c
/^.
REPORT
OF THE
FORTY-SECOND MEETING
01? THE _
BRITISH ASSOCIATION
rOB THE
ADVANCEMENT OE SCIENCE;
HELD AT
BRIGHTON IN AUGUST 1872.
LONPON:
JOHN MURKAY, ALBEMAKLE STREET.
1873.
PRINTED EV
TAYLOR AND FHANC'IS, EED LION COURT, FLEET STEEKT.
CONTENT S.
'^J>/v^y\/v^r^^/■v•^/
Page
Objects and llulos of the Association xvii
Places of Meeting and Officers from conimencement xxiv
Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association from
commencement xxs
Evening Lectures xl
Lectures to the Operative Classes xlii
Treasurer's Account xliii
Table showing the Attendance and Ecceipts at previous Meetings . , xliv
Officers of Sectional Committees slvi
Officers and Council, 1872-73 xlvii
Report of the Council to the General Committee xlviii
Recommendations of the General Committee for Additional Reports
and Researches in Science '. liii
Synopsis of Money Grants lix
Place of Meeting in 1874 Ix
General Statement of Sums paid on accoiuit of Grants for Scientific
Purposes l^i
Arrangement of the General Meetings Ixviii
Address by the President, Dr. ^Y. B. Carpenter, LL.D., F.R.S Ixix
REPORTS OP RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE.
Report on the Gaussian Constants for the year 1829, or a Theory of
Terrestrial Magndism founded on all available ob.'.crvations. Ry H.
Petersen and A. Erman ■*■
a2
IV COXl'KNT.^.
Page
Second Supplementary Keport on the Extinct Birds of the Mascarone
Islands, By Alfred Newton, M.A., P.R.S 23
Beport of the Committee for Superintending the Monthly Reports of the
Progress of Chemistry, consisting of Professor A. W. WiLLiAiisoN,
F.R.S., Professor Euankland, F.liS., and Professor Roscoe, F.R.S. . . 2^
Report on the best means of providing for a Uniformity of Weights and
Measures, with reference to the Interests of Science, by a Committee,
consisting of Sir John Bowring, F.R.S., The Right Hon. Sir Stafford
H. NoRTHCOTE, C.B., M.P., The Riglit Hon. Sir C. B. Adderley, M.P.,
Samuel Brown, F.S.S., Dr. Fare, F.R.S., Frank P. Felloaves,
Professor Frankland, F.R.S. , James Heywood, F.R.S., Professor
Leone Levi, F.S.A., F.S.S., C. W. Siemens, F.R.S., Professor A. W.
"Williamson, F.R.S., Dr. George Glover, Sir Joseph Wditwortu,
Bart., F.R.S., J. R. Napier, J. V. N. Bazalgette, and Sir W. Fair-
BAiKN, Bart., F.R.S 25
Eighth Report of the Committee for Exploring Kent's Cavern, Devon-
shire, the Committee consisting of Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., F.R.S.,
Professor Phillips, F.R.S., Sir John LxruiiocK, Bart., F.R.S., John
Evans, F.R.S., Edward Vivian, M.A., George Busk, F.R.S., William
Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S., William Ayshfoed Sanford, F.G.S., and
William Pengelly, F.R.S. (Reporter) ' 28
Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of promoting the
Foundation of Zoological Stations in different parts of the World . . 47
Fourth Report on the Fauna of South Devon. By C. Spenck Bate, F.R.S. 48
Preliminary Report of the Committee appointed to construct and print
Catalogues of Spectral Rays arranged upon a scale of Wave-numbers,
— the Committee consisting of Dr. Huggins, Mr. Lockyer, Professor
Reynolds, Professor Swan, and Mr, Stone y (Reporter) 5:5
Third Report of the Committee appointed to consider and leport on the
various Plans proposed for Legislating on the subject of Steam-Boiler
Explosions with a view to their Prevention, — the Committee consist-
ing of Sir William Fairijairn, Bart., C.E., F.R.S., &c., John Penn,
C.E., F.R.S., Frederick J. Bramwell, C.E., Hugh Mason, Samuel
RiGBY, Thomas Schofield, Charles F. Beyer, C.E., Thomas Webster,
Q.C., Edward Easion, C.E., and Lavington E, Fletcher, C.E 57
Report of the Committee, consisting of James Glaisher, F.R.S., of the
Royal Observatory, Greenwich, Robert P, Greg, F.R.S., Alexander
S. Herschel, F.R.A.S., and Charles Brooke, F.R.S., Secretary to the
Meteorological Society, on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1871—
72 ; drawn up by Alexander S, Herschel, F.R,A,S 57
Experiments on the Surface-friction experienced by a Plane moving
through water. By W. Froude, F.R.S 118
Report on the Antagonism between the Action of Active Substances,
By Thomas R. FRiSER, M.D., Secretary to the Committee, consisting
of Sir R. Christison, Bart,, Dr, Laycock, and Dr. Eraser 124
Fifth Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir W. Thomson, F.R.S.,
Professor Eyerett, Sir Charles Ltell, Bart,, F.R,S., Professor J.
CONTENTS. V
F.ge
Clerk Maxwell, P.ll.S., Professor Phillips, F.E.S., G. J. Symons,
P.M.S., Professor IIamsay, F.R.S., Professor Geieie, P.E.S., J.
Glaisher, F.P.S., Rev. Dr. Graham, G. Maw, P.G.S., W. Pengelly,
F.R.S., S. J. Maceie, F.G.S., Professor Hitll, F.R.S., and Professor
Ansted, F.R.S., appointed for the juirpose of investigating the Rate of
Increase of Underground Temperature downwards in various locali-
ties of Dry Land and under Water. By Professor Everett, D.C.L.,
Secretary 128
Preliminary Report of the Committee on Siemens's Electrical-Resistance
Pyrometer, consisting of Professor A. W. Williamson, F.R.S., Sir
W. Thomson, D.C.L., F.R.S., and Professor J. Clerk Maxwell,
LL.D., F.R.S 134
Fourth Report of the Committee on the Treatment and Utilization of
Sewage, consisting of Richard B. Grantham, C.E., F.G.S. (Chair-
man), Professor W. H. Corfield, M.A., M.D., J. Bailey Denton,
C.E., F.G.S., Dr. J. H. Gilbert, F.R.S., John Thornhill Harrison,
C.E., W. Hope, V.C, Lieut.-Col. Leach, R.E., Dr. A. Voelcker,
F.R.S., and Professor A. W. Williamson, F.R.S 135
Interim Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of making
experiments on instruments for Measuring the Speed of Ships and
Currents by means of the difference of height of two columns of liquid,
— the Committee consisting of Prof. W. J. Macquoen Rankine, C.
W. Merrieield, F.R.S., Mr. F. J. Beauwell, and Mr. Alfred E.
Fletcher (Secretary) 176
Report on the Rainfall of the British Isles, by a Committee, consisting of
Charles Brooke, F.R.S. (Chairman), J. F. Bateman, C.E., F.R.S., J.
Glaishee, F.R.S., R. W. Mylne, C.E., F.R.S., Prof. J. Phillips,
F.R.S., T. Hawksley, C.E., Prof. J. C. Adams, F.E.S., Prof. J. .J.
Sylvester, F.R.S., C. Tomlinson, F.R.S., R. Field, C.E., Dr. Pole,
C.E., F.R.S., Prof. D. T. Ansied, F.R.S., A. Buchan, F.R.S.E., and
G. J. Symons, Secretary 176
Report of the Committee, consisting of the Rev. Dr. Ginsrueg, W. Hep-
avorth Dixon, Rev. Dr. Tristram, F.R.S., General Chesney, Rev.
Professor Rawlinson, and John A. Tikn£, appointed for the purpose
of undertakiiig a Geographical Exploration of the Country of Moab . . 210
Sur I'climination des Fonctions Arbitraircs. By Ch. Hermite, Coit.
Member of the Mathematical Society, London 233
Report on the Discovery of Fossils in certain remote parts of the ITorth-
western Highlands. By William Jolly 238
Report of the Committee on Earthquakes in Scotland. The Committee
consists of Dr. Bryce, F.G.S., Sir W. Thomson, F.R.S., D. Milne-
Home, F.R.S.E., and J. Brottgh 240
Fourth Report of the Committee appointed to investigate the Structure
of Carboniferous-Limestone Corals. The Committee consists of James
Thomson, F.G.S., and Professor Harkness, F.R.S 241
Report of the Committee, consisting of J. F. Bateman, C.E., F.R.S.,
P. Le Is^'eve Foster, M.A., C. W. Merrifield, F.R.S., E. Easton,
VI CONTENTS.
F.G.S,, F. J. Bramwell, C.E., W. Hope, V.C, awl 11. Bauerman, "^'
F.G.H., appointed to consider the mode in whicli nc^v Inventions and
Claims for Howard in respect of adopted Inventions arc examined and
dealt with by the different Departments of Government, and to report
on the best moans of removing any real causes of dissatisfaction, as
well as of silencing unfounded complaints 243
Report of the Committee for discussing Observations of Lunar Objects
suspected of Change. The Committee consists of the Ilev. T. W.
Webb, the Rev. Robkkt Harley, F.R.S., and Edward CROssLEr,
Secretary 245
Report on the MoUusca of Europe compared with those of Eastern North
America. By J. GwrN jEFPBErs, F.R.S 392
Report of the Committee for the purpose of investigating the Chemical
Constitution and Optical Properties of Essential Oils 311
Report of the Committee, consisting of the Rev. Canon Tkistram, Pro-
fessor jSTewxox, II. E. Dresser, J. S. Hahtixg, and the Rev. A. F.
Barnes, appointed for the purpose of continuing the investigation on
, the desirability of establishing a " Close Time " for the preservation of
indigenous animals 320
8ixth Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of continuing
Researches in Fossil Crustacea, consisting of Professor P. ilAnrrx
Duncan, F.R.S., Henry "Woodward, F.G.S., and Robert Etheridge,
F.R.S. Drawn up by Henry Woodward, F.G.S 321
Report of the Coramitteo appointed to organize an Expedition for ob-
serving the Solar Eclipse of Dec. 12, 1871 327
Preliminaiy Report of a Committee, consisting of Professor ^Michael
Foster, F.R.8., Professor W. H. Feower, F.R.S., and Benjajijn
LowNE, M.R.C.S., appointed for the purpose of making Tcrato-em-
bryological Inquiries 3:M
Report on Recent Progress in Elliptic and Hyperclliptic Functions. By
W. U. L. Russell, F.R.S '. 33.5
Report of the Committee appointed fur the purpose of promoting the
extension, improvement, and harmonic analysis of Tidal Observations.
Consisting of Sir William TnojisoN, LL.D., F.R.S., Prof. J. C. Adams,
F.R.S., J. Oldham, William Parkes, if.Inst.C.E., Prof. Raxkine,
LL.D., F.R.S., and Admiral Richards, R.N., F.R.S 3.5o
On the Brighton Waterworks. By Edward Easton, C.E., F.G.S SO^
On Amsler's Planimcter. By F. J. Beamwell, C.E 401
CONTENTS. Vll
NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS
OF
MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS.
matiie:\iatics and physics.
Pfige
Adtliess by Warrex De La Eue, Esq., D.C.L., Ph.D., F.R.S., V.P.C.S.,
V.r.U.A.S., President of the Section 1
Mathematics.
Professor Clifford on the Contact of Surfaces of the Second Order ^-ith
other Surfaces 13
Mr. Matthew Collins on new Improvements in Approximating more rapidly
than usual to Square, Cube, and other Koots of a given Number X 13
Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher on. the Evaluation in Series of certain Definite Integrals 15
.. on the Function that stands in the same Relation to
Bernoulli's Numbers that the Gamma-function does to Factorials 17
on the Law of Distribution of Prime Numbers 10
Mr. J. E. IIilgard on a ^'erification of the Probability Function 21
Mr. F. W. Ne-wt-ian on Tridiametral Quartan Curves 22
on Quartan Curves with 3 or 4 Diameters 23
on ]\ronodiametral Quartan Curves 23
Professor II. J. Stepiif.n Smith on the Circular Transformation of Mubius . . 24
Gekeral Physics.
Sir. P. G. Tait on Sympathy of Pendulums 24
I'rofessor James Thomson- on Relations between the Gascou.s, the Liquid,
and the Solid States of Matter -1
ASTROKOMT.
Mr. Howard GnLnss on some new Points in the ^Mounting of Astronomical
Telescopes '^"
Dr. Janssen sur le Resultat de ses Observations dans I'lnde sur TEclipse du 12
Dec. 1871 ^^
VUl CONTENTS.
Light.
Ppge
Mr. J. H. Brown on Refraction and Solar Spots 30
Professor Cnot'LLEBOis on tlie Action of Quartz on Ultra- Violet Rays SO
on Tubes Phosphorescent by Friction oG
Professor J. D. E\Ti:BETT on Focal Lines 30
on a Difficulty in the Theory of Aberration 80
on Mirage 30
Mr. George Forbes on Astronomical Refi'action 30
Mr. Thomas Gaffikld on the Action of Sunlight on Colourless and Coloured
Glass 37
Mr. Arthur Schuster on the Spectrum of Hydrogen 38
The Plon. J. W. Strutt on the Application of Photography to copy Diffrac-
tion-gratings 39
Professor James Thomso^^ on Atmospheric Refraction of Inclined Rays, and
on the Path of a Level Ray 41
Dr. T. Ogier Ward on a Phenomenon connected with Diffraction 45
Colonel Stuart "V^^ortley on the Importance of the Salts of L^ranium in
Photography 45
Professor Ch. V. Zenger on the Velocity of Light in the Chemical Elements,
and on their Crystalline Form 40
Heat.
Mr. W. F. Barrett on a Condition affecting the Spheroidal State of Liquids,
and its probable effect on certain Boiler-Explosions 48
Dr. William B. Carpenter on the General Oceanic Thermal Circulation . . 48
Mr. James Dewar on Recent Estimates of Solar Temperature 50
on the Temperature of the Electric Spark 51
Dr. J. HoPKiNSON on the Stresses produced in an Elastic Solid by Inequali-
ties of Temperature 61
ElECTBICITT AND MAGNETISM.
Professor P. G. Tait on Double Neutral Points in Thermoelectric Cun-ents . 52
Mr. G. K. Winter on the LTse of Electromagnetic instead of Electrostatic
Induction in Cable-Signalling 52
Meteorology.
Rer. H. A. Boys on Greek Meteorology 53
M. W. DE FoNViELLE on the Ad-\antages of keeping Records of Physical
Phenomena connected with Thunder-storms 55
Mr. Charles Meldruji on a Periodicity in the Frequency of Cyclones in the
■ Indian Ocean south of the Equator 50
Mr. Frederick Ernest Sawyer on the Rainfall of Sussex 58
ACOTTSTICS.
M. Rudolf Konig on Musical Beats and Resultant Tones 58
Mr. G. A'^andeleur Lee on the Human Voice as a Musical Instrument .... 58
CONTENTS. IX
I^STEUMENTS.
Page
I^Fr. W. Maesham Adams on the Meusuratoiv a new Instrument for the Solu-
tion of Triangles 59
Mr. George Dines on a new Ilj^grometer .59
Dr. J. HoPKiNSON on a Nautical Photometer 69
Dr. .Tanssen sur un Nouveau Thermometre destine a prendre les Temperatures
de la Surface des Eaux Marines ou Fluviales 59
Professor John Phillips on the Temperature-correction of an Aneroid .... (31
Mr. Macneil Telfoed on the new Marriotti Barometer G2
Professor Ch. V. Zengeb on the Spiral Top 62
on the Tangential Balance and a new Saccharometer 63
Peogress of SciEIirCE.
Lieut.-Col. A. Strange on the Duty of the British Association with respect
to the Distribution of its Funds 63
CHEMISTRY.
Address by J. II. Gladstone, Ph.D., F.R.S., President of the Section 64
Dr. A. Crum Brown on Chemical Nomenclature 69
Dr. F. Crace-Calyert on the Relative Power of Various Substances in pre-
venting Putrefaction and the Development of Protoplasmic and Fungus Life 69
Mr. "WiLLiAii Lant Carpenter on the Presence of Albumen in Neutral
Fats, and on a New Process for the Manufacture of Stearic and Palmitic
Acids, &c 71
on the Mode of Collection of Samples of
Deep-sea Water, and of their Analysis for dissolved Gaseous Constituents,
employed on board II.M.S. ' Porcupine ' during the Summers of 1869 and
1870 72
Mr. W. J. Cooper on a proposed Method of preventing the Fermentation of
Sewage 73
Mr. John Galletly on Ignition of Cotton by Saturation with Fatty Oils . . 73
Mr. George Gladstone on the Dust thrown up by Vesuvius during the late
Eruption 74
Dr. J. II. Gladstone on filiform Native Silver 75
and Mr. Alfred Tribe on the mutual helpfulness of
Chemical Affinity, Heat, and Electricity in producing the Decomposition of
Water 75
The Rev. II. Highton on a Powerful Galvanic Battery 77
Professor J. W. Mallet on the effect upon Meteoric Iron, as regards the cnpa-
bility of being forged, of previous heating to redness or whiteness in vacuo . 77
on the Fusion of Metallic Arsenic 77
on the occurrence of Native Sulphuric Acid in
Eastern Texas 78
on the occurrence in recent Pine timber of Fich-
telite, a Hydrocarbon hitherto only known in a fossil state 79
Dr. T. Moffat on Dr. Moffat's Tube Ozonometer 79
Dr. Oppenheim on the Action of Phosphorus on Alkaline Solutions of Metals 79
X CONTENTS.
Page
Ur. Oni) ou tlie Crystallizatiou of Salts in Colloid Soliitious 7"J
Ilerr G-. tom Eath — The Crystallograpliic System of Leucite, hitherto sup-
posed to be regular, is quadratic 79
Mr. W. Chandler Roberts on a Curve Illustrating the British Gold Ooiuage 82
Dr. E. ScHENK on the Amount of Heat required to raise Elementary Bodies
from the absolute zero to their state of Fusion 82
Mr. T. E. Thorpe on an improved form of Filter Pump 83
I\Ir. Alfred Tribe on the Precipitation of Silver by Copper 84
Mr. Gr. Un-win, Specimens of Agate and other Natural Colloid Silica ex-
hibited b)\ 85
Mr. J. F. Walker on Dinitrobrombenzene 85
Mr. J, Alfred Waniclyn on the Continuous Production of Oxygen 85
on some New Methods of Analyzing the Ethers. . 85
Mr. Walter Weldox on the Manufacture of Chlorine by means of Manga-
nite of Magnesium 86
Mr. John Williams on the Preparation of Guarauine 80
Dr. T. Wood on Teaching Elementary Chemistry to Boys under 14 years of Age 87
Mr. C. J. Woodward on a Modification of Ilofmaun's Apparatus for Electro-
lysis of Water 87
Dr. C. R. A. Weight on New Derivatives from Morphine- and Codeine 87
GEOLOGY.
Address by Robert A. C. Godwin-Austen, F.R.S., F.G.S., Szc, President
of the Section 90
Dr. William B. Carpenter on the Temperature and other Physical Condi-
tions of Inland Seas, in their relation to Geological Inquiry 9G
Mr. W. Carrtjthers on the Tree Ferns of the Coal-measures, and their Affi-
nities with existing Forms 98
Mr. Thomas Davidson on the present state of our hnowledge in connexion
with the Brachiopoda 99
• and Dr. WiLLiAjf King on the Genera Trimerella,
Dinoholus, and Monomcrella 100
Mr. W. Boyd Dawkins on the Physical Geography of the Mediterranean
during the Pleistocene Age 100
Professor Albert Gaudry on the Fossil Animals of Mount Leberon (Vancluse) 1C2
The Rev. J. Gunn ou the Prospect of finding Productive Coal-measures in
Norfolk and Suflbllv:, with Suggestions as to the place v.'here an experi-
mental Boring should be made 102
Professor James ITall on the occun-ence of Trunks of Psaronius in an erect
position, resting on their original bed, in Rocks of Devonian age in the State
of New York ; with some Inferences regarding the Condition of the Sea-
bottom and Shore-line during the Deposition of the Strata 103
on the Relations of the Middle and Upper Silurian
(Clinton, Niagara, and Lower Helderlierg) Rocks of the United States .... 103
Professor Hhbert on the Challc of the Paris Basin 104
Mr. Henry Hicks on the Cambrian and Silurian Rocks of Ramsey Island,
St. David's 107
Mr. John Hopkinson on the Graptolites of the Arenig Rocks of St. David's . 107
CONTENTS. XI
Pago
Mr. James Howell on the Miucrtals lately found in tlio Draiuage-works at
Brighton lOS
on Super-Cretaceous Formations in the Neighbourhood
of Brighton 100
Professor Edward Hull on the Trachyte Porphjiies of Antrim and Down,
in the North of Ireland Ill
on the Raised Beach of the North-east of Ireland . . 113
Mr. J. GrWYN Jeffreys on Submarine Explorations, with reference to
M. Delesse's work entitled " Lithologie du fond des Mers " llo
Mr. J. W. JuDD on the Discovery of Cretaceous Hocks in the Islands of Mull
and Inch Kenneth 115
Mr. G. A. Lebour on the Geological Distribution of Goitre in England .... llo
Mr. J. E. Lee on Veins or Fissures in the Keuper, filled with Rhretic bone-bed,
at Goldcliffe in Monmouthshire , 110
Mr. "William Molyneux on the Occurrence of Copper- and Lead-ores in the
Bunter Conglomerates of Cannock Chase 116
Mr. C. Moore on the Presence of Naked Echinodermata (Holofhitria) in the
Inferior Oolite and Lias 117
Dr. H. Alleyne Nicholson on the Geology of the Thunder Bay and Sha-
bendowan Mining-Districts, on the North Shore of Lake Superior 118
on Orionia, a new Genus of Fossil Tubicolar
Anuelides, with Notes on the Genus TcntacuUtes 118
Mr. W. Pengelly on Machairodus laticlens found by the Rev. J. MacEuery
in Kent's Cavern, Torquay 119
Herr G. voii Rath on a remarkable Block of Lava ejected by Vesuvius at
the Great Eruption, April 1872, which proves the formation of Silicates
through Sublimation 120
Mr. T. A. Readwin on the Coal- and Iron-Mines of the Arigna District of
the Counaught Coal-measm-es, Ireland 122
Mr. H. G. Seeley on the Occurrence of a British Fossil Zeuc/lochn at Barton,
Hants 122
Dr. Robert Sur on certain Quartz-Nodules occiuTing in the Crj'stallino
Schists near Killin, Perthshire 122
Mr. W. Topley on the Sub-Wealden Exploration 122
The Rev. Canon Tristram on the Geology of Moab 123
Dr. T. Ogier AVard on the Formation and Stratification of Sedimentary Rocks 123
on pSlickensides, or Rubbed, Polished, or Striated Roclis 123
BIOLOGY.
Address by Sir John Lubbock, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., Vice-Chancellor of the
University of London, President of the Section 123
Botany.
Mr. W. Carruthers on Traquairia, a Radiolarian Rhizopod from the Coal-
measures 12G
Mr. C. F. Dennet on Ramie, a new Textile Plant ; with Description of its
Uses, Mode of Propagation, Cultivation, as practised in the Southern United
States of America 12G
XU CONTENTS.
Page
Professor Dickson on the Cones of Pinus pinaster 127
on Stigmari(c from the Fossiliferous Strata at Auchentorlie 127
Professor Thiselton-Dyer on Phylloxera vastatrix 127
Mr. A. W. Hayne on the Flora of Moab 128
Mr. W. B. Hemsley's Summary Analysis of the Flora of Sussex (Phrenogams
and Ferns) 128
Professor Laavson on some Specimens of Tortula incUnata 1 20
3Ir. M. Moggridge on a curious Elm 129
Zoology.
Professor ^Vllman on the Structure and Development oi Mitraria 129
on some points in the Development of Vorticellidce 130
, on the Structure of Noctiluca 131
on the Structure of Edicardsia 132
on the Structure of Cijplwiimites 133
Prof. P. J. Van Beneden sur les Baleines du Crag; d'Anvers 134
Mr. HiCHARD Gail on Gail's Lock Salmon-pass or Swimming-stair 135
Mr. H. E. Dresser, British Specimens of ILjpohis idcrina exhibited by ... . 13G
M. Paul Gervais sur les Dents du Blacrauchenia et leur Mode de Remplace-
ment 13G
The Rev. John T. Gulick on Diversity of Evolution under one set of Extenial
Gonditions , 13G
Capt. Marshall Hall on the employment of Yachts in Deep-sea Researches 130
Mr. J. GwYN Jeffreys on the Mollusca of Em-ope compared with those of
Eastern North America . . . , 137
Mr. F. T. MoTT on the Theory of the Scientific Value of Beauty in relation to
the doctrines of Mr. Darwin and Mr. Galton 137
Dr. H. Alleyne Nicholson's Preliminary Report onDredgings in Lake Ontario 137
Mr. R. A. Peacock, How a National Natural-History Museum might be
built and arranged with advantage 138
Mr. John Robertson on the Perforating Instruments of Pholas Candida .... 140
Mr. P. L. ScLATER on a new Rhinoceros, with Remarks on the Recent Species
of this Genus and their Distribution 140
on an apparently new Marine Animal from the Northern
Pacific 140
Mr. D. A. Spalding on Instinct, with original Observations on Young Animals 141
Mr. J. F. Whiteaves on a Deep-sea Dredging-Expedition round the Island of
Anticosti, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence 143
Anatomt and Physiology.
Professor Burdon Sanderson's Address to the Department of Anatomy and
Physiology ' . . . . 14-5
Prof. W. H. Flower on the Arrangement and Nomenclature of the Lobes of
the Liver in Mammalia 1,50
Mr. A. H. Garrod on Puke-Rate and the Forces which vary it 151
CON'TENTS. Xlll
Page
Mr. Geohge Harris ou the Coucun-ent Contemporaneous Progress of lleno-
vation and Waste in Animated Frames, and the extent to which such Opera-
tions are controUable by Artificial Means 1'52
M. G. PoucHET on the Mechanism of the Change of Colour in Fishes and
Crustacea 1^2
Dr. Eadcliffe on the Mechanism of Muscular Contraction 152
Dr. James Ross on the Graft Theory of Disease 153
Dr. BuRDON Sanderson on the Cause of the Respiratory Variations of Arte-
rial Pressure 154
Mr. E. A. Sch.\fer's Experiments relating to the Coagulation of the Blood. . 155
Professor Carl Semper on the Normal and Abnormal Growth of Limnceus . 156
Professor Struthers ou the Occurrence of the Supracondyloid Process in
Man 150
on the Sternum and Pelvic Bone in the Right Whale
and in Great Fin-Whales 156
on the Occurrence of Finger-muscles in the Bottle-
nose Whale {Hypei'oodon lidens) 150
Anthropology.
Colonel A. Lane Fox's Address to the Department of Anthropology 157
The Rev. J. C. Atkinson on the Predominating Danish Aspect of the Local
Nomenclature of Cleveland, Yorkshire 175
Mr. C. Spence Bate on the Exploration of some Tumuli on Dartmoor 175
Mr. J. F. Campbell on a Visit to the Hypogeum 175
Mr. Arcuibald Campbell on the Looshais 170
Mr. A. A. Carmichael on a Hypogeum at Valaquie, North Uist 170
Dr. Charnock on Sussex River-Names 170
on certain Geographical Names in the County of Sussex .... 177
. on Roumanian Gipsies 177
on the Gipsy Dialect called " Sim " 177
Mr. Hyde Clarke on the Ethnological and Philological Relations of the
Caucasus 17/
. on the Mangnema or Manyema of Dr. Livingstone 178
Mr. Charles T. Croger on Tumuli at Ascheraden in Livonia 178
Mr. W. Boyd Dawkins and R. H. Tiddeman's Report on the Victoria Cave,
explored by the Settle-Cave-Exploration Committee 178
Sir Walter Elliot on the Primitive Weapons of Ancient India 180
Mr. John Ev.vns on the Alphabet and its Origin 181
Sir Duncan Gibb on a Pata-patoo from New Zealand 185
on Stone Implements and Fragments of Potterj"- from Canada 180
Major II. H. Godwin-Austen on the Garo Hill Tribes of Bengal 186
The Rev. W. Greenwell on the BaiTows of the Yorkshire AVolds 187
Mr. George Harris on Theories regarding Intellect and Instinct, with an
attempt to deduce a satisfactory conclusion therefrom 188
9
XIV CONTENTS.
Pag--
Mr. T. M^K. IIlghics oh a series of iragments of Cbeit collected below a
chert-beaiing limestone in Yorkshire 189
Prof. T. RupEET JoiSTES on some Bone and other Implements from the Caves
of Perigord, France, hearing uiarka ir;dicati^-e of Ownership, Tallying, or
Gambling "l^ . . . ISO
Mr. Joseph Kaines on Western Anthropologists and extra-Western Commu-
nities 189
Lieut. C. CooPEE. King on the Discorery of a Flint-Implement Station in
Wishmoor Bottom, near Sandhurst 193
3Ir. A. L. Lewis on the Pretended Identification of the English Nation with
the "Lost House of Israel " 190
Mr. M. MoGGRiDGE on the Skeleton of the Red Rocks 190
Dr. T. Nicholas on the Ethnological Affinities of the French and English
Peoples 191
Dr. H. Alleyne Nicholson's Notice of a Silicified Forest in the Rocky
Mountains, with an account of a supposed Fossil Chip ", 102
Mr. John S. Phene on some Evidences suggestive of a Common Migration
from the East, shown by Archaic Remains in America and Britain 192
Professor Rolleston on the Skulls obtained in Canon Greenwell's Excavations 193
on the Yv'eddo of Ceylon 194
Mr. R. B. Sha-w' on the Religious Cairns of the Himalayan Region 194
Mr. R. S. Symes on Rubbings from St. Patrick's Chair, Go. Mayo, Ireland . . 197
Mr. W. TopLEY on the Relation of the Parish Boundaries in the South-east of
England to great Physical Features, particularly to the Chalk Escarpment. 197
Mr. C. Staniland Wake on the Origin of Serpent-Worship 198
The Rev. H. H. WrNWOOD, Flint Implements from South Africa exhibited by 198
GEOGRAPHY.
Address hy Feancis Galton, F.R.S., President of the Section 108
Mr. W. P. Andeew on the Euphrates- Valley Route to India 20-3
Mr. JoiTN Ball on the Orography of the Chain of the Great Atlas 203
Dr. Beandis on the Geographical Distribution of Forests in India 205
Dr. J. C. Beown on the Desiccation of South Africa 207
Mr. Ai.EXANDEE BucHAN on the Deep-water Temperature of Lochs Lomond,
Katrine, and Tay 207
Mr. E. Button on Explorations in the Gold Region of the Limpopo 208
Mr. Geyf Jaxa de Bykowski on a Through Railway Route to India, via
Russia and the Oxus Valley 200
Lieut.-Colonel J. A. Geakt on Dr. Livingstone's Recent Discoveries 2(9
The Rev. Edwaed Hale on the Place of Geography, Political and Physical,
in Education \ " 200
Mr. H. II. HowoETii on Recent Changes of Level in Land and Sea 210
Capt. Felix Jones on the Direct Highvv^ay to India considered 210
Mr. G. Lejioine on the Relation of Forests to Hydrology 210
Extracts from the Ofllcial Despatches of Dr. Livingstone 211
CONTENTS. XV
l':ige
Mr. W. F. Mayers on the Pautliays of Yunnan . , 211
Mr. A. MossMAN on the Topography of Yeddo 211
Capt. SiiERARD OsBOiiN on Polar Exploration 211
Mr. 11. B. Shaw on the Physical Features of the Pamir and its Aryan In-
habitants 213
Mr. H. M. Stanley on Discoveries at the Northern End of Lake Tanganyika 213
General R. Steachey on the Scope of Scientific Geography, illustrated by
Remarks on the Climate of British India 214
Sir G. Young on the Question " Is the Asiatic EmigTation to the West
Indies likely to be a Permanent Fact in IVIodern Geography ? " 215
ECONOMIC SCIENCE and STATISTICS.
Address by Professor II. Fawcett, M.P., President of the Section 217
Major-Geueral Sir James E. Alexandeh on the Pollution of Rivers 220
Miss Lydia E, Becker on Statistics regarding the Attendance and Education
of Girls in the Elementary Schools of Manchester 220
Mr. C. G. Bunting on the importance of providing additional facilities for the
Instruction of School-Board Pupils in the Higher Branches of Knowledge . 222
Mr. Herbert Burgess on International Decimal Coinage 222
Mr. Hyde Clarke on Polygamy as affecting Population 224
Mr. Frank P. Fellowes's Suggestions for improving and extending our
National Accounts ; being a continuation of Mr. Fellowes's Paper read at
the Edinburgh Meeting, " On a proposed Doomsday Book, &c.'' 224
Professor Hull on a Proposal for supplyiuo- Pure Water to Villages and
Country Parishes in Central and Eastern Divisions of England 226
Miss Shirrbef on the National Union for Improving the Education of Women 226
Dr. Edv\'ard Ssuxn on the Economic and Nutritive Value of the three prin-
cipal Preserved Foods, viz. Preserved Milk, Preserved Meat, and Liebig's
Extract of Meat 227'
MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
Address by Frederick J. Bramwell, C.E., President of the Section 227
^.Ir. C. Bergeron on the Rapid and Economical Transport of I\Ierchandise . . 241
Mr. D. T. Bostel on a Modificatiou of the Earth-Clo&et 241
INIr. C. A. BowDLER on Aerial Navigation 241
Mr. D. Carter on a Modification of tlie Earth-Closet 212
Mr. Hyde Clarke on the Progress of the Through Railway to India 242
Mr. J. P. CoLBRON on the Drainage of Shoreliam 2^2
Mr. T. CuRLEY on the Sewage Difficulty 242
Mr. C. F. Dennet on Breach-Loading Firearms 242
Mr. Richard Eaton on certain Economical Improvements in the Construction
of Locomotive Engines, by the addition of Mechanical x'^ppliances for the
use of Heated Air in combination with Steam, on the principle invented bj'
George Warsop 243
Mr. W. R. F.ckart on Marine Propulsion , 243
XVI CONTENTS.
Page
Mr. W. Fleming on the Steering of Ships, in special relation to a new form
of Rudder 243
Mr. P. Le Neve Foster, Jan., Description of the New Branch Canal leading
from the Canal Cavour for Irrigating the Province of Lomellina 243
Mr. W. Froude's Description of an Apparatus for automatically recording
the Rolling of a Ship in a Seaway 243
Mr. John G. Gamble on the Brighton Intercepting and Outfall Sewers .... 245
Mr. Alexander M'^Callum Gordon on the Distribution of Pure Water to
Dwellings 246
Mr. E. J. Hill on Boat-lowering Apparatus 246
Mr. C. Hodgson on Wire Tramwaj's 246
Mr. W. Hope on the Estimation of the Error in the Flight of Pleavy Projec-
tiles due to the Woolwich System of Rifling 246
Mr. C. W. Merrifield on the Measurement of Waves 246
Mr. William Paul on the relative Value of Clarified and Unclarified Sewage
as a Manure 247
Mr. Frederick Ransome on some Recent Improvements in the Manufacture
of xVrtiiicial Stone, and tlie Application of such Stone to Constructive and
other Purposes 248
Maj.-Gen. H. Y. D. Scott on Defecating Sewage iind Utilizing the Deposit
for the preparation of Lime and Cement 250
on tlie Agricultural Value of the Lime Compounds
obtained by Defecating Sewage 250
. — ■ on the Selenitic Method of making Mortar 250
Mr. John Smyth, Jun., on an Apparatus for testing the AVater-stopping cfli-
ciency of Clay Soils and other Substances under various pressures 250
Mr. W. SvMONS on a Plan for Railway Amalgamation with Government
Control ' 251
Prof. Sir W. Thomson on the use of Steel Wire for Deep-sea Soundings .... 251
on the Identification of Lights at Sea 251
' Mr. A. Upward on Drilling-Apparatus for Gas- and Water-Mains 252
Mr. Thomas Webster on the advancement of Science due to Patented In-
ventions 252
Mr. A. Wylie on the Progress of Invention in Breech-loading Small Arms
during the past Twenty Years 252
EKEATA IN EEPORT FOR 1871-
In Mr. Peacock's paper, p. 240 (Trans, of Sections) :—
In second paragraph, line 2, cMc and.
In line 5 of same paragraph, for 8 read 2.
ERRATA IN THE PRESENT VOLUME.
Page 352 (Reports), lino 8 from bottom, /or J<.(i',~ .'.w^tt + JcV . . . ) rend J.(«'i-M,7r
„ 108 (Trans, of Sections), line 27, for radiatua read radicans.
OBJECTS AND RULES
OP
THE ASSOCIATION.
OBJECTS.
The Association- contemplates no interference with tlie ground occupied by
other institutions. Its objects are : — To give a stronger impulse and a more
systematic direction to scientific inquiry, — to promote the intercourse of those
who cultivate Science in different parts of the British Empire, with one an-
other and with foreign philosophers, — to obtain a more general attention to
the objects of Science, and a removal of any disadvantages of a public kind
which impede its progress.
RULES.
Admission of Members and Associates.
All persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled to be-
come Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation to con-
form to its Rules.
The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical So-
cieties publishing Transactions, in the British Empii-e, shall be entitled, in
like manner, to become Members of the Association.
The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees, of
Philosophical Institutions shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem-
bers of the Association.
All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by its Council
or Managing Committee shall be entitled, iu hko manner, to become Mem-
bers of the Association.
Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall bo elected by the General
Committee or Council, to become Life Members of the Association, Annual
Subscribers, or Associates for the year, subject to the approval of a General
Meeting.
Compositions, Subscriptions, and Privileges.
Life Members shall pay, on admission, the sum of Ten Pounds. They
shall receive (jratmtoushj the Reports of the Association which may be pub-
1872. >- *
XVm RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
lished after the date of such payment. They are eligible to all the offices
of the Association.
Annual Stjbsceibees shall pay, on admission, the sum of T-wo Pounds,
and in each following year the sum of One Pound. They shall receive
(/raiuiioushj the Ecports of the Association for the year of their^ admission
and for the years in which they continue to pay wifJioid intermission their
Annual Subscription. By omitting to pay this Subscription in any particu-
lar year, Members of this class (Annual Subscribers) lose for tliat and all
future years the privilege of receiving the volumes of the Association gratis :
but they may resume theii- Membership and other privileges at any sub-
sequent Meeting of the Association, paying on each such occasion the sum of
One Pound. They are eligible to all the Offices of the Association.
Associates for the year shall pay on admission the sum of One Pound.
They shall not receive gratuitoushj the Reports of the Association, nor be
eligible to serve on Committees, or to hold any office.
The Association consists of the following classes : —
1. Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid
on admission Five Poimds as a composition.
2. Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, have paid on ad-
mission Ten Pounds as a composition.
3. Annual Members admitted from 1831 to 1839 inclusive, subject to the
payment of One Pound annually. [May resume their Membership after in-
termission of Annual Payment.]
4. Annual Members admitted in any year since 1839, subject to the pay-
ment of Two Pounds for the first year, and One Pound in each following year.
[May resume their Membership after intermission of Annual Payment.]
5. Associates for the year, subject to the payment of One Pound.
6. Corresponding Members nominated by the Council.
And the Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual
volume of Peports, gratis, or to purcliase it at reduced (or Members') price,
according to the following specification, viz. : —
1. Gratis. — Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo-
sition for Annual Payments, and jircvious to 1845 a further
sum of Two Pounds as a Book Subscription, or, since 1845, a
further sum of Five Pounds.
New Life Members who have paid Ten Pounds as a composition.
Annual Members who have not intermitted their Annual Sub-
scription.
2. At reduced or Mcmhers' Prices, viz. two thirds of the Publication
Price. — Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a
composition for Annual Payments, but no further sum as a
Book Subscription.
Annual Members who have intermitted their Annual Subscription.
Associates for the year, [Privilege confined to the volume for
that year only.]
3. Members may purchase (for the purpose of completing their sets) any
of the first seventeen volumes of Transactions of the Associa-
tion, and of ivhicli more than 100 cojpies remain, atone third of
the Publication Piice. Api^lication to be made at the Office
of the Association, 22 Albemarle Street, London, "W.
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XIX
Volumes not claimed -within two years of the date of publication can only
bo issued by direction of the Council.
Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries.
Meetings.
The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The place
of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee two years in
advance ; and the Arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the Officers of
the Association.
Ge7ieral Committee.
The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or
longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the
following persons : —
Class A. Permanent Members.
1. Members of the Council, Presidents of the Association, and Presidents
of Sections for the present and preceding years, with Authors of Eeports in
the Transactions of the Association.
2. Members who by the publication of Works or Papers have furthered
the advancement of those subjects which arc taken into consideration at the
Sectional Meetings of the Association. With a view of submitiioig new claims
under this Eule to the decision of the Council, theij must be sent to tJie Assistant
General Secretary at least one month before the Meeting of the Association.
The decision of the Council on the claims of any Member of the Association to
be placed on the list of the General Committee to be final.
Class B. Temporary Members.
1 . Presidents for the time being of any Scientific Societies publishing Trans-
actions or, in his absence, a delegate representing him. Claims under this Ride
to be sent to the Assistant General Secretary before the opening of the Meeting.
2. Office-bearers for the time being, or delegates, altogether not exceeding
three, from Scientific Institutions established in the place _ of Meeting.
Claims under this Bide to be approved by the Loccd Secretaries before the
opening of the Meeting.
3. Foreigners and' other individuals whose assistance is desired, and who
are specially nominated in writing, for the Meeting of the year, by the Pre-
sident and General Secretaries.
4. Yice-Prcsidents and Secretaries of Sections.
Organizing Sectional Committees'^.
The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the several Sections
are nominated by the Council, and have power to act iintil their names are
submitted to the General Committee for election.
Prom the time of their nomination they constitute Organizing Committees
for the purpose of obtaining information upon the Memoirs and Reports
likely to be submitted to the Sections f, and of preparing Reports thereon,
* Passed by the General Committee, Edinburgh, 1871.
t Koti cc Conirilntors of Memoirs.— Kwihovs, are reminded that, under an arrange-
ment dating from 1871, the acceptance of Memoirs, and the dnj-s on -nhicli tluy are to be
b 2
XX RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
and oil the order in wliicli it is desirable tliat they should he read, to be pre-
sented to the Committees of the Sections at their first Meeting.
An Organizing Committee may also hold such jireliminary Meetings as the
President of the Committee thinks expedient, but shall, nndcr any circum-
stances, meet on the first "Wednesday of the Annual Mooting, at 11 a.m., to
settle the terms of their Report, after which their functions as an Organizing
Committee shall cease.
Constitution of the Sectional Committees^'.
On the first day of tlie Annual Meeting, the President, Vice-Presidents,
and Secretaries of each Section having been appointed by the General Com-
mittee, these Officers, and those previous Presidents and Vice-Presidents of
the Section vrho may desire to attend, are to meet, at 2 p.m., in their Com-
mittee Rooms, and enlarge the Sectional Committees by selecting individuals
from among the Members (not Associates) present at the Meeting whose as-
sistance they may particularly desire. The Sectional Committees thus con-
stituted shall have power to add to their number from day to day.
The List thus formed is to be entered dailj' in the Sectional Minute-Book,
and a copy forwarded without delay to tlie Printer, who is charged with
publishing the same before 8 a.m. on the next day, in the Journal of the
Sectional Proceedings.
Business of the Sectional Committees.
Committee Meetings are to be held on the Wednesday at 2 p.m., on the
following Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Monday, and Tuesday, from 10 to
11 A.M., punctually, for the objects stated in the Rules of the Association,
and specified below.
The business is to be conducted in the following manner: —
At the first meeting, one of the Secretaries will read the Minutes of last
year's proceedings, as recorded in the Minute-Book, and the Synopsis of
Recommendations adopted at the last Meeting of the Association and printed
in the last volume of the Transactions. He will next proceed to read the
Report of the Organizing Committee f. The List of Communications to be
read on Tliursday shall be then arranged, and the general distribution of
business throughout the Aveek shall be provisionally appointed. At the close
of the Committee Meeting tlie Secretaries shall forward to the Printer a List
of the Papers appointed to be read. The Printer is charged with publishing
the same before 8 a.m. on Thursday in the Journal.
On the second day of the Annual Meeting, and the following days, the
read, are now as far as possible determined by Organizing Committees for the several
Sections before the hcc/iimmg of the Meeting. It has therefore become necessary, in order
to give an opportunity to tlie Committees of doing justice to the several Communications,
that each Author should prepare an Abstract of his Memoir, of a length suitable for in-
sertion in the published Transactions of the Assjoiation, and that he should send it, toge-
ther with the original Memoir, by boot-post, on or before , addressed
thus — "General Secretaries, British Association, 22 Albemarle Street, London, W. For
Section " If it should be inconvenient to the Author that his Paper should be read
on any particular days, he is requested to send information thereof to the Secretaries in a
separate note.
* Passed by the General Committee, Edinburgh, 1871.
t This and the following sentence were added by the General Committee, 1871,
KULES 01' THE ASSOCIATION. XXI
Secretaries are to correct, ou a copy of the Joiu-nal, the list of papers which
have been read ou that day, to add to it a list of those appointed to be read
on the next day, and to send this copy of the Journal as early in the day as
possible to the Printers, who are charged with xuinting the same before 8 a.m.
next morning in the Journal. It is necessary that one of the Secretaries of
each Section should call at the Printing Office and revise the proof each
evening.
Minutes of the proceedings of every Committee are to be entered daily in
the Minute-Book, which should be confirmed at the next meeting of the
Committee.
Lists of the Eeports and Memoirs read in the Sections are to be entered
in the Minute-Book daily, which, with all Memoirs and Copies or Abstracts
of Memoirs furnished hy AutJiors, are to be forwarded, at tlie close of the Sec-
tional Meetings, to the Assistant (leneral Secretary.
The Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections become ex officio temporary
Members of the General Committee {vide p. xix), and will receive, on ap-
plication to the Treasurer in the lleception Koom, Tickets entitling them to
attend its Meetings.
The Committees will take into consideration any suggestions wliich may
be offered by their Members for the advancement of Science. They are
specially requested to review the recommendations adopted at preceding
Meetings, as published in the volumes of the Association and the communi-
cations made to the Sections at this Meeting, for the purposes of selecting
definite points of research to which individual or combined exertion may be
usefully directed, and branches of knowledge on the state and progress of
which Eeports are wanted ; to name individuals or Committees for the exe-
cution of such Eeports or researches ; and to state Avhcther, and to what de-
gree, these objects may be usefully advanced by the appropriation of the
funds of the Association, by application to Government, Philosophical Insti-
tutions, or Local Authorities.
In case of appointment of Committees for special objects of Science, it is
expedient that all Members of the Committee shoidd be named, and one of
them appointed to act as Secretary, for insuring attention to h(si7iess.
Committees have power to add to their number persons whose assistance
they may require.
The recommendations adopted by the Committees of Sections are to be
registered in the Forms furnished to their Secretaries, and one Copy of each
is to be forwarded, without delay, to the Assistant-General Secretary for pre-
sentation to the Committee of Eecommendations. Unless this be done, the
liecommendations cannot receive the sanction of the Association.
N.B. — Eecommendations which may originate in any one of the Sections
must first be sanctioned by the Committee of that Section before they can be
referred to the Committee" of Eecommendations or confirmed by the General
Committee.
Notices Regardiiifj Grants of Money.
Committees and individuals, to whom grants of money have been entrusted
by the Association for the prosecution of particular researches in Science,
are required to present to each following Meeting of the Association a Eeport
of the progress which has been made ; and the Individual or the Member first
named of a Committee to whom a money grant has been made must (pre-
viously to the next meeting of the Association) forward to the General
XXU RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
Secretaries or Treasurer a statement of the sums which have been expended,
and the balance which remains disposable on each grant.
Grants of money sanctioned at any one meeting of the Association expire
a weeh before the opening of the ensuing Meeting; nor is the Treasurer
authorized, after that date, to allow any claims on account of such grants,
unless they be renewed in the original or a modified form by the General
Committee.
No Committee shall raise money in the name or under the auspices of the
British Association without special permission from the General Committee
to do so ; and no money so raised shall be expended except in accordance
with the rules of the Association.
In each Committee, the Member first named is the only person entitled to
call on the Treasurer, W. Spottiswoode, Esq., 50 Grosvenor Place, Loudon,
S.W., for such portion of the sums granted as may from time to time be
required.
In grants of money to Committees, the Association does not contemplate
the payment of personal expenses to the members.
In all cases where additional grants of money are made for the continua-
tion of Researches at the cost of the Association, the sum named is deemed
to include, as a part of the amount, whatever balance may remain unpaid ou
the former grant for the same object.
All Instruments, Papers, Drawings, and other property of the Association
are to be deposited at the Ofiice of the Association, 22 Albemarle Street,
Piccadilly, London, W., when not employed in carrying on scientific inquiries
for the Association.
Business of the Sections.
The Meeting Boom of each Section is opened for conversation from 10 to
11 daily. T/ie Section liooms and approaches thereto can he used for no notices,
exhibitions, or other pwposes than those of the Association.
At 11 precisely the Chair will be taken, and the reading of communica-
tions, in the order previously made public, be commenced. At 3 p.m. the
Sections will close.
Sections may, by the desire of the Committees, divide themselves into
Departments, as often as the number and nature of the communications de-
livered in may render such divisions desirable.
A Iloport presented to the Association, and read to the Section which
originally called for it, may be read in another Section, at the request of the
Oificers of that Section, with the consent of the Author.
Duties of the Doorkeepers.
1. — To remain constantly at the Doors of the Rooms to which they are ap-
pointed during the whole time for which they are engaged.
2. — To requii-e of every person desirous of entering the Rooms the exhibi-
tion of a Member's, Associate's or Lady's Ticket, or Reporter's Ticket,
signed by the Treasui'er, or a Special Ticket, signed by the Assistant-
General Secretary.
3. — Persons unprovided with any of these Tickets can only be admitted to
any particular Room by order of the Secretary in that Room.
No person is exempt from these Rules, except those Officers of the Asso-
ciation whose names are printed in the Programme, p. 1.
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXUI
Duties of the Messengers.
To I'omaia constantly at tlio llooms to -which they are appointed, during
the whole time for which they arc engaged, except when employed on mes-
sages by one of the Officers directing these Rooms.
Committee of Recommendations.
The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee, which
shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional Committees,
and report to the General Committee the measures which they would advise
to be adopted for the advancement of Science.
All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Researches,
and Reports on Scientific Subjects shall be submitted to the Committee of
Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the General Committee
unless previously recommended by the Committee of Recommendations.
Local Committees.
Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association to
assist in making arrangements for the Meetings.
Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers those
Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire.
Officers.
A President, two or more Yice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries, and a
Treasurer shall be annually appointed by the General Committee.
Council.
In the. intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall be ma-
naged by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The Council may
also assemble for the despatch of business during the week of the Meeting.
Papers and Communications,
The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to reserve
his right of property therein.
Accounts.
The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors
appointed by the General Committee.
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Ed
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XXX
REPORT 1872.
Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association.
Date and Place.
Presidents.
Sccretavie.s.
MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.
COM.MITTEE OF SCIENCES, I. MATHEMATICS AND GENEEAL PHYSICS.
1832. Oxford
1833. Cambridge
1834. Edinburgh
Daries Gilbert, D.C.L., T'.E.S....|Rev. H. Coddington.
SirD. Brewster, F.R.S Prof. Forbe.s.
Eer. W. WheweU, F.R.S |Prof. Forbes, Prof. Lloyd.
1835. Dublin
1836. Bristol
1837. Liverpool ...
1833. Newcnstle...
1839. Birmingliaui
1810. Glasgow ...
1841. Plymouth...
1842. Manchester
SECTION A. MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.
Rev. Dr. Robinson
Rev. William WheweU, F.R.S... .
Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S
1843. Cork
1844. York
1845. Cambridge.
1846. Southampton
1847. Oxford...
1848. Swansea .
1849. Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh..
1851. Ipswich
1852. Belfast
ia53. Hull
1854. Liverpool...
1855. Glasgow ...
1856. Cheltenham
1857. Dublin
Sir J. F. W. Herschel. Bart.,
F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. WheweU, F.R.S
Prof. Forbes, F.R.S
Rev. Prof. Lloyd, F.R.S
Very Rev. G. Peacock, D.D.
F T? S
Prof. M'CuUoeh, M.R.I.A
The Earl of Eos.^e, F.R.S
The Very Rev. the Dean of Ely .
Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart
F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. PoweU, M.A., F.R.S. .
Lord Wrottesley, F.R.S
William Hopkins, F.R.S
Prof. J. D. Forbes, F.R.S., Sec.
R.S.E.
Rev. W. WliewcU, D.D., F.R.S.,
Prof. W. Thomson, M.A., F.R.S
T A' T^
The Dean of Ely, F.R.S
Prof G. G. Stokes, M.A., Sec.
R.S.
Rev. Prof. Kelland, M.A., F.R.S.
L. &E.
Rev. R. Walker, M. A., F.R.S. ...
Rcv.T. R. Robinson,D.D., F.R.S.,
M.R.I.A.
Prof. Sir W. R. Hamilton, Prof.
Wheatstoue.
Prof. Forbes, W. S. Harris, F. W.
Jerrard.
W. S. Harris, Rev. Prof. PoweU, Prof.
Stevelly.
Rev. Prof. Chevallier, Major Sabine,
Prof. StevcUy.
J. D. Chance, W. Snow Harris, Prof.
Stevelly.
Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. Stevelly, Arch.
Smith.
Prof. Stevelly.
Prof. M'Cuiloch, Prof. SteveUy, Rev.
W. Seoresby.
J. Nott, Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. Wni. Hev, Prof. Stevellv.
Rev. H. Goodwin, Prof. SteveUy, G.
G. Stokes.
•John Drew, Dr. Stevellv, O. G.
Stokes.
Rev. H. Price, Prof. Stevelly, G. G.
Stokes.
Dr. SlevcUv, G. G. Stokes.
Prof. Stevellv, G. G. Stokes, W.
Ridout Wills.
W. J. Maequorn Rankine, Prof.
Smyth, Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G.
Stokes.
S. Jackson, W. J. Maequorn Rankine,
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.
Prof. Dixon, W. J. Maequorn Ran-
kine, Prof SteveUy, J. Tyndall.
B. Blaydes Haworth, J. D. SoUilt,
Prof. Stevelly, J. Welsh.
J. Hartnup, H. G. Puckle, Prof.
Stevellv, J. Tpidall, J. Welsh.
Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. D. Gray, Prof.
Tyndall.
C. Brooke, Rev. T. A. Southwocd,
Prof. Stevelly, Rev. J. C. TurnbuU.
Prof. Curtis, Prof. Hennessy, P. A.
Ninnis, W. J. Maequorn Rankine,
Prof Stevellv.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
XXXI
Date and Place.
1858. Leeds
Rev. W.Wliewell, D.D,, V.P.E.S
1859.
1860.
1861.
1862.
1863,
1864.
1865.
1866.
1867.
1868.
1869.
1870.
1871.
1872,
Presidents.
Secretaries.
Aberdeen ...The Earl of Eosse, M.A., K.P.,
Oxford Rev! B. Price, M.A., F.R.S....
Manchester . Q. B. Airy, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Cambridge .. Prof. G. G. Stokes, M. A., F.R.S.
Newcastle... Prof. W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
C.E., F.R.S.
Bath Prof. Cayley, M.A., F.E.S.,
F.R.A.S.
Birmingham W. Spottiswoode, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S.
Prof. VVlieatstone,D.C.L., F.R.S.
Dundee Prof. Sir W. Thomson, D.C.L.,
F R S
Norwich ... Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S...
Exeter Prof. J. J. Sylvester, LL.D.,
F.R.S.
Liverpool... J. Clerk Maxwell, M.A., LL.D.,
F.R.S.
Nottingham
Edinburgh .
Brighton ...
Rev. S. Earnshaw, J. P. Hennessy,
Prof. Stevelly, H. J. S. Smith, Prof.
Tyndall.
J. P. Henne.ssy, Prof, Maxwell, H. J. S.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. G. C. Bell, Rev. T. Rennison,
Prof. Stevelly.
Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. S.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. S.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. N. Ferrers, Prof. Fuller, F. Jen-
kin, Prof. Stevelly, Rev. C. T.
Whitley.
Prof. Fuller, F. Jenkin, Rev. G.
Buckle, Prof Stevelly.
Rev. T. N. Hutchinson, F. Jenkin, G.
S. Mathews, Prof. H. J. S. Smith,
J. M. Wilson.
Fleeming Jenkin, Prof. H. J. S. Smith,
Rev. S. N. Swann.
Rev. G. Buckle, Prof. G. C. Foster,
Prof. Fuller, Prof. Swan.
Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. R. Ilarley,
E. B. Hayward.
Prof. G. C. Foster, R. B. Hayward,
W. K. Clifford.
Prof W. G. Adams, W. K. Clifford,
Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. W. Allen
Whitworth.
Prof. P. G. Tait, F.R.S.E
W. De La Rue, D.C.L., F.R.S...
Prof. W. G. Adams, J. T. Bottomley,
Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof J. D.
Everett, Rev. R. Harley.
Prof. W. K.Clifford, J. W.'L. Glai,sher,
Prof. A. S. Herschel, G. P. Rodwell.
1832.
1833,
1834.
CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, II. — CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY,
Oxford iJohn Dalton.D.C.L., F.R.S James F. W. Johnston
Cambridge.. John Dalton.D.C.L., F.R.S
Edinbiu'gh... Dr. Hope
Prof Miller.
Mr. Johnston, Dr. Christison.
SECTION B. CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY.
I
18.35,
1836.
1837.
1838.
18.30.
1840.
1841.
1842.
1843.
1S44.
1845.
Dublin
Bristol
Dr. T. Thomson, F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Cumming....
Liverpool . . .
Newcastle. . .
Birmingham
Glasgow . . .
Plymouth...
Manchester.
Cork
York
Cambridge..
Michael Faraday, F.R.S
Rev. William Whewell, F.R.S..
Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S
Dr. Thomas Thomson, F.R.S. ,
Dr. Daubeny, F.R.S.
John Dalton,D.C.L., F.R.S.
Prof Apjohn, M.R.I. A. ...
Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S. ...
Rev. Prof. Cumming
Dr. Apjohn, Prof Johnston.
Dr. Apjohn, Dr. C. Henry, W. Hera-
path.
Prof. Johnston, Prof. Miller, Dr.
Reynolds.
Prof 'Miller, R. L. Pattinson, Thomas'
Richardson.
Golding Bird, M.D., Dr. J. B. Melson.
Dr. R. D. Thomson, Dr. T. Clark,
Dr. L. Playfair.
J. Prideaux, Robert Hunt, W. M.
Tweedy.
Dr. L. Playfair, R. Hunt, J. Graham.
R. Hunt, Dr. Sweeny.
Dr. R. Playfair, E. Solly, T. H. Barker.
R. Hunt, J. P. Joule, Prof. Miller,
, E. Solly.
xxxu
REPORT — 1872.
