esteemed and venerable associate, Charles Maclaren—men who have made the 
rocks of Edinburgh familiar to geologists all over the world. If, therefore, I make 
no further allusion to these and other names, it is neither that I forget for a mo- 
ment their claims, nor that I now bring forward any new material of my own, but 
because I wish to be understood as dealine with facts which, thanks to the labours of 
our predecessors, have become part of the common stock of geological knowledge. 

For the purpose of gaining as clear an idea as may be of the rockgamong which 
Edinburgh lies, and of the way in which they are grouped together, let us imagine 
ourselves placed on the battlements of the Castle, where, by varying our position, 
We may obtain a clear view of the country in every direction for many miles 


round. To the south-east the horizon is bounded by a range of hich ground, 


rising as a long tableland above the lowland of Midlothian. Thatisa portion of 
the wide Silurian uplands of the south of Scotland, forming here the chain of 
heights known as the Lammermuir and Moorfoot Hills. Along most of its boun- 
dary line, in this district, the Silurian tableland descends with tolerable rapidity 
towards the plain, being bounded on its north-west side with a long fault, by 
which the Carboniferous rocks are brought down against the hills. These Silurian 
rocks are the oldest strata of the district ; and it is on their contorted and greatly 
denuded beds that the later formations have been laid down. 

Turning now to the south, we see the chain of heights known as the Pentland 
Hills, striking almost from the very suburbs of Edinburgh south-westward in the 
direction of the Silurian uplands, which they eventually reach in the county of 
Lanark. This line of hills rises along an anticlinal axis by which the broad Car- 
boniferous tract_of the Lothians is divided into two distinct portions. The Pent- 
lands themselves consist, as I shall afterwards point out, chiefly of rocks of Old Red 
Saudstone age; but the anticlinal fold along which they rise is prolonged through 
the Braid Hills, and through the Carboniferous ground by the Castle Rock of 
Edinburgh, even as far as the opposite shores of Fife. From the Castle we can 
readily follow with the eye the effects of this great dominant fold of the rocks. To 
the east, we mark how the strata dip away eastward from the axis of movement, 
as is shown in the escarpments of Salisbury Crag, Arthur’s Seat, and Calton Hill, 
while on the opposite or western side the escarpment of the wooded hill of Cors- 
torphine, facing towards us, points out the westward dip. From the same stand- 
point we can even detect the passage of the arch into Fife; for the rocks about 
Aberdour are seen dipping to the west, while eastward they bend over and dip 
towards the east at Kinghorn. 

Although the structure of the district is simple when the existence and position 
of this anticlinal axis is recognized, some little complication is introduced by a 
long powerful fault which flanks the axis on its south-eastern side. The effect of 
this fault is to throw out a great part of the lower division of the Carboniferous 
formations, and to bring the Carboniferous Limestone series in some places close 


88 REPORT—1871. 


against the Lower Old Red Sandstone and its voleanie rocks. Another result has 
been the extreme tilting of the strata, whereby the Limestone series along the east 
side of the fault has been thrown on end, and eyen in some parts bent back into a 
reversed dip. Hence, while on one side of the axis the Limestone series is some- 
times only a few hundred yards distant from the Old Red Sandstone, on the oppo- 
site or north-west side the distance is fully eleven miles, the intervening space 
being there occupied by endless undulations of the lower divisions of the Carboni- 
ferous system. Hence, too, the Millstone-grit and Coal-measures come in along 
the centre of the Midlothian basin a short way to the east of the Pentland axis; 
while on the west side they are not met with till we reach the borders of Stirling- 
shire and Linlithgow. 

Another remarkable and readily observable feature is, that on the west side of 
the Pentland ridge the Carboniferous formations, from almost their base up to the 
top of the Carboniferous Limestone series, abound in contemporaneous volcanic 
rocks; while on the east side, beyond Edmburgh and Arthur's Seat, such rocks are 
absent until we reach the Garlton Hills, to the north of Haddington, where they 
reappear, but in a very different type from that which they exhibit to the west. 

Let us now pass in review the different geological formations which come into 
the district around us, beginning with the oldest and ascending through the others 
till we reach the superficial accumulations, and mark, in conclusion, how far the 
present surface-features are connected with geological structure. 

[The author then described the various geological formations of the district— 
Silurian, Old Red Sandstone, and Carboniferous—dwelling in particular upon the 
history of volcanic action in that part of Scotland. On this subject he remarked :—] 


Outline of the History of Volcanic Action around Edinburgh. 


The oldest tolcanoes of this part of Scotland were those which, during the time 
of the Lower Old Red Sandstone, poured out the great sheets of porphyrite and 
the showers of tuff which now form the main mass of the range of the Pentland 
Hills. During the same long geological period volcanic action was rife, as we 
have seen, along the whole of the broad midland valley of Scotland, since to that 
time we must refer the origin of the Sidlaw and the Ochil Hills, part of eastern 
Berwickshire, and the long line of uplands stretching from the Pentland Hills 
through Lanarkshire, and across Nithsdale, far into Ayrshire. 

Of volcanic action, during the remainder of the Old Red Sandstone period, there 
is around Edinburgh no trace. But early in the following or Carboniferous period, 
the volcano of Arthur’s Seat and Calton Hill came into existence, and threw out 
its tiny flows of basalt and porphyrite, and its showers of ashes. From that time 
onwards, through nearly the whole of the interval occupied by the deposition of 
the Carboniferous Limestone series, the district to the west of Edinburgh was 
dotted over with small cones, usually of tuff, but sometimes emitting limited 
currents of different basalt rocks, more especially in the space between Bathgate 
and the Forth, where a long bank, chiefly formed of such lava-currents, was piled up 
over and among the pools and shallows in which the limestones, sandstones, shales, 
and coal-seams were accumulated. To the north, also, similar volcanic activity was 
shown in the Fife tracts nearest the Forth ; while eastwards, between Haddington 
and Dunbar, there lay a distinct volcanic focus, where great showers of red fel- 
spathic tuff and widespread sheets of porphyrite were ejected to form a bank over 
which the Carboniferous Limestone series was at length tranquilly deposited. 

Volcanic activity seems to have died out here before the close of the Carboni- 
ferous Limestone period. It remained quiescent during the deposition of the Mill- 
stone-grit and Coal-measures; at least no trace of any contemporaneous igneous 
ejection is found in any part of these formations. The intrusive masses of various 
basalt rocks, which here intersect the older half of the Carboniferous system, are, 
in all probability, of Lower Carboniferous date, connected with the eruptions of 
the interbedded volcanic rocks. The next proofs of volcanic action in this neigh- 
bourhood are furnished by the upper part of Arthur’s Seat. At that locality we 
discover that after more than 3000 feet of strata had been remoyed by denudation 
from the Pentland anticlinal fold so as to lay bare the old Lower Carboniferous 
volcanic rocks of Edinburgh, a new focus of eruption was formed, from which 


— 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 89 


were ejected the basalts and coarse agglomerates of the summit and shonlders of 
Arthur’s Seat. There is no trustworthy evidence for fixing the geological date of 
this eruption. Evidently, from the great denudation by which it was preceded, 
it must belong to a much later period than any of the Carboniferous eruptions. 
Yet, from the great similarity of the Arthur’s Seat agglomerate, both in compo- 
sition and mode of occurrence, to numerous ‘‘ necks” which rise through all parts 
of the Carboniferous system between Nithsdale and Fife, and which I have shown 
to mark the position of volcanic orifices during Permian times, I am inclined to 
regard these later igneous rocks of Edinburgh as dating from the Permian period. 
Arthur’s Seat, however, seems to have been the only volcano in action during that 
period in this neighbourhood. 

There still remains.for notice one further and final feature of the volcanic his- 
tory of this part of Scotland. Rising indifferently through any part of the other 
rocks, whether aqueous or,igneous, and marked by a singular uniformity of direction, 
there is a series of basalt dykes which deserves attention. They have a general 
easterly and westerly trend, and even where, as in Linlithgowshire, they traverse 
tracts of basalt-rocks, they preserve their independence, and continue as readily 
separable as when they are found intersecting sandstones and shales. These dykes 
belong to that extensive series which, running across a great part of Scotland, the 
north of England, and the north-east of Ireland, passes into, and is intimately con- 
nected with, the wide basaltic plateaux of Antrim and the Inner Hebrides. They 
date, in fact, from Miocene times, and, from their numbers, their extent, and the 
distance to which they can_be traced from the volcanic centre of the north-west, 
they remain as a striking memorial of the vigour of volcanic action during the last 
period of its manifestation in this country. 


Glacial Phenomena. 


To an eye accustomed to note the characteristic impress of ice-action upon a 
land-surface, the neighbourhood of Edinburgh presents many features of interest. 
It was upon Corstorphine Hill, on the western outskirts of the city, that Sir James 
Hall first called attention to striated rock-surfaces which, though erroneously at- 
tributed to the abrasion produced by torrents of water, were even then recognized 
as trustworthy evidence of the last great geological changes that had passed over 
the surface of the country. Even before we come to look at the surface in detail, 
and note the striation of its rocks, we cannot fail to recognize the distinctively ice- 
worn aspect of the hills round Edinburgh. Lach of them is, in fact, a great roche 
moutonnée, left in the path of the vast ice-sheet which passed across the land. 
That this ice was of sufficient depth and mass to override even the highest hills, 
is proved not merely by the general ice-worn surface of the landscape, but by the 
occurrence of characteristic strise on the summits of the Pentland Hills, 1600 feet 


‘ above the sea; that it came from the Highlands, is indicated by the pebbles 


of granite, gneiss, schist, and quartz rock occurring in the older boulder-clays 
which it produced ; and that, deflected by the mass of the southern uplands, the 
ice in the valley of the Lothians was forced to move seawards, in a direction a little 
north of east, is shown by the trend of the striz graven on the rocks, as at Cors- 
torphine, Granton, Arthur’s Seat, and Pentland Hills. 


Connexion of the present form of the Surface with Geological Structure. 


In concluding these outlires, let me direct the attention of the Section to the 
bearing which the geological structure of the district wherein we are now assem- 
bled has upon the broad and much canvassed question of the origin of land- 
surfaces. In the first place, we cannot fail to be struck with the evidence of 
enormous denudation which the rocks of the district have undergone. Every for- 
mation, from the oldest to the latest, has suffered, and the process of waste has 
been going on apparently from the earliest times. We see that the Lower Silu- 
rian rocks were upheaved and denuded before the time of the Lower Old Red 
Sandstone; that the latter formation had undergone enormous erosion )hefore the 
beginning of the Carboniferous period; that of the Carboniferous rocks, a thick- 


ness more than 3000 feet had been worn away from the site of Arthur’s Seat be- 


fore the last eruptions of that hill, which are possibly as old as the Permian period 


90 REPORT—1871. 


that still further and vaster denudation took place before the setting in of the Ice- 


age; and finally, that the deposits of that age have since been to a large extent 
removed. With the proofs, therefore, of such continued destruction, it would be 
vain to look for any aboriginal outline of the surface, or hope to find any of the 
later but still early features of the landscape remaining permanent amid the sur- 
rounding waste. 

In the second place we note that, in the midst of this greatly denuded area, it 
is the harder rocks which form the hills and crags. Those masses which in the 
long process of waste presented most resistance to the powers of destruction, are 
just those which, as we might expect, rise into eminences, while those whose re- 
sistance was least sink into plains and valleys. All the craggy heights which 
form so conspicuous a feature of Edinburgh and its neighbourhood, are composed 
of hard igneous rocks, the undulating lowlands lie upon soft aqueous rocks. 

In the third place, the coincidence of the position of hills and crags with the 
existence of ancient igneous rocks, cannot be misinterpreted by ascribing the pre- 
sence and form of the hills to the outlines assumed by the igneous material ejected 
to the surface from below. The hills are not due to igneous upheaval at all, but 
can be shown to have been buried deep under subsequent accumulations, to haye 
been bent and broken with all the bendings and breaks these later formations un- 
derwent, and to have been finally brought to light again only after a long cycle of 
denudation had removed the mass of rock under which they had been concealed. 
What is true of the hills of Edinburgh, is true also of all the older volcanic districts 
o iBritain. Even where the hills consist of voleanic rocks, their existence, as 
hills, can be proved to be one of the results not of upheaval but of denudation. 

In the fourth place, this district furnishes an instructive illustration of the in- 
fluence of faults upon the external contour of a country. The faults here do not 
form valleys. On the contrary, the valleys have been cut across them in innu- 
merable instances. In the Dalkeith coal-field, for example, the valleys and ra- 
vines of the river Esk traverse faults of 190 to nearly 500 feet, yet there is no in- 
equality at the surface, the whole ground having been planed down by denudation 
to one common level. When, however, a fault brings together rocks which differ 
much in their relative powers of resistance to waste, the side of the dislocation 
occupied by the harder rocks will tend to form an eminence, while the opposite 
side, consisting of softer rocks, will be worn down into a hollow or plain. Con- 
spicuous examples are furnished by the faults which, along the flanks of the Pent- 
land Hills, have brought down the comparatively destructible sandstones and 
shales of the Carboniferous series, against the much less easily destroyed porphy- 
rites and conglomerates of the Old Red Sandstone. 

In fine, we learn here as elsewhere in our country, and here more strikingly 


than often elsewhere, on account of the varied geological structure of the district, | 


that the present landscape has resulted from a long course of sculpturing, and that 
how much soever that process may have been accelerated or retarded by underground 
movements, it is by the slow but irresistible action of rain and frost, springs, ice, 
and the sea, that out of the various geological formations among which Edinburgh 
lies, her picturesque outline of hill and valley, crag and ravine, has, step by step, 
been carved, 


The Yorkshire Lias and the Distribution of its Anumonites. 
By the Rev. J. F, Braxx. 


The Lias of Yorkshire is exposed on the coast for a distance of about 30 miles, 
and owing to faults and undulations the series is repeated twice, one main area 
being to the north, the other to the south of Whitby; and there are two outlying 
patches, one of the highest beds at Peak, the other of the lowest beds at Redcar. 

The basis of the description in this paper is the division into Ammonite zones, 
as by Oppel and others. 

1. Zone of Ammonites Jwrensis,—These occur at Peak. The author has not found 
the characteristic Ammonite tn situ, but recognizes the zone by its peculiar fauna. 
It appears to be divided into an upper and lower division. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 91 


2. Zone of Posidonia Bronnit.—This the author divides into several. 

a. Zone of Am. bifrons.—Containing bands of cement stone. 

B. Zone of Am. communis—Constituting the alum-shale, and characterized 
throughout by Leda ovum. 

y. Zone of Posidonia Bronnii proper, which includes the jet-bearing beds. 
These form the Upper Lias. 

3. Zone of Am. spinatus.—This consists of numerous ironstone bands, which 
form the workable beds of Yorkshire. 

4, Zone of Am. margaritatus.——More micaceous beds. 

These two zones are not clearly separable, both Ammonites being found in 
each. 

5. Zone of Am. Davei.—This Ammonite is very rare, if found at all, in Yorkshire, 
and the zone is more characterized by Am. capricornus, 

6. Zone of Am. Ibex.—This form is now recognized for the first time in Yorkshize, 
but the associated Ammonites, Henleyi and jimbriatus, form a well-marked zone. 

7. Zone of Am. Jamesoni.—The true form only found 2 situ north of Whitby ; but 
the allied bremspinais highly characteristic of the beds, which are very fossiliferous. 

8. Zone of Am. armatus.—This is well represented; the Pinna folium is conter- 
minous with the two last zones, which end the Middle Lias. 

The last four zones are similar in lithological character, being shaly beds with 
scattered dogger bands. 

The zones below this are only seen at Robin Hood’s Bay and Redcar. 

9. Zone of Am, raricostatus.—This is well developed in micaceous shaly beds, 
indurated at the top, which is the character also of all the succeeding zones. 

10. Zone of Am. orynotus.—Also well developed, containing a strone limestone 
band. 

11. Zone of Am. Twrneri.ts only found on the shore. 

12. Zone of Am. obtusus—Seen at Peak. 

13. Zone of Am. Bucklandi.—Forms the lowest beds seen at Robin Hood’s Bay, 
and the highest at Redcar. They do not contain limestone as elsewhere. An 
ichthyosaur has been found in these, such haying been hitherto only announced 
from the Upper Lias in Yorkshire. 

14. Zone of Am. angulatus.—This is represented by thin shaly beds at Redcar, 
where this Ammonite is abundant; and also by a limestone-bed near Market 
Weighton, at which latter place it contains a new and varied fauna. 

15. Zone of Am. planorbis.—Hitherto only washed up from the sea in fragments. 
Its beds have now been discovered near Market Weighton, where they contain 
numerous foraminifera, In this locality the oyster-bands and white lias are reached, 
but not the bone-bed. 

The lithological character and the position of all these zones were described 
in the paper. 


List of Ammonites in the Author’s Cabinet from the several Zones. 


Those marked P have not been found i situ, but their belonging to the zone is 
almost certain; those marked p probably belong to the zone. 


Zone of Ammonites Jurensis. Ammonites crassus (Y, § B.) =Raquinia- 
Ammonites Aalensis (Zict.). nus (D’ Orb.). 
striatulus (Sow.). — Lythensis (¥.& B.). 
ign (Stmp.). —— Mulgravius (Y. § B.). 
lectus (Simp.). : : 
Pp Tai Tey cena Bean). Zone of Ammonites communis. 
le variabilis (D’ Orb.) =Beanii ( Simp.) Ammonites communis (Sow.). 


=obliquatus (Simp.). 


—— delicatus (Simp.). 
p —— fabalis (Simp.)=Escheri (Hauer) ? 


Braunianus (D’ Ord.). 
— Mulgravius (Y. & B.). 


Zone of Ammonites bifrons. 


Ammonites bifrons (Brug.) =Walcottii From one or other of the above zones. 
(Sow.). Ammonites Hseri ( Oppcl). 
Levisoni (Stmp.)=Sxmanni (Opp.). —— Desplacei (D'Oré.). 


-——— heterophyllus (Y. ¢ B.). —— fibulatus (Y. & B.), 


92 REPORT—187]1. 


Ammonites Andrew (Stmp.). 
crassifactus (Simp.). 
crassescens (Simp.). 
vortex (Simp.). 
—— fonticulus (Simp. 


varieties of 
crassus. 


Zone of Posidonia Bronnii. 
Ammonites Mulgravius (Y¥. ¢ B.). 
serpentinus (Sch/.). 
ovatus (Y. § B.). 
elegans (Sow.). 

— exaratus (Y.& B.). 

Aalensis (Zéet.) =rugatulus (Simp.). 
concayus (Sow.). 

delicatus (Simp.). 

— annulatus (Sow.). 

heterophyllus (Y. § B.). 

P semicelatus (Simp.). 

P —— attenuatus (Simp.). 


P Easingtonensis (Simp.). 
Pp subcarinatus (Y. § B.). 
p subconcavus (Y. § B.). 


p —— latescens (Simp.). 


Zone of Ammonites spinatus. 
Ammonites spinatus (Brug.). Common. 
—— margaritatus (Sch/.). Rare. 
conjunctivus (Simp.) =spinellii, 
(Hau.). 4 
reticularis (Simp.) (=Engelhardtii, 

D’ Orb.)?? f 
P —— lenticularis (Y. § B.)=coynarti 

(D’ Orb.). 

Zone of Ammonites margaritatus. 

Ammonites margaritatus (Sch/.). Com- 
mon. 
spinatus (Brug.). Very scarce. 
nitescens (Y. § B.)=stahli ( Opp.). 
— n.sp., No. 1. 
p ——n.sp., No. 2. 


Zone of Ammonites capricornus. 
Ammonites capricornus (Sch/.) =macula- 
tus (Y. § B.). 
arcigerens (Ph.). 
Pe curvicornis (Sch/énb.). 
P —— subarmatus (Y. § B.). 


Zone of Ammonites Henleyi. 


Ammonites Henleyi (Sow.). 
fimbriatus (Sow.). 


P Dayidsoni (D’ Orb.) =levigatus 
(Sow.)=nitidus (Y. ¢ B.)? 
P ibex (Qu). 
Zone of Ammonites Jamesoni. 
Ammonites Jamesoni (Sow.). * 


brevispina (Sow.). 

—— caprarius (Qu. =aureus (Simp.). 
venustulus (Dum.). 

natrix (Sch/.). 

-—— lynx (D’ Orb.)=lens (Simp.). 


Ammonites polymorphus (Qv.)=trivialis 
(Simp.). 

Dennyi (Stmp.) =heterophyllus 

numismalis (Qz.) 

aculeatus (Simp.). 


Zone of Ammonites armatus. 


Ammonites armatus (Sow.). 

5 ake (Simp.)=Taylori costatus 
te)» 

Taylori (Sow.). 

—— submuticus (Dum. non Opp.). 

Macdonnellii (Por?i.). 

—— tubellus ( Simp.) =miserabilis (Qw.). 

tardicrescens (Hauer), 

—— n. sp., No. 3. 


Zone of Ammonites raricostatus. 
Ammonites raricostatus (Zéet.), 
densinodus ( @Qvw.). 

—— subplanicosta (Opp.). 


Zone of Ammonites oxynotus. 
Ammonites oxynotus (@Qu.). 
—— Simpsoni (Simp.). 
gagateus (Y. ¢ B.). 


‘Zone of Ammonites obtusus. 


Ammonites obtusus (Sow.). 
—— stellaris (Sow.). 

—— planicosta (Sow.). 
—— Ziphus (Zier.). 

—— n. sp. No. 4. 

—— n. sp. No. 5. 
Scipionanus (D’ Ord.). 


p 
Zone of Ammonites Turneri. 

Ammonites Turneri (Sow.), 

geometricus ( Opp.). 
—-—- Youngi (Simp.). 

P -impendens (Y. g B.)=Fowleri 
(Buckm.). 
. P ——tenellus(Simp.). =denotatus( Sémp.). 


Zone of Ammonites Bucklandi, 


Ammonites Bucklandi (Sow.). 
P —— Conybeari (Sow.). 

—— bisuleatus (Lrvgq.). 

—— spinaries (Qvw.). 
semicostatus (Y. g 4)=Wartmanni 
(Opp.). 


—— Sauzeanus (D’ Orb.).=transforma- 


tus (Simp.). 
—— Birchii (Sow.). 
—— difformis (mm). 
—— compressaries (Q#.). 
—— multicostatus (Sow.). 


Infralias. 
Ammonites angulatus (Sch/.), 
—— Johnstoni ( Sow.) =psilonotus plica- 


tus (Quw.). 


planorbis (Sow.). 


Pe 


a 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 93 


On the Silurian Rocks of the South of Scotland. By D. J. Brown. 


P This paper was illustrated by a map and section, also specimens of rocks and 
ossils. 

Ina section drawn from Moffat Water in Dumfriesshire to Kilbucho in Peeble- 
shire, we have, first, the Moffat rocks, which consist of hard blue grit (Grey- 
wacké) and shale. These are accompanied by beds of anthracite and black shale 
containing Graptolites; on leaving Moflat Water, we first meet anthracite beds, 
then a series of grit and shale; this order is repeated six times. The last time we 
see anthracite beds is at Holmes-water-head, where we find them plunging under 
the limestone and conglomerate of Wrae and Glencotho, over the whole length 
of the section from Moffat Water to Holmes Water. The beds stand at a high 
angle, and have an almost uniform northernly dip. From Holmes Water to Kil- 
bucho the rocks are of a more diversified character. We have first a coarse angular 
conglomerate, then a bed of limestone with fossils, mostly of a Caradoc type ; next 
a series of beds of slate, shale, and grit; these beds come up again at Kilbucho, 
After Holmes Water we have no longer the uniform northernly dip, but the beds 
undulate, and in one section are seen to form regular waves. 

These beds all along the line of the section, from the river Tweed to Kilbucho, 
are given in the Government Geological Map of Peebleshire as one series of Llan- 
deilo age. The author is of opinion that they form two series—a lower Moffat or 
Llandeilo, and an upper or Caradoc series that lies unconformable upon the lower. 

The author has come to the conclusion that the two series are unconformable :— 
First, because we find the anthracite beds at a high angle plunging under the limestone 
and Conglomerate of Glencotho and Wrae at Holmes-water-head, and emerging at 
the same angle in the Moor-foot Hills. Second, because we find these upper rocks 
everywhere underlaid bya bed of coarse angular Conglomerate; and this conglomerate 
is found in fragments, and nowhere in situ, in the neighbourhood of Moffat, which 
is on the opposite watershed, being, as the author thinks, fragments of the lower 
rocks left in the process of denudation. Third, this Conglomerate is found to con- 
tain numerous fragments of anthracitic shale containing Graptolites belonging to 
lower beds, proving that the lower rocks were consolidated, and then torn into frag- 
ments before the upper rocks were laid down. 


On the Upper Silurian Rocks of the Pentland Hills and Lesmahago. 
By D. J. Brown. 


This paper was illustrated by a map and two sections. 

In a paper published in the Transactions of the Edinburgh Geological Society, 
yol. i., written by Mr. Henderson and the author, it was shown that in the North Esk 
section of the Pentland Hills there is a very perfect Wenlock fauna, and that it is 
only towards the top of the section that the Ludlow species come in ; it was further 
shown, from Silurian fossils collected from the Red Conglomerate lying at the 
top of the section, that these Red Conglomerates were not a part of the Lower 
Old Red Sandstone, but a continuation of the Silurian, and that the whole Silurian 
rocks in the Lyne water form a continuous section above them. In the district 
of Lesmahago the Upper Silurians are said to form a continuous series with the 
Lower Old Red Sandstone that lies above them. In “ Memoir 82, Geological Sur- 
yey of Scotland,” the same phenomena are said to occur in the Pentlands, and Mr. 
Salter draws a parallel between these beds and those of Lesmahago ; but from this 
comparison he omits the section in the Lyne water, which forms a continuous series 
above the Red Rocks, said to be Old Red Sandstone, so that these Old Red Sand- 
stone beds of the Government Survey lie right in the centre of the continuous sec- 
tion of Upper Silurian, and contain Upper Silurian fossils. As it is only towards 
the top of the North Esk section that we find any fossils belonging to the Lesma- 
hago beds, and they differ from them very much in their lithological character, the 
author is of opinion that these beds are not the equivalent of the Lesmahago beds 
but that these latter form an upper series overlying the Pentland beds, 


94. REPORT—1871. 


Geological Notes on the Noursoak Peninsula and Disco Island in North 
Greenland. By Rosert Browy, I.A., Ph.D., PR.GS., Fe. 


The geology of Greenland has been partially investigated, so far as the west coast 
is concerned, by Giesecke, Pingel, Rink, and to some extent by Inglefield, Suther- 
land, Kane, Hayes, and the late Mr. Olrik, so many years Inspector of North Green- 
land and Director of the Kgl. Grénlandske Handel in Copenhagen. More recently 
the author and his companions made sections and collected fossils from the vicinity 
of the localities named ; and this paper was an account of the geological results of 
this voyage, made in 1867. Since then several Swedish naturalists haye visited 
the country, aud the German Expedition to East Greenland has added to our know- 
ledge of the geology and tertiary flora of East Greenland. The formations found 
in Greenland are :— 

(1) Primitive rocks, chiefly syenite, granitic, and various gneissose rocks, very 
widely distributed, reaching in some places to a height of 40C0 feet or more. In 
this formation are found the chief economic minerals of Greenland, kryolite, soap- 
stone, &e. 

(2) “ The Red Sandstone of Igalliko Fjord,” probably Devonian, but only a patch, 
now being rapidly destroyed by the sea. 

(3) Mesozoie rocks: only a patch in the vicinity of Omenak, most probably 
cretaceous. 

(4) Miocene: confined entirely to the vicinity of the Waigatz Strait and part 
of Omenak Fjord, on the west coast, though most probably it once extended right 
over Greenland in that line, though now either destroyed or overlain by the great 
interior ice. It makes its appearance on the east coast, and is also found in 
Spitzbergen. 

The next portion of Dr. Brown’s paper was occupied in describing in detail the 
Miocene beds and sections seen at various places; the whole concluding with a 
criticism of the conclusions of Professor Heer, of Zurich, who had described the 
plants discovered by Dr. Brown and others, and in giving what he considered was 
a just view of the results which the palzeontologist might logically deduce from the 
facts already observed. After giving some account of Greenland coal, its structure, 
chemical composition, and economic value, he furnished a list of the animal- and 

lant-remains already found in the Miocene and Cretaceous beds in Greenland, and 
indicated what points remain still to be investigated. Chief among these he in- 
stanced the Mesozoic deposits already mentioned. As the Association had already 
voted a sum of money for this purpose, he thought that if it was judiciously ex- 
pended through means of some of the well-educated and intelligent Danish officers 
resident in Greenland, who were accustomed to such work, good results might be 
accomplished. 


Note on certain Fossils from the Durine Limestone, N.W. Sutherland. 
By Dr. Bryer, F.R.S.E. 


On the Vegetuble Contents of Masses of Limestone occurring in Trappean 
Rocks in Fifeshire, and the conditions under which they are preserved. By 
W. Carruruers, F228. 


The shore to the east of Kingswood End is strewn with large fragments of a 
limestone which Mr. G. Grieve, of Burntisland, detected to be filled with vege- 
table remains. This limestone was traced by Mr. Grieve to the cliffs above, where 
he found it enclosed in the centre of the trappean tuff. Having received from 
him several] specimens, the author recently spent some time, in company with Prof. 
Morris, in investigating this important discovery of Mr. Grieve, under his direction. 
The specimens occur in angular masses in the volcanic ash, and are fraements of 
beds existing before the formation of the bed of ash. At Elie fragments of 
coniferous wood abound in a similar bed, and there, as at Kingswood End, the ash 
contains numerous fragments of shale, limestone, sandstone, &c. The author 
believed that the plant-remains had been enclosed in the form of peat, from a 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 95 


surface bed, where the coal-plants were growing when the ash was thrown out of 
the volcano, the lime abounding in the bed, and which fills the numerous amyg- 
daloidal cavities of the rock, having speedily seized and fixed them, preserving all 
the details of the tissue. The plants are stems, fruits and leaves of carboniferous 
plants, and innumerable roots penetrate the mass in every direction. The characters 
of these plants are beautifully shown on the shore fragments, which are polished 
by blown sand. At this place the great power of air-driven sand is very evident 
on the black basalt, which is all smoothed and almost glazed on its western 
aspect. The author believed that the continuous bed of limestone containing 
vegetables, above Kingswood End, was different from the blocks on the shore and 
those in the trappean ash, because of the different mineral conditions and organic 
contents. 

On the General Conditions of the Glacial Epoch ; with Suggestions on the 

formation of Lalke-basins. By Joun Curry. 


The paper contains a detailed topographical account of glacial drift in the north 
of England, from which the author passes on to discuss the general conditions of 
the glacial epoch. Increase and diminution of a polar ice-cap is the cause, in the 
author’s judgment, of the movements of subsidence and elevation of sea-level of 
the glacial period. He maintains that the submerged forests of many parts of the 
coast have fae preserved by being imbedded in a sheet of ice. Remarks on the 
origin of lake-basins follow. The author cites evidence to show the power of ice 
and débris to dam up streams, and bases his conclusions largely upon facts quoted 
from Mr. Jamieson’s paper in vol. i. of the Geological Journal. 


On the General Geology of Queensland. . By KR. Darxtrez. 


This paper was illustrated by a series of photographs; a number of fossils and 
rock specimens had been collected by the author, but they were, unfortunately, 
all lost in the wreck of the ‘Queen of the Thames.’ The author recognized in 
Queensland metamorphic and igneous rocks, and the equivalents, to some extent, 
of our Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, Liassic (?), Oolitic, and Cretaceous for- 
mations. A still higher series of sandstones occurred, but their precise age had 
not yet been determined. Alluvial deposits fringed all the water-courses, and had 
yielded remains of extinct marsupials. It was in these alluvial deposits that the 
miner met with his chief supply of “free” gold. In the beds which Mr. Daintree 
refers with doubt to the Lias, coal-seams of varied quality occur. They are only 
employed for local purposes, and no attempt has yet been made to ascertain their 
number and relative position. This coal-field occupies a certain district in the 
south of Queensland, but another coal-field, belonging to the Carboniferous for- 
mation, is met with in the north. None of the coals there have been worked, 
owing to the want of railway communication. In the passage-beds between the 
Carboniferous and Devonian formations, auriferous lodes occur, all the mineral 
veins of the country appearing either in Upper Paleozoic or Metamorphic 
rocks. Copper and lead-ore also abound. The author believes there is a close 
connexion between the occurrence of veins and the appearance of Trappean dis- 
turbance. 


The Relation of the Quaternary Mammatia to the Glacial Period. 
By W. Bory Dawxtns, F.R.S. 


The animals fell naturally into five distinct groups, the first of which comprises 
those now living in the temperate regions of Hurope and America, including the 
Grizzly Bear, the Lynx, the Bison, and the Wild Boar, and binds the Quater- 
nary to the present fauna, The second group comprises those animals which are 
now confined to cold regions, such as the Glutton, Reindeer, Musk Sheep, and 
the Tailless Hare ; they constitute the Arctic division of Quaternary Mammalia, 
and imply a cold climate. The third group consists of those animals which are 
now only found in hot regions, the Hyzena and Hippopotamus ; and they indicated 


96 REPORT—187]1. 


a hot climate. The only mode of getting over this discrepancy is to suppose that 
in those days the winter cold was very severe, and the summer heat intense, so 
that in the summer time the animals, now found in warmer regions, migrated north- 
wards, and in the winter time those now found in the Arctic regions went south- 
wards. The fourth group consists of such extinct forms ‘as the Caye Bear, the 
Stag, the Mammoth, and the Woolly Rhinoceros. The fifth group includes the 
Sabre-toothed Tiger, the Irish Elk, Rhinoceros megarhinus and R. hemitechus, and 
they, with some others, show that there is no great break between the Quaternary 
and the Pliocene, such as would warrant any sharply defined division of great 
value. The interest centered more particularly in the Arctic group; and so far as 
the evidence went, it seemed to be extremely probable that they were in occupa- 
tion of the areas in Great Britain in which they were found during the time 
the other areas, in which they were not found, were covered with glaciers ; and 
this period may be put down to that of the latest sojourn of the glaciers in the 
highest grounds of our islands, and even so far south as the districts of Auvergne 
and Dauphiné. 


On the Progress of the Geological Survey in Scotland. By Prof. Gurr, F.R.S. 


When the British Association last met in Scotland, [had the honour of bringing 
before this Section a report upon the progress of the Geological Survey, from the 
time of its commencement here in 1854 by Professor Ramsay, under the direction of 
the late Sir Henry De la Beche, up to the year 1867, under the supervision of the 
present Director, Sir Roderick Murchison. During the four years which have since 
elapsed, considerable advance has been made in the survey of the southern half of 
Scotland ; and I propose now, with the sanction of Sir Roderick, to present to you 
a brief outline of what has been done, and of the present state of the Survey. 

At the time of my previous report rather more than 3000 square miles had been 
surveyed. Since then we have completed 2700 square miles additional, making a 
total area of nearly 6000 square miles. Of this area 3175 square miles haye been 
published on the one-inch scale, and three sheets, representing in all 632 square 
miles, are now in course of being engraved. The whole country is surveyed upon 
the Ordnance Maps on the scale of six inches to a mile, and from these field-maps 
the work is reduced to the one-inch scale, which is the scale adopted for the gene- 
ral Geological Map of the country. In addition to that general me p however, 
maps on the larger or six-inch are published of all mineral tracts. In this way 
five sheets of the six-inch maps have now been published, embracing the whole of 
the coal-fields of Fife, Haddingtonshire, and Edinburghshire, with a large portion 
of the coal-fields of Lanarkshire, Renfrewshire, Ayrshire, and Dumfriesshire. 

The area over which the field-work of the Survey has extended lies between the 
mouths of the Firths of Tay, Forth, Clyde, and Solway, eastwards to the borders 
of Roxburghshire and the mouth of the Tweed. It includes the counties of Fife, 
Kinross, the Lothians, Lanark, Renfrew, Peebles, Ayr, Wigton, Kirkcudbright, 
Dumfries, and Selkirk, with parts of Stirling, Dumbarton, and Perth. — 

Of the geological formations examined, the Lower Silurian rocks of the southern 
uplands cover a considerable space upon the published maps. Until three years 
ago the mapping of these rocks continued to be most unsatisfactory, owing to the 
want of any continuous recognizable section from which the order of succession 
among the strata could be ascertained, and to the great scarcity of organic remains. 
Our more recent work among the Leadhills, howeyer, has at last given us the means 
of unravelling, as we hope, the physical structure and stratigraphical relations of 
the uplands of the south of Scotland. The rocks there are capable of division into 
several well-marked groups of strata, characterized by distinct assemblages of fos- 
sils. We have a lower or Llandeilo series, with a suite of graptolites, and forming 
probably an upper part of the Moffat group, and a higher or Caradoc set of beds, 
with a considerable assemblage of distinctive fossils. This higher group we be- 
lieve to be on the same general horizon as the limestones of Wrae and Kilbucho in 
Peeblesshire. 

The Lower Old Red Sandstone has now been mapped completely over the whole 
of its extent between Edinburgh and the south of Ayrshire. Fossils haye only 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 97 


been met with at one locality in the latter county, where Cephalaspis occurs. 
The most characteristic feature of the formation is the enormous development of 
its interbedded volcanic rocks. Between Edinburgh and Lanarkshire, also, there 
occurs in this formation a local but violent unconformability, connected probably 
with some phase of the contemporaneous volcanic activity of the region. 

Most of the detailed work of the Survey has lain upon Carboniferous rocks. In 
the lowest formations of this system, known as the Calciferous Sandstones, the 
Survey has now been able to trace a twofold division completely across the coun- 
try, from sea to sea, viz. a lower group of red sandstones, and a higher group of 
white sandstones, green, grey, and dark shales, cement-stones, limestones, and occa- 
sional coal-seams, All these strata lie beneath the true Carboniferous Limestone. 
They are becoming daily more important from their containing in some places 
highly bituminous shales, from which paraffin oil can be made. The Carboniferous 
Limestone series, with its valuable coals and ironstones, has been mapped, and in 
great part published, for the eastern and south-western coal-fields; and this is also 
the case with the Coal-measures. Much additional information has been obtained 
regarding the development of volcanic action in central Scotland during the Car- 
boniferous period. 

The Permian basins of Ayrshire and Thornhill have been surveyed and in great 
part published. Much fresh light has in the course of this Survey been thrown on 
the interesting Permian volcanoes of the south-west of Scotland. 

Attention has been continuously given to the superficial accumulations. These 
are now mapped in as great detail as the rocks underneath, and plans are being 
prepared with the view to an issue of maps of the surface geology. 

By a recent order of the Director-General, each one-inch map is now accompa- 
nied at the time of its publication, or as soon thereafter as possible, with an expla- 
natory pamphlet, in which the form of the ground, geological formations, fossils, 
rocks, faults, and economic minerals are briefly described, and such further infor- 
mation given as seems necessary for the proper elucidation of the map. These 

amphlets are sold at a uniform price of 3d. Detailed vertical sections are pub- 
ished for each coal-field. For the construction of these sections, records of 
boring operations are procured and recorded in the register-books of the Survey. 
Since 1867 more than 312,200 feet of such borings have in this way been entered 
in our books. Sheets of horizontal sections on a large scale are likewise issued to 
form, with the maps and explanations, a compendium of the geological structure 
of each large district. 

Another feature of the work of the Survey is the collection of specimens of the 
rocks and fossils of each tract of country as it is surveyed. Since my previous 
Report to this Section of the British Association, we have collected 1011 speci- 
mens of rocks, and 7500 fossils. These are named and exhibited, as far as the 

resent accommodation will permit, in the Museum of Science and Art at Edin- 
ureh. 

The work of the Geological Survey is carried on, as I have said, under the guid- 
ance of its Director-General, Sir Roderick Murchison, a name which has long been 
a household word at the meetings of the British Association, and one to which I 
am sure you will permit me to make on this occasion more than a passing reference. 
While the Survey advances, as I have shown, steadily over the face of the country, 
unravelling piece by piece the complicated details of its geological structure, to 
Sir Roderick belongs the rare merit of having himself led the way, by sketching 
for us, boldly and clearly, the relations of the older rocks over more than half of 
the kingdom. Much must undoubtedly remain for future investigation, but his out- 
line of the grand essential features of Highland geology will ever remain as a monu- 
ment of his powers of close yet rapid observation and sagacious inference. At one 
time I had hoped that the Chair of this Section might be filled by him, and that 
we should be permitted to listen anew to his expositions of the rocks of his native 
country. There is no one among us who does not regret the absence of the fami- 
liar face and voice of the veteran of Siluria. We meet once more on Scottish 
ground, and for the first time we have not here with us the man who has laid a 
deeper, broader impress on Scottish geology than any other geologist either of past 
generations or of this. There is, however, on the present occasion, a special cause 


1871. 


98 REPORT—1871. 


for regret. Only within the last few months he founded a Chair of Geology in the 
University within whose walls we are now assembled—the first and only chair of 
the kind in Scotland. It would have been a fitting and grateful duty on the part 
of the University to welcome one of its most distinguished benefactors. I am 
well aware, indeed, that this Section-room is no place for the obtrusion of personal 
sentiments; yet I would fain be allowed to add in conclusion an expression of my 
own deep regret at the recent illness and consequent absence of one to whom, over 
and above the admiration which we all feel for his life-long labours and his per- 
sonal character, many years of friendly intercourse have bound me by the closest 
ties of affection, 


Fossiliferous Strata at Lochend near Edinburgh By D. Grieve. 


The strata to which this notice refers are situated on the east side of the Loch, 
and appear in the Trap precipice, on which stand the ruins of the ancient Keep of 
the Logans of Restalrig. Although it was conjectured, it was not known, until 
Mr. Grieve found distinctive fossils in these strata, that the Carboniferous forma- 
tion, so largely spread over the site of Edinburgh and its neighbourhood, extended 
so far to the eastward; and it would now appear that these form a continuity of 
the strata and shales found some years ago on the north side of the Calton Hill. 
They are of the Lower Carboniferous formation, and seem to be equivalents of the 
sandstones and shales of Burdiehouse on the south, and Wardie and Granton on 
the north and west of Edinburgh. 

The fossils found by Mr, Grieve at Lochend he enumerates as follows :—Of 
Plants, Calamites of a large and well-marked species, a Lepidodendron and Lepi- 
dophyllum, with various Sphenopterites. Of Fishes, a beautiful specimen of the 
genus Paleoniscus; also scales, teeth, spines, and coprolites, Lastly, a Crustacean, 
Cypris Scoto Burdigalensis, or of an allied species. 

It is to be regretted that the quarry from which the above fossils were obtained 
has now been obliterated in the course of agricultural improvements, 


On the position of Organic Remains near Burntisland. By G. J. Grieve. 


On “The Boulder Drift and Esker Hills of Ireland,” and “ On the position of 
Erratic Blocks in the Country.” By Sir Ricuarv Grirritn, Bart., FBS. 


Sir Richard commenced by giving a short description of his geological map, and 
mentioned that the direction of the mountain-ranges generally, as well as the strike 
of the strata, ranged from north-west to south-east. He stated that the position 
of Ireland with respect to Europe was further to the west into the Atlantic Ocean, 
and that on the west side were numerous deep bays, guarded by promontories 
composed of hard rocks, while on the east side the coast was only slightly indented 
on any part. He mentioned that the coast of Ireland all round was composed of 
mountains, while the interior was nearly flat, and that the rock of that plain was 
altogether composed of Carboniferous limestone. He stated that a line drawn from 
Sligo Bay on the west to Drogheda Bay on the east, would form the northern 
boundary of the great plain, while the southern boundary might be shown by a 
line drawn from Galway Bay on the west to Dublin Bay on the east, comprehend- 
ing an area of 5000 square miles. This large district was divided into nearly two 
equal parts by the river Shannon, whose source was near Lough Allen, in the 
county of Cavan, elevated 160 feet above the level of the sea, while the length of 
its course to the sea, at Limerick, was 140 miles, giving an average fall of 1 foot 
2 inches in a mile; and he further stated that this fall was not equally dis- 
tributed, as between Limerick and Kildare, a distance of 12 miles, was a fall of 
98 feet, showing that from the distance of 128 miles between Lough Allen and 
Killaloe, there was an average fall of less than 6 inches in a mile. The great 
centre plain, already described as containing 5000 square miles, contained 1,000,000 
acres of bogs, each of which was surrounded by drift resting_on the top of the 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 99 


Carboniferous limestone, and it usually presented an undulating surface which 
occasionally affected the form of elongated elliptical hills, which usually ran 
parallel to each other. This fact was especially exemplified by Clew Bay, situated 
on the west coast, in which were upwards of 300 islands, the surface of which 
was composed of boulder-drift resting on Carboniferous limestone. He mentioned 
that at least on the eastern the boulder drift had a thickness of about 100 feet, but 
probably was much thicker towards the west. He described the boulder-drift as 
composed of a base of sandy or gravelly clay, which contained numerous rolled 
masses, huddled together in a confused manner without reference to size, and that 
their dimensions ranged between those of a small ege and two or three cubic feet in 
diameter. He next adverted to those remarkable ranges of hill, which varied in height 
above the surface of the boulder-drift from twenty to sixty feet, the ascent being 
usually about thirty degrees on the west side, but less steep on the east. These 
Esker hills were very numerous in the midland plain, especially in the counties of 
Mayo, Galway, and Roscommon, on the west side of the Shannon, and of the King’s 
County and Westmeath on the east. Their general direction was from west to 
east; and one great Esker, which extended from west to east from the county of 
Galway to Westmeath, was used as the post road from Dublin to Galway, fora 
length of 30 miles. This great Esker crossed the river Shannon at Athlone, and 
was subsequently cut through by it, exhibiting a great shoal at the present time, 
on which the old bridge of Athlone was built. On the western side, about 50 feet 
above the river, an ancient fort had been erected to defend the passage, and this 
fort still remained in perfect preservation. The town of Athlone was algo built 
on the east side of it, and extended from thence nearly 20 miles. Fifteen miles to 
the south of Athlone, the river Shannon was crossed again by another Esker, also 
running from west to east, and in this place the Hsker presented very steep 
acclivities on either side. He last described a very remarkable Esker called the 
“ Horseshoe,” from its form, the north arm of which running eastward extended 
for 10 miles, whilst the southern extended 8 miles, leaving an opening of 8 miles, 
with the town of Clara in the centre. The slopes of these horseshoe Eskers on 
the west side were steep, having an angle of about 30°, while on the outer side the 
slope was only from 10 to 15°. Having mentioned that in many cases Eskers 
were observed, particularly to the west of Athlone, haying a north and south 
direction, he gave it as his opinion that the Eskers were deposited on the top of 
the boulder-drift at a subsequent period, and that the materials, which were 
similar to the boulder-drift, with the exception of the admixture of sandy clay 
matter, were deposited from currents and waves in a shallow troubled sea, and 
possibly did not owe their existence to glacial action. Sir Richard next directed 
the attention of the Section to the occurrence of large erratic blocks, totally uncon- 
nected with the gravel, which were found resting on the surface throughout the 
entire district, from Galway Bay in an eastern and southern direction, passing over 
the summits of the Slieve-bloom mountains, near Roscrea, and extending from 
thence through the King’s and Queen’s counties. These blocks were all composed 
of a peculiar porphyritic granite from the district situated to the north of Galway 
Bay. This granite was composed of red and white felspar, grey quartz and black 
mica, and contained numerous crystals of red felspar, which rendered the appear- 
ance so peculiar that no doubt could be entertained that the granite blocks above 
mentioned were derived from the Galway district. 

These blocks are usually angular though occasionally slightly rounded. One, 
whose dimensions was 10’ by 5' by 3', equal to 4 tons in weight, is described by 
Mr. Joseph O'Kelly, of the Geological Survey of Ireland, as resting on Lower 
Silurian ground, 10 miles to the north of the Town of Roscrea, at an elevation 
exceeding 1000 feet above the sea; and his colleague, Mr. G. Henry Kinahan, the 
senior geologist, found great numbers of these blocks scattered over the limestone 

lain, in the neighbourhood of Athenry, to the east of Galway. He likewise 
Bectibed large blocks of the same granite in the valley of Glensascaul, at the 
western base of the Slieve-bloom mountains, the dimensions of one of which was 
12' by 10' by 11’, equal to 110 in weight, and others whose weight varied from 
35 to 48 tons. 

Sir Richard next alluded to another drift of erratic blocks, which took a course 

re 


100 rnEeport—1871. 


from south to north, crossing the Curlew and Ox mountains in the county of Sligo, 
the direction of each being from north-east to south-west. 

The Curlew mountains consist of brown sandstone belonging to the Upper Silurian 
series, the surface being elevated above 800 feet above the level of the sea. 
Descending the mountains to the north, to the limestone valley of Tobercurry, 
which occurs between them and the Ox mountains, we find the surface with very 
large boulders of brown sandstone ; and continuing to the northward the ascent of 
the Ox mountains, which are composed of mica-slate, we find the boulders of 
brown sandstone continued, though diminished in size. On reaching the height 
of 450 feet above the limestone valley, we meet with limestgne Eskers having an 
east and west direction, crossing the mountain valley at right angles, and on top 
of which numerous angular blocks of mica-slate rest; but the mica-slate is inter-~ 
mixed with gravel, which is composed altogether of clean rolled masses of Carbo- 
niferous limestone. Milan Mountain, one of the Ox range, the summit of which is 
elevated to the height of 1446 feet above the sea, is composed of granite, forming 
part of a large protrusion through the mica-slate, which is metamorphosed near 
the contact. 

This granite is large-grained, and is composed of red and white felspar, grey 
quartz, and black mica, but without any crystals of red felspar such as occur in 
the Galway granite. 

Descending the mountains to the north, we reach the Easky Lough, elevated 
706 feet above the sea. Here the granite is bounded by mica-slate, which continues 
to the base of the declivity, and we find the surface covered by blocks of granite ; 
and continuing still further across the limestone plain to the séa-coast, to Kasky 
village, a distance of 8 miles, we find the surface also covered by very large blocks 
of granite; and one in particular, which is situated within half a mile of the sea- 
shore, and near to Hasky village, was, on measurement, found to contain 1360 
cubic feet, equal to 100 tons in weight. 

Similar granite blocks occur on the surface of the whole line of the north coast 
of Sligo and Mayo, all of which are similar in composition to the Easky granite, as 
well as to that which occurs on the summit of the Ox mountains to the west of 
Easky Lough as far as the town of Foxford; and no doubt can be entertained that 
such must haye been transported by ice. 


On the Agency of the Alternate Elevation and Subsidence of the Land in the 
formation of Boulder-clays and Glaciers, and the Excavation of Valleys 
and Bays. By the Rey. Joun Guyy. 


Mr. Gunn briefly recapitulated the contents of a paper which he read at the 
Meeting of the British Association at Liverpool, to the effect that boulder-clays 
were deposited in a temperate rather than in a glacial period, inasmuch as the 
area of the sea was increased by the subsidence of the land ; the perpetual snow- 
line must have been lowered, masses of ice disengaged, icebergs set floating and 
the boulder-clays formed; that the glacial epoch was due to the elevation of 
mountain-ranges and consequent glaciers. He proceeded to show that, in some 
instances which he specified, the agency of the alternate elevation and depression 
of the land in scooping out valleys and gorges where there was no eyidence of ice 
action might be traced; that such effects were due to the action of shallow seas, 
either while ciearing off, or while gathering over the surface of the land, and cutting 
out with its incessant surge water-worn channels and inland bays. He stated, in 
conclusion, his opinion that there was no occasion to invoke any additional causes 
of change of climature besides those which were known to exist; but the question 
we remains to be solved is, to what cause are these alternate oscillations of 
evel due: 


, eis Harxness, F.R.S., F.G.S8., exhibited one of the earliest forms of Tri- 
obites, 


~~ ee 


“ah 


* er 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 101 


On the Age of the Felstones and Conglomerates of the Pentland Hills. 
By Joun Henverson, F.G.S.E., read by D. J. Brown, F.G.S.E. 


This paper was illustrated by two sections, and specimens of rocks and fossils 
were exhibited. 

The felstones of the Pentland Hills, with their contemporaneous conglomerates 
and sandstones, have hitherto been considered of Old Red Sandstone age, by Mur- 
chison, M*Laren, Geikie, and others. Having frequently examined the various 
exposed sections throughout the district, and from the evidence collected, the author 
endeavoured to prove that some of these felstones, conglomerates, and sandstones 
are as new as the upper portion of the Lower Carboniferous. 

The first section referred to may be seen on the north-west side of the hills 
at Clubbiedean, where beds of Carboniferous sandstone and shales, containing 
Sphenopteris affinis and other well-known Carboniferous fossils, are ruptured, tilted 
and hardened by the intrusion of the felstones ; and these intrusive felstones enclose 
fragments of hardened shales and limestones, yielding encrinites belonging to these 
beds, showing conclusively that these felstones are of a more recent age than the 
overlying carboniferous. The other section referred to occurs about four miles further 
to the south-west, at Bevelau and Habbies How, where these supposed Old Red 
Sandstones and Conglomerates may be seen resting on the upturned edges of the 
Silurian rocks. In these Silurian rocks the author detected a number of felstone 
dykes, one of which is about 30 feet broad, and may be traced up the face of 
Harehill, a distance of about 500 feet, where it is covered by horizontal beds of 
sandstone—the supposed Old Red—which it does not penetrate, while in the val- 
ley to the south of Harehill some limestone pebbles were found enclosed in the con- 
glomerates, which contain fossils evidently of Carboniferous age, such as Serpula 
parallela, &c., showing that these sandstones and conglomerates cannot be of Old 
Red age as hitherto supposed. 

Now, when it is considered that the Lower Carboniferous rocks in this dis- 
trict are everywhere broken up by intrusive felstones and greenstones, while the 
sandstones and conglomerates of Harehill and the Cairnhills remain almost un- 
touched by igneous action, and lying nearly horizontal and undisturbed, the na- 
tural conclusion arrived at is, that these supposed Old Red Sandstones were not 
deposited until after the igneous forces which have disturbed the Lower Carboni- 
ferous in this district were nearly exhausted ; and the whole evidence clearly shows 
that these supposed Old Red Sandstones, Conglomerates, and Felstones of this part 
of the Pentland Hills must at least be as recent as the upper part of the Lower 
Carboniferous. , 

On the relative ages of the Granitic, Plutonic, and Volcanic Rocks of the 
Mourne Mountains and Slieve Croob, Co. Down, Ireland. By Professor 
Evwarp Hott, M.A., F.RS., F.GS., and Wittram A. Traixt, B.A., of the 
Geological Survey of Ireland. (Communicated with the sanction of the Di- 
rector-General of the Geological Survey.) 


Haying referred to the bold and interesting physical features of the district, 
which in some respects resemble those of Arran, and which had already been ob- 
jects of investigation by Griffith*, Berger +, and Bryce {, the authors observed 
that there were, as in Arran itself, two varieties of granite. These had been 
shown by the Rey. Professor Haughton § to differ in composition; the granite of 
Slieve Croob (consisting of quartz, orthoclase and mica) being a “ soda granite,” 
and that of Mourne (consisting of quartz, orthoclase, albite, and mica) being a 
“yotash granite.’ Dr. Bryce had expressed an opinion that these two granites 
belong to different epochs ||. 


* Geological Map of Ireland, 1839. 

t “On the Geological features of the North-Eastern Counties of Ireland,” by J. F. 
Berger, M.D., Trans. Geol. Soc. Lond. 1st ser. vol. i. 

t “On the Geological Structure of the Counties of Down and Antrim,” by James 
Bryce, LL.D., Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1852, p. 42. 

§ Quart, Journ, Geol, Soc, Lond, vol, xii. p. 188, and xiy, p. 300. || Supra cit. 


102 REPORT—1871. 


The relative and (as far as possible) the actual ages of these granites still re- 
mained to be determined, and in the absence of stratified deposits newer than the 
Lower Silurian in immediate contact with the granites themselves, the authors 
believed that conclusions might be safely arrived at by considerations connected 
with the basaltic and felspathic dykes by which the rocks had on several occasions 
been invaded. 

They had arrived at the conclusion that the granite of Mourne was more recent 
than that of Slieve Croob by a long interval of geological time; the former being 
of Upper Paleozoic, the latter of, perhaps, Mesozoic age. These general conclu- 
sions were supported by the following considerations. 

The granite of Mourne at its margin in some places passes into quartziferous 
porphyry, and sends offshoots of this rock in the form of dykes into the surround- 
ing Silurian strata, as may be very clearly determined by several examples in the 
vicinity of Newcastle. Hence the authors inferred that the dykes of quartz-por- 
phyry and felstone which traverse the granite of Slieve Croob might be referred 
to the age of the newer granite of Mourne; and thus the greater antiquity of the 
Slieve Croob granite might be determined. 

Trap-dykes—The trap-rocks of the district were classed mineralogically as 
follows:—(a) Quartz-porphyries and highly silicated felstones. (6) Diorites. (e) 
Basalts or Dolerites of two ages. 

Considered with reference to relative ages of formation, the following was the 
order of succession, in the ascending series. 

(1) Older Basalts and Dolerite Dykes—These form hy far the most numerous 
of all the trap-rocks of the district, occurring in great numbers along the coast 
south of Newcastle, and amongst the interior mountains, as at Slieve Muck; they 
are also unquestionably the oldest of all the trap-rocks of the district. 

Their age, with reference to the granite of Mourne, was placed beyond question 
by a large number of examples in which these dykes, after traversing the Silurian 
rocks, are abruptly terminated at the margin of the granite; they are therefore 
older than the granite itself*. These older basalts were found to traverse the Silu- 
rian rocks in well-formed dykes within vertical (or nearly vertical) walls, and are 

enerally fine-grained, of dark green colour, undistinguishable from those of newer 
ertiary age. Sliced specimens showed under the microscope the composition to 
be augite, triclinic felspar, and titano-ferrite. 

(2) The next in order of age are the quartz-porphyries and felstones, which (as 
already stated) branch off from the main mass of the Mourne granite, and are un- 
questionably of the same age as the granite itself, and often strongly resemble it 
in its more compact form. Dykes of these rocks are also found traversing the 
older granite of Slieve Croob. They consist of a felspathic base with crystals of 
felspar, grains and crystals of quartz, and sometimes mica or hornblende, as acces- 
sories, and in small quantities. 

(8) The Diorite dykes are few in number, the finest example occurring at Ros- 
trevor. It consists of a crystalline granular aggregate of reddish felspar and horn- 
blende well developed, and traverses the older basaltic dykes; but is, they believe, 
oder span the granite of Mourne. It is therefore referable to some intermediate 
period. 

(4) Besides the older basaltic dykes, which are cut off by the granite, there are 
a few which traverse both the Silurian rocks and the granite of Mourne itself. 
These are therefore newer than those previously described ; and as they appear to 
be connected with those which are found traversing the Cretaceous rocks in Co, 
Antrim, the authors consider them to be of Miocene age. 

In general aspect there is no decided difference between the older and newer 
basaltic dykes; they have all the external appearance of the Tertiary dykes, which 
abound along the margin of the basaltic plateau of Antrim, and in the West of 
Scotland ; and had it not been for their relations with the granite of Mourne, they 
might have all been included in the same category. 

It might have been supposed that microscopical examination would show some 


* Sir Richard Griffith has informed one of the authors that he was already aware of this 


fact, but had not published his observations, Some of these dykes are represented on his 
Geological Map of Ireland. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 103 


distinction in the basalts of these geological ages; but recent investigations by 
Zirkel, D, Forbes, Allport, and others tend to show that there is no criterion of 
aze amongst the constituents of basalt, dolerite, or melaphyre ; and the presence 
of olivine, once supposed to be distinctive of Tertiary basalts, has been detected 
amongst those even of Carboniferous age *. 

Age of the Older Basalt.—The geological age of these older basalts can only be 
relatively determined, They are newer than the Lower Carboniferous rocks, which 
they are seen to traverse at Cranfield} Point and Carlingford. Recollecting the 
abundant evidences of contemporaneous voleanic action which the Carboniferous 
rocks of Scotland’and portions of central England present, the authors are disposed 
to refer these older basalts to the Upper Carboniferous period itself; and having 
regard to the prodigious number of these dykes traversing the rocks at intervals 
along the coast from Dundrum Bay to Carlingford Bay, they suggest the former 
existence of one or more volcanic vents in their vicinity during later Carboniferous 
times; such a voleanic focus as is inferred to have existed in the vicinity of Oar- 
lingford by Professor Haughton f. 

Sequence of Granite, Plutonic, and Voleanic rocks in the Mourne district— 
The following may be regarded as the order of succession of these rocks with 
their approximate ages in the district north of Carlingford Bay, all being more 
recent than the age of the “Caradoc” or “ Bala” beds of the Silurian epoch, 
Commencing with the oldest, we have :— 

(a) Metamorphic granite of Slieve Croob, Castlewellan, and Newry. Pre-Car- 
boniferous, therefore Paleozoic. 

(6) Older basaltic dykes of Mourne and Carlingford. Upper Carboniferous. 

(¢) Diorite Dykes. Later than the Carboniferous. 

iuGranite of Mourmie s qo !24 amp ddd aati payanat fastacts Post Oar 
2, Felstone and porphyry dykes penetrating the granite ae Ged 

@) of Slieve Grobti atl the alder icaliis dgies pig ete boniferous {. 

(e) Newer Basalts of Miocene (Tertiary) age. 

Judging by the comparative scarceness of the newer Tertiary dykes in the district 
of Mourne, the authors drew the conclusion, that it may be considered as the 
southern limit of the region affected by the volcanic outburst of the Miocene period, 
which so powerfully affected the district lying to the north-east of Ireland and 
extending into the Inner Hebrides; while on the other hand it was the seat of 
active volcanic energy during an earlier period, which in all probability may be 
identified with the Upper Carboniferous, or that of the Upper Coal-measures of 
England. 


On the Coal-beds of Panama, in reference mainly to their Economic Importance. 
By the Rey. Dr. Hume. 


On the Silurian Rocks of the Counties of Roxburgh and Selkirk. 
By Cuartes Larworrn and James Wrison. 


The authors gave a short summary of what they had already accomplished on 
the investigation of these strata, which they held fell naturally into five great divi- 
sions in this district. These divisions they had named respectively, 


1. The Hawick Rocks, 4, The Gala Group, 
2. The Selkirk Rocks, 5, The Riccarton Beds, 
3. The Moffat Series, 


after the places where they are best developed. 


* Mr. 8. Allport, ‘ Geological Magazine,’ vol. vi. p. 115. 

Tt Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xii. p. 193. 

¢ Professor Harkness suggests that the eruption of the granite of Mourne may be re- 
ferred to the period which intervened between the depositon of the Carboniferous and 
Permian strata, a period of great duration ; and he thinks there is a strong resemblance 
between the granite of Mourne and that of Kirkcudbrightshire, which is referable to this 
period. Against this view it is to be observed that it would bring the older basaltic dykes 
close upon the heels of the Mourne granite, which seems rather improbable. 


104: REPORT—1871. 


The Hawick and Selkirk rocks fill up all the central portion of the district de- 
scribed, extending from near Selkirk to Mosspaul. They form the great anticline 
of the South Scottish Silurians, and appear to be the lowest rocks exhibited. They 
contain a few fossils, such as Annelida, Protichnites, Protovirgularia, Phyllopoda. 

The Moffat series is remarkable for the bed (or beds) of anthracitic shale which it 

contains, and which is famous for the large number of Graptolites found in it. The 
Moffat series, with its black shale-band, makes its appearance twice in the district 
described,—Ist, in the country between Selkirk and Melrose ; 2nd, in the region of 
the Moorfoot Hills ; these beds yield fossils of the genera Dicellograpsus, Dicrano- 
grapsus, Cladograpsus, Climacograpsus, Discinocaris, Peltocaris, Siphonotreta, Lin- 
gula. 
E The Gala group lies in the syncline formed by these two appearances of the 
Moffat series, and consists of grits, sandstones, shales, and conglomerates, that im- 
bed a Middle Silurian fauna, including Monograpsus, Diplograpsus, Retiolites, Dic- 
tyonema, Aptychopsis, Ceratiocarts, Dictyocarts, Orthoceras. 

The Riccarton beds fill up all the Silurian country to the south of a line drawn 
from Kirkcudbright to Jedburgh. The fossils are Upper Silurian, and include Cyr- 
tograpsus, Ptilograpsus, Theca, Orthoceras, Ceratiocaris, Aptychopsis, Pterygotus, 
Rhynchonella. 

The authors believe that the anthracitic bed of Moffat is of Bala age, that the 
Gala group contains strata of both Caradoc and Llandovery age, and that the 
Riccarton beds should he classed with the Wenlock or Lower Ludlow. 


On the Graptolites of the Gala Group. By Cuartus Lapworrn. 


The Graptolites found in the Gala group form an assemblage quite distinct from 
that afforded by the Moffat series. The species Inown at present are :— 


1. Diplograpsus bullatus (Saiz). 11. Graptolites Salteri ( Getnitz). 
2. palmeus (Barr.). 12. fimbriatus (Vich.). 
3. Retiolites Geinitzianus (Barr.). 13. priodon (Bronn). 
4. obesus (n. sp.). 14. —— colonus (Barr.). 
5. Graptolites Sedgwickii (M‘Coy). 15. socialis (n. sp.). 
6. sagittarius (His.). 16. turriculatus (Barr.). 
7. Beckii (Barr.). Lie gemmatus (Barv.). 
8. —— Nilssoni (Barr.). 18. Rastrites Linnzi (Barr.). 
9. —— Halli (Barr.), 19, maximus (Carr). 
10. —— Griestonensis (Vico?). 20. Dictyonema, sp. 


Two of these species, 7. e. Retiolites obesus and Graptolites socialis, are new to 
science. 

In Retiolites obesus the frond is diprionidian, ensiform, or elongate-elliptical in 
form, with a length of 13 inch in the largest specimens, to a breadth of more 
than 3 of aninch. The meshes on the central surface are hexagonal, ;of an inch 
in diameter. Round the inner margin of the frond runs a series of large subqua- 
drangular meshes, which forms a peculiar and characteristic braiding, distinguish- 
ing this form at once from all other species of the same genus. These meshes 
show the place of the cellules, which are from 22 to 24 to the inch. 

Graptolites socialts is monoprionidian, flagelliform, 1; of an inch in width and 
less than 2 inches in length. The cellules are formed after the type of those of 
Graptolites Beckit (Barr.). They are arranged along the concave side of the stipe, 
from 34 to 44 to the inch. 

This species is found in great numbers in some of the Gala beds. 


On the Origin of Volcanoes. By P. W. Srvanr Menrearu, 

The author's views are briefly stated in ‘ Scientific Opinion’ for April 7, 1869. 
Since that date, M. Fouqué in France, and Peschel in Germany, had published 
very similar views, although M. Fouqué, until lately, opposed all chemical theories 
of the origin of voleanoes. The author, therefore, ventured to bring forward his 
theory more in detail, and he believed that if chemical geology were more gene- 


» 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 105 


rally studied, that theory would not appear startling. He had considered the objec- 
tions of Bischof and others to chemical theories, and he believed that they did not hit 
the explanation he proposed. That explanation attributes the force of volcanic action 
to solar energy, stored up in rocks by buried organic matter—this organic matter 
either existing in rocks as carbon and carbonaceous compounds, or represented by 
sulphides and other substances, produced by the reducing-action of organic matter. 
Voleanoes, as has been said of steam-engines, are worked by “ the light of other days.” 
Starting from the five groups of well-preserved extinct volcanoes in Spain and Por- 
tugal, proceeding to consider the volcanoes of the Mediterranean basin, and finally 
volcanoes in general, the author concluded that, as had been pointed out by Sterry 
Hunt, volcanoes, as a rule, lie on or at the borders of much sedimentary rock; and 
the exceptions to this rule he considered to be explicable in conformity with his 
theory. These sedimentary rocks, especially in the Mediterranean basin and under 
the volcanoes of Catalonia, could be said to contain much organic matter. N ext, 
he examined the alleged fact of the occurrence of volcanoes’ along great lines of 
fissure, and concluded that their occurrence in lines was due to their connexion with 
the sea, as well as with lines of sedimentary deposition. The author believes that 
the sometimes alleged identity of volcanic rocks was a statement either misleading or 
meaningless, and that the composition of volcanic rocks was just what we should 
expect, if they were formed from masses of sedimentary rocks, in presence of sea- 
water. Proceeding to the consideration of the results of Fouqué, Deville, Daubeny, 
and others, regarding the gaseous products of volcanoes, he showed that these afforded 
striking evidence that a mixture of gases, similar to that evolved in gasworks, was 
oxidated in volcanoes with production of great heat. To this heat, and to the 
burning of separated carbon, sulphur, and probably iron, he attributed the high 
temperature present in some lava on its appearance in the air. From the researches 
of Sorby, Zirkel, Daubrée, Delesse, Stoppani, and others on the subject of lavas, he 
concluded that these were formed at moderate temperatures, and only exceptionally 
fused by the great heat produced in the crater. The enormous amount of heat 
assumed to be present in volcanic action was, in the author’s opinion, in great part 
mythical, and what was actually ascertained could be explained by the nature of the 
substances oxidating in the earth and burning at the crater. As to the introduction of 
air and water, he referred to the penetration of sea-water at Cephalonia, to the re- 
searches of Delesse, to the Catalan trompe, and to the fact that sea-water dissolves 
much oxygen; while the nitrogen evolved, in volcanic areas and elsewhere, is 
usually either pure or accompanied by less oxygen than would compose atmo- 
spheric air, He then pointed out that the amount of carbon found in rocks might 
be adequate to produce all the heat required, if we assumed the rocks to haye been 
rapidly deposited ; whereas, if they had been slowly deposited, the amount of car- 
bon now existing in them could only be a remaining fraction of that they formerly 
contained, the rest having been evolved as carbonic acid. If he were to reject geolo- 
ical time, as some have done, he might assume that the volcanic heat to be accounted 
or was just as much as the average amount of carbon was adequate to supply. After 
attributing the origin of the vast amount of buried carbon now in rocks to fied car- 
bon in former rocks, and remarking that it must have passed very gradually through 
the atmosphere, he discussed some correlated processes in nature which would keep 
yolcanic action roughly uniform, the sun-force continually passing through organic 
matter into volcanic heat. He confined himself chiefly to volcanic action proper, as 
that was generally considered the best evidence of the original-heat theory ; but he 
considered that such general internal heat as had been ascertained might be attri- 
buted to the distribution of volcanic heat by water, to general oxidation of the car- 
bon almost universal in rocks, to friction as shown by Bianconi, and finally, to the 
electric currents ascertained to exist in the earth, and to be probably produced in 
great part by the sun. 
The paper was illustrated by sketches taken by the writer in the Two Sicilies, 
the Greek Isles, Catalonia, &c., also by some curious specimens of metamorphosed 
glass, which he had found while excavating for antiquities in Ischia. 


106 REPORT—1871. 


Further Experiments and Remarks on Contortion of Rocks. 
By L. C. Mratt. 


After recapitulating the results of some experiments on contortion of mountain 
limestone brought before the Association at Exeter, the author went on to state that 
with improved apparatus he had extended his experiments to various substances, 
Limestone appeared to be exceedingly plastic when long subjected to forces of low 
intensity. agstones from the Coal-measures with a certain amount of elasticity 
possessed little power of permanent deflection. This negative result is, however, 
to be checked by observation of cases of accidental flexure of flagstones. Examples 
were cited of these rocks which had yielded to strains, and had become perma- 
nently bent, Plaster of Paris the author finds remarkably plastic, and a long 
series of experiments with dry slabs shows that it can be bent and twisted inde- 
finitely. Slates had also been tested, but with quite inconspicuous results. A 
considerable elasticity was found to characterize good slate, with a quite inappre- 
ciable plasticity. The author had obtained striking examples of artificial contor- 
tion by imbedding lamine of various rocks in pitch. These results were applied 
to the very sharp flexures sometimes seen in hard strata lying in beds of shale. 
Cases of quite superficial contortion were quoted, and from numerous instances 
of marked undulations in strata which were underlain by horizontal and undis- 
turbed layers, it was inferred that many contortions extend only to trifling depths. 
A case of contortion traceable to the removal of part of a hill-side by a landslip 
was referred to as showing that flexures on a considerable scale may be of quite 
recent origin. In conclusion, some remarks were made on the general theory of 
contortions at the surface of the earth. 


On the so-called Hyoid plate of the Asterolepis of the Old Red Sandstone. 
By Joun Murer, 1.G.S8. 


In the Number of the ‘ Geological Journal’ for August 1869, the author pub- 
lished a letter, stating that he had obtained two specimens of the Asterolepis from 
the great flag-deposits of Caithness, which showed clearly and distinctly that what 
had hitherto been considered to be the hyoid plate was not a hyoid plate at all, but 
was in reality the dorsal plate of the Asterolepis, fitting on immediately behind the 
cranial buckler, pretty much in the same way as the dorsal plate of the Coccosteus 
fitted on behind its head-plates. He stated that he would endeavour to lay his 
specimens before the Geological Society of London as soon as possible; however, 
circumstances have prevented this. he specimens referred to were exhibited 
on the present occasion, in fulfilment of the pledge given to the Geological 
Society. 

It is right to premise that from the time these plates were first made known to 
geologists by Asmus and Eichwald in Russia, and by Sir Roderick Murchison and 
Agassiz in the west of Europe, they have been regarded in Russia and in this 
country as hyoid plates, down tu the period of the publication by Pander of his 
works on the Devonian system of Russia, in which he stated his opinion that they 
would turn out to be dorsal plates when more complete fossils turned up. This 
opinion was shared in by several of our most eminent paleontologists, and amongst 
others by Mr. Peach, who has long worked in the Astrolepis-beds of Caithness, and 
is well acquainted with the geology of that county. 

In his description of the Asterolepis, Hugh Miller says (‘Footprints of the 
Creator,’ p. 85 of the edition of 1861) :—“ That space comprised within the arch of 
the lower jaws, in which the hyoid-bone and branchiostegous rays of the osseous 
fishes occur, was filled by a single plate of great size and strength, and of singular 
form” (ibid. fig. 40), 

, And again, at p. 87 (cbid.):—“The two angular terminations of the hyoidal 
plate (a, a, fig. 40) were received, laterally and posteriorly, into angular grooves in 
a massive bone of very peculiar shajie (fig. 42), of which the tubercled portion (a, a) 
seems to have swept forwards in the line of the lower jaw.’’ In these short 
extracts Hugh Miller, with his characteristic unmistakable clearness, states the 
generally received opinion regarding the position of the so-called hyoid plate ; and 


ibe + 


TAS ee. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 107 


it was the author's object to show that the generally received opinion on the 
subject is a mistake, and that the plate in question is in reality a true dorsal plate, 
fittmg on immediately behind the cranial buckler or head-plates, and that those 
naturalists who had previously supposed that this would ultimately prove to be its 
right position, from Pander down to Peach, were found to have been quite correct 
in their opinion. The author exhibited a sketch of his best specimen, in which was 
seen the upper surface of the cranial buckler, described by Hugh Miller, with the 
dorsal plate, in its true position, and attached to the cranial buckler by two “massive 
bones of very peculiar shape,” alluded to in the quotation above. 


Conservation of Boulders, By D. Mutne-Homn, F.R.S.E. 


Professor Geikie having stated that the next subject to be brought under the 
notice of the Section was the conservation of remarkable boulders, begged to men- 
tion that the Sectional Committee had passed a resolution, intimating their sense 
of the importance of the subject, and recommending that the British Association 
should appoint a Committee, with a grant of money at its disposal, to endeavour to 
discover the position of remarkable boulders in any part of the United Kingdom, 
and also to have them preserved. The Royal Society of Edinburgh had already 
taken steps for these objects as regards Scotland; and it would be well to have the 
movement extended so as to embrace England and Ireland; and the two Committees 
would no doubt cooperate, as far as Scotland was concerned. He then called 
on Mr. Milne-Home, the Chairman of the Committee of the Royal Society of 
Edinburgh, to explain more particularly the objects contemplated, and the measures 
which might be taken to carry them out. 

Mr. Milne-Home said that his attention to the subject had first been awakened 
by an article in ‘ Nature,’ from the pen of their President, Professor Geikie, giving 
an account of proceedings which had been commenced in Switzerland for the pre- 
servation of remarkable boulders. Being acquainted with Professor Favre, of 
Geneva, he had learned from him that the movement embraced Dauphiny and 
other provinces in the South of France, and that the effect had been to create a 
strong popular sympathy in the object. Following this precedent, he had induced 
the Royal Society of Edinburgh to appoint a Committee, whose duty it was to send 
circulars to all the parishes in Scotland, with the view of ascertaining the existence 
in them of any boulders remarkable for size or for other features. Many questions 
of much geological interest could be solved by ascertaining the nature of the rocks 
composing boulders, and studying their shapes, in order to deduce conclusions as to 
the transporting agent. These boulders, however, were fast disappearing, some- 
times owing to agricultural improvements, and sometimes affording, when broken 
up, materials for building or for road-metal. It was therefore important to 
discover the localities where any remarkable boulders existed, in order that they 
might be examined by those who took an interest in such speculations, and in 
order also to have them preserved. He had reason to believe that the proprietors 
and tenants of the lands on which such boulders might be situated woul willingly 
accede to any application which might be made to them by scientific societies to 
preserve them. He was sure that, were this Section to express views favourable 
to that object, great good would result. 


Further Remarks on the Denudation of the Bath Oolite. 
By W. 8. Mircwe. 


On Geological Systems and Endemic Disease. By Dr. Morrar. 


The author remarked that the district in which he lived consisted geologically 
of the Carboniferous and of the New Red or Cheshire sandstone systems; that 
the inhabitants of the former were engaged in mining and agriculture, and those 
of the latter in agriculture chiefly. Anzmia, with goitre, was very prevalent 
among those on the Carboniferous system, while it was almost unknown among 
those of the Cheshire sandstone, and phthisis was also more prevalent among the 


108 REPORT—1871. 


former than the latter. As anzemia was a state in which there was a deficiency in 
the oxide of iron in the blood, he was led to examine chemically the relative com- 
position of wheat grown upon a soil of Cheshire sandstone, carboniferous lime- 
stone, millstone grit, and a transition soil between the Cheshire sandstone and the 
erit ; and the analysis showed that wheat grown upon Cheshire sandstone yielded 
the largest quantity of ash, and that it contained a much larger quantity of phos- 
phorie acid and oxide of iron than that grown upon the other formations. He cal- 
culated that a dweller on the Cheshire sandstone who consumed 1 lb. of wheat 
daily, grown upon the latter formation, took in nearly five grains more per day of 
oxide of iron than one who dwelt on the Carboniferous system who did the same. 
The analysis showed also that the wheat grown upon the Carboniferous system was 
deficient in phosphates or nutritive salts; and one who consumed a pound of 
Cheshire wheat per day took in nine grains more of phosphoric acid than one who 
took one pound of wheat grown upon the Carboniferous system. He had endea- 
youred to ascertain whether the bread of those who dwelt upon the two systems 
was relatively as deficient in these important nutritive elements as the wheat 
grown upon them. He had collected twenty samples of bread used by twenty dif- 
ferent families living upon each system, and analysis afforded results as conclusive 
as the examination of the wheat. The deficiency of the nutritive salts in the bread 
compared with those in the wheat was very remarkable; and it was no doubt 
owing to the removal of the bran from the flour with which the bread was made. 
The writer then gave some statistics as to the diseases prevalent in the counties of 
Chester, Flint, and Denbigh, and stated that the practical deductions to be drawn 
from the inquiry were, that all young persons living on a Carboniferous formation 
having symptoms of incipient goitre and anemia, ought to be moved to a soil upon 
Red Sandstone, and persons of strumous habit ought to reside upon sandstone at 
an elevation of at least 800 or 1000 feet above the sea; and that both classes of 
persons should live upon food, both animal and farinaceous, which contained the 
maximum quantity of oxide of iron and the phosphates or nutritive salts. Medi- 
cal men could not too much impress upon the minds of the public the importance 
of using flour made from the whole of the wheat, or “‘ whole grain.” 


On the Systematic Position of Sivatherium giganteum, Faule. and Caut*. 
By Dr. James Morir, /.GS., PLS, §e. 


Among the fossil fauna discovered in the Sewalik Hills, the Sivatherium, one of 
these, as attested by its remains, must have attained the size of a full-grown ele- 
phant. It appears, however, to haye been a ruminant, in some respects Deer- 
like, in others more resembling the Antelope. Still stranger, it seems to have 
had some characteristic features of Pachyderms—the Tapir, for example. After a 
careful review of the statements and deductions that have been made upon the 
Sivatherium, the author went on to show that it belonged to those radical forms 
which by some may be regarded as one of the progenitors of diverse herbivorous 
groups. The fossil bones studied by him are those contained in the British 
Museum. There is also a remarkable fragment in the Edinburgh University 
Museum. The points which he regarded as affording a safe basis of the affinities 
of this curious animal are :—1. The form and structure of the horns; 2. the shape 
of the bones of the face; 3. the nature of the teeth; 4. the formation of the 
basis of the skull; and 5. other peculiarities of the neck, chest, and limb-bones. 
The Stvatherium, according to him, is unlike all other living ruminants but one, 
the Prongbuck, from the fact of its having had hollow horns, evidently subject to 
shedding. It differs thus from Deer, whose solid horns annually drop off, and from 
the Antelope tribe, Sheep, and Oxen, whose hollow horns are persistent. Save 
one living form, the Saiga, no recent ruminant possesses, as did the Stvatherium, a 
muzzle resembling in several ways the proboscis of the Tapirs and Elephants. 
The dentition partook of the characters of the ancient Elasmotherium, &e. The 


* This paper has been published iz extenso in the Geol. Mag., October 1871, accom- 
panied by two double plates of the restoration of the skeleton and a representation of 
the animal, g, 2 e¢juv. Therein references to the several authorities &c. will be found. 


x 


prey 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 109 


basis and hind end of the skull is typical of oxen. The sternum, portion of the 
spine, and general strength of the limb-bones show configurations allying it with 
the Bovidee. Other features of the legs hint an affinity to the Camel. On the 
strength of his own researches, and those of Mr. Bartlett and Dr. Canfield, the 
author is inclined to plave the Sivatherium in the family Antilocapride ; Drs. Sclater 
and Gray having raised the Prongbuck to a group equivalent to the Cervidee and 
Antilopids, chiefly from the singular fact of its horns being hollow and periodi- 
cally deciduous. The great Indian Sivatheriwm he considers might as well be 
taken as the centre type of a family, the Sivatheride. He points out that radi- 
ating from it can be traced a differentiation of structure allying it to the ancient 
Bramotherium and Megacerops. Diversely, links lead through the Prongbuck 
towards the Deer, Giraffe, and Camel. On the other hand, configurations point 
undoubtedly to the Saiga; and there it is, as it were, split into lines directed 
towards the Antelope, the Sheep, and even the Pachyderms. 


Additions to the list of Fossils and Localities of the Carboniferous Formation 
in and around Edinburgh. By C. W. Puacu, ALS. 


The author, after a few preliminary remarks, stated that he had found Spzrorbis 
carbonarius rather plentiful at Burdiehouse, showing that the limestone there had 
been deposited in brackish water; Estheria, in Camstone quarry, in Arthur’s Seat, 
plentiful; Zeza in an ironstone nodule at Wardie, Professor R. Jones says, “ the 
most northern locality at present known ;” -Acanthodes Ward: plentiful in the Par- 
rot-coal at Loanhead, rare at the brickwork and No. 1 Pit and Shield Hill, Fal- 
kirk, and in the black-band and gas-coal at Auchenheath, Lesmahagow. In ad- 
dition to the well-known Pygopterus of Wardie, he had got from Loanhead splendid 
specimens, with large and beautifully carved jaws and striated teeth, for which, 
should it prove new, he proposed to name it P. elegans. It is rare. 

He next exhibited a portion of a splendid spine, beautifully tubercled, and covered 
as well with thorn-like hooks, differing from all figured by Agassiz. He exhibited 
other things, probably new; also a shagreen-covered fish ; he had found it in several 
localities. As all were so imperfect he refrained from doing more than showing 
them to the members, so that any one knowing it might throw light on it. 

He next exhibited and commented on a series of beautiful specimens of coal- 
field plants, consisting of large leaves and stem of Cordaites borassifolia ; Calamites 
nodosus in a splendid state, showing its pairs of branches, pinnee, and leaves; from 
these he had been able to make nearly a complete restoration of the plant. The 
greatest prize was Antholithes Pitcairnie, with its fruit Cardiocarpon attached, 
hanging gracefully by its swan-like stem; these, with many other interesting 
plants, he got in the blaes above the coal at Coach-road pit, near Falkirk. 

He remarked that some of the jaws and portions of the fishes from the coal-fields 
retained their greasy nature, throwing off water when wetted like the chalk used by 
lithographers, and instantly drying, whilst the matrix in which they were enclosed 
remained wet, 


On Hydro-Geology. By V?Anpk Ricwarp. 


On the Contents of a Hyena’s Den on the Great Doward, Whitchurch, Ross. 
By the Rey. W. 8. Symonns, £.G.S. 
The following is the order of deposition of materials in the Cave known as King 
Arthur’s Cave. 
1, Fallen débris containing Roman pottery and recent human bones. 
2. Cave-earth No. 1, three feet thick. Flint flakes and a flint knife. Cores of 


' chert and Silurian quartz rock. Teeth and jaws of Felis spelea, Ursus speleus and 


Hyena spelea, Elephas primigenius, Rhinoceros tichorhinus, Equus fossilis, Mega- 
ceros hibernicus, and Cervus tarandus. 

3. Old river-bed of red sand and Wye pebbles from the Silurian rocks of Rha-= 
yader and Builth, three or four feet thick, 


110 REPORT—1871. 


4, A thick floor of stalagmite, on which the river-bed rests. 

5. Cave-earth No. 2. Several flint flakes, with abundant remains of Cave Lion, 
Hyena, Rhinoceros, Mammoth (three sizes and ages), Irish Elks, Horse, Bison, 
and Reindeer. 

The Wye now flows 300 feet below the ancient river-deposit of sand and pebbles. 

In the lower cave-earth are associated the relics of ancient men and the extinct 
mammalia; and the author expressed his conviction that there are no better 
authenticated evidences of the antiquity of man in the records of caye-history. 


On a New Fish-spine from the Lower Old Red Sandstone of Hay, Breconshire, 
By the Rey. W. 8. Symonps, /.G4S. 


This is a new Icthyodorulite now in the possession of the Earl of Enniskillen. It 
is described by Mr. Etheridge, of the School of Mines, under the name of Onchus 
major. It is the largest known spine from the Lower Old Red Sandstone. 

The stratigraphical position of this Fish-spine was described to Mr. Symonds by 
Mr. John Thomas, C.E., of Hay, Brecon. It was found at Llidiart-y-Warn quarry, 
near Hay. The following is Mr. Thomas’s account :— 

“This fossil, with several others, was found by Mr.-David Jones, of Hay, some 
three or four years ago, who, not knowing its value, left it to lie in his garden on a 
rockery. It is much weathered in consequence. 

“ Ail geologists acquainted with this district will recollect the fine section of Old 
Red as seen from the summit of the Black Mountains overlooking the Wye valley, 
between Hay and Glasbury. In ‘Siluria,’ p. 272, Sir Roderick Murchison has 
given a reduced copy of a section from the outcrop of the Carboniferous Limestone 
of the South Wales basin, across the Wye valley to the Upper Ludlow, in Rad- 
norshire. The summit of the Black Mountain is occupied i chocolate-coloured 
sandstones, called by Mr. Symonds “ Brownstones.” Then, in descending, we 
have the red and green marls and the cornstones. The cornstones are very 
clearly defined and exposed on the slope of the hills from the Usk valley to Mouse- 
castle, opposite Hay. 

“ About 200 feet below the cornstone-beds and at this point is Llidiart-y-Warn 
quarry, where the fossil was discovered. The beds in the quarry are formed of 
cornstone and very fine layers of whitish sandstone.” 

The structure of this Fish-spine is thus described by Mr. R. Etheridge, F.R.S, :— 

“Form gently arcuated, of mie | equal diameter from base to apex, slightly com- 
pressed. Posterior free, concave, destitute of denticles. Sides apparently smooth, 
having no ridge or sulci, though it appears to have been originally delicately lined ; 
base of spine round or obtuse, broad, smooth, or delicately striated; outer sub- 
stance thick, internal axis large, and rugose on outer layer. Length 5 inches, 
breadth 2 inch. Loe. Llidiart-y-Warn. Position. Cornstone of Lower Old Red 
Sandstone.” 

The anterior face of the spine is not seen; whether it is obtusely keeled or not 
is therefore unknown. The osseous structure and substance is well defined. The 
author doubts not that originally, orif we had the outer surface preserved, the spine 
was longitudinally ridged by deep, narrow sulci. 


On the later Crag-Deposits of Norfolk and Suffoll.. By J. 8. Taytor. 


On the Stratified Rocks of Islay. By Jamns Tuomson, F.GS. 


The author described briefly the physical conditions of the island of Islay, then 
in detail the dip, strike, mineral character, and superposition of the stratified rocks, 
in the following order :— 

1st. The calcareous deposits in the centre of the island, consisting of limestone, 
talcose shale, clay-slate, and interbedded quartzites, belong to the Lower Silurian 
group. The author remarked that rthouee these calcareous deposits had not yet 
yielded identifiable organic remains, he did not despair, if they were properly in- 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 111 


vestigated, of finding characteristic forms, which would enable us to place them 
with certainty as the equivalents of the Lower Silurian rocks, so well defined by 
Sir Roderick Murchison as occurring in Ross and Sutherlandshire. 

2nd. The deposits on the eastern side of the island, and skirting the shore of the 
Sound of Islay from Ard-na-huamh on the north to Balleochreoch on the south, 
are of Cambrian age. Although the author has not seen the precise equivalents 
of the greenish-grey micaceous flags, with the felspathic partings found on the north 
side of Big-Free-Port Bay, on which we find sun-cracks, rain-prints, and what some 
suppose to be annelid tracks or burrows, yet they coincide so well with similar 
rocks, so very clearly shown by Sir Roderick Murchison as occurring in Suther- 
landshire, where their relation to the inferior conglomerates is so ably traced, and 
also those described by the late Mr. Salter from the Longmynd beds in Wales, that 
if similarity of fossil forms are to govern us in determining the relation of forma- 
tions, then those stratified rocks exhibited on the shore at Big-Free-Port and to 
Balleochreoch, folding over and surrounding the: basic conglomerate mass, can only 
be placed in a similar stratigraphical position to those referred to by the above 
able authors, thus extending our knowledge of Cambrian rocks occurring fur- 
ther south in Scotland than has been hitherto recorded. The author quite agreed 
with Prof. Ramsay in supposing that these rocks were deposited in an inland and 
freshwater lake ; and that those cracks are due to the influence of the sun is abun- 
dantly evident, If they had been deposited in an estuary of the sea, the soft mud 
would not have got time to crack, as each inflowing tide would have kept the 
matrix sufficiently moist to prevent its shrinking. 

8rd, The metamorphic rocks on the western extremity of the island, and skirt- 
ing the shores of Lochendale for nine miles to the east, and dipping 8.S.W. or 
nearly at right angles to the plains of stratification of the preceding deposits, are 
of Laurentian age. They differ so widely both in mineral character and strati- 
graphical aspect from those of the central valley and eastern side of the island, 
that there can be little doubt regarding their proper identification, Their litho- 
logical aspect and mineral character coincides so well with the fundamental Gneiss 
of Sutherlandshire, and designated by Sir Roderick Murchison as of Laurentian 
age, that we have not the slightest hesitation in identifying those of Islay as be- 
longing to the same period. 

4th, In the basic conglomerates on the eastern side of the island we have got 
traces of striated rocks imbedded in the mass, although we are not prepared to 
speak with any degree of certainty regarding the source or direction of the materials 
constituting the conglomerate mass. If, however, we glance at the topographical 
aspect of the Highlands and Island, and compare the imbedded boulders of granite 
with the granites found 2 situ throughout the Highlands, we feel the necessity of 
tracing them to another source, and hope we do not overstep the bounds of prudent 
speculation in suggesting that those erratics are the reassorted materials of some 

eat northern continent that has yielded to the ceaseless gnawing tooth of time, 
eaving those scattered fragments as the wreckage of its former greatness, and that 
the materials of which the mass is composed have in time, deeper than we have 
hitherto suspected, been transported by the agency of ice. If so, then this is 
another proof that we are not in a position to limit the agency of ice to any single 
period of our earth’s history. 


Additions to the Fossil Vertebrate Fauna of Burdichouse, near Edinburgh. 
By Prof. Traquatr. 


On the Structure of the Dictyoxylons of the Coal-measuires. 
By Professor W. C. Wittiamson, F.2.S. 


Professor W. C. Williamson referred to Mr. Binney’s original description, in 
1866, of Dadoxylon Oldhamium, and to his own subsequent paper, in which he se- 
arated his new genus Dictyoxylon from the Dadozylons, tie then described the 
ormer genus in detail, commencing with D. Oldhamium. In this plant there was 


112 REPORT—1871. 


a central medullary axis of cellular tissue with several detached longitudinal 
bundles of vascular tissue at itscircumference. Outside this is a lax ligneous zone, 
to the interior of which the bundles just referred to are adherent. The vessels of 
the ligneous zone are reticulated, and arranged in radiating series, the radiating 
laminz being separated at very frequent intervals by thick cellular medullary rays, 
consisting of numerous vertical series of cells. External to the woody zone is a 
very thick and characteristic bark, the inner portion of which is loosely cellular, 
but the exterior has a different structure. It consists of a combination of cellular 
parenchyma and dense elongated prosenchyma, the latter appearing in the trans- 
verse section as a series of dark bands, radiating at varying angles from the inner 
to the epidermal layer of the outer bark. Vertically these prosenchymatous bands 
are prolonged as layers, which extend upwards and downwards in a wavy manner, 
alternately approaching and receding from one another, so that a tangential section 
exhibits a series of lenticular areole whose longer axes correspond with that of the 
stem. The outermost bark-layer appears to be a cellular epidermal tissue, which 
has probably supported external appendages, either scales or leaves. In the inner 
layer of the bark we see a series of variously developed vascular bundles which 
spring as branches from the ligneous zone, but which ascend for a considerable 
distance without escaping through the bark, whilst a second series of branches are 
given off in like manner, but which at once perforate the bark in their passage out- 
wards. This plant is from the lower coal-measures of Lancashire and Yorkshire. 

A second form of Dictyoxylon, to which the author gives the name of D. radicans, 
has evidently been a branching root which has been traced continuously into its 
ultimate rootlets. This plant has no pith, and its compact woody zone, consisting 
of reticulated vessels, is furnished with medullary rays of a much simpler con- 
struction than those of D, Oldhamium. They are not unfrequently represented in 
the tangential section by a single cell; and there are rarely more than five or six 
such cells in each vertical pile. The bark consists of parenchymatous cells arranged 
in rows perpendicular to the surface. This is also a Lancashire form. 

A third species of Dictyorylon discovered in beds of the lower Carboniferous 
series of Burntisland is named D. Girievit after its discoverer, Mr. Grieve. Its 
central axis is much deranged, resembling the Heterangium paradoxum of Corda; 
but several specimens have occurred showing that there was a central vascular axis 
surrounded by a lax radiating ligneous zone, which in turn was invested by a re- 
markable cellular bark, which exhibited, both in radiating and tangential sections, a 
characteristic series of parallel horizontal lines, resulting from a peculiar condition 
of the cellular parenchyma at the points where they exist. As in D. Oldhamium, 
vascular bundles ascend through the inner bark. The plants described were con- 
nected by the author with some large casts of bark from the Coal-measures, some ot 
which have been described as Sagenarize and Lyginodendra. These specimens have 
upon their surface elongated lenticular scars arranged as in Lepidodendron; but 
usually much more elongated in a vertical direction than in that genus, and always 
lacking the central spots marking the issue of vascular bundles. These areole are 
not leaf-scars, but casts of depressions in the outer surface of the bark from which 
the epidermis was removed, and which correspond with the spaces enclosed by the 
sinuosities of the prosenchymatous layers. The functional uses of these areolé are 
undetermined, and there is as yet much uncertainty as to the true affinities of the 
genus, 


On the Structure of Diploxylon, a Plant of the Carboniferous Rocks. 
By Professor W. C. Witxramson, PRS, 


On the Discovery of a new and very perfect Arachnide from the Ironstone of 
the Dudley Coal-field. By Henry Woopwarp, £.GS., F.Z.8., &e., of the 
British Museum. 

The Penny-stone Ironstone of the Coalbrook Dale Coal-field has long been cele- 
brated for yielding, when the nodules are split, impressions of leaves of ferns, 

Lepidostrobi and other fruits, King-crabs, and the rare remains of Insects. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 113 


A recently discovered and very perfect specimen of the so-called Curculiotdes 
Prestvicii of Buckland (figured in his ‘ Bridgewater Treatise,’ pl. 46”, fig. 2), from 
Dudley, proves this insect to have been one of the “ False Scorpions,” nearly related 
to the living genus Phrynus, and not a Coleopterous insect as supposed by Samouelle. 

The specimen is so preserved as to expose its dorsal and ventral aspect each 
distinctly preserved upon the two halves of the nodule; the former richly orna- 
mented with rows and rosettes of tubercles, and the latter showing the smooth 
segmented under-surface of the body bearing the tracheal openings. The hinder 
border bears four short and stout spines. Four pairs of legs are seen, whose wedge- 
shaped basal joints meet beneath the cephalothorax, which is very tumid, and has a 
rather prominent rostrum, probably giving rise to Mr. Samouelle’s mistake of calling 
it a Curculio. Mr. Woodward proposed to name this new genus of “false scorpions ” 
Lophrynus, retaining the name Curculioides for C. Ansticit, another example which 
may truly belong to the Rhynchophora. There are now 44 insects known and de- 
scribed from the Coal-measures, namely 8 Arachnida, 5 Myriapoda, 3 Coleoptera, 
13 Orthoptera, 14 Neuroptera, and a doubtful Lepidopterous insect. 


Relies of the Carboniferous and other old Land-surfaces. 
By Henry Woopwarp, /.GS., F.Z.S. 


Whilst admitting that during particular eras circumstances may have favoured 
the development of special groups of organisms, which in consequence flourished 
in greater abundance than the rest, the author deprecated the idea of the preva- 
ce of peculiar conditions at any time since the advent of organic life on the 

lobe. 

i Although in the earlier Paleozoic rocks we have little or no evidences of land, 
yet the fact of stratified deposits being formed at the bottom of the sea is positive 
evidence of the waste of neighbouring land-surfaces, which must have been always 
in existence. And further, if conditions in the sea were favourable to the de- 
velopment of abundance of animal life, those on the land were in all probability 
equally so. 

Bie: Wosdward referred to the abundance of evidence of land-surfaces every- 
where, both in Quaternary and in Tertiary times, the former differing but little, 
saye in the geographical distribution of its fauna, from that of the present day, the 
latter differmg more and more from the existing fauna and flora, and also in its 
relation to existing lands. When, however, the das of the Tertiaries is reached, 
the land-surfaces are divided by greater marine accumulations; nevertheless we 
find, both in Europe and America, freshwater deposits with remains of land-plants 
and animals often in rich abundance. yen the truly marine deposits (such as the 
Chalk) testify to the presence of land by the fossil remains of Pterodactyles, Che- 
loniz, and other shore-dwelling reptiles. 

Mr. Woodward instanced the Wealden beds, the Purbeck limestone, and Oolitic 
plant-shales as affording abundant proofs of Mesozoic lands, whilst truly marine 
accumulations (such as the Solenhofen limestone) contain swarms of insects, flying 
lizards, and a true bird, with branches of Coniferze and other trees to tell of a land- 
fauna adjacent to its waters. 

The author noticed the earliest mammals found in the Triassic bone-beds of 
Stuttgart and Somerset, and the ripple-marked slabs covered with bird-like tracks 
and Labyrinthodont foot-marks, telling of the denizens of the old Triassic sea- 
shores and lakes. 

He next described the coal-period, with its stores of land-plants and Reptilia, 
both aquatic and terrestrial, its insects and mollusca. He controverted the argu- 
ments of Dr. T. Sterry Hunt as to the exceptional condition of the atmosphere of 
the Coal-period, and showed that the presence of animal life disproved the existence 
of an atmosphere charged with eaabanie acid gas, and that plants would not be 
benefitted thereby, as Dr. Hunt supposed. 

With respect to the wide distribution of coal, Mr. Woodward pointed out that 
it was not necessary to assume that all coal was formed throughout the world during 
one and the same epoch, but, on the contrary, he showed that coal might be alike as 
regards its fauna and flora, and yet of very widely different ages. 

1 


114 " REPORT—1871. 


He advocated the formation of coal from the slow but sure accumulation of peat- 
growth, as that mode of conservation of vegetable matter was proved to be the 
most certain to yield pure hydrocarbons such as we find the coal to consist of, wn- 
mived with foreign matter, Such pure accumulations could not (in the opinion of 
the author) be formed in river-valleys, deltas of great rivers, or in marine swamps 
and marshes, but on wide plains covered with a thick ub peep and tending, by 
its clayey soil, to check drainage and produce peat-growth. 

Mr. Woodward referred to the discoveries of Devonian land-plants and insects 
by Dr. Dawson in North America, and to the occurrence of seed-spores of land- 
plants in Silurian strata; he suggested that the veins of Graphite may be accepted 
as evidence of old coal-seams, altered by heat and pressure; and that the oil- 
springs in the Silurian rocks may be due to the destructive distillation of old coal- 
beds in Nature’s own retort. 


BIOLOGY. 


Address by Dr. AttzN Tuomson, F.R.SS. L. & E., Professor of Anatomy in the 
University of Glasgow, President of the Section. 


Iy now opening the Meetings of the Biological Section, it is my first duty to ex- 
press my deep sense of the honour which has been conferred upon me in appointing 
me to preside over its deliberations. I trust that my grateful acceptance of the 
office will not appear to be an assumption on my part of more than a partial con- 
nexion with the very wide field of science ated under the term Biology. I 
should gladly have embraced the opportunity now afforded me of conforming to a 
custom which has of late become almost the rule with the Presidents of Sections, 
viz. that of bringing under your review a notice of the more valuable discoveries 
with which our science has been enriched in recent times, were it not that the 
subjects which I might haye been disposed to select would require an amount of 
detail in each which would necessarily limit greatly their number, and that any 
attempt to overtake the whole range of this widespread department of science, 
even in the most general remarks, would be equally presumptuous and futile on the 
part of one whose attention has been restricted mainly to one of its divisions. I 
am further embarrassed in the choice of topics for general remark by the circum- 
stance that many of those upon which I might have ventured to address you haye 
been most ably treated of by my predecessors, as, for example, in the Sectional 
Addresses of Dr. Acland, Dr. Sharpey, Mr. Berkeley, Dr. Humphry, and Dr. Rol- 
leston, as well as in the General Presidential Addresses of Dr. Hooker and Pro- 
fessor Huxley. I must content myself, therefore, with endeavouring to convey to 
you some of the ideas which arise in my mind in looking back from the present 
ape the state of Biological Science at the time when, forty years since, the Meetings 
of the British Association commenced—a period which I am tempted to particu- 
larize from its happening to coincide very nearly with that at which I began my 
career as a public teacher in one of the departments of Biology in this city. In the few 
remarks which I shall make, it will be my object to show the prodigious advance 
which has taken place not only in the knowledge of our subject as a whole, but 
also in the ascertained relation of its parts to each other, and in the place which 
Biological knowledge has gained in the estimation of the educated part of the com- 
munity, and the consequent increase in the freedom with which the search after 
truth is now asserted in this as in other departments of science. 

And first, in connexion with the distribution of the various subjects which are 
included under this Section, I may remark that the general title under which the 
whole Section D has met since 1866, viz. Biology, seems to be advantageous both 
from its convenience, and as tending to promote the greater consolidation of our 
science, and a juster appreciation of the relation of its several parts, It may be 
that, looking merely to the derivation of the term, it is strictly more nearly synony- 


rr 


id 


7 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 415 


mous with physiology in the sense in which that word has been for a long time 
employed, and therefore designating the science of life, rather than the description 
of the living beings in which it is manifested. But until a better or more compre- 
hensive term be found, we may accept that of biology under the general definition 
of “the science of life and of living beings,” or as comprehending the history of the 
whole range of organic nature—vegetable as well as animal. The propriety of the 
adoption of such a general term is further shown by a glance at the changes which 
the titles and distribution of the subordinate departments of this Section have under- 
gone during the period of the existence of the Association. 

During the first four years of this period the Section met under the combined 
designation of Zoology and Botany, Physiology and Anatomy—words sufficiently 
clearly indicating the scope of its subjects of investigation. In the next ten years 
a connexion with Medicine was recognized by the establishment of a subsection 
or department of Medical Science, in which, however, scientific anatomy and phy- 
siolory formed the most prominent topics, though not to the exclusion of more 
strictly medical and surgical or professional subjects. During the next decade, or 
from the year 1845 to 1854, we find along with Zoology and Botany a subsection 
of Physiology, and in several years of the same time along with the latter a separate 
department of Ethnology. In the eleven years which extended from 1855 to 1865, 
the branch of Ethnology was associated with Geography in Section EK. More re- 
cently, or since the arrangement which was commenced in 1866, the Section 
Biology has included, with some slight variation, the whole of its subjects in three 
departments, Under one of these are brought all investigations in Anatomy and 
Physiology of a general kind, thus embracing the whole range of these sciences 
when without special application. A second of these departments has been occu- 
pied with the extensive subjects of Botany and Zoology ; while the third has been 
deyoted to the subject of Anthropology, in which ali researches having a special 
reference to the structure and functions or life-history of man have been received 
and discussed. Such I understand to be the arrangement under which we shall 
meet on this occasion. At the conclusion of my remarks, therefore, the depart- 
ment of Anatomy and Physiology will remain with me in this room; while that 
of Zoology and Botany, on the one hand, and of Anthropology on the other, will 
majenme to the apartments which have been provided for them respectively, 

ith regard to the position of Anthropology, as including Ethnology, and com- 
prehending the whole natural history of man, there may be still some differences 
of opinion, according to the point of view from which its phenomena are regarded : 
as by some they may be viewed chiefly in relation to the bodily structure and fune- 
tions of individuals or numbers of men; or as by others they may be considered 
more directly with reference to their national character and history, and the affini- 
ties of languages and customs; or by a third set of inquirers, as bearing more im- 
mediately upon the origin of man and his relation to animals, As the first and 
third of these sets of topics entirely belong to Biology, and as those parts of the 
second set which do not properly fall under that branch may with propriety find a 
place under Geography or Statistics, I feel inclined to adhere to the distinct recog- 
nition of a department of Anthropology, in its present form; and I think that the 
suitableness of this arrangement is apparent, from the nature and number of the 
appropriate reports and communications which haye been received under the last 
distribution of the subjects. 

The beneficial influence of the British Association in promoting biological re- 
search is shown by the fact that the number of the communications to the Sections, 


veceived annually has been nearly doubled in the course of the last twenty years. 


And this influence has doubtless been materially assisted by the contributions in 
money made by the Association in aid of various biological investigations; for it 
appears that, out of the whole sum of nearly £34,500 contributed hy the Associa- 


tion to the promotion of scientific research, about £2800 has been devoted to biolo- 


ical purposes, to which it would be fair to adda part at least of the grants for 
alzeontological researches, many of which must be acknowledged to stand in close 
relation to Biology, 
The enormous extent of knowledge and research in the various departments of 
Biology has become a serious impediment to its more complete ameed and leads to 


116 rePortT—-1871. 


the danger of confined views on the part of those whose attention, from necessity 
or taste, is too exclusively directed to the details of one department, or even, as 
often happens, to a subdivision of it. It would seem, indeed, as if our predecessors 
in the last generation possessed this superior advantage in the then existing nar- 
rower boundaries of knowledge, that it was possible for them to overtake the con- 
templation of a wider field, and to follow out researches in a greater number of the 
sciences. To such combination of varied knowledge, united with their transcen- 
dent powers of sound generalization and accurate observation, must be ascribed 
the widespread and enduring influence of the works of such men as Haller, 
Linneus, Gavik Von Baer, and Johannes Miiller. There are doubtless brilliant 
instances in our own time of men endowed with similar powers; but the diffi- 
culty of bringing these powers into effectual operation in a wide range is 
now so great, that, while the amount of research in special biological subjects 
is enormous, it must be reserved for comparatively few to be the authors of great 
systems, or of enduring broad and general views which embrace the whole range 
of biological science. It is incumbent, therefore, on all those who are desirous of 
promoting the advance of biological knowledge to combat the confined views which 
are apt to be engendered by the too great restriction of study to one department. 
However much subdivision of labour may now be necessary in the original investi- 
gation and elaboration of new facts in our science (and the necessity for such sub- 
division will necessarily increase as knowledge extends), there must be secured at 
first, by a wider study of the general principies and some of the details of collateral 
branches of knowledge, that power of justly comparing and correlating facts 
which will mature the judgment and exclude partial views. To refer only to one 
bright example, I might say that it can scarcely be doubted that it is the unequalled 
variety and extent of knowledge, combined with the faculty of bringing the most 
varied facts together in new combination, which has enabled Dr. Darwin (what- 
ever may be thought otherwise of his system) to give the greatest impulse which 
has been felt in our own times to the progress of biological views and thought ; 
and it is most satisfactory to observe the effect which this influence is already 
producing on the scientific mind of this country, in opposing the tendency per- 
ceptible in recent times to the too restricted study of special departments of natural 
history. I need scarcely remind you that for the proper investigation and judg- 
ment of problems in physiology, a full knowledge of anatomy in general, and much 
of comparative anatomy, of histology and embryology, of organic chemistry and of 
physics, is indispensable as a preliminary to all successful physiological observation 
and experiment. The anatomist, again, who would profess to describe rationally 
and correctly the structure of the human body, must have acquired a knowledge of 
the principles of morphology derived from the study of comparative anatomy and 
development, and he must have mastered the intricacies of histological research. 
The comparative anatomist must be an accomplished embryologist in the whole 
range of the animal kingdom, or in any single division of it which he professes to 
cultivate. The zoologist and the botanist must equally found their descriptions and 
systematic distinctions on morphological, histological, and embryological data. And 
thus the whole of these departments of biological science are so interwoven and 
united that the scientific investigation of no one can now be regarded as altogether 
separate from that of the others. It has been the work of the last forty years to 
bring that intimate connexion of the biological sciences more and more fully into 
prominent view, and to infuse its spirit into all scientific investigation. But while 
in all the departments of biology prodigious advances have been made, there are 
two more especially which merit particular mention as having almost taken their 
origin within the period I now refer to, as having made the most rapid progress in 
themselves, and as having influenced most powerfully and widely the progress of 
discovery, and the views of biologists in other departments—I mean Histology and 
Embryology. 

I need scarcely remind those present that it was only within a few years before the 
foundation of the British Association that the suggestions of Lister in regard to 
the construction of achromatic lenses brought the compound microscope into such 
a state of improvement as caused it to be restored, as I might say, to the place 
which the more imperfect instrument had lost in the previous century. The re- 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 117 


sult of this restoration became apparent in the foundation of a new era in the 
knowledge of the minute characters of textural structure, under the joint guidance 
of Robert Brown and Ehrenberg, with contributions from many other observers, 
so as at last to have almost entitled this branch of inquiry to its designation, 
by Mr. Huxley, of the exhaustive investigation of structural elements. All who 
hear me are aware of the influence which, from 1839 onwards, the researches. of 
Schwann and Schleiden exerted on the progress of Histology and the views of 
anatomists and physiologists as to the structure and development of the textures 
both of plants and animals, and the prodigious increase which followed in varied 
microscopic observations. It is not for me here even to allude to the steps of that 
rapid progress by which a new branch of anatomical science has been created ; nor 
can I venture to enter upon any of the interesting questions presented by this de- 
partment of microscopic anatomy; nor attempt to discuss any of those difficult 
problems possessing so much interest at the present moment, such as the nature of 
the organized cell or the properties of protoplasm. I would only remark that it is 
now very generally admitted that the cell-wall (as Schwann indeed himself pointed 
out) is not a constant constituent of the cell, nor a source of new production, 
though still capable of considerable structural change after the time of its first 
formation. The nucleus has also lost some of the importance attached to it by 
Schwann and his earlier followers, as an essential constituent of the cell, while 
the protoplasm of the cell remains in undisputed possession of the field as the more 
immediate seat of the phenomena of growth and organization, and of the contrac- 
tile property which forms so remarkable a feature of their substance. I cordially 
agree with much of what Mr. Huxley has written on this subject in 1853 and 
1869. The term physical basis of life may perhaps be in some respect objection- 
able ; but I look upon the recognition of protoplasm which he has enforced as a 
most important step in the recent progress of histology, adopting this general 
term to indicate that part of the organized substance of plants and animals which is 
the constant seat of the growing and moving powers, fad not implying identity of 
nature and Jal elns in all the variety of circumstances in which it may occur. To 
Haeckel the fuller history of protoplasm in its lowest forms is due. To Dr. Beale 
we owe the minutest and most recent investigation of these properties by the use of 
magnifying-powers beyond any that had previously been known, and the success- 
ful employment of reagents which appear to mark out its distinction * from the 
other elements of the textures. I may remark, however, in passing, that I am 
inclined to regard contractile protoplasm, whether vegetable or animal, as in no 
instance entirely amorphous or homogeneous, but rather as always presenting some 
minute molecular structure which distinguishes it from parts of glassy clearness. 
Admitting that the form it assumes is not necessarily that of a regular cell, and 
may be various and irregular in a few exceptional instances, I am not on that ac- 
count disposed to give up definite structure as one of the universal characteristics 
of organization in living bodies. I would also suggest that the terms formative 
and non-formative, or some other such, would be preferable to those of “ living and 
dead,” employed by Dr. Beale to distinguish the protoplasm from the cell-wall or 
its derivatives, as these latter terms are liable to introduce confusion. 

To the discoveries in embryology and development I might have been tempted 
to refer more at large, as being those which Ser had, of all modern research, 
the greatest effect in extending and modifying biological views, but I am 
warned from entering upon a subject in which I might trespass too much 
on your patience. The merits of Wolff as the great leader in the accurate ob- 
servation of the phenomena of development were clearly pointed out by Mr. 
Huxley in his presidential address of last year. Under the influence of Dollinger’s 
teaching, Pander, and afterwards Purkinje, Von Baer, and Rathke, established 
the foundations of the modern history of embryology. It was only in the year 
1827 that the ovum of mammals was discovered by Von Baer; the segmentation 
of the yelk, first observed by Prevost and Dumas in the frog’s ovum in 1824, was 
ascertained to be general in succeeding years; so that the whole of the interesting 
and important additions which have followed, and have made the history of em- 
bryological development a complete science, have been included within the eventful 


* Under the appropriate name of “ bioplasm.” 


118 REPORT—1871. 


eriod of the life of this Association. Ineed not say how distinguished the Germans 
hava been by their contributions to the history of animal development. The names 
of Valentin, R. Wagner, Bischoff, Reichert, Kélliker, and Remak are sufficient 
to indicate the most important of the earlier steps in recent progress, without at- 
tempting to enumerate a host of others who have assisted in the great work thus 
founded. 

I am aware that the mere name of development suggests to some ideas of a 
disturbing kind as being associated with the theory of evolution recently pro- 
mulgated. To one accustomed during the whole of his career to trace the steps by 
which every living being, including man himself, passes from the condition of an 
almost imperceptible germ, through a long series of changes of form and structure 
into their perfect state, the name of development is suggestive rather of that which 
seems to be the common history of all living beings; and it isnot wonderful therefore 
that such a one should regard with approval the more extended view which sup- 
poses a process of development to belong to the whole of nature. How far that 
principle may be carried, to what point the origin of man or any animal can by facts 
or reasoning be traced in the long unchronicled history of the world, and whether 
living beings may arise independently of parents or germs of previously existing 
organisms, or may spring from the direct combination uf the elements of dead mat- 
ter, are questions still to be solved, and upon which we may expect this Section to 
guide the hesitating opinion of the time. I cannot better express the state of 
opinion in which I find myself in regard to the last of these problems, than by 
quoting the words of Professor Huxley from his address of last year, p. Ixxxiii :— 

“ But though I cannot express this conviction of mine too strongly [viz. that 
the evidence of the most careful experiments is opposed to the occurrence of spon- 
taneous generation], I must carefully guard myself against the supposition that I 
intend to suggest that no such thing as abiogenesis ever has taken place in the 
past, or ever will take place in the future. With organic chemistry, molecular 
physics, and physiology yet in their infancy, and every day making prodigious 
strides, I think it would be the height of presumption for any man to Bay that the 
conditions under which matter assumes the properties we call ‘vital,’ may not, 
some day, be artificially brought together.” And again, “If it were given me to 
look beyond the abyss of geologically recorded time to the still more remote 
period when the earth was passing through physical and chemical conditions, 
which it can no more see again than a man can recall his infancy, I should expect 
to be a witness of the evolution of living protoplasm from not living matter.” I 
will quote further a few wise words from the discourse to which many of you 
must have listened last evening with admiration. Sir William Thomson said :— 
“The essence of science, as is well illustrated by astronomy and cosmical physics, 
consists in inferring antecedent conditions, and anticipating future evolutions, from 
phenomena which have actually come under observation. In biology, the diffi- 
culties of successfully acting up to this ideal are prodigious. Our code of biologi- 
cal law is an expression of our ignorance as well as of our knowledge.” And 
again, “ Search for spontaneous generation out of inorganic materials; let any one 
not satisfied with the purely negative testimony of which we have now so much 
against it, throw himself into the inquiry. Such investigations as those of Pas- 
teur, Pouchet, and Bastian are among the most interesting and momentous in the 
whole range of natural history, and their results, whether positive or negative, 
must richly reward the most careful and laborious experimenting.” 

The consideration of the finest discoverable structures of the organized parts 
of living bodies is intimately bound up with that of their chemical composition 
and properties. The progress which has been made in organic chemistry be- 
longs not only to the knowledge of the composition of the constituents of or- 
ganized bodies, but also. to the manner in which that composition is che- 
mically viewed. Its peculiar feature, especially as related to biological inves- 
tigation, consists in the results of the introduction of the synthetic method 
of research, which has enabled the chemist to imitate or to form artificially 
a greater and greater number of the organic compounds. In 1828 the first of 
these substances was formed by Wéohler, by a synthetic process, as cyanate of 
ammonia. But still, at that time, though a few no doubt entertained juster views, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 119 


the opinion generally prevailed among chemists and physiologists that there was 
some great and fundamental difference in the chemical phenomena and laws of 
organic and inorganic nature. Now, however, this supposed barrier has been in a 
great measure broken down and removed, and chemists, with almost one accord, 
regard the laws of combination of the elements as essentially the same in both 
classes of bodies, whatever differences may exist in actual composition, or in the 
reactions of organic bodies in the more complex and often obscure conditions of 
vitality, as compared with the simpler and, on the whole, better known pheno- 
mena of a chemical nature observed in the mineral kingdom. Thus, by the syn- 
thetic method, there have been formed among the simpler organic compounds a 
great number of alcohols, hydrocarbons, and fatty acids. But the most remarkable 
example of the synthetic formation of an organic compound is that of the alkaloid 
conia, as recently obtained by Hugo Schiff by certain reactions from butyric 
aldehyde, itself an artificial product. The substance so formed, and its com- 
pounds, possess all the properties of the natural conia—chemical, physical, and 
physiological—being equally poisonous with it. The colouring-matter of madder, 
or alizarine, is another organic compound which has been formed by artificial 
processes. It is true that the organized or containing solid, either of vegetable or 
animal bodies, has not as yet yielded to the ingenuity of chemical artifice; nor, 
indeed, 1s the actual composition of one of the most. important of these, albumen 
and its allies, fully known. But as chemists have only recently begun to discover 
the track by which they may be led to the synthesis of organic compounds, it is 
warrantable to hope that ere long cellulose and lignine may be formed; and, great 
as the difficulties with regard to the albumenoid compounds may at present 
appear, the synthetic formation of these is by no means to be despaired of, but, on 
the contrary, may with confidence be expected to crown their efforts. Fyrom all 
recent research, therefore, it appears to result that the general nature of the 
properties belonging to the products of animal and vegetable life can no longer be 
regarded as different from those of minerals, in so far at least as they are the 
subject of chemical and physical investigation. The union of elements and their 
separation, whether occurring in an animal, a vegetable, or a mineral body, must 
be looked upon as dependent on innate powers or properties belonging to the 
elements themselves; and the phenomena of change of composition of organic 
bodies occurring in the living state are not the less chemical because they are 
different from those observed in inorganic nature. All chemical actions are liable 
to vary according to the conditions in which they occur; and many*instances 
might be adduced of most remarkable variations of this kind, observed in the che- 
mistry of dead bodies from very slight changes of electrical, calorific, mechanical, 
and other conditions. But because the conditions of action or change are infi- 
nitely more complex and far less known in living bodies, it is not necessary to 
look upon the phenomena as essentially of a different kind, to have recourse to 
the hypothesis of vital affinities, and still less to shelter ourselves under the slim 
curtain of ignorance implied in the explanation of the most varied chemical 
changes by the influence of a vital principle. 

On the subjects of zoological and botanical classification and anthropology, it 
would be out of place for me now to make any observations at length. I will 
only remark, in regard to the first, that the period now under review has wit- 
nessed a very great modification in the aspect in which the aflinities of the bodies 
belonging to these two great kingdoms of nature are viewed by naturalists, and 
the principles on which groups of bodies in each are associated together in syste- 
matic classification ; for, in the first place, the older view has been abandoned that 
the complication of structure rises in a continually increasing and continuous gra- 
dation from one kingdom to the other, or extends in one line, as it were, from group 
to group in either of the kingdoms separately. Evolution into a- gradually in- 
creasing complexity of structure and function no doubt. exists in both, so that 
_ types or general plans of formation must be acknowledged to exist, presenting 
typical resemblances of the deepest interest; but in the progress of morphological 
research it has become more and more apparent that the different groups form 
radiations, which touch one another at certain points of greatest resemblance, rather 
than one continuous line, or a number of lines which partially pass each other. . The 


120 REPORT—187]. 


simpler bodies of the two kingdoms of nature exhibit a gradually increasing re- 
semblance to each other, until at last the differences between them wholly disap- 
pear, and we reach a point of contact at which the epee ee become almost in- 
distinguishable, as in the remarkable Protista of Haeckel and others. I fully agree, 
however, with the view stated by Professor Wyville Thomson in his recent intro- 
ductory lecture, that it is not necessary on this account to recognize, with Haeckel, 
a third or intermediate kingdom of nature. Each kingdom presents, as it were, a 
radiating expansion into groups for itself, so that the relations of the two king- 
doms might be represented by the divergence of lines spreading in two different 
directions from a common point. Recent observations on the chorda dorsalis, or 
supposed notochord, of some Ascidians, tend to revive the discussion, at one time 
prevalent, but long in abeyance, as to the possibility of tracing an homology be- 
tween the vertebrate and invertebrate animals; and, should this correspondence be 
confirmed and extended, it may be expected to modify greatly our present views 
of zoological affinities and classification. It will also be an additional proof of the 
importance of minute and embryological research in systematic determinations. 
The recognition of homological resemblance of animals, to which in this country 
the researches of Owen and Huxley have contributed so largely, form one of the 
most interesting subjects of contemplation in the study of comparative anatomy 
and zoology in our time; but I must refrain from touching on so seductive and 
difficult a subject. 

There is another topic to which I can refer with pleasure as connected with the 
cultivation of biological knowledge in this country, and that is the introduction 
of instruction in natural science into the system of education of our schools. As 
fo the feasibility of this in the primary schools, I believe most of those who 
are intimately acquainted with their management have expressed a decidedly 
favourable opinion—it being found that a portion of the time now allotted to the 
three great requisites of a primary education might with advantage be set Se 
for the purpose of instructing the pupils in subjects of common interest, calculated 
to awaken in their minds a desire for knowledge of the various objects presented 
by the field of nature around them. As to the benefit which may result from this 
measure to the persons so instructed, it is searcely necessary for me to say anything 
in this place. It isso obvious that any varied knowledge, however easily acquired 
or elementary, which tends to enlarge the range of observation and thought, must 
have some effect in removing its recipients from grosser influences, and may eyen 
supply information which may prove useful in social economy and in the occupa- 
tions of labour. Nor need I point out how much more extended the advantages 
of such instruction may prove if introduced into the system of our secondary 
schools, and more freely combined than heretofore with the too exclusively 
literary and philosophical study which has so long prevailed in the approved 
British education. Without disparagement to those modes of study as in them- 
selves necessary and useful, and excellent means of disciplining the mind to learn- 
ing, I cannot but hold it as certain that the mind which is entirely without scien- 
tific cultivation is but half prepared for the common purposes of modern life, and 
is entirely unqualified for forming a judgment on some of the most difficult and 
yet most common and important questions of the day, affecting the interests of the 
whole community. I refer with pleasure to the published Essay of Dr. Lankester 
on this subject, and to the arguments addressed two days ago by Dr. Bennett to 
the medical graduates of the University, in favour of the establishment of physi- 
ology as a subject of general education in this country with reference to sanitary 
conditions. It is gratifying, therefore, to perceive that the suggestions made some 
years ago in regard to this subject by the British Association, through its com- 
mittee, have already borne good fruit, and that the attention of those who preside 
over education in this country, as well as of the public themselves, is more earnestly 
directed to the object of securing for the lowest as well as the highest classes of 
the community that wholesome combination of knowledge derived from education, 
which will duly cultivate all the faculties of the mind, and thus fit a greater and 
greater number for applying themselves with increased ability and knowledge to 
the pa of their living and its improved condition. If the law of the survival 
of the fittest be applicable to the mental as well as to the physical improvement 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 121 


of our race (and who can doubt that in some measure it must be so?), we are bound 
by motives of interest and duty to secure for all classes of the people that kind of 
education which will lead to the development of the highest and most varied 
mental power. And no one who has been observant of the recent progress of the 
useful arts and its influence upon the moral, social, and political condition of 
our population, can doubt that such education must include instruction in the 
phenomena of external nature, including, more especially, the laws and condi- 
tions of life and health; and that it ought to be, at the same time, such as will 
adapt the mind to the ready acquisition and just comprehension of varied knowledge. 
It is obvious, too, that while this more immediately useful or beneficial effect on 
the common mind may be produced by the diffusion of natural knowledge among the 
people, biological science will share in the gain accruing to all branches of natural 
science, by the greater favour which will be accorded to its cultivators, and the 
increased freedom from“prejudice with which their statements are received and 
considered by learned as well as by unscientific persons. q 

I cannot conclude these observations without adverting to one aspect in which 
it may be thought that the appreciation‘of biological science has taken a retrograde 
rather than an advanced position. In this, I do not mean to refer to the special 
cultivators of biology in its scientific acceptation, but to the fact that there ap- 
pears to have taken place of late a considerable increase in the number of persons 
who believe, or who imagine that they believe, in the class of phenomena which 
are now called spiritual, but which have been known, since the exhibitions of 
Mesmer, and, indeed, long before his time, under the most varied forms, as liable 
to occur in persons of an imaginative turn of mind and peculiar nervous suscep- 
tibility. It is to be regretted that a number of persons devote a large share of 
their time to the practice (for it does not deserve the name of study or investiga— 
tion) of the alleged phenomena, and that a few men of acknowledged reputation 
in some departments of science have lent their names, and surrendered their 
judgment, to the countenance and attempted authentication of the delusive dreams 
of the practitioners of spiritualism, and similar chimerical hypotheses. The natu- 
ral tendency to a belief in the marvellous is sufficient to explain the ready accept- 
ance of such views by the ignorant ; and it is not improbable that a higher species of 
similar credulity may frequentlyjact with? persons of greater cultivation, should 
their scientific information and training have been of a partial kind. It must be 
admitted, further, that extremely curious and rare and, to those who are not ac- 
quainted with the nervous functions, apparently marvellous phenomena, present 
themselves in peculiar states of the nervous system—some of which states may be 
induced through the mind and may be made more and more liable to recur, and 
to be greatly exaggerated by frequent repetition. But making the fullest allowance 
for all these conditions, it is still surprising that persons, otherwise appearing 
not to be irrational, should entertain a confirmed belief in the pdeeit ey of 
phenomena, which, while they are at variance with the best established physical 
laws, have never been brought under proof by the evidences of the senses, and are 
opposed to the dictates of sound judgment. It is so far satisfactory, in the interests 
of true biological science, that no man of note can be named from the long list of 
thoroughly well-informed anatomists and physiologists, who has not treated the 
belief in the separate existence of powers of animal magnetism and spiritualism as 
wild speculations, devoid of all foundation in the carefully tested observation of 
facts. Ithas been the habit of the votaries of the systems to which I have referred 
to assert that scientific men have neglected or declined to investigate the pheno- 
mena with attention and candour ; but nothing can be further from the truth than 
this statement. Not to mention the admirable reports of the early French acade- 
micians, giving the account of the negative result of an examination of the earlier 
mesmeri¢c phenomena by men in every way qualified to pronounce judgment on their 
nature, I am aware that from time to time men of eminence, a fully competent, 
by their knowledge of biological phenomena, and their skill and accuracy in con- 
ducting scientific investigation, have made the most patient and careful examina- 
tion of the evidence placed before them by the professed believers and practitioners 
of so-called mesmeric, magnetic, phrenomagnetic, electrobiological, and other like 
phenomena; and the result has been uniformly the same in all cases when they 


122 REPORT—1871. 


were permitted to secure conditions by which the reality of the phenomena, or the 
justice of their interpretation, could be tested, viz. either that, on the one hand, 
the phenomena were not essentially different from those weil known to physiologists 
as modifications of the nervous and muscular functions under peculiar mental 
states; or that, on the other hand, the experiments signally failed to educe the 
results professed, or that the experimenters were detected in shameless and deter- 
mined impostures. I have myself been fully convinced of this by repeated ex- 
aminations ; and I can scarcely doubt that the same fate awaits the fair scientific 
examination of the so-called spiritualistic phenomena*. But were any guarantee 
required for the care, soundness, and efficiency of the judgment of men of science on 
such phenomena and views, I have only to mention, in the first place, the revered 
name of Faraday, and in the next that of my life-long friend Dr. Sharpey, whose 
ability and candour none will dispute, and who, I am happy to think, is here among 
us, ready, from his past experience of such exhibitions, to bear his testimony against 
all cases.of levitation, or the like, which may be the last wonder of the day among 
the mesmeric or spiritual pseudo-physiologists. The phenomena to which I have 
at present referred are in great part dependent upon natural principles of the 
human mird, placed, as it would appear, in dangerous alliance with certain ten- 
dencies of the nervous system. They ought not to be worked upon without the 
greatest caution, and they can only be fully understood by the accomplished physi- 
ologist who is also conversant with healthy and morbid psychology. The experi- 
ence of the last hundred years tends to show that, while there are always to be 
found persons peculiarly liable to exhibit the phenomena in question, there will 
also exist a certain number of minds prone to adopt a belief in the marvellous and 
striking in preference to that which is easily understood and patent to the senses ; 
but it may be confidently expected that the diffusion of a fuller and more accurate 
knowledge of physiology among the non-scientific classes of the community may 
lead to a juster appreciation of the phenomena in question, and a reduction of the 
number among them who are believers in scientific impossibilities, 


On some new Experiments relating to the Origin of Life. 
By Dr. Cuarxton Bastian, L228. 