Date and Place.
Presidents.
Secretaries.
1853. Hull
185i. Liverpool ...
Prof. J. P. W. Johnston, M.A.,
3? R S
Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D., F.R.S
1855. Glasgow ...'Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B., F.R.S. .
1856. Cheltenham |Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.E.S.
1858. Leeds ..,
1859. Aberdeen
1860. Oxford
Prof B. C. Brodie, F.R.S.
1846. Southampton Michael Faraday, D.C.L., F.R.S. Dr. Miller, R. Hunt, W. Randall.
1847. Oxford JRey.W.V.Harcourt, M.A., F.R.S. B. C. Brodie, R. Hunt, Prof Solly.
1848. Swansea ...jRichard Phillips, F.R.S iT. H. Henry, R. Hunt, T. Williams.
1849. Birmingham 'John Percy, M.D., F.R.S 'R. Hunt, G. Shaw.
18.50. Edinburgh .|Dr. Ciiristison, V.P.R.S.E Dr. Anderson, R. Hunt, Dr. Wilson.
1851. Ipswich ...'Prof. Thomas Graham, F.R.S. ... T. J. Pearsall, W. S. Ward.
1853. Belfast Thomas Andrews, M.D., F.R.S. . Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Hodges, Prof.
Ron.alds.
, H. S. Blundell, Prof R. Hunt, T. J.
Pearsall.
Dr. Edwards, Dr. Gladstone, Dr.
Price.
Prof Frankland, Dr. H. E. Roscoe.
, J. Horsley, P. J. Worsley, Prof.
Voelcker.
18.57. Dublin Prof. Apjohn, M.D., F.R.S., Dr. Dayy, Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Sul-
M.R.I.A. livan.
Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart., Dr. Gladstone, W. Odling, E. Rev-
D.C.L. nolds.
Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B., F.R.S. . J. S. Brazier, Dr. Gladstone, G. D.
Liveing, Dr. Odling.
A. A^ernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing,
A. B. Nortlicote.
A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing.
H. W. Elpliinstone, W. Odling, Prof.
Roscoe.
. Prof Liveing, H. L. Pattinson, J. C.
Stevenson.
A. V. Harcoiu't, Prof Liveing, R,
Biggs.
.A. V. Harcourt, H. Adkins, Prof.
Wanklyn, A. Winkler Wilis.
. J. H. Atherton, Prof Liveing, W. J.
Russell, J. White.
. A. Crum Brown, Prof. G. D. Liveing,
W. J. Russell.
Dr. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J. Rus-
] I s?ll, F. Sutton.
1869. Exeter Dr. H. Debus, F.R.S., F.C.S. ... Prof. A. Crum Brown, M.D., Dr. W.
J. Rus.sell, Dr. Atkinson.
Prof H. E. Roscoe, B.A.,F.R.S.,!Prof. A. Crum Brown, M.D., A. E.
F.C.S. I Fletcher, Dr. W. J. Russell.
Prof T. Andrews, M.D., F.R.S. 'j. T. Buchanan, W. N. Hartley, T E
I Thorpe.
Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S 'Dr. Mills, W. Chandler Roberts, Dr.
i 1 W. J. RusseU, Dr. T. Wood.
1861. Manchester. Prof W. A. Miller, M.D., F.R.S.
1862. Cambridge .'Prof W. A. Miller, M.D., F.R.S.
1863. Newcastle... br. Alex. W. Williamson, F.R.S
1864. Bath
1865. Birmingham
1866. Nottinghauft
W, Odling, M.B., F.R.S., F.C.S.
Prof W. A. Miller, M.D.,V.P.R.S.
H. Pence Jones, M.D., F.R.S. ..
1867. Dundee ... Prof.T.Anderson,M.D.,F.R.S.E
1868. Norwich ... Prof E. Frankland, P.R.S., F.C.S.
1870. Liverpool...
1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton ..
GEOLOGICAL (.^nd, until 1851, GEOGRAPHICAL) SCIEIsX'E.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, III. GEOLOGY AND GEOGEAPHY.
looo' ^''^"'■'^ ^- ^- M"rchison, F.R.S |John Taylor.
TcqT ^T^^'^^? ■ ^'- ^- C^reenough, F.R.S VV. Lonsdale, John Phillips.
18.J4. Edmbm-gh .Prof Jameson Prof. Phillips, T. Jameson Torrie,
' ' R?v. J. Yates.
SECTION C. — GEOLOGY AND GEGGEAPnY.
1835. Dublin JR. J. Griffith
1836. Bristol ! Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.— G^fo-
(p-aphi/. R. I.Murchison,F.R.S.
Rev.Prof Sedgwick,F.R.S. — Gco-
(/wijj^y. G.B.Greenough,F.R.S.
1837. Liverpool,,
Captain Portlock, T. J. Torrie.
William Sanders, S. Stutchbury, T. J.
Torrie.
Captain Portlock, R. Hunter. — Geo-
graphy. Captain H- M. Denham, R.N.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF TUB SECTIONS.
xxxm
Date and Place.
1838. Newcastle...
1839. Birmingliam
1840. Glasgow ...
18il. Plymouth..
1842. Manchester
1843. Cork
1844. York
1845. Cambridge;.
184G. Southampton
1847. Oxford...
1848. Swansea
1849. Birmhigham
1850. Edinburgh*
Presidents.
C. Lyell, F.R.S., Y.T.G.S.— Geo-
gra'phy. Lord Prudhope.
Rev. Dr. Buckland, P.R.S.— <?eo-
graphi/. Gr.B.Greeuough.F.R.S.
Charles ' Lyell, F.E.S. — Geogra-
phy. Q.B. Greenough, F.R.S.
H. T. De la Beche, F.R.S.
R. L Murcbison, F.R.S
Richard E. Griffith, F.R.S.,
M.R.I.A.
Henry Warbarton, M.P., Pres.
Geol. Soc.
Esv. Prof. Sedgwick, M. A., F.R.S.
LeonardHorner,F.R.S.— ffco^-rrt-
phy. G. B. Greenough, F.R.S.
Very Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.
Sir H. T. De la Beche, C.B.,
Sh- Charles Lyell, F.R.S., F.G.S.'
Su- Roderick I. Murchison.F.R.S.
Secretaries.
W. C. Trevelyan, Capt. Portlock.—
Geography. Capt. Washington.
George Lloyd, M.D., H. E. Strickland,
Charles Darwin.
W. J. Hamilton, D. Milne, Hugh
Murray, H. E. Strickland, John
Scoidar, M.D.
W. J. Hamilton, Edward Moore.M.D.,
R. Hutton.
E. W. Binney, R. Hutton, Dr. R.
Lloyd, H. E. Strickland.
Francis M. Jennings, H. E. Strick-
land.
Prof. Ansted, E. H. Bunbury.
Rev. J. C. Camming, A. C. Ramsay,
Rev. W. Thorp.
Robert A. Austen, J. H. Norton, M.D.,
Prof. Oldham. — Geography. Dr. C.
T. Beke.
Prof. Ansted, Prof. Oldliam, A. C.
Ramsay, J. Ruskin.
StarUng Benson, Prof. Oldham, Prof.
Ramsay.
J. Beete Jukes, Prof. Oldham, Prof.
A. C. Ramsay.
A. Keith Johnston, Hugh Miller, Pro-
fessor Nicol.
1851. Ipswich
1852. Belfast .
SECTION c (continued). — geology.
WiUiam Hopkins, M.A., F.R.S...
Lieut.-Col. Portlock, R.E., F.R.S.
18.53. Hull
1854. Liverpool . .
1855. Glasgow ...
1856. Cheltenham
1857. Dublin
Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S
Prof. Edward Forbes, F.R.S.
Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. . . .
Prof. A. C. Ramsay, F.R.S. ...
The Lord Talbot de Malahide
1858. Leeds' Wilham Hopkins, M.A., LL.D
Sir Charles Lyell, LL.D., D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.R.S., &c.
J. Beete Jukes, M.A., F.R.S....
1859. Aberdeen ...
1860. Oxford
1861. Manchester
1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle ...
Prof. Warington W. Smyth,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
C. J. F. Bunbury, G. \V. Ormerod,
Searles Wood.
James Bryoe, James MacAdam, Prof.
M'Coy, Prof. Nicol.
Prof. Harkness, William Lawton.
John Cunningham, Prof. Harkness,
G. W. Ormerod, J. W. Woodall.
James Bryce, Prof. Harkness, Prof.
Nicol.
Rev. P. B. Brodie, Rev. R. Hepworth,
Edward Hull, J. Scougall, T.Wright.
Prof. Harkness, Gilbert Sanders, Ro-
bert H. Scott.
Prof. Nicol, H. C. Sorby, E. W.
Shaw.
Prof. Harkness, Rev. J. Longmuir, H.
C. Sorby.
Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, Capt.
Woodall.
Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, T. Ru-
pert Jones, G. A\'. Ormerod.
Lucas Barrett, Prof. T. Rupert Jones,
H. C. Sorby.
E. P. Boyd, John Daglisb, H. C. Sor-
by, Thomas Sopwith.
* At the Meeting of the General Committee held in Edinburgh, it was agreed That the
subject of Geography be separated from Geology and combined with Ethnology to consti-
tute a separate Section, under the title of the ■' Geographical and Etbnological Section,
for Presidents and Secretaries of which see page xxxvi.
1872. ^
XXXIV
REPORT — 1872.
Date and Place.
1864. Bath ...
1865. Birmingham
1866. Nottingham
1867. Dundee
1868. Norwich ...
1869. Exeter
1870. Liverpool...
1871. Edinburgh..
1872. Brighton ...
Presidents.
Prof. J. PbiHips, LL.D., F.E.S.,
Su- E. i. Murchison, Bart.,K.C.B.
Prof. A.C. Eamsay, LL.D., F.E.S.
Archibald Geikie, E.E.S., E.G.S.
E. A. C. Godwin-Austen, E.E.S.,
RG.S.
Prof. E. Harkness, RE.S., F.G.S.
Sir Pliilip de M. Grey Bgerton,
Bart., M.P., RE.S.
Prof. A. Geikie, E.E.S., RG.S...
E. A. C. Godwin- Austen, F.E.S.
Secretaries.
W. B. Dawkins, J. Johnston, H. C.
Sorby, W. Pengelly.
Eev. P. B. Brodie, J. Jones, Eer. E.
Myers, H. C. Sorby, W. Pengelly.
E. Etheridge, W. Pengelly, T. Wil-
son, G. H. Wright.
Edward Hull, W. Pengelly, Henry
Woodward.
Eev. O. Eisher, Eev. J. Gunn, W.
Pengelly, Eev. H. H. Win wood.
W. Pengelly, W. Boyd Dawkins, Eev.
H. H. Winwood. '
W. Pengellv, Eev. H. H. Winwood,
W. Boyd'Dawkins, G. H. Morton.
E. Etheridge, J. Geikie, J. McKenny
Hughes, L. C. Miall.
L. C. Miall, George Scott, William
Topley, Henry Woodward.
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
COmriTTEE OF SCIENCES, IT. ZOOLOGY, BOTANT, PnTSIOLOGT, AlfATOMT.
1832. Oxford
1833. Cambridge*
1834. Edinburgh
Eev. P. B. Duncan, F.G.S
Rev. W. L. P. Garnons, RL.S....
Prof. Graham
Eev. Prof. J. S. Henslow.
C. C. Babington, D. Don.
W. YarreU, Prof. Bui-nett.
1835. Dublin ,
1836. Bristol
SECTION D.-
Dr. Allman
Eev. Prof. Henslow
1837. Liverpool..
1838. Newcastle...
1839. Brimingham
1840. Glasgow
1841. Plymouth...
1842. Manchester
1843. Cork
1844. York
W. S. MacLcay
Sir W. Jardine, Bart
Prof. Owen, F.E.S
Sir W. J. Hooker, LL.D
1845. Cambridge
1846. Southampton
1847. Oxford....
John Eichardson, M.D.,RE.S..
Hon. and Very Eev. W. Herbert
LL.D., F.L.S.
William Thompson, RL.S
Very Eev. The Dean of Manches-
ter.
Eev. Prof Hen.slow, F.L.S
Sir J. Eichardson, M.D., F.E.S.
H. E. Strickland, M.A., F.E.S....
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY.
J. Curtis, Dr. Litton.
J.Curtis, Prof Don, Dr. Eiley, S.
Eootsey.
C. C. Babington, Eev. L. Jenyns, W.
Swainson.
J. E. Gray, Prof. Jones, E. Owen, Dr.
Eichardson.
E. Forbes, W. Ick, E. Patterson.
Prof. W. Couper, E. Forbes, E. Pat-
terson.
J. Couch, Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson.
Dr. Lankester, E. Patterson, J. A.
Turner.
G. J. Allman, Dr. Lankester, E. Pat-
terson.
Prof Allman, H. Goodsir, Dr. King,
Dr. Lankester.
Dr. Lankester, T. V. WoUaston.
Dr. Lankester, T. Y. Wollaston, II.
Wooldridge.
Dr. Lankester, Dr. Melville, T. Y.
Wollaston.
SECTION D (contimiecT). — zoology and botany, including thtsiology.
[For the Presidents and Secretaries of the Anatomical and Physiological Subsections
and the temporary Section E of Anatomy and Medicine, see pp. xxxvi.]
1848. Swansea
1849. Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh.
L. W. Dillwyn, F.E.S
William Spence. F.E.S
Prof Goodsir, F.E.S. L. &,E.
Dr. E. Wilbraham Falconer, A. Hen"
frey, Dr. Lankester.
Dr. Lankester, Dr. Eussell.
Prof J. H. Bennett, M.D., Dr. Lan-
kester, Dr. Douglas Maclagan.
* At this Meeting Physiology and Anatomy were made a separate Committee, for
Presidents and Secretaries of which see p. xsxv.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
XXXV
Date and Place.
Presidents.
Secretaries.
1851.
1852.
185.3.
1854.
18.55.
1856.
1857.
1858.
1859.
1860.
1861.
1862.
1863.
1864.
1865.
Ipswich.
Belfast .
Eer. Prof. Henslow, M.A., RE.S.
W. Ogilby
Hull
Liverpool ..
Glasgow . .
Cheltenham .
Dublin ...
Leeds
Aberdeen ,.
Oxford
Manchester.
C. C. Babington, M.A., P.R.S....
Prof. Balfour, M.D., E.R.S
Eev. Dr. Fleeming, RR.S.E. ...
Thomas Bell, F.E.S., Pres.L.S....
Prof.W.H. Harvey, M.D.,F.E.S,
C. C. Babington, M.A., F.E.S....
Sir W. Jardine, Bart., F.E.S.E.
Rev. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S
Prof. C. C. Babington, F.R.S. ..
Cambridge... Prof. Huxley, F.E.S
Newcastle ...Prof. Balfour, M.D.,F.E.S
Bath Dr. John E. Gray, F.E.S. .....
Birmingham T. Thomson, M.D., F.E.S
Prof. Allman, F. W". Johnston, Dr. E.
Lankestcr.
Dr. Dickie, George C. Hyndman, Dr
Edwin Lankester.
Eobert Harrison, Dr. E. Lankester,
Isaac Byerley, Dr. E. Lankester.
William Keddie, Dr. Lankester.
Dr. J. Abercrombie, Prof. Buckman,
Dr. Lankester.
Prof. J. E.Kinahan,Dr.E. Lankester,
Eobert Patterson, Dr. W. E. Steele.
Henry Denny, Dr. Heaton, Dr. E.
Lankester, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.
Prof. Dickie, M.D., Dr. E. Lankester,
Dr. Ogilvy.
W. S. Church, Dr. E. Lankester, P.
L. Sclater, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.
Dr. T. Alcock, Dr. E. Lankester, Dr.
P. L. Sclater, Dr. E. P. Wright.
Alfred Newton, Dr. E. P. Wright.
Dr. E. Charlton, A. Newton, Eev. H.
B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright.
H. B. Brady, C. E. Broom, H. T.
Stainton, Dr. E. P. Wright.
Dr. J. Anthony. Eev. C. Clarke, Eev.
H. B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright.
SECTION I) {continued). — biology*.
1866. Nottingham.
1867. Dundee .
1868. Norwich
1869. Exeter
1870. Liverpool.
1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton
Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.E.S.—
Fhysiological Bep. Prof. Hum-
phry, M!D., F.E.S. — Anthropo-
logical Dcf. Alfred E. Wallace,
F* R G S
Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec. R.S.—
Dcp. of Zool. a7id Bot. George
Busk, M.D., F.E.S.
Eev. M. J. Berkeley, F.L.S.—
Bfp. of Fhjsiology. W. H,
Flower, F.E.S.
George Busk, F.E.S., F.L.S.—
Bcp. of Bot. and Zool. C. Spence
Bate, Y.'R.^.—Bcp. of Ethno
E. B. Tylor.
Prof. G. Eolleaton, M.A., M.D.,
F.E.S.,F.L.S.— i)?;;. Aoiat. and
Physio. Prof. M. Fester, M.D.,
F.L.S.— i)fi). of Ethno. J.
Evans, F.R.S.
Prof. Allen Thomson,M.D.,F.E.S.
—Bcp. ofBot.and7.ool. Prof.
Wyville Thomson, F.E.S.—
Bep. of Anthropo. Prof. W.
Turner, M.D.
Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.E.S.
■^Bep. of Anat. and Bhysio.
Dr. Burdon Sanderson, F.R.S
— Bc^) of Anthropo. Col. A,
Lane Fox, F.G.S
Dr. J. Beddard, W. Pelkin, Rev. H.
B. Tri.stram, W. Turner, E. B.
Tylor, Dr. E. P. Wright.
C. Spence Bate, Dr. S. Cobbold, Dr.
M. Foster, H. T. Stainton, Eev. H.
B. Tristram, Prof. W. Turner.
Dr. T. S. Cobbold, G. W. Firth, Dr.
M. Foster, Prof. Lawson, H. T.
Stainton, Eev. Dr. H. B. Tristram,
Dr. E. P. Wright.
Dr. T. S. Cobbold, Prof. M. Foster,
M.D., E. Eay Lankester, Professor
Lawson, H. T. Stainton, Eot. H. B.
Tristram.
Dr. T. S. Cobbold, Sebastian Evans,
Prof Lawson, Tlios. J. Moore, H.
T. Stainton, Eev. H. B.Tristram,
C. Stanilaud Wake, E. Eay Lan-
kester.
Dr. T. R. Fraser, Dr. Arthur Gamgee,
E. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
H. T. Stainton, C. Staniland Wake,
Dr. W. Rutherford, Dr. Kelburne
King.
Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, H. T. Stainton,
Prof. Lawson, F. W. Eudler, J. H.
Lamprey, Dr. Gamgee, E. Eay Lan-
kester, Dr. Pye Smith.
* At the Meeting of the General Committee at Birmingham, it was resolved :—" That the
title of Section D be changed to Biology ; " and "That for the word ' Sxibscction,' in the
rules for conducting the business of the Sections, the word 'Depr.rtmcnt' be substituted.
c 2
XX XVI
llEPORT — 1872.
Date and Place.
Presidents.
Secretaries.
AN"ATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, V. AXAXOilT AND PHYSIOLOGY.
1833. Cambi-idgo...
1831. Jidinburgli...
Dr. Haviland IDr. Bond, Mr. Pagot.
Dr. Abercrombio Dr. Eoo:et, Dr. William Thomson.
SECTION E. (ttNTIL 1847.) ANATOMY AND MEDICINE,
1835. Dublin Dr. Pritobard
1836. Bristol Dr. Eoget, F.E.S.
1837. Liverpool ... Prof. W. Clark, M.D
1838. Newcastle...
1839. Birmingham
1840. Glasgow ...
1841. Plymouth...
1842. Manchester.
184.3. Cork
1844. York
T. E. Headlam, M.D
John Yelloly, M.D., P.E.S.
James Watson, M.D
P. M. Eoget, M.D., Sec.R.S.
Edward Holme, M.D.; P.L.S.
Sir James Pitcairn, M.D
J. C. Pritcbard, M.D. ,
Dr. Harrison, Dr. Hart.
Dr. Symonds.
Dr. J. Carson, jun., James Long, Dr.
J. E. W. Vose.
T. M. Grecnhow, Dr. J. E. W. Vose.
Dr. G. O. Eees, P. Eyland.
Dr. J. Brown, Prof. Couper, Prof.
Eeid.
Dr. J. Butter, J. Fuge, Dr. E. S.
Sargent.
Dr. Chaytor, Dr. E. S. Sargent.
Dr. John Popham, Dr. E. S. Sargent.
...|I. Erichsen, Dr. E. S. Sargent.
SECTION E. PHYSIOLOGY.
1845. Cambridge .
184fi. Southam pton
1847. Oxford* ...
1850. Edinburgh
1855. Glasgow ..,
1857. Dublin
1858. Leeds
1859. Aberdeen ...
18G0. Oxford
18(il. Manchester.
1802. Cambridge .
186.3. Newcastle...
1864. Bath
ISOS.Birminghmf.
Prof. J. Haviland, M.D. ...
Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S....
Prof. Ogle, M.D., F.E.S....
Dr. E. S. Sargent, Dr. Webster.
C. P. Keele, Dr. Laycock, Dr. Sargent.
Dr. Thomas K. Chambers, W. P.
Ormerod.
PHYSIOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OP SECTION D.
Prof. Bennett, M.D., F.E.S.E.
Prof. Allen Thomson, F.R.S. ...
Prof. E. Harrison, M.D
Sir Benjamin Brodie,Bart..F.E.S.
Prof. S'harpey, M.D., Sec.E.S. ...
Prof. G.Rolleston, M.D., F.L.S.
Dr. John Daw, F.R.S.L. & E. ...
C.E.Paget, M.D
Prof. Rolleston, M.D., F.E.S. ...
Dr. Edward Smith, LL.D., F.E.S.
Prof. Acland, M.D., LL.D., F.E.S.
Prof J. H. Corbett, Dr. J. Struthers.
Dr. E. D. Lyons, Prof. Eedfern.
C. G. Wheelhouse.
Prof. Bennett, Prof. Eodfern.
Dr. E. M'Donnell, Dr. Edward Smith.
Dr. W. Eoberts, Dr. Edward Smith.
G. F. Helm, Dr. Edward Smith.
Dr. D. Embleton, Dr. W. Turner.
J. S. i3artram, Dr. W. Turner.
Dr. A. Fleming, Dr. P. Heslop, Oliver
Pembleton, Dr. W. Turnei-.
GEOGRAPHICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
[For Presidents and Secretaries for Geograijhy previous to 1851, see Section C, p. xxsii.]
ETHNOLOGICAL SXTDSECTIONS OF SECTION D.
Dr.Pritchard
Prof. II. H. Wilson, M.A. .
1810. Southampton
1847. Oxford
1848. Swansea ...
1849. Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh..
Vice-Admiral Sir A. Malcolm
Dr. King.
Prof. Buckley.
G. Grant Francis.
Dr. R. G. Latham.
Daniel Wilson.
* By direction of the General Committee at Oxford, Sections D and E were incorporated
under the name of "Section D— Zoology and Botany, including Physiology" (see-p. sxxiv).
The Section being then vacant was assigned in 1851 to Geography.
t Vide note on preceding page.
PEESIDENTS AND SECRETAUIES OF THE SECTIONS.
XXXVU
Date and Place.
Presidents.
Secretaries.
SECTION E.
1851.
1852,
1853.
1854.
1855.
1856.
1857.
1858.
1859.
1860.
1861.
1862.
1863.
1864.
1865.
1866.
1867.
1858.
1869.
1870.
, 1871.
1872.
Ipswich . . .
Belfast
Hull
9
Liverpool . . .
Glasgow ...
Cheltenham
Dublin
Leeds
Aberdeen ...
Oxford
Manchester .
Cambridge .
Newcastle...
Bath
Birmingham
Nottingham
Dundee
Norwich ...
Exeter
Liverpool . .
Edinbm'gh.
Brighton ..
GEOGRAPnY AND ETHNOLOGY.
E. Cull, Eer. J. W. Donaldson, Dr.
Norton Shaw.
E. Cull, E. MacAdam, Dr. Norton
Shaw.
E. Cull, Eev. H. W. Kemp, Dr. Nor-
ton Shaw.
Eichard Cull, Eev. II. Higgins, Dr.
Ihne, Dr. Norton Shaw.
Dr. W. G. Blackie, E. Cull, Dr. Nor-
ton Shaw.
E. Cull, R D. Hartland, W. H. Eum-
sey. Dr. Norton Shaw.
E. Cull, S. Ferguson, Dr. E. E. Mad-
den, Dr. Norton Shaw.
E. Cull, Francis Galton, P. O'Cal-
laghan. Dr. Norton Shaw, Thomas
Wright.
Eichard Cull, Professor Geddes, Dr.
Norton Shaw.
Capt. Burrows, Dr. J. Hunt, Dr. C.
Lempriere, Dr. Norton Shaw.
Dr. J. Hunt, J. liingsley, Dr. Norton
Shaw, W. Spottiswoode.
J. W. Clarke, Eev. J. Glover, Dr.
Hunt, Dr. Norton Shaw, T. Wright.
C. Carter Blake, Hume Greenfield,
C. E. Markbam, E. S. Watson.
H. W. Bates, C. E. Markbam, Capt.
E. M. Murchison, T. Wright.
H. W. Bates, S. Evans, G. Jabet, C.
E. Markbam, Thomas Wright.
H. W. Bates, Eev. E. T. Cusins, E.
H. Major, Clements E. Markbam,
D. W. Nash, T. Wright.
H. W. Bates, Cyril Graham, C. E.
Markbam, S. J. Mackie, E. Sturrock.
Capt.G.H.Eichards,E.N.,F.E.S.|T. Baincs, H. W. Bates, C. E. Mark-
'■ I ham, T. Wright.
SECTION E (continued). — geogkaphy.
Sir Bartle Frere, E.C.B., LL.D., H. W. Bates, Clements E. Markliam,
Sir E. I. Murchison, F.E.S., Pres.
E.G.S.
Col. Chesney, E.A., D.C.L.,
E. G. Latham, M.D., F.E.S. ...
Sir E. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,
FES
Sir J. Ei'chardson, M.D., F.E.S.
Col. Sir H. C. Eawlinson, K.C.B.
Eev. Dr. J.HcnthawnTodd,Pres.
E.I.A.
Sir E. I. Murchison, G.C.St.S.,
F.E.S.
Eear-Admiral Sir James Clerk
Eoss, D.C.L., F.E.S.
Sir E. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,
F.E.S.
John Crawfurd, F.E.S
Francis Galton, F.E.S
Sir E. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,
F.E.S.
Sir E. I. Murchison,. K.C.B.,
F.E.S.
Major-General Sir E. Eawlinson,
M.P., K.C.B., F.E.S.
Sir Charles Nicholson, Bart.,
LL.D.
Sir Samuel Baker, F.E.G.S
F. E.G.S
SirE, I. Murchison, Bt, K.C.B.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.E.S., F.G.S.
Colonel Yule, C.B., F.E.G.S. ...
Francis Galton, F.E.S
J. H. Thomas.
H. W. Bates, David Buxton, Albert
J. Mott, Clements E. Markbam.
Clements E. Markliam, A Bucban,
J. H. Thomas, A. Keith Johnston.
H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston, Eev.
J. Newton, J. H. Thomas.
1833.
1834.
1835.
1836.
Cambridge
Edinburgh
Dublin ,
Bristol .
STATISTICAL SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, TI. STATISTICS,
Prof. Babbage, F.E.S IJ. E. Driukwater.
Sir Charles Lemon, Bart |Dr. Cleland, C. Hope Maclean.
SECTION F.; STATISTICS.
Charles Babbage, F.E.S |W. Greg, Prof. Longfield.
Sir Charles Lemon, Bart., F.E.S. Eev. J. E. Bromby, C. B. Fripp,
James Heywo<?d.
XXXVUl
REPORT 1872.
Date and Place.
Presidents.
Secretaries.
1837. Liverpool...
.1838. Newcastle...
1839. Birmingham
1840. Glasgow ...
1841. Plymouth...
1842. Manchester.
1843. Cork
1844. York
1845. Cambridge .
1846. Southampton
1847. Oxford ,
1848. Swansea ...
1849. Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh ..
Et. Hon. Lord Sandon
Colonel Sykes, RR.S
Henry Hallam, F.R.S
Et. Hon, Lord Sandon, F.E.S.
M.P.
Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.E.S
G. W. Wood, M.P., F.L.S
Sir C. Lemon, Bart., M.P
Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.E.S., F.L.S.
Et. Hon. The Earl Fitzwilliam...
G. E. Porter, F.E.S
Trarers Twiss, D.C.L., F.R.S. ...
J. IL Vivian, M.P., F.E.S
Et. Hon. Lord Lyttelton
1851. Ipswich.
1852. Belfast .
1853. Hull
1854. Liverpool
1855. Glasgow
W. E. Greg, W. Langton, Dr. W. C.
Tayler.
W. Cargill, J. Heywood, W. E. Wood.
F. Clarke, R. W. Eawson, Dr. W. C.
Tayler.
C. R. Baird, Prof. Ramsay, R. W.
Eawson.
Eev. Dr. Byrth, Rev. R. Luney, R.
W. Rawson.
Rev. E. Lunev, G. W. Ormerod, Dr.
W. C. Tayler.
Dr. D. BuUen, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.
J. Fletcher, J. Heywood, Dr. Laycoyk.
J. Fletcher, W. Cooke Tayler, LL.D.
J. Fletcher, F. G. P. Neison, Dr. W.
C. Tayler, Eev. T. L. Shapcott.
Eev. W. H. Cox, J. J. Danson, F. G.
P. Neison.
J. Fletcher, Capt. E. Shortrede
Dr. Finch, Prof. Hancock, F. G. P.
Neison.
Prof. Hancock, J. Fletcher, Dr.
Stark.
J. Fletcher, Prof. Hancock.
Prof Hancock, Prof. Ingram, James
MacAdam, Jun.
Edward Chesliire, William Newmarch.
E. Cheshire, J. T. Danson, Dr. W. H.
Duncan, W. Newmarch.
R. Monckton Milnes, M.P J. A. Campbell, E. Cheshire, W. New-
march, Prof. R. H. Walsh.
Very Rev. Dr. John Lee,
V.P.R.S.E.
Sir John P. Boileau, Bart.
His Grace the Archbishop of
Dublin.
James Heywood, M.P., F.R.S.
Thomas Tooke, F.E.S
SECTION F (continued). — ecokomic sctence ahd statistics.
1856. Cheltenham
1857. Dublin
1858. Leeds ;
1859. Aberdeen ..
1860. Oxford
1861. Manchester
1862. Cambridge..
1863. Newcastle
Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, M.P. ... Rev. C. H. Bromby, E. Cheshire, Dr.
W. N, Hancock Newmarch, W. M.
Tartt.
His Grace the Archbishop of Prof Cairns, Dr. H. D. Hutton, W.
Dublin, M.E.I. A.
Edward Baines
1864. Bath....
1865. Birmingham
1866. Nottingham
1867. Dundee
1868. Norwich ...
Col. Sykes, M.P., F.R.S. ...
Nassau W. Senior, M. A. ' . . .
William Newmarch, F.R.S.
Edwin Chadwick, C.B
William Tite, M.P., F.E.S
William Farr, M.D., D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
Et. Hon. Lord Stanley, LL.D.,
M.P.
Prof. J. E. T. Rogers ,
M. E. Grant DufP, M.P
Samuel Brown, Pres. Instit. Ac-
tuaries.
Newmarch.
T. B. Baines, Prof. Cairns, S. Brown,
Capt. Fishbom-ne, Dr. J. Strang.
Prof. Cairns, Edmund Macrory, A. M.
Smith, Dr. John Strang.
Edmund Macrory, W. Newmarch,
Rev. Prof J. E. T. Rogers.
David Chadwick, Prof R. C. Christie,
E. Macrory, Rev. Prof T. E. T.
Rogers.
H. D. Macleod, Edmund Macrory.
T. Doubleday, 'Edmund Macrory,
Frederick Piu-dy, James Potts.
E. Macrory, E. T. Payne, F. Purdy.
G. J. D. Goodman, G. J. Johnston,
E. Macrory.
E. Birkin, Jun., Prof. Leono Levi, E.
Macrory.
Prof Leone Levi, E. Macrory, A. J.
Warden.
Eev. W. C. Davie, Prof. Leone Levi.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
XXXIX
Date and Place.
1869. Exeter
1870. Liverpool..
1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brightoa ..
Presidents.
Kt. Hon. Sir Stafford H. North-
cote. Bart, C.B., M.P.
Prof. W. Stanley Jevons, M.A. . .
Rt. Hon. Lord Neaves
jProf. Henry Fawcett, M.P
Secretaries.
Edmund Macrory, Frederick Purdy,
Charles T. D. Acland.
Chas. R. Dudley Baxter, E. Macrory,
J. Miles Moss.
J. Q. Fitch, James Meikle.
J. Gr. Fitch, Barclay PhiUips.
MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
SECTIOK G. MECHANICAI. SCIENCE.
1836.
1837.
1838.
1839.
Bristol ..
Liverpool
Nevrcastle
Birmingham
1840. Grlasgow
Davies GUbert, D.C.L., F.R.S,
Rev. Dr. Robinson
Charles Babbage, F.R.S.
Prof. Willis, F.R.S., and Robert
Stephenson.
Sir John Robinson
1841.
1842.
1843.
1844.
1845.
1846.
1847.
1848.
1849.
1850.
1851.
1852.
Plymouth . .
Manchester
Cork
York
Cambridge .
Southampton
Oxford
Sveansea
Birmingham
Edinburgh ..
Ipsvfich
Belfast
, Hull
1853.
1854.
1855.
1856. Cheltenham
1857. Dublin
, Liverpool
, Glasgow
1858.
1859.
Leeds
Aberdeen
1860. Oxford
1861. Manchester
1862.
1863.
1864.
1865.
Cambridge .
Newcastle . . .
John Taylor, F.R.S
Rev. Prof. Willis, F.R.S
Prof. J. Macneill, M.R.I.A.
John Taylor, F.R.S
George Rennie, F.R.S
Rev. Prof. WiUis, M.A., F.R.S. .
Rev. Prof. Walker, M.A., F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Walker, M.A., F.R.S.
Robert Stephenson, M.P., F.R.S.
Rev. Dr. Robinson
WiUiam Cubitt, F.R.S
John Warter,C.E., LL.D., F.R.S.
WiUiam Fairbaim, C.E., F.R.S..
John Scott Russell, F.R.S
W. J. Macquorn Rankme, C.E.,
F.R.S.
George Rennie, F.R.S
The Right Hon. The Earl of
Rosse, F.R.S.
William Fairbaim, F.R.S
Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S
Prof. W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.R.S.
J. F. Bateman, C.E., F.R.S
William Fairbairn, LL.D., F.R.S
Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S. .
Bath
Birmingham
Nottingham
1866.
1867. Dundee .
1868. Norwich
J. Hawkshaw, F.R.S
Sir W. G. Armstrong, LL.D.
F.R.S.
Thomas Hawksley, V.P.Inst.
C.B., F.G.S.
Prof. W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.R.S.
G. P. Bidder, C.E., F.R.G.S.
T. G. Bunt, G. T. Clark, W. West.
Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.
R. Hawthorn, C. Vignoles, T. Webster.
W. Carpmael, WiUiam Hawkes, Tho-
mas Webster.
J. Scott RusseU, J. Thomson, J. Tod,
C. Vignoles.
Henry Chatfield, Thomas Webster.
J. F. Bateman. J. Scott Russell, J.
Thomson, Charles Vignoles.
James Thomson, Robert Mallet.
Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.
Rev. W. T. Eingsley.
WiUiam Betts, Jun., Charles Manby.
J. Glynn, R. A. Le Mesurier.
R. A. Le Mesurier, W. P. Struve.
Charles Manby, W. P. MarshaU.
Dr. Lees, David Stephenson.
John Head, Charles Manby.
John F. Bateman, C. B. Hancock,
Charles Manby, James Thomson.
James Oldham, J.Thomson, W. Sykes
Ward.
John Grantham, J. Oldham, J. Thom-
son.
L. Hill, Jun., WiUiam Ramsay, J.
Thomson.
C Atherton, B. Jones, Jun., H. M.
Jeffery.
Prof. Downing, W. T. Doyne, A. Tate,
James Thomson, Henry Wright.
J. C. Dennis, J. Dixon, H. Wright.
R. Abernethy, P. Le Neve Foster, H.
Wright.
P. Le Neve Foster, Rev. F. Harrison,
Henry Wright.
P. Le Neve Foster, John Eobinson, H.
Wright.
W. M. Fawcett, P. Le Neve Foster.
P. Le Neve Foster, P. Wcstmacott, J.
F. Spencer.
P. Le Neve Fester, Robert Pitt.
P. Le Neve Foster, Henry Lea, W. P.
MarshaU, Walter May.
P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, M.
A. Tarbottom.
P. Le Neve Foster, John P. Smith,
W. W. Urquhart.
P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iseliu, C.
Manby, W. Smith.
xl
REPORT 18/3.
Date of Place.
Presidents.
Secretaries.
1869. Exeter
1870. Liverpool . . .
1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton ...
C. W. Siemens, F.E.S
Chas. B. Vignoles, C.E., F.E.S.
Prof. Fleeming Jenkin, F.E.S... .
P. J. Bramwell, C.E
P. Le Neve Foster, H. Bauerman.
H. Bauerman, P. Le Neve Foster, T.
King, J. N. Shoolbred.
H. Bauerman, Alexander Leslie, J. P.
Smith.
H. M. Brunei, P. Le Neve Foster,
J. CI. Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.
List of Evening Lectures.
Date and Place.
Lecturer.
Subject of Discourse.
18i2. Manchester
1843. Cork ,
Charles Vignoles, F.E.S, .
1844. York ,
1845. Cambridge..
1846. Southampton
1847. Oxford
1848. Swansea
1849. Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh.
1851. Ipswich
1852. Belfast
1853. Hull
1854. Liverpool ..,
SirM. L Brunei
R. I. Murchi-son
Prof. Owen, M.D., F.E.S.
Prof. E. Forbes, F.E.S. ..
Dr. Eobinson .'
Charles Lyell, F.E.S
Dr. Falconer, F.E.S
G. B. Airy, F.E.S., A.stron.Eoyal
E. L Murchison, F.E.S
Prof. Owen, M.D., F.E.S. ...
Charles Lyell, F.E.S
W. E. Grove, F.E.S
Eev. Prof B. Powell, F.E.S.
Prof. M. Faraday, F.E.S. ...
Hugh E. Strickland, F.G.S.
John Percy, M.D., F.E.S. ...
W. Carpenter, M.D., F.E.S.
Dr. Faraday, F.E.S
Eev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.E.S.
Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D.,
F.E.S.E.
Dr. Mautell, F.E.S
Prof. E. Owen, M.D., F.E.S.
G. B. Airy, F.E.S., Astron. Eoy
Prof G.G. Stokes, D.C.L., F.E.S
Colonel Portlock, E.E., F.E.S.
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D., F.E.S.,
F.G.S.
Eobert Hunt, F.E.S
Prof. E. Owen, M.D., F.E.S. ..
Col. E. Sabine, V.P.E.S
The Principles and Construction of
Atmospheric Eailways.
The Thames Tunnel.
The G eology of Eussia.
The Dinornis of New Zealand.
The Distribution of Animal Life in
the iEgean Sea.
The Earl of Eosse's Telescope.
Geology of North America.
The Gigantic Tortoise of the Siwalik
Hills in India.
Progress of Terrestrial Magnetism.
Geology of Eussia.
Fossil Mammalia of the British Isles.
Valley and Delta of the Mississippi.
Properties of the Explosive substance
discovered by Dr. Schonbein ; also
some Eesearches of his own on the
Decomposition of Water by Heat.
Shooting- star.<!.
Magnetic and Diamagnetic Pheno-
mena.
The Dodo (Didtis inepf.us).'^
Metallurgical operations of Swansea
and its neighbourhood.
Eecent Microscopical Discoveries.
Mr. Gassiot's Battery.
Transit of different Weights with
varying velocities on Eailways.
Passage of the Blood througli the
minute vessels of Animals in con-
nexion with Nutrition.
Extinct Birds of New Zealand.
Distinction between Plants and Ani-
mals, and their changes of Form.
Total Sol.ir Eclipse of July 28, 1851.
Eecent discoveries in the properties
of Light.
Eecent discovery of Eock-salt at Car-
rickfergus, and geological and prac-
tical considerations connected with it.
Some peculiar phenomena in the Geo-
logy and Physical Geography of
Yorkshire.
The present state of Photography.
Anthropomorphous Apes.
Progress of researches in Terrestrial
Magnetism.
LIST OF EVENING LECTURES.
Xli
Pate and Place.
1855. Glasgow ,
1856. Clieltenbam
1857. Dublin
1858. Leeds
1859. Aberdeen ..
Lecturer.
Subject of Discourse.
Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S.
Lieut.-Col. H. Eawlinson ..
Col. Sir H. Eawlinson ,
18C0. Oxford
1861. Mancbester
1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle-
on-Tyne.
1864. Batb
1865. Birmingham
1866. Nottingham.
1867. Dundee..
1868. Norwich ...,
1869. Exeter
1870. LiTerpool ..
1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton ..
W. E. Grove, E.R.S
Prof. W. Thomson, E.E.S
Eev. Di-. Livingstone, D.C.L. ...
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D., F.E.S,
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.E.S. ...
SirE.I.Murcbison, D.C.L
Eev. Dr. Eobinson, F.E.S
Eev. Prof. Walker, F.E.S
C.Tptain Sherard Osborn, E.N.
Prof. W. A. Miller, M.A., F.E.S
G. B. Airy, F.R.S., ^stron.Eoy.
Prof. TvndaU, LL.D., F.E.S. ...
Prof. O'dling, F.E.S
Prof. WilUamson, F.E.S
James Glaisher, F.E.S.
Prof. Eoscoe, F.E.S
Dr. Livingstone, F.E.S.
J. Beete Jukes, F.E.S. .<
William Huggins, F.E.S
Dr. J. D. Hooker, F.E.S
Archibald Geikie, F.E.S
Alexander Herschel, F.E.A.S
J. Fergiisson, F.E.S
Dr. W. Odling, F.E.S
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D., F.E.S,
J. Norman Lockyer, F.E.S
Prof J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.E.S
Prof. W. J. Macquorn Eankine
LL.D., F.E.S.
P. A. Abel, F.E.S
E. B. Tylor, F.E.S
Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.p.
FES
Prof. W. K. Clifford
Characters of Species.
Assyrian and Babylonian Antiquities
and Ethnology.
Eecent discoveries in Assyria and
Babylonia, with the resultsof Cunei-
form research up to the present
time.
Correlation of Physical Forces.
The Atlantic Telegraph.
Recent discoveries in Africa.
The Ironstones of Yorkshire.
The Fossil Mammalia of Austraha.
Geology of the Northern Highlands.
Electrical Discharges in highly rare-
fied Media.
Physical Constitution of the Sun.
Arctic Discovery.
Spectrum Analysis.
The late Eclipse of the Sun.
The Forms and Action of Water.
Organic Chemistry.
The chemistry of the Galvanic Bat-
tery considered in relation to Dy-
namics.
The Balloon Ascents made for the
British Association.
The Chemical Action of Light.
Eecent Travels in Africa.
Probabilities as to the position and
extent of the Coal-measures beneath
the red rocks of the Midland Coun-
ties.
The results of Spectrum Analysis
applied to Heavenly Bodies.
Insular Floras.
The Geological origin of the present
Scenery of Scotland.
The pi-esent state of knowledge re-
garding Meteors and Meteorites.
Archteology of the early Buddhist
Monuments.
Eeverse Chemical Actions.
Vesuvius.
The Physical Constitution of the
Stars and Nebulaj.
The Scientific Use of the Imagination.
Stream-lines and ^'S^aves, in connexion
with Naval Architecture.
On some recent investigations and ap-
plications of Explosive Agents.
On the Eelation of Primitive to Mo-
dern Civilization.
Insect Metamorphosis.
The Aims and Instruments of Scien-
tific Thought.
xlii
EEPOET 1872.
Date and Place.
Lecturer.
Subject of Discourse.
1867. Dundee..
1868. Norwich
1809. Exeter ..
1870. Liverpool .
1873. Brighton .
Lectures to the Operative Classes.
Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., P.E.S
Prof. Huxley. LL.D., P.R.S. ...
Prof. MiUer, M.D., F.E.S
Sir John Lubbock, Bart., M.P.
RE.S.
William Sr)ottiswoode, LL.D.,
F.K.S.
Matter and Force.
A piece of Chalk.
Experimental illustrations of tlio
modes of detecting the Composi-
tion of the Sun and other Heavenly
Bodies by the Spectrum.
Savages.
Sunshine, Sea, and Sky.
xllv
KEPOKT 1872.
Table shoiving the Attendance and Receipts
Date of Meeting.
1831, Sept. 27 .
1832, June 19 .
1833, June 25 .
1834, Sept. 8 .
183s, Aug. 10 .,
1836, Aug. 22 .,
1837, Sept. II .,
1838, Aug. 10 .,
1839, Aug. 26 ..
1840, Sept. 17 ..
1841, July 20 ..
1842, June 23 ..
1843, Aug. 17 ••
1844, Sept. 26 ..
1845, June 19 ..
1846, Sept. 10 ..
1847, June 23 ..
1848, Aug. 9
1849, Sept. 12 ..
1850, July 21 ..
1S51, July 2
1852, Sept. I ..
1853, Sept. 3 ..
1S54, Sept. 20 ..
1855, Sept. 12 ,.
1856, Aug. 6
1857, Aug. 26 ..
1858, Sept. 22 ..
1859, Sept. 14 ..
i860, June 27 ..
1S61, Sept. 4
1862, Oct. 1
1863, Aug. 26 ..
1864, Sept. 13 ..
1865, Sept. 6 ..
1866, Aug. 22 ..
1867, Sept. 4 ..
1868, Aug. 19 ..
1869, Aug. 18 ..
1870, Sept. 14 ..
1871, Aug. 2
1872, Aug. 14 ..
1873, Sept. 17 ..
Where held.
York
Oxford
Cambridge
Edinburgh
Dubhn ..:
Bristol
Liverpool
Newcastle-on-Tyne .
Birmingham
Glasgow
Plymouth
Manchester
Cork
York
Cambridge
Presidents.
Old Life
Members.
The Earl Fitzwilliam, D.C.L. ..
The Eev. W. Buckland, F.E.S. .
The Eev. A. Sedgwick, F.E.S...
Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.C.L
The Eev. Provost Lloyd, LL.D.
The Marquis of Lansdowne
The Earl of Burlington, F.E.S.
The Duke of Northumberland..
The Eev. W. Vernon Hareourt
The Marquis of Breadalbanc . .
The Eev. W. Whewell, F.E.S...
The Lord Francis Egcrton
The Earl of Eosse, F.E.S. .....
The Eev. G. Peacock, D.D
Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart.
Southampton | Sir Eoderick I. Murchison, Bart
Oxford SirEobertH. Inglis, Bart
Swansea
Birmingham
Edinburgh
Ipswich
Belfast
HuU
Liverpool
Glasgow
Cheltenham
Dublin
Leeds
Aberdeen
Oxford
Manchester
Cambridge
Newcastle-on-Tyne ,
Bath
Birmingham
Nottingham
Dundee
Norwich
Exeter
Liverpool
Edinburgh
Brighton
Bradford
The Marquis of Northampton . . .
The Eev. T. E. Eobinson, D.D. .
Sir David Brewster, K.H
G. B. Airy, Esq., Astron. Eoyal .
Lieut.-General Sabine, F.E.S. ...
William Hopkins, Esq., F.E.S. .
The Earl of Harrowby, F.E.S. ..
The Duke of Argyll, F.E.S
Prof C. G. B. Daubeny, M.D....
The Eev. Humplirey Llovd, D.D.
Eichard Owen, M.D., D!C.L. ...
H.E.II. The Prince Consort . . .
The Lord Wrotteslev, M.A
William Fairbairn, LL.D.,F.E.S.
The Eev. Prof. Willis, M.A. ...
Sir William G. Armstrong, C.B.
Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., M.A....
Prof J. Philhps, M.A.,LL.D....
William E. Grove, Q.C., F.E.S.
The Duke of Buccleuch, K.C.B.
Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, F.E.S. .
Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L
Prof. T. H. Huxley, LL.D
Prof Sir W. Thomson, LL.D....
Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.E.S ...
J. P. Joule, D.C.L., F.E.S
169
303
109
226
313
241
314
149
227
235
172
164
141
238
194
182
236
222
184
286
321
239
203
287
292
207
167
196
204
314
246
24s
New Life
Members.
65
169
28
150
36
10
18
3
12
9
8
lo
13
23
33
14
15
42
27
21
113
IS
36
40
44
31
25
18
21
39
28
36
ATTENDANCE AND KECEIPTS AT ANNUAL MEETINGS.
xlv
at Annual Meetings of the Association.
Attended by
Amount
receired
durinff the
Sums paid on
Account of
Grants for
Old
New-
Annual
Annual Assoc
iates.
Ladies. Fore
ignera. Total.
Meeting.
Scientific
Members.
Members.
Purposes.
£ s. d.
£, s. d.
...
...
...
353
900
■ • •
■ ••
...
• • * .
.
■ ..
1298
20
■ ••
. • • *
.
• ••
..
167
434 14
918 14 6
956 12 2
1595 II
1546 16 4
1235 1° n
1449 17 8
1565 10 2
981 12 8
830 9 9
685 16
208 5 4
275 I 8
• . •
...
,
• ••
1350
* .*
. . • •
.
1840
• t .
.
1 1 00*
2400
«..
... .
. • •
34 1438
f ..
* . . •
40 1353
46
317
.
"60*
891
75
376 3
3t
331*
28 1315
71
18s
190 9
22 4
39 2
40 4
25 3
t
07
70
95
76
160
260
172
196
203
197
35 1079
36 857
53 1260
15 929
45
94
65
197
54
707
93
33 4
47
237
22 1071
963
159 19 6
128
42 5
10
273
44 1241
10S5 ° °
345 18
6i
47 2
44
141
37 710
620
391 9 7
63
60 5
10
292
9 lioS
IOS5
304 6 7
56
57 3
67
236
6 876
903
205
121
121 7
65
524
10 1802
1882
330 19 7
14s
lOI IC
94
543
26 2133
231 100
4S0 16 4
104
48 4
12
346
9 1115
1098
734 13 9
156
120 5
00
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26 2022
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507 15 3
III
91 7
10
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13 1698
1931
61S 18 2
125
179 12
06
821
22 2564
2782
684 II I
177
59 (
36
463
47 1689
1604
1241 7
1S4
125 15
S9
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15 3139
3944
iiii 5 10
150
57 4
-33
242
25 1161
1089
1293 16 6
154
209 i-j
04
1004
25 3335
3640
1608 3 10
182
103 II
19
1058
13 2802
2965
1289 15 8
215
149 9
66
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23 1997
2227
1591 7 10
218
105 c
60
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II 2303
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1750 13 4
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1739 4 o"
226
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r20
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2042
1940
229
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600
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1572
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03
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,76
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21 2463
2575
1285
280
80 c
)37
912
43 2533
2649
* Ladies were not admitted by purchased Tickets until 1843.
t Tickets for admission to Sections only. \ .Including Ladies.
xlvi REPoiiT — 1872.
OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT THE
BRIGHTON MEETING.
SECTION A. MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.
Prnj^wl— Warren De La Rue, D.C.L., Ph.D., F.R.S., V.P.E.A.S., V.P.C.S.
Vice-Presidents. — Professor G. C. Foster, F.R.S. ; Professor F. Fuller ; James
Glaisher, F.R.S. ; Lord Lindsay, J. N. Lockyer, F.R.S. ; Professor Phillips,
F.R.S. ; Professor H. J. S. Smith, F.R.S. ; W. Spottiswoode, LL.D., F.R.S. ;
Sir W. Thomson, LL.D., F.R.S. ; Sir Charles Wheatstone, F.R.S.
*&cretenes.— Professor W. K. Clifford, M.A. ; J. W. L. Glaisher, B.A,, F.R. A.S. ;
Professor A. S. Herschel, B.A., F.R.A.S. ; G. F. Rodwell, F.R.A.S.
SECTION B. CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY, INCLUDING THEIR APPLICATIONS TO
AGRICTTLTTIEE AND THE ARTS.
Presidefit.—Dr. J. Hall Gladstone, F.R.S., F.C.S.
Vice-Presidents.— F. A. Abel, F.R.S., F.C.S. ; Professor A. Crmn Brown, M.D.,
F.R.S.E. ; Professor Williamson, F.R.S. ; J. II. Gilbert, Ph.D., F.R.S. ; Sir
Benjamin Brodie, Bart., F.R.S. ; Professor G. C. Foster, F.R.S.
Secretaries.— T)r. Mills: W. Chandler Roberts, F.C.S.; Dr. W. J. Russell, F.R.S.;'
T. Wood, Ph.D.
SECTION C. GEOLOGY.
President.— n. A. C. Godwin-Austen, F.R.S., F.G.S.
Vice-Presidents.— Thomns Davidson, F.R.S., F.G.S. ; Professor P. Martin Duncan,
M.D., F.R.S. F.G.S. ; Rev. Thomas Wiltshire, M.A., F.G.S., F.L.S.; Professor J.
Phillips, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. ; J. Prestvrich, F.R.S., F.G.S.
Secretaries. — Henry Woodward, F.G.S. ; Louis C. Miall; George Scott: William
Topley, F.G.S.
SECTION D. BIOLOGY.
P)-esident.—Sir John Lubbock, Bart., M.P., V.P.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.— Vrofeasor Balfour, M.D., F.R.S.; John Ball, F.R.S.; John
Beddoe M.D. ; George Bentham, F.R.S. ; J. Cordy Burrows, M.D. ; T. Spencer
Cobbold, M.D., F.R.S.; Professor Flower, F.R.S.; Col. A. Lane Fox, F.G.S;
Joseph D. Hooker, C.B., M.D., F.R.S.; J. Gwvn Jeffrevs, F.R.S.; J. Burdon
Sanderson, M.D., F.R.S. ; Professor Wyville Thomson, M^D., F.R.S.
Secretaries. — Professor Thiselton-Dyer, B.A., H. T. Stainton, F.R.S. ; Professor
Lawson, F.L.S.; F. W. Rudler F.G.S.; J. H. Lamprey; Dr. Gamgee, F.R.S.;
E. Ray Lankester, M.A. ; Dr. Pye-Smith.
SECTION E. — GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.
President— Fvmcis Galton, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.
Vice-Presidents.— Clements R. Markham, C.B., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. ; Ma-jor-General
Sir Henry Rawlinson, K.C.B., Pres. R.G.S. ; Major-General Strachey, R.E.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S.; Vice-Admiral Ommanney, C.B., F.R.S.. F.R.G.S.; John
Arrowsmith, F.R.G.S. ; A. G. Findlay, F.R.G.S.
Secretaries.— W. H. Bates, F.R.G.S. ;' A. Keith Johnston, F.R.G.S.; Rev. J.
Newton, M.A. ; J. H. Thomas, F.R.G.S.
SECTION P. ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
President. — Professor Henry Fawcett, M.A., M.P.
Vice-Presidents. — Sir John Bowi-ing; M. E. Grant Duff, M.P. ; Su' James K.
Alexander; Right Hon. J. G. Dodson, M.P. ; James White, M.P.; R. Dudley
Baxter, M.A. ; William Newmarch, F.R.S.
Secretaries. — J. G. Fitch, M.A. ; Barclay Phillips.
Secttom G. — Mechanical Science,
Pi-esident.—I'. J. Bramwell, C.E.
Vice-Preside))ts.~3o\m Ilawkshaw, F.R.S. ; C. W. Merrifield, F.R.S. ; Charles B.
Vignoles, F.R.S.; Prof. W^ J. Macquorn Eankine, LL.D., F.R.S.; James
Nasmyth, C.E. ; W. Froude, F.R.S.
Secretaries.— Ji. M. Brunei; P. Le Neve Foster, M.A. ; John G. Gamble, B.A. ;
James N, Shoolbred,
OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1872-73.
TffUSTEES (PERMANENT).
General SirEDWAED Sabike, K.C.B., E.A., D.C.L., F.B.8.
Sir Philip de M. Grey-Egerton, Bart, M.P., F.K.S., F.G.S
Sir John Lubbock, Bart., M.P., F.E.8., F.L.S.
PRESIDENT.
DE. W. B. CAEPENTEE, LL.D., F.E.S., P.L.S., F.G.S.
VICE-PRESIDENTS.
The Eight Hon. the Eael of Chichester, Lord
Lieutenant of the County of Sussex.
Hia Grace The Duke of Norfolk.
His Grace The Duke of Eichmond, K.G., P.O.,
D.C.L.
His Grace The DUKE OF DetonshIEE, E.G.,
D.C.L., F.E.S.
Sir John LuBBOCK,Bart.,M:.P.,F.E.S.,F.L.S.,F.G.S.
Dr. Sharpey, LL.D., Sec. E.S., F.L.S.
J. Prestwich, Esq., F.E.S. , Pres. G.S.
PRESIDENT ELECT.
JAMES PEESCOTT JOULE., Esq., D.C.L., LL.D., F.E.S.
VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.
The Eight Hon. theEARL OF EossE,F.E.S.,F.E.A.S. l J. P. Gassiot, Esq., D.C.L., LL.D., F.E.S.
The Eight Hon. Lord Houghton, D.C.L., F.E.S. Professor Phillips, D.C.L., LL.D., F.E.S.
The Right Hon. W. E. Poestee, M.P. John Hawkshaw, Esq., F.E.S., F.G.S.
The Mayor of Be,U)FOHD. I
LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT BRADFORD.
The Eev. J. E. Campbell, D.D.
Eichard Goddard, Esq.
Peile Thompson, Esq.
LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT BRADFORD.
Alfred Harris, Jun., Esq.
ORDINARY MEMBERS
Bateman, J. F., Esq., F.E.S.
Beddoe, John, M.D.
Debus, Dr. H., F.E.S.
De La Eue, Waeeen, Esq., F.E.S.
Evans, John, Esq., F.E.S.
Fitch, J. G., Esq., M.A.
Flower, Professor W. H., F.E.S.
Foster, Prof. G. C, F.E.S.
G.VLTON, Francis, Esq., F.E.S.
Godwin-Austen, E. A. C, Esq., F.E.S.
Hirst. Dr. T. Archee, F.E.S.
HUGGINS, William, Esq., D.C.L., F.E.S.
Jeffreys, J. Gwyn, Esq., F.E.S.
OF THE COUNCIL,
Lockter, J. N., Esq., F.E.S.
Meeeifield, C. W., Esq., F.E.S.
N0RTHC0TE,Et.Hon.SirSTAFF0EDH.,Bt.,M,P.
Eamsay, Professor, LL.D., F.E.S.
Eawlinson, Sir H., K.C.B., F.E.S.
Sclateb, Dr. P. L., F.E.S.
Siemens, C. W., Esq., D.C.L., F.E.S.
Bteachey', Major-General, F.E.S.
Strange, Lieut.-Colonel A., F.E.S.
Tyndall, Professor, LL.D., F.E.S.
Wheatstone, Professor Sir C, F.E.S.
Williamson, Professor A. W., F.E.S.
EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
The President and President Elect, the Vice-Presidents and Vice-PresidentB Elect, the General and
Assistant General Secretaries, the General Treasurer, the Trustees, and the Presidents of former
years, viz. : —
Eichard Owen, M.D., D.C.L.
Sir W. Fairbiiirn, Bart., LL.D.
The Eev. Professor Willis, F.E.S.
Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B., LL.D.
Sir Chas. Lyell, Bart., M.A.,LL.D.
Professor Phillips, Jtl.A., D.C.L.
The Duke of Devonshire.
The Eov. T. R. Eobinson, D.D.
Sir G. B. Airy, Astronomer Eoyal.
General Sir E. Sabine, K.C.B.
The Earl of Harrowby.
The Duke of Argyll.
The Eev. H. Lloyd, D.D.
Sir William E. Grove, F.E.S.
The Duke of Buccleuch, K.B.
Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, D.C.L.
Professor Stokes, C.B., D.C.L.
Prof. Huxley, LL.D.
Prof. Sir W. Thomson, D.C.L.
GENERAL SECRETARIES.
Capt. Douglas Galton, C.B., E.E., F.E.S., F.G.S., 12 Chester Street, Groavenor Place, London, S.W.
Prof. Michael Foster, M.D. , F.E.S., Trinity College, CambrMlge.
ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.
GeoegE Griffith, Esq., M.A., Harrow-on-the-hill, Middlesex. .
GENERAL TREASURER.
William Spottistvoodf, Esq., M.A., LL.D., F.E.S., F.E.G.S., 50 GrosTenor Place, London, S.W.
AUDITORS.
John Ball, Esq., F.R.S. J. Gwyn Jeffreys, Esq., F.E.S. Colonel Lane Pox F.G.S.
xlviii . REPORT — 1872.
Report of the Council for the Year 1871-72 p^'esented to the General
Committee at Brighton, on Wednesday, August 14th, 1872.
At eaeli of their Meetings during the present year, the Council have
received a Report from the General Treasurer, and his Report for the year
will be laid before the General Committee this day.
The Council have to announce that a vacancy has occurred in the number
of the Trustees in consequence of the death of Sir Roderick Murchison.
The Council take this opportunity of expressing their regret at the great
loss which Science has sustained by his death. Ho worked long, eai-uestly,
and with eminent success in the Sciences of Geology and Geography, and was
at all times a steady patron of rising Scientific Men in all branches of Science.
He was a Member and strenuous supporter of this Association at its first
formation in 1831, and continued until the close of his life a very constant
attendant at its Meetings and a firm promoter of its interests.
The Council recommend that Sir John Lubbock, Bart., be selected to fill
the vacancy.
The list of Sectional Officers, which the Council will submit to the General
Committee, has been arranged in accordance with the resolution of the
General Committee at the Meeting at Edinburgh in 1871, viz. the Section
of Biology has been divided into the three Departments of Anatomy and
Physiology, Anthropology, and Zoology and Botany, and the Council have
designated the Chairmen and Secretaries to take charge of the several
Departments.
In accordance with the following resolution of the General Committee at
Edinburgh, viz. : —
That the President and General Ofticers, with power to add to their
number, be requested to take such steps as may seem to them desi-
rable in order to promote observations on the forthcoming Total Solar
Eclipse,
a Committee was formed, consisting of the President, and General Officers of
the Association, Professor J. C. Adams, Sir G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal,
Professor Clifton, Mr. De La Rue, Dr. Frankland, Mr. Hind, Mr. Lassell,
President R.A.S., Lord Lindsay, Mr. Lockyer, General Sabine, General Stra-
chey, Colonel Strange, and Professor Stokes ; and a Letter was addressed by
the President to the First Lord of the Treasury, requesting the Government
to contribute £2000 towards the expenses of the Expedition, to aflford to the
Expedition the assistance of a Government Steamer to convey the parties
composing it to the Stations for observation selected on the Coasts of Ceylon
and India, and to obtain for the Expedition the cooperation of the Governor-
General of India and of the Governor of Ceylon.
Her Majesty's Government acceded to the request contained in this letter.
The Expedition was formed by the Committee, and proceeded to Ceylon and
India in the charge of Mr. Lockyer and Dr. Thomson. The Governor-General
of India and the Governor of Ceylon forwarded the objects of the Expedition
by all means in their power.
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. xlix
The report of the proceedings and results of the Expedition will be pre-
sented to the Association by the Eclipse Committee in the usual course.
The Council have received a communication from the Royal Astronomical
Society, informing them that that body contemplated printing, in a separate
volume of their Transactions, the results of the observations of the Solar
Eclipses of 1860 and 1370; and that, under these circumstances, they con-
sidered it would be advantageous to Science to publish, in the same manner,
the results of the Observations made in 1871, under the auspices of the
British Association; thus presenting a llecord of aU these Observations in
one uniform Series.
The Council resolved to accept the proposal of the Council of the Royal
Astronomical Society, and they appointed a Committee, consisting of Mr.
"Warren De La Rue, Colonel Strange, Dr. Huggins, and Mr. Lockyer, to
arrange the necessary details with the Council of the Royal Astronomical
Socictj-.
Thei-e were five other resolutions referred to the Council for consideration
or action, upon which the proceedings of the Council have been as follows : — -
First Hesolution.—" That the President and Council of the British Asso-
ciation be authorized to cooperate with the President and Council of the
Royal Society, in whatever way may seem to them best, for the promotion of
a Circumnavigation Expedition, specially fitted out to carry the Physical and
Biological Exploration of the Deep Sea into aU, the Great Oceanic areas."
A copy of this Resolution was forwarded to the Royal Society, and a Com-
mittee was appointed, consisting of the President and Officers of the Asso-
ciation, Dr. Carpenter, Professor Huxley, Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys, Mr. C. W.
Siemens, and Professor "Williamson, and authorized to cooperate with the
Committee of the Royal Society in carrying out the objects referred to in the
Resolution. The Expedition has been organized, the ship ' Challenger ' is
being fitted out at Sheerness, Captain Nares has been appointed to the com-
mand, and Professor Wyville Thomson (who has obtained three years' leave
of absence from the University of Edinburgh) is appointed to the Scientific
charge, with an adequate Staff under him. It is hoped that the Expedition
will sail about the end of November.
Second Besolution. — " 1. That it is desirable that the British Association
apply to the Treasury for Funds to enable the Tidal Committee to make
observations and to continue their calculations.
" 2. That it is desirable that the British Association should urge upon
the Government of India the importance, for navigation and other practical
purposes, and for science, of making accurate and continued observations on
the Tides at several points on the coast of India."
The Coimcil added General Strachey to the Committee on Tides. The
Government of India, iipou their application, have agreed to defray the
expense of making Tidal observations in India, and of causing the experi-
ments to be reduced according to the methods devised by the Committee on
Tides.
In pursuance of the first part of this Resolution, the Cnnmittce on Tides
being authorized by the Council to make an application to the Government,
presented the following Memorial to the Lords Commissioners of II. M.
Treasury : —
1872.
1 REPORT 1872.
" To the H'lglit Honourable the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty's Treasury,
The Memorial of the British Association for the Advancement of Science.
" Humbly Sheweth,
" 1. That in the year 1867 the British Association appointed a Com-
mittee 'for the purpose of promoting the extension, improvement, and
harmonic analysis of tidal observations.' From that time until the present,
under Committees reappointed from year to year, the proposed work has been
carried on. The mode of procedure adopted, and the results obtained up
to the mouth of August 1871, are fully stated in the accompanying series of
printed reports.
" 2. The primary object of the investigation is the advance of tidal science ;
but the Committee have uniformly kept in view the practical application
of their results to Physical Geography, Meteorology, Coast and Harbour
Engineering, and ITavigation,
" 3. A large mass of valuable observations recorded by self- registering
tide-gauges during the last twenty years having been found available, the
Committee have applied themselves in the first place to the reduction of
these observations, and have deferred the object of promoting observations
in other localities until the observations already made have been utilized to
the utmost.
" 4. The work thus undertaken has proved, as was anticipated, most
laborious. The calculations have been performed, under the superintend-
ence of Sir William Thomson, by skilled calculators recommended by the
Nautical Almanac Office. The funds required to pay the calculators, and fo
print and prepare Tables, forms for calciilation, &c., to the amount of =£600,
have been granted by the British Association in four successive annual
allowances of .£100 each, and a sum of .£200 voted at the last Meeting.
The last grant barely sufficed for the work actually in hand, and to secure
the continuance of the investigation additional funds are necessary. The
Council of the British Association therefore directed the Tidal Committee to
make an application to the Government for assistance, the amount at present
asked for being limited to .£150.
" 5. It seemed to the Council that after the Association had done so much
in the way of actual expenditure of time by the Members of its Committee,
and had given such a large contribution from its very limited funds, enough
had been done to show the object to be one for which assistance may
reasonabljr be expected from Government. On representations made by
Colonel Walker, Director of the Trigonometrical Survey of India, the Indian
Government has already granted the means of defraying the expense of
making Tidal Observations in India, and applying to them the methods of
reduction devised by the Committee of the British Association. The Council
hope, therefore, that the Government of this country may be similarly dis-
posed to assist in a matter of national importance.
(Signed) " AVilliam THOirso:N-,
President of the British Association."
" May 21, 1872."
The Council regret to state that the application was rejected upon the
grounds explained in the following letter : —
" TreaBui'v Cbambers, "*
3rcl June, 1872.
" SiE, — The Chancellor of the Exchequer has referred to tlie Lords Com-
missioners of Her Majesty's Treasury the Memorial of the British Association
REPORT or THE COUNCIL. ;K
for the Advancement of Science, forwarded to him with your letter of 21st
ultimo, praying for Government assistance in connexion with Tidal Obser-
vations.
" I am to state that their Lordships have given their anxious attention to
the Memorial, and they are fullj^ sensible of the interesting nature of such
investigations, but that they feel that if they acceded to this request, it
would be impossible to refuse to contribute towards the numerous other ob-
jects which men of eminence may desire to treat scientifically.
" Their Lordships must, therefore, though with regret, decline to make a
promise of assistance towards the present object out of the public funds.
" I am. Sir,
" Your obedient Servant,
(Signed) " William Law."
" Sir W. Thomson, Atlienceum Chtb."
Tliird Hesolufion. — "That the Council of the Association be requested to
take such steps as to them may seem most expedient in support of a proposal,
made by Dr. Buys Ballot, to establish a telegraphic meteorological station at
the Azores."
The Council appointed a Committee of their own body to report upon this
proposal. ■ The Committee after due deliberation reported that, while sympa-
thizing with the proposal made by Dr. Buys Ballot, they cannot recommend
a grant of money to be made by the Association for carrying it out. In this
recommendation the Council concur.
Fourth Hesolufion. — " That the Council be requested to take into con-
sideration the desirability of the publication of a periodic record of advances
made in the various branches of science represented by the British Associa-
tion."
The Council, after a careful consideration of this proposal, are not prepared
to recommend the Association to undertake the publication of a periodic
record of advances made in the various branches of science represented by
the Sections of the British Association. They are of opinion that in so vast
an undertaking special Societies should be invited to pi-epare such records,
the action of the Association being limited to occasional grants in aid. They
are of opinion, however, that the Association would do well to promote the
more frequent publication in their Proceedings of critical reports on vai-ious
branches of science, of the same nature as those which have alreadj' rendered
previous volumes so valuable to investigators.
Fifth liesohition. — "1. That the Council of this Association be requested
to take such steps as may appear to them desirable with reference to the
arrangement now in contemplation to establish 'Leaving Examinations,' and
to report to the Association on the present position of science-teaching in
the public and first-grade schools.
" 2. That the Coimcil be requested to take such steps as they deem wisest
in order to promote the introduction of scientific instruction into the ele-
mentary schools throughoitt the country."
A Committee, consisting of the President and the General Officers, Mr. G.
Busk, Dr. Debus, Dr. Duncan, Mr. Fitch, Professor M. Foster, Mr. F. Galton,
Dr. Hirst, Professor Huxley, Sir John Lubbock, Bart., Sir J. Paget, Bart.,
Ecv. Professor Price, Professor Henry J. S, Smith, Professor Stokes, Professor
Tyndall, and Professor "VVilHamson, was appointed to consider the first of
these resolutions, and to report on them to the Council.
d2
Hi iiEPOiiT — 1872.
la accovdauce with the rocommendatiou of this Committee the Coaucil
adopted the following Resolution : —
That, having had under consideration the requests which the Committee
of Masters of Schools have made to the Universities of Oxford and
Cambridge upon points in which the Education of the Universities
and Schools came into contact, the Council of the British Association
recommend that Arithmetic, and cither Elementary Physics or Che-
mistry experimentally treated, be introduced into the Leaving Exa-
minations as compulsory subjects.
That the Head-Masters of Public Schools be requested to furnish
the Council with information about the present position of Science-
teaching in their Schools.
and the Council have communicated thereon with the Universities of Oxford
and Cambridge, but at present no decision respecting " Leaving Examinations "
has been arrived at in these Universities.
In accordance with the terms of the resolution passed by the General
Committee last year, appointing a Committee on Science Lectures and Orga-
nization, the action proposed to be taken by this Committee in the following
resolutions, was referred to the Council and sanctioned.
1. That a Subcommittee, consisting of Dr. Carpenter, Prof. Williamson,
Prof. W. G. Adams, Dr. Hirst, Mr. Geo. Griffith, Di. Michael Foster, and
Prof. E.oscoe be appointed for one year for the purpose of preparing a list
of Lecturers for the consideration of this Committee, and of communicating
with the various towns with the view of establishing a system of Science
Lectures throughout the countiy.
2. That the names of the proposed Lecturers be selected (with their
consent) from amongst the Members of the General Committee of the
Association, or from amongst the Graduates of any University in the
United Kingdom ; and that the subjects ixpon which the Lectures be de-
livered shall be such as are included in one or other of the Sections of the
Association.
The Committee have drawn up a Report, dealing generally with the sub-
ject of their inquiry, which the Council recommend should be referred to tho
Committee of Recommendations.
The Council have had under consideration tlie question of enabling
Members, who are unable to be present at tho Meetings, to obtain the
Journal and other Printed Papers, and they have adopted a Regulation as
follows : — ■
The Journal, President's Address, and other Printed Papers issued by the
Association during the Annual Meeting will be forwarded daily to Members
and others, on application and prepayment of 2s. Gd. to the Clerk of the
Association, on or before the first day of the Meeting.
The Council regret to have to announce that the state of health of
Dr. Thomas Thomson renders him unable to continue to act as one of the
General Secretaries of tlie Association after the present Meeting. They
cannot refrain from expressing their great regret at the loss of his valuable
services.
The Council have agreed to recommend that Professor Michael Foster,
F.R.S., be appointed one of the Genei-al Secretaries in his place, and his
name will be proposed to the General Committee at the Meeting for the
Election of the Council aud Officers on Monday next.
The Council have added the following names of gentlemen," present
BECOMMKNDATIONS or THE GENEKAL COMMITTEE. liii
at. tlic last Meciiiig of the Association, to the list of Corresponding Members,
viz. : —
His Imiicrial Majesty the Emperor of the Brazils.
Professor Dr. Coldiiig.
Dr. Giissfeldt.
Dr. Liiroth.
Dr. Liitkeu.
Dr. Joseph Szabo.
The General Committee are reminded that Bradford has heen selected as
the place of meeting for next year. Invitations for subsequent Meetings
have been received from Belfast and Glasgow.
Becommendations adopted by the GENErvAL Committee at xue BwenioN
Meeting in August 1872.
[When Committees are appointed, the Member first named is regarded as the Secretary,
except there is a specific nomination.]
Involving Grants of Money.
That the Committee, consisting of Professor Caylcy, Professor Stokes,
Professor H. J. S. Smith, Sir W. Thomson, and Mr.' J. W. L. Glaisher (Se-
cretary), on Mathematical Tables be reappointed, with a grant of .£100 for
the calculation and printing of numerical tables.
That the Committee on Tides, consisting of Sir W. Thomson, Professor J.
C. Adams, Professor W. J. M. Kanldne, Mr. J. Oldham, Bear-Admiral
Eiehards, General Strachey, Mr. W. Parkes, and Colonel Walker, be reap-
pointed, with a grant of £400 to complete the reduction of Tidal Observations
from existing data, and that an urgent recommendation be made to the
Government to undertake Tidal Observations and their reduction.
That the Committee for reporting on the Bainfall of the British Isles bo
reappointed, and that this Committee consist of Mr. Charles Brooke, Mr.
Glaisher, Professor Phillips, Mr. G. J. Symons, Mr. J. F. Bateman, Mr. B.
W. Mylne, Mr. T. Hawksley, Professor J. C. Adams, Mr. C. Tomlinson,
Professor Sylvester, Dr. Pole, Mr. Bogers Field, Professor Ansted, and Mr.
Buchan ; that Mr, G. J. Symons be the Secretary, and that the sum of £100
be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That the Committee on Underground Temperature, consisting of Professor
Everett (Secretary), Sir W. Thomson, Sir Charles Lycll, Bart., Professor
J. Clerk Maxwell, Professor Phillips, Mr. G. J. Symons, Professor Bamsay,
Professor Geikie, Mr. Glaisher, Bev. Dr. Graham, Mr. George Maw, Mr.
Pengelly, Mr. S. J. Mackie, Professor Edward Hull, and Professor Ansted,
be reappointed ; that Mr. Joseph Prestwich be added to the Committee, and
that the sum of £150 (£100 being a grant already made which has lapsed)
be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That a grant of £50 having been made for the Calculation of the Gaussian
Constants, and only £40 having been drawn by the late Chairman Sir J.
Hcrschel, the remaining £10 be regranted to Mr. G. Griffith and Professor
Erman for expenses already incurred.
That the Committee on Luminous Meteors, consisting of Mr. Glaisher,
;i[r. 11. P. Greg, Professor A. S. Herschel, be reappointed, with a grant of £30
for projecting and reducing upon suitable maps the observations of meteors
liv REPORT — 1873.
collected during the last few years by the Committee, so as to show their
radiant points.
That Mr. Glaisher, Col. Strange, Sir W. Thomson, Mr. Brooke, Mr.
Walker, Dr. Mann, and M. de ronvielle be a Committee for the jjurpose of
investigating the efficacy of Lightning-conductors, giving suggestions for
their improvement, and reporting upon any case in which a^buildiug has been
injured by lightning, especially where such buUding was professedly protected
by a lightning-conductor, and that the sum of .£50 be placed at their dis-
posal for the purpose.
That Professor A. W. Williamson, Sir W. Thomson, Professor Clerk Max-
well, Professor G. C. Foster, Mr. Abel, Professor F. Jenkin, Mr. Siemens,
and Mr. E. Sabine be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of testing
the New Pyrometer of Mr. Siemens, and that the sum of £30 be placed at
their disposal for the purpose.
That the Committee, consisting of Dr. Huggius, Mr. J. N. Lockyer, Dr.
Ecynolds, Professor Swan, and Mr. Stoney, on Inverse Wave-lengths be
reappointed, and that the sum of ^150 be placed at their disposal.
That the Committee on the Thermal Conductivity of Metals, consisting of
Professor Tait, Professor Tj'^ndaU, and Professor Palfour Stewart, be reap-
pointed, and that the sum of £50 be placed at their disposal for the
purpose.
That Pi'ofessor Williamson, Professor Eoscoe, and Professor Frankland
be a Committee for the purpose of superintending the Monthly Eecords of the
Progress of Chemistry published in the Journal of the Chemical Society, and
that the sum of £200 (last year's grant of £100 was not drawn) bo placed at
their disposal for the purpose.
. That Dr. Gladstone, Dr. C. E. A. Wright, and Mr. Chandler Eoberts be
reappointed a Committee for the purpose of investigating the chemical consti-
tution and optical proporties of essential oils ; that Mr. Chandler Eoberts be
the Secretary, and that the sum of £30 be placed at their disposal for the
purpose.
That Dr. Crum Erown, Mr. Dewar, Dr. Gladstone, Dr. Williamson, Sir
W. Thomson, and Professor Tait be a Committee for the purpose of deter-
mining the temperatures of incandescent bodies by the refrangibility of the
light they emit, and that the sum of £50 be placed at their disposal for the
purpose.
That Dr. Crum Brown, Professor Tait, and Mr. Dewar be a Committee for
the purpose of investigating the Electric Tensions of galvanic cells in which
the oxides or acids of chlorine or iodine form tlie liquid elements, and tliat
the sum of £25 be placed at tlicir disposal for the purpose.
That Professor Eamsay, Professor Geikie, Professor J. Young, Professor
Nicol, Dr. Bryce, Dr. Arthur Mitchell, Professor Hull, Sir E. Griffith,
Bart., Dr. King, Professor Harkness, Mr. Prestwich, Mr. Hughes, Eev.
H. W. Crosskey, Mr. W. Jolly, Mr. D. Milne Home, and Mr. Pengelly
be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of ascertaining the existence in
diifcrcnt parts of the United Kingdom of any Erratic Blocks or Boulders,
indicating on Maps their position and height above tlie sea, as also of ascer-
taining the nature of the rocks composing these blocks, their size, shape,
and other particulars of interest, and of endeavouring to prevent the destruc-
tion of such blocks as in the opinion of the Committee are worthy of being
preserved ; that the Eev. H. W. Crosskey be the Secretary, and that the sum of
£10 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Sir C, Lyell, Bart., Professor Phillips, Sir J. Lubbock, Bart., Mr.
RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. Iv
J. Evans, Mr. E. Vivian, Mr. W. Pengelly, Mr. G. Busk, Mr. ^V. B. Dawkins,
and Mr. W. A. Sandford be a Committee for the purpose of continuing the
Exploration of Kent's Cavern, Torquay ; that Mr. Pengelly be the Secretary,
and that the sum of £150 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Sir J. Lubbock, Bart., Professor Phillips, Messrs. W. Boyd Dawkins,
and T. McKenny Hughes, be a Committee for the purpose of carrying out
the exploration of the Settle Cave ; that Mr. W. Boyd Dawlcins be the Se-
cretary, and that the sum of £50 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Mr. G. Busk, Dr. Leith Adams, and Mr. Boyd Dawkins be reap-
pointed a Committee for the purpose of illustrating by plates an account of
the Fossil Elephants of Malta ; that Dr. Leith Adams be the Secretary,
and that the sum of £25 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Professor Harkness, Mr. James Thomson, Dr. Duncan, and Mr. Thomas
Davidson be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of continuing the
investigation of Carboniferous Corals with the view of reproducing them
for publication ; that Mr. Thomson be the Secretary, and that the sum of
.£25 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Mr. Carruthers, Mr. W. H. Baily, Professor Harkness, and Professor
Hull be a Committee for the purpose of investigating the Fossil Flora of
Ireland ; that Mr. W. H. Baily be the Secretary, and that the sum of £20
be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Professor Harkness, Mr. W. Jolly, and Dr. J. Bryce be a Committee
for the purpose of collecting Fossils from localities of difficult access in North-
western Scotland, that the specimens be deposited in the Edinburgh In-
dustrial Museum, and that duplicates be deposited in such Museums as the
authorities of the Association may designate ; that Mr. William JoUy be the
Secretary, and that the sum of £10 be placed at their disposal for the
purpose.
That Dr. Bryce, Sir W. Thomson, Mr. J. Brough, Mr. G. Forbes, Mr. D.
Milne Home, and Mr. James Thomson be a Committee for the purpose of
continuing the observations and records of Earthquakes in Scotland ; that
Dr. Bryce be the Secretary, and that the sum of £20 be placed at their
disposal for the purpose.
That Messrs. H. WiUett, Godwin-Austen, W. Topley, T. Davidson, J,
Prcstwich, W. Boyd Dawkins, and H.Woodward be a Committee for the pur-
pose of promoting the " Sub-Wealden exploration ; " that Mr. Henry Willett
be the Secretary, and that the sum of £25 be placed at their disposal for the
purpose.
That Colonel Lane Fox, Dr. Bcddoe, Mr. Franks, Mr. Francis Galton,
Mr. E. W. Brabrook, Sir J. Lubbock, Bart., Sir Walter Elhot, Mr. Clements
R. Markham, and Mr. E. B. Tylor be a Committee for the purpose of pre-
paring and publishing brief forms of instruction for travellers, ethnologists,
and other anthropological observers ; that Colonel Lane Fox be the Secre-
tary, and that the sum of £25 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Mr. Stainton, Professor Newton, and Sir John Lubbock, Bart., be
reappointed a Committee for the purpose of continuing a Eecord of Zoolo-
gical Literature ; that Mr. Stainton be the Secretary, and that the sum of
£100 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Professor Sir Robert Chiistison, Bart., Dr. Laycock, and Dr. Eraser
be a Committee for the purpose of investigating the antagonism of the action
of poisonous substances ; that Dr. Eraser be the Secretary, and that the sum
of £20 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Professor Balfour, Dr. Cleghorn, Mr, Robert Hutchinson, Mr. Buchan,
Ivi REPORT — 1872.
aud Mr. SudJcr be reappointed a Committee for tlie purpose of taking obser-
vations on the effect of tlie denudation of timber on the rainfall of North
Britain ; that Mr. Hutchinson be the Secretary, and that the sum of .£20 be
placed at their disposal for the purpose, the grant made last year not having
been drawn.
That the Committee for the purpose of continuing the investigations on
the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage be renewed, and that such Com-
mittee consist of Mr, 11. B. Grantham, Professor Corfield, Mr. J. Bailey
Denton, Mr. Bramwell, Dr. J. H. Gilbert, Mr. W. Hope, Dr. A. Voeleker,
Professor "Williamson, and Professor AVay, aud that the sum of £100 be
placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That the Committee, consisting of Mr. Froude, Professor "W. J. Macquorn
Eankine, Mr. C. W. Merrifield, Mr. C. W. Siemens, Mr. Bramwell, Mr. A. E.
Fletcher, the Rev J. Berthon, Mr. Shoolbred, Mr. James R. Napier, and Mr.
W. Smith previonsl}' appointed for measuring the speed of ships by means of
the difference of the height of two columns of liquid, be requested to report
generally on the subject of instruments for testing the speed of shij^s, and that
they be requested to present a separate report on the special class of instru-
ments therein referred to them ; that the sum of <£50 be placed at their dis-
posal for the purpose, aud that Mi\ J. Shoolbred bo the Secretary.
Ajjj^lications for Reports and Researches not involving Grants of Moneij.
That the Committee, consisting of Dr. Joule, Sir W. Thomson, Professor
Tait, Professor Balfour Stewart, and Professor J. C. Maxwell, be reappointed
to effect the determination of the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat.
That the Eclipse Committee, consisting of the President and General Offi-
cers (with power to add to their number), be reappointed.
That Sir W. Thomson, Professor Everett, Professor G. C. Poster, Professor
J. C. Maxwell, Mr. G. J. Stoney, Professor Eleeming Jcnkin, Professor Ran-
kine, Dr. Siemens, and Mr. Bramwell be a Committee for reporting on the
Nomenclature of Dynamical and Electrical Units, and that Professor Everett
be the Secrctarj".
That Professor Sylvester, Professor Cayley, Professor Hirst, Rev. Professor
Bartholomew Price, Professor H. J. S. Smith, Dr. Spottiswoode, Mr. R. B.
Hayward, Dr. Salmon, Rev. R. Townsend, Professor EuUer, Professor Kel-
land, Mr. J. M. "Wilson, and Professor Clifford be reappointed a Committee
(with power to add to their number) for the purpose of considering the pos-
sibility of improving the methods of instruction in elementary geometry ; and
that Professor Clifford be the Secretary.
That Mr. "W. H. L. Russell be requested to continue his Report on recent
progress in the theory of Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Functions.
That Professor Tait be requested to prepare a Report on Quaternions.
That the Committee, consisting of the following Members, with power to
add to their number, — Professor Roscoe, Professor "W. G. Adams, Professor
Andrews, Professor Balfour, Mr. Baxendell, Mr. Bramwell, Professor A. Crum
Brown, Mr. Buchan, Dr. Carpenter, Professor Core, Dr. De La Rue, Professor
Thiselton Dyer, Sir SValter Elliot, Professor M. Foster, Professor Flower, Pro-
fessor G. C. Foster, Professor Geikie, Dr. J. H. Gladstone, Mr. Griffith, Rev.
R. Harley, Dr. Hirst, Dr. Hooker, Dr. Huggins, Professor Huxley, Professor
Fleeming Jeukin, Dr. Joule, Colonel Lane Fox, Dr. Lankestcr, Mr. J. N,
Lockyer, Professor Clerk Maxwell, Mr. D. Milne-Home, Dr. O'Callaghan,
Dr. Odling, Professor Ramsay, Dr. Spottiswoode, Professor Balfour Stewart,
RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. Ivil
Mr. Staiutou, Professor Tait, 'Mr. J. A. Tinnc, Dr. Allen Thomson, Sir William
Thomson, Professor AVvville Thomson, Professor Turner, Colonel Strange,
Professor A. W. AVilliamson, Mr. G. V. Yernon, Dr. Young; and that Pro-
fessor lloscoe be the Secretary, — be reappointed —
1°, to consider and report on the best means of advancing science by
Lectures, with authority to act, subject to the approval of the
Council, in the course of the present year, if judged desirable.
2°, to consider and report whether any steps can be taken to render
scientific organization more complete and effectual.
That Mr. Roberts, Dr. Mills, Dr. Stenhouse, Dr. Boycott, and Mr. Gades-
den be a Committee for the purpose of inquiring into the method of making
gold assays, and stating the results thereof ; that Mr. W. C. Roberts be the
Secretary.
That Professor Phillips, Professor Harkness, Mr. Henry "Woodward, Mr.
James Thomson, and Mr. L. C. Miall be a Committee for the purpose of
investigating and reporting upon the Labyrinthodonts of the Coal-measures ;
and that Mr. L. C. Miall be the Secretary.
That the Eev. Canon Tristram, Professor Newton, Mr. H. E. Dresser, Mr.
J. E. Harting, and the Eev. H. F. Barnes, with the addition of Mr. Harland
of Bridliugton, and Mr. Monk of Lewes, be appointed a Committee for the
purj^ose of continuing the investigation on the desirability of establishing
"a close time " for the preservation of indigenous animals ; that Mr. H. E.
Dresser be the Secretary.
That Dr. Eolleston, Dr. Sclater, Dr. Anton Dohrn, Professor Huxley, Pro-
fessor "NYyville Thomson, and Mr. E. Eay Lankcster be reappointed a Com-
mittee for the purpose of promoting the foundation of Zoological Stations ;
that Dr. Anton Dohrn be the Secretary.
That Dr. Arthur Gamgee, Mr. E. Eay Lankestcr, and Professor M. Foster
be a Committee for the purpose of investigating the amount of Heat gene-
rated in the Blood in the process of Arterializatiou ; that Dr. Gamgee be the
Secretary.
That Mr. Carruthers, Dr. Hooker, Professor Balfour, and Professor Thisel-
ton Dyer be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of investigating the
Fossil Flora of Britain ; that Mr. Carruthers be the Secretary.
That the Metric Committee be reappointed, such Committee to consist of
Sir John Bowring, The Eight Hon. Sir Stafford H. Northcote, Bart., C.B.,
M.P., The Eight Hon. C. B. Adderley, M.P., Mr. Samuel Brown, Dr. Farr,
Mr. Frank P. Fellcwes, Professor Frankland, Mr. James Heywood, Pro-
fessor Leone Levi, Mr. C. W. Siemens, Professor A. "VV. Williamson, Dr.
George Glover, Sir Joseph Whitworth, Bart., Mr. J. E. Napier, Mr. J. V.
N. Bazalgette, and Sir W. Fairbairn, Bart. ; that Professor Leone Levi be
the Secretary.
That Professor Cayley, Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher, Dr. W. Pole, Mr. Mcrrifield,
Professor Fuller, Mr. H. M. Brunei, and Professor W. E. Clifford be a Com-
mittee to estimate the cost of constructing Mr. Babbage's Analytical Engine,
and to consider the advisability of printing tables by its means.
That a Committee, consisting of Mr. Francis Galton, Mr. W. Froude, Mr.
C. W. Merrifield, and Professor Eankine, be appointed to consider and report
on Machinery for obtaining a record of the roughness of the Sea and Mea-
surement of Waves near shore.
Iviii REPORT — 1872.
That Sir Henry Ilawliuson, Mr. Francis Galton, Admiral Ommanuey, Mr.
Hawkshaw, Mr. Bramwell, Mr. De La Eue, and Mr. Godwin-Austen be a
Committee (with power to add to their number) for the purpose of represent-
ing to the Government the advisability of an issue of the one-inch Ordnance
Maps, printed on strong thin paper, each sheet having a portion of an index
map impressed on the outside, to show its contents and those of the adjacent
sheets and their numbers. Also that these maps should be sold in all im-
portant towns and, if possible, at the several Post-offices ; that Mr. Francis
Galton be the Secretary.
Resolutions referred to the Council for consideration and action if it
seem desirable.
That the Council be requested to take such steps as they deem desirable to
induce the Colonial Office to afford sufficient aid to the Observatory at Mau-
ritius to enable an investigation of the Cyclones of the Pacific Ocean to be
carried on there.
That, in the event of the Council having reason to believe that any changes
affecting the acknowledged efficiency and scientific character of the Botanical
Establishment at Kew are contemplated by the Government, the Council be
requested to take such steps as in their judgment will be conducive to the
interests of Botanical science in this country.
That the Council be requested to take such steps as they may deem desi-
rable " to urge upon the Indian Government the preparation of a Photohclio-
graph and other instruments for solar observation, with the view of assisting
in the observation of the Transit of Yenus in 1874, and for the continuation
of solar observations in India."
Communications ordered to be printed in extenso in the Annual Report of
the Association.
That M. Hermite's paper, " Sur I'elimination des fonctions arbitraires," bo
printed in e.rtenso among the Eeports.
That the Tabulated List of species given in Mr. J. Gwj'u Jeffreys's paper on
the correlation of the European and North-American MoUusca be printed in
the Reports of the Association.
That Mr. Froude's paper " On the Frictional Resistance of Surfaces immersed
in Fluids " be printed in extenso in the Transactions, with the illustrations.
That Mr. Easton's paper on the Brighton AVaterworks be printed in
extenso in the Transactions.
That Mr. BramweU's paper on Amsler's Planimeter be printed in extenso
in the Transactions.
SYNOPSIS OF GllANTS 01' MONEY. lix
Stjnopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Purposes by
the Geiieral Committee at the Brighton Meeting in August 1873.
The names of the Members who would be entitled to call on the
General Treasurer for the respective Grants are prefixed.
Mathematics and Physics.
*Cayley, Professor. — Mathematical Tables 100
*Thomson, Professor Sir y(. — Tidal Observations 400
*Brookc, Mr. — British Rainfall 100
*Ererett, Prof. — Underground Temperature (£100 renewed) . . 150
*GriiS.th, Mr. G. — Gaussian Constants (renewed) 10
*Glaisher, Mr. J.— Luminous Meteors 30
Glaisher, Mr. J.— Efficacy of Lightning Conductors 50
*Williamson, Prof. A. W. — Testing Siemens's New Pyrometer
(renewed) 30
*IIuggins, Dr. "W. — Tables of Inverse Wave-lengths 150
*Tait, Professor. — Thermal Conductivity of Metals 50
Chemistry.
*Williamsou, Prof. A. W. — Eccords of the Progress of Chemistry
(£100 renewed) , 200
*Gladstone, Dr. — Chemical Constitution and Optical Properties
of Essential Oils 30
Brown, Professor Crum.-^Temperature of Incandescent Bodies 50
Brown, Professor Crum. — Electric Tensions of Batteries .... 25
Geology.
*llanisay. Professor. — Mapping Positions of Erratic Blocks and
Boulders (renewed) 10
*Lye]l, Sir C, Bart.— Kent's Cavern Exploration 150
Lubbock, Sir J. — Exploration of Settle Cave 50
*Busk, Mr.— Fossil Elephants of Malta 2b
*Harkness, Professor. — Investigation of Eossil Corals 25
Carruthers, Mr. — Eossil Elora of Ireland 20
*IIarkness, Professor. — Collection of Fossils in the North-West
of Scotland 10
*Bryce, Dr. — Earthquakes in Scotland 20
Willett, Mr. H.— The Sub-Wealden Exploration . . 25
Carried forward £1710 oH)
*
Eeappointed.
Ix REPORT — 1873
<*.
Bioloriy,
Brought forM'ard i!1710
Lane Fox, Col. A. — Forms of Instruction for Travellers .... 25
*Staintou, Mr. — Record of the Progress of Zoology 100
*Christison, Sir E. — Antagonism of the Action of Poisons .... 20
*Balfour, Professor.— Effect of the Demulation of Timber ou
the Eainfall in I\"orth Britain (renewed) 20
Mechanics.
*Grantham, Mr. P. B.— Treatment and Utilization of Sewage 100
*Froude, Mr. W. — Exijeriments on Instruments for Measuring
the Speed of Ships and Currents (£30 renewed) 50
Total.. ...£2025 0^0
* Beappointed.
Place of Meeting in 1874.
It was resoh-ed that the Annual Meeting of the Association in 1874 le
held at Belfast.
GENERAL STATEMENT.
Ixi
Gdiieral Statement of Sums tvhich have been paid on Account of Grants
for Scientific Purposes.
£ s. d.
1831.
Tide Discussions 20
1835.
Tide Discussions C2
Uritish Fossil Iclitliyology 105
J61C7
183G.
Tide Discussions 163
Biicish Fossil Ichthyology 105
Tiiermonuetric Observations, &c. 50
Experinaents on long-continued
Heat 17
Rain- Gauges 9
Refraction Experiments 15
Lunar Nutation 60
Tltermometers 15
1
3
6
1837.
Tide Discussions 284
Clieinical Constants 24
Lunar Nutation 70
Observations on Waves 100 12
Tides at Bristol 150
Meteorology and Subterranean
Temperature 89
Vitrification Expt-'iinients 150
Heart Experiments 8
Barometric Observations 30
Barometers 11
1
13
U
£918 14
1838.
Tide Discussions 39
British Fossil Fishes 100
Meteorological Observations and
Anemometer (construction) ... 100
Cast Iron (Strength of) 60
Animal and Vegetable Substances
(Preservation of) 19
Railway Constants 41
Bristol Tides 50
Growth of Plants 75
Mud in Rivers 3
ICducation Committee 50
Heart Experiments 5
Land and Sea Level 267
Subterranean Temperature 8
Steam -vessels 100
Meteorological Conjmittee 31
Tliermometers 16
£434 14
1 10
12 10
6 G
3
£ s. it.
Meteorology and Subterranean
Temperature
Vitrification Experiments
Cast-Iron Experiments
Railway Constants
Land and Sea Level
Steam-vessels' Engines
Stars in Histoire Celeste
Stars in Lacaille
Stars in R.A.S. Catalogue
Animal Secretions
Steam-engines in Cornwall
Atmospheric Air
Cast and Wrought Iron
Heat on Organic Bodies
Gases on Solar Spectrum
Hourly Meteorological Observa-
tions, Inverness and Kingussie
Fossil Reptiles
Mining Statistics
9 5
4
£956 12 2
1839.
Fossil Ichthyology 110
Meteorological Observations at
Plymouili 63 10
Mechanism of Waves 144 2
Bristol Tides 35 18 6
21
9
100
28
274
100
331
11
6
10
50
16
40
3
22
49
118
50
11
4 7
7 2
1 4
13 6
16 G
10
1
7 8
2 9
£I5!>5 11
1840.
Bristol Tides 100
Subterranean Temperature 13
Heart Experiments 18
Lungs Experiments 8
Tide Discussions 50
Land and Sea Level 6
Stars (Histoire Celeste) 242
Stars (Lncaille) 4
Stars (Catalogue) 2G4
Atmospheric Air 15
Water on Iron 10
Heat on Organic Bodies 7
Meteorological Observations 52
Foreign Scientific Memoirs 112
Working Population 100
School Statistics 50
Forms of Vessels 184
Chemical and Electrical Pheno-
mena 40
Meteorological Observations at
Plymouth 80
Magnelical Observations 185
13
6
19
13
11
1
10
15
15
17
6
1
6
n
7
13 9
£1546 16 4
1841.
Observations on Waves 80
Meteorology and Subterranean
Temperature 8 8
Actinometers 10
Earthquake Shocks 17
Acrid Poisons 6
Veins and Absorbents 3
Mud in Rivers 5
Marine Zoology 15 12
Skeleton Maps 20
Mountain Barometers 6 18 6
Stars (Histoire Celeste) 185
8
7
2
8
Ixii
REPORT — 1873.
£
Stars (Lacaille)..; 79
Stars (Nomenclature of) 17
Stars (Catalogue of) 40
Water on Iron 50
Meteorological Observations at
Inverness 20
Meteorological Observations (re-
duction of) 25
Fossil Reptiles 50
Foreign Memoirs 02
Railway Sections 38
Forms of Vessels 193
Meteorological Observations at
Plymouth 55
Magnelical Observations CI
Fishes of the Old Red Sandstone 100
Tides at Leith 50
Anemometer at Edinburgh C9
Tabulating Observations 9
Races of Men 5
Radiate Animals , 2
JE1235
1842.
Dynamometric Instruments 113
Anoplura Brifanniae 52
Tides at Bristol 59
Gases on Light 30
Chronometers 2G
Marine Zoology 1
British Fossil Mammalia 100
Statistics of Education 20
Marine Steam-vessels' Engines... 28
Stars (Hisloire Celeste) 59
Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. of ) 110
Railway Sections 161
British Belemnites 50
Fossil Reptiles (publication of
Report) 210
Forms of Vessels 180
Galvanic Experiments on Rocks 5
Meteorological Experiments at
Plymouth C8
Constant Indicator and Dynamo-
metric Instruments
Force of Wind
Vight on Growtli of Seeds
Lital Statistics
Vegetative Power of Seeds
Questions on Human Race
1843.
Revision of the Nomenclature of
Stars 2
Reduction of Stars, British Asso-
ciation Catalogue 25
Anomalous Tides, Frith of Forth 120
Hourly Meteorological Observa-
tions at Kingussie and Inverness 77
Meteorological Observations at
Plymouth 55
Whewell's Meteorological Ane-
mometer at Plymouth 10
s, d.
5
19 G
1 6
12
18 8
1 10
6 3
10 II
11 2
12
17 6
5
10
8 C
... 90
... 10
... 8
50
8
... 7
1 11
9
£14-19
17 8
12 8
£ s. d.
Meteorological Observations, Os-
ier's Anemometer at Plymouth 20
Reduction of Meteorological Ob-
servations 30
Meteorological Instruments and
Gratuiti'es 39 G
Construction of Anemometer at
Inverness 5C 12 2
Magnetic Cooperation 10 8 10
Meteorological Recorder for Kew
Observatory 50
Action of Gases on Light 18 16 1
Establishment at Kew Observa-
tory, Wages, Repairs, Furni-
ture and Sundries 133 4 7
Experiments by Captive Balloons 81 8
Oxidation ofthe Rails of Railways 20
Publication of Report on Fossil
Reptiles... 40
Coloured Drawings of Railway
Sections 147 IS 3
Registration of Earthquake
Shocks 30
Report on Zoological Nomencla-
ture 10
Uncovering Lower Red Sand-
stone near Manchester 4 4 6
Vegetative Power of Seeds 5 3 8
Marine Testacea (Habits of) ... 10
Marine Zoology 10
Marine Zoology 2 14 11
Preparation of Report on British
Fossil Mammalia 100
Physiological Operations of Me-
dicinal Agents 20
Vital Statistics 3G
Additional Experiments on the
Forms of Vessels 70
Additional Experiments on the
Forms of Vessels 100
Reduction of Experiments on the
Forms of Vessels 100
Morin's Instrument and Constant
Indicator 69
Experiments on the Strength cf
Materials 60
'dt;i565 10 2
5
8
14
10
1844.
Meteorological Observations at
Kingussie and Inverness 12
Completing Observations at Ply-
mouth 35
Magnetic and Meteorological Co-
operation , 25
Publication of the British Asso-
ciation Catalogue of Stars 35
Observations on Tides on the
East coast of Scotland ICO
Revision of the Nomenclature of
Stars 1842 2
Maintaining the Establishment in
Kew Observatory 117
Instruments for Kew Observafosy .1 6
8
4
9
6
17
3
7
3
GENERAL STATEMENT.
Ixiii
£
Influence of Liglit on Plants 1
Subterraneous Temperature in
Ireland 5
Coloured Drawings of Railway
Sections Ij
Investigation of Fossil Fishes of
the Lower Tertiary Strata ... 100
Registering the Shocks of Farth-
quakes Iti4'2 23
Structure of Fossil Shells 20
lladiata and Mollusca of the
yEgean and Red Seas 1842 100
Geographical Distributions of
Marine Zoology 1842 10
Marine Zoology of Devon and
Cornwall 10
Marine Zoology of Corfu 10
Experiments on the Vitality of
.Seeds "
Experiments on the Vitality of
Seeds 1842 8
Exotic Anoplura 15
Strength of Materials 100
Completing Experiments on the
Forms of Ships 100
Inquiries into Asphyxia 10
Investigations on the Internal
Constitution of Metals 50
Constant Indicator and Morin's
Instrument 1842 10
d.
17
G
11
10
3
7 3
3 6
1845.
Publication of the British Associa-
tion Catalogue of Stars 351
Meteorological Observations at
Inverness 30
Magnetic and Meteorological Co-
operation 16
Meteorological Instruments at
Edinburgh 18
Reduction of Anemometrical Ob-
servations at Plymouth 25
Electrical Experiments at Kew
Observatory 43
Maintaining tlie Establishment in
Kew Observatory 149
For Kreil's Barometrograph 25
Gases from Iron Furnaces 50
The Actinograph 15
Microscopic Structure of Shells 20
Exotic Anoplura 1843 10
Vitality of Seeds 1843
Vitality of Seeds 1844
l^Iarine Zoology of Cornwall ...
Physiological Action of Medicines
Statistics of Sickness and Mor-
tality in York
Earthquake Shocks 1843.
2
7
10
20
20
15
£981 12 8
Computation of the Gaussian
Constants for 1829 50
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory 14G
Strength of Materials CO
Researches in Asphyxia 6
Examination of Fossil Shells 10
Vitality of Seeds 1844 2
Vitality of Seeds 1845 7
Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10
Marine Zoology of Britain 10
Exotic Anoplura 1844 25
Expenses attending Anemometers 1 1
Anemometers' Repairs 2
Atmospheric Waves 3 3 3
Captive Balloons 1844 8 19 3
Varieties of the Human Race
1S44 7 3
Statistics of Sickness and Mor-
tality in York 12
14 6
18 11
16 8
11 9
17 8
15
7
14 8
1846.
British Association Catalogue of
Stars 1844 211 15
Fo.sil Fishes of the London Cicy ICO
■
7
16
2
15
10
12
3
7
e
3
6
£s:iO y 9
£685 16
1847.
Computation of the Gaussian
Constants for 1829 50
Habits of Marine Animals 10
Physiological Action of Medicsnes 20
Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10
Atmospheric Waves 6
Vitality of Seeds 4
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory 107
9
3
7
7
8 6
£208 5 4
1S48.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory .. 171
Atmospheric Waves 3
Vitality of Seeds ^9 15
Completion of Catalogues of Stars 70
On Colouring Matters 5
On Growth of Plants 15
15 11
10 9
£275 I 8
1849.
Electrical Observations at Kew
Observatory 50
Maintaining Establishment at
ditto
Vitality of Seeds
On Growth of Plants
Regiatration of Periodical Phe-
nomena
Bill on account of Anemometrical
Observations 13
70
2
5
5
8
1
5
10
13
9
£159 19 6
1850.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory 255 IS
Transit of Earthquake Waves ... 50
Periodical Phenomena 15
Meteorological Instrument,
Azores _ 25 0^
^£345 18
Ixiv
REPORT 1872.
£
1851.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory (includes part
ofgrantin 1849) 309
Theory of Heat 20
Periodical Phenomena of Animals
and Plants 5
Vitality of Seeds 5
Influence of Solar Radiation 30
Ethnological Inquiries 12
Researches on Annelida 10
£391
1852.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory (including
balance of grant for 1850) ...233
Experiments on the Conduction
of Heat 5
Influence of Solar Radiations ... 20
Geological Map of Ireland 15
Researches on the British Anne-
lida 10
Vitality of Seeds 10
Strength of Doiler Plates 10
£304
1853.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory 165
Experiments on tiie Influence of
Solar Radiation 15
Researches on the British Anne-
lida 10
Dredging on the East Coast of
Scotland 10
Ethnological Queries 5
£2U5
1854. -^^
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory (including
balance of former grant) 330
Investigations on Flax 11
Effects of Temperature on
Wrought Iron 10
Registration of Periodical Phe-
nomena 10
British Annelida 10
Vitality of Seeds 5
Conduction of Heat 4
"£380
1855.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory 425
Earthquake Movements 10
Physical Aspect of the Moon 1 1
Vitality of Seeds ]0
Map of the World 15
Ethnological Queries 5
Dredging near Belfast 4
£480
1S50.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory : —
1854 £ 75 01 ^,.
1855 £500 0/ ^'^
d.
2
2
1
1
6
4
17 S
2
9
G
2
C 7
15
19
2
3
2
16 4
£
Strickland's Ornitiiological Syno-
nyms 100
Dredging and Dredging Forms... 9
Chemical Action of Light 20
Strength of Iron Plates 10
Registration of Periodical Pheno-
mena 10
Propagation of Salmon 10
£734
1857.
Maintaining the Establisliment at
Kew Observatory 350
Earthquake Wave Experiments. . 40
Dredging near Belfast 10
Dredging on the West Coast of
Scotland 10
Investigations into the MoUusca
ofCalifornia 10
Experiments on Flax 5
Natural History of Madagascar. . 20
Researches on British Annelida 25
Report on Natural Products im-
ported into Liverpool 10
Artificial Propagation of Salmon 10
Temperature of Mines 7
Thermometers for Subterranean
Observations 5
Life-Boats 5
l elbT
1858.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory 500
Earthquake Wave Experiments.. 25
Dredging on the West Coast of
Scotland 10
Dredging near Dublin 5
Vitality of Seeds 5
Dredging near Belfast 18
Report on the British .Annelida... 25
Experiments on the production
of Heat by Motion in Fluids ... 20
Report on the Natural Products
imported into Scotland 10
£(nF
1859.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory 500
Dredging near Dublin 15
Osteology of Birds 50
Irish Tunicata 5
Manure Experiments 20
British Medusidae 5
Dredging Committee 5
Steam-vessels' Performance 5
Marine Fauna of South and West
oflreland 10
Photographic Chemistry 10
Lanarkshire Fossils 20
Balloon Ascents 39
'£osr
1860. =
Maintaining; the Establisliment
of Kew Observatory 500
Dredging near Belfast 10
Dredging in Dublin Bay ,.., 15
13
9
13 9
8
7
4
15 4
5
13
2
18 2
1
1
11 1
6
GENERAL STATEMENT.
Ixv
£ s. d.
Inquiry into the Performance of
Steam-vessels 124
Explorations in the Yellow Sand-
stone of Dura Den 20
Chemico-mechanical Analysis of
Rocks and Minerals 25
Researches on the Growth of
Plants 10
Researches on the Solubility of
Salts 30
Researches on the Constituents
of Manures 25
Balance of Captive Balloon Ac-
counts , I 13 C
d61241 7
1861.
Maintaining the Establishment
ofKew Observatory 500
Earthquake Experiments 25
Dredging North and East Coasts
of Scotland 23
Dredging Committee : —
1860 £50 0\
1861 £22 0/
Excavations at Dura Den......... 20
Solubility of Salts 20
Steam-vessel Performance 150
Fossils of Lesmahago 15
Explorations at Uriconium 20
Chemical Alloys 20
Classified Index to the Transac-
tions 100
Dredging in the Mersey and Dee 5
Dip Circle 30
Photoheliographic Observations 50
Prison Diet 20
Gauging of Water 10
Alpine Ascents G
Constituents of Manures 25
72
5 1
dCllll 5 10
1862.
Maintaining the Establishment
of Kew Observatory .% 500
Patent Laws 21
Mollusca of N.-W. America 10
Natural History by Mercantile
Marine 5
Tidal Observations 25
Photoheliometer at Kew 40
Photographic Pictures of the Sun 150
Rocks of Donegal 25
Dredging Durham and North-
umberland., 25
Connexion of Storms 20
Dredging North-east Coast of
Scotland 6
Ravages of Teredo 3
Standards of Electrical Resistance 50
Riilway Accidents 10
Balloon Committee 200
Dredging Dublin Bay 10
Dredging the Mersey 5
Prison Diet 20
Gauging of Water 12
1872.
C
C 6
11
10
£ s. d.
Steamships' Performance 150
Thermo-Electric Currents 5
£1293 16 6
1863.
Maintaining the Establishment
of Kew Observatory 600
Balloon Committee deficiency... 70
Balloon Ascents (other expenses) 25
Entozoa 25
Coal Fossils 20
Herrings 20
Granites of Donegal 5
Prison Diet 20
Vertical Atmospheric Movements 13
Dredging Slietland 50
Dredging North-east coast of
Scotland 25
Dredging Northumberland and
Dmliam 17 3 10
Dredging Committee superin-
tendence 10
Steamship Performance 100
Balloon Committee 200
Carbon under pressure 10
Volcanic Temperature 100
Bromide of Ammonium 8
Electrical Standards 100
Constructiou and distribu-
tion ... 40
Luminous Meteors 17
Kew Additional Buildings for
Photoheliograph 100
Therrao-Electricity 15
Analysis of Rocks 8
Hydroida 10
£1608 3 10
1864.
Maintaining the Establishment
of Kew Observatory 600
Coal Fossils 20
Vertical Atmospheric Move-
ments 20
Dredging Shetland 75
Dredging Northumberland 25
Balloon Committee 200
Carbon under pressure 10
Standards of Electric Resistance 100
Analysis of Rocks 10
rivdroida 10
Askham'sGift 50
Nitrite of Amyle 10
Nomenclature Committee 5
Rain-Gauges.. 19 15 8
Cast-Iron Investigation 20
Tidal Observations in the II umber 50
Spectral Rays 45
Luminous Meteors 20
£ 1289 15 8
1865, ' "^
Maintaining the Establishment
of Kew Observatory 600
Balloon Committee 100 o
Hydroida 13
e
Ixvi
RETORT 1872.
£ s. d.
Rain-Gauges 30
Tidal Observations in the Humber 6 8
Hexylic Compounds 20
Amyl Compounds 20
Irish Flora 25
American Mollusca 3 9
Organic Acids 20
Lingula Flags Excavation 10
Eurypterus 50
Electrical Standards 100
Malta Caves Researches 30
Oyster Breeding 25
Gibraltar Caves Researches ... 150
Kent's Hole Excavations 100
Moon's Surface Observations ... 35
Marine Fauna 25
Dredging Aberdeenshire 25
Dredging Channel Islands 50
Zoological Nomenclature 5
Resistance of Floating Bodies iu
Water 100
Bath Waters Analysis 8 10
Luminous Meteors 40
£1591 TlO
1866. ^^^^^^^^^^^^^
Maintaining the Establishment
of Kew Observatory 600
Lunar Committee 64 13 4
Balloon Committee 50
Metrical Committee 50
British Rainfall 50
Kilkenny Coal Fields 16
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-Bed 15
Luminous Meteors 50
Lingula Flags Excavation 20
Chemical Constitution of Cast
Iron 50
Amyl Compounds 25
Electrical Standards 100
Malta Caves Exploration 30
Kent's Hole Exploration 200
Marine Fauna, &c., Devon and
Cornwall 25
Dredging Aberdeenshire Coast... 25
Dredging Hebrides Coast 50
Dredging the Mersey 5
Resistance of Floating Bodies in
Water 50
Polycyanides of Organic Radi-
cals 20
Rigor Mortis 10
Irish Annelida 15
Catalogue of Crania 50
Didine Birds of Mascarene Islands 50
Typical Crania Researches 30 *
Palestine Exploration Fund 100 "6
£1750 13 4
1867. '
Maintaining the Establishment
of Kew Observatory 600
Sleteorological Instruments, Pa-
lestine 50
Lunar Committee.. , 120
£ s. d-
Metrical Committee 30
Kent's Hole Explorations 100
Palestine Explorations 50
Insect Fauna, Palestine 30
British Rainfall 50
Kilkenny Coal Fields 25
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-Bed 25
Luminous Meteors 50
Bournemouth, &c. Leaf-Beds ... 30
Dredging Shetland 75
Steamship Reports Condensation 100
Electrical Standards 100
Ethyle and Metbyle series 25
Fossil Crustacea 25
Sound under Water 24 4
North Greenland Fauna 75
Do. Plant Beds ... 100
Iron and Steel Manufacture ... 25
Patent Laws 30
.£1739 4
1868.
Maintaining the Establishment
of Kew Observatory 600
Lunar Committee 120
Metrical Committee 50
Zoological Record 100
Kent's Hole Explorations 150
Steamship Performances 100
British Rainfall 50
Luminous Meteors 50
Organic Acids 60
Fossil Crustacea 25
Methyl series 25
Mercury and Bile 25
Organic remains in Limestone
Rocks 25
Scottish Earthquakes 20
Fauna, Devon and Cornwall ... 30
British Fossil Corals ' 50
Bagshot Leaf-beds 50
Greenland Explorations 100
Fossil Flora 25
Tidal Observations 100
Underground Temperature 50
Spectroscopic investigations of
Animal Substances 5
Secondary Reptiles, &c 30
British Marine Invertebrate
Fauna .100
i:i940
1869, ""
Maintaining the Establishment
of Kew Observatory 600
Lunar Committee 50
Metrical Committee 25
Zoological Record 100
Committee on Gases in Deep-
well Water 25
British Rainfall 50
Thermal Conductivity of Iron,
&c 30
Kent's Hole Explorations ...... 150
Steamship Performances,.., 30
GENERAL STATEMENT.
Ixvii
£ s. d.