On the Action of Heat on Germ-life. By F. Crace-Catverr, /LR.S. 


The question of building ovens for disinfecting purposes, gives the subject of 
this paper more than a merely scientific interest, as it thus becomes one of great 
practical importance. As it is found that certain forms of life can exist when 
exposed to a temperature equal to that at which the charring of organic matter 
commences, it is unsafe to assume that the particular forms of life which propa- 
gate certain forms of disease will be destroyed below this temperature. As from 
the nature of the case stoving can only be partially applicable, and as it is at pre- 
sent not proved effective where it is applicable, it is unadvisable to spend public 
money until a greater degree of certainty is arrived at. 

The experiments described were not, however, undertaken with an intention of 
influencing the settlement of this question, but were part of a series on the question 
of putrefaction and the development of life. 

t has hitherto been assumed by the advocates of the theory of spontaneous 
generation, that a temperature of 212° Fahr., or the boiling-point of the fluid 
operated on, was sufficient to destroy all protoplasmic life, and that any life sub- 
sequently observed in such fluids must have been developed from non-living 
matter. 


* Tn consequence of several remonstrances made to me since the address was delivered, 
representing that the phenomena of spiritualism had not yet been subjected to a full 
scientific investigation, I have been induced to alter the two preceding sentences from 
their original into their present form. But I am still of opinion that these phenomena 
belong essentially to the same class as those of Mesmerism and Electrobiology. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 123 


To determine this point experiments were made with solution of sugar, hay in- 
fusion, solution of gelatine, and water that had been in contact with putrid meat. 

To carry out these experiments, the author prepared a series of small tubes made 
of very thick well-annealed glass, each tube about 4 centimetres in length and having 
a bore of 5 millimetres. The fluid to be operated upon was introduced into them, 
and left exposed to the atmosphere for a sufficient length of time for germ-life to 
be largely developed. Each tube was then hermetically sealed and wrapped in 
wire gauze. They were then placed in an oil-bath and gradually heated to the 
required temperature, at which they were maintained for half an hour. 

The sugar solution was prepared by dissolving one part of sugar in ten parts of 
common water, and exposed to the atmosphere all night, so that life might im- 
pregnate it, then placed in tubes and allowed to stand five days. Some of the 
tubes were kept without being heated, others heated to 200, 300, 400, and 500° Fahr. 
respectively. After being kept twenty-four days, the contents of the tubes were 
microscopically examined. 

In the solution not heated, much life was seen; at 212° a great portion of the 
life had disappeared, at 300° the sugar was slightly charred but the life not en- 
tirely destroyed, while at 400° and 500° the sugar was almost entirely charred, and 
no trace of life observed. (It isasmall black vibrio which resists the high tempera- 
ture, and remains unaffected by all chemical solutions.) 

The hay infusion was made by macerating hay in common water for one hour, 
filtering the liquor and leaving it exposed to the atmosphere all night, when it 
was sealed in the small tubes. The results were examined twenty-four days after 
being heated. 

In this case, as in the sugar solution, life was observed in the solutions heated 
to 200° and 800° Fahr., while in those heated to 400° and 500° F, life was de- 
stroyed. In the solution not heated fungus matter was observed, while none ap- 
peared in any of the heated solutions. 

A solution of gelatine of such strength that it remained liquid in cooling, was 
exposed to the atmosphere for twenty-four hours, and introduced into the small 
ttibes which were sealed and heated. The fluids were examined twenty-four days 
after being heated. 

The animalcules in this case were principally of a different class to those observed 
in the two preceding cases, and this class were injured at 100° Fahr. At 212° a 
considerable diminution in the amount had taken place, whilst at 300° all life was 
destroyed. 

Water was placed in an open vessel, and a piece of meat suspended in it until it 
became putrid. This fluid was placed in the usual tubes heated, and the contents 
examined after twenty-four days. In this case life was still observed at 800° Fahr., 
while at 400° it had disappeared. 

As previous experimenters have not exposed their solutions to so high a tempera- 
ture as 300° Fahr., the life which they found was due to the development of germs 
remaining in the fluid. 

Parts of the putrid meat solutions that had been heated were mixed with albu- 
men, to ascertain whether they still possessed the power of propagating life, the 
result being that up to 300° Fahr. life and its germs had not been destroyed, whilst 
at 400° they had. 

Putrid meat liquor was exposed for twenty hours to a temperature ranging from 
the freezing-point to 17° below that point. Immediately after melting the ice the 
animalcules appeared languid, and their power of locomotion was greatly decreased, 
but in two hours they appeared as energetic as before. 


On Spontaneous Generation, or Protoplasmic Life. 
By F. Cracu-Catvert, FBS. 


The publication of Dr. Tyndall’s paper on the abundance of germ-life in the at- 
mosphere, and the difficulty of destroying this life, as well as other papers pub- 
lished by eminent men of science, suggested the inquiry if the germs existing or 
produced in a liquid in a state of fermentation or of putrefaction could he conveyed 


124. REPORT—1871. 


to a liquid susceptible of entering into these states; and during the inquiry some 
facts were observed which I wish now to lay before you. , 

The first is the rapid development of germ-life. If the white of a new-laid ege 
be mixed with water (free from life), and exposed to the atmosphere for only fifteen 
minutes, in the months of August or September, it will show life im abundance ; 
and to the want of a knowledge of this fact may be traced the erroneous conclu- 
sions arrived at by several gentlemen who have devoted their attention to the 
subject of spontaneous generation. 

An essential point in the carrying out of such an investigation, was the prepara- 
tion of pure distilled water. In distilled water prepared by the ordinary methods, 
1 always found life after it had been kept for a few days; but by employing an ap- 
paratus through which a gas could be passed to displace the air, and adding to the 
water to be distilled a solution of potash and. permanganate of potash, I obtained a 
water which, after three or four distillations, was found to be free from life. The 
gas employed in the first three series was hydrogen. The water was kept in the 
apparatus till wanted, to prevent any contact with air. 

Water so distilled having been kept free from life for seventeen days, was intro- 
duced into twelve small tubes, and left exposed to the atmosphere for fifteen hours 
when the tubes were closed. Every eight days the tubes were examined; on the 
first and second examination no life was observed, but the third discovered two 
or three black vibrios in each field. 

As this slow and limited development of life might be owing to the small amount 
of germs in the atmosphere, during the winter months a second series of experi- 
ments was made, placing the water in the tubes near putrid meat for two hours, at 
a temperature of 21° to 26° C. Six days after some of the tubes were examined and 
life observed, showing that by being placed near a source of protoplasmic life, the 
water had in two hours absorbed germs in sufficient quantity, for life to become 
visible in one fourth the time required in the first experiment; after six days a 
slight increase of life was noticed, but no further development could be afterwards 
seen. 

The limited amount of life developed in pure water suggested a third series of 
experiments, in which albumen was added to the water. In this case life appeared 
in five days, and a considerable increase in ten. Albumen, therefore, facilitated 
the development of life. 

The quantity of life produced in the above experiments being comparatively 
small, some fresh water was distilled, oxygen being substituted for the hydrogen in 
the apparatus ; and a fourth series was commenced, which resulted in showing that 
although oxygen appears to favour the development of germs, it does not favour 
their reproduction. : 

When the weather had become much warmer and a marked increase of life in 
the atmosphere had taken place, some of the albumen solution employed in the 
above experiments was left exposed in tubes to its influence, when a large quantity 
of life was rapidly developed and continued to increase, proving the increase to be 
due not merely to reproduction, but to the introduction of fresh germs. 

As no life appeared in that portion of the distilled water remaining in the ap- 
paratus before mentioned, which was examined from time to time, whilst it ap- 
peared in all the solutions made with it and impregnated by their exposure to the 
atmosphere, it is obvious that germs are necessary to the production of life. 


On the relative Powers of various Substances in preventing the Generation of 
Animalcules, or the Development of their Germs, with special reference to the 
Germ Theory of Putrefaction. By Dr. Joun Doveat. 


On the advantage of Systematié Cooperation among Provincial Natural- 
History Societies, so as to make their observations available to Naturalists 
generally. By Sir Warrrr Extior, A.C.S.1., F.L.S. 


Sir Walter stated that he had been led to consider the subject in the prepara- 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 125 


tion of an address delivered to the Botanical Society of Edinburgh last November, 
in the course of which he attempted to show what contributions had been made by 
provincial societies to botanical knowledge and literature. 

He found that the number of these societies had greatly increased of late years, 
and that they had done much useful and valuable work. This they publish in 
their own Proceedings or Transactions, the circulation of which is confined almost 
exclusively to their own members. The results of their labours are thus, in a 
great measure, lost both to their neighbours and to naturalists generally. After 
entering into some details of the subjects, illustrated by the Devonshire and Corn- 
wall Societies, by the Berwickshire, Tyneside, Cotteswold, Woolhope, and other 
Field Clubs in their published ‘ Transactions,’ many of the earlier volumes of which 
are so scarce as to be unprocurable by later members, he proceeded to show that 
this state of things had attracted the attention of others as well as of himself, and 
had given rise to a very general desire for greater unity of procedure. He concluded, 
therefore, that the time had come for taking action in the matter; and as the pre- 
sent occasion afforded an opportunity for discussing it with advantage, he invited 
the Section to take it up, with a view of eliciting practical suggestions (at the same 
time offering some himself) of such a nature as might be laid before the General 
Committee of the Association, and so enlisting the patronage of that body in its 
behalf. 


The Origin and Distribution of Microzymes (Bacteria) in water, and the cir= 
cumstances which determine their Existence in the Tissues and Liquids of the 
Living Body. By Dr. Burvon Sanperson, /.B.S., and Dr. Ferrier. 


The paper read was an abstract of the chief results of an experimental investi- 
gation into the intimate nature of contagion published in extenso in the ‘Thirteenth 
Report of the Medical Officer of the Privy Council.’ It was considered necessary 
to examine the conditions of origin and life of microzymes in special reference to 
the phyto-pathological doctrines of Professor Hallier. in ones to test the presence 
or absence of microzymes in contagious or healthy liquids and tissues, the method 
was adopted of cultivating these organisms in soils suitable for their growth, and 
under conditions favourable to their multiplication and development. By the 
enormous reproductive power of these organisms, and the changes which they 
induce in the organic liquids in which they are cultivated, the presence of micro- 
zymes can be most satisfactorily determined. The organic liquids employed as 
soils were chiefly Pasteur’s solution and albuminous liquids, such as serum, &e. 
Before using these liquids as tests, however, it had first to be shown that they do 
not, in themselves, contain the conditions of evolution. For this purpose the 
liquids were introduced into capillary tubes, and investigated under the most varied 
conditions of exposure, temperature, and pressure. 

The results of numerous experiments, lasting over several months, proved satis- 
factorily that when these liquids had been raised to a temperature of 150°-200° C., 
or even to 100° C., and carefully preserved from contact from air or surfaces which 
had not been superheated, no evolution of organic forms ever took place; while in 
the same liquids which had not been heated, but otherwise kept under exactly the 
same conditions, organisms were found in large numbers. The results were not 
modified by any variations in the tension of the air to which the liquids were ex- 
posed, Other experiments made with boiled and unboiled Pasteur’s solution, in- 
troduced into glasses which had been previously heated, showed that fungi (Zorula 
and Penicillium) appeared in unboiled solutions whether they were exposed or not, 
but much more abundantly when they were exposed than when they were pro- 
tected with cotton-wool, and that in boiled solutions the growth of Penicillium was 
more luxuriant than in unboiled solutions under similar circumstances, Bacteria 
did not appear in the boiled liquids under any circumstances. Bacteria and fungi, 
therefore, seemed to differ in regard to their conditions of origin and growth. The 
result of numerous experiments demonstrated that the solutions in which micro- 
zymes appeared were those which had come in contact with surfaces which had 


126 REPORT—1871. 


Boh been superheated, or had been contaminated by water which had not been 
oiled. 

Bacteria were shown not to exist in the air under ordinary circumstances, Water 
was shown to be the primary source from which the germinal particles of Bacterva 
are derived, whenever they seem to originate in the organic solutions experimented 
with. This conclusion was satisfactorily demonstrated by impregnating organic 
solutions (which otherwise could be kept indefinitely barren of all organisms) with 
a drop or two of ordinary water, whereupon, in the course of a week, the deyelop- 
ment of Bacteria manifested itself in the clearest manner to the naked eye. This 
zymotic property (7. e. the faculty of determining the development of organic forms 
in a test solution to which it is added) is not possessed by all kinds of water in a 
like degree, Distinct degrees of opalescence (due to Bacteria chiefly) are manifested 
in Pasteur’s solution when eprouyettes, charged with a given quantity of boiled 
Pasteur’s solution, are impregnated with equal quantities of water from different 
sources, 

Eyen ordinary distilled water was never found to be free from Bacteria germs. 
This was attributed to contamination with other water, or improperly cleaned 
receptacles. Filtration seems to have no appreciable influence on the zymotic pro- 
perty of water. From the most careful and repeated examination of water proved 
to be zymotic, it was found that such waters often contain no elements or particles 
which can be detected by the microscope. Experiments were made with optically 
pure water as in the sense used by Prof. Tyndall, or so nearly optically pure, that 
the electric beam in passing through it displays a blue colour; such water obtained 
by the fusion of ice was shown to be as zymotic as many other yarieties of water, 
which in the beam are seen to be full of light-scattering particles. 

Microzymes and their germs are deprived of vitality by thorough desiccation ; 
they are likewise lilled pe ermanganate of potash, ozone, carbolic acid in the 
proportion of ‘5 per cent. of the liquid, sulphate of quinia in the same proportion, 
peroxide of hydrogen, and chlorine. 

Torula and Penicillium, however, flourished in solutions which were fatal to Bac- 
teria, When an albuminous or saccharine fluid is superheated (7, e, above 100° C.), 
it does not support microzyme life. 

Experiments were made to determine whether the liquids and tissues of the 
living body parbicapate in the zymotic property possessed by microzymes, It was 
shown that blood, fresh tissues, urine, milk, white of egg, pus from deep-seated ab- 
scesses, were free from microzymes, and further, that these tissues and fluids could 
be kept indefinitely free from all traces of decomposition if proper precautions were 
taken to preserve them from external contamination, 

Tt was further shown that the slightest contact with ordinary water, or surfaces 
cleanéd in the ordinary manner, was sufficient to set up septic changes in these 
tissues and liquids, It was therefore concluded that if microzymes are. not the 
only cause of putrefaction, yet their presence is sufficient to set it up in liqnids 
which otherwise manifested no tendency to septic changes. In regard to contagious 
liquids, few experiments had yet been made, Only in reference to pyeemic pus an 
experiment had been made; it was found full of Bacteria. From numerous facts 
and observations made during the progress of the inquiry, it was concluded that 
there is no developmental connexion between Bacteria and Torula, and that their 
puparent association is merely one of juxtaposition. 

his conclusion is a direct contradiction to the botanical doctrines on which 
Hallier’s theory of contagion is founded. 


On the Establishment of Local Museums. By T, B. Grierson. 


The establishment of local museums was pointed out as a means of giving a taste 
for learning and science to the people, for which, in the smaller towns and rural 
districts, there was no provision, Collections could readily be made; and in every 
district objects of interest would be met with, which a local museum would be 
the means of saving and bringing to light. Persons commissioned by scientific 
societies or one of the central institutions should make periodic visitations, and aid 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 127 


by advice and otherwise. If an arrangement of this kind were extended all over 
the country, a knowledge of science would exist among the people, of which they 
are at present altogether destitute. The author entered upon some details of the 
system he proposed. 


Borany, 


On the Cultivation of Ipecacuanha in the Edinburgh Botanic Garden for trans- 
mission to India. By Professor Barrour, RSS. L. & EH. 


Ipecacuanha is a valuable remedy for dysentery, and has been administered in 
large doses with decided benefit by medical men in India. The cultivation of the 
plant, however, owing to the rashness or carelessness of collectors and other 
causes, has failed to a certain extent in South America; and unless means can be 
taken for more extended cultivation, it seems probable that the quantity of Ipeca- 
cuanha might be insufficient for medicinal purposes, and its price might rise in 
the market to such an extent as to interfere with its general use. In these 
‘circumstances the Secretary of State for India (His Grace the Duke of Argyll) 
applied to the Directors of the Botanic Gardens in Britain with the view of 
ascertaining whether a sufficient stock of plants could be procured for exportation 
to India with the view of cultivation there for medicinal purposes. In the Kdin- 
burgh Botanic Garden there were some specimens of the plant which had been 
cultivated for forty years or more, and it was found by Mr. M*Nab that these 
could be easily multiplied by making sections of the root or rhizome. <A descrip- 
tion of the method pursued was read to the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, and 
separate copies were printed for the use of the India Office. The plant in the 
Garden was the same as that described by Sir William Hooker, and figured in the 
‘ Botanical Magazine.’ The supply from this source was obviously not sufficient 
for the purposes which the India Office had-in view, and the time required for 
propagation would be too long. Accordingly, Professor Balfour and Dr, Christison 
wrote to a previous Graduate of the University of Edinburgh, Dr. Gunning, re- 
siding at Palmeiras, near Rio Janeiro, and induced him to take an interest in the 
matter. He entered cordially into their proposals, and very soon sent to the 
Botanic Garden boxes containing fresh plants. Although several of them suffered 
in the transit, owing to the mode of packing and the want of attention during the 
yoyage, still a considerable number reached the Garden in a state fit for propaga- 
tion after the method pursued by Mr. McNab. By this process a large stock of 
between 200 and 300 plants was secured. Of these, a considerable number haye 
been transmitted to India successfully in a Wardian case. A figure of this case was 
given in Mr. M*Nab’s published report. By the method employed, the small pots 
containing the plants were carefully secured, so that the case might even be turned 
upside down without injury*. The plant sent by Dr. Gunning differs in some 
particulars from that formerly in cultivation in the Botanic Garden, more espe- 
cially as regards the form of its leaves, The old plant has leaves of a firmer 
texture, more or less elliptical, and somewhat wavy at the margin, and the stem 
suffruticose. The plant also flowers readily after a year’s growth. The rerent 
pot sent by Dr. Gunning resembles more the form figured by Martius. Its 

eaves are more delicate and pointed, its stem not so shrubby, and it has not yet 
produced flowers. There may be two varieties of the plant. The full determina- 
tion of this must be reserved till the Rio Janeiro plants come into flower. 

The drawings which were exhibited show the character of both varieties, so 
far as they can be at present represented from the specimens in the Botanic 
Garden. The drawings show the form of the leaves and stems, the character of 
the stipules and glands, the stomata and hairs of the leayes, and the microscopical 
structure of the stems and rhizomes. 

_ The subject has been brought under the notice of the Meeting with the view of 
calling attention to the cultivation of a plant which, like Cinchona, is highly 
* The case exhibited to the Meeting showed the arrangement. 


128 REPORT—1871. 


valuable as a medicinal agent, and which, without due care and attention on the 
part of collectors, might ultimately become scarce .or be eradicated in its native 
country. 


On the Flora of Greenland. By Rosrert Brown, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.GS. 


An account of researches on the Phyto-geographical aspect of the Greenland 
flora compared with that of other portions of the arctic regions, the causes which 
conduced to it, and most general facts relating to the arctic flora, chiefly in rela- 
tion to Dr. Hooker’s classical memoir on the subject in the Linnean Transactions 
(vol. xxy.). 


On the Geographical Distribution of the Floras of North-west America. 
By Roxsert Brown, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.GS. 


After studying the subject for nearly four years, during travels through all parts 
of the country to the west of the Rocky Mountains, Dr. Brown considered that 
instead of one homogenous flora in North-west America there are in reality five, viz. 
(1) The great flora of the region to the west of the Cascades and Sierra Nevada 
Mountains. (2) The flora between this range and the Rocky Mountains. (3) The 
Montane flora on the summits of the mountains about 4000 feet, chiefly arctic. 
(4) The flora of the Colorado descent. (5) The Athabascan flora, or the flora to 
the country. 


On Specimens of Fossil-wood from the Base of the Lower Carboniferous Rocks 
at Langton, Berwickshire. By the Rev. Toomas Brown. 


Suggestions on Fruit Classification. By Professor A. Dickson. 


On the minute Anatomy of the Stem of the Screw-Pine, Pandanus utilis. By 
W. T. Tutserron Dyer, B.A., B.Sc., Professor of Botany in the Royal 
College of Science for Ireland. 


Except that the tissues are less indurated, the general structure of the stem and 
the arrangement of the fibro-vascular bundles resemble that met with in palms. 
The bundles, however, are somewhat remarkable from containing vessels which be- 
long to the scalariform type. In a transverse section these bundles are seen to be- 
come smaller towards the circumference and more condensed, forming a well-de- 
fined boundary to the narrow cortical portion of the stem. The bundles are, how- 
ever, continued through the cortical portion, but are reduced to little more than a 
thread of prosenchyma. In the cortex there are numerous large cells containing 
raphides: these also occur in the rest of the stem, but are less frequent. Crystals 
of another kind are found in connexion with the fibro-vascular bundles. These are 
contained each in a square-shaped cell, forming part of a string or chain. A number 
of these strings or chains are distributed round the circumference of each fibro- 
vascular bundle; they are especially abundant in its cortical continuation, as they 
do not suffer a degradation proportionate to that of the other constituent tissues. 
This peculiar arrangement ot crystal-bearing cells seems probably unique. The 
crystals are four-sided prisms with pyramidal apices. They are almost certainly 
composed of calcium oxalate, though they are too minute and isolated with too much 
difficulty to allow of their satisfactory examination. 


On the so-called * Mimicry’ in Plants. By W.T. Tutsetron Dyer, B.A., 
B.Sc., Professor of Botany in the Royal College of Science for Ireland. 
Tn all large natural families of plants there is a more or less distinctly observable 
general habit or facies, easily recognizable by the practised botanist. but not always 
as easily to be expressed in words. ‘The existence of such a general habit in legu- 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 129 


minous and composite plants is familiar to every one. What have been hitherto 
spoken of as mimetic plants are simply cases where a plant belonging to one family 
puts on the habit characteristic ofanother. This is entirely different from mimicry 
among animals, inasmuch as the resembling plants are hardly ever found with those 
they resemble, but more usually in widely different regions. Mutisia speciosa from 
Western South America, a Composite, has a scandent leguminous habit closely 
agreeing with that of Lathyrus maritimus of the European shores. In the same way 
three different genera of ferns have species (found in distant parts of the world) in- 
distinguishable in a barren state. The term Mimicry seems objectionable in these 
cases, and the author proposes Pseudomorphism as a substitute. As to the cause of 
the phenomenon, he can only suggest that the influence of similar external cireum- 
stances moulds plants into the similar form most advantageous to them, An illus- 
tration is afforded by the closely resembling bud scales which are found in widely se- 
parated natural orders of deciduous trees as modifications of stipules. The author 
does not, however, think that the moulding influence need always be the same. 
He believes that different external conditions may produce the same result; in 
this respect they may be called analogous. Several identical plants are found on 
_ the sea-shore and also on mountains; perhaps the reason is that they are equally 
able to tolerate the effect of soda salts and also of mountain climate. The tolerance 
of either unfavourable condition gives them the advantage over less elastically 
constituted plants, and both are therefore analogous in their effects. 


On Spiranthes Romanzoyiana, Cham. By A. G. Morn, /.L.S., MRIA. 


In exhibiting some living specimens of this rare Irish orchid, Mr. More called 
attention to their delicious perfume. He had gathered the plant near Castletown, 
Berehayen, where it was in full flower about the 15th of July. It grows in grassy 
meadows, and also in rather bogey ground bordering on the sea, and is found in so 
many different fields that there is no present fear of its becoming extinct, 


On Eriophorum alpinum, Linn., as « British Plant. 
By A. G. Mors, /.L.S., MRSA. 


Eriophorum alpinum had, a few years ago, been announced as an Irish plant on 
faith of some specimens forwarded to Dr. Moore by Mr. J. Sullivan of Cork, who 
reported that they had been gathered on the banks of a mountain-lake near Mill- 
street, county Cork. Subsequent investigation had, however, caused considerable 
doubts as to the correctness of this information; for both Mr. More himself and 
Dr. Moore had on two different occasions made a most careful search on the borders 
of Gurthaveha Lake without finding a trace of Eriophorum alpinum; and they now 
believe that Scirpus cespitosus, whose spikes are often slightly woolly with the 
growth of the bristles, was gathered by the side of the lake, and probably some 
mistake was afterwards made in transmitting the specimens, which belong to the 
right plant. 

With regard to the supposed Scottish locality in Sutherland, Dr. Balfour autho- 
rized him to say that he had always felt some slight doubt about the single specimen 
found in his herbarium; and this doubt was much increased on seeing the striking 
similarity of this specimen to others also belonging to the University Herbarium, 
and which were certainly collected in Forfarshire, rendering it highly probable that 
a piece of E£. alpinum had by some accident been mixed with Dr. Balfour's speci- 
mens of Scirpus cespitosus, or that a label had been inadvertently exchanged. 
Hence he believed that Eriophorum alpinum uuust, for the present, be erased alto- 
gether from the British flora, 


On the Development of Fungi within the Thorax of Living Birds*. 
By Dr. Jauus Muniz, /.L.S., F.GS. 


The author referred to the circumstance of lowly organized vegetable structures 
* This paper will be published in full, with a Plate, in the Trans. Roy. Micros. Soc., 


1871. 9 


130 REPORT—1871. 


being not unfrequently found growing in animals and man, both externally and 
internally. For the most part these affected the skin, giving rise to several cuta- 
neous diseases. They also Hourished in the alimentary canal; and among others, 
one peculiar form (Sareina) had been described by the late Professor Goodsir from 
the human stomach. In nearly though not in all instances where vegetable orga- 
nisms flourished within the living body, it was in organs where a certain amount 
of air had free access. It was more difficult to account for the cases where 
vegetable parasites arose in, so to speak, closed cavities. The instances which the 
author brought forward as coming under his observation were three in number, 
viz. a fungus-like fst in the abdomino-pleural membrane of a Kittiwalke gull, 
Rissa tridactyla (Linn.), a great white-crested cockatoo, Cacatua cristata (Linn.), 
and a rough-legged buzzard, Archibuteo lagopus (Gm.). After a general descrip- 
tion of the specimens in question, he referred to them as in some way bearing 
upon those doctrines whereby living organisms were supposed to originate out of 
the tissues themselves. Other weighty reasons undoubtedly might be given to the 
contrary; but as every fact, either furnishing doubtful evidence of, or opposed to 
the spontaneous generation theory, might be useful at the present juncture, the 
author thought a record of such worthy of being brought before the Association. 


On the Changes which occur in Plants during the ripening of the Seeds, in order 
to ensure the access of the Air and Light as well as Heat, which are generally 
requisite for this purpose, without the loss of the Seeds before the ripening 
is completed. By J. Brrxsucx Nevins, M.D. Lond., PBS. Ed. 


In the poppy the capsule becomes erect because the valves are at the summit of 
the seed-vessel, whilst in Campanulacee the seed-vessels droop, because the valves 
are at the base of the capsule, except in the case of the C. persicifolia, which has 
an erect capsule, the valves being at the summit. 

In the Primulacez the drooping flower becomes an erect capsule in ripening, 
except in the Cyclamen, which ripens its seed in the ground, and therefore droops 
until the capsule is buried in the earth, after which its capsule opens at its apex 
downwards. The Anagailis, which has always a closed seed-vessel, ripens with the 
capsule in various directions. 

the Stellarias, which are summer flowers, the flower is erect, as well as the 
capsules, the period of inflorescence being favourable to ripening. And in Compo- 
sites, which flower in summer, the same is observed ; whilstin the Coltsfoot and the 
African marigold, which ripen their seeds under difficulties, various changes of 
osition occur, to shelter the immature seeds from injury from the weather. The 
anunculacez, Malvacez, Scrophulariacez, and several others were passed under 
review, and their various changes pointed out, which had the object in view of 
promoting the ripening of the seeds without premature loss from the seed-vessels, 


On the Nature of the Cruciferous fruit, with reference to the Replum. 
By J. Brrxeucx Nevins, M.D. Lond., P.BS. Ed. 


The replum is a direct prolongation of the stem, which produces the seeds 
without the intervention of carpellary leaves; as is also the case in the Conifer. 
After having produced the seeds, the stem bears two leafy organs, which are directed 
downwards, and adhere by their apices to the stem, below the point from which the 
seeds spring, and thus close in the seed-vessel, which therefore consists of a stem 
bearing the seeds (the replum) and two external leafy organs (the valves). When 
ripening commences, the apices of these deflected leaves separate from the stem, 
until at last they are entirely detached, and fall off at their articulation with the 
stem, leaving the seeds still adherent along the edges of the stem in four rows. 
The a is therefore not a dissepiment derived in any way from the carpellary 
leaves, but simply a seed-bearing stem, flattened and thinned in the central part 
(the pith) until it is transparent. In accordance with this view, the venation of the 
valves is that of a leaf turned downwards, being directed towards the base of the 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 131 


silicle, that is, according to this explanation, to the apex of the enveloping leaves. 
The term “false” dissepiment is therefore no longer necessary, the fruit being a 
normal growth, though of an unusual construction. 


On the Species of Grimmia (including Schistidium) as represented in the 
neighbourhood of Edinburgh. By J. SapuEr. 


Olservations on the intimate Structure of Spiral ducts in Plants and their 
relationship to the Flower. By Nui Srewart. 


An Inquiry into the Functions of Colour in Plants during different Stages of 
their Development. By Nex Srewarr. 


On the Classification of the Vascular Cryptogamia, as affected by recent Dis- 
coveries amongst the Fossil Plants of the Coal-measures. By W.C. WittiaM- 
son, /.B.S., Professor of Natural History in Owens College, Manchester. 


The author described the structure of the stem of Calamite explaining, his inter- 
pretation of its structure, viz. that it consisted of a central fistular medulla, sur- 
rounded by a ring of woody wedges, each one of which grew by additions to the 
exterior of its surface until it often became a woody cylinder of considerable thick- 
ness. The Lepidodendra and Sigillarie were next reviewed, beginning with Lepi- 
dodendra, in which the central axis was a mixture of cells and vessels surrounded. 
by a very thin, and often scarcely appreciable ligneous ring, and which gave off 
yascular bundles to the leaves. Other forms were then noticed in which the central 
medulla became differentiated into a central cellular portion, and an outer vascular 
one, the latter existing as a modified medullary sheath. One of the types described 
by Mr. Binney as Sigillarta vascularis, exhibits these features; and the development 
was traced still further through Diploxylon and Sigillaria, where the woody zone 
became yet more fully developed, the medullary rays more distinct, and the dif- 
ferentiation of the two elements of the pith, viz. the vascular and the cellular, yet 
more complete. The origin of the vascular bundles going to the leaves in some 
forms of Diploxylon was shown to be, not in the medullary vessels, as described by 
Corda, but in a cellular layer separating the ring of the medullary vascular cylinder 
from the more external vascular cylinder of the true woody zone. The relation of 
these various structures to those seen in Stigmaria was pointed out. In the latter, 
as was to be expected in a root, the vessels of the medullary axis disappeared, the 
pith being in direct contact with the inner surface of the woody zone. The 
vascular bundles given off to the rootlets were shown to originate in the ligneous 
cylinder, and to pass outwards through large lenticular spores, occupied by mural 
cellular tissue, separating the woody wedges, whilst in addition to these spores, 
there exist a complete system of minor medullary rays, the entire structure ex- 
hibiting, in the author's opinion, an exogenous arrangement. 

The conclusion to be drawn from the study of the structure of these fossil eryp- 
togamic stems is, that, so far as their medullary axis and ligneous zone is concerned, 
they are not in any sense Acrogens, but Exogens; that they have a pith consisting 
of the less developed Lepidodendroid forms of a mixture of cells and vessels; that 
as we ascend in the series of forms the cells become separated from the vessels, the 
former occupying the interior, and the latter the exterior of the medullary axis; 
' that the woody zone surrounding the medullary axis consists of a cylinder com- 
posed of radiating lines of vessels, which increase by successive additions to the 

external surface of the zone, the laminz of which vessels are separated by mural 

arrangements of cellular tissue constituting two kinds of medullary rays; con- 

sequently when such a process of growth has gone on until the result was a tree 

“With a stem two, three or more feet in diameter, the application of the term 
9* 


132 rnerport—1871. 


acrogen becomes absurd. Such being the case, Prof. Williamson proposed to 
separate the vascular Cryptogams into two groups. The higher one, comprehend- 
ing the Equisetaces, Lycopodiacee, and Isoetacez, to be termed the Cryptogamiz 
Exogene, and which would form a connecting link between the Cryptogams and 
the true Exogenous plants through the Cycadew, and the other Gymnospermous 
Exogens, The lower one to be called the Cryptogamix Hndogene, to comprehend 
the Ferns, which will unite the Cryptogams with the Endogens through the 
Palmace ze. 


ZooLoey. 


Notice of two Specimens of Echinorhinus spinosus taken in the Firth of Forth. 
By Professor J. Duns. 


On the Rarer Raptorial Birds of Scotland. By Professor J. Duns. 


On the Carabus nitens of the Scottish Moors. By Dr. Grirrson. 


The Zoological Results of the Dredging Expedition of the Yacht ‘Norna’ off 
the Coast of Spain and Portugal in 1870. By W. Saviire Keyz. 


The expedition was organized and superintended by Mr. Marshall Hall, the 
owner of the yacht, Mr. Kent accompanying him to supervise the collection and 
preservation of natural-history specimens, as also to report on all the novelties 
or objects of interest that might be obtained. The sponges collected during the 
expedition appear to have furnished the greater number of forms new to science, 
embracing more particularly many new representations of the group to which the 
beautiful Euplectella, or “ Venus’s flower-basket,” and the “ Glass-rope sponge,” 
Hyalonema, belong, the latter, indeed, being amongst the spoils. All these forms 
were dredged in the deep-sea fishing ground, 400 to 800 fathoms, off Cezimbra, 
at the mouth of the Sado river; and from the same locality, with the assistance 
of the native fishermen, they had the good fortune to secure examples of several 
rare species of deep-sea ground sharks which frequent that coast line, including 
among others Pseudotriakis microdon, a species recently described by Professor 
Barboza du Bocage, of the Lisbon Museum. Jwsws contrarius and a species of 
Cassis allied to C. saburon are among the rarer shells referred to by Mr. Kent, 
the former being interesting on account of its identity with a common fossil of 
the Norwich Crag, and the latter from its affinities with Japanese and Chinese 
species rather jthan with any known Atlantic or Mediterranean form. The oceur- 
rence in the same waters of a variety of Hyalonema, scarcely to be distinguished 
from the well-known Japanese H. Steboldi, is also commented upon by Mr. Kent, 
as illustrating another instance of this singular distribution of allied species. 
Reviewing the whole amount of material collected during the cruise, Mr. Kent 
separates it into two portions, presenting respectively two entirely distinct facies, 
The first of these, including that collected from the shore line down to a depth 
of 100 fathoms, presents an interblending of Mediterranean species with those in- 
habiting our own more temperate coasts; while the remaining one, embracing all 
those acquired at a depth of from 400 to 800 fathoms, are remarkable for their 
boreal or cold-water area aspect and affinities, and in this respect, according to Mr. 
Kent, entirely supporting the deductions arrived at by Dr. Carpenter, from his ex- 
tensive study of the fauna of these great depths in connexion with the expeditions 
of the ‘ Lightning’ and ‘ Porcupine.’ Among the more interesting Mediterranean 
forms taken, especial mention is made of Dendrophyllia ramea, a massive branching 
coral, not before recorded as occurring so far north, as also of various species of 
Murex, Calappa granulata, Cestum veneris, and other zoophytes usually supposed to 


on Be | kee 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 133 


be restricted to the more southern are. Mr. Kent expresses his hope that the entire 
success attending this cruise may influence other yacht-owners to follow the ex- 
ample of Mr. Marshall Hall, and, like him, to devote their craft for the portion of a 
season to scientific discovery, promising them they will find themselves more than 
compensated for the sacrifice of time or other interests it may involve by the fasci- 
nating nature of the work when entered upon, in addition to their thereby earning 
for themselves the lasting gratitude of the scientific world. The Royal Society 
granted £50 towards aiding in the necessary outlay in dredging and preserving 
apparatus. The paper constitutes a brief sketch of a report to be presented to the 
Royal Society by Mr. Kent. 


A Proposal for a Modification of the strict Law of Priority in Zoological 
Nomenclature in certain cases. By W, A. Lewis. 


On some recent Additions to the Arctic Fauna (a new Antipathes and a new 
Apodal Lophioid). By Dr. Curistian Lirxey, 


On the occurrence of Brown Trout in Salt Water, 
By A. G. Mort, F.LS., WRLA. 


In the sixth volume of his Catalogue of Fishes (Addenda, page 357), Dr. Giin- 
ther has noticed the fact that Salmo fario frequently descends to the sea, and there 
“assumes a bright silvery coloration, with numerous x-shaped spots.” The cir- 
cumstance did not, however, seem to haye met with so much attention as it de- 
serves, and was very little known to anglers and fishermen. In Scotland, Mr. 
Peach, who had an extensive experience and knowledge of marine zoology, had 
assured him that no instance of the kind had come under his notice, save once, 
when he found a river-trout in the stomach of a cod-fish. But in the west of 
Treland (in the counties of Donegal, Sligo, Limerick, and Kerry) Mr. More had 
ascertained, partly through others and partly from his own observation, that the 
river-trout in many places spontaneously frequents the salt water at the mouth of 
the rivers. The brown trout captured in salt water differ from their usual condi- 
tion in having brighter and more silvery scales, something like those of the young 
salmon in the smolt condition; but he had not noticed any increase in the number 
of dark x-shaped spots. Mr. More would like it to be ascertained if these trout 
were brown trout “pure and simple,” or hybrids. Specimens were exhibited. 


On some Dredgings in Kenmare Bay. By A. G. Morz, F.LS., MRA. 


Mr. More exhibited a number of marine animals, which he had lately collected 
in Bantry and in Kenmare Bays, in the south-west of Ireland. Among them were 
Amphioxus lanceolatus, the lowest in organization of living fishes, a number of 
Annelida and Ascidians, &e. 


On the so-called Tailless Trout of Islay. By C. W. Puacu, A.L.S. 


Mr. Peach stated that the trout he showed were sent to him by Mr. Colin Hay, 
distiller, of Ardbeg Islay, taken in Loch Namaorachin, about 1000 feet above the 
level of the sea; it is supposed to be the highest inthe island. It is about an acre 
in extent, and so shallow that a man can wade through it; the bottom is quartz 
rock, like that of the mountains around it. Several other lochs are near it in 
which trout are plentiful, but none “ tailless.” So constant is this that Mr. M*Kay, 
a very keen fisher, has never for the thirty years of his fishing-experience in this 
loch taken any but “docked” ones. Mr. Peach further said that Mr. Hay was 
about to stock a loch at some distance from Loch Namaorachin with some of the 
* tailless ” trout, in which, up to the present time, no trout have been taken, and 
thus to try whether this “docked” appearance will continue, and use other 


134: REPORT—1871. 


means to work out as far as possible the history of this strange freak. He added 
that they could not he ole altogether “ tailless ;” docked they may be, from not 
having a vestige of the external caudal fin-rays. The fish were in splendid con- 
dition, and the whole of the other fins perfect; and in every other respect nothing 
was wanting, as could be seen by the specimens shown, and by the beautiful ske- 
leton of one prepared by Mr. Stirling, assistant to Professor Turner*, 


On the Hydrographical System of the Freshwater F ish of Algeria, 
By Colonel Prayrarr. 


Remarks on a favourable occasion for the establishment of Zoological Obser- 
vatories. “By P. L. Scuarer, MA., Ph.D., FBS. 


After alluding to the report of the Committee of the British Association for the 
establishment of zoological observatories, which had been read by the author at a 
previous meeting of the Section, attention was called to the fact that a very fayour- 
able opportunity for the establishment of three zoological observatories in yery 
little-known parts of the globe would shortly present itself, and it was greatly to be 
hoped that advantage would be taken of it. 

bn the occasion of the transit of Venus in 1874, the Astronomer Royal proposes 
to organize observing-expeditions to the following five stations :—(1) Gales, Sand- 
wich Islands, (2) Kerguelen’s Island, (3) Rodriguez, (4) Auckland, New Zealand, 
(5) Alexandria. At the first three of these stations (Oahu, Kerguelen’s Island, 
and Rodriguez) it would be necessary to have a corps of scientific observers resi- 
dent for twelve months previous to the transit, in order that the absolute longi- 
tudes of these places, which were not correctly known, might be obtained. The 
author pointed out how little was yet known of the terrestrial and marine zoology 
of these three islands, and specified various particulars, in the case of each of their 
faunas, which it would be especially desirable to investigate. He then urged that 
the addition of one or more zoological collectors, or observing-naturalists, to the 
corps of astronomical observers in each of these stations would occasion very slight 
additional expense, and suggested that application should be made to the Goyern- 
ment to permit such naturalists to accompany these expeditions, and to undertake 
the necessary expenditure. 


Dr. J. A. Saar exhibited the Skull of an Elk found in Berwickshire, 


On the Structure of Crinoids. 
By Professor Wrviitz Tuomson, /.RSS. L. & E. 


On the Paleontological Relations of the Fauna of the North Atlantic, 
By Professor Wyvii1tz Tuomwson, F.RSS. L. & £. 


On a curious South-African Grasshopper, Trachypetra bufot (White), which 
mimics with much precision the appearance of the stones among which it 
lives. By Rowand Trimen, F.L.S., F.Z.S. 


He commenced by remarking that some tendency existed to separate too 
widely those cases of mimicry where one animal imitated another, from those 


* Since the paper was read Mr. Peach had learnt that this want of caudal fin-rays has 
not been occasioned by lead-poisoning ; for not a particle of lead is to be found in or near 
the loch. In a loch on the island about 6 miles from Loch Namaorachin trout are found 
plentiful; this loch is in a limestone basin, and lead is abundant in it; and here all the 
trout have perfect tails, and all the other fins in fine condition. 

t Methuen’s ‘Wanderings in the Wilderness,’ 2nd edit, 1848. Appendix, p. 362, pl. ii. £.3. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 135 


in which an animal closely resembled either some part of a plant or some 
inorganic object; and expressed the opinion that these two sets of cases were 
wholly one in kind, the evident object in all being the protection of the imitator. 
Describing a visit paid to the vicinity of Grahamstown in search of this insect, he 
obseryed that it was a work of considerable difficulty to distinguish the grasshoppers 
from the stones, and he was engaged for half an hour in careful search over a known 
station of the species before discovering an example. He noted the further most 
interesting fact, that, in certain spots (often only a few square yards in extent) 
where the stones lying on the ground were darker, lighter, or more mottled than 
those generally prevalent, the Trachypetra found among such stones varied similarly 
from the ordinary dull ferruginous-brown colouring in imitation of them. It was 
pointed out that the close imitation of the stones was mainly effected by the modi- 
fication of the dorsal shield of the prothorax, which is (with the whole thorax) much 
flattened and widened, and is further much produced posterion'y; and has its sur- 
face roughened or granulated in close resemblance to the surface of the stones. 

Tn conclusion, he called attention to the bearing of the case of this insect on the 
question of the origin of species; and in putting the alternative whether the pe- 
culiar station of the Zrachypetra had been specially prepared for it immediately 
before or simultaneously with the creation of the insect, or whether, on the contrary, 
the insect had been very gradually modified by natural selection in imitation of the 
stones for the purpose of concealment, he expressed his decided opinion in fayour of 
. the latter hypothesis. 2 

Specimens of the insect were exhibited in association with some of the stones 
among which they were captured; and the very close resemblance between the 
stones and the insects was very obvious. Mr. Trimen observed that in nature the 
mimicry was more effective, the colours of the dead insects having faded consider- 
ably, and the shrinking of the abdomen having caused the hind legs to be much 
more apparent than was the case in living examples. 


Les Chauves-souris de Vépoque du Mammouth et de Vépoque actuelle. 
Par Professeur Van BENEDEN. 


La théorie de Darwin est, dit-on, une yéritable conception scientifique, fondée 
sur la concurrence vitale et la sélection naturelle. L’évolution naturelle des 
formes est pour le savant illustre le résultat de la lutte pour la vie et de la sur- 
yivance des plus forts. 

Si les animaux subissent la loi de cette concurrence vitale et de la sélection 
naturelle, il faut se demander quel est l’effet de cette influence pendant la période 
actuelle. 

Pendant ce long laps de temps qui nous sépare de l’age du Mammouth et de 
lOurs des cavernes, quelles sont les modifications qui sont survenues dans le nombre 
comme dans les caractéres des espéces? S’apergoit-on des effets de la lutte pour la 
vie et, comme conséquence, de la survivance des plus forts? C’est la question que 
nous ayons youlu examiner. 

On est généralement d’accord sur ce point que, pour expliquer les phénoménes 
des temps géologiques, il faut chercher lasolution dans les phénoménes de l’époque 
actuelle. Ce qui se passe sous nos yeux doit nous faire comprendre ce qui s’est 
passé antérieurement. 

C’est cette pensée que vient d’exprimer avec tant d’élégance Villustre Président 
de l’Association, Sir William Thomson, dans son discours d’ouverture: L’essence 
de la science consiste & déduire de phénoménes actuellement soumis a l’observa- 
tion l'état antérieur des choses, et & préjuger leurs évolutions futures. 

Nous avons été conduit & nous occuper de ces questions & la suite de recherches 
sur les parasites des Cheiroptéres (Chauves-souris) et d’explorations faites dans les 
cayernes. Nous avons comparé des animaux, yivant autour de nous et dans nos 
grottes, avec ceux qui hantaient autrefois ces mémes lieux 4 l’époque ot les Ours 
et les Rennes remplissaient ces retraites de leurs dépouilles. 

L’on sait que les ossements qui sont enfouis avec ceux des Ours appartiennent & 
trois catégories d’animaux: la premiére comprend ceux qui ont disparu de nos 


136 REPORT—1871. 


contrées et qui ont émigré ; la seconde ceux qui sont restés en vie dans les mémes 
localités; la troisiéme ceux qui ont disparu et que l’on ne connait que par leurs 
dépouilles plus ou moins bien conservées. Toutes les espéces de grande taille ont 
quitté ces lieux et appartiennent 4 la premiére et a la troisiéme catégories. On 
peut dire que c’est la présence de homme qui les a éloignés. Les petits seuls ont 
continué a vivre 4 cété de homme. L’homme est le maitre des grands, mais il 
subit la loi des petits. Nous faisons fuir l’Eléphant et le Lion, mais nous ne 
parvenons pas plus 4 chasser les Rats et les Souris que les parasites du corps ou les 
infusoires de ]’eau et de lair. 

Les petites espéces qui ont continué a vivre dans nos contrées sont, les uns her- 
bivores, les autres carnassiers ou insectivores. 

Parmi les carnassiers se trouvent le Loup, le Renard, le Blaireau, la Loutre, la 
Fouine, le Putois, la Belette ; parmi les insectivores, indépendamment du Hérisson, 
de la Taupe et des Musaraignes, les différentes espéces de Chauves-souris. 

Ce sont ces derniers Insectivores que nous avons choisis pour élucider la question 
qui nous occupe. Les Chauves-souris sont en effet les plus propres & cette étude, 
puisqu’elles sont soumises toutes au méme régime, qu’elles ont le méme genre de 
vie, et que, plus que tout autre animal, elles sont complétement sous l’influence des 
changements de température. Nulle part la concurrence vitale n’a di étre plus 
puissante que chez des animaux qui ont di traverser des périodes de froid et qui 
ne trouvent des insectes pour pature, qu’d l’époque des chaleurs. D’autre part, il 
n’y a pas d’animaux, vivant autour de nous, aussi complétement indépendants que 
les Chauves-souris, et, par conséquent, plus propres subir les effets de la sélection 
naturelle, 

Schmerling avait déja trouvé de nombreux restes de ces animaux, & cété des 
ossements d’Ours, de Lion, et de Renne, mais il n’a pas eu le temps de distinguer 
les espéces et de les comparer. Nous avons pu combler cette lacune et compléter 
ces recherches par les observations que nous avions en porte-feuille sur les Chauves- 
souris des grottes de Furfooz. 

Nous pouvons garantir avec Schmerling que les os de Chauves-souris que nous 
avons recueillis, sont fossiles au méme titre que les autres animaux enfouis, et que 
leur enfouissement date de la méme époque. 

Nous avons fait des recherches sur les diverses espéces qui vivent dans les 
cayernes ; nous avons étudié chaque espéce, et préparé leurs os en tenant compte de 
Page et du sexe, et nous avons réuni tout ce que les explorations ont pu nous four- 
nir pour la comparaison; il est résulté pour nous de l'étude comparée des espéces 
vivantes et fossiles, que les Chauves-souris qui vivent aujourd hui dans les grottes, 
sont exactement les mémes que celles qui y vivaient a l’époque des Ours, et que les 
mémes espéces y ont conservyé leur demeure les unes  cété des autres sans le 
moindre changement. Dans tel endroit on trouve principalement le Grand fer-a- 
cheval (thinolophus ferrum-equinum), dans tel autre endroit le Petit fer-a-cheval 
(Rhinolophus hippocrepis) ; ici c’est le Dasycnéme ( Vespertilio dasyenemus), 1a c’est 
le Mystacin (Vespertilio mystacinus), le Murin ( Vespertilio murinus) ou U Oreillard 
(Plerotus auritus). Si les eaux envahissaient aujourd’hui, comme elles l’ont fait 
autrefois, la retraite de ces animaux, et que leurs ossements fussent conservés, on 
trouverait dans le limon exactement les mémes espéces qu’ autrefois. 

Elles sont tellement semblables les unes aux autres, que celles qui se tronvent le 
plus abondamment aujourd’hui, sont aussi celles qui ont laissé le plus de débris. 

En un mot, aucun changement n’est survenu dans les diverses espéces de Chauves- 
souris. La concurrence vitale n’a produit d’effet ni sur le nombre ni sur la taille ; 
tous ces animaux sont restés exactement ce qu’ils étaient & l’époque ot l’Ours 
foulait notre sol & cété du Mammouth et du Renne. 

Que l’on compare entr’eux les os des grandes espéces ou des petites, des fortes 
ou des faibles, on voit qu’elles se sont toutes maintenues dans les mémes condi- 
tions; chaque espéce.a sa maniére de faire la chasse, choisit les lieux et le moment 
de s’y livrer, et conserve sa place au crépuscule. 

Et ce que nous obseryons dans les Chauyes-souris, nous le constatons également 
pour tous ceux qui ont vécu a cété d’eux: les mollusques terrestres n’offrent pas 
plus de différence si on les compare avec ceux d’aujourd’hui, que les poissons, les 
reptiles les oiseaux ou les mammiféres, 


bs 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 137 


La concurrence vitale existe, mais la lutte entre individus ne produit aucun 
effet sur l’espéce; la sélection naturelle conduit, d’aprés nous, non a Valtération in- 
sensible des types spécifiques, mais, au contraire, a la conservation du moule de 
chacun d’eux dans toute sa pureté. 

Que l’on compare cent tétes de Renard, de Putois ou de Fouine, animaux 
abandonnés complétement & leur libre instinct, c’est 4 peine si, en tenant compte 
de Vage et du sexe, on trouve quelque différence. La taille méme est parfaite- 
ment semblable. Que l’on compare au contraire cent tétes d’animaux domes- 
tiques, d’animaux qui ont subi la contrainte de ’homme, qui ont été sous le joug de 
la sélection artificielle, qui ont accepté la nourriture et le gite sans faire choix a 
l’époque du rut et il n’y aura pas deux tétes semblables. 

La sélection naturelle, loin de produire des modifications qui améneront la for- 
mation d’espéces nouvelles, n’a d’autre effet, & notre avis, quand elle est vraiment 
naturelle, que la conservation du type dans toute sa pureté primitive. L’instinct 
qui pousse chaque espéce & l’accomplissement de ses fonctions est la sauvegarde de 
sa conservation. 

Nous terminerons, en faisant remarquer que si les animaux qui ont été aussi 
complétement soumis 4 l’influence de la coneurrence vitale et de la sélection naturelle, 
depuis l’époque du Mammouth et de l’Ours des cayernes jusqu’au jour d’aujourd’ 
hui, si ces animaux, disons-nous, aprés ce long laps de temps ne eae aucun 
changement, aucune modification, ni dans le nombre, ni dans la forme, ni dans la 
taille, nous nous demandons si on est en droit d’invoquer la loi de sélection basée 
sur la concurrence vitale pour expliquer la formation des espéces. Nous le répétons, 
une théorie, pour étre scientifique, doit étre hasée sur des phénoménes qui s’accom- 
plissent dans les temps actuels, et dont nous pouvons étre témoins. 

Il ne sera pas hors de propos de faire remarquer qu’a une époque géologique de la 
période primaire, un fait analogue a été observé par le naturaliste le plus autorisé 
peut-étre qui a écrit sur les Trilobites. Sur 350 espéces de Trilobites, dit M. Bar- 
rande, dans un résumé de ses travaux sur ce groupe intéressant d’animaux, dix sont 
variables, mais ces variations ne portent que sur la taille, la grosseur des yeux, le 
nombre correspondant des lentilles, le nombre d’articulations visibles au Pigidium 
et le nombre de pointes ornementales. 

Ces variations sont purement temporaires, et M. Barrande a constaté dans la plu- 

art des cas, le retour a la forme typique ou primitive. Les variations ne semblent 
étre que des oscillations transitoires. 

Aucune des 350 espéces n’a produit une nouvelle forme spécifique distincte et 

ermanente. Les traces de transformation par voie de filiation sont complétement 
imperceptibles. 

Plusieurs zoologistes et paléontologistes qui se sont occupés d’autres groupes, et 
dautres époques géologiques, sont arrivés au méme résultat aprés de longues 
recherches et de patientes comparaisons. 

Le méme phénoméne se présente donc a l’époque primaire et 4 l’époque actuelle, 
et nous ne yoyons pas que la concurrence vitale et la sélection naturelle aient pro- 
duit quelque part une nouvelle forme que l’on soit en droit de considérer comme le 
résultat de la filiation. 


Notes on Dredging at Madeira. By the Rev. R. B. Watson. 


ANATOMY anp PirysroLoey. 


On the Pressure of the Atmosphere as an Auwiliary Force in carrying on the 
Circulation of the Blood. By Professor A. Bucwanan. 


The author holds that the pressure of the atmosphere, rendered effective by the 
dilatation of the chest and of the heart, is an auxiliary to the propulsive force of 
the heart so indispensable, that without it the circulation of the blood cannot go on 
for more than three and a half minutes, 


138 REPORT—1871. 


The author described two experiments bearing on this subject. The apparatus 
required for each of them is an elastic bulb, furnished with valves, which enable 
it toactlikea pump. To the opening, by which the liquid enters, there is attached 
a flaccescent tube, such as a portion of a sheep’s intestine. If the extremity of this 
tube is dipped into water, and the pump, held vertically, is set into action, no water 
rises in the tube. This is Dr. Arnott’s famous experiment, which led him to declare 
that “it is a physical impossibility that a sucking action of the chest or heart can 
be a cause of the blood’s motion in the veins.” Dr. Arnott’s interpretation of this 
experiment has caused the doctrine advocated by the author to be ostracised in this 
country. : 

In ie second experiment the action of the pump is assisted by that of a column 
of liquid, which is obtained by attaching the free end of the intestine to an aper- 
ture in the bottom or side of the water-cistern, and keeping the pump constantly 
beneath the level of the water. The pump was now shown to act with the most 
perfect facility, and without any risk of the collapse of the intestine, which is kept 
constantly distended by the pressure of the column of water. The author argued 
that the blood-vessels are in like manner kept distended by the pressure of the 
blood resulting from the propulsive force of the heart, and explained that if the 
column of water were about ten inches in height,it would then exert a force equal 
to the distending force with which the veins entering the chest are kept patent by 
the force of the heart. 

The author then proceeded to illustrate his theory by reference to the phenomena 
attendant upon inspiration and expiration, the pulse, the condition of the foetal 
circulation, and asphyxia. 


An Experimental Inquiry into some of the Results of Inoculation in the 
lower Animals. By Joun Curenz, M.D. 


‘The author related shortly the results of a series of experiments in which rabbits 
were inoculated with cancerous matter obtained from the human subject. In the 
great majority of cases the matter was introduced below the skin. The general 
result of the investigation may be summed up as foilows :—In. rabbits the inocu= 
lation of cancerous matter, obtained (1) from post-mortem examinations, (2) from 
tumours removed by the surgeon, (3) directly from the growing tumour during 
life, does not produce cancer, but a local form of cystic formation of a scrofulous 
type, which does not materially differ from the appearances seen after inoculation 
of the rabbit with tubercle, or after the introduction of any irritant. Subsequent 
disease of internal organs is rare. The local disease has a tendency to heal either 
by contraction or by suppuration. In no case did death follow as a result of the 
inoculation. In two cases in which rabbits were inoculated from a lymphoma, both 
died in consequence of the virulence of the local inflammation, which was accom- 
panied by the deposit of a large cake of cheesy matter. 


On the Composition of the Carpus of the Dog. 
By Professor W. H. Fiownr, £.2.S. 


This communication was illustrated by the exhibition of the bones of the carpus 
of a dog, six weeks old, in which the so-called scapho-lunar hone consisted -of three 
distinct ossifications, one corresponding to the radiale or scaphoid, one to the znter- 
medium or lunar, and one to the os centrale of the typical carpus. The same 
arrangement was found on both sides of the body. It is different from what has 
previously been observed, and shows that in some of the Carnivora at least neither 
of the three above-named elements of the normal carpus are suppressed ; neither 
are they connate, but they are all developed independently, and afterwards coalesce 
to form a single bone. 


On the Magnetic and Diamagnetic Properties of the Blood. 
By Dr, Artur GAMGEE. 


| ae 


is 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 139 


On the Uses of the Uvula. By Sir Duncan Graz, Bart., M.D. 


The author commenced by saying that the true functional uses of the uvula had 
never been wholly understood, and then entered into a description of its composition, 
situation, and relation to neighbouring muscles. Anatomists describe the action 
of the uvular muscle as an elevator, and as therefore shortening the uvula. It is, 
however, a sentinel to the fauces, especially in the act of deglutition ; for when any 
substance comes into contact with it, it excites the action of all the neighbouring 
muscles until thatis got rid of. But it possesses a function of not less importance in 
holding the soft palate tense and firm in the medial line against the wall of the 
pharynx during the act of deglutition itself, and thus prevents the passage upwards 
of fluid or solid substances behind the nose. This was supported by experiments 
epee. a person who had lost the bones of the nose, permitting of a view of the action 
of the soft palate from its nasal aspect during deglutition, with or without food. 
Under either circumstance, a double arch was seen in the form of two convex 
swellings, held in a state of firm tension by the action of the uvula pressing down 
the centre of the soft,palate, with its end resting flat against the wall of the pharynx. 
There was the motor wvula muscle situated superficially, like a distinct band, tied 
round the soft palate in its most important resisting part, to prevent the possibility 
of food passing upwards, and in this it was supported coordinately by all the 
neighbouring muscles concerned in the act of deglutition. There also was a fact 
not previously known—viz. the action of the uvula as a point d’appui in holding 
the soft palate tense in the middle line against the pharynx during deglutition, at 
the same time that the muscle acted as a compressor of the soft palate itself. Its 
tension ceased the moment that the constrictors of the pharynx had fully exerted 
their influence over the substances swallowed. Whilst the uvula has its special 
uses in the act of deglutition, it exerts a not less decisive influence upon the voice 
when uttered in a very loud tone, or in singing the higher registers, in both sexes ; 
then its character as a levator or shortener is exerted. If this power is impaired 
by removal of the muscular (not the membranous) end, then the singing powers 
are damaged. The author now described the appearance and action of the uvula 
as seen in singing the higher notes, its point becoming almost invisible, and the 
soft palate being drawn backwards and upwards, diminishing the space between it 
and the wall of the pharynx. The movements of the uvula are exceedingly rapid, 
and vary with the continuous or quayering character of the singing notes. In the 
shakes of the voice it is seen to be undergoing a series of short ups and downs, at 
every inspiration descending, and then rapidly ascending, and keeping up until the 
note, prolonged or otherwise, is finished. Some remarks were made upon elonga- 
tion of the uvula and its effects, a distinction being made between its elongated 
membranous end and the true muscular tip which should not be meddled with. 
Speech, the author said, was modulated by the soft palate and uvula, and the 
motor power of the latter is unquestionably exerted in pronouncing the letters K, 
Q, and X, with their associations, more especially the gutturals of the various 
languages. He summed up the uses of the uvula as follows :—“ 1, It acts as a 
sentinel to the fauces in exciting the act of deglutition when anything has to be 
swallowed. 2. It compresses the soft palate and holds its posterior free border 
firmly against the wall of the pharynx in deglutition, so that nothing can pass up- 
wards. 3. It modifies speech in the production of loud declamation and the 
guttural forms of language by lessening or diminishing the pharyngo-nasal passage 
when it acts as an elevator. 4. Its elevating power is increased to the most ex- 
treme degree in the highest ranges of the singing voice, and is very moderately 
exerted inthe lower ranges. 5. Therefore, in its uses, deglutition and vocalisation 
are the functions that are intimately associated with the uvula, and both become 
impaired more or less if it is destroyed, wholly removed, or seriously injured.” 


On some Abnormalities of the Laryna. By Sir Duncan Gres, Bart., M.D. 


The author described a rare instance of absence of both arytenoid cartilages in 
a girl of eighteen. Likewise one in which the epiglottis possessed the shape of a 
trefoil leaf, and two others in boys of fissure of the same cartilage. 

All these were congenital, and were explained by means of diagrams, 


140 REPORT—1871. 


On the Caudal and Abdominal Muscles of the Cryptobranch, 
By Professor Humrunry, 2S. 


On the Ewvistence of Hemoglobin in the Muscular Tissue, and its relation to 
Muscular Activity. By KE, Ray Lanxusrer, 


The author demonstrated to the Section, by means of the spectroscope, that 
hemoglobin existed in certain muscles of the gasteropodous mollusks, viz. the 
active muscles which move the lingual ribbon and lips; at the same time the blood 
of these gasteropods is entirely devoid of hemoglobin, being colourless. This was 
considered a proof of the functional relation of heemoglobin to muscular activity, 
and coincided with the results attained by Ludwig, who demonstrated the absolute 
necessity of the presence of oxygen in a muscle in order that it should he active; 
the hemoglobin, by its oxygen-seizing power, acts in the same way for the mus- 
cular respiration as it does in those exceptional invertebrata which, living in foul 
conditions, are, as the author showed, provided with haemoglobin in their blood, 
thus being enabled to accumulate what little oxygen there is present, 


On the Ciliated Condition of the Inner Layer of the Blastoderm in the Ova of 
Birds and in the Omphalomesenteric Vessels. By B. 'T. Lownn, 


On the Bearing of Museular Anomalies on the Darwinian Theory of the 
Origin of Species. By Professor A. Macarister, M.D. 


On a New Form of Tetanometcr. By Dr. M‘Kenppicr. 
y 


On the Nutrition of Muscular and Pulmonary Tissue in Health and in 
Phthisis, with Remarks on the Colloid Condition of Matter. By Wi1t1am 
Maxrcer, M.D., F.R.S., late Senior Assistant Physician to the Hospital for 
Consumption and Diseases of the Chest, Brompton, and to the Westminster 


Hospital, London. 


The author sums up the conclusions at which he has arrived as follows :— 

1. Phosphoric acid and potash may be prepared artificially in the colloid state 
by dialyzing a mixture of chloride of potassium and phosphate of soda. 

2. Wheaten flour, potato, and rice are found to contain respectively nearly the 
same proportions of colloid phosphoric acid and colloid potash compared to the 
total quantities of these substances present ; and these same proportions of phos— 
phoric acid and potash are occasionally found to exist also in blood. 

3. Plants form colloid material, although they may find some ready prepared, 
or in process of preparation, in the soil. 

4, Muscular tissue in health is formed of three classes of substances: Ist, those 
which constitute the tissue proper; 2nd, those destined to become transformed into 
the tissue proper and make up for the waste; 3rd, those which are in process of 
elimination. The first are solid and colloid, the second fluid and colloid, and the 
third fluid and crystalloid; the phosphoric acid and potash in the 3rd class of 
substances occurring precisely in the proportion required to form crystalloid pyro- 
phosphate of potash. This is invariably true for the flesh of oxen, but in the 
salmon the proportions do not quite agree with those of the above compound, 
which appears to show that the material in progress of elimination is somewhat 
less crystalloid in fishes than in the flesh of the higher animals; and this would 
account for an accumulation of effete matter in the salmon, 

5. The blood-corpuscles appear to take up albumen, phosphoric acid, and potash 


Ht 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 141 


in the blood, and yield them in the proper proportions to. muscular tissue for its 
nutrition ; but this subject requires further investigation. 

6. The nutrition of pulmonary tissue in health differs from that of muscular 
tissue, inasmuch as the proportion of phosphoric acid to the albumen in the tissue 
proper, and consequently also in the nutritive material, is much higher in the lungs 
than in flesh, and that of the potash in the effete material is much higher propor- 
tionally to phosphoric acid in pulmonary than in muscular tissue. This excess of 
potash is apparently eliminated under the form of carbonate. 

7. The nature of the chemical changes which take place within muscles in con- 
sumption is the same as in health; but these changes are lessened in degree, the 
amount of nutritive material supplied being diminished. Moreover, there appears 
to be in muscular tissue in phthisis a beginning of that separation of water from 
the solids which, under other circumstances, only occurs some time after death. 

8. Muscular tissue in consumption contains more soda and chlorine than in a 
state of health, in the mean proportion of 0:117 of chlorine, and 0:239 of soda in 
health, to 0°385 of chlorine and 0°446 of soda in consumption for 200 grammes of 
flesh, showing apparently that the physical power of diffusion, which had been 
kept in abeyance in health, begins to act in phthisis. 

9. The pulmonary organ in phthisis, when consolidated and softening, still 
undergoes a process of nutrition; but this phenomenon is different from that which 
occurs in health, and becomes remarkably like the nutrition of muscular tissue. 

10. The pulpy state of the pulmonary tissue in the cheesy or softening condition, 
appears to be due to an altered relation between the water and solids, the colloid 
condition of the tissue being eitherlost or considerably diminished. The diseased 
organ, moreover, contains less colloid and more effete or crystalloid material than 
it does in health, these several phenomena showing, as in the case of muscles, a 
commencement of physical change. 

11. Finally, death from consumption, when not due to asphyxia from deficient 
action of the organs of respiration, is apparently owing to the physical power of 
matter overcoming the phenomena of life, the nature of which is still a mystery, 
physical changes actually commencing before life is extinct. 


A Model of the Circulation of the Blood, by Professor Rurumrrorp, was 
exhibited. 


Dietaries in the Workhouses of England and Wales. 
By Dr. Evwarp Sura, /.2.S., Medical Officer of the Poor-law Board. 


The author referred to the fact that schemes of dietary are agreed upon by the 
combined action of the local authorities, viz. the guardians of the poor, and the 
central authority; and showed that, as the dietary should correspond with that of 
the labouring classes, it must vary in different localities, and be based upon local 
knowledge. The dietary is thus prepared by the guardians and examined and 
sanctioned by the Poor-law Board. He explained the steps which have recently 
been taken by the latter to give advice to the former and to establish greatly im- 
proved dietaries. This was initiated by the Rt. Hon. C. P. Villiers, who first made 
the appointment of medical officer to the Board, and carried into effect by the Earl 
of Devon and his successors as Presidents of the Poor-law Board. It is now laid 
down by that authority that the foods to be selected shall be those in ordinary use 
in the several localities, and that the kind and quantity of food shall be adapted to 
the wants of the several classes of inmates. The chief differences of food are found 
in the quantity of meat supplied and the mode in which it is served, and in the use 
of oatmeal, cheese, milk, and puddings. On many of these points the dietaries 
‘in Dorset and Westmoreland were contrasted. Thus he showed, from inquiries 
made by him for the Government some years ago, that the quantities of food ob- 
tained by the working classes per adult weekly were, in Dorset—bread stuffs, 13 lb. ; 
sugars, 340z.; fats, 44 0z.; meat, 7; 0z.; milk, 12 oz.; and cheese, 123 oz. ; while 
in Westmoreland the quantities were,—bread stuffs, 12} ]1b.; sugars, 102 oz.; 
fats, 62 oz.; meat, 2130z.; milk, 1200z.; and cheese, 20z. He then showed 
what is the typical diet of children at various ages, and for able-bodied and aged 


142 REPORT—187 1. 


adults, and the quantity of the several foods allowed in workhouses, Children 
under two years of age get milk, bread, and rice-pudding daily. From two to five 
years, pudding on three days, meat and potatoes on three days, and soup or other 
food on one day. From five to nine years there is one other day of meat and po- 
tatoes, and commonly one of soup instead of pudding. From nine to sixteen that 
of adults. For able-bodied, bread and gruel at breakfast and supper, varied by 
broth or cheese in the several localities ; at dinner, meat in some form on four days, 
and pudding or cheese on three days. For aged, tea and bread and butter at brealk- 
fast and supper; at dinner, meat in some form on five days, with pudding or cheese 
or other food on two days. The standard of measurement of the sufficiency of this 
food is that which he gave to the Government when advising on the Lancashire 
cotton-famine, viz. 4300 grains of carbon and 200 grains of nitrogen daily; and the 
model dietary which he had framed for workhouses in the Midland Counties sup- 
plied more than this to the adults. He then pointed out that, whilst the above-. 
mentioned quantity of food supported the health and strength of the inmates, except 
perhaps as regards children, there are still many workhouses where the dietary is 
very unsatisfactory. In some, gruel and bread are given at breakfast and supper 
to nearly all the inmates, or where meat in a separate form is not given, or where 
a very small quantity, as 2 0z. or 3 oz. of raw meat was allowed two or three times 
a week, or where bread and cheese alone are given to some classes in eighteen out 
of twenty-one meals weekly, or where soup containing no meat is given thrice a 
week, or where meat when given is given only when cold; whilst, on the other 
hand, there are workhouses in the manufacturing districts where meat and bread 
are given in great excess. He was of opinion that the time may arrive when the 
Government will prepare several schemes of dietary for different parts of the 
country ; but in the meantime improvements are now in rapid progress. He ex- 
hibited tables showing the quantities of food taken by the working classes in every 
county of England and in Wales, and the dietary which he had recommended for 
use in workhouses in the Midland Counties; and he also read the details of the 
dietary which Professor Christison had devised for the Edinburgh charity work- 
house in 1854, supplying oatmeal and buttermilk at breakfast and supper, and meat 
soup with bread at dinner. 


On some Rudimentary Structures recently met with in the Dissection of a 
large Fin- Whale. By Prof. Srruruers. 


The whale was a specimen of the Razorback (Balenoptera Museulus), 64 feet in 
length. It was found dead in the North Sea, off Aberdeen, and towed into Peter- 
head. Searching for a rudiment of the hind limb, the author found it represented 
by a bone attached by ligaments to the external process of the pelvic bone. He 
found a sixteenth pair of ribs. The first rib had articulated to it a capitular process 
4 to 5inches in length. The flexor and extensor muscles of the fingers were*carefully 
dissected. The muscles found were the homologues of the following muscles in 
man :—flexor carpi ulnaris, flexor profundus digitorum, flexor longus pollicis, ex- 
tensor communis digitorum. The flexor carpi ulnaris was inserted into a distinct 
and moveable pisiform cartilage. These muscles the author regarded as rudimentary 
structures, whose function was not extinct but low; not to be explained by notions 
of final cause or of so-called type, but by inheritance and the influence of function ; 
the one, as part of a great scheme of evolution, accounted for their existence, the 
other, by fitness and use, had preserved them from becoming extinct, 


On the Cervical Vertebree in Cetacea. By Prof. SrruruErs. 


The paper was directed chiefly to the consideration of the various conditions of 
stiffness and mobility of the vertebre, and the various degrees of development of the 
transverse processes. The seven vertebra were present as a mammalian aflinity, 
and their conditions are modified by function. The surgeon gives his patient a 
moveable or a stiff joint according as he desires, by practising either rest or motion, 
and the same law would no doubt act in the whale’s neck. The great ring of the 
transverse processes contains a large vascular plexus, as it contains an artery in 


Oe 


ss 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 143 


man; but that is not its meaning. It is the walls of the ring which are developed 
for hgamentous and muscular attachments. The lower processes he divided into 
three stages, and compared these to three stages of the corresponding parts in man. 
The ligaments between the axis, atlas, and occiput had been dissected, and he 
demonstrated their modifications in the whales. One of the great whales was the 
Peterhead Razorback noticed in the previous paper, the other had stranded at Wick 
in 1869. The Pike whale, showing the deficient parts of the bony transverse pro- 
cesses to be represented by fibrous bands, had stranded at Aberdeen last year. ‘The 
next specimens exhibited were from the Narwhal, male and female. Possibly 
in adaptation to the possession of the great tusk, the vertebre were moveable, 
while in the female, without the tusk, they were less moveable. The male 
showed also an additional joint, on the same side as the tusk, between the atlas and 
axis. Passing next to the stiff-necked whales, Prof. Struthers exhibited a large 
series of specimens from the Globiocephalus, obtained from the flock which stranded 
near Edinburgh some years ago. They showed progressive anchylosis of the ver= 
tebrze, and degeneration of the transverse processes. The younger ones showed 
eyen the rudiments of the epiphyses of the vertebral bodies, on vertebrae themselves 
rudimentary. The last neck exhibited was that of a Right whale, the interest 
attaching to which was that, though probably a Greenland Right whale, it presented 
more of the characters of the Right whale of the South Sea. The conclusion he 
drew from the study of this neck was that the supposed differences between the 
Right whale of the North and South Seas were not so fixed characters as had been 
supposed, 4 


On the Restoration of the Tail in Protopterus annectens. 
By Professor R. H. Traquam, M.D. 


Professor Traquair described two specimens of Protopterus annectens, in which 
the external configuration and internal structure rendered it evident that a consi- 
derable portion of the tail had been broken off, and that in the one case a less, and in 
the other a greater amount of restoration had taken place. In the first specimen, 
which measured 81 inches in length, the body was truncated abruptly 33 inches 
behind the origin of the ventral fins. This truncated termination of the body was 
fringed by a delicate membrane, projecting half an inch backwards in the middle, 
and containing a pointed central axis. On dissection the abrupt truncation was 
equally obvious in the internal parts; and the fringing membrane, with its axis, 
was evidently a commencing restoration of the injured tail, the central axis con- 
taining a minute newly formed notochord, lateral muscles, and spinal cord, but 
there was as yet no new development of neural or hemal arches, spines, fin-sup- 

orts, fin-rays, or scales. In the second specimen, which measured 92 inches in 
ength, and had evidently been truncated or mutilated at a distance of about 
7} inches from the tip of the snout, or 12 inch from the origin of the ventral 
fins, the restorative process had proceeded to a much greater length. Although 
the boundary between the old and new textures was sufficiently indicated on 
the outside of the fish, by the sudden diminution in the thickness of the specimen 
and in the size of the scales, the outline of the posterior extremity of the animal 
was very well restored, though the whole tail was still proportionately shorter than 
if no mutilation had taken place. The restored portion of the tail measured 2} 
inches in length, and on dissection showed not only, as in the former case, a 
reproduction of the notochord, but also of the neural and heemal arches, spines, and 
fin-supports, these elements remaining, however, exitirely cartilaginous, and being 
much more irregularly disposed than in the normal tail. They also cease to be 
traceable after 13 inch from the commencement of the new portion of the tail, 
though the notochord proceeds to its ultimate filiform termination. In addition 
the spinal cord, the lateral muscles, and the fin-rays and their muscles were in 
this specimen reproduced as well as the scales on the external surface. Both 
externally and internally the line of demarcation between the old and new textures 
was distinctly seen. 


ae 


144 REPORT—1871. 


On the Morbid Appearances noticed in the Brains of Insane People. 
By Dr. J. Barry Tuxe and Professor RurHerrorp. 


On the Placentation in the Cetacea. By Professor Turner. 


The author gave an account of the arrangement and structure of the gravid uterus 
and foetal membranes in Orca gladiator. The paper is printed % extenso in the 
Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1871, 


Notes on the Cervical Vertebree of Steypirethyr (Baleenoptera Sibbaldii). 
By Professor Turner. 


The author described in this communication the cervical vertebre of the large 
female Steypirethyr whale stranded at Longniddry in November 1869, an account 
of the soft parts of which he had given in the Transactions of the Royal Society of 
Edinburgh, 1870. Reference was also made to the cervical vertebra of a large 
female Steypirethyr stranded at Northmaven, Shetland, in October of the same 
year, many of the bones of which are in the author’s possession. The following 
are some of the principal measurements of three vertebrae of the Longniddry 
Steypirethyr :— 

Atlas. Axis. 6th C. V. 


inches. inches. inches. 
Between tips of transverse processes .... 37 433 45 
Transverse diameter of anterior articular 
SUTace ee ee eres A Me se 16 18 144 
Vertical diameter of neural canal ...... 9 6 53 
Transverse diameter of foramen at root of 
transverse procesS......... eee ye 0 83 ll; 


The transverse process of the atlas was not perforated by a foramen; those of 
the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th each possessed a large oval foramen at the root. 
The 7th cervical vertebra had only its superior transverse process well developed ; 
the inferior was marked simply by a slight ridge on the body of the bone. In the 
Northmayven specimen the inferior transverse process of the 6th vertebra was only 
partially developed, so that it did not join the superior, and the boundaries of the 
ring were imperfectly formed. The author believed that Steypirethyr was not an 
uncommon whale on the Scottish coasts. In addition to the two specimens already 
referred to as stranded in 1869, he had also identified the great whale stranded at 
North Berwick in October 1831, dissected by Dr. Robert Knox, and the skeleton 
of which is suspended in the Museum of Science and Art, with this species. Be- 
longing also to this species was a whale stranded at Aberdour in July 1858, which 
he had been able to identify from the nasal bones, which had been preserved by 
Dr. McBain. Steypirethyr is apparently the largest of the Fin-whales, and it 
seems to be very doubtful whether the common Razor-back, B. musculus, ever 
attains the length of 70 feet. 


Contributions to the Anatomy of the Thoracie Viscera of the Elephant. 
By Dr. M. Watson. 


- ANTHROPOLOGY. 


Address to the Department of Anthropology. By Professor Turner. 


As this is the first time in Scotland that an Anthropological Department has been 
constituted in connexion with a Meeting of the British Association, and, indeed, as 
itis only the third time that a department of the biological section has been formed 
with this title since the first one, which was instituted at the Meeting in Not- 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 145 


tingham in 1866, it may not be out of place to say a few words on the object to be 
fulfilled by this department, on the place which it occupies as a subdivision of the 
Biological Section, and on the part which it may play in the proceedings of a body 
like the British Association for the Advancement of Science. First, what significa- 
tion is attached by men of science in these days to this term Anthropology ? The dis- 
tinguished traveller and naturalist, Mr. A. R. Wallace, who was the first occupant 
of the chair which I have now the honour to fill, in his introductory address to the 
Department at the Nottingham Meeting, defined anthropology as “ the science which 
contemplates man under all his varied aspects (as an animal and as a moral and 
intellectual being), in his relations to lower organisms, to his fellow-men, and to 
the universe.” It is obvious that a science thus defined is most comprehensive in 
its scope, that it embraces the nature and constitution of man, physically, psychi- 
cally, and morally ; the differences and resemblances between man and other or- 
ganisms; his habits and language; his history, past, present, and future. 

But, we may ask, has the term anthropology always had so wide and compre- 
hensive a meaning as many men of science now attach to it? <A brief glance at 
the history of the term will show us that this has by no means been the case, and. 
that the term has had a variable and progressive signification. With it, therefore, 
as with so many other terms employed in science and philosophy, it will be needful 
to ascertain to what school of thought a writer belonged before we can feel assured 
of the exact signification he attached to it. So far as I have been able to ascertain, 
the term, under the form of anthropologos, first appeared in literature in the Ethics 
of Aristotle. It occurs in a passage where Aristotle is drawing a picture of a lofty- 
minded man—“One who will not compete for the common objects of ambition, 
who will only attempt great and important matters—who will live for his friend 
alone, will bear no malice, will be no gossip (owk anthropologos), will not be anxious 
about trifles, and will care more to possess that which is fine than that which 
is productive.” (Grant's ‘ Aristotle,’ 2nd ed. vol. ii. p. 77.) In this passage, Aris- 
totle, who had in all Apes coined the term for the particular occasion, em- 
ploys it in the sense of a talker about himself and others—a mere gossip. With 

im it had a purely personal signification, and was used to express a single phase 
in the character of an individual man, and not as a term applicable to mankind in 
general. We have no knowledge, indeed, that the “science of man” had any place 
assigned to it in the philosophical systems either of Aristotle or any other Greek 
philosopher. For though Aristotle himself, in a higher degree than any of his 
compatriots, had taken a far-sweeping survey of science and philosophy, and had 
acquired an accuracy of conception of man’s moral and psychical characteristics 
such as may fairly be put on a par with the results of modern investigation, yet 
his knowledge of man’s physical nature was crude and inexact. It is undoubtedly 
true that he both observed, and recorded observations, on various points in human 
and comparative anatomy and physiology, but these observations, owing to the 
imperfection of the method pursued, were wanting in precision, Hence, not only 
with Aristotle and his contemporaries, but so long as the Aristotelian method of 
inquiry held firm sway over the minds of men, an inexactness and want of precision 
in observation prevailed, which rendered it impossible to found a true science of 
anthropology. Nothing, indeed, is more remarkable in the contrast between 
the ancients and moderns than the comparative wealmess of the former in the 
sciences based on observation, experiment, and collected facts ; and in consequence 
of the greater superiority of the latter in these methods of inquiry, a division and 
subdivision of the sciences has taken place in modern times, such as would not have 
been even dreamed of by the ancient Greeks. 

_ Harly in the sixteenth century, when men began to emancipate themselves from 
the influence so long exercised by the school of Aristotle, the term appeared.again in 
literature under the form Anthropologeion,a purely anatomical work bearing that title 
having been published in 1501 (Bendyshe’s ‘History of Anthropology,’ p. 352); and 


. so late as the year 1784, Professor J. W. Baumer published at Frankfort a treatise 


on human anatomy and physiology, with the title of “‘ Anthropologia Anatomico- 


_ Physica.” By these writers, therefore, the word anthropology was limited to the 

_ physical aspect only of man’s nature. By another school of thinkers and writers the 

_ term was employed to express, not the physical, but the moral and psychical aspects 
10 


1871. 


146 REPORT—1871. 


of human nature, and by some divines it was used in a very special sense “to denote 
that manner of expression by which the inspired writers attribute human parts and 
passions to God” (Encyc. Britannica). Gradually, therefore, the term has acquired 
a wider and wider application, until in these days it has been made to embrace the 
whole science of human nature. 

Both in this country and on the Continent societies have been established for the 
cultivation of this science in its widest and most comprehensive signification, and 
some of the results of their labours have been given to the world in numerous pub- 
lished memoirs on the anatomy, psychology, languages, arts, and customs of man- 
kind, and on the distribution and characteristics of the various tribes or varieties of 
men which inhabit or have inhabited our earth. 

We may now inquire what place would be occupied by a subject embracing so 
wide a range of topics as anthropology in the programme of a scientific body organized 
on the basis of this Association—of a body which, it must be remembered, was ori- 
ginated, and had pursued a highly successful career, many years before men began 
to think or speak of a science of anthropology in the sense in which the term is 
now employed, And, without doubt, the first and most logical step was to pursue 
the course which the General Committee took at the Birmingham Meeting in 1868, 
to enlarge the scope of Section D, and by altering its title from Zoology and 
Botany to Biology, to make it embrace the whole science of organization, An- 
thropology, therefore, or the science of man, naturally came to be included within 
this Section, and leave was given to the Committee of the Section to form a special 
department for the consideration of anthropological papers, should memoirs suffi- 
cient in number and importance be presented for perusal. So far, then, as the 
associating of men together in one section can form a bond of union, all those who 
work at the elucidation of the facts and laws of organization, whether they apper- 
tain to the lowliest plant or animal, or to man himself, find in this Biological 
Section a common meeting-ground. And, I would venture to submit, it is ght 
that it should be so. For the investigation of the physical aspects of man’s nature, 
which necessarily forms so large a part of our proceedings, demands the same 
precise method of work, and needs exactly the same training, as has to he gone 
through by all who aspire to excel either in this or in the other departments of 
biology. If we look at the history of our subject, and, without referring to living 
men, recall the names of those who have contributed largely to its progress— 
Haller, Linnzeus, Blumenbach, Cuvier, Johannes Miiller, William Lawrence, and 
John Goodsir at once stand out prominently, not only as accomplished anthro- 
pologists, but as men well versed in a wide range of biological study. Those who 
are conversant with anthropological literature will, I doubt not, have little diffi- 
culty in calling to remembrance various writings in which errors, not only in the 
description of objects, but in the general conclusions arrived at from their exam- 
ination, would have been avoided, if the previous training of the authors had been 
of a wider nature; if they had fully appreciated the import of the processes of 
growth and development, nay, even the aberrations from the normal state through 

athological changes occurring during embryo, or adult life, to which man is sub- 
ject in common with other vertebrates. 

It is, I trust, needless for me to enlarge further on this topic, so that we may 
next proceed to inquire briefly into the part which an anthropological department 
may play in the proceedings of the British Association. ‘In societies devoted solely 
to the consideration of anthropological questions, and acting as independent bodies, 
such as the Anthropological Institute of London, or the corresponding Society in 
Paris, all the subjects included within and constituting the Science of man natu- 
rally fall within the scope of inquiry, and come under discussion as opportunity 
offers, But in this department of the Association we have not that complete in- 
dependence of action which these societies possess. We are only members of a 
still larger body, and the function which we perform must be duly subordinated 
to the common good; and owing to our recent introduction into the programme 
of its proceedings, much of the ground which many would consider we were fairly 
entitled to cover, has been largely preoccupied by other and older departments. 
As the physical aspects of our subject are based on anatomy and physiology, many 
of the papers on the structure and function of the human body and its constituent 


—— a 


. \ ae" 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. * 147 


parts may doubtless be claimed by the Department of Anatomy. To other papers, 
in which comparisons are instituted between human and animal structure, the Zoo- 
logists may consider they have a title. To some extent also the habits of man 
and numerous important questions of a social nature are discussed in the Section 
of Economic Science and Statistics. The time when man first appeared on the 
face of the earth, the formations in which his remains and those of contemporary 
animals are found, may come under the consideration of the Geologists. As our 
subjects therefore dovetail so intimately with these other Sections of the Asso- 
ciation, questions may occasionally arise whether eda submitted for perusal 
come more appropriately within their province or within ours. Probably the most 
satisfactory mode of solving this difficulty would be for the different Sections con- 
cerned to come to a common understanding that all papers which treat of the ori- 
gin, varieties, and progress of mankind should be forwarded to this department. 

Again, if a separate Ethnological Department or subsection were formed, as has 
been suggested, or even if ethnological papers were read, as was for so many years 
the case in the Geographical Section, not only would all these communications on 
the characteristics of the different varieties of man, or their distribution over the 
globe, but even papers on comparative philology, and on questions appertaining to 
the early history of man, and to his primitive culture, in all probability be subtracted. 
from our proceeding. Without doubt, all ethnic questions form an integral part of 
anthropological study, for ethnology is one of those subjects which form the ground- 
work of our science; and as it is an axiom that the whole is greater than and in- 
cludes the part, all these questions naturally fall to be discussed in this department, 
and should not be divorced from their natural allies. The decision of the General 
Committee that the ethnological papers should be transmitted to this department 
was but to restore them to the place they originally occupied in the proceedings of 
the Association, for in its early years ethnology was a subdivision of Section D. 
The brief history of this department teaches us that its struggle for existence has 
been a severe one. It was only after the dissociation of the ethnological papers 
from the Geographical Section that our proceedings acquired much vitality, and 
to remove them from us now would be a severe blow to our usefulness. 

After recommending the Antiquarian Museum to the attention of visitors, Pro- 
fessor Turner concluded as follows :—As the “ noblest study of mankind is man,” 
the subjects which come within the scope of our inquiries in this department are 
amongst the most important In which a body of scientific men can be engaged. 
Let us approach their consideration with a spirit of due humility and reverence ; 
let our discussions be so regulated that our desire may be, not to attain merely a 
personal victory in argument, but, if possible, to get at the truth. And if we claim 
to be called anthropologists, let not men say of us that our right to be so regarded 
is rather owing to our proficiencies, in the old Aristotelian meaning of the term, as 
discussors of persons—mere gossips—than to our qualifications as patient and 
humble students of the great science of human nature. 


On the Anthropology of the Merse. By Joux Benvon, M.D. ge, 


The Merse is the low country of Berwickshire. Its ethnological history is pretty 
nearly that of the county of Northumberland, with certain variations, which have 
introduced a little more of the Gaelic and Scandinavian elements. The people are 
stalwart and bully in a remarkable degree ; a number of the pure breed averaged 
5 feet 112 inches with shoes, and 199 Ibs. with clothes. Their heads are large and 
well developed. The prevailing physical types may be referred to the Anglian and 
Scandinayian. The hair and eyes are generally light. The fishermen of Hye- 
mouth are a separate breed; they also are very fair, and resemble Dutchmen or 


_ Norwegians. Changes in the food of the peasantry (who are giving up oatmeal 


and milk) and intermixture of blood, may have an unfavourable influence on the 
physical development of the next generation. 


—— 


10* 


148 ~ pEPORT—1871. 


On Degeneration of Race in Britain. By Joun Bevpox, M.D. ° 


While he allowed that in some classes, and particularly in the upper classes ot 
townspeople, the conditions of life were on the whole improving, and that the opera- 
tion oF the Factory Acts had checked the progress of physical degeneration among 
manufacturing operatives, the author was of opinion that, on the whole, the agencies 
tending to promote degeneration were more powerful than the countervailing ones. 
Among them were the great increase of town population, the relative or eyen ab- 
solute diminution cf the inhabitants of rural districts, the increased demand for female 
and youthful labour, and for labour of a nocturnal or otherwise exhausting kind. He 
did not think the food of the people improved proportionately with the rise of wages. 
The disuse of milk among the poor of large towns and some dairy districts was a 
ereat evil, and might have to do with the growing deterioration of teeth. England, 
the richest and most advanced of the four British countries, had been shown b 
Edward Smith to be the worst fed, so far as regarded the working classes. 

Dr. Beddoe’s opinions were based in great measure on the results of certain 
weighings and measurements executed by his correspondents in various parts of 
the country, and he was anxious to add to the number of these correspondents, and 
to obtain more data of a similar kind. 


- On Le Sette Communi, a German Colony in the neighbourhood of Vicenza. 
By Dr. Cuarnocr, F.S.A, 


After referring to theories as to the origin of Le Sette Communi, the author of 
the paper showed that they settled in Italy temp. Theodoric, king of the Ostro- 
goths. The population amounts to 25,500. The people are principally engaged in 
breeding cattle. At the present day quite two thirds of them would seem to he 
neither of German nor of mixed origin, but are pure Italians, and speak Italian, 
Even the rest of the people (many of whom have intermazried with Italians) bear 
a greater resemblance to the latter than to the Germans. Dr. Charnock never- 
theless noticed many people with fair hair and German features. This was espe- 
cially the case among the women. The people are simple in their manners, and 
honest, but are poor, dirty, ignorant, and superstitious. No cases of goitre or 
cretinism, and no peculiarity of dress were observed. The dialect resembles the 
Oberdeutsch of the 15th century, and the language still spoken by the mountain- 
dwellers of the Schlier and Tegern. The author made some remarks on the gram- 
mar, and the paper concluded with a vocabulary of some of the most important 
words, and a specimen of the Lord’s Prayer, which Dr. Charnock compared with 
that of Le Tredici Communi. 


On the Physical, Mental, and Philological Characteristics of the Wallons. 
By Dr. Cuarnocr, F.S.A., and Dr. Carrer Brake. 


The ordinary Wallons stand in the same relation to Belgium as the Izish pea- 
sants do to the “Sassenach” of England. They are usually jovial, good-natured, 
generous, hospitable, chaste, poor, quarrelsome, and superstitious, like the Irish; and 
thus evince their Keltic descent. They are tough, rough, and hardy, and make 
excellent soldiers. The Spanish armies in the Pays-Bas were made up of Wallons. 
As eyidence of their peculiar character, a Wallon will drag a pig from Namur to 
Ghent, Bruges, or Antwerp, to gain a few sous more than he could in his own district. 
The character of the people ditlers somewhat in each district. Those of Liége are 
very lively, spiritual, and laborious ; those of Namur proud and coarse. The Wal- 
lons of Lower Pomerania stand even lower than those of Namur. Among the 
Wallons of Liége, even the women are renowned for their strength, industry, and 
energy. Like the men, they do the hardest kind of work, as coal-drawing, and 
towing the Meuse boats; and the Germans style Liége “ Holle der Frauen.” The 
Wallon dialect is rich in metaphors, witty in expression, boldly figurative, and full 
of onomatopeeias. Generally speaking, it may be said that the Wallon is a spo- 
ken, not a written language. The pronunciation differs in different localities; and 
such are the modifications of accentuation, that almost every village has its own 


SE— ee 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, Grr 
manner of expression. Measurements vu. __ Re ; ed that a greater 
amount of dolichocephaly was attained in t 2 NOT Saal aie other TKeltic 
race, except the Kerry Ivish. 


On an Inscribed Stone at Newhaggard, in the County of Meath. 
By Kvernt A. Conwett, LL.D., MBIA. 


The author stated that the stone, of which a rough drawing of the natural size 
was exhibited, lies in a field near the river Boyne, belonging to J. Youell, Esq. 
The stone is a block of Old Red Sandstone, 2 ft. llin. x 2 ft. 10in.x1ft.8in. It 
is known in the neighbourhood by the name of “the Giant’s finger-stone.” It is 
now 115 yards from a circular earthen encampment, which the author described. 

' There are characters on all of its surfaces which the author believes to be cut, 
and not punched, The author is not able to give any interpretation of these 
markings, 


On the Origin of the Domestic Animals of Europe. 
By W. Bory Dawns, 1.A., /.BS., F.GS. 


None of them date so far back as the Quaternary age. The sheep, goat, small- 
horned ox (Bos longifrons), the domestic horse, the dog, the tamed wild boar, and 
the turf-hog, to which all the European swine can be traced, appeared in Europe 
at the same time in the Neolithic age. He argued that they were probably derived 
from the East, and imported by a pastoral people from the central plateau of Asia. 
The evidence afforded on the point by the southern forms of vegetation found along 
with this group of animals in the Swiss lakes adds considerable weight to this view. 


_In Britain, down to the time of the English invasion, there was no evidence of any 


larger breed of oxen than the small short-horned Bos longifrons ; the larger breed of 
the Urus type were probably imported by the English, and is represented in the 
present day in its purity by the white-bodied, red-eared Chillingham ox. In the 
course of the discussion Dr. Sclater fully agreed with the views of the speaker as 
to the eastern origin of our domestic animals, since the Hast is the only region in 
which the wild ancestors of the domestic breeds are now found. 


On the attempted Classification of the Paleolithic Age by means of the 
Mammalia. By W. Born Dawxins, W.A., LBS, F.GS. 


The late eminent French naturalist, M. Lartet, acting on an @ prion? considera- 
tion, has attempted to divide up the Paleolithic age into four distinct periods. 
“ Lage du grand ours des cavernes, l’age de l’éléphant et du rhinocéros, lage du 
renne, et lage de l’aurochs.” The very simplicity of this system has made it 

opular. There are, however, two fatal objections to this mode of classification. 
the first place, nobody could expect to find the whole Quaternary fauna buried 

in one spot. One animal could not fail to be better represented in one locality than 
another, and therefore the contents of the cave- and river-deposits must always 
have been different. The den of a hyzena could hardly be expected to afford pre- 
cisely the same animals as a cave which had been filled with bones by the action 
of water. It therefore follows that the very diversity which M. Lartet insists upon 
as representing different periods of time, must necessarily have been the result of 
different animals occupying the same area at the same time. In the second place, 
M. Lartet has not advanced a shadow of proof as to which of these animals was 
the first to arrive in Europe. - From the fact that the glacial period was colder 
than the quaternary, it is probable that the arctic mammalia, the mammoth, woolly 
rhinoceros, and the reindeer arrived here before the advent of the cave-bear. Itis 
undoubtedly true that they died out one by one, and it is very probable that they also 
came in gradually. The fossil remains from the English caves and river-deposits, 
as, for instance, those of Kent’s Hole or Bedford, prove only that the animals in- 
habited Britain at the same time, and do not in the least degree warrant any specu- 
lation as to which animal came here first. Nor does it apply to France or Belgium, 


150 REPORT—1871. 


/ . . . . 
for in the rei e a) countries the four animals in question oce r 
optithred Svat eee of hath reindeer, and the aurochs with the cave-bear. 
In Belgium, indeed, the reindeer was probabiy living in the Neolithic, Bronze, and 
Tron ages, since it lived in the Hercynian forest in the days of Julius Cesar. 


A Gleam of the Saxon in the Weald, By Waurer Denvy. 


On the Relative Ages of the Flint- and Stone-Implement Periods in England, 
By J. W. Fuows:r, F.G.S. 


In this paper, the author, after pointing out the great importance of the subject 


in relation to anthropology, stated that he proposed to show that, having regard” 


to the result of recent researches and observations, the arrangement hitherto usually 
adopted of dividing the stone age into two epochs or periods only (Paleolithic 
and Neolithic) was insufficient, as regards England, and that for the purpose of 
scientific investigation, that which has been called the Paleolithic, might pro- 
perly be subdivided into at least three distinct periods. That upon geological 
grounds, the Drift-implement period must be regarded as remote by a vast in- 
terval from the Bone-cave period, with which it has been classed by Sir Charles 
Lyell and Sir John Lubbock, inasmuch as the gravels and sands which now 
overlie the implement-bearing gravels must certainly have been deposited after 
the implements were formed, and the production of such considerable masses of 
detritus can only have been the work of very extended periods of time, which had 
been conjectured as embracing even 100,000 years. That since these implements 
were made, it was obvious that most important geological changes had occurred, 
and in particular, that during this interval England had ‘been severed from the con- 
tinent of Europe, as the Isle of Wight had been separated from England. That in 
England and in France the gravel in, or under which the implements were found, 
as well as the animal remains found with them, were of precisely the same origin 
and mineral character, and in both countries resting immediately upon the Chalk ; 
and as further evidence that the implements were made before the separation; 
and that thus the two countries were then inhabited, may be noticed the fact, that 
both in the valley of the Somme, and in that of the Little Ouse in Norfolk, the 
implement-bearing beds are overlain by thick deposits of peat, containing precisely 
the same vegetable and animal remains, which in both countries are quite di- 
stinct from those of the Drift, and of a far later date—amongst others, the Beaver, 
Bos longifrons, Roe, Wild Boar, and Red Deer. 

As further evidence of the extreme antiquity of these objects, Mr. Flower also 
drew attention to the circumstance, that hitherto no implement of the true drift- 

pe had been found north-west of a line drawn from the estuary of the Severn 
to that of the Wash, between Norfolk and Lincolnshire, following the Lias escarp- 
ment, and only a little northward of the limit of the Boulder-clay deposit; and he 
suggested it as by no means impossible, that when these implements were made, 
the north of England, and perhaps all Scotland and Wales, were still submerged ; 
and that although the implements were certainly found in Bedfordshire and Norfolk 
lying on Boulder-clay, those districts, not improbably, were elevated, and perhaps 
inhabited very long before the lands now lying to the north-west became habitable. 

The author considered it extremely improbable that either the drift implements 
or the gravels in or under which they are found, if transported by river-action, 
should haye been deposited, as had been commonly supposed, by rivers which 
then ran in the same direction, and drained the same areas as now; inasmuch as 
they have lately been found at such elevations, and in such situations, as to preclude 
the belief that at any period since the surface assumed its present contours, any 
existing rivers could have effected the transport; and in support of this view several 
recent discoveries were referred to. 

He further observed that it seemed by no means certain, as was generally 
believed, that the makers of the flint implements were contemporary with the 
elephants and other animals, with whose remains they were often found asso- 


—_—— oo 


ae ee. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 151 


ciated; proximity does not of necessity imply (although it may suggest) contem- 
poraneity, at least not in deposits of this character. The animal remains were 
undoubtedly transported from some distance, together with the gravel in which 
they are now found, whereas, from various indications which the author specified, 
it seemed evident that the implements were manufactured from stone taken from 
that gravel, and at that time lying exposed upon the surface. 

In order to show that the implements of the Drift were of far greater variety in 
form and use, and much better workmanship than those of later times, Mr. Flower 
exhibited a large series, showing sixteen or eighteen distinct forms; and as evi- 
dencing the palontological distinction between the Drift- and the Cave-periods, 
he stated that while the former contained, so far as at present known with cer- 
tainty, only six genera and seven species, the latter exhibited fourteen additional 
species, comprising the important forms of Hyzena, Wolf, Lion, Badger, Elk, and 
Hare, and thus exhibiting (with one somewhat doubtful exception, that of the 
Cave-bear) the first appearance of Carnivora amongst the postglacial mammals. 

Mr. Flower then adverted to the entire absence from the Drift of any works of 
art other than the implements, whilst the Caves presented numerous forms of 
weapous and tools in bone as well as in stone and flint, only one of which could 
be said to agree with a Drift form; and he added that the Tumulus- or Barrow- 
period, which he considered was the next distinct Stone-period in order of time 
in England, was separated from that of the Caves by an interval of vast duration, 
as indicated by the entire disappearance of the Carnivora and Pachydermata found 
in the caves, and the introduction, by creation (or as some might say by evolu- 
tion), of a Fauna almost entirely new, comprising almost all our domestic animals, 
and in addition the use of bronze, jet, and amber, and other objects indicative of 
a great advance in civilization. 

n conclusion the author expressed his opinion that inasmuch as bronze was 
certainly in use at the same time with the stone implements of both the Paleo- 
lithic and Neolithic types, as evidenced by its presence as well in Celtic tumuli as 
in the megalithic monuments of presumably later date, it could not properly be 
regarded as posterior to either of them, or as representing any distinct epoch; 
and as regarded the Stone-period, he suggested that what had been known as 
the Palzolithic might properly be classified under three heads, viz. Palzolithic, 
to be confined to implements and tools of the Drift; Archaic for the Bone-cave 
objects, and those of like date found on the surface, while the term Prehistoric 
might be used to designate the rude stone flakes and knives &c. found in the 
barrows; the term Neolithic might be applied to all the polished or ground stone 
implements, while the term Bronze might be regarded as common to both that and 
the Archaic period, rather than as representing any distinct era. 


On Centenarian Longevity. By Sir Duncan Giss., Bart., M.D. 


His observations had reference to the physical condition of centenarians, which 
helped to show how they were enabled to reach such a great age. They were 
derived from a comparison of four genuine examples he had himself seen. These 
he hoped to raise to six in a few days by a visit to two others near Edinburgh. Of 
the four, two were males, each 103 years of age, and two females, aged 101 and 
102; the last of the four was still alive. Regarding their age there was no doubt ; 
for he had been as careful on that point as any believer in the questionable asser- 
tion of Sir George Cornewall Lewis that no one ever reached a hundred years. 
The author found in all four the functions of breathing and circulation performed 
with the most complete and perfect integrity, there beine an absence even of those 
changes usually seen as the result of ordinary old age. The chest was well formed 
and of fairly good capacity ; the cartilages of the ribs were not ossified ; the voice 
was good, clear, sonorous, and powerful, though a little cracked and tremulous in 
two—its power depending upon the capacity of the chest and integrity of the 
lungs. The heart (the great organ of the circulation) was quite healthy, and free 
from the chief sources of trouble in old persons—namely, fat or its compounds. 
This circumstance, although it did not prevent moderate calcification of the blood- 


152 -REPORT—1871. 


vessels, yet was a conservator of all the tissues of the body, and especially pre- 
vented the occurrence of those changes which tend to shorten life. There was an ab- 
sence of the atheromatous changes commonly observed in old people. This explained 
the appearance of the countenance in all, and imparted a sort of silvery expression, 
with apparently great toughness of the skin, which the author deemed an essential 
peculiarity in persons over ninety. All the special senses were unimpaired except 
hearing. The eye was clear in all, the sight excellent, ail could read ordinary type 
without spectacles; there was no are or ring round the clear part of the eye, as 
observed in most old people. The sense of smell was good; none smoked, used 
snuff, nor chewed tobacco. . The hearing was somewhat impaired in three; in one 
of the males it was so acute that he could:hear the slightest sound. The mental 
Faculties were active in all, the memory good. The general health was capital in 
all, appetite and digestion good, the latter, indeed, uncommonly strong ; all pos- 
sessed the good, sound teeth they had masticated with when young. From this it 
was readily understood their digestive powers were capital. Taking, then, the 
. condition’of mind and body presented by the four undoubted centenarians, it may 
be said that in all there was an absence of those changes usually observed in per- 
sons approaching the allotted period of threescore and ten. These changes haye 
reference chiefly to the condition of the blood-vessels and other tissues which are 
so seldom found absent. Suffice it to say that complete composure of mind 
throughout life has had much to do with the condition of body permitting the 
attamment of such great longevity; there was no hereditary condition also to 
interfere with nature’s laws under such circumstances. Climate does not seem to 
interfere with longevity, for centenarians are said to be numerous in Russia. . To 
reach that age not only must the constitution be naturally a good and healthy 
one, but all the great functions of life must be performed without any impediment. 
If the special senses are coordinately good, they assist in keeping up the condi- 
tion favourable to longevity. But there is one change antagonistic to extreme 
longevity, and it is the most important one—namely, the predominance of the 
atheromatous element which leads to those changes, in the blood-yessels especially, 
which close life at the natural period. . Simplicity of regimen and avoidance of 
those elements of food which in their assimilation help to bring on those changes 
may ward it off altogether, although the author was not able to make out whether 
the four centenarians he spoke of had been in any way particular on this point. 
In conclusion, he said he believed all centenarians were tired of life, however 
extraordinary it might appear, and were thankful when it pleased God to remove 
them from this world, 


A Note on the Fat Woman exhibiting in London. 
By Sir Duncan Gren, Bart., M.D. 

As a rule, he said, enormously fat women were rare compared with men. 
Caroline Heenan, now exhibiting im London, is twenty-two years old, and weighs 
40 stone, or 560 Ibs.; she is 7 feet round the body, 3 feet 6 inches across the 
shoulders, and 26 inches round the arm. Differing from most fat people, though 
the limbs are very large, they are not exclusively composed of fat, a large pro- 
portion being due to muscular development, which is confirmed by her history 
and actual inspection. The chest and abdomen are of course enormous, but not 
from simple obesity. Her growth and enlargement have been progressive from 
infancy, and. withal she has been able to sustain great muscular exercise that 
would have fatigued ordinary persons, which is opposed to the view of pure 
adipose enlargement. At nine months she weighed 70 lbs., at nine years she was 
11 stone, and at fourteen years 24 stone. She is handsome and pleasing, face not 
fat nor greasy, is highly intelligent, and not in any way drowsy. She will in all 
probability progressively increase as she gets older, and may become the largest 
and heaviest female who has yet been seen, 


Lhe Hereditary Transmission of Endowments and Qualities of different kinds. 
By Guonce Harris, F.S.A. 


. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 153 


The Comparative Longevity of Animals of different Species and of Man, and 
the probable Causes which mainly conduce to promote this difference. By 
Grorce Harris, F.S.A. 


The Adantean Race of Western Europe. By J. W. Jackson. 


On the Anthropology of Auguste Comte. By J. Karyus, M_A.T. ec. 


The sources of this paper are to be found in the chapters on “ Biology ” and 
“ Fetichism” of M. Comte’s ‘ Philosophie Positive’ and in the third chapter of the 
‘Politique Positive.’» The paper itself aimed to show that the differences between 
man and the rest of the animal kingdom were not so great as they are usually 
represented ; nor, in fact, were they so numerous as their resemblances. Treating 
man as the head of the zoological series, it argued that his dominion over animals 
was from primitive times, and is now a moral dominion rather than intellectual. 
Man, he went on to say, was the first of animals—not the last of angels. Zoology 
Imew nothing of angels. "What differences existed between man and animals were 
of degree rather than quality. Both knew want, suffering, and sorrow ; both had 
intellect and moral sense; both were educable by love, both had their likes and 
dislikes, both had to struggle for existence, both-were interested by the same 
sights. . What was new: struck both and perplexed both alike. Both exhibited 
faithfulness, reverence, love, pity, and remorse. There was not wanting evidence 
that both passed through the same intellectual and moral developments. Seeing, 
then, that the animals had so much in common, what had led man to separate himself 
from the animals, to exalt himself above them ?—the possession of reason, while 
the animals had instinct only, some persons might say.- But a little reflection 
would show that man was almost as much a creature of instinct as the other animals, 
A sound biological philosophy made no difference between man and the other ani- 
mals; on the contrary, it sought to trace his genesis from inferior organisms, 
Several species of animals had undoubtedly the speculative faculty, which led to 
a kind of fetichism. The difference was that man had raised himself out of this 
limited darkness, which the brutes had not yet, except a few select animals in 
which a beginning to polytheism might be observed, obtained, no doubt, by asso- 
ciation with man. If, for instance, we exhibited a watch to a child or a savage 
on the one hand, and to a dog and a monkey on the other, there would be no great 
difference in their way of regarding the new object further than their form of 
expression. The author went on to complain that hitherto psychology had limited 
itself to the study of man alone, and even his nature had been regarded only from 
its intellectual side. .The psychology of animals had yet to be studied, and that 
with a desire only to arrive at truth. In concluding, the author urged that it 
was only in so far ‘as all external nature was used by man for moral ends that it 
was rightly used, and that the intellect found its true work in directing his affective 
nature to moral purposes and relations. 


The Lapps. By Dr. R. Kiva. 


The Laplander offers himself for our inspection as the only European who in 
any way represents the Circumpolar tribes. The exact position of the Lapps in 
classification is still an open question. Professor Agassiz classifies them with the 
Esquimaux and Samoiedes. Dr. Prichard, relying upon philological evidence (a 
very unsafe guide when taken alone), maintains that the Lapps are Finns who have 
acquired Mongolian features from a long residence in Northern Europe, but ac- 
cording to Arthur de Capel Brookes, who passed a winter amongst them, the Lap- 
lander and Finn have scarcely a single trait in common. The general physiog- 
nomy of the one is totally unlike that of the other; and no one who has ever seen 
the two could mistake a Finlander for a Laplander. A critical examination of 
three Laplander crania and two casts, contained in the collection of Dr. Morton, 
and a comparison of these with a number of Finnic skulls, convince the author 


154 REPORT—1871. 


that the Laplander cranium should be regarded as a subtypical form, occupying 
the transitionary place between the pyramidal type of the true hyperboreans on 
the one hand, and the globular-headed and square-faced Mongol on the other. 
The Laplander is certainly of low stature, but he is not a pigmy, as he has been 
represented. The stature of the Esquimaux averages 5 feet 7 inches. In En- 
gland the average for the men is 5 feet 6 inches, and in Patagonia 6 feet 2 inches; 
but we have no real measurement of the Lapps. The Laplander is very lean in 
flesh, and has not the fat and bulk of the Esquimaux. A thick head, prominent 
forehead, hollow and blear eyes, short flat nose and wide mouth, characterize the 
Laplander. The hair is thin, short, and shaggy; the beard siragpungs and 
searcely covering the chin, in which respect he assimilates with the Esquimaux. 
The hair of both sexes is black and harsh, the chest broad, and the waist slender. 
He is swift of foot and very strong; so that a bow which a Norwegian can 
scarcely half bend he will draw to the full, the arrow reaching to the head, 
Running races, climbing inaccessible rocks and high trees is the usual exercise. 
Though nimble and strong, he never walks quite upright, but always stooping, a 
habit obtained by frequently sitting in his hut on the ground. The Laplander was 
originally Pagan, full of superstition, and believing in magic and omens, and 
worshipping their chief deity Jumala in a kind of temple in thick remote woods 
not built with walls and roof, but only a piece of ground fenced as were the old 
Roman temples, until the planting of Christianity in the time of Ladulaus Magnus 
in the year 1277—a Christianity differing, however, from Paganism only in name, 
until the founding of a school by Gustavus Adolphus in 1631, to which the Lap- 
landers owe their progress in the knowledge and love of the Christian religion, 
which appears from the many useful and eminent persons bred there. The author 
described at length their marriage ceremonies. They may be called a moral race, 
Polygamy and divorce are unknown. It is unlawful to marry too near in blood. 
The author stated that their families are small, rarely exceeding three. The 
author then described their mode of bringing up young children from their earliest 
years. Wexionius is of opinion that the Swedes gave the “Lapp” their name 
from their wearing skins, but lapper and skin-lapper do not properly signify skins. 
Nieuren derives their name from their coming into Swedeland every year with 
rags lapt about them, which is the signification of Lapp in Greek. 

According to some authors, the inhabitants do not denominate the country, but 
the country the inhabitants, as in the name Norwegian and others, strengthened 
by Olaus Magnus, who calls them Lappomanni, Westmanni, and Sudermanni, in 
which words manni signifying men, they were called Lappomanni, 7.c. Men of Lappia. 
Others say that the name of the country is derived from Lappu, which in the 
Fimnonick language is Furthermost, because it lies in the furthest part of Scandi- 
nayia. On this point Lehrberg agrees. Ibre derives it from Lop or Lapp, an 
old Swedish et for wizard or enchanter. 

The domestication of the Reindeer and the use of a drum, which is elaborately 
engraved with birds, animals, and celestial bodies, and is practised incessantly for 
the purpose of foretelling events, characterize this people from most of the cireum- 
polar family. 


On Megalithic Circles. By Lieut.-Col. Forms Lestre. 


This paper is intended in refutation of the theory that all megalithic circles 
were primarily and exclusively sepulchral; and, on the contrary, to show that the 
great circular monuments were erected or occupied for religious ceremonies by 
successive generations of the early races of Britain. Although it is not improbable 
that these ceremonies were connected with the funeral rites of the dead, whose 
barrows or cairns, sometimes surrounded by “ standing stones,” were raised around 
or within sight of the fane by which they were attracted. 

The description of the great methalithic circles of England and Aberdeenshire, 
were illustrated by diagrams to show the peculiarities of construction which dis- 
tinguish monuments designed for religious ceremonies from “ standing stones” 
which defined or dignified a place of sepulture. 

In proof that the same sites were occupied, and the same megalithic masses 


————— 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 155 


were used by successive races or generations, it was shown, from the position of 
certain hieroglyphic figures of an ancient type on some members of the circles in 
Aberdeenshire, that they must have been overthrown, and reerected in their present 
form of megalithic circles. : 

The arguments in fayour of the religious object in the great megalithic circles 
were included under the following seven heads :— 

I. They were not places of sepulture, but fanes, temples for heathen worship ; 
for no sepulchral deposits which could rationally be connected with the origin of 
these monuments, had been found within these circles. 

Il. Not being sepulchral, a religious object may be inferred from the position of 
the principal group of monoliths being relative to a particular point of the 
compass. 

. A peculiar type of sculptures, which are not sepulchral, found on members of 
these circles. 

IV. The vast size of some of the circles and of the masses of stone of which they 
are formed. 

VY. Having stone avenues, causeways, or other permanent approaches. 

VI. Being selected as places for worship by early Christians; and being often 
called churches, both in Gaelic and in the lowland Scotch dialect, although no 
Christian church ever occupied their sites. 

VU. In India, stone circles and other megalithic monuments were anciently, and 
now are commonly erected as places of worship. This was emphatically asserted, 
on personal observation and the best authority, not as a doubtful argument, but as 
an undeniable fact, and that the practice existed not in one only, but in many 
districts, some of which were mentioned, as well as the authorities, 


On Ancient Hieroglyphic Sculptures. By Lieut.-Col. Forsrs Lusrim. 


In this paper it is maintained that the hieroglyphics found graven on earth-fast 
rocks, boulders, and rude monoliths in Scotland, are symbols of religious ideas; 
the argument being confined to such figures as are graven in rude monoliths where 
no Christian symbol appears. 

These hieroglyphics are referred to two distinct types, the most ancient of 
which appear to have been the works of a race that was superseded by the Celtic, 
to whom the later type of sculptures may confidently be assigned. 

The ancient type is found in many parts of England and Ireland as well as in 
Scotland, which would lead to the conclusion that a homogeneous people occupied 
the three countries. This type of figures is found profusely scattered on rocks 
where sepulture was impossible, and no connexion with any sepulchral remains has 
been traced. 

The second type of sculptures, although certainly of heathen origin, is evidently 
of a later age. Many of them have been discovered, none, however, beyond the 
a of those districts of Scotland which were occupied by the Celtic tribe of 

icts. 

Tn this paper the author, whilst maintaining the religious origin of the figures 
graven on rude monoliths, combats the theory which would assign their origin to 
a species of Pictish heraldry, and their use to have been as personal ornaments, 


The Origin of the Moral Sense. By the Rev. J. M°Cayn, D.D. 


Is the Stone Age of Lyell and Lubbock as yet at all proven? 
By W. D. Micwett. 


On Bones and Flints found in the Caves at Mentone and in the adjacent 
Railway Cutting. By M. Mocermer. 


The caves of the red rocks, half a mile east of Mentone, are in lofty rocks of 
Jurassic limestone on the shore of the Mediterranean, and at an average height 


156 REPoRI—1871. 


of 100 feet above that sea; the rocks themselves attaining an elevation of 260 feet. 
They have now been repeatedly rifled by the learned or the curious; but when the 
principal cave was nearly intact, the author made a section of it from the modern 
or highest floor down to the solid rock. There were five floors formed in the earth 
by long continued trampling; on each, and near the centre, were marks of fire, 
around which broken bones and flints were abundant, except upon the lowest, 
where but few bones occurred and no flints. The bones were those of animals still 
existing. Few implements were found, but many chips of flint, some cores, and 
stones used as hammers. Perhaps this cave was used as a place for manufacturing 
flints, which must have been carried from their native bed, distant about one mile. 

There is nothing to evince the action of water; on the contrary, the numerous 
stones that occur are all angular, derived apparently from the flaking off of portions 
of the rock,—a slow process, and showing that long periods had elapsed between 
each of those five occupations, and thus evidencing the great antiquity of the 
present European fauna. 

Whatever that antiquity may have been, we now come to still more ancient 
times. 

Below these cayes a slope of about 180 feet descends to the edge of the sea. 
Through the upper part of this slope, at distances from the caves of from 0 to 10 
feet, is a railway-cutting 600 feet long, 54 feet deep, and 60 feet above the sea. 
The mass removed in making this cutting was composed of angular stones, not 
waterworn. Loose at the surface, it soon became a more or less mature breccia 
(specimens were produced), for the most part so hard that it was blasted with gun- 
powder. In this breccia, and at various depths, some of more than 30 feet, the 
author has taken out teeth of the Bear (Ursus speleus) and of the Hyena (Hyena 
spelea), while with and below those teeth he found flints worked by man (spe- 
cimens of teeth and of flints were produced). 

Bones and teeth of other animals also occur, for the naming of which the author 
is indebted to the kindness of Mr. Busk, who says that they are almost identical 
with those found in the Gibraltar caves. 

At the eastern end of the cutting described the railroad passes through a tunnel, 
emerging close to the sea, and near to what is known as the Roman bridge. Here 
in sinking for the foundation of a sea-wall, bones and teeth were discovered, but 
not under such satisfactory conditions as at the western side of the tunnel, since 
the stones were loose and some of them rounded. 

Still following the line of the railway to the east, at half a mile a deep cutting 
occurs through stiff clay, the result of the washing down of the hill-side. In this, 
at a depth of 65 feet, the author took out the frontal bone and part of the antlers 
of a large stag (produced). They were perfect, but in such a state that he could 
save only the parts. 

A few feet off, and on the same horizon, were these teeth of Ursus speleus, 
marvellously well preserved when we consider the time that must have been re- 
quired for the accumulation of 65 feet of solid ground ; and that not in a hollow or 
a river’s bed, but on the gently sloping side of a hill. 

The author suggested that the section of the cave evidences the great antiquity 
of the present Huropean fauna, while the teeth of the Cave Bear and Hyzena found 
with worked flints some 80 feet deep in solid breccia, add to the proofs hitherto 
adduced that those beasts were really contemporary with man, 


- Note on a Cross traced upon a Hill at Cringletie, near Peebles. 
By J. Worre Murray. 


On Ancient Modes of Sepultivre in the Orkneys. By Guorer Purrin. 


The author stated that sepulchral mounds are very numerous in the Orkneys. 
Generally they occupy elevated situations which command a view of the sea, or of 
a lake, or of both, ea the latter was attainable. They stand singly or in groups, 
or are arranged in a straight line. Occasionally they appear as twin barrows. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 157 


They differ greatly in size, and there is also much diversity in their internal ar- 
rangements. In some of the barrows eee rare exceptions, are of the bowl- 
shape) human skeletons have been found in kists, either lying extended at full 
length, or on the right or left side in a flexed posture: in one case the skeleton 
was in a sitting posture. It is not uncommon to find interments both by inhuma- 
tion and cremation in the same barrow, and even in the same kist. 

Graves or kists unconnected with barrows are not unfrequently met with, but 
they are only accidentally discovered. If barrows formerly existed over any of 
them, they have long since disappeared. 

Some of the largest barrows contained only a small quantity of fragments of 
burnt bones, or ashes lying about the centre of the barrow, either on a flat stone, 
or imbedded in a greasy-looking clay. In others the burnt bones and ashes lay on 
the natural surface of the soil beneath a small cairn of stones, over which clay had 
been heaped to complete the mound. A third class contained one or more kists, 
usually of flagstone set on edge, either wholly undressed, or more or less rudely 
fitted together. The kists, which average about 23 feet in length and 13 foot in 
width and depth, are found to contain either burnt bones or ashes, or cinerary urns 
of stone or fire-baked clay, in which the bones or ashes have been deposited. Few 
stone or bronze weapons are found in the barrows or kists, and personal ornaments 
are still more rarely met with. The urns are usually very rude. 

’ Two human skeletons were found near Kirkwall in a stone kist underneath a 
barrow ; both were in the flexed posture. One was on its right side with its head 
close to. one end of the kist, and the other lay on its left side at the opposite end. 
The skull of the first-mentioned skeleton has been described by Dr. J. Barnard 
Dayis as presenting all the characteristic features of the Ancient Briton; the other 
skull was of a greatly inferior type, more square in outline and remarkably thick. 
A large kist was discovered in another locality in Orkney, also containing two 
human skeletons lying similarly to those already described, and presenting the 
same characteristic differences. In each case the skeleton of lowest type appeared 
to have been rudely treated and recklessly thrust into the kist, while great care 
had evidently been taken with the other skeleton found beside it. The whole ap- 
earance of the skeletons and their arrangement in the kists suggested the question, 
ere the squat skeletons with the short thick skulls those of slaves or captives 
who had been slain and placed beside their masters? and have we in them dis- 
covered traces of an aboriginal race of colonists of the Orlmeys, alin to the Fins 
or Esquimaux, whose snow houses the so-called Picts’-houses so closely resemble in 
form and structure, making due allowance for the difference between the materials 
employed in their construction ? 

There is another class of tumuli in Orlmey known as “ Picts’-houses,”’ They 
usually resemble the Bowl-barrows externally, but when examined the so-called 
“ Pict’s-house” is found to be a mass of building, generally circular at the base, 
containing in its centre several small chambers or cells surrounding a larger cham- 
ber. Lach cell is connected by a low short passage with the central chamber, and 
from the latter a passage extends to the outside of the structure, which is cireum- 
seribed by a low wall or facing, generally about 2 feet in height. The walls of 
each chamber converge till at the top or roof they are only a foot or two apart, 
and the opening is covered in by flagstones placed across it. Occasionally human 
skeletons have been found in such buildings; but most archzologists were of opi- 
nion that the Picts’-houses were not sepulchral. The opening of Maes-how in 
Stenness, and especially of a chambered mound in its neighbourhood, showed, how- 
ever that they had been used as tombs, as Mr. Petrie had supposed. A subsequent 
discovery of a “ Pict’s-house”’ within the ruins of a “ Brough,” or Round Tower, 
containing human skeletons along with bones of the Ox, Sheep, &c., and two rude 
stone implements of peculiar form, afforded still more conclusive evidence of the 
sepulchral character of the “ Picts’-houses,” and proved beyond a doubt that, even if 
- originally erected as dwellings, they had subsequently been used as chambered tombs. 
It would be premature at present, Mr. Petrie observed, to attempt to determine the 
age of the “ Picts’-houses,” but the “ Broughs,” with which they appear to be in- 
timately connected, were undoubtedly existing merely as ruined buildings, and in 
many instances presenting externally only the appearance of huge barrows, when 


158 REPORT—1871. 


the Norsemen invaded the islands in the ninth century. The last class received from 
the Norsemen the name of “Hoi,” or gravemound (now called “ Howe”), and 
the former, in which the structures were still visible, were known as ‘“ Bjorgs” 
(“Broughs”). So far as has yet been ascertained, the discovery of iron implements 
has been limited to the ruins known as “ Broughs,” which appear to have been 
known to, and in some cases occupied by, the Norsemen. The mounds which bear 
the name of “Howe,” and have, when opened, been found to conceal the remains 
of “ Broughs,” have yielded only stone, bone, and afew bronze relics, Mr. Petrie 
referred to one of those mounds near Kirkwall, in which he lately found Roman 
silver coins of the Emperors Vespasian, Hadrian, and Antoninus Pius. 

Details were given of various akan es and kists and of their contents, and the 
descriptions were illustrated by diagrams. 


On an Expedition for the Special Investigation of the Hebrides and West 
Highlands, in search of Evidences of Ancient Serpent-Worship. By 
Joun S. Puent, F.G.S., F.R.GS., Member of the British Archeological 


Association. 


The author commenced by stating that he felt bound to give the grounds for his 
assertion, made at the last Meeting of the British Association at Liverpool, that 
he had met with evidences of serpent-mounds and constructions identical with 
those of Ohio and Wisconsin. 

Impressed with the idea that if serpent-worship had been a feature in the early 
religion of these lands some evidences must still remain, he organized a party for 
searching such localities in the Hebrides and West Highlands as had not been ex- 
amined with that object, nor had come under the attention of the theorists for 
serpent-worship, such as Dr. Stukeley and Sir R. C. Hoare ; the party was unbiassed, 
and former theories strictly avoided. It became purely a matter of survey of exist- 
ing relics that was undertaken. 

The paper was very fully illustrated by diagrams, and the author first drew at- 
tention to one representing three outlines of animal forms, two being earthen 
mounds, taken from the elaborate surveys in Wisconsin by J. A. Lapham, Hsq., 
and the third the stone foundation of a “bo'h” in South Uist, in a work by Capt. 
F. L. W. Thomas, R.N. Though the purposes and materials were different, the 
designs clearly demonstrated the fact that the early inhabitants of Britain and 
America made constructions in the forms of animals. From this he proceeded to 
the earliest pottery, and by his diagrams showed the great similarity between that 
of the earliest British and American, from a sepulchral urn in the Ashmolean 
Museum, Oxford, and one taken from a mound at Racine, on Lake Michigan, by 
Dr. P. R. Hoy, with a similar specimen obtained from Berigonium, and which was 
on the table. Instances also of cremative burial, and of whole skeletons in the 
sitting posture, in both countries, clearly indicated a unity of custom. Having, 
he thought, established these points, he proceeded to trace the course of serpent- 
worship from the east; he related some of his own experiences of that worship in 
India, tStlawred. it through Egypt to Greece, pointing out that some of the myths 
covered its struggles with the more intellectual religion of that country, as the de- 
struction of the Python by Apollo, the strangling of serpents by Hercules, and the 
relapse of Laocoon and his two sons into the grosser rites, and their consequent 
epee ye Having traced the spread of this worship and its course westward 

e next drew special attention to the construction of earthen mounds and tumuli 
in America and Britain: he quoted from Messrs. Lapham and Squier’s surveys, 
that natural mounds were adapted artificially to peculiar purposes ; at Lapham’s 
Peak three artificial mounds were found, of stone and earth, on the lofty summit ; 
the material had been conveyed by great labour; the hill on which the “Great 
Serpent Mound” of Mr. Squier is placed had been “ cut out, evidently to adapt it 
to the form desired to be constructed.” In the ‘ Annals of Cambridge’ a tumulus 
in the Gogmagog Hills was formed by layers of different soils, each totally unlike 
the soil of the neighbourhood, and brought by great labour from remote distances, 
The Castle Hill at Cambridge is a British tumulus raised on a preexisting natural 


4 


“~ ty a 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 159 


elevation. The Eildon Hills have similar artificial adaptations; and the author 
had himself traced the different soils of the tumulus in the greater Cumbrae, and 
the hollows whence they were brought. He referred to the artificial swmmit of 
the Dragon Hill, at Uffington Castle, Berks, and suggested that the White Horse 
and the sculptured rocks at Ilkley were British delineations. After these evidences 
of adaptation, he described the serpent, lizard, and alligator mounds of Messrs. 
Squier aid Lapham, which contain oval works towards the head, and evidences of 
altars and fire within them. He then showed by diagrams several mounds that he 
identified as corresponding with these, some even in minute details ; he referred to 
examples in Arran, in Monteviot Park, in which latter, towards the south and east 
of what he considered the site of an altar, he discovered human remains, and finally 
dwelt on a serpentine mound in Argyleshire several hundred feet long, and about 
15 feet high by 30 broad, tapering gradually to the tail, the head being formed by 
a circular cairn, the centre of which had evidently been occupied by a megalithic 
structure, which he considered an altar, the large stones of which were lying 
round the base of the cairn. He could not of course adduce direct evidences of the 
worship of the serpent, but it had been traced as coexistent with sun-worship in 
America, where these evidences of the serpent were found; and discovering similar 
remains in Britain, which retains many indications of sun-worship, and as these 
two forms of worship went almost hand in hand in other countries, he considered 
himself justified in concluding that he had found examples of it here also, drawing 
attention to the variety and beauty of the specimens of early British art on the 
table to show the care and extent of his explorations. 


On some indications of the Manners and Customs of the carly Inhabitants of 
Britain, deduced from the Remains of their towns and villages. By JouN 
8. Puent, /.GS., LR.GS., Member of the British Archeological Asso- 
ciation. 