Chemical Constitution of Cast
Iron 80
Iron and Steel Manufacture ... 100
Methyl Series 30
Organic remains in Limestone
Uocljs 10
Earthquakes in Scotland 10
British Fossil Corals 50
liagshot Leaf-Beds 30
Fossil Flora 25
Tidal Observations 100
Underground Temperature 30
Spectroscopic Investigations of
Animal Suhstances 5
Organic Acids 12
Kiltorcan Fossils 20
Chemical Constitution and Fh}'-
siological Action Relations ... 15
Mountain Limestone Fossils 25
Utilization of Sevrage 10
Products of Digestion 10
£1622
1870,
Maintaining theEstablishment of
Kew Observatory 600
Metrical Committee 25
Zoological Record 100
Committee on Marine Fauna ... 20
Ears in Fishes 10
Chemical nature of Cast Iron ... 80
Luminous Meteors 30
Heat in the Blood 15
British Rainfall 100
Thermal Conductivityof Iron &c. 20
British Fossil Corals 50
Kent's Hole Explorations 150
Scottish Earthqualics 4
Bagshot Leaf-Beds 15
Fossil Flora 25
Tidal Observations 100
Underground Temperature 50
Kiltorcan Quarries Fossils 20
Mountain Limestone Fossils ... 25
Utilization of Scviage 50
Organic Chemical Compounds... 30
Onny River Sediment 3
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat 50
£1572
1871. £
Maintaining the Establishment of
Kew Observatory 600
Monthly Reports of Progress in
Chemistry 100
Metrical Committee 25
Zoological Record 100
Thermal Equivalents of the
Oxides of Chlorine 10
Tidal Observations 100
Fossil Flora 25
Luminous Meteors 30
British Fossil Corals 25
Heat in the Blood 7
British Rainfall 50
Kent's Hole Explorations 150
Fossil Crustacea 25
Metliyl Compounds 25
Lunar Objects 20
Fossil Corals Sections, for Pho-
tographing 20
Bagshot Leaf-Beds 20
Moab Explorations 100
Gaussian Constants ■■ 40
£1472
1872.
Maintaining theEstablishment of
Kew Observatory 300
Metrical Committee 75
Zoological Record 100
Tidal Committee 200
Carboniferous Corals 25
Organic Chemical Compounds 25
Exploration of Moab 100
Terato-Embryological Inquiries 10
Kent's Cavern Exploration 100
Luminous Meteors 20
Heat in the Blood 15
Fossil Crustacea 25
Fossil Elephants of Malta 25
Lunar Objects 20
Inverse Wave-Lenglhs 20
British Rainfall 100
Poisonous Substances Antago-
nism 10
Essential Oils, Chemical Consti-
tution, &c 40
Mathematical Tables 50
Thermal Conductivity of Meta ls 25
£1285
s. d.
2
6
2 6
Ixviii REPORT — 1872.
General Meetings.
On Wednesday Evening, August 14, at 8 p.m., in the Dome, Professor Sir
William Thomson, LL.D., F.R.S., President, resigned the office of President
to Dr. W. B. Carpenter, LL.D., P.R.S., who took the Chair, and delivered an
Address, for which see page Ixix.
On Thursday Evening, August 15, at 8 p.m., a Soire'e took place in the
Dome, Corn Exchange, and Museum.
On Eriday Evening, August 16, at 8.30 p.m., in the Dome, Professor P.
Martin Duncan, M.D., F.R.S., delivered a Discourse on " Insect Metamor-
phosis."
On Saturday Evening, at 8 p.m., in the Dome, William Spottiswoode, LL.D.,
E.R.S., delivered a Discourse entitled " Sunshine, Sea, and Sky," to the
Operative Classes of Brighton.
On Monday Evening, August 19, at 8.30 p.m., in the Dome, Prof. W. X.
Clifford delivered a Discourse on " The Aims and Instruments of Scientific
Thought."
On Tuesday Evening, August 20, at 8 p.m., a Soiree took place in the
Dome, Corn Exchange, and Museum.
On Wednesday, August 21, at 2.30 p.m., the concluding General Meeting
took place, when the Proceedings of the General Committee, and the Grants
pf Money for Scientific purposes, were explained to the Members.
The Meeting was. then adjourned to Bradford*.
* The Meeting is appointed to take place on Wednesday, September 17, 1873.
A D D E E S S
OF
WILLIAM B. CARPENTER, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.,
PRESIDED.
My Loeds, Labies, and Gentlemen,
Thiett-sii years have now elapsed since at the first and (I regret to say)
the only Meeting of this Association held in Bristol, — which Ancient City
followed immediately upon our National Universities in giving it a welcome,
— I enjoyed the privilege which I hold it one of the most valuahle functions
of these Annual assemblages to bestow ; that of coming into personal relation
with those distinguished Men whose names are to every cultivator of Science
as " household words," and the light of whose brilliant example, and the
warmth of whose cordial encouragement are the most precious influences by
which his own aspirations can be fostered and directed. Under the Presi-
dency of the Marquis of Lansdowne, with Conybeare and Prichard as Yice-
Presidents, with Vernon Harcourt as General Secretary, and John Phillips
as Assistant Secretary, were gathered together Whewell and Peacock, James
Forbes and Sir W. Rowan Hamilton, Murchison and Sedgwick, Buckland and
De la Beche, Henslow and Daubeny, Roget, Richardson, and Edward Eorbes,
with many others, perhaps not less distinguished, of whom my own recollec-
tion is less vivid.
In his honoured old age, Sedgwick stiU retains, in the Academic home of
his life, all his pristine interest in whatever hears on the advance of the
Science he has adoraed as well as enriched ; and Phillips still cultivates
~vvith all his old enthusiasm the congenial soil to which he has been trans-
planted. But the rest, — our fathers and elder brothers, — "Where are
they ? " It is for us of the present generation to show that they live in our
lives ; to carry forward the work which they commenced ; and to transmit
the influence of their example to our own successors.
There is one of these great men, whose departure from among us since last
we met claims a special notice, and whose life — full as it was of years and
honours — we should have all desired to see prolonged for a few months, could
its feebleness have been unattended with suifering. For we should all then
have sympathized with Murchison, in the delight with which he would have
received the intelligence of the safety of the friend in whose scientific labours
and personal welfare he felt to the last the keenest interest. That this in-
telligence, which our own Expedition for the relief of Livingstone would have
kx KEPORT — 1873.
obtained (we will hope) a few months later, should have been brought
to us through the generosity of one, and the enterprising ability — may I not
use our peculiarly English word, the " pluck " — of another of our American
brethren, cannot but be a matter of national regret to us. But let us bury
that regret in the common joy which both Nations feel in the result; and
while we give a cordial welcome to Mr. Stanley, let us glory in the prospect
now opening, that England and America wiU co-operate in that noble object
which — far more than the discovery of the Sources of the Nile — our great
Traveller has set before himself as his true mission, the Extinction of the
Slave Trade.
At the last Meeting of this Association, I had the pleasure of being able
to announce, that T had received from the First Lord of the Admiralty a
favourable reply to a representation I had ventured to make to him, as to the
importance of prosecuting on a more extended scale the course of inquiry
into the Physical and Biological conditions of the Deep Sea, on which, with
my coUeagaes Prof. Wyvillc Thomson and Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys, I had been
engaged for the three preceding years. That for which I had asked was a
Circumna\'igating Expedition of at least three years' duration, provided with
an adequate Scientific Staff, and with tlie most complete Equipment that our
experience could devise. The Council of the Eoyal Society having been
led by the encouraging tenor of the answer I had received, to make
a formal Application to this effect, the liberal arrangements of the Go-
vernment have been carried out under the advice of a Scientific Com-
mittee which included Bepresentatives of this Association. H. M. ship
' Challenger,' a vessel in every way suitable for the purpose, is now being
fitted out at Sheerness ; the Command of the Expedition is intrusted to
Captain Nares, an Officer of whose high qualifications I have myself the
fullest assurance ; while the Scientific charge of it will be taken by my
excellent friend Prof. Wyville Thomson, at whose suggestion it was that
these investigations were originally commenced, and whose zeal for the
efficient prosecution of them is shown by his relinquishment for a time of the
important Academic position he at present fills. It is anticipated that the
Expedition will sail in November next; and I feel sure that the good wishes
of all of you will go along with it.
The confident anticipation expressed by my predecessor, that for the utili-
zation of the total Eclipse of the Sun then impending, -our Government would
" exercise the same wise liberality as heretofore in the interests of Science,"
has been amply fulfilled. An Eclipse-Expedition to India was organized at
the charge of the Home Government, and placed under the direction of Mr.
Lockyer ; the Indian Government contributed its quota to the work ; and a
most valuable body of results was obtained, of which, with those of the pre-
vious year, a Beport is now being prepared under the direction of the Council
of the Astronomical Society.
It has been customary with successive occupants of this Chair, distin-
guished as Leaders in their several divisions of the noble Army of Science, to
open the proceedings of the Meetings over which they respectively presided,
with a Discourse on some aspect of Nature in her Belation to Man. But
I am not aware that any one of them has taken up the other side of the
inquiry, — that which concerns Man as the "Interpreter of Nature;"
and I have therefore thought it not inappropriate to lead you to the con-
sideratiou of the Mental processes, by which are formed those fundamental
conceptions of Matter and Eorce, of Cause and Effect, of Law and Order,
which furnish the basis of all scientific reasoning, and constitute the Phi-
. ADDRESS. Ixxi
losojMa prima of Bacon. There is a great deal of what I cannot but
regard as fallacious and misleading Philosophy — "oppositions of Science falsely
so called " — abroad in the world at the present time. And I hope to satisfy
you, that those who sot up their oivn conceptions of the Orderly Sequence
which they discern in the Phenomena of Nature, as fixed and determinate
Laius, by which those phenomena not only are within all Human expe-
rience, but always have been, and always must he, invariably governed, are
really guilty of the Intellectual arrogance they condemn in the Systems of
the Ancients, and place themselves in diametrical antagonism to those real
Philosophers, by whose comprehensive grasp and penetrating insight that
Order has been so far disclosed. For what love of the Truth as it is in
Nature was ever more conspicuous, than that which Kepler displayed, in his
abandonment of each of the ingenious conceptions of the Planetary System
which his fertile Imagination bad successively devised, so soon as it proved
to be inconsistent with the facts disclosed by observation ? In that almost
admiring description of the way in which his enemy Mars, " whom he had
left at home a despised Captive," had " burst aU the chains of the equations,
and broke forth from the prisons of the tables," who does not recognize the
justice of Schiller's definition of the real Philosopher, as one who always
loves Truth better than his System ? And when at last he had gained the
full assurance of a success so complete that (as be says) he thought bo must
be dreaming, or that he had been reasoning in a circle, who does not feel the
almost sublimity of the self-abnegation, with which, after attaining what
was in his own estimation such a glorious reward of his Hfe of toil, dis-
appointment, and self-sacrifice, be abstains from claiming the applause of
his contemporaries, but leaves his fame to after ages in these noble words :
" The book is written ; to be read, either now or by posterity, I care not
" which. It may well wait a century for a reader, as God has waited six
" thousand years for an observer."
And when a yet greater than Kepler was bringing to its final issue
that grandest of all Scientific Conceptions, long pondered over by his
almost superhuman intellect, — which linked together the Heavens and the
Earth, the Planets and the Sun, the Primaries and their Satellites, and
included even the vagrant Comets, in the nexus of a Universal Attraction —
establishing for all time the truth for whose iitterance GaHleo had been con-
demned, and giving to Kepler's Laws a significance of which their author had
never dreamed, — what was the meaning of that agitation which prevented the
Philosopher from completing his computation, and compelled him to band it
over to his friend ? That it was not the thought of his own greatness, but
the glimpse of the grand Universal Order thus revealed to his mental
vision, which shook the serene and massive soul of Newton to its founda-
tions, we have the proof in that beautiful comparison in which he likened
himself to a Child picking up shells on the shore of the vast Ocean of Truth ;
a comparison which will be evidence to all time at once of his true Phi-
losophy and of his profound Humility.
Though it is with the Intellectual Eepresentation of Nature which we call
Science,th.dAwe are primarily concerned, it will not be without its use to cast
a glance in the first instance at the other two principal charactei's under
which Man acts as her Interpreter,— those, namely, of the Artist and of the
Poet.
The Artist serves as the Interpreter of Nature, not when he works as the
mere copyist, delineating that which he sees with his bodily eyes, and which
we could see as well for ourselves ; but when he endeavours to awaken within
Ixxii REPORT — 1872.
US the perception of tliose beauties and harmonies which his own trained"
sense has recognized, and thus impart to us the pleasure ho has himself derived
from their contemplation. As no two Artists agree in the original constitu-
tion and acquii'ed habits of their Minds, all look at Nature with different
(mental) eyes ; so that to each, Nature is tvliat he individually sees in her.
The Poet, again, serves as the Interpreter of Nature, not so much when
by sliilfiil word-painting (whether in prose or verse) he calls up before our
mental vision the picture of some actual or ideal scene, however beautiful ;
as when, by rendering into appropriate forms those deeper impressions made
by the Nature around him on the Moral and Emotional part of his own
Nature, he transfers these impressions to the corresponding part of ours.
For it is the attribute of the true Poet to penetrate the secret of those mys-
terious influences which we all unknowingly experience ; and having dis-
covered this to himself, to bring others, by the power he thus wields,
into the like sympathetic relation with Nature, — evoking with sliilful touch
the varied response of the Soul's finest chords, heightening its joj's, assuaging
its griefs, and elevating its aspirations. Whilst, then, the Artist aims to
picture what he sees in Nature, it is the object of the Poet to represent what
he feels in Nature ; and to each true Poet, Nature is ivhat he individually
finds in her.
The Philosopher's interpretation of Nature seems less individual than that of
the Artist or the Poet, because it is based on facts which anj' one may verify,
and is elaborated by reasoning processes of whicli all admit the validity.
He looks at the Universe as a vast Book lying open before him, of which he
has in the first place to learn the characters, then to master the language,
and finally to apiu'ehend the ideas which that language conveys. In that
Book there are many Chapters, treating of different subjects ; and as Life is
too short for any one man to grasp the whole, the Scientific interpretation of
this Book comes to be the work of many Intellects, differing not merely in-
the range but also in the character of their powers. But whilst there are
" diversities of gifts," there is " the same spii'it." While each takes his
special direction, the general Method of study is the same for all. And it is
a testimony alike to the truth of that Ifethod and to the Unity of Nature, that
there is an ever-increasing tendency towards agreement among those who rise
it aright ; — temporary differences of interpretation being removed, sometimes
by a more complete mastery of her language, sometimes by a better appre-
hension of her ideas ; — and lines of pursuit which had seemed entirely distinct
or even widely divergent, being found to lead at last to one common goal.
And it is this agreement which gives rise to the general belief— in many, to
the confident assurance — that the Scientific interpretation of Nature represents
her not merely as she seems, but as she really is.
But when we carefully examine the foundation of that assurance, we
find reason to distrust its secinity ; for it can be shown to be no less
true of the Scientific conception of Nature, than it is of the Artistic or the
Poetic, that it is a representation framed by the Mind itself out of the
materials supplied by the impressions which external objects make upon the
Senses ; so that to each Man of Science, Nature is what lie individucdly believes
her to be. And that belief M'ill rest on very different bases, and will have
very unequal values, in different departments of Science. — Thus in what are
commonly known as the " exact " Sciences, of which Astronomy may be taken
as the type, the data afi'orded by precise methods of observation can be made
the basis of reasoning, in every step of which the Mathematician feels the
fullest assurance of certainty ; and the final deduction is justified either by
ADDRESS. Ixxiii
its conformity to known or ascertainable facts, — as when Kepler determined
the elliptic orbit of Mars; or by the fulfilment of the predictions it has
sanctioned, — as in the occurrence of an Eclipse or an Occultation at the
precise moment specified many years previonsly ; or, still more emphatically,
by the actual discovery of phenomena till then unrecognized, — as when the '
Perturbations of the planets, shown by Newton to be the necessary results of
their mutual attraction, were proved by observation to have a real existence ;
or as when the unknown disturber of Uranus was found in the place assigned
to him bj^ the computations of Adams and Le Verrier.
We are accustomed, and I think most rightly, to speak of these achieve-
ments as triiimphs of the Human Intellect. But the very phrase implies that
the work is done by Mental Agency. And even in the very first stage of the
process — the interpretation of observations — there is often a liability to serious
error. Of this we have a most noteworthy example in the fact that the esti-
mated distance of the Earth from the Sun, deduced from observations of the
last Transit of Yenus, is now pretty certainly known to be about three
millions of miles too great ; the strong indications of such an excess afi'orded
by the nearly coincident results of other modes of inquiry having led to a
reexamination of the record, which was found, when fairly interpreted,
fully to justify — if not even to require — the reduction. Even the veri-
fication of the prediction is far from proving the Intellectual process by
which it was made to have been correct. For we learn from the honest
confessions of Kepler, that he was led to the discovery of the Elliptic orbit of
Mars by a series of happy accidents, which turned his erroneous guesses into
the right direction ; and to that of the passage of the Eadius Vector over equal
areas in equal times, by the notion of a whirling force emanating from the Sun,
which we now regard as an entirely wrong conception of the cause of orbital
revolution *. It should always be remembered, moreover, that the Ptolemaic
system of Astronomy, Avith all its cumbrous ideal mechanism of " Centric and
Excentric, Cycle and Epicycle, Orb in Orb," did intellectually represent all that
the Astronomer, prior to the invention of the Telescope, could see from his actual
standpoint, the Earth, with an accuracy which was proved by the fulfilment
of his predictions. And in that last and most memorable anticipation which
has given an imperishable fame to our two illustrious contemporaries, the
inadequacy of the basis afforded by actual observation of the perturbations
of Uranus, required that it should be supplemented by an assumption of the
probable distance of the disturbing Planet beyond, which has been shown by
subsequent observation to have been only an approximation to the truth.
Even in this most exact of Sciences, therefore, wo cannot proceed a step,
without translating the actual Phenomena of Natiire into Intellectual Eepre-
scntations of those phenomena ; and it is because the Newtonian conception
is not only the most simple, but is also, up to the extent of our present
knowledge, universal in its conformity to the facts of observation, that we
accept it as the only Scheme of the Universe yet promulgated, which satisfies
our Intellectual requirements.
When, under the reign of the Ptolemaic System, any new inequality was
discovered in the motion of a Planet, a new wheel had to be added to the
ideal Mechanism, — as Ptolemy said, " to save appearances." If it should
prove, a century hence, that the motion of Neptune himself is disturbed
liy some other attraction than that exerted by the interior Planets, we
should confidently expect that not an ideal but a real cause for that dis-
turbance will be found in the existence of another Planet beyond. But
* See Drinkwater's ' Life of Kepler,' in the Library of Useful Knowledge, pp. 26-35.
IxxiV RKPORT — 1873.
I trust that I have now made it evident to you, that this confident expectation
is not justified by any absolute necessity of Nature, but arises entirely out
of our belief in her TJinformity ; and into the grounds of this and other
Primary Beliefs, Avhich serve as the foundation of all Scientific reasoning, wo
shall presently inquire.
There is another class of cases, in which an equal certainty is generally
claimed for conclusions that seem to flow immediately from observed facts,
though really evolved by Intellectual processes ; the apparent simplicity and
directness of those processes either causing them to be entirely overlooked,
or veiling the assumptions on which they are based. — Thus Mr. Lockyer
speaks as confidently of the Sun's Chromosphere of incandescent Hydro-
gen, and of the local outbursts which cause it to send forth projections tens
of thousands of miles high, as if he had been able to capture a flask of this
gas, and had generated water by causing it to unite with oxygen. Yet this
confidence is entirely based on the assumption, that a certain line which is seen
in the Spectrum of a hydrogen flame, means hydrogen also when seen in the
spectrum of the Sun's chromosphere ; and higb as is the probability of that
assumption, it cannot be regarded as a demonstrated certainty, since it is by
no means inconceivable that the same line might bo produced by some other
substance at present unknown. — And so when Dr. Huggins deduces from
the different relative positions of certain lines in the spectra of different Stars,
that these Stars are moving from or towards us in space, his admirable train of
reasoning is based on the assumption that these lines have the same meaninr/
— that is, that they represent the same elements — in every luminary. That
assumption, like the preceding, may be regarded as possessing a sufficiently
high probability to justify the reasoning based upon it ; more especially
since, by the other researches of that excellent observer, the same Chemical
elements have been detected as vapours in those filmy cloudlets which seem
to be stars in an eai4y stage of consolidation. But when Frankland and
Lockyer, seeing in the spectrum of the yellow Solar prominences a certain
bright line not identifiable with that of any known Terrestrial flame, attri-
bute this to a hypothetical new substance which they propose to call Helium,
it is obvious that their assumption rests on a far less secure foundation ;
until it shall have received that verification, which, in the case of Mr.
Crookes's researches on Thallium, was afforded by the actual discovery of the
new metal, whose presence had been indicated to him by a line in the
Spectrum not attributable to any substance then known.
In a large number of other cases, moreover, our Scientific interpretations
are clearly matters oi judr/ment ; and this is eminently a personal act, the
value of its results depending in each case upon the qualifications of the
individual for arriving at a correct decision. The surest of such judgments
are those dictated by what we term " Common Sense," as to matters on
which there seems no room for difference of opinion, because every sane
person comes to the same conclusion, although he may be able to give no
other reason for it than that it appears to him " self-evident." Thus while
Philosophers have raised a thick cloud of dust in the discussion of the basis
of our belief in the existence of a World external to ourselves, — of the Non
Ego, as distinct from the Ego, — and while every Logician claims to have
found some flaw in the jDroof advanced by every other, — -the Common Sense of
Mankind has arrived at a decision that is practically worth all the arguments
of all the Philosophers who have fought again and again over this battle-
ground. And I think it can be shown that the trustworthiness of this
Common Sense decision arises from its dependence, not on any one set of
ADDRESS. IXXV
Experiences, but upon oui' -unconscious co-ordination of the luhole ac/grerjate
of oitr Experiences, — not on the conclusiveness of any one train of Keasoning,
but on the convergence of all our lines of thought towards this one centre.
Now this " Common Sense," disciphned and enlarged by appropriate culture,
becomes one of our most valuable instruments of Scientific inquiiy ; affording
in many instances the best, and sometimes the only, basis for a rational con-
clusion. Let us take as a typical case, in which no special knowledge is
required, what we are accustomed to call the " flint implements " of the
Abbeville and Amiens gravel-beds. No logical proof can be adduced that
the peculiar shapes of these flints were given to them by Human hands ; but
does any unprejudiced person now doubt it ? The evidence of design, to
which, after an examination of one or two such specimens, we should only
be justified in attaching a probable value, derives an irresistible cogency
from accumulation. On the other hand, the rwiprobability that these flints
acquired their peculiar shape by accident, becomes to our minds greater
and greater as more and more such specimens are found ; until at last this
hypothesis, although it cannot be directly disproved, is felt to be almost in-
conceivable, except by minds previously " possessed " by the " dominant idea "
of the modern origin of Man. And thus what was in the first instance a
matter of discussion, has now become one of those " self-evident " propositions,
which claim the unhesitating assent of all whose opinion on the subject is
entitled to the least weight.
We proceed upwards, however, from such questions as the Common Sense
of Mankind generally is competent to decide, to those in which special know-
ledge is required to give value to the judgment ; and thus the interpretation
of Nature by the use of that faculty comes to be more and more individual ;
things being perfectly " self-evident " to men of special culture, which ordi-
nary men, or men whose training has lain in a different direction, do not
apprehend as such. Of all departments of Science, Geology seems to me to
be the one that most depends on this specially-trained "Common Sense;"
which brings as it were into one focus the light afforded by a great
variety of studies, — Physical and Chemical, Geographical and Biological;
and throws it on the pages of that Great Stone Book, on which the past
history of our Globe is recorded. And whilst Astronomy is of all Sciences
that which may be considered as most nearly representing Nature as she
really is. Geology is that which most completely represents her as seen
through the medium of the interpreting mind ; the meaning of the phenomena
that constitute its data being in almost every instance open to question,
and the judgments passed upon the same facts being often different according
to the qualifications of the several judges. No one who has even a general
acquaintance with the history of this department of Science, can fail to see
that the Geology of each epoch has been the reflection of the Minds by which
its study was then directed ; and that its true progress dates from the time
when that " Common Sense " method of interpretation came to be generally
adopted, which consists in seeking the explanation of past changes in the
Forces at present in operation, instead of invoking the aid of extraordinary
and mysterious agencies, as the older Geologists were wont to do, whenever
they wanted — like the Ptolemaic Astronomers — " to save appearances." The
whole tendency of the ever-widening range of modern Geological inquiry
has been to show how little reliance can be placed upon the so-called
" Laws " of Stratigraphical and Palseontological Succession, and how much
allowance has to be made for local conditions. So that while the Astro-
nomer is constantly enabled to point to the fulfilment of his predictions as an.
Ixxvi REPOET — 1873.
evidence of the correctness of his. method, the Geologist is abnost entirely
destitute of any such means of verification. For the value of any prediction
that he may hazard — as in regard to the existence or non-existence of Coal
in any given area,— depends not only upon the truth of the general doctrines
of Geology in regard to the succession of Stratified Deposits, but still more
upon the detailed knowledge which he may have acquired of the distribution
of those Deposits in the particular locality. Hence no reasonably -judging
man would discredit either the general doctrines or the methods of Geology,
because the prediction proves untrue in such a case as that now about to
be brought in this neighbourhood to the trial of experience.
AVe have thus considered Man's function as the Scientific Interpreter of
Nature in two departments of ISTatural Knowledge ; one of which affords an
example of the strictest, and the other of the freest method, which Man can
employ in constructing his Intellectual representation of the Universe. And as
it woiild be found that in the study of all other departments the same methods
are used, either separately or in combination, we may pass at once to an-
other part of our inquiry.
The whole fabric of Geometry rests upon certain Axioms which every one
accepts as true, but of which it is necessary that the truth should be assumed,
because they are incapable of demonstration. So, too, the deliverances of our
" Common Sense " derive their trustworthiness from what we consider the
" self-evidence " of the propositions affirmed. There are, then, certain
Primary Beliefs, which constitute the groundwork of all Scientific reasoning ;
and we have next to inquire into their origin.
This inquiry brings us face to face with one of the great Philosophical
problems of our day, which has been discussed by Logicians and Meta-
physicians of the very highest ability as Leaders of opposing Schools, with
the one result of showing how much can be said on each side. Ey the
Intuitionalists it is asserted that the tendency to form these Primary Beliefs
is inborn in Man, an original part of his mental organization ; so that they
grow up spontaneously in his Mind as its faculties are gradually unfolded
and developed, requiring no other Experience for their genesis, than that
which sufiices to call these faculties into exercise. But by the advocates of
the doctrine which regards Experience as the basis of all our knowledge,
it is maintained that the Primary Beliefs of each individual are nothing else
than generalizations which he forms of such experiences as he has either
himself acquired or has consciously learned from others ; and they deny
that there is any original or intuitive tendency to the formation of such
beliefs, beyond that which consists in the power of retaining and generalizing
experiences.
I have not introduced this subject with any idea of placing before you
even a summary of the ingenious arguments by which these opposing
doctrines have been respectively suj^ported ; nor should I have touched on
the question at all, if I did not believe that a means of reconcilement between
them can be found in the idea, that the Intellectual Intuitions of any one
Generation are the cmhoclied Eiyerienccs of the previous Bace. For, as it
appears to me, there has been a progressive improvement in the Thinling
Power of Man ; every product of the culture which has preceded serving to
prepare the soil for yet more abundant harvests in the future.
Now, as there can be no doubt of the Hereditary transmission in Man of
acquired constitutional peculiarities, which manifest themselves alike in
tendencies to Bodily and to Mental disease, so it seems equally certain that
acquired mental habitudes often impress themselves on his organization, with
ADDRESS, Ixxvii
sufficient force and permanence to occasion their transmission to the offspring
as tendencies to similar modes of thourjld. And thus, while all admit that
Knowleclje cannot thus descend from one generation to another, an increased
aptitude for the acquirement, either of knowledge generally, or of some par-
ticular kind of it, may be thus inherited. These tendencies and aptitudes
will acquire additional strength, expansion, and permanence, in each new
generation, from their habitual exercise upon the materials supplied by a con-
tinually enlarged experience ; and thus the acquired habitudes produced by
the Intellectual culture of ages, wiU become " a second nature " to every one
who inherits them *.
We have an illustration of this progress in the fact of continual occurrence,
that conceptions which prove inadmissible to the minds of one generation, in
consequence either of their want of intellectual power to apprehend them, or
of their preoccupation by older habits of thought, subsequently find a uni-
versal acceptance, and even come to be approved as " self-evident." Thus the
First Law of Motion, divined by the genius of Newton, though opposed by
many Philosophers of his time as contrary to all experience, is now accepted
by common consent, not merely as a legitimate inference from Experiment,
but as the expression of a necessary and universal truth; and the same
Axiomatic value is extended to the still more general doctrine, that Energy
of any kind, whether manifested in the " molar " motion of masses, or con-
sisting in the " molecular " motion of atoms, must continue under some
form or other without abatement or decay; what aU admit in regard to
the indestructibility of Matter, being accepted as no less true of Force, namely,
that as ex nihilo nil Jit, so nil Jit ad nihilumf.
But, it may be urged, the very conception of these and similar great truths
is in itself a typical example of Intuition. The men who divined and enun-
ciated them stand out above their fellows, as possessed of a Genius which
could not only combine but create, of an Insight which could clearly discern
what Eeason could but dimly shadow forth. Granting this freely, I think
it may be shown that the Intuitions of individual Genius are but specially
exalted forms of endowments which are the general property of the Race at
the time, and which have come to be so in virtue of its whole previous culture. —
"Who, for example, could refuse to the marvellous aptitude for perceiving the
relations of Numbers, which displayed itself in the untutored boyhood of
George Bidder and Zerah Colburn, the title of an Intuitive gift? But who,
on the other hand, can believe that a Bidder or a Colburn could suddenly
* This doctrine was first explicitly put fortli by Mr. Herbert Spencer; in whose
Philosophical Treatises it will be found most ably developed. I am glad to be able to
append the following extract from a letter which Mr. Jolni Mill, the great Master of the
Experiential School, was good enough to write to me a few months since, with reference
to the attempt I had made to place "Common Sense" upon this basis (Contemporary
Review, Feb. 1872) : — " When states of mind in no respect innate or instinctive have been
* frequently repeated, the mind acquires, as is proved by tlie power of Habit, a greatly
" increased facility of passing into those states ; and this increased facility must be owing
" to some change of a physical character in the organic action of the Brain. There is also
" considerable evidence that such acquired facilities of passing into certain modes of
" cerebral action can in many cases be transmitted, more or less completely, by inheritance,
" The limits of this power of transmission, and the conditions on which it depends, are a
" subject now fairly before the scientific world ; and we shall doubtless in time know much
" more about them than we do now. But so far as my imperfect knowledge of the subject
" qualifies me to have an opinion, I take much the same view of it that you do, at least
" in principle."
+ This is the form in which the doctrine now known as that of the " Conservation of
Energy " was enunciated by Dr. Mayer, in the very remarkable Essay published by liim in
1845, entitled " Die organische Bewegung in ihrem Zusammenhange mit dem Stoffwechsel."
Ixxviii , RESORT — 1872.
arise in a race of Savages wlio cannot count beyond five ? Or, again, in the
history of the very earliest years of Mozart, who can fail to recognize the
dawji of that glorious Genius, whose brilliant but brief career left its im-
perishable impress on the Art it enriched ? But who would be bold enough
to affirm that an infant Mozart could be born amongst a tribe, whose only
musical instrument is a tom-tom, whose only song is a monotonous chant ?
Again, by tracing the gradual genesis of some of those Ideas which we now
accept as "self-evident," — such, for example, as that of the " Uniformity of
Nature " — we are able to recognize them as the expressions of certain Intel-
lectual tendencies, which have progressively augmented in force in successive
generations, and now manifest themselves as acquired Mental Instincts that
penetrate and direct our ordinary course of Thought. Such Instincts constitute
a precious heritage, which has been transmitted to us with ever-increasing
value through the long succession of preceding generations ; and which it is
for us to transmit to those who shall come after i;s, with all that further in-
crease which our higher Culture and wider range of Knowledge can impart.
And now, having studied the working action of the Human Intellect in
the Scientific Interpretation of Nature, we shall examine the general character
of its products ; and the first of these with which we shall deal is our con-
ception of Hatter and of its relation to Force.
The Psychologist of the present day views Matter entirely through the
light of his own Consciousness : his idea of Matter in the abstract being that
it is a " something " which has a permanent power of exciting Sensations ;
his idea of any " property " of Matter being the mental representation of
some kind of sensory impression he has received from it; and his idea
of any particular kind of Matter being the representation of the whole
aggregate of the Sense-perceptions which its presence has called up in his
Mind. Thus when I press my hand against this table, I recognize its
unyieldingness through the conjoint medium of my sense of Touch, my
Muscidar sense, and my Mental sense of EiFort, to which it wiU be convenient
to give the general designation of the Tactile Sense ; and I attribute to that
table a hardness which resists the efi'ort I make to press my hand into its
substance, whilst I also recognize the fact that the force I have employed ia
not sufficient to move its mass. But I press my hand against a lump of
dough ; and finding that its substance yields under my pressure, I call it
soft. Or again, I press my hand against this desk ; and I find that although
I do not thereby change its form, I change its pZace ; and so I get the Tactile
idea of Motion. Again, by the impressions received through the same
Sensorial apparatus, when I lift this book in my hand, I am led to attach to
it the notion of weight or ponderosity ; and by lifting diflerent solids of about
the same size, I am enabled, by the different degrees of exertion I find
myself obliged to make in order to sustain them, to distinguish some of them
as ligJif, and others as heavy. Through the medium of another set of Sense-
perceptions which some regard as belonging to a different category, we dis-
tinguish between bodies that feel " hot " and those that feel " cold ; " and in
this manner we arrive at the notion of differences of Temperature. And
it is through the medium of our Tactile Sense, without any aid from Visionj
that we first gain the idea of solid form, or the Three Dimensions of Space.
Again, by the extension of our Tactile experiences, we acquire the notion
of liquids, as forms of matter yielding readily to pressure, but possessing a,
Bensible weight which may equal that of solids : and of air, whose resisting
power is much slighter, and whose weight is so small that it can only be
made sensible by artificial means. Thus, then, we arrive at the notions of
ADDRESS. Ixxix
resistance and of weight as properties common to all forms of Matter ; and
now that we have got rid of that idea of Light and Heat, Electricity and
Magnetism, as " imponderable fluids," which used to vex our souls in our
Scientific Childhood, and of which the popular term " Electric fluid " is a
" survival," we accept these properties as affording the practical distinction
between the "material" and the "immaterial."
Turning, now, to that other great portal of Sensation, the Sight, through
which we receive most of the messages sent to us from the Universe around,
we recognize the same truth. Thus it is agreed alike by Physicists and
Physiologists, that Colour docs not exist as such in the object itself; which
has merely the power of reflecting or transmitting a certain number of
millions of undulations in a second; and these only produce that affection
of our consciousness which we call Colour, when they fall upon the retina of
the living Percipient. And if there be that defect either in the retina or in
the apparatus behind it, which we call " colour-blindness " or Daltonism,
some particular hues cannot be distinguished, or there may even be no power
of distinguishing any colour whatever. If we were all like Dalton, we should
see no difference, except in form, between ripe cherries hanging on a tree,
and the green leaves around them : if we were all affected with the severest
form of colour-blindness, the fair face of Nature would be seen by us as in
the chiaroscuro of an Engraving of one of Turner's Landscapes, not as in the
glowing hues of the wondrous Picture itself. And in regard to our Visual
conceptions it may be stated with perfect certainty, as the result of very
numerous observations made upon persons who have acquired sight for the
first time, that these do not serve for the recognition even of those objects
with which the individual had become most familiar through the Touch,
until the two sets of Sense-perceptions have been co-ordinated by expeiience*.
When once this co-ordination has been effected, however, the composite
perception of Form which we derive from the Yisnal sense alone is so
complete, that we seldom require to fall back xipon the Touch for any further
information respecting that quality of the object. — So, again, while it is
from the co-ordination of the two dissimilar pictui'es formed by any solid
or projecting object upon our two retinae, that (as Sir Charles Wheat-
stone's admirable investigations have shown) we ordinarily derive through
the Sight alone a correct notion of its solid form, there is adequate evidence
that this notion, also, is a mental judgment based on the experience we have
acquired in early infancy by the consentaneous exercise of the Visual and
Tactile senses.
Take, again, the case of those wonderful instruments by which our Visual
range is extended almost into the infinity of Space, or into the infinity of
Minuteness. It is the mental not the bodily eye, that takes cognizance of
what the Telescope and the Microscope reveal to us. For we should have
no well-grounded confidence in their revelations as to the %ml:nou'n, if we
had not first acquired experience in distinguishing the true from the false
by applying them to Icnown objects ; and every interpretation of what we see
through theii* instrumentality is a mental judgment as to the probable form,
* Thu3, in a recently recorded case in which sight -was imparted by operation to a young
■woman who Lad been blind from birth, but who had ncTevtheless leai-ned to work well
with her needle, when the pair of scissors she had been accustomed to use was placed
before her, though she described their shape, colour, and glistening metallic character, she
was utterly unable to recognize them as scissors until she put her finger on them, when
she at once named them, laughing at her own stupidity (as she called it) in not having
made them out before.
IXXX REPORT — 1872.
size, and^ movement of bodies removed by either their distance or their mi-
nuteness from being cognosced by our Tactile Sense.
The case is still stronger in regard to that last addition to our Scientific
armamentum, ■vvhich promises to be not inferior in value either to the Telescope
or the Microscope ; for it may be truly said of the Spectroscope, that it has
not merely extended the range of our Vision, but has almost given us a new
sense, by enabling us to recognize distinctive properties in the Chemical
Elements which were previously quite unknown. And who shall now say
that we know all that is to be known as to any form of Matter ; or that the
Science of the fourth quarter of this century may not furnish us with as
great an enlargement of our knowledge of its Properties, and of our power of
recognizing them, as that of its third has done ?
But, it may be said, is not this view of the Material Universe open to the
imputation that it is " evolved out of the depths of our own consciousness" — a
projection of our own Intellect into what surrounds us — an ideal rather than
a real World ? If all we know of Matter be an " Intellectual Conception," how
are we to distinguish this from such as we form in our Dreams ? — for these,
as our Laureate no less happily than philosophically expresses it, are " true
while they last." Here our "Common Sense" comes to the rescue. We
" awake, and behold it was a dream." Every healthy mind is conscious of the
difference between its waking and its dreaming experiences ; or, if it is now
and then puzzled to answer the question " Did this really happen, or did I
dream it? " the perplexity arises from the consciousness that it might have
happened. And every healthy mind, finding its own experiences of its waking
state not only self-consistent, but consistent with the experiences of others,
accepts them as the basis of its beliefs, in preference to even the most vivid
recollections of its dreams.
The Lunatic Pauper who regards himself as a King, the Asylum in which he
is confined as a Palace of regal splendour, and his Keepers as obsequious at-
tendants, is so " possessed " by the conception framed by his disordered in-
tellect, that he does project it out of himself into his surroundings ; his refusal
to admit the corrective teaching of Common Sense being the very essence of his
malady. And there are not a few persons abroad in the world, who equally
resist the teachings of Educated Common Sense, whenever they run counter to
their own preconceptions ; and who may be regarded as — in so far^affected
with what I once heard Mr. Carlyle pithily characterize as a " diluted In-
eanity."
It has been asserted, over and over again, of late years, by a class of men
who claim to be the only true Interpreters of Nature, that we know nothing
but Matter and the Laws of Matter, and that Force is a mere fiction of the
Imagination. May it not be affirmed, on the other hand, that while our
notion of Matter is a Conception of the Intellect, Force is that of which we
have the most direct — perhaps even the onhj dh-ect — cognizance? As I have
already shown you, the knowledge of Ilesistauce and of Weight which we gain
through our Tactile Sense is derived from our own perception of exertion ; and
in Vision, as in Hearing, it is the Force with which the undulations strike
the sensitive surface, that affects our consciousness with Sights or Sounds.
True it is that in our Visual and Auditory Sensations, we do not, as in oi;r
Tactile, directly cognosce the Force which produces them ; but the Physicist
has no difficulty in making sensible to us indirectly the undulations by Avhich
Sound is propagated, and in proving to our Intellect that the Force conaemed
in the transmission of Light is really enormous*.
* See Sir John Herscliel's Familiar Lectures on Scientific Subjects.
ADDRESS. Ixxxi
It seems strange that those who make the loudest appeal to Experience as
the basis of all knowledge, should thus disregard the most constant, the most
fundamental, the most direct of all experiences ; as to which the Common
Sense of Mankind affords a guiding light much clearer than any that can be
seen through the dust of Philosopliical discussion. For, as Sir John Herschel
most truly remarked, the universal Consciousness of mankind is as much in
accord in regard to the existence of a real and intimate connexion between
Cause and Effect, as it is in regard to the existence of an External World ; and
tha,t consciousness arises to every one out of his own sense of personal ex-
ertion in the origination of changes by his individual agency.
Now while fully accepting tlie Logical definition of Cause as the " an-
tecedent or concurrence of antecedents on which the Effect is invariably and
unconditionally consequent," we can always single out one dynamical
antecedent — the Power which does the work — from the aggregate of
material conditions under which that Power may be distributed and
applied. No doubt the term Cause is very loosely employed in popular
phraseology; often (as Mr. Mill has shown) to designate the occurrence that
immediately preceded the effect ; — as when it is said that the spark which
falls into a barrel of gunpowder is the cause of its explosion, or that the
slipping of a man's foot off the rung of a ladder is the cause of his fall.
But even a very slightly trained Intelligence can distinguish the Power
which acts in each case, fi-om the Conditions under which it acts. The
Eorce which produces the explosion is locked up (as it were) in the powder ;
and ignition merely liberates it, by bringing about new Chemical combina-
tions. The faU of the man from the ladder is due to the Gravity which was
equally piilling him down while he rested on it ; and the loss of support,
either by the slipping of his foot, or by the breaking of the rung, is merely
that change in the material conditions which gives the Power a new action.
Many of you have doubtless viewed with admiring interest that truly won-
derful work of Human Design, the Walter Printing Machine. You first
examine it at rest ; presently comes a man who simply puUs a handle towards
him ; and the whole inert mechanism becomes instinct with life, — the con-
tinuous sheet of four miles of blank paper which rolls off the cylinder at one
end, being delivered at the other, without any intermediate human agency, as
separate " Times " Newspapers, at the rate of 15,000 an hour. Now what is
the Cause of this most marvellous effect ? Siu-ely it lies essentially in the
Power or Eorce which the pulling of the handle brought to bear on the machine
from some extraneous source of Power, — which we in this instance know to
be a_ Steam-engine on the other side of the wall. This Eorce it is, which,
distributed through the various parts of the Mechanism, really performs the
action of which each is the instrument ; they only supply the vehicle for its
transmission and application. The man comes again, pushes the handle in the
opposite direction, detaches the Machine from the Steam-engine, and the
whole comes to a stand ; and so it remains, like an inanimate corpse, until
recalled to activity by the renewal of its Moving Power.
But, say the Reasoners who deny that Force is any thing else than a fiction
of the imagination, the revolving shaft of the Steam-engine is " Matter in
Motion;" and when the connexion is established between that shaft and the
one that drives the Machine, the Motion is communicated from the former to
the latter, and thence distributed to the several parts of the Mechanism.
This account of the operation is just what an observer might give, who had
lookcd-on with entire ignorance of every thing but what his eijes could see ;
the moment he puts his hand upon any part of the machinery, and tries to
1872. ^ f
Ixxxii REPORT — 1872.
stop its motion, he takes as direct cognizance, through hia feeling of the Effort
required to resist it, of the force which produces that motion, as he does
through his eye of the motion itself.
Now since it is universally admitted that our notion of the External World
would be not only incomplete, but erroneous, if our Visual perceptions were
not supplemejited by our Tactile, so, as it seems to me, our interpretation of
the Phenomena of the Universe must be very inadequate, if we do not
mentally co-ordinate the idea of Force with that of Motion, and recognize it
as the " efficient cause " of those phenomena, — the " material conditions "
constituting (to use the old Scholastic term) only " their formal cause."
And I lay the greater stress on this point, because the Mechanical Phi-
losophy of the present day tends more and more to express itself in terms
of Motion rather than in terms of Force ; — to become Kinetics instead of Dy-
namics.
Thus from whatever side we look at this question, — whether the Common
Sense of Mankind, the Logical Analysis of the relation between Cause and
Effect, or the Study of the working of our own Intellects in the interpreta-
tion of Nature, — we seem led to the same conclusion ; that the notion of Force
is one of those elementary Forms of Thought with which we can no more
dispense, than we can with the notion of Space or of Succession. And I
shaU now, in the last place, endeavour to show you that it is the siibsti-
tution of the Dynamical for the mere Phenomenal idea, which gives their
highest value to our conceptions of that Order of Nature, which is wor-
shipped as itself a God by the class of Interpreters whose doctrine I call
in question.
The most illustrative as well as the most illustrious example of the differ-
ence between the mere Generalization of Phenomena and the Dynamical
conception that applies to them, is furnished by the contrast between the
so-called Laws of Planetary Motion discovered by the persevering ingenuity
of Kepler, and the interpretation of that Motion given us by the profound in-
sight of Newton. Kepler's three Laws were nothing more than comprehen-
sive statements of certain groups of Phenomena determined by observation.
Thejirst, that of the revolution of the Planets in EUiptical orbits, was based
on the study of the observed places of Mars alone ; it might or might not be
true of the other Planets ; for, so far as Kepler knew, there was no reason
why the orbits of some of them might not be the excentric circles which he had
first supposed that of Mars to be. So Kepler's second law of the passage of
the Eadius Vector over equal areas in equal times, so long as it was simply
a generalization of facts in the case of that one Planet, carried with it no
reason for its applicability to other cases, except that which it might derive
from his erroneous conception of a whirling force. And his third law was
in like manner simply an expression of a certain Harmonic relation which
he had discovered between the times and the distances of the Planets, having
no more rational value than any other of his numerous hypotheses.
Now the Newtonian " Laws " are often spoken of as if they were merely
higher gewralizations in which Kepler's are included ; to me they seem to
possess an altogether different character. For starting with the Conception
of two Forces, one of them tending to produce continiious uniform motion in
a straight line, the other tending to produce a uniformly accelerated motion
towards a fixed point, Newton's wonderful mastery of Geometrical reasoning
enabled him to show that, if these Dynamical assumptions be granted,
Kepler's p/ienomena^ "Laws," being necessary consequences of them, must
be universally true. And while that demonstration would have been alone
ADDRESS. Ixxxiii
Bufflcient to give him an imperishable renown, it was his still greater glory
to divine that the fall of the Moon towards the Earth — that is, the deflection
of her path from a tangential line to an ellipse — is a phenomenon of the same
order as the fall of a stone to the ground ; and thus to show the applicability
to the entire Universe, of those simple Dynamical conceptions which consti-
tute the basis of the Geometry of the Principia.
Thus, then, whilst no " Law " which is simply a generalization of
Phenomena can be considered as having any coercive action, we may assign
that value to Laws which express the universal conditions of the action of a
i^orce whose existence we learn from the testimony of our own consciousness.
The assurance we feel that the Attraction of Gravitation miist act under all
circumstances according to those simple Laws which arise immediately out of
our Dynamical conception of it, is of a veiy diiferent order from that which
we have in regard (for example) to the Laws of Chemical Attraction, which
are as yet only generalizations of phenomena. And yet even in that strong
assurance, we are required by our examination of the basis on which it rests,
to admit a reserve of the possibility of something different ; a reserve which we
may well believe that Newton himself must have entertained.
A most valuable lesson as to the allowance we ought always to make for
the unknown " possibilities of Nature," is taught us by an exceptional phe-
nomenon so familiar that it does not attract the notice it has a right to
claim. Next to the Law of the Universal Attraction of Masses of Matter,
there is none that seems to have a wider range than that of the Expansion of
Bodies hj Heat and their Contraction by Cold. Excluding Water and one or
two other substances, the fact of such expansion might be said to be invariable ;
and, as regards bodies whose Gaseous condition is known, the Law of Ex-
pansion can be stated in a form no less simple and definite than the Law of
Gravitation. Supposing those exceptions, then, to be unknown, the Law
would be universal in its range. But it comes to be discovered that Water,
whilst conforming to it in its expansion from 39|° xipivards to its boiling-
point, as also, when it passes into Steam, to the special law of Expansion of
Vapours, is exceptional in expanding also from 39|° doivnwards to its Freez-
ing-point ; and of this failure in the Universality of the Law, no rationale can
be given. StiU more strange is it, that by dissolving a little scdt in water,
we should remove this exceptional peculiarity ; for sea-water continues to con-
tract from 39|° downwards to its Freezing-point 12° or 14° lower, just as it
does with reduction of temperature at higher ranges.
Thus from our study of the mode in which we arrive at those conceptions
of the Orderly Sequence observable in the Phenomena of Nature which we
call " Laws," we are led to the conclusion that they are Human conceptions,
subject to Human fallibility; and that they may or may not express the
Ideas of the Great Author of Nature. To set up these Laws as self-acting,
and as either excluding or rendering unnecessary the Power which alone
can give them effect, appears to me as arrogant as it is unphilosophical. To
speak of any Law as "regulating" or "governing" phenomena, is only per-
missible on the assumption that the Law is the expression of the modus
operandi of a Governing Power. — I was once in a great City which for two
days was in the hands of a lawless mob. Magisterial authority was sus-
pended by timidity and doubt : the force at its command was paralyzed by
want of resolute direction. The " Laws " were on the Statute book, but there
was no Power to enforce them. And so the Powers of evil did their terrible
work; and fire and rapine continued to destroy life and property without
check, until uew Power came in, when the Ileigu of Law was restored.
Ixxxiv REPORT — 1872.
And thus we are led to the culminating point of Man's Intellectual Inter-
pretation of Nature, — his recognition of the Unity of the Power, of which her
Phenomena are the diversified manifestations. Towards this point all Scien-
tific inquiry now tends. The Convertibility of the Physical Porces, the Cor-
relation of these with the Vital, and the intimacy of that nexus between
Mental and Bodily activity, which, explain it as we may, cannot be denied,
all lead upward towards one and the same conclusion ; and the pyramid of
which that Philosophical conclusion is the apex, has its foundation in the
Primitive Instincts of Humanity.
By our own remote Progenitors, as by the untutored Savage of the present
day, every change in which Human agency is not apparent was referred to
a particular Animating Intelligence. And thus they attributed not only the
movements of the Heavenly bodies, but all the phenomena of Nature, each
to its own Deity. These Deities were invested with more than Human power ;
but they were also supposed capable of Human passions, and subject to
Human capriciousness. As the Uniformities of Nature came to be more
distinctly recognized, some of these Deities were invested with a domi-
nant control, while others were supposed to be tlieir subordinate ministers.
A serene Majesty was attributed to the greater Gods who sit above the
clouds ; whilst their inferiors might " come down to Earth in the likeness of
Men." With the growth of the Scientific Study of Nature, the conception
of its Harmony and Unity gained ever-increasing strength. And so among
the most enlightened of the Greek and Eoman Philosophers, we find a
distinct recognition of the idea of the Unity of the Directing Mind from
which the Order of Nature proceeds ; for they obviously believed that, as our
modern Poet has expressed it, —
" All are but parts of one stupendous whole,
" Whose body Nature is, and God the Soul."
The Science of Modern times, however, has taken a more special direction.
Pixing its attention exclusively on the Order of Nature, it has separated itself
wholly from Theology, whose function it is to seek after its Cause. In this.
Science is fuUy justified, alike by the entire independence of its objects, and by
the historical fact that it has been continually hampered and impeded in its
search for the Truth as it is in Nature, by the restraints which Theologians
have attempted to impose upon its inquiries. But when Science, passing
beyond its own limits, assumes to take the place of Theology, and sets up its
own conception of the Order of Nature as a sufficient account of its Cause,
it is invading a province of Thought to which it has no claim, and not un-
reasonably provokes the hostility of those who ought to be its best friends.
For whilst the deep-seated instincts of Humanity, and the profoundcst re-
searches of Philosophy, alike point to Mind as the one and only source of
Power, it is the high prerogative of Science to demonstrate the Unifi/ of the
Power which is operating through the limitless extent and variety of the
Universe, and to trace its Continuity through the vast series of Ages that
have been occupied in its Evolution.
REPORTS
ON
THE STATE OE SCIENCE.
Ueport OH the Gaussian Constants for the year 1829, or a Theory of
Terrestrial Magnetism founded on all available observations. By
H, Petersen and A. Erman.
It was in 1838 that the illustrious C. F. Gauss published the principles of
a method which made all the phenomena of terrestrial magnetism as fully
calculable as are astronomical phenomena by Newton's theory of gravita-
tion. This beautiful accession to natural philosoi^hy may be summed tip as
follows: —
For every point of space, the position of which is given by its distance r from
the earth's centre, and by the angles u and X denoting respectively its angular
distance from the geographical north pole and its longitude east from Green-
wich, there exists a mathematical expression relating to the terrestrial magnetic
qualities of this point, and containing only r and trigonometrical functions
of u and X, together with numerical values that are the same for the whole
extent of space. This expression is called the magnetic potential of the
point ; and as to the said numerical values, we give them here, as we did in
the Eeport on our computation made during the years 1846 to 1848, the
name of the Gaussian Constants. This must be iinderstood as relating to
their invariability as to space, but by no means to independence of time.
For every point on the earth's surface, or above it, up to infinite distance,
the magnetic potential has a finite value, and in consequence thereof must be
calculable as soon as the Gaussian constants are known. There exists no
visible or measurable phenomenon which for every given point agrees with
the value of the magnetic potential ; but this remarkable quantity is
for every place in explicit connexion with the intensity and the direction
of the magnetic force which is exerted there by the causes considered. These
two measurable phenomena are therefore given as soon as the potential can
be ascertained; and the same is the case with every one of the components
which we are wont to form of terrestrial magnetism for the sake of easier
observations — as, for instance, with the three rectangular components, which
in their turn are equivalent to the horizontal and vertical intensities and to
1872. B
2 KEPORT— 18r2.
■what we call the augles of declination and inclination. Indeed at any place
a component in any direction whatever of the magnetic force is merely pro-
portional to the increment which the potential there takes by a small
displacement in the same direction. But now the determination of
that potential which outside a sphere results from any magnetic actions
of its interior, and therefore, according to the last remark, the foretelling of
all magnetic phenomena produced by the same causes, become possible and
are facilitated by the following circumstances. In every case of the descrip-
tion just mentioned the mag-netic potential can be expanded into an infinite
but converging series, proceeding by integer powers of -, the exponent of the
r
first one being -|-1. Among the terms of this series, that which is divided
by r contains 3 of the Gaussian constants,
r^ 5
»
I
2n+l „
In the formula for the potential, each of these constants is mtdtiplied by a
theoretically given trigonometrical function of u and X, and therefore, for any
given point, by the numerical equivalent of this function. The algebraic
developments which Gauss's classical work contains far the magnetic potential,
as well as for the observable magnetic components, relate also to the actions
of a sphere enclosing a finite or infinite number of any magnetic centres
whatsoever. Therefore these expressions can represent our terrestrial pheno-
mena only after the substitution, for every symbol denoting a Gaussian con-
stant, of that number which the individual magnetic qualities of the earth
require, according to observations. But then, specially, this transformation of
the abstract theory of the magnetic actions of a sphere into the practical
theory of terrestrial magnetism will amount to the determination, from a
sufiicient number of observed values, of 15, 24, 35, or generally n'^ + 2n
Gaussian constants, according as it appears that the third, the fourth, the
fifth, or generally the nth term in the algebraical expressions of these em-
pirical data is the first that is surpassed by the probable amount of their
inevitable errors.
A first attempt towards the completion of the theory of terrestrial magnetism
was made by its illustrious author with material of which the gaps for the
greater part of the Antarctic Ocean, and for other vast regions, could only be
filled up by graphical guesswork. It led to the conclusion that a restriction
to four terms of the potential, and therefore the determination of 24 Gaussian
constants, did more than respond to the mean exactitude of the empirical data.
To the same effect was the computation that H. Petersen executed from
1846 to 1848, when commissioned for the purpose by the British Association.
Indeed, it being exclusively founded on 610 results of careful magnetic
measurements made by A. Erman on a line round the earth between
67° north latitude and 60° south latitude, the resulting new constants re-
presented these observed values fully twice as well as did the old ones,
and thereby, as must be avowed, up to the amount of their own probable
errors. But it having been shown by later experience that, just as was
expected, miich larger disagreement between reality and both the theoretical
deductions, did still exist in those parts of the earth where the one or the
ON THE GAUSSIAX CONSTANTS FOR THE YEAR 1829. 3
other had wanted empirical supplemeuting *; and we, in consequence thereof
undertaking the recomputation now iinished with all available observations,
resolved once more to confine ourselves to the determination of the same
24 constants solely. Indeed the material on which we have founded this new
and definitive calculation is by its geographical completeness far superior
to that of both the former ones; but many of its modern accessions do not
exceed, nor even attain the exactitude of the observations mentioned above.
According to what we have stated in the beginning, the Gaussian constants
must to the same extent be either dependent on or indexiendent of time as are
the phenomena of terrestrial magnetism. Now very old and indubitable
experience has proved that each of these phenomena undergoes not only
the various short-period changes, from which the observer can easily,
and is always supposed to free them, but also the so-called secular
variations of by far a larger amount. The Gaussian constants being then
likewise variable as to time, it appears that they can be determined each
time but for one given epoch, and then out of observations which either have
been all made at this epoch, or reduced to what they would have given if
made at the same.
The aim of our present calculations was to determine with all attainable
exactitude the Gaussian constants for the year 1829, in order that the results
of the newly founded theory might be directly comparable as well with those
of their first evaluation, relating nearly to the same epoch, as with the most
careful measurements made by Hansteen and Erman between 1828 and
1830. liut, as for carrying this out we had to make an equal use of all ob-
servations to be relied upon, and originating whether in the selected epoch
or at any interval whatsoever before or after this time, our work was
divided into two independent parts : —
1. Formulse were to be constructed and employed for reducing each of the
magnetic results which, at widely differing times, had been ob-
tained by observations all over the earth's surface, to what they
would have been in 1829 ; and
2. Out of these reduced values, twenty-four numbers were to be com-
puted which, when taken for our twenty-four Gaussian constants,
responded as nearly as possible to all empirical data observed in,
or reduced to, the e])och 1829.
I. Reduction of Ohserved Values to the Year 1829.
Without the existence of the Gaussian theory, the only means to execute
such reductions would have been, for every kind of magnetic phenomena
at any place, to gaess what changes they had undergone, according to
the changes which had been observed for the same phenomena at certain
other places. Such rude attempts have indeed been made for the purpose of
ascertaining the changes of declination at places where they had never been
observed. They could perhaps have been extended, though with much less
foundation on experience, to inclination-changes ; whereas for the secular
variations of intensity not even this appearance of a means existed, owing
to an almost total want of data. But the problem of our reductions has now
* As, for instance, according to tlie comparison made by A. Erman, between (be results
of both systems of constants and the magnetic observations at some places in India, by
Mr. K. Koppe, who was commissioned to do so in the Total-Eclipse Expedition of 18C8,
as published in the ' Astrouomischo Nachricliten,' vol. Ixxv, p. 242 ct sen.
b2
4 REPORT 1872.
been stated in proper form and has been greatly simplified, since theory has
shown tliat, and how, all kinds of magnetic secular changes, for any arbitrary
time and place, depend on one common cause, viz. on the synchronous changes
of the Gaussian constants. Indeed these quantities only can give to the alge-
braic expressions of magnetic elements different numerical values at various
epochs, because the quantities r, u, and \ are by their nature once and for
ever invariable ; and then, as only the first power of every Gaussian constant,
and no products of them, occurs in the potential, the following general rule can
evidently be laid down : — The amount of change for any element of terrestrial
magnetism (as, for instance, for the declination, the inclination, one of the
three rectangular components, and so forth) during a given period must be
calculated by that same formula which expresses its absolute value, if only
instead of each Gaussian constant there is placed the increment which its
value has received during the same period. This plain corollary of the magnetic
theory has been of twofold use for the reductions we had to make, and will
serve in the same way for all future ones. Indeed its inverse application
gives, from observed changes of magnetic phenomena, the synchronous
changes of the Gaussian constants; and by substituting these latter results in
the direct formulfe, the changes of every phenomenon may be computed for
places where they have never been observed. The first part of this pro-
ceeding is immensely preferable to empirical guessings ; for it makes an almost
equal use of the variations in any kind of magnetic phenomena, and therel)y
leads to the knowledge of these variations in those kinds for which experience
is wanting. The secular changes of intensity may therefore bo ascertained
for periods in which we know only changes of inclination and declination,
or even for those in which the latter only have been observed, ^tloreover it
is only by these means that the consequences of experience on secular changes
in certain parts of the earth can very confidently be extended to the re-
motest parts.
Nevertheless, before we could make the application of this memorable
method, a decision was wanted concerning two points, according to the result
of which our proposed reductions might prove to be either easy or difficult, or
even wholly impracticable ; to wit : —
1. What kind of connexion exists between llic lapse of time and
the variations which are undergone by magnetic phenomena and
consequently by the Gaussian constants ? and
2. In how many and in Avliich of the Gaussian constants will the varia-
tions be of most influence, and in which others may they be
neglected for practical approximation ?
As to the first question, it has been proved by the changes of the three
magnetic components at Berlin, observed fuUy during the last forty-five
years by Erman, and partially at intervals during almost a hundred years
by others, and besides by a great number of partial series of observations
at other places, that during the last century the variations of magnetic
phenomena, and consequently those of the Gaussian constants, have never
happened by a leap, but have always progressed according to the law of
continuity, and especially so that their amount has been merely proportional
to the lapse of time and to its square. If, therefore, the increment of one of
these constants from a year denoted by T' to another denoted by T has been
ascertained, the (;pp-^,Jth* of this quantity will be equal to the annual
rp . rp:
increase of the same constant for the 3*ear denoted by — ^f— . More-
ON THE GAUSSIAN CONSTANTS FOE THE YEAR 1829. 5
orer it foUo'ws that, bj^ the knowledge of such anniial increase at two
moments separated from one another by a sufficiently hmg space of time,
we can calcnlate not only its value for any moment, but also that of the
corresponding total increase dnring any period. Therefore the materials we
possessed (as is to be shown hereafter) for computing the annual increments
of the constants for the year 1811 and for the year 1843-5, must suffice for
our reductions ; but before emplojdng them we had to consider the second of
the above-mentioned questions. An indubitable answer to it was, of course,
that we had to take into account and to determine the variation with time
for all those twenty-four constants the values of which were to be deter-
mined afterwards by the reduced observations. The solution of the problem
up to this highest degree of exactitude will at some future time be a beautiful
result of our present work, combined with a similar one for a later date ; but
had we undertaken it now, the preparatory task would not only have become
more extensive than the essential one, but would even have been impeded
by a most sensible want of means. Wc had therefore to content ourselves with
making our reductions for secular changes an approximation to reality, in
the same way as astronomers do when, in computing secular planetary
perturbations, they disregard the terms of less influence. So in this particular
case it was resolved to take into consideration only the changes of the first
two terms of the potential — that is to say, to ascertain for two epochs tho
annual increments of the first eight of the Gaussian constants.
A. On the Equations for annual Increments of Constants durhir/ the year 1811.
In order to ascertain the amount of the annual changes of the Gaussian
constants marked by
ff''", r/\ h^\ ff\ f\ ^^'\ f\ and h''
for our first epoch of 1811, we have founded the computation on : — ■
1. The increments of declination which appear as having happened
from the year 1784 to the year 1840, from a comparison of the
maps of isogonic lines constructed for the said years by C. Hansteeu
and E. Sabine ; and
2. The increments which inclination has undergone from 1780 to 1840
and which appear as differences between the isoclinal maps of the
same authors.
The increments of these two phenomena were taken by comparing the said
maps for forty-two points of intersection between the meridians of
X = 0°, 60°, 120°, 180°, 240°, and 300°
and the parallels of
M=30°, 50°, 70°, 90°, 110°, 130- and 150°;
and then, if t and t respectively designate the fifty-six years' increment of
declination and the sixty years' increment of inclination, and
«!, a^' "^3) «4> l^i' "^G' «7 ^'^^ «8
respectively the sought-for annual increments of the Gaussian constants
REPORT 1873.
there were formed forty-two conditional or primary equations to schedule
(1), and then just as many to schedule (2).
With (jj for the horizontal intensity, d for the declination,
56
and K= : — —, there had to be calculated for the a measured
to . sin 1°
by degrees of are : —
a = — siuK . sine?,
6= +cos?t . cos \ . sincZ-f-sinX . cosd,
c— -\-cosii, . sin X . sin d — cos \ . cos d,
d= — sin2({ . sind,
c= -f cos 2u . cos X . sin d-\- cos u . sin X . cos d,
f= + cos 2u . sin X . sin d — cos u . cos X . cos d,
[I— -fsin 2if . cos 2\ . sin d-\-2 . sin u . sin 2\ . cos d,
h=.-\- sin 2u . sin 2X . sin d — 2 . sin u . cos 2X . cos d,
and then formed as primary equations, to which the sough t-
for a, .... a^ had to answer as nearly as possible,
n— - =a.)x^ + h.a, + c.ac.^ + d.a.^ + e.oc-+f.cc^+[/.c(.J + h.a^.
(1)
(2)
<
r
The t or sixty years' inclination-increments being measured
by degrees of arc, with i for the inclination, <>• = , there
w.sinl°
had to be evaluated : —
a = — sin u . sin i . cos i . cos fi!-|-2 cos ^(, . cos^ i,
6=(cos %(■ . cos d . cos X — sin . d . sin X) . sin i . cos i
-\-2 .sinu . cos X . cos° i,
c=(cos it . cos d . sin X + sin d . cos X) sin i . cos i
-{■ 2 . sin 11 . sin X . cos'^ i,
d= — sin . 2m . cosfZ . sini . cosi-f-(3 . cos^it— 1) . cos'^i',
f =(cos 2m . cos X . cos d — cos u . sinX . sin d) sin i . cos i
'^ -1-|- . sin 2m . cos X . eos^ /,
y"=(cos 2m . sin X . cos c?-|-cos m . cos X . sin X) . sin i . cos i
-\- ^ . sin 2u , sin X . cos'^ i,
g={sm2u . cos2X . coscZ — 2sinit . sin2X . sinr?) . sin?' . cos*
-|- 3 . sin' It . cos 2X . cos' i,
7i = (sin2M . sin2X . cos(?-(-2sin w . cos2X . sind) . sin i . eosi
+ 3 . sin' M . sin 2X . cos' i,
and then to be formed as primaiy equations, to which the
«;.... a^ had to answer as nearly as possible,
n= - =a.tx.^ + h.a, + c.a^ + d.a^ + e.a.+f.a^+g.a. + h.ag.
The forty-two numerical values of a and i which we have used in the
primary equations to the preceding schedules (1) and (2) are shown in the
ON THE GAUSSIAN CONSTANTS FOR THE YEAR 1829. 7
following Tables. They form the first horizontal line for every value of u,
and are marked Ma. -when directly made out by the aforesaid maps. We
sulgoiu to them, in the second line for every u, and marked by Ca., the
corresponding- calculated values, which, according to the solution of our final
equations, as has to be shown hereafter, are at once conformable to theory
and the closest to the results obtained from the maps.
Values of a or increments of Declination from 1784 to 1840.
-^ ( Ma.
3° 1 Ca.
o/Ma.
5° (ca.
o / Ma.
o f Ma,
o J Ma.
o / Ma,
'5° |Ca.
+2-3
-4-1 1
4-0-2
— O-02
+ 1-3
-0-74
+4-4
+ 3-49
4-6-3
+ 5-14
+9'4
+ 3-49
4-8-6
4-6-13
60°
-5-4
-8-83
-3-9
-4-70
-3-8
-4-31
-4-5
-2-08
-0-4
4-1-08
--2-4
4-1-82
+ 6-9
-i-6-oo
120".
-i'3
-2-37
+ 1-7
-0-75
+0-5
4-1-04
-0-9
+0-38
4-0-2
4-0-51
-4'3
4-2-26
-5-0
+4-37
+ 2-2
+ I -00
+ i-o
+ 0-27
+ i-o
+ 2-17
+ 1-2
- 1-56
4- 0-8
- 2-52
- 0-7
- 2'02
- 3"9
— 10-04
240"
- 8-7
+ 1-35
- 2-7
4- 0-60
- 3-i
+ 0-19
- 3'o
- 1-92
- 4-0
- 2-41
- 7-1
- 2-8o
-13-3
- 4-24
300"
+ 7-S
+ 14-95
+ 4-S
+ 9-40
4- 2-2
+ 2-9S
+ 0-9
+ 3'oi
+ 3-1
+ 3-^1
+ rs
4- 1-22
+ 2-1
+ 2-93
Values of I or increments of Inclination from 1780 to 1840
•
X =
o"^.
60°.
120°.
180°.
240°.
300°.
~^/Ma
3o°|ca
5«° {£■::::::
'»"{£■::::;:
„„o/Ma
9° |ca
/Ma
"° jca
'3oiS-::::::
- 2-0
- 2-49
- 2-8
- 5-37
-10-8
- 2-37
-13-6
- 4-18
-13-0
- 1-37
- 4-6
- 6-28
4-12-0
4- 2-0
4-0-9
— 003
4-0-8
4-0-41
+2-7
— I -00
4-o-a
-4-85
-2-8
-3-76
O-Q
-3-86
+0-S
-0-39
+ 3-5
+2-15
-h2-0
4-2-36
+ 1-9
+2-27
0-0
+ 1-37
-3-7
-2-43
-3-5
-4-31
-I'S
-1-98
+ 1-4
-I-1-88
+ 2-4
+ 1-38
4-4-6
-|-i'oo
+4-1
-0-15
-0-5
— 0-24
-0-9
4-2-96
-4-0
— 0-40
+2-1
+ 1-71
+ 3-3
4-4-04
-fS-6
+4-18
+7-S
+ 6-43
+ 7-8I
+4-9
-1-0-80
4-6-0
4-3-07
-0-6
-1-74
-hi-6
4-0-89
4-0-6
4-3-04
4-3-0
+ 3-61
+ 3-2
+9-73
+ 6-9
+ 1-51
+ 7-1
-+4-41
8
REPORT 1872.
The coefficients a,h. . . Ji ot the primary equations have been calculated
with d and i as nearly given for 1811 by a mean between the indications of
both isogenic and of both isoclinal maps, and with w as sufficiently known
since 1829.
B. On the Equations for annual Increments of Constants durhifj the
yearlMZ-5.
"We have already mentioned that our second determination of a set of
annual increments a,^, a.^. . . .a^ of the first eight Gaussian constants M\as
intended to give these quantities for the date 1843-5. This date follows
indeed from being the middle of the period 1829-58, during which
had happened those changes of phenomena on which we first founded our
conditional or primary equations. These were the values of a or increments
of declination that we obtained by a comparison between the normal or
theoretically interpolated declinations for 1829, as given in the 'Magnetischo
Atlas' by Gauss and Weber, and the corresponding ones for 1858, as re-
presented by the isogonic lines in Berghaus's Chart of the World.
These increments result as follows for thirty-six of the before-mentioned
points : —
Values of a or increments of Dedination from 1829-58.
x=
0°.
60°.
120°.
180°.
240°.
300°.
u
■70°
— 2-2
-57
-5'i
+ 0-1
+4'4
+ 3-9
-4-1
+0-5
+ 1-3
— o-i
-37
-IS
+ 3-5
4-i-S
+ 0-2
+ 0-2
+ i'3
o-o
-1-6
-1-8
-0-3
+ 2-0 ■
-07
-27
-4-3
+0-3
+ 2-1
+ 2-4
— O'l
+ 2-8
+17
+ S-0
+ 0-6
— 0-2
— 0'2
-0-4
s°°
70°
qo°
110°
130°
As no sufficient data exist for a similar collection of the changes which
inclination has undergone during the same period, we have completed our
material by the following results of researches on secular variation of
magnetic elements. If I generally denotes the annual increment of any
element /or the date 1843-5, and/ the total magnetic intensity, there were
put X=/ . cos i . cos d, Y=/ . cos i . sin d, Z=/ . sin i, as well as p for the
so-called tveight or measure of jirohahiUty ; and then the following numbers
were ascertained, in order to be afterwards combined into conditional equa-
tions with the sought-for a^, a^. . . .a^, or annual increments of constants.
ON THE GAUSSIAN CONSTANTS FOR THE YEAR 1829,
Annual Increments of Magnetic Elements for the date 1843-u— f7ie variations
ofX, Y, and Z being measured by units of intensity, the variations of d.
and of i by minutes of arc.
Number
of
station.
I.
2.
4-
5-
6.
7-
37 aS-oS
48 45
123 55'05
46 ao'4
76 56
132 52-5
24 46-47
133 21-4
X.
9-
10.
II.
12.
13-
132
141
143
147
6-8
32'I
1-6
105 55"43
13 23'20
352 30-0
18 28-50
280 38-5
80 17
147 27-5
64 39-50
225 30*7
308 18-9
254 31-0
302 10-7
283 56-3
354 i6-oi
^X.
+ 0-570
+ 2-996
SY.
—0-672
—0-469
— 1-184 j +0-039
— 0-265
+0-856
—0-090
— 0116
+ I'O02
+ 8-069
+ 3-105
+ 7'4i5
+4-140
Sd
( + i'-347)
-0-243
-0-310
-0-261
-o-68i
-3'i49
+0-693
— 6-630
— 0-065
— 7-212
Si
(-4'-ii8)
SZ.
— 2-710
+ 1-087
-1-277
+0-165
+0-856
— 0-014
+ 1-436
-6-604
-5-796
-5'994
— 5763
— 6649
p.
The results
oriainatinsr : —
At Berlin.
Out of Erraan's ob-
servations in Spain
and France for
1853-7. and on the
Atlantic for 1830.
At Cape Town. En-
glish observatory.
At Toronto. Ibid.
At Madras. Ibid.
AtHobarton. Ibid.
At Obdorsk and Be-
resowsk. Observa-
tions for 1828 and
for 1849.
On the Pacific. Out
of observations in
1830 by Erman,
and in 1843 on
English ships.
Ibidem.
Ibidem,
Ibidem.
Ibidem.
At St. Helena. En-
glish observatory.
Intensity-changes
not observed.
The quantity p being supposed to expres.s the number of direct obser-
vations -which might have given a result of equal accuracy to that in
question, it ought to be inversely proportional to the square of the probable
error of this result, -which latter, in its turn, is luikuowu. Therefore our
suppositions on these values of j> could pretend to no more than an approxi-
mation to reality, and -n-ere then founded partly on regard to the exactitude
and completeness of the absolute measurements at different places, partly as
follo-ws from some regard to the dates of these performances. Out of the
preceding values of annual increments, only those under 1 and 3 have
been derived immediately and exclusively from observations at the places
named in the same lines; and then, especially if the date is generally
marked by 1800 + 1, the numerical absolute values of magnetic elements are
expressed for Berlin, or with u and X as under 1, according to Ermau's ob-
servations, by
d = 18 7-55-6-0700362 . (t-l-9Uy,
i=66 37-20 -f 0-02125. (<-102-2)-,
w =502-04 + 0-0068043 . (<— 16-108f ;
10 KEPORT— 1873.
aud for Cape Town, or the position as under 3, according to what we have
derived from all local English observatory journals, by
d= 29 33-85-6-11273 (<-58-04)=,
i=_58 51-07 + 0-02242 («-165-58)S
w=588-9o + 0-02813 ((-61-806f.
Now by developing out of each of these expressions, with ^=435, their
absolute values as well as the annual increments cd, H, and lu) of the same,
and then introducing these quantities into the easily proved expressions,
2X=cos d . (jw — (0 . sin 1' . sin d . Id,
SY=sin d! . 2w + w . sin 1' . cos d . hd,
2Z=tan i, hu) + w . sin 1' . see' i . hi,
these increments of rectangular components for 1843-5 are obtained as above
under 1 and 3.
But for all the other above-named places, the existing observations, when
treated as the last mentioned, did not give complete expressions for d, i, and w,
but only their expressions for limited periods. The annual increments of the
components X, Y, Z, which were determined from such observations, in
general did not exactly pertain to 1843-5, but to a value of t somewhat
different from 43-5. Now, as our computation for the first epoch, or 1811,
had already furnished the increments of the constants a,, a^. . . .a^ for the
same, we have, first, calculated (by the help of the following formulae (3),
(4), and (5)) the annual increments of X, Y, Z at the same places for 1811,
and then, having denoted the value of any one of these increments for
1843-5 by S,
1811 by \^,
1800 + < by St,
we have determined the results, as given above under number 2 and
numbers 4 to 13, by the relation
^=S. + |^. (43-5-0.
There were, in particular, to bo used for the increments under numbers
2, t=41-4,
4, « = 35,
5 and 6, t=48-5,
7, t=38-o,
12, t=3G,
13, «=45;
whereby it appears that the empirical elements of our equations were in-
fluenced, to an always slight but not wholly equal extent, by a former calcula-
ON THE GAUSSIAN CONSTANTS I'OK THE YEAR 1829.
11
tiou. The values attributed to p had therefore to be assumed with at least
an additional regard to this circumstance.
Now, as for the conditional equations themselves, between a^ a, . . . . a, for
1843-5, and the empiric data hitherto recorded for the same year or for the
period 1829-58, it appears, first, that these equations for the " ff or increments
of declination from 1829-58" had once more to be formed according to
schedule (1) (of A, or "equations for 1811"). In this schedule we had again
a • 29
to make 51= -, but this time with k= -. — — .
K u) . sm 1
As for the two values of? and U that are recorded under number 13, we have
employed for M the said schedule (1), and in it have taken «= — with
..= 1 and for li the schedule (2) (of A, or "equations for 1811"),
0) . sin 1''
%' 1
after substitution of n=— with k= ^-^', and then, finally, all the
K ID . sm i
recorded values of gX, ^Y, and cZ were set in equations, according to the
following schedules (3), (4), and (5), which we had derived for the purpose.
With
rt= +siu u, f?= +sin 2u, _ry= —sin 2u . cos 2X,
6==— cos«. cosX, <?=— cos2j6. cosX, 7i=— sin2t{ . sin2X,
c= — cosrt . sinX, /= — cos2« . sin X,
there is
«=gX=« .a^ + i. a.., + c . a,^ + d . a^ + e. a,+f. a,,+g . a^ + h . ^c^;
r with
a=0, d=0, ^= + 2sinM.sin2X,
6= + sinX, f= + COSH, sin X, ^=— 2 sin it . cos 2 X,
c= — cosX, /=— COSit. cosX,
is
n=2Y=rt . a^ + h. cc.^ + c . cc, + d . a^ + e . cc,+f . a^+ff ■ a, + h . a,;
(3) ..{
(4)
V
(5)
.^
and then
rwith
a= + 2 cos II, d= + (3 . cos= u—1), i/= + 3 sin' u . cos 2X,
j= + 2sintt. cosX, c= + | . sin2it . cos X, 7i= + 3 .sin'w. sin2X,
c==+2sin?tsinX, /= +| . sin 2m . sinX,
there is again
C. Evaluation of the annual Increments a„ a, a, of the Gaussian constants
Q^'\ g^'\ ^"' /"' -9^ '' ^^ '' 5'^^' ^""^ ^^^^ •^*"' ^'^^^^ ^Ipochs, and Re-
ductions made, by the help of these increments, of magnetic Observations
from different dates to 1829.
The heretofore described means had now supplied us for 1811 with eighty-
13
REPORT — 1873.
four, and for 1843-5 with seventy-four numerically different equations of
the form
n = a . cc^ + h . (x,, + c . a,^ + d. a,^ + e . ec.+f . a^-\-(j . a,.-\-h . a^,
whicli directly to satisfy was of course in both cases impossible. But in
order to determine those two sets of the eight unknown aj, a, . . . . a^, wliich
according to the rules of iirobabilitj had to be assumed for the first and for the
second of the said years, it was necessary to supply the just mentioned
theoretical form of the conditional equations by the practically possible
assumption of
«=(— n+« . ct^ + h . a.., + c. . oi^-\-d . a^ + e . cc.-[-f . a.^-\-fj . a-,+h . aj . Vj),
p and V in this expression being meant to stand for the so-called iveic/ht of
every value of n, and for the error to be supposed in it.
If, then, [ ] indicate generally a sum of algebraically similar terms, and
if the assumed values of the error v be regarded as functions of the un-
known, we shall obtain the most probable values of a^, a, . . . . a^ by the
solution of the following eight final equations under (G), which in their turn
are but evident consequences of the general principle under (©)
(O) [v^] = minimum.
w . -^ =o——[anp'] + lacqj']a^ + [abp']a^ + lac2)']a^ + ladp']a^
+ [««P]«5 + C«fp]«6 + lm'']»7 + [('h'l^s'
-1- [ bep-ja, + [ hfp-]a^ + \]>cjp-]a, + [67ip]o,.
\v • ^1 =0= - [ cnp-] -f [ capy^ -\- [ chpyi.^ + [ ccp']a^ + [cdp ]a,
+ [ cep']a, -h [ cfp-]u, + [ qip-]a, + [ cl,p-]a^.
\v.~\ =o=—ldnp\ + \d(ip]a^^ldhpyi.^-\-[dcp~\a^-\-[ddp']a^
.1 = = - [ enp-] + [ ra/>]ai + [ cl>p']<i., -|- [ ecp']a^ + [ edp^t^
+ [ <^fi^>5 + [ C^i^Jac + [ m^l^i + [ clipl^^i-
1 =o=-ifnp'\ -\- U('F\«-i + [/^P]"2 + [/'P]«3 + L/'^]"*
+ [hep]^, + [7*^>a + U^gp^^-, + \]dip'\a^.
"We have here retained the general form of this prescription for calculating
Oj, Oj. . . .Og, though when employed for the year 1811 it became simplified
(6)
<
dv'
da,
dv_
dtt.^
dv
da.
ON THE GAUSSIAN CONSTANTS FOR THE YEAR 1829. 13
1)}' the occurrence of ^)=1 in every one of the eighty-four termed sums [ ];
•whereas in the computations for 1843--5 we had to substitute in the sums
[ ], no^y unity, now another number for the p's of the seventy-four terms,
according to the empirical values for that year, as above mentioned under "B.
On the Equations for 1843-5."
'Now the numerical values for the final equations (6) have been found to
be : —
For the year 1811.
[«,/]= + 3-970, [ab]= -4-900, [«c]= + 10-685, [w?]= + 0-235,
[rtc]= -1-3-200, [«/]= -1-0-109, [a^]= -0-353, [«/;]= +4-971,
[«,*]= -8-541.
[&6]= + 68-229, [6c]= + 3-758, [bd]= +2-881, [Je]= -0-408,
[6/]= + l-90G, [6^]= -3-264, [67i]= + 5-044, [6n]= -15-069.
[fc]= + 62-186, [cf?]=-2-742, [ce]=+2-290, [cf]= + l-95i,
[er/]= -6-771, [c7i]=- 11-994, [crt]= -32-370.
[fW]= +23-994, [c?e]= -0-455, [f?/]= -2-493, [f7r/]= -3-006,
[f?A]= -3-110, [f7)i]= -8-427.
[ee]= +16-280, [?/]= +0-699, [«i/]= -0-414, [eA]= + 7-918,
[«i]= -15-486.
[//]= + 13-402, [/i/]=-6-608, [/A]=-l-268, [>]= + 13-745.
[f/5f]= + 138-801, [r/7i]= + 5-350, [(/)i]= -44-715.
[hh]= + 134-080, [hn']= - 6-073.
For the year 1843-5.
[«f<p]= + 67-883, [«6p]= +12-989, [ac2;]= + 9-091, [rt(^j>]= + 8-784,
[fff^]= + 20-978, [r/^9]= +2-959, [«(7i3]= +0-407, [rt7t2j]= + 8-036,
[«n23]= + 64-265.
[%]= + 75-782, [6cp]= +2-961, [6r7j>]= -3-325, [6ep]= + 0-198,
[6/>]=-l-578, [652.>]= + 31-818, [%9]= + 5-062, [7»«^]= -23-362.
[cc:2J]= + 71-859, [cf7p]=- 3-574, [cfw]=+3-691, [r/)>]= +3-067,
[cr/_^j]= -3-337, [c7(j.7]= +23-278, [«i2:>]= + 25-870.
[f7f7^]= + 42-260, \dcp]^ + 7-160, [dfp']= + 8-076, [%ij]= + 2-040,
[J7i2j]= -1-781, [(%:.]= -29-599.
[<?f^]= + 43-335, [c/p]=- 0-359, [er/^j]= + 10-268, [J//>]= + 6-543,
[g„p]=_ 7-862.
[//p]= + 37-446, [%]=-5-698, r/;tp]= + 8-145, [/«^]= -12-456.
[^r/i']= + 154-637, [r/7*j9]=- 5-424, [r/njj]^: -59-602.
[/J(p]= + 122-981, [/iHij]= - 18'439.
14
REPORJ." — 1872.
The solution of the equations (6), when these groups of numbers were
successively substituted, gave then the two sought-for sets of results as
follows : —
called
The increment
pertains to
the constants.
"2
"3
"4
a.
a-
,1'0
.2-0
-.2 1
'J
o
2-2
9
Column of ?n,
or values of
annual increments
for 1811.
—0-916
—0-303
-0-388
-0-301
-0-795
+ 0-966
-0-314
4-0-027
Column of §,„.., or
values of annual
increments
for 1843-5.
+ 1-.339
-0-465
+ 0-280
-0-829
-0-621
-0-290
— 0-255
-0-242
Now, with the help of this Table, the rule for the reduction of any magnetic
element that had been observed in the year 1829 + 7 (with r for any positive
or negative number) to what it must be stated to have been in 1829, proved
to be : —
1. That to the observed value must be added the number which hereto-
fore has been uniformly designated by n ;
2. That this n has to be calculated
by the schedule (1) (under "I when a d or a declination is to
" A. On the equations" &c.) J bo reduced ;
by the schedule (2) (under "I when an i or an inclination is
the same) J to be reduced ;
by the schedule (3) (under
" B. On the equations" &c.)
by the schedule (4) (under
the same)
when X or the northern hori-
zontal component is to be
reduced ;
when Y or the western hori-
zontal component is to be
reduced ;
by the schedule (5) (under! wli en Z or the vertical com-
the same). J ponent is to be reduced ; and
3. That, independently of the nature of the observed element, when
calculating its reduction n, there must be substituted, in the
formula employed, for a^ (with ^ for the integers successively from
1 to 8), a 5^ which corresponds to the following expression, when
ON THE GAITSSIAN CONSTANTS FOR THE YEAH 1829.
15
assuming tlie numbers marked ?jj and 6^.^.^, under the same super-
scription out of the ^'th horizontal line of the Table : —
,=r . ( -29 -an -36.^,3.. -)+,, . (±^3.^^, . M + .. . N*.
To facilitate this evaluation, we used the form ^.'=r . M + rr . N", and the
following logarithms according to the superscriptions under which they
stand :
When g^ is
substituted for
It must be formed
with log M,
as follows
It must be formed
with log jN^,
as follows
«i
«2
«3
"4
"5
"6
"7
"a
9-5237 H
9-5942
8-2504
9-7735
9-8442
9-4315 n
9-4488
9-0871
8-5403 n
7-3963
8-0121 n
7-9094
7-4279 n
8-2864
6-9509 n
7-6174
As a further illustration of these rules,, we give the following example of
our reductions. In 1818-5 or for r= — 10-5 were observed
u X X Y Z
21° 38', 306° 10', 73-96, 171-92, 1609-74 ;
hence for S^=M . r+N . rr is obtained
log Sj,, when standing for
log a^, 9-5036 n ; log a,, 0-5854 n ; log a^, 0-1365 n ; log a^, 0-7271 n ;
log a,, 0-9794 n ; log a,, 0-S963 ; log a., 0-4843 n ; log a,, 9-7474 n.
log a, 9-5667 ; log h, 9-7393 n ■ log c, 9-8753 ; log d, 9-8359 ;
lege, 90332 «; log/, 9-7694 ; log (7, 9-3180 ; log 7i, 9-8149,
in BX, according to schedule (3).
And for
ax, «a.= -0-12, &a,= +2-12, fa3=-l-03, f?a,= -3-05,
f«,= + 4-10, /a„= +2-92, r/a,= -0-63, 7,a,= -0-30;
-/;fl:J= + 3-35 ; X + gX=77-31=the reduced X.
therefore
SX=[rta, + /'a^. .
* It scarcely needs to be observed that tlie above rule applies verbally to reductions
from a year ISOO+^'i to a year 1800+i' (?■, and t standing for any positive or negative
numbers whatsoever), if only into d^=T . M+rr . N are introduced
r^t,-i, M.
-(87-20. g„-C2^- 22).^,3.3 +S,,
> and jS =
"ws
65
65
16 REPORT — 1872.
logrt, — go; log &, 9-9070 h; log c, 9-77JL0 ji; logcZ, — qo; log e, 9-8753 n;
log/, 9-7393 n ; log g, 9-8467 n ; log h, 9-3498, in ^Y, according
to schedule (4).
And for
lY, «ai=0-00, 5a = + 3-13, ca3= + 0-81, cZa^=0-00, ea,= -\-1-lG,
fa,= -2-72,}a,= +2-U, ha,= -0-13;
therefore
2y=[rtaj + 5a„+ .... +/'. «s]= + 10-39; Y + aY=182-31=the re-
duced Y.
log a, 0-2693 ; log b, 9-G387 ; log c, 0-7747 n ; log d, 0-1932 ;
log e, 9-7830 ; log/, 9-9190 n • log g, 8-9926 n ; log /;, 9-5895 »,
in ^Z, according to schedule (5).
And for SZ,
«a,=— 0-59, 5a,= -l-02, on3= + 8-15, (?a^=-S-32, ec,.= -5-79,
/a„=-4-12, gu,= + 0-30, 7ia,= + 0-22;
therefore
SZ=[aa^ + ha^+ .... +/(f,J= -11-83 ; Z + ?Z=1597-91=the reduced Z.
.II. Compviatlon of the fwenti/-fonr Gaussian Constants from values
ohserved in or reduced to 1829.
The numerous applications which we made of these means of reduction,
not only have added considerably to the number of empirical data for our
intended research, but they have also increased the intrinsic value of the
■whole stock of such data. Indeed many observed elements Avhich by their
reduction to the epoch 1829 became api)licable to our purpose, related to
points of extensive regions where all knowledge of magnetic i^henomena had
been hitherto wanting. Such were, for instance, the beautiful series of
magnetic measurements which English navigators have executed in the
antarctic and North-American glacial oceans, and also many magnetic
determinations in the interior of the United States. Therefore the materials
now collected must amply suffice for our purpose ; but it seemed at first sight
as if for its attainment two cntirelj' different ways were left to our option.
Further consideration, however, has convinced us that of these ways or modes
of operating only the one which we have adopted was admissible ; but this
consideration, together with the doubt which it settled, merits to be shortly
explained here.
According to a first plan of operation, we had to begin by calculating for
everj' newly added magnetic element its excess n over the theoretic value
assigned to it by the old approximations for the Gaussian constants — then,
having formed for each of these results (with a^, rf„. . . . w.,^ for given functions
of u and \, and Ar/''' '*, A/t"' ", every v and /i respectively varying from 1 to 4
and from to 4, for the corrections of constants) the expression
to derive from each of these primary equations its correspondhig contributions
to the twenty-four final equations for A(/'", Ac/'' A/i'*''*; and lastly,
ON THE GAUSSIAN CONSTANTS FOR THE YEAR 1829. 17
having added each of these contributions to the similar one among those
equations which H. Petersen has stated to represent all the magnetic elements
measured by Erman in 1829*, we had to solve the so completed expressions
according to the sought-for corrections, A^'", A(/''', AA'"'. . . . AA*'*.
On the other hand, instead of such indifferent aggregation of all new
material to all the old, we had, according to the second method, to make
a proper abstract of each of the two classes of data, and then to derive the
sought-for values of constants from equations founded only on these abridged
materials.
But as the most probable determination of the Gaussian constants is
evidently only obtained by observations at points symmetrically situated all
over the earth's surface and being all of equal weight (that is to say, reliable to
an equal extent), the beforementioned method jjroved to be doubly imperfect.
Indeed the material for the said former calculation of H. Petersen consisted in
GlOmagnetic elements, which corresponded to 650 direct observations executed
along a line round the earth of 8100 German miles. The three data for the
magnetic determination of a point, therefore, were to be found all over this
line at an average distance of 37'4 German miles, or of very nearly 2°-5 of
the equator, whereas when those points for which magnetic elements had
now to be added were counted in their succession on parallels of latitude or
on any other lines round the earth, there appeared everywhere a much
scantier distribution, which on an average did not exceed a sixth or a seventh
of what it was for the former calculation. On immediate addition of the
former suras of final equations to the corresponding new sums, the resulting
new values of Gaussian constants would therefore have been influenced to an
exceedingly larger extent by the magnetic character of one almost linear
tract of the earth's surface, than by all its remaining parts. To compensate
such vicious preponderance, we might, before adding the two sums, have
multiplied each of them by a number inversely proportional to the frequency
of its elements. But this proceeding supposed, in order to be right, that all
constituent observations were of equal weight, while in our case we must
own, on the contrary, that the probable errors of the newly added elements
surpassed those of the formerly observed ones in a considerable though rather
indefinite proportion. Indeed by separate comparisons of some of the new
and of the old observations with others of their respective classes, the new
seemed upon the whole in less accordance, partly of course in direct con-
sequence of the manner in which they were made, partly because of their
having been reduced to 1829 by a method which, for all our care, was but
an approximation to reality.
We have avoided these difficulties by choosing the second of the above-
mentioned modes of operation and by prosecuting it as follows : —
Out of all stations for which the three rectangular magnetic components,
as in 1829, had become known, either by direct observation or by our
reductions for secular changes, we selected those which are nearest to ten
parallels of latitude between i6=23° and zf=165°, and at the same time to
the one or the other of nine equidistant points of every one of these circles.
Having then concluded out of the results for these stations the 270 elements
that belong to the 90 predetermined points, these latter values were ex-
clusively introduced into the like number of our primary equations, which in
* As published in the Eeport of the Eighteenth Meeting of tlie British Association, held
in IS4S, tables facing p. 08, under "Final Equations i'or the corrections of the Gaussian
constants from 610 magnetic elements.''
1.S72. c
18 REPORT 1872.
their turn gave the final equations for the most probable twenty-four values
of Gaussian constants.
It appears that by so doing we have given to the data of observation,
first, the requisite symmetrical repartition over the earth, and then, secondly,
to all its parts the nearest possible equality of weight. Indeed, when selected
as just said, there followed one another quite casually, on each parallel,
observations that were instituted in 1829 and those which had been
reduced to this year, now from the earlier date of their direct validity,
now from the later one. These data became therefore affected by the stiU
remaining defects of reduction to a different extent and in alternate directions,
just as by those inevitable errors of observation which the usual formation of
final equations supposes to exist in their numerical material.
But then, lastly, as to the reduction of elements from the spots of direct
observation to the neighbouring predetermined points, we have avoided its pre-
judicial influence by alwaj's using a merely mechanical interpolation, relating
to points which in latitude as well as in longitude differed in alternate
directions from those points to which we were to reduce them.
The following Table contains, according to the hitherto used notation
of X:=/cosi cosd, Y=/costsinrf, and Z=/ sin?', those values of 270 magnetic
elements for 1829 on which our new values of the Gaussian constants have
exclusively been foimded. To these fundamental numbers are added under
AX, AY, and AZ, their respective excesses on the values which a computa-
tion with the old assumed constants assigned to them. These latter numbers
show thus to what extent the hitherto existing theory of terrestrial magnetism
still wanted correction in different paits of the earth's surface.
It is still worth mentioning that, for the determination of our following
normal values of X, T, and Z, we have employed out of the vicinity of the
parallels
to M= 23°, 39 observed elements.
u= 23°,
39
u= 30°,
63
u= 40°,
63
u= 50°,
42
xi= 75°,
27
w= 90°,
39
M=105°,
30
or altogether 303 direct measurements for 7 parallels with 189 normal
values.
As for the remaining three parallels, to m = 130°, m=150°, and « = 165°, we
have directly (though always after reduction to 1829) assumed the 81 elements
which General E. Sabine, in his ' Report on Magnetic Observations in the
Antarctic Ocean,' assigns to the intersections of these circles with the
meridians to X = 40°r, where v denotes the integers from to 8. He has of
course deduced these values from a larger number of observations at neigh-
bouring points ; and by assuming this number to be 97 or from 32 to 33 for
each parallel, we finally obtain 400 for the number of direct measurements
that have been used for the estimation of the following 270 normal values.
ON THB GAUSSIAN CONSTANTS FOR THE YEAR 1829.
19
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REPORT 1872.
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s «
CO
-*•
VO
C^
ON
O
CO
VO
32
REPORT 1872.
We give now the result of our investigation, viz. the Gaussian constants for
1829, as resulting from all observations that we have found or made avail-
able for the purpose, and thereby forming the best theoretical representation
of terrestrial magnetism which we think can up to the present be effected. The
probable error that is subjoined to each of these numbers shows to what
exteat it may be relied upon; but as these valuations are only founded on
the differences between the values that were assumed for our 270 normal
elements and those which the new constants assign to the same, the mean of
their amount may perhaps be still altered by the more numerous comparisons
of directly observed and newly calculated elements that will soon be instituted
and published.
The Gaussian constants for 1829, and their probable errors.
Names.
Values of the constants,
in conventional units,
of the Gaussian theory*.
Probable
errors.
ff'-'
+916-041
±1-79
9'-'
+ 81-144
2-97
A''
— 172-030
2-32
/•«
•+ 3-463
2-04
9'-'
-127-463
+ 2060
3-92
3-08
^2-2
A2-2
+ 3'S75
— 36-167
2-61
roj
^30
- 53-699
+ 85-466
+ 47-069
5-41
4-24
4-60
^3-2
A3-2
- 87-942
- 17-776
7-44
1-82
^S-3
- 3-640
0-73
A3-3
- 20-744
0-58
g.O
- 78353
4-83
9*-'
— 109-919
- 9*iSo
8-63
6-97
C
- 44-624
+ 31-054
+ 19-198
7-44
2-95
1-67
h*^
+ 8-627
1-31
h*-* .
+ 2-561
+ 3-173
0-54
+0-68
The derivation of the most interesting consequences of these numerical
results and a complete comparison of observed magiietic elements with both
their representations by the old and by the newly founded theory being deferred
for the moment, in the mean time the following shows the effect of our
performance for those parallels that were especially considered.
* Each =0-00349412 German unit of absolute intensity
=0-0075781 English
ON THE EXTINCT BIRDS OP THE MASCARENE ISLANDS.
23
Means
of probable
! errors.
On the
parallel
to u.
Of the old
theoretic
evaluation
of the X.
Of the new
theoretic
evaluation
of the X.
Of the old
theoretic
evaluation
of the Y.
Of the new
theoretic
evaluation
of the Y.
Of the old
theoretic
evaluation
of the Z.
Of the new
theoretic
evaluation
of the Z.
o
23
+ 11-58
+ 14-42
+ 17-28
+ 12-98
+ 29-52
±30-34
30
i2-o6
18-04
5-67
8-71
35-46
28-32
40
I97I
23-77
16-25
13-93
28-42
2895
5°
29-43
22-56
18-97
15-29
36-77
32-44
75
I9I4
21-55
22-02
17-82
40-07
29-00
90
32'43
22-70
18-76
10-12
39-56
34-16
105
26-05
19-06
12-90
1632
31-61
33-25
130
53-48
25-67
16-46
10-43
34-02
29-06
150
53-88
22-98
44-86
23-05
84-96
30-60
165
±4^-38
+21-29
+ 60-51
+21-49
+ 105-51
±1636
On average
±33-45
+21-41
+ 28-43
+ 15-98
± 5^-54
±29-10
The new elements
errors
of theory have therefore lessened the probable
Of the X.
Of the Y.
Of the Z.
On average...
And on the f
parallel to
M=i65°
to
0-6412
of their former value.
to
0-5012
of their former value.
to
0-5612
of their former value.
to
0-3552
of their former value.
to
°-5539
of their former value.
to
0-1552
of their former value.
Berlin, February 29th, 1872.
Second Supplementary Report on the Extinct Birds of the Mascarene
Islands. By Alfred Newton, M.A., F.R.S.
The small portion of the grant so liberally voted by the Association at the
Birmingham Meeting in 1865, to aid my brother Mr. Edward Newton in his
researches into the extinct birds of the Mascarene Islands, -which remained
unexpended at the time of my last reporting his progress, has during the last
vcar or so been employed by him in a renewed examination of the caves in
the island of Rodriguez, which had already produced so much of interest.
24 REPORT 'm7ll.
This examination has been conducted, as before, by Mr. George Jenner, lately
the chief executive officer of the island ; and though I am not in a position to
give any thing like a detailed account of the results, I am happy to say that 1
believe they will be found in time to be fully as instructive as those of the
former examination have been. We are now in possession of several parts
of the skeleton of Pezophaps which have hitherto been wanting, and of more
perfect specimens of some of those bones which we before obtained. We
have also additional remains of the large Psittacine bii'd, described from a
single fragmentary maxilla by Prof. Alphonse Milne-Edwards as Psittacus (?)
rodericanm ; and this, I hope, will enable that accomplished palaeontologist
to determine more particularly the affinities of the species, which have
hitherto been doubtful ; and I may add that thus some further light may be
thrown upon the position of the P. mauritiamis of Prof. Owen. In the course
of last year my brother had the pleasure of receiving from Mr. Jenner proof
of the continued existence of one of the species described by Leguat as in-
habiting Rodriguez, but thought to have become extinct. This jjroof con-
sisted of a specimen procured in spirit of an undescribed and very distinct
Palceornis, which T have since described (Ibis, 1872, p. 33) as P. e.vsul.
Among the bones sent by Mr. Jenner are, I believe, some which belonged to
this bird. But more remarkable and interesting still are some remains which
are obviously those of a llalline bird, unquestionably allied to Ocydromus;
and these M. Alphonse Milne-Edwards informs me he is inclined to refer to
the " Gelinotte " mentioned by Leguat, the nature of which has hitherto been
only open to guess. There are also bones of other species of birds, perhaps
only inferior to this in interest. Most of these specimens have been intrusted
to the care of M. Alphonse Milne-Edwards ; for my brother and I believe
that the distinguished author of the ' Oiseaux Fossiles de la France' has
established a claim upon the assistance of all who are interested in extinct
ornithology by that admirable work of his ; and I learn from him that he will
shortly make public the results of these recent discoveries.
Report of the Committee for Superintending the Monthly Reports of
the Prof/ress of Chemistry , consisting of Professor A. W. William-
son, F.R.S., Professor Frankland, F.R.S., and Professor Roscoe,
F.R.S.
During the current year the Chemical Society has continued the publication
of the monthly reports of the progress of Chemistry, which had been com-
menced last year with the aid of the British Association. The labour of
preparing these Beports is considei'able ; and it is due to the chemists who
perform that arduous duty to acknowledge the great care which is bestowed
ujion it by them for a remuneration scarcely more than nominal.
It has been found necessary, in view of the very great number of chemical
papers, to render the reports very brief, so as to convey a knowledge of the
general results of each paper without giving the details of evidence.
The Members of the Committee have had the pleasure of noticing that the
reports are considerably valued by English chemists ; and there is reason to
believe that the anticipations which were formed of their usefulness in pro-
moting the advancement of chemistry wiU be fully realized.
UNIFORMITY OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 25
Report on the best means of providing for a Uniformity of Weights and
Measures, with reference to the Interests of Science, by a Com-
mittee consisting of Sir John Bowring^ F.R.S., The Right Hon.
Sir Stafford H. Northcote, C.B., M.P., The Right Hon. Sir
C. B. AdderleYj M.P., Samuel Brown, F.S.S., Dr. Farr, F.R.S.,
Frank P. Fellowes, Professor Frankland, F.R.S., James Hey-
wood, F.R.S., Professor Leone Levi,F.-S.^., F.S.S., C. W. Siemens,
F.R.S., Professor A. W. Williamson, F.R.S., Dr. George Glover,
Sir Joseph Whitworth, Bart., F.R.S., J. R. Napier, J. V. N.
Bazalgette, and Sir W. Fairbairn, Bart., F.R.S.
The Metric Committee of the British Association have much pleasure in
reporting that another great stride has been made towards the attainment
of uniformity in the Weights, Measures, and Coins of all countries by the
passing of a law in Austria, in June 1871, rendering the use of Metric Weights
and Measures permissive from the 1st of January, 1873, and compulsory from
the 1st of January, 1876. The Metric System is gradually diffusing itself all
over Europe. At this moment fully two thirds of that Continent, measured by
population, have adopted the Metric Sj'stem of Weights and Measures, and
the other third has manifested sufficient interest in the question to justify the
expectation of its early adhesion to the general agreement : but in this third
there are comprised Russia and England, two countries which, by their popu-
lation and commerce, exercise an enormous influence in the whole world.
The state of the question in Russia appears to be as follows : — In 1859 a
Committee of the Imperial Academy of Russia, consisting of the Academicians
Ostrogradski, Jacobi, and Kupffer, issued a report on the subject, which
approved of the decimal division ah-eady incorporated in the Russian System,
the rouble being divided into 100 kopecks, the vedro into 10 krouchki, and
the inch into 10 lines, and expressed an opinion in favour of extending such
decimal divisions to Weights and Measures. In discussing, however, the
possibility of even this moderate reform, the Academicians saw that a very
considerable change would be required. Supposing the foot were retained
as a unit, how could it be decimalized without abandoning altogether such
divisions as the archine, which is 2^, and the sagene, which is 7 feet ? Yet
these are really more in use than the foot itself. And what multiples could
be adopted? The foot of Russia, which is identical with that of England,
is too small to measure cloth by, and 10 feet would be too large a unit.
With such difficulties attending the decimahzation of the existing Weights
and Measures, the Academicians felt that it would be far better for Russia
at once to introduce the Metric System ; and this was the conclusion of
their recommendations. Since the publication of this Report, the Imperial
Academy of Russia has taken an active part in the advance of the system all
over the world. In 18(i7 M. Jacobi was a Member of the International
Committee on Weights, Measures, and Coins in connexion with the Paris
International Exhibition, and wrote the report which was agreed to by
the representatives of all the nations who took part in the Conference on
the subject. And later still, in 1870, on the representation of the Imperial
Academy of Russia to the French Government and to the scientific bodies of
other nations of the need of preparing more accurate and uniform Metric
Standards for the use of countries which might adopt the Metric System, an
International Commission was appointed to prepare such Standards. This
Commission met in Paris in June 1870, and is about to resume its labours
1872. D
26 REPORT — 1872.
in September next. These steps on the part of the Imperial Academy of
Russia have not been followed by legislative action ; yet, when we consider
the just influence which the Academy exercises in a subject of this nature,
it is reasonable to anticipate that their recommendations will be duly heeded,
and that as soon as the Standards are completed the Russian Government
will take into consideration the necessary steps for introducing the Metric
System, whereby the Weights and Measures of Russia may be rendered iden-
tical with those of the greater number of European nations.
In the Uuited Kingdom considerable progress has been made towards the
introduction of the Metric System, though much certainly remains to be
done. In 1862 a Committee of the House of Commons was appointed to
consider the practicability of adopting a simple and uniform system of
"Weights and Measures, with a view not only to the benefit of our internal
trade, but to facilitate our trade and intercourse with foreign countries. In
discussing the question of the possible decimalization of the existing system,
the Committee of the British House of Commons, in tlie same manner as the
Committee of the Imperial Academy of Russia, reported that it would involve
almost as much difficulty to create a special decimal system of our own as
simply to adopt the Metric Decimal System in common with other nations ;
and under these circumstances the Committee came to a unanimous recom-
mendation in favour of the introduction of the Metric System.
Accordingly in 1864 an Act was passed to render permissive the use of
such Weights and Measures so far as to legalize contracts made in terms of
Metric Weights and Measures, which were heretofore prohibited ; but no pro-
vision having been made for obtaining correct Standards whereby to verify
the same, the use of the System in shops was not thereby pennitted. A
Royal Commission has, however, inquired into the question on the Metric
Weights and Measures of the United Kingdom ; and after considerable in-
quiry it issued a report recommending the preparation of such Standards
and the removal of every difficulty which may yet exist in the way of the
permissive use of Metric Weights and Measures. We may therefore hope
that Her Majesty's Government wiR speedily bring forward a measure for
carrying the recommendation of the Commissioners into effect.
The appended map of Europe (Plate I.) shows how extensively the Metric
System is already used. If once Russia and England should finally place their
legislation on the same footing, other States will certainly follow, and in Europe,
at least, we shall have attained perfect unity as regards T^eights and Measures.
But in other parts of the world also considerable progress has been made. In
Asia the whole of India maj' be said to have adopted the Weights and Mea-
sures of capacity of the Metric System, though some time may elapse before
the Act passed by the Indian Government can be carried into operation. In
America the United States have introduced it permissively, whilst Brazil, Chili,
Mexico, New Granada, and other American republics have adopted the Metric
System absolutely. Throughout the world as many as 213,000,000 of people
have adopted it absoliitely, 160,000,000 more partially, and 70,000,000 per-
missively, giving a total of 443,000,000.
Nor has there been less done as regards the coinage. If we compare the
coins now in use all over the world with those in use some twenty years ago,
it will be seen what advance we have already made everywhere towards unity.
Some countries, such as Erance, Italy, Switzerland, Belgium, Greece, and
Roumania, have already an identical system of coinage secured to them by
the Coinage Convention of the 23rd of December, 1865. The Austro-Hun-
garian Empire issues gold pieces marked 20 florins and 8 florins, equal to
f-? Report 3r~yti-sh Associavloru
Tlnrr 1,
ftfert Bntijh A.
I
UNIFORMITY OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 27
25 francs and 1 francs respectively. Spain issues gold pieces of 25 pecetas,
equal to the 25-franc pieces ; and Sweden the Caroline, equal to 10 francs.
The Committee much regret that the German Empire, which had recently
a most favourable opportunity for extending the desired uniformity (an object
to which she has shown her adherence by the recent adoption of the Metric
System), has issued a new gold coinage having nothing in common either
with the money of the Convention of France, Switzerland, Italy, Belgium, or
with the monetary systems of England or the United States. It is much to
be desired that we should clearly understand the points on which a common
accord exists in matters of international coinage. There is a general agree-
ment on the advantage of a complete decimal system, on the adoption of the
fineness at nine tenths fine and one tenth alloy; and the greatest number
of States agree also on the adoption of gold as the only standard of value.
Between the three leading systems of the world, founded respectively on the
Franc, the Dollar, and the Pound Sterling, a point of contact has been found
in the 5-franc piece and its multiples, the 5, 10, 20, and 25-franc pieces ; and
considerable agreement has already been obtained in this method of approach-
ing the question. Your Committee would look forward to a much greater
identity of coinage being ultimately realized than would be obtained by this
method ; but it should be remembei-ed that even the universal acceptance of
this plan would immensely simplify the relations of coinage between the
diff'erent nations, and of necessity lead to a more identical system.
During lasfyear your Committee have had communications with the Indian
Government on the question of introducing the Metric System of Weights and
Measures in India, the original Act by which all the Weights and Measures
of the System were introduced having been vetoed by the Home Government,
and another, limited to Weights and Measures of capacity, having been passed
in its stead. In England the action of the Committee has been most influ-
ential, especially in connexion with education. It was at the instance of this
Committee that the Committee of Her Majesty's Privy Council on Education
have inserted in the Code a clause requii'ing that instruction on the Metric
Weights and Measures shall be given in the Elementary Schools in the King-
dom. And in order to stimulate education on the subject, to explain the
general character of the Metric System and its relation to the Imperial, and
to indicate the advantages which would result from an International System
of Weights and Measures, yoiir Committee have granted to the British and
Foreign Schools, the National Schools, the Wesleyan Schools, and the Con-
gregational Schools in England, as well as to the National Schools in Ireland,
copies of Books and Diagrams on the Metric System, which have been grate-
fully received. The Committee were anxious to purchase a set of Metric
Standards, as stated in their last Report, for the purpose of illustrating
lectures and papers on the subject; but they found that while their cost would
have absorbed nearly the whole vote, it would have been impossible to lend
out such standards without endangering their preservation.
In January 1872 a public meeting was held at the Mansion House, under
the presidency of Sir John Bennett, Sherifi' of London, when resolutions were
passed in favour of the early introduction of the Metric System of Weights
and Measures and the Decimal Division generally. At this meeting Sir John
Lubbock, F.R.S., General Strachey. of the India House, the Rev. William
Jowitt, Dr. Farr, F.R.S., the Hon. N. G. Northope, Superintendent of Public
Instruction in the United States, the Hon. Mr. Ryan, of the Canadian Senate,
and other persons of distinction took part.
The tmification of the Weights, Measures, and Coins all over the world is
d2
38 REPORT— 1873.
fraught with immense benefit to science, commerce, and civilization, and philo-
sophical and scientific bodies of all nations have given their adhesion to it ; the
commercial classes look to such unification as an essential element in the eco-
nomy of time and the performance of international works, and travellers all over
the world regard it as the greatest boon that could be conferred. Towards
the attainment of this important object, the Metric Committee of the British
Association for the Advancement of Science have exercised an important in-
fluence ; and they trust that if they are allowed to continue their action for a
few years longer, they will be able 'to report the recognition all over the world
of the princijjle for the promotion of which they were appointed.
In conclusion, your Committee recommend their reappointment.
Eighth Report of the Committee for Exploring Kent's Cavern, Devon-
shire, the Committee consisting of Sir Charles Lyell, Bart.,
F.R.S., Professor Phillips, F.R.S., Sir John Lubbock^ Bart.,
F.R.S., John Evans, F.R.S., Edward Vivian, M.A., George
Busk, F.R.S., William Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S., William Aysh-
FORD Sanford, F.G.S., a?i6? William Pengelly, F.R.S. {Reporter).
In commencing this, their Eighth Report, the Committee have to state that
since their last Report was sent in (Edinburgh, 1871) the excavations have
been carried on by the same workmen, without interruption, and in all
respects in the same manner as in former years.
The visitors to the Cavern have continued to be very numerous. Amongst
those accompanied by the Superintendents, the following may be mentioned : —
The Emperor Napoleon III., the Prince Murat, the Prince and Princess of
Oldenberg, Sir W. Jardine, Bart., Sir W. Topham, Rev. M. Brown, Rev. G.
Buckle, Rev. Mr. Drewe, Rev. Dr. MacGrcgor, Rev. F. A. Saville, Rev. W.
Thompson, Rev. H. H. Winwood, A. D. W. R. B. Cochrane, M.P.,W. H. Smith,
M.P., General Freeze, C.B., R.A., Colonel Naylor, Colonel W. Pinuey, Captain
S. P. Oliver, R.A., Professor F. Roemer, of Breslau, Professor A. Newton,
Dr. Bond, Dr. Hounsell, Dr. Schmidt, of Essen, Rhenish Prussia, and Messrs.
Bosanquet, H. H. Bothamley, W. R. A. Boylo, — Chaplin, B. J. M. Donne,
W. Fenner, R. Gwatkin, J. Holdsworth, J. H. Parsons, E. C. Robson,
— Stewart, J. StUweU, G. C. Swayne, E. B. Tawney, B. Tower, — "Waldegrave,
W. Vicary, I. Whitwell, and A. "W. Wills. The Cavern has also been visited
bj^ the Exeter Naturalists' Club, and by a large party of Members of the
British Medical Association, at the close of the Annual Meeting at Plymouth
in August 1871, including Rev. Professor Haughton, Professor Lister, Dr.
Crossby, of Nice, Dr. A. Godson, Dr. Lang, Dr. Macnamara, Dr. Murphy,
Dr. W. Roberts, and Mr. Wilde.
Visitors of a much less welcome character have also been numerous during
the year. In February last the workmen somewhat frequently observed
several large rats running about the Cavern, but for some time failed in all
their efforts to capture them. One morning one of the men, on commencing
his work, wrapped his dinner-bag in the coat he had just taken off, and put
the whole carefully aside. At dinner-time the coat was found to be eaten
through, and the bag with its contents was gone. A few days after, the other
man, having taken his dinner, placed his bag, containing a piece of bread, in a
basket, and fastened the cover. On leaving work, he found a hole had been
ON Kent's cavern^ Devonshire, 29
eaten through the basket, the bag was torn iuto the merest shreds, and the bread
was gone. Thus stimulated, the men baited their traps with great care, and
had the pleasure of catching seven or eight rats. No further annoyance was
experienced until July, when a large rat was seen to enter the Cavern about
midday. The poor wretch was found dead in the trap in a day or two.
During the last twelve months the Committee have explored the branches
of the " Western Division " of the Cavern known as " The "Wolf's Cave,"
" The Cave of Rodentia," and " The Charcoal Cave," and have commenced
" The Long Arcade."
The Wolfs Cave. — That branch of the Cavern which extends in a northerly
direction from "The Sloping Chamber" was, by Mr. MacEnery, termed "The
Wolfs Cave," and occasionally "The Idol Cave"*. It received the latter
name from " a column of spar " which, " near its entrance, joined the ceiling
and floor and obstructed the way," and " had a singular resemblance to a
Hindoo Idol " f ; and the former, because, on the removal of this " column," it
was found to have " covered the head of a wolf, perhaps the largest and
finest skuU, whether fossil or modern, of that animal in the world "J.
Mr. MacEnery seems to have been eminently successful in collecting speci-
mens in this branch of the Cavern ; for he states that " of the quantity and
condition of the remains here it is scarcely possible to give a just idea with-
out appearing to exaggerate. They were so thickly packed together that,
to avoid injuring them, we were obliged to lay aside the picks and to grub
them out with our fingers. They were found driven into the interstices of
the opposite wall, or piled in the greatest confusion against its sides, with but
a scanty covering of soil, and that of the finest and softest sand intermixed
with greasy earth. To enumerate the amount of fossils collected from this
spot would be to give the inventory of half my collection, comprising all the
genera and their species, including the cuUridens. There were hoards."
Here, too, he appears to have found all the remains of Machairodus latidens
(known then as Ursiis cultrklcns) the Cavern yielded him, which he states
were five canines and one incisor§.