The author drew attention to two prominent points, viz. the universality of 
the circle, curve, or oval in all the earliest British remains; and the similarity of 
the physics of the various localities where British towns are still traceable. He 
selected the widely separated positions of Greaves Ash, in the Cheviot Hills, Stand- 
lake, near Oxford, and Tolsford Hill, near Saltwood Castle, Kent; and after showing 
that the same features existed in each of these, although some of the settlements 
were formed by excavations and some by erections; after referring for examples 
to the camps, forts, towns, and individual dwellings,—ormaments, as fibule, beads, 
amulets,—articles of domestic use, as the quern,—and to the cup- and ring-marks 
on the incised stones of Northumberland, New Grange, Ilkley, and elsewhere, he 
argued that though divided into clans and tribes, yet that these were originally 
but divisions of one people, as the idea could not be entertained that at the time 
of these formations, with many of the tribes separating the people of such remote 
districts, to say nothing of their frequent hostility, different races should have 
assimilated so much, more especially with interrupted, or indeed no direct com- 
munications. He did not, however, mean that this prejudiced the question of 
cooccupation by a foreign and immigrating, or even preoccupying race, at that time 
being distinct and unamalgamated with the mass of the people. Assuming these 
evidences conclusive, he proceeded to compare the constructions with others at a 
still wider range, selecting in Britain the extreme points of the Hebrides, Caernar- 
yonshire, and Cornwall, and giving examples in the Alps, in Sicily, and even in the 
wilderness near Mount Sinai, of similar designs; illustrating his arguments by ori- 
ginal drawings made by special permission from articles in the Ashmolean Museum 
at Oxford, and from those of the Palestine Exploration Fund, &c. Referring to 
the physical features of the localities he had described in Britain, he pointed out 
the prevalence of the conical hill tewards the east of such settlements, with a 
flowing stream dividing the one from the other, as in the cases of the Breamish 
flowing between Greaves Ash and the Ingram and Reaveley Hills, the Thames 
between Standlake and the Beacon Hill, and the stream between Tolsford Hill 
and Cesar’s Camp. Where localities had not the desired features, or they were 


160 nerport—1871. 


not sufficiently prominent, art was had recourse to, as in the Castle Hill at Cam- 
bridge, Silbury Hill, &. He considered these, evidences of the custom of worship 
on the tops of such mountains, from their orientation, and recalled the fact of many 
mountains still bearing names indicative of Baal- or Sun-worship ; that the flowing 
stream formed a division of sanctification or purity ; that each settlement had its 
hill of worship, and that the modern church-spires of the plains had replaced the 
aspiring flame which once ascended from the several tribal districts or divisions 
of our land; and that on or near these places of previous occupancy were founded 
our oldest cities. 

" Fyom the juxtaposition of ancient British pottery, where large and small urns 
were found together, from the lateral perforations of both, distinct from perfora- 
tions for suspension (an example of which in the possession of Professor Rolleston 
at Oxford has these perforations less than two inches from the bottom of an wm of 
the larger kind), from the material found in the small urns differing from that in 
the large, and in one case being a mummified heart-shaped body, he concluded 
that the preservation of the heart in the small urn was also a custom with these 
ancient people. 


Discovery of Flint Implements in Egypt, at Mount Sinai, at Galgala, and in 
Joshua's Tomb. By the Asb& Ricwarp. 


— 


On Skulls presenting Sagittal Synostosis. By Professor SrrutuErs. 


On Implements found in King Arthur’s Cave, near Whitchurch. 
By the Rey. W. 8. Symonns, ILA., F.GS. 


On Human and Animal Bones and Flints from a Cave at Oban, Argyleshire. 
By Professor TuRNER. 


All who are acquainted with the topography of Oban, Argyleshire, will re- 
member that immediately behind the houses, which extend in a long row parallel 
to the sea-beach, an almost perpendicular wall of rock rises to a considerable height. 

At the north end of the bay, near Burn Bank House, the rock rises abruptly 
from the road to the height of a little more than 40 feet. Ivy, mountain-ash, and 
black-thorn grew out of the chinks in the upper part of the face of the precipice. 
A bank of earth sloped from the road, at an angle of about 45°, halfway up the 
face of the rock. Growing out of this bank were several beach trees, none of which 
had attained any great size; the diameter of the root of the largest was not more 
than 18 inches. 

In the summer of 1869, workmen in the employ of Mr. John Mackay, of Oban, 
were engaged in quarrying the north-west face of the rock for building purposes, 
and after penetrating about 15 feet into the substance of the rock, they opened 
into the deeper end of a cave filled with earth in which a number of bones were 
found. On the removal of more of the rock and of the bank of earth from its 
south-eastern aspect, the cave was more fully exposed, and the position and di- 
rection of its original entrance were ascertained. 

The rock was a dull purple micaceous sandstone, through which ran thin part- 
ings of green sandy shale, and belongs, as my colleague Professor Geile tells me, 
to an outlying area of the Old Red Sandstone. 

The cave consisted of a chamber and an entrance-passage. The chamber was 11 
feet high and the same in depth. The entrance-passage was 4 feet high and 9 feet 
long, and sloped from the entrance down to the floor of the chamber, which it 
joined at a decided angle. The mouth of the cave was thus higher than the floor 
of the chamber. It faced to the south, and about 20 feet in thickness of an em- 
bankment of earth had to be removed before the entrance was exposed. The cave 
was almost filled up with earth, in which were found numerous bones and flints. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 161 


The bones had no definite arrangement, but lay in the earth in an irregular manner. 
The floor of the caye was formed of solid rock, its walls were on much of their 
surface lined by a white calcareous deposit, 1 to 2 inches in thickness. In the roof 
of the cave was a fissure, widened out below, but which higher up was so narrow 
as to admit little more than the blade of a knife. The oar within the cave was 
moist, and it is probable that water had percolated into the cave through the fis- 
sure in the roof, and that the calcareous lining had been deposited from it. For 
my information respecting this cave I am indebted to Mr. Mackay, though several 
of the points I have referred to I was able to confirm from a personal examination 
of the locality made in October last. The bones were transmitted to me by 
Mr. Mackay, and were as follows :— 

The skull and greater part of the skeleton of an adult man, Unfortunately the 
skull was broken to pieces before it came into my possession, so that it is not pos- 
sible for me to describe it. I may state, however, that the superciliary ridges were 
well marked, the lower jaw was powerful, the palatal arch was deep. The teeth 
were partially worn but not ground flat on the surfaces of the crowns, and they 
exhibited no decay. The tibia, femur, and humerus possessed some peculiarities 
inform. A second human skeleton was situated about one yard from the adult, 
From the characters of the skull and of the dentition, it is obviously that of a 
youth about eight or nine years of age. 

The animal bones were mostly those of mammals, but a few bird’s bones were 
also found. They consisted of the teeth, jaws, and long bones of the roe and red 
deer, Skulls and other bones of the common dog. . Skulls and other bones of 
foxes. Skulls and other bones of a species of Mustela. The humerus and ulna 
of an otter. Bones of the limbs of the hare. Skull of an Arvicola, A large 
number of the long bones of the red deer, which have been split into fragments, in 
all probability for the ready extraction of the marrow. -No human bones were found 
splitin this manner. Fragments of calcined bones, Shells of limpets. Fragments 
of granite and water-worn pebbles. A number of flint nodules and flint chips 
and implements. Some of the nodules are partially chipped, as if in process of 
being converted into implements. The nodules are small, and the implements 
formed from them are necessarily small also. Is it not possible that the differ- 
ences in the size of flint implements met with in different localities may be due to 
the fact that flint nodules vary in size in different places, and that the men of the 
period had to make their implements of a size such as the materials at their dis- 
posal permitted? The most perfect of these implements have sharp edges all 
round, they are comparatively flattened, and in no instance possessed a length of 
3 inches, or a greater thickness than about half an inch. 

As flint is by no means a common material in Scotland, I was desirous of obtain- 
ing from the most competent authority information on the nearest locality from 

_ which they could have been obtained. My colleague, Prof. Geikie, writes me: “A 
few years ago I found a bed (20 feet thick) of chalk flints underlying the great 
basalt cliffs of Carsaig, on the south shores of the island of Mull. Thisis, I believe, 
the nearest point to Oban from which flint could be brought.’ 

I think that the examination of the various objects found in this cavern leads to 
the conclusion that it had been used as the habitation of man; for we have not 
only the remains of man himself, the animals on which he fed, the dog which he, 
without doubt, employed to aid him in the chase, but the implements which he used, 
and the raw material out of which those implements were manufactured ; further, 
charred remains, which indicate that he had employed fire to cook his food. The 
great thickness of the embankment of earth in front of the mouth of the caye leads 
me to think thatit had been closed up by a great landslip of the loose earth from the 
summit of the cliff’ Perhaps the human inhabitants had been buried alive in their 
cayernous dwelling-place, 

It is well known that not only in Scotland, but in various parts of the globe, caves 
have been used, and, indeed, in some localities are still used, as human habitations. 
What the exact age of these remains may be it may be difficult to say, but the 
association of flint implements with the human and animal bones points to a con- 

- siderable antiquity. 


1871. 11 


162 REPORT—1871. 


On Man and the Ape. By C. Sranttanp Wax, Director of the 
Anthropological Institute. 


In this paper the author referred to the agreement in physical structure of man 
and the ape, and to the fact that the latter possessed the power of reasoning, with 
all the faculties necessary for its due exercise. It was shown, however, that it was 
incorrect to affirm that man has no mental faculty other than what the ape possesses. 
He has a spiritual insight or power of reflection which enabled him to distinguish 
qualities and to separate them as objects of thought from the things to which they 
belong. All language is in some sense the result of such a process, and its exgrcise 
by even the most uncivilized peoples is shown in their having words denoting 
colours. The possession by man of the faculty of insight or reflection is accom- 

anied by a relative physical superiority. The human brain of man is much larger 
than that of the ape, and he has also a much more refined nervous structure, with 
a naked skin. The author observed that the size of the brain was the only physical 
fact absolutely necessary to be accounted for, and this could not be done by the 
hypothesis of natural selection. Mr. Wallace’s reference, on the other hand, to a 
creative will, really undermines Mr. Darwin’s whole hypothesis. After referring to 
the theories of Mr. Murphy and Haeckel, the author stated that the only way to 
explain man’s origin, consistently with his physical and mental connexion with the 
ape, is to suppose that nature is an organic whole, and that man is the necessary 
result of itsevolution, While, therefore, man is derived from the ape as supposed 
by Mr. Darwin, it is under conditions very different from those his hypothesis re- 
quires. According to this, the appearance of man on the earth must have been in 
a certain sense accidental; while, according to the author’s view, organic nature 
could only have been evolved in the direction of man, who is the necessary result 
of such evolution, and a perfect epitome of nature itself. 


On certain Points concerning the Origin and Relations of the Basque Race. 
By the Rev. W. Waster. 


GEOGRAPHY. 
Address by Colonel Henry Yuux, O.B., President of the Section. 


You are aware that the honourable position which has been assigned to me was 
originally destined for a gentleman, by labours, knowledge, and reputation through- 
out the world as a geographer, far otherwise qualified to fill it. His lamented 
removal, within a very short time of the date fixed for this Meeting, compelled 
the Council of the Association to make prompt arrangements for the presidency of 
the Geographical Section. The distinguished soldier and scholar who has re- 
cently succeeded to the chair of the Royal Geographical Society was unable to at- 
tend ; and the officers of the Association thought proper to propose me for the duty. 
I am quite inexperienced in such office ; whatever claim I have to the character of 
a geographer has been acquired in a limited field, and rather from the literary 
than the scientific side ; a variety of subjects must come before us with which I 
am quite unfamiliar; and I had for these and other reasons abundant misgivings 
as to the fitness of the choice. But I did not feel at liberty to decline the duty, 
especially as it was not the first time that, unsought, it had been proposed to me, 

Even among an entire company of strangers, the circumstances of the case, and 
the short time which they allowed for preparation, would, I felt assured, secure 
indulgence. When I can count so many countenances of friends around, I feel 
that it is needless to plead for it. 

The first natural duty in circumstances like the present is to pay a tribute, how- 
ever inadequate, to the memory of the eminent geographer whom we expected to 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 163 


fill this chair. Deeply do I regret not to be able to speak of ‘him from personal 
acquaintance, or even from correspondence. I knew him only by his works. And 
who is there that did not? The long list of those works has been rehearsed in go 
many of the notices that have honoured his memory, as well as in the address of 
the Vice-President of the Geographical Society, when presenting the medal which 
he had won by so many years of faithful labour in the cause of Geography, that I 
need not now repeat them. Indeed, when contemplating the catalogue of such an 
amount of work achieved, an amateur geographer like myself stands abashed—but 
feels at the same time that his own limited experience and desultory studies serve 
at least to furnish him with some just scale by which to estimate the vast labours 
involved in the accomplishment of such a life’s work as Dr. Keith Johnston’s, 
During that life’s work of five-and-forty- years, there was little or no call for mo- 
difications in the assigned dimensions or outline of the inhabited continents of the 
world, such as were needed in the corresponding space of years that followed the 
first voyages of Columbus and Da Gama. But with the exception of that epoch, 
none in history has produced so much change in the atlas of the world, by the 
modification and completion of internal spaces that once stood in error or in blank 
upon our maps. Think of the growth of knowledge of which we should become 
sensible were we to compare sheet by sheet this late geographer’s first National 
Atlas with the latest editions of the maps of his Royal Atlas! Think of the 
changes that we should find in the representation of Central America and Interior 
Africa, in the Arctic and Antarctic Circles, in Australia, in Central and Northern 
Asia, in Indo-China—nay, to some extent in India itself! I will conclude these 
remarks by quoting the words used by a friend in writing to me on this subject: 
—“T obtained, at various times, from Keith Johnston, information, which he was 
always most ready to give; and I had an opportunity of learning something of the 
wide range of his researches and correspondence, and of his diligence in the pur- 
suit of materials for his work. He seemed to be imbued with the modesty and 
caution of a true student of a science which is so constantly presenting corrected 
views of old Inowledge, as well as new facts and new means of investigation ; 
whilst he showed the real delight he had in the labours themselves, no less than in 
the attainment of the results.” 
. Ishall in this Address attempt no general view of the geographical desiderata 
of the time, and of recent geographical progress in discovery and literature through- 
out the world. Living tebelly far from new books and meetings of societies, I 
am not sufficient for these things; nor, if I were, could I easily vary from the com- 
prehensive epitome of the year’s geography which, but two months ago, was 
issued, though, as we know with sorrow, not delivered, by him who has been so 
long the Dean of the Faculty of Geographers in Britain, and whose name is as 
thoroughly and as respectfully identified throughout the Continent with English 
geography as once was that of Palmerston with English policy, And since Iam 
naming Sir Roderick Murchison, all, I am sure, will be glad to know that, though 
his power of bodily movement is seriously impaired, his general health is fair, his 
intellect and his interest in knowledge are as bright as ever; and as for his me- 
mory, I will only say I wish mine were half as good! He has desired me to take 
occasion to express his deep regret at his inability to be present at this Meeting. 
It is, he said, one of the most painfully felt disappointments that his illness has 
occasioned ; for he had looked forward with strong interest to taking part once 
more in a meeting of the Association at the chief city of his native country—with 
which city, I may remind you, he the other day bound his name and memory by 
strong and enduring ties, in the foundation of a Chair of Geology in this Univer- 
sity. 

Pipicad: then, of attempting a review which in my case would be crude, and 
therefore both dull and uninstructive, I propose to turn to one particular region of 
the Old World with which my own studies have sometimes been concerned, and to 
say something of its characteristics, and of the progress of knowledge, as well as 
of present questions regarding it. : 

There are, however, one or two points on which I must first touch lightly. Of 
Livingstone, all that there is to tell has already been told to the world by Sir Ro 
erick Murchison. We know the task that Livingstone had laid — himself 


164 rrrort—1871. 


in dispersing the darkness that still hangs over some of the greatest features of 
Central-African hydrography, by determining the ultimate course of the great 
body of drainage which he has followed northward from 12° south latitude—whe- 
ther towards the Congo and the Atlantic, or towards Baker’s Lake and so to the 
Nile,—as well as the kindred question of the discharge of Lake To but 
of his progress in the solution of those questions we know nothing. I can but add 
that Sir Roderick himself has lost none of his confidence in the accomplishment 
of the task, and in the return of the great traveller at no distant period. That 
confidence of his has been so often before justified by the arrival of fresh news of 
Livingstone, however meagre, that we may well retain strong hope, even if it be 
not granted to all of us to rise from hope into confidence. We trust, then, that 
Livingstone will never have a place among the martyrs of geography. 

One addition, however, has been made during the past year to that long list, in 
the name of the undaunted George Hayward, formerly a lieutenant in the 72nd 
Regiment, who had for some years resolutely devoted himself to oe dis- 
covery. After haying proved his powers in a journey to Yarland and Kashghar, 
which obtained for him last year one of the medals of the Geographical Society, 
he had started again, with aid from that Society, to attempt an examination of the 
famous Plateau of Pamir, hoping to succeed in crossing it, and to descend upon 
the Russian territory at Samarkand. In the Darkot Pass, above Yassin, he was 
foully murdered by the emissaries of the chief of that district, Mir Wali by name. 
Public suspicion in India first turned upon the Maharajah of Kashmir, on whose 
alleged oppressions Hayward, ina private letter, had made severe remarks, which 
were rashly published by the editor of a local newspaper. The latest intelligence 
seems to exonerate the Maharajah and to throw the guilt of complicity rather on 
the Mahomedan chief of Chitral. If he be the guilty man, it may be difficult to 
punish him, so inaccessible is his position at aes a for, to apply the old saw 
of the Campbells, “It is a far cry to Chitral.” I may observe, however, that some 
sixteen or seventeen years ago a similar murder took place on the persons of two 
poor French priests at the other extremity of India, and within the Thibetan 
boundary on the Upper Brahmapootra, and the a ag as of the criminal must 
have seemed almost as hopeless as in this case. Yet eventually he fell into the 
hands of our officers of the province of Asim, and paid the due penalty of his crime. 

One book recently issued by the India Office I wish to bring to notice in a 
very few words. I mean Mr. Markham’s ‘Memoir on the Indian Surveys.’ Of 
this work, excellent in object and in execution, a pretty full account will be found 
in Sir R. Murchison’s Address; my object is merely to say how encouraging I 
believe a work like this is likely to prove to those who are employed on such 
duties as the memoir treats of; for they will see that here are recorded with hearty 
appreciation, in a book that will be largely read and permanently referred to, the 
labours, always toilsome, often perilous, often fatal, of a great number of zealous 
servants of the State, the memory of whose merits would in many cases, but for 
this book, have been left to decay amid the dust of the India Office. The prepara- 
tion of such a work shows a spirit which has been too often missing in our admi- 
nistrators, and is honourable, not only to the author, but to the Department which 
has promoted and authorized its publication. 

Within the last few days my attention has been drawn to some maps which have 
been recently issued by the Forest Department of India, showing the geographical 
distribution of teak and other valuable woods in that country. I regret to learn 
that the Forest-management in India is looked upon, by some of those statesmen 
who are now interesting themselves in Indian details, too much as regards its mere 
results in revenue. But the conservation, and, if possible, the recovery, of forests 
of valuable timber is a work which the State alone can touch, and which is of the 
highest importance, quite apart from immediate returns in revenue. There were, 
I know, some years ago, and no doubt still are, such forest-tracts, where the 
only hope of recovery lay in their entire closure; and from these, of course, 
there could be no revenue. During many years of railway construction in India 
the waste of valuable timber, an article now comparatively rare and costly in 
that country, and for which in many of its purposes there is xo substitute, was 
lamentable and probably irreparable! The teak timbers that bind the walls of 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 165 


the palace of the Sassanian kings at Ctesiphon in Babylonia—walls and timber 
dating alike from the fifth or sixth century of our era—are still undecayed! And 
yet myriads of logs of this precious ‘material have been used up and buried in the 
ground as railway-sleepers—a position in which decay was sure to arrive in a very 
few years—when a very little thought and trouble would have provided an endu- 
ring substitute of iron. I believe that had a Forest Department been in earlier 
existence, much of this misapplication of yaluable material might have been 
avoided, or at least the misapplication would not have been at India’s cost. Nor 
is such waste of resources the only evil that forest-conservancy bas to guard against. 
The unregulated denudation of extensive tracts has a marked influence on the rain- 
fall; and it is one of the duties of a forest-conservancy to see that the sometimes 
furious demands of the market for timber or fuel do not lead to such general and 
unregulated denudation. 

The geographical field on which, with your permission, I propose to expatiate 
for a little, is that of India beyond the Ganges ; I mean in the largest sense of the 
expression, and inclusive, at least in some points of view, of the Indian Islands. 
India, indeed, in old times, was @ somewhat vague term, or at least it had always a 
vague as well as an exacter interpretation. In the latter, it had the same applica- 
tion that we give it now when we speak with precision; it meant that vast 
semipeninsular region roughly limited by the valleys of the Indus and the Ganges, 
which embraces many nations and many tongues and many climates, but yet all 
pervaded by a certain almost intangible character which gives it a kind of unity 
recognized by all. In its vaguer sense, India meant simply the Far East. The 
traces of such use still survive in such expressions as the East Indies or the Indian 
Archipelago. Though this vague and large application of the name probably arose 
only from the vagueness of knowledge, it coincides roughly with a fact; and that is 
the extraordinary expansion of Hindoo influence, which can be traced in the vestiges 
of religion, manners, architecture, language, and nomenclature over nearly all the 
regions of the East to which the name has been applied. Another name has been 
applied to the continental part of this region, Indo-China. ‘This, too, expresses the 
fact that on this area the influence of India and of China have interpenetrated. 
But the influence of China has, except on the eastern coast, been anrely political, 
and has not, like that of India, affected manners, art, and religion. 

The great elevation that we call the Himalya, after passing beyond the utmost 
eastern limits of the British province of Asam, is continued in a vast mass of 
compressed and rugged mountains, of whose lines we have no exact knowledge, 
but which we know still to reach, at points within the bounds of China Proper, a 
height of 15,000 feet. In Yunnan these drop into a great plateau, standing at an 
average height of some 6000 feet above the sea, on which are planted the chief cities 
of that province, whilst branches of mountain-chains extend far to the south and 
east, reaching the sea or its vicinity at Cape Negrais, at Martaban, in the south- 
east of Cochin China, and in Fokien. 

Looking at the Map of Central and Southern Asia, we see what a barrier the 
Himalya forms to the drainage of the plateau of Tibet. The Indus and the Sanpu, 
haying their sources within that plateau, and at a very short distance from each 
other, flow respectively westward and eastward within this barrier till they reach 
an extreme distance from one another, of about 26° of longitude, before they turn 
southward and escape into the plains of India. 

But eastward from the exit of the Sanpu, the mountain-barrier is forced, within 
5° of longitude, by at least six great rivers, counting in that number the Sanpu or 
Dihong. These six rivers, the Dihong, the Dibong, the Lohit, the Lu-Kiang or 
Salwen, the Lantsang or great Camboja river, and the Kinsha or upper stream of 
the Yangtsé, all derive their origin (I believe the fact is beyond reasonable doubt) 
from far within the Tibetan plateau. 

Another great river, the Irawadi, comes certainly from the vicinity of Tibet ; 
but whether it derives any considerable stream from within that region is a point 
still undecided. The question excited much controversy some forty-five years 
ago, when Klaproth made a desperate attempt to prove that the waters of the 
Sanpu, instead of flowing into Asam, were really the head-waters of the Irawadi. 
‘The doctrine was backed on Klaproth’s part by much Chinese learning, as well as 


166 REPORT—1871. 


by violent perversions of ascertained geography, and obtained great currency both 
in France and Germany. It is now, I believe, abandoned by every body, with the 
exception (and the exception seems at first a serious one) of the French mis- 
sionary priests dwelling nearest to that great burst of rivers. But the fact is, that 
the elder of these laborious men were taught this doctrine in their youth, and sent 
out furnished with maps on which this heresy was laid down as positive know- 
ledge. And instead of correcting their maps by the facts that reached them in the 
country, they seem to have felt bound to bend the facts to this condition of their 
maps. 

But whilst we can reject with confidence the idea of any connexion between 
the Sanpu and the Irawadi, the uncertainty remains whether the Irawadi does 
or does not derive its chief source from within the Tibetan plateau. The positive 
evidence is much perplexed; and though a dissertation on the subject appears in 
the last Geographical Journal, I do not find that this adds materially to our light on 
the matter. Doubts are expressed in the same paper whether the rivers Salwen 
and Mekong come down from much beyond the 27th degree of latitude. But here 
there is really no room for such doubt. The Mekong has been crossed as a large 
river by that adventurous traveller, Mr. Cooper, above the line of 29°. He did 
not see the Salwen, but he was within a few miles of it in the same latitude, and 
knew it well by report. And the French missionaries, who for many years had an 
establishment upon its banks above lat. 28°, speak of it as a great river. These 
facts are in entire accordance with the Maps compiled by 1)’Anyille from the 
Jesuit surveys, and with the Chinese hydrographies translated in the Jesuit collec- 
tions. The approximate delineation of these rivers, however, all the way from 
our Asim frontier to the banks of the Kinsha or Upper Yangtsé, is one of the 
most interesting problems remaining in this part of Asia, and is connected with 
that other most interesting practical problem, the opening of direct communication 
between China and India. 

Besides the rivers of which we have been speaking there are others of a high 
class, such as the rivers of Siam and Tongking, which rise far within the Indo- 
Chinese region itself. Indeed nowhere, I believe, in the world can so many great 
rivers be found flowing parallel to the sea within so narrow a span. And we shall 
see how these rivers and the intervening mountain-ranges have affected the occu- 
pation of the country. 

And here I would digress for a moment. 

We heard yesterday, in the General Committee of this Association, an ardent 
sage against the Geographical and other Sections for appropriating papers of 

ithnological character. I should be far from presuming to maintain, in the face of 
the importance, interest, and bulk that athnglaey has so rapidly assumed of late 
years, that it should not have a field in the Association as independent as its 
votaries may desire. But I do protest against the proposition that a Geographical 
Section should be precluded from entertaining papers that deal with ethnology, 
or any other subject that the forty volumes of the ‘Journal of the Geographical 
Society’ embrace. The fields of the different sciences, even the purest, are not, like 
the “marks” of our Saxon ancestors, patches cleared in a forest that encompasses 
. each and makes a broad separation between one and another. Their circles inter- 
sect; and the branch of knowledge which we call geography is deeply intersected 
by those of other sciences, or rather is made up of appropriations from other sciences 
applied to its own purposes. We object to have it partitioned, like Poland, among 
the adjoining empires. The ethnology of a country is intimately bound up with its 
geography. We shall not grudge that the ethnologist, in his own Section, should 
deal with geographical considerations ; neither let him grudge that any man who 
prefers to stand upon the old ways, and deal with the ethnology of any country as 
a part of its geography, should be allowed to do so. 
_ The nations who inhabit this great region are, as you know well, entirely diverse 
in race from the genuine Hindu, and all or nearly all belong to the Mongoloid type, 
and are supposed on fair grounds, not unsupported in some cases by tradition, to 
have descended from the high tracts of the Teunctlintaliye countries. Exceptions 
exist, on the one hand, in some fragmentary Negrito tribes ; on the other hand we 
see it alleged in one of the preliminary notices that have alone yet appeared of 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 167 


the recent French expedition up the Mekong, that certain Tribes are Caucasian in 
feature. This, however, probably does not merit much stress. The same has often 
been said of the Karens of Pegu—a case in which apparently partiality misled the 
judgment ; for Sir Arthur Phayre testifies that the Karen national physiognomy 
1s essentially Indo-Chinese like their language—though in every Indo-Chinese 
tribe, as he notes, and as I have often observed, occur occasional and sometimes 
remarkable exceptions to the prevailing type. 

The occupation of this region has seemed to the most diligent students of the 
characters and languages of these nations to have occurred in something like the 
following order. 

Dark relics of the earliest human occupation are probably the Negrito races 
found in fragmentary settlements in the Andaman Islands, perhaps (as there isnow 
strong evidence for believing) in the great Nicobar Island, in the spinal mountains of 
the Malay peninsula and in the Philippine Islands, not to speak of remoter regions. 
The singular isolation and dispersion of a race so low in civilization seems almost to 
suggest the idea that they are the surviving waifs of some submerged continent. 

ut supposing the other races to have descended from beyond the Himalya, 
we must assign to the migration of the Malay nations the earliest date. They 
seem to have left upon the continent as their nearest kinsmen the Chams or people 
of Champa, if these were not rather a reflex wave of colonization from the islands, 
To an early tide of migration southward would seem also to belong :—the Mons or 
Talaings, who occupied the deltas of the Irawadi and the Salwen, the upper part 
of the Malay peninsula, and probably some part of the valley of the Menam; the 
Khmer, or Kambojans, occupying the lower valley and Delta of the Mekong, and 
flowing over into the Siam basin like the Mons from the other side ; and the Anam, 
or people of Tongking and Cochin China. To these may have succeeded the great 
family of the Lau, Thai or Shans, who first occupied the plateau and high valleys 
of Yunnan, the middle basin of the Mekong, and the upper part of the Siam basin. 
In later days this race has flowed back upon the Upper Irawadi and the Brah- 
maputra, and has spread south to the coasts of Siam and the Malay peninsula. 

The Karens, and perhaps some others of the larger hill-tribes allied to them on 
the borders of the Irawadi, probably followed. Then we have the Marama or 
Burman race, apparently descending the Irawadi, pressing before them the Mons 
into the Delta, the Khyens and like tribes into the bordering mountains. One 
great branch of the Burmans, by themselves reckoned the elder, passes over the 
mountains to the shores of the Bay of Bengal, shores which, according to their tra- 
ditions, they find occupied by Bihis, or Rakkas—that is, by ogres or cannibal 
monsters, from whom in after days the country gotits name of Rakhain or Aracan, 
the country of the ogres. 

As usual, the course of civilization, like that of occupation, has mainly followed 
that of the great rivers, those highways of the primeval world; and their valleys 
and deltas have been the seat of the more civilized monarchies. 

Of these nations that we shall call civilized, then, we have the Burmese still occu~ 
pying the valley of the Irawadi and the coast-plains and valleys of Aracan; with 

e exception of those whom we have made the Queen’s subjects, they are still all 
united under one monarchy. The Anamites occupy the eastern shores, and are 
also now so united, except such as have become subjects of France. Between these 
two is found the great Shan race, whose settlements are diffused from the banks of 
the Brahmaputra to the Malay coasts and the delta of the Mekong, divided under 
an infinity of petty princes and tributary to a variety of sovereign governments, 
parted sometimes widely from one another by populations of alien blood, but every- 
where displaying a fair amount of civilization, everywhere possessing letters and the 
Buddhist religion, and everywhere speaking substantially the same language—cir- 
cumstances that seem to corroborate what the traditions of the race assert, both in 
Siam and in the remote interior, that they are the fragments of some great community 
shattered and dispersed. Some fatal want of coherence has split the race into 
a great number of unconnected principalities, many of which are incorporated in 
the Chinese province of Yunnan, and others tributary to Burma or to Siam. The 
latter monarchy (Siam) is now apparently the only independent Shan state of any 
importance in existence. A portion of the race are found in what is now our own 


168 : REPORI—1871. 


province of Asim, which they first entered in the thirteenth century as conquerors. 
The Mon or Talaings of Pegu, the Khmer of Kamboja, the Cham of Champa have 
also been famous in their days; but they are now shrunken and decayed, and seem 
likely to be absorbed by the races of greater vitality that encompass them. \ 

These chief races have played the historic part on the field of Indo-China, which 
countries like England, jcles Germany, or Spain have played on the continent 
of Europe; and each in turn has spread its conquests over wide tracts beyond its 
national frontiers. Champa, Kamboja, Siam, Pegu, Pagin, and probably Yunnan 
as a Shan state, to say nothing of the island monarchies, have, with immense vicis- 
situde, in turn been the seats of extensive empires and the subjects of great disasters. 
But besides these there is a vast mass of races of inferior importance, and generally 
termed wild or uncivilized. The fact, however, is that their civilization varies through 
every degree of the scale except the highest. Many of them are inferior to the so- 
called civilized races whom they border only in the absence of a written language, 
whilst others are head hunters in almost the lowest depths of savagery. Some 
are as elaborate in the cultivation of their rice-terraces as the Chinese themselves; 
others migrate in the forest from site to site, burning down at each remove 
new areas on which to carry on their rude hand-husbandry. Nearly all on the 
frontiers of the States claiming civilization are the victims of kidnappers and inter- 
national slave-traders. 

Among these, sv to call them, uncivilized tribes, none are more worthy of note 
and of interest than those called Karen, of whom so great a number have in our 
own time become Christian under the teaching chiefly of American missionaries. 
Even before this closer claim upon our interest arose, they were remarkable for the 
value of their traditions, both religious and what we may call historical. Thus they 
were distinguished from all other Indo-Chinese tribes by their recognition of the ex- 
istence of one eternal God. They did not worship him; for, they said, He was angry 
with them. They believed that their nation had once possessed a holy book, but 
they had lost it. According to one strange version of the legend, a dog ate it! 
Their historical legends were almost as remarkable; these related how their 
ancestors, on their great migration, had to cross the River of Running Sand, the 
name and description of which point apparently to the terrors of the Gebi. They 
also relate how they found the Shans in occupation of the territory to which they 
were bound, probably the upper Menam. And the Karens cursed them, saying, 
‘Dwell ye in the dividing of countries,” the applicability of which what has 
already been said about the Shans will interpret. 

Speaking generally, the languages of all these races, civilized or wild, are mono- 
syllabic and nasal, with distinctive tones analogous to those of the Chinese, and 
belong to the same great class with the languages of Thibet and the Himalayan 
tribes. The written characters employed by the civilized nations, with one excep- 
tion, are various modifications of Indian writing. The Cochin Chinese seem never to 
have possessed a similar alphabet, and have no memory of any but the Chinese ideo- 
eraphic character. In the Malay Islands also exists a variety of written characters 
which it is more difficult to trace to the same Indian root, though they are probably 
derived from it. Ifso, they have been carried into wide deviation by modifications, 
probably springing out of the various implements originally employed, whether 
the knife-edge upon a bamboo, the graving tool upon stone, the style-point upon 
the palm-leaf, the steatite pencil upon blackened paper, or black pigments upon 
slips of wood or ivory. 

t is not a little remarkable that, whilst in India Proper there has come down to 
us scarcely more than one genuine ancient historical record, all the states of Indo- 
China, even the petty ones of Interior Laos, have from early times preserved chro- 
nicles of their respective dynasties. How far these go back with any claim to truth, 
I am not prepared to say ; but certainly from the twelfth century, or thereabouts, 
their chronology seems to be genuine and trustworthy ; for in various comparisons 
of such fragments of these annals as have been translated, we find a remarkable 
agreement both mutually and with the facts recorded in the annals of China, which 
contain so many notices of the border states. 

We spoke some time ago of the remains of Hindu influence which can be traced 
all over these regions. How and when this influence began, we have no real know- 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 169 


ledge. The Hindus had elaborate poetry, subtle philosophies, logic, grammar, pro- 
sody, mathematics, and astronomy, but, as has already been said, no history. Vet 
that this influence was flowing out in pulses eastward from an early date, and per- 
haps long before our era, there can be no question. 

ake the island of Jaya as an example. The people now universally profess 
Mahomedanism, and Mecca is the quarter to which they are taught to look in 
prayer. But throughout the island are still found the most abundant traces of in- 
tercourse with India, and of the settlement of highly civilized colonies of Hindus. 
The language, radically quite distinct, is largely engrafted with Sanskrit words ; 
the names of the sacred lands of Hindu tradition are attached to the districts of the 
island ; the legendary poems of the people embody the substance of the great 
Hindu epics, the Mahabharat and the Ramayana. The soil of the island is strewn 
with Hindu idols; the Indian system of village communities stands there with a 
completeness rarely now to be found on its native soil; the ancient Hindu institu- 
tion of the Jury of Five was found implanted among the immemorial usages of 
Jaya; and numerous architectural remains of great magnificence, adorned some of 
them with sculptured galleries to which I scarcely know a parallel, show in all 
their details the presence of Indian art and Indian worship. The art is dead; the 
worship is dead; and no coherent history relates their migration across the seas, 
But there are the remains of both, pointing unerringly to their source. 

That which is true in this respect of Java is true also in a degree and with‘varia- 
tion of Aracan, Pegu, Burma, Siam, Laos, Camboja; it is true, in part, of Sumatra 
and the Malay peninsula, faintly, and probably with only a reflex origin in Borneo, 
where temples of Hindu type are said to exist far in the interior. Nay, traces of 
Hindu language have passed at some uncertain period, but probably through Malays 
or Javanese, into the languages of the Philippine Islands and of remote Madagascar. 

China itself came under the potent influence of Hindu religion in the form of 

Buddhism. Indian words and the forms of Indian architecture could only exist 
in China after thorough assimilation to the fantastic style of that peculiar people; 
but I believe both are to be traced. Sanskrit inscriptions may be seen on monu- 
ments of antiquity not far from Peking. Thousands of volumes of Sanskrit works 
_ on Buddhistic divinity were carried to China in the early centuries of our era, 
there earnestly studied and translated into Chinese. For a space of several 
centuries a succession of devout Chinese pilgrims accomplished, by sea or by land, 
the long journey westward to India as the Holy Land of their faith, and travelled 
from shrine to shrine, from spot to spot consecrated by the events in the life of the 
Hindu Sakya Buddha, just as contemporary pilgrims in Christendom made their 
journeys by sea and land to the Holy Sites of Palestine, or the Convent of St. 
Catharine on Sinai. 

A distinguished. Indian archeologist, a brother officer of mine, has lately pub- 
lished a learned volume on the Ancient Geography of India. And of what does it 
consist? Almost entirely of an endeavour to track the steps of one of those Chi- 
nese pilgrims of the 7th century, and, by the aid of the memoirs that he left behind 
him, to locate and identify the cities and kingdoms of India at that epoch. 

In something, one might fancy, of prophetic strain, and in dim presentiment of 
our English Empire in India, the great King Alfred sent one of his Thanes, Sig- 
helm of Shireburn, with offerings to the tomb of St. Thomas the Apostle on the 
surf-beaten shore of Coromandel. Near the same shore stood a magnificent shrine 
of Buddhist worship, one of the sacred places visited by those pilgrims from Cathay— 
a shrine whose gorgeous sculptures, rescued from destruction by the zeal of one 
Scotchman, Sir Walter Elliot, and rescued from oblivion by the skill and learning 
of another, Mr. Fergusson, now stand in dumb amazement in the court of the India 
office at Westminster ! 

The Chinese pilgrim from the far Hast, and the Saxon envoy from the far West, 
might easily have met upon those shores. What a subject for an imaginary con- 
versation suggests itself ! 

Buddhism undoubtedly, with its spirit of propagandism, was a most powerful 
agent in the development of Indian influence among the Indo-Chinese nations ; but 

probably that influence had been felt at a still earlier date. Among the names of 
towns and islands on the coasts and seas of the further Kast, as given by Ptolemy, 


170 REPORT—1871. 


several are almost certainly of Hindu origin; one at least is interpreted by the 
geographer himself according to its meaning in the Indian language, and the inter- 
pretation is correct. Still it is possible that these names were given subsequently 
to the first Buddhist movements in that direction; for it is recorded that after the 
third Buddhist synod, held at the city of Pataliputra or Palibothra, now Patna, as 
early as B.C. 241, missionaries were dispatched to propagate the doctrine in the 
Suvarna Bhumi, or Golden Land, which is almost certainly Pegu, the Chryse, 
Aurea Regio, or rather, perhaps, Aurea Chersonesus of the ancients. 

Probably a later and larger wave of migration and propagandism took place not 
long after the Christian era; for it is remarkable that most of those nations of the 
further east that have been tinged with Indian civilization, recognize the Indian 
era of Salivahana, which is coincident with the year 78 of our reckoning. Another 
indication of movement eastward about this time is, perhaps, the fact that it is soon 
after this that cloves, if not other peculiar spices of the Eastern Islands, first appear 
in the markets of the Western World. 

Later still, about the 5th and 6th centuries, we recognize in the coincident 


traditions of the nations a new efflux of influence in the same direction; but this. 


time it comes not from Continental India, but from Ceylon, an island which, though 
thoroughly Indianized in its religion and manners, has yet some remarkable affimi- 
ties in the nature of its products, and perhaps also in that of its people, with those 
of the further east. This last impulse has never entirely worn out; and as the 
Western world in general has er to Rome, or the Russian world to Constan- 
tinople, rather than to Jerusalem as the immediate seat of ecclesiastical sanctity, 
so those Indo-Chinese nations look still, in a degree, to Ceylon as the Mother of 
their Faith. 

Ihave said that, in the countries of which we speak, Indian influence can be 
largely traced, not only in religion, but in manners, architecture, language, and 
nomenclature; and indeed the foreign religion necessarily affects all these. 
Throughout these regions we find, in such matters as the etiquettes of the Blood~ 
Royal, the forms of royal palaces and court ceremonial, an extraordinary identity, 
and all pointing to ancient Hindu usages; the titles of the monarchs and digni- 
taries almost universally embrace high-sounding terms of Sanskrit, or rather of Pali, 
bearing to Sanskrit much the same relation that Italian bears to Latin, that being 
the dialect in which the Buddhist sacred books were read in Ceylon, and which 
is still studied as the sacred tongue in Burma, Siam, and Camboja. In Jaya, by a 
strange enough chain of circumstances, we find the very title of Arya, Noble or 
Excellent, which has been adopted as the distinctive note of our Indo-germanic 
races, assumed by every one claiming nobility among a people of kindred and cha- 
racter so diverse from our own. 

As regards the nomenclature of these countries, we find Hindu names extending 
at least as far east as Southern Cochin China, a country long known as Champa 
or Mahd-champa, a title now confined to a small corner to which the one predo- 
minant race in later times was limited. This Champa was a name borrowed from a 
famous Indian state ne the Ganges, occupying the modern district of Bhagalpur, 
The kingdom of Camboja had its name from a region beyond the Indus; another 
region in the same quarter, Gundhdra, the country round Peshawar, lent its name 
to Yunnan, now a Chinese province, but still so styled in Burmese state-papers ; 
Ayodhya, the ancient city of Rama, from which is corrupted our modern Oudh, 
gave its name to great cities both in Siam and in Java; the holy city of Mathra 
on the Jumna has bestowed its name both on an island dependency of Java and 
on a town of Upper Burma; Jrawadi, the great river of Burma, is but another 
Airavati, the river-name which the companions of Alexander in the Panjab wrote 
as Hydraotes ; Amarapura, the recent capital of Burma, has a name purely Indian; 
Singhapura, or Singapore, founded by a Javan colony in the middle ages, and 
refounded in our own century by the ardent spirit of Stamford Raffles, is the same. 
And so ad infinitum. 

But it is in the great architectural remains scattered widely over this region that 
we find the most striking monuments of Indian influence. The original races are 
none of them addicted to architecture in solid materials, and have long ceased, as 
a general rule, to use either stone or brick in their own constructions, unless it be 


a 


| 
h 
4 
E 
. 
z 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 171 


for the ramparts of their cities, for the elevated platforms of their timber palaces, 
or for the solid domes which form the symbols to which Buddhist worship is 
directed. Yet in all, or nearly all, these countries we find remains of an elaborate 
and grandiose architecture devoted to religious purposes. Such are the ancient 
Javan temples, generally built of hewn stone, and including the extraordinary 
pyramid of sculptured terraces called Boro Bodor. Temples analogous to those 
of Java have been found in Sumatra, and in connexion with one of them a San- 
skrit inscription as old as the seventh century; in Burma we find them of fine 
brickwork, in the remains of the great medieval city of Pagan, on the Irawadi 
river, whose ruins cover many square miles, and still exhibit several grand 
structures rising to a height of nearly 200 feet; others, also of brick, exist in the 
dense jungles which cover the remains of Yuthia in Siam. And but lately we 
have become acquainted with the vast remains of Cambojan architecture—im- 
mense temples and corridors of hewn stone, with furlongs of sculptured bas-reliefs, 
In Champa remains of similar character are alleged to exist; but we have no 
account of them. Tach of these different series of remains has its own peculiar 
characters; but often there are close resemblances of general design, and in the or- 
namental detail throughout the whole of the series there is much of this yesem- 
blance ; and that is of Indian character. Yet it must be said that, of the build-~ 
ings as wholes, we find no type anywhere in India. Recently I have been much 
struck by photographs of ancient remains in Ceylon, in the possession of Mr. Fer- 
gusson, which afford strong corroboration of a suspicion long ago expressed by 
myself, that the nearest archetype and common parent of these structures may 
have been in that island. 

Time compels me to omit much that I had noted regarding the progress of our 
knowledge of these countries, and to hasten down to our own times. 

After the mission of Colonel Symes and Dr. Francis Buchanan to Ava in 1795, 
no material advance was made in our knowledge of these regions till the time of 
the first Burmese war, in 1824-26, For several yeavs from that time the British 
Government in India exhibited a zeal for the extension of geographical knowledge 
such as rarely possesses any Government. A little army of surveyors and explorers 
were thrown upon the frontier of Asim; and the remote territories lying between 
Asam and Bengal on the one side, and Northern Burma on the other, were partially 
explored. Some of our officers traversed Northern Burma from Ava to the frontiers 
of Asam and Silhet; others, starting from Maulmain, visited most of the Western 
Shan States from the neighbourhood of Ava to the Siamese capital, And in 1837 
Lieutenant (now Gonaral} William Macleod, of the Madras Army, accomplished 
the most important journey that had been made, by penetrating across more than 
half the breadth of the peninsula to the remote state of Kiang-Hung on the great 
Camboja river, and close to the frontier of China. 

_ After this the abnormal fire of exploration, which the forced collision with Ava 
had developed in the Government, seemed utterly to die out. 

The credit of kindling it again to some extent has been undoubtedly due to the 
agitation which certain gentlemen have carried on with amazing persistence for 
many years, in order to promote the opening of an overland trade with China from 
Rangoon. 

Bor many centuries a considerable land-trade has been maintained between 
Western China and the valley of the Irawadi. As long ago as 1459, we find on the 
great Venetian Map of Fra Mauro a rubric attached to a certain point of the upper 
waters of the river of Ava—“ Here goods are transferred from river to river, and 
so pass on into Cathay.” And as early as the first half of the seventeenth century, 
there is some evidence that the Kast-India Company had a factory or agent at 
Bhamo. Of this trade the staple export from China used to be the silk of Ssechuan, 
and that from Burma cotton ; but many minor articles contributed to its aggregate. 
The object of the agitation to which I have alluded has been to stimulate the 
Indian Government to take measures for drawing a similar trade in the produce of 
Western China to our ports on the Bay of Bengal, and, as necessary for that object, 


to promote the construction of a railroad from Rangoon to the Chinese frontier 


beyond the Mekong. Meantime the trade by the old route from Talifu in Yunn 
to Bhamo had ceased ; and to explain this, a slight digression is needful. . 


172 REPORT—1871. 


_ It is a remarkable circumstance that in our own older Indian territory there is 
no province where Mahomedanism is so extensively professed among the peasantry 
as the remote and secluded district of Silhet, in the east of Bengal. And China 
affords a curious parallel ; for there is no one of the eighteen provinces of China 
Proper in which Mahomedanism is so prevalent as in the secluded inland province 
of Yunnan. And this has been the case from a very early period. Already, in the 
18th century, a celebrated Persian historian of the Mongols states, though no 
doubt with great hyperbole, that in Yunnan all the people were Mahomedans, 
Since about 1855 this Mussulman population has been in a state of revolt against 
the Imperial Government ; and, after wars which have devastated the greater part 
of the province and which indeed still continue to doso, a part of the Mahomedans 
have succeeded in establishing their independence in Western Yunnan, under a 
sultan of their own election, who bears the name of Suleiman, and reigns at Talifu, 
The anarchy of civil war and the interruption of communication between the Im- 
perial and the Mahomedan parts of the province, as may easily be imagined, haye 

rought the trade practically to a standstill. 

Several expeditions of exploration and survey to the eastward and north-eastward 
of our province of Pegu resulted from the stimulus of agitation ; but the most im- 
portant of these undertakings was that despatched under Major Sladen, political 
agent at the Court of the King of Burma, to visit the Mahomedan authorities in 

estern Yunnan, and to endeavour to bring about a reopening of the trade. 
Notwithstanding every promise of support on the part of the King of Burma, and 
of ostensible orders issued in that sense, the expedition was grievously harassed and 
retarded by most vexatious proceedings on the part of the Burmese proyincial 
officers—a course ascribed by Major Sladen to bad faith and ill-will on the part of 
the Court itself, but by Sir Arthur Phayre rather to the jealousy of the Chinese 
merchants, who feared that the trade might revive only to pass out of their 
hands. 

Major Sladen did eventually make his way to Momien, the first city of China 
met with on passing that frontier ; and to him belongs the credit of being the first 
European to pass that frontier from the side of the Irawadi. He was most cordially 
received by the Mahomedan Governor; and his visit ascertained that there was per- 
fect good will on the part of the Mahomedan authorities towards the reestablish- 
ment of trade. But the causes which had brought it to a stop still existed, and 
the goodwill of the rulers could do nothing material to restore trade until order 
and peaceful communication with the interior of China should be reestablished. 

A year and a half before the commencement of Major Sladen’s journey, another one 
of a very remarkable character had been undertaken under the orders of the French ~ 
Imperial Government. This was an expedition for the exploration of the Mekong, or 
Great Camboja River, starting from the recently acquired French territory in the 
delta of that river. Before I was called so unexpectedly to occupy this chair, I had 
commenced the compilation, from the imperfect materials secaen te! of an account of 
this expedition, which I look on as the most important geographical enterprise that 
has been accomplished in Asia, at least since Burnes’s journey to Bokhara. The 
work of preparation for the duties of the Section prevented me from making any 
progress with the paper, though I hope on one day of our sitting to give a sketch 
of the journey, I will only say now that the mission party, consisting mainly of 
naval officers, ascended the river, first by boat and afterwards by land, to Kiang- 
Hung, the point reached thirty years before by Macleod. Here they were compelled 
to abandon the line of the Mekong; but starting to the north-east they entered the 
Chinese frontier at Ssemao (the Esmok of Macleod), and travelled across Southern 
Yunnan to the capital city of the province, almost everywhere tolerably well received 
by the Chinese authorities. A detachment of the party under Lieutenant Garnier 
succeeded in reaching Talifu; but they had to leave it immediately, at the peril of 
their lives; and on their return to Tong-chuan, where they had left their chief, 
Captain De la Grée, seriously ill, they found that his death had occurred a few days 
before. Taking his remains with them, they proceeded to the Great Kiang at 
Siuchau, and thence descended to Shanghai, in reaching which they completed a 
journey of several thousand miles, which had occupied two years. 

About the same time Mr, Cooper made his two gallant attempts—first, to reach 


. 


——————— 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 173 


India from Ssechuan, and again, with singular perseverance, to reach China from 
Asam. 

The French expedition ascertained that there is no hope of using the Mekong 
as a commercial route from Yunnan. Though large spaces of its course afford 
food navigation, this is not only interrupted at no great distance from the head 
of the delta by actual cataracts, but at intervals by long tracts of rapids, and above 
the frontier of the Burmese Tributary States the river becomes so rapid as to be 
continuously quite unfit for navigation. Much the same has been ascertained of 
the Salwen. Neither of these rivers, therefore, can be turned to account for com- 
munication with Western China, The Irawadi remains; and the experience of 
Major Sladen’s ascent to Bhamo, during the month of January, in a steamer navi- 
gated entirely by Burmese officers and crew, appears to show that this river is 
fairly navigable to that station by steamers drawing not more than 4 feet of 
water. 

Many startling and inconsiderate statements appear in the memorials and other 
documents which have been addressed to Government on the subject of the new 
routes for trade with China—as, for example, when the agitators of the question 
talk of thereby opening up a new trade for our country with 200 millions of people, 
occupying extensive and rich portions of the earth—as if, forsooth, the trade and 
products of a vast and varied portion of the earth’s surface, merely because that 
portion happens to be described by one name as China, were like the water in a 
lake, which may all possibly be drained dry if but tapped at a single point in one 
of its narrow creeks. The moderation and cautious good sense of one of the 
memorials, however, forms so striking and refreshing a contrast to such statements 
as I have referred to, that I will quote it almost in full; it is not long :—“ Your 
memorialists have long entertained the opinion that it would be of the utmost im- 
portance to the commerce of this country if a route were opened between Rangoon 
and the interior of Western China. ..... The information which your memo- 
' Tialists possess on the district through which the various routes hitherto proposed 
pass, does not justify them in expressing any decided opinion either with regard 
to any one of these proposed routes, or as to the practicability of opening any 
route. But the memorialists would respectfully urge upon Her Majesty’s Govern- 
ment the propriety of completing the survey which has already been commenced, 
with the view of authoritatively establishing whether it is practicable to open up 
such a line of communication.” And I am happy to observe that this dignified 
and reasonable memorial comes from the commercial metropolis of Scotland ; it is 
the memorial of the Glasgow Chamber of Commerce and Manufactures. 

The probability of a great attraction of China trade to the ports of Pegu, 
eyen if there were a good highway opened out to the Chinese frontier, depends 
not on rhetorical statements about the vast population and products of the Ce- 
lestial Empire, but (and here I will borrow a felicitous expression which I 
remember to haye been applied in India by that admirable public servant the 
present Governor of Jamaica, Sir John Peter Grant) on the question where the 
trade-shed of that produce shall be found to exist—a question on which I have 
neyer seen any great light thrown. As regards the important part of the export 
trade at least, we have to look not to Yunnan and Kwei-Chau, which are in the 
main mountainous regions, and comparatively unproductive, but to Ssechuan. I 
observe that Mr. Cooper, a sensible and on this point quite unprejudiced observer, 
does consider that a large part of the produce of Ssechuan would seek an outlet b 
the Ivawadi if the land route were again open. Looking to the length of land 
journey from the fertile portions of Ssechuan to Bhamo, this opinion certainly 
surprises me. But the fact is that we know extremely little of the extraordinary 
skill of the Chinese in utilizing rivers which we should in this country regard as 
mere trout-streams, for internal navigation, or of the extent to which such means 
apply in reducing the length and cost of the route in question. My own impres- 
sion is that the Yangtsé, in spite of all the difficulties of its upper reaches, as being 
free from the complications of a double frontier, and the anarchy of tribes imper- 
fectly controlled, will carry to the sea for many years to come the produce of Sse- 
ehuan and Central Yunnan, rather than any outlet by Burma or the Shan States, 
Ido not myself see how the long land-route by Kiang-Hung could become attrac- 


174 REPORT—1871. 


tive without a railroad; and the construction of a railroad in sucha direction 
certainly seems to me visionary. Coming to practical questions, who is to pay 
for such a scheme? ‘The Government of these islands? The question needs no 
answer. The gentlemen who are so ready to memorialize Government on the 
subject? If they will, it is well ; butI doubt it. If in our own old Indian territory,* 
after railways have been making for twenty years, it has been found impossible to 
get a single line of railway undertaken except with a guarantee (that is to say, prac- 
tically, as the guarantees are, at the cost of the Government), is it likely that men 
who withhold their money there, will risk it in driving a railway through a- 
scantily peopled and almost unknown region to tap a remote corner of China? 
Is it, then, the Indian Government that is to be at this expense? I remember how 
a somewhat similar system of agitation induced a former Secretary of State, in op- 
position to the views of the Indian Government, to sanction the guarantee of a 
short but costly railway-on like speculative grounds—I mean from Calcutta to 
an uninhabited swamp upon a creek of the Delta, which it was expected would 
prove agreat harbour of commerce ; but that line is now almost a pure dead weight 
upon the Indian revenue. The Indian Government is already sufficiently bur- 
dened with railway guarantees, to say nothing of the immense amount of work 
already laid out, and still to be done, in completing its domestic railway system. 
When mutterings of discontent on account of increased or changing taxation are 
beginning to be heard so audibly in India, a wise Government will hold back for a 
time from measures of almost sure benefit, rather than disregard a warning so omi- 
nous. And it would be mad, under such circumstances, to engage its revenues in 
costly and speculative schemes for the extension of British commerce so proble- 
matical as this. 

What I think we may reasonably hope for is:—first, to see Western China tran- 
quillized, and the old channel of trade restored and stimulated by the access of 
British steamers to Bhamo ; secondly, from gradual but inevitable political change 
in our own relations to the Burmese Government, I should expect to see our 
own intluence brought into more direct operation at Bhamo, so that we shall be 
able to act either in the suppression of marauding, or in opening out by engineer- 
ing the short road to the Chinese frontier cities, unhampered by such paltry ob- 
stacles as the intrigues of Burmese underlings, or the jealousies of Chinese traders, 
And I yenture to think that our Government, as a general rule, need neither 
grudge the small cost of surveys and explorations beyond our frontier, nor he- 
sitate to apply some degree of pressure on native governments to sanction 
such measures, without which these governments are apt to think us not in 
earnest in our proposals. If my memory does not deceive me, our Minister at 
Peking, in 1860, declined even to apply to the Chinese Regency for passports for 
an expedition which Lord Canning had sanctioned for exploration in Thibet, and 
in consequence a promising geographical enterprise was abandoned. The French 
Minister, in 1866, was less punctilious in pressing a similar demand. The expe- 
dition of the Mekong was in consequence furnished with imperial passports; and 
these passports, even in such a time of civil war and confusion, backed by tact and 
energy, secured them everywhere in China a decent, and sometimes a cordial 
reception, as well as free passage through those hitherto untraversed provinces. 


On the Principality of Karategin. By Major-General Azramor. 


On Minicoy Island. By Major Basxyt. 


The author, who was connected with the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India, 
visited the island (which is situated west of Cape Comorin) with the object of 
comparing the intensity of gravity on an island station with that at inland stations 
in the same latitude. The result of Major Basevi’s observations was the conclu- 
sion that the force of gravity is greater on the coast than inland, and at an ocean 
station like Minicoy greater than on the coast. The island is of coral formation, 


——————— 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 175 


covered with cocoa-palms, and contains more than 2000 inhabitants, who are of 
the same race as the Maldives, and of the Mohammedan religion. 


On the Ruined Cities of Central America. By Captain L. Brivz, R.N. 


The author stated that it was not until the year 1750 (more than 200 years 
after the Spanish conquest) that the existence of ruined cities and temples lying 
hidden in the jungles and forests of Central America was revealed to the know- 
ledge of the Spanish Government. A small party of Spaniards, travelling in the 
State of Chiapas, happened to diverge from the usual track leading from the 
southern limit of the Gulf of Mexico to the Mexican Cordilleras, and accidentally 
discovered in the dense forest remains of stone buildings—palaces and temples— 
with other evidences of a past and forgotten civilization of_a very high order. 
These ruins were those of Palenque. Some years subsequently to this discovery, 
the King of Spain ordered an official survey to be made, and this survey was made 
in 1787 under the direction of Captain del Rio. Later official surveys were also 
made in 1806 and 1807; but these, with the usual secrecy of the Spanish con- 
querors, were not generally made public, and thus it happened that only as recently 
as the year 1822, at the revolution of Mexico, did the existence of these ruins first 
become known in Europe. Since then-other hidden cities or temples had been 
disecovered-—Copan, in the State of Honduras; Ocosingo, on the frontiers of Gua- 
temala; and several in Yucatan, of which Uxmal and Chichen-Itza are the most 
famous. It was very remarkable that all these ruins, evidently the work of one 

articular and highly civilized race of Indians, should only be found in a very 
imited area, None exist in South America, and none in that part of the conti- 
nent commonly distinguished as North America; they all lie within the Tropics, 
between the 14th and 22nd parallels of north latitude, and were chiefly adjacent 
to the Mexican and Honduras Gulfs, or in the plains on the west of the Cordil- 
leras of Central America, On the eastern or Pacific slopes and plateaux, within 
the same parallels, are also remains of ancient fortifications and sacrificial altars, 
but these are of a less elaborate type, and are allied to the Aztecan structures of 
Mexico. The author gave an account of a journey made by him across the con- 
tinent in the spring of last year, from the Pacific, through Guatemala, to the 
Atlantic; he examined in detail the mixed populations and conditions of the 
countries between the Cordilleras and the Pacifo, the central plateaux, with their 
aboriginal Indian races and ruins, the region (almost entirely unknown) inhabited 
by those unbaptized Indians called the Candones, near which lie the ruins of 
Ocosingo and Palenque; he concluded the journey by traversing Yucatan, visiting 
the strange ruins with which the country abounds, and emerging on the northern 
coast of the Peninsula at Sisal. 


The Interior of Greenland. By Dr. Ronerr Brown. 


After reviewing the old ideas of the nature of the interior, Dr. Brown spoke at 
length of the views which his own studies and those of others had led him to. 
Various more or less successful attempts had been made to penetrate into the 
interior, viz. by Dalager, Kielssen, Rink, Hayes, Rae, Nordenskjold and Berg- 
gren, various Danish officers and Eskimo on hunting trips, &c., and one in which, 
with his companions MM. E. Whymper, A. P. Tegner, C. E. Olsen, J. Fleischer, and 
an Eskimo, he had shared in. The result of all these expeditions showed that the 
interior is one huge mer de glace, of which the outlets and overflow are the com- 
paratively small glaciers on the coast, though in reality, compared with the glacier- 
system of the Alps, they are of gigantic size. The outskirting land is to all 
intents and purposes merely a circlet of islands of greater or less extent. There 
are in all probability no mountains in the interior, only a high plateau from which 
the unbroken ice is shed on either side to the east and west, the greatest slope 
being towards the west. This “inland ice” was increasing, as necessarily it must, 
and would most likely eventually overlie the country as it once had in former 


periods of the earth’s history. He considered that Greenland might be crossed 


176 REPORT—1871. 

from side to side with dog or other sledges, provided the party started under 
experienced guidance, and sufficiently early in the year before the snow was 
melted off the ice. Whether they could return without assistance on the other 
side was, however, a matter of doubt. No fjords now stretched across within the 
explored limits of West Greenland. If they did, it was north of Smith’s Sound, 
where perhaps Greenland ended in an archipelago of broken islands. Little doubt 
existed but that in former times one or more fjords stretched across the country, but 
these are now permanently closed by the spread of the “inland ice,” 


Cagayan Sulu Island. By Captain Cunnto, 2.1. 


On the Second German Arctic Expedition. 
By Dr. Corrtann, Astronomer to the Expedition. 


It stated that the two expeditions sent by the German nation in the year 1868 
and 1869 to-endeavour to add to the geographical and general scientific know- 
ledge of the Arctic regions were equipped entirely by private contributions, and 
the honour of starting and forwarding the whole scheme belonged to the eminent 
geographer Dr. Petermann, of Gotha. The object and aim of the second expedi- 
tion was the scientific examination and discovery of the Arctic central region 
contained within the 75th parallel of north latitude, taking the coast of East 
Greenland asa basis. The aim involved two problems :—(1) The solution of the 
so-called polar question; (2) the discovery, survey, and examination of Kast 
Greenland, and those countries, islands, and seas connected with it, and extending 
in a northerly direction towards Behring’s Straits, a measurement of a meridional 
are in East Greenland, excursions on the glaciers of the interior of continental 
Greenland, &c. ‘The two vessels engaged in the expedition were the ‘Germania,’ 
145 tons, Captain Koldeway, and seventeen men, and the ‘ Hansa,’ 100 tons larger, 
Captain Hegemann, with a crew of twelve. The expedition sailed from Bremer- 
haven on the 15th of June, 1869, and after a tedious voyage of five weeks up to the 
parallel of 75°, the vessels were separated in a dense fog. The ‘Germania’ 
reached Sabine Island on the 5th of Aucust, and four days were spent in survey- 
ing the neighbouring country, observing an eclipse of the sun on the 7th, deter- 
mining the magnetic constants, &c. On the 10th they proceeded northwards, but 
their progress came to a dead stop on the 13th, in latitude 75° 31’, or 23’ further 
north than had been reached by Clavering and Sabine forty-six years before, At 
this point the land-ice lay quite fast, and extended fully ten miles in a N.E. 
direction from the nearest land, since called Cape Borgen; while against its outer 
edge the enormous fields of pack-ice were so heavily pressed as to render all pro- 
gress impossible. Towards the N. and N.E. no water was visible; this was just 
as Captain Clayering and Sir Edward Sabine found matters twenty-three miles 
further to the south, and within a day of forty-six years before, and it was also 
their lot to encounter the same obstacles in latitude 75° 29’ in the following sum- 
mer, Captain Koldeway determined on returning to the Pendulum Islands, and 
there to await in safety a change in the state of the ice. The remainder of the 
month of August and the beginning of September was spent in obtaining geolo- 
gical, botanical, and ethnological specimens, and in making various observations. 
A sledge excursion, under Koldeway and Payer, into a fiord to the N.N.W. of the 
Pendulum group, from the 13th to the 22nd of September, resulted in a confirmation 
of a previous supposition of the existence of a large island on that part of the 
coast, and showed how much might be attempted in the exploration of the interior 
of Greenland at this season of the year. A second sledge excursion at the end of 
October and beginning of November was made by Payer and himself round the 
north of Clavering Island, thereby proving its insularity, which had been suspected 
by Clavering in 1823, On the 5th of November the sun disappeared for the winter, 
but still they accomplished about 180 nautical miles in nine days, including the 
penetration into a new fiord, whose termination they succeeded in reaching. From 
-the 12th of October to the beginning of May, while frozen in, observations were 


———— —— Sst‘ eh 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 177 


made as to the temperature and pressure of the atmosphere, the direction and 
velocity of the wind, the amount of cloud, and the height of the tide from hour to 
hour. In making these and other observations the scientific members of the 
expedition were zealously assisted by the two mates, Messrs. Sengstacke and 
Tramnitz, and the talented seaman Peter Ellinger, whose subsequent death at the 
early age of 24 has robbed nautical science of one of its most promising supporters, 
January 1870 was the coldest month, with a mean of 11°9 Fahr. below zero; 
and towards the end of February the thermometer reached its lowest, —40°°5 ; but 
samples cf pure mercury did not show any sign of freezing. The mean of the 
whole year was remarkably low, being only +11°-3 Fahrenheit. Magnetical and 
astronomical observations were made from time to time. The magnetical con- 
stants of their winter quarters in lat. 74° 32’ 16” N., and 18° 49’ W. long. were :— 
declination, 45° 8' 8”; inclination, 79° 48’; and horizontal force 0:956 Gauss’s 
seale*, The northern lights were not in general particularly brilliant, but were 
extremely frequent, and the convergence of the streamers was found to coincide 
with the direction of the freely suspended magnetic needle. The spectroscopic 
examination of the auroral light fixed the place of the green line at 1245 of Kirch- 
hoff’s scale. The main direction which the labours of the expedition took during 
the spring was the prosecution of a sledge journey to the north under the leader- 
ship of the Captain, who was accompanied by Payer and six seamen. An advance 
was made of 150 miles in a straight line from his winter quarters, and added at 
least one whole degree to our maps of the coast of East Greenland, A week after- 
wards Payer conducted another party towards the fiords to the north-west of the 
Pendulum Islands, and they succeeded in bringing back a magnificent collection of 
fossils and minerals, At the same time Dr. Borgen and himself were engaged in 
the measurement of an are of the meridian, commenced in the beginning of March, 
by measuring a base of rather more than 709 metres in length on Sabine Island. On 
the 14th of May, Dr. Copeland and his companions started on their geodetical tour 
towards the north, intending to select and signalize their stations as they advanced 
northwards. All the angles at sixteen out of seventeen selected stations were 
measured, and the latitude of the north end, as deduced from eighty-two circum- 
meridian altitudes of the sun, was 75° 11! 30''12, with a probable error of 0'-78 ; 
that of the south end, 74° 32’ 15’-86, probable error 0''58. The highest station 
was 1008-4 metres above the level of the sea. They took advantage of the oppor- 
tunity thus afforded for comparing altitudes determined with the barometers with 
those deduced from purely trigonometrical operations. The whole of the barome- 
trical heights were slightly in excess of the trigonometrical ones. Their gecdetical 
labours were very much restricted and embarrassed by the setting in of the thaw 
as early as the 3rd of June. The ship was freed from her winter prison on the 
11th of July, but they did not sail till the 22nd. So far as examined, the botanical 
and zoological collections had yielded no absolutely new varieties, but had taught 
much about the distribution of plants and animals. Perhaps the most important 
discovery in that department was that of the musk ox, which animal was found 
plentifully up to the 77th parallel. With regard to natives, although the whole 
coast from the 76th parallel to the innermost recesses of Emperor Francis-Joseph’s 
Fiord, in lat. 73 deg., abounded in vestiges of the aboriginal inhabitants, and although 
Clayering fell in with a party of twelve on the south side of the island which was 
now known by his name, this expedition never even met with recent traces of 
their presence. However, they succeeded in finding eleven skulls, and many 
interesting weapons and utensils. Being again stopped by the ice in 75° 29’, it 
was decided in full conclave to try their fortunes in some of the fiords supposed to 
exist towards the south. They accordingly proceeded southwards along the coast 
until they rounded Hudson’s Hold-with-Hope, and proceeded to explore the inte- 
rior of the supposed Mackenzie Inlet. A single day, however, served to show 


* Note added August 14, 1871.—A letter received from Capt. Koldeway, just after the 
reading of this paper, enables me to give the following particulars which have been de- 


* duced from the tidal observations. At Sabine Island the mean range of the tide was 


3-13 ft., range’ of spring-tides 421 ft., that of neap-tides being only 1:86 ft. The tidal 
waye advanced from the south towards the north at the rate of about 50 to 60 miles an 
hour. 


1871. 12 


178 REPORT—1871. 


that no such inlet existed, and thus that what had been called Bennet Island, was 
only a hilly promontory. Payer and himself afterwards resolved to ascend Cape 
Franklin, and from its summit saw about sixteen new islands, and upwards of 170 
icebergs of from 100 to 200 feet in height. "Towards the S.W., at a distance of 
60 nautical miles, lay a chain of mountains of 6600 or 7000 feet high—most pro- 
bably the Werner Mountains of Scoresby. About eleven o’clock they started for 
the western or higher end of Cape Franklin, whose height they assumed to be 
4000 or 4500 feet. There they found that the bay or fiord bent round towards 
the N.W., sending branches in a westerly direction, while to the north it seemed 
to expand into magnificent proportions. It was resolved to take the ship round 
into the hitherto unvisited waters. On the north shore of the entrance, the green 
slopes which formed the foreground of the rugged heights of Cape Franklin were 
dotted with the small, burrow-like, forsaken winter dwellings of the inhabitants, 
whom some strange mutation of the climate had driven away, and afforded pas- 
ture to numerous herds of reindeer. From this point they steamed about 90 miles 
into the interior of Greenland; and had not the defective state of their boiler and 
the positive character of their instructions prevented them from risking a deten- 
tion during a second winter, they might have easily advanced much further. 
From the summit of a peak (Mount Payer) 7200 feet in height, situated in 26° 18’ 
west long., a view was obtained of a mountain-chain lying about one third of the 
breadth of Greenland from the east coast, the loftiest peak of which must have 
been nearly 13,000 feet in height. No traces of a complete glaciation of the inte- 
rior were visible. The usual magnetical, astronomical, zoological, and botanical 
excursions were here made. On the 17th of August, the expedition left the coast, 
and arrived at Bremerhaven on the 11th of September, 1870. During the whole 
voyage they determined the density of the sea-water, which was found to increase 
with the depth, especially amongst the ice. In regard to the ‘Hansa,’ from which 
they had been parted, notwithstanding the heroic efforts of her captain to reach 
the coast, she was nipped in the ice, and went down on the 23rd of October, 1869, 
leaving her crew to make an almost miraculous voyage of 800 miles on a con- 
" stantly decreasing ice-floe, exposed to all the rigours of an Arctic winter. They 
were fortunately able, after at length leaving the ice-raft in their boats, to reach 
Friedrichsthal with the most incredible exertions. 


On the Limpopo Expedition. By Captain F. Exon. 


The lower course of the Limpopo was explored a few years ago by Mr. St. Vin- 
cent Erskine, the son of the Colonial Secretary of Natal ; and Capt. Elton’s object 
was to trace its higher waters, in order to see whether a more convenient route 
and water communication could be opened up from the settlement on the Tati 
river to the sea-coast, a distance of nearly 1000 miles. The difficulties, both 
natural and artificial, with which Capt. Elton had to contend were often very 
great; but the physical obstacles to his journey, and the hostility or cupidity of 
the natives, were successfully overcome; and he accomplished a voyage of con- 
siderably over 900 miles. He has also shown, as he believes, the practicability of 
the route he has opened up, and it is scarcely too much to expect that by so doing 
he has rendered essential service to commerce and civilization. 


On a Self-replenishing Artificial Horizon. 
Invented and described by Curtstopurr Groner, RN., F.R.A.S. 


This instrument consists of a pair of circular disk-like reservoirs about 22 in. in 
diameter and ? in. in depth, made of iron, at the same casting: one contains the 
mercury, and the other is the trough for observing. 

The disks are connected at their circumferences by a narrow neck, in which is 
drilled a hole to allow the mercury to pass from one reservoir to the other; the 
communication between the two reservoirs is opened or closed by a stopcock, on 
the cone principle, so that the mercury can be passed from one disk to the other 
without removing the glass cover or the risk of losing any of the mercury. There 
are two screw stoppers attached to the mercurial reseryoir for admitting air into 


_— 


Asc tye oo 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 179 


that reservoir or out of it as required. The trough-disk is fitted with. a glass 
cover, which is screwed on when the mercury is to be passed to or from the other 
reservoir. When an observation has to be made this cover is removed, and a disk 
of glass is placed on the mercury; this gives a clear and steady reflecting surface. 
The weight of the instrument is 1} 1b. The instrument is made by Messrs. Gould 
and Porter, successors to Cary, optician, No. 181 Strand, London. 


Further disclosures of the Moabite Stone. By Dr. Giyspure. 


Ascent of the Atlas Range. By Dr. J. D. Hooxnr, C.B., E.R. 


In this paper the author described his ascent of the Greater Atlas, accompanied 
by Mr. Ball and Mr.G. Maw. Permission was given him to visit the whole range 
of the Atlas from a point eastward of the city, westward to the ocean; but he was 
obliged to promise to confine himself to collecting plants for the Royal Gardens 
and to practising as a Hakim, so that he was unable to take any exact topogra- 
phical observations. He, however, reached the crest of the main range visible 
from the city of Marocco, which has long had the repute of being the loftiest of 
the whole great Atlas range. The mountains present, as seen from Marocco city, 
a long ridge, apparently of tolerably uniform height throughout its whole length, 
about 13,000 feet, steep and rocky in the upper regions, with long streaks of snow 
descending in deep steep gulleys; but it offers no snow-capped peaks or slopes 
of any extent, nor glaciers, and the loftiest points of the jagged sky-line are not 
snowed at all. The party took, from Marocco, first a south-easterly course to the 
foot of the Atlas, in the province of Misfuia, and thence a south-westerly one to 
the province of Reraia, whence they had been assured that the crest of the range 
was accessible. Their camp, at an elevation of 4400 feet, was surrounded by olive 
and walnut groves, fig-trees, prickly pears, vines, mulberries, and almonds. The 
native trees were poplar, ash, juniper, willow, and callitris (the famous Thuja of the 
Romans); the bushes are lentisks, honeysuckle, cistus, elder, rose, alaternus, philly- 
rea, ivy, bramble, and shrubs allied to the broom. The climate is temperate, and 
the scenery rather pretty than grand or mountainous, except up the valleys, which 
are backed by the rugged, black, but snow-streaked crest of the range. At 6000 
feet the party came upon the first indubitable signs of old glacial action, in a huge 
moraine projecting apparently from the flank of a lateral valley, with two smaller 
moraines nearly parallel with the greater one. All were loaded with enormous 
blocks of porphyry and other metamorphic rocks, and, except for the walnuts and 
little terraced fields, are nearly bare of vegetation. At about 9000 feet they came 
upon a mule-track, up which they pushed over rocks and débris. Dr. Hooker and 
Mr. Ball were botanizing, and Mr. Maw alone reached the crest, where he read 
his aneroid, which gave a height, by comparison with another aneroid and the 
boiling-point, of 12,000 feet. ‘The temperature was 24° F. The most remarkable 
feature of this part of the range is the downward extent of the snow in steep deep 
northern gulleys to 7000 or 8000 feet, up to the end of May; but these snow- 
streaks are not connected with any snow-fields or snow-capped peaks above. This 
seems to be due to the climate and to the steep contour of the axis, which is now 
scorched by a blazing sun, now swept by dry Sahara winds, and throughout the 
year exposed to the very prevalent N.W. oceanic wind laden with vapours that 
fall as snow and hail-storms. There is thus probably always snow on this part of 
the Atlas, but there is no perpetual snow proper; in other words, all the snow that 
falls annually on fairly exposed surfaces melts in the same year. Botanically, the 
upper region is as bare as the middle region is rich, and the author described in 
some detail the characteristics of each. The Atlas has a special interest as pre- 
senting the southern limit of the Mediterranean, and indeed of the North Tempe- 

rate flora. 
' The party proceeded from the beautiful valley of Reraia westward over the 
northern spurs of the Atlas to the province of Sectana, whence they travelled on 
to that of Amsmiz, crossing the Wad en Fys, the principal feeder of the Temsift, 
where the author and Mr. Ball ascended a peak 11,000 feet high in ney? main range, 
* 


180 REPoRT—1871. 


and from thence saw across the Sus valley to the southward. The snowy axis 
here approaches to within some fifteen miles of the foot of the mountains, and 
consists of more isolated tops and far less steep ridges, though snow came down 
to 8000 feet on northern exposures. The floor of the valley, like the others, is 
very narrow, and clothed with walnut and olive cultivation, threaded by a 
brawling stream. The valleys of the upper feeders of the Wad en Fys occupy 
an area probably not less than twenty miles broad. Dr. Hooker saw no forest in 
any part of the range, clumps of brushwood and isolated stumps of oak, juniper, 
carob, and ash being all that remain of the primeval woods. These mountains are 
extremely bare; even moss and lichens are poor and rare compared with what other 
alpine and subalpine regions present. Low as is the latitude of Marocco, its vege- 
tation shows that the North Atlantic determines its climate, favouring the dis- 
persion of northern types up to the tops of the Atlas, and forbidding the entrance 
of southern forms that elsewhere prevail in similar latitudes. From Amsmiz the 
party continued to travel along the base of the Atlas, and made some minor 
ascents, obtaining a general idea of the character of the chain in this longitude 
(8° W.), where there is another broad depression, through which the road runs 
from Marocco to Tarodant in the Sus valley—a place once of immense commercial 
importance, and still one of great resort. The party returned to Mogadore on the 
8rd of June, and succeeded in bringing their collections safely with them, which 
will enable Dr. Hooker to elucidate the flora of a hitherto almost unknown region. 
The Moors and Arabs of Marocco are described as being vile beyond a proverb. 
The Government is despotic, cruel, and wrong-headed in every sense. From the 
Sultan to the lowest soldier all are paid by squeezing those in their power. Ma- 
rocco itself is more than half ruinous, and its prisons are loaded. The population 
of the whole country is diminishing ; and what with droughts, locusts, and cho- 
lera, and prohibitory edicts of the most arbitrary description, the interior is on the 
brink of ruin. But that two thirds of the kingdom is independent of the Sultan’s 
authority, being held by able mountain chiefs who defy his power to tax or inter- 
fere with them, and that the European merchants maintain the coast trade, and 
the Consuls keep the Sultan’s emissaries in check, Marocco would present a scene 
of the wildest disorder. 


A Journey from Yassin to Varkand. By Iprasnm Kray. 
y Y 


Interior of Mekran. By Captain B. Lovert. 


Note on the Geographical Distribution of Petroleum and allied products. 
By Colonel R. Mactaean, 2.4., PRS, FRGS., 


The extent and variety of the uses to which petroleum and other allied pro- 
ducts haye come to be applied, and the vast quantities in which, within the last 
few years, they have been obtained, give a special interest and importance to the 
observation of their geographical range and positions. The places are numerous, 
and the circumstances varied, in which these substances, in some one or other of 
their forms, have for long ages been known. 

The classification of these products having certain general common characters, 
and probably a similar origin, is not now essentially different from that of Linneus, 
and exhibits relationships before recognized in a less formal and systematic way by 
Pliny and others*, They belong to Linnzeus’s class of “inflammable minerals,” 
consisting, according to his arrangement, of bitumens, coals, amber, and amber- 
gris. The bitumens he specifies as fluid bitumen or naphtha, rock-oil or petro- 
Jeum, mineral tar or maltha, mineral pitch or mtimia, asphalt, mineral tallow, 
elastic bitumen, and hard bitumen or jet.. And next to the bitumens and coals 
he places honey-stone (found associated with asphalt), common amber, and amber- 
gris, Prof. Archer, in a paper on the oil-wells of Pennsylvania and Canada (Art 


* Pliny, N. H. lib. xxxy.; Strabo, xvi. ; Herod. vi. 119, &e. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 181 


Soe. Journ. Aug. 1864), says, “It may be useful to know that rock-oil, petroleum, 
Barbadoes tar, naphtha, are all varieties of the same material, and that bitumen 
is the pitch-like residue which remains after the refined oil is distilled from the 
crude, or has naturally dried away.” These are the substances of which collec- 
tively the geographical positions are to be noticed. 

The notices in old writers of the well-known sources of bitumen on the Euphrates 
and in Judeea are numerous, and these are the most frequent subjects of reference 
to these products in later times, till the remarkable naphtha-springs at Baku on 
the Caspian, and the striking appearance which they present, came to be more 
generally known. The soft bitumen in the Euphrates valley is that of which we 
have the earliest mention *. The word translated “ slime” in the English version 
of Gen. xi. 3, is dapadros in the LXX. and bitumen in the Vulgate, and this is 
what is meant. Of the asphalt of the Dead Sea, its quantity, and the magnitude 
of the masses frequently found, there are many accounts in the writings of ancient 
and modern travellers f. 

The great abundance of the petroleum at Baki on the Caspian, and the remark- 
able sight presented by the flaming streams of oil and discharges of gas, have been 
the subject of many descriptions. One of the chief things of note at Baku is this 
emission of inflammable gas or naphtha-vapour, which occurs also in many other 
parts of the world, with or without the immediate accompaniment of oil-springs. 

The fire-temple at Baku has a special interest in connexion with India, not only 
from its general similarity to that of Jwala-Mukhi near Kangra in the Punjab, 
but also from the circumstance that the Baku temple has, for a long time and 
down to the present day, been, like the other, a place of Hindoo pilgrimage, and 
maintains a small fraternity of resident Brahmans. The great conflagrations of oil 
on the surface of the ground haye not been constant, and many travellers do not 
— them; but they could not fail to have been mentioned by any who had 
seen them f. 

Marco Polo describes the great abundance of the discharges of oil at Baku, and 
says that people came from vast distances to fetch it§. Balu is described by 
Kaempfer, who was there in January 1684||.. Just a hundred years later it was 
visited by Mr. Forster on his journey from India to England. He has given a 
detailed and interesting account of the place, and of the Hindoo mendicants and 
merchants who resided there. He mentions that the Hindoo traders there were 
chiefly from Mooltan, and that they usually embarked at Tatta in Lower Sind, 
proceeding by sea to Bussora, and thence accompanying the caravans passing into 
Persia. I made endeavour to ascertain at Mooltan whether there is at the present 
day any direct intercourse between the Hindoos of that place and Baku, but could 
not learn that it is kept up. But it is very possible that enterprising Hindoos 
from Mooltan who do not return there, and whose movements are not known to 
their friends, may settle down at Baki as they do elsewhere. A Punjabee Hindoo 
died a few years ago at Moscow, regarding whose property in Russia and relations 
in the Punjab there was some correspondence between the Russian Government 
and our own in India and in England. Among the Hindoos at the Baku temple 
Forster 4] found an old man, a native of Delhi, who had visited all the celebrated 
temples of northern and southern India, and whom he afterwards met at Astracan. 
Morier, in 1812, met in Persia a Hindoo entirely alone, returning to Benares from 
a pilgrimage to Baku **. 

About midway between Kaempfer’s time and Forster's, came Jonas Hanway, who 
gives a description of Baku, the fire-temple, and the Hindoos, and the great quan- 


* Herod. i. 179; Philostr. Apoll. Tyan. i. 17; D’Herbelot, Biblioth. Or. s. v. Hit. 
+ Strab. vi. 763; Plin. N. H. vii. 13; Joseph. B. J. iv. 8.4; Tacitus, Hist. v.6; Maun- 
deville, Rochon, &c. 
“. ., Bédki and those fountains of blue flame 
That burn into the Caspian.”—Latua Rook: The Veiled Prophet. 
§ Book I. ch. iii. (vol. i. p. 46, of Col. Yule’s edition, 1871). See also note in Mars- 
- den’s edition. 
|| Ameenit. Exot. p. 274, &c,; Lives of Celebrated Travellers (Colburn’s Nat. Libr.), 


i. 263. 
{| P. 262, note. ** Second Journey, p. 243. 


182 REPORT—187]1. 


tities of oil, obtained then chiefly from certain islands in the Caspian. Descriptions 
are given by other old and modern trayellers of this oil-region, the copious discharges 
of the white and black naphtha, the streams of flaming oil on the hill sides, the 
gas and the fire-temple, and the explosive effects of the ignition of the gas mixed 
with atmospheric air*. An interesting communication was made in 1868 to the 
Geographical Society of Paris by Dr. Boerklund on the results of his trans- 
Caucasian explorations, in which he describes the naphtha-regions of the Caspian. 
On the Le Sacrée, he mentions, not far from the Abscheron peninsula on which 
stands Baki, there is now a manufactory of parafiine. 

Dr. Boerklund notices also the association of these petroleum-fields with active 
mud-yoleanoes. The connexion of petroleum with eruptions of mud and agita- 
tions of the earth’s surface is noteworthy and importantt. The most complete 
observations on mud-yolcanoes, and the relation of these and similar phenomena 
to deposits of petroleum, are to be found in Prof. Ansted’s paper on the subject 
communicated to the Royal Institution in May 1866, with immediate reference to 
the mud-yolcanoes of Sicily and the Crimea which he had recently yisited. There 
are mud-yolcanoes in other parts of the world, in connexion with which petroleum 
has not hitherto been found. There are large volcanoes of this kind at Hinglaj 
near the south coast of Belochistan, which have been visited by a few British 
officers. So far as I am aware, no signs of petroleum have been found in their 
neighbourhood ; but the country has not been well explored {. The petroleum of 
Kerman has been noticed by Pottinger§. One of the allied substances, ambergris, 
has long been a noted product of the adjacent seas. 

The similarity of the phenomena shown by mud-yolcanoes and gas-springs in 
the Italian peninsula, in the Caucasus, and in South America, is displayed over 
great tracts of country in the Chinese Empire||._ The use of the natural fires of 
petroleum and gas in the province of Shan-Si is described in an old account of the 
province by a native writer, Dionysius Kao, who says that in all parts of the pro- 
vince are fiery wells, which conveniently serve the people for cooking their victuals. 
(Possibly the “Temple of the Limit of Fire,” mentioned by Fa Hian the Chinese 
Buddhist pilgrim, was a temple over natural gas-flames like those of Baki and 
Jwala-Mukhi§.) Similar gas-flames on the Caramanian coast are described by 
Capt. Beaufort **, as before by Pliny. 

Te country from which the principal supplies of petroleum were obtained in 
Britain, previous to the discovery of the enormous quantities to be obtained in 
America by boring, was Burmah. Of the petroleum wells in that country a full 
account is given in Colonel Yule’s ‘ Narrative of the Mission to the Court of Ava,’ 
and in the notes in the Appendix by Mr. Oldham, Director of the Geological 
Survey of India. In the Province of Pegu there is a burning hillock called the 
Nat Mee or Spirit Fire, of which an account is given by Lieut. Duff, Deputy 
Commissioner of Thyet Myo, in a communication to the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 
July 1861, The gaseous exhalations at Chittagong, called the Burning Fountains 
of Brahma, haye been described by Turner, and more recently by a writer in the 
Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal tT. 

There are many other parts of Asia and Europe in which these products, in 
some of their forms, are found and have long been known, In Assam petroleum 
is now obtained in considerable quantity by boring. The native petroleums of 
Southern India and of Australia have been shown in recent local exhibitions. 
In the interior of Sumatra springs of sulphur and petroleum were discovered 
in 1869, The petroleum of the north-western parts of the Punjab, known 


* Wonders of the East, by Friar Jordanus (Col. Yule’s note), p. 50; Hon. G. Keppel’s 
‘ Journey from India to England,’ 1824; ‘A Journey from London to Persepolis,’ by J. 
Ussher, 1865 ; Morier’s Journey ; Kinneir’s ‘ Persia,’ &c.; ‘Some Years’ Trayels,’ by Tho. 
Herbert, 1638. tT Cosmos, i. 212; Scrope on Volcanoes. 

{ An account of them by Col. A. C. Robertson, 8th Regt., is given in the Journal of the 
Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1849. § P. 312. 
ni Humboldt, ‘ Cosmos,’ iv. 216; Hue, ‘Chinese Empire,’ ch. vii.; Dayis’s ‘ Chinese,’ 
chap. v. 

§| Beal's ‘ Buddhist Pilgrims,’ ch, xvi. p. 68. ** Cosmos, i. 210, 

tt Vol. xii. p. 1055. = - 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 183 


and used since an early period *, is now being worked. The chief purpose for 
which it is directly required is the manufacture of gas for one of our large military 
stations (Rawul-Pindee). 

The great vigour and vitality of the flame of petroleum gave it a special yalue as 
a material for igneous missiles before the invention of gunpbwder. It is only 
necessary here to notice this application of the mineral oils as indicative of the 
localities from which the material was probably obtainedt. The Levant, the 
coast of Asia Minor, the Grecian islands, Sicily, and the Caspian, would furnish 
abundance of this material in some of its forms for the destructive engines and 
fire-balls used in the Eastern wars and sieges. There is good reason to believe 
that the Punjab petroleum was applied to a similar purpose = Mahmud, of Ghazni, 
in one of his engagements near the Indus with the Indian prince Anandpal in the 
beginning of the 11th century. This question has been discussed in a most inter- 
esting note on the early use of gunpowder in India by the late Sir Henry Elliot, 
in the first yolume of his ‘ Bibliographical Index to the Mohammedan Historians 
of India’ f. 

The substance called mimia, or mimidai, is held in great estimation as a medi- 
cine for both internal and external use. The other substances of the same class 
are also used for medicinal as well as for other purposes §; but what is called 
mumia is used for this only. The current belief in the East is that mimia is of 
animal origin. It is worthy of note that recent researches have led to the con- 
clusion that this is the case with respect to some, at least, of the great deposits 
of the mineral oils discovered within late years; but the animal origin of mimia 
is, in Persia and India, believed to be more immediate. That obtained in the 
shops at Lahore is said to come from Cabul, that is, in a general way it is ob- 
tained from or through Afghanistan. Dr. Fryer tells of a place in Persia where it 
was obtained in his time ||. Petroleum is abundant in the same quarter now, 
Another of the substances of this class, ambergris, has at all times been believed 
to belong, mediately or immediately, to some big animal of the salt water; but 
the conclusions regarding it are not even now very satisfactory J]. 

The geographical positions in which these various products in some of their 
forms are found, and in which indications of their existence, or the frequent ac- 
companiments of them, are met with, appear to be sufficiently varied. They occur 
in great river-basins, in those of the Euphrates, the Indus and its tributaries, the 
Brahmaputra, the Irawadi; of the St. Lawrence in Upper and Lower Canada, the 
Ohio and Mississippi in the States of Ohio, Tennessee, and Arkansas, the Rio 
Colorado and other minor rivers in California and New Mexico, Next, we observe 
them very abundant in the two remarkable depressed lakes, the Caspian and the 
Dead Sea. In islands, Ceylon, Sicily, Zante, and other of the Greek islands, in 
Sumatra, and in a special manner in Trinidad near the mouths of the Orinoco. 
Along the skirts of great mountain-ranges and between mountain-ranges and the 
sea; thus in Pennsylvania and Virginia, in the country on either side of the 
Alleghanies ; in Tennessee, intersected by the Cumberland mountains; in Texas, 
with its broken ranges of mountains parallel to the coast, and large rivers running 
from them and through them into the Gulf of Mexico; between the mountains 
and the sea in the south of Asia Minor, of Persia, and Belochistan. 


* Notices of it are given in the works of Elphinstone, Burnes, Vigne, Edwardes, and 
others. 

+ Accounts of the nature and effects of such missiles are given in De Joinville’s ‘ Life 
of St. Louis,’ and in the pages of Gibbon, Niebuhr, Hallam, &e., and more particularly in 
Messrs. Reinaud and Favé’s Treatise on the ‘Feu Grégeois,’ See also Ammian. Mareell. ; 
Vegetius, ‘De Re Militari;’ Tasso, ‘ Jer. Del.’ xii. 42-44. 

t The jire-pao mentioned by Polo, the agni-aster of the ancient Hindoo poems, and the 
fire-darts referred to by Menu, have possibly been of the same kind. 

é Hanway; Abbé Hue, ‘Chinese Empire,’ ch. xi.; ‘Indian Annals of Medical Science,’ 
no. iii. 250; Ainslie, ‘Materia Indica,’ i. 41; Honighberger, ‘Thirty Years in the Hast,’ &e. 
b || New Account of East India and Persia, nine years’ travels, 1672-1681, by J. Fryer, 

M.D., p. 318. 

q toes ‘Thousand and One Nights,’ iii. 66; Yule’s ‘Marco Polo,’ yol. ii. p. 342; 
Renaudot, ‘Ancient Accounts of India and China,’ p. 94, 


184. REPORT—-1871. 


In all these various kinds of geographical situation they are found, their pro- 
duction and exhibition being subject to necessary geological and other conditions, 
on which it is not the purpose of this paper to enter. ; 

The frequent association of these products with salt has been noticed. The oil- 
fields of the Punjab, which have lately been surveyed and reported on, are all in 
the north-west part of the broken series of hills and tract of country bearing the 
general name of the Salt Range, containing the inexhaustible stores of massive 
salt from which that province and neighbouring countries have been supplied for 
many centuries. The explanation of the connexion of salt with petroleum has yet 
to be sought, but the fact meanwhile is important. 

The oil is not always accompanied with gas, but the inflammable gas appears 
generally, if not always, to indicate the existence of the oil in some form, and par- 
ticularly, as it appears, in regions producing salt. 

The oil is obtained, as in Burmah, by making excavations in the soil in which 
it has become diffused, into which excavations or wells the oil slowly passes from 
the soil around. And it is procured by deep borings, in which it may rise in the 
manner of water in artesian wells, by hydrostatic pressure, or, as in the many 
instances with which descriptions of American and other oil-wells have made us 
familiar, forced up from reservoirs in subterranean cavities under the pressure of 
steam or other vapour. In any geographical situation it may be obtained in the 
first manner. It is when it occurs along the outskirts of mountain-ranges that it 
may rise as in artesian water-wells; and where the earth has been subjected to 
violent internal action, and the rocks haye been much split and displaced, it is 
obtained from cavities and veins, frequently attended with escape of gas at the 
surface of the ground and spontaneous discharges of the oil. 

These appear to be, in a general way, the :inds of situation and the modes in 
which, where these products have been formed, they are obtained for use, or 
where the surface-indications of their presence occur. It is desirable that further 
and more definite information should be gathered by those whose experience of oil- 
regions, or other opportunities, afford them the means of contributing to our know- 
ledge of a subject which has come to be of great practical importance as well as of 
scientific and general interest. 


On the Formation of Sand-bars, By Dr. R. J. Many. 


Report on Badakolan, By Paxprr Manpuat, C.S.L. 


On the Eastern Cordillera, and the Navigation of the River Madeira. 
By C. R. Marxuan, C.B., Sec. R.GS. 


The author began by referring to the paper which he read before the Association 
at the Leeds Meeting in 1858, and in which he showed the vast importance of the 
opening up of lines of water communication between the Andes and the Atlantic 
by way of the Amazons, and the immense extent of country which then remained 
to be explored. Having pointed out what has since been done in the way of dis- 
covery, he proceeded to give an account of the recent investigations connected 
with that portion of the mighty eastern Cordillera of the Andes which contains 
the sources of streams that form the Beni, and to report upon the operations 
which are in contemplation, with a view to opening a navigable route from the 
Beni to the Atlantic by way of the river Madeira. The old Yneas of Peru did 
all that was possible to secure for their people the wealth of those interminable 
forests to the eastward of the Andes, but they did not know that the rivers dash- 
ing down from their mountains led to an ocean whence the arts and products of 
the whole world might be brought to their doors. But their descendants see, in, 
the mighty Amazon and her tributaries, a means of saying the ruinous land-car- 
riage of their merchandize to the Pacific coast. The cost of taking a ton of mer- 
chandize from Cuzco, the capital of the Yneas, or from La Paz, the commercial 
capital of Bolivia, to England, is about £40, the time five months. Under such 
conditions no produce but gold, silyer, and chinchona bark would pay the expense’ 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 185 


of transit. By the route of the Madeira and Amazons, this voyage of five months 
will be reduced to six weeks, the course being through a civilized empire which 
takes the lead in opening the way for the commerce of the world; while the 
opening of those great fluvial highways will also have the effect of solving the 
most interesting questions in South American geography. The section of the 
Eastern Andes, which is drained by the feeders of the Beni, extends from the 
parallel of Cuzco to that of La Paz. This eastern chain forms a giant wall, run- 
ning up into the loftiest peaks of South America in its southern portion, and 
everywhere rising above the line of perpetual snow. The author showed that the 
cartography of the south-eastern end of the chain is well defined in our best 
modern maps, while that of the north-western portion is in a state of much con- 
fusion ; and he also pointed out some analogous features which exist between the 
Andean and the Himalayan ranges. He then described in some detail the phy- 
sical features of the region, which is peculiarly interesting, leading to the conclu- 
sion that the complete examination of the great afiluent of the Madeira will result 
in opening up one of the richest countries in the world, provided that the question 
of turning the rapids of the Madeira, and of making the lower part of its course 
navigable, is grappled with and overcome. The Brazilian Government is alive to 
the importance of developing the resources and fostering the trade of the Amazon 
valley, and has caused an elaborate survey to be made of the Madeira rapids. 
These are eighteen in number, the total fall being 272 feet. The length of the 
river course, containing rapids, is 229 miles, and the length of actual broken water 
is 12 miles. The difference between low water and floods is about 20 feet, the 
rise commencing in October and ending in March. Commerce is now carried past 
in launches and canoes carrying from 3 to 8 tons. At six out of eighteen rapids it 
is necessary to haul the boats round overland, at five others the boats are hauled 
up stream while the boats are carried round, and the rest are merely difficult passes 
where the loaded craft easily shoot along the current. Serious steps have now 
been taken to overcome these obstacles. A concession has been granted for the 
construction of a railway round the rapids, which will be 170 miles long, including 
‘a short branch to the mouth of the Beni. Above the Madeira rapids there are 
3000 miles of river suited to steam navigation; and the articles of commerce, which 
would at once find an outlet by this route, are Chinchona bark, India-rubber, 
yanilla, sarsaparilla, balsams, aloes, valerian, dye-woods, gums, wax, hammocks 
and bats, cacas, coffee, hides and tallow, wool, skins, cotton, gold, silver, and copper. 
Commerce is already treading close on the heels of discovery ; and Peruvian hark, 
hitherto shipped exclusively from Pacific ports, is now beginning to find its way 
to England by the Amazon and Paré. The trade of the Amazons, which was less 
than half a million when the steamers began to run in 1853, is now upwards of 
£2,000,000 ; and this only represents the traffic on the main stream. The increase 
will certainly be enormous when the mighty affluents bring down the products 
of the Andes to find their way, by this magnificent fluvial highway, to the At- 
lantic. The country is one, possessing boundless capabilities, and a bright future 
must assuredly be in store for that great Amazonian basin which nature has blessed 
so wonderfully. Nothing can be more likely to conduce to the consummation of 
its commercial greatness than the thorough examination of those splendid navigable 
rivers which form the chief affluents of the Amazons, and some of the more¥im- 
portant of which are still so little known. In no other part of the world is there 
a grander field for geographical discovery and research. In no other part will the 
labours of the explorer be more richly repaid. 


On the Geographical Positions of the Tribes which formed the Empire of the 
Yneas. By Crements R. Marxuan, C.B., Sec. R.GS. 


In submitting to the Section the views which a study of early writers, the 
native languages, and the topography of the country had led him to form respect- 

_ ing the geographical positions of the tribes which combined to form the empire of 
the Yncas of Peru, the author pointed out that the study of the nature and degree 
of the civilization attained by the aboriginal Americans is especially important, 
because that civilization was self-developed. The three American empires of the 


186 REPORT—1871. 


Yncas, the Chibchas, and the Aztecs were based upon the progress made in the 
arts of civilization by the tribes which composed them, and on the united efforts of 
those tribes, after they had been welded into great nations. The difficulties of 
classifying or distinguishing the special characteristics of the component tribes 
having been shown, a description was given of the region which formed the empire 
of the Yncas. This vast tract is a long strip of mountain- and coast-line, bounded 
on the east by the forest-covered plains of the Amazonian basin, on the west by 
the Pacific Ocean, and extending north and south from 2° N. to about 20°S., or 
upwards of 1500 miles, with an average width of 400 miles. It comprises every 
variety of climate, and contains within its limits the most prolific tropical forests, 
valleys with the climate of Italy, a coast-region resembling Sind or Egypt, tem- 
perate hill-sides and plateaux, bleak and chilling pasture-lands, and lofty peaks and 
ridges within the limits of eternal snow. On one mountain-side the eye may 
embrace, at a single glance, sugar-cane and bananas under cultivation in the lowest 
zone, waving fields of maize a little higher up, shaded by tall trees, orchards of 
tropical fruits, stretches of wheat and barley, steep slopes clothed with potatoes 
and quinoa, bleak pastures where Hamas and alpacas are browsing, and rocky pin- 
nacles streaked with snow. In such a country, with such a variety of climates 
and products, and where communication is so difficult, the various nations appear 
to have gradually developed their capabilities in almost complete isolation. The 
tribal divisions of the empire of the Yncas agree well with its leading physical 
aspects. They consist of tive clearly defined regions, four following the lines of 
the Cordilleras, and the fifth on the sea-coast. The first and most northern extends 
from the river Ancas-mayu to the knot of Loxa, a distance of 350 miles, and is 
included in the kingdom of Quitu. The second reaches from the mountain-mass 
of Loxa to the saddle which separates the drainage of the Huallaga and Ucayali, 
It is 450 miles long, and comprises the Ynea division of Chinchasuyu. The third 
and most important region is that which is drained by affluents of the Ucayali. It 
includes the home of the imperial tribe, and may appropriately be called the Ynca 
division. The fourth comprises the basin of Lake Titicaca, and is Inown as the 

Collao. The fifth is the coast-region, and extends along the shores of the Pacific, 

from the Bay of Guayaquil to the desert of Atacama, a distance of 1200 miles. 

There is no sufficient evidence for the belief that the Yneas originally came from a 

distance, and there is a native tradition to the effect that their civilization was 

altogether of indigenous origin and growth. The author referred successively, and 

in considerable detail, to the religion, the language, and the architecture of the 
Yneas, which afforded evidence of, and an index to, the progress of civilization 

among the tribes. He also briefly described the different regions which comprised 

the empire, and gave some account of their history and peculiar characteristics, 

The conclusion arrived at, after careful study, was that the tribes of Peru resolve 

themselves into two primary divisions, distinguished by a complete difference of 
language, both as regards vocabulary and grammatical construction, sufficient to 

establish an entirely separate origin. These are the people of the four Andean 

regions, and the Indians of the coast. They form two races and two civilizatious. 

The tribes of the four Andean regions, on the other hand, spoke languages which, 

though differing as regards vocabulary, are identical in grammatical construction, 

and4point toa common origin. The languages are our most reliable guides. Phy- 
sical differences are caused by local circumstances connected with climate and 

habits of life. But the languages, when carefully studied, give us an insight into 

the original condition of the different tribes, and, with the aid of evidence collected 

from the earliest writers, enable us to resclye the great Ynca Empire into its 
elements, and to classify its opponent parts. In a geographical point of view it 
is important that we should be able to indicate the exact positions occupied by the 
different tribes, as well as their relative importance, and the degree of relationship 
they bore to each other. 


On the Sonali Covst. By Capt. Mies, 


This paper contained information regarding the country and its inhabitants, as 
well as the trade in gum and aromatic spices, in which the natives haye engaged 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 187 


from a very early period, The Somali country is but thinly peopled, the tribes 
being purely nomadic, raising no corn, but subsisting on their flocks and herds, 
and moving about for the convenience of pasturage. 


Encroachments of the Sea on the East Coast of Yorkshire, 
By the Rey. F. O. Morris, 


On the Inundation and Subsidence of the Yang-tsze River, in China. 
By 8. Mossman. 


The author described the phenomena attending the annual floods of the Yang- 
tsze-Kiang, which are similar to those of the Nile, but greater in inundation, and 
more devastating in effect. The floods depend upon rainfall from clouds caused by 
the south-west monsoon rising in the Indian Ocean, and the melting of snow in 
Eastern Thibet and Kokonoor, where the tablelands are from 12,000 to 13,000 feet 
above the level of the sea. So far the origin of the floods in the Yangtsze-Kiang is 
similar to that of the Nile, but the rise and subsidence of the former river are more 
rapid than those of the latter. The inundations vary more or less in their héight 
from year to year, the range being from thirty-five to fifty feet, while the most fre- 
quent rise is about forty feet. 


Letters from Vladivostok and Nikolsk, South Ussuri District. 
By the Archimandrite Pataprvs, 


On the Geography of Moab. By E. H. Patmer, M.A. 


The author commenced by describing the country of Moab, which is about fifty 
miles long by twenty broad, and includes the tableland on the eastern shore of the 
Dead Sea, as well as that part of the Ghor which lies on the eastern bank of the 
Jordan opposite Jericho. ‘I'he uplands he described as consisting of a rolling pla- 
teau, about 3200 feet above the level of the sea, the western edge being cut up 
into deep valleys, and descending by a series of sloping hills, at angles of forty-five 
and fifty degrees, into the Dead Sea. These uplands are naturally divided into 
two districts by the great chasm of Wady Mojib, the Arnon of Scripture. The 
author gave some interesting instances of his identification of modern places and 
terms with those mentioned in Scripture history. For instance, he stated that the 
modern town of Kerek, though little better than a collection of hovels, stands upon 
the site of the ancient capital of Moab. In the Old Testament it is called Kir- 
Haraseth,—Haresh, or Heres, The first part of the name appears to signify “a 
walled city,” but the meaning of the suffix has sufficiently puzzled commentators, 
But when the author was at Dhiban (the ancient Dibon), he unexpectedly met 
with an explanation of this term, and it is very curious as an example of the stri- 
king manner in which apparently trivial local idioms and custonis often illustrate 
the phraseology of the Bible. Asking one of the Arabs where the Moabite stone 
was found, the latter replied that it was “ between the harithein,” that is, between 

the two hariths. Now, in Arabic this word would mean a ploughman, and when 
the author asked for a further explanation, the Arab pointed out the two hillocks 
upon which the ruined village of Dhiban stands, and between them lay the frag- 
ments of the broken monument of Mesha. Nearly all the towns in Moab are built 
upon similar eminences, and the author found that they are invariably called 
Hariths by the Arabs. The word “ Harith” is precisely equivalent in orthography 
to the haresh, or hareseth of the Bible; and thus, in an apparently insignificant 
idiom, is seen an unexpected illustration of the topography of the Bible,—an addi- 
tional reason for identifying the modern Kerek with the ancient Kér-hareseth (“the 
city on the hill”), and the interesting discovery of a local Moabite word handed 
- down from the time of Jehoram, son of Ahab, to the present day. The author 
gaye several other curious instances of this kind of identification, and described at 
some length the investigations of Capt. Warren, Mr. Tyrwhitt Drake, and himself. 


—— 


188 REPOoRT—1871. 


On an Acoustic Phenomenon at Jebel Nagis, in the Peninsula of Sinai. 
By Captain H. 8. Parmer, 2.Z. 


Jebel Nagtis is the name given to a high sand-slope in the western coast-range 
of the peninsula of Sinai, about five miles north of the port of Tor. The sand of 
this slope possesses the peculiar property of giving forth loud musical sounds when 
set in motion by design or by natural causes. According to a quaint native legend, 
founded on the former monastic occupation of this part of the peninsula, the sounds 
are said to proceed from the ndgzs, or ‘wooden gong’’*, of a monastery buried 
beneath the sand. Hence the application of the name Nagtis to the slope in 

uestion. 

. The sand-slope is about 200 feet high, and 80 yards wide at its base, narrowing 
towards the top; it faces west-south-west. Sandstone cliffs overhang it, and bound 
it on either side, and an open sandy plain stretches from the foot of the slope to the 
sea-shore, about three-quarters of a mile distant. The sand of the slope appears to 
be that from the neighbouring desert plain, derived in the first place from the 
waste of the sandstone rocks, and then conveyed to its position on the hill-side by 
the drifting action of high winds; its grains are large, and consist entirely of 
quartz. The rock im sttté is a soft friable quartzose sandstone, of a pale brown 
inside, and weathered externally to a dull dark brown. The sand of the slope 
is so clean, and in its usual condition so extremely dry, and inclined at so steep 
an angle (about 293°) to the horizon, that it may be easily set in motion by such 
causes as the passage of men or animals across it, falling débris from the cliffs 
above, or disturbance by the wind. Sometimes also movement on a smaller scale 
may arise from an abnormal excess of heat and drought, or from the separation 
of the surface-particles, after their consolidation by rain or dew, on the return of 
heat and the sun’s burning rays. When any considerable quantity of the sand is 
in movement, rolling gradually down over the surface of the slope in thin wayes 
an inch or two deep, just as oil or any thick liquid might roll over an inclined 
sheet of glass, and in similar festoons or curves, then is heard the singular acoustic 
phenomenon from which the hill derives its name, at first a deep, swelling, vibratory 
moan, rising gradually to a dull roar, loud enough, when at its height, to be almost 
startling, and then as gradually dying away, till the sand ceases to roll. The 
sound is difficult to describe exactly; it is not metallic, not like that of a bell, nor 
yet that of a ndgis. Perhaps the very hoarsest note of an olian harp, or the 
sound produced by drawing the finger round the wet rim of a deep-toned finger- 
glass, most closely resembles it, though there is less music in the sound of the 
rolling sand: it may also be likened to the noise produced by air rushing into the 
mouth of an empty metal flask ; sometimes it almost approaches to the roar of very 
distant thunder, and sometimes it resembles the deeper notes of a violoncello, or the 
hum ofa humming-top. The author found by experiment that hot surface-sand was 
more sonorous than the cooler layers beneath; it also seemed torun more quickly ; 
the first experiments on any ene part of the slope produced louder effects than 
subsequent ones. Surface-sand, at a temperature of 105° Fahr., exposed to the 
sun’s full glare, produced the grandest effect observed, while sand in shade, at 62°, 
was almost mute. By day the heat on the slide is generally very great. Move- 
ment of the sand when moist is not accompanied by unusual sounds. Excavation 
was impossible, on account of the continuous flow of the sand when disturbed ; in 
some places nothing solid could be reached by probing; in others, rock was felt a 
few inches below the surface, but whether zz set or not could not be ascertained. 
When sand is rolling down and producing sound, there is a distinct vibration on 
the slide, increasing with the intensity of the sounds. Throughout Capt. Palmer’s 
stay, the wind blew from N.W.; the effects produced on the slide by winds from 
other quarters have yet to be observed. Experiments on two other sand-slides, a 
little to the south of Jebel Nagus, and resembling it in many particulars, did not 
result in producing any similar sounds. But phenomena of a kindred character had 
been noticed in other parts of the world, as, for instance, at Reg-Rayan forty miles 
north of Cabul, and on the sandy plains of Arequipa in Peru. 

Jebel Nagus had been several times visited and described, but the author had 


* Used in place of bells in conyents of the Greek Church. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 189 


had better means and opportunities for investigation than those of previous trayel- 
_lers, and he submitted this paper in the hope of once more inviting attention to a 
curious and interesting subject. There could be no doubt that the sound arises 
from the movement of the surface-sand, and is intimately connected with the sili- 
ceous character of the sand and its extreme dryness, but the author was not aware 
that any exact explanation of the phenomenon had as yet been elicited from 
scientific men. 


Notes on British Gurhwal. By Capt. A. Putian, 


The Saskatchewan Valley. By Dr. Ran. 


On the Volcan de Aqua, near Guatemala. By W. B. Ricwarnson. 


— 


A Journey through Mekran. By Major E. C. Ross. 


On the Topography of Ancient Jerusalem. By Goren Sr. Crate. 


On the Himalayas and Central Asia. By Tretawyuy Savnpers. 


On Trade Routes between Burmah and China. By Major Stapen. 


The author explained that the object in view in all explorations undertaken in 
Burmah had been a desire on the part of our Government and mercantile classes 
to ascertain the practicability of establishing an overland route from the Bay of 
Bengal to Central and South-Western China. Major Sladen referred to the expe- 
dition which he conducted up the Irawadi a few years ago, and pointed out 
the practicability of navigating this river nearly, if not quite, up to the Chinese 
frontier. At Bhamo, 900 miles from the sea, and probably 1000 miles from its 
source, the Irawadi, when full between its natural banks, is four miles in breadth, 
and during a third of the year or more it might be navigated with the greatest 
ease as far as Bhamo, by vessels as large as any that have ever ascended the 
Yanegtsze, from Shanghai to Hankow. By selecting the Irawadi as a means of 
transit for produce from South-Western China, and Rangoon as a port of export 
for such produce, the yoyage to Europe, both in distance and duration, would be 
reduced in a correspoding degree, the expenses of navigation would be reduced, the 
risks and dangers attending difficult navigation through the straits of Malacca and 
the China seas avoided, and the heavy insurances at present in force by reason of 
such difficult navigation would be altogether done away with. 


On the Proposed Ship-Canal between Ceylon and India. 
By Commander A. Dunpas Tayror. 


This officer, having given much attention to the study of Indian hydrography, 
devoted a portion of his paper to an historical sketch of the discussion which has 
been going on more or less during the whole of the present century regarding the 

racticability of forming a navigable passage between the Gulf of Menaar and the 
ay of Bengal. The project of deepening the Paumben Passage for the naviga- 
tion of large ships did not commend itself to Commander Taylor’s approval. Sir 
James Elphinstone, as a practical seaman, had personally investigated this channel, 

. but had come to the conclusion that it would never do for large ships. But during 
his examination of the neighbourhood in concert with Captain Dorman, Master- 
Attendant of Colombo, Sir James discovered a well-sheltered area of anchorage, 
with soundings of five or six fathoms, extending over five square miles, and thence 


190 REPORT-— 1871. 


eradually decreasing to four fathoms about half a mile from the Indian shore, 
where the canal’s mouth is proposed to be. This harbour lies between Mostapetta 
Point and Moosel islet, lengthways on the Saen whilst its north and south limits 
are respectively at Poonamudum town and Moolee islet, the entrance, in which there 
is now a depth of three fathoms at high water, being about a mile anda half to the 
east of the last-named islet. The anchorage is well protected against the southerly 
swell of the monsoon by the coral islets and connecting reefs, extending from Vali- 
nookam Point to Rameswaram. 


On the American Arctic Expedition. By Capt. Warp, RN. 


Exploration of the Headwaters of the Maraion. 
By M. Arruur WERTHERMAN. 


Captain Garnier’s Expedition up the Camboja. 
By Colonel Hurry Yurz, C.B., President. 


In this paper the author described the progress of the French Expedition up the 
Camboja river, which was sanctioned in the end of 1865 by M. Chasseloup- 
Laubat, then Minister of Marine, and also President of the Geographical Society of 
Paris. The object of this Expedition was to discover the nature and resources of 
the region in which the French had planted a colony, and also to extend French 
influence in that direction. But few Europeans had previously ascended the 
river, so that the Expedition had practically a virgin field for exploration. The 
party started from Saigon on the 5th of June, 1866, and included Capt. De la Grée, 
the chief, Lieut. Garnier, second in command and geographer, Thorel and Joubert, 
navy surgeons and naturalists, Delaporte, a young naval officer, as artist, and 
De Carné, a young civilian. There were also four European soldiers and sailors, 
but they were all eventually sent back, and natives employed in their stead. Pro- 
ceeding first to the neighourhood of Udong, near the Great Lake, as it is called, 
they then directed their course to Cratieh in 12° 28’, distant 500 miles from the 
mouth of the river. Here they took to canoes for the ascent, which was at first 
favourable, but was afterwards rendered difficult by rapids and cataracts, the river 
being also broken by a vast number of islands. Above the cataracts the channel 
became narrower, and the islands gradually ceased. Difficulties with regard to 
passports were also felt, and a variety of causes rendered travelling backwards and 
forwards several times imperative. Instruments also that were necessary to suc- 
cess, and that had been promised them, had not arrived, and now, to add to their 
troubles, an insurrection broke out which closed the river below. Lieut. Garnier 
volunteered to make his way by land to the Delta, where it was expected that both 
passports and instruments would be found. He started on the 10th of January, 
1867, and, after a perilous journey, reached the French gunboat stationed on the 
frontier. The passports were found, though the instruments were still missing ; and 
on the 8th of February Garnier once more started for the upper country. On the 
10th of March he rejoined his party at a place called Huten, in the province of 
Khemarat, having travelled something like 1100 miles since quitting them. This 
fatiguing journey has added a large and before quite unexplored tract to the surveys 
resulting from the Expedition. On quitting Huten, the river turns more and more 
westward and forms the first immense elbow, hitherto quite unsuspected (running 
east and west for nearly 4° of longitude), in about the latitude of 180° north. As 
far as Vienchang, the country traversed by the river is an immense plain, rarely 
broken by a few mountain-ridges. A short distance above Vienchang, the Mekong 
is found definitively shut in between two ranges of hills, and instead of its breadth 
being measured by miles, it is contained in a channel of 500 or 600 yards wide. 
Having got on the borders of the Ava territory, the party found that their most 
serious difficulties commenced. The Burmese officials offered obstructions, and the 
rainy season added severely to the fatigues of the way, while the extortions of the 
natives caused them additional trouble.. But at last they reached Kiang Hung, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 191 


where new efforts were made to stop their further advance. In October, however, 
they were enabled to start once more for Tsemas, the first stage in China, that 
country to which they had so long looked forward as the Promised Land. The 
Mekong was here finally quitted. The Expedition had to deviate eastward, and 
came upon the Yuen Kiang, or River of Tonking. Garnier explored this river as 
far as the Anamite frontier, and rejoined his party at Linggan. From Linngan-fu the 
Expedition proceeded direct towards Yunnan-fu, traversing a lake-region of great 
interest. On quitting the valley of the Tonking river they commenced ascending 
a plateau of 5000 to 5600 feet in height, on which they found growing most of the 
fruits and other vegetable products of Europe. They arrived at Yunnan-fu on the 
23rd of December, 1867. Thence they set off by a devious course (the country 
between being ravaged by hostile armies) for Tali; but Capt. De la Grée falling 
sick, the leadership of the expedition was given to Lieut. Garnier, Dr. Joubert 
being left in charge of the chief. Through a difficult country, by the aid of some 
missionaries, the party at length reached Tali, but were soon compelled to leave 
again owing to the Sultan’s unfriendliness. By consummate generalship and great 
presence of mind Lieut. Garnier conducted his party once more across the frontier; 
where rumours of the death of their chief reached them, causing them intense 
anxiety. At length a letter from Dr. Joubert confirmed the rumours, and plunged 
them all into the deepest distress. Finally, in. May 1868, they embarked on the 
great Kiang at Sin-chan-fu, and reached Hankau in the beginning of June, just 
two years from their departure from Saigon. Here they found once more country 
men of their own, a European settlement, and means of transport to carry them back 
to their native land. The whole distance over which they travelled between Cratieh, 
at the head of the Mekong Delta, and Sinchan on the Upper Yanetsé, amounted 
to 2460 miles, of which about 1650 were performed on foot. To this must be 
added about 2000 more in excursions and digressions by separate members of the 
Expedition ; and they have surveyed an extent of actual itinerary of over 4000 
miles in all, besides an immense number of astronomical determinations. 


ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 


Address by Lorp Neays, one of the Lords of Session, President of the 
Section. 


A DISTINGUISHED predecessor in the occupancy of this chair commenced its busi- 
ness by declaring it to have been the custom that the proceedings of the Section 
should be opened by an address, and that that address should be a brief one. In 
complying with the first of these rules, I shall endeavour, if I can, not to forget the 
second; but the subjects falling within the jurisdiction of the Section are extensive, 
and compression is always difficult, particularly to one who like myself am rather 
a novice in the matters of which I am to treat. 

Economic science is sometimes spoken of as having a very modern date; but I 
think that this is an error. More or less the subject has entered into all the codes 
or systems of law that have been established from the earliest times. Alongside 
of political philosophy, which may be considered as peculiarly the science of 
Government, great attention has always been bestowed upon matters which form 
an important part of political economy, or economic science—such as taxation, trade, 
commerce, wealth, and population. Those writers also who have presented us 
with ideal or imaginary Reates, or Utopias, are full of discussions and speculations 
of the same kind. The rival ‘Republics’ of Plato and Aristotle afford abundant 
illustrations of this statement. It is peculiarly interesting to see this fact brought 
out so vividly in the admirable introduction to the ‘ Republic’ of Plato, prefixed 
to that treatise in Professor Jowett’s translation of that great philosopher; and if 
we had a similar translation and exposition of Aristotle’s kindred work, which I 
think we might have from the hand of one of our own Vice-presidents, to whom 


192 REPORT—1871. 


we owe so excellent an exposition of the ‘ Ethics,” we should see in a remarkable 
manner how many of the most interesting questions of the present day were con- 
sidered and dealt with by those two wonderful men according to the varying lights 
and tendencies which characterized their several minds. It is true that in more 
recent times a great advance has been made in economic science, and one feature 
and excellency of that change is the tendency to leave things as much as possible 
to their spontaneous operation, and to the inherent laws of nature and society ; 
thouch here again there has latterly been a reaction. It is tothe credit of Scotland 
that she has produced the two greatest leaders in this modern movement—David 
Hume and Adam Smith—who are still high authorities on the whole subject, and 
whose principles have been made the basis of much of our recent legislation. 

The subject of Statistics is added to the title of this Section as an auxiliary to 
the main subject of economic science. ; 


Statistics and their Fallacies. 


The study of statistics, though not entirely of modern origin, has assumed a 
special prominence in recent times. Statistics are certainly more of the nature of 
a means than an end, and their great use and object I take to be to establish, by 
showing the proportions or averages of results as they actually occur, the existence 
of certain natural laws possessing the character of absolute or general uniformity. 
But statistics are liable to hazards, which it is most important to attend to and 
guard against. It is a common jest that there is nothing so fallacious as figures, 
except facts; and, as generally happens, this jocular reproach has enough of partial 
truth in it to preserve it in vitality. Two qualities of mind are employed in statistics 
of very different kinds—namély, accuracy in observing and recording facts, and 
wisdom in deducing inferences from them. These two different faculties must act - 
in harmony together; and if they do not do so, fallacious conclusions will inevi- 
tably be the result. Let me give some easy and familiar instances of the fallacies 
that may thus be caused. 

In the course of my duties as a judge of the Supreme Criminal Court, I have occa- 
sion from time to time to find at circuit towns very light or even altogether empty 
calendars; and when there is no case to try at all, this is naturally a matter of 
rejoicing for all concerned, of which the judge has the double benefit in having 
nothing to do, and in carrying off a pair of white gloves. Latterly, however, I 
haye been led in such cases to make the remark to the local authorities, that a 
light calendar was not an unequivocal sign of a satisfactory state of things in a 
district, for that result might arise in two ways—either from no crime being com- 
mitted in the locality, which is a just subject of congratulation, or from few or no 
crimes being detected and brought to justice, though many may haye been com- 
mitted, which is a very deplorable condition of affairs. This consideration, I am 
glad to say, was not called forth by any thing in the state of our criminal police in 
Scotland, but was suggested and illustrated by the condition of matters in another 
part of the United Kingdom, where there was no want of crime, but it often led 
to no prosecutions, from the inability of the law to lay hold of the perpetrators, or 
to find evidence to prove their guilt. Nay, a deeper fallacy may sometimes lurk 
under judicial statistics of this kind. It has been said, I fear with truth, that in 
certain parts of the kingdom the very absence of some delinquencies of a special 
description is the result of a complete subversion of legal authority. Agrarian 
crimes are perpetrated there in order to punish or deter those who exercise their 
legal rights as to land; and when this system of terrorism is complete, the crimes 
cease to be committed, because the evil organization has attained its object, and 
does not need to be practically exercised, as no one dares to disobey its lawless 
mandates. The reign of terror is thus established by paralyzing the exercise of any 
freedom of action which might incur its penal denunciations. A worse state of 
society than this can scarcely be imagined, where lawlessness is enthroned and 
wholly supersedes the law. 

Another example of fallacious inference from judicial statistics may be derived 
from the history of our penal legislation. Until the middle or latter half of last 
century, the proprietary feelings of the country, and specially, perhaps, of the urban 
trading classes, incited Parliament to pass severe laws for their protection, which 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 193 


often affixed to slight violations of property a capital punishment. The number 
not only of robberies but of thefts, which were then capitally punishable, is almost 
incredible to us of the present generation; and can now excite only our horror and 
amazement. I would refer you here to an admirable paper on this subject by 
Johnson, being No. 114 of the ‘Rambler,’ which gives an account of the feelings 
that then prevailed and the system that was followed. The paper, which is most 
perully written, deserves peculiar praise, as being the commencement of those 
umane and wise efforts for the amelioration of the penal law that were afterwards 
renewed and brought to a successful issue by the perseverance of Romilly and the 
practical sagacity of Peel. Dr. Johnson says:—“It has always been the practice, 
when any particular species of robbery becomes prevalent and common, to endeayour 
its suppression by capital denunciation. Thus one generation of malefactors is 
commonly cut off, and their successors are frightened into new expedients. The 
art of thieving is augmented with greater variety of fraud, and subtlised to higher 
degrees of dexterity and more occult methods of conveyance. The law then renews 
the pursuit in the heat of anger, and overtakes the offender again with death. By 
this practice, capital inflictions are multiplied, and crimes, very different in their 
degrees of enormity, are equally subjected to the severest punishment that man has 
the power of exercising upon man.” 
ow, in this state of things, there is little doubt that after every new application 
of capital punishment to a crime that did not previously infer it, there might be 
a diminution of prosecutions on that head, and the public were thus, perhaps, led 
to think that theft and rapine had in this way received a check. But experience 
and reflection soon suggested another explanation, which is thus pointed out in the 
paper I refer to:—‘ All laws against wickedness are ineffectual unless some will 
inform and some will prosecute ; but till we mitigate the penalties for mere viola- 
tions of property, information will always be hated and prosecution dreaded, The 
heart of a good man cannot but recoil at the thought of punishing a slight injury 
with death, especially when he remembers that the thief might have procured 
safety by another crime from which he was restrained only by his remaining virtue.” 
In connexion with this last consideration, Dr. Johnson had previously urged that 
the terror of death “should be reserved as the last resort of authority, as the 
strongest and most operative of prohibitory sanctions, and placed before the treasure 
of life to guard from invasion what cannot be restored. To equal robbery with 
murder, is to reduce murder to robbery, to confound in common minds the grada- 
tions of iniquity, and incite the commission of a greater crime to prevent the de- 
_téction of a less. If only murder were punished by death, very few robbers would 
stain their hands with blood; but when by the last act of cruelty no new danger 
is incurred, and greater security may be obtained, upon what principle shall we bid 
them forbear?”’ This remarkable paper, written, be it observed, in the year 1751, 
concludes with the following characteristic sentences :—“ This scheme of invigora- 
ting the laws by relaxation, and extirpating wickedness by lenity, isso remote from 
common practice, that I might reasonably fear to expose it to the public, could it 
be supported only by my own observations. I shall therefore, by ascribing it to 
the author, Sir Thomas More, endeavour to procure it that attention which I wish 
always paid to prudence, to justice, and to mercy.” We may thus see how mere 
numerical statistics in such questions may speak an ambiguous language, and that 
_ the paucity of prosecutions may be a proof, not of the wisdom, but of the inefficacy 
of our legislation; for while it is doubtful how far criminals, or at least habitual 
criminals, are deterred by capital punishment, which they come to look upon as the 
fortune of war, there is no doubt that undue severity disinclines injured parties 
from taking steps to bring down on the delinquent what is considered as an exor- 
bitant penalty. I may here, perhaps, suggest a question whether our country of 
Scotland was not saved from such evils partly by the institution of a public prose- 
cutor, and partly by the anomalous, but convenient power which he possessed of 
restricting the pains of law, when they were capital, to an arbitrary punishment— 
a resource which was likely to render juries less unwilling to convict than they 
might otherwise have been. I should mention that a protest against the severity 
of the penal laws as to property was uttered by an earlier opponent of the system, 
though one not so disinterested as Dr. Johnson; I mean the widow of no freebooter 
1871. 


194. REPORT—1871. 


Gilderoy, or whoever it was that wrote the Lament bearing that name. The verse 
I refer to runs thus, and is expressed in very good “braid Scots” and very fair 
metre — 
‘*Wae worth the loons that made the laws 
To hang a man for gear: 
To reave of life for sic a cause 
As stealing horse or mear! 
Had not their laws been made sae strick 
I ne'er had lost my joy ; 
Wi sorrow ne’er had wat my cheek 
For my dear Gilderoy.” 


There is another matter of a different kind on which the language of statistics 
is also ambiguous. ‘The relations of the sexes constitute a most important branch 
of economical science, and in no point is information of more value than where it 
refers to female purity or to the circumstances affecting marriage. We have now 
generally in our registers a good enumeration of the legitimate and illegitimate 
births that occur among us, but I wish to point out some of the hazards or uncer- 
tainties by which these are surrounded. In Scotland, as a whole, there is un- 
doubtedly a considerable proportion of births that are illegitimate ; but the propor- 
tion varies much in different localities. Ten per cent. is not by any means the 
highest proportion ; but let us suppose two districts, A and B, where the proportion 
is much smaller, say 5 per cent. in each. What does this indicate? It may pro- 
ceed from a greater degree of moral purity, as fewer examples of unmarried cohabi- 
tation will, of course, diminish the number of illegitimate births. But the small 
proportion of those births may possibly be produced by a.totally opposite cause ; 
for it is equally certain that extreme licentiousness of morals, and especially any 
professional profligacy among women, has a tendency to diminish the number of 
children born. So that district A, with a small ig pete of illegitimate births, 
may be a very moral district, and district B, with the same small percentage, may 
be full of prostitutes and other dissolute women, who, from that very character, 
seldom or never give birth to children at all. 

I mention these fallacies in statistical studies, not with the view of discrediting the 
science, but in order to show the necessity of looking below the surface, and of pausing 
in our deductions till we are sure that we have all the necessary materials for judging. 

The subject I have just touched upon is intimately connected with the habits of 
a population as to the contracting of marriage. Early marriages have necessarily 
a tendency to check illicit intercourse, and are often encouraged with that view. 
The Catholic clergy are supposed to recommend, if not to enforce, such marriages 
with a view to the moral purity of their flocks. But it ought to be remembered 
that the remedy involves other evils of its own; and it may be suggested that, if 
female chastity can only be preserved by the marriage of young persons when little 
better than children, this is not a very high tribute to the prevalence of good prin- 
ciples, nor a result that is a just subject of pride. I suspect, indeed, that other 
ecclesiastical bodies besides the Catholics have the same tendency to encourage 
early marriages. A Presbyterian minister in Ulster told me that in the first 
marriage which he celebrated in his congregation, the united ages of the parties 
were under 30, and he baptized a child for them a year afterwards. No great good 
can come of a system such as that, particularly if it be accompanied, as it often is 
in Ireland, with a further subdivision of the paternal farm for the support of the 
young couple. A healthy opinion in a people to discourage early marriages, and 
at the same time to enforce good moral conduct, is a manifest cause of prosperity ; 
and it is said to explain in a great degree the thriving condition of the Norwegian 
peasantry. But artificial restraints on marriage, without a high standard of 
morals, do no good. In Bavaria, it seems, from local and partial interests, various 
legal checks are imposed upon marriages. But, as ha heen said, “they do not 
care to check concubinage ; and thus the number of illegitimate births in Munich 
is nearly as large as that of legitimate.” 