When completely excavated to the depth of 4 feet below the base of the
Stalagmitic Floor, this Cave was found to extend nearly 70 feet in a north-
westerly direction, and at its entrance, or junction with the Sloping Chamber,
to be about 40 feet wide. At 3 yards inside the entrance it narrows to about
20 feet, at 7 yards to 10 feet, and beyond this its general width is from 7 to
8 feet II . Its present height is about 7 feet throughout; but before the com-
mencement of Mr. MacEnery's diggings, the space between the Limestone Roof
and the Stalagmitic Floor could nowhere have exceeded 2 feet, even if the latter
had been entirely free from rubbish. Indeed he states that when they first
entered this branch, he and his companions " crawled like tortoises "^.
At the entrance the Ptoof is commonly fretted as if by the action of acidu-
lated water ; but here and there, and especially on the eastern side, its com-
paratively fresh and smooth aspect indicates what may be termed the recent
fall of masses of limestone from it,— an indication confirmed by the presence
of such masses, some of them of great dimensions, immediately below. At
intervals throughout the entire length of the Cave transverse lines of frac-
ture, or divisional planes, appear in the Roof : some of them are close-fitting,
* He also spoke of it sometimes as " The Wolfs Passage " and " The Wolfs Grave."
+ SeeTr.Devon.Assoc.vol.iii.pp.243,293(1869). | Ib.p.243. § lb. pp. 369, 370.
II The breadth is always measured at the level of the surface of the Cave-earth. In thi.s
Cave it was invariably narrower at the bottom of the excavation.
^ See Trans. Devon. Assoc, vol. iii. p. 292.
8
30 REPORT — 1872.
but occasionally they have been corroded or fretted into cavities of rudely
elliptical outline, fi'om a foot to 2 feet in height. The largest of them
measures 5 feet long and something less than 1 foot wide ; its walls are
much fretted, and numerous pipe-like stalactites depend from its roof. Some
of the holes are completely lined with stalactite, whilst others are quite bare.
There are no traces of Cave-earth in any of them.
The north-eastern waU of the Cave, from the entrance to nearly 30 feet within
it, is a confused mass of large fallen blocks of limestone. With this excep-
tion, the walls, as in the other branches of the Cavern, consist of beds of
hraestone in situ. They are not much fretted, their edges are all more or'
less angular, and they are here and there traversed by fissures corresponding
with the lines of fracture in the Eoof.
From the considerable remnants left undisturbed by Mr. MacEneiy, there
was, no doubt, a continuous " Granular Stalagmitic Floor " from end to end.
It seems to have varied from 3 to 12 inches in thickness, and to have possessed
the granular and laminated structure characteristic of the Floor covering the
" Cave-earth." In a large area at the south-eastern angle of the Cave the
Floor had been left untouched, and was found to be in some cases fully 2 feet
thick. Like that in a great part of the adjacent Sloping Chamber, of which
it is a prolongation, it contained numerous large masses of limestone and of
the " Old Crystalline Stalagmitic Floor " so frequently mentioned in former
Keports.
Similar masses, of both kinds, were abundant in the Cave-earth below the
Floor in the area just mentioned ; and in some instances the blocks of hme-
stone lay across one another with but little deposit between them, as if they
had fallen after the accumulation of Cave-earth had ceased. In a few in-
stances the cavities or interspaces were not covered with the Stalagmite,
and some of them contained a few recent bones and other objects.
Omitting this south-eastern area, Mr. MacEnery extended his researches
quite to the innermost point of the Cave, and, with few exceptions, up to
13 feet from the entrance, had broken up and searched the entire deposit to
a depth exceeding the Committee's four-feet sections. Within the point just
specified, he contented himself with cutting a comparatively narrow trench,
leaving the ground quite intact adjacent to, and a few feet from, the south-
western wall, but, as before, carrying his excavations to a depth exceeding 4
feet. At 24 feet from the entrance, however, he dug to no greater depth than
2 feet, and very rarely exceeded this in the inner part of the Cave, — thus leaving
the Committee's third and fourth foot-levels everywhere intact, besides the belt
adjacent to the south-western wall, of which, as already mentioned, no portion
was touched. This margin, it may be presumed, was left intact in consequence
of all the excavated material being lodged on it. No portion of the latter
appears to have been taken out of the Cave.
The deposit the Committee found in the Wolfs Cave, whether disturbed or
undisturbed, was well-marked typical Cave-earth, consisting of red loam with
about 50 per cent, of angular fragments of limestone. There were no traces
of the older deposit termed " Breccia " in previous Eeports, either in situ or
redeposited, and, excepting the area in the south-eastern corner, already
mentioned, no fragments of the Old Crystalline Stalagmitic Floor.
In proceeding to the objects found in the Wolf's Cave, it is obvious that
nothing can be said about such as may have been on or in the Stalagmitic
Floor ; they, if such there were, had no doubt been secured by the earher
explorers.
it has already been stated that there were occasional interspaces among
ON Kent's cavern, Devonshire,
31
the blocks of limestone lying confusedly in the south-eastern portion of the
Cave. In some of these, all of them being sealed up with Stalagmite, shells
of the common Pecten (Pecten maximus, Linn.) were found, amounting to a
total of twenty-five. Most of them were large shells, and some were thickly
incrusted with calcareous matter containing, in one or two cases, traces of
charred wood. In one instance two, and in another five, shells were found
fitted neatly into one another, and cemented together with carbonate of lime,
thus leaving no doubt that man had not only packed them, but placed them
where they were found. The fact that some of them were '« dead shells,"
having Serpute attached to their inner surfaces, indicates, of course, that they
were not in all cases taken to the Cavern because they contained an article of
food, but probably sometimes, at least, as domestic vessels.
The undisturbed Cave-earth in this branch of the Cavern yielded a con-
siderable number of the remains of the ordinary Cave-mammals, including
nearly sixty shells, which may be distributed as in the following Table : —
Table I. — Showing how many per cent, of the Teeth found in Cave-earth
in the Wolf's Cave belonged to the different kinds of Mammals.
Elephant 2-5 per cent.
Hyaena 44-5 per cent.
Horse 25 „
Rhinoceros 15 „
Megaceros 3 „
Bear .
Deer.
3
2-5
Lion 1
Wolf 1
Ox 1
Rabbit "5 „
Fox only 1 tooth.
It wiU be remembered that the Cave-earth is excavated in vertical shoes
or " Parallels " extending generally from wall to wall of the branch of the
Cavern under exploration, to a depth of 4 feet and a horizontal thickness of
1 foot ; that each Parallel is taken out in 4 successive " Levels," each a foot
in vertical depth ; and each Level in " Yards," or masses 3 feet in length.
From what has been already stated, it is obvious that in the Wolf's Cave
there were no continuous first or second Foot-levels intact, and that even the
third and fourth were not everywhere met with. Confining attention to the
twenty-one instances of each of the two latter which did occur in the same
Parallels, the following Table will show the distribution of the teeth of the
various kinds of Mammals in them : —
Table II.— Showing the distribution of the Teeth of the different kinds of
Mammals in the third and fourth Foot-levels of twenty-one Parallels of
Cave-earth in the Wolf's Cave.
i
M
16
16
19
63
68
i
12
14
18
24
29
%
i
'i
OS
o
u
U
«
a
-a
^
^
o
O
No. of Parallels containing teeth in 3rd Level...
4th
both Levels
9
15
18
2
2
3
4
2
6
4
2
6
1
1
2
2
4
1
1
Total No of teeth in 3rd Level
11
21
13
3
4
2
4
2
5
2
2
2
4th
131
53
32
16
6
6
5
4
2
2
32
REPORT 1872.
The following examples will serve to explain Table II. : — Teeth of hyaena
occurred in the third Foot-level in 16 distinct Parallels, and in the same
number in the fourth ; but as they were met with in a total number of 19
Parallels only, it is obvious that in 13 instances (=16 + 16 — 19) they
occurred in both levels in the same Parallel.
Again, as the Table comprehends 21 Parallels, and teeth of hyaena were
found in 19 only, it follows that there were 2 Parallels (=21 — 19) in which
no teeth of this genus presented themselves.
Further, a total of 131 teeth of hytena were exhumed in the 19 Parallels,
and of these 63 were in the third Foot-level, and 68 in the fourth or lowest ;
hence the different Levels were almost equally rich, and on the average
several teeth occurred in one and the same Level and Parallel.
To take another example : — Teeth of bear were found in the third
Foot-level in 4 Parallels, and in the fourth Foot-level in 2 ; but as they
occurred in a total number of 6 Parallels, it is obvious that in no in-
stance were they met with in both Levels in one and the same Parallel
(44-2-6 = 0).
Again, as the Table comprehends 21 Parallels, and teeth of bear were
found in 6 only, it follows that there were 15 Parallels (21 — 6=15) in which
no teeth of this genus presented themselves.
Further, a total of 6 teeth of bear were exhumed in the 6 Parallels, and of
these 4 were in the third Level and 2 in the fourth or lowest ; hence the
third was the richest Level, if the slender evidence may be trusted ; and the
teeth occurred singly, no more than one having in any instance been found
in the same Parallel.
It is perhaps noteworthy that whilst teeth of rabbit and fox occuiTed in
the Wolf's Cave, as is shown in Table I., they did not, according to Table II.,
present themselves in either the third or fourth Level.
As in previous years, the Committee have removed and examined the
deposits dug up and thrown aside by Mr. MacEnery. In the Wolf's Cave,
as elsewhere, this material yielded a large number of the remains of the
ordinary Cave-mammals, including about 350 teeth, which may be thus
apportioned : —
Table III. — Showing how many per cent, of the Teeth found in the disturbed
material in the Wolfs Cave belonged to the different kinds of Mammals.
Hysena 36 per cent.
Horse 33-5 „
Ehinoceros 19 „
Megaceros 3 „
Sheep 2 „
Bear 1-5 per cent.
Deer 1-5 „
Badger .... 1-5 „
Ox less than 1 per cent.
Lion
Though it would be utterly useless to compare Tables I. and III., since
the latter includes teeth not only from all Levels, but possibly such as were
lying on the Stalagmitic Floor, as well, perhaps, as more recent introductions,
it is not without interest to observe that even amongst the rejected or neglected
specimens, as the case may be, as well as in the undisturbed Cave-earth in
every branch of the Cavern, the most prevalent forms are hysena, horse, and
rhinoceros, and that their relative prevalence is indicated by the order in
which they have been named.
The bones and teeth present much the same characters as those found in
previous years. Thus, many of the latter are in jaws or fragments of jaws,
destitute, as usual, of their condyles, and, in most cases, of the lower borders
ON Kent's cavern, Devonshire. 33
also. Most of the specimens have an almost white colour, but some are of a
dark hue ; some are more or less coated with stalagmite, some are broken,
some split, and very few have escaped the teeth of the hyaena. Amongst the
finer and more remarkable specimens may be mentioned jaws of hyaena,
canines of lion and bear, a left lower molar of Elephas primigenius, part of
left lower jaw of rhinoceros, and a portion of a palate and both upper jaws of
megaceros.
One of the canines of bear (No. 5537) is so peculiarly worn or cut, both
on the crown and on the fang, and especially the latter, as to suggest the
probabihty of human agency. On account of its strange aspect it was for-
warded to Mr. 6. Busk, President of the Royal College of Surgeons, F.R.S.,
V.P.L.S.5 &c., a member of the Committee, who thus remarks on it : — " The
bear's canine (5537) is certainly very curiously worn if it be naturally so.
The wearing of the crown part is possible enough, perhaps ; but I cannot
account for the apparently worn portion of the fang, which, of course, during
life must have been protected from wear. But what could be the object
of such an implement if it were manufactured ? Perhaps a kind of gouge
or chisel." — (Signed) Geokge Busk.
The mammoth's grinder (No. 5575) is almost perfect. Its crown measures
6 inches in length and 2*5 inches in greatest breadth. It was found Sep-
tember 13, 1871, in the third Foot-level, with 22 teeth of hyaena in parts of
5 jaws, 2 of rhinoceros, 1 of bear, with several large bones and fragments of
bone. The bear's tooth just mentioned was a canine worn almost to the
fang, which measures 1-7 inch in width.
The rhinoceros jaw (No. 5562), which has lost its condyles, but not its
lower border, contains 4 consecutive molars, and is quite the finest specimen
of the kind met with by the Committee. It was found September 2, 1871,
in the third Level, with a tooth of bear, bones, and fragments of bone.
The jaws and palate of megaceros (No. 5646) contain 6 consecutive molars
on the left side, and 5 on the right. This specimen was found October 10,
1871, in the third Level, with 1 tooth of rhinoceros, 1 of megaceros, 5 of
horse, 6 of hynaea in parts of 2 jaws, bones, and splinters of bone.
Though Mr. MacEnery was not so fortunate as to find any flint implements
in the Wolfs Cave, the Committee met with 5 ; and 4 of them are amongst
the best specimens the Cavern has yielded.
No. 5563 is a white lanceolate implement, 2-8 inches long, -85 inch broad,
and '2 inch thick. It has a strong subcentral longitudinal ridge on one
surface, is slightly concave longitudinally and convex transversely on the
other, reduced to an edge on both margins, rounded and rather blunt at one
end, abruptly truncated at the other, and has apparently seen some service.
It was found September 2, 1871, in the fourth Level, with 1 tooth of bear,
1 of rhinoceros, 3 of hyaena, 3 of horse, and 1 of ox.
No. 5571 is a pale grey flint implement of delicate proportions. It is 3-7
inches long, •65 inch in greatest breadth, and •! inch in greatest thickness.
It is longitudinally and transversely convex on one side, somewhat strongly
concave lengthways, but slightly convex in the direction of its breadth on
the other, has a long narrow oval form, three ridges ou its convex side, a thin
edge all round its perimeter except at one end which is rather blunt, and does
not appear to have been used. It was found September 9, 1871, in the third
Level, with 4 teeth of hyaena, 1 of rhinoceros, 1 of horse, 1 of ox, and frag-
ments of bone scored with teeth-marks.
No. 5592 is a chert implement, rudely quadrilateral in foi-m, 2-5 inches
long, 2-2 inches broad, '6 inch thick, and has apparently been used. It was
34 REPORT— 1872.
found September 20, 1871, in the first Level, with 2 teeth of horse and 1 of
rhinoceros.
No. 5602 is a strongly proportioned chert lanceolate implement, 3'9 inches
long, 1-1 inch broad, and -4 inch thick. It is concave on one face, very
strongly carinated on the other, truncated at one end, pointed but blunt at
the other, and worked to an edge along its two margins. It was found Sep-
tember 22, 1871, in the fourth Level, with 4 teeth of hyaena, 2 of horse, and
several fragments of bone.
No. 5656 is a somewhat irregular ovate chert tool, unequally convex on its
two faces, 4-2 inches long, 3'3 inches in greatest breadth, and -85 inch in
greatest thickness. It has been wrought to an edge around its entire cir-
cumference, but not elaborately finished ; at one small jjart near its broader
end a portion of the original surface of the nodule from which it was formed
remains, and it has apparently been much used. It was found October 13,
1871, in the third Level, but without any bones or teeth in the same Yard.
Three implements of the same type have been mentioned in previous
Ileports *.
The Cave of Rodentla. — From the north-eastern corner of the Wolf s Cave,
a passage, scarcely 5 feet long, about 5-5 high, and where narrowest not more
than 5 feet wide, leads into a chamber measuring about 25 feet from east to
west, and 20 from north to south. It was termed the " Cave of Rodentia " by
Mr. MacEnery, who thus describes his researches in it : — " We now found our-
selves in the midst of hundreds of Eodentia. Of their remains and dust the
deposit was constituted, agglutinated together by calcareous matter into a bony
breccia. It should have been premised that the stalagmite above them was
about a foot and a half deep, regularly laminated and free from all adventi-
tious matter It suffered no disturbance or interruption from its first
commencement The remains of llodentia were wanting in no part of
the Cavern that we had yet examined, .... but here, in this grotto, they
swarmed in countless multitudes. Not only had their tiny remains penetra-
ted into every cleft and crevice of the rock, but they insinuated themselves
even into the chambers of the large bones. The wolf's skull, in the passage,
had its cavities charged and its surface incrusted over with a concretion of
their bones It was an interesting spectacle to behold myriads of
minute animal remains congregated by the side of elephants, rhinoceroses,
and hyaenas in a common sepulchre. Heads generally crushed ; lower
jaws preserved. When a handful of this dust was thrown into water,
hundreds of teeth rose to the surface, and it was by this means they were
collected " f.
It will be seen from the foregoing quotation that here, too, the Committee
were foUowiug Mr. MacEnery's steps. His labours, however, were on a
less extended scale than in the Wolfs Cave. In the narrow trench to
which he restricted himself, and which was not continuous, his excavations
never extended more than 2 feet, and frequently not more than 18 inches,
below the base of the Stalagmitic Floor. Connected with this Cave, more-
over, there proved to be two recesses, which he did not enter ; indeed he did
not suspect their existence.
The Roof of the Cave of Rodentia slopes gently towards the north. Its
general height above the bottom of the Committee's excavation is about 8 feet ;
* See also ' The Ancient Stone Implements, &c. of Great Britain,' by John Evans,
F.R.S., F.S.A., 1872, figs. 386, 387, p. 447.
t Trans. Devon. Assoc, vol. iii. pp. 244, 245.
ON Kent's cavern, Devonshire.
35
and from this it varies but little, except in one or two places, whence masses
of limestone have recently fallen. The Roof is fretted, and has occasional
flues, extending tortuously upwards, and from 9 to 12 inches in diameter at
the bottom, where they are largest. None of them contain any stalactitic or
earthy matter.
The walls of the Cave are but little fretted, and their edges but slightly
rouuded.
Almost immediately on entering the Cave the workmen had to blast a large
mass of limestone lying on the Stalagmitic Floor, and which in all probability
deterred Mr. MacEnery from breaking ground there. A few yards further
in, a portion of the south wall, certainly in situ, and without obvious in-
dication of severance from the limestone stratum of which it was a part,
was found to project a few feet beyond the general direction, and to
have Cave-earth beneath it. This underlying deposit had been regularly
removed as the successive Parallels were excavated. At length the entire
mass, estimated at a ton in weight, fell and very nearly crushed the principal
workman.
The Stalagmitic Floor, originally continuous across the entire length and
breadth of the Cave, had in great part been broken up by the earlier explo-
rers. Judging from the remnants of it still remaining, it was of the ordinary
granular and laminated character, and from 3 to 12 inches in thickness.
Beneath this Floor the deposit was the common Cave-earth from top to
bottom of the 4-feet sections, except in the northern corner of the Cave,
where the Old Crystalline Stalagmitic Floor, in situ, formed its basis, and
rose like a boss from beneath.
In the excavated deposits thrown aside in this Cave by Mr. MacEnery, the
Committee found bones and teeth as usual, and a bronze gouge 3-2 inches
long, and -75 inch in diameter at the end intended for the reception of the
haft. There can be little or no doubt that it lay on the Stalagmitic Floor
before Mr. MacEnery entered the Cave, and that he failed to observe it.
The only object found in the Granular Stalagmitic Floor (that overlying
the Cave-earth) was a fine os innominatum of a rhinoceros. No. 5743.
In the intact Cave-earth about 1000 teeth of various kinds of mammals
were met with, and in the ratios shown in the following Table : —
Table IV. — Showing how many per cent, of the teeth found in Cave-earth
in the Cave of Eodentia belonged to the different kinds of Mammals.
Hyaena 44 per cent.
Horse 28 „
Rhinoceros 9-5 „
Megaceros 4 „
Deer.
Bear.
Ox .
4
3
9
Reindeer 1*5 per cent.
Elephant 1 „
Lion 1 „
Sheep -5 „
Fox 1 tooth only.
Wolf 1 tooth only.
In certain parts of the Cave the Cave-earth was found intact in every
Level ; in others the uppermost Foot-level only had been broken up, leaving
the second, third, and fourth undisturbed ; whilst in a third area the two
lower Levels alone had not been touched. The second group occupied an
area of but limited extent, and needs no further notice, but the distribution
of the teeth in the first and third are shown in the following Tables : —
36
REPORT-
-1872.
Table V. — Showing the distribution of the Teeth of the different kinds of
Mammals in each of the four Foot-levels of thii-teen Parallels of Cave-
earth in the Cave of Rodentia.
S
00
O
■*^
a
V
■A
U
rn
o
o
2
^
,
ts
&I
3
o
w
3
2
2
&
2
§
ft
O
1
1
-a
No. of Parallels containing teeth
in 1st Level
2nd „
8
9
5
5
1
1
4
1
1
"
3rd „
11
9
5
2
1
2
1
3
JJ SJ )»
4th „
2
5
3
1
1
1
1
1
1) )I »»
all Levels
13
11
8
5
7
3
2
6
2
1
1
Total No. of teeth in 1st Level .
2nd „ .
» » 3rd „
13
44
38
7
26
24
3
7
6
2
2
2
10
1
1
3
1
1
6
8
2
1
1
„ „ 4th „
fi
17
4
1
1
1
2
1
„ „ all Levels .
101
74
20
5
14
5
2
16
3
1
1
Table VI. — Showing the distribution of the Teeth of the different kinds of
Mammals in the third and fourth Foot-levels of fourteen Parallels of
Cave-earth in the Cave of Eodentia.
03
i
o
g
§
1
i
i
§
Hi
1
$
p
1
o
4
2
2
1
No. of Parallels containing teeth in 3rd Level ....
if ,, )) 'Itii ,, ....
„ „ „ hoth Levels . .
13
11
11
9
9
5
5
1
1
14
13
10
5
1
1
1
6
2
Total No. of Teeth in 3rd Level
64
68
39
25
18
7
11
2
1
1
1
7
2
3
1
4th
,, J, both Levels
132
64
25
13
1
1
1
9
4
In the material which Mr. MacEnery had excavated, examined, and thrown
aside in this Cave, about 130 teeth were found, which may be apportioned as
in the following Table : —
Table YII. — Showing how many per cent, of the Teeth found in the dis-
turbed material in the Cave of Rodentia belonged to the different kinds
of Mammals.
Hyaena 37 per cent.
Horse 31 „
Deer 12-5 „
Rhinoceros 8 „
Bear 3
Ox 3
Rabbit 3
Reindeer 1
Wolf 1
Fox 1
per cent.
»
tooth.
It has already been mentioned that there were two recesses in this Cave
into which Mr. MacEnery did not enter. One, in the north-east corner,
ON Kent's cavern, Devonshire. 37
measuring 4 feet long by 4 feet broad, yielded 36 teeth of hyaena, 5 of deer,
4 of horse, 4 of rhinoceros, 2 of ox, a portion of an elephant's tusk, numerous
bones, and 1 flint flake. The other, in the opposite corner of the Cave,
measured 9 feet by 8 feet, and was found to contain 161 teeth of hyaena
(many of them in parts of jaws, all having lost their condyles), 107 of horse,
40 of rhinoceros, 16 of deer, 10 of bear, 8 of megaceros (of which 5 were in
part of a lower jaw), 5 of elephant, 5 of ox, 5 of sheep, 4 of lion, 1 of fox, a
great number of bones, balls of coprolite, 1 flake of flint and 2 of chert.
The following are among the noteworthy specimens found in the Cave of
Eodentia : — ^ < .
Part of the left upper jaw of a bear (No. 5740), containing the last three
molars, which are not much worn. This specimen is in a good state of pre-
servation, and was found November 18, 1871, in the third Level of Cave-
earth, with 2 teeth of hyaena, 1 of lion, and 1 of elephant.
Part of the right upper jaw of a bear (No. 5745), containing the last three
molars, which are somewhat worn. This specimen, which is not well pre-
served, was lying with a portion of probably the same head in a corresponding
condition, and containing 1 canine of great size. They were found November
20, 1871, in the second Level of Cave-earth, with 1 tooth of hyaena.
A canine of a bear (No. 5749), much worn, and having a fang 5-1 inches in
girth. It was found November 22, 1871, in the second Level of Cave-earth,
with 1 tooth of horse.
Portion of an elephant's tusk (No. 5764), measuring 10 inches long and 6*5
inches in girth — the largest specimen of the kind the Committee have met
with in the Cavern. It is partially invested with stalagmite, to which a few
small angular stones adhere, and on its surface there are teeth-marks of
hyaena. It was found November 27, 1871, in the first Level of Cave-earth,
with 2 teeth of hyaena, and gnawed fragments of bone.
A very small tooth of an elephant (No. 5774) with two diverging fangs. It
was found December 2, 1871, in the fourth Level of Cave-earth. On account
of its very small size and unusual fang it was forwarded to Mr. Busk, who
has furnished the following remarks on it :— " -^-f-^-, milk-molar of Elephas
primigenius. As this tooth is only one half the size of the tooth usually,
but erroneously, regarded as the m.-m. 1, I consider that it represents the
very rare occurrence of a true m.-m. 1. If not, it is the smallest tooth of
the kind I am acquainted with, except in the Maltese dwarf elephants {vide
my paper in Zool. Trans, vol. vi. pi. 53. fig. 2). The proper dimensions of
m.-m. 2 in Elephas primigenius are about -8 inch X '7 inch, and the smallest
I have seen of El. indicus is -6 x -48 ; whilst a tooth in the Zebbug collection
is -4 X -32, and the present one -45 x '3, or nearly the same. One objection,
however, and that a strong one, to the present tooth being really m.-m. 1,
arises from its having two divergent fangs, while the Zebbug tooth has only
one, or two connate into one. This is a very curious specimen, and, as re-
gards the elephant, of remarkable interest." — (Signed) George Busk.
Several good specimens of coprolite were met with both in the Cave of
Rodentia and the Wolfs Cave.
Five implements and flakes of flint and chert were found in the former
Cave, but none of them rank amongst the best of the Cavern series ; indeed
one only (No. 5741) requires special description. It is a light grey flint,
rudely oval in form, irregularly convex on both faces, 2-8 inches long, 2-4
inches broad, and -95 inch in greatest thickness. Though it has undergone /
a considerable amount of chipping, and is reduced to an edge all round, it is
by no means a well-finished, but was probably a very efficient, " scraper."
38 REPORT— 1872.
It was found November 18, 1871, with 5 teeth of hyaena, 2 of raegaceros,
1 of horse, and 1 of rhinoceros, in the third Level of Cave-earth.
Besides the implements, there is a jiiece of chert having the form of a rude
triangular pyramid, 3-2 inches high, its scalene base being 3'3 inches long
and 1*2 inch broad. It was found November 30, 1871, with 2 teeth of
hyaena, 3 of horse, and 1 of ox, in the third Level of Cave-earth. Its form
is scarcely indicative of an artificial origin ; and though its edges are some-
what rounded, it does not seem possible for it to have been transported by
natural agency from the nearest locality in which such material is now found
in situ, without being much more rounded than it is.
Before proceeding to another branch of the Cavern, the Committee would
remark that they commenced their investigation of the Wolfs Cave on July
12, 1871, and from that time until they had reached its termination, as well
as that of its offshoot, the Cave of Rodentia (a period of nearly six months),
they cherished the hope that, like Mr. MacEnery, they might find some remains
of Macliairodiis latidens. During their progress they were daily face to face
with their energetic predecessor's labours, and from time to time met with
the tools with which they were performed * ; but they had finally to leave
the two Caves on December 30, 1871, with a feeling of great disappointment
that neither amongst the many hundreds of specimens which Mr. MacEnery
had left in his broken ground, nor in the Cave-earth remaining intact beside
and beneath his diggings, had they met with any trace of the great object
and hope of their search.
MacEnery states that he found the famous canines "in diluvial mud mixed
with teeth and gnawed bones of rhinoceros, elephant, horse, ox, elk, and deer,
with teeth and bones of hyaenas, bears, wolves, foxes, &c.'"t, and that he
subsequently discovered an incisor of the same species in the same bed J. It
will be seen from Table III., given above, that, with scarcely any other
exception than that of Machairodits, such an assemblage of remains as he
enumerates was actually found by the Committee in the very soil which he
had examined and cast aside ; and from Table I., that of the animals in his
list, just quoted, the great sabre-toothed Felis was the only one which failed
to present itself when the Committee broke up the undisturbed Cave-earth
lying below that which yielded the canines and incisor. When to this it is
added that the most careful search by the Committee failed to detect in the
Cave-earth which they excavated any remnant of the older Cavern deposit,
and that MacEnery was struck with the fact that, though " dehcately edged,"
the canines were found quite uninjured in the midst of the shattered bones §,
a strong case seems to be made out in favour of the propositions that Machair-
odus belonged to the Devonshire Cave-earth fauna, and that his remains
found in Kent's Cavern were not redeposited fossils.
The Charcoal Cave. — Two passages open out of the south-west comer of
the Sloping Chamber, opposite the entrance of the Wolfs Cave. The more
important is of considerable length, and leads in a south-westerly direction
to a series of large chambers, in which the Committee have not yet under-
taken any researches. Mr. MacEnery designated this the " Long Arcade."
Very near its mouth is the entrance of the second passage, to which, for a
* The tools were two hammers, a small chisel, a trowel, and an iron scraper. It cannot
be necessary to state that these mementos of him who first made the Cavern famous liave
been carefully preserved.
t See " Plate F," ' Cavern Researches,' edited by E. Vivian, Esq., 18.59.
X See Trans. Devon. Assoc, vol. iii. p. 370. § Ibid. p. 294.
ON rent's cavern, DEVONSHIRE. 39
reason which will shortly appear, the Superintendents have given the name
of the " Charcoal Cave." This passage the Committee proceeded to explore
before undertaking the Arcade.
It extends on the whole in a southerly direction for a distance of upwards
of 50 feet, varying from 5 to 13 feet in breadth, and throughout the
first half of its length maintaining a tolerably uniform height of from 9 to
10 feet. At 16 feet from the entrance it sends off a branch in an easterly
direction, and at 26 feet a second branch towards the south-west; re-
solving itself, in short, into three passages, which ultimately reiinite, and
may conveniently be termed the " Northern," " Central," and " Southern "
branches. They have all, but especially the northern, the aspect of long-
coutinued watercourses fretted by the subsequent and unequal action of
acidulated water. Mouths of " flues " present themselves in the roofs and
walls ; but none of them have any traces of earthy matter, and few are lined
with stalactite. The branches are subject to a very copious drip very soon
after rains, but no portion of it enters through the flues just mentioned.
At 18 feet from the entrance of the Cave a thin layer of black matter,
among which charcoal was conspicuous, was observed lying on the surface of
the Stalagmitic Floor, where it covered an area of about 2 square feet. It
was thought to be probably the remains of a fire kindled by some recent
visitors to the Cavern, though the place seemed an unlikely one for such a
purpose, the roof being no more than 4 feet above the floor before the exca-
vation, and the narrow passage being very seldom entered by visitors. The
whole of the material was carefully collected, and, on being washed and
examined, yielded the foUomng assemblage of objects : — Small rough pieces
of stalagmitic matter ; bits of charcoal, some of them incorporated in the
stalagmitic matter just mentioned ; upwards of a dozen small pieces of very
coarse friable pottery, of a reddish colour, without any trace of ornamenta-
tion, and in all probability parts of one and the same vessel ; two unworn
lower "wisdom teeth" of a human subject; a few entire phalangeal bones,
apparently of an individual barely mature ; part of an ulna, of a pelvis, of a
vertebra, of ribs, and numerous small fragments of bone ; an almost perfect
left lower jaw of a fox, containing the canine tooth and five molars ; a few
incisors and bones of small rodents.
In accordance with the practice invariably followed since the commence-
ment of the exploration, the water in which the objects just mentioned were
washed was passed through a fine sieve for the purpose of detecting minute
objects of interest. This water was almost black from the fine matter held
in suspension, and which, on being deposited and dried, proved to be fine
silt coloured with charcoal.
As earlier explorers of the Cavern had in one place in this Cave attempted
to break through the Stalagmitic Floor at a point further in than the spot
occupied by the black material, and must have frequently trampled on it,
there is no difficulty in accounting for the broken condition of the pottery,
the charcoal, and most of the bones. It is scarcely necessary to observe that
the Charcoal Cave takes its name from the patch of black matter just
described.
Mr. Charles Rodway, a distinguished dentist of Torquay, to whom the
human teeth mentioned above were submitted, was so good as to furnish the
following note respecting them : —
"Torquay, June 11, 1872.
"Mt dear Sie, — I have examined the two teeth you brought me, and
they are right and left inferior * detites sapientice ' of a human being. They
40 REPORT— 1872.
are the teeth of a subject between the age of 15 and 20 years, judging from
the undeveloped state of the roots, which later in life would be longer, with
the pnlp-cavity at the apices considerably smaller. I notice upon the lingual
surface of the left tooth what I take to be a deposit of salivary calculus, which
leads me to suppose that they were already erupted from the gum, although
not sufficiently risen to have been used in mastication, as the enamel on the
masticating-surface does not appear to have been subjected to friction. It would
be impossible to say whether they are the teeth of a male or female ; but from
their strong likeness they are unquestionably the teeth of the same person.
" Yours truly,
(Signed) " Charles Rodway, S.D., Li. R.C.S."
With the exception of the jaw of a fox, and the incisors and bones of
rodents, all the osseous remains were believed by the Superintendents of the
Exploration to be those of a human subject of about the age indicated by the
wisdom teeth, and were all forwarded to Mr. G. Busk, who has furnished the
following Eeport on them, confirming, with a few exceptions, their human
character. The specimens were twenty in aU, and were numbered gyVx'
■g-^ijy, and so on.
Mr. Bus1c''s Report.
" No. 5-gTT' Fragment of left ilium ; probably female ; age unascertainable.
" 2. Not human.
" 3. The sternal end of a human clavicle.
"4. First phalanx of third finger, right hand; entire, but with the
epiphysial line of junction quite distinct ; age 18 to 20.
" 5. Portion of body of lumbar vertebra, showing that the epiphyses were
ununited ; age the same.
" 6. A fragment of the sacrum.
" 7. First phalanx of fourth finger, right hand, with the epiphyses detached,
" 8. Second phalanx of right thumb.
" 9. Upper end of right ulna, of rather peculiar form ; the peculiarity con-
sisting in the straightness of the posterior angle and the breadth of the
square anterior face. Epiphyses quite united ; but as this union takes
place at 16 years, the bone probably belonged to the same individual as the
above.
" 10. Shaft of humerus (?) of (?). Not human.
" 11. Fragment of second right metacarpal.
" 12. Distal portion of first metacarpal, or phalanx of thumb.
" 13. Fragment of the shaft of a clavicle, of slender make.
" 14. Fragment of tlie left ischium of a young ruminant of the size of the
ibex, or a large goat ; but may be by chance a young red-deer — not reindeer,
nor fallow-deer, nor roebuck.
" 15. Right cuneiforme bone.
" 16. Right pisiform bone.
" 17. First phalanx of fourth toe.
" 18. Second phalanx of fifth toe.
"19. Third phalanx of third finger.
" 20. Second phalanx of toe.
"32 Harley Street, July 29, 1872."
(Signed) " Gkorge Busk."
The Superintendents incline to the opinion that, since the age of the sub-
ject to whom Mr. Busk ascribes the bones harmonizes with that of the person
ON Kent's cavern^ Devonshire. 41
to whom Mr. Rodway says the teeth belonged, all the remains are portions
of the same skeleton, and that they had been preserved in a cinerary urn of
which the potsherds found with them were fragments.
There was a continuous Stalagmitic Floor from the entrance of the Char-
coal Cave to 19 feet mthin it, except at one place, where it did not quite ex-
tend from wall to wall. In the next 5 feet the Cave-earth was without any
covering, but at 25 feet from the entrance a floor again presented itself. It
was of the usual character, varied from 2 to 12 inches thick, and near the
entrance there was in it, about 2 inches below the surface, a thin layer of
carbonaceous matter.
In the northern branch the floor was everywhere continuous, and varied
from 18 inches thick at the entrance to 1 inch at the inner end. In the
central branch the floor was but partial, never exceeded 9 inches thick, and
was occasionally no more than a mere film. In one or two instances pieces
of Old Crystalline Floor were incorporated in it. There was very little floor
in the southern branch.
Remnants of an old floor hi situ, extending from waU to wall, presented
themselves in each of the branches, always at some height above the Cave-
earth. They were indications, of course, of the former existence, and at
least partial dislodgement, of a deposit older than the Cave-earth, and which
there attained a higher level. The most considerable of them was in the
central branch : it was from 9 to 10 feet long, 3 inches thick ; its upper
surface was 1-5 foot below the limestone roof, and its lower surface 4 feet
above the granular Stalagmitic Floor, the spaces between it and the ruof
above, and the ordinary floor below, being quite unoccupied. The remnants
in the other branches differ from this in their measurements only.
With exceptions in portions of the central and southern branches, to be
noticed immediately, the mechanical deposit in the Charcoal Cave was true
Cave-earth. At the entrance, and for about 11 feet within, it contained an
unusually great number of fragments of limestone from top to bottom of the
section. Beyond the point just specified, up to 18 feet from the entrance,
such fragments were rare, except in the uppermost Foot-level, where they
still abounded ; their place below being taken by a few pieces of red grit,
some of which were fossiliferous, whilst the Cave-earth became very sandy.
From the first to the second Isifurcation of the Cave, as well as for a few
feet within each branch, the Cave-earth was no more than from 1 to 3-5 feet
deep, and rested on a continuous, but very uneven, limestone floor — an
instance, and probably the only one yet known in the Cavern, of this floor
being reached.
In the northern branch the deposit was true Cave-earth throughout. In
the central one the Cave-earth contained a few pieces of Old Crystalline
Floor, and throughout the innermost 10 feet rested immediately on the old
dark red Breccia, found elsewhere in the Cavern beneath the Crystalline
Stalagmitic Floor. In the southern branch nothing but true Cave-earth was
found from the entrance to 8 feet within it ; but beyond that to the end, a
distance of 17 feet, from the base of the section to 2-5 and even 3 feet above
it, the entire accumulation was the old dark red Breccia, rock-like in its
cohesion, continuous from wall to wall, and clearly i?i situ.
It may be well at this point to give a brief recapitulation of the facts as
they presented themselves in ascending, but not necessarily chronological,
order, in the same vertical section, in the central and southern branches : —
First, or Lowest. Dark red rock -like Breccia, at least largely composed of
angular, subangular, and rounded fragments of Devonian grit, derivable
1872. B
42 REPORT— 1872.
from the adjacent loftier hills, but not from the comparatively low one in
which the Cavern occurs. Its depth is unknown, as its base has not been
reached.
Second. Cave-earth, consisting of a somewhat light red loam and generally
about 50 per cent, of angular fragments of limestone, with an occasional
pebble not derivable from the Cavern-hill. Its depth was variable, but never
less than 1 foot.
Third. A floor of granular Stalagmite, from 1 to 18 inches thick.
Fourth. An unoccupied space from 1 to 4 feet high.
Fifth. A floor of Crystalline Stalagmite from 3 to 4 inches thick.
Sixth. An unoccupied space from 1 to 3'5 feet high.
Seventh. The limestone roof of the Cave.
Were we to speculate on the history of the Charcoal Cave as indicated in
the facts just described, we should find ourselves taken back to the time when
it was formed, not by any convulsion, but by the actual and probably gradual
removal of the limestone which once filled the entire space between the walls,
as is shown by the unfissured roof and the continuous limestone floor.
Secondly, so far as can be ascertained, the introduction of angular, sub-
angular, and rounded pebbles of dark red grit, with sandy mud derived from
their attrition, until the Cave and its branches were filled almost to the roof.
Thirdly, the introduction of materials from without having ceased, the
Breccia which had accumulated was hermetically sealed up with a cake of
Crystalline Stalagmite, from 3 to 4 inches thick — the result of the slow solu-
tion and precipitation of calcareous matter.
Fourthly, the Crystalline Stalagmite was partially broken up, and a portion
of the Breccia was dislodged, the removal being more complete in some parts
than in others.
Fifthly, again there was introduced a mechanical deposit, but instead of
dark red grit and sandy mud, it consisted of a light red loam and angular
fragments of limestone of various sizes. It did not attain to so great a height
as the previous deposit of dark red material.
Sixthly, a floor of Stalagmite, differing from the former in being granular
instead of crystalline, was formed on the red loam or Cave-earth, at a lower
level than that which sealed up the Breccia.
Seventhly and lastly, this latter floor being completed, there was placed on
it a small cinerary urn, containing human bones and bits of charcoal.
But to return. The deposits in the Charcoal Cave were by no means rich
in osseous remains. The granular stalagmite jaelded a few unimportant
bones only, and in the Cave-earth there was but a comparatively small
number of bones, and no more than 85 teeth. The latter belonged to diff'erent
kinds of mammals in the ratios shown in the following Table : —
Table VIII. — Showing how many per cent, of the Teeth found in Cave-earth
in the Charcoal Cave belonged to the different kinds of Mammals.
Horse 33 per cent.
Hysena 29-5 „
Fox 12
Rhinoceros 10-5 „
Badger 6 ,,
Bear 3*5 per cent.
Wolf 2-5 „
Elephant 1 ,,
Ox 1
Sheep 1 „
There were but thirteen of the Parallels consisting of Cave-earth from top
to bottom of the 4-feet sections which contained teeth, andj these amounted
to no more than 31 in number. Their distribution is shown in the following
Table :—
ON KENT S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE.
43
Tab
F. IX. — Showing the distribution of the Teeth of the different kinds of
Mammals in each of the four Foot-levels of thirteen Parallels of Cave-
earth in the Charcoal Cave.
o
8
o
c
'i
1
-a
6
1
05
No. of Parallels containing teeth
)» j» )»
)) )» j»
It »» ij
») j» ))
in 1st Level .. ..
2nd „ ....
;]rd „ ....
4th „ ....
all Levels ....
4
2
1
2
2
2
3
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
7
7
2
1
1
1
1
Total No. of teeth in 1st Level
I. ji 2nd „
„ „ 3rd „
4th „
„ „ all Levels
7
4
3
2
2
2
3
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
16
9
2
1
1
1
1
The following may be mentioned amongst noteworthy bones found in the
Charcoal Cave : — The distal end of a tibia (No. 5906), an astragalus, and the
proximal end of an os calcis of horse, all inosculated in true anatomical posi-
tion as when clothed with flesh, thus intimating that they were so clothed
when lodged where they were found. The fractured end of the tibia affords
decided evidence of the powerful jaws of the hyaena. With the specimens
were found another distal end of a tibia of horse, a metatarsus of horse, a
metatarsus of reindeer, part of an antler, a rather small astragalus, and a
gnawed bone. They were lying but little below the surface of the Cave-earth,
where it was not more than 1-5 foot deep, almost in contact with the roof of
the southern branch, and deposited on the old dark red Breccia ; and they were
extracted June 6, 1872, in the presence of one of the Superintendents.
In a precisely similar situation, and but one foot from the objects just
named, a metacarpus of horse and a large atlas were found two days after.
On April 22, 1872, there were found on the surface of the Cave-earth
upwards of 600 bones of rodents all lying together; and on the 11th of the
same month nearly 800 small stalagmitic bodies, which may be likened to
rather large, ill-shapen, rugose marbles, were found in a heap on the Cave-
earth, in a small recess in the wall of the southern branch, with two hazel-
nut-shells and a piece of bone. On May 17 a similar but smaller heap, con-
taining about 100 such " marbles," with a toothless fragment of jaw, was
met with in a position precisely like the former. Several coprolites were
found in the Charcoal Cave.
One small flake of white flint (No. 5899) was found in the southern branch
on May 22, 1872. It may be dismissed with the remark that it lay in the first
Level of Cave-earth with 2 teeth of hyaena.
Bones and teeth were found in the old dark red Breccia in the central and
southern branches. The bones were much broken in digging them out, on ac-
count of the rock-like character of the Breccia. The teeth, like those found in
the same deposit in other parts of the Cavern, were all of them those of bear.
In their Fifth Report (Exeter, 1869) the Committee called attention to a
flake of flint found in the Breccia in the " Water Gallery," and pronounced
by Mr. John Evans, F.R.S., a Member of the Committee, to be not only of
e2
44 REPOKT — 1872,
artificial origin, but to have been used by man * ; and they ventured on the
opinion that, from its being coeval with the Breccia (which must have been
laid down long before the deposit in which, so far as the Cavern evidence
goes, the first traces of the Cave-hyaena, Cave-lion, mammoth, and their con-
temporaries were met with), it was anthropologically by far the most impor-
tant object the Cavern had yielded. From that time the Committee have had
no opportunity of investigating this old Breccia, and hence no announcement of
further discoveries of the kind were looked for in their Sixth or Seventh Reports
(1870 and 1871). They are now, however, enabled to return to the subject,
and to state that the Breccia has yielded two additional flint implements.
The first of these (No. 5900) was found May 22, 1872, in the southern
branch, from 1 to 2 feet deep in the Breccia, in which it was firmly im-
bedded ; and over this was an accumulation of typical Cave-earth, having no
Stalagmitic Floor either above or below it. There were no bones found near
the implement ; but vertically above it, in the Cave-earth, were the small
flake of white flint and the 2 teeth of hycena just mentioned. It is rude in
form, rather over 5 inches in greatest length, scarcely 3 inches wide, and
about 1-5 inch in greatest thickness. It exhibits a small portion of the sur-
face of the nodule from which it was made, is of a dull cream colour, and its
weight is less than that of ordinary flints of the same size ; in these respects
resembling some of the tools found in the Windmill-Hill Cavern at Brixham.
All the dimensions of the second implement (No. 5903) slightly exceed
those of that just described. Its colour is a pinkish cream ; one of its surfaces
is nearly flat, whilst the other is very convex, and retains much of the sur-
face of the original nodule. One of the Superintendents, who assisted to
extract it, had the opportunity of studying it before any attempt was made
to move it. The Breccia was compactly cemented together, and the imple-
ment was firmly imbedded in it, at 1 foot below its surface, above which was
Cave-earth to the depth of 27 inches, and, without being covered with sta-
lagmite, reaching within 3 inches of the roof; in other words, the united
thickness of the two deposits overlying the tool was 39 inches. It was di-
stinctly observed to be fractured ; and as the severed portions were in such
close contact as to render the line of junction almost microscopic, it had obvi-
ously been broken where it lay. Every care was taken in its removal ; but on
being extracted it fell into three pieces, one of which remained firmly attached
to and incorporated in a lump of the Breccia. The fractured surfaces showed
that its colour was whitish throughout, and that its texture was granular. It
was found May 27, 1872, in the southern branch of the Cave, about 2 feet from
the specimen just described (No. 5900), and, like that, had no bones near it.
The excavation of the Charcoal Cave and its branches was completed July 7,
1872, the labour of 4-5 months having been expended on it.
The Long Arcade. — The principal passage opening out of the south-west
corner of the Sloping Chamber, as already mentioned, was termed the Long
Arcade by Mr. MacEnery f, and the " Hysena Cloaca Maxima " by Dr. Buck-
land t. It has a direction towards south-west, and is the great thoroughfare
to the " Labyrinth," " Bear's Den," and " Cave of Inscriptions." Its explora-
tion is at present in progress. Up to the end of July about ten weeks' work
had been expended on it ; but a very large amount remains to be done there.
Mr. MacEnery had commenced the exploration of the Arcade, but meeting
with fewer fossils than he hoped, soon abandoned it §.
* See Eeport Brit. Assoc. 1869, pp. 202, 203.
t See Trans. Devon. Assoc, vol.lii. p. 303 (1869). | Ibid. p. 237. § Ibid. p. 290.
ON Kent's cavern, Devonshire. 45
At its entrance this branch of the Cavern is about 17 feet in width and 13
in height. The roof is the naked limestone, much fretted or honeycombed.
The Granular Stalagmitic Floor was continuous in every direction and of very
great thickness. Its surface, for some distance, was occupied by a series of
natui-al basins, bounded by stalagmitic walls rising above the general level of
the floor. They varied in depth from an inch to fvdly a foot, and in wet
seasons were constantly fuU of water. Similar basins occur in other parts of
the Cavern, but those at the mouth of the Arcade (the great thoroughfare)
have attracted a large amount of attention. Mr. MacEnery described them as
" encircled with wavy walls, rivalling the most exquisite works in pastry"*.
When breaking up the floor it was observed that the bottoms of the basins
were formed of a softer looser stalagmite than that composing the walls, and
that these dissimilar characters extended vertically downwards through the
entire "Floor." Charcoal has been found in a few of them, and one con-
tained two or three bones.
At the western wall of the Arcade, and sevei'al feet from it, the Stalagmitic
Floor was never less than 4, and not unfrequently upwards of 5 feet thick ;
but at the eastern wall it rarely measured more than 2 feet. The upper-
most 6 inches were frequently of a dirty reddish colour, as if soil-stained ;
but at greater depths it was very pure, often granular, occasionally flaky, and
everywhere distinctly laminated.
At something more than a foot from the bottom of the Floor, there was
found in every section a roughly horizontal, continuous, black line, extending
from the western wall of the Arcade to a distance, in one instance, of 7 feet,
generally about a quarter of an inch thick, but never exceeding half an inch.
It was due to the presence of charcoal, and, of course, represented a thin sheet
of that material. It was very carefully watched as the Floor was broken up,
but yielded no trace of bone or of any substance besides the charred wood.
This " Charcoal Streak" was observed and studied by Mr. MacEnery, who,
attaching great chronological importance to it, described it no less than four
times f. The portion of the Floor in which he found it was not more, at
most, than half the thickness of that recently broken up by the Committee.
From his description it appears to have been horizontal, midway from the
surface to the bottom of the stalagmite, from 1 to 2 inches thick, about 5 feet
in greatest length in any section, composed of charred wood and straw, and to
have contained the following objects imbedded in it : — Small polished pebbles
of white flint, shells, two portions of the jaw, a tusk, and some phalanges of
boar, the under jaw of a badger, bones of rabbits and rats, and cylindrical bones
which Dr. Buckland, who extracted them, assigned to deer. The latter were
half-roasted, and, with the exception of the jaws of the boar, all the bones had
been more or less exposed to the action of fire. No extraneous objects of any
kind were found in the Floor above or below the " Charcoal Streak."
The Committee have been more fortunate, having met with bones in other
parts of the stalagmite, but all of them below the black line. The most note-
worthy of these are a tooth of deer (No. 5818), a large vertebra (No. 5951),
and a well-worn tooth of hysena (No. 5969). In the same deposit a piece
of black flint (No. 5938) was found July 18, 1872.
Mr. MacEnery's diggings in the Cave-earth at the entrance of the Arcade
had in some places been carried to a depth of 3 feet below the Stalagmitic Floor,
thus leaving the fourth Foot-level intact. They gradually became less and less
deep, until at 12 feet from the entrance they ceased entirely. This excavated
material has been carefully reexamined, but contained very few specimens.
* Trans. Devon. Assoc, vol. iii. p. 236. t Ibid. pp. 235, 236, 261, 291, and 335.
46 REPORT — 1873.
The deposit underlying the Stalagmitic Floor was typical Cave-earth,
having no peculiar characteristics. Up to the end of July no trace of the
Breccia (the older deposit) had presented itself, either in situ or in incorpo-
rated fragments. It has not proved to be very rich, nor has it been remark-
ably poor, in bones and teeth ; and it has yielded two flint implements. It
is believed, however, that the lack of abundance will be found to be fully
compensated by the character and value of at least one of the specimens.
One of the implements (No. 5S19) is a somewhat mottled white flint, rather
irregular in form, flat on one face, doubly carinated on the other, 3-3 inches
long, 1*1 inch in greatest breadth, and -4 inch where thickest. It was found
in the first Foot-level of Cave-earth with a portion of a grey flint nodule,
apparently fractured artificially.
The second implement (No. 5829) is a bluish-grey flint, semilunar iu out-
line, 2-5 inches long, 1-5 inch broad, and fuUy -5 inch in greatest thickness.
It was found, with a tooth of hyaena and a tooth of horse, in the third Foot-
level of Cave-earth.
Up to the end of July 120 teeth and a considerable number of bones, be-
longing to various kinds of mammals, had been met with. As the exploration
of the Arcade is not completed, it is perhaps undesirable at present to exhibit
the distribution of the teeth in a tabular form. The hyaena, us usual, takes the
lead, and is followed by the horse and the rhinoceros in tlicir usual places.
Though, amongst the animal remains, several good specimens have been
met with in the branch of the Cavei'n at present under notice, only two of
them require special mention. One of these (No. 5968) is the right lower
jaw of a young bear, and, what is very unusual in the Cavern, perfect in all
its parts. Such, however, was its fragility that it was broken in taking it
out of the deposit. It was found July 30, 1872, with an additional canine
of a young bear (in all probability belonging to the same individual) and a
tooth of elephant, in the third Foot-level of Cave-earth, over which the
Stalagmitic Floor was 5 feet thick.
The other specimen (No. 5962) is a well-marked incisor of Maehairodvs
laUdens, found July 29, 1872, with the left lower jaw of bear containing one
molar, in the first or uppermost Foot-level of Cave-earth, having over it the
Granular Stalagmitic Floor 2*5 feet thick. It answers admirably to the
following description given by MacEnery of the incisor he found : — " The
internal face of the enamel is fringed with a serrated border. This tooth is
distinguished further by two tubercles or protuberances at the base of the
enamel from which the serration springs, and describes a pointed arch on the
internal surface The body of the tooth in this specimen is not com-
pressed but rounded " *. He adds, " Whether this belongs to an inferior
species of (J. cultridois, or [is] simply the incisor anterior to the canine of the
larger species of U. cuUndens, I am not able to pronounce with certainty. If
merely the incisor, it is stiU interesting, as it serves to show that the serrated
character is not confined to the canines, and that the rest of the teeth, and
consequently the frame, are marked by a peculiar conformation."
A glance at the new specimen sufiices to explain why Mr. MacEnery was
uncertain respecting the canine or incisive character. Indeed the workmen
eent it to the Secretary of the Committee under the belief that it was the
canine of a wolf, it being partially covered with Cave-earth ; and its true
character was detected whilst it was being washed, August 5, 1872.
MacEnery states that his incisor, which unfortunately cannot be traced,
was " about an inch long"* — the expression, in aU probability, of a rough
* Trans. Devon. Assoc, vol. iii. p. 370.
FOUNDATION OF ZOOLOGICAL STATIONS. 47
guess, and not of actual measurement. The incisor from the Cavern (doubt-
less that discovered and described by MacEnery) figured by Professor Owen
in his ' History of Eritish Fossil Slammals, &c. ' * very nearly corresponds
in size with its homologue just found. The new specimen is slightly longer
in the crown, and somewhat thicker in the fang.
The Committee cannot but feel that their thanks, as well as those of all
palaeontologists, are due to the Committee of the Geological Section for having,
year after year from 1864 inclusive, cordially applied for a grant from the
funds of the Association for the exploration of the Cavern, to the Committee
of Recommendations for having recommended the successive applications, and
to the General Committee for having annually voted the sums applied for.
One of the hopes of the Cavern Committee, in commencing their researches,
was that they might find some traces of Machairodus. This they have never
abandoned, though year after year passed away without success ; and they
cannot but express their gratitude to the body whose patience and liberality
has enabled them to continue their labours until this \\o-^e was realized. The
greater part of this Report vras written before the discovery was made ; and
had the work ceased on July 28, 1872, those who always declined to believe
that Machairodus had ever been found in Kent's Cavern, would have been
enabled to urge, as an additional argument, the fact that the consecutive,
systematic, and careful daily labours of 7 years and 4 months had failed to
show that their scepticism was unreasonable. This great accumulation of
negative evidence has been for ever set aside, and all doubt of Mr. MacEnery's
accuracy for ever removed, by the discovery the Committee have now had the
pleasure to announce.
They can now announce also that Machairodus latidens and man were con-
temporaries in Britain ; for even if, notwithstanding the great array of facts
to the contrary, the former should prove to have belonged to the era of the
Breccia, and not to that later time represented by the Cave-earth, the two
flint implements found in the Breccia, to which attention was called in a
previous part of this Report, as well as that produced and described at Exeter
in 1869, take man back to that earlier period also.
Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of promoting the
Foundation of Zoological Stations in different parts of the World.
The Committee beg leave to report that, as stated in the Report of last year,
the Zoological Station of Naples will be ready and in working order in the
beginning of January 1873, the progress of the construction being such as to
enable Dr. Dohrn to make this assertion.
This undertaking has received much official and private assistance, not only
from public authorities, but in a very high degree from private persons. The
Committee have much pleasure in acknowledging especially the extraordinary
services rendered by Mr. W. A. Lloyd, of the Crystal-Palace Aquarium, in giving
every assistance to Dr. Dohrn, as far as technical difficulties are concerned.
Special care has been taken to secure donations to the future library of the
Station. The eminent firm of Engelmann, in Leipzig, has presented all its works
on Biology not previously possessed by Dr. Dohrn. Vieweg, in Brunswick, has
also sent all his publications on Biology. Theodore Fischer, in Cassel, has done
* A History of British Fossil Mammals and Birds. By Eichard Owen, F.R.S., F.G.S.,
(1846), p. 182, fig. 70.
48 REPORT— 1872.
the same. Important donations are promised from Dr. Alexander Agassiz, Cam-
bridge, Mass., comprehending the publications of both his father and himself.
To secure the development of the libraiy on a greater scale, it will be
necessary to inake general applications. For this purpose, Dr. Dohrn,
assisted by several of the greatest German publishing firms, is preparing an
appeal to all German publishers, and hopes also to succeed with a like
demand in Italy. The Committee hope that the British Association will
lend its moral assistance to a similar demand in this country, not only by
granting a complete set of its own publications, but by recommending a
similar act to other scientific' bodies and private persons.
The Committee are further glad to announce that some Steam Navigation
Companies are prepared to grant a free passage to the Naturalists, and free
transport for the goods sent to or from the Zoological Station.
Dr. Dohrn contemplates a new step for the purpose of securing a larger
income for the Naples Station. He is about to offer to several Governments,
Universities, and Scientific Bodies working-tables in the Laboratory of the
Station for a certain annual sum. The payment of this sum would confer
upon the subscribing Government, University, or Society the riglit of appoint-
ing naturalists, who, on presenting a certificate to the administration of the
Station, would be furnished with a working-table and admitted to a partici-
pation in all the other very extensive advantages of the Station.
The Committee think it well earnestly to advocate this new step of the
administration of the Naples Station, the more so as it lessens the burden
of the single naturalist, enabling even such as are destitute of means to
profit by the manifold advantages of the Station, while it guarantees a fixed
annual income to the latter, which would be employed in improving the
technical and other means of investigation.
Fourth Report on the Fauna of South Devon. By C. Spence Bate^ F.R.S.
In presenting to this Association the Fourth Report of the Marine Fauna of
the South Coast of Devon and Cornwall, it cannot be supposed that any great
increase of novelties, either in species or genera, can be added to the forms
known ; and to recapitulate those already reported is unnecessary. My
attention therefore has been directed more especially towards the develop-
ment and habits of animals that have fallen within my range of observation.
Facility has been given in this direction by the establishment at Plymouth,
under my suggestion and plan, of a marine pond for the purpose of keeping
and storing animals for the aquarium at the Crystal Palace. Already it
has given us opportunities of observing the habits of animals that could
scarcely be obtained under any less favourable circumstances. These oppor-
tunities win become still more numerous and valuable as the conditions of
the pond become more adapted to deep-sea species.
The pond is formed out of a deep gully in the limestone shore, and much
of it extends far into a cave beneath the cliff'. The pond is irregular in
shape and depth, and affords many crannies, nooks, and corners for animals
to live or take refuge in. At the entrance, where the water is deepest, the
width of the pond is about eleven feet, but at other places it is more than
double that extent ; and when the sea rises to the higher spring-tides the length
of the pond extends upwards of eighty feet from the wall that separates it
from the waters of the Sound. The rocks, which were formerly covered with
ON THE FAUNA OF SOUTH DEVON.
49
Fucus, are now matted with grass-greeu Algae ; and with the change the water
has lost its foul and stagnant appearance, and become pellucid and clean.
The following fish have been taken on the coast since the last Keport, and
with those already mentioned form a tolerably perfect list of the fish of the
southern coast of Devon and Cornwall : —
List of Fishes taken off Plymouth,
(The English names are from Couch.)
Frequency.
Common.
Common.
Common
Common
Common
Not common ; com-
mon in some parts.
Not common
Common
Common
Abundant
Abundant
Abundant
Abundant
Abundant
Common
Occasionally
Occasionally
Common
Once only
Abundant
Not common
Abundant
Abundant
Abundant
only in Mid Channel,
le plentiful
Abundant
Abundant ,
Abundant
Uncommon
Not plentiful
Abundant
Abundant
Abundant
Abundant
Not common
Common
Common
Common
Common
Common
Common
Common
Common
Common
Not common
Common
Not common
Not common
Common
Locality.
Eaia marginata (Bordered Kay)
Baia spinosa
Squatina congelus (Monk-fish)
Syngnathus (several species)
Anguilla conger (Conger)
Lepidogaster cornubiensis (Cornish Sucker)
Lepidogaster bimaculatus (Doubly-spotted Sucker)
Solea vulgaris (Sole)
Ehombus punctatus, young (Miiller's Topknot) . . .
Platessa
Motella vulgaris (Tliree-bearded Eockling)
Merlangus pollachius (Pollack)
Morrhua lusca (Bib, or Wliiting Pout)
Morrhua minuta (Bower)
Morrhua vulgaris (Whiting)
Clupea harengus (Herring)
Alosa finta (Shad, Maid)
Belone vulgaris (Garfish)
Scomberesox saurus (Skipper)
Labrus maculatus (Ballan Wrasse)
Labrus mixtus, (J & ? (Cuckoo Wrasse)
Crinilabrus melops (Corkwing)
Crinilabrus rupestris (Goldsinny )
Acantholabrus exoletus (Rock Cook)
Callionymus lyra, <J & ? (Yellow Skulpin) -j |^^^
Gobius niger (Rock Goby)
Gobius ruthinsparri (Two-spotted Goby)
Gobius unipunctatus (One-spotted Goby)
Blennius montagui (Montagu's Blenny)
Blennius gattorugine (Gattorugine)
Blennius pholis (Sbanny)
Muraenoides guttata
Mugil capito (Grey Mullet)
Atherina presbyter (Smelt)
Zeus faber (Doree)
Capros aper (Boar-fish)
Scomber scombrus (Mackerel)
Pagellus centrodontus ( Bream)
Gasterosteus spinachia (15-spined Stickleback)...
Cottus bubalis (Lucky Proach)
Aspidaphorus cataphractus (Armed BuUhead) . . .
Trigla cuculis (Red Gurnard)
Trigla hirundo (Tub-fish)
Trigla gurnard us (Grey Gurnard )
Mulus surmuletus (Surmullet)
Trachinus draco (Greater Weever)
Trachinus vipera (Viper Weever)
Serranus cabrilla (Coruber)
Labrax lupus (Bass)
Sound.
Estuaries.
Sound.
Estuaries.
Sound.
Estuaries.
»»
Soimd. [Hoe.
Under the
Sound.
Estuaries.
Sound.
j»
Estuaries.
»t
Sound.
»
Estuaries.
Offing.
Sound.
Estuaries.
Offing.
Estuaries.
Offing.
Estuaries.
Sound.
50 REPORT— 1872.
Most of these have been confined in the pond, where they generally appear
to acclimatize themselves readily. The exceptions appear to be among those
species whose habits are of an erratic character, as the Mackerel {Scomber
scombrus). Several specimens of this species have been placed in the
pond, where the imprisonment alone seemed to operate prejudicially upon
them. They appeared to roam from point to point, seeking an outlet ; but
finding none, they one after another succumbed to their altered conditions
and died, iiut other fish not only live but thrive well, apparently having no
consciousness of any altered circumstances in their existence. These, from a
constant and close inspection, will, I hope, furnish us with opportunities of
recording notes of their habits and ways that cannot be obtained under less
favourable conditions.
The beautiful Blue Wrasse (Labrus mixtus) has already given us an
instance that is important in the history of its life, in the decided preference
it exhibits in sexual selection. It was not until it had been observed in
confinement that the Blue Wrasse and the Spotted Wrasse were known to be
one and the same species. The male is very much more rare than the female,
and is probably supposed to be more rare than it is, from the fact that those
that have been confined in the pond at Plymouth appear to be losing the
distinguishing colours and assuming that of the female as the summer time
is passing on, so that there is much reason to believe that the beautiful deep-
blue colour only exists, or at least is much more intense, during the pairing
or breeding time.
During this period the male has been seen to select its special favourite
out of a considerable number of females congregated in the pond, and faith-
fullj'^ accompany her as she swam about from place to place. In accordance
M'ith this same observation, Mr. Alford Lloyd, of the Cr3'stal-Palace Aquarium,
informed me that when at Hamburg he had noticed this peculiarity, and first
drew my attention to it. He said that having a veiy handsome specimen of
the Blue Wrasse, he placed him into a tank of water alone : instead of
conducting himself like an orderly fish and swimming quietly, he for some
time swam eagerly about in search of change ; but not finding it, he took the
unusual freak of jumping out of the tank ; this he did two or three times.
Fearing to lose him, it was determined to put another in with him ; and a
female specimen was selected. This appeared to have no very favourable suc-
cess, for the Blue Wrasse most ungallantly chased her about, and tried to drive
her from his presence. Another female was selected, with the same result.
It was then determined to place the original specimen into a tank in which
there were several swimming peacefully about, among which were many un-
selected females. Immediately the transfer was made, the animal swam
amongst the forlorn group and fixed on one, by no means the handsomest of
her sex, and selected her as his mate. With this one he was returned to his
own tank ; and here he conducted himself in a peaceful manner, never
attempting again to jump out of the tank in which he was confined.
I have also to record the capture of a specimen of the Bogue (S])arus hoops,
L.), llg inches long ; when it was brought to me it was in a very beautiful
state of preservation. Of this species there have been but two or three speci-
mens taken, and these scarcely so fine as the specimen now recorded. It
was taken in a trawling-net, and brought in alive, but did not survive its
capture. The specimen is preserved in the collection of the Museum of the
Plymouth Institution.
Mr. Brooking Rowe informs me that in July last a specimen of the German
or Long-finned Tunny (Orcynus alcdonja) was taken in the Laira estuary.
ON THE FAUNA OF SOUTH DEVON. 51
near Plymouth. It was 9 feet long ; the tail, from tip to tip, was 2 feet
11 inches wide; the girth 5 feet 11 inches: it weighed 800 lbs. This is,
I believe, only the fourth example mentioned as having occurred in Great
Britain.
On the 6th of September last I had brought to me a small fish (living)
about three quarters of an inch long, of a purple-black colour, with the
exception of the caudal, posterior dorsal, and postanal fins ; these were so
transparent as not to be visible without extreme care while the animal was
in the water. The head was large, with the upper jaw slightly protruding
over the lower. The head was elevated between the eyes, and three sharp
spines were present on the postero-lateral margin, just above the gUl-cdvers ;
a row of small spines were visible on each side of the posterior half of
the body, and three large spines are implanted at the lower base of each
lateral fin ; but the most striking peculiaritj- of the animal exists in the large
size of the fins themselves, particularly the laterals. There are four, two
upon each side ; they are narrow at the base, where they are connected
with the animal, from which point they gradually, but rapidly, increase in
width and length, until the latter is about one third of the length of the
animal, and the former more than equal to its depth.
An examination of its details with that of known species has led me to
the conclusion that it is a young specimen of the Grey Gurnard {Tricjla
gumardus).
Cbitstacea.
Among the Crustacea I have as yet but little to report, some observations
on the earlier development of the Homarus having been interfered with by
the loss or robbery of some specimens that 1 had retained in special crab-
pots some fathoms under water. This has deferred the opportunity until
another season.
There are, however, two subjects of interest that might be here alluded to.
The first is the decrease that is perceptible in the numbers of the edible
species of Crustacea. This is the more apparent in the Httoral than in the
deep-sea forms, and is likely to be more felt with the rapidly increasing
prices of articles of consumption. The circumstance no doubt arises fi-om
the custom of destroying the females as well as the males at all seasons of
the year, and of the preference given for culinary purposes to the female
lobster {Homarus marinus) when heavy with spawn. The increased value
of the animal makes it eagerly sought after by fishermen.
But there is not even this excuse for the capture of the female crah (Cancer
pagurus). The marketable value, as compared with the male, is at least one
fifth ; this arises from the smaller size of the animal as a whole, and of their
claws in particular. But they are captured in greater numbers, and are con-
sequently wantonly destroyed, being frequently hawked about the streets for
a very few pence apiece. It appears to me that there could scarcely be any
hardship inflicted, even temporarily, upon " shell-fishermen " if they were in-
terdicted from taking the female lobster during the spawning-season, that is,
from February until May, and that of the common crab at all.
I am aware that this suggestion is open to the remark that the lobster and
the crab are so prolific that the number of ova that each hatch in a season
is in the former several hundred thousand, and in the latter more than a
million at a time, and that these very large numbers would within a short
period soon stock all the bays of our coast. To this I would reply, that in
all those forms of life where the ova are most abundant, the development of
52 REPORT— 1872.
that species is least in proportional quantity. This is true of crustacean
life as well as that of other forms ; and I think it worthy of consideration,
particularly by those who, as a crucial test in the theory of evolution, demand
the exposition of a series of successional forms of life ; they should remember
that of the lobster, common as it is around our coasts and in our markets,
there is not a fisherman or observant naturalist who has yet seen that
stage in its life which unites the animal as we know it with that which we
have seen it when it quits the egg ; that is, no one has seen or knows any
thing about the animal between the time when it is half an inch and the time
when it is four inches in length. That which is true of the lobster, is like-
wise true of all .the higher forms of Crustacea, excepting only that of the
common littoral or shore-crab ( Carcimts mcenas).
The second circumstance that I wish to notice is one that has been eluci-
dated by obseiTation in the aquarium. I have several times observed that a
specimen of Pagurus, or soldier crab, will seize hold of the shell in which
another, generally smaller, specimen of the same species is dwelling. I
supposed that the larger animal was covetous of the shell in which the
smaller dwelt. I have seen them, as I thought, endeavour to take posses-
sion of such occupied shell, until their soft and tender body received such a
pinch from the previous possessor as compelled them hastily to retrace their
steps.
Mr. Alford Lloyd has written in my note-book the following sentence : —
" In the spring of the year, in the Hamburg Aquarium, I have seen the male
of this crab take hold of the shell in which a female is contained, and carry
her about for weeks together, grasping the thin edge of her shell (as of a
Buccinum) ; and when the female is led the male does not take awaj' the
food, as he would if a male were so fed in his vicinity."
I would here like to state that the preservation of Crustacea by keeping
them in glycerine for a few days, and then drying them, will be found to be
a very superior plan to that of spreading them out without any preparation.
I have specimens that have been treated two or three years with glycerine
that are as flexible as a fresh crab. It will be better of course that as much
of the soft parts should be removed as possible. I have also been trying,
and I think with success, to preserve fish in the same way. A specimen of the
Bogue (Spants hoops, L.), taken more than two months ago, is as fresh in colour
and as flexible as when captured, excepting the eye, which was in a partially
decomposed state when jjlaced in the glycerine. I think, when further experi-
ments have confirmed the fact, that with or without admixture with another
medium, glycerine may afford a very valuable addition to the preservative
agents of our museums.
Among the MoUusca we have to record the capture of many specimens of
Eledone . This has generally been supposed to be a rare species ou
our coast ; but we find that Octopus vulgaris, the supposed common species,
is the more difficult to obtain. Both these appear to live well and happily
in captivity ; so also does Sepia officinalis.
Mr. Rogers, who has charge of the pond at Plymouth, and is a most active
and zealous collector of marine animals, tells me that two specimens of this
last-named cuttlefish were placed in the pond on the 8th of June, 1871 .
They continued doing well until the 24th, when they were seen to be in
copuM, head to head, arms interlaced, and remaining stationarj-, resting on
the bottom for about twelve minutes, then separating. On the 26th the
male was killed by a dog, which seized it when in shallow water. These
creatures were rarely seen far apart, usually following each other in every
ON CATALOGUES OF SPECTRAL RAYS. 53
direction, swimming with equal ease either backward or forward ; they were
never seen to feed, but always appeared to be in search of food, after the manner
of the Wrasses, moving slowly round the sides of the pond and rocks, thrust-
ing their heads into holes and crevices : when disturbed, they darted through
the water with great swiftness.
The female died on the 6th of July, and on being opened was found to be
in very good condition, and to contain a large quantity of ova.
I have been taking steps to have within the cave behind the pond a case
with a glass front so constructed as to enable us to watch the habits of
animals with the greatest care. The water in this pond is several degrees
lower in temperature than that in the tanks of the Crystal-Palace Aquarium,
a circumstance that wUl enable us to study marine life under still more
natural conditions. I believe that students of marine life wiU find this pond
to be a valuable instrument for the carrying out of prolonged researches
in the examination of structure or the development of animals ; and they will
find in the keeper an ever willing and obliging assistant and cooperator.
I cannot close this Report without expressing great regret at the loss
of our old friend and fellow naturalist, Jonathan Couch, of Polpcrro. He
was a close observer and zealous lover of nature, and only wanted the advan-
tages of a less secluded life to have placed him among the foremost of our
naturalists. He died at a ripe old age, and, 1 am sorry to say, has left a
widow and three children in the greatest straits of poverty, to assist whom
would be a kind and generous testimony to a long and well-spent life.
Preliminary Report of the Committee appointed to construct and print
Catalogues of Spectral Rays arranged upon a scale of Wave-numbers* ,
— the Committee consisting of Dr. Huggins, Mr. Lockyer, Professor
Reynolds, Professor Swan, and Mr. Stoney (Reporter).
The reference of spectral lines to a standard scale of wave-numbers, instead
of to a scale of the wave-lengths in air of a given pressure and temperature,
or to any of the other scales in use, has very marked advantages. The scale
of wave-numbers furnishes to the theoretical inquirer the ratios between wave-
lengths, which are what he chiefly wants, in the simplest and most conspi-
cuous form, since a series of rays of which the wave-lengths are in geome-
trical proportion will be represented by equidistant lines upon the map. No
person who has not encountered the task can conceive how tedious it is to
carry on a theoretical investigation with any other scale. And to the observer
the scale of wave-numbers offers the advantages which have been well stated
by Professor C. A. Young in the following words : — " An accurate chart of
the solar spectrum on which the lines should be mapped according to ' inverse
wave-length,' proposed by Captain Herschel himself, I believe, as well as by
Mr. Stoney and others, would sufficiently resemble the spectrum seen in a
spectroscope to be equally convenient in the observatory with that of Kireh-
hoff, and would be free from the reproach of arbitrariness and irregularity
in its sciile. Such a chart would be most gladly welcomed by aUgSpectrosco-
pists, and would immediately supersede those of Kirchhoff and Angstrom."
(See a letter from Professor Young in ' Nature' of the 6th June, 1872.)
* The term wave-numbers appears preferable to the equivalent term " inverse wave-
lengths " which has been hitherto used.
54 REPORT — 1872.
Accordingly, your Committee decided on reducing to wave-numbers all the
wave-lengths, whether of solar lines or of the rays of incandescent vapours,
which have been determined with sufficient precision. Mr. Charles E. Burton
has offered his services gratuitously for making the necessary reductions, and
has made considerable progress with the solar spectrum, the greater part of
which is now nearly ready for the press.
A specimen of the catalogue of solar lines is appended to this Eeport,
containing the lines from E to b. It is intended that this catalogue shall
contain in a compact form all the most useful information that is ^ available,
viz. : — References to the position of each line on Eirchhoff's and Angstrom's
maps, details of the process by which the standard wave-numbers have been
deduced, and indications of the intensitj', width, and origin of each ray
wherever these have been determined*. The rays will, moreover, be
bracketed into the groups which strike the eye in looking at the spectrum,
and a number will be assigned to each group which wUl sufficiently indicate
its position on the standard scale.
Your Committee have as yet only incurred an expenditure of £4 for books,
maps, and preliminary printing. This leaves a balance of .£16 in their hands
out of the grant of £20 placed at their disposal last year.
It is estimated that the two catalogues which the Committee propose to
publish (the Catalogue of the Principal Lines of the Solar Spectrum, and the
Catalogue of Rays of Incandescent Vapours) wUl cost about =£60. This does
not include the cost of the charts, which ought to accompany the catalogues
in order to render them complete. The charts would increase the entire sum
to be expended, including the grant already made, to about £120 ; but a
portion of this sum would return to the Association in the form of the pro-
ceeds from the sale of the catalogues and charts.
Your Committee think that they could render the second catalogue more
perfect if they were in a position to employ a competent person to revise and
extend the determinations of the rays of incandescent vapours ; and they
therefore suggest that this revision be made a part of their functions, and
that an addition of £50 be made to the grant for this purpose. This woiild
increase the sum to be granted this year to £150.
The Committee accordingly recommend that they be reappointed, and that
this sum be placed at their disposal, in addition to the balance at present in
their hands.
Appendix.
Sjjecimen of a Catalogue of the Principal BarJc Hays of the visible imrt of the
Solar Spectrum, containing all the Rays registered by Kirchhoff and
o
Angstrom, arranged on a scale of Standard Wave-Numbers. (The Spe-
cimen contains the Rays from E to b).
Column 1 gives the position on the Arbitrary Scale attached to KirchhoflTs
maps.
Q Column 2 reproduces the wave-lengths in ^tenth metres as determined by
Angstrom, after applying to the numbers of Angstrom's list the small cor-
rections which he indicates at p. 29 of his memoir, " Le Spectre Normal du
Soleil." The wave-lengths of this list are wave-lengths in air of 760 millims.
pressure at Upsala, and 16° C. temperature.
Column 3 contains the reciprocals of the numbers of Column 2, each mul-
* Mr. Burton intends to revi.se the more refrangible part of the spectrum, and to supply
the intensities and widths of the lines of this portion, which was not included in KirchhoiTs
investigation.
ON CATALOGITES OF SPECTRAL RAYS.
55
tiplied by 10^. Each number iu this column is accordingly the number of
times that the corresponding wave-length in air goes into one millimetre.
Column 4 contains the correction for the dispersion of air of 760 millims.
pressure and 16° temperature, deduced from Ketteler's observations (see Phil.
Mag. for 1866, vol. xxxii. p. 336).
Column 5 contains the Standard Wave-numbers, i. e. the number of waves
per millimetre in vacuo.
Column 6 indicates the intensity and width of each ray as determined by
KirchhofF, 6 being the most intense, and g very wide, viz. about 0-15 of one
degree on the Scale of Standard "Wave-numbers.
Column 7 enumerates the substances which have been found to emit bright
rays coincide at with solar lines, and contains some other remarks.
Column 8. In the last column the rays are bracketed into the groups
which strike the eye in looking at the spectrum, and to each group is assigned
a number which sufficiently indicates its position upon the Standard Scale.
1
I'osition on
' Kirchhoff's^
Arbitrary
o
Angstrom's
wave-
lengths
Number of
waves per
millimetre
Correction
for the
dispersion
Standard
Wave-
NUMBERS.
Intensity
and
Width.
Origin &c.
Groups of
Eays.
Scale.
in air.
in air.
of the air.
151.5-5
527519
1895-67
0-53
189514
4d
Group 1898
16-5
5274-42
95-94
189541
4c
(Group K).
190
6272-67
96-57
1896 04
4d
Fe.
Very strong.
22-7
5269-59
97-68
1897-15
6e
E, Fe and Ca.
23-7
5268-67
98-01
1897-48
6c
EjFe.
250
5267-39
98-47
1897 94
1 b
Co.
27-7
28-7
6265-94
5264-68
99-00
99-45
1898-47
1898 92
5c
5c
_, r Between these
„^< two rays, a ray
^*[ of cobalt.
30-2
5263-51
99-87
1899-34
4c
Ca.
31-2
5262-60
1900-20
189967
4c
Fe.
32-5 \
33-1 /
5261-11
00-74
1900-21
r4b
.4b
Q^ double.
5259-78
01-22
190069
—
41-4 \
41 -9 J
6254-21
03-23
190270
Jlgl
1 3b/
Fe and Mn. A
winged ray.
Fe.
Group 1904-
Faint.
43-7
5252-60
03-82
190329
2a
45-5
5251 15
04-34
0-53
190381
2a
Fe.
47-2
5249-81
04-83
0-635
1904-30
3a
Fe.
47-7
6248-60
05-72
0-54
1904-73
2a
51 01
.51-6/
5246-43
06-06
190552
/2a\
l2a ■
Fe double.
556
5242-86
07-36
190682
2a
Fe.
i 57-3
5241-67
07-79
1907 25
3 a JFe.
! 61-0
52.3916
08-70
1908-16
1 a Fe.
64-2
5236-44
09-69
190915
1 a
66-5
52.34-52
10-39
1909 85
2 b iCo.
Group 1912.
67-5
52.33-72
10-69
191015
2b
Mn.
Strong.
69-6
5232-24
11-23
191069
5c
Fe.
73-5
5229-14
12-36
191182
5a
Fe.
75-4
5227-63
12-91
1912-37
lb
FeandTi. Accord-
77-2 1
77-6
5226-38
13-37
1912 83
f5o
13c
cording to Ang-
strom a triple ray,
•
[^ 1 very strong.
79-4 1
801
5224-42
1409
1913-55
{It S}^»-«-
56
REPORT 1872.
Position on
Kirehhoffs
Arbitrary
o
Angstrom's
wave-
lengths
Number of
waves per
millimetre
Correction
for the
dispersion
Standard
Wave-
numbers.
Intensity
and
Width.
Origin &c.
Groups of
Bays.
Scale.
in air.
in air.
of the air.
1588-3
5217-28
1916-71
1916-17
1 g Cu. Group 1917 1
89-1
5216-64
16-94
1916-40
3 b [Fa.
Faint. i
90-7
5215-64
17-31
191677
3 b jFe.
92-3
5214-50
17-73
1917-19
3 b [Fe.
98-9
5209-59
19-54
191900
2b
Ti. 'Group 1921]
1601-4 "1
01-7 J
5207-78
20-20
191966
r6b-i
I3d/
Fe and Cr. Winged (The Cbrol
ray. mium Group |
04-4
5205-37
21-09
1920 65
6b
Cr.
Strong.
06-4
5203-88
21-64
1921-10
5 b jFe and Cr.
09-2
5201-69
22-45
192191
6b
Fe.
11-3
5199-89
23-12
1922 58
1 c
Group 1924
13-9
5198-08
23-79
192325
3b
Fe.
15-6
5197-19
24-12
1923-58
2b
Faint.
16-61
17-4 /
5195-33
24-81
192427
ribi
t2b ■
jj^} double.
18-2^
18-9/
6194-24
25-21
1924 67
/3b^
l4b."
■p double.
21-5
1925-36
1 b
Ti.
Group 1926
22-3
5191-80
26-11
1925-67
6c
Fe.
Strong.
23-4
5190 68
26-33
1925-99
6b
Fe.
27-2
5188-33
27-40
192686
6b
Ca.
28-2
5187-49
27-71
192717
1 b
Ti.
31-5
6185-24
28-56
1928-01
1 b
Fe.
Group 1932
33-6 1
34-1 I
5183-10
29-35
1928-81
r4g]
6g .
bi- Mg. Winged
(The Great
Magnesium
34-7 J
Ugj
ray.
Group).
5182-75
29-48
1928-94
38-7
517966
30-63
193009
1 b
Fe.
5178-27
31-15
193061
—
42-1
6176-52
31-80
193126
1 b
43-0
5175-73
3209
193155
I b
Ni.
47-3
48-4
48-8 I
193263
193289
6 a
517216
33 43
r4e]
6f I
b;i- Mg. Winged
49-2 J
UeJ
ray.
50-3
5171-20
33-79
1933 25
6b
Fe.
53-71
540/
5168-48
34-80
1934 26
/6bl
4c/
hy Fe. Ni. Wing-
ed ray.
55-6 1
55-9/
5166-88
35-40
1934-86
/6e ]
I4d]
b4. Fe. Mg. Wing-
ed ray.
57-1
6165-88
35-78
193524
5b
Fe.
From
58-3 1
to 59-4/
5164-73
36-21
1935 67
{V}
Fe. Wing very
broad.
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 57
Third Report of the Committee ap^minted to consider and report on the
various Plans jjroposed for Legislating on the subject of Steam-Boiler
Explosions with a vieiv to their Prevention^ — the Committee con-
sisting of Sir William Fairbairn, Bart., C.E., F.R.S., &^c., John
Penn, C.£.,F./?.>S'., Frederick J. ]3ramwell, C.E., Hugh Mason,
Samuel Rigby, Thomas Schofield, Charles F. Beyer, C.E.,
Thomas Webster, Q.C, Edward Easton, C.E., and Lavington
E. Fletcher, C.E.
"SVuEN the Committee presented their last Heport oa the subject nf " Steam-
Boilcr Legislation" to the Meeting of the Eritish Association held at Edin-
burgh, it was fully expected that the measure, having for its object the pre-
vention of Steam-Boiler Explosions, which Avas tlieu before Parliament,
having been introduced by John Hick, Esq., Member for Bolton, as the
result of the inquiry bj' the Parliamentary Committee which sat upon this
subject during tlie Sessions of 1S70-71 — it was fully expected that this
measure would by this time not only have passed througli Parliament, but
also have been in active operation, so that some practical results might have
been arrived at. Such, however, has not proved to be the case. The Bill,
though read a first time in the House of Commons late in the Session of 1871,
and reintroduced this year as early as the 7th of March, has not yet passed
a second reading, having been postponed from time to time. It was thought
better to wait the maturity of Mr. Hick's Bill before assembling the Com-
mittee for consultation ; but this course, though considered advisable, has,
owing to the delay just referred to in the progress of the Bill, prevented the
Committee completing their report for presentation at this Meeting of the
British Association. Under these circumstances they request an extension of
time, and suggest their reappointment for another year, when they hope to
complete the task assigned them.
Report of the Committee, consisting of James Glaisher, F.R.S., of the
Royal Observatory , Greenwich, Uobert P. Greg, F.R.S., Alex-
ander S. IIerschel, F.R.A.S., and Charles Brooke, F.R.S.,
Secretary to the Meteorological Society, on Observations of Lumi-
nous Meteors, 1871-72; drawn up % Alexander S, Herschel,
F.R.A.S.
AMO^'■G the objects whose special promotion it was suggested in the last Report
that the Committee would undertake by combined observations during the past
year, the attention of observers at several stations in Scotland and England
well used to accurate and systematic registry of shooting-stars was, as in
former years, frequently not unsuccessfully directed, at the request of the Com-
mittee, towards recording the appearances of shooting-stars visible ou the
annually recurring meteoric dates in Augnst, October, November, December,
January, and April.
The August meteors were somewhat more brightly visible last year than
commonly, on the two successive nights of the 10th and 11th of August, and
the clearness and darkness of the sky enabled a more than ordinarily largo
number of meteors to be carefully observed. From a long list of meteor-paths
1872. 1-
58 REPORT — 1872.
recorded both at the Eoyal Observatory, Greenwich, and by the observers for
the British Association, the heights of twenty meteors of the shower visible
on the different nights of its reappearance were calculated, and several other
meteors were identified as having been doubly observed whose real paths have
not yet been computed. The position of the radiant-point of the shower * was
found to be, as recently pointed out by Mr. Hind in a letter in ' The Times ' of
August 8th, more northerly tban hitherto, at a point in R. A. 35°, N. Decl. 59°,
three or four degrees north-westwards from ^ Persei towards i Cassiopeios.
A few meteors of the October shower were visible on the 19th of October
last ; but the sky being overcast, with stormy weather, on other nights of the
shower, the time and rate of frequency of their fall at the maximum intensity
of the shower could not be ascertained; and from the few recorded meteor-
tracks only a roughly approximate position of its radiant-point was obtained.
The condition of the sky was generally little more favourable for observa-
tions in November and December than in October ; but on the morning of
the 13th of November a clear view of the Leonids was obtained both at
Stonyhurst College and at the Eoyal Observatory, Greenwich, while on another
following morning, that of the 15th of November, they were also well seen
by Professor Herschel at Newcastle-upon-Tyne ; and their abundance on the
latter date was considerably greater than that of the unconformable meteors
from all parts Avhich appeared at the same time with them. The distribution of
the November meteor-group along the ring which forms its orbit being at pre-
sent unknown, the watch for the return of the Leonids this year will be renewed
for the purpose of comparative observations of their greatest rate of frequency
in successive years. No accordant observations of single meteors appear to have
been recorded either during the October or November star-showers.
At most of the corresponding places a clear view of the December sliooting-
stars was obtained on the night of the 12th, while the sky was everywhere
completely overcast on the 13th. Meteors appeared at the rate of ten or
twelve per hour for one observer from the direction of Gemini ; and the posi-
tion of the radiant-point in this constellation could be pretty correctly ascer-
tained by the meteor-tracks recorded on the night when they were principally
observed. This appears, as in former years, to have been near 6 Geminorum,
On the night of the 2ud of January a favourable state of the sky permitted
a considerable display of the January meteors to be seen at several of the
corresponding stations, and to be simultaneously recorded at the Eoyal
Observatory, Greenwich. The star-shower continued with about equal
brightness until daybreak on the morning of the 3rd of January ; but a cloudy
sky on the night of the 3rd everywhere prevented the close or a continuation
of the shower from being seen. In this and the December meteor observations
several cxami:)les of doubly observed shooting-stars were found, of which, with
those of some other similar observations contained in these descriptions of the
meteor- showers of the past year, the heights wiU be immediately calculated.
The radiant-point of the January star-shower appears not to have altered its
place sensibly in the interval since its last principal appearance in England
on the 2nd of January, lS64t.
The last meteoric shower of the past year which was successfully watched
for by the observers was that of April 19th, 1872, when a few conspicuous
meteors, radiating from the direction of Lyra, were recorded at nearly all the
stations, and also at the Eoyal Observatory at Greenwich, and, under the direc-
* Which appears, from the few observations of the shower on the 9th and 10th inst.
(August 1S72), to have very nearly maintained the same position in the present year,
t See the Tolimie of these Eeports for 1864, p. 98.
OBSEKVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 59
tion of tlie Rev. E,. Main, by Mr. Lucas at the EadcliiFe Observatory at
Oxford. The watch at the latter place was contiuucd during the night of the
] 9-20th of April until the morning hours, and the Lyraids continued to be
more and more abundant until daybreak. The position of the radiant-point
was close to that found in the former observations of 1864*. The prevalence of
some other radiant-points of shooting-stars chiefly producing, it appears, bright
meteors during the months of March, April, and May was discernible ; and the
heights of two bright meteors from different radiant-points that appeared on
the night of the 19th of April will be approximately obtained from double and
triple observations of their apparent paths which were then recorded.
The heights of some large meteors seen on other nights of the year have
also been determined with some certainty from corresponding observations of
them at distant places, of which a short description is given, with that of the
principal observations from which they are derived. Large meteors have been
seen in more than ordinary numbers during the past year ; and the informa-
tion respecting several of these meteors which has been received by the Com-
mittee is included in a general list in continuation of some former notes of
meteors of the largest class. But two aerolites appear to have fallen during
the years 1871-72 ; the first at Searsmont, in the United States, on the 21st
of May, 1871, and the second in November, 1871, at Montereau, in France.
At the conclusion of the lleport the contribution of some recent valuable
additions to meteoric literature by the ItaHan astronomers and observers of
shooting-stars, Prof. Schiaparelli and Signer Denza, in combination with a
weU-known representative of meteoric science in Germany, Dr. G. von
Boguslawski, is briefly noticed and described ; and in the last place a long
list of radiant-points placed in comparison with each other in a single Table
by Mr. Greg at the close of this Eeport, forms a complete comparative index f
of the epochs and positions of all the meteoric showers included in the
general lists hitherto published for the northern hemisphere.
Great improvements of this Table wiU, it cannot be doubted, be made by
reducing the many meteor-tracks, of which, since the appearance of the last
printed meteor- catalogue in these Eeports, a large number of descriptions have
been received. To enable them to accomplish this undertaking, the continu-
ation of the Committee's operations, and of a grant to support them in execu-
ting charts and tracings, is earnestly recommended to the British Association.
The watchfulness of observers on every fine night when favourable opportu-
nities present themselves for recording the occasional appearances of shooting-
stars, in order to contribute fresh materials for the same purpose, is once more
appealed to, in addition to the nights of annual recurrence of meteor-showers,
of which, as before, due notice will be regularly communicated to them by the
Committee, and suitable means will be furnished to them to enable them to assist
these objects by their observations, to which their attention will again be in-
vited at the returns of the several meteoric epochs, as in former years.
I. Meteoks doublt obseeved.
Among the meteors observed during the simultaneous watch for the annual
meteor-shower of August, December, Januarj^, and April, in 1871 and 1872,
several accordant observations of individual meteors were found, enabling
their real heights to be satisfactorily ascertained. A list of such accordances
* See the volume of these Seports for 1SG4, p. 98,
t An'equally extensive list by Dr. J. F. Schmidt, of Athens (Astronomisehe Nachrichtf n,
No. 1756, 18G9), unknown to the Committee -wlicn the accomp.anying Tabic was com-
piled, is, for the present, omitted from its comparisons.
1-2
60
tlEPoaT — 1872,
on the nights of the 10th and 11th of .ingust, 1871, with the results ohtained
from them as computed by Professor Ilerschel, appears in the ' Quarterly
Journal of the Meteorological Society ' for November 1871, from which the
annexed figure is copied, showing the real heights of first apx^earance and of
Eeference imnibcrB.
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 U 15 16 17 13 19 20
Are-
rase.
120
100
80
60
a
W
40
20
--
--
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
--
—
—
--
--
--
--
--
._.
~
—
—
120
100
a
60 ^
40
«
20
Sea-leTel.
Eeal Heights of twenty Shooting-stars, doubly observed in England on the nights of ti.e
0th to 12th of August, 1871, above the surface of the earth.
disappearance of twenty shooting-stars of last year's August shower, together
witk their average real height. On comparing together the actual hori-
zontal distances from the observers at which their apparent points of dis-
appearance had been accurately recorded, it appears that a circle 160 miles
in diameter represented a field of view within which four fifths of all the
terminations of the meteors' visible paths were seen and recorded by the
observers, mnppiug their apparent courses at its centre ; and that, on the
average, three or four times as many accordances of observations are likely
to be obtained by observers at stations separated from each other by distances
of between fortj^ and eighty miles, as at places either nearer to or more distant
from each other than about these limits.
The average heights of the meteors thus observed above the earth's surface
was 8G miles at first appearance, and 52-5 miles at disappearance ; the average
length of path 46 miles, and the average velocity of nine PerseVds contained
in the list 51 miles per second. The difficulty of estimatiug exactly the small
duration of their rapid flights, and a tendency, by aligning their apparent
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. Gl
courses with the brightest ncighbouriug fixed stars, to overstate rather than
to underrate the apparent length of their visible flights, will perhaps account
for the excessive real velocity of the Perseids obtained in these results of the
simultaneous observations. The velocity of a single meteor of the shower,
as bright as Sirius (the first meteor shown in the diagram), unconformable
to Perseus, and directed from the radiant-point in Pegasus, was somewhat
more exactly obtained, both its apparent path and its duration being very
carefully observed by 'Mr. Wood at Eirmingham and Mr. Clark at York,
whose observations were in excellent agreement. The real length of the path
of this meteor was 38 miles, and its resulting real velocity was 19 miles
per second.
On comparing together the observations of the shooting- stars recorded at
Greenwich with those seen at the British-Associatiou stations during the
same August shower, several perfcctlj- accordant observations were found on
the night of the 11th; and but few satisfactory identifications of meteors
doubly observed on the night of the 10th of August, excepting that of the
brightest (at 10'' 51" p.m., as noticed in the following descriptions of the
shower), could be detected. The following list contains a general description
of the various shooting-stars which appear to have been doubly observed at
the Eojal Observatory, Greenwich (and by the observers at other stations), on
the night of the 11th of August, and on the other nights of simultaneous watch
kept for the reappearance of the annual meteor-showers which have been
visible during the past year.
A few double observations of shooting-stars are also contained in the accom-
panying list of bright meteors, and in the detailed accounts which will shortly
be given of the observations of the meteoric showers. The meteor No. 7,
whose real height is figured in the above diagram from observations at York,
at Hawkhurst, and in London, was also seen at the Eoyal Observatorj',
Greenwich, and its apparent path was there recorded at ll*" 14™ 59" r.Ji.
on the 11th of August. The redetermination of the real height of this
meteor by comparison of the new observation with the former ones, and the
computation of the several meteor-heights to be derived from the additional
observations contained, in this Eeport, will afibrd interesting materials for
future consideration.
The last meteor in the accompanying list, on the 19th of April last, wiU be
seen to have been triply observed at York, Wisbeach, and Hawkhurst. The
heights determined from the observations at the first two places are 66 miles
at first appearance, and 41 miles at disappearance. But if the observation at
Hawkhurst is correct, the meteor probably moved at an elevation of not more
than 50 or 55 miles at first appearance and 30 or 35 miles at disappearance.
From the former observations the length of its visible path was 90 miles ; but
in the latter case it woiild not exceed 70 miles ; and if the observations at York
and Hawkhurst only are employed, as affording the widest parallax, it would
be somewhat less. The duration of its flight was probably underestimated at
York at half a second, and overestimated at Wisbeach at 3 seconds. The ave-
rage duration is 1| second, giving the probable velocity of the meteor not more
than 40 miles per second ; while the actual velocity of the LyraVds, calculated
from the astronomical theory of the great April meteor-group, is 30 miles per
second. The recorded paths of this member of the shower diverged very ex-
actly from a common radiant-point between it and 6 Herculis, aboiit 20° from
the usually observed centre of divergence of the meteor-group in Lyra.
The estimated height of a bright meteor seen on the 31st of August last
was also obtained from accordant observations of its apparent path at Boss
62
REPORT 1873.
in Herefordshire and at Hawkhurst, as will shortly be noticed in its particular
description. The confirmations of the astronomical theory of large meteors
and shooting-stars, and the advance of our existing knowledge of the laws
that regulate their com'ses, characteristic rates of motion and appearance, and
i|
Sheoting-stars doubly observed during the Annual"
Date.
Hour.
1871.
Aug. 11
11
11
11
11
11
11
Place of
Observation.
Apparent
Magnitude,
as per Stars.
Colour.
Duration.
h m s i
10 6 iHawkhurst
3rd raag.
10 6 53 Royal Observa-
tory, Greenwich,
10 11
10 12 1
10 14 30
10 15 9
11 30
Hawkhurst
Royal Observa-
tory, Greenwich
York.
Royal Observa-
tory, Greenwich
Bolton, Cheshire
11 U 48 Royal Observa- 1st mag.
tory, Greenwich.
11
11
11
11
11
11 14 59
11 16
11 16
11 26
11 26 23
11; 11 34
11 11 35 15
1st mag.
1st mag.
2nd mag.
Very swift
Bluish white .
0-7 second
DInish white
From 1st mag. to' Red
size of 2|: .
Brighter than %..
Ibid
Regent's Park,
London.
Birmingham
Ibid,
Royal Observa-
tory, Greenwich
Hawkhurst
Royal Observa-
torv, Greenwich
Brighter tlian 1st-
mag. »
Bluish white
1*0 second
r5 second
1"3 second
Position.
From 345° -t-80°
to 246 +65
From the direction
of 6 Cassiopeiae
passed in direc-
tion of Cygni,
«= c =
From 265°+62°
to 247 +45
From direction ol
y Cygni shot a.
cross S Sagittse. j
From 326°+ 8°
to 314-5-12
Bluish white . 0-7 second
1st mag.
Bluish white
Blue.
Brighter than 1st- Green ....
mag. * I
Brighter tlian 1st-'
mag. *
1st mag Yellowish.
More than
second.
o
c;i^
ad
= n
1'5 second
I'O second
1 second ..
IJrighter tlian 1st- Bluish white
mag. *
I'o second
Passed about 3'
above b Lyncii
from the direi
tion of c Camfi
•lopardi.
a— 5i=
From 29^°+33«
to 28 +25
From direction o
6 Cassiopeias pas
sed across 5 Per
sei.
1 Across S Ursse Ma
joristol2Canun
Venaticorum.
From 180° + 76°
to 191 +51
From 8° +56°
to 240 +58
From350° + 77°
to 265 +71-J
From 6 Ursae Ma-
joris. Fell to-
wards horizon.
I'rora 350° + 76"
to 27 +60
From direction o(
K Andromeda
passed about 1"^
to tlie right of
!i Andromeda;.
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
63
the dates of their greatest frequency, may be greatly assisted by the accounts
of those ■who are favourably situated to observe them, even without the special
accuracy which should yet always be aimed at in descriptions of these hitherto
but partially investigated phenomena.
Meteoric Showers recorded in the years 1871 and 1872.
Length of
Path.
Direction.
Appearance ; Remarks.
Left a slender streak
Left a streak
Left a streak
No streak ...
Miss IlerscheL
T. Wright.
Train not bright, but lasted S-J J. E. Clark,
seconds. [Identical with me-
teors .it Hawkhurst, 10" U"',
and London (Regent's Park),
10'' 15'".]
Left a fine streak, which remained T. "Wright & Wm. Mar.
visible for 3 seconds. riott.
N'o particulars of appearance re- R. P. Gre.o;.
corded.
Observer.
Miss Herschel.
Wm. Marriott.
lladiant-poiut e Ca;siopcia; ...
'ell towards the left at an in-
clination of 45°.
[From direction of Cygnns] ...
[From direction of Cygnus] ...
Left a streak
.eft a fine streak
Path imperfectly seen
Left a long train on its conisc.
(From (1) Ccphei to Dracnnis.)
(From y Cephei to ;|/Draconis)...
Left a fine streak
Wm. Marriott.
W. C. Nash.
T. Crumplen.
W. II. Wood.
Id.
Wm, Marriott.
Left a broad fine streak. (From Miss F. Herschel,
y Cephei to just below e Cassi-
opeia:.)
Left a magnificent streak. Wai. Mr.rriott.
64
REPORT 1872.
Date.
1871.
Aug.ll
11
Hour.
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
Dec. 12
12
h m s
11 43 30
11 4G 55
11 50 30
11 51 10
11 54 35
11 5!)
12 3
12 4 4
12 29
12 29 25
10 13
1872.
Jan. 2
10 17
(time by
watch,
uncertain)
11 4 30
Place of
Observation.
Apparent
Magnitude,
as i>cr Stars.
Colour.
Ilawkhurst
Royal Observa-
Briglitcr tlian 1/. .
Brijrbter than 1st- Greenish
tory, Greenwich, mag. if
Plawkhurst
= 3rJ mapr.
Royal Observa- = 1st mag
tory, Greenwich.!
Duration.
Position.
Slow speed
1'3 second
Bluish white .1 second
Ibid '2nd raa?;..
Birmingham
Ibid.
Royal Observa-
tory, Greenwich,
Ilawkhurst 1st ma?.
3rd mag.
Bluish white . 0-7 second
3rd mag 0-3 second
2nd mag.
Bluish white .
O'S second
Royal Observa- 1st mag.
tory, Greenwich.
Tooting (near
London).
Faint
Ilawkhurst 2nd mag,
2 11 4 30
11 5 30
Royal Observa-
tory, Greenwich.
Eaton Square,
London.
Tooting, near
London.
Bluish white
Slow.
1'2 second
Asbrigbt as Jupiter: Bluish white .1 second
Brighter than 1st-
mas. *
Large
White
White
1-5 second
«= S =
From 23° + 60°
to 8 +62
From direction of
Persei pass-
ed between //
and j3 Andro-
meda; to c An-
dromedae.
a= S =
From340°+30°
to 355 +42
iFrom a Pegasi in
direction of y
Pegasi.
From « Draconis
passed across 9
Bocitis.
a= 3 =
From 332° +57°
to 310 +36
From 286° + 20°
to 278 4- 6
Passed between j8
and y llercuhs
from the direc-
tion of K Hercu-
lis.
From 323° + 51°
to 288 +20
From 6 Cygni to y
Aquila:.
From 80° + 9-5°
to 74 +4-5
From 75° +28°
to 60 +23
From a point be
tween a. and ^
Ursae Majori
passed in the di
rection of 9 Au
riga;.
Disappeared at ^
{n, It) Lyncis.
Course from y
UrsjeMajoris, be-
ginning 6° short
of that star.
a= S =
From 160°+55°
to 135 +44
I
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
65
Length of
Path.
Direction.
[From Pegasus]
[Radiant in Pegasus]
Appearance; Remarks.
Observer.
Brilliant nucleus and broad trainJMiss F. Ilerschel.
(From the left of S Cassiopei;c
to beyond y Cassiopeia).)
Left a splendid train
Wm. Marriott.
Left no streak. (From jj Pegasi Miss F. Herschel.
to below I, K Andromedse.)
Left a streak
Left a streak
(From head stars of Cepheus to k
Andromeda;.)
From ^ (/3 Cygni, e Aquilfe) to e
Aquila;, and 10° beyond that
star.
Left a stieak
Left a streak for ^ second.
(Along the axis of Cygnus
and just south of it, as
mapped.)
Left a very fine streak
Position probably correct within
^° each way.
Left no streak. (From ^ (j3, »;)
Tauri shot (o a little below
the Pleiades, disappearing
some degrees before reaching
them.)
Left a streak
Left no streak.
Left a streak. Position, as
mapped, fairly well observed
(From a little south of j8 to a
little south of k Ursaj Majoris).
Wm. Marriott.
W. C. Nash.
W. H. Wood.
Id.
W. C. Nash.
Miss Herschel.
W. C. Nash.
II. W. Jackson.
Miss J. Herschel.
Wra. Marriott.
A. S. Herschel.
H. W. Jackson.
66
EEPORT 1873.
Date.
1872.
Jan. 2
Hour.
Place of
Observation.
Apparent
Magnitude,
as per Stars.
h m s
11 29
Hawkhurst
11 31 Eaton Sciuarc,
London.
11 33
11 33
Ibid,
Hawkhurst
3rd maa;.
=: Castor ,
11 54 Ibid
11 54 30
Eaton Square,
London.
Apr. 19 11 26 Wisbeach, Cam-
bridgeshire.
19 11 27 30
19, 11 28
Ha\Ykhurst
York.
= Sirius
Brigbter than 1st-
ma.a;. *
1st ma?.
= Sirius
1st mag.
1st mag.
:Siriiis
Colour.
Duration.
Position.
White ;2 seconds
From about y Cas-
siopeise towards
a, /3 Arietis.
From J (a, (3) Au-
riga; to \ Tauri.
Wliitc 1-4 second ... From 130°+6-5°
to 114 -6
White, then 2 seconds,
oranjre.
From 115° +29°
to 91 + 4
From B Camelo-i
pardi past a Per-
sei, and past the
Pleiades.
«= S^
From 9G°+44°
to 80 +10
Vellow 3 seconds «= S-
From 232° + 73"=
to 107 +63
White
0'5 second
.From 450+50°
j to 50 +50
'From228-5°+29'
I to 203 +12
II. Laege Meteoks.
In addition to the occurrences of this kind of whose appearance accounts
were received by tlic Committee since their last E-eport, the following list
describes some conspicuous meteors of which no particulars were contained
in previous Eeports : —
1. 1851, July 30, S'^ lO'^' p.m. (local time).— Two days after the total
eclipse of the sun in the north of Europe in that year, a large fireball was
seen in Denmark and on the coasts of the Baltic, in bright evening light ;
and it was described in many of the contemporary local newspapers. The
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEOllS.
67
Length of
Path.
18°
About 25°
Direction.
Appearance ; Remarks.
Brilliant ; left a slight streak.
Brightest in the last half of its
course.
Observer.
Miss II. R. Herschcl.
A. S. Ilerschel.
Left no streak. (From middle Id.
of Hydra's head to 3° above
n Monocerotis.)
Left no streak. (Commenced Miss F. Ilerschel.
near j3 Geminorum. Course
three fourths of the way to a
point 2° or 3° under Orion's
belt.)
Turned sharply in its course at Brightest in first half of its
40°
22°
Brilliant, and pear-shaped at last ;
left a long streak.
a point 1° E. of Z Tauri, with
a very slight deflection
Miss J. Ilerschel and
Miss M. R. Herschel.
A. S. Herschel.
Lvraid .
Lyra'id .
Lyraid .
S. II. Miller.
course, then fainter and red
der to disappearance. Left a
streak on its whole course for
half a second.
Left a streak on its course for
5 seconds. Ajipearance of the
meteor at the third second of
its flight (there appeared to
be a sort of vibratory motion
in the train).
Parallel to and just above y, « Miss M. II. Herschel.
Persei nearly from e Cassio-
peia;.
Motion noticeably rapid.
J. E. Clark.
following distinct account, and accurate drawing of the phenomenon, from
the 'Transactions of the Eoyal Danish Academy of Sciences,' for 1869, show-
it to have heen cue of large size, perhaps aerolitic ; and may afiford a useful
comparison with the descriptions of other equally remarkable meteors which
wiU, perhaps, be known to have occurred on the same date of the year.
Observation of the meteor: — Soon after sunset, in an almost cloudless blue
sky, the first of four smoke-like triangles (at the point a in the figure) was
observed to be formed, and the other cloud triangles were developed in
in about five seconds. In the place of the fifth, and in a con-
succession.
tinuatiou of the same line, an irregular column of smoke began to extend
68
REPOKT — 1873.
itself, with much apjiareiit commotion in the direction of the meteor's flight.
In the first quarter of its length no light appeared in it; but in the second
Alt. 30
ji paces
■^— V
1 15 paces
V Ground tine of mid\i bf houses- ^ ^ is ptTCe:x
■f 'opt pa th
High ran A *-
NEfalSW
Commony or jrorreJieCd
Observer's JPlace
c
Apparent course and appearance of a largo Meteor seen at Copenhagen 1851, July 30,
evening, by P. J. Winstnip.
and third it seemed to be mixed ^Yilh flame of rapidlj' increasing brightness ;
and in the last third part of this portion of the meteor's flight, its nucleus
■was plainly yisible, of intense ■whiteness and brilliancy at the centre, and
surrounded ■with duller red light to-«-ards the border, ■which -was of the same
•v\adth as the smoke-^wreath. It became extinguished at h, and from this
point to c three more small cloud triangles, like those first formed, ■VN'ere
added in quick succession to its length. The earlier portions of the smoke-
•wreath had by this time entirely disappeared, the meteor taking not more
than three or four seconds to produce the cloud column, which was also the
time taken by this part of the smoke-wreath and by each of the cloud
triangles to disappear ; so that the whole diu'ation of visibility of the pheno-
menon was about fifteen seconds. Immediately after its disappearance, the
blue sky at that place remained as clear and as bright as it had been before
the meteor's passage. The cloud-substance of the triangles first formed was
bluish white, like the smoke of gunpowder, while that in the upper part of
the smoke-column became quite dark as it disappeared. By marking the
first and last points of the meteor's course (a, c) with reference to the
houses of a neighbouring street, and pacing their distance from his point of
view, the apparent path of the meteor, as it was thus observed by JSIr.
"Winstrup, appears to have been ascertained as follows : — •
Point of commencement, a, altitude 7°, 52° east from south.
Point of disappearance, c, altitude 30°, 19° east from south.
Apparent length of the meteor's course, a c, about 42°.
Inclination of its apparent course to the horizon, about 38°.
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. G9
2. In the ' Standard' of September 15, 18G9, Mr. F. P. Bullock describes
a remarkably bright meteor, which he saw at Cheltenham, at 10'' 8™ p.m., on
the 12th of that month, passing rapidly, and with an extraordinary long
course, over a complete quarter of the sky.
3. The following observations of rather bright meteors were communi-
cated, with some of lesser magnitude noted during previous years, by Mr.
J. E. Clark :—
1869, September 20, 6^ 46"" p.m. — A meteor about }r of the apparent size
of the moon was seen by Mr. A. K. Brown, Mr. S. P. Thomson, and by other
observers, at Dcnbydale, near Huddersfield, of pale yellow light, apparently
not much stronger than that of Saturn, and changing to red. It fell about
15° in 2| seconds, nearly vertically, to a point about 15° above the east
horizon, followed by a streak or tail of sparks, which became redder, like the
nucleus, towards the end of its coui'se.
1869, December 21, &" 15"' p.m.— Near Leominster, Mr, J. E. Southall
observed a meteor of j-ellow colour, and of about the greatest brilliancy of
the planet Yenus, descending vertically 12^^° in half a second from a point in
B. A. 97°, S. Decl. 7°, to 11. A. 80°, S. Decl. 18°. The meteor was visible
through light clouds, which obscured the view of any streak or sparks which
may have accompanied it in its course.
4. At a meeting of the Natural History and Philosophical Society of
Derry, in Ireland, on March 4, 1870, Mr. William Harte described some
observations of a remarkable meteor which passed over Donegal on the night
of the 27th of December 1809.
5. 1870, July 25, evening. — Soon after dark, a brilliant meteor was
observed in Kent and at other places near the English Channel. At Dover
it was seen to rise almost perpendicularly from the sea horizon in the east,
increasing in splendour until it disappeared overhead. The fii'st effect of its
very striking and unusual upward course was to produce an irresistible
impression that it was a signal rocket or other artificial light fired from some
distant vessel on the sea. Some current descriptions of this fireball, which
appeared in the daily journals at the time, have unfortunately escaped the
notice of the Committee.
0. On the 16th of October, 1870, descriptions of two bright meteors
received by the Committee appear to indicate some close connexion from
their resemblance, although, from their recorded positions and from a slight
interval between their times of appearance, they appear to be distinct. The
first, which appeared to Mr. J. E. Clark and Mr. S. Giles, at York, at
8'' 25™ P.M., of red colour, increasing from the apparent brightness of a
foiirth-magnitiide star to that of Venus, described a short course of 8° or 9°
in three or four seconds, from a point in B. A. 22°, 'N. Decl. 20°, to B. A. 34°,
N. Decl. 16°, leaving a few sparks, but no visible streak upon its course.
At 8*" 28'" P.M., on the same evening, a meteor bi'igbter than a first-magni-
tude star, and in every other respect of perfectly similar description with
that observed at York, was seen by Mr. William Marriott, at Greenwich,
describing, in the same time, an apparent course of the same length, in the
northern sky, from the star 4" towards the star a in Draco. The meteor seen
at York appeared in the south-east, at such a considerable distance from the
direction indicated by the Greenwich observations as to admit of no possible
consideration of their identity by the supposition of ordinary errors of obser-
vation. But the remarkable resemblance of their descriptions and their
nearly simultaneous appearance, if not attributable to the earth's passage at
the time through a common meteor-system, is yet a very similar occurrence
70 REPORT— 1872.
to the pairs and groups of meteors which are sometimes observed to appear
in very brief succession in ordinary star-showers. The radiant-point of the
pair, if these meteors might be so regarded, is between the constellations
Cygnns and Vulpccula. But from their close vicinity, respectively, to the
radiants E3 and J3G-„, in Musca, and in the neighbourhood of Draco, which
first present themselves about the middle of October, it appears more probable
that their remarkably foreshortened courses may be clearly individualized as
distinct, and that they were evidently members, respectively, of those well-
marked, and widely separated showers. A similar instance of coincidence,
but apparently without real connexion, will shortly be noticed in a future
page.
7. Another bright meteor, from one of the latter radiant-points, II3, was
recorded by Mr. Wood, at Birmingham, at 10'* 7" p.m. on the 1st of Novem-
ber 1870; brighter than Sirius, white, and moving for two seconds in a
short course close to the apparent place of the last meteor seen at York,
from E. A. 27°, N. Decl. 21°, to y Arictis. At 10" 27'" a second-magnitude
meteor, with a vcrj' short coi;rse, passed, leaving a streak across the Pleiades,
proceeding from the same radiant-point, from which a few other meteors,
noticed by Mr. Wood on that night, were also directed. In a note to th'e
latter appearance, he observes that " a writer in the * Times,' of about that
date, describes an ' Astronomical Phenomenon,' which was ' a sudden light-
ing of the Pleiades of momentary duration,' and which took place twice on
the same night. I observed the same effect produced by this meteor ; and it
is evidently owing to the proximity of the radiant E^ to the Pleiades,
causing the meteors to be seen foreshortened when they happen to present
themselves in the position named."
Large Meteors ohserved since the presentation of tlie last Report.
1871, August 13, 8" SO"- r.ii.— In a letter to Mr. Glaisher, Mr. W. J.
Miller communicates the following observation of a fireball seen by him in
August last at Glasgow : — " On the 13th inst., about 8** 30™ p.m., I observed,
about due north from the western part of this city, a meteor making a nearly
vertical descent ; it tended sHghtly westwards. The elevation might be about
25° or 30° ; and the twilight was still strong. The effect on the eye was
more of a flash of lightning, or the sudden appearance of the new moon, than
any thing I can compare it to. The sky being clear, there could be no
lightning of this description."
1871, August 21, about 9'' p.m. — The following description of a large
meteor seen at Knocklong, Limerick, was communicated to the Committee by
Mr. W. F. Denning in a letter from the observer, Mr. Jeremiah Henly, who
writes : — " The meteor was visible a few minutes after 9 o'clock. It seemed
to issue from about Polaris, and travelled across the heavens for a space of
at least 7° or 8° [? 70° or 80°] in the direction of the constellation Hercules.
As it passed through the atmosphere, it seemed to leave a brilliant track of
fire across the heavens, which continued visible for about ten seconds."