Deductions from the Registrar's Returns, 
Tn connexion with this subject, I feel called upon to say that I consider ott 


a i 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 195 


Registers in Scotland to be, generally speaking, in a most satisfactory state, parti- 
cularly in the important department of Vital statistics, as to which the reports of 
the Registrar-General, embodying the reports made to him by Dr. Stark, contain 
reliable information of the most interesting and important kind. One singular 
result that seems to have been established by the tables there given is, that at 
every quinquennial period of life, from 20 years of age up to 85, married men die in 
Scotland at a much joWer rate than unmarried men. Sometimes the difference is 
very great, particularly between 20 and 45, up to which period it approximates to 
as high a rate as 2 to 1; but after that, the difference, though less, is still very 
considerably in favour of the married men. The subject is more complicated as 
regards women, from obvious causes ; though here, too, marriage seems to be the 
more fayoured state. As regards both sexes, the advantage on the side of marriage 
is easily accounted for up to a certain point. Generally speaking, those who marry 
are likely as a class to be better lives than those who do not. The unmarried will 
infallibly include a greater number of sickly or diseased constitutions than the 
married class. Without professing myself an implicit believer in Darwin, I acknow- 
ledge the truth of several of his statements in his ‘Descent of Man,’ as to what 
he calls Sexual selection. As a general rule, the attachments that lead to marriage 
will be prompted by considerations that are intimately connected with health and 
strength. Good looks, cheerful tempers, and buoyant constitutions are great 
attractions, and those who are wholly devoid of these, as well as those who are the 
victims of positive bad health, will often be excluded from having tickets in the 
matrimonial lottery. No doubt causes occur not unfrequently which disturb these 
natural tendencies. Some of these causes are allowable or laudable, others are the 
reverse. In a few cases affection leading to marriage may be inspired by great 
virtue, or great talent, or high accomplishments, though not associated with health 
or strength. In other cases, connexions may be formed that are wholly unconnected 
with loye—as where rank, or wealth, or influence may overcome the natural repug- 
nance excited by deformity or disease. Burns, I think it is, that says— 


‘‘ Be a lassie ne’er sae black, 
If she hae the penny siller, 
Set her upon Tintock tap— 
The wind will blaw a man till her.” 


Still, as a general rule, both men and women who are married are likely, on an 
average, to have more health and vitality than those who remain single. As 
regards the male sex, again, those of them that are of dissolute habits or unsettled 
and thriftless dispositions, are not so likely to marry as those who are orderly and 
well-conducted, and in favourable circumstances of life. But after making allow- 
ance for these elements, it still appears that the death-rate of married men is at all 
periods of life lower than that of the unmarried. This can be accounted for only 
on the footing that marriage is favourable to health, by conducing to regular habits 
of life, and by giving natural scope to the domestic affections. It cannot be doubted; 
for instance, that an old man who has a wife to take care of him, will be much 
better looked after than if he lived alone. It is not necessary in adopting this view 
to suppose that the married life is to be wholly free from sorrows, cares, and 
anxieties. Even these are not always prejudicial to health; and we are, perhaps, 
the better for them when they are well encountered. Neither is it essential that 
the matrimonial current should always run a smooth course. Most of us, probably, 
would agree with the view taken by Paley, who, when an old clergyman at an 
episcopal dinner asserted that he had been married for forty years, but had never 
had a difference with his wife, observed quietly to the bishop that ‘it must have 
been very flat.” An occasional ripple will occur in all water, unless it be frozen 


_ over, and perhaps after marriage, as well as before it, there may be truth in the 


maxim, “ Amantium ire amoris redintegratio,” 
In referring to this matter it has occurred to me to consider whether, if the lower 


. death-rate of married persons is an ascertained fact, this may not partly account for 


the general success of Life insurance offices when well conducted, It is clear that 
an office transacting on the usual calculations of mortality, has advantages of various 


kinds. In particular, its medical examinations, which are a most important part 
13* 


196 REPORT-—1871. 


of its constitution, exclude hazardous lives, except, at least, at extra premiums, 
The rank of life, probably, of parties effecting insurances may also benefit the office ; 
but if married men are to a certain extent to be considered as selected lives, this 
also, I should think, must tell in favour of the office, as I presume that, from family 
reasons, more married men effect insurances than unmarnied men. 

In general, of course, it is impossible to derive any good result from statistical 
facts or apparent coincidences except by comparison. A high official person con- 
nected with Scotland was summoned before a Committee of the House of Lords to 
give evidence in connexion with the new Divorce court proposed for England, and 
was asked whether, in his opinion, the facility of divorce existing in Scotland was 
unfavourable to the morality of married persons there. The judicious answer was, 
“T have not sufficient experience of the comparative morality of married persons in 
different countries to be able to give an opinion on that question.” 


Matters not yet Reduced to Statistics. 


The subjects to which statistics may be extended seem to be innumerable, and 
new ones are cropping up every day. In the pages of ‘Nature’ there lately ap- 
peared a letter of a somewhat curious kind, which may perhaps engage the attention 
of our fellow-associate member Mr. Tyler. The suggestion in that letter was that 
the degree of civilization existing in any country is connected with the quantity of 
Soap there consumed. The writer gave as a formula the equation of 


x being the amount of civilization inquired for, S being the soap consumed, and P 
the population consuming it; so that the amount of civilization depended on the 
proportion of S, the numerator, to P, the denominator. If § is large in proportion 
to P, then the civilization is great, and vice versd. How the civilization of Scotland 
in the olden time would come out according to this test I shall not inquire; but if 
there is any truth in the proposition, it gives additional relevancy and interest to 
the question which is sometimes vulgarly put by some people to their friends as to 
how they are provided with that commodity. I have not yet seen any tables 
framed upon this principle, but I have no doubt that the Registrar-General will 
keep it in view. ; 

An inquiry of a more serious nature, and indeed peculiarly important and impres- 
sive, is connected with one of the most remarkable phenomena in human nature— 
I mean the occasional appearance in the world of men of great genius. From time 
to time men have arisen whose mental powers have far transcended the ordinary 
standard of human intellect, and who have thereby been enabled within the space 
of a single life, and by the effort of a single mind, to give an impulse to science and 
discovery which they could not have received through long generations of average 
mediocrity. Whether this singular boon and blessing to mankind can be traced to 
any law is a natural but mysterious inquiry. Some persons have considered the 
production of exceptional genius as quite an insulated fact; and Savage Landor 
declared that no great man had ever a great son, unless Philip and Alexander of 
Macedon constituted an exception. Mr. Galton, however, in his interesting work 
on ‘ Hereditary Genius,’ has endeavoured to prove that genius runs in families, or, 
at least, that men of genius have generally sprung from a stock where great mental 
power is conspicuous; and he adheres to the view commonly taken as to the 
importance of the maternal character and influence in the formation of genius. I 
do not venture to give any opinion upon Mr. Galton’s theory, but his book contains 
an important collection of facts bearing on the subject, and a great deal of curious 
collateral speculation. Mr. Galton attributes great power in many ways to the 
principle of heredity, as it seems now to be called. He does not, indeed, go so far 
as the Irish statist, who, as mentioned by Sidney Smith, announced it as a fact 
that sterility was often hereditary; but he states that comparative infertility is 
transmitted in families; and adduces as a remarkable example, a fact not generally 
known, if it be a fact, that in the case, that frequently happens, of Peers marrying 
heiresses, the family is apt to die out very soon, the heiress being naturally, in the 
general case, an only child, and bequeathing to her descendants a tendency to pro- 


—— —————— 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 197 


duce small families, which do not afford the usual chance of a numerous supply of 
descendants. "Whatever may be said of some of his other opinions, I hesitate to 
concur with Mr. Galton in his proposition, that as it is easy “to obtain by careful 
selection a breed of dogs or horses, gifted with peculiar powers of running or of 
doing anything else, so it would be quite practicable to produce a highly gifted 
race of men by judicious marriages during several consecutive generations.” I 
doubt greatly the practicability of such a plan; and suspect there are some 
elements in human nature that would counteract it. Persons of proud family 
descent have often a horror of mesalliances; but I scarcely think it would be 
possible to inspire people of genius with the same esprit de corps or desire to wed 
with those on a par with their own eminence. Men of genius do not seem to me 
apt to fall in love with women as clever as themselves, and I rather suspect the 
tendency is to look for some difference of character, an instinct of which it is the 
object, or at least the result, to keep up the average of talent rather than to multiply 
the highest forms of mental power. At any rate we may here ask poor Polly’s 
question: “ Can love be controlled by advice?” and however we may in other 
respects agree with Horace’s maxim, “ Fortes creantur fortibus et bonis,’ I question 
whether a high mental stature could- be maintained by coupling male and female 
genius together, or whether the experiment might not fail as signally as it is said 
sometimes to have done with Frederic William’s attempts to breed grenadiers. I 
strenuously advise, however, that a marriage with a fool of either sex should be 
always considered as a mesalliance, and I would particularly warn the ladies against 
such a step, taken sometimes, it is said, in the hope that their sway may in that 
way be more easily maintained. A fool is as difficult to be governed as a mule, 
and the couplet, I believe, is strictly true, that says— 
‘** Wise men alone, who long for quiet lives, 
Wise men alone are governed by their wives.” 


Economie Laws. 


Leaving the multifarious field of Statistics, and reverting to our leading subject 
of Economic science, or which may seem a synonymous term, Political economy, it 
embraces specially the study of those natural laws which have reference to the 
Wealth of nations. This is perhaps its proper character as a science ; but when 
those laws are ascertained in their natural operation, practical questions arise of 
great difficulty for the determination of any Government desirous of promoting, not 
merely the wealth, but the welfare of a nation. How far in particular are those 
laws to be left to their natural and spontaneous operation? or, how far are they to 
be modified either by limiting or by supplementing their operation? For example, 
freedom of trade and freedom of contract are, as a general rule, the best means of 

romoting activity and prosperity in the departments with they are concerned. 

ut it can scarcely be maintained that this ideal freedom is never to be infringed. 
I do not merely refer here to the protection which may be afforded to persons under 
age in reference to their treatment, or to the manner in which they may be em- 
ployed. In the eye of the law as well as of reason, a contract as to the employ- 
ment or services of a person in nonage is in reality no contract at all. An infant 
or minor cannot contract, and any contract that may be made in his name by any 
guardian, or even by a parent, in every country where law is established, must be 


subject to revision. A cruel or injurious contract as to a child’s labour must be 


capable of correction and repression, just as any bodily outrage inflicted upon a man 
would infer punishment and restraint. Kyen with persons of mature years the 
general and better opinion seems to be that certain classes of the community require 
to be protected by restrictions on the freedom of commerce or contract. Long ago 
this system extensively prevailed, and very high and comprehensive ideas existed 
as to the paternal duties thus incumbent on Government. Let us take two in- 
stances of this kind, which may he placed, to some extent at least, in contrast with 
each other. 

The history of the Usury laws is well known. Originating in a primitive idea 
that interest upon money was unnatural, those laws kept up prohibitions against 
the amount of interest that could be stipulated, with a professed view to the pro- 
tection of needy borrowers against extortionate lenders, It was not till the year 


198 — _ REPORT—1871. 


1787 that there issued from the wilds of Russia a voice in defence of Usury, which 
proved to all thinking men the falsehood and folly of the existing system; but it 
was still many years before the wise views of Bentham on this subject were carried 
into practical etfect, 

The Truck System. 

Take, on the other hand, the case of what is called the Truck System. There 
is nothing in abstract reason to prevent master and servant, employer and work- 
man, from agreeing, if they please, that the remuneration shall consist partly in 
the supply of food or furnishings. Many contracts for work or service proceed 
expressly upon that footing, and could scarcely be arranged on any other. But 
the fraud or unfair proceedings to which the truck system so often leads, the op- 
pressions and exactions often involved in it, the overwhelming power of the masters 
or their managers in working it, and the helpless condition to which it reduces 
workmen and their families, are such that public opinion seems so powerfully di- 
rected against it, that the laws for repressing it are more likely to be tightened 
than relaxed. Whether the workmen will ever be so free and independent as to 
dispense with protection, or whether a healthy and high feeling of self-respect and 
honour will prevail among masters, so as to place under ban those of their number 
who use or abuse this system, are matters of which I am incompetent to judge ; 
but I fear that for a long time some restrictions will be maintained. The existing 
condition of things is most unsatisfactory; for the Act seems to be constantly 
evaded, and all evasions of statutory regulations are morally, as well as economi- 
cally, mischievous. The best remedy is, if possible, to diminish the improvidence 
of workmen ;. for, in most cases, if the workman has enough in hand to live with- 
out advances before pay-day, he is practically independent of his master. Mariners, 
I may add, seem by common consent to be always treated as children of a larger 
growth, and protected accordingly. The criterion after all must always be the 
majus bonum. 

The Truck system is a term commonly used to denote the arrangement by which, 
directly or indirectly, workmen are compelled to take payment of their wages, or 
of advances made to them on their wages, not in money, but in goods furnished 
from the employers’ stores or shops. But the same name has been given to a sys- 
tem that has long prevailed in Shetland, by which the dealings of many classes 
(tenants, fishermen, and workers of different kinds) are carried on by way of barter, 
with little or no use of money. This is a different sort of system from the ordi- 
nary method of truck between master and servant; and one which, in my humble 
opinion, is still more difficult to deal with. The modus operandi may be generally 
understood by a few illustrations. ‘The Shetland farmer is, in the ordinary case, 
porenasee of no capital, and seldom pays his rent in money. He is unable pro- 

vably to support himself by any independent means until his small crop is reaped, 
or the produce of his farm ready to be realized. He is consequently obliged to 
seek assistance in the meantime by obtaining advances from some quarter or other. 
He is also, as a general rule, a fisherman on his own account, but having no capital, 
he is obliged to run in debt for his boat, or his share ofa boat ; and again he is obliged 
to resort to others to support himself and his family until the profits of his fishing 
can be realized. ‘The employment of fishing is notoriously a precarious one, and in- 
troduces into his condition an element of chance and risk that operates powerfully to 
affect his dealings. It is not easy for a party in such circumstances to obtain ad- 
vances or furnishings where these can only be accorded to him upon doubtful credit 
and at considerable hazard. The consequence has been that, for an immemorial 
period, the Shetlander has been chronically a debtor to others, as fishermen com- 
monly are, and not unnaturally the party with whom he has to deal has come to 
be the proprietor of the land, or his factor or middleman. What might be done 
by a good or generous creditor in such circumstances, I shall not attempt to con- 
jecture » but generosity is not 2 mercantile virtue, and if a dealer tries to make his 
own profit as great as possible, and still more if he is a greedy and unscrupulous 
man, the poor Shetlander is in a bad way. The dealer has him greatly in his 
power, both as to the quality and as to the nominal price of his goods; and no 
doubt much injustice may be done in this way. Another feature comes frequently 
into play. The females of the Shetlander’s family occupy themselyes in knitting 


| 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 199 


those delightful shawls and articles of hosiery with which we are acquainted, and 
these the women carry to certain dealers to dispose of; but here it is alleged, truly 
or falsely, that, by ways and means, these workers are induced almost invariably to 
take payment in goods consisting in great part of gay cotton prints, showy ribbons, 
and other articles of female dress or finery, not always well adapted either to their 
position or to their humid climate. Another favourite commodity for which their 
worsted work is exchanged is tea; and it is well known that high-priced teais the 
great temptation which the Shetland women are unable to resist, tea-totalism in 
Shetland being often as much of a vice as itis thought a virtue elsewhere. When 
the dealers with whom the family has to do are all connected with the landlord or 
the land, the case becomes extremely complicated, and a further cause of mischief 
arises, as the Shetlander seldom or never has a lease, or will accept of one, and is 
thus under the constant fear of being ejected if he thwarts the proprietor or his re- 
presentative in any of his transactions. It thus happens that a Shetland family 
may be industrious in all its branches—farming and fishing, and knitting to the 
best of their ability, and yet will be constantly behind hand, dependent upon their 
superior, and never perhaps handling a pound note from year’s end to year’s end. 
The dealers, on the other hand, are said to make large profits, at least at times; but 
whether on the whole they are great gainers it is not easy to tell, as the state of 
their transactions has never fully been brought tolight. Iam far from saying that 
all, or even the majority, of the landowners are mixed up in these transactions ; 
but the system is so well established that it is difficult to keep free of it. This is 
certainly not a very good state of things. It has been said that the very boys when 
they begin to work for wages get no money, but are supplied with clothes, including 
specially a coat to go to church in, and thus they get very early into the mer- 
chant’s books, so that perhaps it is not much of an exaggeration to say that a Shet- 
lander is under truck trom his cradle to his coffin. Much clamour and complaint 
have been excited by these pictures, and loud demands are made for stringent 
and special legislation, It is quite right that full inquiry should be made into the 
facts; but I confess I have little hope of seeing the evil cured by Act of Parlia- 
ment. It would be preposterous to enact that no tenant who was starving should 
be assisted with advances except in money, or that no girl should exchange her 
woollen manufacture for a cotton print ; nor, in like manner, would it be practicable 
to say that a tenant should not pay his rent in cattle or in fish. The evil lies deeper 
than this, viz., that the Shetlanders are trying to carry on the business of farming 
and of fishing without the necessary means. If the steed has to wait for his foo 
till the grass prows he will probably starve; and so will the farmer come to grief if 
he has not something laid by to live upon between seed-time and harvest. It is 
the possession or the want of the capital that makes the great difference between 
master and servant, farmer and labourer. The man who cannot wait till the 
fruits of his labour or industry are realized, ought naturally to be a servant, and 
ought to receive wages or support independently of results; but in so doing he 
must forego the right to claim those profits which are to compensate for risk and 
delay. If the farmer or fisher insists on going on on his own account without any 
means—and it is plain that the Shetlander’s feelings or habits are adverse to his 
becoming a servant—it is certain that he must become a borrower, and he will not 
get aid from any lender without ample remuneration. That remuneration may be 
got either by charging high interest, or, as they do in Shetland, by making their 
advances in such a form and manner as will yield them a mercantile profit. This 
system has been so long established in Shetland, that the people are in a great 
degree reconciled to it, and its extirpation seems scarcely possible. I think that 
if [ were a resident Shetland proprietor, I would rather let the system go on, but 
endeavour that it should be so administered as to do justice to both parties, in the 
hope that by degrees a spirit of independence and fair dealing might grow up. 
must say that I am very incredulous of any dealers getting, in this or in any other 
way, an exorbitant profit in the long run. For if that were the case, competition 
would be evoked, and one dealer would bid down or bid up the market till it 
reached a fair rate or return. 

Pauperism. 


I should regret if this Meeting should pass away without something being done 


200 REPORT—1871. 


to bring before us in a precise shape the comparative principles and practical ope- 
rations of the poor laws in England, Scotland, and Treland—a subject undoubtedly 
of great interest and importance. In connexion with the subject of pauperism, one 
of the most important elements for consideration relates to private charity. It is 
certain that an enormous sum of money is annually distributed in that way through- 
out the kingdom, and it is equally certain that the good done bears little propor- 
tion to the amount given. It cannot be too much inculcated upon men’s minds 
that the givers of indiscriminate charity are practically to be classed among the 
most mischievous enemies of the poor. The direct tendency of what they do is to 
tempt and encourage the poor to become hypocrites and impostors, to paralyze their 
industry, and to undermine their self-respect and self-reliance. It is false to call 
such expenditure by the name of charity. A great deal of it doubtless proceeds 
from feelings of true benevolence; but how much of it is prompted by other 
motives? ‘The desire to do as others do, the wish to avoid the unpleasant sight 
of distress, real or apparent, the inability to resist importunity, the superstitious 
idea that it is a duty to give a portion of our means in the name of alms, without 
regard to the effect produced, just as the Pharisees were scrupulous to pay tithes 
down to the lowest article. Protestants are in the habit of reproaching Catholics 
with the importance they attach to mere good works; but that fault is not con- 
fined to Catholics, but is deeply seated in human nature. The false notion of ex- 
piating sins, or of propitiating Divine favour by some self-sacrifice that is perhaps 
easily made, prevails in all sects. A story was current some time ago of a man 
belonging to a very anti-Catholic sect, who had become rich by very questionable 
means, and who, when on his death-bed, asked his minister whether, if he gave 
£10,000 to the church, it would improve his prospects in the other world. The 
cautious and conciliatory answer was, that it was impossible to guarantee any such 
matter, but that it seemed an experiment well worth trying. No such liberality, 
whether in one’s life-time or on death-bed, deserves the name of charity. There 
can be no charity unless there is the desire to do good to the recipient ; and there 
can be no enlightened charity that does not seek to carry out that wish in the right 
way, by making careful inquiry as to the circumstances in which the boon is be- 
stowed, and the effect which it is likely to have. It is not an easy task to accom- 
eee this object ; but I am glad to see that on all sides measures are being taken, 

y the help of associations and otherwise, to assist benevolent persons in wisely 
and intelligently carrying out their views. Two great considerations are here to 
be looked to—the real destitution of the parties to whom charity is given, and the 
caution that confines it mainly to casual and extraordinary causes of distress, and 
does not establish any resource on which the poor can rely, so as to dispense with 
ordinary and necessary prudence on their part. 


* On Sanitary Measures for Scottish Villages. 
By Colonel Sir J. E. Avexanper, A.C.LS., RSE, 


Within the last forty years there has been a gradual improvement in many Scot- 
tish villages, which by the absence of attention to the outward and visible sions of 
cleanliness, exhibited great carelessness in sanitary measures. Manure-heaps are 
still, no doubt, not far off from the cottages; but it is the business of the sanitary 
officers to see that they and pigsties are not close to doors or windows. Some of 
our health officers are firm and do their duty, and insist on attention to sanitary 
rules; others again wink at irregularities, and favour particular parties to the in- 
jury of their neighbours. There is still a vast amount of ignorance both as to the 
necessity for pure air and water to insure good health to the community. 

In visiting the cottages we still see occasionally that fever-chest called a “box- 
bed,” in which at night a father, mother, and two or three children may be 
found, with the air poisoned by their breath. We still see in many cottages win- 
dows built into the wall, and quite incapable of being opened. Landlords should 
endeavour to remedy this evil, as it costs little to make an arrangement for admitting 
air through the natural channel—the window. How can we expect to find health 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 201 


in a room sometimes without a fireplace, with door and window closed, and no 
current of air through it ? 

The author described some of the habits of the cottagers, and noted the im- 
provements which are to be observed in the tidiness of their dress, and in other 
respects. He advocated the promotion of the taste for music, and instruction in the 
principles of hygiene in village schools, 


On some Maxims of Political Economy as applied to the Employment of 
Women, and the Education of Girls. By Lyp1a E. Bucxer. 


In regard to employments common to both sexes by which persons gain a liyeli- 
hood, one rule is of almost universal application, that when men and women are 
engaged in the same occupation, the remuneration of women is fixed at a lower 
rate than that of men. In some cases this arises from actual superiority in men 
as men for the work, in others from the superior advantages in training which are 
arbitrarily given to men. In the Staffordshire potteries the higher and more ele- 
gant branches of the trade, the modelling and painting, are given to men, while 
women do the rough heavy work. In teaching, where the requirements from men 
and women are equal, and the capacity of either sex for the work the same, wo- 
men are paid only about two thirds the salary of men. It is said that, as a mat- 
ter of fact, a schoolmistress can be had for less money than a schoolmaster, and 
therefore the law of supply and demand, and the rules of political economy require 
that she should receive less. But while this rule of political economy is alleged 
as a reason for keeping down their remuneration, women find that some other rule 
than that of economic science is brought in to prevent them from having the benefit 
of the law of supply and demand when that rule would tell in their favour. In 
order to make it just that women should receive only the market price for their 
services, there ought, on the other hand, to be an open market for their labour ; 
but women are not allowed to compete for the best paid educational posts. It is 
arbitrarily assumed that they cannot teach boys, therefore in this country they are 
shut out from the most profitable part of the teaching profession, although expe- 
rience proves that women make excellent teachers of boys. 

Sometimes it is alleged as a reason for the inequality between men and women's 
salaries, that it must be assumed that a man has a wife and family to maintain out 
of his income, and this is usually not the case with a woman. But this reasoning 
goes beyond the law of supply and demand. In calculating wages, the employer 
has no right to go beyond the consideration of the quality of the work demanded, 
and the number of competitors for the post, in the question of what the recipient 
of the wages means to do with the money, nor to assume that he or she cannot 
need such and such asum. Women are arbitrarily shut out from many employ- 
ments in which they are fully competent to engage. There has been an interposi- 
tion on,the part of Uhiversity authorities to hinder the supply of women doctors 
to the demand of women patients. The rule of giving less to women than to men 
is applied where it cannot be excused under the plea of supply and demand. In 
the table of conditions under which the Government grant assurance policies and 
annuities, we find that a man and a woman of like age have to pay a like premium 
for a life assurance policy, but that if a man and a woman of like age pay a like 
sum for an immediate life annuity, the woman’s annuity will be 73 per cent. less 
than that of the man. The introduction of needlework as a compulsory subject in 
girl’s schools acts injuriously on the quality of education to be obtained in them. 
Boys are allowed to devote their whole school time to intellectual work, while girls 
are only allowed to exercise their intellectual faculties on the condition that they 
shall devote a considerable portion of school time to manual labour. The gulf be- 
tween the intellectual attainments of the sexes is already too wide, and the impulse 
that is being given on all hand to the education of boys is making it wider every 
day. In order to accomplish the object of getting the whole people thoroughly 
educated, the wisest and speediest method would be to bestow the principal share 
of attention on that part which is confessedly behind, that of the feminine half of 
the nation. When the standard ot education for women shall be brought up to the 


202 REPORT—1871. 


level of that for men, the education of both sections of the people will advance 
faster than has hitherto been possible, and the combined intelligence of women and 
men, educated and trained to a thoughtful appreciation of the truths unfolded by a 
study of both natural and economic science, will be able to arrive at a solution of 
social and political problems which have hitherto baffled the wisest of our legislators. 


© 


On Land Tenure. By Wriitam Borty. 


The author introduced the subject by stating that “in treating the question he 
did so on principles at once tangible and practical,” not on those of “The Land 
Tenure Reform Association,’ but in such a manner as he believed would materially 
tend to the interest of the three parties immediately concerned, and as a sequence 
to the well-being of the country generally. He then gave an account of the many 
and varied tenures by which land is held in Great Britain, France, Belgium, 
Prussia, the Colonies, &e., deducing their relative advantages and disadvantages. 
He then gave a statistical account of the counties &c., proving that leases were the 
exception not the rule; argued in favour of long leases (with few restrictions), 
showing as a rule long leases and good farming go together, whilst with few ex- 
ceptions yearly tenancy and insecurity led to bad farming; gave a tabular state- 
ment as to the relative yield of such estates. He also advocated Tenant Right to 
the extent of compensation for all unexhausted improvements and beneficial out- 
lays, instancing farms where such equitable agreements existed having trebled in 
value and rental. 

After showing the beneficial effect on landlord, tenant, labourer, and the com- 
monwealth, concluded by saying that physical, financial, and political benefits 
would arise from the general adoption of long leases, with a well-considered tenant- 
right clause inserted therein. 

Educational Hospital Reform: The Scheme of the Edinburgh Merchant Com- 
pany. By Tuomas J. Born, F.R.S.L., Master of the Merchant Company. 


The scholastic institutions of the Edinburgh Merchant Company probably form 
the largest system of schools in Great Britain, and are the only ones yet established 
under the ‘‘ Endowed Institutions (Scotland) Act.” 

The Merchant Company of Edinburgh was incorporated in 1681 by Royal Char- 
ter from Charles II. it is in a highly prosperous condition, and upwards of 300 
leading merchants, bankers, and traders, in Edinburgh and Leith, are members. 
Since its institution, it has held a very prominent position in Scotland, and its de- 
liberations and resolutions have not unfrequently had considerable influence on 
public affairs. There is a widows’ fund connected with it, from which the widows 
of members receive a liberal annuity. The entry-money to the Company varies 
from about £145 to considerably upwards of £200, the exact amount being deter- 
mined by the ages of applicants for admission. ¥ 

The principal administration and patronage of three of the educational hospitals 
in Edinburgh, viz. George Watson's Hospital, the Merchant Maiden Hospital, and 
Daniel Stewart’s Hospital, were vested in the Company, and to it were also con- 
fided the chief management and patronage of James Gillespie’s Hospital for the 
maintenance of aged people, in connexion with which was a Free Primary School 
for boys. Each of these four Trusts possessed a large hospital building, in which, 
previous to the recent changes, the foundationers resided, and where those of the 
first three were also educated; and from the able and economical manner in which 
their respective funds have been managed, their capital stocks have very largely 
increased. 

(I.) George Watson’s Hospital was founded by George Watson, accountant to 
the Bank of Scotland in Edinburgh. He died in 1723, and bequeathed £12,000 to 
endow an hospital for the maintenance and education of boys. Those who were 
qualified for admission were sons and grandsons of merchants, burgesses, and guild 
brothers, or ministers of Old Church, preference being given to those of the name 
of Watson and Davidson. The income of this Trust now amounts to about £8000 
a year. The number of boys educated and maintained in its hospital building be- 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 203 


fore the reform was eighty-six. The master, twelve assistants, and treasurer of the 
Merchant Company, five members of the Town Council, and one of the Established 
Church Clergy of Edinburgh, constitute the management. 

(II.) The Merchant Maiden Hospital was founded in 1695 by the Edinburgh 
Merchant Company and the widow of James Hair, druggist in Edinburgh, for the 
maintenance and instruction of girls. The income of the Trust is about £6000 a 
year. Previous to the changes it had seventy-five foundationers. Those eligible 
for admission were the daughters or granddaughters of merchant burgesses of 
Edinburgh, or of ministers thereof and suburbs, or of those who have been gover- 
nors of, or benefactors to, the hospital. The management is in the hands of five 
members of the Town Council, the Master, Treasurer, and two Assistants of the 
Merchant Company, three of the Clergy of the city and suburbs, the Earl of Mar, 
and nine persons elected by the Merchant Company—in all, twenty-two. 

(IIL) Daniel Stewart's Hospital was founded by Daniel Stewart, of the Exche- 
quer, who died in 1814, leaving upwards of £15,000, to accumulate for the purpose 
of building and endowing an hospital for the maintenance and education of boys. 
Those qualified for admission were sons of honest and industrious parents of Edin- 
burgh and suburbs, including Leith, whose circumstances in life did not enable 
them suitably to support and educate their children at other schools, preference 
being giyen to those of the name of Stewart or Macfarlane. The annual income 
of this Trust is upwards of £5000, and the number of foundationers was sixty-nine. 
The Master, Treasurer, and twelve Assistants of the Merchant Company constitute 
the management. 

(1V.) The last of these institutions, James Gillespie’s Hospital and Free School, 
was founded by James Gillespie, of Spylaw, merchant and tobacconist in Hdin- 
burgh, who, by his will dated in 1796, destined the greater part of his property to 
the endowment of a charitable school for boys, and of a hospital for the aliment 
and maintenance of old men and women. About forty aged foundationers were 
maintained in the hospital building. The persons qualified for admission were, the 
servants of the founder, or persons of his name, above the age of 55; persons be- 
longing to Edinburgh and its suburbs above the same age; failing these, persons 
from Leith, Newhaven, and other parts of Mid-Lothian ; whom failing, persons 
from any part of Scotland at the age of 55. The Free School was opened in 1803, 
and had about 100 boys. For some time no fees were charged, but subsequently, 
and until the recent reform, the pupils were made to pay a small sum per month, 
and this change had the effect of increasing their number, which latterly amounted 
to about 150. The annual income of the foundation is about £1800. The manage- 
ment is in the hands of the Master, twelve Assistants, and Treasurer of the Mer- 
chant Company, five members of the Town Council, and the Ministers of St. An- 
drew’s and St. Stephen’s churches. 

For upwards of a quarter of a century there has been a growing feeling in Scot- 
land against what is known as the hospital system; and, happily, people generally 
are now coming to believe in the truth of the saying that children should be brought 
up in families—not in flocks. The education of large numbers of children apart 
from their parents, relatives, or friends, and without their having almost any inter- 
course with other persons except the officials of the hospital establishments, was a 
system unnatural in itself, and not calculated to make them in after life useful 
members of society, With whatever zeal those who were so brought up might be 
trained morally and intellectually, many were found, on the completion of their 
education, to be devoid of that general intelligence which is acquired from inter- 
course with friends in the home circle; and when they left the hospitals to begin 
the business of life, they were, as a rule, unable to take their places with others 
whose scholastic training had not been superior, but which had been carried on 
under happier circumstances. Altogether, it was felt that, in return for the large 
sum of money expended upon them, comparatively small benefits were derived ; 
and it was to abolish this state of things that the Scheme was devised. 

The Merchant Company had for a long time been desirous of reforming the in- 
stitutions referred to, and with this view they obtained, about nineteen years ago, 


Parliamentary authority to admit day-scholars, selected from the privileged classes,. . ~~ 


to George Watson’s Hospital, to be educated gratuitously along with the founda=: 


204. REPORT—1871. 


tioners. Scarcely, however, had even this small liberty been granted, than they 
were privately given to understand that the passing of the Bill was considered a 
mistake, and that no more applications need be made to Parliament for permission 
to alter the wills of founders. As it seemed, then, only a waste of money to en- 
deayour to obtain additional powers, the Company did not fail to stretch those they 
had to the utmost extent. In the case of the Merchant Maiden Hospital, they ad- 
mitted as day-pupils a limited number of girls belonging to the privileged classes ; 
and while they deeply regretted that they could not make a more extended use of 
their funds, they felt that the blame of this did not lie at their door. In the mean- 
time, however, the cry against the hospital system continued, and the Assistant 
Royal Commissioners reported that there were large revenues connected with the 
hospitals in Scotland which did comparatively little educational good. Although 
the Merchant Company believed that their institutions would bear favourable com- 
parison with similar ones either in Scotland or England, yet it was deemed expe- 
dient to endeavour to get their usefulness extended by all possible means. Accord- 
ingly, in 1869, on the representations of the Company, the “ Endowed Institutions 
(Scotland) Act’”’ was brought into Parliament, as a Government measure, by the 
then Lord Advocate (Sir James Moncrieff). It encountered considerable opposi- 
tion, but the Company having obtained the support of the managers of two or 
three similar foundations in Scotland in behalf of the measure, it finally 
assed. 

‘ The Act gives power to the Home Secretary to issue a Provisional Order for in- 
creasing the usefulness and efficiency, and for extending the benefits of any En- 
dowed Institution in Scotland, on a petition of the Governors thereof; and if the 
order lie forty days on the tables in both Houses of Parliament without an address 
being presented, it becomes law. , YEA 

After the Act was passed, a Scheme for reforming the four institutions had to be 

repared. No group of educational hospitals, or even any individual one, had 
hitherto been efficiently reformed, and there was therefore no plan in operation 
which could form any guide in the matter. Whatever scheme might be devised, 
it would of necessity require to give good grounds for believing that it would 
efficiently and satisfactorily utilize the large funds to be disposed of. Besides, 
there was this further difficulty, that it had to be framed in a way which would 
satisfy the Merchant Company and the Governors of the four hospitals on the one 
hand, and have a fair chance of being accepted by the Home Secretary and Par- 
liament on the other. i imei . 

In preparing the Scheme, it was specially kept in view that it should be of 
such a kind as would not be likely to clash with the plans which other hospitals 
in Edinburgh might contemplate undertaking, so that money might not be squan- 
dered in fruitless competition. Particularly, regard was had to keep clear of the 
work which the Governors of George Heriot’s Hospital were accomplishing with 
their outdoor schools in the education of poor children. 

The following is a brief outline of the leading features of the Scheme :—They are 
(1) the removal of all the foundationers from the four hospital buildings, and pro- 
viding for their maintenance elsewhere; (2) the converting of these buildings into 

reat day-schools, under a graded system of education, for the instruction of chil- 
ee of the general community, along with the foundationers, on payment of mo- 
derate fees ; (3) the throwing open of presentations to the foundations for compe- 
tion amongst the pupils attending the schools; (4) the establishing of bursaries 
and travelling scholarships for the further prosecution of the studies of such pupils, 
both male and female; (5) the endowing of a Chair in the University of Edin- 
burgh, to complete the commercial side of education to be given in the schools; 
and (6) the establishing of one or more industrial schools for the neglected children 
of the city. 

A scan meeting of the four Boards of Governors was called for the purpose cf 
considering the Scheme, at which a resolution generally approving of it was unani- 
mously passed. In order to ascertain the opinions of the directors of similar insti- 
tutions in and near Edinburgh regarding the matter they were invited to a con- 
ference. At this conference the Scheme was very fully considered, and, on the 
motion of Sir Alexander Grant, the Principal of the University, who is a Governor 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 205 


of two of the hospitals, a resolution cordially approving ‘of its general scope was 
unanimously carried. 

After the approval of the Scheme by a general meeting of the Merchant Com- 
pany, separate Schemes or proposed provisional orders based on the general Scheme, 
and extended as to details, for each of the four hospitals, together with petitions 
to the Home Secretary, praying that he would sanction their being carried out, 
were in due course approved of by the Company and Governors. With some slight 
modifications, the Home Secretary agreed, subject to the approval of the Lord 
Advocate, which was afterwards given, to issue the Provisional Orders. 

The Provisional Orders, lying the required number of days upon the tables in 
both Houses of Parliament without an address being presented, became law in the end 
of July last year (1870), just as the schools inEdinburgh were closing for the holidays. 
It was determined to take measures at once for haying the four hospital buildings 
opened as day-schools in the beginning of the following session in September, and 
otherwise to proceed in carrying out the Scheme. Towards this end, the first thing 
to be accomplished was to remove the foundationers from the buildings, so that 
the work of adapting them for their new purpose might begin. It was decided to 
have in them three graded schools for boys and two for girls, so that each of the 
different classes of society for whom they were designed might find in one or other 
of them an education suited to its own requirements. 

The building of James Gillespie’s Hospital was accordingly chosen for the 
lowest grade schools of both boys and girls which it was arranged to establish, 
Daniel Stewart’s and George Watson’s for the other two boys’ schools, and that 
of the Merchant Maiden Hospital for the upper girls’ school. There would thus be 
equal to five graded schools in the four buildings—those in Gillespie’s and the 
Merchant Maiden Hospital buildings being the two for girls, and those in Gillespie’s, 
Stewart’s, and Watson’s the three for boys. The word hospital, when used in 
connexion with education, was so repugnant to the general community that, in so 
far as the schools were concerned, its use was abandoned, and the names adopted 
for them were:—“ James Gillespie’s Schools,” “Daniel Stewart’s Institution,” 
“George Watson’s College-Schools,” and “The Edinburgh Educational Institu- 
tion.” For each of these institutions a head-master was appointed, whose emolu- 
ments were to consist of a salary, and an additional sum for every pupil who should 
attend the school over which he was to preside. For the upper girls’ school a 
lady-superintendent was also engaged. These persons were appointed by the Go- 
vernors, at whose pleasure they were to hold their offices. Hach of the head- 
masters was to be responsible for the efficient working of the school under his 
charge ; and, in order to do them full justice in this respect, they were to appoint 
and dismiss their own teachers and governesses, the Governors fixing and paying 
the salaries. The foundationers were to attend the school belonging to the Trust 
with which they were connected, and children of the general public who passed an 
examination suitable to their respective ages, and satisfactory to the Governors, 
were to be admitted to all the schools on payment of moderate fees. In selecting 
out of the applicants those who were to be admitted, regard was to be had to the 
merits and attainments of each as tested by the examination. In all the institu- 
tions there were to be three departments (an elementary, a junior, and a senior), 
each of which was to be divided into classes containing a limited number of pupils, 
grouped according to their attainments, and the whole of the pupils, with the ex- 
ception of those in Gillespie’s schools, were to supply their own class-books. 

In the lowest grade schools (James Gillespie’s), the course of instruction was 


‘designed to include English in all its branches, writing, arithmetic, vocal music, 


and drill. The boys were also to be taught mechanical drawing, and the girls 
sewing and knitting. Doth male and female teachers were to be employed, and 
the classes were not to contain more than fifty children. The fees, including the 
use of school-books, have been fixed at 3s., 4s., and 5s. a quarter for the entire 
course. In Daniel Stewart’s Institution and George Watson’s College-Schools for 
Boys the course of study was to include the English, Latin, Greek, French, and 
German languages; writing, arithmetic, book-keeping, algebra, mathematics, 
drawing, vocal music, botany, natural history, natural philosophy, chemistry, drill 
gymnastics, fencing, and dancing. There was to be a classical and a modern or 


206 REPoRT—1871. 


commercial side, and instruction in technical science was to be given in Daniel 
Stewart’s Institution to such pupils as desired it. In both schools male teachers 
only were to be employed, and the number of pupils in each class was not to ex- 
ceed a maximum of forty, so that the education of every one of them might be 
fully attended to. The fees for the whole course have been fixed at from 10s. to 30s. 
a quarter. In the upper girls’ school (“The Edinburgh Educational Institution”) 
the course of study was to embrace all the branches usually taught in the principal 
institutions and boarding-schools for young ladies, and to include the English, French, 
German, and Latin languages; lectures on literature; writing, arithmetic, book- 
keeping, algebra, mathematics, physical science, drawing, vocal music, instruction 
on the pianoforte, drill, calisthenics, dancing, and needlework. As in the upper boys’ 
schools, the classes were not to contain more than forty pupils. With the excep- 
tion of the elementary department, where female teachers only were to be em- 
ployed, the institution was to be taught altogether by masters, with a governess 
attached to each class, to be constantly in attendance upon it. The fees for the 
whole course have been fixed at from 12s. Gd. to 50s. a quarter. In the second 
quarter of the session, when the numbers were counted, the whole of the 1200 
girls in this school were being taught English, arithmetic, vocal music, needlework, 
and dancing, 1120 writing, 1032 the pianoforte, 850 French, 672 drawing, and 352 
German. In all the schools religious instruction was to be given. A “conscience 
clause” was put in operation. At first, only about ten children took advantage of 
it, but as the session advanced no exception whatever existed on behalf of even a 
single pupil. - 

It will be seen that, for the education to be given in the schools, the fees are 
very low. The principle upon which they were fixed, as regards the three upper 
schools, is, that they be sufficient to cover the expense of the additional teaching 
required, without anything being charged as against the rent of the hospital 
buildings, which were to be turned into day-schools, or for the expense of the 
teaching staff formerly kept up for the foundationers when the buildings were used. 
for the double purpose of giving board and education, and which was expensive if 
reckoned at so much a pupil. Take, for illustration, the upper girls’ school (the 
Edinburgh Educational Institution), with its 1200 pupils. Of these, about 70 
were foundationers, and 1130 day-scholars. For the latter, the number of teachers 
and governesses was sufficiently increased, the expense of this new staff heing de- 
frayed by the fees which these day-scholars pay, and which amount to between 
£7000 and £8000 a year. Thus, if there had been no other new expenses con- 
sequent upon the changes, the education of these 1130 day-pupils would have been 

roductive of neither gain nor loss to the Trust. But there was the rent of the new 

ouses to pay for, in which some of the foundationers were to reside, and those of 
them who were -to be boarded out in families would cost somewhat more than 
when they lived in the hospital building. Then money had to be found for the 
bursaries and fellowships, &c. To meet these new expenses the number of 
foundationers was partially to be reduced. Gillespie’s Schools, bein established 
for the children of the humbler classes on payment of low fees, are, of course, 
productive of a small annual loss, which is, however, met by the growing income 
of the foundation. 

The money required for the expenses of the new purposes of the Scheme was to 
be obtained by reducing the number of foundationers of the three educational 
hospitals. The reduction, which was to be effected as soon as convenient, was as 
follows, viz. the foundationers of the Merchant Maiden Hospital to be reduced 
from 75 to 61, those of George Watson’s from 86 to 60, and those of Daniel 
Stewart’s from 69 to 40. The preference claims of children who bore particular 
names were altogether abolished. Great evils arose from the obligation to admit 
such children to educational hospitals. Their education was too often neglected 
by their guardians in their earlier years, who thought that there was little use 
troubling themselves about it, or paying school-fees since they would he sure of 
getting them into a hospital where everything would be done for them. The 
consequence was, that these children were generally untit to be placed in the same 
class with others of a like age; they required an unusually large amount of labour 
to be expended upon them, and, as a rule, were a drag upcn the whole institution. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 207 


In regard to the presentations given over to the general community, it may be 
proper to notice here that the apparent loss to the privileged classes is more than 
compensated by the solid advantages given to foundationers, not only by their 
attending the day-schools while being boarded either with their friends or in the 
boarding houses of the Governors, but also by the spirit of meritorious emulation 
from without, which works so beneficially upon them as upon all the other pupils 
of the institutions. Further, the special identity of foundationers is now lost, and 
a spirit of merit runs through all, Moreover, neither children nor grandchildren 
of members of the Merchant Company, except those who were in reduced circum- 
stances, could formerly get benefit from the foundations; but now, under the 
altered state of things, the schools and all the advantages connected therewith are 
of course open to them. 

The Scheme, as formerly mentioned, contemplated the removal of the whole of 
the foundationers from the hospital buildings. Of those connected with the three 
Educational Trusts, it was decided to maintain a portion in boarding-houses, under 
the superintendence of the Governors, and to board out the remainder with persons 
of whom they might approve. Accordingly, suitable houses were rented, and the 
plan as to the foundationers carried out. It was agreed that the aged foundationers 
of Gillespie’s Hospital were to have the option given them of either accepting a 
pension of £25 a year, or of continuing to be supported at the expense of the Trust, 
under the protection of the Governors, in a smaller house; with the exception of 
ten, who were old and frail, they all preferred the persion. Tor these ten, as well 
as for others whom the Governors may elect from time to time on vacancies arising, 
the building formerly used as the Primary School has heen fitted up. As to the 
future, it is of course intended to continue the system of giving outdoor pensions, 
as well as to maintain the Hospital Home for old people. 

An important feature of the Scheme, in addition to providing the general com- 
munity with a superior education at moderate fees, is to give children of great 
merit, who attend any one of the schools, a high-class education, without almost 
any expense to their friends. This feature was introduced not only with the view 
of stimulating the exertions of all the pupils, but also of enabling children of great 
ability (even those whose friends were only in circumstances to place them at the 
lowest grade schools) to turn their intellect to the best account, so that they might 
he fitted to occupy a high position in life, and possibly render important services 
to the country. Towards this end there are to be given up for competition amongst 
the pupils of all the schools a portion of the reduced number of presentations to 
the foundations. That number is to be not less than a fourth of those of George 
Watson’s and the Merchant Maiden Trusts, and not less than a half of Daniel 
Stewart’s. The ages at which the pupils are to cempete for the presentations are, 
for boys, under 10, 12, and 14 years; for girls, under 12, 14, and 16 years. The 
successful competitors are to be maintained and educated at the expense of the 
foundations—hoys until they are 16 years of age, when they should be ready for 
the University, and girls until they are 18. These ages may be afterwards altered 
if the Governors see fit. Then, in order to enable meritorious pupils further to 

rosecute their studies, power has been acquired to found twenty-two bursaries of 

25 a year, tenable for four years; and eight travelling scholarships of £100 a 
year, tenable for three years, all of which are to be awarded also by competitive 
examination, Estimating the value cf a presentation at £50 a year, the gross 
amount of benefits which a pupil may derive are—a presentation for six years 
= £300; a bursary on leaving the schools of £25 a year for four years =£100; and 
thereafter a scholarship of £100 a year for three years =£300; making altogether 
£700. Ineed scarcely again state that these benefits have the advantage of being 
open for competition to female pupils as well as male. The Governors have also 
the power at the end of each session, on the recommendation of the examiners of 
the schools or head-masters, to give substantial rewards to pupils of distinguished 
merit; and the plan intended to be adopted in carrying out this part of the Scheme 


__ is to present those of them who do not succeed in gaining places on the foundations 


with school bursaries, equal in value to the amount of their fees for the following 
session. 


In the upper boys’ school the education was to branch off at a certain stage into 


208 REPORT—1871. 


the two divisions of what are called the Classical and Modern or Commercial sides ; 
and while, of course, there is provision in the Edinburgh University for the com- 
pletion of the former, there was greatly needed, in the interest of the latter, a 
Chair of Commercial and Political Economy and Mercantile Law. Under the 
powers embraced in the Scheme, such a Chair has been endowed and a Professor 
appointed. 

Ohare was yet another sphere of usefulness which it was contemplated to over- 
take. While power was asked which would enable the Governors so greatly to 
benefit the general community by the establishing of these schools &c., by means 
of which meritorious children of the humbler classes could receive an education of 
the best kind, fitted to advance them in life, and while power was also asked to 
do something for the University, it was thought right to look with a kindly eye 
on the very poorest of the community—to include in the Scheme powers for estab- 
lishing Industrial Schools, to assist in gathering in the neglected boys and girls of 
the city. The carrying out of this work is under consideration, great difficulty 
haying been experienced in view of the Government Education Bill for Scotland 
(which was expected to pass this session) containing express provisions for indus- 
trial schools, compassing the whole wants of the city by levied rates. 

j. The author then described the favourable reception of the Scheme by the Goyern- 
ment, the press, and the public generally. 

The advertisements announcing the opening of the day-schools appeared about 
the end of July last year, and in about a fortnight no fewer than 2600 children had 
passed the entrance-examination. Shortly afterwards the number which could be 
accommodated in three of the four buildings was made up, there being, inclusive 
of about 200 foundationers, 3400 pupils enrolled. The head-masters then, seeing 
the size of the schools which they were to have, advertised for teachers. The plan 
of selection which they adopted was, while engaging those whom they thought 
most suitable, to give a preference to such as would be likely to suffer by the new 
schools. They could not do more in their interest, without running the risk of 
sacrificing the efliciency of the schools for the benefit of individuals, however 
deserving otherwise, and thereby imperilling the success of the entire educational 
Scheme. 

In carrying out a great reform like this, it could not be otherwise but that incon- 
veniences and partial losses to some teachers would occur. There was, however, 
the satisfaction of knowing that, by the limited number of pupils in each class, an 
increased number of teachers were employed, and that their salaries were consider- 
ably greater than they previously had been. It is understood that, in consequence 
of this, good teachers in some other schools in Edinburgh’ have since been better 
paid than they formerly were. , 

The schools had only been opened for a few weeks when their success as efficient 
institutions seemed certain. The large number of pupils enabled their being 
grouped according to their attainments so thoroughly, that those placed in the 
same class were all but equal. Their individual teachers therefore, instead of 
haying to give separate instruction, as it were, to children in different stages of 
progress, of which most classes are composed, when speaking to one pupil were 
addressing themselves to the capacity of all. Thus the classes had a much greater 
amount of instruction given them than would have been the case in other circum- 
stances. Again, the large benefits to be obtained by competition at the end of the 
session had a wonderful effect in stimulating the exertions of both pupils and 
teachers. The consequence was that rapid progress was made in all the schools. 
Parents, not slow to observe this, in calling at the institutions, said that since their 
children attended them, they had worked at their lessons in a way which they had 
never done before, and expressed themselves satisfied with the schools in the 
highest degree. Persons interested in education from many parts of the country 
visited the schools, all of whom, the author believed, were most favourably im- 

ressed with what they saw; and applications for the admission of other children 

ecame so numerous, that at the end of the first quarter the number on the super- 
numerary roll was very large. 

The Scheme provides that a general examination of the institutions has to be 
made once a year by examiners appointed for that purpose, who are to report upon 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 209 


the proficiency of the scholars, and on the position of the schools as regards instruc- 
tion and discipline. The examination is to be conducted by a person wholly uncon- 
nected with the Institutions. The first examination was conducted by Professor 
W. B. Hodgson, who reports thus regarding the upper girls’ Institution :—“ Pro- 
bably there is nowhere to be found so large a school for girls so admirably organized 
and so efficiently conducted. The large number of pupils, far from causing an 
excessive number in any one class, actually facilitates the work of classification, 
and by the multiplication of classes, meets the difficulty of unequal progress in 
ea about the same age. Where all deserye commendation, it is hard and per- 
aps invidious to select. But I may truly say that, while the usual branches of a 

girl’s instruction are vigorously attended to, while English, and what it implies, 
and French and German, and Music and Drawing, hold each its proper place under 
zealous and efficient teachers, Arithmetic is taught with unusual care, and there 
are special classes for senior pupils in Latin, Geometry, and Algebra; and the pro- 
gress and manifest interest in these subjects fully refute the notion that they are 
unfit for the study of girls. On the whole the state of this school reflects very 
high credit on its Principal, Lady Superintendent, and Teachers; and it must do 
- much to raise the standard of women’s education throughout the whole country.” 

Regarding the schools generally, Professor Hodgson states :—“ It is altogether 
an astounding organization, and one is quite overwhelmed by the attempt to esti- 
mate its results in even the near future. It is something to have lived to see this 
sight: it is more to haye done aught to bring it about.” 

Professor Oakeley inspected the Music-classes of the upper girls’ schools, but ne 
report from him has yet been received. 

The author then described the arrangements made for affording increased accom- 
modation, and which include the opening of another girls’ school. 

For next session the number of pupils already enrolled in the different schools is 
somewhat as follows, viz. :— 


James Gillespie’s Schools for boys and girls (full) ....., 1200 
11 


The Edinburgh Educational Institution for girls ........ 00 
George Watson’s College-Schools for boys .....sseeeee 1000 
George Watson’s College-Schools for girls (full) ...... .. 500 
Daniel Stewart’s Institution for boys........ Dov tanto 300 

SEGUE fs! d ars evs orev atete cts hears »see 4100 


or already 700 more pupils than attended the schools last session, while new appli- 
cations for admission are constantly being received. 

From what has been said, it will be seen that the annual income of these four 
foundations is about £20,800. Before the changes which came into operation last 
year, they maintained and educated about 230 children, maintained 40 old persons, 
aided a Primary School containing 150 boys, and employed 23 teachers, who 
received about £1736 a year. - In the beginning of next session they will be main- 
taining 175 children, and educating probably about 4500, while they will be paying 
teachers and governesses not less than £18,000 a year. It has been estimated that 
the annual saving to the public, by the reduced cost of education given in these 
schools, will be about £30,000. Further, the number of the aged foundationers 
attached to Gillespie’s Trust has already been increased, and it is anticipated that 
in twelve months its funds will admit of a still greater number being placed on the 
roll. There will also be funds for the payment of the annual endowment of £450 
a year for the new Chair in the University. In a short time the Governors will 
be in a position to decide whether or not the Scotch Educational Bill of the 
Government will take up the whole field of Industrial Schools in the city. 

In conclusion the author expressed the hope that what the Merchant Company 
have done in using the funds at their disposal to extend the blessings of education, 
may be the means of inducing the Governors of similar foundations to endeavour 
to increase the usefulness and extend the public benefits thereof, and in sucha 
manner as may be supposed would have been commended by the generous founders 
themselves, had they lived in these our days of progress and reform. 


1871. 14 


210 REPORT—1871. 


On the Measurement of Man and his Faculties. By Samvrt Brown, F.S.S. 


The science of probability, which in the course of 200 years has been perfected 
by the great mathematicians of England, Germany, and especially of France, and 
has rendered such service in astronomical researches, is still in its infancy as regards 
its application to the problems of political and social economy, which directly 
concern the growth of civilization, and the physical, moral, and intellectual pro- 
gress of man. James Bernoulli by its aid proposed to investigate questions of in- 
terest in morals and in economic science; but his work was not published till 1713, 
eight years after his death, and in the meantime his nephew, Nicholas Bernoulli, in 
an essay in 1709, had treated of such questions as the number of persons living 
after a certain number of years out of a given number born, of the period of time 
at the end of which an absent man of whom no tidings have been heard may be 
considered to be dead, of the value of an annuity on human life, of marine insu- 
rance, the probability of testimony, and of the innocence of an accused pace Not 
to mention the extension of the science in the writings of Condorcet, Laplace, and 
Poisson to the questions of decisions of legal tribunals, of elections, of the relative 
force of opinions in the minority of voters, the credibility of history; the Census, 
tables of mortality, marriage, and insurances, to illusions and mental phenomena, 
we find in recent years the greatest impulse given to scientific methods of collect- 
ing and comparing statistics has been by M. Quetelet, the Director of the Royal 
Observatory at Bruxelles, President of the Central Statistical Commission of Bel- 
gium, and the Perpetual Secretary of the Academy of Sciences. He was one of 
the early founders of this Section at the Meeting at Cambridge in 1833, and was 
the originator of the International Statistical Congresses which have been the 
means of effecting such vast improvements in the collection, publication, and com- 
parison of Government Statistics in every country in Europe. 

In the application of scientific methods of observation to study the physical and 
moral qualities of man, an essential part of the inquiry is as to his growth, and 
the relative proportion of the various parts of the body at different ages until his 
complete maturity. The last work of M. Quetelet, entitled “ Anthropométrie, ou 
mesures des différentes facultés de Vhomme,” recently published, comprises the re- 
sults of many years of observations, in which, by the assistance of scientific friends, 
artists and medical men, he has succeeded in collecting sufficient and trustworthy 
facts to trace the law of growth in every portion of the human body at all periods 
of life. 

The methods formerly employed to ascertain the true proportions which consti- 
tute the typical man were not satisfactory. Naturalists did not sufficiently study 
the averages to discover the laws of their agreement or divergence on certain 
points ; artists selected such types of beauty or strength as suited their special pur- 
pose. But if some model of the human race existed the proportions of which 
were so fixed that any deviations from it in excess or defect could only arise from 
accidental causes, the observations recorded may be divided into groups at equal 
intervals, and according to the theory of probability the specific number which 
ought to be found in each group may be predicted beforehand, with a very near 
approach to accuracy. The greater the number of observations the more certainly 
will the observed number in each group agree with the number calculated by the 
theory. The group which approaches nearest to the mean will be the most nume-~ 
rous, and the other groups will be found to contain numbers, as they differ from 
the mean in excess or defect, in exact proportion to the coefficients of the terms 
of the binomial theorem. In accordance with this law dwarfs and giants cease to 
be casual monstrosities, If out of a sufficient number of observations, taken in any 
country, of the number of people measured at regular gradations of height, the 
dwarfs and giants had been purposely excluded, we ought by means of this law 
to be able to predict nearly not only the numbers which had been omitted, but 
their relative statures as compared with the rest of the people. 

A remarkable confirmation of this law was given by Mr. E. B. Elliott in the 
measurement of the height of 25,878 volunteers to the United States Army during 
the Civil War. The intervals of height were taken at every 25 millimetres, At 
the mean height, 1°75 metre, the number found by measurement was 4054, or 157 


————————eEo rr —CC™;CS™ts™sD 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 211 


in every 1000, whilst the number calculated by the theory would be 153 in every 
1000. Atall the other intervals the calculated and estimated numbers in eighteen 
different groups were almost equally near. 

Comparisons are given by M. Quetelet of the measurements of the statues of 
ancient art, and of those in the rules laid down by the greatest artists or writers 
on the proportions of man. All the measures tend to establish the fact that the 
eeererticns of the human form of the present day are almost identical with those 

educed by observation from the most regular statues of Grecian art. 

The application of the law is also shown by the close approximation in the 
observed and calculated numbers of conscripts for France, Belgium for 20 years 
of observation, and in Italy for those at 21 years of age, as well as by two sets of 
observations in the United States. In the three former countries the mean height 
observed was nearly the same; but in the United States it was higher by 6 or 8 
centimetres, though this was partly accounted for by the Volunteers there being 
of a more mature age. 

A further example is given in a comparison of the measurements of the circum- 
ference of the chests of Scottish and American soldiers, the mean of the former 
being 40 inches, at which the observed numbers were 188, and the calculated num- 
ber would be 199 in every 1000; and the mean of the latter was 55 inches, at 
which the observed number was 204, and the calculated number by theory would 
be 190 in every 1000. The law applies equally to the weight, strength, and other 
physical qualities of man. 

The extension of this method of observation to the actions of man, which are 
dependent on the exercise of his free will, indicate in the clearest manner that, 
however imperceptibly to the casual observer, they follow certain laws which are 
as regular in their operation as the law of mortality. Thus, in five consecutive 
quinquennial periods, from 1840 to 1865, the marriages of men at certain groups’ of 
ages throughout life, with women at the same or other groups of ages, very slightly 
differed from the mean of the same groups for the whole period of twenty-five 
years. The same results may be seen in a still more marked manner in England, 
by comparing the marriages of men at every group of successive five years of age 
from under 20 to 85, with women at those groups of ages in the three years 1846, 
1847, and 1848 with the three years 1851, 1852, and 1853. The near approxima- 
tion of the numbers at every age in the two periods is most remarkable, especially 
if they are subdivided into marriages of bachelors with spinsters or widows, and 
of widowers with spinsters or widows. 

Other statistics Situsteitivig the regularity of action in the free will of man, are 
those showing the tendency to crime at particular ages, and even the nature of 
crimes which seem to vary against person, or against property according to the age 
of the criminal. The object of this paper is to point out the true scientific method 
of collecting and comparing statistics, to draw attention to the remarkable Tables 
of M. Quetelet, ae the law of the growth of man, and of the proportions of 
the various parts of his body at every age of life, and further to urge that the same 
method of investigation should be extended to the many questions affecting his 
moral and intellectual faculties which at present are not considered to be within 
the compass of statistical research. 


On the Wellington Reformatory. By Sheriff Crecnorn. 


On a proposed Doomsday Book, giving the Value of the Governmental Property 
as a basis for a sound system of National Finance and Accounts. By F. 
P. Fettows, £.S.S. 


The author described the present method of voting and accounting for the na- 
tional expenditure, amounting to about £70,000,000 yearly, and maintained that 


.there was a great incompleteness in the accounts, which could not be rectified till 


a Doomsday Book, giving the value of the National Governmental property, was 

compiled. This must necessarily be the basis of any sound system of national 

finance and accounts, as, without it, expenditure for capital and for the current pur- 
14* 


212 REPORT—1871. 


poses of the year must be unavoidably confused, so that a Government may ask for 
£70,000,000 in any year, and yet spend for the year in question £80,000,000, or 
only £60,000,000 without the House of Commons or the public being able to de- 
tect it. The paper recommended, as a conclusion to this Doomsday Book, the 
compilation of accounts for each Government department similar to those worked 
out by the author and Mr. Seely (recommended by Mr. Seely’s Committee for 
adoption), and now being introduced into the Admiralty. It pointed out the great 
control these accounts gave the Admiralty over its expenditure, and attributed a 
considerable part of the yearly saving of about £1,500,000 that-had been effected 
in the Navy to the information thus afforded. The author said that with certain 
exceptions, such as the army and the navy, the only accounts compiled and pre- 
sented to Parliament were the Estimates and Finance Accounts; and that these 
finance accounts, 7. e. “the Estimates,” “the Sppropneney Accounts,’ and 
“Statements of the Savings and Deficiencies on the Grants,” as given in the 
Estimates, were, strictly speaking, merely the banking accounts of the nation, and 
gave little control over the expenditure, and afforded to the House of Commons no 
information as to the economical results thereof. or instance, the estimates gaye 
the sums the House of Commons authorized the various departments to expend or 
draw from the public purse or bank. And the Appropriation Accounts and the 
“ Statement of the Savings and Deficiencies on the grants” gave the actual money 
expended or drawn from the public purse or bank. He maintained that the public 
national accounts ought to go much further than this, and to show the application 
and the results of the money thus withdrawn from the “ Bank,” and urged, from 
the illustrations given as to the Admiralty accounts and expenditure, the great re- 
sults that might be expected therefrom. What, it was asked, would be thought of 
a great railway or other company whose only account presented to its shareholders 
was its bankers’ book—which had no capital account, no account of the yalue of its 
plant, buildings, machinery, rolling stock, stores, &e.—which mixed together its 
current and capital account (as it must necessarily do under such circumstances), 
and what would be the result of such a system of management, or, rather, want of 
management? Any man of business would at once say that there must necessarily 
be very great waste, if not eventual ruin to the company. Yet, was the Govern- 
ment in a different position in this matter, and could we expect that these eyils 
did not exist? The answer surely could scarcely be the affirmative. The paper 
concluded by recommending the appointment of a Royal Commission to inquire 
into and carry out this stock-taking and valuation on one uniform principle for all 
departments, so that a Doomsday Book might be compiled as the starting-point for 
a system of finance and accounts similar to that introduced into the Admiralty, 
by which the Government and the House of Commons would be enabled to haye 
the most effective control over our great annual expenditure. The author also 
incidentally referred to the ancient Doomsday Book of England, as being the 
greatest achievement of the Conqueror, and saw no reason why it should not be 
recompiled on an extended basis. 


Political Economy, Pauperism, the Labour Question, and the Liquor Traffic. 
By Wit11am Horie. 


On the present state of Education in India, and its bearings on the question 
of Social Science. By A. Jyram-Row. 


On Naval Efficiency and Dockyard Economy. By Cuartes Lamport. 


On the Edinburgh Industrial Home for Fallen Women, Alnwick-Hill, near 
Liberton. By W. M‘Buay. 


This Institution was established in 1856 for the restoration of young women 
willing to return to the paths of yirtue. It was formed on the principle of provid- 


Om 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 213 


ing for them a small home, whose arrangements might be more of the nature of a 
family than larger institutions can possibly be. 

It is situated about two miles from Edinburgh, in an airy and healthy locality, 
asa proof of which sickness of any kind has scarcely, if ever, been experienced 
amongst its inmates; the usual number of them is about 30, although two or 
three more could be accommodated. 

The superintendents are a matron, assistant-matron, sewing-mistress, and two 
laundresses, and the chief employment of the women is washing and laundry 
work, with a little needlework, instruction in needlework being regularly given 
by the sewing-mistress. Regular instruction is also given in poathint, writing, and 
arithmetic, with household work and religious knowledge. 

The Home is always open for the reception of inmates ; and it is chiefly through 
the missionaries, whose work it is to endeayour to reclaim the fallen, that inmates 
are received. 

After bemg a year in the Home, situations are provided for the girls, and an out- 
fit given to ed and, as far as possible, an oversight is kept of them after they 
leave the Home. The Committee endeavour as much as possible to send the girls 
to situations at a distance from their former haunts, and have on different occa- 
sions procured situations and sent several of them to Canada, &c. 

The management of the Home is vested in two Committees of Ladies and Gen- 
tlemen appointed by the subscribers, but the general management is vested in the 
Gentlemen’s Committee, who have the control of the funds. 

The property of the Home was purchased by the Committee four years ago, at 
the price of £630; and they have since expended, in making repairs, alterations, 
and additions to it, so as to fit it more completely for the purposes of a Home, close 
upon £900, the whole of which money the Committee have been enabled to pay 
through extra subscriptions, &c., so that now there is no debt remaining upon it. 

The annual cost of maintenance of the Home in 1870, as per 

detailed accounts published in the Annual Report for that year, 
“OTE co 9 Stun tite Ocha ieee aia rere eA Macs ok bet ie £941 11 5 
(which included £185 4s. 4d., the expenditure connected with 
carrying on the washing work), whereof there was received from 
the work of the inmates in washing, Ke. wu... ce eee 60118 4 


The balance of £339 18 1 


being provided by public subscriptions, &c. 

Tn connexion with this, it is right to state that all the water required for wash- 
ing, except the rain-water from the roofs, has to be carted from a burn about a 
quarter of a mile distant from the Home. 

In the eleven years from 1860 to 1870, both inclusive, on an average thirty-two 
young women have annually left the Home for situations, received back by friends, 
&e. 


On the Mode for Assessing for the Poor-Rates. By Jamus Merxty, F.S.S. 


On the Administration of the Poor Law. By W. A. Pererxry, General 
Superintendent of Poor (Scotland). 


It was the wish of the entire community that no one should die of actual star- 
vation, and therefore all plans for the distribution of funds raised for the relief of 
the poor were based on the minimum necessary to maintain life. This was the 
absolute requirement. The Poor Law of Scotland required “ needful sustentation.” 
The interpretation of that term was left to the judgment of local administrations, 
and there were 885 separate bodies, each acting on its own responsibility. Their 
decisions were subject, on complaint, to the review of a central authority, insti- 
tuted by Parliament. Uniformity, under such circumstances, was hopeless, and if 


_ practicable, would not be desirable. There was no point to which attention re- 


quired more to be given than to the necessity of each case combining in itself 
destitution and disability, The question of disability was practically more easily 


214 REPORT—1871. 


determined than that of destitution, and on that point there was the greatest 
diversity of opinion amongst all classes. The chief advantage to be gained from the 
expedient of a poor-house was, that it enabled a local board to administer the rates 
more satisfactorily to themselves and to the public, by checking in a rough kind of 
way attempts to,impose, and more economically in cases where lodging, nursing, and 
clothing were required. After giving some statistics and results relating to the cost 
of pauperism and to illegitimacy, the author referred to the education of pauper 
children, and said whether local boards could do more for the education of such 
children than they did, by making attendance at school a condition of relief to the 
parent, was deserving of consideration ; but the supineness of i parents as 
to the education of their children was well known, and it must be borne in mind 
that the elder children were frequently material aids in the family strugele for 
existence. Having made reference to the improved condition of the paupers com- 
pared with that of fifty years ago, and to the provision for medical aid, costin 
each parish on an average £40 per annum, he gave some information as to Shetland. 
In Scotland outdoor relief was the rule; for twelve who received relief at their 
own homes, only one would be relieved at the poor-house. He concluded by stat- 
ing that it was an advantage of the Scotch system of Poor-Law administration 
that every recipient of relief was personally known to and visited by local respon- 
sible officers, controlled by 885 separate boards, representing all interests ; and 
that it was of the utmost importance to all that these local boards should be con- 
stituted so as to secure an impartial, intelligent, and humane administration. 


On the Illegitimacy of Banffshire. By GrorcE Seton, Advocate, M.A. Oxon., 
Secretary in the General Registry Office of Births, &c. (Scotland). 


Prefatory Note.— Since I undertook to read the following paper, which relates 
to the four years ending 1861, I have not had time to examine in detail the Banfi- 
shire Birth Registers applicable to a later period; but I have made such an inyes- 
tigation as to satisfy myself that a collation of the books pertaining to the four 
years ending 1869 (the latest available records) would establish strikingly similar 
results. This will appear from the tabular statements contained in a supplemen- 
tary appendix, to which I shall afterwards refer.” 

This paper gave elaborate details regarding the illegitimacy of Banffshire during 
the four years ending 1861, and embraced a supplementary appendix relative to the 
four-years ending 1869. 

It showed, inter alia— 

(1) That the number of illegitimate births recorded in the 8 divisions, 33 
counties, and 1020 registration districts of Scotland has been published in the 
quarterly returns of the Registrar-General since the year 1857. 

(2) That during the four years ending 1861, the north-eastern division of the 
country, embracing the counties of Nairn, Elgin, Banff, Aberdeen, and Kincardine, 
furnished the /argest proportion of illegitimate births; while the northern division, 
embracing the counties of Shetland, Orkney, Caithness, and Sutherland, exhibited 
the smallest proportion, the maximum average being 14:7, and the minimum 5:3 

er cent. 
i (8) That of the counties, during the four years in question, Banff took the 
highest, or rather the dowest place in respect of illegitimacy, showing an average 
of very nearly 16 per cent., the ratio for Scotland generally being 9 per cent., while 
that of certain other northern counties was only 33 per cent.* 

The county of Banff embraces twenty-six registration districts, with a popula- 
tion of 56,020 at the Census of 1861, during which and the three preceding years, 
7517 births were registered, of which 1189 were illegitimate ; in other words, 
about one in every six of the children recorded was born out of wedlock. ‘(In the 
case of 389 of these illegitimate children, or nearly a third of the whole, the pa- 
ternity was acknowledged at registration (17 & 18 Vict. c. 80, § 35); in sixty-four 

* In 1868 Kirkcudbright was slightly above Banff in respect to illegitimacy, showing 
17°5 against 17-3 per cent.; while in 1867, Wigtown was 17:9, Kirkcudbright 15-7, Aber- 
deen and Kincardine each 14-9, and Dumfries and Banff each 14°5 per cent. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 215 


instances the paternity has been subsequently found by Decree of Court, and 
recorded in terms of the Statute (Jid,) ; and in twenty-eight cases the children 
have been legitimated by the subsequent marriage of their parents, such alteration 
of status being also duly registered (did. § 36). In a few instances, the judicial 
findings relate to children whose paternity was acknowledged at registration, from 
which it would appear that, notwithstanding the reputed father’s adhibition of his 
signature to the register, the mother is occasionally induced to raise an action 
against him. 

“<The mothers of no fewer than 571 of the 1189 illegitimate children (very nearly 
one-half) are registered as being domestic servants, 216 as farm servants, 22 as milh- 
ners or dressmakers, and 36 as washerwomen, hawkers, and other miscellaneous ayoca- 
tions; while in the case of 344, or more than a third of the whole, the occupation 
is not specified.* In several cases the mothers appear to have been widows, and, in 
a few rare instances, married women living apart from their husbands. 

“From notes by the District Examiner, it appears that the mother of one of the 
illegitimate children registered at Keith in 1860 is a pauper, and has given birth to 
Jive illegitimate children; while the mother of one of those registered at Rothie- 
may, in the same year, is living idle at home, and has given birth to four illegiti- 
mate children.” 

Very considerable differences in respect to the amount of illegitimacy present 
themselves in the different districts, the maximum rate being upwards of 25 per 
cent., and the minimum as low as 6 or 7 per cent. Asarule, the sea-board jaadtas 
have a lower percentage of illegitimacy than the inland ones, Neither the excess 
of females over males, nor the comparative number of houses and windowed 
rooms, as ascertained at the Census, appear to afford any satisfactory solution of 
the differences in question. But with regard to the county generally, the compa- 
rative paucity of marriages may, perhaps, have something to do with the large 
amount of illegitimacy. 

The paper concluded as follows:—“In a paper which I published in the year 
1860, I ventured to suggest a variety of causes as accounting for the illegitimacy 
of Scotland generally. In the present paper, however, it will be observed that I 
have almost entirely confined my remarks to a statement of facts, from which I 
incline to think that no very satisfactory deductions can be drawn, in the absence 
of such detailed information as could only be obtained from a carefully conducted 
local inquiry. 

“ yen the best districts in Scotland have room for improvement in the matter in 
question, and here, in the metropolitan county, we have not much to boast of. I 
freely acknowledge the tendency which prompts us to shut our eyes on our own 
shortcomings, and to call attention to those of our neighours; but on the present 
occasion, I think it will be admitted that the great and continued preeminence of 
Banfishire in the matter of illegitimacy is a sufficient warrant for my having 
selected that county as the subject of my remarks.” 

The paper was accompanied by several tabular appendices, and also by a series 
of extracts bearing upon the subject from the notes appended by the Registrars to 


their quarterly returns. 


On the Expediency of recording Still-Births. By Grorce Snron, Advocate, 
M.A. Oxon., Secretary in the General Registry Office of Births, §c. (Scotland). 
This paper mentioned that, while these births are recorded in France and some 
other continental nations, they are not registered either in England or Scotland. 
Tt showed, inter alia— 
That the statisties of the subject are very imperfect. 
That under the old and unsatisfactory system of registration in Scotland, a con- 
siderable number of still-births appear to have found their way into the parochial 


records. 
That, estimating the still-births in Scotland at 43 per cent. of the total births, 


_ their present annual number would amount to upwards of 5000. 


* A more general registration of the occupation of mothers of illegitimate children is 
now effected in Banffshire and the other counties of Scotland. 


216 rEvort—1871. 


That the} still-births in Glascow during the three years ending 1852 were cal- 
culated by the late Dr. Strang to have amounted to 1 in 12, or upwards of 8 per 
cent.* 

That in France their proportion amounts to between 4 and 45 per cent., and in 
Paris to about 73 per cent. 

That the ordinary proportion among legitimate children is reckoned to be from 
1 in 18, tol in 20 of all births, and among illegitimate children three times greater. 

That many more males are still-born than females, viz. 140 to 100, and that 
still-births are more frequent in first than in subsequent pregnancies. 

The paper also referred to the difficulty of defining the term “still-birth ;” to the 
opinion of medical practitioners that the registration of still-births ought to be 
confined to children born “ Viable,” or with a capacity to live; to the Memorial 
addressed to the Registrar-General of Scotland by the Royal College of Physicians, 
Edinburgh, in 1858, in favour of the registration of still-births; and to the sup- 
posed prejudice in the upper and middle ranks of society against such registration. 

The paper concluded with the following statement :— 

“ Prejudice or no prejudice, the question to be decided is simply this :—Is it ex- 
pedient that these births should be registered? While I wish to speak with great 
deference on a subject respecting which a lawyer is probably not so well qualified 
as a medical practitioner to express an opinion, and notwithstanding the very 
decided views to the contrary of my esteemed friend the Registrar-General 
of Englandt, I have no hesitation in saying that I have long thought that the 
proposal of the College of Physicians should be carried into effect as a matter of 
public policy. 

“Tn his able pamphlet on ‘ The Law of the Coroner, and on Medical Evidence in 
the Preliminary Investigation of Criminal Cases,’ published in 1855, Dr. Craig, of 
Ratho, says, ‘ Another apparent step in advance is an enactment in the New Scotch 
Registration Bill, which came into full operation on the 1st of January, 1855, 
where in cases of new-born children exposed or found dead, or in cases of persons 
found dead, a report is to be sent to the Procurator Fiscal, who, ‘in case of a Pre- 
cognition,’ is to report to the Registrar before he can enter the case in the register. 
The birth and burial, however, of still-born children are not to be registered ; and 
thus every facility is afforded for concealment of pregnancy, and for the crime of 
child murder.’ 

“Tn the interests of medical science, moreover, I think it cannot be doubted that 
the births in question ought to be duly recorded ; and now that we have in each 
of the three portions of the United Kingdom a national system of registration, 
more or less ann the facility of doing so is very largely increased. It is no 
doubt desirable that a uniform procedure should be observed in the three kingdoms. 
Already, however, in various important respects, the three systems of registration 
materially differ; and, accordingly, in the matter in question, it might perhaps be 
worth while to make the experiment, in the first instance, in the comparatively 
small sphere of North Britain, leaving England and Ireland to follow, if the expe- 
riment should prove a success. Whether or not fresh legislation would be neces- 
sary is, I think, open to question. Speaking generally, it appears to me that the 
registration of still-births is not excluded in the existing statute. Were it other- 
wise, the regulation relative to the non-registration of still-births would he alto- 
gether unnecessary. If, however, the form of registration to which I shall pre- 
sently allude were to be thought expedient, it would probably require the inter- 
vention of the Legislature, in the shape of a short supplementary Act. 

“As to the mode of practically carrying out the registration of still-births, I am 
quite prepared to offer a few suggestions. On the assumption that the medical 
faculty are agreed upon what ought to be regarded as a still-birth, and that it is 
found feasible to give intelligible instructions upon the subject to the Registrars— 
upwards of 1000 in number—the first point to be determined is, the register in 
which the entries ought to be made. As I have already stated, the practice in 

* Probably too high an estimate. 

t See printed paper, dated 6th July, 1869, entitled ‘Remarks submitted to the Consi- 


cea of the Royal Sanitary Commission by the Registrar-Gencral of England end 
ales,’ 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. PAWS 


France is to record still-births in the death register, and this course, I apprehend, 
is approved of by some medical practitioners and others in our own country, But 
I yenture to recommend a different plan. 

“Tt will perhaps be alleged that the events in question must be regarded as either 
births or deaths, and registered accordingly ; ¢. e. either in the birth or in the death 
register. If the question is to be thus limited, I should incline to prefer the birth 
to the death register, inasmuch as a still-birth cannot be scientifically regarded as 
a true death ; and is, indeed, more of a birth than a death. But it does not appear 
to follow that still-births should find their way into either the birth or the death 
register. For many reasons, a separate register, specially prepared for the purpose, 
would be the best arrangement—to be transmitted from time to time to the Gene- 
ral Registry Office as its pages are filled, and not annually as in the case of the 
duplicate registers of births, deaths, and marriages. It appears to be quite unne- 
cessary that such register should be kept i duplicate; and at the end of every 
quarter the number of still-births would be reported by the Registrar in his return 
of births, deaths, and marriages. As to the form of the register, I would propose 
that it should embrace the following particulars :— 

“J. Number of the entry. 

“2. Sex of child. 

“3. Date and place of birth. 

“4, Age of child in months and days, from date of conception. 

“5, Number of the mother’s pregnancy, whether first, second, &c., and whether 
she has had any previous still-born children. 

_ “6, Names, ages, and designations of the parents, and the date of their mar- 
riage. 

“7, Signature of the informant. 

“8, Date of registration and signature of Registrar. 

“ As to the age of the child, probably considerable difficulty would be experienced 
in ascertaining this particular. The precise period of conception, and consequently 
of gestation, cannot be determined by the date of intercourse, and the real dura- 
tion of pregnancy is, of course, the interval between conception and parturition. 
{n most cases, however, a sufficiently near approximation to the truth would pro- 
bably be attained. 

“ As to the party who should sign the register as informant, this might be the 
duty of the medical practitioner or other professional person in attendance; and 
where no such person was in attendance, the nearest female relative of the mother, 
being of full age, present at the birth. Another course would be for the medical 
attendant to transmit to the Registrar, as in the case of a death, on a form sup- 
plied for the purpose, a certificate relative to the still-birth, the event being re- 
corded under the provisions of the statute applicable to births generally (17 & 18 
Vict. c. 80, § 27). In lieu of the extract furnished to the informant of a living 
birth, in terms of the 37th section of the Registration Act, the Registrar should 
be required to give a burial certificate, analogous to that furnished to the informant 
of a death (Ibid. § 44). It is to be feared that under the existing state of affairs, 
many still-born children are interred not in cemeteries, but in back greens, water- 
holes, quarries, and such like places, being treated as brute-beasts and not as hu- 
man beings. 

“The subject appears to be a very important one, and I humbly commend the 
suggestions which I have yentured to offer to the favourable consideration of 
statists, philanthropists, and the medical profession.” “4 


On certain Cases of Questioned Legitimacy under the Operation of the Scottish 
Registration Act (17 § 18 Vict. c. 80). By Groner Suton, Advocate, M.A. 
Oxon., Secretary in the General Registry Office of Births, Sc. (Scotland). 


“Tt is a wise father that knows his own child.”—(Merchant of Venice.) 


This paper had reference to the subject of adulterine bastardy. After alluding 
to the well-known legal presumption which assigns the status of legitimacy to a 


218 rEPORT—1871. 


child born in wedlock (“ pater est quem nuptie demonstrant”), to the circumstances 
under which the presumption may be overcome, and to the statements of Stair 
and Erskine upon the subject, the author said :— 

“The history of the law of legitimacy is fully detailed by Sir Harris Nicolas, 
in his work on the ‘Law of Adulterine Bastardy ;’ while the present state of the 
law is set forth in the works of several well-known authors, including the treatise 
on the ‘ Evidence of Succession,’ by Mr. Hubback (p. 393 ef seg.), and the ‘ Law of 
Evidence in Scotland,’ by Mr. Gillespie Dickson (vol. i. p. 190 et seq.). 

“The uswal ground on which the presumption of legitimacy is overcome is the 
non-access of the husband within the period of gestation. Actual proof of such 
non-access is all that is now required both in England and Scotland; in other 
words, it is no longer necessary to establish the physical impossibility of the hus- 
band’s access, by proving the intervention of the ‘ quatwor maria.’ According to 
Mr. Hubback, the early writers (including Bracton and Fleta) recognize no such 
doctrine as that of the guatuor maria; and, accordingly, he asserts that ‘the law 
as now settled in its repudiation of this doctrine, is in conformity with the most 
ancient authorities.’ Even Lord Eldon remarked that the law had been scrupulous 
about legitimacy, to the extent of disturbing the rules of reason. 

“A somewhat difficult question occasionally arises in connexion with the legal 
presumption of legitimacy, under the operation of the Act relative to the Regis- 
tration of Births, Deaths, and Marriages in Scotland (17 & 18 Vict. c. 80). The 
form in which births require to be recorded is prescribed in Schedule (A) annexed 
to that statute. The first column of the register embraces the ‘Name and Sur- 
name’ of the child, and the fourth column the ‘Name, surname, and rank or pro- 
fession of the father,’ the ‘Name and maiden surname of the mother,’ and the 
‘Date and place of marriage.’ 

“These latter particulars, of course, only apply to the case of legitimate children, 
the entries applicable to illegitimate births being modified according to cireum- 
stances, and the word ‘illegitimate’ being entered under the child’s name in the 
first column of the register. 

“Tn the case of a leyitemate birth, the primary informant is one or other of the 
child’s parents, whom failing (in consequence of death, illness, or inability) certain 
other specified persons. Such parent or other informant is required within twenty- 
one days after the birth, and under a penalty of twenty shillings, ‘to attend per- 
sonally and give information to the Registrar of the parish or district in which the 
birth occurred, to the best of his or her knowledge and belief, of the several particulars 
required to be registered touching such birth, and to sign the register in the pre- 
sence of the Registrar.’ As a general rule, the Registrar (whose duties are, of 
course, purely ministerial) experiences no difficulty in recording the births reported 
to him either as legitimate or illegitimate, according to the statement of the infor- 
mant. Sometimes, however, a doubtful case presents itself, usually under the fol- 
lowing circumstances. A married woman attends at the Office of the Registrar, 
and informs him that she has given birth to a child, of which, however, she 
solemnly declares that her husband is not the father, adding that she has not had 
any intercourse with him for a long period, perhaps two or three years; at any 
rate for upwards of nine or ten months prior to the birth of the child. It may be 
that, during that time, the husband has been living at a distance from his wife, if 
not residing out of the kingdom; and possibly the paternity may be acknowledged 
by the paramour. She makes this statement, in the words of the statute already 
referred to, ‘to the best of her knowledge and belief.’ Under such cirenmstances, 
would the Registrar be entitled, in virtue of the legal presumption, to disregard 
the statement of the mother, to record the child as legitimate, and to insist on the 
mother signing the relative entry as informant? In other words, how are we to 
reconcile the conflict between the legal presumption in favour of the child’s legiti- 
macy with the mother’s deliberate assertion to the contrary? The ordinary prac- 
tice of the Registrar General is to send a printed schedule to the Registrar who 
veports a birth occurring under such circumstances, of which the following is a 


copy :— 


a 


EE 


a 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 219 


“INFORMATION to be supplied before the Rraistrarion of the Brrtu of the 
alleged IntEGiTmATE Cup of a Marrrep Woman. 


emaee Cr ETH sca. ay ois Oh 

Christian and Maiden Name of Mother 
. Name and Designation vf her Husband 
. Date and Place of their Marriage . . 
. Where did they respectively reside be- 
POPCUMBTMARS Dos liss iy oes s bigtios, 18 
. Are they still residing together? If 

not, when did they cease to do so? 
. Where haye they respectively resided 
SINCE Dag OAe 6, shies ss he 
. Have they had any personal communi- 
cation since the date of their ceasing 
to reside together, and if so, when 
‘HTS Lard STH ap as pw ie eae 
9, Does the Husband concur with the 
Child’s Mother in her statement as 
PO dia WlapiIMAC HE ss ss a) f° 
10, Is the Paternity of the Child to be ac- 
knowledged by any other Person, in 
terms of the 35th Section of the ori- 
ginal Registration Act? If so, state 
his Name and Designation. . . . 


on &® ohetrH 


I neREBY CERTIFY that the above Information has been supplied to me, as 


Registrar of the Parish (or District) of ; 


in which the Birth occurred, by* 


Registrar. 
Date 


“The directions as to the form of the relative entry depend, of course, upon the 
answers supplied; but in the majority of the cases submitted for consideration, 
where the statement clearly indicates the impossibility of the husband being the 
father, the child is described, in the first column of the Register, by its mother’s 
maiden and married surnames alternately, without the addition of the word ‘ille- 
gitimate,’ while in column four, the name of the husband, and the date and place 
of marriage are omitted, and the mother thus described :—‘ Mary Brown, wife of 
Dayid Wilson, shoemaker, who she (the informant) declares is not the father of the 
child, and further that she has not seen her husband for upwards of (say) two 
years.’ Such an entry, no doubt, affords prima facie evidence of the child’s ille- 
gitimacy, and at a distant period it would probably be somewhat difficult to over- 
come the presumption. On the other hand, however, the circumstantial statement 
in column 4 distinctly shows that the child was born in wedlock, its alleged illegi- 
timacy being registered on the information of its own mother; and such informa- 
tion being tendered ‘to the best of her knowledge and belief.’ If, however, the 
circumstances are such as to indicate opportunity of access to the husband, or 
otherwise suggest a presumption in fayour of the child’s legitimacy, the Registrar 
is instructed to record the birth as /egitimate in the ordinary way, even in the face 
of the mother’s assertion to the contrary; and if the husband, or any other in- 
terested party, should feel aggrieved by the form of the entry, he is, of course, 
entitled to take steps for its correction, in terms of the statutory provisions.” 


* Asa general rule, most of the information will he furnished by the child’s mother, 


220 REPORT—1871. 


On Indian Statistics and Official Reports. By Dr. Groner Suirn. 


The eight years’ administration of the Marquis of Dalhousie, which closed in 
1856, was the beginning of intellectual progress in British India. On the conclu- 
sion of his splendid series of conquests, and even, to some extent, during their 
continuance, that distinguished Governor-General set in motion all those reforms 
which are involved in the railway, the telegraph, the anna or three-halfpenny 
postage, primary schools supported by a local cess, the Universities and the higher 
education, such scientific and political expeditions as Colonel Yule’s Mission to 
Ava, the Geological Survey, and such enlightened legislation as the Acts estab- 
lishing religious and ciyil toleration, and permitting the marriage of Hindoo 
widows. During his administration, when reviewing the Charter of the Hast India 
Company for the last time, Parliament directed, in 1853, that Reports of the moral 
and material progress in India should be submitted to it every year. Each Pro- 
vince and each Department has since published an annual report, the whole num- 
bering from eight to twelve. 

Led by professional duties to study these reports, and frequently to criticise them, 
the author was struck by the absence of uniformity and the meagreness of their 
statistical and economic information. The discussions caused by the Mutiny of 
1857 had shown England the need of accurate information regarding India, and 
the annual Budgets, first introduced by the lamented James Wilson in 1859, had 
convinced the Government of India of the necessity for statistical information as the 
basis of financial and political action. Still no reform was attempted till, in 1863, 
the author submitted to Mr.S8. Laing, then Indian Finance Minister, a memorial and a 
plan on the subject. The author adapted to India the scientific scheme of statistics, 
published by the International Statistical Congress, which had sat not long before, 
and recommended the appointment of a permanent committee of officials and non- 
officials to advise Government on statistical questions. An attempt had previously 
been made to establish a Statistical Society independently of Government, but that 
had failed. On Mr. Laing’s advice Lord Elgin was pleased to adopt the sugges- 
tions, and to appoint what has since been known as the Calcutta Statistical Com- 
mittee to carry them out. 

That Committee, working vigorously at first, divided the whole field among 
small subcommittees. Mr. Bullen, a well-known merchant of Calcutta, adapted 
the English Board of Trade tables, so that the Financial Department is now able 
to publish detailed trade returns from the most distant parts of India every month, 
and only a few weeks after the close of the period to which they refer. An annual 
yolume is also published. The ditlicult and complicated subject of the statistics 
of revenue and expenditure was referred to My. R. H. Hollinghery, Assistant- 
Secretary of the Financial Department, so that that department now publishes 
annually an invaluable series of three folio volumes, showing the past and present 
statistics of Indian finance in great detail. 

The subject of administrative statistics, other than those of trade and finance, was 
referred to the Hon. Mr. George Campbell, now the able Lieutenant-Governor of 
Bengal, and to the author. The committee were pleased to adopt the author's plan, 
adapted from that of the Statistical Congress, which, however, did not provide for 
judicial statistics. Mr. Campbell, then a Judge of the Bengal High Court, prepared 
an admirable series of tables for that department, but the Government of India was 
constrained to appoint a special committee to deal with the courts of the other 
Provinces as well as of Bengal. The result is that nothing satisfactory has yet 
been done for judicial statistics, and no reliable uniform generalization can be 
made regarding litigation, crime, and police in India. In all other respects, how- 
ever, the statistical forms seem to be perfect. The administrative tables were 
referred to the Provincial Governments, and, after undergoing searching and some- 
times hostile criticism, because they seemed to interfere with local arrangements 
and to demand an establishment of clerks, they were finally approved of by the 
Government of India and the Secretary of State in 1867. That is, each of the ten 
Provinces which send in annual administration reports, was ordered to report on 
the basis of these uniform and scientific tables. Since 1867-68 all have obeyed, 
except the three most important—Bengal proper, Madras and Bombay. The first, 


f" 


—-- 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 221 


Owing to the perpetual settlement of its land revenue and the absence of a link of 
officials between our civilians and the people, has always been statistically unsatis- 
factory ; but we may depend on Mr. Campbell introducing the reform there also, so 
far as possible. No countries in the world possess such rich statistical material, 
which could be made easily available, as Madras and Bombay. But the Reports of 
the latter are the worst in India. It is to be hoped that the Government of India 
will see that its orders are carried out so as to work these Provinces into tho 
uniform statistical system. That system is as follows in its main heads:—(A) 
Statistics of Physical, Political, and Fiscal Geography. (B) Statistics of Protec- 
tion, (C) Statistics of Production and Distribution. (D) Statistics of Instruc- 
tion. (E) Statistics of Life. The tables are meant to include all the 153 Feu- 
datory States; but except in those cases where a minority has put the State under 
direct British management, the Chiefs as a rule passively resist all attempts to 
obtain statistical information regarding their estates and revenues. 

Still the reform thus wrought by the Calcutta Statistical Committee has been 
immense. To say nothing of the elaborate ares statistics of trade and finance, 
there are published in India every year, about August, some ten volumes on the 
ten Provinces of India, and seven of these volumes contain uniform scientific tables. 
It has thus been possible, during the last three years, to obtain an almost complete 
picture of the progress and condition of the 212 millions of Hindoos, Mussulmans, 
Boodhists, Christians, Non-Aryans, Parsees and Jews whom we rule, and for whom 
Mngland is responsible, in Southern Asia. 

The greatest statistical want of India is now a uniform census of the whole 
population. Until recently, as still in the three great Provinces of Bengal, Madras 
and Bombay, the number of the population was arrived at by multiplying the 
number of houses by five, and this duty was entrusted to an uneducated police. 
But of late much more careful enumerations of the people have been made, showing 
that on the night of the 10th January, 1865, there were 30,006,068 in the North- 
Western Provinces; that in 1866 there were 9,068,103 in the Central Provinces ; 
that in 1868 there were 17,611,498 in the Punjab; that in 1869 there were 
11,232,368 in Oudh; that in 1867 there were 2,220,074 in Berar; and that in 1869 
there were 2,395,988 in British Burma. Assuming the correctness of the Parlia- 
mentary return of the population of non-feudatory India, England rules 212,671,621 
people in ten Provinces, containing 221 districts or counties, and in 153 states, 
coyering an area of 1,577,698 square miles, The density ranges from 474 per 
square mile in Oudh to 26 in British Burma, Over all Indiait is 135, in feudatory 
India alone it is 80. 

Besides the Annual Administration Reports, the Government of India, the ten 
Provincial Administrations, and the great Departments issue frequent Reports, some 
of them of the highest value. All may be consulted in the garrets to which the 
India Office in Westminster banishes its fine Library and Museum, as well as the 
weekly reports on the native press, and a copy of every work published in India 
and registered under the Literature Act. But the Government of India is most 
liberal in distributing its reports. Ifany great Association or Library desires a copy of 
each as it appears in India, an agent should be appointed for its reception in Calcutta, 
Before the late Mr. Halkett’s death the author had the satisfaction of obtaining 
from Lord Mayo’s Government a promise to present a copy of every Report to the 
Adyoeates Library of Edinburgh. The Governmeut of India has everything to gain 
from the widest publicity. The Reports of its great Surveys and of the settlement 
of the land revenue of every district out of Bengal, are mines of valuable infor- 
mation regarding the country and the people. Much of this is being utilized in 
the Gazetteers which are being prepared in every Province. 

A Director of Indian Statistics has recently been appointed by Lord Mayo, and a 
Census of all India is about to be made. 


On the Scientific Aspects of Children’s Hospitals. By Wrtt1asm SrepHensoy, 
M.D.,, F.R.CS. Ed., Phys. to Roy. Hosp. for Sick Children, Edinburgh. 


A peculiarity of Medical Charities is that they exist not only as benevolent in- 


222 REPORT—1871. 


stitutions, but occupy a very oni position as fields for scientific inquiry, and 
as means for increasing and diffusing medical knowledge. This double nature 
brings them directly under the recognition of a scientific association such as this, 
whose great aim is to develope the high function of science—the promotion of the 
welfare of mankind. Some details regarding the Royal Hospital for Sick Children 
were given. It contains 74 beds, 32 for ordinary patients and 42 for fever cases. 
There is also an outdoor or dispensary department. The patients have likewise 
the benefit of the Convalescent House at Corstorphine. No letters of introduction 
are required—the doors are open to all who are sick and young. The liability to 
abuse which this peculiarity gives rise to was pointed out, and how it lets in the 
evil of indiscriminate charity. 

Important as is the question of the proper administration of charity, it is the 
scientific ecouomy of the subject which falls more directly under the recognition of 
this Association. As charities, our hospitals for children have already reached a 
full maturity, as scientific centres their development is still imperfect and stunted. 

The scientific requirements prove the necessity for children’s hospitals as sepa- 
rate establishments. To arrive at any important clinical results, requires the 
grouping together of large numbers of cases, such as only can be done in hospitals 
of considerable size. They must be also under the care of able men, who should 
be enabled to devote a large share of their time to the special work. In both these 
respects the progress of medical science is still greatly retarded in this country. 
Our children’s hospitals are too small, and in London the tendency at present is to 
multiply the number, rather than increase the size of those already existing, to the 
proportion commensurate with the requirements of science. Much may be said in 
favour of small general hospitals, but there already exist the necessary large insti- 
tutions of this kind, and were these divided, science would suffer in proportion to 
the subdivision. 

On the Continent children’s hospitals have for years existed on a scale which it 
is hopeless ever to expect in this country. But it is to them we are indebted for 
much of our present knowledge of infantile pathology; and on this account our 
ideas still bear a foreign stamp, which does not prepare us for the modifications which 
climate, mode of life, and national differences produce in the nature of disease. 

One of the great objects in establishing the Children’s Hospital was to meet the 
want in the Edinburgh Medical School of proper “ appliances for affording sub- 
stantial assistance and practical instruction in the diseases of children.” That 
defect has been supplied; the public has nobly done its share in the work, and 
regular instruction is now given to the students who ayail themselves of the oppor- 
tunity. But at the same time no advance has yet been made by our Universities 
or Licensing Boards of the country to give that recognition to the subject, without 
which the resources thus supplied must remain very cr taken advantage of 
by our students. It is an anomalous fact that medical men obtain their diplomas, 
and go forth to practise, without haying received any special instruction in that 
department of their profession which is to form two thirds of their patients, and 
which relates to the causes which are producing the greatest mortality in the 
country. Special instruction in the physiological, pathological, and clinical pecu- 
liarities of childhood holds no real place in the curriculum of study assigned to 
medical students, and they pass from our schools ignorant of the simplest points of 
infantile hygiene, or the character of the most important constitutional affections. 

This constitutes the great barrier which exists to the full development of one of 
the great objects which have called our children’s hospitals into existence. By the 
removal of it alone can we expect to combat with greater success, with the widel: 
spread, the far reaching “in point of time, and grievously fatal influences, whic 
strike sorrow into our hearts, and carry suffering to those who are dearest and most 
dependent upon us. 


On the Relation between British and Metrical Measures. 
By G. Jounsronz Sroyey, /.R.S. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 223 


On the Manual Labour Classes of England, Wales, and Scotland. 
By W. Taytzr, FSS. 


On Census Reform. By Jamus Vatuntine, of Aberdeen. 


The object of this paper was to advocate the more frequent taking of the census 
of the people, and some changes therein, especially in the case of large towns, in 
order more particularly to ensure a broad and sound basis for our vital statistics. 

The author suggested that the following arrangements should be adopted :— 

1. A census, confined perhaps to the numbers of the people, the sexes, the ages on 
the classification of the Registrar-General’s Vital Statistics—under 5, 5-20, 20-60, 
60 and above; and perhaps the numbers at work and at school respectively should 
be taken every year, or every two years. 

2. The census should be taken under the superintendence of local authorities 
(say town councils), acting with imperial sanction and at local expense. 

3. As to the mode of carrying out the plan, cards might be delivered to every 
household a week or two before the census-day (say, by the letter-carriers, with 
some assistance, if necessary); and the citizens should be required to attend at di- 
strict recording places, and give in these cards, properly filled up, to one or more 
sworn officers, appointed to receive them. Those unable to fill up the card might 
give the particulars vivd voce; or the whole census might be taken and recorded 
in this way. 

4, Each district might be a town parish, and there should be manageable blocks 
or subdivisions, marked out so that the population and other census particulars of 
each be distinctly recorded. 

5. For providing other particulars, of what the author called sanitary geography, 
as regards the dwelling-houses there should be a surveyor, with access to the ses 
tion roll; and the medical officer of the place would find in this province profitable 
use for his services in various ways. 

6. The figures, on being summed and duly authenticated, would be transmitted 
to the Registrar-General, and the results adopted by him. 

7. There should, however, be a local publication of detailed particulars, popularly 
stated, and full publicity given to it. 

Should this machinery appear at first sight too elaborate, the present system, 
cumbrous and unsatisfactory in several respects as it is, might be continued, but 
with a quinquennial instead of a decennial census, and annual returns procured by 
some simple machinery made, showing the exact population of a place, with the 
ages at four periods of life; or, again, to reduce the reform to a minimum, the pro- 
posed change might apply to towns only, though there is no difficulty about ascer- 
taining the population of a country parish, and it is better to have strict accuracy, 


On the Organization of Societies, nationally and locally considered. 
By R. Batrry Warxer, Manchester. 


The object of this paper was—1, to show the ineffectiveness of the present system 
of separate societary organization; 2, to suggest an elementary step in the direction 
of further or zter-societary organization, and to show its national and local appli- 
cation; 3, to contrast the economy of positive, and the wastefulness of negative 
(opposition) work, and therefore to urge work of a positive character only, as being 
consistent with a right understanding of social economics, 


On the Law of Capital. By Wit11am Wustearru, 


In bringing up this contentious and oft-told tale of capital once more, the author 
said, by way of excuse, that he would try to make it thoroughly practical, and one 
from the merchant’s view rather than that of the systematic economist. The awful 
accounts just being received of the effects of famine in Persia show the importance 
of capital to any country. Such sudden and frightful misery could not occur in 


224. 3 REPoRT—1871. 


presence of large capital, simply because capital consists to a large extent of those 
requisites of life that make our daily food. Hence the importance, for any such 
emergency, that a country have a large instead of a small capital, that it oo on 
its business with a large instead of a small current balance of all the things dealt 
in. The object of the paper is to set forth the causes by which capital arises and 
increases or decreases in a country, to set forth, in short, the law of capital. 

In speaking of Persia, it will be said at once that an element of political or 
social insecurity readily accounts for a permanently small capital. That is both 
true and obvious, and therefore the author confined himself to countries that are, in a 
general way, of equal civilization and security, in order that our law of capital may 
more clearly show itself. Take then most of the European States, and average 
them respectively in their soils, forests, mines, in their respective climates. Their 
industry is all thoroughly organized, and the respective governments, although 
politically unlike, may be assumed as equally protective of the private rights of 
property. They seem thus fairly matched for the commercial race, and yet they 
arrive at very different results, for some have come to much greater wealth than 
others. Our own country in particular has reached a surpassing position in this 
ees with capital ever overflowing to make up the deficiencies of its neigh- 

ours. 

When we ask for the causes of this in countries that, as we saw, appeared so 
equally balanced in the substantials of the race, we shall find one dissimilar con- 
dition that has not been alluded to, namely, the mode of a country’s industry or 
trading. It is of a more aggregative or wholesale character in one country than 
another. As matter of fact, we can perceive that the more ageregative industries 
carry with them the largest capitals, and our business now is to inquire how this 
is so, How does capital arise, how maintain itself, how increase or diminish ? 

There is no need at this time of day to explain the economic doctrine of the sub- 
division cf labour, by which industry is made more productive. That is ostensibly 
and mainly a question of the law of production ; but the author deals with the part of 
the subject that has to do with the law of capital. Let us for a moment go back 
to that primitivism that must have preceded subdivision of labour amongst early 
maniind generally, and that still lingers amongst existing barbarism. There is no 
trading in that social condition. The family, with its fitful industry and its few 
wants, works only for itself. The only property such a society can have is the 
home or the homestead of each family, whatever these may be like. There is no 
exchanging and no exchangeable property, no capital in the commercial sense. 

From this isolative aspect of industrial life let us turn to the other, with which 
we are more familiar. With advancing civilization society has lapsed or drifted of 
itself into labour-subdivision, from a practical perception that its labour-power is 
thus turned to better account. Let us follow this arrangement and note how a 
fund or capital, that had no previous existence, arises out of it. Where the family 
no longer supplies directly its own wants, but is occupied in each case over only 
one or a few of society's many various requirements, there comes concurrently, of 
course, a system of mutual exchange of products. The different households of a 
town or district fall in this way into intertrading, and by extension of the same 
principle the trading extends by degrees to adjacent communities, to adjacent 
countries, and to the world in general. But all this trading requires a trade-appa- 
ratus. When the families of a community begin to intertrade, each requires some 
little stock on hand, according to its extent of custom; others need a factory, or a 
warehouse, or a shop, and a stock in trade is piled up, according to the wants of 
each case. When one community trades with another the aggregation of industry 
and its wholesale dispositions are still more marked, and all the stocks and other 
apparatus of intertrading are on a peepeeenately greater scale. There are roads 
and railways for the inland, and ships for the sea-transportations, and greater 
stocks and machinery and agency everywhere. 

All this may be called the trading expenses. They constitute, indeed, an expen- 
sive accompaniment, which would not be willingly maintained by traders, were it 
not essential to the kind of trade they carry on, and were it not paid for, and some- 
thing more, by the progressive economy of production accompanying every such 
step in this aggregative or wholesale direction of industry, This, then, is our 


— 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 225 


law of capital, that the concurrent apparatus of trade is great in proportion to the 
ageregative or wholesale tendencies of a country’s industry, and that every coun- 
try’s capital is substantially this apparatus of its trading. 

To enable any country to attain the condition of relatively large capital, its 
industry must be left as free as possible to take those aggregative forms into which 
it is ever naturally impelled by the greater productive results, or, in plainer lan- 
guage, by the larger profits. But here the realities of things present constant 
obstacles, which keep, and possibly ever will keep, some countries poor in capital 
and others rich, although we cannot doubt that each and all would prefer to be 
countries of large means. yen granting that the industrial tendencies and spirit of 
enterprise are equal and alike in the more advanced countries, a proposition, how- 
ever, which we hardly dare affirm, yet in various other respects those forms of 
trading which result in a large capital, are checked and thwarted by the countries 
themselves, now by their revenue necessities requiring import duties with their 
trade-restrictive effect, and again by the prejudices and errors of those countries in 
misdirecting industry by making these duties protective of home industry. To 
foster home industry at the expense of foreign trade is to restrict the aggregative 
tendencies of industry, and concurrently, as we have seen, to reduce the require- 
ment or capacity of a country for capital. To “protect” the home industry in 
addition, is to impoverish the country in its productive power. There is thus the 
double disadvantage of a diminished productive power, and a reduced amount of 
boas concurrent balance on hand that is regulated more or less by the form of the 
trading. 

The author has not encumbered his argument with the consideration of what is 
called “fixed capital.” He has hitherto been treating of “ floating capital,” while 
a country’s capital consists of both. The fixed portion is less amenable to the law 
indicated than the other kind; but inasmuch as the amounts that are ever passing 
into fixed capital, that is, into permanent investments, depend mainly on the eftec- 
tiveness of industry in supplying the means, and as this depends on the aggregative 
and wholesale tendencies, the connexion of all capital is thus more or less direct 
with the law iu question. 

In all the foregoing the question is treated on purely business principles, and 
society regarded as one individual interest, which makes more or less of income at 
the year’s end, and has more or less of concurrent capital all along, according to the 
form of trading. The social question is of course different, and it takes society to 
pieces to ascertain how its many individual components fare comparatively under these 
trading forms. Theauthor did not go into this latter question further than toacknow- 
ledge that the social by no means follows always the merely economic well-being. 
Nevertheless it is of the very highest importance that the economic laws be clearly 
understood, and that in withstanding their natural tendency, or, in plainer words, in 
resisting more or less the course of free trade, a country is accepting a positive mate- 
rial disadvantage as the concurrent price or penalty of whatever it is aiming at 
socially. When the judement is thus enlightened protective intervention will 
always be the very rare exception, and only under the strictest and most special 
discrimination as to what is protected. This would be altogether a different pro- 
cedure from that blind and indiscriminate protective system with which so many 
countries still injure themselves, alike by reducing their industrial power and 
diminishing that concurrent capital requirement or capacity, which keeps a country 
full-handed in resources. 


MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 
Address by Professor Preemie Jenury, F.R.S., President of the Section. 


Lavies anpD GENTLEMEN,—In addressing you on the subject of mechanical 


science in our ancient university, I propose to speak oa the somewhat threadbare 
topic of technical instruction. The panic with which some persons regarded the 
1871. : 


226 REPORT—1871. 


rapid improvement made abroad in manufactures has subsided; but I hope that you 
will be all the more ready on that account to listen to a few suggestions as to steps 
which may be immediately taken to improve the education of those who apply 
science to practical ends. ‘The subject does not owe its prominence to any events 
of to-day or of yesterday ; it has long been, and will long be, of paramount im- 
portance to this country that the education of the producers of wealth should be 
such as will enable them not merely to compete on advantageous terms with 
foreioners, but rather to master the great forces of nature by which we work. That 
we have gained some triumphs can be no reason for relaxing our efforts. With 
each advance further advance becomes more difficult, and requires more knowledge ; 
the first rude implements and processes employed by man certainly required for 
their explanation or acquirement no book-learning, but as processes become com- 
plex and implements develope into machines, as the occupations of men differ more 
and more, practice alone is found insufficient to give skill, and study becomes the 
necessary preparation for all’successful work. Our first engineers were not learned 
men ; strong good sense and long practice enabled them to overcome the compara- 
tively simple questions with which they dealt. All honour to those great men ; but 
we who have to deal with more complex, if not with vaster problems, cannot trust 
to good sense alone, even if we possess it, but must arm ourselves by the study of 
science and its application to the arts. This being granted, how shall it be done? 
I need not trouble you by refuting the absurdities of a few men who would have 
those things taught at schools which have hitherto been taught by practice. What 
has been taught by practice must still be taught by practice. The business of the 
school is to teach those things which practice in an art will not teach aman. Let 
us apply this principle to engineering—the most scientific of all professions. It 
will be most useless to lecture on filing and chipping ; it will be useless to describe 
the mere forms and arrangements of vast multitudes of machines; one kind of 
knowledge of the properties of materials can only be acquired, as it always has been 
acquired, by actually handling them; and the knowledge of the arrangement of a 
machine is far better learnt by mere inspection than from fifty lectures; moreover, 
it can be acquired by an intelligent man even if he be wholly unlettered. Book- 
learning about estimates, the value of goods, methods of superintending work, and 
dealing with men is foolishness. Written descriptions of puddling a clay embank- 
ment, excavating, and such operations, give no knowledge; and yet a vast mass of 
such knowledge must at some time of his life be acquired by the engineer, and the 
student cannot be employed as an engineer until he has laid up a store of such know- 
ledge. Colleges cannot give him this; he must serve an apprenticeship in fact if 
not inform. Young foreigners taught in colleges serve their apprenticeship, at the 
cost of their employers, during the first few years of their professional life. We call 
the tyro an apprentice or pupil, and he pays his master instead of being paid by 
him. I have the strongest feeling against any attempt to substitute collegiate 
teaching for practical apprenticeship. So far as colleges attempt to teach practice 
they are and will be a sham in this country and in all others. The work of a col- 
lege is to teach those sciences which are applied in the arts, but it can go a little 
further and indicate to its students how the application is made in at least a few 
selected instances. Applying this dictum to the education of an engineer, his col- 
lege can teach him mathematics, natural philosophy, chemistry, and geology. No 
one can doubt that a youth well trained in these branches of knowledge will, even 
with no further teaching, learn more during his apprenticeship, and during his 
whole professional life will take a higher standing than the man of equal intelli- 
gence untrained in science. College can, however, do more than this; it is found 
that a lad will go through a considerable number of books of Euclid, and yet see so 
dimly how his knowledge is to be connected with practice that he may be unable 
even to compute the area of a field, the dimensions of which are well known to 
him ; and far more is it seen that a man may be fairly grounded in mathematics, 
and yet have very little idea how to apply his Inowledge to mechanical problems. 
It is the business of those who hold such chairs as mine to point out the connexion 
between pure science and practice, to show how mathematics are employed in men- 
suration and in mechanical calculations, to show how the truths of physics are made 
use of indlesigning economical machinery, as when we teach the connexion between 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 227 


the laws of heat and the steam-engine. The student who has once grasped the fact 
that there is a real connexion between practice and theory will seldom be ata loss 
how to find or search for that connexion in after life, The student thus prepared 
knows what he has to learn from practice, and need not lose precious time in blun- 
dering over the numberless scientific problems which practice is sure to suggest but 
can never solye. The education of the architect, the practical chemist, the manu- 
facturer, and the merchant must be similar, mutatis mutandis, with that of the en- 
gineer. Assuming then that the education of those who are to follow more or less 
scientific pursuits must consist in acquiring, first, that theoretical knowledge which 
practice cannot give, and, secondly, the practical knowledge which schools should 
not attempt to give, there remains the question whether the theoretical preparation 
should be given in special colleges or universities such as our own. Ihave no hesi- 
tation in preferring the university. Mathematics, physics, chemistry, geology, 
botany, lancuages, all form elements required in various combinations in the educa- 
tion of all our students. There is but one kind of mathematics, one kind of pure 
physics, and so forth. Surely it is better that we should teach the men belonging 
to different professions side by side, so long as the matter taught is to be the same. 
There are many dangers in an opposite course. There are not a sufficient number 
of competent teachers to allow of much differentiation. Segregation at an early 
age is apt to foster professional peculiarities and narrow-mindedness. There is great 
danger, if physics are to be taught specially to engineers, that a special kind of 
physics, erroneously supposed to be specially useful to them, will be invented. 
Lastly, the contact of students and professors of one faculty with the students and 
professors of other faculties is very beneficial to all. Do not, therefore, cripple old 
universities by withdrawing from them a portion of their students and their pro- 
fessors, to set up special professional or tebe colleges of a novel kind, but rather 
add by degrees to the power and usefulness of old institutions, and found new col- 
leges and universities after the model of those which are found to have done good 
work. As an example of what may be safely done, I consider that in Edinburgh 
we require a chair of architecture and lectureships on navigation and on telegraphy. 
There is, further, much want of a teacher of mechanical drawing. The professors 
of physics and chemistry require additional accommodation for practical laboratories, 
and additional assistance. If these additions were made our college would, in my 
opinion, meet all the requirements for superior technical education in this part of 
Scotland. For £2000 per annum all these additions might be made. Notwith- 
standing the acknowledged importance of education, establishments for giving the 
higher kinds of instruction are never self-supporting, and students must everywhere 
be bribed to come and learn. Immediate prizes, in the form of bursaries, scholar- 
ships, and fellowships, are required to induce men to cultivate the older fields of 
learning ; and similar bribes are needed to promote the tillage of the more recently 
colonized domains of applied science. The Whitworth scholarships are a noble 
example of munificence thus directed, although, in my opinion, the examination 
requires considerable reform. I hope that further benefits of this kind will be con- 
ferred on those colleges which give efficient teaching. Local ambition is most ef- 
fectually stirred by local prizes; and I regret to find a certain apathy among 
students here with respeet to the Whitworth competition. This appears to arise 
partly from dissatisfaction with the mode of examination, and partly from the fact 
that the examiners are men not well known in Scotland. Leaving the question of 
technical training for the upper classes, and the still larger question of scientific 
teaching in second-grade schools, the consideration of which would lead us too far 
a-field, T propose to say a few words on the technical education of the skilled arti- 
san. This we must treat on the same principles as have been applied to professional 
teaching. We must endeavour to prepare the lad in school by teaching him those 
things which he cannot learn in workshops, but which will enable him to work with 
greater intelligence while acquiring and applying his practical knowledge. I shall 
not now speak of that general education which should make him a good man, and 
which should open to him those great sources of rational enjoyment arising from 
culture ; I will restrict myself entirely to his preparation for becoming an efficient 
workman. I have in many places said, and I cannot say too often, that the great 
want of the workman is a knowledge of mechanical drawing. bisarrcale df can 


228 REPORT—1871. 


obtain little attention from the general public to this demand for the workman. 
Very few persons not being engineers know at all what mechanical drawing is. I 
am sorry to say that some examiners in high places, who direct the education of 
the country, know very little more than the general public, and teachers who should 
give bread give chaff. I have lived much abroad, and come into close contact both 
with English and foreign workmen, and I unhesitatingly say that the chief, if not 
the only inferiority of Englishmen has been in this one branch of knowledge. I 
must explain to some of my hearers what mechanical drawing is. It is the art of 
representing any object so accurately that a skilled workman, upon inspecting the 
drawing, shall be able to make the object of exactly the materials and dimensions 


shown without any further verbal or written instruction from the designer. The + 


objects represented may be machines, implements, buildings, utensils, or ornaments. 
They may be constructed of every material. The drawings may be linear, shaded 
and coloured, or plain. They must necessarily be drawn to scale ; but various geo- 
metrical methods may be employed. The name of mechanical drawing is given to 
one and all those representations the object of which is to enable the thing drawn 
to be made by a workman. Artistic drawing aims at representing agreeably, and 
for the sake of the representation something already in existence, or which might 
exist. Mechanical drawing aims at representing the object, not for the sake 
of the representation, but in order to facilitate the production of the thing repre- 
sented. 

Now I say that it is this latter kind of drawing that is so vastly impcrtant to 
our artisans, and hence to our wealth-producing population. Very few workmen 
or men of any class can hope to acquire such excellence in artistic drawing that 
their productions will give pleasure to themselves and others; but a great number 
of workmen must acquire some knowledge of the drawings of those things 
which they produce, and there is not one skilled workman who would not be 
better qualified by a knowledge of mechanical drawing to do his work with ease 
to himself and benefit to the public. Mechanical drawing is a rudimentary acquire- 
ment of the nature of reading, writing, and arithmetic. Jn order that a man may 
understand the illustrated description of a machine he must understand this kind 
of drawing. To the general public an engineering drawing is as unintelligible as a 
printed book is toa man who cannot read. The general public can no more put 
their ideas into such a shape that workmen can carry them out than persons igno- 
rant of writing can convey their meaning on paper. Reading and writing on me- 
chanical or industrial subjects is impossible without some knowledge of the art lam 
pressing on your attention. This art is taught abroad in every industrial school; 
a great part of the school time is given up to it. In a Prussian industrial school 
one third of the whole time is given to it. A French commission on technical 
education reported that drawing, with all its applications to the different industrial 
arts, should be considered as the principal means to be employed in technical 
education. Now, I deliberately state that this subject is not taught at all in En- 
gland, and that the ignorance of it is so great that I can obtain no attention to my 
complaints. A hundred times more money is spent by Government to encourage 
artistic drawing than is given to encourage mechanical drawing, and I say that 
mechanical drawing is a hundred times more important to us asanation. Moreover, 
the little guast mechanical drawing which is taught is mostly mere geometrical 
projection, a subject of which real draughtsmen very frequently, and with little 
loss to themselves, are profoundly ignorant. Descriptive geometry and geometrical 
projection are nearly useless branches of the art, and the little encouragement which 
1s given is almost monopolized by these. Mechanical drawing proper is confined 
to those who pick it up by practice in engineering offices. These draughtsmen are 
often excellent; and on their behoof I claim no other teaching. I speak for the 
artisan who makes and for him who uses machinery. 

There are two ways in which our shortcomings may be remedied: first, the 
schools of art now established in this country should be enlarged so as to teach 
real mechanical drawing, and the examinations conducted by the Science and Art 
Department should be greatly modified ; secondly, the drawing which is to be 
taught in the schools under the superintendence of the new school boards may be, 
and ought to be, mechanical drawing. Freehand drawing as a branch of primary 


, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 229 


education will, I fear, be a useless pastime ; but whether that be so or not, I am 
certain that the accurate and neat representation of the elementary parts of 
machinery and buildings would be popular with the pupils and could be effectively 
taught. This kind of drawing educates hand and mind in accuracy, it teaches the 
students the elements of mensuration and geometry, and it affords considerable 
scope for taste where taste exists. The chief difficulty will be to obtain competent 
teachers. I should occupy you too long were I to attempt to show how these 
must themselves be trained. My chief aim to-day has been to claim attention 
for a most important and wholly neglected branch of education. 

I shall probably be expected to urge the teaching of other natural sciences in our 
primary schools ; nothing, indeed, would give me greater pleasure than to think 
this could be done. I confess I doubt it; while our second-grade schools are what 
they are in this respect, and while the Cambridge examination for a degree in 
applied science is what it is, I dare not think of natural-science classes in our 
primary schools. I shall be delighted if I am mistaken; but I am certain that 
mechanical drawing deserves our first attention, as most immediately useful to the 
artisan and most easily taught. The very books on natural science which are pub- 
lished in England cannot be properly illustrated for want of a sufficient number 
of competent draughtsmen ; and*children would be unable to follow the illus- 
trations and diagrams if ignorant of the principles on which they are constructed. 
I look rather to good reading-books, explained by intelligent masters, as the best 
manner of teaching the elementary and all-important truths of natural science. 
No man could do better service than in compiling such reading-books, and there 
are few wants more urgent than that of masters competent to enlarge upon texts 
which would thus be put into their hands. The education of our workmen is far 
more incomplete than that of our professional men. Small additions to existing 
institutions will meet the want of the latter; but for the former the institutions 
have to be erected almost from the foundation. 


On an Apparatus for working Torpedoes. By Putire Branam. 


The author of this paper described the various modes of working with torpedoes 
now extant, and explained their various disadvantages. He then explained his 
own, which was the propulsion of a torpedo from an invulnerable boat below its 
water-line by means of the expansion of compressed air. A drawing of the appara- 
tus was exhibited by the author; it consisted of a compression-chamber, in which 
air could be confined to a great pressure, a tube through which the torpedo could 
be propelled, and a valve arrangement whereby the progressive velocity of the 
torpedo could be regulated. By means of machinery driven from the engines that 
move the ship he proposed to compress air into the compression-chamber to 500 lbs. 
to the square inch, and when within striking-distance of the vessel attacked the air 
to be suffered to escape behind the shaft of the torpedo, driving it with consider- 
able force so as to strike the vessel attacked below its water-line and then to explode. 
By the reaction of the force driving the torpedo forwards, whose average statical 
pressure would be 85 tons on a diameter of 1-9 shown, the author expects the 
attacking boat would have its speed considerably diminished, if not entirely neu- 
tralized, and so preyent the possibility of collision. 


Account of some Experiments upon a “ Carr’s Disintegrator” at work at 
Messrs. Gibson and Walker’s Flour-mills, Leith. By ¥.J. Bramwett, C.F. 


Carr’s Disintegrator, as is probably well known to most mechanical engineers, 
consists essentially of two disks each fixed upon a horizontal shaft. These shafts 
are placed in one line; the disks which they carry at their ends are separated the 
one from the other by a space of a few inches. ach disk carries a number of bars 
or studs disposed in several concentric rings, and standing out at right angles from 
its face. The concentric rings of studs of the one disk are arranged so as to be in 
the spaces between the concentric rings of the other disk. The disks are driven in 
opposite directions, and at a high yelocity. The rings of studs, although very 


230 REPORT—1871. 


numerous, do not reach to the centre of the machine; this part is unoccupied by studs, 
and acts as an “‘eye” to receive the feed. The first two or three rings ot studs, 
beginning at the centre, are fixed to one of the disks only, viz. the one opposite to 
that through which the feed enters, and they serve to distribute that feed equably 
throughout the machine. So soon as the material has, however, passed by cen- 
trifugal force beyond the limit of the outermost of these central or “ eye ”- 
rings, it is met by the first of the rings moving in the opposite direction. The 
studs of this ring find the material while in mid air and moving in a direction 
opposite to their own motion, and with a yelocity due to the circumferential speed 
of the ring of studs the material has just quitted. The result of this meeting is 
clearly, first a violent blow, and then a reyersal of motion, by which the whole of 
the material is sent flying through the air in a‘direction contrary to that which it 
last had, and with a velocity increased by the increased circumference of the ring 
of studs which has just put it into motion, a velocity and a direction, however, to 
be all but instantly arrested and reversed by the action of the next ring of studs, 
and so the material proceeds from ring to ring until it is delivered, completely pul- 
verized, at the circumference of the machine. It will have been gathered from 
this description that a Carr’s Disintegrator acts to reduce material upon a prin- 
ciple wholly different to those principles upon. which millstones, edge-runners, 
crushing-rolls, rumblers, and stampers act; in fact, so far as the writer of this 
paper is aware, upon a principle which had neyer been applied to a similar or even 
to an analogous purpose, and that principle is the breaking up of the material by 
the action of a force which has no other abutment, if the term may be used, than 
the momentum of the material itself. In fact the material is treated as a shuttle- 
cock, to be bandied backwards and forwards between mechanical battledores, 
suffering breakage at each blow until it is reduced to the required condition of 
pulverization. 

The proportions of the machine and the size of the spikes or studs are yaried to 
suit the material to be operated upon. 

The particular machine upon which the experiments (the subject of this paper) 
were made is used for converting wheat into flour. It is about 7 feet diameter, 
and has a space of 10 inches between the faces of the two disks. The disk 
on the feed side carries six concentric rings of studs, which work between 
six concentric rings on the opposite disk. This opposite disk has also three 
“eye”-rings. The studs are circular, half an inch in diameter, and made of 
crucible steel. The distance from centre to centre of the studs is 21 inches, 
and from centre to centre of the rings also 23 inches, so that there is a clear 
space both circumferentially and radially of 2 inches between the studs. The re- 
volving disks are enclosed in a casing, at the bottom of which there is an ordinary 
creeper or screw to convey away the meal produced; and as now very commonly 
applied to the cases of millstones, there is an exhaust-pipe connected with an 
exhaust-fan, to remove the dust and conyey it to a depositing chamber, the “ stiye” 
room. The machine is driven from a counter shaft by means of two straps, one 
open, the other crossed, so as to give motion in opposite directions to the two 
disks, Their ordinary working speed is about 400 revolutions per minute. 

By the great courtesy of Messrs. Gibson and Walker, and with the able assist- 
ance of their engineer, Mr. Watson, the writer and Mr. Edward Easton were 
enabled to make the following experiments to test the power required to drive this 
machine under varying circumstances. In arranging the programme of these ex- 
periments, the writer was particularly desirous of ascertaining whether or not a 
suspicion he entertained as to a source of consumption of power in the working of 
the machine was justified by the facts. From a consideration of the number of 
times the disks revolve in a minute, and of the number of rings of studs, it is clear 
there must be many thousand settings into motion, and reversals of those motions, 
per minute of any material within the action of the disks; and it occurred to the 
writer that although the air within the zone of action of the machine weighed only 
between 30 and 40 ounces, yet even that trifling weight could not be subjected to 
such treatment without the consumption of a very considerable amount of power. 
He therefore determined to ascertain the power required, not only when the 
machine was working in its normal manner, both with and without feed, but also 


é 


| 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 231 


the power when working without feed in an abnormal manner, yiz. with both the 
disks revolying in the same direction and at equal speeds. ‘The experiments and 
their results may be tabulated as follows :— 


Power required to drive a Carr’s 7-feet Disintegrator under different conditions at 
about 400 revolutions per minute. 
Gross indicated 
horse-power. 


When converting into flour 20 quarters of wheat per hour.... 145 
When converting into flour 15 quarters of wheat per hour.... 123 
When working in the normal way, but without feed ........ 33 
When working with the disks lashed together, so as to revolve 

in the same direction and at the same speed ............. 19 


From this Table it will be seen that when the machine“is working abnormally, it 
only requires 19 horse-power to drive it, this power being employed in overcoming 
the friction of the journals &c., and in driving the disks while acting on the air, 
after the manner of an ordinary fan. Directly, however, the machine is put to 
work in its normal way, so as to deal with the air by repeated reversals, the power 
mounts up to 63-horse. It will also be seen that to make 15 quarters of wheat 
into flour requires 60 horse-power more than to work the machine when acting 
upon air alone, or at the rate of 20 horse-power for each 5 quarters of wheat, a rate 
that is very fairly corroborated by the increased power of 22 horses, as shown by 
the Table to be necessary when the feed is increased by 5 quarters, viz. from 15 to 
20 quarters per hour. 

Further experiments were made with the object of ascertaining the power ab- 
sorbed whilst running the machine empty at varying speeds. As this, however, 
could only be done by altering the revolutions of the steam-engine itself, there were 
practical difficulties attending the experiments which rendered any great range 
Seas and also somewhat impaired the accuracy of those which could be 
made, 

The general result, however, showed that the power, as was expected, varied as 
the cubes of the speeds. 

Although it appeared, from the foregoing experiments, that the Carr’s machine 
when running empty takes, in round numbers, 50 per cent. of the power used by it 
when at work upon 15 quarters of wheat per hour, it must not be supposed that it 
is an uneconomic machine as compared with mill-stones. On the contrary, both in 
power consumed and space occupied, the comparison is greatly in its favour. To 
grind 20 quarters of wheat per hour would require at least 26 pairs of 4 feet 6 
millstones at work, and these would demand from 200 to 250 horse-power, and 
would occupy, including the necessary spare stones for dressing, about fifteen times 
as much space as the disintegrator. 

On this point of “ dressing,” Carr’s machine possesses a further great advantage. 
With ordinary millstones one sixth of the number are always out of work for this 
ae ; and not only are they thus idle, but the wages of highly skilled stone- 

essers have to be paid. In the Disintegrator nothing analogous to “ dressing ” is 
required. The wearing parts are the studs; and judging from appearances, it 
would be many years before they require renewal. The machine from the principle 
of its action possessing this peculiarity, that a worn stud, so long as it is strong 
enough to beat the particles without sensibly yielding to them, will do its work 


just as well as when it was new. 


It would be beyond the scope of this paper to enter into the question of the 
relative qualities of the products of this machine and of ordinary millstones. It 
ought, however, to be stated that Mr. Gibson expressed himself to the writer as 
highly satisfied on this point. 


On a direct-acting Combined Steam and Hydraulic Crane. 
By A. B. Brown. 


232 REPORT—1871. 


On the Rainfall of Scotland. By Atpxanprr Bucnan, W.A., F.R.S.E. 
Secretary of the Scottish Meteorological Society. 


The paper was illustrated by a map of Scotland, showing the average annual 
rainfall at 290 places, many of the averages being from observations carried 
on through long series of years. The map brought out the large rainfall in the 
west ascompared with the east—a difference which is strongly marked even in the 
group of the Orkney Islands. The average rainfall in the west, at stations re- 
moved from the influence of hills, is from about 36 to 40 inches; but in the east 
in similar situations the rainfall is as low as from 24 to 28 inches. In casting the 
eye towards the watershed of the country running north and south, it is seen that 
in ascending toward it from the west there occurs a rapid but by no means uni- 
form increase, and in descending from it toward the east a rapid but by no means 
uniform decrease. The largest rainfalls occur almost wholly among the hills 
forming that part of the watershed of Scotland which is north of the Forth and 
Clyde. The places characterized by the heaviest annual rainfall are, so far as 
observation has yet enabled us to determine, the following :—Glencroe, 128 
inches; Ardlui, head of Loch Lomond, 115 inches; Bridge of Orchy, 110 inches ; 
Tyndrum, 104 inches; Glen Quoich, 102 inches; and Portree, 101 inches. At no 
great distance from several of these places the rainfall is by no means excessive, 
thus pointing out an enormous difference of climate between places not far apart. 
Along the watershed of that part of Scotland which lies south of the Forth and 
Clyde, no such excessive rainfall occurs,—the highest being 71 inches at Ettrick 
Pen Top 2268 feet high. This diminished rainfall in the south, as compared with 
that at places further north similarly situated, is due to the mountains of Ireland 
draining the south-west winds of part of their moisture before they arrive at these 
parts of Great Britain. 

The distribution of the rainfall is very instructive in many districts, as in the 
valley of the Forth, from the head of Loch Katrine to North Berwick, where the 
amount varies from 91 to 24 inches; in Clydesdale, where the quantity is greatest 
at the head and foot of the valley respectively, being considerably less at inter- 
mediate places; and along Loch Linnhe and through the Caledonian Valley, where 
the variations of the rainfall are very great, and strikingly show the influence of 
purely physical causes, such as the configuration of the surface, in determining the 
amounts. In all these districts, as well as elsewhere, many cases might be referred 
to which conclusively prove that the amount of the rainfall is very far from being 
determined by mere height. In truth it is to local considerations we must chiefly 
look for an explanation of the mode in which rain is distributed over any district ; 
and hence in estimating the rainfall, particularly of hilly districts, no dogmatic 
rule can be laid down. 

From observations which have been made at fifty places for lengthened periods, 
it appears that the deficiency of the three driest consecutive years’ rainfall from 
the average, is generally from one fourth to one seventh, but that in some cases it 
is as great as one third and in others as small as one ninth. Since then the defi- 
ciency of the three years of greatest drought has varied from about 33 to 11 per 
cent. ; it is evident, at least in so far as Scotland is concerned, that no dogmatic rule 
can be given stating a rate of deficiency applicable to all cases. 

If those districts were shaded off in which the rainfall does not exceed 30 inches 
annually, the great grain-producing district of Scotland would be indicated; and 
it is interesting to note that in those districts which produce the best wheat the rain- 
fall is lower than elsewhere, being in many places as low as 24 inches annually. 


On the Rainfall of the Northern Hemisphere in July, as contrasted with that 
of January, with Remarks on Atmospheric Circulation. By ALEXANDER 
Bucwan, W.A., F.RS.E. 

On the Great Heat of August 2nd-Ath, 1868. 
By Avexanver Bucnan, M.A., RSL. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 233 


On a new Mill for Disintegrating Wheat. By Tuomas Carn. 


In all previous mills and pulverizing machines the material operated on inter- 
venes between, and is simultaneously in contact with two working surfaces. In 
this mill the disintegration is effected while the material is falling freely or being 
projected through the air unsupported, and no individual particle thereof, at the 
moment of disintegration, is ever in contact with more than one portion of the 
mill, viz. the particular beater striking and shattering it in mid air. It is also the 
only mill in which the projectile impetus in the material acted on contributes to 
its own disintegration. 

Tt consists of a series of heaters, formed of bars with open spaces between them, 
arranged cylindrically on disk-plates, around and parallel with a central axle. 
Into these disk-plates one end of each bar is rivetted, so that the bars stand at 
right angles to the faces of the disks, while their other ends are rivetted into rings, 
which so tie them that each bar is supported by the aggregate strength of the 
whole. These cylindrically arranged beaters (forming what may be called cages, 
from the slight resemblance they have to squirrel-cages) are of different diameters, 
so that when placed, as they are, concentrically one within the other, sufficient 
spaces may intervene between to isolate each, and give them the requisite clear- 
ance, and thus prevent any scrubbing or grinding-action on the material, which 
might ensue between them if they were rotating in too close proximity. 

These sets of beaters, of which for flour fourteen are used, are driven by means 
of an open and a crossed strap with extreme rapidity in contrary directions to one 
another, right and left alternately. 

The wheat flows in at the central orifice, and is thrown out by centrifugal force 
from the first cage at a tangent to its circle, and at a speed equivalent to that at 
which the beaters of the said cage are rotating, when, meeting the beaters of the 
next cage moying in an opposite direction, its direction is reversed, and it is again 
thrown outwards to meet the beaters of the third cage, also moving in a contrary 
direction, and so on with the other cages until (and that in less than a second from 
its first introduction) the fragments, reduced to fine flour, semolina, and bran, are 
delivered in a radiating shower alike from every part of the peri hery into a sur- 
rounding casing, all the beaters (of which there are about 1000) being thus simul- 
taneously effective, and the balance of the machine maintained. Thus, though 
with these different sets of beaters each acts independently, they are so arranged 
relatively to one another that not only is a repetition of the blows on the same 
material thereby obtained, as many times repeated as there are different sets of 
beaters, but the centrifugal force generated by the rotation of each set is caused to 
throw the material forward to the next set. Thus the first set of beaters throws 
it off and dashes it with great violence against the second, the second in like 
manner against the third, and so on in directions the reverse of that in which 
each successive set of beaters it strikes is moving, by which means the blows are 
enabled to act with redoubled energy on the separated particles of matter as they 
are discharged against them, precisely in the same way that stones are hurled 
from a sling. 

The machine can hardly be impaired by work further than the necessary wear- 
ing of the brasses of the four iaaines The crucible steel beaters, it is esti- 
mated, should last for ten years at least, and are then capable of being quickly 
replaced. 

Mt can pulverize easily 20 qrs. of wheat per hour, and dispense with twenty-five 
pairs of millstones. The percentage of flour from it is nearly the same as from 
millstones; but the quality of flour from the new mill is greatly superior, it being 
shattered into a fine granular state, not felled or killed as the bakers call it. The 
disintegrated flour absorbs more water, forms a raw paste of greater tenacity, and, 
when baked, a whiter, lighter, and much better keeping bread, with the sweet 
nutty flavour of the wheat most agreeably preserved. 

The cost of production of flour by this system is considerably less than by any 
other. 

Two of the machines have been successfully worked for many months at Messrs 
Gibson and Wallker’s Flour Mills, Bonnington, Edinburgh. 


234 REPORT—1871. 
On the Corliss Engine. By R. Doveras. 


On the Gauge ot Railways, By R. F, Farnum, C.E. 


Last year, at the Liverpool Meeting of the Association, the author read a paper 
“On the Gauge for Railways of the Future,” in which he pointed out the capacities 
of narrow-gauge lines, and showed how unfavourably the railway-system, as at 
present worked, contrasted with such lines when properly handled. He said that 
experience had confirmed the views he had then put forth; and he showed, by 
giving the dimensions of his carriages, both for passengers and for goods, that upon 
a 3-ft. gauge he is enabled to place stock of ample size and of less weight than can 
be done on the 3-ft. 6-inch lines. Whatever saving may be effected in first cost 
may be lost sight of, the great advantage lying in the saying effected in working 
expenses. Every ton of dead weight sayed goes towards securing the prosperity of 
the line; and if we can obtain the ample platform which the 3-ft. gauge gives, 
combined with so much saving in weight, there is nothing left to be desired. In 
concluding, the author referred to one or two prevailing errors which he said 
existed with reference to the narrow gauge. 


The Rhysimeter, an Instrument for Measuring the Speed of Flowing Water 
or of Ships. By A. Ki. Frercuer, F.C.S. 


The principle involved in the construction of this instrument is the same as that 
of the anemometer described by the author in 1869 (Brit. Assoc. Report, Trans. of 
Sect. p. 48). 

A straight tube is placed in the current whose velocity is to be measured, and 
held in a plane perpendicular to the direction of motion, so that the water flows 
across the open end of the pipe. This induces a tendency in the water of the pipe 
to flow out, and so causes a partial yacuum in it. 

At the same time another tube, whose end has been bent round through an 
angle of 90°, is held parallel to the straight tube in such a position that the bent 
end faces the current. In this the lateral induction is neutralized by the pressure 
of the current. The difference between the pressures exerted in the two tubes b 
the action of the flowing liquid is made a measure of its velocity. 

In order to accomplish this the tubes which dip into the stream are continued 
upwards till their ends are on a level with the eye of the observer. These ends 
are of glass; they are united at the top so as to form in fact one tube, bent in the 
shape of an inverted YU. At the top of the bend, that is, in the centre of this 
bridge-piece, is a small exhausting syringe or pump. By means of this a partial 
vacuum can be formed in both of the long tubes whose ends dip into the running 
water, and the water be made to rise through them into the glass tubes at the top, 
which form the indicator of the instrument. The water is made to rise so far as 
to fill but partially the parallel glass tubes of the indicator, in order that a com- 
parison may be made of the heights of the columns. If the terminal tubes below 
dip into still water, the heights of the columns will be equal, as they are held up 
by the same pressure ; nor will it signify if one of them is further immersed in the 
water, for their upper ends are connected with the bridge-piece already mentioned. 
But if there is motion in the liquid into which the terminal tubes dip, a difference 
of height will be observed ; the amount of this difference can be measured by a 
conveniently divided scale, and from it the speed of the current known. ; 

It is interesting now to observe that the mathematical formule which were 
educed to show the relation between the speed of the current of air, and the dif- 
ference between the heights of the columns of ether in the indicator of the ane- 
mometer, apply correctly also to show the relation there is between the speed of the 
current of water, and the difference of the heights of the columns of water in the 
indicator of the rhysimeter. 


In the formula oxy /, pee 


a 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 235 


v will be the velocity of the water in feet per second. 
=accelerating force of gravity=32'18 feet per second. 
w= weight of a cubic foot of water at 60° Fahr. 


p=difference between the heights of the columns of water driven un the tubes 
measured in inches. 


W=weight in lbs. of 51, cubic foot of water. 


The formula becomes v= 82718 
ea 
v= VpX 1638. 


To test the correctness of this by experiment, asteadily flowing stream was se- 
lected. The speed taken by the motion of a body floating onit was found to be 1 foot 
per second. The difference of the height of the water-columns was 0°375 inch. 
According to the formula the speed would have been 1-003 feet per second. This 
close agreement between the results of experiment and of calculation proves the 
correctness of the calculations, not only as regards the rhysimeter, but as regards 
the anemometer also. 

When the speed of the water or other flowing liquid is so great as to make the 
difference between the heights of the columns in the indicator inconveniently lone, 
it is easy to introduce a siphon containing mercury. In this the motion will be 
less in proportion as its specific gravity is greater than that of water. ' 

This is necessary when the rhysimeter is used to measure the speed of ships. 
The formula then becomes p=v? xX 0:08736, where v=velocity of the ship in knots 
per hour, and p=height of column of mercury in inches. Below is a Table calcu- 
lated from it; its correctness has been abundantly proved by experience. 

Hydraulic-pressure tubes for measuring the speed of ships have been adopted by 


Pitot, Darcey, Berthon, and Napier, but hitherto they have not been extensively 
used by sea-going vessels. 


TABLE showing the Speed of a Ship as indicated by the Rhysimeter. 
p=v* x 0:08736. 


Height of Height of 

Knots per | mercury- || Knots per | mercury- 

hour. column, hour. column, 
inches. inches. 
Jf 0:087 9 7:08 
2 0°35 12 12°58 
2-5 0:55 14 17°12 
3 0-79 16 22°36 
6 3:15 | 17 95°25 

TABLE showing the Speed of Currents of Water as indicated by the Rhysimeter. 
o= VpX1-638. 

Height of | Speed of Height of | Speed of 
water- current, water- current, 
column, feet per column, feet per 
inches. second. inches. second. 

0-01 016328 0-40 1-035 
0:02 02316 0:50 1:158 
0:05 0:2836 1:00 1:688 
0-04 0°3275 2:0 2°316 
0:05 0:3662 40 odo 
0:10 05178 6:0 4-012 
0:20 0°7323 8:0 4'632 
0°30 08980 


236 REPORT—1871. 


On Steam-boiler Legislation. By Laviyeton E. Frercnuer, CL. 


Although the Committee of the British Association “ appointed to consider and 
report on the various Plans proposed for Legislating on the subject of Steam-boiler 
Explosions, with a view to their Prevention,” are compelled, from the reasons 
stated in their ad interim Report, to postpone the consideration of the measures 
recently recommended by the Parliamentary Committee, yet it is thought that 
it would be well to take advantage of the present opportunity to discuss those 
measures. 

The Report of the Parliamentary Committee is briefly as follows :— 

The Parliamentary Committee had it laid before them in evidence that there 
were not less than 100,000 steam-boilers in the country, and that from these there 
sprung on an average 50 explosions per annum, killing 75 persons and injuring 
many others, from which it appeared that one boiler in every 2000 explodes annu- 
ally. It was further stated that steam-boilers were in many instances situated in 
much-frequented parts of towns and cities, under pavements in thronged thorough- 
fares, in the lower storeys of houses, and in the midst of crowded dwellings; that 
such boilers, notwithstanding their dangerous position, were often faulty in con- 
struction, and frequently so set that inspection was impossible without removing 
the brick-work setting, while they lacked proper gauges and necessary fittings. 

The Parliamentary Committee arrived at the conclusion that the majority af 
explosions arise from negligence, either as regards original construction, inattention 
of users or their servants, neglect of proper repairs, and absence of proper and ne- 
cessary fittings, while they further considered that the several voluntary asso- 
ciations formed with a view of securing the periodical inspection of boilers had 
been useful in preventing explosions. 

The Parliamentary Committee recommend, not that inspection should be en- 
forced by law in order to render its adoption universal, but that it be enacted that 
every steam-user should be held responsible for the efficiency of his boiler, the 
onus of proof of efficiency in the event of explosion being thrown upon him; and 
further, that in case of a servant being injured by the explosion of his master’s 
boiler, it should be no defence to plead that the damage arose from the neg- 
lect of a fellow-servant. The Committee further recommend that coroners in 
conducting their inquiries on steam-boiler explosions should be assisted by a com- 
petent engineer appointed by the Board of Trade, and that these inquiries should 
not, as at present, be limited to fatal explosions, but be extended to all others, 
while reports on the result of each investigation should be forwarded to the Secre- 
tary of State for the Home Department, and also be annually presented to Par- 
liament. 

The effect of these recommendations, if carried into practice, would be to render 
the steam-user readily amenable to an action for damages, so that those who 
suffered from the consequences of an explosion would become the prosecutors. 
Thus the Parliamentary Committee do not recommend direct prevention by the 
enforcement of inspection, but indirect prevention by penalty. 

It will be seen from the foregoing that the evidence laid before the Parliamentary 
Committee endorses the statements made in the Reports to the British Association 
on the number and fatality of explosions*, while that Committee speaks favourably 
of the effect of periodical inspection for the prevention of explosions. 

Also the opinion of the Parliamentary Committee with regard to the cause of 
explosions corroborates the views already expressed in the Reports to the British 
Association on this subject, viz. that explosions are not mysterious, inexplicable, 
or unavoidable; that they do not happen by caprice alike to the careful and the 
careless; that, asa rule, boilers burst simply because they are bad—bad either 
from original malconstruction, or from the condition into which they have been 
allowed to fall; and that explosions might be prevented by the exercise of common 
knowledge and common care}. It is satisfactory to have this principle endorsed 
by the Parliamentary Committee. Explosions haye too long been considered acci- 


* See Transactions of the British Association, Norwich Meeting, 18€8; Exeter Meet- 
ing, 1869; and Liverpool Meeting, 1870. 
+ Transactions of the British Association at the Exeter Mecting, 1869, p. 50. 


TRANSACTIONS OF TIE SECTIONS. 237 


dental, and to be shrouded in mystery, and this view has seriously arrested pro- 
gress. Where mystery begins prevention ends. It is now trusted that it will be 
thoroughly recognized that explosions are not the result of the freaks of fate, but 
of commercial greed; and this fundamental principle being firmly established, it 
cannot be doubted that these catastrophes will ultimately, in one way or another, 
be prevented. Thus it is thought that a most important step has been taken which 
is a considerable matter for congratulation. 

It is also satisfactory that the Parliamentary Committee has recommended that 
coroners, when conducting inquiries consequent on steam-boiler explosions, should 
be assisted by scientific assessors, a practice which was strongly urged in the Report 
laid before the British Association at the Exeter Meeting*. It may, however, be 
open to question whether it would be better that the engineer, as the Parliamen- 
tary Committee recommend, should be appointed by the Board of Trade, or that 
the coroner should be empowered to appoint two competent independent engineers 
to investigate the cause of the explosion, and report thereon, as suggested in the 
Report referred to. But whichever course be adopted, if competent reports be 
ensured, a public service will be rendered. 

Not only, however, should the “7eswé” of each investigation be reported to 
Parliament, but also all the evidence of an engineering character, accompanied 
with suitable drawings to illustrate the cause of the explosion, so that all the 
information to be derived from these sad catastrophes might be disseminated as 
widely as possible. 

Further, it is presumed that the reports on explosions which occur in Scotland, 
where coroner’s inquests are not held, will nevertheless be presented to Parliament. 

It is most important that the Bill embodying the recommendations of the Par- 
liamentary Committee should provide for other engineers having an opportunity 
of making an examination of the fragments of the exploded boiler, as well as those 
appointed by the Board of Trade, otherwise the intervention of the Board of Trade 
will have a seriously harassing effect. The system practised in Scotland, where 
the Procurator-Fiscal appoints an engineer to report to him officially, is found very 
much to impede other investigations; and engineers who have gone all the way 
from England to visit the scene of explosions in Scotland with the view of giving 
the facts to the public have been forbidden access to the scene of the catastrophe, 
so that the Procurator-Fiscal receives information which he does not circulate, 
while he withholds the opportunity of gaining information from those who would 
circulate it, and thus he stands in the way of the public good. It is most impor- 
tant that care should be taken that investigations by Board of Trade officers do not 
have the same obstructive effect in England; and to this end there should be a 
special provision that the coroner be invested with a discretionary power to admit 
any suitable parties to make an investigation. 

Passing over the consideration of details, it is certainly considered that the 
three following conclusions arrived at in the Parliamentary Report, first, that as 
a rule explosions are not accidental but preventible; secondly, that on the occur- 
rence of explosions a complete investigation of the cause of the catastrophe should 
be promoted by the appointment of a scientific assessor to assist the coroner; and, 
thirdly, that reports of each investigation should be presented to Parliament: 
these three conclusions, it is considered, form a foundation from which a super- 
structure will spring in course of time which must eradicate steam-boiler ex- 
plosions. 

What the precise character of that superstructure should be is a question on 
which opinions may differ. Some, among whom are the Parliamentary Com- 
mittee as already explained, prefer a system of pains and penalties to be inflicted 
on the steam-user in the event of his allowing his boiler to give rise to an explo- 
sion. Others prefer a system of direct prevention by the enforcement of inspection, - 
on the following general basis:—They would recommend a national system of 
periodical inspection, enforced but not administered by the Government, that 

_ administration being committed to the steam-users themselves, with a due infu- 
sion of ex officio representatives of the public. For this purpose they propose that 
steam-users should be aggregated into as many district corporations as might be 

* Transactions of the British Association at the Exeter Meeting, 1869, p. 50. 


238  REPoRT—1871: 


found desirable; boards of control, empowered to carry out the inspections and 
levy such rates upon the steam-users as might be necessary for the conduct of the 
service, being appointed by the popular election of the steam-users in each district, 
the different boards being affiliated by means of an annual conference in order to 
promote the harmonious working of the whole system. Its advocates consider 
that in this way a system of national inspection might be mildly, but at the same 
time firmly administered, and that it would then not only prevent the majority of 
steam-boiler explosions, but prove of great assistance to steam-users in the ma- 
nagement of their boilers; that it would be the means of disseminatine much 
valuable information; that it would promote improvements; that it would raise 
the standard of boiler engineering, and prove a national gain. 

The question of the relative merits of the two systems, the one, that of direct 
prevention by enforced inspection, the other, that of indirect prevention by the 
infliction of penalty, is one of a very complex character, and the more it is dis- 
cussed the better, and therefore the fullest expression of opinion is requested at 
this time. 

A further topic for discussion on the present occasion is suggested, viz. whether 
it might not be well to fix a minimum sum, to be exacted absolutely in the event 
of every explosion, that fixed sum, however, when inadequate to cover the damage 
done, not to limit the claim for compensation. 

Several advantages it is thought would spring from the adoption of this course, 
both as regards compensation to those injured and the prevention of explosions. 

It frequently happens, on the occurrence of disastrous explosions, that boiler- 
owners are quite unable to cou ee an those who have been injured. Such was 
the case last year at Liverpool, where an explosion occurred at a small iron foundry, 
in October, lalling four persons, laying the foundry in ruins, smashing in some of 
the surrounding dwelling-houses, and spreading a vast amount of devastation all 
round. The owners of the boiler, which had been picked up second-hand, and 
was a little worn-out thing, were two working men, who but a short time before 
the explosion had been acting as journeymen. They were possessed of little or 
no capital, and were rendered penniless by the disaster. Another very similar 
case, though much more serious, occurred at Bingley in June 1869, where as 
many as fifteen persons were killed, and thirty-one others severely injured by the 
explosion of a boiler at a bobbin turnery. In this case the user of the boiler was 
only a tenant; and, judging from the ruined appearance of the premises after the 
explosion, any attempt to gain compensation for the loss of fifteen lives and thirty- 
one cases of serious personal injury would have been absolutely futile. The plan of 
imposing a fixed minimum penalty would tend somewhat to meet this difficulty, as 
the surplus of one would correct tke deficit of another, and in this way a com- 
pensation fund might be established for the benefit of the sufferers. 

Further, this measure would haye a good effect. upon steam-users, inasmuch as 
they would then incur a positive liability, which would act as a more definite 
stimulus than the vague apprehension of an action for damages, in which they 
might hope to get off. Also, if this penalty were rendered absolute, it would save 
a vast amount of litigation, and boiler-owners would then see that it was as much 
to their interest to believe that explosions were preventible as that they were 
prepaid ; and such being the case they would soon find out the way to prevent 
them*. 

This definite minimum penalty would also tend to meet the present tendency of 
boiler-owners to seek to purchase indemnities from Insurance Companies in the 
event of explosions, rather than competent inspection to prevent these catas- 
trophes, since, if the penalty were finde sufficiently high, it would pay an insu- 
rance company as well to make inspections and prevent explosions as to adopt 
comparatively little inspection, permit occasional if not frequent explosions, and 

ay compensation. As pointed out last year at Liverpool, the principle of steam- 
oiler insurance by joint-stock companies does not, under the influence of com- 


_ * Steam-users, however, should be exempted from penalty in those cases of explosion 
resulting from the direct intention of some evil-disposed person, for which the user could 


lls held responsible, and which might be regarded as an act of conspiracy, intrigue, 
or plot. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 239 


petition, necessarily insure inspection, inasmuch as the number of explosions being 
one in 2000 boilers per annum, it follows that the net cost of insurance is only one 
shilling for every £100, which must evidently be inadequate for any description 
of inspection by way of preyention. Insurance, therefore, as previously pointed 
out, is cheap, while adequate inspection is costly ; so that inspection is opposed to 
diyidend, for which joint-stock companies are clearly established. Some correc- 
tive, therefore, is plainly necessary, and this it is thought would in some measure 
be found by the establishment of a tixed substantial penalty in the event of every 
explosion, irrespective of the amount of damage done. Also the imposition of a 
penalty on every inspection-association or insurance company failing to prevent 
the explosion of a boiler under their care, might have a most wholesome tendency, 
this penalty being equal and in addition to the one imposed on the owner, and, in 
like manner, devoted to the support of the compensation fund *. 

In conclusion, although entire assent cannot be accorded to the Parliamentary 
Report, yet it is most cordially wished that every success may attend the adoption 
of the measures recommended therein, and that they may result in preventing 
many explosions, and in diminishing the lamentable loss of life at present result- 
ing from the constant recurrence of these catastrophes. 


On Designing Pointed Roofs. By Tuomas Gixxore. 


Description of a Salmon-ladder meant to suit the varying levels of a Lake or 
Reservoir. By James Lustiz, M/.C.£. (Communicated by Arex, Lustre.) 


So long as the reservoir or lake is full and overflowing the fish may ascend the 
waste weir if not too steep, and if otherwise properly constructed and furnished, 
where necessary, with a salmon-ladder; but whenever the water ceases to overflow 
the waste weir, the means for the ascent of the fish are generally cut off. 

The sluices at the outlet of a lake used as a reservoir are in general (though 
there may be exceptions to the rule) placed at or near the lowest level of the 
outlet, and the velocity of the current through them is consequently, in most 
cases, so ereat that no fish can swim against it until the surface of the water be 
run down so low as to be near the level of the outlet, and the velocity be thereby 
reduced; and in that latter case the power to ascend into the lake is of no great 
yalue, as the salmon have little or no disposition to rum during droughts. 

This design consists of a series of sluices placed side by side at different levels, 
each sluice opening by being lowered instead of by being raised, as is the general 
mode, and each commencing with the salmon-ladder, which passes along in front 
of the sluices, and is composed of alternate pools and falls. In this design it 
is contemplated that on all occasions the whole outflow required to run down 
the stream should be through only one sluice at a time, and over the top of 
that sluice, which would open by lowering, and shut by being raised, except in 
extreme floods, when, for the sake of keeping down the level of the lake, so as to 
avoid flooding the adjoining lands, or for any other similar reason, it may be neces- 
sary to provide a lower outlet, or the means for a more rapid discharge for the 
water. 

Assuming an instance of a lake with a rise and fall on the surface of 12 feet, 
and that it is full, or just up to the level of the waste weir, the uppermost sluice 
of the series is opened so that the water may fiow over it to the depth of, say, 9 or 
12 inches, which depth we may assume-to be necessary to give the statutory com- 
pensation. The water will then run down the ladder, which is composed of a 
series of pools formed by stops reaching quite across from wall to wall, the fall 
from surface to surface of those steps being 18 inches, and the depth of the pools 
not less than 8 feet. A fish may then easily leap over the successive falls from 
the lowest to the highest, after which they must take the last leap over the outlet 
sluice into the lake, that last leap being at first like all the others, 18 inches, but 

* The exemption described above in favour of steam-users should also apply under 
similar circumstances to Inspection Associations or Insurance Companies, 


240 REPORT—1871. 


diminishing in height as the level of the lake is lowered, till at last it is nothing, 
when the level of the lake comes to the same as that of the highest pool. After 
that, when the surface of the lake gets too low to give the statutory or requisite 
supply of water over the uppermost stop, the uppermost sluice is shut, and the 
one next in order of descent is opened, when the fish would have one leap fewer 
than before, entering the lake by leaping over the second sluice, and then in suc- 
cession as the level of the lake falls over each of the other sluices, having a leap 
less at every change, till at last, when the lake comes to be lowered to nearly the 
level of its lowest outlet, there would be only one leap to take. 


On a new System of Warming and Ventilation. By J.D. Morrtson. 


The author called attention to his paper which was read at the Exeter Meeting, 
and stated that he introduced improvements which had been approved of by the 
Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland. He had also built an experi- 
mental room, where his system of ventilation might be tested practically. 


Chain-Cable Testing, and proposed New Testing-Link. 
By BR. A. Pracock, C.L., F.G.S8. 


It is proposed to provide “ testing ” -links for each new cable, one link to be con- 
nected with the cable at each of its ends, and another link to form part of the cable 
at every 15 fathoms. Each new link will be a flat oval piece of wrought iron, 
whose thickness will be equal to the diameter of the metal of each ordinary link. 
The new links will be cut out of a plate of iron, by means of a steam-punch, and 
will be left by it of the oval form and having three circular holes through, one in 
the centre and another halfway to each end. The use of the centre hole, which 
will be 14-inch diameter for a I-inch cable, is this :—a piece of cylindrical bar iron, 
about 6 inches long and a shade less than 11-inch diameter, is fo be inserted into 
this hole, and by means of this bar one of the 15-fathom lengths can be connected 
with a hydrostatic press, the other end of the “length” being fastened at the 
opposite end of the platform by means of another 6-inch bar, and then the testing- 
strain may be applied. The two other holes are to connect the testing links with 
the adjoining parts of the cable. 

A cylindrical bar of South-Wales iron was tested by the late Mr. Telford, and 
its increase of length was found to be 11°68 per cent. ' After the test, and its dia- 
meter was reduced from 13 inch to 11, it was torn asunder by 43 tons 11 ewt. 
Therefore if the “length” of 15 fathoms is increased by testing to an amount ex- 
ceeding (say) 8 per cent. of its original length, its diameter, and consequently its 
strength, will have been too much reduced, and it ought to be condemned. When 
the stretching is confined within: moderate limits so as to justify the tester in 
stamping and passing it, the actual length may be stamped on the testing-link ; and 
then, when the cable has been exposed to severe strains on service, it may he laid 
straight along the pier, and each length be remeasured to ascertain if the strain has 
been too great, and if any part ought to be condemned. 

Links have been found to be cracked after having apparently withstood the test; 
therefore each length, after being tested (before being stamped), should be lifted 
upon a well-lighted bench of the height of a table, and then every link should be 
examined carefully all over with a magnifying-glass. If any link is found to be 
cracked, or otherwise defective, the “length ” of course ought to be rejected. 


On the Carbon Closet System. By E. C. C. Sranrorn, F.C.8. 


On the Steam Blast. By C. Wrt1am Srmunys, 7.2.S., D. C.L., M. Inst. CLE. 

After describing what had previously been done by others, including the re- 
searches of Professors Zeuner and Rankine, the author explained an improved steam- 
blast apparatus which he had inyented, This apparatus consisted of three principal 


a ae 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 241 


arts, viz.:—(1) a steam-nozzle of annular cross section, discharging steam in the 

orm of a hollow cylindrical body of a thickness of wall of not more than ‘02 (one 
fiftieth) of an inch; (2) a mixine-chamber, with contracted annular inlets for the 
air, equal in area to its least sectional area, and of a length equal to from five to six 
diameters ; (3) a parabolic delivery-pipe of considerable length, in which the 
mixed current is gradually brought to the condition of comparative rest, and its 
momentum or living force is reconverted into potential force or pressure. 

The result of a long series of experiments leads to the conclusions :—(1) That 
the quantitative effect of a steam-blower depends upon the amount of contact sur- 
face between the air-and steam, irrespective of the steam pressure, up to a certain 
limit of compression, where the impelling action ceases; (2) that the maximum 
attainable differences of pressure increase, under otherwise similar circumstances, 
in direct proportion with the steam pressure employed ; (8) that the quantitative 
effect produced is regulated. (within the limits of efficient action of the instrument) 
by the weight of air impelled, and that therefore a better dynamical result is 
realized in exhausting than in compressing air; (4) that the limits of difference of 
pressure attainable are the same in exhausting and in compressing. 

It was stated that with this apparatus a vacuum of 24 inches of mercury had been 
obtained, and that with two of these apparatus a working vacuum of 10 inches of 
mercury had been maintained at one end of a pneumatic despatch-tube 3 inches in 
diameter, through which carriers were propelled at the mean rate of about 1000 feet 
per minute, 


Automatic Gauge for the Discharge of Water over Waste Weirs. 
By Tuomas Stevenson, /.2.S.L., MI.C.E., C.E. 


The author stated that, in order to ascertain the amount of available rainfall, 
which is so important in questions of water supply, it is necessary to gauge the 
quantity of water which escapes at the waste weirs of reservoirs. Observations 
made only once or twice a day cannot supply the information. It is proposed 
to place a tube perforated vertically with small holes, the lowest of which is on a 
level with the top of the waste weir, so that, whenever water passes over the 
weir, it also passes through the holes in the tube. The water is collected ina 
tank capable of holding the discharge for a certain number of hours; the quantity 
so collected is a known submultiple of what passes over the weir. The discharge 
through the holes is ascertained by experiment. This self-acting apparatus will 
render the continuous observations of floods unnecessary. é i 


Lhermometer of Translation for recording the Daily Changes of Temperature. 
By Tuomas Stevenson, /.2.S.F., MIC.L., O.E. 


The author described what he termed a thermometer of translation, which con- _ 
sisted of an expansible body with a needle-point at its upper end, and which, when 
expanded by the sun, is fixed at its upper end by a needle-point catching into fine 
teeth cut in a sheet of glass or other material of small expansibility placed below. 
‘When the sun is obscured, the upper end being fixed, the contraction raises the 
centre of gravity of the bar. In this way the daily march or creep of the bar 
chronicles the change or changes of temperature. ea Stevenson also described. 
two different methods, suggested by his friends Professors Tait and Swan, for 
increasing the amount of expansion of the material employed. 


On improved Ships of War. By Micuazt Scort. 


On a Road Steamer. By W. Tomson. 


The great feature in the construction of this machine is the use of a very thick 
india-rubber tire, to the outer circumference of which is attached a chain of flat 
plates of iron, These india-rubber tires not only completely prevented hard shocks 


1871. 


24.2 REPORT—1871. 


to the machinery, but saved the road from the grinding-action of the iron wheels 
which was so injurious to bye-ways. There had been serious objections made to 
the use of these engines with rigid tires; but the author ventured to assert that 
the india-rubber tires not only did not injure, but actually improved the roads. 
The only ground upon which india-rubber tires did not work well was where the 
soil was extremely wet, or of a very soft and sloppy nature. For farm work, the 
wheels of the engine required a much thicker coat of india-rubber. 


APPENDIX. 


Notes on Dredging at Madeira. 
By the Rey. Rozrrt Boog Warson, B.A., F.RS.E., F.GS. 


The difficulties of shell-gathering at Madeira are very many and very great. 
As the result of several years’ worl, the author has to record that six or seven spe- 
cies mentioned in MacAndrew’s List have hitherto escaped him; that to the one 
hundred and twenty-seven species named by MacAndrew (besides these he gives 
twenty-nine unnamed=one hundred and fifty-six in all) the author has sueceeded 
in adding something like two hundred and fifty more, or from three hundred and 
fifty to four hundred in all; and while these strongly confirm MacAndrew’s gene- 
ralization of the Mediterranean character of the Mollusca, yet a few of them pre- 
sent forms belonging some of them to the tropics, and others to very distant 
localities, as, for instance, Ranella rhodostoma and Triton chlorostoma, which Reeve, 
not perhaps very reliably, assigns, the first to the Islands of Capul and Masbate of 
the Philippines, and the second to the Island of Annaa in the Pacific. Further, 
among these two hundred or two hundred and fifty species, eighty or, perhaps, 
ninety may probably prove to be new species, and three or four new genera. 

It is somewhat curious that only one of the author’s new species has been 
recognized by Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys as obtained by him from the ‘ Porcupine’ 
dredgings. 

The piblicaiten of full details is contemplated by the author. 


On the Ciliated Condition of the Inner Layer of the Blastoderm and of the 
Omphalo-mesenteric Vessels in the Eqg of the Common Fowl. By B.T. Lownn. 


Mr. Lowne stated that the number of observations he had at present made were 
insufficient to substantiate his opinion beyond a doubt, but that he thought it ex- 
tremely probable, from what he had seen, that, Ist, the inner layer of the blastoderm 
is ciliated, at least in tracts ofits surface. He had several times observed the most 
ue currents, and he believed, but was not certain, that he had distinguished 
the cilia. 

2ndly. From a single observation he thought that the interior of the omphalo- 
mesenteric vessels is ciliated. He saw in a portion of the blastoderm of a five-day 
chick the most marked circulation in the omphalo-mesenteric vessels. In one 
large vessel, especially where the two cut extremities were blocked with blood- 
corpuscles, a rapid movement was taking place. 

Mr. Lowne stated that he was still investigating the subject. 


INDEX I. 


TO 


REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, 


Qpsects and rules of the Association, 
xvii. 

Places and times of meeting, with names 
of officers from commencement, xxiv. 

List of former Presidents and Secretaries 
of the Sections, xxx. 

List of evening lectures, xxxix. 

Lectures to the Operative Classes, xli. 

Table showing the attendance and re- 
ceipts at the Annual Meetings, xlii. 

Treasurer’s account, xliv. 

Officers and Council for 1871-72, xlv. 

Officers of Sectional Committees, xlvi. 

Report of Council to the General Com- 
mittee at Edinburgh, xlvii. 

Report of the Kew Committee, 1870-71, 


Accounts of the Kew Committee, 1870- 
71, Ixviii. 

Recommendations adopted by the Gene- 
ral Committee at Edinburgh :—invyol- 
ying grants of money, Ixix; applica- 
tions for reports and researches, Ixxii ; 
application to Government, Ixxiii; 
communications to be printed i ex- 
tenso, Ixxiii; resolutions referred to 
the Council by the General Committee, 
Lxxiii. 

Synopsis of grants of money appropriated 
to scientific purposes, Ixxiy. 

General statement of sums which have 
been paid on account of grants for 
scientific purposes, lxxvi. 

Arrangement of General Meetings, 
Ixxxiii. 

Address by the President, Professor 
Sir William Thomson, LL.D., F.R.S., 
Ixxxly. 


Adams (Prof. J.C.) on the rainfall of 
the British Isles, 98; on tidal obser- 
vations, 203, 


Adderley (Rt. Hon. Sir C. B.) on a 
uniformity of weights and measures 
198. 

Aérolites, 37, 

Anhydrous chloral, on the physiological 
action of, 148. 

Ansted (Prof. D. T.) on the treatment 
and utilization of sewage, 166. 

Arterialization, on the heat generated 
in ute blood during the process of, 
137. 

se aaa meteoric, papers relating to, 


Balfour (Prof. J. H.) on physiological 
experimentation, 144, 

Barnes (Rev. H.) on the practicability 
of establishing ‘a close time” for 
ts protection of indigenous animais, 

7. 


Bateman (J. F.) on the rainfall of the 
British Isles, 98. 

Baxter (R. Dudley) on a uniformity of 
lan for the census of the United 
Kingdom, 57. 

Bazalgette (J. V. N.) on a uniformity of 

weights and measures, 198. 

Beyer (C. F.) on steam-boiler explo- 
sions, 166. 4 

Binney (EK. W.) on the rate of increase 
of underground temperature, 14, 

Birt (W. R.) on the discussion of obser- 
vations of spots on the surface of the 
lunar crater Plato, 60. 

Black (Dr.), Letters from M. Lavoisier 
to, 189. 

Blood, effects of some narcotic vapours 
on the minute circulation of the, 159. 

, report on the heat generated in 
the, during the process of arterializa- 
tion, 137. 

Boiler- explosions, report on Br various 

6* 


24.4. 


plans proposed for legislating on the 
subject of, 166. 

Bowring (Sir John) on a uniformity of 
weights and measures, 198. 

Bramwell (F. J.) on steam-boiler explo- 
sions, 166. 

British Isles, report on the rainfall of 
the, 98. 

Bromal hydrate, on the physiological 
action of, 150. 

Bronchial surface during narcotism, on 
the condensation of water on the, 164, 

Brooke (Charles) on luminous meteors, 
26; on the rainfall of the British 
Isles, 98. a 

a (J.) on’earthquakes in Scotland, 
1 


Brown (Samuel) on a uniformity of 
weights and measures, 198. 

Bryce (Dr.) on earthquakes in Scotland, 
197. 


Busk (George) on the exploration of 
Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire, 1. 


Census of the United Kingdom, report 
of the committee on a uniformity of 
plan for the, 57, 

Chemical papers, report on the publica- 
tion of abstracts of, 59, 

Chloral hydrate, on the physiological 
action of, 145, 

Chlor-ethylidene,monochloruretted chlo- 
ride of ethyle, on the physiological 
action of, 157. 

Circulation of the blood, effects of some 
narcotic vapours on the minute, 159. 
“Close time” for the protection of in- 
digenous animals, report on the prac- 

ticability of establishing a, 197. 

Cobbold (Dr. T. Spencer), report on the 
post-mortem examination of an ox 
fed on sewage-grown grass, 188. 

Se keds movements during narcotism, 

Cooke (M. ©.), microscopical examina- 
tion of slime and mud from bottom 
and sides of carriers at Earlswood 
farm, 182. 

Corals, British fossil, Prof. P. M. Dun- 
can on, 116. 

—, Mountain-limestone, report on 
cutting and preparing sections of, for 
the purpose of showing their struc- 
ture by means of photography, 165, 

Corfield (Prof.) on the treatment and 
utilization of sewage, 166. 

Crossley (Edward) on lunar objects sus- 
pected of change, 60. 

Crustacea, fossil, report on the structure 
and classification of, 53. 


REPORT—1871. 


Danson (J. T.) on a uniformity of plan 
for the census of the United Kingdom, 
57. 

Dawkins (W. Boyd) on the exploration 
of Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire, 1. 

Denton (J. Bailey) on the treatment and 
utilization of sewage, 166. 

Dewar (James) on the thermal equiva- 
lents of the oxides of chlorine, 193. 
Dircks (H.) on a uniformity of weights 

and measures, 198, 

Dohrn (Dr. Anton) on the foundation of 
zoological stations in different parts of 
the world, 192. 

Dresser (H. E.) on the practicability of 
establishing “a close time” for the 
protection of indigenous animals, 197. 

Duncan (Dr.) on the structure and clas- 
sification of the fossil crustacea, 53 ; 
report on the British fossil corals, 116. 


Earthquakes in Scotland, report of the 
committee on, 197, 

Etheridge (R.) on the structure and clas- 
sification of the fossil crustacea, 53. ~ 

Evans (John) on the exploration of 
Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire, 1. 

Everett (Prof.) on the rate of increase of 
underground temperature, 14. 


Fairbairn (Sir W., Bart.) on steam- 
boiler explosions, 166 ; on a uniformity 
of weights and measures, 198, 

Farr (Dr.) on a uniformity of weights 
and measures, 198. 

Fellowes (F. P.) on a uniformity of 
weights and measures, 198. 

Field (Rogers) on the rainfall of the 
British Isles, 98, 

Fletcher (Lavington E.) on steam-boiler 
explosions, 166, 

Flower (William) on physiological ex- 
perimentation, 144. 

Fossil corals, British, Prof. P, M. Dun- 
can on, 116. 

Fossil crustacea, fifth report on the 
structure and classification of, 53. 

Frankland (Prof.) on the publication of 
abstracts of chemical papers, 59; on 
a uniformity of weights and measures, 
198, 


Gamgee (Dr. Arthur) on the heat gene- 
rated in the blood during the process 
of arterialization, 137; on physiologi- 
cal experimentation, 144, 

Geikie (Prof. A.) on the rate of increase 
of underground temperature, 14, ~~ 

Gilbert (Dr. J. H.) on the treatment and 
utilization of sewage, 166, : 


INDEX I. 


Glaisher (James) on the rate of increase 
of underground temperature, 14; on 

* luminous meteors, 26; on the rainfall 
of the British Isles, 98. 

Glover (George) on a uniformity of 
weights and measures, 198. 

Graham (Rey. Dr.) on the rate of in- 

‘crease of underground temperature, 
dh ig 

Grantham (R. B.) on the treatment and 

“ utilization of sewage, 166. 

Greg (R. P.) on luminous meteors, 26, 


Harkness (Prof.) on cutting and prepa- 
ring sections of Mountain-limestone 
‘ corals, 165. 
Harrison (J. H.) on the treatment and 
“ utilization of sewage, 166. 

Harting (J. E.) on the practicability of 
establishing “a close time” for the 
protection of indigenous animals, 197, 

Hawksley (T.) on the rainfall of the 

British Isles, 98; on the treatment 
_and utilization of sewage, 166. 

Heat generated in the blood during the 
process of arterialization, on the, 137. 
Hennessy (Prof.) on a uniformity of 

weights and measures, 198. 

Herschel (Alexander) on luminous me- 
teors, 26. 

Heywood (James) on a uniformity of 
plan for the census of the United 
Kinedom, 57; on a uniformity of 
weights and measures, 198. 

Hodgson (Dr. W. B.) on a uniformity 
of plan for the census of the United 
Kinedom, 57. 

Hope (William) on the treatment and 
utilization of sewage, 166. 

Hull (Edward) on the rate of increase 
of underground temperature, 14 

Humphry (Prof. G. M.) on physiological 
experimentation, 144. 

Hydramyle, on the physiological action 
of, 157. 


Indigenous animals, report on the prac- 
tivability of establishing a “close 
time ” for the protection of, 197. 


Jeyons (Prof.) on a uniformity of plan for 
- thecensus of the United Kingdom, 57, 


Kane (Sir R.) on a uniformity of weights 
and measures, 198. 

Kent’s Cavern, seventh report of the 
committee for exploring, 


Lavoisier (M.), Letters from, to Dr. 
Black, 189. 


245 


Lawson (Prof. M. A.) on physiological 
experimentation, 144, 

Leach (Lieut.-Colonel) on the treatment 
and utilization of sewage, 166. 

Levi (Prof. Leone) on a uniformity of 
weights and measures, 198. 

Lubbock (Sir John, Bart.) on the ex- 
ploration of Kent’s Cavern, Devon- 
shire, 1; on the treatment and utiliza- 
tion of sewage, 166. 

Lunar crater Plato, W. R. Birt on the 
discussion of observations of spots on 
the surface of the, 60. 

Lunar objects suspected of change, re- 
port of the committoe for discussing 
observations of, 60. 

Lyell (Sir Charles) on the exploration 
of Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire, 1; on 
the rate of increase of underground 
temperature, 14, 


Macfarlane (P.) on earthquakes in Scot- 
land, 197. 
Mackie (S. J.) on the rate of increase of 
underground temperature, 14. 
Macrory (Edmund) on a uniformity of 
lan for the census of the United 
ingdom, 57, 
Mason (Hugh) on steam-boiler explo- 
sions, 166, 
Maw (George) on the rate of increase of 
underground temperature, 14 
Maxwell (Prof. J. Clerk) on the rate of 
aoe of underground temperature, 


Metachloral, on the physiological action 
of, 149. 

Metals, Prof. Tait on the thermal con- 
ductivity of, 97. 

Meteoric astronomy, papers relating to, 


—— showers, 38. 

Meteors, luminous, report on observa- 
tions of, 26; doubly observed, 27; 
large, 31. 

Milne-Home @:) on earthquakes in 
Scotland, 197. 

Mountain-limestone corals, report on 
cutting and preparing sections of, for 
the purpose of showing their struc- 
ture by means of photography, 166. 

Mylne (R. W.) on the rainfall of the 
British Isles, 98. 


Napier (J. R.) ona uniformity of weights- 
and measures, 198. 

Narcotic vapours, effects of some, on- 
the minute circulation of the blood, 
159. : - 

Narcotism, on convulsive movements du- 


246 


ring, 163; on condensation of water 
on the bronchial surface during, 164. 

Newton (Prof.) on the practicability of 
establishing “a close time” for the 
protection of indigenous animals, 197. 

Nitrate of amyl, on the physiological 
action of, 156. 

of ethyl, on the physiological 
action of, 155, 

Nitrite of amyl, on the physiological ac- 
tion of, 151. 


Odling (Dr. William) on the treatment 
and utilization of sewage, 166. 

Oldham (J.) on tidal observations, 203. 

Organic chemical compounds, Dr. B. W. 
Richardson on the physiological ac- 
tion of, 145. 

Ox fed on sewage-grown grass, Dr. T. 
Spencer Cobbold s report on the post- 
mortem examination of an, 188. 

Oxides of chlorine, preliminary report 
on the thermal equivalents of the, 193. 


Parkes (W.) on tidal observations, 203. 

Pengelly (William) on the exploration 
of Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire, 1; on 
the rate of increase of underground 
temperature, 14. 

Penn (John) on steam-boiler explosions, 
166 


Phillips (Prof.) on the exploration of 
Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire, 1; on the 
rate of increase of underground tem- 

erature, 14; on the rainfall of the 
British Isles, 98. 

Photography, on cutting and preparing 
sections of Mountain-limestone corals 
for the purpose of showing their struc- 
ture by means of, 165, 

Physiological action of organic chemical 
compounds, report on the, by Dr. B. W. 
Richardson, 145, 

experimentation, report of the com- 
mittee appointed to consider the sub- 
ject of, 144. 

Plato, lunar crater, observations of spots 
on the surface of the, 60; sunset and 
sunrise on, 94. 

Pole (Dr.) on the rainfall of the British 
Isles, 98. 


Rain, fluctuations in the fall of, from a.p. 
1726 to a.p. 1869, 102. 

Rainfall of the British Isles, report on 
the, 98. 

Ramsay (Prof.) on the rate of increase 
of underground temperature, 14. 

oe (Prof.) on tidal observations, 


REPORT—1871. 


Richards (Admiral) on tidal obserya- 
tions, 203. 

Rigby (Samuel) on steam-boiler explo- 
sions, 166. 

Robinson (John) on a uniformity of 
weights and measures, 198, 

Rolleston (Prof. George) on physiolo- 
gical experimentation, 144; on the 
foundation of zoological stations in 
different parts of the world, 192. 

Roscoe (Prof.) on the publication of ab- 
stracts of chemical papers, 59. 


Sanderson (Dr. J. Burdon) on physio- 
logical experimentation, 144 

Sandford (William A.) on the explora- 
tion of Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire, 1. 

Schofield (Thomas) on steam-boiler ex- 
plosions, 166. 

Sclater (P. L.) on the foundation of 
zoological stations in different parts 
of the world, 192. 

Scotland, report of the committee on 
earthquakes in, 197. 

Sewage, report on the treatment and 
utilization of, 166. 

Siemens (C. W.) on a uniformity of 
weights and measures, 198. 

Smith (W.) on a uniformity of weights 
and measures, 198. 

Spots on the surface of the lunar crater 
Plato, W. R. Birt on the discussion of 
observations of, 60. 

Steam-boiler explosions, report on the 
various plans proposed for legislating 
on the subject of, 166, 

Stewart (Prof. Balfour) on the rate of 
increase of underground temperature, 
14. 

Sulpho-urea, on the physiological action 
of, 156. 

Sykes (Colonel) on a uniformity of 
weights and measures, 198. 

Sylvester (Prof.) on the rainfall of the 
British Isles, 98. 

Symons (G. J.) on the rate of increase 
of underground temperature, 14; on 
the rainfall of the British Isles, 98. 


Tait (Prof.) on the thermal conductivity 
of metals, 97. 

Temperature, underground, report on 
the increase of, 14. 

Thermal conductivity of metals, Prof. 
Tait on, 97. , 

—— equivalents of the oxides of chlo- 
rine, preliminary report on the, 293. 

Thomson (James) on cutting and pre- 
paring sections of Mountain-limestone 
corals, 165, 


INDEX II, 


Thomson (Prof. Sir W.) on the rate of 
increase of underground temperature, 
14; on earthquakes in Scotland, 197 ; 
on tidal observations, 203. 

Tidal observations, report on the ex- 
tension, improvement, and harmonic 
analysis of, 203. 

Tomlinson (C.) on the rainfall of the 
British Isles, 98. 

Tristram (Rev. H. B.) on the practica- 
bility of establishing “a close time” 
for the protection of indigenous ani- 
mals, 197. 


Underground temperature, report on the 
increase of, 14. 


Vivian (Edward) on the exploration of 
Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire, 1. 

Voelcker (Dr. A.) on the treatment and 
utilization of sewage, 166. 


Waley (Prof.) on a uniformity of plan 
for the census of the United Kingdom, 
57. 


247 


Webb (the Rey. T. W.) on lunar objects 
suspected of change, 60. 

Webster (Thomas) on steam-boiler ex- 
plosions, 166. 

Weights and measures, reporton the best 
means of providing for a uniformity 
of, 198. 

Whitworth (Sir J., Bart.) on auniformity 
of weights and measures, 198. 

Williamson (Prof. A. W.) on the publi- 
cation of abstracts of chemical papers, 
59; on the treatment and utilization 
of sewage, 166; on a uniformity of 
weights and measures, 198. 

Woodward (Henry) on the structure 
and classification of the fossil crus- 
tacea, 53, 


Yates (James) ona uniformity of weights 
and measures, 198, 


Zoological stations in different parts 
of the world, report of the com- 
mittee for promoting the foundation 
of, 192, 


INDEX II. 


TO 


MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE 
SECTIONS. 


[An asterisk (*) signifies that no abstract of the communication is given.] 


*Abramof (Major-General) on the prin- 
cipality of Karategin, 174. 

Acoustic phenomena at Jebul Nagus, in 
the peninsula of Sinai, Capt. H. S. 
Palmer on an, 188. 

*Adantean race of Western Europe, J. 
W. Jackson on the, 153. 

* Aérial currents, Prof. Colding on, 53. 

African, South, grasshopper, Rh, Trimen 
on a curious, 154. 

Age of the felstones and conglomerates 
of the Pentland Hills, on the, 101, 


Ages of the granitic, plutonic, and vol- 
canic rocks of the Mourne Mountains 
and Slieve Croob, co. Down, Prof. 
Hull and W. A. Traill on the rela- 
tive, 101. 

*Ainsworth (Thomas), facts developed 
by the working of hematite ores in 
the Ulverstone and Whitehaven dis- 
tricts, 66. 

Air, Prof. Ball on the resistance of the, 
to the motion of vortex-rings, 26. 

—,, C. Tomlinson on the behaviour of 


248° 


supersaturated saline solutions when 
exposed to the open, 82. . 

Aldehyde, Dr. Reynolds on the action 
of, on the two primary ureas, 76. 

Alexander (Colonel Sir J. E.) on sanitary 
measures for Scottish villages, 200. 

*Algeria, Colonel Playfair on the hy- 

-drographical system of the freshwater 
fish of, 134, 

Alloy of silver and copper, W. C. Ro- 
berts on the molecular arrangement 
of the, employed for the British silver 
coinage, 80. 

Aluminous iron-ores of co, Antrim, Dr. 
Holden on the, 74. 

America, Central, Capt. Brine on the 
ruined cities of, 175. 

, North-west, Dr. R. Brown on the 
geographical distribution of the floras 
of, 128. 

Ammonites, Rey. J. F. Blake on the 
Yorkshire Lias, and the distribution 
of its, 90; list of, in the author’s cabi- 
net, 91. 

Anatomy of the stem of the screw-pine, 
Pandanus utilis, Prof. Thiselton Dyer 
on the minute, 128. 

Andrews (Prof.), Address to the Che- 
mical Section, 57; on the dichroism 
of the vapour of iodine, 66; on the 
action of heat on bromine, 66. 

Andrewsite, Prof. Maskelyne on, 75. 

*Animalcules, Dr. J. Dougall on the rela- 
tive powers of various substances in 
preventing the generation of, or the 
development of their germs, with spe- 
cial reference to the germ-theory of 
putrefaction, 124. 

Anthropology, Prof. Turner’s Address to 
the department of, 144, 

—— of Auguste Comte, J. Kaines on 
the, 153. 

—— of theMerse, Dr. Beddoe on the, 147. 

“Antimony-ore, Pattison Muir on an, 
from New Zealand, 76. 

Antrim, co., Dr. J. S. Holden on the 
aluminous iron-ores of, 74. 

Ape, C. 8. Wake on man and the, 162. 

*Apjohn (Prof.), some remarks upon the 
proximate analysis of saccharine mat- 
ters, 66. 

Avachnide, H. Woodward on the disco- 
very of a new and very perfect, from 
the ironstone of Dudley coal-field, 112. 

Arbroath, Dr. A. Brown on the mean 
temperature of, 50, 

Arctic expedition, Dr. Copeland on the 
second German, 175. 

expedition, Capt. Ward on the 

_American, 190, 


REPORT—1871. 


*Arctic fauna, Dr. C. Liitken on some 
additions to the, 133. 

*Artificial coronas, Prof. O. Reynolds 
on, 34. 

— horizon, C. George on a self-re- 
plenishing, 178. 

Asterolepis of the Old Red Sandstone, 
J. Miller on the so-called hyoid plate 
of the, 106. 

*Atlantic, North, Prof. Wyville Thom- 
son on the palzontological relations 
of the fauna of the, 134. 

Atlas range, Dr. Hooker on-the ascent 
of the, 179. 

Atmosphere, Prof. A. Buchanan on the 
pressure of the, as an auxiliary force 
in carrying on the circulation of the 
blood, 137. 

, Prof. Everett on the general cir- 
culation and distribution of the, 54. 
Atmospheric tides, the Rev. Prof. Challis 
on the mathematical theory of, 51. 
Azores, Dr. Buys Ballot on the impor- 
tance of the, as a metereological sta- 

tion, 49, : 


Bacteria, Dr. B. Sanderson and Dr. 
Ferrier on the origin and distribution 
of, in water, and the circumstances 
which determine their existence in 
the tissues and liquids of the living 
body, 125. 

*Badakolan, report on, by Pandit Man- 
phal, 184. 

Balfour (Prof.) on the cultivation of 
Tpecacuanha in the Edinburgh Bo- 
tanic Garden for transmission to India, 
127. 

Ball (Prof. R.S.) on a model of a co- 
noidal cubic surface called the “cy- 
lindroid,” which is presented in the 
theory of the geometrical freedom of 
a rigid body, 8; account of experi- 
ments upon the resistance of air to the 
motion of yortex-rings, 26. 

Ballot (Dr. Buys) on the importance of 
the Azores as a meteorological station, 
49 


Banfishire, George Seton on the ille- 
gitimacy of, 214. 

*Basque race, the Rev. W. Webster on 
certain points concerning the origin 
and relations of the, 162. 

*Bastian (Dr. Charlton) on some new 
experiments relating to the origin of 
life, 122. 

*Bath oolite, W. S. Mitchell on the de- 
nudation of the, 107, 

Becker (E. Lydia) on some maxims of 
political economy as applied to the em- 


. INDEX If 


ployment of women and the educa- 
tion of girls, 201. 

Beddoe (Dr. J.) on the anthropology of 
the Merse, 147; on degeneration of 
race in Britain, 148. 

Beneden (Prof. Van) sur les Chauves- 
souris de l’époque du mammouth et 
de l’époque actuelle, 135. 

Binary quantic, Prof. Cayley on the num- 
ber of covariants of a, 9. 

Biological Section, Dr. Allen Thomson’s 
Address to the, 114. 

Birds, Dr. J. Murie on the development 
of fungi within the thorax of living, 
129, 

——, B. T. Lowne on the ciliated con- 
dition of the inner layer of the blasto- 
derm in the ova of, and in the om- 
phalo-mesenteric vessels, 140, 242. 

Bischof (Gustav) on the examination 
of water for sanitary purposes, 67. 

Blake (Dr. Carter) and Dr. Charnock 
on the physical, mental, and_philolo- 
gical characteristics of the Wallons, 

148, 

Blake (Rev. J. F.) on the Yorkshire 
lias and the distribution of its ammo- 
nites, 90. 

Blastoderm in the ova of birds, B. T. 
Lowne on the ciliated condition of 

. the inner layer of the, 140, 242. 

*Bleaching-powder, H. Deacon on Dea- 
con’s chlorine process as applied to 
the manufacture of, on the larger scale, 
69. 

Blood, Prof. A. Buchanan on the pres- 
sure of the atmosphere as an auxiliary 
force in carrying on the circulation of 
the, 137. 

, Dr. A. Gamgee on the magnetic 
and diamagnetic properties of the, 138. 

Bloxam (Thomas) on the influence of 
clean and unclean surfaces in voltaic 
action, 47. 

Bones and flints found in the caves at 


*. 


Mentone and the adjacent railway- 


cutting, M. Moggridge on the, 155. 

and flints found in a cave at Oban, 
Prof. Turner on human and animal, 
160. 

Botly (William) on land-tenure, 202. 

Boulder-clays, Rev. J. Gunn on the 
agency of the alternate elevation and 
subsidence of the land in the forma- 
tion of, 100. 

-drift, Sir R. Griffith on the, and 
Esker hills of Ireland, 98. 

Boulders, D. Milne Home on the con- 
servation of, 107. 

Boyd (Thomas J.) on educational hos- 


249 


ital reform ; the scheme of the Edin- 
urgh Merchant Company, 202. 

Braham (Philip) on a set of lenses for 
the accurate correction of visual de- 
fect, 37 ; on the crystallization of me- 
tals by electricity, 67; on an appa- 
ratus for working torpedoes, 229. 

*Brains of insane people, Dr. Tuke and 
Prof. Rutherford on morbid appear- 
ances noticed in the, 144, 

Bramwell (J. F.), account of some ex- 
periments upon a “ Carr Disintegra- 
tor” at work at Messrs. Gibson and 
Walker’s flour-mills, 229, 

Brine (Captain L.) on the ruined cities 
of Central America, 75. 

Britain, Dr. Beddoe on degeneration of 
race in, 148, 

—, J. 8. Phené on some indications 
of the manners and ‘customs of the 
early inhabitants of, 159. 

Bromine, Dr. Andrews on the action of 
heat on, 66. 

Brown (Dr. A.) on the mean tempera- 
ture of Arbroath, 50. 

*Brown (Dr. A. B.) on a direct-acting 
combined steam and hydraulic crane, 
231. 

Brown (Dr. J.) on the Silurian rocks of 
the south of Scotland, 93; on the Up- 

er Silurian rocks of the Pentland 
lills and Lesmahago, 93. 

Brown (Dr. Robert), geological notes on 
the Noursoak peninsula and Disco 
Island in North Greenland, 94; on 
the flora of Greenland, 128; on the 
geographical distribution of the floras 
of North-west America, 128; on the 
interior of Greenland, 175. 

Brown (Samuel) on the measurement 
of man and his faculties, 210. 

*Brown (the Rey. Thomas) on speci- 
mens of fossil wood from the base of 
the Lower Carboniferous rocks at 
Langton, Berwickshire, 128, 

*Bryce (Dr.) on certain fossils from the 
Durine limestone, N.W. Sutherland, 
94, 

Buchan (Alexander) on the rainfall of 
Scotland, 232. 

*—— on the rainfall of the northern 
hemisphere in July, as contrasted with 
that of January, with remarks on at- 
mospherie circulation, 232; on the 
ereat heat of August 2nd-4th, 1868, 
232. 

Buchanan (Prof. A.) on the pressure of 
the atmosphere as an auxiliary force 
in carrying on the circulation of the 
blood, 137, 


250 


Buchanan (J. Y.) on the rate of action 
of caustic soda on a watery solution 
of chloracetic acid at 100° C., 67. 

Burmah and China, Major Sladen on 
trade-routes between, 189. 

*Burntisland, G. J. Grieve on the posi- 
tion of organic remains near, 98, 


*Cagayan Sulu Island, Capt. Chimmo 
on, 176. 

Camboja, Colonel Yule on Capt. Gar- 
nier’s expedition up the, 190. 

Canonical form of spherical harmonics, 
Prof. Clifford on a, 10. 

Capital, W, Westgarth on the law of, 
223. 

*Carabus nitens of the Scottish moors, 
Dr. Grierson on, 132. 

*Carbon-closet system, EH. C. C. Stan- 
ford on the, 240, 

Carboniferous and other old land-sur- 
faces, relics of the, by H. Woodward, 
113. 

formation in and around Edin- 
burgh, C. W. Peach on additions 
to the list of fossils and localities of 
the, 109. 

*—— rocks, Prof. W. C. Williamson 
on the structure of Diplorylon, a plant 
of the, 112. 

if rocks, lower, at Langton, Ber- 
wickshire, the Rev. T. Brown on 
specimens of fossil wood from the 
base of the, 128. 

Carpenter (Dr. W. B.) on the thermo- 
dynamics of the general oceanic cir- 
culation, 51. 

Carpus of a dog, Prof. W. H. Flower on 
the composition of the, 188. 

“Carr Disintegrator,” J. F, Bramwell 
on some experiments upon a, at work 
at Messrs. Gibson and Walker’s flour- 
mills, 229, 

Carr (Thomas) on a new mill for dis- 
integrating wheat, 233. 

Carruthers (W.) on the vegetable con- 
tents of masses of limestone occurring 
in trappean rocks in Fifeshire, and the 
conditions under which they are pre- 
served, 94, 

Caustic soda, J. Y. Buchanan on the 
rate of action of, on a watery solu- 
aon of chloracetic acid at 100° C., 
7, 

Cave at Oban, Prof. Turner on human 
and animal bones and flints found in 
a, 160. 

Caves at Mentone, M. Mogeridge on the 
bones and flints found in the, and ad- 
jacent railway-cutting, 155, 


REPORT—1871. 


Cayley (Prof.) on the number of cova 
riants of a binary quantie, 9. 

Census reform, James Valentine on, 223, 

Centenarian longevity, Sir D, Gibb on, 
151. 

Cervical vertebre in Cetacea, Prof. 
Struthers on the, 142 

— of Steypirethyr, Prof. Turner on 
the, 144, 

Cetacea, Prof. Struthers on the cervical 
vertebree in, 142; Prof. Turner on the 
placentation in the, 144. 

Ceylon and India, Commander A. D, 
Taylor on the proposed ship-canal 
between, 189. 

Chain-cable testing, R. A. Peacock on, 
and proposed new testing-link, 240. 
Challis (Rev. Prof.) on the mathema- 
tical theory of atmospheric tides, 51. 
*Charcoal, E. C. C. Stanford on the re- 
tention of organic nitrogen by, 81. 
Charnock (Dr.) on Le Sette Communi, 
a German colony in the neighbourhood 

of Vicenza, 148. 

— and Dr. C. Blake on the physical, 
mental, and philological characteris- 
tics of the Wallgns, 148. 

Chauyes-souris de l’époque du mam- 
mouth et de l’époque actuelle, Prof. 
Van Beneden sur les, 135. 

Chemical dynamics, J. H. Gladstone and 
Alfred Tribe on, 70. 

Section, Prof. Andrews’s Address 
to the, 56, 

*Chemistry, C. G. Wheeler on the recent 
progress of, in the United States, 83. 
Chiene (Dr. John), an experimental in- 
quiry into some of the results of inocu- 

lation in the lower.animals, 138. 

Children’s hospitals, Dr. W. Stephenson 
on the scientific aspects of, 221. 

*Chimmo (Capt.) on Cagayan Sulu Is- 
land, 176. 

China, Major Sladen on trade routes 
between Burmah and, 189. 

Chloracetic acid, J. Y. Buchanan on the 
rate of action of caustic soda on a 
watery solution of, at 100° C., 67. 

Chlorimetry, improvements in, 81. 

Circulation and distribution of the at- 
mosphere, Prof. Everett en the ge- 
neral, 54, 

of the blood, Prof. A. Buchanan on 
the pressure of the atmosphere as an 
auxiliary force in carrying on the, 
137. 

* of the blood, exhibition of a model 
of the, by Prof. Rutherford, 141. 

Clark (Latimer) on a new form of con- 
stant galvanic battery, 47. 


INDEX Il. 


*Cleghorn (Sheriff) on the Wellington 
reformatory, 211. 

Clifford (W. K.) on a canonical form of 
sperical harmonics, 10. 

*Clifford on the secular cooling and the 
figure of the earth, 34. 

Coal and coke, F. Crace-Calvert on the 
estimation of sulphur in, 68. 

*Coal-beds of Panama, the Rev. Dr. 
Hume on the, in reference mainly to 
their economic importance, 103. 

Coal-measures, Prof. W.C. Williamson 
on the structure of the Dictyoxrylons 
of the, 111. 

Codeia, Dr. Wright on certain new deri- 
vatives from, 84. 

*Colding (Prof.) on aérial currents, 53. 

Colloid condition-of matter, Dr. W. 

Marcet on the ‘nutrition of muscular 

and pulmonary tissue in health and in 

hthisis, with remarks on the, 140. 
olour in plants, Neil Stewart on the 
functions of, during different stages of 

their development, 131. 

Compte, Auguste, J. Kaines on the an- 
thropology of, 153. 

Conductivity, surface, for heat of a 
copper ball, D. M‘Farlane on experi- 
ments to determine the, 44. 

Conglomerates, J. Henderson on the age 
of the felstones and, of the Pentland 
Hills, 101. 

Conoidal cubic surface called the “ cy- 
lindroid,” Prof. Ball on a model of a, 8. 

Conservation of boulders, D. Milne 
Home on the, 107. 

Continued fraction, J. W. L. Glaisher 
on the calculation of e (the base of the 
Napierian logarithms) from a, 16. 

Continuity of the fluid state of matter, 
speculations on the, by Prof. J. Thom- 
son, 30. 

Contortion of rocks, L, C. Miall on the, 
106. 

Conwell (Eugene A.) on an inscribed 
stone at Newhageard in co. Meath, 149. 

Copeland (Dr.) on the second German 
arctic expedition, 175. 

Copper plates, J. H. Gladstone and A. 
Tribe on the corrosion of, by nitrate 
of silver, 29. 

Cordillera, Eastern, Clements R. Mark- 
ham on the, and the navigation of the 
river Madeira, 184. 

*Corliss engine, R. Douglas on the, 234. 

*Coronas, artificial, Prof. O, Reynolds 
on, 34, 

Covariants of a binary quantic, Prof. 
Cayley on the number of, 9. 

Crace-Calvert (F.) on the estimation of 


* 


251 


sulphur in coal and coke, 68; on the 
action of heat on germ-life, 122; on 
spontaneous generation, or protoplas- 
mic life, 123. 

*Crag-deposits of Norfolk and Suffolk, 
J.S. Taylor on the later, 110. 

*Crane, A. B. Brown on a direct-acting 
combined steam and hydraulic, 231. 

*Crinoids, Prof. Wyville Thomson on 
the structure of the, 134. 

*Cross traced upon a hill at Cringletie, 
near Peebles, J. W. Murray on a, 156. 

Cruciferous fruit, Dr. J. B. Nevins on 
the nature of the, with reference to 
the replum, 130. 

*Cryptobranch, Prof. Humphry on the 
caudal and abdominal muscles of the, 
140. 

Cryptogamia, vascular, Prof. W. C. 
‘Williamson on the classification of the, 
as affected by recent discoveries among 
the fossil plants of the coal-measures, 
131. 

Crystallization of metals by electricity, 
P. Braham on the, 67. 

Crystals of silver, J. H. Gladstone on, 
71 


Curry (John) on the general conditions 
of the glacial epoch, with suggestions 
on the formation of lake-basins, 95. 

Curve of precession and nutation, Prof. 
Zenger on the nutoscope, an appa- 
ratus for showing graphically the, 36, 

Curves, Prof. F. W. Newman on doubly 
diametrical quartan, 20, 

“ Cylindroid,” Prof. Ball on a model of 
a conoidal cubic surface called the, 8. 


Daintree (R.) on the general geology of 
Queensland, 95. 

Dalzell (John) and T, E. Thorpe on the 
existence of sulphur dichloride, 68. 
Dawkins (W. Boyd) on the relation of 
the quaternary mammalia to the 
glacial period, 95; on the origin of 
the domestic animals of Europe, 149; 
on the attempted classification of the 
palzolithic age by means of the mam- 

malia, 149. 

*Deacon (H.), experiments on vortex- 
rings in liquids, 29; on Deacon’s 
chlorine process as applied to the 
manufacture of bleaching-powder on 
the larger scale, 69. 

Definite integrals, J. W. L. Glaisher on 
certain, 10. 

Degeneration of race in Britain, Dr. 
Beddoe on, 148. 

Delffs (Prof.) on sorbit, 69; on the de- 
tection of morphine by iodic acid, 69, 


252 


Democritus and Lucretius, T, M. Lind- 
say and W. R. Smith on, a question 
of priority in the kinetical theory of 
matter, 50. 

*Dendy (Walter), a gleam of the Saxon 
in the Weald, 150. 

*Denudation of the Bath oolite, W.S. 
Mitchell on the, 107. 

Dichroism of the vapour of iodine, Dr. 
Andrews on the, 66. 

Dictyoxylons of the coal-measures, Prof. 
W. C. Williamson on the structure of 
the, 112. 

Dietaries in the workhouses of England 
and Wales, Dr. Edward Smith on the, 


41. 
Differential holophote,T. Stevenson on a, 
9 : 


vl. 

Dioptase, Prof. Maskelyne on the loca- 
lities of, 74. 

Dip-circle, Dr. Joule on a new, 48. 

*Diploxylon, Prof. W. C. Williamson 
on the structure of, a plant of the Car- 
boniferous rocks, 112. 

Disintegrating wheat, T, Carr on a new 
mill for, 233. 

Dissection of a large fin-whale, Prof. 
Struthers on some rudimentary struc- 
tures recently met with in the, 142. 

Distances of some of the fixed stars, 
H. Fox Talbot on a method of esti- 
mating the, 34. 

Domestic animals of Europe, W. Boyd 
Dawkins on the origin of the, 149. 
Doomsday Book, F. P. Fellowes on a 
proposed, giving the value of govern- 
ment property as a basis for a sound 
system of national finance and ac- 

counts, 211. 

*Dougall (Dr. John) on the relative 
powers of various substances in pre- 
venting the generation of animalcules, 
or the development of their germs, 
with special reference to the germ- 
theory of putrefaction, 124. 

*Douglas (R.) on the Corliss engine, 
234, 

Dredging at Madeira, Rev. R, B, Watson 
on, 157, 242. 

—— expedition of the yacht ‘Norna,’ 
W. 5S. Kent on the zoological results 
of the, 152. 

Dredgings in Kenmare Bay, A. G. More 
on some, 133. 3 

Dry-bulb formule, Prof. Everett on 
wet- and, 54. 

Dudley coal-field, H. Woodward on the 
discovery of a new and very perfect 
EE from the ironstone of the, 


REPORT—1871. 


*Duns (Prof. J.), notice of two speci- 
mens of Echimorhinus taken in the 
Firth of Forth, 132; on the rarer 
raptorial birds of Scotland, 132. 

Dyer (Prof. W. T. Thiselton) on the 
minute anatomy of the stem of the 
screw-pine, Pandanus utilis, 128; on 
the so-called ‘Mimicry’ in plants, 
128, 


*Karth, Prof. Clifford on the secular 
cooling and figure of the, 34. r 
*Echinorhinus, Prof. J. Duns on two 
specimens of, taken in the Firth of 
orth, 132. 
*Eclipse, solar, M. Janssen on the coming, 


* Eclipses, solar, J. N. Lockyer on recent 
and coming, 34. 

Economic laws, Lord Neayes on, 197. 

Economic Science and Statistics, Address 
by the President, Lord Neayes, to the 
Section of, 191. 

Edinburgh Botanic Garden, Prof. Bal- 
four on the cultivation of Ipecacuanha 
in the, for transmission to India, 127. 

—.,, D. Grieve on the fossiliferous 
strata at Lochend, near, 98 

— Industrial Home for fallen women, 
W. M‘Bean on the, 212. 

Merchant Company, T. J. Boyd 
on educational hospital reform; the 
scheme of the, 202. 

——,, outline of the history of volcanic 
action around, 88; glacial phenomena 
in the neighbourhood of, 89. 

——, C. W. Peach on additions to the 
list of fossils and localities of the Car- 
boniferous formation in and around, 
109. ; 

*Education in India, A. Jyram-Row on 
the present state of, and its bearing on 
the question of social science, 212. 

—— of girls, E. Lydia Becker on some 
maxims of political economy as ap= 
plied to the employment of women 
and the, 201. 

Educational hospital reform, Thomas J, 
Boyd on, 202. 

*Electric cables, C. F. Varley on a me~ 
thod of testing submerged, 48. 

Electricity, P. Braham on the crystal= 
lization of metals by, 67. 

Elliot (Sir Walter) on the advantage of 
systematic cooperation among provin- 
cial :Natural-History Societies, so as 
to make their observations available to 

7 apne pone, Ve 
lton (Capt. F.) on the Limpopo expe- 
dition, Tra, ) i 


INDEX II. 


Employment of women, E. Lydia Becker 
on some maxims of political economy 
. as applied to the, and the education of 
. girls, 201, 
Endemic disease, Dr. Moffat on geolo- 
._ gical systems and, 107. 
Energy, Prof. Everett on units of force 
. and, 29. 
_England, J. W. Flower on the relative 
ages of the flint- and stone-implement 
._ periods in, 150. 

Eriophorum alpinum, Linn., A. G. More 
on, as a British plant, 129. 

Erratic blocks, Sir R. Griffith on the 
boulder-drift and Esker Hills of Ire- 
land, and the position of, inthe country, 
98, 


- Essential oil of orange-peel, Dr. Wright 
and C. H. Piesse on the oxidation 
products of, 83. 

Everett, Prof. J. D. on units of force and 
energy, 29; on the general circulation 
and distribution of the atmosphere, 
54; on wet- and dry-bulb formule, 
54 


Extinction of fires, William Ladd on a 
respirator for use in, 44, 


Fairlie (R, F.) on thé gauge for railways, 
234, 

Fallen women, W. M‘Bean on the 
Edinburgh Industrial Home for, 212. 

Fat woman exhibiting in London, Sir 
D. Gibb on a, 152. 

*Fauna of the North. Atlantic, Prof. 
Wyville Thomson on the paleonto- 
logical relations of the, 154. 

Fellowes (F. P.) on a proposed Dooms- 

. day Book, giving the value of govern- 
ment property as a basis for a sound 
eaten of national financeand accounts, 
211. 


Felstones and conglomerates of the 
Pentland Hills, John Henderson on 
the age of the, 101. 

Ferrier (Dr.) and Dr.-B. Sanderson on 
the origin and distribution of Micro- 
zymes (Bacteria) in water, and the 
circumstances which determine their 
existence in the tissues and liquids of 
the living body, 125. 

Fibrin, Dr. Goodman on, 72. 

Fifeshire, W. Carruthers on the vege- 
table contents of masses of limestone 
occurring in trappean rocks in, 94, 

Fin-whale, Prof. Struthers on some ru- 
dimentary structures recently met 

_ with in the dissection of a large, 142. 

Fires, W. Ladd on a respirator for use 

- in extinction of, 44, 


253 


*Fish, freshwater, of Algeria, Colonel 
Playfair on the hydrographical sys- 
tem of the, 134. 

Fish-spine, the Rey. W.S. Symonds on a 
new, from the Lower Old Red Sand- 
stone of Hay, Breconshire, 110. 

Fixed stars, H. Fox Talbot on a me- 
thod of estimating the distances of 
some of the, 34. 

Fletcher (A. E.) on the rhysimeter, an 
instrument for measuring the speed 
of floating water or of ships, 254. 

Fletcher (Lavington E.) on steam- 
boiler legislation, 254, 

Flint- and stone-implement periods in 
England, J. W. Flower on the rela- 
tive ages of the, 150. 

* implements, the Abbé Richard 
on the discovery of, in Egypt, at 
Mount Sinai, at Galgala, and in 
Joshua’s tomb, 160. 

Flints found in the caves at Mentone 
and the adjacent railway-cutting, M. 
Mogeridge on the bones and, 155. 

found in a cave at Oban, Prof. 
Turner on human and animal bones 
and, 160. 

Flora of Greenland, Dr. R. Brown on 
the, 128. 

Floras of North-west America, Dr. R. 
Brown on the geographical distribu- 
tion of the, 128. 

Flower (J. W.) on the relative ages of 
the flint- and stone-implement periods 
in England, 150. 

Flower (Prof. W. H.) on the composition 
of the carpus of a dog, 138. 

Food, the Rey. H. Highton on a me- 
thod of preserving, by muriatic acid, 


Force and energy, Prof. Everett on 
units of, 29, 

Fossil plants of the coal-measures, Prof, 
W. C. Williamson on the classifica- 
tion of the vascular Cryptogamia, as 
affected by recent discoveries amongst 
the, 131. 

wood, the Rey. T. Brown cn 
specimens of, from the base of the 
lower carboniferous rocks at Langton, 
Berwickshire, 128, 

Fossiliferous strata, Dr. Grieve on the, 
at Lochend, near Edinbureh, 98. 

*Fossils, Dr. Bryce on certain, from the 
Durine limestone, N.W. Sutherland, 
94, 

Fraction, continued, J. W. L. Glaisher 
on the calculation of e (the base of 
the Napierian logarithms) from a, 16, 

Frost, Prof. J, Thomson’s observations 


* 


254 


on water in, rising against gravity 
rather than freezing in the pores of 
the earth, 34, 

Fruit, cruciferous, Dr. J. B. Nevins on 
the nature of the, with reference to 
the replum, 130. 

Fungi within the thorax of living birds, 
Dr. James Murie on the development 
of, 129. 


Gala group, C. Lapworth on the Grap- 
tolites of the, 104. 
Galvanic battery, Latimer Clark on a 
new form of constant, 47. 
*Gamgee (Dr. A.) on the magnetic and 
yea properties of the blood, 
38 


Garnier’s (Capt.) expedition up the Cam- 
boja, Colonel Yule on, 290. 
Gauge for railways, R. F. Fairlie on the, 
2 


Geikie (Prof. A.), Address to the Geolo- 
gical Section, 87; on the progress of 
the Geological Survey in Scotland, 96. 

Generation, spontaneous, I’, Crace-Cal- 
vert on, 125. 

*Generation of animalcules, Dr. J. Dou- 
gall on the relative powers of various 
substances in preventing the, or the 
development of their germs, with 
special reference to the germ-theory 
of putrefaction, 124. 

Geographical distribution of petroleum 
and allied products, Colonel R. Mac- 
lazan on the, 180. 

Section, Colonel Yule’s Address to 
the, 162. 

Geological notes on the Noursoak penin- 
sula and Disco Island in North Green- 
land, 94. 

Section, Prof. Geikie’s Address to 

the, 87. 

Survey in Scotland, Prof. A. Gei- 

kie on the progress of the, 96. 

systems and endemic disease, Dr. 
Moffat on, 107. 

Geology of Queensland, R. Daintree on 
the general, 95. 

Geometrical freedom of a rigid body, 
Prof. Ball on a model of a conoidal 
cubic surface called the “cylindroid,” 
which is presented in the theory of 
the, 8. 

George (C.) on a self-replenishing arti- 
ficial horizon, 178. 

German arctic expedition, Dr. Copeland 
on the second, 175. 

Germ-life, F. Crace-Calvert on the ac- 
tion of heat on, 122. 

*Germ-theory of putrefaction, Dr. J. 


REPORT—1871. 


Dougall on the relative powers of 
various substances in preventing the 
generation of animalcules, or the de- 
velopment of their germs, with spe- 
cial reference to the, 124. 

Gibb (Sir Duncan) on the uses of the 
uyula, 139; on some abnormalities of 
the larynx, 139; on centenarian lon- 
gevity, 151; on a fat woman exhibit- 
ing in London, 152. 

*Gill (Dr.) on the parallax of a plane- 
tary nebula, 34. 

*Gillott (Thomas) on designing pointed 
roofs, 239. 

*Ginsburg (Dr.), further disclosures of 
the Moabite stone, 179. 

Glacial epoch, John Curry on the ge- 
neral conditions of the, 95. 

period, W. Boyd Dawkins on the 
relation of the quaternary mammalia 
to the, 95. 

—— phenomena in the neighbourhood 
of Edinburgh, 89. 

Glaciers, Rev. J. Gunn on the agency 
of the alternate elevation and subsi- 
dence of the land in the formation of 
boulder-clays and, 100. 

peer (J. H.),on crystals of silver, 

0 


and A. Tribe on the corrosion of 

copper plates by nitrate of silver, 29 ; 

a hes oe on chemical dynamics, 

70, 

Glaisher (J. W. L.) on certain definite 
integrals, 10; on Lambert’s proof of 
the irrationality of w, and on the. ir- 
rationality of certain other quantities, 
12; on the calculation of e (the base 
of the Napierian logarithms) from a 
continued fraction, 16. 

Glass, Prof. Stokes on the researches of 
the late Rey. W. V. Harcourt on 
the conditions of transparency in, 
and the connexion between the che- 
mical constitution and optical proper- 
ties of different glasses, 38. 

Glycolic alcohol and its heterologues, 
Dr. Otto Richter on the chemical 
constitution of, 78. 

Goodman (Dr. John), note on fibrin, 
72. 

Government action on scientific ques- 
tions, Lieut. Colonel Strange on, 56. 

Granitic, plutonic, and volcanic rocks 
of the Mourne Mountains and Slieve 
Croob, Prof. Hull and W. A. Traill on 
the relative ages of the, 101. 

Graptolites of the Gala group, CO. Lap- 
worth on the, 104. 

Grasshopper, R, Trimen on a curious 


INDEX II. 


South African, which mimics with 
much recision the appearance of the 
stones among which it lives, 134. 

Great Doward, Whitchurch, Ross, the 
Rey. W. 8. Symonds on the contents 
of a hyzena’s den on the, 109. 

Greenland, Dr, R. Brown on the flora 
of, 128, 

—, on the interior of, 175. 

, North, geological notes on the 
Noursoak peninsula and Disco Island 
in, by Dr. R. Brown, 94. 

Grierson (T. B.) on the establishment 
of local museums, 126. 

on the Carabus nitens of the Scot- 
tish moors, 182. 

Grieve (D.) on the fossiliferous strata 
at Lochend near Edinburgh, 98 

*Grieve (G. J.) on the position of or- 
ganic remains near Burntisland, 98. 

Griffith (Sir R., Bart.) on “ the boulder- 
drift and Esker Hills of Ireland,” and 
“on the position of erratic blocks in 
the country,” 98. 

*Grimma (including Schistidium), J. 
Sadley on the species of, as repre- 
sented in the neighbourhood of Edin- 
burgh, 131. 

*Guatemala, W. B. Richardson on the 
Volcan de Agua, near, 189. 

Gunn (Rey. J.) on the agency of the 
alternate elevation and subsidence of 
the land in the formation of boulder- 
clays and glaciers, and the excavation 
of valleys and bays, 100. 

*Gurhwal, British, Capt. A. Pullan on, 
189. 


* 


*Heematite ores, Thomas Ainsworth 
on facts developed by the working of, 
in the Ulverstone and Whitehaven 
districts, 66. 

Hemoglobin in the muscular tissue, E. 
R. Lankester on the existence of, and 
its relation to muscular activity, 140. 

Harcourt (the late Rev. W. Vernon), 
Prof. Stokes on the researches of, 
38. 

*Harkness (Prof.), one of the earliest 
forms of Trilobites exhibited by, 100. 

Harkness (William), preliminary notice 
on a new method of testing samples 
of wood-naphtha, 72. 

*Harris (George) on the hereditary 
transmission of endowments and qua- 
lities of different kinds, 152; on the 
comparetive longevity of animals of 
different species and of man, and the 
probable causes which mainly con- 
duce to promote this difference, 153, 


255 


Health, Dr. W. Marcet on the nutrition 
of muscular and pulmonary tissue in, 
and in phthisis, 140. 

Heat, Dr. Andrews on the action of, on 
bromine, 66. 

——,, F. Crace-Calvert on the action of, 
on germ-life, 122. 

, CO. R. C. Tichborne on the disso- 
ciation of molecules by, 81. 

5 of August 2nd—4th, 1868, A. 
Buchan on the great, 232. 

—— of a copper ball, D. M‘Farlane on 
experiments to determine the surface 
conductivity for, 44. 

*Heavens, R. A. Proctor on the con- 
struction of the, 34. 

Hebrides and West Highlands, J. 8. 
Phené on an expedition for the special 
investigation of the, in search of evi- 
dences of ancient serpent worship, 
158. 

Henderson (John) on the age of the 
felstones and conglomerates of the 
Pentland Hills, 101. 

*Hereditary transmission of endow- 
ments and qualities of different kinds, 
G. Harris on the, 151. 

Hieroglyphic sculptures, Lieut.-Colonel 
Leslie on ancient, 155. 

Highton (the Rey. H.) on a method of 
preserving food by muriatic acid, 73. 
*Himalayas and Central Asia, Trelaw- 

ney Saunders on the, 189. 

Holden (Dr. J. Sinclair) on the alumi- 
nous iron-ores of co. Antrim, 74. 

Holophite, differential, T. Stevenson on 


a, 37. 

Hooker (Dr. J. D.), ascent of the Atlas 
range, 179. 

Horizon, C. George on a self-replenish~ 
ing artificial, 178. 

Hospitals, Dr. W. Stevenson on the 
scientific aspects of children’s, 221. 
*Hoyle (William) on political economy, 
pauperism, the labour question, and 

the liquor traific, 212. 

Hull (Prof. Edward) and W. A. Traill 
on the relative ages of the granitic, 
plutonic, and volcanic rocks of the 
Mourne Mountains and Slieve Croob, 
co. Down, 101. 

“Hume (Rev. Dr.) on the coal-beds of 
Panama, in reference mainly to their 
economic importance, 103. 

*Humphry (Prof.) on the caudal and 
abdominal muscles of the Crypto- 
branch, 140, 

Hyena’s den, the Rey. W. 8. Symonds 
on the contents of a, on the Great 
Doward, Whitchurch, Ross, 109, 


256 


Hydrocarbons, Prof. W. Swan on the 
wave-lengths of the spectra of the, 43. 

*Hydro-geology, L’Abbé Richard on, 
109. 


Hyoid plate of the Asterolepis of the 
Old Red Sandstone, J, Miller on the 
so-called, 106, 


*Tbrahim Khan, a journey from Yassin 
to Yarkand, 180, 

Illegitimacy of Banffshire, George Seton 
on the, 214, 

*Implements found in King Arthur’s 
Cave, the Rev. W.S. Symonds on, 160. 

India, Prof. Balfour on the cultivation 
of Ipecacuanha in the Edinburgh Bo- 
tanic Garden for transmission to, 127, 

——, A. Jyram-Row on the present 
state of education in, and its bearing 
on the question of social science, 212. 

Indian statistics and official reports, Dr. 
G. Smith on, 220. 

Inhabitants of Britain, early, J.S. Phené 
on some indications of the manners and 
customs of the, 159. 

Inoculation, an experimental inquiry in- 
to some of the results of, in the lower 
animals, 138. 

*Insane people, Dr. J. B. Tuke and Prof. 
Rutherford on the morbid appearances 
noticed in the brains of, 144, 

Inscribed stone at Newhaggard, co. 
Down, Eugene A. Conwell on an, 149, 

Integrals, definite, J. W. L. Glaisher 
on certain, 10. 

Todiec acid, Prof. Delffs on the detection 
of morphine by, 69. 

Iodine, Dr. Andrews on the dichroism 
of the vapour of, 66, 

Tpecacuanha, Prof. Balfour on the culti- 
vation of, in the Edinburgh Botanic 
Garden for transmission to India, 127, 

Treland, Sir R. Griffith on the boulder- 
drift and Esker Hills of, and on the 
position of the erratic blocks in the 
country, 98. 

Tron-ores, aluminous, Dr. J. 8. Holden 
on the, of co, Antrim, 74. 

Ironstone of the Dudley coal-field, H. 
Woodward on the discovery of a new 
and very perfect Arachnide from the, 
112. 

Trrationality of a, Lambert’s proof 
of the, J. W. L. Glaisher on, and the 
invationality of certain other quan- 
tities, 12. 

Islay, J. Thomson on the stratified rocks 
of, 110. f 

, C. W. Peach on the so-called 

tailless trout of, 133, 


REPORT—1871. 


*Jackson (J. W.) on the Adantean race 
of Western Europe, 153. 

*Janssen (M.), some remarks on physics, 
29; on the coming solar eclipse, 34 ; 
observations physiques en ballon, 55. 

Jebel Nagus, in the peninsula of Sinai, 
Capt. H. S, Palmer on an acoustic 
phenomenon at, 188. 

Jenkins (Prof. Fleeming), Address by, 

‘to the Section of Mechanical Science, 
225. ; 

*Jerusalem, G, St. Clair on the topo- 
graphy of ancient, 189, 

Joule (Dr. J. P.), notice of and obser- 
vations with a new dip-circle, 48. 

*Jyram-Row (A.) on the present state 
of education in India, and its bearing 
on the question of social science, 212. 


Kaines (J.) on the anthropology of Au- 
guste Comte, 153. 

Kent (W. Saville) on the zoological 
results of the dredging-expedition of 
the yacht ‘ Norna’ oft the coast of 
Spain and Portugal in 1870, 132. 

Kinetical theory of matter, T. M. Lind- 
say and W. R. Smith on Democritus 
and Lucretius, a question of priority 
in the, 30, 

*King Arthur’s Cave near Whitchurch, 
Rey. W. S. Symonds on implements 
found in, 160. 

King (Dr. R.) on the Lapps, 153. 


*Labour classes of England, Wales, and 
Scotland, W. Tayler on the manual, 
223. 

Ladd (William) on a respirator for use 
in extinction of fires, 44. 

Lake-basins, J. Curry on the general 
conditions of the glacial epoch, with 
suggestions on the formation of, 95. 

Lambert’s proof of the irrationality of 
a, J. W. L. Glaisher on, 12. 

*Lamport (Charles) on naval efficiency 
and dockyard economy, 212. 

Land, Rey. J. Gunn on the agency of 
the alternate elevation and subsidence 
of the, in the formation of boulder- 
clays and glaciers, and the excavation 
of valleys and bays, 100. 

Land-surfaces, old, H. Woodward on 
relics of the carboniferous and other, 
113. 

Land tenure, William Botly on, 202, 

Lankester (i. Ray) on the existence of 
hremoglobin in the muscular tissue 
and its relation to muscular activity, 


140, 
Lapps, Dr, R. King on the, 153, 


INDEX II. 


Lapworth (Charles) on the Graptolites 
of the Gala group, 104. 
and James Wilson on the Silurian 
rocks of the counties of Roxburgh and 
Selkirk, 103. 

Larynx, Sir D. Gibb on some abnormali- 
ties of the, 139. 

Law of capital, W. Westgarth on the, 223, 

Legitimacy, questioned, G. Seton on 
certain cases of, under the Scottish 
Registration Act, 217. 

Lenses for the accurate correction of 
visual defect, Philip Braham on a set 
of, 37. 

Le Sette Communi, Dr. Charnock on, 
a German colony in the neighbour- 
hood of Vicenza, 148. 

Leslie (Lieut.-Colonel Forbes) on me- 
galithic circles, 154; on ancient hiero- 
glyphic sculptures, 155. 

Lesmahago, Dr. J. Brown on the Upper 
Silurian rocks of the Pentland Hills 
and, 93. 

*Lewis (W. A.), a proposal for a modi- 
fication of the strict law of priority in 
zoological nomenclature in certain 
cases, 133. 

Lias, Rey. J. F. Blake on the Yorkshire, 
a the distribution of its ammonites, 

*Life, origin of, Dr. Bastian on some 
new experiments relating to the, 122. 

eer protoplasmic, F. Crace-Calvert on, 

23. 


Lighthouses, T. Stevenson on a parabo- 
loidal reflector for, 37. 

Limestone, W. Carruthers on the vege- 
table contents of masses of, occurring 
in trappean rocks in Fifeshire, 94. 

Limpopo expedition, Capt. F. Elton on 
the, 178. 

Lindsay (T. M.) and W. R. Smith on 
Democritus and Lucretius, a question 
of priority in the kinetical theory of 
matter, 30. 

Linear differential equations, W. H. L. 
Russell on, 23. 

Local museums, T. B. Grierson on the 
establishment of, 126. 

*Logarithms, Prof. Purser on Napier’s 
original method of, 23, 

Bongevity, Sir D. Gibb on centenarian, 

51. 


* 


of animals of different species and 
of man, G. Harris on the compara- 
tive, and the probable causes which 

- mainly conduce to promote this dif- 
ference, 153. 

*Lovett (Capt. B.) on the interior of 
Mekran, 180, 


257 


Lowne (B. T.) on the ciliated condition 
of the inner layer of the blastoderm 
in the ova of birds, and in the om- 
phalo-mesenteric vessels, 140, 242. 

Lucretius and Democritus, T. M. Lind- 
say and W. R. Smith on, a question 
of priority in the kinetical theory of 
matter, 30. 

*Liitken (Dr. Christian) on some recent 
additions to the arctic fauna (a new 
Antipathes and a new apodal Lo- 
phioid), 133, 


*Macalister (Prof. A.) on the bearing of 
muscular anomalies on the Darwinian 
theory of the origin of species, 140. 

M‘Bean (W.) on the Edinburgh Indus- 
trial Home for fallen women, 212. 

*M‘Cann (Rev. Dr. J.) on the origin of 
the moral sense, 155. 

MacCullagh’s theorem, W. H. L. Rus- 
sell on, 23. 

M‘Farlane (Donald) on experiments to 
determine the surface conductivity for 
heat of a copper ball, 44. 

*M ‘Kendrick (Dr.) on a new form of 
tetanometer, 140. 

Maclagan (Colonel R.) on the geogra- 
phical distribution of petroleum and 
allied products, 180. 

Madeira, the Rev. R. B. Watson on 
dredging at, 137, 242. 

*Magnetic and diamagnetic properties of 
the blood, Dr. A. Gamgee on the, 138. 

Mammalia, quaternary, W. Boyd Daw- 
kins on the relation of the, to the gla- 
cial period, 95. 

Mammouth, Prof. van Beneden sur les 
Chauves-souris de 1l’époque du, et de 
l’époque actuelle, 135. 

Man and the ape, C. S. Wake on, 162. 

— and his faculties, Samuel Brown on 
the measurement of, 210. 

*Mann (Dr. R. J.) on the formation of 
sand bars, 184. 

*Manphal (Pandit),report on Badakolan, 
184 


*Maraiion, M. A. Wertherman on the 
exploration of the headwaters of the, 
190. 


Marcet (Dr. William) on the nutrition 
of muscular and pulmonary tissue in 
health and in phthisis, with remarks 
on the colloid condition of matter, 
140. 

Markham (Clements R.) on the eastern 
Cordillera, and the navigation of the 
river Madeira, 184; on the geogra- 

hical position of the tribes which 
ormed the empire of the eo 185. 


258 


Maskelyne (Prof. N. Story), localities of 
dioptase, 74; on andrewsite, 75. 

Mathematical and Physical Science, 
Address by the President, Prof. Tait, 
to the Section of, 1. " 

Mathematical theory of atmospheric 
tides, the Rev. Prof. Challis on the, 
51. 

Matter, kinetical theory of, T. M. Lind- 
say and W. R. Smith on Democritus 
and Lucretius, a question of priority 
in the, 30. 

‘—, speculations on the continuity of 
the fluid state -of, and the relations 
between the gaseous, the liquid, and 
solid states, by Prof. J. Thomson, 30. 

Mechanical Science, Address by the 
President, Prof. Fleeming Jenkin, to 
the Section of; 225. 

Megalithic circles, Lieut.-Col. F. Leslie 
on, 154. 

*Meikle (James) on the mode of asses- 
sing for the poor-rates, 213. 

*Mekran, Capt. B. Lovett on the inte- 
rior of, 180. 

*—_., Major Ross on a journey through, 


Menteath (P. W. Stuart) on the origin 
of volcanoes, 104, 

Merrifield (C. W.) on certain families 
of surfaces, 18. 

Merse, Dr. Beddoe on the anthropology 
of the, 147. 

Metals, P. Braham on the crystallization 
of, by electricity, 67. 

*Metrical measures, G. J. Stoney on the 
relation between British and, 222. 

Miall (L. C.), further experiments and 
remarks on the contortion of rocks, 
106. 

*Michell (W. D.), is the stone age of 
Lyell and Lubbock as yet at all pro- 
ven?, 155. 

Microzymes (Bacteria), Dr. B. Sanderson 
and Dr. Ferrier on the origin and dis- 
tribution of, in water, and the cir- 
cumstances which determine their ex- 
istence in the tissues and liquids of the 
living body, 125. 

Miles (Capt) on the Somali coast, 186. 

Miller (John) on the so-called hyoid 
wey of the Asterolepis of the Old 

ed Sandstone, 106, 

Milne-Home (D.) on the conservation 
of boulders, 107. 

‘Mimicry’ in plants, Prof. Thiselton 
Dyer on the so-called, 128. 

*Mitchell (W. S.), further remarks on 
~ denudation of the Bath oolite, 


REPORT—1871. 


Moab, E. H. Palmer on the geography 
of, 187. 


*Moabite stone, Dr. Ginsburg on further 


disclosures of the, 179. 

Mock suns observed in Ireland, W. A. 
Traill on, 56. 

Moffat (Dr. T.) on ozonometry, 76; on 
geological systems and endemic dis- 
ease; 107, 

Mogegridge (M.)° on bones and flints 
found in the caves at Mentone and 
the adjacent railway-cutting, 155. 

*Moigno (the Abbé), poste photogra- 
phique, 44, 

Molecular arrangement of the alloy of 
silver and copper, W. C. Roberts on 
the, employed for the British silver 
coinage, 80. 

Moon, W. Pengelly on the influence of 
the, on the rainfall, 55. 

*Moral sense, the Rey. Dr. M‘Cann on 
the origin of the, 155. 

More (A. G.) on Spiranthes Romanzo- 
viana, Cham., 129; on Eriophorum 
alpinum, Linn., as a British plant, 
129; on the occurrence of brown trout 
in salt water, 133; on some dredgings 
in Kenmare Bay, 183. 

Morphine, Prof. Delfis on the detection 
of, by iodic acid, 69. 

*Morris (Rev. F. O.) on encroachments 
of the sea on the east coast of York- 
shire, 187. 

Morrison (J. D.) on a new system of 
warming and ventilation, 240. 

Morse printing telegraph, Prof. Zenger 
on anew key for the, 48. 

Mossman (S.) on the inundation and 
subsidence of the Yang-tsze river, in 
China, 187. 

Mourne Mountains and Slieve Croob, 
Prof. Hull and W. A. Traill on the 
relative ages of the granitic, plutonic, 
and volcanic rocks of the, 101. 

*Muir (Pattison) on an antimony-ore 
from New Zealand, 76. 

Muriatic acid, the Rev. H. Highton on 
a method of preserving food by, 73. 
Murie (Dr. J.) on the development of 
fungi within the thorax of living birds, 
129; on the systematic position of 

Sivathervum giganteum, 108. 

*Murray (J. Wolfe), note on a cross 
traced upon a hill at Cringletie, near 
Peebles, 156. 

Muscular activity, E. R. Lankester on 
the existence of hemoglobin in the 
muscular tissue, and its relation to, 140, 

Muscular and pulmonary tisgue in health 
and in phthisis, Dr, W. Marcet on the 


INDEX II. 


nutrition of, with remarks on the 
colloid condition of matter, 140, 


*Napier’s original method of logarithms, 
Prof. Purser on, 23. 

National finance and accounts, F. P. 
Fellows on a proposed Doomsday 
Book, giving the value of government 
property as a basis for a sound system 
of, 211. 

Natural-history societies, Sir W. Elliot 
on the advantage of systematic co- 
operation among provincial, so as to 
make their observations available to 
naturalists generally, 124. 

*Naval efficiency and dockyard economy, 
C. Lamport on, 212. 

Neaves (Lord) Address to the Section of 
Economic Science and Statistics, 191. 

*Nebula, Dr. Gill on the parallax of a 
planetary, 34. 

Nevins (Dr. J. B.) on the changes which 
occur in plants during the ripening of 
the seeds, 130; on the nature of the 
cruciferous fruit, with reference to the 
replum, 130. 

Newman (Prof. F, W.) on doubly dia- 
metral quartan curves, 20. 

Nitrate of silver, J. H. Gladstone and 

A. Tribe on the corrosion of copper 

lates by, 29. 

itrogen, organic, E. C. C. Stanford 

on the retention of, by charcoal, 81. 

Nutation, Prof. Zenger on the nutoscope, 
an apparatus for showing graphically 
the curve of precession and, 36. 

Nutoscope, Prof. Zenger on the, an ap- 
paratus for showing graphically the 
curve of precession and nutation, 36. 

Nutrition of muscular and pulmonary 
tissue in health and in phthisis, Dr. 
W. Marcet on the, with remarks on 
the colloid condition of matter, 140. 


* 


Oban, Argyllshire, Prof. Turner on hu- 
man and animal bones and flints found 
in a cave at, 160. 

Oceanic circulation, Dr. W. B. Carpenter 
on the thermo-dynamics of the gene- 
ral, 51. 

Old Red Sandstone, J. Miller on the so- 
called hyoid plate of the Asterolepis 
of the, 106; lower, of Hay, Brecon- 
shire, the Rev. W. 8. Symonds on a 
new fish-spine from the, 110. 

Omphalo-mesenteric vessels in the egg 

of the common fowl, B. T. Lowne on 
the ciliated condition of the inner 
layer of the blastoderm and of the, 
140, 242, 


259 


Optical | 9 inten of different glasses, 
Prof. Stokes on the researches of the 
late Rev. W. V.3j Harcourt on the 
conditions of ‘transparency in glass, 
and the connexion otweon the che- 
mical constitution and, 38. 

Orange-peel, Dr. Wright and C. H. 
Piesse on the oxidation products of 
essential oil of, 83. 

Organization of societies, R. B. Walker 
on the, nationally and locally con- 
sidered, 223. 

*Origin of life, Dr. Charlton Bastian on 
fee new experiments relating to the, 

22. 

*Origin of species, Prof. A. Macalister on 
the bearing of muscular anomalies on 
the Darwinian theory of the, 140. 

Origin of the domestic . animals of 
Europe, W. Boyd Dawkins on the, 
149. 


*Origin of the moral sense, Rev. Dr. 
M°Cann on the, 155. 

Origin of volcanoes, P, W. Stuart Men- 
teath on the, 104. : 

Orlmeys, G. Petrie on ancient modes of 
sepulture in the, 156, 

Oxidation products of essential oil of 
orange-peel, Dr. Wright and C. H. 
Piesse on the, 83. 

Ozonometry, Dr. Moffat on, 76. 


Paleolithic age, W. Boyd Dawkins on 
the attempted classification of the, 
by means of the mammalia, 149. 

*Palladius (the Archimandrite), letters 
from Vladivostok and Nikolsk, South 
Ussuri district, 187. 

Palmer (EK. H.) on the geography of 
Moab, 187. 

Palmer (Capt. H. S.) on an acoustic phe- 
nomenon at Jebel Naguis, in the penin- 
sula of Sinai, 188. 

*Panama, the Rey. Dr. Hume on the 
coal-beds of, in reference mainly to 
their economic importance, 102. 

Pandanus utilis, Prof. Thiselton Dyer on 
the minute anatomy of the stem of 
the screw-pine, 128. 

Paraboloidal reflector for lghthouses, 
Thomas Stevenson on a, 37. 

Parhelia, or mock suns, observed in Ire- 
land, W. A. Traill on, 56. 

Partitions, J. J. Sylvester on the theory 
of a point in, 23. 

Peach (C. W.), additions to the list of 
fossils and localities of the carboni- 
ferous formation in and around Edin- 
burgh, 109; on the so-called tailless 
trout of Islay, 133. 

BU ba 


260 


Peacock (R. A.) on chain-cable testing 
and proposed new testing-link, 240. 
Pengelly (W.) on the influence of the 

moon on the rainfall, 55. 

Pentland Hills and Lesmahago, D. J. 
Brown on the Upper Silurian rocks of 
the, 93; J. Henderson on the age of 
the felstones and conglomerates of 
the, 101. 

Peterkin (W. A.) on the administration 
of the Poor Law, 213. 

Petrie (George) on ancient modes of 
sepulture in the Orkneys, 156. 

Petroleum and allied products, Colonel 
R. Maclagan on the geographical dis- 
tribution of, 180, 

Phené (J. 8.) on an expedition for the 
special investigation of the Hebrides 
and West Highlands in search of 
evidences of ancient serpent worship, 
158 ; on some indications of the man- 
ners and customs of the early inhabi- 
tants of Britain, 159. 

Phipson (Dr. T. L.) on regianic acid, 76. 

Phosphorus chlorides, contributions to 
the history of, 81, 

*Photographic dry process, R. Sutton 
on a new, 44. 

Phthisis, Dr. W. Marcet on the nutrition 
of muscular and pulmonary tissue in 
health and in, 140, 

*Physics, some remarks on, by M. Jans- 
sen, 29. 

Piesse (U. H.) and Dr. Wright on the 
oxidation products of the essential oil 
of orange-peel, 83. 

Placentation of the Cetacea, Prof. Turner 
on the, 144, 

*Planetary nebula, Dr. Gill on the pa- 
rallax of a, 34. 

Plants, Prof. Thiselton Dyer on the so- 
called ‘mimicry’ in, 128. 

, Dr. J. B. Nevins on the changes 

which occur in, during the ripening 

of the seeds, 130. 

, Neil Stewart on the intimate 
structure of spiral ducts in, and their 
relationship to the flower, 131; an 
inquiry into the functions of colour 
in, during different stages of their 
development, 131. 

*Playfair (Colonel) on the hydrogra- 
phical system of the freshwater fish 
of Algeria, 134. 

Plutonic, and volcanic rocks of the 
Mourne Mountains and Slieve Croob, 
Prof. Hull and W. A. Traill on the 
relative ages of the granitic, 101. 

Point in partitions, J. J, Sylvester on 
the theory of a, 28, 


REPORT—1871. 


Political economy as applied to the em- 
ployment of women, HK. Lydia Becker 
on some maxims of, 201. 

*Political economy, pauperism, the la- 
bour question, and the liquor traffic, 
William Hoyle on, 212. 

Poor law, W. A. Peterkin on the ad- 
ministration of the, 213. 

*Poor-rates, James Meikle on the mode 
of assessing for the, 213. 

*Poste photographique, by the Abbé 
Moigno, 44. 

Precession and nutation, Prof. Zenger 
on the nutoscope, an apparatus for 
showing graphically the curve of, 36. 

*Proctor (R. A.) on the construction of 
the heavens, 34. 

Protoplasmic life, F. Crace-Calvert on 
spontaneous generation or, 123. 

Protopterus annectens, Prof. R. H. Tra- 
quair on the restoration of the tail in, 
143. 

*Pullan (Capt. A.), notes on British 
Gurhwal, 189. 

*Purser (Prof.), remarks on Napier’s 
original method of logarithms, 23. 

*Putrefaction, germ-theory of, Dr. J. 
Dougall on the relative powers of 
various substances in preventing the 
generation of animalcules or the de- 
velopment of their germs, with special 
reference to the, 124. 


Quaternary mammalia, W. Boyd Daw- 
kins on the relation of the, to the 
glacial period, 95. 

Queensland, R. Daintree on the general 
geology of, 95. 


*Rae (Dr.) on the Saskatchewan valley, 
189, 


Railways, R. F. Fairlie on the gauge 
of, 234, 

Rainfall, W. Pengelly on the influence 
of the moon on the, 55. 

of Scotland, Alexander Buchan on 

the, 232. 

of the northern hemisphere in 
July, A. Buchan on the, as contrasted 
with that for January, with remarks 
on atmospheric circulation, 232. 

*Raptorial birds of Scotland, Prof. J. 
Duns on the rarer, 132. 

Reflector, paraboloidal, for lighthouses, 
T. Stevenson on a, 37. 

Regianic acid, Dr. Phipson on, 76. 

Registration Act, Scottish, George Seton 
on certain cases of questioned legi- 
timacy under the operation of the, 


. 


* 


INDEX II. 


261 


Replum, Dr. J. B. Nevins on the nature ;*Rutherford (Prof.) and Dr. J. B. Tuke on 


of the cruciferous fruit with reference 
to the, 130. 

Respirator for use in extinction of fires, 
W. Ladd on a, 44. 

*Reynolds (Dr. J. Emerson) on the 
action of aldehyde on the two primary 
ureas, 76. 

i on the analysis of a singular de- 
posit from well-water, 78. 

*Reynolds (Prof. Osborne) on artificial 
coronas, 34. 

Rhysimeter, A. E. Fletcher on the, an 
instrument for measuring the speed 
of floating water or of ships, 254. 

*Richard (L’Abbé) on hydro-geology, 
109; on the discovery of flint imple- 
ments in Egypt, at Mount Sinai, at 
Galgala, and in Joshua’s tomb, 160. 

*Richardson (W. B.) on the Volcan de 
Agua, near Guatemala, 189. 

Richter (Dr. Otto) on the chemical 
constitution of glycolic alcohol and 
its heterologues, as viewed in the new 
light of the typo-nucleus theory, 78. 

Rigid body, theory of the geometrical 
freedom of a, Prof. Ball on a model of 
a conoidal cubic surface called the 
“eylindroid,” which is presented in 
the, 8. 

Ripening of the seeds, Dr. J. B. Nevins 
on the changes which occur in plants 
during the, 130. 

Road steamer, W. Thomson on a, 241. 

Roberts (W. Chandler) on the molecular 
arrangement of the alloy of silver and 
copper employed for the British silver 
coinage, 80. 

Rocks, contortion of, L. C. Miall on the, 

~ 106. 

——,, stratified, of Islay, J. Thomson on 
the, 110. 

neon T Gillott on designing pointed, 

39. 
*Ross(MajorE.C.) on a journey through 
ekran, 189. 

Roxburgh and Selkirk, C. Lapworth 
and J. Wilson on the Silurian rocks 
of the counties of, 103. 

Ruined cities of Central America, Capt. 
Brine on the, 175. 

Russell (R.) on the inferences drawn by 
Drs. Magnus and Tyndall from their 
experiments on the radiant properties 
of vapour, 56. 

Russell (W.H. L.) on linear differential 

. equations, 23; on MacCullagh’s theo- 
rem, 23. 

*Rutherford (Prof.), exhibition of a mo- 

del of the circulation of the blood, 141, 


the morbid appearances noticed in the 
brains of insane people, 144, 


*Sadler (J.) on the species of Grimmia 
(including Schistidium) as represented. 
in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, 


*Saccharine matters, some remarks by 
Prof. Apjohn upon the proximate 
analysis of, 66. 

*St. Clair (George) on the topography 
of ancient Jerusalem, 189. 

Saline solutions, supersaturated, C. Tom- 
linson on the behaviour of, when ex- 
posed to the open air, 82. 

*Salts, J. A. Wanklyn on the constitu- 
tion of, 83. 

*Sand-bars, Dr. R. J. Mann on the for- 
mation of, 184. 

Sanderson (Dr. Burdon) and Dr. Fer- 
rier on the origin and distribution of 
Microzymes (Bacteria) in water, and 
the circumstances which determine 
their existence in the tissues and li- 
quids of the living body, 125. 

Sanitary measures for Scottish villages, 
Colonel Sir J. E. Alexander on, 200. 

*Saskatchewan valley, Dr. Rae on, 189. 

*Saunders (Trelawney) on the Hima- 
layas and Central Asia, 189. 

*Saxon in the Weald, Walter Dendy 
on a gleam of the, 150. 

Schools, the Rey. W. Tuckwell on the 
obstacles to science-teaching in, 57. 
Science-teaching in schools, the Rey. 
W. Tuckwell on the obstacles to, 57. 
Scientific questions, Lieut.-Col. Strange 

on government action on, 56. 

Sclater (Dr. P. L.) on a favourable oc- 
casion for the establishment of zoo~ 
logical observatories, 134. 

Scotland, D. J. Brown on the Silurian 
rocks of the south of, 93. 

, Alexander Buchan on the rainfall 

of, 252. 

, Prof. A. Geikie on the progress 
of the geological survey in, 96. 

*Scott (Michael) on improved ships of 
war, 241. 

Scottish villages, Col. Sir J. E, Alexan- 
der on sanitary measures for, 200. 

Screw-pine (Pandanus utilis), Prof. 
Thiselton Dyer on the minute ana- 
tomy of the stem of the, 128. 

Sculptures, Lieut.-Colonel Leslie on an- 
cient hieroglyphic, 155. 

*Sea, the Rev. F. O. Morris: on en- 
croachments of the, on the east coast 
of Yorkshire, 187, 


262 


Seeds, Dr. J. B, Nevins on the changes 
which occur in plants during the ri- 
pening of the, 150, 3 

Selkirk, C. Lapworth and J. Wilson 
on the Silurian rocks of the counties 
of Roxburgh and, 103. ; 

Sepulture in the Orkneys, G. Petrie on 
ancient modes of, 156. 

Serpent-worship, J. 8. Phené on an ex- 
pedition for the special investigation 
of the Hebrides and West Highlands 
in search of evidences of ancient, 158. 

Seton (George) on the illegitimacy of 
Banffshire, 214; on the expediency of 
recording still-births, 215; on certain 
cases of questioned legitimacy under 
the operation of the Scottish Regis- 
tration Act, 217. 

Ship-canal between Ceylon and India, 
Commander A, D. Taylor on the pro- 
posed, 189. 

*Ships of war, M. Scott on improved, 
241. 

Siemens (C. William) on the steam- 
blast, 240. 

Silurian rocks of the counties of Rox- 
burgh and Selkirk, C. Lapworth and 
J. Wilson on the, 103. 

rocks of the south of Scotland, D. 
J. Brown on the, 93. 

— rocks, Upper, of the Pentland Hills 
and Lesmahago, D. J. Brown on the, 
93. 

Silver coinage, British, W. C. Roberts 
on the molecular arrangement of the 
alloy of silver and copper employed 
for the, 80. 

Silver, J. H. Gladstone on crystals of, 71. 

, nitrate of, J. H. Gladstone and 
A. Tribe on the corrosion of copper 
plates by, 29. 

Sivatherium giganteum, Dr. James Murie 
on the systematic position of, 108. 

*Skulls presenting sagittal synostosis, 
Prof. Struthers on, 160. 

Sladen (Major) on trade-routes between 
Burmah and China, 189. 

Slieve Croob, co. Down, Prof. Hull and 
W. A. Traill on the relative ages of 
the granitic, plutonic, and volcanic 
rocks of the Mourne Mountains and, 


LOSS 
Smith (Dr. Edward) on the dietaries in 
me workhouses of England and Wales, 
41, 
Smith (Dr. George) on Indian statistics 
and official reports, 220. 
*Smith (Dr. J. A.), exhibition of the 
skull of an elk found in Berwick- 
shire, 134, 


REPORT—1871. 


Smith (W. R.) and T, M. Lindsay on 
Democritus and Lucretius, a question 
of priority in the kinetical theory of 
matter, 30, 

Smyth (John, jun.), improvements in 
chlorimetry, 81. 

Somali coast, Capt. Miles on the, 186, 

Sorbit, Prof. Delfis on, 69. : 

Spain and Portugal, W. 8. Kent on the 
zoological results of the [dredging- 
expedition of the yacht ‘Norna’ off 
the coast of, 152. 

Spectra of the hydrocarbons, Prof. W. 
Swan on the wave-lengths of the, 43. 

Spectrum, G. J. Stoney on the advan- 
tage of referring the positions of lines 
in the, to a scale of waye-numbers, 
42. 

Speed of floating water or of ships, A. 
E. Fletcher on the rhysimeter, an 
instrument for measuring the, 234. 

Spherical harmonic of the xth order, 
Sir W. Thomson on the general form 
of a, 25. 

Spherical harmonics, W. K. Clifford on 
a canonical form of, 10. 

Spiranthes Romanzoviana, Cham., A. G. 
More on, 129. 

Spontaneous generation, F. Crace-Cal- 
vert on, 125. 

*Stanford (E. C.C.) on the retention 
of organic nitrogen by charcoal, 81; 
on the carbon closet-system, 240. 

Stars, fixed, H. Fox Talbot on a method 

of estimating the distances of some of - 

the, 34. 

Statisticsand their fallacies, Lord Neaves 
on, 192. 

Steam-blast, C. W. Siemens on the, 240. 

Steam-boiler legislation, Lavington E. 
Fletcher on, 234. 

Steam-gauge, Prof. Zenger on a new, 
45 


Stephenson (Dr. William) on the scien- 
tific aspects of children’s hospitals, 

Stevenson (Thomas) on a paraboloidal 
reflector for lighthouses, consistin 
of silver facets of ground glass, an 
on a differential holophote, 37; on an 
automatic gauge for the discharge of 
water over waste weirs, 241; on a 
thermometer of translation for record- — 
ing the daily changes of temperature, 
241. 

Stewart (Prof. Balfour) on the tempe- 
rature-equilibrium of an enclosure in 
which there is a body in visible mo- 
tion, 45. : 

*Stewart (Neil) on the intimate struc- 

+ 


INDEX II. 


ture of spiral ducts in plantas and their 
relationship to the flower, 131; an 
inquiry into the functions of colour 
in plants during different stages of their 
development, 1351. 

Still-births, George Seton on the ex- 
pediency of recording, 215, 

Stokes (Prof. G. G.) on the researches 
of the late Rey. W. Vernon Har- 
court, 38. 

Stone-implement periods in England, 
J. W. Flower on the relative ages of 
the flint- and, 150. 

Stoney (G. J.) on one cause of trans- 

arency, 41; on the advantage of re- 
Faring the positions of lines in thespec- 
trum to a scale of wave-numbers, 42. 

*——on the relation between British 
and metrical measures, 222. 

Strange (Lieut.-Colonel) on government 
action on scientific questions, 56. 

Stratified rocks of Islay, J. Thomson on 
the, 113. 

Struthers (Prof.) on some rudimentary 
structures recently met with in the dis- 
section of a large fin-whale, 142; on 
the cervical vertebrae in Cetacea, 142. 

*—— on skulls presenting sagittal 
synostosis, 160. 

Sulpho-urea, Dr. J. E. Reynolds on the 
action of aldehyde on, 76, 

Sulphur, F. Crace-Calvert on the esti- 
mation of, in coal and coke, 68. 

Sulphur dichloride, J. Dalzell and T. 
3h Thorpe on the existence of, 68. 

Surfaces, C. W. Merrifield on certain 
families of, 18; note by Mr. Cayley,19. 

*Sutton (R.) on a new photographic 
dry process, 44. 

Swan (Prof. W.) on the wave-lengths of 

_ the spectra of the hydrocarbons, 43. 

Sylvester (J. J.) on the theory of a 
point in partitions, 23. 

Symonds (the Rev. W. 8S.) on the con- 
tents of a hyzena’s den on the Great 
Doward, Whitchurch, Ross, 109; on 
a new fish-spine from the Lower Old 
Red Sandstone of Hay, Breconshire, 
110. 


*——, on implements found in King 
Axthur’s Cave, near Whitchurch, 160, 


Tailless trout of Islay, C. W. Peach on 
the so-called, 133. 

Tait (Prof. P. G.), Address to the Ma- 
thematical and Physical Section, 1; 

- _ on thermo-electricity, 48. 

Talbot (H. Fox) on a method of esti- 
mating the distances of some of the 
fixed stars, 34, 


263 


*Tayler (W. 
classes of 
land, 223. 

Taylor (Commander A. D,) on the pro- 
posed ship-canal between Ceylon and 
India, 189. 

*Taylor (J. 8.) on the later crag-deposits 
of Norfolk and Suffolk, 110. 

Telegraph, Prof. Zenger on a new key 
for the Morse printing, 48. 

Temperature-equilibrium, Prof. Balfour 
Stewart on the, of an enclosure in 
which there is a body in visible mo- 
tion, 45, 

*Tetanometer, Dr, M‘Kendrick on a new 
form of, 140, 

Thermo-dynamics of the general oceanic 
circulation, Dr. W, B, Carpenter on 
the, 51. ‘ 

Thermo-electricity, Prof. Tait on, 48. 

Thermometer of translation, T. Steven- 
son on a, for recording the daily 
changes of temperature, 241. 

Thomson (Dr. Allen), Address to the Bio- 
logical Section, 114. 

Thomson (Prof. J.), speculations on the 
continuity of the fluid state of matter, 
and on the relations between the 
gaseous, the liquid, and the solid 
states, 30; observations on water in 
frost rising against gravity rather 
than freezing in the pores-of moist 
earth, 34. 

Thomson (James) on the stratified rocks 
of Islay, 110. 

Thomson (Sir W.) on the general cano- 
nical form of a spherical harmonic 
of the nth order, 25, 

Thomson (W.) on a road steamer, 241. 

*Thomson (Prof. Wyville) on the struc- 
ture of crinoids, 134; on the pale- 
ontological relations of the fauna of 
the North Atlantic, 134. 

Thorax of living birds, Dr. James Murie 
on the development of fungi within 
the, 129, 

Thorpe (Dr. T. E.), contributions to the 
history of the phosphorus chlorides, 


on the manual labour 
ngland, Wales, and Scot- 


—— and J. Dalzell on the existence of 
sulphur dichloride, 68. 

Tichbourne (C. R. C.) on the dissocia- 
tion of molecules by heat, 81. 

Tides, atmospheric, the Rev. Prof. Chal- 
lis on the mathematical theory of, 51. 

Tomlinson (Charles) on the behaviour of 
supersaturated saline solutions when 
exposed to the open air;‘82, 

Torpedoes, Philip Braham on an appa- 
ratus for working, 229, 


264 


Trachypetra bufo (White), R. Trimen on 
a curious South-African grasshopper, 
134, 

Traill (W. A.) on parhelia, or mock 
suns, observed in Ireland, 56. 

and Prof. Hull on the relative 
ages of the granitic, plutonic, and vol- 
canic rocks of the Mourne Mountains 
and Slieve Croob, co. Down, 101. 

Transparency, G. J, Stoney on one cause 
of, 41. 

in glass, Prof. Stokes on the re- 
searches of the late Rev. W. V. Har- 
court on the conditions of, 38. 

Trappean rocks in Fifeshire, W. Car- 
ruthers on the vegetable contents of 
masses of limestones occurring in, 94. 

Traquair (Prof. R. H.) on the restoration 
ei the tail in Protopterus annectens, 
143. 

*——,, additions to the fossil vertebrate 
fauna of Burdiehouse, near Edinburgh, 
111. 

Tribe (Alfred) and J. H. Gladstone, ex- 
periments on chemical dynamics, 70 ; 
on the corrosion of copper plates by 
nitrate of silver, 29. 

*Trilobites, one of the earliest forms of, 
exhibited by Prof. Harkness, 100. 

Trimen (Roland) on a curious South- 
African grasshopper, Z?rachypetra 
bufo (White), 134. 

Trout, brown, A. G. More on the oc- 
currence of, in salt water, 133. 

, tailless, of Islay, C. W. Peach 
on the so-called, 133. 

~~ system, Lord Neaves on the, 
198. 

Tuckwell (the Rev. W.), obstacles to 
science-teaching in schools, 57. 

*Tuke (Dr. J. Batty) and Prof. Ruther- 
ford on the morbid appearances no- 
Sra in the brains of insane people, 

44, 

Turner (Prof.) on the placentation in 
the Cetacea, 144; notes on the cervi- 
cal vertebree of Steypirethyr (Bale- 
noptera Sibbaldii), 144; Address to the 
department of Anthropology, 144; on 
human and animal bones and flints 
found in a cave at Oban, 160. 

Typo-nucleus theory, Dr. Otto Richter 
on the chemical constitution of gly- 
colic alcohol and its heterologues, as 
viewed in the new light of the, 78, 


*United States, C. G. Wheeler on the 
recent progress in chemistry in the, 83. 

Ureas, Dr. Reynolds on the action of 
aldehyde on the two primary, 76, 


REPORT—1871. 


Uvula, Sir D. Gibb on the uses of the, 
139. 


Valentine (James) on census reform, 
223. 


Valleys and bays, Rey. J. Gunn on the 
agency of the alternate elevation and 
subsidence of the land in the forma- 
tion of boulder-clays and glaciers, and 
the excavation of, 100. 

Vapour, R. Russell on the inferences 
drawn by Drs, Magnus and Tyndall 
from their experiments on the radiant 
properties of, 56. 

*Varley (C. F.) on a method of testing 
submerged electric cables, 48. 

Vascular Cryptogamia, Prof. W. C. 
Williamson on the classification of 
the, 131. 

Vegetable contents of masses of lime- 
stone occurring in trappean rocks in 
Fifeshire, W. Carruthers on the, and 
the conditions under which they are 
preserved, 94. 

Visible motion, Prof. Balfour Stewart 
on the temperature-equilibrium of an 
enclosure in which there is a body in, 
45 


Visual defect, Philip Braham on a set of 
lenses for the accurate correction of, 37, 

*Viadivostok and Nikolsk, South Us- 
suri district, letters from, by the Ar- 
chimandrite Palladius, 187. 

Volcanic action, outline of the history 
of, around Edinburgh, 88. 

rocks of the Mourne Mountains 
and Slieve Croob, Prof. Hull and W. 
A. Traill on the relative ages of the 
granitic, plutonic, and, 101. 

Volcanoes, P. W. Stuart Menteath on 
the origin of, 104. 

Voltaic action, T. Bloxam on the in- 
fluence of clean and unclean surfaces 
in, 47. 

Vortex-rings, Prof. Ball on the resist- 
ance of the air to the motion of, 26. 

* , H. Deacon, experiments on, in 

liquids, 29. 


Wake (C. S) on man and the ape, 162. 

Walker (R. Bailey) on the organization 
of societies, nationally and locally 
considered, 223. 

Wallons, Dr. Charnock and Dr. OC. 
Blake on the physical, mental, and 
philological characteristics of the, 148. 

*Wanklyn (J, A.) on the constitution of 
salts, 83. 

*Ward (Capt.) on the American Arctic 
Expedition, 190, 


INDEX II. 


Warming and ventilation, J. D. Morri- 
son on a new system of, 240. 

Water, Prof. G. Bischof on the examin- 
ation of, for sanitary purposes, 67. 

, Dr. B. Sanderson and Dr. Ferrier 
on the origin and distribution of Mi- 
crozymes (Bacteria) in, and the cir- 
cumstances which determine their ex- 
istence in the tissues and liquids of 
the living body, 125. 

——,, Prof. J. Thomson, observations on, 
in frost rising against gravity rather 
than freezing in the pores of the earth, 
34 


Watson (Rev. R. B.), notes on dredging 
at Madeira, 137, 242. 

Wave-lengths of the spectra of the 
hydrocarbons, Prof. W. Swan on the, 
43 


Wavye-numbers, G. J. Stoney on the 
advantage of referring the positions of 
lines in the spectrum to a scale of, 42. 

*Webster (the Rey. W.) on certain 
points concerning the origin and rela- 
tions of the Basque race, 162. 

Weirs, T. Stevenson on an automatic 
gauge for the discharge of water over 
waste, 241. 

*Well-water, Dr. J. E. Reynolds on the 
analysis of a singular deposit from, 78. 

*Wellington reformatory, Sheriff Cleg- 
horn on, 211. 

*Wertherman (M. Arthur) on the ex- 

loration of the headwaters of the 
aranon, 190. 

Westgarth (William) on the law of 
capital, 228. 

Wet- and dry-bulb formule, Prof. Eve- 
rett on, 54, 

Wheat, T. Carr on a new mill for disin- 
tegrating, 233. 

*Wheeler (C. Gilbert) on recent pro- 
os in chemistry in the United 

tates, 83. 

Williamson (Prof. W. C.) on the classi- 
fication of the vascular Cryptogamia, 
181: on the structure of the Dictyory- 
lons of the coal-measures, 111. 

, on the structure of Diploxylcn, 
Se of the carboniferous rocks, 
112. 

Wilson (James) and C. Lapworth on 
the Silurian rocks of the counties of 
Roxburgh and Selkirk, 103. 

Wohler’s urea, on the action of aldehyde 
on, 78. 


» 


265 


Woman, exhibiting in London, Sir D. 
Gibb on a fat, 152, 

Women, E. Lydia Becker on some 
maxims of political economy as ap- 
plied to the employment of, and the 
education of girls, 201. 

Wood-naphtha, W. Harkness on a new 
method of testing samples of, 72. 

Woodward (Henry) on the discovery of 
a new and very perfect Arachnide 
from the ironstone of the Dudley coal- 
field, 112; relics of the carboniferous 
and other old land-surfaces, 113. 

Workhouses of England and Wales, Dr. 
i Smith on the dietaries of the, 

41, 

Wright (Dr. C. R. A.) on certain new 
derivatives from codeia, 84, 

and C. H. Piesse on the oxidation 

products of the essential oil of orange- 

peel, 83. 


Yang-tsze river in China, 8. Mossman 
on the inundation and subsidence of 
the, 187. 

*Yarkand, a journey from Yassin to, by 
Ibrahim Khan, 180. 

Yncas, Clements R. Markham on the 
geographical position of the tribes 
which formed the empire of the, 185. 

*Yorkshire, east coast of, Rev. F. O. 
Morris on encroachments of the sea 
on the, 187. 

lias, Rey. J. F. Blake on the, and 
the distribution of its ammonites, 90. 

Yule (Colonel H.), Address by, to the 
Geographical Section, 162; on Capt. 
cake expedition up the Camboja, 


Zenger (Prof. Charles V.) on the nuto- 
scope, an apparatus for showing-gra- 
phically the curve of precession and 
nutation, 86; on a new steam-gauge, 
45; on a new key for the Morse 
printing telegraph, 48. 

*Zoological nomenclature, W. A. Lewis 
on a proposal for a modification of the 
strict law of priority in, 133. 

observatories, P. L. Sclater on a 
favourable occasion for the establish- 
ment of, 134, 

—— results of the dredging-expedition 
of the yacht ‘Norna,’ W.S. Kent on 
the, off the coast of Spain and Por- 
tugal, 182, 


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obtained from the Hot and Cold Blast ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Strength and other Properties 
of Iron obtained from the Hot and Cold Blast ;—Sir J. Robison and J. S. Russell, Report of 
the Committee on Waves ;—Note by Major Sabine, being an Appendix to his Report on the 
Variations of the Magnetic Intensity observed at different Points of the Earth’s Surface ;— 
J. Yates, on the Growth of Plants under Glass, and without any free communication with the 
outward Air, on the Plan of Mr. N. J. Ward, of London, 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof, Traill’s Address, and Recommenda- 
tions of the Association and its Committees, 


PROCEEDINGS or tue EIGHTH MEETING, at Newcastle, 1838, 
Published at 15s. 


ConTENTS :—Rey. W. Whewell, Account of a Level Line, measured from the Bristol Chan- 


269 


nel to the English Channel, by Mr. Bunt;—Report on the Discussions of Tides, pre pared 
under the direction of the Rev. W. Whewell;—W. S. Harris, Account of the Progress and 
State of the Meteorological Observations at Plymouth ;—Major E. Sabine, on the Magnetic 
Isoclinal and Isodynamic Lines in the British Islands ;—D. Lardner, LL.D., on the Determi- 
nation of the Mean Numerical Values of Railway Constants ;—R. Mallet, First Report upon 
Experiments upon the Action of Sea and River Water upon Cast and Wrought Iron ;—R. 
Mallet, on the Action of a Heat of 212° Fahr., when long continued, on Inorganic and Organic 
Substances. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Murchison’s Address, and Recommen- 
dations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tue NINTH MEETING, at Birmingham, 1839, 
Published at 13s.6d. (Out of Print.) 


ConTENTs :—Rev. B. Powell, Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of Refractive 
Indices, for the Standard Rays of the Solar Spectrum in different raedia ;—Report on the Ap- 
plication of the Sum assigned for Tide Calculations to Rev. W. Whewell, in a Letter from T. G. 
Bunt, Esq. ;—H. L. Pattinson, on some Galvanic Experiments to determine the Existence or 
Non-Existence of Electrical Currents among Stratified Rocks, particularly those of the Moun- 
tain Limestone formation, constituting the Lead Measures of Alton Moor ;—Sir D. Brewster, 
Reports respecting the two series of Hourly Meteorological Observations kept in Scotland ;— 
Report on the subject of a series of Resolutions adopted by the British Association at their 
Meeting in August 1838, at Newcastle ;—R. Owen, Report on British Fossil Reptiles ;—E. 
Forbes, Report on the Distribution of Pulmoniferous Mollusca in the British Isles;—W. S. 
Harris, Third Report on the Progress of the Hourly Meteorological Register at Plymouth 
Dockyard. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tue TENTH MEETING, at Glasgow, 1840, 
Published at 15s. (Out of Print.) 


ConTEnTs :—Rev. B. Powell, Report on the recent Progress of discovery relative to Radiant 
Heat, supplementary to a former Report on the same subject inserted in the first volume of the 
Reports of the British Association for the Advancement of Science ;—J. D. Forbes, Supple- 
mentary Report on Meteorology ;—W. S. Harris, Report on Prof. Whewell’s Anemometer, 
now in operation at Plymouth ;—Report on ‘‘ The Motion and Sounds of the Heart,” by the 
London Committee of the British Association, for 1839-40 ;—Prof. Schénbein, an Account of 
Researches in Electro-Chemistry ;—R. Mallet, Second Report upon the Action of Air and 
Water, whether fresh or salt, clear or foul, and at various temperatures, upon Cast Iron, 
Wrought Iron and Steel ;—R. W. Fox, Report on some Observations on Subterranean Tem- 
perature ;—A.F. Osler, Report on the Observations recorded during the years 1837, 1838, 1839, 
and 1840, by the Self-registering Anemometer erected at the Philosophical Institution, Bir- 
mingham ;—Sir D. Brewster, Report respecting the two Series of Hourly Meteorological Ob- 
servations kept at Inverness and Kingussie, from Nov. Ist, 1838 to Nov. Ist, 1839 ;—W. 
Thompson, Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Div. Vertebrata ;—C. J. B. Williams, M.D., 
Report of Experiments on the Physiology of the Lungs and Air-Tubes ;—Rev. J. S. Henslow, 
Report of the Committee on the Preservation of Animal and Vegetable Substances. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Murchison and Major E. Sabine’s 
Address, and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tuze ELEVENTH MEETING, at Plymouth, 
1841, Published at 13s. 6d. 


ConTENTS :—Rev. P. Kelland, on the Present state of our Theoretical and Experimental 
Knowledge of the Laws of Conduction of Heat ;—G. L. Roupell, M.D., Report on Poisons ;— 
T. G. Bunt, Report on Discussions of Bristol Tides, under the direction of the Rev. W. Whewell; 
—D. Ross, Report on the Discussions of Leith Tide Observations, under the direction of the 
Rev. W. Whewell ;—W. S. Harris, upon the working of Whewell’s Anemometer at Plymouth 
during the past year;—Report of a Committee appointed for the purpose of superintend- 
ing the scientific cooperation of the British Association in the System of Simultaneous Obser- 
vations in Terrestrial Magnetism and Meteorology ;—Reports of Committees appointed to pro- 
vide Meteorological Instruments for the use of M, Agassiz and Mr. M‘Cord ;—Report of a Com- 


.270 


mittee to superintend the reduction of Meteorological Observations;—Report of a Com- 
mittee for revising the Nomenclature of the Stars ;—Report of a Committee for obtaining In- 
struments and Registers to record Shocks and Earthquakes in Scotland and Ireland ;—Report of 
a Committee on the Preservation of Vegetative Powers in Seeds ;—Dr. Hodgkin, on Inquiries 
into the Races of Man ;—Report of the Committee appointed to report how far the Desiderata 
in our knowledge of the Condition of the Upper Strata of the Atmosphere may be supplied by 
means of Ascents in Balloons or otherwise, to ascertain the probable expense of such Experi- 
ments, and to draw up Directions for Observers in such circumstances ;—R. Owen, Report 
on British Fossil Reptiles ;—Reports on the Determination of the Mean Value of Railway 
Constants ;—D. Lardner, LL.D., Second and concluding Report on the Determination of the 
Mean Value of Railway Constants;—E. Woods, Report on Railway Constants ;—Report of a 
Committee on the Construction of a Constant Indicator for Steam-Engines. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Whewell’s Address, and Recommen- 
dations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or toe TWELFTH MEETING, at Manchester, 
1842, Published at 10s. 6d. 


ConTENTs :—Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the cooperation of the British 
Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;— 
J. Richardson, M.D., Report on the present State of the Ichthyology of New Zealand ;— 
W.S. Harris, Report on the Progress of Meteorological Observations at Plymouth ;—Second 
Report of a Committee appointed to make Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds; 
—C. Vignoles, Report of the Committee on Railway Sections ;—Report of the Committee 
for the Preservation of Animal and Vegetable Substances ;—Lyon Playfair, M.D., Abstract 
of Prof. Liebig’s Report on Organic Chemistry applied to Physiology and Pathology ;— 
R. Owen, Report on the British Fossil Mammalia, Part I.;—R. Hunt, Researches on the 
Influence of Light on the Germination of Seeds and the Growth of Plants ;—L. Agassiz, Report 
on the Fossil Fishes of the Devonian System or Old Red Sandstone ;—W. Fairbairn, Ap- 
pendix to a Report on the Strength and other Properties of Cast Iron obtained from the Hot 
and Cold Blast ;—D. Milne, Report of the Committee for Registering Shocks of Earthquakes 
in Great Britain ;—Report of a Committee on the construction of a Constant Indieator for 
Steam-Engines, and for the determination of the Velocity of the Piston of the Self-acting En- 
gine at different periods of the Stroke ;—J. S. Russell, Report of a Committee on the Form of 
Ships ;—Report of a Committee appointed “‘to consider of the Rules by which the Nomencla- 
ture of Zoology may be established on a uniform and permanent basis ;’’—Report of a Com- 
mittee on the Vital Statistics of large Towns in Scotland ;—Provisional Reports, and Notices 
of Progress in special Researches entrusted to Committees and Individuals. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Lord Francis Egerton’s Address, and Re- 
commendations of the Association and its Committees. 


_ PROCEEDINGS or tue THIRTEENTH MEETING, at Cork, 
1843, Published at 12s. 


ConTENTs:—Robert Mallet, Third Report upon the Action of Air and Water, whether 
fresh or salt, clear or foul, and at Various Temperatures, upon Cast Iron, Wrought Iron, and 
Steel;—Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the cooperation of the British As« 
sociation in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;—Sir 
J. F. W. Herschel, Bart., Report of the Committee appointed for the Reduction of Meteoro- 
logical Observations ;—Report of the Committee appointed for Experiments on Steam- 
Engines ;—Report of the Committee appointed to continue their Experiments on the Vitality 
of Seeds ;—J. S. Russell, Report of a Series of Observations on the Tides of the Frith of 
Forth and the East Coast of Scotland ;—J. S. Russell, Notice of a Report of the Committee 
on the Form of Ships;—J. Blake, Report on the Physiological Action of Medicines; —Report 
of the Committee on Zoological Nomenclature ;—Report of the Committee for Registering 
the Shocks of Earthquakes, and making such Meteorological Observations as may appear to 
them desirable ;—Report of the Committee for conducting Experiments with Captive Balloons; 
—Prof. Wheatstone, Appendix to the Report ;—Report of the Committee for the Translation 
and Publication of Foreign Scientific Memoirs ;—C. W. Peach, on the Habits of the Marine 
Testacea ;—E. Forbes, Report on the Mollusca and Radiata of the AZgean Sea, and on their 
distribution, considered as bearing on Geology ;—L. Agassiz, Synoptical Table of British 
Fossil Fishes, arranged in the order of the Geological Formations ;—R. Owen, Report on the 
British Fossil Mammalia, Part II.;—E. W. Binney, Report on the excavation made at the 
junction of the Lower New Red Sandstone with the Coal Measures at Collyhurst ;—W. ~ 


271 


Thompson, Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Div. Invertebrata ;—Provisional Reports, and 
Notices of Progress in Special Researches entrusted to Committees and Individuals. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Earl of Rosse’s Address, and Recommen- 
dations of the Association and its Committees, 


PROCEEDINGS or tH—E FOURTEENTH MEETING, at York, 1844, 
Published at £1. 


ConTENTs :—W. B. Carpenter, on the Microscopic Structure of Shells ;—J. Alder and A. 
Hancock, Report on the British Nudibranchiate Mollusca ;—R. Hunt, Researches on the 
Influence of Light on the Germination of Seeds and the Growth of Plants;—Report of a 
Committee appointed by the British Association in 1840, for revising the Nomenclature of the 
Stars ;—Lt.-Col. Sabine, on the Meteorology of Toronto in Canada ;—J. Blackwall, Report 
on some recent researches into the Structure, Functions, and Economy of the Araneidea 
made in Great Britain ;—Earl of Rosse, on the Construction of large Reflecting Telescopes ; 
—Rev. W. V. Harcourt, Report on a Gas-furnace for Experiments on Vitrifaction and other 
Applications of High Heat in the Laboratory ;—Report of the Committee for Registering 
Earthquake Shocks in Scotland ;—Report of a Committee for Experiments on Steam-Engines}; 
—Report of the Committee to investigate the Varieties of the Human Race ;—Fourth Report 
of a Commiitee appointed to continue their Experiments on the Vitality of Seeds ;—W. Fair- 
bairn, on the Consumption of Fuel and the Prevention of Smoke ;—F. Ronalds, Report con- 
cerning the Observatory of the British Association at Kew ;—Sixth Report of the Committee 
appointed to conduct the Cooperation of the British Association in the System of Simulta- 
neous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;—Prof. Forchhammer on the influence 
of Fucoidal Plants upon the Formations of the Earth, on Metamorphism in general, and par- 
ticularly the Metamorphosis of the Scandinavian Alum Slate ;—H. E. Strickland, Report on 
the recent Progress and Present State of Ornithology ;—T. Oldham, Report of Committee 
appointed to conduct Observations on Subterranean Temperature in Ireland ;—Prof. Owen, 
Report on the Extinct Mammals of Australia, with descriptions of certain Fossils indicative 
of the former existence in that continent of large Marsupial Representatives of the Order 
Pachydermata ;—W. S. Harris, Report on the working of Whewell and Osler’s Anemometers 
at Plymouth, for the years 1841, 1842, 1843 ;—W. R. Birt, Report on Atmospheric Waves; 
—L. Agassiz, Rapport sur les Poissons Fossiles de l’Argile de Londres, with translation ;—J. 
S. Russell, Report on Waves ;—Provisional Reports, and Notices of Progress in Special Re- 
searches entrusted to Committees and Individuals. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dean of Ely’s Address, and Recommenda- 
tions of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tHe FIFTEENTH MEETING, at Cambridge, 
1845, Published at 12s. 


CoNnTENTS:—Seventh Report of a Committee appointed to conduct the Cooperation of the 
British Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observa- 
tions ;—Lt.-Col. Sabine, on some points in the Meteorology of Bombay ;—J. Blake, Report 
on the Physiological Actions of Medicines ;—Dr. Von Boguslawski, on the Comet of 1843; 
—R. Hunt, Report on the Actinograph ;—Prof. Schénbein, on Ozone ;—Prof. Erman, on 
the Influence of Friction upon Thermo-Electricity ;—Baron Senftenberg, on the Self- 
Registering Meteorological Instruments employed in the Observatory at Senftenberg;— 
W.R. Birt, Second Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—G. R. Porter, on the Progress and Pre- 
sent Extent of Savings’ Banks in the United Kingdom ;—Prof. Bunsen and Dr, Playfair, 
Report on the Gases evolved from Iron Furnaces, with reference to the Theory of Smelting 
of Iron ;—Dr. Richardson, Report on the Ichthyology of the Seas of China and Japan ;— 
Report of the Committee on the Registration of Periodical Phenomena of Animals and Vege- 
tables ;—Fifth Report of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—Appendix, &c. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir J. F. W. Herschel’s Address, and Re- 
commendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tur SIXTEENTH MEETING, at Southampton, 
1846, Published at 15s. 


ConTENTS:—G. G. Stokes, Report on Recent Researches in Hydrodynamics ;—Sixth 
Report of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—Dr. Schunck, on the Colouring Matters of 
Madder ;—J. Blake, on the Physiological Action of Medicines ;—R. Hunt, Report on the Ac- 
tinograph ;—R. Hunt, Notices on the Influence of Light on the Growth of Plants ;—R. L. 
Ellis, on the Recent Progress of Analysis ;—Prof, Forchhammer, on Comparative Analytical 


272 


Researches on Sea Water ;—A. Erman, on the Calculation of the Gaussian Constants for 
1829;—G. R. Porter, on the Progress, present Amount, and probable future Condition of the 
Iron Manufacture in Great Britain ;—W. R. Birt, Third Report on Atmospheric Waves ;— 
Prof. Owen, Report on the Archetype and Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton ;— 
J. Phillips, on Anemometry ;—J. Percy, M.D., Report on the Crystalline Flags ;—Addenda 
to Mr. Birt’s Report on Atmospheric Waves. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir R. I. Murchison’s Address, and Re- 
commendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tut SEVENTEENTH MEETING, at Oxford, 
1847, Published at 18s. 


ConTENTS :—Prof. Langberg, on the Specific Gravity of Sulphuric Acid at different de- 
grees of dilution, and on the relation which exists between the Development of Heat and the 
coincident contraction of Volume in Sulphuric Acid when mixed with Water ;—R. Hunt, 
Researches on the Influence of the Solar Rays on the Growth of Plants ;—R. Mallet, on 
the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Prof. Nilsson, on the Primitive Inhabitants of Scan- 
dinavia;—W. Hopkins, Report on the Geological Theories of Elevation and Earthquakes; 
—Dr. W. B. Carpenter, Report on the Microscopic Structure of Shells ;—Rev. W. Whewell and 
Sir James C. Ross, Report upon the Recommendation of an Expedition for the purpose of 
completing our knowledge of the Tides;—Dr. Schunck, on Colouring Matters ;—Seventh Re- 
port of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—J. Glynn, on the Turbine or Horizontal 
Water-Wheel of France and Germany ;—Dr. R. G. Latham, on the present state and recent 
progress of Ethnographical Philology ;—Dr. J. C. Prichard, on the various methods of Research 
which contribute to the Advancement of Ethnology, and of the relations of that Science to 
other branches of Knowledge ;—Dr. C. C. J. Bunsen, on the results of the recent Egyptian 
researches in reference to Asiatic and African Ethnology, and the Classification of Languages; 
—Dr. C. Meyer, on the Importance of the Study of the Celtic Language as exhibited by the 
Modern Celtic Dialects still extant ;—Dr. Max Miiller, on the Relation of the Bengali to the 
Arian and Aboriginal Languages of India;—W. R. Birt, Fourth Report on Atmospheric 
Waves ;—Prof. W. H. Dove, Temperature Tables, with Introductory Remarks by Lieut.-Col. 
E. Sabine ;—A. Erman and H. Petersen, Third Report on the Calculation of the Gaussian Con- 
stants for 1829. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir Robert Harry Inglis’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tHe EIGHTEENTH MEETING, at Swansea, 
1848, Published at 9s. 


Contents :—Rev. Prof. Powell, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous Meteors ;— 
J. Glynn on Water-pressure Engines ;—R. A. Smith, on the Air and Water of Towns ;—Eighth 
Report of Committee on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—W. R. Birt, Fifth Report on At- 
mospheric Waves ;—E. Schunck, on Colouring Matters ;—J. P. Budd, on the advantageous use 
made of the gaseous escape from the Blast Furnaces at the Ystalyfera Iron Works;—R. Hunt, 
Report of progress in the investigation of the Action of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of 
Plants allied to those of the Coal Formations ;—Prof. H. W. Dove, Supplement to the Tem- 
perature Tables printed in the Report of the British Association for 1847 ;—Remarks by Prof. 
Dove on his recently constructed Maps of the Monthly Isothermal Lines of the Globe, and on 
some of the principal Conclusions in regard to Climatology deducible from them; with an in- 
troductory Notice by Lt.-Col. E. Sabine ;—Dr. Daubeny, on the progress of the investigation 
on the Influence of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of Ferns ;—J. Phillips, Notice of further 
progress in Anemometrical Researches ;—Mr. Mallet’s Letter to the Assistant-General Secre- 
tary ;—A. Erman, Second Report on the Gaussian Constants ;—Report of a Committee 
relative to the expediency of recommending the continuance of the Toronto Magnetical and 
Meteorological Observatory until December 1850. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Marquis of Northampton’s Address 
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or rut NINETEENTH MEETING, at Birmingham, 
1849, Published at 10s. 


ConTENTS :—Rev. Prof. Powell, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Earl 
of Rosse, Notice of Nebulz lately observed in the Six-feet Reflector ;—Prof. Daubeny, on the 
Influence of Carbonic Acid Gas on the health of Plants, especially of those allied tu the Fossil 
Remains found in the Coal Formation ;——Dr. Andrews, Report on the Heat of Combination ; 
—Report of the Committee on the Registration of the Periodic Phenomena of Plants and 


273 


Animals;—Ninth Report of Committee on Expeviments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ; 
—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Observatory of the British Association at Kew, from 
Aug. 9, 1848 to Sept. 12; 1849;—R. Mallet, Report on the Experimental Inquiry on Railway 
Bar Corrosion ;—W. R. Birt, Report on the Discussion of the Electrieal Observations at Kew. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Rev. T. R. Robinson’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or toe TWENTIETH MEETING, at Edinburgh, 
1850, Published at 15s. (Out of Print.) 


ConTENTS :—R. Mallet, First Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Rev. Prof. 
Powell, on Observations of Luminous Meteors;—Dr. T. Williams, on the Structure and 
History of the British Annelida;—T. C. Hunt, Results of Meteorological Observations taken 
at St. Michael’s from the Ist of January, 1840 to the 31st of December, 1849 ;—R. Hunt, on 
the present State of our Knowledge of the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;—Tenth 
Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Major-Gen. 
Briggs, Report on the Aboriginal Tribes of India;—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Ob- 
servatory of the British Association at Kew ;—E. Forbes, Report on the Investigation of British 
Marine Zoology by means of the Dredge ;—R. MacAndrew, Notes on the Distribution and 
Range in depth of Mollusca and other Marine Animals, observed on the coasts of Spain, Por- 
tugal, Barbary, Malta, and Southern Italy in 1849 ;—Prof. Allman, on the Present State of 
our Knowledge of the Freshwater Polyzoa;—Registration of the Periodical Phenomena of 
Plants and Animals ;—Suggestions to Astronomers for the Observation of the Total Eclipse 
of the Sun on July 28, 185]. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir David Brewster’s Address, and Recom- 
mendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tut TWENTY-FIRST MEETING, at Ipswich, 
1851, Published at 16s. 6d. 


ConTENTS :—Rev. Prof. Powell, on Observations of Luminous Meteors;—Eleventh Re- 
port of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Dr. J. Drew, on 
the Climate of Southampton ;—Dr. R. A. Smith, on the Air and Water of Towns: Action of 
Porous Strata, Water and Organic Matter ;—Report of the Committee appointed to consider 
the probable Effects in an Economical and Physical Point of View of the Destruction of Tro- 
pical Forests ;—A. Henfrey, on the Reproduction and supposed Existence of Sexual Organs 
in the Higher Cryptogamous Plants;—Dr. Daubeny, on the Nomenclature of Organic Com- 
pounds ;—Rev. Dr. Donaldson, on two unsolved Problems in Indo-German Philology ;— 
Dr. T. Williams, Report on the British Annelida;—R. Mallet, Second Report’on the Facts of 
Earthquake Phenomena ;—Letter from‘Prof. Henry to Col. Sabine,'on the System of Meteoro- 
logical Observations proposed to be established in the United States ;—Col. Sabine, Report 
on the Kew Magnetographs ;—J. Welsh, Report on the Performance of his three Magneto- 
graphs during the Experimental Trial at the Kew Observatory ;—F. Ronalds, Report concern- 
ing the Observatory of the British Association at Kew, from September 12, 1850 to July 31, 
1851 ;—Ordnance Survey of Scotland. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Airy’s Address, and Recom- 
mendations of the Association and its Committees. _ a 


PROCEEDINGS or rut TWENTY-SECOND MEETING, at Belfast, 
1852, Published at 15s. 


ConTENTs :—R. Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Twelfth 
Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds;—Rev. Prof. 
Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1851-52 ;—Dr. Gladstone, on the In- 
fluence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers of Plants ;—A Manual of Ethnological 
Inquiry ;—Col. Sykes, Mean Temperature of the Day, and Monthly Fall of Rain at 127 Sta- 
tions under the Bengal Presidency ;—Prof. J. D. Forbes, on Experiments on the Laws of the 
Conduction of Heat;—R. Hunt, on the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;—Dr. Hodges, 
on the Composition and Economy of the Flax Plant;—W. Thompson, on the Freshwater 
Fishes of Ulster;—W. Thompson, Supplementary Report on the Fauna of Ireland;—W. Wills, 
onthe Meteorology of Birmingham;—J. Thomson, on the Vortex-Water- Wheel ;—J. B. Lawes 
re Dr. Gilbert, on the Composition of Foods in relation to Respiration and the Feeding of 

nimals. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Colonel Sabine’s Address, and Recom= 
mendations of the Association and its Committees, 


1871, 18 


274 


PROCEEDINGS or tue TWENTY-THIRD MEETING, at Hull, 
1853, Published at 10s. 6d. 


ConTENTs :—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1852-53 ; 
—James Oldham, on the Physical Features of the Humber ;—James Oldham, on the Rise, 
Progress, and Present Position of Steam Navigation in Hull;—William Fairbairn, Experi- 
mental Researches to determine the Strength of Locomotive Boilers, and the causes which 
lead to Explosion ;—J. J. Sylvester, Provisional Report on the Theory of Determinants ;— 
Professor Hodges, M.D., Report on the Gases evolved in Steeping Flax, and on the Composition 
and Economy of the Flax Plant ;—Thirteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on the 
Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Robert Hunt, on the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations; 
—John P. Bell, M.D., Observations on the Character and Measurements of Degradation of the 
Yorkshire Coast; First Report of Committee on the Physical Character of the Moon’s Sur- 
face, as compared with that of the Earth ;—R. Mallet, Provisional Report on Earthquake 
Wave-Transits; and on Seismometrical Instruments ;—William Fairbairn, on the Mechanical 
Properties of Metals as derived from repeated Meltings, exhibiting the maximum point of 
strength and the causes of deterioration ;—Robert Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Harth- 
quake Phenomena (continued), 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Hopkins’s Address, and Recommenda- 
tions of the Association and its Committees, 


PROCEEDINGS or tue TWENTY-FOURTH MEETING, at Liver- 
pool, 1854, Published at 18s. 


ConTENTS:—R. Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena (continued) ; 
—Major-General Chesney, on the Construction and General Use of Efficient Life-Boats;—Rev. 
Prof. Powell, Third Report on the present State of our Knowledge of Radiant Heat ;—Colonelk 
Sabine, on some of the results obtained at the British Colonial Magnetic Observatories ;— 
Colonel Portlock, Report of the Committee on Earthquakes, with their proceedings respecting 
Seismometers ;—Dr. Gladstone, on the influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers 
of Plants, Part 2;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1853-54; 
—Second Report of the Committee on the Physical Character of the Moon’s Surface ;—W. G.- 
Armstrong, on the Application of Water-Pressure Machinery ;—J. B. Lawes and Dr. Gilbert, 
on the Equivalency of Starch and Sugar in Food ;—Archibald Smith, on the Deviations of the 
Compass in Wooden and Iron Ships ;—Fourteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on 
the Growth and Vitality of Seeds. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Earl of Harrowby’s Address, and Re- 
commendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tue TWENTY-FIFTH MEETING, at Glasgow, 
1855, Published at 15s. 


ConTENTS :—T, Dobson, Report on the Relation between Explosions in Coal-Mines and 
Revolving Storms;—Dr. Gladstone, on the Influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers 
of Plants growing under different Atmospheric Conditions, Part 3;—C. Spence Bate, on the 
British Edriophthalma ;—J, F. Bateman, on the present state of our knowledge on the Supply 
of Water to Towns ;—Fifteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and 
Vitality of Se@ds ;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report en Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1854-55 ; 
—Report of Committee appointed to inquire into the best means of ascertaining those pro- 
perties of Metals and effects of various modes of treating them which are of importance to the 
durability and efficiency of Artillery ;—Rev. Prof. Henslow, Report on Typical Objects in 
Natural History ;—A. Follett Osler, Account of the Self-Registering Anemometer and Rain- 
Gauge at the Liverpool Observatory ;—Provisional Reports. 


Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Duke of Argyll’s Address, and Recom 
mendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tute TWENTY-SIXTH MEETING, at Chel- 
tenham, 1856, Published at 18s. 


Contents :—Report from the Committee appointed to investigate and report upon the 
effects produced upon the Channels of the Mersey by the alterations which within the last 
fifty years have been made in its Banks;—J. Thomson, Interim Report on progress in Re- 
searches on the Measurement of Water by Weir Boards ;—Dredging Report, Frith of Clyde, 
1856 ;--Rev. B. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1855-1856 ;—Prof. 
Bunsen and Dr. H. E. Roscoe, Photochemical Researches ;—Rev. James Booth, on the Trigo- 
nometry of the Parabola, and the Geometrical Origin of Logarithms ;—R. MacAndrew, Report 


275 


on the Marine Testaceous Mollusca of the North-east Atlantic and Neighbouring Seas, and 
the physical conditions affecting their development ;—P. P. Carpenter, Report on the present 
state of our knowledge with regard to the Mollusca of the West Coast of North America ;— 
T. C. Eyton, Abstract of First Report on the Oyster Beds and Oysters of the British Shores; 
—Prof. Phillips, Report on Cleavage and Foliation in Rocks, and on the Theoretical Expla- 
nations of these Phenomena: Part I. ;--Dr. T. Wright on the Stratigraphical Distribution of 
the Oolitic Echinodermata ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Tensile Strength of Wrought Iron at various 
Temperatures ;—C. Atherton, on Mercantile Steam Transport Economy ;—J. S. Bowerbank, on 
the Vital Powers of the Spongiadz;——Report of a Committee upon the Experiments conducted 
at Stormontfield, near Perth, for the artificial propagation of Salmon ;—Provisional Report on 
the Measurement of Ships for Tonnage ;—On Typical Forms of Minerals, Plants and Animals 
for Museums ;—J. Thomson, Interim Report on Progress in Researches on the Measure- 
ment of Water by Weir Boards;—R. Mallet, on Observations with the Seismometer ;—A. 
Cayley, on the Progress of Theoretical Dynamics ;—Report of a Committee appointed to cons 
sider the formation of a Catalogue of Philosophical Memoirs. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. Daubeny’s Address, and Recoms 
mendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tur TWENTY-SEVENTH MEETING, at 
Dublin, 1857, Published at 15s. 


Contents :—A. Cayley, Report on the Recent Progress of Theoretical Dynamics ;—Six- 
teenth and final Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds; 
—James Oldham, C.E., continuation of Report on Steam Navigation at Hull;—Report of a 
Committee on the Defects of the present methods of Measuring and Registering the Tonnage 
of Shipping, as also of Marine Engine-Power, and to frame more perfect rules, in order that 
a correct and uniform principle may be adopted to estimate the Actual Carrying Capabilities 
and Working-Power of Steam Ships;—Robert Were Fox, Report on the Temperature of 
some Deep Mines in Cornwall;—Dr. G. Plarr, De quelques Transformations de la Somme 

—a atlt+1gé|+19él+1 i : Abbi 

a4 “GFT eit} et 4V? a etant entier négatif, et de quelques cas dans lesquels cette somme 
est exprimable par une combinaison de factorielles, la notation atl+1 désignant le produit des 
# facteurs a (a+1) (a+2) &c....(a+¢—1);—G. Dickie, M.D., Report on the Marine Zoology 
of Strangford Lough, County Down, and corresponding part of the Irish Channel ;—Charles 
Atherton, Suggestions for Statistical Inquiry into the extent to which Mercantile Steam Trans- 
port Economy is affected by the Constructive Type of Shipping, as respects the Proportions of 
Length, Breadth, and Depth ;—J. §. Bowerbank, Further Report on the Vitality of the Spon- 
giade ;—John P. Hodges, M.D., on Flax ;—Major-General Sabine, Report of the Committee 
on the Magnetic Survey of Great Britain;—Rev. Baden Powell, Report on Observations of 
Luminous Meteors, 1856-57 ;—C. Vignoles, C.E., on the Adaptation of Suspension Bridges to 
sustain the passage of Railway Trains ;—Professor W. A. Miller, M.D., on Electro-Chemistry ; 
—John Simpson, R.N., Results of Thermometrical Observations made at the ‘ Plover’s’ 
Wintering-place, Point Barrow, latitude 71° 21’ N., long. 156° 17’ W., in 1852-54 ;—Charles 
James Hargreave, LL.D., on the Algebraic Couple; and on the Equivalents of Indeterminate 
Expressions ;—Thomas Grubb, Report on the Improvement of Telescope and Equatorial 
Mountings ;—Professor James Buckman, Report on the Experimental Plots in the Botanical 
‘Garden of the Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester ;—William Fairbairn on the Resistance 
of Tubes to Collapse ;—George C. Hyndman, Report of the Proceedings of the Belfast Dredging 
Committee ;—Peter W. Barlow, on the Mechanical Effect of combining Girders and Suspen- 
sion Chains, and a Comparison of the Weight of Metal in Ordinary and Suspension Girders, 
to produce equal deflections with a given load ;—J. Park Harrison, M.A., Evidences of Lunar 
Influence on Temperature ;—Report on the Animal and Vegetable Products imported into 
Liverpool from the year 1851 to 1855 (inclusive) ;—Andrew Henderson, Report on the Sta- 
tistics of Life-boats and Fishing-boats on the Coasts of the United Kingdom. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Rev. H. Lloyd’s Address, and Recommen- 
dations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tut TWENTY-EIGHTH MEETING, at Leeds, 
September 1858, Published at 20s. 


ConTENTS:—R. Mallet, Fourth Report upon the Facts and Theory of Earthquake Phe- 
nomena ;— Rey. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1857-58 ;—R. H. 
Meade, on some Points in the Anatomy of the Araneidea or true Spiders, especially on the 
internal structure of their Spinning Organs ;—W. Fairbairn, Report of the Committee on the 
Patent Laws ;—S. Eddy, on the J,ead Mining Districts of Yorkshire ;—W. es on the 


276 


Collapse of Glass Globes and Cylinders ;—Dr. E. Perceval Wright and Prof. J. Reay Greene, 
Report on the Marine Fauna of the South and West Coasts of Ireland ;—Prof. J. Thomson, on 
Experiments on the Measurement of Water by Triangular Notches in Weir Boards ;—Major- 
General Sabine, Report of the Committee on the Magnetic Survey of Great Britain ;—Michael 
Connal and William Keddie, Report on Animal, Vegetable, and Mineral Substances imported 
from Foreign Countries into the Clyde (including the Ports of Glasgow, Greenock, and Port 
Glasgow) in the years 1853, 1854, 1855, 1856, and 1857 ;—Report of the Committee on Ship- 
ping Statistics;—Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D., Notice of the Instruments employed in the Mag- 
netic Survey of Ireland, with some of the Results;—Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin 
Dredging Committee, appointed 1857-58 ;—Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Report on Crustacea of Dub- 
lin District ;—Andrew Henderson, on River Steamers, their Form, Construction, and Fittings, 
with reference to the necessity for improving the present means of Shallow-Water Navigation 
on the Rivers of British India;—George C. Hyndman, Report of the Belfast Dredging Com- 
mittee ;—Appendix to Mr. Vignoles’s paper “ On the Adaptation of Suspension Bridges to sus- 
tain the passage of Railway Trains ;”—Report of the Joint Committee of the Royal Society and 
the British Association, for procuring a continuance of the Magnetic and Meteorological Ob- 
servatories;—R. Beckley, Description of a Self-recording Anemometer. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Qwen’s Address, and Recommenda-~ 
tions of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or rue TWENTY-NINTH MEETING, at Aberdeen, 
September 1859, Published at 15s. 


ConTENTs :—George C. Foster, Preliminary Report on the Recent Progress and Present 
State of Organic Chemistry ;—Professor Buckman, Report on the Growth of Plants in the 
Garden of the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester ;—Dr. A. Voelcker, Report on Field 
Experiments and Laboratory Researches on the Constituents of Manures essential to cultivated 
Crops ;—A. Thomson, Esq. of Banchory, Report on the Aberdeen Industrial Feeding Schools ; 
—On the Upper Silurians of Lesmahago, Lanarkshire ;—Alphonse Gages, Report on the Re- 
sults obtained by the Mechanico-Chemical Examination of Rocks and Minerals ;—William 
Fairbairn, Experiments to determine the Efficiency of Continuous and Self-acting Breaks for 
Railway Trains ;—Professor J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin Bay Dredging Committee for 
1858-59 ;—Rev. Baden Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors for 1858-59 ; 
—Professor Owen, Report on a Series of Skulls of various Tribes of Mankind inhabiting 
Nepal, collected, and presented to the British Museum, by Bryan H. Hodgson, Esgq., late Re- 
sident in Nepal, &c. &c. ;—Messrs. Maskelyne, Hadow, Hardwich, and Llewelyn, Report on 
the Present State of our Knowledge regarding the Photographic Image ;—G. C. Hyndman, 
Report of the Belfast Dredging Committee for 1859 ;—James Oldham, Continuation of Report 
of the Progress of Steam Navigation at Hull;—Charles Atherton, Mercantile Steam Trans- 
port Economy as affected by the Consumption of Coals;—Warren de Ja Rue, Report on the 
present state of Celestial Photography in England ;—Professor Owen, on the Orders of Fossil 
and Recent Reptilia, and their Distribution in Time ;—Balfour Stewart, on some Results of the 
Magnetic Survey of Scotland in the years 1857 and 1858, undertaken, at the request of the 
British Association, by the late John Welsh, Esq., F.R.S.;—W. Fairbairn, The Patent Laws: 
Report of Committee on the Patent Laws;—J. Park Harrison, Lunar Influence on the Tem- 
perature of the Air ;—Balfour Stewart, an Account of the Construction of the Self-recording 
Magnetographs at present in operation at the Kew Observatory of the British Association ;— 
Prof. H. J. Stephen Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part I.;—Report of the 
Committee on Steamship performance ;—Report of the Proceedings of the Balloon Committee 
of the British Association appointed at the Meeting at Leeds ;—Prof. William K. Sullivan, 
Preliminary Report on the Solubility of Salts at Temperatures above 100° Cent., and on the 
Mutual Action of Salts in Solution. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prince Albert’s Address, and Recommendas 
tions of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tue THIRTIETH MEETING, at Oxford, June 
and July 1860, Published at 15s. 


CONTENTS :—James Glaisher, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1859-60 ;— 
J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin Bay Dredging Committee ;—Rev. J. Anderson, Report on 
the Excavations in Dura Den ;—Professor Buckman, Report on the Experimental Plots in the 
Botanical Garden of the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester ;—Rev. R. Walker, Report of 
the Committee on Balloon Ascents ;—Prof. W. Thomson, Report of Committee appointed to 
prepare a Self-recording Atmospheric Electrometer for Kew, and Portable Apparatus for ob- 
serving Atmospheric Electricity ;—William Fairbairn, Experiments to determine the Effect of 


#) 


Edad 
ai 


Vibratory Action and long-continued Changes of Load upon Wrought-iron Girders ;s—R. P. 
Greg, Catalogue of Meteorites and Fireballs, from A.D. 2 to a.p. 1860 ;—Prof. H. J. S. Smith, 
Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part 1I.;—Vice-Admiral Moorsom, on the Performance of 
Steam-vessels, the Functions of the Screw, and the Relations of its Diameter and Pitch to the 
Form of the Vessel;—Rev. W. V. Harcourt, Report on the Effects of long-continued Heat, 
illustrative of Geological Phenomena ;—Second Report of the Committee on Steamship Per- 
formance ;—Interim Report on the Gauging of Water by Triangular Notches ;—List of the 
British Marine Invertebrate Fauna. 

Together with the ‘'ransactions of the Sections, Lord Wrottesley’s Address, and Recom- 
mendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or toe THIRTY-FIRST MEETING, at Manches- 
ter, September 1861, Published at £1. 


ConTENTS:—James Glaisher, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Dr. E. 
Smith, Report on the Action of Prison Diet and Discipline on the Bodily Functions of Pri- 
soners, Part I.;—Charles Atherton, on Freight as affected by Differences in the Dynamic 
Properties of Steamships ;—Warren De la Rue, Report on the Progress of Celestial Photo- 
graphy since the Aberdeen Meeting ;—B. Stewart, on the Theory of Exchanges, and its re- 
cent extension ;—Drs. E. Schunck, R. Angus Smith, and H. E. Roscoe, on the Recent Pro- 
gress and Present Condition of Manufacturing Chemistry in the South Lancashire District ;— 
Dr. J. Hunt, on Ethno-Climatology ; or, the Acclimatization of Man ;—Prof. J. Thomson, on 
Experiments on the Gauging of Water by Triangular Notches ;—Dr, A. Voelcker, Report on 
Field Experiments and Laboratory Researches on the Constituents of Manures essential to 
cultivated Crops ;—Prof. H. Hennessy, Provisional Report on the Present State of our Know- 
ledge respecting the Transmission of Sound-signals during Fogs at Sea;—Dr. P. L. Sclater 
and F. von Hochstetter, Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of the Birds of the 
Genus Apteryz living in New Zealand ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Report of the Results of Deep-sea 
Dredging in Zetland, with a Notice of several Species of Mollusca new to Science or to the 
British Isles ;—Prof. J. Phillips, Contributions to a Report on the Physical Aspect of the 
Moon ;—W. R. Birt, Contribution to a Report on the Physical Aspect of the Moon;—Dr. 
Collingwood and Mr. Byerley, Preliminary Report of the Dredging Committee of the Mersey 
and Dee;—Third Report of the Committee on Steamship Performance ;—J. G. Jeffreys, 
Preliminary Report on the Best Mode of preventing the Ravages of Teredo and other Animals 
in our Ships and Harbours ;—R. Mallet, Report on the Experiments made at Holyhead to 
ascertain the Transit-Velocity of Waves, analogous to Earthquake Waves, through the local 
Rock Formations ;—T. Dobson, on the Explosions in British Coal-Mines during the year 1859; 
—J. Oldham, Continuation of Report on Steam Navigation at Hull ;—Professor G. Dickie, 
Brief Summary of a Report on the Flora of the North of Ireland ;—Professor Owen, on the 
Psychical and Physical Characters of tlle Mincopies, or Natives of the Andaman Islands, and 
on the Relations thereby indicated to other Races of Mankind ;—Colonel Sykes, Report of the 
Balloon Committee ;—Major-General Sabine, Report on the Repetition of the Magnetic Sur- 
vey of England ;—Interim Report of the Committee for Dredging on the North and East 
Coasts of Scotland ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Resistance of Iron Plates to Statical Pressure and 
the Force of Impact by Projectiles at High Velocities ;—W. Fairbairn, Continuation of Report 
to determine the effect of Vibratory Action and long-continued Changes of Load upon 
Wrought-Iron Girders ;—Report of the Committee on the Law of Patents ;—Prof. H. J. S. 
Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part III. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Fairbairn’s Address, and Recommen- 
dations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or true THIRTY-SECOND MEETING, at Cam- 
bridge, October 1862, Published at £1. 


ConTENTs :—James Glaisher, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1861-62 i 
G. B. Airy, on the Strains in the Interior of Beams ;—Archibald Smith and F, J. Evans, 
- Report on the three Reports of the Liverpool Compass Committee ;—Report on Tidal Ob- 
servations on the Humber ;—T. Aston, on Rifled Guns and Projectiles adapted for Attacking 
Armour-plate Defences ;—Extracts, relating to the Observatory at Kew, from a Report 
presented to the Portuguese Government, by Dr. J. A. de Souza;—H. T. Mennell, Report 
on the Dredging of the Northumberland Coast and Dogger Bank ;—Dr. Cuthbert Colling- 
wood, Report upon the best means of advancing Science through the agency of the Mercan- 
tile Marine ;—Messrs. Williamson, Wheatstone, Thomson, Miller, Matthiessen, and Jenkin, 
Provisional Report on Standards of Electrical Resistance ;—Preliminary Report of the Com- 
mittee for investigating the Chemical and Mineralogical Composition of the Granites of Do- 


278 


negal ;—Prof. H. Hennessy, on the Vertical Movements of the Atmosphere considered in 
connexion with Storms and Changes of Weather ;—Report of Committee on the application 
of Gauss’s General Theory of Terrestrial Magnetism to the Magnetic Variations ;—Fleeming 
Jenkin, on Thermo-electric Currents in Circuits of one Metal;—W. Fairbairn, on the Me- . 
chanical Properties of Iron Projectiles at High Velocities ;—A. Cayley, Report on the Pro- 
gress of the Solution of certain Special Problems of Dynamics ;—Prof. G. G. Stokes, Report 
on Double Refraction ;—Fourth Report of the Committee on Steamship Performance ;— 
G. J. Symons, on the Fall of Rain in the British Isles in 1860 and 1861 ;—J, Ball, on Ther- 
mometric Observations in the Alps ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Report of the Committee for Dredging 
on the N.and E. Coasts of Scotland ;—Report of the Committee on Technical and Scientific 
Evidence in Courts of Law ;—James Glaisher, Account of Hight Balloon Ascents in 1862 ;— 
Prof. H. J. S. Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part IV. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Rey. Prof. R. Willis’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tne THIRTY-THIRD MEETING, at New- 
castle-upon-Tyne, August and September 1863, Published at £1 5s. 


Contents :—Report of the Committee on the Application of Gun-cotton to Warlike Pur- 
poses;—A. Matthiessen, Report on the Chemical Nature of Alloys ;—Report of the Com- 
mittee on the Chemical and Mineralogical Constitution of the Granites of Donegal, and of 
the Rocks associated with them ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Report of the Committee appointed for 
Exploring the Coasts of Shetland by means of the Dredge ;—G. D. Gibb, Report on the 
Physiological Effects of the Bromide of Ammonium ;—C. K. Aken, on the Transmutation of 
Spectral Rays, Part I.:—Dr. Robinson, Report of the Committee on Fog Signals ;—Report 
of the Committee on Standards of Electrical Resistance ;—E. Smith, Abstract of Report by 
the Indian Government on the Foods used by the Free and Jail Populations in India ;—A. 
Gages, Synthetical Researches on the Formation of Minerals, &c.;—R. Mallet, Preliminary 
Report on the Experimental Determination of the Temperatures of Volcanic Foci, and of the 
Temperature, State of Saturation, and Velocity of the issuing Gases and Vapours ;—Report 
of the Committee on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Fifth Report of the Committee 
on Steamship Performance ;—G. J. Allman, Report on the Present State of our Knowledge 
of the Reproductive System in the Hydroida ;—J. Glaisher, Account of Five Balloon Ascents 
made in 1863;—P. P. Carpenter, Supplementary Report on the Present State of our Know- 
ledge with regard to the Mollusca of the West Coast of North America ;—Professor Airy, 
Report on Steam-boiler Explosions;—C. W. Siemens, Observations on the Electrical Resist- 
ance and Electrification of some Insulating Materials under Pressures up to 300 Atmo- 
spheres ;—C. M. Palmer, on the Construction of Iron Ships and the Progress of Iren Ship- 
building on the Tyne, Wear, and Tees ;—Messrs. Richardson, Stevenson, and Clapham, on 
the Chemical Manufactures of the Northern Districts ;—Messrs. Sopwith and Richardson, 
on the Local Manufacture of Lead, Copper, Zinc, Antimony, &c.;—Messrs. Daglish and 
Forster, on the Magnesian Limestone of Durham ;—I. L. Bell, on the Manufacture of Iron 
in connexion with the Northumberland and Durham Coal-field ;—T. Spencer, on the Manu- 
facture of Steel in the Northern District ;—H. J. 8. Smith, Report on the Theory of Num- 
bers, Part V. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir William Armstrong’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


- 


PROCEEDINGS or tHe THIRTY-FOURTH MEETING, at Bath, 
September 1864. Published at 18s. 


_ Contents :—Report of the Committee for Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Report 
of the Committee on the best means of providing for a Uniformity of Weights and Mea- 
sures ;—T. 8. Cobbold, Report of Experiments respecting the Development and Migration 
of the Entozoa ;—B. W. Richardson, Report on the Physiological Action of Nitrite 6f Amyl; 
J. Oldham, Report of the Committee on Tidal Observations ;—G. S. Brady, Report on 
deep-sea Dredging on the Coasts of Northumberland and Durham in 1864 ;—J. Glaisher, 
Account of Nine Balloon Ascents made in 1863 and 1864 ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Further Report 
on Shetland Dredgings ;—Report of the Committee on the Distribution of the Organic 
Remains of the North Staffordshire Coal-field;—Report of the Committee on Standards of 
Electrical Resistance ;—G. J. Symons, on the Fall of Rain in the British Isles in 1862 and 
1863 ;—W. Fairbairn, Preliminary Investigation of the Mechanical Properties of the pro- 
posed Atlantic Cable. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir Charles Lyell’s Address, and Recom- 
mendations of the Association and its Committees. ‘ ; 


: 279 


PROCEEDINGS or tue THIRTY-FIFTH MEETING, at Birming- 
ham, September 1865, Published at £1 5s. 


Contrnts :—J. G. Jeffreys, Report on Dredging among the Channel Isles ;—F. Buckland, 
Report on the Cultivation of Oysters by Natural and Artificial Methods ;—Report of the 
Committee for exploring Kent’s Cavern ;—Report of the Committee on Zoological Nomen- 
clature ;—Report on the Distribution of the Organic Remains of the North Staffordshire 
Coal-field ;—Report on the Marine Fauna and Flora of the South Coast of Devon and Corn- 
wall ;—Interim Report on the Resistance of Water to Floating and Immersed Bodies ;—Re- 
port on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Report on Dredging on the Coast of Aberdeen- 
shire ;—J. Glaisher, Account of Three Bailoon Ascents ;—Interim Report on the Transmis- 
sion of Sound under Water ;—G. J. Symons, on the Rainfall of the British Isles 3—W. Fair- 
bairn, on the Strength of Materials considered in relation to the Construction of Iron Ships; 
—Report of the Gun-Cotton Committee ;—A. F. Osler, on the Horary and Diurnal Variations 
in the Direction and Motion of the Air at Wrottesley, Liverpool, and Birmingham ;—B. W. 
Richardson, Second Report on the Physiological Action of certain of the Amyl Compounds ; 
—Report on further Researches in the Lingula-flags of South Wales ;—Report of the Lunar 
Committee for Mapping the Surface of the Moon ;—Report on Standards of Electrical Re- 
sistance ;—Report of the Committee appointed to communicate with the Russian Govern- 
ment respecting Magnetical Observations at Tiflis ;—Appendix to Report on the Distribution 
of the Vertebrate Remains from the North Staffordshire Coal-field;—H. Woodward, First 
Report on the Structure and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea ;—H. J. S. Smith, Report 
on the Theory of Numbers, Part VI. ;—Report on the best means of providing for a Unifor- 
mity of Weights and Measures, with reference to the interests of Science ;—A. G. Findlay, 
on the Bed of the Ocean;—Professor A. W. Williamson, on the Composition of Gases 
evolved by the Bath Spring called King’s Bath, 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Professor Phillips’s Address, and Recom- 
mendations of the Association and its Committees, 


PROCEEDINGS of tun THIRTY-SIXTH MEETING, at Notting- 
ham, August 1866, Published at £1 4s. 


Contents :—Second Report on Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire ;—A. Matthiessen, Preliminary 
Report on the Chemical Nature of Cast Iron ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ; 
—W. S. Mitchell, Report on the Alum Bay Leaf-bed ;—Report on the Resistance of Water 
to Floating and Immersed Bodies ;—Dr. Norris, Report on Muscular Irritability ;—Dr, 
Richardson, Report on the Physiological Action of certain compounds of Amy] and Ethyl ;— 
HW. Woodward, Second Report on the Structure and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea ;— 
Second Report on the “t Menevian Group,” and the other Formations at St. David’s, Pem- 
brokeshire ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Report on Dredging among the Hebrides ;—Rey. A. M. Norman, 
Report on the Coasts of the Hebrides, Part II. ;—J. Alder, Notices of some Invertebrata, in 
connexion with Mr. Jeffreys’s Report ;—G. 8. Brady, Report on the Ostracoda dredged 
amongst the Hebrides ;—Report on Dredging in the Moray Firth ;—Report on the Transmis- 
sion of Sound-Signals under Water ;—Report of the Lunar Committee ;—Report of the 
Rainfall Committee ;—Report on the best means of providing for a Uniformity of Weights 
and Measures, with reference to the Interests of Science ;—J. Glaisher, Account of Three Bal- 
loon Ascents ;—Report on the Extinct Birds of the Mascarene Islands 3—Report on the pene- 
ne Iron-clad Ships by Steel Shot ;—J. A. Wanklyn, Report on Isomerism among the 
Alcohols ;—Report on Scientific Evidence in Courts of Law ;—A. L. Adams, Second Report 
on Maltese Fossiliferous Caves, &c. 


Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Grove’s Address, and Recommendations 
of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or ruz THIRTY-SEVENTH MEETING, at 
Dundee, September 1867, Published ai £1 6s. 


Contents :—Report of the Committee for Mapping the Surface of the Moon 3—Third 
Report on Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire;—On the present State of the Manufacture of Iron 
in Great Britain ;—Third Report on the Structure and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea ; 
—Report on the Physiological Action of the Methyl Compounds 3—Preliminary Report on 
the Exploration of the Plant-Beds of North Greenland ;—Report of the Steamship Perform- 
ance Committee ;—On the Meteorology of Port Louis in the Island of Mauritius ;—On the 
Construction and Works of the Highland Railway ;—Experimental Researches on the Me- 


280 


chanical Properties of Steel ;—Report on the Marine Fauna and Flora of the South Coast of 
Devon and Cornwall ;—Supplement to a Report on the Extinct Didine Birds of the Masca- 
rene Islands ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Fourth Report on Dredging 
among the Shetland Isles ;—Preliminary Report on the Crustacea, &c., procured by the 
Shetland Dredging Committee in 1867 ;—Report on the Foraminifera obtained in the Shet- 
land Seas;—Second Report of the Rainfall Committee ;—-Report on the best means of 
providing for a Uniformity of Weights and Measures, with reference to the Interests of 
Science ;—Report on Standards of Electrical Resistance. : 

‘Together with the Transactions of the Sections, and Recommendations of the Association 
and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS oF rae THIRTY-EIGHTH MEETING, at Nor- 
wich, August 1868, Published at £1 5s. 


ConTEnTs :—Report of the Lunar Committee;—Fourth Report on Kent’s Cavern, Devon- 
shire ;—On Puddling Iron;—Fourth Report on the Structure and Classification of the 
Fossil Crustacea ;—Report on British Fossil Corals;—Report on Spectroscopic Investigations 
of Animal Substances ;—Report of Steamship Performance Committee ;—Spectrum Analysis 
of the Heavenly Bodies ;—On Stellar Spectrometry ;—Report on the Physiological Action of 
the Methyl and allied Compounds ;—Report on the Action of Mercury on the Biliary 
Secretion ;—Last Report on Dredging among the Shetland Isles;—Reports on the Crustacea, 
&e., and on the Annelida and Foraminifera from the Shetland Dredgings ;— Report on the 
Chemical Nature of Cast Iron, Part I.;—Interim Report on the Safety of Merchant Ships 
and their Passengers ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Preliminary Report 
on Mineral Veins containing Organic Remains ;—Report on the desirability of Explorations 
between India and China;—Report of Rainfall Committee ;—Report on Synthetical Re- 
searches on Organic Acids ;—Report on Uniformity of Weights and Measures ;-—Report of the 
Committee on Tidal Observations ;—Report of the Committee on Underground Temperature; 
—Changes of the Moon’s Surface ;—Report on Polyatomic Cyanides. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. Hooker’s Address, and Recommenda- 
tions of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or razr THIRTY-NINTH MEETING, at Exeter, Au- 
gust 1869, Published at £1 2s. 


Contents :—Report on the Plant-beds of North Greenland ;—Report on the existing 
knowledge on the Stability, Propulsion, aud Sea-going Qualities of Ships;—Report on 
Steam-boiler Explosions ;—Preliminary Report on the Determination of the Gases existing 
in Solution in Well-waters;—The Pressure of Taxation on Real Property ;—On the Che- 
mical Reactions of Light discovered by Prof. Tyndall ;—On Fossils obtained at Kiltorkan 
Quarry, co. Kilkenny ;—Report of the Lunar Committee ;—Report on the Chemical Na- 
ture of Cast Iron;—Report on the Marine Fauna and Flora of the south coast of Devon 
and Cornwall ;—Report on the Practicability of establishing “a Close Time” for the Protec- 
tion of Indigenous Animals ;—Experimental Researches on the Mechanical Properties of 
Steel;—Second Report on British Fossil Corals ;—Report of the Committee appointed to 
get cut and prepared Sections of Mountain-limestone Corals for Photographing ;—Report on 
the rate of Increase of Underground Temperature ;—Fifth Report on Kent’s Cavern, De- 
vonshire ;—Report on the Connexion between Chemical Constitution and Physiological 
Action ;—On Emission, Absorption, and Reflection of Obscure Heat ;—Report on Obser- 
vations of Luminous Meteors ;—Report on Uniformity of Weights and Measures ;—Report on 
the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Supplement to Second Report of the Steam- 
ship-Performance Committee ;—Report on Recent Progress in Elliptic and Hyperelliptic 
Functions ;—Report on Mineral Veins in Carboniferous Limestone and their Organic Con- 
tents ;—Notes on the Foraminifera of Mineral Veins and the Adjacent Strata ;—Report of 
the Rainfall Committee ;—Interim Report on the Laws of the Flow and Action of Water 
containing Solid Matter in Suspension;—Interim Report on Agricultural Machinery ;— 
Report on the Physiological Action of Methyl and Allied Series ;—On the Influence of 
Form considered in Relation to the Strength of Railway-axles and other portions of Machi- 
nery subjected to Rapid Alterations of Strain ;—On the Penetration of Armour-plates with 
Long Shells of Large Capacity fired obliquely ;—Report on Standardsof Electrical Resistance. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Stokes’s Address, and Recom- 
mendations of the Association and its Committees. 


* 


281 


PROCEEDINGS or tur FORTIETH MEETING, at Liverpool, Septem- 
ber 1870, Published at 18s. 


Contents :—Report on Steam-boiler Explosions ;—Report of the Committee on the 
. Hematite Iron-ores of Great Britain and Ireland ;—Report on the Sedimentary Deposits of 
the River Onny ;—Report on the Chemical Nature of Cast Iron ;—Report on the practica- 
bility of establishing ‘‘ A Close Time’’ for the protection of Indigenous Animals ;—Report 
on Standards of Electrical Resistance ;—Sixth Report on Kent’s Cavern ;—Third Report on 
Underground Temperature ;—Second Report of the Committee appointed to get cut and 
prepared Sections of Mountain-Limestone Corals ;—Second Report on the Stability, Pro- 
pulsion, and Sea-going Qualities of Skips ;—Report on Earthquakes in Scotland ;—Report 
on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Me- 
teors, 1869-70 ;—Report on Recent Progress in Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Functions ;— 
Report on Tidal Observations ;—On a new Steam-power Meter ;—Report on the Action of 
the Methyl and Allied Series ;—Report of the Rainfall Committee ;—Report on the Heat 
generated in the Blood in the process of Arterialization ;—Report on the best means of 
providing for Uniformity of Weights and Measures. 
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Huxley’s Address, and Recommen- 
dations of the Association and its Committees. 


’ Printed by Taylor and Francis, Red Lion Court, Fleet Strect. 


BRITISH ASSOCIATION 


FOR 


THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. 


Leks 


OF 
OFFICERS, COUNCIL, AND MEMBERS. 


CORRECTED TO DECEMBER 1871. 


5 WOWTIOR TO TAT MAOARVERS 


; | a hy nS a 
a oS ete GA 100 YOo ees 


AVAL sae OF Cartas aaene a ‘ sa 


OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1871-72. 


TRUSTEES (PERMANENT). 


General Sir EpwArD SABInE, K.C.B., R.A., D.C.L., Pres. B.S, 
Sir Puinip DE M. GREY EGERTON, Bart., M.P., F.R.S. 


PRESIDENT. 
SIR WILLIAM THOMSON, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.SS.L. & E., Professor of Natural Philosophy in 
the University of Glasgow. 


VICE-PRESIDENTS. 


His Grace The DUKE OF BuccLEucH, K.G., D.C.L., | Sir RopERIcK I. MuRcHISON, Bart., K.C.B., 
F.R.S. G.C.87.8., D.C.L., F.R.S. 

The Right Hon. The Lord Provost of Edinburgh. | Sir CHARLES LYELL, Bart., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S. 

The Right Hon. Joun Inauts, D.C.L., LL.D., Lord} Dr. Lyon PLAYFAIR, M.P., C.B., F.R.S. 


Justice General of Scotland. Professor Sir R. CHRISTISON, Bart., M.D., D,C.L., 
Sir ALEXANDER GRANT, Bart., M.A., Principal of} _ Pres. R.S.E. 
the University of Edinburgh. Professor BALFOUR, M.D., F.R.SS. L. & E. 


PRESIDENT ELECT. 
DR. W. B. CARPENTER, LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. 


VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT. 


The Right Hon. the EArt oF CHICHESTER, Lord | His Grace The DUKE OF DEVONSHIRE, K.G., 
Lieutenant of the County of Sussex. D.C.L., F.R.S. 
His Grace The DuKkE oF NoRFOLK. Sir Jonn LuBBOCK,Bart.,M.P.,F.R.S.,F.L.S.,F.G.8. 
His Grace The DUKE or RicHMonD, K.G., P.C., | Dr. SHARPEY, LL.D., Sec. R.S., F.L.S. 
D.C.L, J. PRESTWICH, Esq., F.R.S., Pres, G.S, 


LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT BRIGHTON. 


CHARLES CARPENTER, Esq. 
The Rey. Dr. GRIFFITH, 
HENRY WILLETT, Esq. 


LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT BRIGHTON. 
WILLIAM HENRY HALLETT, Esq., F.L.S. 


ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. 


BATEMAN, J. F., Esq., F\R.S. MERRIFIELD, C. W., Esq., F.R.S, 

BEDDOE, JOHN, M.D. NorTHcore,Rt.Hon.Sir SrAFFORDH.,Bt.,M.P. 
Desus, Dr. H., F.R.S. RAMSAY, Professor, LL.D., F.R.S. 

Evans, JouN, Esq., F.R.S. RANKINE, Professor W. J. M., LL.D., F.R.S. 
Fircu, J. G., Esq., M.A. SIEMENS, C. W., Esq., D.C.L., F.R.S. 
Foster, Prof. G. C., F.R.S. Simon, JOHN, D.C.L., F.R.S. 

Foster, Prof. M., M.D. SrracuHEyY, Major-General, F.R.S. 

GALTON, FRANCIS, Esq., F.R.S. STRANGE, Lieut.-Colonel A., F.R.S. 
Gassiot, J. P., Esq., D.C.L., F.R.S. Sykes, Colonel, M.P., F.R.S. 
Gopwin-AvustTEN, R. A. C., Esq., F.R.S. TYNDALL, Professor, LL.D., F.R.S. 

Hirst, Dr. T, ARCHER, F.R.S. WALLACE, A. R., Esq., F.R.G.S. 

HvuGGINs, WILLIAM, Esq., D.C.L., F.R.S. WHEATSTONE, Professor Sir C., F.R.S. 
JEFFREYS, J. GWYN, Esq., F.R.S. WILLIAMSON, Professor A. W., F.R.S. 


LocxkyYER, J. N., Esq., F.R.S. 


EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. 
The President and President Elect, the Vice-Presidents and Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and 
Assistant General Secretaries, the General Treasurer, the Trustees, and the Presidents of former 
years, viz. :— 
Rey. Professor Sedgwick. The Rey. H. Lloyd, D.D. Professor Phillips, M.A., D.C.L, 
The Duke of Devonshire. Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L. William R. Grove, Esq., F.R.S. 
The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D. Sir W. Fairbairn, Bart., LL.D. The Duke of Buccleuch, K.B. 
G.B. Airy,Esq.,AstronomerRoyal.| The Rey. Professor Willis, F.R.S.| Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, D.C.L. 
General Sir E. Sabine, K.C.B. Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.R., LL.D. | Professor Stokes, C.B., D.C.L. 
The Earl of Harrowby. Sir Chas. Lyell, Bart., M.A., LL.D. | Prof. Huxley, LL.D. 
The Duke of Argyll. 
GENERAL SECRETARIES. 
Dr. THOMAS THOMSON, F.R.S., F.L.S., The Athenzeum Club, Pall Mall, London, 8.W. 
Capt. DovuaLas GALton, C.B., R.E., F.R.S., 12 Chester Street, Grosvenor Place, London, §.W. 


ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY. 
GEORGE GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., Harrow. 


GENERAL TREASURER. 
WILLIAM SPorriswooDE, Esq., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., 50 Grosvenor Place, London, 8.W. 


AUDITORS. ’ 
G. Busk, Esq., F.R.S. Warren De La Rue, Esq., D.C.L., F.R.S. John Evans, Esq., F.R.S. 


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LIST OF MEMBERS 


OF THE 


/ 


BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT 
OF SCIENCE. 


1871. 


* indicates Life Members entitled to the Annual Report. 
§ indicates Annual Subscribers entitled to the Annual Report. 
§§ indicates an Annual Subscriber who will be entitled to the Annual 
Report, if his Subscription is paid by December 31, 1871, 
{ indicates Subscribers not entitled to the Annual Report. 
Names without any mark before them are Life Members not 
entitled to the Annual Report. 
Names of Members whose addresses are incomplete or not known 
are in ttalics, 


Notice of changes of Residence should be sent to the Assistant General Secretary, 
22 Albemarle Street, London, W, 


Year of 
Election. 
Abbatt, Richard, F.R.A.S. Marlborough-house, Woodberry Down, 
Stoke Newington, London, N. 
1866. {Abbott, George J., United States Consul, Sheffield and Nottingham. 
1863. *Abel, Frederick Augustus, F.R.S., F.C.8., Director of the Chemical 
Establishment of the WarDepartment, Royal Arsenal, Woolwich. 
1856. {Abercrombie, John, M.D. 13 Sutfolk-square, Cheltenham. 
1863. *Abernethy, James. 2 Delahay-street, Westminster, London, S.W. 
1860.§§Abernethy, Robert. Ferry-hill, Aberdeen. 
1854, {Abraham, John. 87 Bold-street, Liverpool. 
1869, tAcland, Charles T. D. Sprydoncote, Exeter. 
Acland, Henry W. D., M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.GS., Regius 
Professor of Medicine in the University of Oxford. Broad-street, 


Oxford. 
1860, {Acland, Sir Thomas Dyke, Bart., M.A., D.C.L., M.P. Sprydoncote, 
Exeter; and Athenzeum Club, London, 8.W. 

Adair, John. 15 Merrion-square North, Dublin. 

* Adair, Colonel Sir Robert A. Shafto, F.R.S. 7 Audley-square, Lon- 
don, W. 

*Adams, John Couch, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Director of 
the Observatory and Lowndean Professor of Astrononfy and 
Geometry in the University of Cambridge. The Observatory, 
Cambridge. 

B 


2 LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. ‘ 


1871. §Adams, John R. 15 Old Jewry Chambers, London, E.C. ¥ 
1869, *Adams, William Grylls, M.A., F.G.S., Professor of Natural Philo- 
sophy and Astronomy in King’s College, London, W.C. 

Adderley, The Right Hon. Sir Charles Bowyer, M.P. Hams-hall 
Coleshill, Warwickshire. 4 

Adelaide, Augustus Short, D.D., Bishop of. South Australia. 

1860. *Adie, Patrick. Grove Cottage, Barnes, London, S.W. 

1865. *Adkins, Henry. The Firs, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

1845. fAinslie, Rey. G., D.D., Master of Pembroke College. Pembroke 
Lodge, Cambridge. : 

1864. *Ainsworth, David. The Flosh, Cleator, Whitehaven. 

1871. *Ainsworth, John Stirling. The Flosh, Cleator, Whitehaven. 

Ainsworth, Peter. Smithills Hall, Bolton. 

1842, *Ainsworth, Thomas. The Flosh, Cleator, Whitehaven. 

1871. §Ainsworth, William M. The Flosh, Cleator, Whitehaven. 

1859, fAirlie, The Right Hon. The Earl of, K.T, Holly Lodge, Campden 
Hill, London, W.: and Airlie Castle, Forfarshire. 

Airy, George Biddell, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Astro- 

nomer Royal. ‘The Royal Observatory, Greenwich, 

1871. §Aitken, John. Darrock, Falkirk, N.B. 
1855, {Aitkin, John, M.D. 21 Blythswood-square, Glasgow. 

Akroyd, Edward, M.P. Banktield, Halifax. P 
1861, *Alcock, Ralph. 47 Nelson-street, Oxford-street, Manchester. 
1862. tAlcock, Sir Rutherford. The Atheneum Club, Pall Mall, London. 
1861. {Alcock, Thomas, M.D. Side Brook, Salemoor, Manchester. 

*Aldam, William. Frickley Hall, near Doncaster. 

Alderson, Sir James, M.A., M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Pres. Roy. Coll. 
Physicians, Consulting Physician to St. Mary’s Hospital. 17 
Berkeley-square, London, W. 

1857. tAldridge, John, M.D, 20 Ranelagh-road, Dublin. 

1859. tAlexander, Colonel Sir James Edward, K.C.L.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. 
Westerton, Bridge of Allan, N. B. 

1858. tAlexander, William, M.D. Halifax. : 

i850. {Alexander, Rev. William Lindsay, D.D., F.R.S.E, Pinkieburn, Mus- 
selburgh, by Edinburgh. 

1851. tAlexander, W.H. Bank-street, Ipswich. 

1869. {Alger, T. L. 

1867, {Alison, George L. C. Dundee. 

1863. {Allan, Miss. Bridge-street, Worcester. 

1859, fAllan, Alexander. Scottish Central Railway, Perth. 

1871. §Allan, G., C.E. 17 Leadenhall-street, London, E.C. 

1862. fAllan, James, M.A., Ph.D. School of Practical Science, Sheffield, 

Allan, William. 22 Carlton-place, Glasgow. 

1871. §Allen, Alfred H., F.C.S, 1 Surrey-street, Sheffield. 
1861, fAllen, Richard. Didsbury, near Manchester. 
Allen, William. 50 Henry-street, Dublin. 
1852. *Allen, William J. C., Secretary to the Royal Belfast Academical 
Institution. Ulster Bank, Belfast. 
1863. fAllhusen, C. Elswick Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
*Allis, Thomas, F.L.S. Osbaldwick Hall, near York. 
*Allman, George J., M.D., F.R.S. L. & E., M.R.LA., 20 Gloucester 
Road, Regent’s Park, London, N.W, 
1868. tAllon, Rev. H. 
1866. Allsopp, Alexander. 
1844 *Ambler, Henry. Watkinson Hall, near Halifax, 
*Amery, John, F.S.A. Manor House, Eckington, Pershore. 
1855, {Anderson, Alexander D.,M.D. 159 St. Vincent-street, Edinburgh, 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 3 


Year of 

Election. . 

1855. {Anderson, Andrew. 2 Woodside-crescent, Glasgow, 

1850. {Anderson, Charles William. Cleadon, South Shields. 

1871. *Anderson, James. Battlefield House, Langside, Glasgow. 

1852. tAnderson, Sir James. Glasgow, 

1855. {Anderson, James, ; 

1850, {Anderson, John, 31 St. Bernard’s-crescent, Edinburgh. 

1859, TAnderson, Patrick. 15 King-street, Dundee. 

1850. {Anderson, Thomas, M.D., Professor of Chemistry in the University of 
Glasgow. 

1870,§§Anderson, Thomas Darnley. West Dingle, Liverpool. 

1853. *Anderson, William (Yr.). Linktown, Kirkcaldy, Scotland. 

*Andrews, Thomas, M.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA., F.C.8., Vice-President of, 
and Professor of Chemistry in, Queen’s College, Belfast. 

1857. {Andrews, William. The Hill, Monkstown, Co. Dublin. 

1859. {Angus, John. Town House, Aberdeen. 

*Ansted, David Thomas, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.8.,F.R.G.S. 33 Bruns- 
wick-square, London, W.C. 
: Anthony, John, M.D. Caius College, Cambridge, 

1868. {Anstie, Francis E., M.D, 16 Wimpole-street, London, W. 

Apjohn, James, M.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA., Professor of Chemistry, 
Trinity College, Dublin. South Hill, Blackrock, Co. Dublin. 

1863. {Appleby,C.J. Emerson-street, Bankside, Southwark, London, 8.E. 

1859. Arbuthnot, C. T. 

1870.§§Archer, Francis, jun. _3 Brunswick-street, Liverpool. 

1855, *Archer, Thomas C., F.R.S.E., Director of the Museum of Science 
and Art. 9 Argyll-place, Edinburgh. 

1851. fArgyll, The Duke of, K-T., LL.D, PRS. L.& E., F.G.S. Argyll 
Lodge, Kensington, London; and Inyerary, Argyllshire. i 

1865, {Armitage, J. W., M.D. 9 Huntriss-row, Scarborough. 

1861. §Armitage, William, 7 Meal-street, Mosley-stréet, Manchester. 

1867. *Armitstead, George, M.P. Errol Park, Exrol, by Dundee. 

Armstrong, Thomas, Higher Broughton, Manchester. 

1857. *Armstrong, Sir William George, C.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. 8 Great 
George-street, London, 8.W.; and Elswick Works, Newcastle- 
upon-Tyne. 

1856, {Armstrong, William Jones, M.A, Mount Irwin, Tynna, Co, Armagh. 

1868, {Arnold, Edward., F.C.S. Prince of Wales-road, Norwich. 

1871. §Arnot, William, F.C.S. St. Ann’s Villa, Lasswade, N.B. 

Arnott, Neil, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. 2 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s 
Park, London, N.W. 

1870. §Arnott, Thomas Reid. 2 Church Road, Seaforth, Liverpool. 

1864. §Arrowsmith, John, F.R.A.S,, F.R.G.S, 35 Hereford-square, South 
Kensington, London, 8.W. 

1853, *Arthur, Rey. William, M.A. Centenary Hall, Bishopsgate-street 
Within, London, E.C, 

1870. *Ash, Linnington, Holsworthy, North Devon. 

1842, *Ashton, Thomas, M.D. ‘8 Royal Wells-terrace, Cheltenham. 

Ashton, Thomas. Ford Bank, Didsbury, Manchester. 
1866, {Ashwell, Henry. Mount-street, New Basford, Nottingham, 
*Ashworth, Edmund. Egerton Hall, Turton, near Bolton. 
Ashworth, Henry. Turton, near Bolton. 
1861. tAspland, Alfred. Dukinfield, Ashton-under-Lyne, 
Applet aime Sydney, Glamorgan House, Durdham Down, 
ristol. 
1861. §Asquith, J. R. Infirmary-street, Leeds. 
1861. {Aston, Thomas, 4 Elm-court, Temple, London, E.C, 
1858, {Atherton, Charles. Sandover, Isle of Wight, 


re 


B2 


4 : 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 


Year of 
Election. 


1866.§§Atherton, J. H., F.C.S. Long-row, Nottingham. 


1865, 
1861, 
1869. 


1865. 
1863. 
1858. 
1842. 


1861. 


1858, 


1863. 


1859. 
1860. 


1865. 
1865. 


tAtkin, Alfred. Griffin’s-hill, Birmingham, 

tAtkin, Eli. Newton Heath, Manchester. 

* Atkinson, Anthony Owst, M.A., LL.D. Clare House, Hull; and New 
University Club, St. James’s, London, S. W. 

Bese Edmund, F.C.S. 7 The Terrace, Sandhurst, Farnborough 

tation. 

*Atkinson, G. Clayton. Wylam Hall, Northumberland. 

* Atkinson, John Hastings, 14 East Parade, Leeds. 

*Atkinson, Joseph Beavyington. Stratford House, 13 Carlisle-terrace, 
Kensington, London, W. 

tAtkinson, Rey. J. A. Longsight Rectory, near Manchester, 

*Atkinson, J. R. W. 

Atkinson, William. Ashton Hayes, near Chester. 

*Attfield, Dr. J. 17 Bloomsbury-square, London, W.C. 

* Auldjo, John, F.GS. 

t Austin, Alfred. 

*Austin-Gourlay, Rey. William E. C., M.A. Stoke Abbott Rectory, 
Beaminster, Dorset. 

*Avery, Thomas. Church-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

*Avery, William Henry. Norfolk-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 


1867.§§Avison. Thomas, F.S.A. Fulwood Park, Liverpool. 


1853. 


1845, 


1863. 


1870. 


1865. 
1855. 
1866. 
1866. 
1857, 


1865, 


1858. 
1865, 
1858. 


1866, 
1858. 
1865. 


*Ayrton, W.S., F.S.A. Saltburn-by-the-Sea. ~ 


Babbage, B. H. 1 Dorset-street, Manchester-square, London, W. 
*Babington, Charles Cardale, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., Professor 
of Botany in the University of Cambridge, 6 Trumpington- 
road, Cambridge. 
Bache, Rey. Samuel. 44 Frederick-street, Edebaston, Birmingham. 


. [Back, Rear-Admiral Sir George, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.G.S, 109 
1867. 


Gloucester-place, Portman-square, London, W. 

*Bagg, Stanley Clark. Fairmount Villa, Montreal, Canada. 

Backhouse, Edmund. Darlington. 
tBackhouse, J. W. Sunderland. 
Backhouse, Thomas James. Sunderland. 

* Baddeley, Captain Frederick H., R.E. 

§Bailey, F. J. 51 Grove-street, Liverpool. 

Bailey, Samuel. Sheffield. 

tBailey, Samuel, F.G.S. The Peck, Walsall. 

{Bailey, William. Hovrseley Iields Chemical Works, Wolverhampton. 

{Baillon, Andrew. St. Mary’s Gate, Nottingham. 

TBaillon, L. St. Mary’s Gate, Nottingham. 

{Baily, William Hellier, F.L.S., F.G.8., Acting Palontologist to the 
Geological Survey of Ireland. 51 Stephen’s Green, and 24 
Kenilworth-square North, Dublin. 

*Bain, Richarc.. Manor Hall, Forest Hill, London, S.E. 

{Bain, Rey. W. J. Wellingborough. 

*Bainbridge, Robert Walton. Middleton House, Middleton-in-Tees- 
dale, by Darlington. 

*Baines, dward, M.P. 28 Grosvenor-street West, London, S.W.; 
and Headingley Lodge, Leeds. 

{Baines, Frederick. Burley, near Leeds. 

§Baines, Thomas, F.R.G.8. 35 Austen-street, King’s Lynn, Norfolk. 

{Baines, T. Blackburn. ‘Mercury’ Office, Leeds. 

§ Baker, Francis B. Arboretum Street, Nottingham. 

*Baker, Henry Granville. Bellevue, Horsforth, nesr Leeds. 

{Baker, James P, Wolverhampton, 


cr 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1861. *Baker, John. Gatley-hill, Cheadle, Cheshire. 

1861. *Baker, John. (R. Brooks & Co., St. Peter’s Chambers, Cornhill, 
London, C.E.) 

1865. {Baker, Robert lL. Barham House, Leamington. 

1847, TBaker, Thomas B. Lloyd. Hardwick-court, Gloucester. 

1849. *Baker, William. 63 Gloucester-place, Hyde Park, London, W. 

1863. §Baker, William. 6 Taptonville, Sheffield. 

1845. {Bakewell, Frederick. 6 Haverstock-terrace, Hampstead, London, 


N.W. 

1860. §Balding, James, M.R.C.S. Barkway, Royston, Hertfordshire. 

1851. *Baldwin, The Hon. Robert, H.M. Attorney-General. Spadina, Co, 

York, Upper Canada. 

1871. §Balfour, Francis Maitland. Trinity College, Cambridge. 

1871. §Balfour, G.W. Whittinghame, Prestonkirk, Scotland. : 

*Balfour, John Hutton, M.D., M.A., F.R.S. L. & E., F.L.S., Professor 
of Botany in the University of Edinburgh. 27 Inyerleith-row, 
Edinburgh. 

*Ball, John, F.RS., F.LS., MARTA. 24 St. George’s-road, Eccles- 
ton-square, London, S.W. 

1866, *Ball, Robert Stawell, M.A., Professor of Applied Mathematics and 
Mechanies in the Royal College of Science of Ireland. 47 Wel- 
lington-place, Upper Leeson-street, Dublin. 

1863. {Ball, Thomas. Bramcote, Nottingham. 

*Ball, William. Bruce-grove, Tottenham, London, N.; and Rydall, 
Ambleside, Westmoreland. 

» 1870. §Balmain, William H., F'.C.S.. Spring Cottage, Great St. Helens. 

1869. {Bamber, Henry K., F.C.S. 5 Westminster Chambers, Victoria-street, 

Westminster, S. W. 

1852. {Bangor, Viscount. Castleward, Co. Down, Ireland. 

1861. {Bannerman, James Alexander. Limefield House, Higher Broughton, 
near Manchester. 

1870.§§Banister, Rev. William, B.A. St. James’s Mount, Liverpool. 

1866. {Barber, John. Long-row, Nottingham. 

1861. *Barbour, George. Kingslee, Farndon, Chester. 

1859. {Barbour, George F. 11 George Square, Edinburgh. 

*Barbour, Robert. Bolesworth Castle, Tattenhall, Cheste:. 

1855. {Barclay, Andrew. Kilmarnock, Scotland. 

Barclay, Charles, F.S.A., M.R.A.S. Bury-hill, Dorking. 

1871. §Barclay, George. 17 Coates-crescent, Edinburgh. 

Barclay, James. Catrine, Ayrshire. 

1852. *Barclay, J. Gumey. Walthamstow, Essex. 

1860. *Barclay, Robert. Oak Hall, Wanstead, Essex. 

1868. *Barclay, W. L. Knott’s Green, Leyton, Essex. 

1863. *Barford, James Gale, F.C.S. Wellington College, Wokingham, 

Berkshire. 
1860. *Barker, Rey. Arthur Alcock, B.D. East Bridgetord Rectory, Notts. 
1857. {Barker, John, M.D., Curator of the Royal College of Surgeons of 
: Treland. Waterloo-road, Dublin. : 

1865. {Barker, Stephen. 30 Frederick-street, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

1870.§§ Barkly, Sir Henry, K.C.B., F.R.S. Bath. 

Barlow, Lieut.-Col. Maurice (14th Regt. of Foot). 5 Great George- 
street, Dublin. 
Barlow, Peter. 5 Great George-street, Dublin. 

1857. {Barlow, Peter William, F.R.S., F.G.8. 8 Eliott-place, Blackheath, 
London, 8.E. 

1861, eee Major R. Cary, F.L.S. Bartlow, Leckhampton, Chelten- 

am, 


6 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1864. 
1868. 


*Barneby, John H. Brockhampton Park, Worcester. 
§Barnes, Richard H. 40 Kensington Park Gardens, London, W. 
*Barnes, Thomas, M.D., F.R.S.E. Bunker’s Hill, Carlisle. 
Barnes, Thomas Addison. 40 Chester Street, Wrexham. 
*Barnett, Richard, M.R.C.S. Avon-side, Coten End, Warwickshire. 


. {Barr, Major-General, Bombay Army. Culter House, near Aberdeen. 


(Messrs. Forbes, Forbes & Co., 9 King William-street, London.) 


. *Barr, William R. Heaton Lodge, Heaton Mersey, near Manchester. 
. {Barrett, T. B. High-street, Welshpool, Montgomery. 

2. {Barrington, Edward. Fassaroe Bray, Co. Wicklow. 

. {Barron,. William. Elvaston Nurseries, Borrowash, Derby. 

. tBarry, Rev. A., D.D., D.C.L., Principalof King’sCollege,London, W.C. 
. *Barry, Charles. Lapswood, Sydenham-hill, Kent, 8.E. 


Barstow, Thomas. Garrow-hill, near York. 


. *Bartholomew, Charles. Broxholme, Doncaster. 

55. {Bartholomew, Hugh. New Gas-works, Glasgow. 

. *Bartholomew, William Hamond. Albion Villa, Spencer-place, Leeds. 
. *Barton, Edward (27th Inniskillens). Clonelly, Ireland. 

57. {Barton, Folloit W. Clonelly, Co. Fermanagh. 

. {Barton, James. Farndreg, Dundalk. 


*Barton, John. Bank of Ireland, Dublin. 


. {Bartrum, John 8. 41 Gay-street, Bath. 
. §Baruchson, Arnold. Blundell Sands, near Liverpool. 
. *Barwick, John Marshall. Albion-place, Leeds; and Glenview, 


Shipley, near Leeds. 
*Bashforth, Rev. Francis, B.D. 15 Campbell-terrace, Plumstead, 
Kent, 8.E. 


. {Bass, John H., F.G.S. 287 Camden-road, London, N. 

6. *Bassett, Henry. 215 Hampstead-road, London, N.W. 

56. {Bassett, Richard. Pelham-street, Nottingham. 

69. {Bastard, S.S. Summerland-place, Exeter. 

. §Bastian, H. Charlton, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Pathological 


Anatomy to University College Hospital. 20 Queen Anne-street, 
London, W. 


48. {Bate, C. pty: F.R.S., F.L.S. 8 Mulgrave-place, Plymouth. 
8. {Bateman, f 


rederick, M.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich. 
Bateman, James, M.A., F.R.S., F.LS., F.H.S. 9 Hyde Park Gate, 
Landon, W. 


42, *Bateman, John Frederic, C.E., F.R.S., F.G.S. 16 Great George- 


street, London, 8. W. 


. §Bates, Henry Walter, Assist.-Sec. R.G.S. 15 Whitehall-place, Lon- 


don, S.W. 


52. {Bateson, Sir Robert, Bart. Belvoir Park, Belfast. 

. {Bath and Wells, Lord Arthur Hervey, Lord Bishop of. 

33. *Bathurst, Rev. W. H. Lydney, Gloucestershire. 

. {Batten, John Winterbotham. 55 Palace Gardens-terrace, Kensing- 


ton, London, 8.W. 


3. §Bauerman, Henry, F.G.S. 22 Acre-lane, Brixton, London, 8.W. 
. {Baxendell, Joseph, F.R.A.S. 108 Stock-street, Manchester, 

37. *Baxter, Sir David, Bart. Kilmaron, Cupar, Fifeshire, 

7. {Baxter, Edward. Hazel’ Hall, Dundee. 


1867. 


{Baxter, John B. Craig Tay House, Dundee. 


1870.§§ Baxter, R. Dudley, M.A. 6 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W., and 


1867. 
1851. 
1866. 


Hampstead. 
{Baxter, William Edward, M.P. Ashcliffe, Dundee. 
*Bayley, George. 2Cowper’s-court, Cornhill, London, E.C, 
{Bayley, Thomas. Lenton, Nottingham. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 7 


Year of 
Election. 


1854, {Baylis, C.O., M.D. 22 Devonshire-road, Claughton, Birkenhead. 
Bayly, John. 1 Brunswick-terrace, Plymouth. 

1868. {Bayes, William, M.D. Brunswick Lodge, Newmarket-road, Norwich. 

1860. *Beale, Lionel S.,M.D., F.R.S. 61 Grosvenor-street, London, W. 

1833, *Beamish, Richard, F.R.S. Woolston Lawn, Woolston, Southampton. 

1861. §Bean, William. Alfreton, Derbyshire. 

1870.§§ Beard, Rev. Charles. 13 South Hill Road, Toxteth Park, Liverpool. 

1866. *Beardmore, Nathaniel, C.E.,F.G.S, 30GreatGeorge-st., London,S.W. 

*Beatson, William. Chemical Works, Rotherham. 

1855, *Beaufort, William Morris, F.R.G.S., M.R.A.S. Atheneum Club 

ats Pall Mall, London, 8. W. 

1861. *Beaumont, Rev. Thomas George. Chelmondiston Rectory, Ipswich. 

1871. *Beazley, Capt. George G.. Army and Navy Club, Pall Mall, Lon- 
don, 8. W. 

1859. *Beck, Joseph, F.R.A.S. 31 Cornhill, London, E.C. 

1851. {Becker, Ernest, Ph.D. Darmstadt. 

1864. §Becker, Miss Lydia E. Whalley Range, Manchester. 

1860, {Beckles, Samuel H., F.R.S.,F.G.8. 9 Grand Parade, St. Leonards- 
on-Sea. 

1866. {Beddard, James. Derby-road, Nottingham. 

1870. §Beddoe, John, M.D. Clifton, Bristol. 

1854. { Bedford, James, Ph.D. 

1846. {Beke, Charles T., Ph.D., F.S.A., F.R.G.8. Bekesbourne Tlouse, 
near Canterbury, Kent. 

1865. *Belavenetz, I., Captain of the Russian Imperial Navy, F.R.LG.S., 

‘ M.S.C.M.A., Superintendent of the Compass’ Observatory, 
Cronstadt. (Care of Messrs. Baring Brothers, Bishopsgate- 
street, London, E.C.) 

1847. *Belcher, Vice-Admiral Sir Edward, K.C.B., F.R.AS., F.R.G.S. 

22a Connaught-square, London, W. 

1871. §Bell, Archibald. Cleator, Carnforth. 

1871. §Bell, Charles B. 6 Spring Bank, Hull. 

Bell, Frederick John. Woodlands, near Maldon, Essex. 

1859. {Bell, George. Windsor-buildings, Dumbarton. 

1860. {Bell, Rev. George Charles, M.A. Christ’s Hospital, London, E.C. 

1855. {Bell, Capt. Henry. Chalfont Lodge, Cheltenham. 

1862. *Bell, Isaac Lowthian. The Hall, Washington, Co. Durham. 

1870.§§Bell, J. Carter. Gilda Brooth, Eccles, Manchester. 

1871. *Bell, J. Carter, F.C.S. Gilda Brook, Eccles, Manchester. 

1853. {Bell, John Pearson, M.D. Waverley House, Hull. 

1864. {Bell, R. Queen’s College, Kingston, Canada. 

: Bell, Thomas, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.8., Professor of Zoology, King’s 

College, London. The Wakes, Selborne, near Alton, Hants. 

1863. *Bell, Thomas. The Minories, Jesmond, Neweastle-on-Tyne. 

1867. {Bell, Thomas. Belmont, Dundee. 

1842. Bellhouse, Edward Taylor. Hagle Foundry, Manchester. 

1854, {Bellhouse, William Dawson. 1 Park-street, Leeds. 

; Bellingham, Sir Alan. Castle Bellingham, Ireland. 

1866. *Belper, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S. 88 
Eaton-square, London, 8.W.; and Kingston Hall, Derby. 

1864. *Bendyshe, T. The Library, King’s College, Cambridge. 

1870.§§ Bennett, Alfred W., M.A., B.Sc., F.LS. 6 Park Village East, 
Regent’s Park, London, N.W. 

1871. §Bennett, F. J. 12 Hillmarten-road, Camden-road, London, N. 

1838. {Bennett, John Hughes, M.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Institutesof Medi- 

" - cine in the University of Edinburgh. 1 Glenfinlas-street, Edinb. 

1870. *Bennett, William. Heysham Tower, ‘Lancaster. 0b 


? 


8 LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 
1870. *Bennett, William, jun. Sir Thomas’s Buildings, Liverpool. 
1852. *Bennoch, Francis. The Knoll, Blackheath, Kent, 8.E. 
1857. {Benson, Charles. 11 Fitzwilliam-square West, Dublin. 
Benson, Robert, jun. Fairfield, Manchester. 
1848. {Benson, Starling, F.G.S. Gloucester-place, Swansea. 
1870.§§Benson, W. Alresford, Hants. 
1863. {Benson, William. Fourstones Court, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
1848. {Bentham, George, F.R.S., Pres. L.S, 25 Wilton-place, Knightsbridge, 
London, 8. W. 
1842. Bentley, John. 9 Portland-place, London, W. 
1863. §Bentley, Robert, F.L.S., Professor of Botany in King’s College. 
55 Clifton-road, St. John’s-wood, London, N.W. 
1868. {Berkeley, Rev. M. J., M.A., F.L.S. Sibbertoft, Market Harborough. 
1863. {Berkley, C. Marley Hill, Gateshead, Durham, 
1848. {Berrington, Arthur V. D. Woodlands Castle, near Swansea. 
1866. §Berry, Rev. ArthurGeorge. Monyash Parsonage, Bakewell, Derbyshire. 
1870. §Berwick, George, M.D. 36 Fawcett-street, Sunderland. 
1862. {Besant, William Henry, M.A. St. John’s College, Cambridge. 
1865. *Bessemer, Henry. Denmark-hill, Camberwell, London, 8.E. 
1858. {Best, William. Leydon-terrace, Leeds. 
Bethune, Admiral, C.B., F.R.G.S. Balfour, Fifeshire. 
1859. {Beveridge, Robert, M.B. 36 King-street, Aberdeen. 
1863. {Bewick, Thomas John, F.G.S. Haydon Bridge, Northumberland. 
*Bickerdike, Rev. John, M.A. St. Mary’s Vicarage, Leeds. 
1870. §Bickerton,A.W.,F.C.S. Oak House, Belle Vue-road, Southampton. 
1868. {Bidder, George Parker, C.E., F.R.G.S. 24 Great George-street, 
Westminster, S.W. 
1863. {Bigger, Benjamin. Gateshead, Durham. 
1864. {Biges, Robert. 17 Charles-street, Bath. 
1855, {Billings, Robert William. 4St. Mary’s-road, Canonbury, London, N. 
Bilton, Rey. William, M.A., F.G.S. United University Club, Suffolk- 
street, London, 8.W.; and Chislehurst, Kent. 
1842. Binney, Edward William, F’.R.S.,F.G.S, 40 Cross-street, Manchester. 
Birchall, Henry. College-house, Bradford. 
Birchall, Edwin. Airedale Cliff, Newley, Leeds. 
1866. *Birkin, Richard, jun. The Park, Nottingham. 
*Birks, Rev. Thomas Rawson. Trinity College, Cambridge. 
1842. *Birley, Richard. Seedley, Pendleton, Manchester. 
1861. {Birley, Thomas Thorneley. 
1841, *Birt, William Radcliff F.R.A.S.  Cynthia-villa, Clarendon-road, 
Walthamstow, London, N.E. 
1871, *Bischof, Professor Gustav. Andersonian University, Glasgow. 
1868. {Bishop, John. Thorpe Hamlet, Norwich. 
1866. {Bishop, Thomas. Bramcote, Nottingham. 
1863, {Black, William. South Shields. 
1869, {Blackall, Thomas. 13 Southernhay, Exeter. 
Blackburne, Rey. John, M.A. Yarmouth, Isle of Wight. 
See Rey. John, jun., M.A. Rectory, Horton, near Chip- 
enham., 
1859. iBlackie, John Stewart, Professor of Greek. Edinburgh. 
1855. *Blackie, W. G., Ph.D., F.R.G.S. 1 Belhaven-tervace, Glasgow. 
1870.§§Blackmore, W. Founder's Court, Lothbury, London, E.C. 
*Blaclavall, Rey. John, F.L.S. Hendre House, near Llanrwst, Den- 
bighshire. 
1863. {Bladen, Charles. Jarrow Iron Company, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
1863, {Blake, C. Carter, Ph.D., F.G,S. 170 South Lambeth-road, Lon- 
don, S.W, 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 9 


Year of 
Election. 
1849 *Blake, Henry Wollaston, M.A., F.R.S. 8 Devonshire-place, Portland- 
place, London, W. 
1846, *Blake, William. Bridge House, South Petherton, Somerset. 
1845, {Blakesley, Rev. J. W., B.D. Ware Vicarage, Hertfordshire. 
1861.§§Blakiston, Matthew. Mobberley, Knutsford. 
pete, Peyton, M.D., F.R.S. Warrior-square, St. Leonard’s- 
on-Sea. 
1868. {Blanc, Henry, M.D. 9 Bedford-street, Bedford-square, London, W.C. 
1869. {Blandford, W. T., F.G.S., Geological Survey of India, Calcutta. (12 
Keppel-street, Russell-square, London, W.C.) 
Blanshard, William. Redcar. 
Blore, Edward, F.S.A. 4 Manchester-square, London, W. 
1870.§§Blundell, Thomas Weld. Ince Blundell Hall, Great Crosby, Lan- 
cashire. 
1859, {Blunt, Sir Charles, Bart. Heathfield Park, Sussex. 
1859. {Blunt, Capt. Richard. Bretlands, Chertsey, Surrey. 
Blyth, B. Hall. 135 George-street, Hdinbureh. 
1850. {Blyth, John, M.D., Professor of Chemistry in Queen’s College, Cork. 
1858. *Blythe, William. Holland Bank, near Accrington. 
1870.§§Boardman, Edward. Queen-street, Norwich. 
Boase, Charles W. 25 Drummond-place, Edinburgh. 
1845, {Bodmer, Rodolphe. Newport, Monmouthshire. 
1864, {Boge, J. Louth, Lincolnshire. 


foley] 
1866. §Bogg, Thomas Wemyss. Louth, Lincolnshire. 
1859. *Bohn, Henry G., F.LS., FR.AS., F.R.G.S. North End House, 
Twickenham, London,-S.W. 
1871. §Bohn, Mrs. North-end House, Twickenham. 
1859, {Bolster, Rey. Prebendary John A. Cork. 
Bolton, R. L. Laurel Mount, Aigburth-road, Liverpool, 
1866. {Bond, Banks. Low Pavement, Nottingham. 
1863. {Bond, Francis T., M.D. Hartley Institution, Southampton. 
Bond, Henry John Hayes, M.D. Cambridge. 
1871. §Bonney, Rev, Thomas George, M.A., F.\S.A., F.G.8. St. John’s Col- 
lege, Cambridge, 
Bonomi, Ignatius, 386 Blandford-square, London, N.W. 
comes oseph. Soane’s Museum, 15 Lincoln’s-Inn-fields, London, 
‘W ‘ 


1866. {Booker, W. H. Cromwell-terrace, Nottingham, 
1861. §Booth, James. Elmfield, Rochdale. 
1835, {Booth, Rev. James, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. The Vicarage, Stone, 
near Aylesbury. 
1861. *Booth, John. Greenbank, Monton, near Manchester. 
1861. *Booth, William. Holybank, Cornbrook, Manchestev. 
1861, *Borchardt, Dr. Louis. Oxford Chambers, Oxford-street, Manchester. 
1849. {Boreham, William W., F.R.A.S. The Mount, Haverhill, Newmarket, 
1863. {Borries, Theodore. Lovaine-crescent, Newcastle-on-Tyne, 
*Bossey, Francis, M.D. Oxford-road, Red Hill, Surrey. 
_ Bosworth, Rev. Joseph, LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A., M.R-LA., Professor 
of Anglo-Saxon in the University of Oxford. Oxford. 
1867, §Botly, William, F.S.A. Salisbury Villa, Hamlet-road, Upper Nor- 
_ wood, London, 8.E. 
1858. {Botterill, John. Burley, near Leeds. 
1868. {Bottle, J.T. 28 Nelson-road, Great Yarmouth. 
1871. §Bottomley, James Thomson, M.A., F.C.S. The College, Glasgow. 
Bottomley, William. Forbreda, Belfast. 

1850. {Bouch, Thomas, C.E. Oxford-terrace, Edinburgh. 
1870.§§Boult, Swinton. 1 Dale-street, Liverpool, 


10° -LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 
Bourne, Lieut.- Colonel J. D. 
1866.§§Bourne, Stephen. Abberley Lodge, Hudstone-drive, Harrow, N. Ww. 
1858. {Bousfield, Charles. Roundhay, near Leeds. 
1868. {Boulton, W.S. Norwich. 
1870. §Bower, Anthony. Bowerdale, Seaforth, Liverpool. 
1867. {Bower, Dr. John. Perth. 
1846. *Bowerbank, James Scott, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.8., F.LS., FLR.A.S. 
2 Kast Ascent, St. Leonard’s-on-Sea, 
1856. *Bowlby, Miss F. E. 27 Lansdown-crescent, Cheltenham. 
1863. {Bowman, R. Benson. Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
Bowman, William, F.R.S. 5 Clifford-street, London, W. 
1869. §Bowring, Charles T. Elmsleigh, Princes’ Park, Liverpool. : 
tBowring, Sir John, LL.D., FRS. Atheneum Club, Pall Mall, 
London, 8.W.; and Claremont, Exeter. 
1869. {Bowring, J. 6, Larkbeare, Exeter. 
1865. {Bowren, James. South Stockton-on-Tees. 
1863. §Boyd, Edward Fenwick. Moor House, near Durham. 
1871. §Boyd, Thomas J. 41 Moray-place, Edinburgh. 
Boyle, Alexander, M.R.LA. 35 College Green, Dublin. 
1865. {Boyle, Rev. G. D. Soho House, Handsworth, Birmingham. 
Brabant, R. H., M.D. Bath. 
1869. *Braby, Frederick, F.G.8., F.C.S. Mount Henley, Sydenham Hill, 8.E. 
1870. §Brace, Edmund. 17 Water-street, Liverpool. 
Bracebridge, Charles Holt, F.R. GS. The Hall, Atherstone, War- 
wickshire. 
1861. *Bradshaw, William. 35 Mosley=street, Manchester. 
1842. *Brady, Sir Antonio, F.G.S. Maryland Point, Stratford, Essex. 
1857. *Brady, Cheyne, M. R.LA. Four Courts, Co. Dublin, 
Brady, Daniel F., M.D. 5 Gardiner’s-row, Dublin. 
1863. {Brady, George Ss) 92 Fawcett-street, Sunderland. 
1862.§§ Brady, Henry Bowman, F.L.S., F.G. Ss. 40 Mosley-street, Newcastle- 
on-Tyne. 
1858. {Brae, Andrew Edmund. 29 Park-square, Leeds. 
1864. §Braham, Philip. 6 George-street, Bath. 
1870.§§Braidwood, Dr. Delemere Terrace, Birkenhead. 
1864. §Braikenridge, Rev. George Weare, M.A.,F.L.S. Clevedon, Somerset. 
1865. §Bramwell, ‘Frederick J.,C.E. 37 Great George-street, London, 8. W. 
Brancker, Rey. Thomas, M.A. Limington, Somerset. 
1867. {Brand, William. Milnefield, Dundee. 
1861. *Brandreth, Henry. Dickleborouzh Rectory, Scole, Norfolk. 
1852. {Brazier, James S§., F.C.8., Professor of Chemistry in Marischal College 
and Univ ersity of Aberdeen. 
1857. {Brazill, Thomas. 12 Holles-street, Dublin. 
1869. *Breadalbane, The Right Hon. Earlof. Taymouth Castle, N. B.; and 
Carlton Club, Pall Mall, London, S.W. 
1859. she! yh} ys C. Audit Office, Somerset House, London, 
W 


1859. *Brebner, James. Moss Villa, Elgin, N.B. 

1867. {Brechin, The Right Rev. Alexander Penrose Forbes, Lord Bishop 
of, D.C.L. “Castlehill, Dundee. 

1868. sBremridge, Elias. 17 Bloomsbury-square, London, W.C, 

1869. {Brent, Colonel Robert. Woodbury, Exeter. 

1860. ¢Brett, G. Salford. 

1854. *Brett, Henry Watkins. 

1866. {Brettell, Thomas (Mine Agent). Dudley. 

1865. §Brewin, William. Cirencester. 

1867.§§ Bridgman, William Kenceley, 69 St. Giles’s-street, Norwich. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. ll 


Year of ‘ 
Election, 
1870. *Bridson, Joseph R. Belle Isle, Windermere. 
1870. § Brierley, Joseph, C.E.. Blackburn. ~ 
1866. *Briges, Arthur. Craig Royd, Rawden, near Leeds. 
*Briggs, General John, f.R.S., M.R.A.S., F.G.8. 2 Tenterden-street, 
London, W. 
1870. *Brigg, John. Keighley, Yorkshire, 
1866. §Briges, Joseph. Ulverstone, Lancashire. 
1863. *Bright, Sir Charles Tilston, C.E., F.G.S., F.R.G.8., F.R.A.S. 69 
Lancaster Gate, W.; and 6 Westminster Chambers, Victoria- 
street, London, 8. W. 
1870.§§ Bright, H. A., M.A., F.R.G.S. Ashfield, Knotty Ash. 
Bright, The Right Hon. John, M.P. Rochdale, Lancashire. 
1868. {Brine, Commander Lindesay. Army and Navy Club, Pall Mall 
London, 8. W. 
1863. {Brivit, Henre. 
1842. Broadbent, Thomas. Marsden-square, Manchester. 
1859. {Brodhurst, Bernard Edwin. 20 Grosvenor-street, Grosvenor-square, 
London, W. ; 
1847. {Brodie, Sir Benjamin C., Bart., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry 
in the University of Oxford. Cowley House, Oxford. 
1834. {Brodie, Rey. James, F.G.8. Monimail, Fifeshire. 
1865. {Brodie, Rey. Peter Bellenger, M.A., F.G.S. Rowington Vicarage, 
near Warwick. 
1853. {Bromby, J. H., M.A. The Charter House, Hull. 
; Bromilow, Henry G. Merton Bank, Southport, Lancashire. 
*Brooke, Charles, M.A., F.R.S. 16 Fitzroy-square, London, W. 
1855. {Brooke, Edward. Marsden House, Stockport, Cheshire. 
1864, *Brooke, Rev. J. Ingham. Thornhill Rectory, Drewsbury. 
1855. {Brooke, Peter William. Marsden House, Stockport, Cheshire. 
1865. §Brooks, John Crosse. Wallsend, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
1846. *Brooks, Thomas. Cranshaw Hall, Rawstenstall, Manchester. 
Brooks, William. Ordfall-hill, East Retford, Nottinghamshire. 
1847. {Broome, C. Kdward, F.L.S. Elmhurst, Batheaston, near Bath. 
1863. *Brough, Lionel H., F.G.S., one of Her Majesty’s Inspectors of Coal- 
Tines. 11 West Mall, Clifton, Bristol. 
1867.§§ Brough, John Cargill. London Institution, Finsbury Circus, Lon- 
don, E.C. 3 
*Broun, John Allan, F.R.S., Late Astronomer to His Highness the 
Rajah of Travancore. 
1869. {Brown, Mrs. 1 Stratton-street, Piccadilly, London, W. 
1863. *Brown, Alexander Crum, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.0.8., Professor of Che- 
mistry in the University of Edinbugh. 8 Belgrave-crescent, 
Edinburgh. 
Brown, Charles Edward. 
1867. {Brown, Charles Gage, M.D. 88 Sloane-street, London, 8.W. 
1855. {Brown, Colin. 3 Mansfield-place, Glasgow. 
1871. §Brown, David. 17 8. Norton-place, Edinburgh. 
1863. *Brown, Rey. Dixon. Unthank Hall, Haltwhistle, Carlisle. 
1865. §Brown, Edwin, F.G.S. Burton-upon-Trent. 
1858. §Brown, Alderman Henry. Bradford. 
1870. §Brown, Horace T. The Bank, Burton-on-Trent. 
Brown, Hugh. Broadstone, Ayrshire. 
1858. {Brown, John. Barnsley. 
1870, §Brown, J. Campbell, D.Sc., F.C.S. Royal Infirmary School of Medi- 
cine, Liverpool. 
1859. {Brown, John Crombie, LL.D., F.L.S. . Haddington, Scotland. 
1863, {Brown, John H. 29 Sandhill, Newcastle-on-Tyne. - 


, 


12 LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election, 


1863, {Brown, Ralph. . Lambton’s Bank, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
1871. §Brown, Robert, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.G.S. 4 Gladstone-terrace, Edin- 
burgh. 
1856. *Brown, Scinnal, F.S.S., F.R.G.S. The Elms, 42 Larkhall Rise, 
Clapham, London, 8S. W. 
1868, {Brown, Samuel. Grafton House, Swindon, Wilts, 
*Brown, Thomas. Lower Hardwick, Chepstow. 
*Brown, William. 11 Maiden-terrace, York-road, Upper Holloway, 
London, N. 
1855. {Brown, William. 11 Albany-place, Glasgow. 
1850. {Brown, William, F.R.S.E. 25 Dublin-street, Edinburgh. 
1865. {Brown, William. 41a New-street, Birmingham. 
1863. [1 Browne, B. Chapman. Tynemouth. 
1866. *Browne, Rev. J. H. Lowdham Vicarage, Nottingham. 
1862. *Browne, Robert Clayton, jun., B.A. Browne’s Hill, Carlow, Ireland. 
1865. *Browne, William, M.D. The Friary, Lichfield. 
1865. §Browning, John, F.R.A.S. 111 Minories, London, E. 
1855, §Brownlee, James, Jun. 273 St. George’s-road, Glasgow. 
Brownlie, Archibald. Glasgow. 
1853. {Brownlow, William B,  Villa-place, Hull. 
1852. t{Bruce, Rey. William. Belfast. 
1863. *Brunel, H. M. 18 Duke-street, Westminster, 8. W. 
1863. {Brunel, J. 18 Duke-street, Westminster, S.W. 
1871. §Brunnéw, F. Dunsink, Dublin. 
1868. §Brunton, T. L. 23 Davies-street, London, W. 
1859. { Bryant, Arthur C. 
1861, {Bryce, James. York Place, Higher Broughton, Manchester. 
Bryce, James, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.G.8. High School, Glasgow, 
and Bowes Hill, Blantyre, by Glasgow. 
Bryce, Rey. R. J., LL.D., Principal of Belfast Academy. Belfast. 
1859. {Bryson, William Gillespie. Cullen, Aberdeen. 
1867.§§Buccleuch and Queensberry, His Grace the Duke of, K.G., D.C.L., 
F.RS.L. & E.,F.S.L. Whitehall Gardens, London, 8.W.; and 
Dalkeith Palace, Edinburgh. 
1871. §Buchan, Alexander. 72 Northumberland-street, Edinburgh. 
1867. {Buchan, Thomas. Strawberry Bank, Dundee. 
Buchanan, Andrew, M.D. Professor of the Institutes of Medicine 
in the University of Glasgow. 4 Ethol-place, Glasgow. 
Buchanan, Archibald. Catrine, Ayrshire. 
Buchanan, D. C. Poulton cum Seacombe, Cheshire. 
1871. §Buchanan, John Y. 10 Moray-place, Edinburgh. 
*Buck, George Watson. Ramsay, Isle of Man. 
1864, §Buckle, Rey. George, M.A. Twerton Vicarage, Bath. 
1865. *Buckley, Henry. 29 Calthorpe-street, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 
1848. *Buckman, James, F'.L.8., F.G.S. Bradford Abbas, Sherbourne, Dor- 
setshire. 
1869. {Bucknill, J. Hillmorton Hall, Rugby. 
1851, —— George Bowdler, F.R.S., F.L.S. Weycombe, Haslemere, 
wirey. 
1848, *Budd, J anak Palmer. Ystalyfera Iron Works, Swansea. 
1871. §Bullock, Matthew. 11 Park-circus, Glasgow. 
1845, *Bunbury, Sir Charles. James Fox, Bart., F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S., 
F.R.G.S. Barton Hall, Bury St. Edmunds, 
1845. na: Edward H., M.A., F.G.8S. 35 St. James’s-street, London, 


1865, {Bunee, John Mackray. ‘ Journal Office,’ New-street, Birmingham. 
Bunch, Rey. Robert James, B.D. Emanuel Rectory, Loughborough. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 13 


Year of 
Election. 
1863, §Bunning, T. Wood. 34 Grey-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

Bunt, Thomas G._Nugent-place, Bristol. 
1842. *Burd, John. 37 Jewin-street, Aldersgate-street, London, E.C. 
1869. {Burdett-Coutts, Baroness. Stratton-street, Piccadilly, London, W. 
Burgoyne, Sir John F., Bart., G.C.B., Field Marshal, D.C.L., F.R.S. 
8 Gloucester-gardens, London, W. 

1857. {Burk, J. Lardner, LL.D. 2 North Great George-street, Dublin. 

1865. {Burke, Luke. 5 Albert-terrace, Acton, London, W. 

1869. *Burnell, Arthur Coke. Sidmouth, South Devon. 

1859. {Burnett, Newell. Belmont-street, Aberdeen. 

1860. {Burrows, Montague, M.A., Professor of Modern History, Oxford. 

1866. *Burton, Frederick M. Highfield, Gainsborough. 

1864. {Bush, W. 7 Circus, Bath. 

Bushell, Christopher. Royal Assurance-buildings, Liverpool. 

1855, *Busk, George, F.R.S., V.P. L.S., F.G.S., Examiner in Comparative 
Anatomy in the University of London. 32 Harley-street, Cayen- 
dish-square, London, W. 

1857. {Butt, Isaac, Q.C., M.P. 4 Henrietta-street, Dublin. 

1855. *Buttery, Alexander W. Monkland Iron and Steel Company, Cardar- 
roch, near Airdrie. 

1870.§§ Buxton, David, Principal of the Liverpool Deaf and Dumb Institution, 
Oxford-street, Liverpool. 

Buaton, Edward North. 

1868. {Buxton, 8. Gurney. Catton Hall, Norwich. 

1854, {Byerley, Isaac, F.L.S. Seacombe, Liverpool. 

Byng, William Bateman. Orwell Works House, Ipswich. 

1852. {Byrne, Very Rey. James. Ergenagh Rectory, Omagh, Armagh, 


Cabbell, Benjamin Bond, M.A., F.R.S., F\S.A., F.R.G.S. 1 Brick- 
court, Temple, 11.C.; and 52 Portland-place, London, W. 
1858. §Cail, John. Stokesley, Yorkshire. 
1863. {Cail, Richard. The Fell, Gateshead. 
1854, §Caine, Nathaniel. Broughton Hall, Broughton-in-Furness. 
1858. *Caine, Rey. William, M.A. Albert Park, Didsbury, near Manchester, 
1863. {Caird, Edward. Finnart, Dumbartonshire. 
1861. *Caird, James Key. Finnart on Loch Long, by Helensburgh, 
Glasgow. 
1855. *Caird, James T. Greenock. 
1857. {Cairnes, Professor. 
1868. {Caley, A. J. Norwich. 
1868. {Caley, W. Norwich. 
1857. {Callan, Rev. N. J., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Maynooth 
College. 
1842. Callender, W. R. The Elms, Didsbury, Manchester. 
1853. {Calver, E.K., R.N. 21 Norfolk-street, Sunderland. 
1857. {Cameron, Charles A., M.D. 17 Ely-place, Dublin. 
1870.§§Cameron, John, M.D. 17 Rodney-street, Liverpool. 
1859. {Campbell, Rey. C. P., Principal of King’s College, Aberdeen. 
1857. sey Dagald, F.C.S. 7 Quality-court, Chancery-lane, London, 


1855. {Campbell, Dugald, M.D. _186 Sauchiehall-street, Glasgow. 
Campbell, Sir Hugh P. H., Bart. 10 Hill-street, Berkeley-square, 
London, W.; and Marchmont House, near Dunse, Berwickshire, 
*Campbell, Sir James. 29 Ingram-street, Glaszow. 
Campbell, John Archibald, F.R.S.E. Albyn-place, Edinburgh. 
1852. {Campbell, William. Donegal-Square West, Belfast. 
1859, {Campbell, William. Dunmore, Argyllshire. 


14 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 


Election. 


1871. 


1862. 
1853. 


1868. 


1861. 
1867. 
1867, 


1871. 


1854, 
1845. 


1871. 
1842, 


1861, 
1867. 


1861. 
1857, 
1868. 
1870. 
1866. 
1855. 


1862. 


1870. 
1868. 
1866. 
1871. 
1842. 
1853. 
1859. 
1866. 


1849, 
1860, 


1871. 


* 


§Campbell, William Hunter, LL.D, Georgetown, Demerara, British 
Guiana. 
*Campion, Rey. William M, Queen’s College, Cambridge. 
tCamps, William, M.D., F.L.S., F.R.G.S, 84 Park-street, Grosyenor- 
square, London, W. 
*Cann, Wiliam. 9 Southernhay, Exeter. 
*Carew, William Henry Pole. Antony, Torpoint, Devonport. 
Carlisle, Harvey Goodwin, D.D., Lord Bishop of. Carlisle. 
{Carlton, James. Mosley-street, Manchester. 
{Carmichael, Dayid (Engineer). Dundee. 
§Carmichael, George. 11 Dudhope-terrace, Dundee. 
Carmichael, H. 18 Hume-street, Dublin. 
Carmichael, John T. C. Messrs. Todd & Co., Cork. 
§Carpenter, Herbert P, 56 Regent’s Park-road, London, N.W. 
*Carpenter, Philip Pearsall, B.A., Ph.D. Montreal, Canada. 
{Carpenter, Rev. R. Lant, B.A. Bridport. 
tCarpenter, William B., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., Presrpenr 
Kiiect, Registrar of the University of London. 56 Regent's 
Park Road, London, N.W. 
§Carpenter, W. Brunswick-square, Brighton. 
*Carr, baad M.D., F.L.S., F.R.C.S. Lee Grove, Blackheath, 
S.E. 
*Carrick, Thomas. 5 Clarence-street, Manchester. 
§Carruthers, William, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.8S. British Museum, 
London, W.C, 
*Carson, Rey. Joseph, D.D., M.R.I.A. 18 Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin. 
tCarte, Alexander, M.D. Royal Dublin Society, Dublin. 
§Carteighe, Michael, F.C.8. 172 New Bond-street, London, W. 
§Carter, Dr. William. 69 Elizabeth-street, Liverpool. 
{Carter, H. H. The Park, Nottingham. 
tCarter, Richard, C.K. Long Carr, Barnsley, Yorkshire. 
*Cartmell, Rev. James, D.D., F.G.S., Master of Christ’s College. 
Christ College Lodge, Cambridge. 
Cartmell, Joseph, M.D. Carlisle. 
tCarulla, Facundo, F.A.S,L. Care of Messrs. Daglish and Co., 8 Har- 
rington-street, Liverpool. 
§Cartwright, Joseph. 70 King-street, Dunkinfield. 
tCary, Joseph Henry. Newmarket-road, Norwich. 
tCasella, L. P., F.R.A.S. South Grove, Highgate, London, N. 
§Cash, Joseph. Bird Grove, Coventry. 
*Cassels, Rey. Andrew, M.A. Batley, near Leeds. 
tCator, John B., Commander R.N. 1 Adelaide-street, Hull. 
{Catto, Robert. 44 King-street, Aberdeen. 
tCatton, Alfred R., M.A., F.R.S.E. Dundonnell House, Ding- 
wall, N.B. 
{Cawley, Charles Edward. The Heath, Kirsall, Manchester. 
§Cayley, Arthur, LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.R.A.S., Sadlerian Professor of 
Mathematics in the University of Cambridge. Garden House, 
Cambridge. 
Cayley, Digby. Brompton, near Scarborough. 
Cayley, Edward Stillingfleet. Wydale, Malton, Yorkshire, 
§Cecil, Lord Sackville. Holwood, Beckenham, Kent. 


1870.§§Chadburn, C. H. Lord-street, Liverpool. 
1858. *Chadwick, Charles, M.D. 35 Park-square, Leeds. 
1860.§§Chadwick, David, M.P. 27 Belzize Park, London, N.W. 


1842. 
1842, 


Chadwick, Edwin, C.B. Richmond, Surrey. 
Chadwick, Elias, M.A, Pudleston-court, near Leominster, 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 15 


Year of 

Election. 

1842, Chadwick, John. - Broadfield; Rochdale. 
1859. {Chadwick, Robert. Highbank, Manchester. 


1861. 


{tChadwick, Thomas. Wilmslow Grange, Cheshire. 

*Challis, Rev. James, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Plumian Professor of 
Astronomy in the University of Cambridge, 13 Trumpington- 
street, Cambridge. 


. {Chalmers, John Inglis, Aldbar, Aberdeen, 
. {Chamberlain, J. H. Christ Church-buildings, Birmingham. 


{tChamberlin, Robert. Catton, Norwich. 
Chambers, George. High Green, Sheffield, 
Chambers, John. Ridgefield, Manchester. 


. {Chambers, W. O. Lowestoft, Suffolk. 


*Champney, Henry Nelson. The Mount, York, 


. tChance, A. M. Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

. *Chance, James Simmers. Handsworth, Birmingham. 

. §Chance, Robert Lucas. Chad Hill, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

. *Chapman, Edward, M.A., F.C.S. Frewen Hall, Oxford. 

. {Chapman, Prof. E. J, 4 Addison-terrace, Kensington, London, W. 
. {Chapman, Ernest T., F.C.S. 21 London-villas, Devonport-road, 


Shepherd’s Bush, London, W. 


- *Chapman, John. Hill End Mottram, Manchester. 

. {Chapman, William. The Park, Nottingham. 

. §Chappell, William, F.S.A, Heather Down, Ascot, Berks. 
. {Chapple, Frederick. 

» §Charles, T. C., M.D. Queen’s College, Belfast. 


Charlesworth, Edward, F.G.8. Museum, Norwich. 


. {Charlton, Edward, M.D. 7 Eldon-square, Neweastle-on-Tyne. 
. [Charlton, F. 
. {Charnock, Richard Stephen, Ph.D, F.S.A.,F.R.G.S. 8 Gray’s Inn- 


square, London, W.C. 
Chatto, W. J. P. Union Club, Trafalgar-square, London, 8. W. 


. *Chatwood, Samuel. 5 Wentworth-place, Bolton. 
. {Cheadle, W. B., M.A., M.D., F.R.G.S. 6 Hyde Park-place, Cum- 


berland Gate, London, W. 


. *Cheetham, David. 12 Camden-crescent, Bath. 
. *Chesney, Major-General Francis Rawdon, R.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., 


F.R.G.S. Ballyardle, Newry, Kilkeel, Co. Down. 

*Cheyallier, Rey. Temple, B.D., F.R.A.S., Professor of Mathematics 
and Astronomy in the University of Durham. The College, 
Durham. 


. §Child, Gilbert W., M.A., M.D., F.L.S. Elmhurst, Great Missenden, 


Bucks. 


. *Chiswell, Thomas, 17 Lincoln-grove, Manchester. 

. {Cholmeley, Rey. C. H. Dinton Rectory, Salisbury. 

. Christie, John, M.D. 46 School-hill, Aberdeen. 

. [Christie, Professor R. C., M.A. 7 St. James’s-square, Manchester. 


Christisori, Sir Robert, Bart., M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. L. & E., Professor 
of Dietetics, Materia Medica, and Pharmacy in the University of 
Edinburgh. Edinburgh. 


. §Church, A. H., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Agricul- 


tural College, Cirencester. 


H on Vs wae Selby, M.A. 1 Harcourt Buildings, Temple, London, 


. Churchill, F., M.D. 15 Stephen’s Green, Dublin. 

. {Clabburn, W. H. Thorpe, Norwich. 

. {Clapham, A. 3 Oxford-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

- TClapham, Henry, 5 Summerhill-grovye, Newcastle-on-Tyne, 


16 -LIST OF MEMBERS, 


Year of 
Election. 


1855. §Clapham, Robert Calvert. Wincomblee, Walker, Newcastle-on- 
T 


ne. 
1858. folagkam, Samuel. 17 Park-place, Leeds. 
1869. §Clapp, Frederick. Iser Cottege, Windlesham, Farnborough Station. 
1857, {Clarendon, Frederick Villiers, 11 Blessington-street, Dublin. 
* Clark, Rev. Charles, M.A. 

Clark, Courtney K. Haugh End, Halifax. 
1859, {Clark, David. Coupar Angus, Fifeshire. 

Clark, G.T. Bombay; and Atheneum Club, London, 8.W. 
1846, *Clark, Henry, M.D, 4 Upper Moira-place, Southampton. 
1861. er Latimer. 5 Westminster Chambers, Victoria-street, London, 

W 


1855. {Clark, Rev. William, M.A. Barrhead, near Glasgow. 
1865. {Clarke, Rev. Charles. Charlotte-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 
Clarke, George. Mosley-street, Manchester. : 
1861. *Clarke, J. H. 5 Shakespeare-street, Ardwick, Manchester. 
1842. Clarke, Joseph. Waddington Glebe, Lincoln. 
1851, {Clarke, Joshua, F.L.S. Fairycroft, Saffron Walden. 
Clarke, Thomas, M.A. Knedlington Manor, Howden, Yorkshire. 
1861, {Clay, Charles, M.D. 101 Piccadilly, Manchester. 
*Clay, Joseph Travis, F.G.S. Rastrick, near Brighouse, Yorkshire. 
1856. *Clay, Lieut.-Col. William. Park-hill House, The Dingle, Liverpool. 
1866. {Clayden, P. W. 15 Tavistock-square, London, W.C. 
1857, *Clayton, David Shaw. Norbury, Stockport, Cheshire. 
1850, {Cleghorn, Hugh, M.D., F.L.S., late Conservator of Forests, Madras. 
Stravithy, St. Andrews, Scotland. 
1859. {Cleghorn, John. Wick. 
1861. §Cleland, John, M.D., Professor of Anatomy and Physiology in 
Queen’s College, Galway. 
1857, {Clements, Henry. Dromin, Listowel, Ireland. 
{Clerk, Rey. D. M. Deverill, Warminster, Wiltshire. 
Clerke, Rev. C. C., D.D., Archdeacon of Oxford and Canon of Christ 
Church, Oxford. Milton Rectory, Abingdon, Berkshire. 
1852. {Clibborn, Edward. Royal Irish Academy, Dublin. 
1869, §Clifford, Professor William Kingdon, M.A., University College; and 
14 Maryland-road, Harrow-road, London, W. 
1865. {Clift, John K., C.E. Redditch, Bromsgrove, near Birmingham. 
1861, *Clifton, R. Bellamy, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Experi- 
mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. Portland 
Lodge, Park Town, Oxford. 
Clonbrock, Lord Robert. Clonbrock, Galway. 
1854. {Close, The Very Rey. Francis, M.A. Carlisle. 
1866. §Close, Thomas, F.S.A. St. James’s-street, Nottingham. 
Clough, Rey. Alfred B., B.D. Brandeston, Northamptonshire. 
1859. {Clouston, Rev. Charles. Sandwick, Orkney. 
1861. *Clouston, Peter. 1 Park-terrace, Glasgow. 
1863. §Clutterbuck, Thomas. Warkworth, Acklington, 
1868, {Coaks, J. B. Thorpe, Norwich. 
1855. *Coats, Sir Peter. Woodside, Paisley. 
1855. *Coats, Thomas, Fergeslie House, Paisley. 
Cobb, Edward. South Bank, Weston, near Bath. 
1851, *Cobbold, John Chevallier, M.P. Holywells, Ipswich; and Athe- 
neum Club, London, 8.W. 
1864.§§Cobbold, T. Spencer, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Lecturer on Zoology and 
Comparative Anatomy at the Middlesex Hospital. 84 Wimpole- 
street, Cayendish-square, London, W. 
1854, {Cockey, William, 38 Burnbank Gardens, Glasgow, 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 17 


Year of 
Election. 


1861, 
1864. 
1865. 
1853. 
1868. 
1859. 
1859. 


1860. 
1854. 
1857. 
1861. 
1869. 
1861. 
1854. 


1861, 
1865. 
1868. 
1870. 


1869, 
1865. 


1846. 
1852. 
1871. 
1864. 
1859. 
1861. 
1863. 


1868, 


1868. 


1859. 


1865. 
1862. 
1863. 
1869. 
1850, 


1868. 
1846. 
1871. 
1868. 
1863. 
1842, 


*Coe, Rey. Charles C. Seymour House, Seymour-street, Leicester. 
*Cochrane, James Henry. Woodside, Carrigrohane, Co. Cork. 
tCoghill, H. Newcastle-under-Lyme. 
{Colchester, William, F.G.S. Grundesburgh Hall, Ipswich. 
{Colchester, W. P. Bassingbourn, Royston. 
tCole, Edward. 11 Hyde Park-square, London, W. 
*Cole, Henry Warwick, Q.C. 2 Stone-buildings, Lincoln’s Inn, Lon- 
don, W.C. 
t¢Coleman, J. J., F.C.S. Jeeswood Hall, Mold, North Wales. 
*Colfox, William, B.A. Westmead, Bridport, Dorsetshire. 
tColles, William, M.D. 21 Stephen’s Green, Dublin. 
*Collie, Alexander. 12 Kensington Palace Gardens, London, W. 
§Collier, W. F. Woodtown, Horrabridge, South Devon. 
t Collinge, John. 
{Collinewood, Cuthbert, M.A., M.B., F.L.S. Fair Mile, Henley-on- 
Thames. 
*Collingwood, J. Frederick, F.G.S, Anthropological Society, 4 St. 
Martin’s-place, London, W.C. 
*Collins, James Tertius. Churchfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 
Collis, Stephen Edward. Listowel, Ireland. 
*Colman, J. J., M.P. Carrow House, Norwich; and 108 Cannon- 
street, London, E.C. 
§Coltart, Robert. Devonshire-road, Prince’s Park, Liverpool. 
Colthurst, John. Clifton, Bristol. 
tColvill, W. H. 
*Combe, Thomas, M.A. Clarendon Press, Oxford. 
*Compton, The Rey. Lord Alwyn. Castle Ashby, Northamptonshire. 
*Compton, Lord William. 145 Piccadilly, London, W. 
{Connal, Michael. 16 Lynedock-terrace, Glasgow. 
*Connor, Charles C. Sea-court, Bangor, Co. Down, Ireland. 
*Conwell, Eugene Alfred, M.R.I.A. Trim, Co. Meath, Ireland. 
tCook, E. R. 
*Cook, Henry. 
{Cooke, Edward William, R.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. Glen Andred, 
Groombridge, Sussex; and Athenzeum Club, Pall Mall, Lon- 
don, S.W. 
tCooke, Rev. George H. The Parsonage, Thorpe, Norwich. 
Cooke, James R., M.A. 73 Blessington-street, Dublin. 
Cooke, J. B. Cavendish Road, Birkenhead. 
§Cooke, M.C, M.A. 2 Grosvenor-villas, Upper Holloway, London, N, 
Cooke, Rey. T. L., M.A. Magdalen College, Oxford. 
Cooke, Sir William Fothergill. Telegraph Office, Lothbury, London, 
E.C 


*Cooke, William Henry, M.A., Q.C., F'.S.A. 42 Wimpole-street, 
London, W. 
tCooksey, Joseph. West Bromwich, Birmingham. 
*Cookson, Rev. H. W., D.D. St. Peter’s College Lodge, Cambridge. 
tCookson, N.C. Benwell Tower, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
§Cooling, Edwin. Mile Ash, Derby. 
{Cooper, Sir Henry, M.D. 7 Charlotte-street, Hull. 
Cooper, James. 58 Pembridge Villas, Bayswater, London, W. 
{Cooper, W. J. 23 Duke-street, Westminster, 5. W. 
tCooper, William White. 19 Berkeley-square, London, W. 
§Copeland, Ralph, Ph.D. Parsonstown, Ireland. 
tCopeman, Edward, M.D. Upper King-street, Norwich. 
tCoppin, John. North Shields. 
*Corbet, Richard. Headington-hill, Oxford. 


18 . LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 

Election. 

1842. Corbett, Edward. Ravenoak, Cheadle-hulme, Cheshire. 

1855. {Corbett, Joseph Henry, M.D., Professor of Anatomy and Physiology, 
Queen’s College, Cork. 

1870, *Corfield, W. H., M.A., M.B., F.G.S., Professor of Hygiéne and Public 
Health in University College, London, W.C. 

Cormack, John Rose, M.D., F.R.S.E. 5 Bedford-square, London, 

W.C 


Cory, Rev. Robert, B.D., F.C.P.S. Stanground, Peterborough. 
Cottam, George. 2 Winsley-street, London, W. 
1857. {Cottam, Samuel. Brazennose-street, Manchester. 
1855. {Cotterill, Rev. Henry, Bishop of Grahamstown. 
1864, §Cotton, General Frederick C. Athenzum Club, Pall Mall, London, 
S.W 


1869. {Cotton, William. Pennsylvania, Exeter. 

*Cotton, Rey. William Charles, M.A. Vicarage, Frodsham, Cheshire. 

1865. tCourtald, Samuel, F.R.A.S. 76 Lancaster Gate, London; and 
Gosfield Hall, Essex. 

1834, {Cowan, Charles. 38 West Register-street, Edinburgh. 

Cowan, John. Valleyfield, Pennycuick, Edinburgh. 

1863. {Cowan, John A. Blaydon Burn, Durham. 

1863. {Cowan, Joseph, jun. Blaydon, Durham. 

Cowie, Rev. Benjamin Morgan, M.A. 42 Upper Harley-street, 
Cayendish-square, London, W. 

1871, §Cowper, C. E. 3 Great George-street, Westminster, 8. W. 

1860, {Cowper, Edward Alfred, M.I.C.E. 6 Great George-street, West- 
minster, S.W. 

1867. *Cox, Edward. Clement Park, Dundee. 

1867. *Cox, George Addison. Beechwood, Dundee. 

1867. {Cox, James. Clement Park Lochee, Dundee. 

1870. *Cox, James. 8 Falkner-square, Liverpool. 

Cox, Robert. 25 Rutland-street, Edinburgh. 

1867. *Cox, Thomas Hunter. 1 Meadow-place, Dundee. 

1866. §Cox, William. 50 Newhall-street, Birmingham. 

1867. {Cox, William. Fogeley, Lochee, by Dundee, 

1871. §Cox, William J. 2 Vanburgh-place, Leith. 

1854, §Crace-Calvert, Frederick, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Honorary Professor 
of Chemistry to the Manchester Royal Institution. “Royal In- 
stitute, Manchester. 

Craig, J. T. Gibson, F.R.S.E. 24 York-place, Edinburgh. 
1859. {Craig, S. Clayhill, Enfield, Middlesex. 
1857. {Crampton, Rey. Josiah., M.R.ILA. The Rectory, Florence-court, Co. 
Fermanagh, Ireland. 

1858. {Cranage, Edward, Ph.D, The Old Hall, Wellington, Shropshire. 

1857. iGnndford George Arthur, M_A. 

1871. *Crawford, William Caldwell. Eagle Foundry, Port Dundas, Glas- 


gow. 
1871. §Crawshaw, Edward. Burnley, Lancashire. 
1870, *Crawshay, Mrs. Robert. Cyfartha Castle, Merthyr Tydvil. 
1871. §Cressley, Herbert. Broomfield, Halifax. 
Creyke, The Venerable Archdeacon. Beeford Rectory, Driffield. 
*Crichton, William. 17 India-street, Glasgow. 
1865. page Edwin, F.C.S. 76 Hungerford Road, Holloway, London, 


Croft, Rev. John, M.A., F.C.P.S. 
1858. {Crofts, John. Hillary-place, Leeds. 
1859, {Croll, A.A. 10 Coleman-street, London, E.C. 
1857. {Crolly, Rey. George. Maynooth College, Ireland. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 19 


Year of 
Election. 


1855. {Crompton, Charles, M.A. 22 Hyde Park-square, London, W. 
*Crompton, Rey. Joseph, M.A. Bracondale, Norwich. 

1866. {Cronin, William. 4 Brunel-terrace, Nottingham. 

1870. §Crookes, Joseph. Brook Green, Hammersmith, London. 

1865. §Crookes, William, F.R.S., F.C.S. 20 Mornington-road, Regent’s 
Park, London, N.W. 

1855. {Cropper, Rev. John. Wareham, Dosetshire. 

1870.§§Crostield, C. J. 5 Alexander Drive, Princes Park, Liverpool. 

1870. *Crosfield, William, jun. 5 Alexander Drive, Prince’s Park, Liverpool. 

1870.§§Crosfield, William, sen. Annesley, Aigburth, Liverpool. 

1861. {Cross, Rev. John Edward, M.A. Appleby Vicarage, near Brigg. 

1868. {Crosse, Thomas William. St. Giles’s-street, Norwich. 

1867.§§Crosskey, Rey. H. W., F.G.8. 28 George Street, Edgbaston, Bir- 
mingham. 

1853. tCrosskill, William, C.E. Beverley, Yorkshire. 

1870. *Crossley, Edward. Park Road, Halifax. 

1866. *Crossley, Louis J., F.M.S. Willow Hall, near Halifax. 

1865. {Crotch, George Robert. 19 Trumpington-street, Cambridge. 

186]. §Crowley, Henry. Smedley New Hall, Cheetham, Manchester. 

1863. §Crowther, Benjamin. Wakefield. 

1863. {Cruddas, George. Elswick Engine Works, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

1860. {Cruickshank, John. City of Glasgow Bank, Aberdeen. 

1859, {Cruickshank, Provost. Macduff, Aberdeen. 

1859. {Crum, James. Busby. Glasgow. 

1851. {Cull, Richard, F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 15 Tavistock-street, Bedford-square, 
London, W.C. 

Culley, Robert. Bank of Ireland, Dublin. 

1859. {Cumming, Sir A. P. Gordon, Bart. Altyre. 

1861. *Cunliffe, Edward Thomas. Handforth, Manchester, 

1861. *Cunliffe, Peter Gibson. Handforth, Manchester. 

1852. {Cunningham, John. Macedon, near Belfast. 

1869. §Cunningham, Professor Robert O.,M.D. Queen’s College, Belfast. 

1855, {Cunningham, William A. Manchester and Liverpool District Bank, 
Manchester. 

1850. {Cunningham, Rey. William Bruce. Prestonpans, Scotland. 

1866, {Cunnington, John. 68 Oakley-square, Bedford New Town, London, 
IEA 


1867. *Cursetjee, Mandekjee, F.R.S.A., Judge of Bombay. Villa-Byculla, 
Bombay. 
1857. {Curtis, Professor Arthur Hill, LL.D. 6 Trinity College, Dublin. 
1866. {Cusins, Rev. F. L. 26 Addison-street, Nottingham. 
1834, *Cuthbert, John Richmond. 40 Chapel-street, Liverpool. 
Cuthbertson, Allan. Gilasgow. 


1863. {Daglish, John. Hetton, Durham. 

1854, {Daglish, Robert, C.E. Orrell Cottage, near Wigan. 

1863. {Dale, J. B. South Shields. 

1853. {Dale, Rey. P. Steele, M.A. Tlollinefare, Warrington. 

1865. {Dale, Rey. R. W. 12 Calthorpe-street, Birmingham. 

1867. {Dalgleish, Dr.O. Newport, Dundee. 

1867. {Dalgleish, W. Dundee. 

1870.§§Dallinger, Rev. W. H. Greenfield-road, Stoneycroft, Liverpool. 
Dalmahoy, James, F.R.S.E. 9 Forres-street, Edinburgh. 

1859. {Dalrymple, Charles Elphinstone. West Hall, Aberdeenshire. 

1859. {Dalrymple, Colonel. ‘Troup, Scotland. 

1867. *Dalrymple, Donald, M.D., M.P., F.R.G.S, Thorpe Lodge, Norwich, 
Dalton, Edward, LL.D., F.S.A. Dunkirk House, Nailsworth. 


q2 


20 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1859, 
1862. 
1859. 
1849. 


1859. 
1861. 


1852. 


1848. 


{Daly, Lieut.-Colonel H. D. " F es 
Dalziel, John, M.D. Holm of Drumlanrig, Thornhill, Dumfriesshire. 
tDanby, T. W. Downing Collge, Cambridge. 
tDancer, J. B., F.R.A.S. Old Manor House, Ardwick, Manchester. 
*Danson, Joseph, F.C.S. 6 Shaw-street, Liverpool. 
Danson, William. 6 Shaw-street, Liverpool. 
{Darbishire, Charles James. Rivington, near Chorley, Lancashire 
*Darbishire, Robert Dukinfield, B.A., F.G.S. 26 George-street, Man- 
chester. 
{Darby, Rev. Jonathan L. 
Darwin,Charles R., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., Hon. F.R.S.E., and 
M.R.1.A., Down, near Bromley, Kent. 
{DaSilva, Johnson. Burntwood, Wandsworth Conmon, London, 8.W. 
Davey, Richard, F.G.8. Redruth, Cornwall. 


1870.§§Davidson, Alexander, M.D. _8 Peel-street, Toxteth Park, Liverpool. 


1859. 
1871. 
1859. 
1868. 


{Davidson, Charles. Grove House, Auchmull, Aberdeen. 
§Davidson, David. Newhbattle, Dalkeith, N.B. 
}Dayidson, Patrick. Inchmarlo, near Aberdeen. 

{Dayie, Rey. W. C. Cringleford, Norwich. 


1863. {Davies, Griffith. 17 Cloudesley-street, Islineton, London, N. 
1870.§§Davies, Edward, F.C.S. Royal Institution, Liverpool. 


1842, 
1870. 
1864. 


1856. 
1859. 
1859. 
1864. 
1857, 


1869. 


1869 


1854. 
1859, 


1860. 
1864. 


1865. 
1855. 


1859. 
1865. 
1871. 
1870. 
1861. 
1870. 
1859, 
1861. 
1854. 
1870, 


Davies, John Birt, M.D, The Laurels, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

Davies-Colley, Dr. Thomas. 40 Whitefriars, Chester. 
*Davis, A. 8S. Roundhay Vicarage, Leeds. 
§§Davis, Charles E., F.S.A._ 55 Pulteney-street, Bath. 

Davis, Rey. David, B.A. Lancaster. 

*Davis, Sir John Francis, Bart., K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Hollywood, 
Westbury by Bristol. 

{Davis, J. Barnard, M.D., F.R.S., F.S.A. Shelton, Staffordshire. 

*Davis, Richard, F.L.S. 9 St. Helen’s-place, London, E.C. 

§Davison, Richard. Beverley-road, Great Driffield, Yorkshire. 

SEN Edmund W., M.D. Kimmage Lodge, Roundtown, near 

ublin. 

tDaw, John. Mount Radford, Exeter. 

tDaw, R. M. Bedford-circus, Exeter. 

*Dawbarn, William. Elmswood, Aigburth, Liverpool. 

Dawes, Captain (Adjutant R.A. Highlanders). 
Dawes, John Samuel, F.G.S. Smethwick House, near Birmingham. 
*Dawes, Tohn T., jun. Smethwick Hall, Smethwick, near Birmingham. 
{Dawkins, W. Boyd, M.A., F.R.S.,F.G.8.  Birchview, Norman-road, 
Rusholme, Manchester. 

{Dawson, George, M.A. Shenstone, Lichfield. 

“Dawson, Henry. 14 St. James’s-road, Liverpool. 

{Dawson, John W., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Principal of M‘Gill College, 
Montreal, Canada. 

Dawson, John. Barley House, Exeter. 

*Dawson, Captain Wiliam G. Plumstead Common-road, Kent, 8.E. 

{Day, Edward Charles H. 

§Day, St. John Vincent. 166 Buchanan-street, Glasgow. 

§Deacon,G.F. Rock Ferry, Liverpool. 

{Deacon, Henry. Appleton Iouse, near Warrington. 

§Deacon, Henry Wade. King’s College, London, W.C. 

{Dean, David. Banchory, Aberdeen. 

{Dean, Henry. Colne, Lancashire. 

§Deane, Henry, F.L.S. Clapham Common, London, 8. W. 

*Deane, Rev. George, D.Sc, B.A., F.G.8. The Chestnuts, Moseley- 
road, Birmingham. 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 21 


Year of 
Election. 
*Deane, Sir Thomas. 26 Longford-terrace, Monkstown, Co. Dublin. 
1866. {Debus, Heinrich, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Lecturer on Chemistry 
at Guy’s Hospital. 

“De Grey and Ripon, George Frederick, Earl, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.LS., 

F.R.G.S. 1 Carlton-gardens, London, S.W. 
1854, *De La Rue, Warren, D.C.L., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.8., F.R.A.S. Cran- 
ford, Middlesex; and Reform Club, London, 8. W. 
1870.§§De Meshin, Thomas. 5 Fig Tree-court, Temple, London, E.C. 
Denchar, John. Morningside, Edinburgh. 
Denison, Sir William Thomas, K.C.B., Col. R.E., F.R.S., F.R.GS., 
East Brent, Weston-super-Mare, Somerset. 
*Dent, Joseph, Ribston Hall, Wetherby. 
Dent, William Yerbury. Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, S.E. 
1870. *Denton, J. Bailey. 22 Whitehall-place, London, S.W. 
1856. *Derby, The Right Hon. The Earl of, LL.D.,F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 23 St. 
James’s-square, London, S8.W.; and Knowsley, near Liverpool. 
De Saumarez, Rey. Havilland, M.A. St. Peter’s Rectory, North- 
ampton. 
1870.§§Desmond, Dr. 44 Irvine-street, Edge Hill, Liverpool. 
1868, §Dessé, Etheldred, M.B., F.R.C.S. 43 Kensington Gardens-square, 
Bayswater, London, W. 
De Tabley, George, Lord, F.Z.S. Tabley House, Knutsford, Cheshire, 
1869. {Devon, The Right Hon. The Earl of. ~Powderham Castle, near 
Exeter. 

*Devonshire, William, Duke of, K.G., M.A., LL.D., F.RS., F.G.S., 
F.R.G.S., Chancellor of the University of Cambridge. Devon- 
shire House, Piccadilly, London, W.; and Chatsworth, Derby- 
shire. 

1868. {Dewar, James. Chemical Laboratory, The University, Edinburgh, 

1858. {Dibb, Thomas Townend. Little Woodhouse, Leeds. 

1870. §§Dickens, Colonel C. H. 

1852. {Dickie, George, M.A., M.D., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the 
University of Aberdeen. 

1864, *Dickinson, F. H. Kingweston, Somerton, Taunton; and 119 St. 
George’s-square, London, 8S. W. 

1863. {Dickinson, G. T. Claremont-place, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

1861. *Dickinson, William Leeson 1 St. James’s-street, Manchester. 

1867. §Dickson, Alexander, M.D., Professor of Botany in the University of 
Glasgow. The College, Glasgow. 

1868. {Dickson, J. Thompson. 33 Harley-street, London, W. 

1863. *Dickson, William, F.S.A., Clerk of the Peace for Northumberland. 
Alnwick, Northumberland. 

1862. *Dilke, Sir Charles Wentworth, Bart., M.P. 76 Sloane-street, Lon- 

don, S.W. 

1848, {Dillwyn, Lewis Llewelyn, M.P., F.L.S., F.G.S. Parkwern, near 

Swansea. 

1869. §Dingle, Edward. 19 King Street, Tavistock. 

1859. *Dingle, Rev. J. Lanchester Vicarage, Durham. 

1837. air Henry, C.E., LL.D., F.C.S. 48 Charing Cross, London, 

W. 


1868. {Dittmar, W. The University, Edinburgh. 
1853. {Dixon, Edward, M.Inst.C.E. Wilton House, Southampton. 
1865. {Dixon, L. Hooton, Cheshire. 
1861. {Dixon, W. Hepworth, F.S.A., F.R.G.S. 6 St. James’s Terrace, 
London, N.W. 
*Dobbin, Leonard, M.R.I.A. 27 Gardiner’s-place, Dublin. 
1851. {Dobbin, Orlando T., LL.D., M.R.LA. Ballivor, Kells, Co. Meath. 


22 LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Election. 3 
1860. *Dobbs, Archibald Edward, M.A. Richmond-road, Ealing, Mid- 


dlesex. 
1864, *Dobson, William. Oakwood, Bathwick-hill, Bath. 
Dockray, Benjamin. Lancaster. 
1870. *Dodd, John. 9 Canning-place, Liverpool. 
1857. tDodds, Thomas W., C.E. Rotherham. 
*Dodsworth, Benjamin. Burton Croft, York. 
*Dodsworth, George. Clifton-grove, near York. 
Dolphin, John. Delves House, Berry Edge, near Gateshead. 
1851. {Domvile, William C., F.Z.S.  Thorn-hill, Bray, Dublin. 
1867. {Don, John. The Lodge, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee. 
1867. tDon, William G. St. Margaret’s, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee. 
*Donisthorpe, George Edmund. Belvedere, Harrowgate, Yorkshire. 
1869. {Donisthorpe, G. T. St. David’s Hill, Exeter. 
1871. §Donkin, Arthur Scott, M.D., Lecturer on Forensic Medicine at Dur- 
ham University. Sunderland. 
186]. {Donnelly, Captain, R.E. South Kensington Museum, London, W. 
1857. *Donnelly, William, C.B,, Registrar-General for Ireland. 5 Henrietta- 
street, Dublin. 
1857. {Donovan, M., M.R.I.A. Clare-street, Dublin. 
1867. {Dougall, Andrew Maitland, R.N. Scotscraig, Tayport, Fifeshire. 
1871. §Dougall, John, M.D. 2 Cecil-place, Paisley-road, Glasgow. 
1863. *Doughty, C. Montagu. 5 Gloucester-place, Portman-square, Lon- 
don, W. 
1855. §Dove, Hector. Rose Cottage, Trinity, near Edinburgh. 
1870.§§Dowie, J. M. Walstones, West Kirby, Liverpool. 
Downall, Rev. John. Okehampton, Devon. 
1857. {Downing, S., LL.D., Professor of Civil Engineering in the University 
of Dublin. Dublin. 
1865. *Dowson, E. Theodore. Geldestone, near Beccles, Suffolk. 
1869, {Drake, Francis, F.G.S. Teign House, Hinckley, Leicester. 
Drennan, William, M.R.LA. 35 North Cumberland-street, Dublin. 
1868. §Dresser, Henry E. The Firs, South Norwood, Surrey. 
1869. §Drew, Joseph, F.G.S. Weymouth. 
1865. {Drew, Robert A. 6 Stanley-place, Duke-street, Broughton, Man- 
chester. 
Drummond, H. Home, F.R.S.E. Blair Drummond, Stirling. 
1858. {Drummond, James. Greenock. 
1859. {Drummond, Robert. 17 Stratton-street, London, W. 
1866. *Dry, Thomas. 23 Gloucester-road, Regent’s Park, London, N. W. 
1863. {Dryden, James. South Benwell, Northumberland. 
1856. *Ducie, Henry John Reynolds Moreton, Earl of, F.R.S. 1 Belgrave- 
Nie London, 8.W.; and Tortworth-court, Wotton-under- 
4 ge. 
1870.§§Duckworth, Henry, F.L.8., F.G.S. 5 Cook-street, Liverpool. 
1867. *Duff, Mounstuart Ephinstone Grant-, LL.B., M.P. 4 Queen’s Gate- 
gardens, South Kensington, London, W.; and Eden, near Banff, 
Scotland. 
1852. Liab see Se 3 Rt. Hon. Lord. Highgate, London, N. ; and Clandeboye, 
elfast. 
1859. *Dunean, Alexander. 7 Princes Gate, London. 
1859. {Duncan, Charles. 52 Union-place, Aberdeen. 
1866. *Duncan, James. 5 Highbury Hill, London, N. 
Duncan, J. F., M.D. -8- Upper Merrion-street, Dublin. 
1871. §Duncan, James Matthew, M.D. 30 Charlotte-square, Edinburgh. 
1867, §Dunean, Peter Martin, M.D., F.R.S., Sec. G.S., Professor of Geology 
in King’s College, London, 40 Blessington-road, Lee, 8.E. 


ve 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 23 


Year of 
Election. 
Dunlop, Alexander. Clober, Milngavie, near Glasgow. 
1853. *Dunlop, William Henry. Annan-hill, Kilmarnock, Ayrshire. 
1865. §Dunn, David. Annet House, Skelmorlie, by Greenock, N.B. 
1862, §Dunn, Robert, F.R.C.S. 31 Norfolk-street, Strand, London W.C. 
; Dunnington-Jefferson, Rey. Joseph, M.A., F.C.P.S. Thicket Hall, 
or. 
*Dunraven, Edwin, Earl of, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Adare * 
Manor, Co. Limerick; and Dunraven Castle, Glamorganshire. 
1859. geese Bey. John, F.R.S. E. 4 North Mansion House-road, Edin- 
urgh. 
1852. ape ille, William. Richmond Lodge, Belfast. 
1866. { tone: Perr o cee Down, Stoke Newington, London, N. 
age, W. 8S. M., F.LS. 4 Queen-terrace, Mount Radford, 
xeter. 
1860, {Durham, Arthur Edward, F.R.C.S., F.L.S., Demonstrator of Ana- 
tomy, Guy’s Hospital. 82 Brook-street, Grosyenor-square, Lon- 
on, W. 
Durnford, Rey. R. Middleton, Lancashire. 
1857, {Dwyer, Henry L., M.A., M.B. 67 Upper Sackville-street, Dublin. 
Dykes, Robert. Ki Imorie, Torquay, Devon. 
1869. §Dymond, Edward E. Oaklands, Aspland Guise, Woburn. 
1870. §Dysdale, Dr. 36.4 Rodney-street, Liverpool. 


1868 {Eade, Peter, M.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich. 
1861. {Eadson, Richard. 13 Hyde-road, Manchester. 
1864. tEHarle, Rey. A. Rectory, Monkton Farleigh, Bath. 
Earle, Charles, F.GS. 
* Earnshaw, Rev. Samuel, M.A. Broomfield, Sheffield. 
1871. *Easton, Edward. 23 Duke-street, Westminster, S.W. 
1863. §Easton, James. Nest House, near Gateshead, Durham 
Eaton, Rey. George, M.A. The Pole, Northwich. 
1870.§§Eaton, Richard. Nottingham. 
Ebden, Rev. James Collett, M.A.,F.R.A.S, Great Stukeley Vicarage, 
Huntingdonshire. 
1867. {Hckersley, James. Leith Walk, Edinburgh. 
1861. {Ecroyd, William Farrer. Spring Cottage, near Burnley. 
1858. *Eddison, Francis. North Laiths, Ollerton, Notts. 
1870, ag John Edwin. Park-square, Leeds. 
*Eddy, James Ray, F.G.S. Carleton Grange, Skipton. 
Eden, Thomas. Talbot-road, Oxton. 
*Edgeworth, Michael P., F.L. 8., F.R.A.S. Mastrim House, Anerley, 
- London, S.E. 
1855. {Edmiston, Robert. Elmbank-crescent, Glasgow. 
1859. {Edmond, James. Cardens Haugh, Aberdeen. 
1870. *Edmonds, F. B. 7 York-place, Northam, Southampton. 
1867. *Edward, Allan. Farington Hall, Dundee. 
1867. §Edward, Charles. Chambers, 8 Bank-street, Dundee. 
1867.§§Edward, James. Balruddery, Dundee. 
Edwards, John. Halifax. 
1855. *Edwards, Professor J. Baker, Ph.D., D.C.L. Montreal, Canada. 
1867. §$Edwards, William. 70 Princes-street, Dundee. 
*Egerton, Sir Philip de Malpas Grey, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S. 
Oulton Park, Tarporley, Cheshire. 
1859. *Hisdale. David A., M.A. 38 Dublin-street, Edinburgh. 
1855. {¥lder, David. 19 Paterson-street, Glaseow. 
1858. {Elder, John. Elm Park, Govan- road, Glase ow. 
1868. §Elger, Thomas Gwyn. Empy, FRAS. St. Mies, Bedford. 


24 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1863. 
1855. 
1861. 
1864. 
1862. 


1859. 
1864. 


1864, 
1864, 


Ellacombe, Rey. H. T., F.S.A. Clyst, St. George, Topsham, Devon. 
tEllenberger, J. L. Worksop. 
§Elliot, Robert. Wolfelee, Hawick, N. B. 
*Elliot, Sir Walter, K.S.L, F.L.8. Wolfelee, Hawick, N. B. 
tElliott, E. B. Washington, United States. 
§§Elliott, Frederick Henry, M.A. 449 Strand, London, W.C. 
Elliott, John Fogg. Elvet-hill, Durham. 
tEllis, Henry S., F.R.A.S. Fair Park, Exeter. 
*Ellis, Alexander John, B.A., F.R.S. 25 Argyll-road, Kensington, 
London, W. 
*Ellis, Joseph. Hampton Lodge, Brighton. 
§Ellis, J. Walter. High House, Thornwaite, Ripley, Yorkshire. 
*Ellis, Rey. Robert, A.M. The Institute, St. Saviour’s Gate, York. 


1869.§§ Ellis, William Horton. Pennsylvania, Exeter. 


1862. 


Elliman, Rey. E. B. Berwick Rectory, near Lewes, Sussex. 
tElphinstone, H. W., M.A., F.L.S. Cadogan-place, London, 8. W. 
Eltoft, William. Care of J. Thompson, Esq., 30 New Cannon-street, 
Manchester. 


. {Embleton, Dennis, M.D. Northumberland-street, Newcastle-on- 


Tyne, 


. {Emery, Rev. W., B.D. Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. 

. {Empson, Christopher. Brainhope Hall, Leeds. 

. {Enfield, Richard. Low Pavement, Nottingham. 

. tEnfield, William. Low Pavement, Nottingham. 

. §Engelson, T. 11 Portland-terrace, Regent’s Park, London, N.W. 
53. tEnglish, Edgar Wilkins. Yorkshire Banking Company, Lowgate, 


Tull. 


. §Enelish, J.T. Stratton, Cornwall. 


Enniskillen, William Willoughby, Earl of, D.C.L., F.R.S., M.R.LA., 
E.G.S. 26 Eaton-place, London, 8.W.; and Florence Court, 
Fermanagh, Ireland. 


. {Ensor, Thomas. St. Leonards, Exeter. 
. *Enys, John Davis. Canterbury, New Zealand. (Care of J. 8. Enys, 


Esq., Enys, Penryn, Cornwall.) 
*Enys, John Samuel, F.G.8S. Enys, Penryn, Cornwall. 


. *Eskrigge, R. A., F.G.S.  Batavia-buildings, Liverpool. 
. *Esson, William, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S. Merton College, Oxford. 


Estcourt, Rev. W. J. B. Long Newton, Tetbury. 


. §Etheridge, Robert, F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Paleontologist to the Geolo- 


gical Survey of Great Britain. Museum of Practical Geology, 
Jermyn-street; and 19 Halsey-street, Cadogan-place, London, 
S.W. 


. *Evans, Arthur John. Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead. 

. *Evans, Rey. Charles, M.A. King Edward’s Schcol, Birmingham. 

. *Kyans, George Fabian, M.D. 14 Temple-row, Birmingham. 

. tEvans, Griffith F.D., M.D, Trewern, near Welshpool, Montgomery- 


shire. 


. *Evans, H. Saville W. 35 Hertford-street, May Fair, London, W. 
. *Evans, John, F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S. 65 Old Bailey, London, E.C.; 


and Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead. 


5. {Evans, Sebastian, M.A., LL.D. Highgate, near Birmingham. 
. Evans, Thomas, F.G.S. Belper, Derbyshire. 
. *Evans, William. Ellerslie, Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 


Evanson, R. T., M.D. Holme Hurst, Torquay. 
§Eve, H.W. Wellington College, Wokingham, Berkshire. 


. *Everett, J. D., D.C.L., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Queen’s 


College, Belfast. Rushmere Malone-road, Belfast. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 25 


Year of 
Election. 


1863. 


1859. 
1855. 
1871. 
1846, 


1866. 


1849, 
1842. 


1866, 
1865. 
1870. 
1864, 


1859. 
1861. 


1866. 
1857. 
1869. 
1869. 
1869. 
1859. 


1859. 


1863. 
1833. 
1845. 


1864. 


1852. 
1855. 
1859. 
1871. 
1855. 


1867. 
1857. 
1854. 
1867. 


1863. 
1862. 


1868. 


1869, 
1864. 


*Everitt, George Allen, K.L., K.H., F.R.G.S. Knowle Hall, War- 
wickshire. 

*Ewing, Archibald Orr. Ballikinrain, Killearn, by Glasgow. 

*Ewing, William. 209 West George-street, Glasgow. 

*Exley, John T., M.A. Cotham, Bristol. 

*Kyre, George Edward, F.G.8., F.R.G.S. 59 Lowndes-square, 
Knightsbridge, London ; and Warren’s, near Lyndhurst, Hants. 

tEyre, Major-General Sir Vincent, F.R.G.S. Athenzeum Club, Pall 
Mall, London, S.W. 

Eyton, Charles. Hendred House, Abingdon. 
{Eyton, T. C. Eyton, near Wellington, Salop. 


Fairbairn, Thomas. Manchester. 

*Fairbairn, Sir William, Bart., C.E., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.8., F.R.G.S. 
Manchester. 

{Farbank, R..F., MA. 

{Fairley, Thomas. Chapel Allerton, Leeds. 

§Fairlie, Robert, C.K. Woodlands, Clapham Common, London, 8. W. 

{Fallmer, F. H. Lyncombe, Bath. 

Fannin, John, M.A. 41 Grafton-street, Dublin. 

{Farquharson, Robert O. Houghton, Aberdeen. 

§Farr, William, M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Superintendent of the Statis- 
tical Department, General Registry Office. Southlands, Bickley, 
Kent. 

*Farrar, Rev. Frederick William, M.A., F.R.S. Marlborough. 

tFarrelly, Rev. Thomas. Royal College, Maynooth. 

*Faulconer, R.S. Fairlawn, Clarence-road, Clapham Park, London. 

tFaulding, Joseph. 340 Euston-road, London, N.W. 

{Faulding, W. I. Didsbury College, Manchester. 

Ceara Charles, F.S.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Museum, Deddingtoa, 

xon. 

*Fawcett, Henry, M.P., Professor of Political Economy in the Univer- 
sity of Cambridge. 42 Bessborough-gardens, Pimlico, London, 
8.W.; and Trinity Hall, Cambridge. 

tFawcus, George. Alma-place, North Shields. 

Fearon, John Peter. Cuclfield, Sussex. 
{Felkin, William, F.L.S. The Park, Nottingham. 
Fell, John B. Spark’s Bridge, Ulverston, Lancashire. 
§Fellowes, Frank P., I'.S.A., F.S.8. 8 The Green, Hampstead, Lon- 
don, N.W. 

tFenton, 8. Greame. 9 College-square, and Keswick, near Belfast. 

tFerguson, James. Gas Coal-worls, Lesmahago, Glasgow. 

tFerguson, John. Cove, Nigg, Inverness. 

§Fereuson, John. The College, Glasgow. 

{ Ferguson, Peter. 

§Ferguson, Robert M., Ph.D., F.R.S.E. 8 Queen-street, Edinburgh. 

{Ferguson, Samuel. 20 North Great George-street, Dublin. 

{Ferguson, William, F.L.S., F.G.S. 2St.Aiden’s-terrace, Birkenhead. 

*Fereusson, H. B. 13 Airlie-place, Dundee. 

*Fernie, John. 3 Moorland-terrace, Leeds. 

tFerrers, Rev. N. M., M.A. Caius College, Cambridge. 

{Field, Edward. Norwich. 

Field, Edwin W. 36 Lincoln’s Inn Fields, London, W.C. 
*Field, Rogers. 6 Cannon-row, Westminster, S.W. 
Fielding, G. H., M.D. Tunbridge, Kent. 
tFinch, Frederick George, B.A., F.G.S. Fern House, Myrtle-place, 
Blackheath, London, 8.E. 


26 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 
Finch, John. ee Work, Chepstow. 
Finch, John, jun, Bridge Work, Chepstow. 
1859. {Findlay, Alexander George, F.R.G.S. 53 Fleet-street, London, 


1863. 
1868. 


1851. 
1858. 
1869, 
1858. 
1871. 
1871. 


1868. 
1857. 


E.C’; Dulwich Wood Park, Surrey. 

{Finney, Samuel. Sheriff-hill Hall, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

{Firth, G. W. W._ St. Giles’s-street, Norwich. 

Firth, Thomas. Northwick. 

*Fischer, William L, F., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor Mathematics 
in the University of St. Andrews, Scotland. 

{¥ishbourne, Captain E. G., R.N. 6 Welamere-terrace, Padding- 
tou, London, W. 

tFisher, Rev. Osmond, M.A., F.G.S. Harlston Rectory, near Cam- 
bridge. 

{Fishwick, Henry. Carr-hill, Rochdale. 

*Fison, Frederick W. Greenholme, Burley in Whaffdale, near Leeds. 

§Fitch, J.G., M.A. Lancaster-terrace, Regent’s Park, London, N.W. 

{Fitch, Robert, F.G.S., F.S.A. Norwich. 

Sob era The Right Hon. Lord Otho, M.P, 13 Dominick-street, 
Dublin. 


. {Fitzpatrick, Thomas, M.D. 381 Lower Bagot-street, Dublin. 


Fitzwilliam, Hon. George Wentworth, M.P., F.R.G.8. 19 Grosve- 
nor-square, London, 8.W.; and Wentworth House, Rotherham. 


. {Fleetwood, D. J. 45 George Street, St. Paul’s, Birmingham. 


Fleetwood, Sir Peter Hesketh, Bart. Rossall Hall, Fleetwood, 
Lancashire. 


. {Fleming, Professor Alexander, M.D. 20 Lene Birmingham, 


Fleming, Christopher, M.D. Merrion-square North, Dublin. 
Fleming, John G., M.D. 155 Bath-street, Glasgow. 
*Fleming, William, M.D. Rowton Grange, near Chester. 


. §Fletcher, Alfred E. 21 Overton-street, Liverpool. 

. §Fletcher, B. Edgington. Norwich. 

. {Fletcher, Isaac, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Tarn Bank, Workington, 
. §Fletcher, Lavington E., C.K. 41 Cooperation-street, Manchester. 


Fletcher, T. B. E., M.D. 7 Waterloo-street, Birmingham. 


. {Flower, William Henry, F.R.S., F.L.8., F.G.S., E.R.GS., Hunterian 


Professor of Comparative Anatomy, and Conservator of the 
Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. Royal College of 
Surgeons, Lincoln’s Inn-fields, London, W.C. 


. {Flowers, John W., F.G.S. Park Hill, Croydon, Surrey. 
. {Foggie, William. Woodville, Maryfield, Dundee. 
. *Forbes, David, F.R.S., F.G.8., F.C.8, 11 York-place, Portman- 


square, London, W. 


. {Forbes, Rey. John. Symington Manse, Biggar, Scotland. 
. {Forbes, Rev. John, D.D. 150 West Regent-street, Glasgow. 


Ford, H. R. Morecombe Lodge, Yealand Congers, Lancashire. 


. {Ford, William. Hartsdown Villa, Kensington Park Gardens East, 


London, W. 


:*Forrest, William Hutton. The Terrace, Stirling. 
. §Forster, Anthony. Newsham Grange, Winston, Darlington. 
. *Forster, Thomas Emerson. 7 Ellison-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 


*Forster, William. Ballynure, Clones, Ireland. 


. {Forster, William Edward. Burley, Otley, near Leeds. 
. §Forsyth, William F. Denham Green, roy Edinburgh. 
. *Fort, Richard, 24 Queen’s Gate-gardens, 


ondon, W.; and Read 
Hall, Whalley, Lancashire. 


. §Forwood, William B. Hopeton House, Seaforth, Liverpool. 
. {Foster, Balthazar W., M.D. 4 Old Square, Birmingham. 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 27 


Year of 
Election. 


1865. 


1846. 


1859. 


1865. 
1871. 
1859. 
1871. 


1860. 


1847. 


1871. 
1865. 
1869. 


1869. 
1857. 


1863. 
1869, 


*Foster, Clement Le Neve, D.Se, F.G.S, East Hill, Wandsworth, 
London, 8.W. 

*Foster, George C., B.A., F.R.S., F.C.8., Professor of Experimental 
Physics in University College, London, W.C. 16 King Henry’s- 
road, London, N.W. 

*Foster, Rev. John, M.A. The Oaks Parsonage, Loughborough. 


. (Foster, John N. Sandy Place, Sandy, Bedfordshire. 

. *Foster, Michael, M.D., F.L.S, Trinity College, Cambridge. 

. §Foster, Peter Le Neve, M.A. Society of Arts, Adelphi, London, 
W.C 


Foster, Robert. 30 Rye-hill, Neweastle-upon-Tyne. 
Pp y 


. *Foster, 8. Lloyd. Old Park Hall, Walsall, Staffordshire, 


Fothergill, Benjamin. 10 The Grove, Boltons, West Brompton, 
London. 


. §§Foulger, Edward. 55 Kirkdale-road, Liverpool. 

. §Fowler, George. 56 Clarendon Street, Nottingham. 

. {Fowler, G. G. Gunton Hall, Lowestoft, Suffolk. 

. {Fowler, Rey. Hugh, M.A. College-gardens, Gloucester. 

. *Fowler, Robert Nicholas, M.A., M.P., F.R.G.S. 36 Cavendish-square, 


London, W. 
Fox, Alfred. Penjerrick, Falmouth. 


. {Fox, Colonel A. Lane, F.G.S., F.S.A. 10 Upper Phillimore-gardens, 


Kensington, London, 8. W. 


. *Fox, Charles. Trebah, Falmouth. 


*Fox, Rev. Edward, M.A. The Vicarage, Romford, Essex. 
*Fox, Joseph Hayland. The Cleve, Wellington, Somerset. 


. {Fox, Joseph John. Church-row, Stoke Newington, London, N. 


Fox, Robert Were, F.R.S. Falmouth. 


. *Francis, G. B. 8 Nelson-terrace, Stoke Newington, London, N. 


Francis, William, Ph.D., F.L.S., F.G.8., F.R.A.S. Red Lion-court, 
Fleet-street, London, E.C,; and 1 Matson Villas, Marsh-gate, 
Richmond, Surrey. 

{Frankland, Edward, D.C.L., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Che- 
mistry in the Royal School of Mines. 14 Lancaster Gate, Lon- 
don, W. 

*Frankland, Rev. Marmaduke Charles. Chowbent, near Manchester, 

Franks, Rey. J. C., M.A. Whittlesea, near Peterborough. 

{Fraser, George B. 3 Airlie-place, Dundee. 

Fraser, James. 25 Westland-row, Dublin. 

Fraser, James William. 8a Kensington Palace-gardens, London, W. 

*Fraser, John, M.A., M.D. Chapel Ash, Wolverhampton. 

§Fraser, Thomas R., M.D., F.R.S.E. Grosvenor-place, Edinburgh. 

*Frazer, Daniel. 115 Buchanan-street, Glasgow. 

§Frazer, Evan L. R. Brunswick-terrace, Spring Bank, Hull. 

tFreeborn, Richard Fernandez. 38 Broad-street, Oxford. 

*Freeland, Humphrey William, F.G.S. West-street, Chichester, 
Sussex. 

§Freeman. 

{Freeman, James. 15 Francis-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

§Frere, Sir Bartle, F.R.G.S. 22 Princes-gardens, London. 

Frere, George Edward, F.R.S. Royden Hall, Diss, Norfolk. 

{frere, Rey. William Edward. The Rectory, Bilton, near Bristol. 

Fripp, George D., M.D. Barnfield Hill, Southampton. 

*Frith, Richard Hastings, C.E. 48 Summer Hill, Dublin. 

*Frith, William. Burley Wood, near Leeds. 

{Frodsham, Charles. 26 Upper Bedford-place, Russell-square, Lon- 
don, W.C. 


28 LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 
Frost, Charles, F.S.A. Hull. 
1860, *Froude, William, C.E., F.R.S. Chelston Cross, Torquay. 
Fry, Francis. Cotham, Bristol. 
Fry, Richard. Cotham Lawn, Bristol. 
Fry, Robert. Tockington, Gloucestershire. 
1863. {Fryar, Mark. Eaton Moor Colliery, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
1859. {Fuller, Frederick, M.A., Professor of Mathematics in University and 
King’s College, Aberdeen. 
1869.§§Fuller, George, C.E., Professor of Engineering in University College, 
London. Argyll-road, Kensington, London, W. 
1852. {Furguson, Professor John C., M.A., M.B. Queen’s College, Belfast. 
1864, *Furneaux, Rey. Alan. St. Germain’s Parsonage, Cornwall. 


*Gadesden, Augustus William, F.S.A. Ewell Castle, Surrey. 

1857. {Gages, Alphonse, M.R.LA. Museum of Irish Industry, Dublin. 

1863. *Gainsford, W. D. Handsworth Grange, near Sheffield. 

1850. {Gairdner, Professor W. F., M.D. 225 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow. 

1861. {Galbraith, Andrew. Glasgow. 

Galbraith, Rey. J. A., M.R.I.A. Trinity College, Dublin. 

1867. {Gale, James M. 33 Miller-street, Glasgow. 

1863. {Gale, Samuel, F.C.S. 338 Oxford-street, London, W. 

1861. {Galloway, Charles John. Knott Mill Iron Works, Manchester. 

1859. {Galloway, James. Calcutta. 

1861. {Galloway, John, jun. Knott Mill Iron Works, Manchester. 

Galloway, S. H. Linbach, Austria. 

1860. *Galton, Captain Douglas, C.B., R.E., F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 
(GENERAL SEcRETARY.) 12 Chester-street, Grosvenor-place, 
London, 8. W. 

1860. *Galton, Francis, F.R.S.,F.G.S.,F.R.G.S. 42 Rutland-gate, Knights- 
bridge, London, S.W. 

1869.§§Galton, John C., M.A., F.L.S. 13 Margaret-street, Cavendish-square, 
London, W. 

1870. §Gamble, D. St. Helens, Lancashire. 

1870.§§Gamble, J.C. St. Helens, Lancashire. 

1868. {Gamgee, Arthur, M.D., F.R.S.E. 27 Alva-street, Edinburgh. 

1862 §Garner, Robert, F.L.S. Stoke-upon-Trent. 

1865. §Garner, Mrs. Robert. Stoke-upon-Trent. 

1842. Garnett, Jeremiah. Warren-street, Manchester. 

1870. §§Gaskell, Holbrook. Woolton Wood, Liverpool. 

1870. *Gaskell, Holbrook, jun. Woolton Wood, Liverpool. 

1847. *Gaskell, Samuel. Windham Club, St. James’s-square, London, 8. W. 

1842. Gaskell, Rev. William, M.A. Plymouth-grove, Manchester. 

1846. §Gassiot, John Peter, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Clapham Com- 

mon, London, 8S.W. 

1862. *Gatty, Charles Henry, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.8. Felbridge Park, East 
Grinsted, Sussex. 

1871. §Geddes, John. 9 Melville-crescent, Edinburgh. 

1859. {Geddes, William D., M.A., Professor of Greek, King’s College, Old 
Aberdeen. 

1854.§§Gee, Robert, M.D. 5 Abercromby-square, Liverpool. 

1867. §Geikie, Archibald, F.R.S., F.G.S., Director of the Geological Survey of 
Scotland. Geological Survey Office, Victoria-street, Edinburgh ; 
and Ramsay Lodge, Edinburgh. 

1871. §Geikie, James, .R.S.E. 16 Duncan-terrace, Newington, Edinburgh, 

1855. {Gemmell, Andrew. 38 Queen-street, Glasgow. 

1854. §§Gerard, Henry. 18a Rumford-place, Liverpool. 

1870. §Gerstl, R. University College, London, W.C. 


—_—" Lt 


— 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 29 


Year of 
Election. 


1870. *Gervis, Walter S., M.D. Ashburton, Devon. 

1856. *Gething, George Barkley. Springfield, Newport, Monmouthshire. 
1863. *Gibb, Sir George Duncan, Bart., M.D., M.A., LL.D., F.G.S. 1 
Bryanston-street, London, W.; and Falkland, Fife. 

1865. {Gibbins, William. Battery Works, Digbeth, Birmingham. 
1871. §Gibson, Alexander. 19 Albany-street. Edinburgh. 
1868. {Gibson, C. M. Bethel-street, Norwich. 
*Gibson, George Stacey. Saffron Walden, Essex. 
1852. tGibson, James. 35 Mountjoy-square, Dublin. 
1870.§§Gibson, R.E. Sankey Mills, Earlestown, near Newton-le-Willows. 
1870.§§Gibson, Thomas, 51 Oxford-street, Liverpool. 
1870.§§Gibson, Thomas, jun. 19 Parkfield-road, Princes Park, Liverpool. 
1867. {Gibson, W. L., M.D. Tay-street, Dundee. 
1842, eae oseph Henry, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Harpenden, near St. 
Albans. 
1857. {Gilbert, J. T., M.R.L.A. Blackrock, Dublin. 
1859, *Gilchrist, James, M.D. Crichton Royal Institution, Dumfries. 
Gilderdale, Rev. John, M.A. Walthamstow, Essex. 
Giles, Rev. William. Netherleigh House, near Chester. 
1871. *Gill, David, junr. 26 Silver-street, Aberdeen. 
1868, {Gill, Joseph. Palermo, Scilly (care of W. H. Gill, Esq., General 
Post Office, St. Martin’s-le-Grand, E.C.), 
1864, ¢Gill, Thomas. 4 Sydney-place, Bath. 
1861. *Gilroy, George. Hindley House, Wigan. 
1867, {Gilroy, Robert. Craigie, by Dundee. 
1867. §Ginsburg, Rev. C. D., D.C.L., LL.D. Binfield, Bracknell, Berkshire. 
1869, {Girdlestone, Rev. Canon E., M.A. Halberton Vicarage, Tiverton. 
1850. *Gladstone, George, F.C.S., F.R.G.S. Care of Henry Strut, Esq., 
Clapham Common, London, S.W. 
1849. *Gladstone, John Hall, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 17 Pembridge-square, 
Hyde Park, London, W. 
1861. *Gladstone, Murray. Broughton House, Manchester, 
1852. { Gladstone, Thomas Murray. 
1861. a James, F.R.S., F.R.A.S, 1 Dartmouth-place, Blackheath, 
cent. 
1871. *Glaisher, J. W. L., F.R.A.S. Trinity College, Cambridge. 
1853. {Gleadon, Thomas Ward. Moira-buildings, Hull. 
1870. §Glen, David C. 14 Annfield-place, Glasgow. 
1859. {Glennie, J.S. Stuart. 6 Stone-buildings, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C. 
1867. {Gloag, John A. L. 10 Inverleith-place, Edinbureh. 
Glover, George. Ranelagh-road, Pimlico, London, S.W, 
1870.§§Glynn, Thomas R. 1 Rodney-street, Liverpool. 
1852. tGodwin, John. Wood House, Rostrevor, Belfast. 
1846. {Godwin-Austen, Robert A.C., B.A., F.R.S.,F.G.S. Chilworth Manor, 
Guildford. 
Goldsmid, Sir Francis Henry, Bart., M.P. St. John’s Lodge, Regent’s 
Park, London, N.W. 
1842. Gouch, Thomas L. Team Lodge, Saltwell, Gateshead. 
1852. {Goodbody, Jonathan. Clare, King’s County, Ireland. 
1870.§§Goodison, George William, C.E, Gateacre, Liverpool. 
1842. *Goodman, John, M.D. Leicester-street, Southport. 
1865. {Goodman, J. D. Minories, Birmingham. 
1869.§§Goodman, Neville. Peterhouse, Cambridge. 
1870. *Goodwin, Rey. Henry Albert, M.A., F.R.A.S. Westhall Vicarace 
Waneford. ier 
1859. { Gordon, H. G. 
1871. §Gordon, Joseph. Poynter’s-row, Totteridge, Whetstone, London, N 
1870.§$Gordon, Rey, Alexander, 49 Upper Parliament-street, Liverpool, 


1 


30 _- LIST OF MEMBERS 


Year of 
Election. 
1857. {Gordon, Samuel, M.D. 11 Hume-street, Dublin. 
1865. {Gore, George, F.R.S. 50 Islington-row, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 
1870.§§Gossage, William. Winwood, Woolton, Liverpool. 
*Gotch, Thomas Henry. Kettering. 
1849. tGough, The Hon. Frederick. Perry Hall, Birmingham, 
1857. t{Gough, The Hon. G. 8S. Rathronan House, Clonmel. 
1868. §Gould, Rey. George. Unthank-road, Norwich. 
Gould, John, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.R.G.S., F.Z.S. 26 Charlotte-street, 
Bedford-square, London, W.C. 
1854. tGourlay, Daniel De la C., M.D. Tollington Park, Hornsey-road, 
London, N. 
1867. {Gourley, Heury (Engineer). Dundee. 
Gowland, James, London-wall, London, E.C. 
1861. {Grafton, Frederick W. Park-road, Whalley Range, Manchester. 
1867. *Graham, Cyril, F.L.S8., F.R.G.S. 9 Cleveland-row, St. James's, 
London, 8. W. 
Graham, Lieutenant David. Mecklewood, Stirlingshire. 
1870.§§Graham, R. Hills. 4 Bentley-road, Princes Park, Liverpool. 
1852. * Grainger, John. 
Grainger, Richard. ; 
1871. §Grant, Sir Alexander, Bart., M.A., Principal of the University of 
Edinburgh. 21 Lansdowne-crescent, Edinburgh. 
1870.§§Grant, Colonel J. A., C.B., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. 7 Park-square West, 
London, N.W. 
1859. {Grant, Hon. James. Cluny Cottage, Forres. 
1855. *Grant, Robert, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Regius Professor of 
Astronomy in the University of Glasgow. ‘lhe Observatory, 
Glasgow. 
1864. {Grantham, Richard F, 22 Whitehall-place, London, 8.W. 
1854. {Grantham, Richard B., C.E., F.G.S. 22 Whitehall-place, London, 
S.W 


Granville, Aucustus Bozzi, M.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA. 5 Cornwall- 
terrace, Warwick-square, Pimlico, London, 8.W. 
*Graves, Rev. Richard Hastings,D.D. Brigown Glebe House, Michel- 
stown, Co. Cork. 
1870.§§Gray, C. B. 5 Rumford-place, Liverpool. 
1864. *Gray, Rev. Charles. The Vicarage, Kast Retford, 
1865. {Gray, Charles. Swan-bank, Bilston. 
1857. {Gray, Sir John, M.D. Rathgar, Dublin. 
*Gray, John. 
*Gray, John Edward, Ph.D., F.R.S., Keeper of the Zoological Col- 
lections of the British Museum. British Museum, London, 
W.C. 
1864. {Gray, Jonathan. Summerhill-house, Bath. 
1859. {Gray, Rev. J. H. Bolsover Castle, Derbyshire. 
1870.§§Gray, T. Macfarlane. 12 Montenotte, Cork. 
*Gray, William, F.G.S. Minster Yard, York. 
1861. *Gray, Lt.-Colonel William, M.P. 26 Princes’s-gardens, London, 
W 


1854, *Grazebrook, Henry, jun. Clent Grove, near Stourbidge, Worcester- 
shire. 
1866. §Greaves, Charles Augustus, M.B., LL.B. Stafford-street, Derby. 
1869. §Greayes, William. ‘Wellington-circus, Nottingham. 
Green, Rev. Henry, M.A. Heathfield, Knutsford, Cheshire. 
*Greenaway, Edward. 91 Lansdowne-road, Notting Hill, London, W. 
1858, *Greenhalgh, Thomas. Sharples, near Bolton-le-Moors. 
1863. t{Greenwell, G. E. Poynton, Cheshire. 


Sn Y een ee 


i i 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 31 


Year of 
Election. 


1862. *Greenwood, Henry. 32 Castle-street, and 37 Falkner-square, Liver- 


ool. 
1849, ieeeeewwood, William. Stones, Todmorden. 
1861. *Greg, Robert Philips, F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Outwood Lodge, Prestwich, 
Manchester. 
Gregg, T. H. 22 Ironmonger-lane, Cheapside, London, E.C. 
1860. {Gregor, Rev. Walter, M.A. Pitsligo, Rosehearty, Aberdeenshire. 
1868. ‘pepe Charles Hutton, C.E. 1 Delahay-street, Westminster, 


1861. §Gregson, Samuel Leigh. Aigburth-road, Liverpool. 
Gresham, Thomas M. Raheny, Dublin. 
*Greswell, cee Richard, B.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 39 St. Giles’s-street, 
Oxford. 
Grey, rid ee The Hon. Frederick William. Howick, Northum- 
berland. 
1869. {Grey, Sir George, F.R.G.S. Belgrave-mansions, Grosvenor-gardens, 
London, 8.W. 
1866. {Grey, Rey. William Hewett C. North Sherwood, Nottingham. 
1863. tGrey, W.S. Norton, Stockton-on-Tees. 
1871. *Grierson, Samuel. Millholm House, Musselburgh, Edinburgh. 
1859. {Grierson, Thomas Boyle, M.D. Thornhill, Dumfriesshire. 
1870, §Grieve, John, M.D. 21 Lynedock-street, Glasgow. 
*Griffin, John Joseph, F.C.8. 22 Garrick-street, London, W.C. 
Griffith, Rey. C. T., D.D. Elm, near Frome, Somerset. 
1859, *Griffith, George, M.A., F.C.S, (Asstsranr Genprat SECRETARY.) 
Harrow. 
Griffith, George R. Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin. 
1868. {Griffith, Rev. John, M.A. The College, Brighton. 
1870.$§Griffith, N. R. The Coppa, Mold, North Wales. : 
1870, §Griffith, Rev. Professor. Bowden, Cheshire. 
*Griffith, Sir Richard John, Bart., LL.D., F.R.S.E., M.R.IL.A., F.G.S8, 
2 Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin. 
1847, {Griffith, Thomas. Bradford-street, Birmingham. 
Griffith, Walter H., ILA. 
Griffiths, Rev. John, M.A. 63 St. Giles’s, Oxford. 
1870.§§Grimsdale, T. F., M.D. 29 Rodney-street, Liverpool. 
1842. Grimshaw, Samuel, M.A. Errwod, Buxton. 
1864. {Groom-Napier, Charles Ottley, .G.S. 20 Maryland-road, Harrow- 
road, London, N.W. 
1869. §Grote, Arthur. The Athenzeum Ciub, Pall Mall, London, 8.W. 
Grove, William Robert, Q.C., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S. 115 Harley- 
street, W; and 5 Crown Office-row, Temple, London, E.C. 
1863. *Groves, Thomas B., F.C.S. 80 St. Mary’s-street, Weymouth. 
1869. {Grubb, Howard, F.R.A.S. Rathmines, Dublin. 
1857, {Grubb, Thomas, F.R.S., M.R.I.A. 141 Leinster-road, Dublin. 
Guest, Edwin, LL.D., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.R.A.S., Master of 
Caius College, Cambridge. Caius Lodge, Cambridge; and Sand- 
ford-park, Oxfordshire. 
1867. {Guild, John. Bayfield, West Ferry, Dundee. 
Guinness, Henry. 17 College Green, Dublin. 
1842, Guinness, Richard Seymour. 17 College Green, Dublin. 
1856. *Guise, Sir William Vernon, Bart., F.G.S., F.L.S. E:Imore-court, near 
Gloucester. 
1862. {Gunn, Rey. John, M.A., F.G.S. Instedd Rectory, Norwich. 
“ee Ram Albert C. L. G., M.D., F.R.S. British Museum, London, 


1868, *Gumey, John, Earlham Tall, Norwich, 


32 LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1860. *Gurney, Samuel, M.P., F.L.S., F.R.G.S, 20 Hanover-terrace, Re- 

gent’s Park, London, N.W. 
*Gutch, John James. Blake-street, York. 

1859. {Guthrie, a a F.RS. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street, Lon- 
don, 5. W. 

1864. §Guyon, George. South Cliff Cottage, Ventnor, Isle of Wight. 

Se HOISS Gayton oseph. 23 Cathcart-road, West Brompton, London, 
8.V 


1857. tGwynne, Rev. John. Tullyaguish, Letterkenny, Strabane, Ireland. 


Hackett, Michael. Brooklawn, Chapelizod, Dublin. 
1865. §Hackney, William. Walter’s-road, Swansea. 
1865. t{Haden, W. H. Cawney Bank Cottage, Dudley. 
1866. *Hadden, Frederick J. The Park, Nottingham. 
1862. {Haddon, Frederick William. 12 St. James’s-square, London, 8.W. 
1866. {Haddon, Henry. Lenton Field, Nottingham. 

Haden, G. N. Trowbridge, Wiltshire. 
1842. Hadfield, George. Victoria-park, Manchester. 
1870.§§Hadivan, Isaac. 8 Huskisson-street, Liverpool. 
1848. tHadland, William Jenkins. Banbury, Oxfordshire. 
1870.§§Haigh, George. Waterloo, Liverpoc:. 

*Hailstone, Edward, F.S.A. Walton Hall, Wakefield, Yorkshire. 

1869, ee C. Grasmere Lodge, Addison-road, Kensington, London, 


1870.§§Halhead, W. B. 7 Parkfield-road, Liverpool. 
Halifax, The Right Hon. Viscount. 10 Belgrave-square, London, 
S.W. ; and Hickleston Hall, Doncaster. 
1854, *Hall, Hugh Fergie. Greenheys, Wallasey, Birkenhead. 
1859. tHall, John Frederic. Ellerker House, Richmond, Surrey. 
Hall, John R. Sutton, Surrey. 
*Hall, Thomas B. Australia (care of J. P. Hall, Esq., Crane House, 
Great Yarmouth). 
1866, *Hall, Townshend M., F.G.S. Pilton, Barnstaple. 
1860. §Hall, Walter. 10 Pier-road, Erith. 
1868, *Hallett, William Henry, F.L.S. The Manor House, Kemp Town, 
Brighton. 
1861. {Halliday, James. Whalley Court, Whalley Range, Manchester. 
1857. {Halpin, George, C.E. Rathgar, near Dublin. 
Halsall, Edward. 4 Somerset-street, Kingsdown, Bristol. 
Halswell, Edmund S., M.A. 
1858, *Hambly, Charles Hambly Burbridge, F.G.S. 96 London-road, Lei- 
cester. 
1866. §Hamilton, Archibald, F.G.S. South Barrow, Bromley, Kent. 
1857. tHamilton, Charles W. 40 Dominick-street, Dublin. 
1865. §Hamilton, Gilbert. Leicester House, Kenilworth-road, Leamington. 
Hamilton, The Very Rev. Henry Parr, Dean of Salisbury, M.A., 
E.R.S. L. & E., F.G.8., F.R.A.S. Salisbury. 
1869, {Hamilton, John, F.G.S. Fyne Court, Bridgewater. 
1869. §Hamilton, Roland. Oriental Club, Hanover-square, London, W. 
1864. {Hamilton, Rev. S. R., M.A. 
1851. {Hammond, C. C. Lower Brook-street, Ipswich. 
1871. §Hanbury, Daniel. Clapham-Common, London, 8.W. 
1863. t{Hancock, Albany, F.L.S. 4 St. Mary’s-terrace, Newcastle-upon- 
Ab 


yne. 
1863. tHancock, John. 4 St. Mary’s-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
1850. tHancock, John. Manor House, Lurgan, Co. Armagh. 
1861, tHancock, Walker. 10 Upper Chadwell-street, Pentonville, London, 


i ah 4): 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 33 


Year of 
Election. 


1857. 
1847, 


1865, 
1867. 


1859. 
1853. 


1865. 
1869. 
1869. 
1864, 


1858. 
1853. 


1871. 
1862. 


1862. 
1861. 
1868. 


1863. 


1871. 


1863. 
1860. 
1864. 
1858. 
1870. 
1853. 
1863. 


1853. 
1849. 
1859. 
1861. 


1842. 
1856, 


1871. 


tHancock, William J. 74 Lower Gardiner-street, Dublin. 

tHancock, W. Nelson, LL.D. 74 Lower Gardiner-street, Dublin. 

fHands, M. Coventry. 

Handyside, P. D., M.D., F.R.S.E. 11 Hope-street, Edinburgh. 

tHannah, Rey. John, D.C.L. The Vicarage, Brighton. 

tHannay, John. Montcoffer House, Aberdeen. 

tHansell, Thomas T. 2 Charlotte-street, Sculcoates, Hull. 

*Harcourt, A. G. Vernon, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S. Christ Church, 
Oxford. 

Harcourt, Rey. C. G. Vernon, M.A. Rothbury, Northumberland. 

Harcourt, Egerton V. Vernon, M.A., F.G.S. Whitwell Hall, York- 
shire. 

tHarding, Charles. Harborne Heath, Birmingham. 

tHarding, Joseph. Hill’s Court, Exeter. 

tHarding, William D. Kings Lynn, Norfolk. 

§Hardwicke, Robert, F.L.S. 192 Piccadilly, London, W. 

*Hare, Charles John, M.D., Professor of Clinical Medicine in Uni- 
versity College, London. 57 Brook-street, Grosyenor-square, 
London, W. 

Harford, Summers. Haverfordwest. 

tHargraye, James. Burley, near Leeds. 

§Harkness, Robert, F.R.S. L. & E., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in 
Queen’s College, Cork. 

§Harkness, William. Laboratory, Somerset House, London, W.C. 

*Harley, George, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Medical Jurisprudence 
in University College, London. 25 Harley-street, London, W. 

“Harley, John. Ross Hall, near Shrewsbury. 

*Harley, Rey. Robert, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Lancaster-place, Leicester. 

tHarman, H. W., C.E. 16 Booth-street, Manchester. 

*Harmer, F. W., F.G.S. Heigham Grove, Norwich. 

*Harris, Alfred. Sleningford Park, near Ripon. 

*Harris, Alfred, jun. Ashfield, Bingley, Yorkshire. 

tHarris, Charles. 6 Somerset-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

Harris, The Hon. and Right Rey. Charles, Lord Bishop of Gibraltar, 
F.G.S. Care of A. Martineau, Esq., 61 Westbourne-terrace, 
London, W. 

§Harris, George, F.S.A. Iselipps Manor, Middlesex. 

*Harris, Henry. Longwood, near Bingley. 

{Harris, T. W. Grange, Middlesborouch-on-Tees. 

tHarrison, Rey. Francis, M.A. Oriel College, Oxford. 

§Harrison, George. Barnsley, Yorkshire. 

*Harrison, James Park, M.A. Garlands, Ewhurst, Surrey. 

§$Harrison, Reginald. 51 Rodney-street, Liverpool. 

{Harrison, Robert. 36 George-street, Hull. 

{Harrison, T. E. Engineers’ Office, Central Station, Newcastle-on- 


Tyne. 

Serco, William, F.S.A., F.G.S. Samlesbury Hall, near Preston, 
Lancashire. 

tHarrowby, The Earl of, K.G.,D.C.L., F.R.S.,F.R.G.S. 89 Grosvenor- 
square, London, 8.W.; and Sandon Hall, Lichfield. 

*Hart, Charles. 54 Wych-street, Strand, London, W.C. 

*Harter, J. Collier. Chapel Walks, Manchester. 

*Harter, William. Hope Hall, Manchester. 

tHartland, F. Dixon, #.S.A., F.R.G.8S. The Oaklands, near Chel« 
tenham. 

Hartley, James. Sunderland. 
§Hartley, Walter Noel. King’s College, London, W.C. 
D 


Bre LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


Hartly, J. B. Bootle, near Liverpool. 
1854, §Hartnup, John, F.R.A.S. Liverpool Observatory, Bidston, Birken- 
head. 
1850. tHazvey, Alexander. 4 South Wellington-place, Glasgow. 
1870.§§Harvey, Enoch. Riversdale-road, Aigburth, Liv erpool. 
*Harvey, Joseph Charles. Knockrea House, ‘Cork. 
Harvey, J. R., M.D. St. Patrick’s-place, Cork. 
1862. *Harwood, John, jun. Woodside Mills, Bolton-le-moors. 
1855. {Hassall, Arthur Hill. 8 Bennett- street, St. James’s, London, 8. W. 
Hastings, Rev. H.5. Martley Rectory, Worcester. 
1842, *Hatton, James. Richmond House, Higher Broughton, Manchester. 
Haughton, James, M.R.D.S. 34 Tccles-str eet, Dublin. 
1857. tHaughton, Rey. Samuel, M.D., M.A., F.R.S., MM. R.I.A., F.G.8., Pro- 
fessor of Geology in the Uniy ersity of Dublin. Trinity College, 
Dublin. 
1857. + Haughton, S. Wilfred. 
*Haughton, William. 28 City Quay, Dublin. 
Hawkins, John Heywood, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. Bignor Park, Pet- 
worth, Sussex. 
* Hawkins, Thomas, F.G.S. 
*Hawkshaw, John, F.R.S., F.G.8, 43 Eaton-place, and 33 Great 
George-street, London, S.W. 
1864. *Hawkshaw, John ‘Clarke, M.A., F.G.8. 43 Eaton-place, London, 
W. 


1868. §Haw ksley, Thomas, C.E. 30 Great George-street, Westminster, 8. W. 

1853. tHaworth, Benjamin. Hull Bank House, near Hull. 

1863. {Hawthorn, Wiliam. The Cottage, Benwell, Neweastle-upon-Tyne. 

1859. {Hay, Sir Andrew Leith, Bart. Rannes, Aberdeenshire. 

1861. *Hay, Rear-Admiral Sir John ©. D., Bart.. M.P., F.R.S. 108 St. 

George’s-square, London, 8.W. 

1858. {Hay, Samuel. Albion-place, Leeds. 

1867. {Hay, William. 21 Magdalen Yard-road, Dundee. 

1857. {Hayden, Thomas, M.D. 50 Harcourt-street, Dublin. 

1869. {Hayward, J. High-street, Exeter. 

1856. {Hayward, J. Curtis. Quedgeley, near Gloucester. 

1858. *Hayward, Robert Baldwin, ‘M.A. Harrow-on-the-hill. 

1851. §Head, Jeremiah. Middlechorough, Yorkshire. 

1869. tHead, R. T. The Briars, Alphington, Exeter. 

1869. {Head, W. R. Bedford-circus, Exeter. 

1861. *Heald, James. Parr’s Wood, Didsbury, near Manchester. 

1863. {Heald, Joseph. 22 Leazes-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

1871. §Healey, George. Matson’s, Windermere. 

1861. *Heape, Benjamin. Northwood, Prestwich, near Manchester. 

1865.§§Hearder, William. Victoria Pa arade, Torquay. 

1866. {Heath, Rev. D. J. Hsher, Surrey. 

1863. {Heath, G. Y., M.D. Westgate- street, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

1861. §Heathfield, W. By RS, FRG. S., FE.RS.E. 20 King-street, St. 
James’s, London, S.W. 

1865. tHeaton, Harry. Wazstone, Birmingham. 

1858. *Heaton, John Deakin, MD. Claremont, Leeds. 

1865. {Heaton, Ralph. Harborne Le near Birmingham. 

18383. {Heaviside, Rey, Canon J. W. L., M.A. The Close, Norwich. 

1863. {Heckels, Richard. 

1855. {Hector, James, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Geological Survey 
of Otago. W ellington, New Zealand. 

1867.§§Heddle, M. Foster, M.D., Sarre of Chemistry in the University. 

of St, Andrew’ s, N.B 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 85 


Year of 
Election. 


1869. {Hedgeland, Rev. W. J. 21 Mount Radford, Exeter. 
1863. {Hedley, Thomas. Cox Lodge, near Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
1862. {Helm, George F. 58 Trumpington-street, Cambridge. 
1857. *Hemans, George William, C.., M.R.I.A.. 1 Westminster Chambers, 
Victoria-street, London, S.W. 
1867. tHenderson, Alexander. Dundee. 
1845. {Henderson, Andrew. :120 Gloucester-place, Portman-square, London. 
1866. {Henderson, James, jun. Dundee. 
1856. {Hennessy, Henry G., F.R.S.,M.R.1.A. 86 St.Stephen’s Green, Dublin. 
1857. {Hennessy, John Pope. Inner Temple, London, E.C. 
Henry, Franklin. Portland-street, Manchester. 
Henry, J. Snowdon. East Dene, Bonchurch, Isle of Wight. 
Henry, Mitchell. Stratheden House, Hyde Park, London, W. ‘ 
*Henry, William Charles, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.8., F.R.G.S. Hatfield, 
near Ledbury, Herefordshire. 
1870.§§Henty, William. Norfolk-terrace, Brighton. E 
Henwood, William Jory, F.R.S., F.G.S. 3 Clarence-place, Penzance. 
1855. *Hepburn, J. Gotch, LL.B., F.C.S. Sideup-place, Sidcup, Kent. 
1855. {Hepburn, Robert. 9 Portland-place, London, W. 
Hepburn, Thomas. Clapham, London, 8.W. 
1871. §Hepburu, Thomas H. St. Mary’s Cray, Kent. 
Hepworth, John Mason. Ackworth, Yorkshire. 
1856. t{Hepworth, Rey. Robert. 2 St. James’s-square, Cheltenham. 
*Herbert, Thomas. The Park, Nottingham. 
1852. {Herdman, John. 9 Wellington-place, Belfast. 
1866.§§Herrick, Perry. Bean Manor Park, Loughborough. 
1871. *Herschel, Professor Alexander 8., B.A. College of Science, New- 
castle-on-Tyne. 
1865. tHeslop, Dr. Birmingham. 
1863. {Heslop, Joseph. Pilgrim-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne, 
1882. {Hewitson, William C. Oatlands, Surrey. 
Hey, Rey. William, M.A., F.C.P.S. Clifton, York. 
1866. *Heymann, Albert. West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire. 
1866. {Heymann, L. West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire. 


_ 1861. *Heywood, Arthur Henry. The How, Prestwich, Manchester. 


*Heywood, James, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. 26 Palace-gardens, 
Kensington, London, W. 
1861 *Heywood, Oliver. Claremont, Manchester. 
Heywood, Thomas Percival, Claremont, Manchester. 
1854, { Heyworth, Captain L., jun. 
1870. *Heyworth, Lawrence. Yewtree, Liverpool. 
1864. *Hiern, W. P., M.A. 1 Foxton-villa, Richmond, Surrey. 
1854, *Higgin, Edward, 
1861. *Higgin, James. 5 Hopwood-avenue, Manchester. 
Higginbotham, Samuel. 4 Springfield Court, Queen-street, Glasgow. 
1866. {Higginbottom, John. Nottingham. 
1871. §Higgins, Clement, F.C.S. 27 St. John’s Park, Upper Holloway, Lon- 
don, N. 
1861. tHigeins, George. Mount House, Higher Broughton, Manchester. 
1854, {Higgins, Rev. Henry H., M.A. The Asylum, Rainhill, Liverpool. 
1861. *Higgins, James. Stocks House, Cheetham, Manchester. 
1870.§§Higginson, Alfred. 44 Upper Parliament-street, Liverpool. 
1842, *Higson, Peter, F.G.S., H.M. Inspector of Mines. The Brooklands, 
Swinton, near Manchester. 
1870. §Highton, Rev. H. 2 The Cedars, Putney, 8.W. 
- Hildyard, Rey. James, B.D., F.CP.S, Ingoldsby, near Grantham, 
Lincolnshire. 


D2 


36 LIST OF MEMBERS, 


Year of 
Election. 
1862. *Hiley, Rey. Simeon. Elland, near Halifax. 
Hill, Arthur. Bruce Castle, Tottenham, London, N 
*Hill, Rey. Edward, M.A., F.G.S. Sheering Rectory, Harlow. 
1857. Hill, John. Tullamore, Ireland. 
1871, §Hill, Lawrence. The Knowe, Greenock. 
*Hill, Sir Rowland, K.C.B., D. C.L., F.R.S., FLR.A.S. Hampstead, 
London, N. W. 
1864, +Hill, William. Combe Hay, Bristol. 
1863 { Hills, IF. C. Chemical Works, Deptford, Kent, S.E. 
1871. *Hills, Thomas Hyde. 338 Oxford-street, London, W. 
1858. {Hincks, Rey. Thomas, B.A. Mountside, Leeds. 
1870.§§Hinde, G. J. Buenos Ayres. 
Hindley, Rey. H. J. Edlington, Lincolnshire. 
1852. *Hindmarsh, Frederick, F.G. S, FRGS. 4 New Inn, Strand, Lon- 
don, W.C. 
*Hindmarsh, Luke. Alnbank House, Alnwick. 
1865. tHinds, James, M.D. Queen’s College, Birmingham. 
1863. {Hinds, William, M.D. Parade, Birmingham. 
1861. *Hinmers, William. Cleveland House, Birkdale, Southport. 
1858.§§Hirst, John, jun. Dobcross, near Manchester. 
1861. *Hirst, T. Archer, Ph.D., F. R. 8, F.R.A.S. The University of London, 
Burlington Gardens, W and Athenzeum Club, Pall Mall, London, 
S.W. 
1856. {Hitch, Samuel, M.D. Sandywell Park, Gloucestershire. 
1860. {Hitchman, John. Leamington. 
1870.§§Hitchman, William, M.D. 29 Erskine-street, Liverpool. 
*Hoare, Rey. George Tooker. Godstone Rectory, Redhill. 
Hoare, J. Gurney. Hampstead, London, N.W. 
1864. {Hobhouse, Arthur Fane, 24 Cadogan-place, London, 8. W. 
1864. {Hobhouse, Charles Parry. 24 Cadogan-place, London, S.W. 
1864, tHobhouse, Henry William. 24 Cadogan-place, London, S.W. 
1863. §Hobson, A.S., F.C.8. 8 Upper Heathtield- terrace, Turnham Green, 
London, W. 
1866. {Hockin, Charles, M.D. 8 Avenue-road, St. John’s Wood, London. 
1852. {Hodges, John F., M.D., Professor of Agriculture i in Queen’ 3 College, 
“Belfast. 23 Oncent street, Belfast, 
1863. *Hodgkin, Thomas. Benvwell Dene, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
1863. tHodeson, Robert. Whitburn, Sunderland. 
1863. {Hodgson, R. W. North Dene, Gateshead. ee 
Hodgson, Thomas. Market-street, York. 
1839, {Hodgson, W. B., LL.D., F.R.A. S. 41 Grove Ind-road, St. John’s 
Wood, London, NW. 
1860. { Hogan, Rev. A. oes "M.A. 
1865, *Hofmann, Augustus William, LL.D, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.8. 10 Doro- 
theen Strasse, Berlin. 
Hogan, William, M.A., M.R.IA. Haddington-terrace, Kingstown, 
near Dublin. 
1861. Ree George, C.E. Red Lion-court, St. Ann’s-square, Man- 
chester. 
1854. *Holcroft, George. Byron’s Court, St. Mary’s Gate, Manchester. 
1856. {Holland, Henry. Dumbleton, Evesham. 
1858. §Holland, Loton, F.R.G.S. 6 Queen’s-villas, Windsor, 
*Holland, Philip H. Burial Acts Office, 13 Great George-strect, 
Westminster, ate 
1865. tHolliday, W illiam. New Street, Birmingham. 
*Hollingsworth, aha Maidenstone House, Maidenstone Hill, Green- 
wich, Kent, S.E 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 37 


Year of 
Election. 


1866. *Holmes, Charles. London-road, Derby. 
1870.§§Holt, William D. 23 Edge-lane, Liverpool. 
*Hone, Nathaniel, M.R.I.A. Bank of Ireland, Dublin. 

1858. {Hook, The Very Rev. W. F., D.D., Dean of Chichester. Chichester. 

1847. {Hooker, Joseph Dalton, C.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.8., V.P.L.S. 
F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Royal Gardens, Kew. 

1865. *Hooper, John P. The Hut, Mitcham Common, Surrey. 

1861. §Hooper, William. 7 Pall Mall East, London, $8. W. 

1856. {Hooton, Jonathan. 80 Great Ducie-street, Manchesters 

1842. Hope, Thomas Arthur. Stanton, Bebington, Cheshire. 

1869. §Hope, William, V.C. Parsloes, Barking, Essex. 

1865. {Hopkins, J. S. Jesmond Grove, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

1870. *Hopkinson, John. 12 York-place, Oxford-road, Manchester. 

1871. §Hopkinson, John, F.G.8. 8 Lawn-road, Haverstsck-hill, London, 
N.W. 


1858. t{Hopkinson, Joseph, jun. Britannia Works, Huddersfield. 
Hornby, Hugh. Sandown, Liverpool. 
1864. *Horner, Rey. J. J. H. Mells Rectory, Frome. 
1858. *Horsfall, Abraham. 17 Park-row, Leeds. 
1854. {Horsfall, Thomas Berry. Bellamour Park, Rugeley. 
1856. {Horsley, John H. 389 Hieh-street, Cheltenham. 
Hotham, Rey. Charles, M.A., F.L.S. Roos, Patrington, Yorkshire, 
1868.§§Hotson, W. C. Upper King-street, Norwich. 
1859. {Hough, Joseph. Wrottesley, near Wolverhampton. 
Houghton, The Right Hon. Lord, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 16 Upper 
Brook-street, London, W. 
Houghton, James. 41 Rodney-street, Liverpool. 
1858. {Hounsfield, James. Hemsworth, Pontefract. 
Hovenden, W. F., M.A. Bath. 
1859, tHoward, Captain John Henry, R.N. The Deanery, Lichfield. 
1863. [Howard, Philip Henry. Corby Castle, Carlisle. 
1857. {Howell, Henry H., F.G.8. Museum of Practical Geology, Jermyn- 
street, London, 8.W. 
1868. tHowell, Rey. Canon Hinds. Drayton Rectory, near Norwich. 
1865. *Howlett, Rev. Frederick, F.R.A.S. East Tisted Rectory, Alton, 
Hants. 
1863.§§Howorth, H. H. Derby House, Eecles, Manchester. 
1854. tHowson, Very Rey. J. 8., Dean of Chester. Chester. 
1870.§§Hubback, Joseph. 1 Brunswick-street, Liverpool. 
1835. *Hudson, Henry, M.D., M.R.IA. Glenville, Fermoy, Co. Cork. 
1842. §Hudson, Robert, F.R.S., F.G.8., F.L.8. Clapham Common, London, 
SW. 
1867, tHudson, William H.H., M.A. 19 Bennett’s-hill, Doctors Commons, 
London, E.C. 
1858. *Huggins, William, D.C.L., Oxon., LL.D. Camb., F.R.S., F.R.AS. 
Upper Tulse-hill, Brixton, London, 8.W. 
1857.§§Hugeon, William. 30 Park-row, Leeds. 
Hughes, D. Abraham. 9 Grays Inn-square, London, W.C. 
Hughes, Frederick Robert. 
1871. *Hughes, George Pringle. Middleton Hall, Wooler, Northumber- 
land. 
1870. §Hughes, Lewis. 38 St. Domingo-grove, Liverpool. 
1868, §Hughes, T. M‘K., M.A., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, 28 Jer- 
myn-street, London, 8.W. 
1863. {Hughes, T. W. 4 Hawthorn-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
1865, {Hughes, W. R., F.L.8., Treasurer of the Borough of Birmingham, 
Hull, Arthur H. 18 Norfolk-road, Brighton. 


38 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 


Year of 
Election, 


1867. 


1861. 


1856. 
1856. 
1862. 


1863. 


1865. 
1840. 


1864. 


1868. 
1867, 
1869. 
1859. 
1855. 
1863. 
1869, 
1861. 


§Hull, Edward, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. Director of the Geological Sur- 
yey of lreland, and Professor of Geclogy in the Royal College 
of Science. 14 Hume-street, Dublin. 

*Hull, William Darley, F.G.S. 36 Queen’s Gate-terrace, South 
Kensington, London, W. 


“*Hulse, Sir Edward, Bart., D.C.L. 51 Portland-place, London, W.; 


and Breamore House, Salisbury. 

tHume, Rey. Abraham, D.C.L., LL.D., F.S.A. All Soul’s Vicarage, 

Rupert-lane, Liverpool. 

{ Humphreys, £. R., LL.D. ‘ 

{Humphries, David James. 1 Keynsham-parade, Cheltenham. 

*Humphry, George Murray, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy in 
the University of Cambridge. The Leys, Cambridge. 

*Hunt, Augustus H., M.A., Ph.D. Birtley House, Chester-le-Street, 
Fence Houses, Co. Durham. 

tHunt, J. P. Gospel Oak Works, Tipton. 

tHunt, Robert, I’.R.S., Keeper of the Mining Records. Museum 
Practical Geology, Jermyn-street, London, 8.W. 

tHunt, W. 72 Pulteney-street, Bath. 

Hunter, Andrew Galloway. Denholm, Hawick, N.B. 

tHunter, Christopher. Alliance Insurance Office, North Shields. 

{tHunter, David. Blackness, Dundee. 

*Hunter, Rev. Robert, F.G.S. 9 Mecklenburg-street, London, W.C. 

t Hunter, Dr. Thomas, Deputy Inspector-General of Army Hospitals. 

*Hunter, Thomas O, 24 Forsyth-street, Greenock. 

{Huntsman, Benjaman. West Retford Hall, Retford. 

§Hurst, George. Bedford. 

*Hurst, Wm.John. Drumaness Mills, Ballynahinch, Lisburn, Ireland. 


1870.§§Hurter, Dr. Ferdinand. Appleton, Widnes, near Warrington. 


1868. 
1863. 


1864, 


Husband, William Dalla. Coney-street, York. 
*Hutchison, Robert. Carlowrie, Kirkliston, N.B. 
tHutt, The Right Hon. Sir W., K.C.B., M.P. Gibside, Gateshead. 
Hutton, Crompton. Putney-park, Surrey, 8. W. 
Hutton, Daniel. 4 Lower Dominick-street, Dublin. 
*Hutton, Darnton. Care of Arthur Lupton, Esq., Headingley, near 
Leeds. 


. {Hutton, Henry D. 10 Lower Mountjoy-street, Dublin. 


Hutton, Henry. Edenfield, Dundrum, Co. Dublin. 


. §Hutton, T. Maxwell. Summerhill, Dublin. 
. }Husley, Thomas Henry, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S8., Pro- 


fessor of Natural History in the Royal School of Mines. 26 
Abbey Place, St. John’s Wood, London. 


. tHuxtable, Rev. Anthony. Sutton Waldron, near Blandford. 


Hyde, Edward. Dukinfield, near Manchester. 


. *Hyett, Francis A, 13 Hereford-square, Old Brompton, London, 8.W. 


Hyett, William Henry, F.R.S. Painswick, near Stroud, Gloucester- 
shire. : 


. {Hyndman, George C. 5 Howard-street, Belfast. 


thne, William, Ph.D. Heidelberg. 


. {Iles, Rev. J. H. Rectory, Wolverhampton. 
8. {Ingham, Henry, Wortley, near Leeds. 
71, §Inglis, The Right Hon. John, D.C.L., LL.D., Lord Justice General 


of Scotland. Edinburgh. 


58. “Ingram, Hugo Francis Meynell. Temple Newsam, Leeds. 
2. fIngram, J. K., LL.D., M.R.LA., Regius Professor of Greek. Trinity 


College, Dublin. 


a. Se ee ee ee 


—o | 


1865. *Jaftray, John. ‘ 


EE oe ee rr 


.LIST OF MEMBERS, 59 


Year of 
Election. 
1854. *Inman, Thomas, M.D. 12 Rodney-street, Liverpool. 
1870. *Inman, William. Upton Manor, Liverpool. 
1856. {Invararity, J. D. Bombay. 

. Treland, R.8., M.D. 121 Stephen’s Green, Dublin. 
1857. {Ivvine, Hans, M.A., M.B. 1 Rutland-square, Dublin. 

Trwin, Rey. Alexander, M.A. Armagh, Ireland. 

1862. {Iselin, J. F., M.A., F.G.S. 52 Stockwell Park-road, London, 8.W. 
1863. *Ivory, Thomas. 23 Walker-street, Edinburgh. 


1865. {Jabet, George. Wellington-road, Handsworth, Birmingham. 
1870.§§Jack, James. 26 Abercromby-square, Liverpool. = 
1859. §Jack, John, M.A. Belhelvie by Whitecairns, Aberdeenshire. 
1863. *Jackson-Gwilt, Mrs. H. 24 Hereford-square, Gloucester-road, 1d 
Brompton, Londen, 8.W. 

1865. tJackson, Edwin. 
1858. {Jackson, Edwin W. 
1866. §Jackson, H. W. Springfield, Tooting, Surrey, S.W. 
1869. §Jackson, Moses. The Vale, Ramsgate. 

Jackson, Professor Thomas, LL.D. St. Andrew’s, Scotland. 
1855. {Jackson, Rev. William, M.A. 

Jacob, Arthur, M.D. 23 Ely-place, Dublin. 
1852. {Jacobs, Bethel. 40 George-street, Hull. 
1867. * Jaffe, David Joseph. (Messrs. Jaffe Brothers) Belfast. 

Daily Post’ Office, New-street, Birmingham. 

1859. {James, Edward. 9 Gascoyne-terrace, Plymouth. 
1860. {James, Edward H. 9 Gascoyne-terrace, Plymouth. 

James, Colonel Sir Henry, R.E., F.R.S., F.G.S., MR.LA.  Ord- 

nance Survey Office, Southampton. 

1863. *James, Sir Walter. 6 Whitehall-gardens, London, 8.W. 
1858. {James, William C. 9 Gascoyne-terrace, Plymouth. 
1863. {Jameson, John Henry. 10 Catherine-terrace, Gateshead. 
1859. *Jamieson, Thomas F., F.G.8. Ellon, Aberdeenshire. 
1850. {Jardine, Alexander. Jardine Hall, Lockerby, Dumfriesshire. 


.1870.§§ Jardine, Edward. Beach Lawn, Waterloo, Liverpool. 


Jardine, James, C.E., F.R.A.S. Edinburgh. 
*Jardine, Sir William, Bart., F.R.S.L.& E., F.L.S. Jardine Hall, 
Applegarth by Lockerby, Dumfriesshire. 
1853. *Jarratt, Rev. Canon J., M.A. North Cave, near Brough, York- 
shire. 
Jarrett, Rev. Thomas, M.A., Professor of Arabic in the University of 
Cambridge. Trunch, Norfolk. 
1870. §Jarrold, John James. London-street, Norwich. 
1862. {Jeakes, Rev. James, M.A. 54 Argyll-road, Kensington, W. 
Jebb, Rev. John. Peterstow Rectory, Ross, Herefordshire. 
1868.§§Jecks, Charles. Billing-road, Northampton, 
1842. *Jee, Alfred S. 
1870.§§Jeffery, F. J. Liverpool. 
1856. {Jeffery, Henry, M.A. 438 High-street, Cheltenham. 
1855. *Jefiray, John. 193 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow. 
1867. {Jeffreys, Howel, M.A., F.R.A.S. 5 Brick-court, Temple, E.C.; and 
25 Devonshire-place, Portland-place, London, W. 
1861. *Jeffreys, J. Gwyn, F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 25 Devon- 
shire-place, Portland-place, London, W, 
1852. {Jellett, Rev. John H., M.A., M.R.LA., Professor of Natural Philo- 
sophy in Trinity College, Dublin. 64 Upper Leeson-street, 
Dublin. 
1842. Jellicorse, John. Chaseley, near Rugeley, Staffordshire. 


40 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1864. 
1862. 


1864, 
1852. 
1861. 
1870. 


1870. 


tJelly, Dr. W. Paston Hall, near Peterborough. 
§Jenkin, H. C. Fleeming, F.R.S., Professor of Civil Engineering in the 
University of Edinburgh. 5 Fettes-row, Edinburgh. 
§Jenkins, Captain Griffith, C.B., F.R.G.S. Derwin, Welshpool. 
*Jenkyns, Rey. Henry, D.D. The College, Durham. 
Jennette, Matthew. 106 Conway-street, Birkenhead. 
§Jennings, Francis M., F.G.S., M.R.LA. Brown-street, Cork, 
tJennings, Thomas. Cork. 
*Jenyns, Rey. Leonard, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. 19 Belmont, Bath. 
§Jerdon, T.C. Care of Mr. H. 8. King, 45 Pall Mall, London, 8.W. 
*Jerram, Rey.S. John, M.A. Chobham Vicarage, Farnborough Station. 
Jessop, William, jun. Butterley Hall, Derbyshire. 
*Jevons, W. Stanley, M.A., Professor of Political Economy in Owens 
College, Manchester. Writhington, Manchester. 


1865.7,*Johnston, G. J. 248 Hagley-road, Birmingham. 


3. §Johnson, John. Knighton Fields, Leicester. c 

. §Johnson, John G. 18a Basinghall-street, London, H.C. 

. {Johnson, J. Godwin. St. Giles’s-Street, Norwich. 

. {Johnson, Randall J. Sandown-villa, Harrow. 

. tJohnson, R.S. Hanwell, Fence Houses, Durham. 

. {Johnson, Richard. 27 Dale-street, Manchester. 

. §Johnson, Richard C. Warren Side, Blundell Sands, Liverpool. 


*Johnson, Thomas. The Hermitage, Frodsham, Cheshire. 


. tJohnson, Thomas. 30 Belerave-street, Commercial-road, London, E. 
9 er ’ ) ; 


Johnson, William. The Wynds Point, Colwall, Malvern, Worcester- 
shire. 


. {Johnson, William Beckett. Woodlands Bank, near Altrincham. 


Johnston, Alexander Robert, F.R-S. Heatherley, near Wokingham. 


71. §Johnson, A. Keith. 74 Strand, London, W.C. 
. {Johnston, David, M.D. 
. {Johnston, David. 13 Marlborough-buildings, Bath. 


Johnston, Edward. Field House, Chester. 


59. {Johnston, James. Newmill, Elgin, N. B. 
- [Johnston, James. Manor House, Northend, Hampstead, London, N. 


*Johnstone, James. Aloa House, by Stirling. 


. tJohnstone, John. 1 Barnard-villas, Bath. 

. {Jolly, Thomas. Park View-villas, Bath. 

. §Jolly, William (H. M. Inspector). Inverness. 

. tJones, Baynham. Selkirk Villa, Cheltenham. 

. {Jones, C. W. 7 Grosvenor-place, Cheltenham. 

. TJones, Henry Bence, M.A., M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Hon. See. to the 


Royal Institution. 84 Brook-street, London, W. 


. {Jones, Rey. Henry H. Cemetery, Manchester. 

. {Jones, John. 70 Rodney-street, Liverpool. 

» §Jones, John, F.G.S. Royal Exchange, Middleshorough. 
. {Jones, John. 49 Union-passage, Birmingham. 


*Jones, Robert. 2 Castle-street, Liverpool. 


54, *Jones, R. L. 6 Sunnyside, Princes Park, Liverpool. 
- {Jones, Thomas Rymer, Professor of Comparative Anatomy in King’s 


College. 50 Cornwall-road, Westhourne-park, London, W. 


» fJones, T. Rupert, F.G.S., Professor of ‘Geology and Mineralogy, 


Royal Military College, Sandhurst. 5 College-terrace, York 
Town, Surrey. 


. §Jones, Sir Willoughby, Bart, F.R.G.S. Cranmer Hall, Fakenham, 


Norfolk. 
*Joule, Benjamin St. John B, 28 Leicester-street, Southport, Lan- 
cashire, 


— ee 


ee 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 41 


Year of 
Election. 


1842. *Joule, James Prescott, LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 5 Cliff Point, Higher 
Broughton, Manchester. 
1848, *Joy, Rey. Charles Ashfield. Grove Parsonage, near Wantage, Berk- 
shire. 
Joy, Henry Holmes, LL.D., Q.C., M.R.LA. 17 Mountjoy-square 
East, Dublin. 
1847. {Jowett, Rey. B., M.A., Regius Professor of Greek in the University 
of Oxford. SBallicl College, Oxford. : 
1858. {Jowett, John, jun. Leeds, 
*Jubb, Abraham. Halifax. 
1870.§§Judd, John Wesley, F.G.S8. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street, 
London, 8S. W 
1863. tJukes, Rey. Andrew. Spring Bank, Hull. 


1868. *Kaines, Joseph, F.A.S.L. 8 Osborne-road, Stroud Green-lane, 

Hornsey. 
Kane, Sir Robert, M.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA., Principal of the Royal 
College of Cork. 51 Stephen’s Green, Dublin. 
1857. {Kavanagh, James W. Grenville, Rathgar, Ireland. 
1859, {Kay, David, F.R.G.S. 19 Upper Phillimore-place, Kensington. 
Kay, John Cunliff. Fairfield Hall, near Skipton. 
*Kay, John Robinson. Walmersley House, Bury, Lancashire. 
Kay, Robert. Haugh Bank, Bolton-le-Moors. 

1847. *Kay, Rey. William, D.D. Great Leighs Rectory, Chelmsford. 

1856. {Kay-Shuttleworth, Sir James, Bart. Gawthorpe, Burnley. 

1855. {Kaye, Robert. Mill Brae, Moodies Burn, by Glasgow. 

1855. {Keddie, William. 15 North-street, Mungo-street, Glasgow. 

1866. {iXeene, Alfred. Eastnoor House, Leamington. 

1850. {Kelland, Rey. Philip, M.A.,F.R.S.L. & E., Professor of Mathematics 
in the University of Edinburgh. 20 Clarendon Crescent, Edin- 
burgh. 

1849. {Kelly, John, C.E. 88 Mount Pleasant-square, Dublin. 

1857. {Kelly, John J. 88 Mount Pleasant-square, Dublin. 

1864, *Kelly, W. M., M.D. 11 The Crescent, Taunton, Somerset. 

1842. Kelsall, J. Rochdale, Lancashire. 

1864. *Kemble, Rey. Charles, M.A. Vellore, Bath. 

1853. {Kemp, Rey. Henry William, B.A. The Charter House, Hull. 

1858. {Kemplay, Christopher. Leeds. 

1857. {Kennedy, Lieut-Colonel John Pitt. 20 Torrington-square, Blooms- 
bury, London, W.C. 

Kenny, Matthias, M.D. 3 Clifton-tervace, Monkstown, Co. Dublin. 

1865. {Kenrick, William. Norfolk-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

Kent, J.C. Levant Lodge, Earl’s Croome, Worcester. 

1857. {Kent, William T., M.R.D.S. 51 Rutland-square, Dublin. 

1857. {Kenworth, James Ryley. 7 Pembroke-place, Liverpool. 

1857. *Ker, André Allen Murray. Newbliss House, Newbliss, Ireland. 

1855. *Ker, Robert. Auchinraith, by Hamilton, Scotland. 

1865. *Kerr, William D., M.D., R.N. Bonnyrigg, Edinburgh. 

1868. {Kerrison, Roger. Crown Bank, Norwich. 

1869. *Kesselmeyer, Charles A. 1 Peter-street, Manchester. 

1869. *Kesselmeyer, William Johannes. 1 Peter-street, Manchester. 

1861. *Keymer, John. Parker-street, Manchester. 

1865, *Kinahan, Edward Hudson. 11 Merrion-square North, Dublin. 

1860, {inahan, G. Henry, M.R.LA, Geological Survey of Ireland, 14 
Hume-street, Dublin. 

1858. {Kincaid, Henry Ellis, M.A. 8 Lyddon-terrace, Leeds. 

1855. {King, Alfred, jun. Iyvyerton, Liverpool. 


42 LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 
1871. *King, Herbert Poole. Avonside, Clifton, Bristol. 
1855. Kine, James. Levernholme, Hurlet, Glasgow. 
1870. §King, John Thomson, C.E. 4 Clayton- -square, Liverpool. 
Kine, Joseph. Blundell Sands, Liverpool. 
1864. ging, Kelburne, M.D. 27 George Street, and Royal Institution, 
“Tull. 
1860. *King, Mervyn Kersteman. Avonside, Clifton Down, Bristol. 
1842. Kine, Richard, M.D. 12 Bulstrode-street, London, W. 
Kine, Rey. Samuel, M.A., F.R.A.S. St. Aubins, Jersey. 
1870. $§Kine, William. 13 Adelaide- -terrace, Waterloo, Liverpool. 
King, William Poole, F.G.8. Avonside, Clifton, Bristol. 
1869. {Kinedon, B. Rose Hill, Exeter. 
1869. {Kinedon, KG: Taddiford, Exeter. 
1862. {Kingsley, Rev. Canon Charles, ] M.A., F.L.8.,F.G.8S. LEversley Rec- 
tory, Winchfield. 
1861. {Kingsley, John. 30 St. Ann’s-street, Manchester. 
1835. Kingstone, A. John, M.A. Mosstown, Longford, Ireland. 
1867. {Iinloch, Colonel. Karriemuir, Logie, Scotland. 
1870. §Kinsman, William R. Branch Bank of England, Liverpool. 
1867, *Kinnaird, The Hon. Arthur Fitzgerald, M.P. 1 Pall Mall East, 
London, 8.W.; and Rossie Priory, Inchture, Perthshire. 
1863, {Kinnaird, The Right Hon. Lord., K.T., F.G.S. Rossie Priory, Inch- 
ture, Perthshire. 
Kinnear, ef G., F.R.S.E. Glasgow. 
1863. { Kirkaldy, David. 28 Bartholemew-road North, London, N.W. 
1860, {Kirkman, Rey. Thomas P., M.A., F.R.S. Croft Rectory, near War- 
rington. 
Kirk patrick, Rev. W. B., D.D. 48 North Great George-strect, 
ublin. 
1849. {Kirshaw, John William, F.G.S. Warwick. 
1868.§§ Kirwan, Rey. Richard, M.A. Gittesham Rectory, near Honiton. 
1870. §Kitchener, Frank H. Rugby. 
1869. Knapman, Edward. The ‘Viney ard, Castle-street, Exeter. 
1870. §Kneeshaw, Henry. 2 Gambier-terrace, Liverpool. 
Knipe, J. A. Botcherby, Carlis 2 
1842. Knowles, John. Old Trafford Bank House, Old Trafford, Manchester. 
1870.§§Knowles, Rey. J. L. Grove Villa, Bushey, Herts. 
*Knox, George James. 
1835. Knox, Thomas B. Union Club, Trafalgar-square, London, W.C. 
1870. §§Kynaston, Josiah W. St. Helens, Lancashire. 
1865. {Kynnersley, J.C. S. The Leveretts, Handsworth, Birmingham. 


1858. §Lace, Francis John. Stone Gapp, Cross-hill, Leeds. 

1862. {Lackerstein, Dr. (Care of Messrs, Smith and Elder, 15 Waterloo- 
place, London, 5. W.) 

1859. §Ladd, William, F.R.A.S. 11 & 13 Beak-street, Regent-street, Lon- 
don, 

1850. {Laing, David, F.S.A. Scotl. Signet Library, Edinburgh. 

1870.§§ Laird, SEE Ii. Birkenhead. 

Laird, John, M.P. Hamilton-square, Birkenhead. 

1870. §Laird, John, jun. Grosvyenor-road, Claughton, Birkenhead. 

1859. tLalor, John Joseph, M.R.LA. 2 Longford-terrace, Monkstown, Co. 
Dublin. 

1846. *Laming, Richard. 10 Gloucester-place, Brighton. 

1870. §Lamport, Charles. Upper Norwood, Surrey. 

1871. §Lancaster, Edward. IKaresforth Hall, Barnesley. 

1859, tLang, Rey. John Marshall. Bank House, Morningside, Edinburgh. 


‘LIST OF MEMBERS, 43 


Year of 
Election. 
1864.§§Lang, Robert. Hallen Lodge, Henbury, Bristol. 
1870.§§Langton, Charles. Barkhill, Aigburth, Liverpool. 
*Langton, William. Manchester. 
1640. {Lankester, Edwin, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. 23 Great Marl- 
Be: borough-street, London, W. 
1865, §Lankester, E. Ray. Melton House, Hampstead, London, N.W. 
*Larcom, Major-General Sir Thomas Aiskew, K.O.B., R.IL., F.R.S., 
M.R.LA. Heathfield House, Fayeham, Hants. 
Lassell, William, F’.R.S., F.R.A.S. Ray Lodge, Maidenhead. 
1861. *Latham, Arthur G. 24 Cross-street, Manchester. 
1845, pee ace csobert G., M.A., M.D., F.R.S. 96 Disraeli-road, Putney, 
S.W 


*La Touche, David Charles, M.R.I.A. Castle-street, Dublin. 
1870. §§Laughton, John Knox, M.A., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. Royal Naval 
College, Portsmouth. 
1870. *Law, Channell. 5 Champion Park, Camberwell, London, 8,E. 
1857. {Law, Hugh. 4 Great Denmark-street, Dublin. 
1862, ae Rey. James Edmund, M.A. Little Shelford, Cambridge- 
shire. 
Lawley, The Hon. Francis Charles. Escrick Park, near York. 
Lawley, The Hon. Stephen Willoughby. Escrick Park, near York. 
1870.§§Lawrence, Edward. Aigburth, Liverpool. 
1869. {Lawson, Henry. 8 Nottingham-place, London, W. 
1857. ang James A., LL.D., M.R.LA. 27 Fitzwilliam-street, Dub- 
in. 
1855. {Lawson, John. Mountain Blue Works, Camlachie. 
1868. *Lawson, M. Alexander, M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the Uni- 
versity of Oxford. Botanic Gardens, Oxford. 
1863. tLawton, Benjamin C, Neville Chambers, 44 Westgate-strect, 
- Neweastle-upon-Tyne. 
1853, {Lawton, William. 8 Manor House-street, Hull. 
Laycock, Thomas, M.D., Professor of the Practice of Physic in the 
University of Edinburgh. 4 Rutland-street, Edinburgh. 
1865. tLea, Henry. 35 Paradise-street, Birmingham. 
1857. {Leach, Capt. R. E. Mountjoy, Phoenix Park, Dublin. 
Leadbetter, John. Glasgow. 
1870. *Leaf, Charles John, F.L.S., F.G.8., F.S.A. Old Change, London 
E.C.; and Harrow. 
1870. *Leatham, Baldwin. 7 Westminster Chambers, Westminster, S.W. 
1847. *Leatham, Edward Aldam, M.P. Whitley Hall, Huddersfield, 
1858. {Leather, George. Knostrop, near Leeds. 
; *Leather,.John Towlerton. Leventhorpe Hall, near Leeds. 
1858. {Leather, John W. Newton Green, Leeds. 
1863. {Leavers, J. W. The Park, Nottingham. 
1858. *Le Cappelain, John. Wood-lane, Highgate, London, N. 
1858. {Ledgard, William. Potter Newton, near Leeds. 
1842. Lee, Daniel. Springfield House, Pendlebury, Manchester. 
1861. {Lee, Henry. Irwell House, Lower Broughton, Manchester. 
Lee, Henry, M.D. Weatheroak, Alve Church, near Bromsgrove. 
1853. *Lee, John Edward, F.G.8., F.S.A. The Priory, Caerleon, Monmouth- 
shire. 
1859. tLees, William. 5 Meadow Bank, Edinburgh. 
*Leese, Joseph. Glenfield, Altrincham, near Manchester. 
*Leeson, Henry B., M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.C.S The Maples,- Bon- 
church, Isle of Wight. 
*Lefroy, J. Henry, Major-General, R.A., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., Director- 
General of Ordnance. 82 Queen’s Gate, London, W. 


44 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


*Legh, George Cornwall, M.P. High Legh Hall, Cheshire; and 6 
St. James’s-place, St. James’s-street, London, 8. W. 


1869.§§Le Grice, A. J. Trereife, Penzance. 


1868. 
1856, 


1861. 
1870, 


1867. 


tLeicester, The Right Hon. The Earl of. Holkham, Norfolk. 

tLeigh, The Right Hon. Lord, D.C.L. 37 Portman-square, London, 
W.; and Stoneleigh Abbey, Kenilworth. 

*Leigh, Henry. Moorfield, Swinton, near Manchester. 

§Leighton, Andrew. 35 High Park-street, Liverpool. 

*Leinster, Augustus Frederick, Duke of, M.R.I.A. 6 Carlton House- 
terrace, ‘London, S.W.; and Carton, Maynooth, Ireland. 

§Leishman, James. Gateacre Hall, Liverpool. 


1870.§§Leister, G. F. Gresbourn House, Liverpool. 


1859, 
1860. 
1863. 


1867. 
1861. 


1871. 


1861. 
1871. 
1856, 
1852. 


1859. 
1846, 


{Leith, Alexander. Glenkindie, Inverkindie, N. B. 
{Lempriere, Charles, D.C.L. St. John’s College, Oxford. 
*Lendy, Capt. Auguste Frederic, F.L.S., F.G.8. Sunbury House, 
Sunbury, Middlesex, 8.W. 
tLeng, John. ‘“ Advertiser” Office, Dundee. 
tLennox, A.C. W. 7 Beaufort-gardens, Brompton, London, 8. W. 
Lentaigne, John, M.D. Tallaght House, Co. Dublin; and 14 Great 
Dominick-street, Dublin. 
Lentaigne, Joseph. 12 Great Denmark-street, Dublin. 
§Leonard, Hugh, M.R.LA., Geological Survey of Ireland. 14 Hume- 
street, Dublin. 
tLeppoc, Henry Julius. Kersal Crag, near Manchester, 
§Leslie, Alexander, C.E. 72 George-street, Edinburgh. 
tLeslie, Colonel J. Forbes. Rothienorman, Aberdeenshire. 
tLeslie, T. EK. Cliffe, LL.B., Professor of Jurisprudence and Political 
Economy, Queen’s College, Belfast. 
tLeslie, William. Warthill, Aberdeenshire. 
tLetheby, Henry, M.B., F.L.5., Medical Officer to the City of London. 
41 Finsbury-square, London, E.C. 


1866.§§Leyi, Dr. Leone, F.8.A., F.S.8., Professor of Commercial Law in 


King’s College, London. 10 Farrar’s-huilding, Temple, London, 
E 


1870.§§Lewis, Alfred Lionel. 151 Church-road, Stoke Newington, Lon- 


1853, 
1860, 
1855, 
1859, 
1864 
1862, 


1855, 


1871. 
1871. 
1870, 


1842. 


don, N. 
{Liddell, George William Moore. Sutton House, near Hull. 
tLiddell, The Very Rev. H. G., D.D., Dean of Christ Church, Oxford. 
tLiddell, John. 8 Clelland-street, Glasgow. 
tLigertwood, George. Blair by Summerhill, Aberdeen, 


.§Lightbody, Robert, F.G.8. Ludlow, Salop. 


{Lilford, The Right Hon. Lord, F.L.S. Lilford Hall, Oundle, North- 
amptonshire. 

*Limerick, Charles Graves, D.D., M.R.LA., Lord Bishop of. The 
Palace, Henry-street, Limerick. 

*Lindsay, Charles. Ridge-park, Lanark. 

*Lindsay, Henry L., C.E., M.R.LA. 1 Little Collins-street West, 
Montreal, Canada. 

*Lindsay, John H. Care of James Jarvie, Esq., 7 Steven-street, 
Glasgow. 

*Lindsay, Rt. Hon. Lord. 47 Brook-street, London, W. 

§Lindsay, Rey. T. M. 7 Great Stuart-street, Edinburgh, 

§Lindsay, Thomas. 288 Renfrew-street, Glasgow. 

Hanae John R., F.G.8. Maytield, Shortlands, by Biomley, 

ent. 
Lingwood, Robert M., M.A., F.L.S., F.G.8S. Cowley House, Exeter. 
Lister, James. Liverpool Union Bank, Liverpool. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 45 


Year of 
Election. 


1870. §Lister, Thomas. Post Office, Barnsley. 
Littledale, Harold. Liscard Hall, Cheshire. 
1861. *Liveing, G. D., M.A., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Univer- 
sity of Cambridge. Newnham, Cambridge. 
1864. §Livesay, J. G. Cromarty House, Ventnor, Isle of Wight. 
1860, {Livingstone, Rev. Thomas Gott, Minor Canon of Carlisle Cathedral. 
Lloyd, Rev. A. R. Hengold, near Oswestry. 
Lloyd, Rey. C., M.A. Whittington, Oswestry. 
1842, Lloyd, Edward. King-street, Manchester. 
1865. {Lloyd, G. B. Wellington-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 
*Lloyd, George, M.D., F.G.S. Birmingham Heath, Birmingham, 
1870.§§Lloyd, James. 150 Chatham-street, Liverpool. 
1870.§§Lloyd, J. B. 
1870, §Lloyd, J. H., M.D. Anglesea. 
*Lloyd, Rey. Humphrey, D.D., LL.D., F.R.S, L. & E., M.R.LA., 
Provost of Trinity College, Dublin. 
1865, {Lloyd, John. Queen’s College, Birmingham. 
Lloyd, Rey. Rees Lewis. Belper, Derbyshire. 
1865. *Lloyd, Wilson. Moor Hall, Sutton Coldfield, near Birmingham. 
1854, *Lobley, James Logan, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 50 Lansdowne-road, Ken- 
sington Park, London, W. 
1853. *Locke, John. Care of J. Robertson, Esq., 3 Grafton-street, Dublin, 
1867. *Locke, John. 88 Addison-road, Kensington, London, W. 
1863, {Lockyer, J. Norman, F.R.S., F.R.A.S, 24 Fairfax-road, Finchley- 
road, London, N.W. 
*Loftus, William Kennett, .G.S, Calcutta. 
*Logan, Sir William Edmond, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.GS., 
Director of the Geological Survey of Canada, Montreal, Canada. 
1868. tLogin, Thomas, C.E., F.R.S.E., India. 
1862. {Long, Andrew, M.A. King’s College, Cambridge. 
1871. §Long, John Jex. 12 Whitevale, Glasgow. 
1851. {Long, William, F.G.S. Hurts Hall, Saxmundham, Suffolk, 
1866. §Longdon, Frederick. Luamdur, near Derby. 
1857, {Longtield, Rev. George, D.D. 25 Trinity Callen’) Dublin. 
Longfield, Mountifort, LL.D., M.R.I.A., Regius Professor of Feudal 
and English Law in the University of Dublin, 47 Fitzwilliam- 
square, Dublin. 
1861. *Longman, William, F.G.S. 386 Hyde Park-square, London, W. 
1859. {Longmuir, Rev. John, M.A., LL.D. 14 Silver-street, Aberdeen, 
Longridge, William 8. Oakhurst, Ambergate, Derbyshire, 
1865, *Longsdon, Robert. Church House, Bromley, Kent. 
1871. §Longstatf, George Dixon, M.D., F.C.S. Southfields, Wandsworth, 
S.W.; and 9 Upper Thames-street, London, E.C. 
1861. *Lord, Edward. Adamroyd, Todmorden, 
1863. {Losh, W. 8. Wreay Syke, Carlisle. 
1867. *Low, James F. Monifieth, by Dundee. 
1863. *Lowe, Major Arthur 8. H., F.R.A.S. 76 Lancaster Gate, London. 
1861. *Lowe, Edward Joseph, F.R.S., F.R.AS., FLLS., F.G.S., FMS, 
Highfield House Observatory, near Nottingham. 
Lowe, George, F.R.S., F.G.S., FR.A.S. 9 St. John’s-wood Park, 
London, N. W. 
1870. §Lowe, G.C. _67 Cecil-street, Greenheys, Manchester, 
1868. {Lowe, John, M.D. King’s Lynn. 
1850. tLowe, William Henry, M.D., F.R.S.E.  Balgreen, Slateford, Edin- 


burgh. 
1853, *Lubbock, Sir John, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.L.S.,F.G.S, High Elms, 
Farnborough, Kent, 


46 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1870.§§Lubbock, Montague. High Elms, Farnborough, Kent. 


1849. 
1867. 
1866. 
1850. 
1853. 
1858. 
1864. 
1866, 


1871. 
1857. 
1862. 
1849, 


1852. 
1854, 
1868. 
1868. 


*Luckcock, Howard, Oak-hill, Edgbaston, Bamingham. 

*Luis, John Henry. Cidhmore, Dundee. 

*Lund, Charles. Market-street, Bradford. 

*Lundie, Cornelius. Tweed Lodge, Cardiff. 

tLunn, William Joseph, M.D. 23 Charlotte-stveet, Hull. 

*Lupton, Arthur. Headingley, near Leeds. 

*Lupton, Darnton, Jun. The Harehills, Leeds. 

§Lycett, Sir Francis. 18 Highbury-grove, London, N. 

*Lyell, Sir Charles, Bart., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.L.S., 
V.P.G.S., Hon. M.R.S.Ed. 73 Harley-street, London, W. 

§Lyell, Leonard. 42 Regent’s Park-road, London, N.W. 

tLyons, Robert D. 31 Upper Mervion-street, Dublin. 

*Lyte, Maxwell F., F.C.S. Bagnéres de Bigorre, France. 

tLyttelton, The Right Hon. Lord, D.0.L., F.R.S. 12 Stratton-street, 
London, W. 


tMacAdam, Robert. 18 College-square Hast, Belfast. 

*Macadam, Stevenson, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry. 
Surgeons’ Hall, Edinburgh. 

tMacalister, Alexander, M.D., Professor of Zoology in the University 
of Dublin. 13 Adelaide-road, Dublin. 

tM‘Allan, W. A. Norwich. 

*M‘Andrew, Robert, F.R.S. Isleworth House, Isleworth, Middle- 
sex. 

*M‘Arthur, A. Raleigh Hall, Brixton Rise, London, S.W. 

Macaulay, James, M.D. 22 Cambridge-road, Kilburne, London, 


N.W 


. §MBain, James, M.D., B.N. Logie Vilia, York-road, Trinity, Edin- 


burgh. 

*MacBrayne, Robert. Househill Hamlet, Glasgow. 

tM‘Callan, Rey. J. F., M.A. Basford, near Nottingham. 

{M‘Callum, Archibald K., M.A. House of Refuge, Duke-street, 
Glasgow. 


F +M‘Calmont, Robert. Gatton Park, Reigate, 


tM‘Cann, James, F.G.S. Holmfrith, Yorkshire. 
tM‘Causland, Dominick. 12 Fitzgibbon-street, Dublin. 


. *M‘Clean, John Robinson, F.R.S., F.G.S8. 2 Park-street, Westmin- 


ster, 5. W. 
M‘Clelland, James. 82 Pembridge Square, London, W. 
tM‘Clintock, Captain Sir Francis L., R.N., F.R.S.,F.R.G.S. United 
Service Club, Pall Mall, London, 8. W. 
*M‘Connel, James. The Furze, Esher, Surrey. 


. *M‘ Connell, David C., F.GLS. 


}M‘Connell, J. E. Woodlands, Great Missenden. 


. {M‘Coy, Frederick, F.G.S., Professor of Zoology and Natural History 


in the University of Melbourne, Australia. 
*M‘Culloch, George, M.D. Cincinnati, United States. 
Macdonald, William, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.L.S., F.G.S., Professor of 
Civil and Natural History. St. Andrews, N. B. 


. §M‘Donald, William. Yopohama, Japan. Care of R. K. Knenitt, 


Esq., Sun-court, Cornhill, F.C, 
MacDonnell, Hercules H. G. 2 Kildare-place, Dublin. 
*M‘Ewan, John. 20 Royal Crescent, Glasgow. 


. {Macfarlane, Alexander. 73 Bon Accord-street, Aberdeen. 
. §M‘Farlane, Donald. The College Laboratory, Glasgow. 


{M‘Farlane, Walter. Saracen Foundry, Glasgow. 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 47 


Year of 
Election. 


1854, 


1867. 
1852, 
1855. 
1855. 
1855. 
1859. 
1859. 
1867. 
1854. 
1871. 


1865. 
1865, 
1855. 
1865. 


1859, 
1867. 


1867. 
1860, 
1864, 
1859, 


1862. 
1868. 
1861. 
1862. 
1871. 


1870. 
1867. 


1850. 
1859. 


1852. 
1855. 
1855. 
1868. 
1869. 


1869. 
1866, 


*Macfie, Robert Andrew, M.P. Ashfield Hall, Neston, near 
Chester. 

*M‘Gavin, Robert. Ballumbie, Dundee. 

*M‘Gee, William, M.D. 10 College-square North, Belfast. 

tMacGeorge, Andrew, jun. 21 St. Vincent- -place, Glasgow. 

{M‘Gregor, Alexander Bennett. 19 Woodside- crescent, , Glasgow. 

tMacGree or, James Watt. Wallace-grove, Glasgow. 

{M Hardy, David. 54) Netherkinkegate, Aberdeen. 

{tMacintosh, John. Middlefield House, Woodside, Aberdeen. 

*M‘Intosh, W. C., M.D., F.L.S. Murthly, Perthshire. 
*Maclver, Charles. Water- street, Liverpool. 

§Mackay, Rev. Dr. Jaleo (Esp ‘Oakland Villa, Hatton-place, Edin- 
burgh. 

+Mackeson, H. B. Hyde, Kent. 

t Mackintosh, Daniel, .G.S. Chichester. 

{M‘Kenzie, Alexander, 89 Buchanan- street, Glasgow. 

*Mackenzie, James. Glentore, by Glasgow. 

{ Mackenzie, Kenneth Robert Hender SON, FSA, eae ie SW be 

tMackie, David. Mitchell-place, Aberdeen. 

§Mackie, Samuel Joseph, F.G.S, 84 Kensigton Park-road, London, 
W 


*Mackinlay, David. Great Western-terrace, Glasgow. 

§Mackson, H. G. 25 Cliff Road, Woodhouse, Leeds. 

{Maclaren, Archibald, Summertown, Oxfordshire. 

§MacLaren, Duncan, M.P. Newington House, Edinbureh. 

{Maclear, Sir Thomas, BRS. 5 Bs R.G. §.,,E- RA, S., late Astronomer 
Royal at the Cape of Good Hope. 

tMacleod, Henry Dunning. 17 Gloucester-terrace, Camden-hill-road, 
London, W. 

§M‘Leod, Herbert. Royal College of Chemistry, Oxford-street, Lon- 


don, W. 

*Maclure, John William. 2 Bond-street, Manchester, 

{Macmillan, Alexander. Streatham-lane, Upper Tooting, Surrey. 
§M‘Nab, William Ramsay, M.D. Royal Agricultural College, Ciren- 
cester, 

§Macnaught, John, M.D. 74 Huslkisson-street, Liverpool. 

§M‘ Neill, John. Balhousie House, Perth. 

MacNeill, The Right Hon. Sir John, G.C.B., F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S, 
Granton House, Edinburgh. 

MacNeill, Sir John, LL.D., “ERS., M.R.LA., Professor of Civil 
Engineering in Trinity College, Dublin. Mount Pleasant, 
Dundalk. 

tMacnight, Alexander. 12 London-street, Edinburgh. 

{Macpherson, Rey. W. Iilmuir Easter, Scotland. 

Macredie, P. B. Mure, F.R.S.K. Irvine, Ayrshire, 

Macrory, Adam John, Duncairn, Belfast. 

poy? Edmund, M.A. 40 Leinster-square, Bayswater, London, 


ae 


tM‘Tyre, William, M.D. Maybole, Ayrshire. 

tMacyicar, Rey. John Gibson, D.D., LL.D, Moffat, N.B. 

{Magnay, F. A. Drayton, near Norwich, 

Magor, J. B. Redruth, Cornwall. 

§Main, Rev. Re, Helis, ERA. 8., Director of the Radcliffe Observa- 
tory, Oxford. 

{Main, Robert. Admiralty, Somerset House, W.C. 

SMajor,. geet Hs H., FS.A., F.R.G.S. British Museum, London, 


48 LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


*Malahide, Talbot de, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A., F.R.S., F.GS., 
F.S.A. Malahide Castle, Co. Dublin. 
*Malcolm, Frederick. Mordon College, Blackheath, London, S.E. 
1870, *Malcolm, Sir James, Bart. The Priory, St. Michael’s Hamlet, 
Aigburth, Liverpool. 
1863. {Maling, C. T. Lovaine-crescent, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
*Mallet, Robert, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., MR.LA. The Grove, Clap- 
ham-road, Clapham, London, 8.W. 
1857. {Mallet, Dr. John William. University of Alabama, U.S. 
1846, {Manby, aa F.RS., F.G.S. 24 Great George-street, London, 
S.V 


1863. t{ Mancini, Count de, Italian Coisul. 
1866. §Mann, Robert James, M.D.,F.R.A.S. 6 Duke-street, Adelphi, Lon- 
London, W.C.; -and 4 Belmont-villas, Surbiton Hill. 
Manning, The Right Rev. H. 
1866. tManning, John. Waverley-street, Nottingham. 
1870.§§Manifold, W.H. 45 Rodney-street, Liverpool. 
1864. {Mansel, J.C. Long Thorns, Blandford. 
1865. {March, J. F. Fairfield House, Warrington. 
1870.§§Marcoartu, Senor Don Arturo de. Madrid. 
1864. {Markham, Clements R., C.B., F.L.S., F.R.G.S, 21 Eccleston-square, 
Pimlico, London, 8. W. 
1863. {Marley, John. Mining Office, Darlington. 
*Marling, Samuel 8., M.P. Stanley Park, Stroud, Gloucestershire. 
1871. §Marreco, A. F, Laboratory, College of Medicine, Newcastle-on-Tyne, 
Marriott, John. Allerton, Liverpool. 
1857. §Marriott, William, F.C.S. Grafton-place, Huddersfield. 
1858. {Marriott, William Thomas. Wakefield. 
1842, Marsden, Richard. Norfollk-street, Manchester. 
1866. {Marsh, Dr. J. C. L. Park-row, Nottingham. 
1870. §Marsh, John. Rann Lea, Rainhill, Liverpool. 
1856. {Marsh, M. H. Wilbury Park, Wilts. 
1864. tMarsh, Thomas Edward Miller. 87 Grosvenor-place, Bath. 
Marshall, James. Headingly, near Leeds. 
1852. {Marshall, James D. Holywood, Belfast. 
1858. {Marshall, Reginald Dykes. Adel, near Leeds. 
*Marshall, James Garth, M.A., F.G.S. Headlingley House, Leeds, 
1849. *Marshall, William P. 6 Portland-road, Edghaston, Birmingham. 
1865. §Marten, Edward Bindon. 15 High-street, Stourbridge. 
1848. Martin, Henry D. 4 Imperial Circus, Cheltenham. 
1871. §Martin, tage Hugh, M.A. Greenhill-cottage, Lasswade by Edin- 
burgh. 
1870.§§Martin, Robert, M.D. 120 Upper Brook-street, Manchester, 
1836. Martin, Studley. 177 Bedford-street South, Liverpool. 
1867. *Martin, William, Jun. Leafield-place, Dundee. 
*Martindale, Nicholas. 12 Cornwall-terrace, Regent's Park, London, 
N.W. 
*Martineau, Rey. James. 10 Gordon-street, Gordon-square, London, 
W.C. 
1865. {Martineau, R. F. Highfield-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 
1865. {Martineau, Thomas. 7 Cannon-street, Birmingham. 
1847. {Maskelyne, Nevil Story, M.A., F.R.S., I°.G.8., Professor of Mineralogy 
in the University of Oxford. British Museum, London, W.C. 
1861. *Mason, Hugh. Groby Lodge, Ashton-under-Lyne. 
Massey, Hugh, Lord. Hermitage, Castleconnel, Co. Limerick. 
1870.§§Massey, Thomas. 5 Gray’s-Inn-square, London, W.C. 
1870.§§Massy, Frederick. 50 Grovye-street, Liverpool. 


Cl 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 49 


Year of 
Election. 


1868.§§Mason, James Wood, I.G.S. 1 Glebe-place, Stoke Newington, Lon- 


1865. 
1861, 


1859. 
1865. 
1858. 


1860. 


1863. 
1855. 
1865. 


1864, 


1865. 
1868, 


1863. 
1863, 


1861. 
1871. 
1867, 
1866. 
1854. 
1847, 
1863. 
1862. 


1868, 


1871. 
1863. 
1869, 
1847. 
1865. 
1865. 
1866. 
1867. 
1855. 
1859. 
1863, 


1859. 
1865, 


on, N. 

*Mathews, G.S. 15 Waterloo-street, Birmingham. 

*Mathews, William, jun., M.A., F.G.S. 51 Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, 
Birmingham. 

{Matthew, Alexander C. 3 Canal-terrace, Aberdeen. 

TMatthews, C. E. Waterloo-street, Birmingham. 

tMatthews, F.C. Mandre Works, Driffield, Yorkshire. 

*Matthews, Henry, F.C.S. 60 Gower-street, London, W.C. 

§Matthews, Rey. Richard Brown. Shalford Vicarage, near Guild- 
ford. 

tMaughan, Rev. W. Benwell Parsonage, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

tMaule, Rev. Thomas, M.A. Partick, near Glaszow. 

*Maw, George, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.S.A, Benthall Hall, Broseley, Shrop- 
shire, 

*Maxwell, Francis. Speddock, near Dumfries. 

*Maxwell, James Clerk, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., L. & E. Professor of 
Experimental Physics in the University of Cambridge. Glenlair, 
Dalbeattie, N.B. 

*Maxwell, Robert Perceval. Groomsport House, Belfast. 

*May, Walter. Elmley Lodge, Harborne, Birmingham. 

§Mayall, J. E., F.C.S. _Hove-place House, Brighton. 

*Mayne, Rev. Charles, M.R.I.A. Killaloe, Co. Clare, Ireland. 

§Mease, George D, Bylton Villa, South Shields. 

tMease, Solomon. Cleveland House, North Shields. 

{Meath, Samuel Butcher, D.D., Lord Bishop of. Ardbraccan, Co, 
Meath. 

tMedcalf, William. 

§Meikie, James, F.S.S._ 6 St. Andrew’s-square, Edinburgh. 

{Meldrum, Charles. Mauritius. 

Mello, Rey. J. M. St. Thomas’s Rectory, Brampton, Chesterfield. 

Melly, Charles Pierre. 11 Rumford-street, Liverpool. 

{Melville, Professor Alexander Gordon, M.D, Queen’sCollege, Galway. 

tMelvin, Alexander. 42 Buccleuch-place, Edinburgh. 

§Mennell, Henry J. St. Dunstan’s-buildings, Great Tower-street, 
London, E.C. 

§Merrifield, Charles W., F.R.S., Principal of the Royal School of 
Naval Architecture, Superintendent of the Naval Museum at 
South Kensington, Hon. Sec. ILN.A. 23 Scarsdale-villas, Ken- 
sington, London, 8. W. 

§Mersen, John. Northumberland County Asylum, Morpeth. 

§§Messent, P. T. 4 Northumberland-terrace, Tynemouth, 

§Miall, Louis C. Bradford, Yorkshire. 

*Michell, Rey. Richard, D.D., Principal of Magdalen Hall, Oxford, 

{Michie, Alexander. 26 Austin Friars, London, E.C, 

§Middlemore, William. Edgbaston, Birmingham, 

tMidgley, John. Colne, Lancashire. 

}Midgley, Robert. Colne, Lancashire. 

{Miles, Rey. Charles P., M.D. 58 Brompton-crescent, London, 
S.W, 


++4++ 


{Millar, John. Lisburn, Ireland. , 
§Millar, John, M.D., F.L.S., F.G.S. Bethnal House, Cambridge-road 
London, N.E. Tine 
Millar, Thomas, M.A.; LL.D., F.R.S.E. Perth. 
tMiller, James, jun. Greenock, © 
tMiller, Rev, J. C., D.D. The Vicarage, Greenwich, London, S.E. 
*Miller, Patrick, M.D, The Grove, Mount Radford, Exeter, 
E 


50 LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. r 


1861. *Miller, Robert. Broomfield House, Reddish, near Manchester. 
Miller, William Hallows, M.A., LL.D., For. Sec. R.S., F.G.S., Pro- 
fessor of Mineralogy in the University of Cambridge. 7 Scroope- 
y terrace, Cambridge. 
1868. *Milligan, Joseph, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.AS., F.R.G.S,. 15 Northum- 
erland-street, Strand, London, W.C. 
1842. Milligan, Robert. Acacia in Randon, Leeds. : 
1868. §Mills, Edmund J. 12 Pemberton-terrace, St. John’s Wood, Lon- 
don, N. 
*Mills, John Robert. Bootham, York. 
1867. {Milne, James. Murie House, Errol, by Dundee. 
Milne, Admiral Sir Alexander, G.C.B., F.R.S.E. 65 Rutland Gate, 
London, S.W. ; 
*Milne-Home, David, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.G.8. Paxton House, Ber- 
wick, N.B. 
1854, *Milner, William. Phoenix Safe Works, Liverpool. 
1864, *Milton, The Right Hon. Lord, M.P., F.R.G.S. 17 Grosvenor-street, 
London, W.; and Wentworth, Yorkshire. 
1865. {Minton, Samuel, F.G.S. Oakham House, near Dudley. 
1855. {Mirrlees, James Buchanan. 128 West-street, Tradeston, Glasgow. 
1859. {Mitchell, Alexander, M.D. Old Rain, Aberdeen. 
1863. {Mitchell, C. Walker, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
1870. §Mitchell, John. York House, Clitheroe. 
1868. §Mitchell, John, jun. Pole Park House, Dundee. 
1862. *Mitchell, William Stephen, LL.B., F.L.8., F.G.S8. Caius College, 
Cambridge. 
1855. *Moffat, John, C.E. Ardrossan, Scotland. 
1854. §Moffat, Thomas, M.D., F.G.8., F.RA.S., F.M.S. Hawarden, 
Chester. 
1864. tMoge, John Rees. High Littleton House, near Bristol. 
1866. §Moggridge, Matthew, F.G.S. Ditton Lodge, Thames Ditton, Surrey. 
1855. §Moir, James. 174 Gallozate, Glasgow. 
1861. {Molesworth, Rev. W. N., M.A. Spotland, Rochdale. 
Mollan, John, M.D. 8 Fitzwilliam-square North, Dublin. 
1852. {Molony, William, LL.D. Carrickfergus, 
1865. §Molyneux, William, F.G.S. Manor House, Burton-upon-Trent. 
1853. {Monday, William, Hon. Sec. Hull Lit. and Phil. Soe. 6 Jarratt= 
street, Hull. 
1860.§§ Monk, Rey. William, M.A., F.R.A.S. Wymington Rectory, Higham, 
Ferrers, Northamptonshire. 
1853. {Monroe, Henry, M.D. 10 North-street, Sculcoates, Hull. 
1857. §Moore, Arthur. Cradley House, Clifton, Bristol. 
1859. §Moore, Charles, F.G.S. 6 Cambridge-terrace, Bath. 
1857, {Moore, Rev. John, D.D. Clontarf, Dublin. 
Moore, John. 2 Meridian-place, Clifton, Bristol. 
*Moore, John Carrick, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S, 113 Eaton-street, London, 
S.W.; and Corswall, Wigtonshive. 
1866. *Moore, Thomas, F.L.S. Botanic Gardens, Chelsea, London, 8.W. 
1854. {Moore, Thomas John, Cor.M.Z,.S. Free Public Museum, Liverpool. 
1835. Moore, William D., M.D. 40 Fitzwilliam-square West, Dublin. — 
1857. *Moore, Rey. William Prior. The Royal School, Cavan, Ireland. 
1871. §More, Alexander, F.L.S., M.R.LA. 3 Botanic View, Glasnevin, 
Dublin. 
1861. {Morewood, Edmund. Cheam, Surrey. 
Morgan, Captain Evan, R.A. 
1868. {Morgan, Thomas H, Oakhurst, Hastings. 
1849, {Morgan, William. 37 Waterloo-street, Birmingham, 


LIST OF MEMBERS, ; 51 


Year of 
Election. 
Morley, George. Park-place, Leeds. 
1863, {Morley, Samuel, M.P. Lenton-grove, Nottingham. 
1865. *Morrieson, Colonel Robert. Oriental Club, Hanover-square, London, 
W 


1861. *Morris, David. Royal Exchange, Manchester. 
*Moiris, Rey. Francis Orpen, B.A. Nunburnholme Rectory, Hayton, 
York. 
Morris, Samuel, M.R.D.S. Fortview, Clontarf, near Dublin. 


1861. {Morris, William. The Grange, Salford. 

1871. *Morrison, James Darsie. 27 Grange-road, Edinburgh. 

1867. §Morrison, William R.. Dundee, 

1863. {Morrow, R. J. Bentick Villas, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

1865. §Mortimer, J. R. St. John’s Villas, Driffield. 

1869. {Mortimer, William. Bedford-circus, Exeter. 

1857. §Morton, George H., F.G.S. 21 West Derby-street, Liverpool. 
1858. *Morton, Henry Joseph. Garforth House, West Garforth, near Leeds. 
1871. §Morton, Hugh. Belvedere House, Trinity, Edinburgh. 

1847, {Moseley, Rey. Henry, M.A., F.R.S. Olveston Vicarage, near Bristol. 


1868. {Moseley, H. N. Olveston, Bristol. y 
1857. {Moses, Marcus. 4 Westmoreland-street, Dublin. 
1862. {Mosheimer, Joseph. “ 
Mosley, Sir Oswald, Bart., D.C.L., F.L.S., F.G.8. Rolleston Hall, 
Burton-upon-Trent, Staffordshire. . nee 
Moss, John. Otterspool, near Liverpool. 
1870.§§Moss, John Miles. Springbank, Waterloo, Liverpool. 
1853. *Moss, William Henry. JKingston-terrace, Hull. 
1864. §Mosse, J. R. (H.S. King & Co., 65 Cornhill, London, E.C.) Gen- 
eral Manager's Office, Mauritius Railway, Port Louis, Mauritius. 
1869. §Mott, J. Albert. Sandfield, Waterloo, Liverpool. 
1865.§§Mott, Charles Grey. The Park, Birkenhead. 
1866. §Mott, Frederick T., F.R.G.S, 1 De Montfort-street, Leicester. 
1862. *Mouat, Frederick John, M.D. late Inspector-General of Prisons, 
Bengal. 12 Durham Villas, Campden-hill, London, W. 
1856. {Mould, Rey. J. G., B.D. 21 Camden-crescent, Bath. 
1863, {Mounsey, Edward. Sunderland. 
Mounsey, John. Sunderland. 
1861. *Mountcastle, William Robert. 7 Market-street, Manchester. 
Mowbray, James. Combus, Clackmannan, Scotland. 
1850, t{Mowbray, John T. 15 Albany-street, Edinburgh. 
1871. §Muir, W. Hamilton. Torayon, Stirlingshire, 
1871. *Muirhead, Henry, M.D. Bushey-hill, Cambuslang, Lanarkshire; 
Muirhead, James. 90 Buchanan-street, Glaszow. 
1857, {Mullins, M. Bernard, M.A., C.E. 1 Fitzwilliam-square South, 
Dublin. 
Munby, Arthur Joseph. 6 Fig-tree-court, Temple, London, E.C, 
1866. {Mundella, A. J., MP. F.R.G.S. The Park, Nottingham. 
1864, *Munro, Major-General William, C.B., F.L.8. United Service Club, 
Pall Mall, London, 8:W.; and Mapperton Lodge, Farnborough, 
- Hants, 
1864, §¢Murch, Jerom. Cranwells, Bath, 
*Murchisor, John Henry, F.G.S. Surbiton-hill, Kingston. 


1864, *Murchison, K. R. 10 Victoria~park, Dover. 


1864. t{Murchison, Captain R. M. Caerbaden House, Cleveland-walk, 
Bath. ; 5 
1855. {Murdock, James B. Hamilton-place, Langside, Glasgow. 
1858, {Murgatroyd, William. Bank Field, Bingley. 
» Murley, Rey, C. H. South Petherton, Iminster, 
E2 


52 LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 
1852. {Murney, Henry, M.D. 10 Chichester-street, Belfast.  — 
1852. {Murphy, Joseph John. Old Forge, Dunmurry, Co. Antrim. 
1869. §Murray, Adam. 4 Westbourne-crescent, Hyde Park, London, W. 
1850. {Murray, Andrew, F.L.S. 67 Bedford Gardens, Kensington, Lon- 
don, W. 
1871. §Murray, ‘Captain, R.N. Murrathwaite, Ecclefachan, Scotland. 
1871. §Murray, Dr. Ivor. Hong-Kong, China. 
Murray, John, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 50 Albemarle-street, London, W. ; 
and Newsted, Wimbledon, Surrey. 
1871. §Murray, John. 2 Clarendon-crescent, Edinburgh. 
1859, t{Mwray, John, M.D. Forres, Scotland. 
*Murray, John, C.E. 11 Great Queen-street, Westminster, S.W. 
tMurray, Rev. John. Morton, near Thornhill, Dumfriesshire. 
1863. ¢{Murray, William. 34 Clayton-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
*Murton, James. Silverdale, near Carnforth, Lancaster. 


Musgrave, The Venerable Charles, D.D., Archdeacon of Crayen- 


Halifax. 

1861. {Musgroye, John, jun. Bolton. 

1870. *Muspratt, Edward Knowles. Seaforth Hall, near Liverpool. 

1865. {Myers, Rev. E., F.G.S. 3 Yewtree-road, Birmingham. 

1859, §Mylne, Robert William, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A. 21 Whitehall-place, 
London, 8.W. 


1850. {Nachot, H. W., Ph.D. 73 Queen-street, Edinburgh. 
1842. Nadin, Joseph. -Manchester. 
1855. *Napier, James R., F.R.S. 22 Blythwood-square, Glasgow. 
1839, *Napier, Right Hon. Sir Joseph, Bart. 4 Merrion-square, Dublin. 
*Napier, Captain Johnstone. Tavistock House, Salisbury. 
1855. {Napier, Robert. West Chandon, Gareloch, Glasgow. 
Napper, James William L. Loughcrew, Oldcastle., Co. Meath. 
1866. {Nash, Davyd W., F.S.A., F.L.S. 10 Imperial-square, Cheltenham. 
1850. *Nasmyth, James. Penshurst, Tunbridge. 
1864. {Natal, William Colenso, Lord Bishop of. 
1860. {Neate, Charles, M.A. Oriel College, Oxford. 
1867. §Neaves, The Right Hon. Lord. 7 Charlotte-square, Edinburgh. 
1853. {Neill, William, Governor of Hull Jail. Hull. 
1855. {Neilson, Walter. 172 West George-street, Glasgow. 
1865, {Neilson, W. Montgomerie. Glasgow. 
Ness, John. Helmsley, near York. 
1868. {Nevill, Rey. H. R. Great Yarmouth. 
1866. *Neyill, Rev. Samuel Tarratt, B.A., F.L.8. Shelton Rectory, near 
Stoke-upon-Trent. 
1861. {Neyill, Thomas Henry. 17.George-street, Manchester. 
1857. {Neville, John, C.E., M-R.ILA. Dundalk, Ireland. 
1852. {Neville, Parke, C.E. Town Hall, Deblin. 
1869. §Nevins, John Birkbeck, M.D. 3 Abercromby-square, Liverpool. 
1842. New, Herbert. Evesham, Worcestershire. 
Newall, Henry. Hare-hill, Littleborough, Lancashire. 
*Newall, Robert Stirling. Ferndene, Gateshead-upon-Tyne. 
1867.§§Newbegin, James. Norwich. 
1866. *Newdegate, Albert L. 14 Dover-street, Piccadilly, London, W. 
1842, *N EWiee fs isi Francis William. 1 Dovyer-place, Clifton, 
ristol. 
*Newman, William. Darley Hall, near Barnsley, Yorkshire. 
1863, *Newmarch, William, F.R.S. Heath View, West-side, Clapham Com- 
mon, London, 8.W. 
1866, *Newmarch, William Thomas, 4 Huntington-place, Tynemouth. 


” pe fede 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 53 


Year of 

Election. 

1858. { Newsome, Thomas. Purk-road, Leeds. 

1860, *Newton, Alfred, M.A., F.R.S., I°.L.S., Professor of Zoology and Com- 
parative Anatomy in the University of Cambridge. Magdalen 
College, Cambridge. 

1865, {Newton, pane: Henry Goodwin. Clopton House, near Stratford- 
on-Ayon. 

1867. {Nicholl, Dean of Guild. Dundee. 

Nicholl, Iltyd, F.L.S. Uske, Monmouthshire. 

1848. tNicholl, W. H. The Ham, Cowbridge, Glamorganshire. 

1866. §Nicholson, Sir Charles, Bart., D.C.L., LL.D., M.D., F.G.8., F.R.G.S. 
26 Devonshire Place, Portland-place, London, W. 

*Nicholson, Cornelius, F.G.S. Welfield, Muswell-hill, London, N. 

1861. *Nicholson, Edward. 88 Mosley-street, Manchester. 

1871. §Nicholson, E. Chambers. Herne-hill, London, 8.E. 

1867. {Nicholson, Henry Alleyne, D.Sec., F.G.S. Newhaven Park, New- 
haven, near Edinburgh. 

*Nicholson, John A., A.M., M.B., Lic. Med., M.R.LA. Balrath Burry, 

Kells, Co. Meath. 

1850. {Nicol, James, F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Professor of Natural History in 
Marischal College, Aberdeen. 

1867. {Nimmo, Dr. Matthew, L.R.C.S.E. Nethergate, Dundee. 

Niven, Ninian. Clonturk Lodge, Drumcondra, Dublin. 

1864. {Noad, Henry M., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 72 Hereford-road, Pays- 
water, London, W. 

1863. *Noble, Captain William R. Elswick Works, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

1870.§§Nolan, Joseph. 14 Hume-street, Dublin. 

1860. *Nolloth, Matthew S., Captain R.N., F.R.G.S. United Service Club, 

; S.W.; and 13 North-terrace, Camberwell, London, 8.E, 

1859. tNorfolk, Richard. Messrs. W. Rutherford and Co., 14 Canada Dock , 
Liverpool. 

1868. {Norgate, William. Newmarket-road, Norwich. 

1863. a Rey. Alfred Merle, M.A. Houghton-le-Spring, Co. Dur- 

am. 

Norreys, Sir Denham Jephson, Bart. Mallow Castle, Co. Cork. 

Norris, Charles. St. John’s House, Halifax. 

1865. {Norris, Richard, M.D. 2 Walsall-road, Birchfield, Birmingham. 
1866. {North, Thomas. Cinder Hill, Nottingham. 

Northampton, Charles Douglas, The Right Hon. Marquis of. 145 
Piccadilly, London, W.; and Castle Ashby, Northampton- 
shire. 

1569.§§Northcote, Right Hon. Sir Stafford H., Bart., C.B., M.P. Pynes, 
, Exeter; and 42 Harley-street, London, W. 

*Northwick, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A. 22 Park-street, Grosyenor- 

square, London, W. 
1868. {Norwich, The Hon. and Right Rey. J. T. Pelham, D.D., Lord Bishop 
of. Norwich. 
1861. {Noton, Thomas. Priory House, Oldham. 
Nowell, John. Farnley Wood, near Huddersfield. 
1869. §Noyes, H. C. Victoria-terrace, Heavitree, Exeter. 
1859, {Nuttall, James. Wellfield House, Todmorden. 


O’ Beirne, James, M.D. 11 Lower Gardiner-street, Dublin. 
O’Brien, Baron Lucius. Dromoland, Newmarket-on-Fergus, lreland, 
O'Callaghan, George. Tallas, Co. Clare. 

1858, *O’Callaghan, Patrick, LL.D., D.C.L. 16 Clarendon-square, Lea- 


mington. 
Odgers, Rey. William James. Sion-hill, Bath. 


ae _ LIST OF MEMBERS 


Year of 
Election. 


1858, *Odling, William, M.B., F.R.S., F.C.S., Fullerian Professor of Che- 
mistry in the Royal Institution, London, Sydenham-road, 
Croydon, Surrey. 
1857. {O’Donnayan, William John. Portarlington, Ireland, 
1870,§§O’Donnell, J. O., M.D, 34 Rodney-street, Liverpool. 
1866. tOgden, James. Woodhouse, Loughborough. 
1859, {Ogilvie, C. W. Norman. Baldoyan House, Dundee. 
*Ogilvie, George, M.D., Professor of the Institutes of Medicine in 
Marischal College, Aberdeen. 29 Union-place, Aberdeen. 
1863. tOgilvy,G. R, Inverquharity, N. B. 
1863. {Ogilvy, Sir John, Bart., M.P. Inverquharity, N, B. 
1863, {Ogle, Rev. LE. C. 
*Oole, William, M.D., M.A. 98 Friar Gate, Derby. 
1859, {Ogston, Francis, M.D. 18 Adelphi-court, Aberdeen, 
1837. {O’Hagan, John. 20 Kildare-street, Dublin. 
1862. {O’Kelly, Joseph, M.A. 51 Stephen’s Green, Dublin. 
1857. {O’Kelly, Matthias J. Dalkey, Ireland, 
1853, §Oldham, James, C.E. Austrian Chambers, Hull. 
1857. *Oldham, Thomas, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., M.R.LA., Director 
of the Geological Survey of India. 1 Hastings-street, Calcutta. 
1860. {O’Leary, Professor Purcell, M.A. Sydney-place, Cork, 
1863. {Oliver, Daniel. Royal Gardens, Kew. 
- *Ommanney, Erasmus, Rear-Admiral, C.B., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,F.R.G.S 
6 Talbot-square, Hyde-park, London, W.; and United Service 
Ciub, Pall Mall, London, 8, W. 
1867. {Orchar, James G. 9 William-street, Forebank, Dundee, 
1842, Ormerod, George Wareing, M.A., F.G.S, Brookbank, Teignmouth. 
1861, {Ormerod, Henry Mere. Clarence-street, Manchester; and 11 Wood- 
land-terrace, Cheetham-hill, Manchester. 
1858, {Ormerod, T. T, Brighouse, near Halifax. 
Orpen, John H., LL.D., M.R.LA. 58 Stephen’s Green, Dublin, 
1854, {Orr, Sir Andrew. Blythwood-square, Glasgow. 
1865. {Osborne, E. C. Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 
*Osler, A. Follett, F.R.S. South Bank, Edgbaston, Birmingham, 
1865. *Osler, Henry F. 50 Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham, 
1869, *Osler, Sidney F. South Bank, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 
1854, §Outram, Thomas. Greetland, near Halifax. 
Overstone, Samuel Jones Lloyd, Lord, F.G.S. 22 Norfoll-street, 
Park-lane, London, W.; and Wickham Park, Bromley. 
1870.§§Owen, Harold. Tue Brook Villa, Liverpool. 
1857. {Owen, James H. Park House, Sandymount, Co. Dublin. 
Owen, Richard, M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., Hon. 
M.R.S.E., Director of the Natural History Department, British 
Museum. Sheen Lodge, Mortlake, Surrey, 8. W. 
1863, *Ower, Charles, C.E. 11 Craigie-terrace, Dundee. 


1859. TPage, Dart LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 44 Gilmore-place, Edin- 
urgh, 

1863. {Paget, Chapin, Ruddington Grange, near Nottingham, 

1870.§§Palgrave, R. H. Inglis. 11 Britannia-terrace, Great Yarmouth. 

1866. §Palmer, H. 76 Goldsmith-street, Nottingham. 

1866. §Palmer, William. Iron Foundry, Canal-street, Nottingham, 
Palmes, Rey. William Lindsay, M.A. The Vicarage, Hornsea, Hull. 

1857. *Parker, Alexander, M.R.LA.. William-street, Dublin, 

1865. {Parker, Henry. Low Elswick, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

1863. {Parker, Rey. Henry. Idlerton Rectory, Low Elswick, Newcastle-on- 


Tyne. 


ee 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 55 


Year of 
Election. 
‘Parker, Joseph, F.G.8, Upton Chaney, Bitton, near Bristol, 
Parker, Richard. Dunscombe, Cork. 
Parker, Rev. William. Saham, Norfolk. 
1865. *Parker, Walter Mantel. Warren-corner House, near Farnham, Surrey. 
1853. {Parker, William. Thornton-le-Moor, Lincolnshire, 
1865. *Parkes, Samuel Hickling. 5 St. Mary’s-row, Birmingham, 
1864,§§Parkes, William. 14 Park-street, Westminster, 8. W. 
1859, {Parkinson, Robert, Ph.D. Bradford, Yorkshire. 
1863, {Parland, Captain. Stokes Hall, Jesmond, Newcastle-on-Tyrxe, 
1862, *Parnell, John, M.A. Hadham House, Upper Clapton, London, N.E. 
Parnell, Richard, M.D., F.R.S.E. Gattonside Villa, Melrose, N. B. 
Partridge, Richard, F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy to the Royal 
Academy of Arts, and to King’s College, London. 17 New- 
street, Spring-gardens, London, 8. W. 
1865. *Parsons, Charles Thomas. 8 Portland-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 
1855. {Paterson, William. 100 Brunswick-street, Glasgow. 
1861. {Patterson, Andrew. Deafand Dumb School, Old Trafford, Manchester. 
1871. *Patterson, A. H. Ardmara House, Bangor, Co. Down. 
1863. {Patterson, H. L. Scott’s House, near Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
1867. {Patterson, James, Kinnettles, Dundee. 
1871. §Patterson, John. Manchester. 
1839, *Patterson, Robert, F.R.S. 59 High-street, Belfast. 
1863. {Pattinson, John. 75 The Side, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
1863. {Pattinson, William. Felling, near Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
1867. {Pattison, Samuel R., F.G.S. 50 Lombard-street, London, B.C. 
1864. {Pattison, Dr. T. H. London-street, Edinburgh. 
1863. §Paul, Benjamin H., Ph.D. 1 Victoria-street, Westminster, 8.W. 
1863, {Pavy, Frederick William, M.D., F,R.S., Lecturer on Physiology and 
Comparative Anatomy and Zoology at Guy’s Hospital. 35 
Grosvenor-street, London, W. 
1864. {Payne, Edward Turner. 3 Sydney-place, Bath. 
1851. {Payne, Joseph. 4 Kildare Gardens, Bayswater, London, W. 
1866.§§Payne, Dr. Joseph F. 4 Kildare-gardens, Bayswater, London, W. 
1847, §Peach,; Charles W., Pres. R.P.S. Edin., A-L.S. 30 Haddington- 
place, Leith-walk, Edinburgh. 
1868. {Peacock, Kbenezer. 32 University-street, London, W.C, 
1863. §Peacock, Richard Atkinson. St. Heliers, Jersey. 
*Pearsall, Thomas John, F.C.8. Birkbeck Literary and Scientific Insti- 
tution, Southampton-buildings, Chancery-lane, London, F.C. 
Pearson, Charles. 10 Torrington-square, London, W.C, 
1870.§§Pearson, Rey. Samuel. 3 Greenheys-road, Prince’s-park, Liverpool, 
1863. §Pease, H. F. Brinkburn, Darlington. 
1852. {Pease, Joseph Robinson. Hesslewood. 
1863. *Pease, Joseph W., M.P. Hutton Hall, Guisborough. 
1863. {Pease, J. W. Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
1858. *Pease, Thomas, F.G.S. Cote Bank, Westbury-on-Trym, near Bristol, 
Peckitt, Henry. Carlton Husthwaite, Thirsk, Yorkshire. 
1855, *Peckover, Alexander, F.R.G.S. Wisbeach, Cambridgeshire, 
*Peckover, Algernon, F.L.S. Harecroft House, Wisbeach, Cambridge- 
shire. 
*Peckover, William, F.S.A. Wisbeach, Cambridgeshire. 
*Peel, George. Soho Iron Works, Manchester. 
1861, *Peile, Georgé, jun. Shotley Bridge, Co. Durham. 
1861. *Peiser, John. Barnfield House, 491 Oxford-street, Manchester. 
1865. {Pemberton, Oliver. 18 Temple-row, Birmingham. 
1861. *Pender, John. Mount-street, Manchester. 
1868.§§Pendergast, Thomas, Lancefield, Cheltenham. 


56 LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 

Election. : 

1856. §Pengelly, William, F.R.S., F.G.S. Lamorna, Torquay. 

1845. {Percy, John, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Metallurgy in the 
Government School of Mines. Museum of Practical Geology, 
Jermyn-street, S.W.; and 1 Gloucester-crescent, Hyde-park, 
London. 

*Perigal, Frederick. Chatcots, Belsize Park, London, N.W. 

1868. *Perkin, William Henry, F.R.S., F.C.S. Seymour Villa, Sudbury, N. W. 

1861. {Perkins, Rev. George. St. James’s View, Dickenson-road, Rusholme, 
near Manchester. : 

Perkins, Rey. R. B., D.C.L. Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire. 

1864. *Perkins, V. R. Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire. 

1867. {Perkins, William. 6 Russell-place, Fitzroy-square, London, W. 

1861. {Perring, John Shae. 104 King-street, Manchester. 

Perry, The Right Rev. Charles, M.A., Bishop of Melbourne, Australia. 

*Perry, Rey. 8. G. F., M.A. Tottington Parsonage, near Bury. 

1870, *Perry, Rey.S.J. Stonyhurst College Observatory, Whalley, Black- 


urn. 
1861. *Petrie, John. South-street, Rochdale. 
Pett, Samuel, F.G.S. 7 Albert-road, Regent’s Park, London, N.W. 
Peyton, Abel. Oakhurst, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 
1871. * Peyton, John E. H., F.R.A.S. 108 Marina, St. Leonards-on-Sea. 
1867. {Phayre, Colonel Sir Arthur. East India United Service Club, St. 
James’s Square, London, 8. W. 
1863. *Phené, John Samuel, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 5 Carlton-terrace, Oakley- 
street, Chelsea, London, 8.W. 
1870. §Philip, T. D. 51 South Castle-street, Liverpool. 
1853. *Philips, Rev. Edward. Hollington, Uttoxeter, Staffordshire. 
1853, *Philips, Herbert. 385 Church-street, Manchester. 
*Philips, Mark. Snitterfield, Stratford-on-Avon. 
Philips, Rob. N. The Park, Manchester. 
1863, {Philipson, Dr. 1 Saville Row, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
1856, *Phillipps, Sir Thomas, Bart., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. Thirlestaine 
House, Cheltenham. 
1859. *Phillips, Major-General Sir Frowell. 1 Vere-street, Cavendish- 
square, London, W. 
1862. {Phillips, Rev. George, D.D., Queen’s College, Cambridge. 
1870. §Phillips, J. Arthur. Cressington-park, Aigburth, Liverpool. 
*Phillips, John, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.8., Professor of 
Geology in the University of Oxford. Museum House, Oxford. 
1859. {Phillips, Major J. Scott. 
1868. {Phipson, R. M., F.S.A. Surrey-street, Norwich. 
1868. {Phipson, T. L., Ph.D. 4 The Cedars, Putney, Surrey. 
1864, {Pickering, William. Oak View, Clevedon. 
1861. {Pickstone, William. Radcliff Bridge, near Manchester. 
1870. §Picton, J. Allanson, F.S.A. Sandyknowe, Wavertree, Liverpool. 
1870. §Pigot, Rev. E.V. Malpas, Cheshire. 
1871. §Pigot, Thomas F. Royal College of Science, Dublin. 
1865. {Pike, L. Owen. 25 Carlton-villas, Maida Vale, London, W. 
*Pike, Ebenezer. Besborough, Cork. 
1864, {Pilditch, Thomas. 
1857. {Pilkineton, Henry M., M.A., Q.C. 35 Gardiner’s-place, Dublin. 
1863, *Pim, Captain Bedford C. T., R.N., F.R.G.S. 11 Belsize-square, 
Hampstead, London, N.W. 
Pim, George, M.R.LA. Brennan’s Town, Cabinteely, Dublin. 
Pim, Jonathan. Harold's Cross, Dublin. 
Pim, William H. Monkstown, Dublin. 
1861. {Pincoffs, Simon. Crumpsall Lodge, Cheetham-hill, Manchester. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 57 


Year of 

Election. 

1868. {Pinder, T. R. St. Andrews, Norwich. 

1859. {Pirrie, William, M.D. 238 Union-street West, Aberdeen. 
1866. {Pitcairn, David. Dudhope House, Dundee. 

1864. {Pitt, R. 5 Widcomb-terrace, Bath. 

1869. §Plant, James. 40 West-terrace, Leicester. 


1865. 
1863. 
1867. 
1842. 


1857. 
1861. 
1846. 


tPlant, Thomas L. Camp-hill, and 33 Union-street, Birmingham. 
*Platt, John, M.P. Werneth Park, Oldham, Lancashire. 
{Playfair, Lieut.-Colonel, H.M. Consul, Algeria. 
Playfair, Lyon, C.B., Ph.D., LL.D., M.P., F.R.S. L. & E., F.C.S. 
4 Queensberry Place, South Kensington, London, 8.W. 
tPlunkett, Thomas. Ballybrophy House, Borrs-iin-Ossory, Ireland. 
*Pochin, Henry Davis, M.P., F.C.S. Broughton Old Hall, Manchester, 
tPole, William, Mus. Doc., F.R.S. The Athenzeum Club, Pall Mall, 
London,,S.W. 
*Pollexfen, Rev. John Hutton, M.A., Rector of St. Runwald’s. 6 St. 
Mary’s-terrace, Colchester. 
Pollock, A. 52 Upper Sackville-street, Dublin. 


. *Polwhele, Thomas Roxburgh, M.A. F.G.S. Polwhele, Truro, 


Cornwall. 


. {Poole, Braithwaite. Birkenhead. 
. Pooley, Thomas A., B.Se. South Side, Clapham-common, London, 
S.W 


, {Portal, Wyndham S. Malsanger, Basingstoke. 


*Porter, Henry J. Ker, M.R.LA. 91 Dean-street, Soho, London, W. 


. §Porter, Robert. Beeston, Nottingham. 


Porter, Rey. T. H., D.D. Desertcreat, Co. Armagh. 


. {Potter, D. M. Cramlington, near Newcastle-on-Tyne. 


*Potter, Edmund, M.P., F.R.S. _Camfield-place, Hatfield, Herts. 
Potter, Thomas. George-street, Manchester. 


. [Potts, James. 52} Quayside, Newcastle-on-Tyne, 
. *Pounden, Captain Londsdale, F.R.G.S. Junior United Service Club, 


St. James’s-sq., London, 8. W.; and Brownswood, Co. Wexford. 


. [Power, Sir James, Bart. Hdermine, Enniscorthy, Ireland. 

. [Powrie, James. Reswallie, Forfar. 

. *Poynter, John E. Clyde Neuck, Uddingstone, Hamilton, Scotland. 
. {Prangley, Arthur. 2 Burlington-buildings, Redland, Bristol. 


Pratt, The Venerable John H., M.A., F.R.S., Archdeacon of Calcutta. 
Calcutta. 


. *Preece, William Henry. Grosvenor House, Southampton. 
. *Prentice, Mauning. Violet Hill, Stowmarket, Suffolk. 


Prest, The Venerable Archdeacon Edward. The College, Durham. 
Prest, John. Blossom-street, York. 
*Prestwich, Joseph, F.R.S., Pres. G.S. 69 Mark-lane, London, E.C. ; 
and Shoreham, near Sevenoaks. 


. §Price, Astley Paston. 47 Lincoln’s Inn Fields, London, W.C. 
. *Price, Rey. Bartholomew, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Sedleian Professor 


of Natural Philosophy in the University of Oxford. 11 St. 
Giles’s-street, Oxford. 


. §Price, Captain E. W., M.P. Tibberton Court, Gloucester. 


Price, J.T. Neath Abbey, Glamorganshire. 


. tPrideaux, J. Symes. 209 Piccadilly, London, W. 

. *Prior, R.C. A., M.D. 48 York-terrace, Regent’s Park, London, N.W. 
. *Prichard, Thomas, M.D. Abington Abbey, Northampton. 

. *Pritchard, Andrew. 87 St. Paul’s-road, Canonbury, L 

. *Pritchard, Rey. Charles, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.AS., F.G.S., Professor 


ondon, N. 


of Astronomy in the University of Oxford. 


. §Procter, James. Morton House, Clifton, Bristol. 


58 LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 
1863. tProcter, R.S. Summerhill-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
Proctor, Thomas, ‘Elmsdale House, Clifton Down, Bristol, 
Proctor, William. 108 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol. 
1858. §Proctor, William, M.D., F.C.S. 24 Petergate, York. 
1863. *Prosser, Thomas. West Boldon, Co. Durham. 
1863. {Proud, Joseph. South Hetton, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
1865.§§Prowse, Albert P. Whitchurch Villa, Mannamead, Plymouth, 
1871, PPycile, ais John, Care of J, P, Gassiot, Esq., Clapham Common, 


1864, {Pugh, John. Aberdovey, Shrewsbury. 

1867. {Pullar, John. 4 Leonard Bank, Perth. 

1867, §Pullar, Robert. 6 Leonard Bank, Perth. 

1842, *Pumphrey, Charles. 33 Frederick-street, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

Punnett, Rey. John, M.A., F.C.P.S. St. Harth, Cornwall. 

1869. {Purchas, Rev. W. H. St. James’s, Gloucester. 

1852. {Purdon, Thomas Henry, M.D. Belfast. : 

1860, {Purdy, Frederick, F.S.S., Principal of the Statistical Department o 
the Poor Law Board, Whitehall, London. Victoria-road, Ken- 
sington, London, W. 

1866. {Purser, Professor John. Queen’s College, Belfast. 

1860, *Pusey, 8. E. Bouverie. 7 Green-street, London, W.; and Pusey, 
Farringdon. é 

1861, *Pyne, Joseph John. Hope House, Heald Grove, Rusholme, Manchester. 

1868. §Pye-Smith, P. H., M.D. Finsbury-square, H.C., and Guy’s Hospital, 
London, 8.E. 


1870.§§Rabbits, W.T. Forest-hill, London, 8.E. 
1860. {Radcliffe, Charles Bland, M,D. 4 Henrietta-street, Cavendish-square, 
London, W. 
1870.§§Radcliffe, D. R. Phoenix Safe-works, Windsor, Liverpool. 
*Radford, William, M.D. Sidmount, Sidmouth. 
1861. {Rafferty, Thomas. 13 Monmouth-terrace, Rusholme, Manchester. 
1854. {Raftles, Thomas Stamford. .13 Abereromby-square, Liverpool. 
1870.§§Raffles, William Winter. Sunnyside, Prince’s-park, Liverpool. 
1859. {Rainey, George, M.D. 17 Golden-square, Aberdeen. 
1855. {Rainey, Harry, M.D. 10 Moore-place, Glasgow. 
1864, {Rainey, James T. 8 Widcomb-crescent, Bath. 
Rake, Joseph. Charlotte-street, Bristol. 
1863.§§Ramsay, Alexander, jun., F.G.S, 45 Norland-square, Notting Hill, 
London, W. 
1845. {Ramsay, Andrew Crombie, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Director of the . 
Geological Survey of Great Britain, Professor of Geology in the 
Royal School of Mines, Museum of Practical Gootospibrmen: 
street, London, S.W. 
1863. {Ramsay, D. R. Wallsend, Newcastle-on-Tyne. ; 
1867, {Ramsay, James, Jun, Dundee. 
1861. {Ramsay, John. Kildalton, Argyleshire, 
1867. *Ramsay, W.F.,M.D, 15 Somerset-street, Portman-square, London, W. 
1835. *Rance, Henry (Solicitor). Cambridge. 
1869. *Rance, H. W. Henniker. Cambridge. 
Rand, John. Wheatley-hill, Bradford, Yorkshire. 
1865. {Randel, J. 50 Vittoria-street, Birmingham. 
1860. {Randall, Thomas. Grandepoint House, Oxford. 
1855. t{Randolph, Charles. Pollockshiels, Glasgow. 
1860. *Randolph, Rev. Herbert, M.A. Marcham, near Abingdon. 
Ranelach, the Right Hon. Lord. 7 New Burlington-street, Regent- 
street, London, W. 


Ses ee 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 59 


Year of 
Election. 


1850. §Rankine, William John Macquorn, LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E., Regius 
Professor of Civil Engineering and Mechanics in the University 
of Glasgow. 59 St, Vincent-street, Glasgow, 

1861.§§Ransome, Arthur, M.A, Bowdon, Manchester. 

Ransome, Thomas. 34 Princess-street, Manchester, 

1863, §Ransom, William Henry, M.D.,F,.R.S. Low Payement, Nottingham, 

1868. *Ranson, Edwin. Kempstone, near Bedford, 

Rashleigh, Jonathan, 3 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park, 
London, N.W, 

1868, {Rassam, Hormuzed. 

“Ratcliff, Colonel Charles, F.LS,, F.G.S., F.S.A., F.R,G.8, Wyd- 
drington, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

1864. §Rate, Rey. John, M.A. Lapley Vicarage, Penkridge, Staffordshire. 

1870.$§Rathbone, Benson, Exchange-buildings, Liverpool. 

1870.§§Rathbone, Philip H. Greenbank Cottage, Wavertree, Liverpool, 

1870. §Rathbone, R.R. 11 Rumford-street, Liverpool. 

1863, {Rattray, W. St. Clement’s Chemical Works, Aberdeen. 

Rawdon, William Frederick M.D, Bootham, York, 
1870.§§Rawlins, G.W, The Hollies, Rainhill, Liverpool. 
*Rawlins, John, Llewesog Hall, near Denbigh. 

1866. *Rawlinson, George, M.A., Camden Professor of Ancient History in 

the University of Oxford, 53 Broad-street, Oxford. 

1855. *Rawlinson, Major-General Sir Henry C., K.C.B., LL.D. FE.RS., 
F.R.G.S, 21 Charles-street, Berkeley-square, London, W, 

1865.§§Rayner, Henry. Liverpool-road, Chester. 

1870.§$Rayner, Joseph (Town Clerk). Liverpool. 

1852. tRead, Thomas, M.D. Donegal-square West, Belfast. 

1865. {Read, William. Albion House, Epworth, Bawtry. 

*Read, W. H. Rudstone, M.A., F.L.8. Blake-street, York. 

1870. §Reade, Thomas M. Blundell Sands, Liverpool. 

1862. *Readwin, Thomas Allison, F.G.S, 29 Moss-lane West, Manchester. 

1852. *Redfern, Professor Peter, M.D. 4 Lower-crescent, Belfast. 

1863. {Redmayne, Giles. 20 New Bond-street, London, W. 

1863, {Redmayne, R. R. 12 Victoria-terrace, Neweastle-on-Tyne. 

Redwood, Isaac. Cae Wern, near Neath, South Wales. 

1861. *Reé, H. P. 27 Faulkner-street, Manchester. 

1861. {Reed, Edward J., Vice-President of the Institute of Naval Archi- 
tects. Chorlton-street, Manchester. 

1869. {Reid, J. Wyatt. 40 Great Western-terrace, Bayswater, London, W. 

1850. {Reid, William, M.D, Cuivie, Cupar, Fife. 

1863, §Renals, E, ‘Nottingham Express’ Office, Nottingham. 

1863. {Rendel, G. Benwell, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

Rennie, Sir John, Knt., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A.,F.R.G.S, 7 Lowndes- 
square, London, 8. W. 

1860. {Rennison, Rev. Thomas, M.A. Queen’s College, Oxford. 

1867, {Renny, W. W. 8 Douglas-terrace, Broughty Ferry, Dundee, 

1869. {Révy, J.J. 16 Great George-street, Westminster, 8, W. 

1270, *Reynolds, Osborne, Professor of Engineering in Owens College, 

Manchester. : 

1858, §Reynolds, Richard, F.C.S. 13 Briggate, Leeds. 

1871. §Reynolds, 8. R. Royal Dublin Society, Kildare-street, Dublin, 

Reynolds, William, M.D. Coeddu, near Mold, Flintshire, 
1858. *Rhodes, John, 18 Albion-street, Leeds. 
1868. §Richards, Rear-Admiral George H., F.R.S., F.R.GS., Hydrographer 


Lo] 


to the Admiralty, The Admiralty, Whitehall, London, 8.W. 
1863. §Richardson, Benjamin Ward, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. 12 Hinde-street, 
Manchester-square, London, W, 


60 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1861.§§Richardson, Charles. Almondbury, Bristol. 


1869. 
1863. 
1868. 


*Richardson, Charles. "West End, Abingdon, Berks. 
*Richardson, Edward, jun. 3 Lovaine-place, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
*Richardson, George. 4 Edward-street, Werneth, Oldham. 


1870.§§Richardson, J.H. 38 Arundel-terrace, Cork. 
1868.§§Richardson, James C. Glanrafon, near Swansea. 
1863. {Richardson, John W. South Ashfield, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 


1870. 


1861. 
1861, 


1863. 


§Richardson, Ralph. 16 Coates-crescent, Edinburgh. 
Richardson, Thomas. Montpelier-hill, Dublin. 
Richardson, William. Micklegate, York. 
§Richardson, William. 4 Edward-street, Werneth, Oldham. 
tRichson, Rey. Canon, M.A. Shakespeare-street, Ardwick, Man- 
chester. 
{Richter, Otto, Ph.D. 7 India-street, Edinburgh. 


1870.§§Rickards, Dr. 36 Upper Parliament-street, Liverpool. 


1868. 


1861. 
1859, 
1861. 
1862. 
1861. 
1863. 
1863. 
1860, 


1867. 
1855. 
1867. 
1853. 
1869. 
1854, 
1869, 


1859. 
1859. 
1870. 
1857. 


1868. 
1859. 
1866. 


1867. 
1871. 
1870. 
_ 1866. 
1861. 
1852. 
1864, 
1859. 
1860. 


1866. 
1861. 
1863, 


§Ricketts, Charles, M.D., F.G.S. 22 Areyle-street, Birkenhead. 
*Riddell, Major-General Charles J, Buchanan, O.B., F.R.S. Athe- 
num Club, Pall Mall, London, 8.W. 
*Riddell, Henry B. Whitefield House, Rothbury, Morpeth. 
{Riddell, Rev. John. Moffat by Beatlock, N. B. 
*Rideout, William J. 51 Charles-street, Berkeley-square, London, W. 
tRidgway, Henry Akroyd, B.A. Bank Field, Halifax. 
§Ridley, John. 19 Belsize-park, eee London, N.W. 
tRidley, Samuel. 7 Regent’s-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
*Rigby, Samuel. Bruche Hall, Warrington. 
tRitchie, George Robert. 4 Watkyn-Terrace, Coldharbour-lane, 
Camberwell, London. 

tRitchie, John. Fleuchar Craig, Dundee. 
tRitchie, Robert, C.E. 14 Hill-street, Edinburgh. 

tRitchie, William. Emslea, Dundee. 

tRivay, John V. C. 19 Cowley-street, London, 8.W. 

*Rivington, John. 14 Porchester-terrace, Hyde Park, London, W. 
tRobberds, Rev. John, B.A. Ashlar House, Battledown, Cheltenham. 
*Robbins, J. 372 Oxford-street, London, W. 

Roberton, John. Oxford-road, Manchester. 
tRoberts, George Christopher. Hull. 


{Roberts, Henry, F.S.A.  Athenzeum Club, London, 8. W. 


*Roberts, Isaac, F.G.8. 26 Rock-park, Rock Ferry, Cheshire. 

{Roberts, Michael, M.A. Trinity College, Dublin. 

*Roberts, William P. 38 Red Lion-square, London, W.C. 

§Roberts, W. Chandler, F.G.S., F.C.S._ Royal Mint, London, E.C. 

tRobertson, Dr. Andrew. Indego, Aberdeen. 

§Robertson, Alister Stuart, M.D., F.R.G.S. Horwich, Bolton, Lan- 
cashire. 

§Robertson, David. Union Grove, Dundee. 

§Robertson, George, C.E., F.R.S.E. 47 Albany-street, Edinburgh. 

*Robertson, John. Bank, High-street, Manchester. 

tRobertson, William Tindal, M.D. Nottingham. 

§Robinson, Enoch. Dukinfield, Ashton-under-Lyne. 

{Robinson, Rey. George. Tartaragham Glebe, Loughgall, Ireland. 

{tRobmson, George Augustus. 

tRobinson, Hardy. 156 Union-street, Aberdeen, 

{ Robinson, Professor H. D. 

*Robinson, H. Oliver. 194 West George-street, Glasgow. 

tRobinson, John. Museum, Oxford. 

{Robinson, John. Atlas Works, Manchester. : 

tRobinson, J. H. Cumberland-row, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 


La 


LIST OF MEMBERS. GL 


Year of 
Election. 


1855. {Robinson, M. E. 116 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow. 
1860, {Robinson, Admiral Robert Spencer. 61 Eaton-place, London, S.W. 
Robinson, Rey. Thomas Romney, D.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., M.R.LA., 

Director of the Armagh Observatory. Armagh. 

1863. {Robinson, T. W. U. Houghton-le-Spring, Durham. 

1870. §Robinson, William. 40 Smithdown-road, Liverpool. 

1870. *Robson, E.R. 17 Falkner-square, Liverpool. 

1863. *Robson, James. 

*Robson, Rey. John, M.A., D.D Ajmére Lodge, Cathkin-road, 

Langside, Glasgow. 

1855. TRobson, Neil, C.K. 127 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow. 

1851. {Rodwell, Wiliam. Woodlands, Holbrook, Ipswich. 

1866. {Roe, Thomas. Grove Villas, Sitchurch. 

1846. {Roe, William Henry. Portland-terrace, Southampton. 

1861. §Rofe, John, F.G.S. 7 Queen-street, Lancaster. 

1869. *Rogers, Nathaniel, M.D. 34 Paul-street, Exeter. 

1860, {Rogers, James EH. Thorold, Professor of Economic Science and Sta- 
tistics in King’s College, London. Beaumont-street, Oxford. 

1867. {Rogers, James $. Rosemill, by Dundee. 

1870.§§Rogers, T. L., M.D. Rainhill, Liverpool. 

1859. {Rolleston, George, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Anatomy 
and Physiology in the University of Oxford. The Park, Ox- 


ford. 
1866. {Rolph, George Frederick. War Office, Horse Guards, London, S.W. 
1863. tRomilly, Edward. 14 Hyde Park-terrace, London, W. 
1845. {Ronalds, Sir Francis, F.R.S. 9 St. Mary’s-villas, Battle, Sussex. 
1846, {Ronalds, Edmund, Ph.D, Stewartfield, Bonnington, Edinburgh. 
1869. {Roper, C. H. Magdalen-street, Exeter. 
1865. {Roper,R.S.,F.G.S._ Cwmbrae Iron Works, Newport, Monmouthshire. 
1861. *Roscoe, Henry Enfield, B.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of 
Chemistry in Owens College, Manchester. 
1861. {Rose, C. B., ¥.G.S. 25 King-street, Great Yarmouth, Norfolk. 
1863. {Roseby, John. Haverholme House, Brige, Lincolnshire. 
1857. tRoss, David, LL.D. Drumbrain Cottage, Newbliss, Ireland. 
1859, *Ross, Rey. James Coulman. Baldon Vicarage, Oxford. 
1861. *Ross, Thomas. 7 Wigmore-street, Cayendish-square, London, W. 
1842. Ross, William. Pendleton, Manchester. 
1869, *Rosse, The Right Hon. The Earl of, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Birr 
Castle, Parsonstown, Ireland. 
1855. tRoth, Dr. Matthias. 164 Old Cavendish-street, London, W. 
1865. *Rothera, George Bell. 17 Wavyerley-street, Nottingham. 
1849.§§Round, Daniel G. Hange Colliery, near Tipton, Staffordshire. 
1847. tRouse, William. 16 Canterbury Villas, Maida Vale, London, W, 
1861. {Routh, Edward J., M.A. St. Peter’s College, Cambridge, 
1861. §Rowan, David. LElliot-street, Glasgow. 
1855. {Rowand, Alexander. Linthouse, near Glasgow. 
1865. §Rowe, Rev. John. Beaufort-villas, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 
1855, *Rowney, Thomas H., Ph.D., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in 
Queen’s College, Galway. 
*Rowntree, Joseph. Leeds. 
18€2, tRowsell, Rey. Evan Edward, M.A. Hambledon Rectory, Godalming. 
1861. *Royle, Peter, M.D, L.R.C.P., M.R.C.S. 27 Lever-street, Man- 
chester, 
1859. tRuland, C. 
1869.§§Rudler, F. W.,F.G.S. 6 Pond-street, Hampstead, London, N.W. 
1861. *Rumney, Robert, ¥.C.S. Springfield, Whalley Range, Manchester, 
1856, {Rumsay, Henry Wildbore. Gloucester Lodge, Cheltenham, 


62 LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 
1847. t{Ruskin, John, M.A., F.G.8., Slade Professor of Fine Arts in the 
' University of Oxford. Denmark- hill, London, 8.1. 
1857, {Russell, Rev. C. W., D.D. Maynooth College. 
1855. {Russell, James, jun. Falkirk. 
1865, {Russell, James, M.D. 91 Newhall-street, Birmingham. 
1859. {Russell, John, the Right Hon. Earl, KG., E.R.S., F.R.G.S. 37 
Chesham-place, Belerave- -square, London, 3.W. 
Russell, John. 15 Middle Gardiner’ s-street, Dublin. 
Russell, John Scott, M.A., F.R.S. L. & E, Sydenham ; and 5 West- 
minster Chambers, London, S.W. 
1852. *Russell, Norman Scott. 5 Westminster Chambers, re S.W. 
1863. tRussell, Robert. Gosforth Colliery, Newcastle-on-Tyn 
1852. *Russell, William J., bd Professor of Chonsistey St, Bartholo- 
mew’s Medical College. 34 Upper Hamilton-terrace, St. John’s 
Wood, London. 
1862. §Russell, W. HL L., A.B., F.R.S. 5 The Grove, Highgate, Lon- 
don, N. 
1865. tRust, Rev. James, M.A. Manse of Slains, Ellon, N. B. 
1871. §Rutherford, William, M.D., Professor of Phy siology i in King’s Col- 
lege, London, W.C. 
Rutson, William. Newby Wiske, Northallerton, Yorkshire. 
1871. §Ruttledge, T. E. 28 Finsbury-square, London, F.C. 
1852. { Ryan, John, M.D. 
*Ryland, Arthur. _ The Linthurst, Broomsgyoye, near Birmingham. 
1865. tRyland, Thomas. The Redlands, Erdington, Birmingham. 
1853, {Rylands, Joseph. 9 Charlotte-street, Hull. 
1861. *Rylands, Thomas Glazebrook, F\LS., F.G.8. Highfields, Thelwall, 
near Warrington. 


*Sabine, General Sir Edward, K.C.B., R.A., LL.D., D.C.L., Presi- 
dent of the Royal Society, FRAS, F.LS., PRGS. 18 
Ashley-place, Westminster, 8.W. 
1865. {Sabine, Robert. 3 Delahay-street, London, 8.W. 
1871. §Sadler, Samuel Camperdowne. Purton Court, Wiltshire. 
1866. *St. Albans, His Grace the Duke of. Bestwood Lodge, Arnold, near 
Nottingham. 
1848. {St. Davids, “The Right Rey. Connop Thirlwall, D.D., F.G.8., Lord 
Bishop of. Abergwili, Carmarthen. 
Salkeld, Joseph. Penrith, Cumberland. 


1857. {Salmon, Rey. George, DD., D.C.L., F.R.S., Regius Professor of. 


Divinity in the University ys Dublin. Trinity College, Dublin. 

1864. {Salmon, Henry C., F.G.S., 

1858. *Salt, Sir Titus, Bart. Ashley Park, near Leeds. 

1842. Sambrooke, T. G. 32 Eaton-place, London, S.W. 

1861. *Samson, Henry. Messrs, Samson and Leppoe, 6 St. Peter’s-square, 
Manchester. 

1867. {Samuelson, Edward. Roby, near Liverpool. 

1870.§§Samuelson, James, St. Domingo-grove, Everton, Liverpool. 

1861. *Sandeman, Archibald, M.A. Tulloch, Perth. 

1857. {Sanders, Gilbert. The Hill, Monkstown, Co, Dublin. 


*Sanders, William, F.R.S., F.GS. Hanbury Lodge, The Avenue, 


Clifton, Bristol. 
1871. §Sanders, William R., M.D. 11 Walker-street, Edinburech. 
Sandes, Thomas, A.B. Sallow Gli in, Tarbert, Co. Kerry. 
1864. {Sandford, William. 98 ringfield-place, Bath. 
1854, {Sandon, Right Hon. Howl M.P. 39 Gloucester-square, London, Ww 
1865. tSargant, W. L. Edmund-street, Birmingham. 


ie. & 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 63 


Year of 
Election. 
Satterfield, Joshua. Alderley Edge. 
1861. {Saul, Charles J. Smedley-lane, Cheetham-hill, Manchester. 
1868. {Saunders, A., C.E, King’s Lynn, 
1846. {Saunders, Trelawney W. India Office, London, S.W. 
1864. {Saunders, T. W., Recorder of Bath. 1 Priory-place, Bath. 
1860, *Saunders, William. 3 Gladstone-terrace, Brighton. 
1871. §Savage, W.D. Ellerslie House, Brighton. 
1863. {Sayory, Valentine. Cleckheaton, near Leeds. 
1868.§§Sawyer, John Robert. Grove-terrace, Thorpe Hamlet, Norwich. 
1857. {Scallan, James Joseph. 77 Harcourt-street, Dublin. 
1850. {Scarth, Pillans. 2 James’s-place, Leith. 
1868. §Schacht, G. F. 7 Regent’s-place, Clifton, Bristol. 
*Schemman, J. C. Hamburg, 
*Schlick, Count Benj. Quai Voltaire, Paris. 
1842. Schofield, Joseph. Stubley Hall, Littleborough, Lancashire. 
*Scholes, T. Seddon, Inlam Lodge, Warwick-place, Leamington. 
1847, *Scholey, Deeg Stephenson, M.A. Freemantle Lodge, Bath-road, 
Reading. 
“pa Edward, F.R.S., F.C.8. Oaklands, Kersall Moor, Man- 
chester. 
1861. *Schwabe, Edmund Salis. Rhodes House, near Manchester, 
1867. {Schwendler, Louis. ; 
1847. {Sclater, Philip Lutley, M.A, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., See. Zool. Soe; 
11 Hanover-square, London, W. 
1867. {Scott, Alexander, Clydesdale Bank, Dundee. 
1871. §Scott, Rey. C.G. 12 Pilrig-street, Edinburgh. : 
1865. §Scott, Major-General E. W.S., Royal Bengal Artillery. Treledan 
Hall, Welshpool, Montgomeryshire. 
1859. {Scott, Captain Fitzmaurice. Forfar Artillery. 
1871. §Scott, James 8. T. Monkrigg, Haddingtonshire, 
1855. {Scott, Montague D., B.A. Hove, Sussex. 
1857. §Scott, Robert H., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Director of the Meteorolo- 
gical Office, 116 Victoria-street, London, S.W. 
1861. §Scott, Rey. Robert Selkirk, D.D, 14 Victoria-crescent, Dowanhill, 
Glasgow. 
1864. {Scott, Wentworth Lascelles, Wolverhampton. 
1858. {Scott, William. Holbeck, near Leeds, 
1869. §Scott, William Bower. Chudleigh, Devon. 
1864. {Scott, William Robson, Ph.D. St. Leonards, Exeter. 
1869,§§Searle, Francis Furlong. 5 Cathedral Yard, Exeter. 
1859, {Seaton, John Love. Hull. 
1870. §Seaton, Joseph, M.D. Hialliford House, Sandbury. ; 
"Sedgwick, Rev. Adam, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Hon. M.R.LA,, F.GS., 
F.RANS., F-R.G.S., Woodwardian Professor of Geology in the 
University of Cambridge, and Canon of Norwich. Trinity Col- 
lege, Cambridge. 
1861. *Seeley, Harry Govier, F.G.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge. 
1855. {Selieman, H. L. 135 Buchanan-street, Glaszow. s 
*Selwyn, Rey. Canon William, M.A., D,D., F.R.S., Margaret Professor 
of Divinity in the University of Cambridge. Vine Cottage, 
Cambridge. 
1858. *Senior, George, F.S.S. Rose Hill, Dodsworth, near Barnsley, 
1870. *Sephton, Rev. J. Liverpool Institute, Mount-street, Liverpool. 
1868. {Sewell, Philip E. Catton, Norwich. 
‘Seymour, George Hicks. Stonegate, York, 
1861. *Seymour, Henry D. Atheneum Club, Pall Mall, London, 8.W. 
Seymour, John. 21 Bootham, York, aan 


64 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1853. 


1871. 
1867. 


1861. 


1869. 
1858. 
1854. 
1870. 
1865. 
1870. 
1845. 
1861. 
1853. 


1863. 
1870. 
1869. 
1869, 


1851. 
1866. 


1867. 


1864. 


1870. 
1842. 
1866. 


1861. 
1861. 
1857. 


1856. 


1859. 
1855. 
1871. 


tShackles, G. L. 6 Albion-street, Hull. 

*Shaen, sr ag 15 Upper Phillimore-gardens, Kensington, Lon- 
don, 8. 

*Shand, James. Eliot Bank, Sydenham-hill, London, S.E. 

§Shanks, James. Den Iron Works, Arbroath, N. B. 

Sharp, Rev. John, B.A. Horbury, Wakefield. 

{Sharp, Samuel, F.G.S., F.S.A, Dallington Hall, near Northampton, 
*Sharp, William, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.8S._ Horton House, Rugby. 

Sharp, Rey. William, B.A. Mareham Rectory, near Boston, Lincoln- 
shire. 

Sharpey, William, M.D., LL.D., Sec. R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of 
Anatomy and Physiology in University College. Lawnbank, 
Hampstead, London, N.W. 

*Shapter, Lewis. The Barnfield, Exeter. 

*Shaw, Bentley. Woodfield House, Huddersfield. 

*Shaw, Charles Wright. 3 Windsor-terrace, Douglas, Isle of Man. 

§Shaw, Duncan. Cordova, Spain. 

{Shaw, George. Cannon-street, Birmingham. 

§Shaw, John. 24 Great George-place, Liverpool. 

{Shaw, John, M.D., F.L.S., F.G.S. Hop House, Boston, Lincolnshire, 
*Shaw, John. City-road, Hulme, Manchester. 

tShaw, Norton, M.D. St. Croix, West Indies. 

Shepard, John. Nelson-square, Bradford, Yorkshire. 

pga A.B. New University Club, St. James’s-street, London, 


§Shepherd, Joseph. 29 Everton-crescent, Liverpool. 
Sheppard, Rev. Henry W., B.A. The Parsonage, Emsworth, Hants. 

*Shepperd, Alfred Bayard. Torquay. 

{Sherard, Rev. S. H. Newton Abbot, Devon. 

{Shewell, John T. Rushmere, Ipswich. 

{Shilton, Samuel Richard Parr. Sneinton House, Nottingham. 

§Shinn, William C. (Assistant GENERAL TREASURER). Her Ma- 
jesty’s Printing Office, near Fetter-lane, London, E.C. 

{Showers, Lieut.-Colonel Charles L. Cox's Hotel, Jermyn-street, Lon- 
don, S.W. 

*Shoolbred, James N. York-buildings, Dale-street, Liverpool. 
Shuttleworth, John. Wilton Polygon, Cheetham-hill, Manchester. 
{Sibson, Francis, M.D., F.R.S. 59 Brook-street, Grosvenor-square, 

London, W. 
*Sidebotham, Joseph. 19 George-street, Manchester. 
*Sidebottom, James. Mersey Bank, Heaton Mersey, Manchester, 
tSidney, Frederick John. 19 Herbert-street, Dublin, 
Sidney, M. J. F. Cowpen, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
ere William, D.C.L., F.R.S. 3 Great George-street, London, 


Se Zechariah, M.D. Bath House, Laurie Park, Sydenham, Lon- 
on, 8.E. 

{Sim, J ohn. Hardgate, Aberdeen. 

{Sim, William, Furnace, near Inverary. 

§Sime, James. Craigmount House, Grange, Edinburgh. 


1865.§§Simkiss, T. M. Wolverhampton. 
1862. {Simms, James. 138 Fleet-street, London, E.C, 


1852. 


1847. 


1866, 
1871, 


{Simms, William. Albion-place, Belfast. 

{Simon, John, D.C.L., F.R.S. 40 Kennington-square, London, W. 

tSimons, George, The Park, Nottingham. 

*Simpson, Alexander R., M.D., Professor of Midwifery in the Uni- 
yersity of Edinburgh, 


a Se ee 


7. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 65 


Year of 
Election. 
1867. {Simpson, G. B. Seafield, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee. 
1859. {Simpson, John. Marykirk, Kincardineshire. 
1863.§§Simpson, J. B., F.G.S. Hedgefield House, Blaydon-on-Tyne. 
1857, {Simpson, Maxwell, M.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 1 Brougham-place, Dublin, 
*Simpson, Rev. Samuel. Greaves House, near Lancaster. 
Simpson, Thomas. Blake-street, York. 
Simpson, William. Bradmore House, Hammersmith, London, W. 
1859. {Sinclair, Alexander. 133 George-street, Edinburgh. 
1834. {Sinclair, Vetch, M.D. 4 Picardy-place, Edinburgh. 
1870. *Sinclair, W. P. 32 Devonshire-roads, Prince’s-park, Liverpool. 
1864, *Sircar, Baboo Mohendro Lall, M.D. 1344 San Kany, Tollah-street, 
Calcutta, per Messrs, Harrenden & Co., 3 Chaple-place, Poultry, 
London, H.C. 
1865. §Sissons, William. 92 Park-street, Hull. 
1850. {Skae, David, M.D. Royal Asylum, Edinburgh. 
1870, §Sladen, Walter Percy. “ Exley House, near Halifax. 
1870. §Slater, W.B. 28 Hamilton-square, Birkenhead. 
1842, *Slater, William. 75 Princes-street, Manchester, 
1853. §Sleddon, Francis. 2 Kingston-terrace, Hull. 
1849.§§Sloper, George Edgar, jun. Devizes. 
1849, {Sloper, Samuel W. Devizes. 
1860. §Sloper, S. Elgar. Winterton, near Southampton. 
1867. {Small, David. Gray House, Dundee. 
1858. {Smeeton, G. H. Commercial-street, Leeds. 
1867. {Smeiton, John G. Panmure Villa, Broughty Ferry, Dundee. 
1867. {Smeiton, Thomas A. 55 Cowgate, Dundee. 
oS aa Augustus. Northwood House, Church-road, Upper Norwood, 
suirey. : 
1857, {Smith, Aquila, M.D., M.R.LA. 121 Lower Bagot-street, Dublin. 
Smith, Archibald, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.L.& E. River-bank, Putney; 
and 3 Stone-buildings, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C. 
Smith, Rev. B., FSA. 
1865, §Smith, David, F.R.A.S. 4 Cherry-street, Birmingham. 
1853. {Smith, Edmund. Ferriby, near Hull. 
1859, {Smith, Edward, M.D., LL.B., F.R.S. 140 Harley-street, London, W. 
1865. tSmith, Frederick. The Priory, Dudley. 
1866, *Smith, F.C.,M.P. Bank, Nottingham. 
1855. {Smith, George. Port Dundas, Glasgow. 
1855, {Smith, George Cruickshank. 19 St. Vincent-place, Glasgow. 
*Smith, Rey. George Sidney, D.D., M.R.I.A., Professor of Biblical 
Greek in the University of Dublin. Riverland, Omazh, Ire- 
land. 
*Smith, Henry John Stephen, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., Savilian Pro- 
fessor of Geometry in the University of Oxford. 64 St. Giles’s, 
Oxford. 
1860. *Smith, Heywood, M.A., M.B. 2 Portugal-street, Grosyenor-square, 
London, W. 
1865. {Smith, Isaac. 26 Lancaster-street, Birmingham, 
1870.§§Smith, James. 146 Bedford-street South, Liverpool. 
1842. *Smith, James. Berkeley House, Seaforth, near Liverpool. 
1855. {Smith, James. St. Vincent-street, Glasgow. 
1853. {Smith, John. York City and County Bank, Malton, Yorkshire. 
1871. *Smith, John Alexander, M.D. 7 West Maitland-street, Edinburgh, 
1858, *Smith, John Metcalf. Old Bank, Leeds. 
1867, §Smith, John P., C.E, 67 Renfield-street, Glasgow. 
Smith, John Peter George. Spring Bank, Anfield, Liverpool. 
1852, *Smith, Rey. Joseph Denham, Bellevue, Blackrock, Co, Dublin. 
¥ 


66 LIST OF MEMBERS 


Year of 
Election. 
1861. {Smith, Professor J., M.D. University of Sydney, Australia. 
*Smith, Philip, B.A. 4 Cambridge-terrace, Junction-road, London, 
N.W. 


1860, *Smith, Protheroe, M.D. 42 Park-street, Grosyenor-square, London, 
‘W. 


1837. Smith, Richard Bryan. Villa Nova, Shrewsbury. 

1847. §Smith, Robert Angus, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 22 Devonshire-street, 
Manchester. 

*Smith, Robert Mackay. 4 Bellevue-crescent, Edinburgh. 
1870.§§Smith, Samuel. Bank of Liverpool, Liverpool. 

1866, §Smith, Samuel. 53 Compton-street, Goswell-road, London, 1.C. 

1867. {Smith, Thomas (Sheriff). Dundee. 

1867. §Smith, Thomas. Pole Park Works, Dundee. 

1859, {Smith, Thomas James, F.G.S., F.C.S. Hessle, near Hull, 

1852. {Smith, William. Eglinton Engine Works, Glasgow. ; 

1857. §Smith, William, C.E., F.G.8.,F.R.G.S. 19 Salishury-street, Adelphi, 
London, W.C. 

1871. §Smith, William Robertson. Aberdeen. 

1850. *Smyth, Charles Piazzi, F.R.S. L. & E., F.R.A.S., Astronomer Royal 
for Scotland, Professor of Practical Astronomy in the University 
of Edinburgh. 15 Royal-terrace, Edinburgh. 

1870. §Smyth, Colonel H. A., R.A. 25 Inverness-road, Bishop’s-road, 
London, W. 

1870.§§Smyth, H. L. Crabwall Hall, Cheshire. 

1857. *Smyth, John, jun., M.A., M.I.C.E.L, F.M.S. Milltown, Banbridge, 
Ireland. 

1868, {Smyth, Rey. J. D. Hurst. 13 Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich. 

1864. [Smyth, Warington W., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Lecturer 
on Mining and Mineralogy at the Royal School of Mines, and 
Inspector of the Mineral Property of the Crown. 13 Victoria- 
street, London, 8. W. © 

1854. {Smythe, Colonel W. J., R.A., F.R.S. Bombay. 

Soden, John. Athenzeum Club, Pall Mall, London, 8. W. 
1853. {Sollitt, J. D., Head Master of the Grammar School, Hull. 
*Solly, taper, FE.RS., F.LS., F.G.8,, F.S.A. Sandecotes, near 
Poole 
*Sopwith, Thomas, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 103 Victoria- 
street, Westminster, S.W. 
Sorbey, Alfred. The Rookery, Ashford, Bakewell. 

1859, *Sorby, H. Clifton, F.R.S., F.G.S. Broomfield, Sheffield, 

1865. *Southall, John Tertius. Leominster. 

1859. {Southall, Norman. 44 Cannon-street West, London, E.C. 

1856. {Southwood, Rey. T. A. Cheltenham College. 

1863. {Sowerby, John. Shipcote House, Gateshead, Durham. 

1863. *Spark, H. King. Greenbank, Darlington. 

1859. {Spence, Rey. James, D.D. 6 Clapton-square, London, N.E. 

- *Spence, Joseph. 60 Holgate Hill, York. 
1869. *Spence, J. Berger. Erlington House, Manchester. 
1854, §Spence, Peter. Pendleton Alum Works, Newton Heath; and Smedley 
- Hall, near Manchester. 

1861.§§Spencer, John Frederick, 28 Great George-street, London, 8. W. 

1861, *Spencer, Joseph. 27 Brown-street, Manchester. 

1863. *Spencer, Thomas. The Grove Ruban, near Blaydon-on-Tyne. 

1855. {Spens, William. 78 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow. 

1871. §Spicer, George. Broomfield, Halifax. 

1864, *Spicer, Henry, jun., F.G.S. 22 Highbury-crescent; and 19 New 
Bridge-street, Blackfriars, London, E.C, 


LIS T OF MEMBERS. 67 


Year of 
Election. 


1864. 
1847. 
1868. 
1864. 


1846. 


1864, 
1854. 


1853. 


1859. 
1858, 


1851. 


1865. 


1866, 
1863. 


1857. 
1863. 
1861, 


§Spicer, William R. 19 New Bridge-street, Blackfriars, London, E.C, 

*Spiers, Richard James, F.S.A, 14 St. Giles’s-street, Oxford. 

*Spiller, Edmund Pim. 38 Furnival’s Inn, London, F.C. 

*Spiller, John, F.C.S. 385 Grosyenor-road, Highbury New Park, 
London, N. 

*Spottiswoode, William, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A\S., F.R.G.S. 
(GENERAL TREASURER), 50 Grosyenor-place, London, S.W. 

*Spottiswoode, W. Hugh. 50 Grosvenor-place, London, 8. 

TeABFAgHe, Thomas Bond. 4 Lansdowne-place, Blackheath, London, 


{Spratt, Joseph James. West Parade, Hull. 
Square, Joseph Elliot, F,G.S, 24 Portland-place, Plymouth, 
*Squire, Lovell. The Observatory, Falmouth. 
tStables, William Alexander. Cawdor Castle, Nairn, N.B. - 
CSB, Henry T., F.R.S,, F.L.S., F.G.S, Mountsfield, Lewisham, 
Cent. 
*Stainton, James Joseph, F.L.S., F,C.S, Meadoweroft, Lewisham, 
London, 8.E. : 
§Stanford, Edward C, C. Edinbarnet, Dumbartonshire. 
Stanley, The Very Rey. Arthur Penrhyn, D.D., F.R.S., Dean of 
Westminster, The Deanery, Westminster, London, 8. W. 
Stapleton, H. M. 1 Mountjoy-place, Dublin. 
§Starey, Thomas R. Daybrook House, Nottingham. 
{Stark, Richard M. Hull. 
Staveley, T. K. Ripon, Yorkshire. 
{Steel, William Edward, M.D, 15 Hatch-street, Dublin. 
§Steele, Rey. Dr. 2 Bathwick-terrace, Bath. 
tSteinthal, H. M. Hollywood, Fallowfield, near Manchester. 
Stenhouse, John, LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 17 Rodney-street, Penton- 
ville, London, N. 


1870.§§Stearn, C.H. 8 Elden-terrace, Rock Ferry, Liverpool. 


1861. 
1863. 
1870. 
1861. 


1863. 
1850. 
1868. 
1863. 
1855. 


1864, 
1856, 
1869, 


1847, 
1867. 


1868. 
1867. 
1865. 
1862. 


1864, 
1854. 


*Stern, 8. J. Rusholme House, Manchester, 

§Sterriker, John. Driffield. 

*Stevens, Miss Anna Maria. Wiley, near Salisbury, 

haere Henry, F.S.A., F.R.G.S. 4 Trafalgar-square, London, 
W. 


*Stevenson, Archibald. South Shields. 

{Stevenson, Dayid. 8 Forth-street, Edinburgh. 
{Stevenson, Henry, F.L.S. 10 Unthank-road, Norwich. 
*Stevenson, James C. Westoe, South Shields, 

Stewart, Balfour, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Natural Philo- 
sophy in Owens College, Manchester. Owens College, Man- 
chester. 

{Stewart, Charles, F.L.S. 19 Princess Square, Plymouth, 

*Stewart, Henry Hutchinson, M.D,, M.R.LA. 71 Eccles-street, 
Dublin. 

§Stewart, J. L. East India United Service Club, 14 St. James’s- 

square, London, S.W. 

{Stewart, Robert, M.D. The Asylum, Belfast. . 

{Stirling, Dr. D. Perth. 

§Stirling, Edward. 84 Queen’s-gardens, Hyde Park, London, W. 

*Stirrup, Mark. 2 Harwood-place, Old Trafford, Manchester. 

*Stock, Joseph 8S. Showell Green, Spark Hill, near Birmingham, 

tStockil, William. 5 Church Meadows, Sydenham, London, 8.E. 

Stoddart, George. 11 Russell-square, London, W.C, 

§Stoddart, William Walter, F.G.S., F.C.S. 7 King-square, Bristol, 

{Stoess, Le Chevalier, Ch. de W. (Bavarian Consul). Liverpool, 

FQ 


68 LIST OF MEMBERS, 


Year of 
Election. 

*Stokes, George Gabriel, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Sec. R.S., Lucasian 
Professor of Mathematics in the University of Cambrdge, Lens- 
field Cottage, Lensfield-road, Cambridge. 

1862. t{Stone, Edward James, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Astronomer Royal at 
at the Cape of Good Hope. Cape Town. 
1859, {Stone, Dr. William H. 13 Vigo-street, London, W. 
1857. {Stoney, Bindon B., M.R.I.A., Engineer of the Port of Dublin. 42 
Wellington-road, Dublin. 
1861. *Stoney, George Johnstone, M.A., F.R.S., M.R.LA., Secretary to the 
Queen’s University, Ireland. 40 Wellington-road, Dublin. 
1854, {Store, George. Prospect House, Fairfield, Liverpool. 
1867.§§Storrar, John, M.D. Heathview, Hampstead, London, N.W. 
1859. §Story, James. 17 Bryanston-square, London, W. 
1863, {Strachan, T. Y. Lovaine-crescent, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
1871. *Strachey, Major-General, R.E., F.R.S. 8 Rutland-gate, London,S.W. 
1863. {Straker, John. Wellington House, Durham. 
1868.§§Strange, Lieut.-Colonel A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S, India Stores, 
Belvedere-road, Lambeth, London, §.E. 
*Strickland, Charles. Loughglyn House, Castherea, Ireland. 
Strickland, William. French-park, Roscommon, Ireland. 
1859, {Stronach, William, R.E. Ardmellie, Banff. 
1867.§§Stronner, D. 14 Princess-street, Dundee. 
1866, *Strutt, The Hon. Arthur, F.G.S. Duffield, near Derby. 
1868, *Strutt, The Hon. John W. . Terling-place, Witham, Hssex. 
1861. {Stuart, W.D. Philadelphia. 
1866. {Stubbins, Henry. 
1864, {Style, Sir Charles, Bart. 102 New Sydney-place, Bath. 
1857. {Sullivan, William K., Ph.D., M.R.I.A. Museum of Ivish Industry ; 
and 58 Upper Leeson-road, Dublin. 
1863, {Sutherland, Benjamin John. 10 Oxford-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
1862, *Sutherland, George Granville William, Duke of, K.G., F.R.G.S. 
Stafford House, London, S.W. 
1855, {Sutton, Edwin, 44 Winchester-street, Pimlico, London, S.W. 
1863.§§Sutton, Francis, F.C.S. Bank Plain, Norwich. 
1861. *Swan, Patrick Don 8. Kirkaldy, N.B. 
1862. *Swan, William, LL.D., F.R.8.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy in 
the University of St. Andrews. 2 Hope-street,St. Andrews, N.B. 
1862, *Swann, Rey. 8. Kirke. Gedling, near Nottingham. 
Sweetman, Walter, M.A.,M.R.LA. 4Mountjoy-square North, Dublin. 
1870. *Swinburn, Sir John, Capheaton, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
1863.§§Swindell, J. 8S. E. Summerhill, Kingswinford, Dudley. 
1863.§§Swinhoe, Robert, F.R.G.S, 33 Oakley-square, S.W.4 and Oriental 
Club, London, W. 
1847, {Sykes, H. P. 47 Albion-street, Hyde Park, London, W. 
1862, {Sykes, Thomas, Cleckheaton, near Leeds. 

*Sykes, Colonel William Henry, M.P., F.R.S., Hon. M.R.LA., F.G.S., 
F.R.G.S. 47 Albion-street, Hyde Park, London, W. 

1847, {Sykes, Captain W. I. F. 47 Albion-street, Hyde Park, London. W. 

Sylvester, James Joseph, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., 60 Maddox-street, W., 

and Athenzeum Club, London, 8. W. 

1870. §Symes, Richard G., F.G.S. 14 Hume-street, Dublin. 

1856, *Symonds, Frederick, F.R.C.8. 35 Beaumont-street, Oxford. 

1859, {Symonds, Captain Thomas Edward, R.N. 10 Adam-street, Adelphi, 
London, W.C. 

1860, {Symonds, Rev. W.8., M.A.,F.G.S. Pendock Rectory, Worcestershire, 

1859, §Symons, G. J., F.M.S. 62 Camden-square, London, N.W. 

1855, *Symons, William, F.C,S, 26 Joy-street, Barnstaple. 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 69 


Year of 

Election. 
Synge, Rey. Alexander. St. Peter’s, Ipswich. 
Synge, Francis. Glanmore, Ashford, Co. Wicklow. 
Synge, John Hatch. Glanmore, Ashford, Co. Wicklow. 


1865, {Tailyour, Colonel Renny, R.E, _Newmanswalls, Montrose, N. B. 
1871. §Tait, Peter Guthrie, F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy in 
the University of Edinburgh. 17 Drummond-place, Edinburgh. 
1867. {Tait, P. M., F.R.G.S. 26 Adelaide Road, N.; and Oriental Club, 
Hanover-square, London, W. 
§Talbot, William Hawkshead. Hartwood Hall, Chorley, Lancashire. 
Talbot, William Henry Fox, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. Lacock 
Abbey, near Chippenham. 
Taprell, William. 7 Westbourne-crescent, Hyde Park, London, W. 
1866. {Tarbottom, Marrott Ogle, M.I.C.E., F.G.S. Newstead-grove, Not- 
tingham. 
1861. *Tarratt, Henry W. Bushbury Lodge, Leamington. 
1856. {Tartt, William Macdonald, F.S.S, Sandford-place, Cheltenham, 
1864. { Tasker, Rev. J. C. W. 
1857. *Tate, Alexander. 2 Queen’s Elms, Belfast. 
1863. Tate, John. Alnmouth, near Alnwick, Northumberland. 
1870.§§Tate, Norman A. 7 Nivell Chambers, Fazackerley-street, Liverpool, 
1865, {Tate, Thomas. White Horse Hill, Chislehurst, Kent, 
1858. *Tatham, George. Springfield Mount, Leeds. 
1864, *Tawney, Edward B., F.G.S._ Ashbury Dale, Torquay. 
1871. §Tayler, William, F.S.A., F.S.8. 28 Park-street, Grosvenor-squaie, 
London, W. 
1867. {Taylor, Rev. Andrew. Dundee. 
Taylor, Frederick. Laurel-cottage, Rainhill, near Prescot, Lancashire, 
*Taylor, James. Culverlands, near Reading. 
*Taylor, John, F.G.S. 6 Queen-street-place, Upper Thames-street, 
London, E.C. 
1861. *Taylor, John, jun. 6 Queen-street-place, London, E.C, 
1863. {Taylor, John. Karsdon, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
1863. {Taylor, John. Lovaine-place, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
1865. {Taylor, Joseph. 99 Constitution-hill, Birmingham. 
Taylor, Captain P. Meadows, in the Service of His Highness the 
Nizam. Harold Cross, Dublin. 
*Taylor, Richard, F.G.S. 6 Queen-strect-place, Upper Thames-street, 
London, E.C. 
1870. §Taylor, Thomas. Aston Rowant, Tetsworth, Oxon. 
Taylor, Rey. William, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Thornloe, Worcester. 
*Taylor, William Edward. Millfield House, Enfield, near Accrington. 
1858. {Teale, Joseph. Leeds. 
1858. {Teale, Thomas Pridgin, jun. 20 Park-row, Leeds. 
1869. {Teesdale, C.S. M. Pennsylvannia, Exeter, 
1863. {Tennant, Henry. Saltwell, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
*Tennant, James, F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Professor of Mineralogy in King’s 
College. 149Strand, London, W.C. 
1857. {Tennison, Edward King. Kildare-street Club House, Dublin. 
1849. {Teschemacher, E. F. Highbury-park North, London, N. 
1866. {Thackeray, J. L. Arno Vale, Nottingham. 
1859. {Thain, Rey. Alexander. New Machar, Aberdeen. 
1871. §Thin, James. Rillbank-terrace, Edinburgh. 
1871. §Thiselton-Dyer,W. T., B.A., B.Sc., Professor of Botany in the Royal 
College of Science for Ireland, Dublin. 
1835. Thom, John, Lark-hill, Chorley, Lancashire. 
1870.§§Thom, Robert Wilson. Lark Hill, Chorley, Lancashire. 


70 LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1871. §Thomas, Arcanius William Nurli. Chudleigh, Devon. 
Thomas, George. Brislington, Bristol. 
1869. {Thomas, H. D. Fore-street, Exeter. 
1869. §Thomas, J. Henwood, F.R.G.S. Custom House, London, E.C. 
*Thompson, Corden, M.D. Norfolk-street, Sheffield. 
1863. {Thompson, Rey. Francis. St. Giles’s, Durham. 
1858. *Thompson, Frederick. South Parade, Wakefield. 
1859.§§Thompson, George, jun. Pidsmedden, Aberdeen. 
Thompson, Harry Stephen. Kirby Hall, Great Ouseburn, Yorkshire. 
Thompson, Henry Stafford. Fairfield, near York. 
1861. *Thompson, Joseph. Woodlands, Wilmslow, near Manchester. 
1864.§§Thompson, Rey. Joseph Hesselgrave, B.A. Cradley, near Brierley- 
hill. 


Thompson, Leonard. Sheriff-Hutton Park, Yorkshire. 

1853, {Thompson, Thomas (Austrian Consul). Hull. 

Thompson, Thomas (Town Clerk). Hull. 

1863. ¢{Thompson, William. 11 North-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

1867. {Thoms, William. Magdalen Yard-road, Dundee. 

1855, {Thomson, Allen, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy in the 
University of Glasgow. 

1867. {Thomson, Francis Hay, M.D. Glasgow. 

1852, {Thomson, Gordon A. Bedeque House, Belfast. 

Thomson, Guy. Oxford. 

1870.§§Thomson, Sir Henry, M.D. 35 Wimpole-street, London. W. 

1855. {Thomson, James. 82 West Nile-street, Glasgow. 

1850. *Thomson, Professor James, M.A., LL.D., C.E. 17 University- 
square, Belfast. 

1868, §Thomson, James, F.G.S. 276 Eglington-street, Glasgow. 

*Thomson, James Gibson. 14 York-place, Edinburgh. 

1871. *Thomson, John Millar. King’s College, London, W.C. 

1863. {Thomson, M. 8 Meadow-place, Edinburgh. 

1871. §Thomson, Robert, LL.B, 12 Rutland-square, Edinburgh, 

1865, {Thomson, R. W., C.E., F.R.S.E. 3 Moray-place, Edinburgh. 

1847. *Thomson, Sir William, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. L. & E., Presi- 

DENT, Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of 
Glasgow. The College, Glasgow. 

1850. Thomson, Thomas, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S, (Genera SECRETARY). 
Kew Green, Kew. 

1871. §Thomson, William Burnes. 11 St. John’s-street, Edinburgh. 

1870.§§Thomson, W. C., M.D. 7 Domingo Vale, Everton, Liverpool. 

1850, {Thomson, Wyvyille T.C., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Regius Professor of 
Natural History in the University of Edinburgh. 20 Pal- 
merston-place, Edinburgh. 

1871. §Thorburn, Rey. David, M.A. 1 John’s-place, Leith. 

1852. {Thorburn, Rey. William Reid, M.A. Starkies, Bury, Lancashire. 

1865. *Thornley, 8. Gilbertstone House, Bickenhill, near Birmingham. 

1866. {Thornton, James. Edwalton, Nottingham. 

*Thornton, Samuel. Oakfield, Moseley, near Birmingham. 

1867. {Thornton, Thomas. Dundee. 

1845. {Thorp, Dr. Disney. Suffolk Laun, Cheltenham. 

1871. §Thorp, Henry. Whalley Range, Manchester. : 

feces The Venerable Thomas, B.D., F.G.S., Archdeacon of Bristol. 
Cemerton, near Tewkesbury. 

1864. *Thorp, William, jun., F.C.S. 39 Sandringham-road, West Hackney, 

fees ondon, N.E. ? 

1871. §Thorpe, T. E., Professor of Chemistry, Andersonian University, Glas- 

gow, The College, Glasgow. ba ing 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 71 


Year of 
Election. 
1868. {Thuillier, Colonel. 27 Lower Seymour-street, Portman-square, Lon- 
don, W. 
Thurnam, John, M.D. Devizes. 
1870. Berenbome, Charles R. S8., F.C.S. Apothecaries’ Hall of Ireland, 
Dublin. 
1865.§§Timmins, Samuel. Elvetham-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 
Tinker, Ebenezer. Mealhill, near Huddersfield. 
*Tinné, John A., F.R.G.S.  Briarly, Aigburth, Liverpool. 
Tite, Sir William, M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A. 42 Lowndes-square, 
London, 8.W. 
1859. ¢Todd, Thomas. Mary Culter House, Aberdeen. 
1851. *Todhunter, Isaac, M.A., F.R.S. Principal Mathematical Lecturer of 
St. John’s College, Cambridge. Bourne House, Cambridge. 
Todhunter, J. 3 College Green, Dublin. 
1857. tTombe, Rev. H. J. Ballyfree, Ashford, Co. Wicklow. 
1856. {Tomes, Robert Fisher. Welford, Stratford-on-Avon. 
1864, *Tomlinson, Charles, F.R.S., F.C.S. 3 Ridgmount-terrace, Highgate, 
London, N. 
1863. {Tone, John F. Jesmond Villas, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
1865. §Tonks, Edmund, B.C.L, Packwood Grange, Knowle, Warwick- 
shire. 
1835. §Tonks, William Henry. 4 Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham, 
1861, *Topham, John, A.I.C.E. High Elms, Hackney, London, N.E. 
1863. {Torr, F.S. 38 Bedford-row, London, W.C. 
1865. {Torrens, R. R., M.P. 2 Gloucester-place, Hyde Park, London, W. 
1859, {Torry, Very Rev. John, Dean of St. Andrews. Coupar Angus, N.B, 
Towgood, Edward. St. Neots, Huntingdonshire. 
1860. {Townsend, John. 11 Burlington-street, Bath. 
1857. {Townsend, Rey. Richard, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Natural Philo- 
sophy in the University of Dublin. Trinity College, Dublin. 
1861. {Townsend, William. Attleborough Hall, near Nuneaton. 
1854. {Towson, John Thomas, F.R.G.S, 47 Upper Parliament-street, Liver- 
pool; and Local Marine Board, Liverpool. 
1859. {Trail, Rey. Robert, M.A. Boyndie, Banff. 
1859. {Trail, Samuel, D.D., LL.D. The Manse, Hanay, Orkney. 
1870. §Traill, William A. Geological Survey of Ireland, 14 Hume-street, 
Dublin. 
1868, §Traquair, Ramsay H., M.D., Professor of Zoology, Royal College of 
Science, Dublin. 
1865. {Travers, William, F.R.C.S. 1 Bath-place, Kensington, London, W. 
1859. {Trefusis, The Hon. C. 
Tregelles, Nathaniel. Neath Abbey, Glamorganshire. 
1868. §Trehane, John. Exe View Lawn, Exeter. 
1869. {Trehane, John, jun. Bedford-circus, Exeter. 
1870.§§Trench, Dr. Municipal Offices, Dale-street, Liverpool. 
Trench, F. A. Newlands House, Clondalkin, Ireland. 
*Trevelyan, Arthur. Tyneholme Tranent, Haddingdonshire. 
Trevelyan, Sir Walter Calverley, Bart., M.A., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., F.S.A., 
F.R.G.S. Atheneum Club, London, 8.W.; Wallington, North- 
umberland; and Nettlecombe, Somerset. 
1871. §Tribe, Alfred. 73 Artesian-road, Bayswater, London. 
1871. §Trimen, Roland, F.L.S., F.Z.S. Colonial Secretary’s Office, Cape 
Town, Cape of Good Hope. 
1860. §Tristram, Rey. Henry Baker, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. Greatham 
Hospital, near Stockton-on-Tees. 
1869. {Troyte, C. A. W. Huntsham Court, Bampton, Devon. 
1864. {Truell, Robert, Ballyhenry, Ashford, Co. Wicklow. 


72, LIST OF MEMBERS, 


Year of 

Election. 

1869. {Tucker, Charles. Marlands, Exeter. 

1847, *Tuckett, Francis Fox. 10 Balwin-street, Bristol. 

Tuckett, Frederick. 4 Mortimer-street, Cavendish-square, London, W. 
Tuke, James H. Bank, Hitchen. 

1871. §Tuke, J. Batty, M.D. Cupar, Fifeshire. 

1867. {Tulloch, The Very Rey. Principal, D.D. St. Andrews, Fifeshire. 

1865. §Turbervile, H. Pilton, Barnstaple. 

1854. {Tumbull, James, M.D. 86 Rodney-street, Liverpool. 

1855.§Turnbull, John. 37 West George-street, Glasgow. 

1856. {Turnbull, Rey. J.C. 8 Bays-hill Villas, Cheltenham. 

*Turnbull, Rev. Thomas Smith, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.8., F.R.G.S, 
Blofield, Norfolk. 

1871. §Turnbull, William. 14 Lansdowne-crescent, Edinburgh. 

Turner, Thomas, M.D. 31 Curzon-street, May Fair, London, W. 

1863, *Turner, William, M.B., F.R.S.E., Professor of Anatomy in the Uni- 
versity of Edinbugh. 6 Eaton-terrace, Edinburgh. 

1842, Twamley, Charles, F.G.S. 11 Regent’s Park-road, London, N.W. 

1859. {Twining, H.R. Grove Lodge, Clapham, London, S.W. 

1847. {Twiss, Sir Travers, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., Regius Professor of 
Civil Law in the University of Oxford, and Chancellor of the 
Diocese of London. 19 Park-lane, London, W. 

1846, {Tylor, Alfred, F.G.S. 2 Newgate-street, London, E.C, 

1865. §Tylor, Edward Burnett. Lindon, Wellington, Somerset. 

1858, *Tyndall, John, LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Natural 
Philosophy in the Royal Institution. Royal Institution, Albe- 
marle-street, London, W. 

1861. *Tysoe, John, Seedley-road, Pendleton, near Manchester, 


1855. {Ure, John. 114 Montrose-street, Glasgow. 

1859. {Urquhart, Rey. Alexander. Tarbat, Ross-shire. 

1859. {Urquhart, W. Pollard. Craigston Castle, N. B.; and Castlepollard, 
Treland. 

1866, §Urquhart, William W. Bosebay, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee. 


1870.§§Vale, H. H. 42 Prospect Vale, Fairfield, Liverpool. 
1854, { Vale, James Theodorick. Hamilton-square, Birkenhead. 
*Vallack, Rev. Benjamin W. 8S. St. Budeaux, near Plymouth. 
*Vance, Rev. Robert. 24 Blackhall-street, Dublin. 
1863, {Vandoni, le Commandeur Comte de, Chargé d’Affaires de 8. M 
Tunisienne, Geneva. 

1853. § Varley, Cornelius. 337 Kentish Town-road, London, N.W. 

1854, { Varley, Cromwell F. 

1868, §Varley, Frederick H., F.R.A.S. Mildmay Park Works, Midmay 

Avenue, Stoke Newington, London, N. 

1865. *Varley, S. Alfred. 66 Roman-road, Holloway, London, N. 

1870. § Varley, Mis. 8. A. 66 Roman-road, Holloway-road, London, N. 

1869. {Varwell, P. Alphington-street, Exeter. 

1863. {Vauvert, de Mean A., Vice-Consul for France. Tynemouth. 

1849, *Vaux, Frederick. Central Telegraph Office, Adelaide, South Australia. 
Verney, Sir Harry, Bart., M.P. Lower Claydon, Buckinghamshire. 
Vernon, George John, Lord. 32 Curzon-street, London, W.; and 

Sudbury Hall, Derbyshire. 


1866, {Vernon, Rey. E. H. Harcourt. Cotgrave Rectory, near Notting- 


ham. 

1854. ee George V., F.R.A.S, 1 Oshorne-place, Old Trafford, Man- 
chester. 

1854, *Verncn, John, Gateacre, Liverpool. 


—e 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


“IT 
co 


Year of 
Election. 


1864, 
1854. 


1868. 
1856. 


1856, 


*Vicary, William, F.G.S. The Priory, Colleton-cresent, Exeter. 

*Vignoles, Charles B., C.E., F.R.S., M.R.LA., F.R.A.S., V.P.LC.E 
21 Duke-street, Westminster, S.W. 

{Vincent, Rey. William. Postwick Rectory, near Norwich. 

{Vivian, Edward, B.A. Woodfield, Torquay. 

“Vivian, H, Hussey, M.P., F.G.S. Park Wern, Swansea; and 7 
Belgrave-square, London, 8S. W. 

§Voelcker, J. Ch. Augustus, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Che- 
mistry to the Royal Agricultural Society of England. 39 Argyll- 
road, Kensington, London, W 

fVose, Dr. James. Gambier-terrace, Liverpool. 


1860.§§Waddingham, John. Guiting Grange, Winchcombe, Gloucester- 


1859. 
1855. 


dhire. 
}Waddington, John. New Dock Works, Leeds. 
*Waldegrave, The Hon. Granville. 26 Portland-place, London, W. 


1870.§§Waley, Jacob. 20 Wimpole-street, London, W. 


1869, 
1870. 


1863. 
1849, 


1866, 
1859, 
1855. 
1842, 
1866, 
1867. 
1866. 
1869. 


1869, 


1863. 
1859, 


1857. 
1862. 


1862. 
1857. 
1863. 
1863. 
1857, 


*Walford, Cornelius. Enfield House, Belsize Park Gardens, London, 
N.W 


§Wake, Charles Staniland. 4 St. Martin’s-place, Trafalgar-square, 
London, W.C. 
t Walker, Alfred O. 
ue Charles V., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Fernside Villa, Redhill, near 
elgate. 
Walker, Sir Edward 8. Berry Hill, Mansfield. 
Walker, Francis, F.L.S., F.G.8, Elm Hall, George-lane, Wanstead, 
London, N. 
Walker, Frederick John. The Priory, Bathwick, Bath. 
tWalker, H. Westwood, Newport, by Dundee. 
{Walker, James. 16 Norfolk-crescent, London, W. 
{Walker, John. 1 Exchange-court, Glasgow. 
*Walker, John. Thorncliffe, New Kenilworth-road, Leamington. 
*Walker, J. F. Sidney College, Cambridge. 
*Wallker, Peter G. Dundee. 
{Wallker, 8S. D, 88 Hampden-street, Nottingham. 
*Walker, Thomas F, W., M.A., F.R.G.S. 6 Brock-street, Bath. 
Walker, William. 47 Northumberland-street, Edinburgh. 
tWalkey, J. E.C. High-street, Exeter. 
Wall, Rev. R. H., M.A. 6 Hume-street, Dublin. 
§ Wallace, Alfred R., F.R.G.S. Holly House, Barking, Essex. 
Wallace, William, Ph.D., F.C.S. Chemical Laboratory, 3 Bath- 
street, Glasgow. 
{Waller, Edward. Lisenderry, Aughnacloy, Ireland. 
fWallich, George Charles, M.D., F.L.S. 11 Karls-terrace, Kensington, 
London, W. 
Wallinger, Rey. William. Hastings, 
Walmsley, Sir Joshua, Knt. 
Walpole, The Right Hon. Spencer Horatio, M.A., D.C.L., M.P., 
RRS. Ealing, near London. 
tWalsh, Albert Jasper. 89 Harcourt-street, Dublin. 
Walsh, John (Prussian Consul). 1 Sir John’s Quay, Dublin. 
{ Walters, Robert. Eldon-square, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
Walton, Thomas Todd. Mortimer House, Clifton, Bristol. 
tWanklyn, James Alfred, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. 8 Great Winchester 
street-buildings, London, F.C. 
{Ward, John 8. Prospect-hill, Lisburn, Ireland. 
’ Ward, Rey. Richard, M.A. 12 Eaton-place, London, S.W. 


74 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1863, 


1867. 
1858. 
1865. 


1864. 
1856. 
1869. 
1865. 


1856. 


1854, 


{Ward, Robert. Dean-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
*Ward, William Sykes, F.C.S. 12 Bank-street, and Denison Hall, 
Leeds. 
tWarden, Alexander J. Dundee. 
{Wardle, Thomas. Leek Brook, Leek, Staffordshire. 
Waring, Edward John, M.D., F.L.S. 55 Parliament-street, London, 
S.W. 


*Warner, Edward. 49 Grosvenor-place, London, 8.W. 

tWarner, Thomas H. Lee. Tiberton Court, Hereford. 

§Warren, James L. Letterfrack, Galway. 

*Warren, Edward P., L.D.S. 18 Old-square, Birmingham. 
Warwick, William Atkinson. Wyddrineton House, Cheltenham. 
tWashbourne, Buchanan, M.D. Gloucester. . 

*Waterhouse, John, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Wellhead, Halifax, 

Yorkshire. 
{Waterhouse Nicholas. 5 Rake-lane, Liverpool. 


1870.§§ Waters, A. T. H.,M.D. 29 Hope-street, Liverpool. 


1867. 
1855. 
1867. 


1855. 
1859. 


1863. 
1863. 
1867. 
1858. 
1869. 
1861. 


tWatson, Rey. Archibald, D.D. The Manse, Dundee. 

{Watson, Ebenezer. _ 16 Abercromby-place, Glasgow. 

{ Watson, Frederick Edwin. Thickthorn House, Cringleford, Norwich. 

*Watson, Henry Hough, F.C.S. 227 The Folds, Bolton-le-Moors. 
Watson, Hewett Cottrell. Thames Ditton, Surrey. 

tWatson, James, M.D. 152 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow. 

} Watson, John Forbes, M.A., M.D., F.L.S, India Museum, London, 

5.W. 

Watson, Joseph. Bensham Grove, near Gateshead-on-Tyne, 

tWatson, R.S. 101 Pilgrim-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

§Watson, Thomas D. 184 Basinghall-street, London, E.C, 

{Watson, William. Bilton House, Harrogate. 

tWatt, Robert B. E. Ashby-avenue, Belfast. 

{Watts, Sir James. Abney Hall, Cheadle, near Manchester. 


1846.§§ Watts, John King, F.R.G.S. St. Ives, Huntingdonshire. 


1870. 
1858. 


1862. 


§ Watts, William. Corporation Waterworks, Swineshaw, Staleybridge. 

tWaud, Major E. Manston Hall, near Leeds. 

Waud, Rey. 8. W., M.A., F.R.A.S., F.C.P.S. Rettenden, near 
Wickford, Essex. 

§ Waugh, Major-General Sir Andrew Scott, R.E., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., 
F.R.G.S., late Surveyor-General of India, and Superintendent 
of the Great Trigonometrical Survey. 7 Petersham-terrace, 
Queen’s Gate-gardens, London, W. 


. tWaugh, Edwin. Sager-street, Manchester. 


*Way, J. Thomas, F.C.S., 9 Russell-road, Kensington, London, 8. W. 


. [Way, Samuel James. Adelaide, South Australia. 
. §Webb, Richard M. 72 Grand Parade, Brighton. 


*Webb, Rey. Thomas William, M.A., F.R.A.S, Hardwick Parsonage, 
Hay, South Wales. 


. *Webb, William Frederick, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Newstead Abbey, near 


Nottingham. 


. { Webster, James. Hatherley Court, Cheltenham. 

. LWebster, John. 42 Kine-street, Aberdeen. 

. {Webster, John Henry, M.D. Northampton. 

. §Webster, John. Belvoir-terrace, Sneinton, Nottingham. 


bie Thomas, M.A., F.R.S. 2 Pump Court, Temple, London, 
H.C 


- t Wedgewood, Hensleigh. 17 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park, 


London, N.W. 


» {Weightman, William Henry. Farn Lea, Seaforth, Liverpool. 


OE a ee 


et ee 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 75 


Year of 
Election. 


1865. ate A aia M.A. University Club, Pall Mall East, London, 


1867. §Weldon, Walter. 29 The Cedars, Putney, London, S.W. 

1850. { Wemyss, Alexander Watson, M.D. St. Andrews, N.B. 
Wentworth, Frederick W. T. Vernon. Wentworth Castle, near 

Barnsley, Yorkshire. 

1864. *Were, Anthony Berwick. Whitehaven, Cumberland. 

1865. {Wesley, William Henry. 

1853. {West, Alfred. Holderness-road, Hull. 

1870.§§ West, Captain E.W. Bombay. 

1853. {West, Leonard. Summergangs Cottage, Hull. 

1853. [West, Stephen. Hessle Grange, near Hull. 

1851. * Western, Sir T. B., Bart. Felix Hall, Kelvedon, Essex. 

1870. §Westgarth, William. 38 Brunswick Gardens, Campden Hill, Lon- 


don, W. 
1842. Westhead, Edward. Chorlton-on-Medlock, near Manchester. 
Westhead, John. Manchester. 
1842. * Westhead, Joshua Proctor Brown. Lea Castle, near Kidderminster, 
Scotland. 
1857. *Westley, William. 24 Regent-street, London, S.W. 
1863. {Westmacott, Perey. Whickham, Gateshead, Durham. 
1860. § Weston, James Woods. Seedley House, Pendleton, Manchester. 
1864. §Westropp, W.H.8.,M.R.LA. 2 Idrone-terrace, Blackrock, Dublin. 
1860. {Westwood, John O., M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology in the Uni- 
versity of Oxford. Oxford. 
1853. {Wheatley, E. B. Cote Wall, Merfield, Yorkshire. 
Wheatstone, Sir Charles, D.C.L., F.R.S., Hon. M.R.IA., Professor 
of Experimental Philosophy in King’s College, London. 19 Park- 
crescent, Regent’s Park, London, N.W. 
1866. {Wheatstone, Charles C, 19 Park-crescent, Regent’s Park, London. 
1847. Wheeler, Edmund, F.R.A.S. 48 “Tollington-road, Holloway, 
London, N. 
1853. {Whitaker, Charles. Milton Hill, near Hull. 
1859. *Whitaker, William, B.A., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, 28 
Jermyn-street, London, 8. W. 
1866. §White, Charles, F.R.G.S. Barnesfield House, near Dartford, Kent ; 
and 10 Lime-street, London, E.C. 
1864.§§White, Edmund. Victoria Villa, Batheaston, Bath. 
1837. { White, James, M.P., F.G.8. 14 Chichester-terrace, Kemp Town, 
Brighton. 
White, John. 80 Wilson-street, Glasgow. 
1859. {White, John Forbes. 16 Bon Accord-square, Aberdeen. 
1865. {White, Joseph. Regent’s-street, Nottingham. 
1869. § White, Laban. Blandford, Dorset. 
1859, { White, Thomas Henry. Tandragee, Ireland. 
1861. {Whitehead, James, M.D. 87 Mosley-street, Manchester. 
1858. ¢Whitehead, J. H. Southsyde, Saddleworth. 
1861. *Whitehead, John B. Ashday Lea, Rawtenstall, Manchester. 
1861. *Whitehead, Peter Ormerod. Belmont, Rawtenstall, Manchester. 
1855. *Whitehouse, Wildeman W. O. Roslyn House Hill, Pilgrim-lane, 
Hampstead, London, N. 
Whitehouse, William. 10 Queen-street, Rhyl. 
1871. §Whitelaw, Alexander. 1 Oakley-terrace, Glasgow. 
*Whiteside, James, M.A., LL.D.,D.C.L., Lord Chief Justice of Ireland. 
2 Mountjoy-square, Dublin. 
1866. §Whittield, Samuel. Golden Hillock, Small Heath, Birmingham. 
1852. {Whitla, Valentine. Beneden, Belfast. 


76 LIST OF MEMBERS, 


Year of 
Election. 


Whitley, Rey. Charles Thomas, M.A., F.R.A.S. Bedlington, Mor- 
eth. 
1865. {Whittern, James Sibley. Wyken Colliery, Coventry. 
1870. §Whittern, James Sibley. Walgrave, near Coventry. 
1857. *Whitty, John Irwine, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., C.E. 94 Baggot-street, 
Dublin. 
1863, *Whitwell, Thomas. Thornaby Iron Works, Stockton-on-Tees. 
*Whitworth, Sir Joseph, Bart., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. The Firs, 
Manchester; and Stancliffe Hall, Derbyshire. 
1870. § Whitworth, Rey. W. Allen, M.A. 185 Islington, Liverpool. 
1865. {Wiggin, Henry. Metchley Grange, Harbourne, Birmingham. 
1854, §Wight, Robert, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. Grazeley Lodge, Reading. 
1860. {Wilde, Henry. 2 St. Ann’s-place, Manchester. 
1852. {Wilde, Sir William Robert, M.D., M.R.IL-A. 1 Mervion-square 
North, Dublin. 
1855. {Wilkie, John. 24 Blythwood-square, Glasgow. 
1857. { Wilkinson, George. Monkstown, Ireland. 
1861. *Wilkinson, M. A. Eason-, M.D. Greenheys, Manchester. 
1859. §Wilkinson, Robert. Lincoln Lodge, Totteridge, Hertfordshire. 
1869. § Wilks, George Augustus Frederick, M.D, Stanbury, Torquay 
*Willert, Paul Ferdinand. Booth-street, Manchester. 
1859. {Willet, John, C.E. 35 Albyn-place, Aberdeen. 
1870.§§ William, G. F. Copley Mount, Springfield, Liverpool. 
*Williams, Caleb, M.D. 73 Micklegate, York. 
Williams, Charles James B., M.D., F.R.S. 49 Upper Brook-street, 
Grosvenor-square, London, W. 
1861. * Williams, Charles Theodore, M.A., M.B. 78 Park-street, London, W. 
1864, * Williams, Frederick M., M.P.,F.G.S. | Goonvrea, Perranarworthal, 
Cornwall. 
1861. *Williams, Harry Samuel. 49 Upper Brook-street, Grosyenor-square, 
London, W. - 
1857. {Williams, Rey. James. Llanfairinghornwy, Holyhead. 
1871. § Williams, James, M.D. The Mount, Malvern. 
1870. §Williams, John. 10 New Cavendish-street, London, W. 
Williams, Robert, M.A. Bridehead, Dorset. 
1861. { Williams, R. Price. 
1869. §Williams, Rey. Stephen. Stonyhurst College, Whalley, Blackburn. 
Williams, Walter. St. Alban’s House, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 
1865. {Wilkams, William M. 
1850, * Williamson, Alexander William, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor 
of Chemistry, and of Practical Chemistry, University College, 
London. 12 Fellows-road, Haverstock-hill, London, N.W. 
1857. {Williamson, Benjamin. Trinity College, Dublin. 
1863. {Williamson, John. South Shields. 
*Williamson, Rey. William, B.D, Datchworth Rectory, Welwyn, 
Hertfordshire. 
Williamson, W. C., Professor of Natural History in Owen's College, 
Manchester. Fallowfield, Manchester. 
Willis, Rey. Robert, M.A., F.R.S., Jacksonian Professor of Natural 
and_ Experimental Philosophy in the University of Cambridge. 
23 York-terrace, Regent’s Park, London, N.W.; and 5 Park- 
terrace, Cambridge. 
1865, *Willmott, Henry. Hatherley Lawn, Cheltenham. 
1857. tWillock, Rev. W. N., D.D. — Cleenish, Enniskillen, Ireland. 
1859, *Wills, Alfred. 48 Queen’s Gardens, Bayswater, London, W. 
1865, Wills, Arthur W. Edgbaston, Birmingham. 
Wills, W. R. Edgbaston, Birmingham. 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 77 


Year of 
Election, 


1859. 


1850. 
1863. 
1847, 


1863. 
1869. 
1861. 
1855. 
1857. 
1858. 


1865. 


1847. 


1859. 
1863. 
1861. 
1867. 
1871. 


§ Wilson, Alexander Stephen, C.E. North Kinmundy, Summerhill, 
by Aberdeen. 
Wilson, Dr. Daniel. Toronto, Upper Canada. 
TWilson, Frederic R. Alnwick, Northumberland. 
*Wilson, Frederick. 81a Newman-street, Oxford-street, London, W. 
Wilson, George. 40 Ardwick-green, Manchester. 
t Wilson, George. Hawick. 
tT Wilson, George. 
{Wilson, George Daniel. 24 Ardwick Green, Manchester. 
{Wilson, Hugh. 75 Glassford-street, Glasgow. 
{Wilson, James Moncrieff. 9 College Green, Dublin. 
*Wilson, John. Seacroft Hall, near Leeds. 
*Wilson, John. 32 Bootham, York. 
Wilson, James M., M.A. Hillmorton-road, Rugby. 
W ilson, Professor John, F.G.S., F.R.S. E. Geological Museum, 
Jermyn-street, London, 8. W. 
*Wilson, Rey. Sumner. Preston Candover, Micheldever Station. 
*Wilson, Thomas, M.A. 2 Hilary-place, Leeds. 
{Wilson, Thomas. Tunbridge Wells. 
*Wilson, Thomas. Shotley Hall, Gateshead, Durham. 
{tWilson, Thomas Bright. 24 Ardwick Green, Manchester. 
{Wilson, Rey. William. Free St. Paul’s, Dundee. 
§Wilson, William E. Daramona House, Rathowen, Ireland. 


1870.§§Wilson, William Henry. 81 Grove-park, Liverpool. 


1847. 


1861. 


1866. 


1868. 
1863. 


1863. 
1871. 
1863. 
1861. 
1860. 
1861. 
1870. 
1856. 


1864. 
1861. 
187]. 
1850. 


1858. 
1865. 
1861. 


1863. 


*Wilson, William Parkinson, M.A., Professor of Pure and Applied 
Mathematics in the Univ ersity of Melbourne. 

{ Wiltshire, Rev. Thomas, M.A.,F.G.S.,F.L.S.,F.R.A.S. 13 Granville- 
park, Lewisham, London, 8.E. 

Winchester, Samuel Wilberforce, Lord Bishop of, D.D., F.R.S., 
F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. 26 Pall Mall, London, §. W. 

*Windley, W. “ Mapperley 1 Plains, Nottingham. 

*Winsor, F. A. incoln’s Inn Fields, London, W.C. 

{Winter, C. J. W. 22 Bethel-street, Norwich. 

*Winwood, Rey. H. I. , M.A., F G.S. 11 Cavendish-crescent, Bath. 

*Wollaston, Thomas Vernon, M.A., F.L.S. 1 Barnpark-terrace, Teign- 
mouth. 

*Wood, Collingwood L. Howlish Hall, Bishop Auckland. 

§W ood, C. H. Devonshire-road, Holloway. 

TW. ood, Edward, F.G.S. Richmond, Yorkshire. 

*Wood, Edward T. Blackhurst, Brinseall, Chorley, Lancashire. 

{ Wood, George, ALA. 

*W ood, George B., M.D. Philadelphia, United States. 

*Wood, George T.’ 20 Lord-street, Liverpool. 

*Wood, Rey. H. H., M.A., F.G. S. Holwell Rectory, Sherborne, 

‘Dorset. 

*Wood, John. The Mount, York. 

{Wood, Richard, M.D. Driffield, Yorkshire. 

§ Wood, Samuel, "RSA. St. Mary’s Court, Shrewsbury. 

§ Wood, Prov ost T. Barleyfield, Portobello, Edinburgh, 

aN ood, Rey. Walter. Elie, Fife. 

Wood, William. TEdge Lane, Liverpool. 

*Wood, William. Monkhill House, Pontefract. 

*Wood, William, M.D. 99 Harley-street, London, W. 

t{Wood, William Rayner. Singleton Lodge, near Manchester. 

*Wood, Rev. William Spicer, M.A., D.D. Oakham, Rutlandshire. 

NINA oodall, Major John Woodall, M. A., E.G.S. St. ’ Nicholas House, 
Scarborough. 


78 LIST OF MEMBE RS 


Year of 
Election. 


1850. *Woodd, Charles H. L., F.G.8. Roslyn House, Hampstead, London, 
N.W. 


1865. §Woodhill, J. C. Pakenham House, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 
1866. *Woodhouse, John Thomas, C.E., F.G.8. Midland-road, Derby. 
1871. §Woodiwis, James. 51 Back George-street, Manchester. 
1869.§§ Woodman, William Robert, M.D. Vittoria-villa, Stoke Newington, 
London, 8. W. 
*Woods, Edward. 3 Story’s Gate, Westminster, London, 8.W. 
Woods, Samuel. 3 Copthall Buildings, Angel-court, London., E.C. 
1870.§§Woodburn, Thomas. Rock Ferry, Liverpool. 
1866. § Woodward, Henry, F.G.S. British Museum, London, W.C. 
1870. § Woodward, Horace B., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street, 
London, 8. W. 
1869. *Woodward, J. C. Midland Institute, Birmingham. 
Woolgar, J. W., F.R.A.S. Lewes, Sussex. 
Woolley, John. Staleybridge, Manchester. 
1857. { Woolley, Rey. J., LL.D. Her Majesty’s Dockyard, Portsmouth. 
1856. §Woolley, Thomas Smith, jun. South Collingham, Newark. 
Worcester, The Right Rey. Henry Philpott, D.D., Lord Bishop of. 
Worcester. 
*Wormald, Richard. 35 Bolton-road, St. John’s Wood, London, N.W. 
1863. *Worsley, P. John. 1 Codrington-place, Clifton, Bristol. 
1855. *Worthington, Rey. Alfred William, B.A. Old Meeting Parsonage, 
Mansfield. 
Worthington, Archibald. Whitchurch, Salop. 
Worthington, James, Sale Hall, Ashton-on-Mersey. 
Worthington, William. Brockhurst Hall, Northwich, Cheshire. 
1856.§§ Worthy, George S. 2 Arlineton-terrace, Mornington-crescent, Hamp- 
stead-road, London, N.W. 
1871. §Wright, C. R., D.Sc., Lecturer on Chemistry in St. Mary’s Hospital 
Medical School, Paddington, London, W. 
1857. {Wright, Edward, LL.D. 23 The Boltons, West Brompton, London, 
S.W. 


1861. *Wright, E. Abbot. Castle Park, Frodsham, Cheshire. 

1857. §Wright, E. Perceval, A.M., M.D., F.L.S., M.R.LA., Professor of 
Botany, and Director of the Museum, Dublin University. 5 
Trinity College, Dublin. 

1866. {Wright, G. H. Mapperley, Nottingham. 

1858. {Wright, Henry. Stattord House, London, 8.W. 

1865, {Wright, J. 5. 168 Brearley-street West, Birmingham. 

*Wright, Robert Francis. Hinton Blewett, Temple-Cloud, near 

Bristol. 

1855. { Wright, Thomas, F.S.A. 14Sydney-street, Brompton, London, 8.W. 

Wright, T. G., M.D. Wakefield. 

1865. {Wrightson, Francis, Ph.D. Ivy House, Kingsnorton. 

1871. §Wrightson, Thomson. Norton Hall, Stockton-on-Tees. 

1867. {Wiinsch, Edward Alfred. 38 Eaton-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow. 

1866. § Wyatt, James, F.G.8. Bedford. 

Wyld, James, F.R.G.S. Charing Cross, London, W.C. 

1863. *Wyley, Andrew. 21 Barker-street, Handsworth, Birmingham. 

1867. {Wylie, Andrew. Prinlaws, Fifeshire. 

1871. §Wynn, Mrs. William. Cefn, St. Asaph. 

1862, { Wynne, Arthur Beeyor, F.G.S., of the Geological Survey of India. 
Bombay. 


*Yarborough, George Cook, Camp’s Mount, Doncaster. 
1865. t Yates, Edwin, 


a a Ee 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 79 


Year ot 
Hiection. 
1865. {Yates, Henry. Emscote Villa, Aston Manor, Birmingham. 
Yates, James. Carr House, Rotherham, Yorkshire. 
1867. {Yeaman, James. Dundee. 
1855, { Yeats, John, LL.D.,F.R.G.S. Clayton place, Peckham, London,8.E. 
*Yorke, Colonel Phillip, F.R.S., F-R.G.S. 89 Eaton-place, Belgrave= 
square, London, 8.W. 
Young, James. South Shields. 
Young, James. Limefield, West Calder, Midlothian. 
Young, John. Taunton, Somersetshire. 
Young, John. Hope Villa, Woodhouse-lane, Leeds. 
1870. *Young, James Kelly, jun. Wemyss Bay, Greenock. 
Younge, Robert, F.L.8. _Greystoness, near Greenock, N.B. 
*Younge, Robert, M.D. Greystones, near Sheffield, 
1868. {Youngs, John. Richmond Hill, Norwich. 
1871. §Yule, Colonel Henry, C.B. East India United Service Club, St, 
James’s-square, London, 8.W. 


CORRESPONDING MEMBERS, 


Year of 
Election. 


1871. 
1857. 


1868. 
1852. 
1866. 


1870. 
1861. 


1857, 
1846. 
1868. 
1864. 


1861. 
1864. 
1871. 
1870. 
1855. 
1866. 
1862. 
1870. 
1845, 


HIS IMPERIAL MAJESTY tHe EMPEROR or tue BRAZILS. 

M. Antoine d’Abbadie. (U.S. 

Louis Agassiz, M.D., Ph.D., Professor of Natural History. Cambridge, 

M. D’Avesac, Mem de l'Institut de France. 42 Rue du Bac, Paris. 

M. Babinet. Paris. 

Captain I. Belavenetz, R.ILN., F.R.LG.S., M.S.C.M.A., Superin- 
tendent of the Compass Observatory, Cronstadt, Russia. 

Professor Van Beneden. Belgium. 

Dr. Bergsma, Director of the Magnetic Survey of the Indian Archi- 
pelago. Utrecht, Holland. 

Professor Dr. T. Bolzani. Kasan, Russia. 

M. Boutigny (d’Evyreux). 

Professor Broca. Paris. 

Dr. H. D. Buys-Ballot, Superintendent of the Royal Meteorological 
Institute of the Netherlands. Utrecht, Holland. 

Dr. Carus. Leipzig. 

M. Des Cloizeaux. Paris. 

Professor Dr. Colding. Copenhagen. 

J. M. Crafts, M.D. United States. 

Dr. Ferdinand Cohn. Breslau, Prussia. 

Geheimrath yon Dechen. Bonn. 

Wilhelm Delfis, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Heidelberg. 

Dr. Anton Dohrn. University of Jena. [ Berlin. 

Heinrich Dove, Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of 

Professor Dumas. Paris. 

Professor Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg, M.D., Secretary of the Royal 
Academy, Berlin. 


. Dr. Eisenlohr. Carlsruhe, Baden. 

. Dr. A. Erman. Berlin. 

. Professor Esmark. Christiania. 

. Professor A. Fayre. Geneva. 

. Professor HE. Frémy. Paris. 

. M. Frisiani. Milan. 

. Dr. Gaudry, Pres. Geol. Soc. of France. Paris. 

. Dr. Geinitz, Professor of Mineralogy and Geology. Dresden. 
. Govenor Gilpin. Colorado, United States, 


52. Professor Asa Gray. Cambridge, U.S. 


. Professor Edward Grube, Ph.D. 
. Dr. Paul Giissfeldt. University of Bonn, Prussia. 
. Dr. D. Bierens de Haan, Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences, 


Amsterdam. Leiden, Holland. 


. Professor E. Hébert. The Sorbonne, Paris. 


Professor Henry. Washington, U.S. 


. M. A. Heynsius. Leyden. 

. Dr. Hochstetter. Vienna. 

2. M. Jacobi, Member of the Imperial Academy of St. Petersburg. 

. Janssen, Dr. 21 Rue Labat (18° Arrondissement), Paris. 

. Charles Jessen, Med. et Phil. Dr., Professor of Botany in the Univer- 


sity of Greifswald, and Lecturer of Natural History and Librarian 
at the Royal Agricultural Academy, Eldena, Prussia. 


. Aug. Kekulé, Professor of Chemistry. Ghent, Belgium. 
. Dr. Henry Kiepert, Professor of Geography. Berlin. 

. M. Khanikof. 11 Rue de Condé, Paris. 

. Professor Karl Koch. Berlin. 

. Professor A. Koélliker. Wurzburg, Bavaria. 


Laurent-Guillaume De Koninck, M.D., Professor of Chemistry and 
Paleontology in the University of Liége, Belgium, 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 81 


Year of 
Election. 


1862. 
1846. 
1857. 
1871. 
1871. 
1869. 
18638. 
1867. 


1867. 


1862. 
1846. 
1848. 
1855. 
1864. 


1856, 


1866. 


1864. 
1869. 
1848, 
1856. 
1861. 
1857. 
1870. 


1868, 


1866. 
1850. 
1857, 


1857. 
1868. 
1861. 
1849. 
1862. 


1864. 
1866. 
1845. 
1871. 
1870. 
1852. 


1864. 
1864. 


1861. 
1848. 
1868, 


1842. 
1868. 
1864, 


Dr. Lamont. Munich. 

Baron von Liebig. Munich. 

Professor A. Escher yon der Linth. Zurich, Switzerland. 

Baron de Selys-Longchamps. Liége, Belgium, 

Professur Loomis. New York. 

Professor Jacob Liiroth. Carlsruthe. 

Dr. Liitken. Copenhagen. , 

Professor C. S. Lyman. Yale College, New Haven, United States. 

Baron von Midler. Dorpat, Russia. 

Professor Mannheim, Paris. : 

Professor Ch. Martins, Director of the Jardin des Plants, Montpellier, 
France. 

Professor P. Merian. Bale, Switzerland. 

Professor von Middendorff. 

Professor J. Milne-Edwards. Paris. 

M. V’Abbé Moigno. Paris. 

Dr. Arnold Moritz. Tiflis, Russia. 

Edouard Morren, Professeur de Botanique Al'Université de Liége, Bel- 


um. 

Chevalier C. Negri, President of the Italian Geographical Society, 
Florence, Italy. 

Herr Neumayer. Frankenthal, Bavaria. 

Professor H. A. Newton. Yale College, New Haven, United States. 

Professor Nilsson. Sweden. 

M. E. Peligot, Memb. de l'Institut, Paris. - 

Professor Benjamin Pierce. Cambridge, U.S, 

Gustav Plarr. Strasburg, France. 

Professor Felix Plateau. Place du Casino, 15, Gand, Belgium. 

M. Quetelet. Brussels. 

Professor L. Radlkofer. Munich. 

M. De la Rive. Geneva. 

Dr. F. Romer, Professor of Geology. Berlin. 

Professor W. B. Rogers. Boston, U.S. 

Baron Herman de Schlagintweit-Sakiinliinski, Jaegersburg Castle, 
near Forchheim, Bavaria. 

Professor Robert Schlagintweit. Giessen. 

Padre Secchi, Director of the Observatory at Rome. 

M. Werner Siemens. Berlin. 

Dr. Siljestrom. Stockholm. 

J. A. de Souza, Professor of Physics in the University of Coimbra, 
Portugal. 

Adolph Steen, Professor of Mathematics, Copenhagen. 

Professor Steenstrup. Copenhagen, 

Dr. Svanbere. Stockholm. 

Dr. Joseph Szabo. Pesth, Hungary. 

Professor Tchebichef. Membre de l’Academie de St. Petersburg. 

M. Pierre de Tchihatchef, Corresponding Member of the Institut de 
France. Care of Messrs. HattingueretComp.,17 Rue Bergére, Paris, 

Dr. Otto Torell. University of Lund, Sweden. 

Arminius Vambéry, Professor of Oriental Languages in the University 
of Pesth, Hungary. 

M. de Verneuil, Memb. de l'Institut, Paris. 

M. Le Verrier. Paris. 

Professor Vogt. Geneva. 

Baron Sartorius von Waltershausen. Gottingen, Hanover. 

Professor Wartmann. Geneva. 

Dr. H. A. Weddell. Poitiers, France, 

Dr. Frederick Welwitsch. Lisbon. G 


82 


LIST OF SOCIETIES AND 


LIST OF SOCIETIES AND INSTITUTIONS. 


PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS 


TO WHICH A COPY OF THE REPORT IS PRESENTED. 


GREAT BRITAIN 


Admiralty, Library of. 

Arts, Society of. ‘ 

Asiatic Society (Royal). 

Astronomical Society (Royal). 

Belfast, Queen’s College. 

Birmingham, Institute of Mechanical 
Engineers. 

Midland Institute. 

Bristol Philosophical Institution. | 

Cambridge Philosophical Society. 

Cornwall, Royal Geological Society of. 

Dublin Geological Society. 

, Royal Irish Academy. 

, Royal Society of. 

Hast India Library. 

Edinburgh, Royal Society of. 

Royal Medical Society of. 

, Scottish Society of Arts. 

Enniskillen, Public Library. 

Engineers, Institute of Civil. 

Anthropological Institute. 

Exeter, Albert Memorial Museum. 

Geographical Society (Royal). 

Geological Society. 

Geology, Museum of Practical. 

Greenwich, Royal Observatory. 

Kew Observatory. 

Leeds, Literary and Philosophical So- 
ciety of. 


AND IRELAND. 


Leeds, Mechanics’ Institute. 

Linnean Society. 

Liverpool, Free Public Library and 
Museum. 

, Royal Institution. 

London Institution. 

Manchester Literary-and Philosophical 
Society. 

—, Mechanics’ Institute. 

Newcastle-upon-Tyne Literary and 
Philosophical Society. 

Nottingham, The Free Library. 


| Oxford, Ashmolean Society. 


, Radcliffe Observatory. 

Plymouth Institution. 

Physicians, Royal College of. 

Royal Institution. 

Society. 

Salford Royal Museum and Library. 

Statistical Society. 

Stonyhurst College Observatory. 

Surgeons, Royal College of. 

Trade, Board of (Meteorological De- 
partment). 

United Service Institution. 

War Office, Library of the. 

Wales (South) Royal Institution of. 

Yorkshire Philosophical Society. 

Zoological Society. 


EUROPE. 


Alten, Lapland. Literary and Philoso- 
phical Society. 

Altona..es.)- Royal Observatory. 

Berlin's. 5 aceon Der Kaiserlichen Ake- 
demie der Wissen- 
chaften. 

Ga WAND noe Royal Academy of 
Sciences, 

Breslau ...... Silesian Patriotic So- 

ciety. 
Bont fates University Library. 


Brussels .,.... Royal Academy of 


Sciences, 


Charkow University Library. 

Copenhagen ..Royal Society of 
Sciences. 

Dorpat, Russia. University Library. 


seen 


Frankfort ....Natural History So- 
ciety. 

Geneva oi. Natural History So- 
ciety. 

Gottingen ...,University Library. 

Heidelberg ... . University Library. 


Helsingfors... . University Library. 
Harlem Société Hollandaise 
des Sciences, 


LIST OF SOCIETIES AND INSTITUTIONS. 83 


Kasan, Russia . University Library. Parise Mas: sis 40's, 5 Geographical Society. 
i a University Library. -| —— ........ Geological Society. 
Lausanne ....The Academy. tat Gee Royal Academy of 
Leyden ...... University Library. Sciences. 
J ee University Library. = seosvens School of Mines. 
fasbon  ....../ Academia Real des | Pulkova ...... Imperial Observatory. 
Sciences. HUOTIIGR store steretenee” Academia dei Lyncei. 
Witla The Institute. eee Collegio’ Romano. 
Modena ...... The Italian Society of | St. Petersburg. .University Library. 
; Sciences; of #95 ARP @. crests Imperial Observatory. 
Moscow ...... Society of Naturalists. | Stockholm .,..Royal Academy. 
sapaemot University Library. Turin ........Royal Academy of 
Munich ...... University Library. Sciences. 
Naples;....... Royal Academy of | Utrecht ...... University Library. 
Sciences. Vienne, sscreceachs The Imperial Library. 
Nicolaieff ....University Library. AUTICH sh ain'avel oi General Swiss Society, 
ASIA. 
eto The College. Walenta yan Hindoo College. 
Bombay ...... Elphinstone Institu- | —— ........ Hoogly College. 
tion. a! eth ayel stays Medical College. 
===) ooo Grant Medical Col- | Madras ...... The Observatory 
1S) A ST | me test University Library. 
Calenita’;..... Asiatic Society. 
AFRICA. 
Cape of Good Hope ....The’Observatory. 
Sivitelona sy... ss +s soe The Observatory. 
AMERICA. 
milbany ...... The Institute. Philadelphia ..American Philosophi- 
Boston -...... American Academy of cal Society. 
Arts and Sciences. ‘Norontor sere: The Observatory. 
Cambridge ....Harvard University | Washington ..Smithsonian Institu- 
Library. tion. 


New York .... 


y 
Lyceum of Natural 
History. 


AUSTRALIA. 


Adelaide...... The Colonial Government. 
Victoria ...... The Colonial Government. 


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A DICTIONARY OF CHRISTIAN ANTIQUITIES 


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DR. W. SMITH’S. ANCIENT ATLAS. 


AN HISTORICAL 


ATLAS OF ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY, 


BIBLICAL AND CLASSICAL. 


COMPILED UNDER THE SUPERINTENDENCE OF 


WILLIAM SMITH, D.C.L., ann GEORGE GROVE, Esq. 


a Wen important Work, which has been undertaken to supply an acknow- 

ledged want, as well as in Illustration of the DICTIONARY OF THE 
BIBLE and the CLASSICAL DICTIONARIES, and which has been fourteen 
years in preparation, is now nearly ready for publication. The Maps have 
been drawn on a large scale, and have been executed by the most eminent 
engravers in Paris and London. They contain the modern names along with 
the ancient ones. There is also a series of smaller Maps, in illustration of 
each country at different historical periods. Tho Classical Maps have been 
prepared by DR. KARL MULLER, the Editor of Strabo and the Minor Greek 
Geographers, under the superintendence of DR. WILLIAM SMITH. ‘Those of 
the Holy Land and Mount Sinai include the recent observations and positions 
obtained by the Officers of Royal Engineers employed in surveying them, and 
have been constructed by MR. TRELAWNEY W. SAUNDERS, under the 
superintendence of MR. GEORGE GROVE. 


The Atlas will contain a series of Maps of the same size and form as KEITH 
Jounston’s Royan ATLAS OF MODERN GEOGRAPHY, with which it will range. 
It will be published quarterly, and the first Part will appear on January 1, 
1872. The order in which the Maps are to be finally arranged will be specified 
in the last Part, which will also contain descriptive Letterpress and a full Index. 


PART I. 


(Zo be published Jan, 1, 1872.) 
1, THE Hory LAND, on a large scale. Sicily at the time of the Pelopon- 
(First Sheet.) nesian War; c. Syracuse ; d, Agri- 
2, HistoRIcCAL MAps OF THE HOoLy gentum ; ¢. Bosporus Cimmerius. 
LanD. — a. Before the Conquest, | 4, Gant, on a large scale. Also Maps: 
1451 B.c.; b. After the Conquest, as a. Gallia before the time of Augustus; 
divided amongst the Twelve Tribes ; b. Insula Batavorum; ec. Port of 
c. During the Monarchy, 1095 B.c. to Massilia. 


586 B.c.; d. Under the Maccabees, | - : 
100 ac : 2. Winder Hod ie Geese, | °° ITALIA SUPERIOR, on a large scale. 


B.c. 40; f. In the time of our Lord; | 6. GREECE AFTER THE Doric Miera- 


g. Under Agrippa I., A.D. 41; h. At TIoN.—Also Maps : a. Greece in the 
the destruction of Jerusalem, A.D. 70. Heroic Age; b. Plain of Troy. 
3. GREEK AND PH@NICIAN COLONIES.— | 7. GREECE AT THE TIME OF THE PER- 


Also Maps: a Magna Grecia; 0. SIAN WARS, 


DR. SMITH’S ANCIENT ATLAS—continued. 


PART. Ff. 


(To be published April 1, 1872.) 


1, THE Hory Lanp, on a large scale. 


2, 
»” 


v 


4 


1 
} 


(Second Sheet.) 


. Map or Asta AND Heypt, to illustrate 


the Old Testament. 


. PELOPONNESUS, on a large scale.— 


. CENTRAL GREECE, on a large scale, | 


8. 


9. 


0. 
J 


. Jerusalem, on a large scale. 


With Plan of Sparta. 


containing Attica, Bceotia, Locris, 
Phocis, Doris, Malis. Also Maps: 


a. Athens ; 3%. The Environs of 
Athens ; c. The Harbours of Athens ; 
d. Acropolis ; ¢. Marathon ; 7, Eleu- 


sis. 


5, IvALIA INFERIOR, on a large scale. 
6. GREECE AT THE TIME OF THE PELO- 


7. GREECE 


PONNESIAN WAR. 
AT THE TIME OF THE 
ACHZAN LEAGUE. 


PARTS III. IV. and V. 


(To be published July 1, October 1, and December 31, 1872, respectively,) 


WILL CONTAIN THE REMAINING MAPS :— 


Also 
Maps: a. Jerusalem in the time of 
David; J. Jerusalem according to 
Josephus. 


. Environs of Jerusalem. 
3. Sinai from the recent Survey, and 


Wanderings of the Israelites. 


. Map of Asia and Europe to illustrate 


the New Testament. 


. Empires of the Babylonians, Lydians, 


Medes and Persians. 


. Empire of Alexander the Great. 
. Kingdoms of the Successors of Alex- 


ander the Great. 


The Roman Empire in its greatest 
extent. 


The Roman Empire after its division 
into the Hastern and Western Em- 
pires. 

Britannia. 

Hispania. 


. Germania, Rheetia, Noricum. 
. Pxonia, Thracia, Mesia, Illyria, Dacia 


Pannonia. 


. Historical Maps of Italy. 

5. Plan of Rome. 

. Environs of Rome. 

. Northern Greece. 

. Shores and Islands of the Migwan 


Sea. 


. Asia Minor. 

. Historical Maps of Asia Minor. 

. Arabia. 

. India. ‘ 

. Northern part of Africa. 

. 4igypt and Aithiopia. 

. The World as known to the An- 


cients. 


. Geographical Systems of the An- 


cients. 


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READING. By FREDERICK MILLARD, M.A., Late Scholar of Queen’s 
College, Oxford, and Master in the International College, London. 


FIRST ENGLISH GRAMMAR. By Dr. Ww. 


SMITH and THEOPHILUS D. HALL, M.A. 


HISTORY OF BRITAIN. By Puts Su, B.A., 


Author of the “ Student’s History of the East,” «e. 


The History or Briratn having been named by: the “School Board of 
London ” as a part of its prescribed course of education, pains have been taken 
to adapt this Work to its purpose in substance, style and form. 


Other Works are in preparation, which will be announced in a 
short time. 


BRADBURY, ANS, AND CO., PRINTERS, WHITEFRIARS. 


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