1871, August 31, about 9'' 45"' p.m. — A meteor of very remarkable ap-
pearance was simultaneously observed at Hawkhurst (Kent) aiid at Eoss
(Herefordshire) under very favourable circumstances for determining its real
height. The attention of a lady. Miss Strong, who observed the meteor near
Eoss, being directed, when it appeared, to the unclouded appearance of the full
moon, which had then risen some 15° above the E.S.E. horizon ; of a suddeu
the meteor came into view, with leisurely speed and with surprising lumi-
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 71
nosity, issuing, apparently, from close behind and from the centre of the moon's
side. From this point of first appearance it glided
slowly eastward, leaving on its track a train of Meteor. Thej^on.
gold-coloured sparks as broad and bright and
compact, apparently, as the nucleus which it pur-
sued. After advancing for a considerable space
the nucleus disappeared instantaneously, as if it
were suddenly extinguished ; and the sweeping portion of the train nearest
to the moon broke into separate sparks, while the train, along its whole
length, lay scattered along the sky like sparkling dust, which quickly faded
away. In the absence of any neighbouring stars, which were then only
beginning to glimmer faintly in the evening light, no more exact description
of its apparent course, after leaving the moon's side, could be successfully
attempted.
A complete view of the meteor from its point of commencement, in a
cloudless sky, was also obtained by Professor Herschel at Hawkhurst, in
Kent, where it passed across the sky, at a considerable elevation, and with a
long and brilliant course, at about 9'' 44"" p.m. In the first portion of its
flight, which commenced close to the stars q, r Yulpeculaj, it increased from
the brightness of a first-magnitude star to that of Sirius ; and thence, while
passing near the star i^ Cygni, it was accompanied on its course as far as the
star ju Pegasi by a uniform and compact train of yellow sparks, of nearly the
same brightness, and of twice the apparent diameter of the nucleus. The
brightness of the meteor, in this part of its course, was but little less, and it
at length exceeded that of the planet Venus at its greatest brilliancy, while
its head was of the same yellow colour as the wide track of light which
formed its train. At the latter point the bright nucleus disappeared, and
Cyqnas
VwTjte.
Cwla-
the luminoiis train of sparks ceased, while a small spark, about as bright as
a fourth-magnitude star, with intermittent light, could be traced pursuing its
course about 8° or 9° further, to a point about 2° below the star v Pegasi,
where it finally disappeared. The meteor moved over its whole apparent
course of 40° in six seconds ; and the bright belt of light, about 6' in
apparent width and 20° in length, which remained on its track, was visible
for three or four seconds afterwards, resolving itself into small sparks, which
appeared to move forwards along the streak in the direction in which the
meteor had advanced. The perfect continuity of the long train of sparks, its
little inferior brightness, similar golden-yellow colour, and general resem-
blance to the head, which it enclosed so completely on both sides as to
exceed it considerably in width, and the steady forward motion of the meteor,
caused it to strikingly resemble the sudden and horizontal discharge of a
distant rocket. Such features of special interest in its appearance will, it may
be hoped, from its brightness, and from the clearness of the sky on that even-
ing, have attracted the attention of observers at other places, besides the two
widely distant points of observation here recorded, at which its appearance
72 REPORT— 1872.
and the position of its apparent path in the heavens were noted under the
most favourable conditions.
The point of commencement of the meteor's course is found with consider-
able certainty, from the two foregoing observations, to have been situated at
a height of 44 miles above the sea, over a point in Pevensey Bay, about 6
miles from the Sussex coast. The real course of the meteor from this point
was, nearly, from due Avest to due east, with a very slight inclination to the
horizon ; or that direction of its real flight is most nearly accordant with the
observations. The point of disapi^earanee of the small spark which advanced
furthest along its flight was, hence, at a little lower elevation, of about 40
miles above the sea, close to the French coast, near Boulogne. Assuming
that the moon's apparent place at Ross was exactly upon the apparent course
of the meteor, which appears to be really signified b}'^ the remarkable obser-
vation that, as seen from that locality, the meteor appeared to issue from
close behind the moon, the agreement of this point with that of the meteor's
first appearance, as observed at Hawkhurst, in a gi-aphical point of view, is so
accurate and precise, that the real position of this point of the meteor's
course, as above determined, may be satisfactorily assumed, without any
material corrections, as being substantially correct. On the other hand,
admitting that, for the purpose of calculation, the description of the remaining
portion of the meteor's apparent course, as observed at Ross, is obviously
incomplete, the narrow limits between which (conformably to the rough notes
and sketches of its appearance there, and to the remaining portion of its
apparent track as mapped at Hawkhurst) the meteor can be supposed to have
moved, allows a very important conclusion to be drawn from a complete
examination of the remaining materials which were recorded concerning its
appai'ent course. If not exactly in the true west point of the horizon, the
apparent radiant-point from which the meteor was directed can yet not have
been far removed (not exceeding about 20°) southwards from this point, nor
at any great elevation (not exceeding about 30°) above the western horizon,
and it proceeded appai'cntly from the radiant Q^, near j3 Herculis, chiefly con-
spicuous in August ; so that the direction of its real course relatively to
the earth did not differ greatly (not more than 45) from that of the earth's
real motion in its orbit at the time when the meteor appeared, which was
nearly from the S.W. point of the horizon. The greatest length which can
be assigned to the meteor's real path is rather less than 42 miles, derived
from the supposition, as above assumed, that the meteor's real course was
almost horizontal and almost exactly directed from the west. But if the
meteor's real path was more inclined than this, it must also have been
shorter (and with the above extreme inclination, which it might be possible
to assign to it from the observations, its length would not exceed 33 miles*).
As the whole duration of the meteor's flight, observed at Hawkhurst, was
six seconds well counted while the meteor was in sight, the real velocity of
its motion cannot have much exceeded seven miles per second ; and under
certain possible assumptions of its apparent course at Ross, it may even have
been less than this, or the meteor may have travelled with a real speed of
only 5| miles per second. While the average real velocity of shooting-stars
* By supposing the meteor, as seen at Eoss, after issuing from near the moon's jilace,
to have descended obliquely at an angle of 45° with the horizon, towards the left. The
drawings represent the meteor as slightly ascending, rather than descending ; and it is
described as advancing a considerable space, and producing a luminous train of some
length, after leaving the moon's side. This representation of the meteor's appnreiit
course at Eoss, when compared with the Ilawldiurst observation, agrees exactly with a
perfectly horizontal real course, directed from about 4^ south from west.
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 73
relatively to the earth is fully 30 miles per second, it follows that in this
case, where the meteor was evidently overtaking the earth, moving nearly in
the same direction with it, its real velocity in space must have exceeded that
of the earth's motion in its orbit by not much more than 7 miles per second.
The excess of the velocity of a meteor overtaking the earth directly in a para-
bolic orbit, above that of the earth's mean motion in its own nearly circular
orbit, is found by Dr. Weiss to be about 9| miles per second*.
The following letter in ' Nature,' May 16, 1872, from Mr. G. C. Thomson,
at Cardiff, affords another instance of bright meteors noted during the past
year, the real course of which appears to have not differed greatly in their
direction from that of the earth's motion in its orbit, at the time of their
appearance: — "I observed a meteor at about half-past eleven on the night
of the 8th inst., in the constellation Scorpio, which passed very close to the
star Antares, travelling from right to left. It appears to me worth remark-
ing, from the fact of its course lying very near and roughly parallel to that
part of the ecliptic which corresponded to the earth's position in her orbit.
It traversed some 8° or 10° of arc, and was visible for three or four seconds,
gradually increasing in brightness until it was nearly on a par with Antares,
which star it also resembled in colour. Its slow apparent motion imme-
diately suggested the idea that it was moving in the same plane and direction
as the earth, in fact that it was overtaking us in an orbit just outside our
own. The course of another meteor seen about half an hour earlier from a
westerly window, and described to me as not inferior to Jupiter in brightness,
appears also to have lain in the direction of the ecliptic, but from left to
right, in the neighbourhood of the constellations Gemini, Cancer, or Leo.
It is rash to generalize from insufficient data ; but I conceive these meteors
may both have belonged to a system whose orbit lies nearly in the j^lane of
the earth's orbit, the apparent retrograde motion of the last named being
caused by the direction of its path crossing our orbit at a point behind the
earth's then place, instead of in advance of it." The two meteors here noticed
appear to have belonged to the meteor-system denoted by the radiant-point
Y, presenting itself during the first half of May, near the centre of the con-
stellation Leo, and scarcely more than 20° distant from the point in the
ecliptic from which the earth's motion is directed during the early portion of
that month. The apparent motion of the two meteors in opposite directions
(in the former case moving eastwards towards Scorpius, and in the latter
case westwards towards the constellations Gemini and Cancer) is most
readily explained by the effect of perspective upon their, probably, not far
from really parallel courses, joined with the circumstance that in their
appearance above the observer's horizon, at Cardiff, the meteors successively
presented themselves upon opposite sides of their common radiant-point.
In relation to the probable positions of their apparent radiant-centres, both
* As a convenient means of exactly estimating the vei-y short intervals of time occupied
by meteors in their flight, it may be suggested to observers to repeat the English alpha-
bet (or as many letters of it as are required, rapidly and distinctly) immediately after the
meteor's appearance. With ordinary fluency of pronunciation one alphabet occupies
about four seconds, and fifteen alphabets can usually be repeated in one minute, the time
occupied by a single syllable, or by one letter of the alphabet, wlien thus repeated, being
about one-sixth part of a second. By beginning the repetition during or immediately after
the meteor's passage, and continuing it during an equal period of time to that in which it
appeared to move, a pretty exact estimate of the interval may thus be obtained from
memory. In ordinary oases (where the time of the meteor's passage does not allow more
than five or six letters of the alphabet to be repeated) the observation may be repeated
once or twice, and by counting the number of letters, in each case, a more exact average
determination, amounting generally to a very close approximation, may be obtained.
1872. ' ' G
74 REPORT — 1872,
the bright or reddish colour and the apparent speed of motion of meteors in
their flight present a very important and interesting subject of study and
of further observation.
1871, September 2, about 8'' 15*" p.m. — On this and the following dates
some bright meteors, proceeding apparently from different radiant-points
from that in Hercules of the meteor last described, were noticed, and the
following was recorded by Mr. J. M. Wilson*, as it appeared to him on the
above evening, in the fading twilight, and Avith a slightly clouded sky, and
to other persons at Croakbourne, in the Isle of Man. The meteor appeared
in the west, and presented a visible disk of about the apparent size of an
eighth of the moon's surface. As it increased in size, the nucleus broke into
three following and connected portions, the foremost and brightest of which
was white ; and a luminous streak remained for about one second upon the
meteor's course. It moved for two or three seconds, with a slow and uniform
motion, over a space of about 45°, descending nearly vertically in the west,
from between the stars y, tt Herculis, crossing Corona to a little below
^ Bootis, where it finally disappeared, about 15° above the horizon.
1871, September 4, 9'' 30" p.m. — At Brancepeth, near Durham, Mr.
Joseph Lawson communicated the following description of a very brilliant
meteor which he observed at the above hour ; his shadow cast before him as
strongly as during bright full moonlight, causing him to turn in time to sec
the meteor in its descent. It was first seen passing Polaris and descending
towards Ursa Major (see the accompanying sketch) ; intensely white, like the
1
Folaris « /
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
Ma for ' 11 ! '
•^ . ," •
Point of the meteor's
explosion and subsequent appearance.
Meteor seen at Brancepeth, Durham, 9h 30m p.m., September 4, 1871.
magnesium light, and bursting into seven fragments as it approached that
constellation. The two larger fragments appeared each to be not less than
the head of the meteor before its disruption, and all were white, fringed
with blue, and died out as sparks falling towards the earth, but apparently
not reaching the horizon. The meteor burst with a momentary increase of
light, and the fragments remained visible for about three seconds. No
sound of an explosion was hcpid after the meteor's disajipearance.
The following account of some bright meteors visible on the same evening
* ' Nature,' September 14, 1R71.
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 75
at Bristol wns received from Mr. William F. Denning : — " On September 4
I noticed several shooting- stars that were quite conspicuous. At 9^ 40™ one
passed slowly down from the N.E. to the north horizon. It was of globular
form, and seemed to leave sparks in its flight. No train of light marked its
path. This was the most brilliant one that I saw, and was equal, I imngine,
to a star of the first magnitude." On the 10th of September, 1871, at
V 4™ P.M., a very brilliant meteor was also seen, while the daylight was yet
too strong for any stars to be visible, by Mr. S. J. Johnson, at Upton Helions,
near Crediton, in Devonshire, and by several other persons in that vicinity.
It described, in about five seconds, a course of 15°, from an altitude of
about 25° to an altitude of about 10° above the south horizon.
A large meteor is stated, in the ' Madras Times,' to have been observed at
Trevandrum, in India, on the night of the 21st of October, 1871, which
crossed the sky from the north, with rapid speed, in about four seconds,
moving at an altitude of 35° or 40°*.
Some accounts of other bright meteors, noticed towards the end of last year,
will be found described in the accompanying general list of such observations.
1872, Feb. 7, about 9^ 40" p.m. — A second meteor of great brilliancy was
seen by Mr. Joseph Lawson, near Brancepeth, Durham, on this evening, of
which he communicated the following description : —
The meteor first appeared above and to the right of y Cassiopeiaj, whence
it described in about two seconds a downward course of about 30° towards
the west, directed nearly from Polaris. It appeared small at first, but in-
creased steadily until the apparent width of the head was about 30' of arc,
its uniform expansion strongly conveying the impression of a gradual approach
Vrsa-
or
CassioveitL
Majt
opeitt n J
J loLafis
£•
" '' ^'' '
\
Position of a meteor's path among the stars, and its apparent perspective approach
towards the observer, near Brancepeth, Durham.— Feb. 7th, 1872.
towards the observer's place. As it advanced the head became pear-shaped,
intensely white, with a border of purple light, and it finally burst into several
fragments, which appeared as very white sparks, advancing further upon the
meteor's course, and speedily becoming red. The fragments disappeared from
view behind the smoke of a neighbouring colliery, the noise of whose engines,
close at hand, prevented the sound of a report, if any followed the meteor's
explosion, from being heard.
1872, March 4, 7'' 45™ p.m. — A bright meteor seen at many places in
» ' Nature,' December 28, 1871. *%
o2
76 REPORT — 1872.
England was thus described by Mr. T. Perkins, who observed it at Durham.
The Durham Cathedral clock had just finished chiming the hour of a quarter
to eight when the meteor appeared. The apparent size of the nucleus was
much larger and its light was much brighter than that of the planet Yenus,
und it appeared of a brilliant greenish-blue colour. It described a course of
Helades
Aide- •,
baran " . _
about 20°, with slow motion downwards, in about 2h seconds, and vanished
suddenly (if it was not hidden by the branches of some neighbouring trees)
at an apparent altitude of about 12° or 15° (as measured afterwards by the
elevation of the trees) from the horizon. Its point of disappearance was
about 8° or 10° below a point between the stars p and c Ononis. Its path
was slightly curved, as shown in the figure, and directed, in the latter portion
of its flight, very nearly from the Pleiades.
Mr. S. H. Miller observed the appearance of the meteor near Wisbeach in
Cambridgeshire, its light causing him to turn round and to note it in the last
portion of its flight. In apparent size it appeared to be about one-third of
the apparent diameter of the moon, perfectly white, like a drop of liquid
silver, falling in the west, where it descended "to the horizon.
At Northwich, in Cheshire, it appeared to cast as much light as the moon
shining brightly in its first quarter. It shot from the direction of the
Hyades, near Aldcbaran, and disappeared close to Orion's belt (Manchester
' Examiner and Times '). It also attracted attention at Bowdon near Man-
chester, where it was observed in the south-west, descending towards the
S.S.E. horizon. It was at first accompanied by a reddish train, which changed
to blue and left some sparks, when the meteor, with a dip southwards, sud-
denly disappeared. As seen at Bolton, near this point, by Mr. A. Greg, it
appeared facing him (and to another observer, " low down in the sky " before
him) as he looked towards the south ; and it disappeared in a large and bril-
liant flash while passing over the belt of Orion.
1872, March 8, 9" 5'". — The most brilliant meteor recorded during the
year, and one of great interest from the southern character and much further
westerly situation of its radiant-point than that of any meteor-system hitherto
recognized during the period of that month, was observed by the assistant at
Lord Eosse's Observatory at Birr Castle, in Ireland, and was thus described
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEOIIS. 11
in his note of its appearance communicated to ' Nature ' of the 14tli of March
last by Lord llossc : —
"Observed an intensely brilliant meteor. It was first seen in the region
of Lepus, whence it moved with a slow and steady motion across the heavens
to the S.E. horizon, where it gradually disappeared in a bank of cloud at
about 9'' 5"' 19^ Greenwich mean time, having occupied 7 or 8 seconds in
moving over 50° of a great circle. The time given may be a few seconds
wrong, as it was noted by an ordinary watch. The head was intensely bril-
liant, of a bluish-white colour, and lighted up the whole sk}'.
" Its brightness was maintained during its entire visibility, and may have
been as great as the moon at quadrature. Apparent diameter of the head 42'.
It was followed by a very narrow tail about 3° in length, and of a reddish
hue. It did not leave any phosphorescent train behind it ; but at the latter
part of its course it threw out some reddish luminous masses that gradually
faded away. Its apparent course was in a great circle through /3 Cauis Ma-
joris to a point near the S.E. horizon in azimuth S. 28|°E., and altitude Sg".
For /3 Canis Majoris the azimuth was S. 20° 52'-4 W., and altitude 16° 43'-3.
—Observatory, Birr Castle, March 8th, 1872."
It is to be regretted that a meteor of such unusual splendour and magni-
tude, which must (if clouds permitted) have been widely visible over the
south of Ireland, and .in the west and soiith-west parts of England, has not
received any public or private notice which has hitherto come to the know-
ledge of the Committee, nor any apparent recognition from observers ; while,
if the important astronomical interest chat attaches to its appearance is rightly
understood, the great advantage of their investigation, if such have been pre-
served, it may yet be hoped, will prevail upon observers to communicate them
to the Committee.
1872, April 12, 4'' 36" p.m. — A fireball, not less brilliant, but, on account
of its appearing in the daytime, probably less conspicuous than the preceding
meteor, was seen on the afternoon of the above day by Mr. "Whipple, at the
Kew Observatory, by whom the following observations of its appearance were
recorded* : —
" Yesterday afternoon, whilst standing on the lawn of the observatory, with
mj^back to the sun, which was brightly shining, I saw a splendid meteor fall
in the south-east. The sky at the time was of an intense blue, and cloudless,
with the exception of a few cirri in the north and north-west, and the meteor,
as seen against it, presented the appearance of polished silver. The flight of
the meteor was almost vertical, at an altitude of about 30°; its extent was
about 1 0°, and the tail, which seemed to hang in the air and fade away like
the tail of a rocket, was, at the instant of exi^losion, probably 3° in length.
There was no report accompanying its disruption, or it would certainly have
been heard, the neighbourhood being very still at the time. Immediately on
its disappearance I looked at my watch ; it was ^ 36" p.m., Greenwich mean
time. Had the fall occurred after dai'k, I have no doubt but that the meteor
"would have exhibited a magnificent spectacle ; for its brilliancy far exceeded
that of the moon as seen by daylight."
1871, December 6th, ^^ 14" p.m., or 8'> 15" p.m. — A meteor of great bril-
liancy was recorded at the former hour at Birmingham by Mr. Wood, and at
the latter hour at Beeston Observatory, near Nottingham, by Mr. Lowe. The
descriptions of these meteors, which ai'e included in the following general
list, differ in some important physical respects, which might almost lead to an
independent conclusion that two different meteors were observed. The meteor
* 'iS'atiu-e,' Aprilia 1872. .
78 REPORT— 1873.
seen by Mr. Wood at Birmingham was deep blue ; its nucleus disappeared
without apparent expansion or explosion, and left a very slight, evanescent
streak upon its course. The meteor observed by Mr. Lowe at Beestou was
distinctly red ; it burst with a flash, and left a very enduring streak of red
points upon its course. With these essential differences of character (and
even with the short interval of only one minute between the times of their
observations), the identity of the meteor seen at Beeston with that observed
by himself is regarded by Mr. Wood as not sufficiently established, or as
being at least open to question, in the absence of further observation. The
recorded positions of the meteors' paths are, moreover, so close to each other,
that although they present a small displacement in the right direction to be
produced by the great distance (about 45 miles) between the observers' places
at Beeston and Birmingham, yet the unusual height of 360 miles above the
earth at first appearance, and of 240 miles at disappearance, which their
comparison together would suppose, must be regarded as requiring a proof
from further observations, of which none have hitherto been received by the
Committee.
III. Aerolites.
The following accounts of two aerolites which feU last year are extracted
from the scientific journals in which their descriptions have recently ap-
peared.
1. Searsmont, Maine, U.S., 1871, May 21, S** a.m. (local time). — Professor
Shephard, of Amherst CoUege, Massachusetts, has published some particulars
respecting the meteoric stone which fell at Searsmont, Maine, U.S., on May
21st. About 8 A.M. there was heard an explosion, like the report of a heavy
gun, followed by a rushing sou^nd resembling the escape of steam from a
boiler. The stone fell in a field, and a lady who was in a house close by
saw the earth scattered in all directions as it entered the ground. The hole
which it made was soon found, and on digging down the fragments were
found stiU quite hot, the outside surfaces showing plainly the effects of
melting heat. The largest piece weighed two pounds, and the fragments
altogether twelve pounds. They emitted an odour like that of flints when
rubbed violently together. The hole made by the falling body was two feet
in depth, the soil being a hard coarse gravel ; but the fracture of the stone
was obviously occasioned by its striking against three large pebbles, each
about four pounds in weight. Professor Shephard obtained and examined
the largest fragTuent of the aerolite. FnUy one half of its surface was coated
with the original crust, and the shape would seem to denote that the perfect
mass had been of an oval, subconical figure with a flattish base, so as on the
whole to have approached the shape of the famous DuraUa stone now in the
British Museum. Among the constituent elements were found meteoric iron,
peroxide of iron, chladnite, troilite, together with a single blackish mass
which Professor Shephard considered was in all probability a plumbaginous
aggregate. The following notice of its composition has also recently ap-
peared : —
. . " This meteoric stone has been examined by Dr. Lawrence Smith (SiUiman's
/American Journal of Science,' September 1871, p. 200). He finds it resemble
very closely the Mauerkirchen stone that feU in 1768, the crusts correspond-
ing quite closely both in thickness and appearance; the Mauerkirchen stone,
■however, has not well-marked globules like that of Searsmont, and in this
respect it corresponds more nearly to the Aussun aerolite. Its specific gravity
was 3-701, and its composition is—
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 79
Nickeliferous iroa 14'63
Magnetic pyrites 3-OG
Olivine 43-Oi
Bronzite, a hornblende with a little albitc or ortho-
clase, and chrome irou 39-27
100-00
With the bronzite there may also be some enstatite, which would bo con-
founded with the former if existing in the stone."
2. Moutereau (Seine et Marne), France, November 1871. — " It is stated
that an aeroUte weighing 127 lbs. fell lately near Montereau (Seine et Marne),
in Trance. It appears to have come from the east, and burst with a loud
explosion, giving a bright blue light. It is of an irregular spheroid shape,
and black, and is to be sent to the Academy of Sciences," — ' Nature,' Novem-
ber 30th, 1871.
IV. Meteokic Showehs.
In the prosecution of a system of observations on the annual meteor-
showers of the past year, proposed to engage the constant attention of the
Committee since their last Report, a more than usually abundant series of
successful observations were made, exhibiting with greater completeness than
in previous years the general character of the displays, which have presented
themselves with more than ordinary prominency on each of the annual
shower-meteor dates.
A first description of the observations collected at the several British Asso-
ciation Stations <^ the nights of the 9 th to the 12th of August last is con-
tained in the Quarterly Journal of the Meteorological Society for the 15th
of November, 1871, where the numbers of meteors mapped at the different
stations, and their rate of frequency at certain places where their numbers
were counted in successive hours and half-hours, were for the most part fully
stated. The following are some additional observations relating especially to
this latter point, and to the general characters of the August shower in 1871,
as they were recorded by the different observers.
The numbers seen per hour by Mr. Wood at Birmingham were, on the night
of the 9th twelve, on the 10th twenty-four, and on the 11th sixteen. The
meteors came in groups, with lulls ; they were mostly small, and with a much
larger proportion than usual of orange-coloured and train-bearing meteors.
In the watch kept by Captain Maclear at the Royal Naval College at
Portsmouth on the night of the 10th, the sky was throughout clear or over-
spread with such a slight haze as only occasionally to dim the faintest stars ;
and all the brightest meteors visible were noted between 11 o'clock p.m. and
2 o'clock A.M. from a favourable point of view upon the College roof, where
a number of the brightest meteors visible between ll*" 45™ and 12'' 45°*
was also added to the list by Lieutenant Mathias, whose attention was di-
rected towards a different quarter of the sky ; and the number of meteors
visible in a somewhat less favourable position between lO"" and ll** p.m. was
also counted alone by Captain Maclear. Deducting one quarter of the
meteors seen between 11'' 45'" and 12'' 45"" as having been observed by
Lieut. Mathias, the remaining numbers of bright meteors seen by Captain
Maclear alone in the successive half-hours ending, during the night of
Aug. 10th, at 10" SO" 11", 11" 30"", 12", 12" 30'", 13", 13" 30"', 14", Total
were 5 10 10 12 21 22 14 23 117,
showing an increase in the rate of frequency until the end of the Avatch.
80 KEPORT— 1872.
Besides those noted, many smaller meteors passed unrecorded, about tAvo
thirds of the meteors counted being as bright as first, and some of the rest as
bright as second-magnitude stars. But few meteors were visible on the night
of the 9th ; and twelve were seen between 9" and 10" p.m. on the 11th.
Between 10" and 11" p.m. on the 11th no shooting-star was visible, although
the sky was then as olear as it had been during the previous hour, or on
the night of the 10th. A bright meteor shot downwards through Corona soon
after 10" 30"', and a remarkably large one close to Saturn soon after 10" 45'"
P.M. on the 10th. The latter meteor was pear-shaped; it lighted up the
objects round the observer, and burst at the end of its course like a shell.
This meteor was also seen at Cardiff, and was described, in a communi-
cation to Mr. Glaisher on the meteors of that evening by Mr. G. C. Thompson,
as foUows : — " Aug. 10th, 10" 51'" p.m. Meteor equal to or larger than
Venus ; from direction of a^, o, Capricorni, downwards towards the west (right
hand), inclined about 60° to the horizon. Beautiful light-green hue. Near
the end of its course it seemed to divide into several fragments, or a small
cloud of sparks." It was also visible at Greenwich, where the following
notes of its appearance were recorded by Mr. Glaisher's staff of observers at
the Royal Observatory :—" Aug. 10th, 10" 51'" 15' p.m. Brighter than
Jupiter; pale green; duration of flight 0-7 second; length of course 5° : left
a fine train. Meteor pear-shaped; from 12° below, and to right of Antares,
fell perpendicularly." At Hawkhurst a broad red flash, like that of lightning,
was visible in the sky at 10" 50"" p.m. ; but the meteor itself was not seen.
It was, however, well seen in the neighbourhood of Hawkhurst, and a pretty
accurate measurement of its apparent path by objects near which it appeared
to pass was there obtained. It fell nearly vertically from about 20° to about
3" or 4° above the horizon, 60° W. from magnetic south, with no great speed ;
and it appeared to burst, with sparks, when at its brightest. At 11" 2"', Paris
time, corresponding within a few minutes with the time of this observation, a
meteor of twice the briUiancy of Venus, of strong whitish light, like an electric
spark, was also seen in the south by the observers of M. Le Vcrrier's staff at St.
Lo, on the French coast of the English Channel, and at Angers on the Loire.
Of the other bright meteors seen at Portsmouth on the night of the 10th,
one descended towards the east, and burst at disappearance, at about
12" 45""; and one jjassed across Polaris at 12" 55°'. At about 1" 30"" a
bright green meteor appeared in the S.S.E., at an altitude of about 10°,
moving towards the S.S.W. Shortly afterwards a very bright one passed
across Pegasus towards the S.W., with an explosion at disappearance. One
of the last two meteors may not impossibly be identical with a fireball ob-
served by the observers of M. Le Verrier's staff at Trcmont at 1" 32'" 49" (Paris
time) on the same night, which passed from E.A. 235°, N.P.D. 29°, to B.A.
233°, N.P.D. 39°, and burst at disappearance with a strong red light, leaving
a luminous streak \ipon its course that was visible for 33 seconds.
On each evening of the shower the numbers of the meteors were also noted,
under favourable conditions of the sky, by Mr. W. F. Denning, at Bristol,
with the following results : —
Meteors.
Aug,
Meteors.
Aug. 9 .
.11" 30"^
to 12"
7
„ 9.
.12"
to 13"
27
„ 9.
.13"
to 14"
8
„ 9.
.14"
to 1.5"
21
„ 10.
.10"
to 11"
17
„ 10.
.11"
to 12"
27
„ 10.
.12"
to 12" 30"
' 27
Meteors
11.
. 10" SS" to 10" 50™ 18
11.
. 11" to 12" 29
11.
.12" to 12" IS"" 16
11.
.12" 15'" to 12" 30'" 15
11.
. 12" 30"' to 13" 23
11.
.13" tol3"1.5'" 11
11.
. 13" 15'" to 13" 30'" 14
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
81
Attention was principally directed to the northern sky, and many meteors
doubtless escaped observation. Most of those observed were especially
small ones ; those seen on the 9th were nearly all minute and scarcely dis-
cernible. Several brilliant ones were seen, however. At 12'' 23"* on
August 10, a meteor of great lustre, and star-like in appearance, diverged
from Perseus towards the horizon. It was of a blue colour, and left a lumi-
nous streak which was visible for about four seconds.
At 10'' 4-1'" on August 11, another brilliant one, about as bright as Venus,
was visible in Ursa Minor, and the train of light which it left was visible
for a few seconds. It was, however, at 12'' 50™ on the latter date that the
most brilliant meteor was seen. It passed between the fourth-magnitude
stars e and ^ Cygni, and soon afterwards disappeared, leaving a train of light
which endured for about seven seconds. This one, like the great majority
of those observed, radiated from or nearly from the small star B Camelopardi.
The first of these bright meteors corresponds with an observation at
Cardiff, contained in the description of the star-shower on the 10th of
August communicated to Mr. Glaisher by Mr. G. C. Thompson : — " August
11, 12'' 22"' A.M. — A meteor, as bright as Venus, passing downwards between
u and /3 Aurigfe, from the direction of the sword-handle in Perseus. Fine
purple colour ; leaving a portion of phosphorescent train visible for about
half a minute, which had, I think, a lateral drifting motion in the direction
of /) Aurigaj."
No sound followed the explosion of any of these meteors. Mr. Denning
adds the following list of observations of the same shower by Mr. Edmund
Neison in London, who was assisted in his watch for the meteors by two
friends, and who recorded the numbers visible on successive nights.
Meteors observed
in August 1871.
Bright
Total
No.
Date.
Time.
me-
teors.
num-
ber.
per
hour.
Kemarka.
h
m h m
August 6
9
58 to 10 47
(49'")
6
15
18
Two extremely brilliant.
„ 7
8
58 to 10 35
(P 37")
17
43
27
Four extremely brilliant.
„ 8
y
45 to 10 18
(33"')
5 to 10 31
11
29
53
Two extremely brilliant.
9
9
21
62
43
Five very brilliant.
(1" 26"')
„ 10
10
7 to 10 58
(ol-)
31
90
106
Four very brilliant.
„ 11
Cloudy ; clear but
1
2
* . .
One very bright.
for 5™
„ 12
9
55 to 10 26
(31'")
10
20
39
Three very bright.
„ 13
9
to 9 56
(se™)
10
25
27
Two very brilliant.
Totals
6M8"
107
286
The total number of meteors observable was, without doubt, over 500, as
only about one half of the sky was kept under view. The following par-
ticulars were recorded of some of the most brilliant meteors which came
under observation.
83
EEPORT — 1873.
Date.
Time.
Remarks.
h
m
g
August 6
9
58
From a Cassiopeire to a Andromedae. • Very brilliant
blue meteor, leaving a long streak.
ft
6
10
40
A very bright meteor traversed the centre of Ursa
Major.
»
7
10
15
From near a Herculis to Libra. Left a bright yellow
train.
7
10
27
From /? Ophiuchi to Saturn.
7
10
35
30
From (3 Pegasi to a Aquarii.
8
9
45
From Cassiopeia to Cygnus. Left a bright streak.
8
10
7
From a Lyrte (Vega) to Sagittarius. Left a long train.
9
9
50
.0
From Cassiopeia to a Lyra;.
9
9
52
From Cassiopeia to Cygnus.
9
10
12
From Lyra to Pegasus.
9
10
17
From Cassiopeia to Delphinus, leaving a long train.
9
10
30
From Cassiopeia to y Pegasi. Left a long train.
10
10
5
From /3 Cvgni to a Aqnilx. Yellow.
10
10
40
From Draco to Serpens. Left a long train.
10
10
45
From Lyra to Ophiuchus. Left a long yellow train. '
10
10
50
From Cassiopeia to Lyra. Left a long, pale-blue train.
10
10
55
From Cassiopeia to Ceplieus. Left a long train.
11
10
10
From Aquila to Sagittarius.
12
10
3
Along the Milky Way to Saturn.
12
10
7
Towards the south, near Saturn.
12
10
16
From 7] Pegasi to Andromeda. Left a streak.
13
9
33
From Cepheus to Perseus. Left a brilliant train.
13
9
56
From Capricornus to Sagittarius. Fast and brilliant.
At Hawkhurst the appearance of the last meteor but oue of this list, on
the 13th, was recorded at Q^ 32'", slowly and steadily increasing to a
bolide of about the brightness of Venus, of nearly white or pale yellow
colour, tapering behind to a narrow train, which marked its track for a
few seconds. It first appeared close to h Ursae Majoris, and fell perpen-
dicularly, about 12° along a line drawn from f Draconis, or from between
the stars e and i; TJrsfc Minoris, towards the horizon. The meteor ap-
peared in full view, and the point of first appearance and the length and
direction of its flight (apparently from Draco) were very exactly noted.
A detailed description of the various meteors of the shower recorded at the
RadclifFe Observatory, at Oxford, was also obligingly communicated to the
Committee by Mr. Main. The meteors were chiefly observed by Mr. Lucas,
who was occasionally assisted by Mr. Keating ; and the following Table shows
the number of the meteors which were noted on the successive nights.
Date.
Time.
No. of
uieteors.
No. re-
corded
per
hour.
Remarks.
Aug. 7...
» 8...
„ 9...
„ 10...
" „ 11...
h m h m
9 40 to 13
(3h 20")
9 30 to 14 49
(5" 19»>)
9 11 to 14 57
(5h 46™)
9 8 to 14 44
(oi- 36"')
9 1 to 15 9
(6" 8-')
10
47
57
100
102
3
9
10
18
17
Watch kept until 13'> 30™ ; no meteors as
bright as Ist-mag. stars observed.
Watch until 15'>. Motion of the meteors
mostly very rapid. Eleven meteors =
Ist-mag. stars.
Watched from 8'' to 15'' 30™. Seven me-
teors = Ist-mag. stars.
Watched from 8" 30™ to IS"-. Four me-
teors brighter than the fixed stars. Seven-
teen meteors = Ist-mag. stars.
Watched from 8'" 30™ to 15'' 10™. Three
meteors brighter than the fixed stars.
Nineteen meteors = Ist-mag. stars.
Totals ...
26"^ 2""
316
OBSERVATIONS OV LUMINOUS METEORS.
83
The following particulars of some of the most remarkable meteors are con-
taiucd in the list of observations, of which a full description will be included
in the forthcoming printed volume of the Radcliffe Observations.
Date.
Time.
Remarks.
h
m
Augus
t 8...
12
30
»»
8...
13
40
»i
9...
9
14
»»
9...
10
55
}i
9...
12
18
ti
9...
13
26
if
9...
14
45
J»
10...
10
22
t»
10...
10
51
»»
10...
11
17
n
10...
12
30
„ 10..
„■ 11...
„ 11 ...
„ 11...
„ 11...
„ n...
„ 11...
14 10
10 14
10 55
12 6
12 36
12 54
14 4
Meteor =lst-mag. » ; white; duration one second. Shot from
\ Draconis to a Coronae. Curved path and long train.
Meteor = lst-mag. #; white; duration two or three seconds.
Shot past a Lyrse northwards, leaving a streak.
Mr. Keating saw a meteor pass through the field of the Transit-
circle while looking for a star near the south horizon.
Meteor =:2nd-mag. *; duration one and a half second. From
Q Cassiopeia} to S Cygni. Meteor with a long course and
streak.
Meteor= Ist-mag. * ; duration one and a half second. Shot from
a Delphini past /3 Aquilae, leaving a streak.
Two meteors = 2nd-mag. »8 appeared in quick succession, with
an interval of about one second between them, passing on
nearly the same course from a point near a Piscium towards
»j Ceti.
Meteor =2nd-mag. *; white; duration two seconds. Passed
from X Draconis, just under Polaris, — ^-. This meteor
had the slowest motion of any observed in this night's watch.
Brighter than a Ist-mag. *; red. Shot from /3 Pegasi to a
point near /3 Aquarii. This meteor rapidly followed two
other meteors equal to 2nd and Ist-mag. «s in Bootes, and
directed from /3 Andromedaj to y Pegasi.
A flash of red light from the south was visible in the sky, re-
sembling lightning. [Meteoric. See above.]
As bright as Jupiter ; duration two seconds. From a point
under y Ursae Majoris to the north horizon.
Brighter than a Ist-mag. * ; yellow. Passed from y Ca-
melopardit to a Ursai Majoris, leaving a brilliant train,
about 15' in width, visible for about fifteen seconds, just
under Polaris, after the meteor had disappeared. Certainly
the most brilliant train I have ever seen. A streamer-look-
ing appearance was visible in the place for half an hour, and
was recognized by Mr. Keating at 13'^ 0'". [The meteor was
also seen at Leamington, and, as will shortly be described, by
Mr. Greg, at Manchester.]
Meteors Ist-mag. *t; white; duration one second. Passed from
a point near y Cjgni to rj Pegasi. [From radiant in
Cygnus.] At H*" 13" two meteor.s=4th-mag. *s, appeared
at the same instant moving in parallel paths between ^ and rj,
and between a and y, across the constellation Pegasus.
Brighter than a Ist-mag. # ; duration one and a half second.
Shot from t; Persei, increasing in brightness, and changing
from red to blue, and leaving a streak, until it burst over
y Andromeda.
Meteor = Ist-mag. *; duration one second. Passed from
a Cygni to a point south of a Lyra;, leaving a bright train.
This train was in two parallel lines, which slowly joined
together sideways, and then disappeared (Mr. Keating).
Two fourth-magnitude meteors, with an interval of two seconds
between them, shot from I Aquarii to 5 Caprieorni, and from
a Aquarii to /3 Aquarii.
As bright as Jupiter. From a point between /3 and ^ Draconis
to halfway between a Coronai and a Ophiuchi. Left a train
visible for five or sis seconds. (The beginning of the meteor's
course not well seen.)
As bright as Jupiter ; yellow. Prom i Tauri to a little below
Aldebaran. Left a streak.
Two second and fourth-magnitude meteors appeared imme-
diately following each other from y Ursie Minoris to between
1) and 9 Draconis, and from a point just over h Ursoe Majoris,
descending vertically.
t Known in maps of Bode's Constellations as the star m Custodis.
84; REPOllT— 1873.
The following observations of the shower by Mr. E. P. Greg, at Man-
chester, on the night of the 10th, and at Bolton on the nights of the 11th
and 12th, describe the unusual appearance of one of the most remarkable
meteors recorded in the above list : — " The number of the meteors was
larger than usual, thougli not remarkably so. On the 10th and 11th,
between lO*" 30" and 12'', I did not perceive much difference in the horary
numbers : perhaps four or five in a minute for two observers ; coming
sometimes four or five nearly together, and then several minutes passing
without any being visible. On the evening of the 12th there was a great
falling off, not only in the numbers, but also in the size and flashing train
peculiar to the Perseids. At about 9'' 30" p.m. on the 10th, before I looked
out, I heard that a splendid meteor was seen here.
" At 12" 31", on the night of the 10-llth of August, a very remarkable
meteor appeared in the S.E., which I hope may have been doubly observed,
although it was visible after the time appointed for the simultaneous watch.
It commenced close to /3 Andromedse, moving nearly on a line from t] Persei
to a point a little beyond the star y Pegasi, which it almost crossed,
describing a course of 10° or 12° in about two seconds. The nucleus had a
sensible disk of about 2' in diameter, and, together with the train, showed
prismatic colours. The train lasted twenty or thirty seconds, and soon
assumed a serpentine appearance. It was one of the most beautiful meteors
I have seen. About four or five seconds after it had disappeared, it broke out
again five or six degrees further on, near X Piscium, moving exactly in the same
direction, apparently the same meteor over again, about half its former size,
but with the same colours, and leaving a bright streak on this part of its
course for about three seconds. What appears most unaccountable was that
it broke out again three or four seconds, at least, after it should have done,
had it been the same meteor continuing onwards at the same velocity. It
seemed, instead, to be another meteor, although it must have been the same ;
but how its speed could be so checked after it first ceased to be visible, and
it could then go on at the same speed as before, I do not know."
The results of the regular observations made at the Royal Observatory at
Greenwich, by Mr. Glaisher's staff of observers, are, in point of numbers and
of the brightness of the meteors seen, very similar to those obtained at
Oxford, the watch on the nights of the 10th and 11th being kept for about
six hours and four and a half hours, and during from two to three hours on
each of the remaining nights. The total number of meteors mapped, by the
parties of from one to four observers who watched during a space of about
25" 50" on the different nights was 470 ; and the average number per hour,
with that of the meteors equal to or brighter than first-magnitude stars
alone, recorded on each night is shown in the following Table : —
Date, 1871, August 6
Average hourly ] Bright meteors . . 4
numbers of J Total mapped . . 8
No. of observers 1
The first meteor, equal to or exceeding the brightness of Jupiter, seen
during the display was that already noticed, which was recorded at 10" 51"
P.M. on the night of the 10th. At 9" 30" p.m. on the 11th a bluish-white
meteor, brighter than Venus, appeared low down near the eastern horizon,
immediately below y Andromeda?. At 10" 15" p.m. on the same evening a
similar meteor, brighter than Jupiter, appeared near b Ljncis, and moved
about 15° in 1| second in a direction from c Camelopardi, leaving a bright
gtrcfik for three seconds. A meteor of the same magnitude, which appeared
7
8
9
10
11 12
13
5
5
9
14
9 4
3
10
14
20
28
201 14
9
2
2
3
4
2 2
2
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 85
at lO*" 23"' 30' P.M. ou the evening of the 12th, and which left a flue streak,
moved from a different radiant-point, for about 1| second, in a course
of 10° between /3 and ?j Pegasi, from the direction of d Piscium. At
10'' 46™ and ll"" 7"" p.m., on the same evening, meteors of greenish colour
were seen, leaving long and bright streaks ; that of the first was visible for
fourteen seconds ; and the meteor (as will shortly be described) was also seen
at Hawkhurst. The last brilliant meteor of the shower was visible at
lO*" 35'" P.M. on the 13th, of greenish colour, like the last two, and leaving
an exceedingly bright streak, which was visible for six seconds after the
meteor had disappeared. It passed from the direction of t] Persei, about 1°
below Polaris and /3 XJrsce Minoris. At about the same time, or shortly
before 11 o'clock on the evening of the 13th, a brilliant meteor appears to
have been seen at Regent's Park, London, among other meteors of the
shower which there still continued to be plentiful. A notable example
of the meteors occasionally appearing in groups occurred at lO** 49"' p.m.
on the 10th, when three meteors, about as bright as second-magnitude
stars, appeared within an interval of about ten seconds, and all passed in a
nearly identical path in continuation of a line joining y Andromedse and
a Triangulfe. Two meteors, brighter than first-magnitude stars, also ap-
peared within four seconds of each other, moving in parallel and closely
neighbouring courses, inclined about 45° towards the horizon, in the con-
stellation Capricornus, at 11'' 4"' 20' p.m. on the 10th. This brilliant pair
was simultaneously observed at Hawkhurst, each meteor about the bright-
ness of Sirius, leaving a long, bright, and slender streak. The first com-
mencing about 2° above /3 Aqiiarii, moved on a course exactly parallel to
that of the second, which passed, with the same steady speed as the first,
from half a degree below ^ Aquarii to half a degree below h Capricorni.
Mr. Wood, at Birmingham, also noted the appearance, at the same minute,
and within about two seconds of each other, of this ijerfectly matched and
closely adjacent pair. Each meteor was about as bright as Sirius, of orange
colour, lasted one second, and left a reddish streak upon its course. The path
of the first, as seen at Birmingham, was from 6 Aquarii to S Capricorni ; and
that of the second was parallel and closely adjoining to it from a point in
R. A. 325°, S. Decl. 22°, to R. A. 321°, S. Decl. 26°. Closely as all these de-
scriptions of them correspond together, the unfavourable position of their
apparent paths near the horizon prevents the real heights and the distances
of the component meteors of the pair from each other and from the
observers fi-om being calculated with the accuracy and certainty that would
otherwise have been attainable from such excellent observations.
Almost all the meteors observed at Greenwich during the display left
more or less brilliant and enduring streaks. With the exception of one
reddish, four white, eight pale green or greenish, and twenty-six yellowish
meteors (in all about 8 per cent.), all the meteors mapped at Greenwich were
uniformly of a bluish or bluish-white colour.
As seen on the nights of the 10th and 11th in Loudon, the following is
Mr. Crumplen's description of the August meteors : — " The sky was quite
clear, but there was an auroral glare in the north, and a white streamer
flickering for a few minutes on the evening of the 10th*. Eighty-two
* The auroral streamer was also seen by Mr. W. H. Jackson at Tooting near
London, who writes : — " On the 10th there was a tolerably distinct aurora borealis, one
streamer of which extended from the north to a spot apparently a considerable distance
beyond Arcturus." At York a distinct auroral arch was seen by Mr. J. E. Clark on the
€th, lasting from after twilight, when it first appeared, until 11'' 30", when it was
obscured by the rising moon. A similar faint appearance was observed by Professor
Herschel, at Glasgow, on the evening of the 7tb.
8G REroRT— 1873.
meteors were counted between 9^ 30™ and midnight, of which forty-six
fell during the last hour. The courses of fifty-six bright meteors were
mapped during a watch of about eight hours on the nights of the 9th,
10th, and 11th, with an average hourly rate of appearance, for one observer,
of three bright meteors on the 9th, nine on the 10th, and ten on the 11th,
all of them directed from Perseus. The Perseids were of all magnitudes,
but the greater number of bright ones (in proportion to the number visible)
made their appearance on the 11th. They presented the appearances com-
mon to the meteors of this radiant ; and some of them left
brilliant streaks of blue light, which expanded after the o -< r- ~r :=>-
disappearance of the nucleus, fading gradually from the ends
towards the centre. In several instances I noticed that the nucleus was
apparently separate from the train, the brighter ones reminding me very
much of the corresponding shower of 1863."
On the nights of the 10th and 11th the sky was overcast at Edinburgh
and Glasgow ; but several bright meteors were seen at Glasgow on the nights
of the 7th, 8th, and 9th by Professor Herschcl, one of which shot with a
flash overhead at about 12'' 48™ a.m. on the 9th, resembling faint lightning.
At Edinburgh on the 9th, and at Sunderland on the 11th and 12th, the
paths of fifteen Perseids were also mapped by Mr. T. W. Backhouse,
although the sky was obscured at Sunderland by thick fog and haze. At
Knocklong in Ireland a good view of the shower was obtained by Mr.
Jeremiah Henly, whose description of its appearance was communicated to
the Committee by Mr. "W. F. Denning : — " Although I did not reckon the
actual number visible, I considered that more meteors appeared on the 11th
than on the 10th. On the 11th, in about three hours, I witnessed thirty-
three of remarkable brilliancy, whUe on the 10th, in the same space of time,
only twenty-seven of a similar character were visible ; but the smaller
meteors I did not reckon on either night." Mr. Denning also regarded the
shower at Bristol as at least as intense on the second as on the first night
of its appearance, and thus describes the principal characters of the meteors
seen : — " The majority of the meteors were accompanied with trains,
which, however, disappeared immediately on the extinction of the head.
Most of those seen were white, but several appeared blue, and some
of a yellow colour. No sound was heard after the explosion of any of
them. The meteors were most numerous on the night of the llth-12th;
and the same was the case in the year 1869, according to my own
observations."
At Hawkhurst the paths of 107 bright meteors were recorded with more
or less detail by one observer, during a watch of about ten hours, on the
nights of the 9th-13th of August, lasting about three hours (until shortly
after midnight) on each of the first three nights, and for a shorter time on
the other two. The average hourly numbers noted on the former nights
were six bright meteors on the 9th, sixteen on the 10th, and eleven of
similar character on the 11th. Three brilliant meteors appeared on the
night of the 12th, and one on the night of the 13th, among ten bright ones
recorded in an hour on the former, and seven in the same time on the latter
night. Of these, the first (already stated to have been seen at the Royal
Observatory, Greenwich) appeared at lO'' 46" 30' p.m., with a sensible disk
and apparently fully as bright as Yenus, of dazzling bluish-white light,
crossing ft UrsEe Minoris from a point about half a degree below Polaris, be-
ginning at R. A. 40°, N. Decl. 891°, and ending at R. A. 225°, N. Dccl. 75°.
It left a bright streak which remained visible, on its whole course for about
OBSERA'ATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
87
three seconds. At the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, the meteor, of pale-
green colour, leaving a bnght streak visible for fourteen seconds, moved
in about two seconds from i Cassiopeice across /3 Cephei, almost to o Lyree.
The other two bright meteors seen at Hawkhurst on the 12th were scarcely
inferior in brightness to this one. That which appeared at 11'' 16'" passed
from r Pegasi to a point midway between y Piscium and H Aquarii, changing
from blue to yellow colour as it increased, and leaving a bright streak for a
few seconds on its course. The second was observed at ll"* 34"", passing in
fully one and a half second over 30° or 40° of arc from the star /3 Andromedoe,
along a line directed from ^ Cassiopeias and inclined about 50° to the horizon.
It left a bright streak for some seconds on its course, which was broken into
two, or had two maxima of brightness at two different points of its length.
The apparent paths of these two meteors were : —
R. A. N. Decl. R. A. N. Decl.
August 12..1P16"> 2 . Began at 348° + 22°. Ended at 343°+ 6°
ll" 34"= 2 •
15 +35
13
+ 161
Cassio-^i
eia
The trains of most of the meteors seen at Hawkhurst were bluish and
rather faint, except when seen foreshortened. They sometimes distinctly
spread out after the star had disappeared, and grew gauze-like. They
rarely resembled the golden-yellow dotted lines which have sometimes been
seen to mark the track of bright meteors in former August showers.
Position of the Badiant-point.
At Bristol, on the evening of the 10th, Mr. W. F. Denning " saw several
small meteors which, from their various paths, must have been in close
proximity to a radiant-point which is
undoubtedly situated at R. A. 2^ 30" «
(37^°), N. Decl. 58° 30'. This is /3
about 31° S.W. of the sword-handle of
Perseus," and between ^ Persei and B
Camelopardi. I saw several small
meteors whose paths were extremely
short, that came exactly from the
place I have indicated. The annexed
is a rough delineation of a few of the
meteors' paths that were observed in
the neighbourhood of this radiant-
point in Camelopardalus. There were
many other meteors whose paths were
conformable to B Camelopardi ; and
there appears no doubt as to this being
the radiant-point, or rather the prin-
cipal one."
. London, August 10th. — On this
evening the radiant-point appeared to
Mr. Crumplcn to be for most of the
meteors near y Persei; but another
radiant-point higher up in the sky
was quite apparent for some of them.
" In the case of every meteor, whether H,
mapped or counted, I ran my eye
back along the track to determine, if possible, the true radiant-point. It
Came 1 0-
pardttlxis
to
*tf
88 BEPORT— 1872.
appeared clear enough to me that there was more than one radiant, or that
a somewhat extensive space of the sky would be required if the tracks of all
the meteors were to be included in it. I believe, however, that the great
majority of the meteors will be found to have diverged from a spot rather
higher than the famous cluster in Perseus (33 ^vi), say about 1° above.
Meteors from this point have been plentiful each evening, and three quarters
of those observed between 11'' and 12'' on the 10th came from there. I
noticed that these followed each other rapidly, and that after a lull for a few
minutes, a radiant still higher would manifest itself, as will be indicated by
the map. The radiants in Ursa Major, Cygnus, and Pegasus were also
active, especially the latter ; but with one or two exceptions these meteors
were not particularly noted."
From a very full projection of more than 300 meteors seen at York between
the 5th and the 12th of August, Mr. J. E. Clark obtained the proportions of
the meteors directed from each of the principal radiant-points of the shower
in 1871. "The proportion of the Persei'ds observed was about 85 per cent.,
from Cygnus 7 per cent., from the radiant below e Pegasi about 4| per
cent., from Polaris about 2 per cent., and from an apparent radiant-point
in Aquarius about 1 per cent. One meteor was observed in Auriga, appa-
rently from a radiant-point near /3 Aurigse.
" The main radiant on the 10th, as shown by the mapped courses, lay close
to 7] Persei ; but very many were directed from a Persei, or even lower still,
whilst a large number extended the radiant to x- Besides the central radiant,
there seemed to be one or two outlying points from which the tracks appear
to diverge. One of these seems to be between j3 and y Andromeda;, and
another by c Camelopardi.
" Of meteors almost stationary, the best was one seen by Mr. Waller
and Mr. Brown just by rj Persei on the 8th. I observed some nearly
so, near y Persei on the 8th, below r/ on the 10th, and at ^ on the 11th, also
by V Draconis on the 10 th; and Mr. Brown saw one by p Cephei on
the 8th."
In a letter in 'Nature' of August 17, 1871, Mr. Clark communicates the
numbers of the meteors seen on each night, together with some further par-
ticulars regarding the above radiant-points, which are here appended.
" Having been engaged during the past Aveek in observations on the August
meteors, I thought a few of the results might be interesting to some of your
numerous subscribers. My regular observations extended fi'om Sunday night
to Friday night ; and, as the following Table will show, the weather was, with
the exception of one night, as favourable as could reasonably be desired.
From over 120 meteors mapped down (out of about 330 seen) it is evident
that, the principal radiant-point, or rather line, is a line drawn from a Persei
to y Persei, and onwards towards jj. One bright meteor was seen on the 8th,
just below T) Persei, which did not move more than i° in a second of time,
and left a cloud behind it lasting about two seconds. A remarkable feature
was the outlying radiants, as they appeared to be, one of which was situated
at or near 6 Cassiopeise, another near the star c of Camelopardalus. The
radiant situated between o Cygni and y Draconis is very well marked ; also a
radiant near y Cephei (where another almost stationary meteor was
observed), and one just below e Pegasi, towards a Aquarii; associated
apparently with the last is a radiant near the small lozenge in Delphinus,
above a Aquila.
" In the following list of 312 meteors observed here, 242, or about 77 per
cent., were from the Perseus radiant or radiants : —
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
" Meteors seen August 1871, at Yorlc.
89
Dat«.
Hours.
State of sky.
Number Number observed
observed.l from Perseus.
Proportion.
August 5 . . .
„ 6...
„ 7...
„ 8...
., 9...
„ 10...
h m b m
lO O-IO lO
lO 20-12 O
lO 0-I2 O
lO 0-I2 O
lo 30-11 30
955-12 5
9 55-12 s
Fine
6
34
49
50
6
120
47
28
30
3'
4
106
38
•83
•82
•61
•62
•6
•88
•80
Fine
Fine
Fine, till 11 '45,
then cloudy ...
Cloudy and hazy .
Few clouds at
times, and very
slight haze
Ditto
<' Generally two watching, sometimes three, and once or twice hut one.
For the 10th I had a list of twenty-six others handed me, observed by a
friend close at hand, of which nineteen were from Perseus.
"J. Edmitnd Clark."
"20 Bootbam, York, August 14."
At Birmingham the position of the radiant-point appeared to Mr. Wood to
have undergone no change from its apparent place as described in former years.
At Manchester on the 10th, and at Bolton on the 11th and 12th, Mr. Greg
noted especially the short meteors near the radiant-point in order to deter-
mine, if possible, its real place. On the night of the 10th it appeared to be
situated about halfway between r; and x Persei, on the 11th exactly at »j,
and on the 1 2th about halfway between jj and y Persei. In relation to these
results Mr. Greg observes : — " There can, I think, be little doubt, judging from
my own observations, that this year the radiant-point was lengthened out on
a line between ^ and y Persei, with the centre precisely at ij (or Ic), that
there was a tendency to move with the time from x towards y, and that on
the night of the 11th the tendency to accurate radiation was unusually pre-
cise. Probably accuracy of radiation is a symptom of a particular shower
being at its maximum intensity, with the individual meteors less scattered
than at periods of its minimum display. I saw so very few meteors move
near the radiant, either up or down, that I cannot so precisely state the
position of tlie radiant-point in right ascension as in declination."
Among the list of meteors received by the Committee from the observers
of the August shower in 1871, the paths of 316 meteors noted on the nights
of the 9th, 10th, and 11th of August were sufficiently well indicated to be
correctly delineated on suitable star-maps. Of the whole number nine were
directed from a radiant-point near the north pole of the heavens, at about
R. A. 10°, N. Decl. 82°; fourteen proceeded from a radiant-point in Cygnus,
apparently close to I Cygni, at about R. A. 293°, N. Decl. 42° ; and thirty-three
meteors diverged from radiant-points in or near the constellations Pegasus
and Aquarius. Of the remaining number a few meteors appeared to be very
erratic or sporadic, and about 250 were distinctly members of the shower
diverging from the radiant-point in Perseus. The long duration of the
shower appearing to offer a favourable opportunity for ascertaining if the
position of the radiant-point underwent a sensible change during the time of
its continuance, the recorded apparent patlis of all the Perseids noted during
successive intervals of ten minutes on each of the nights of observation were
1872. H
90 REPORT— 1872. *
projected upon separate maps. A similar projection of the paths of the
meteors recorded at the Royal Observatory at Greenwich on the night of the
10th of August was also made upon a separate map for each interval of ten
minutes during the hours of observation. With the exception of the period
between 9^ and 10" p.m. on the 10th among the Greenwich observations, and
between 9'' 45" and 10'' 45" p.m. on the same evening among those of the
British-Association observers, when 40 per cent, of all the meteors mapped
diverged very accurately from a centre of radiation at about E. A. 34°, N.
Decl. 61° nearly midway between ^ Persei and t Cassiopeise, and a very
marked activity of this radiant-point during the following hours of both those
scries of observations until midnight on the 10th, no tendency to accurate
divergence from a single radiant-point during any sustained jieriodwas obser-
vable during the continuance of the shower. A radiant-point near rj Persei,
which was also discernible among the British-Association observations on each
evening of the shower, presented itself most conspicuously in those made at
Greenwich on the evening of the 10th, towards midnight, and by the inter-
section of its meteor-tracks with otliers from the more northern radiant,
appeared to give rise to a prominent centre of divergence after midnight
between y and e Cassiopeiaj, which may have owed its apparent activity to
the simultaneous existence of the former pair. The general radiant-point of
the meteoric shower at Greenwich on the night of the 10 th was very nearly
the principal one already indicated, with a tendency, especially after midnight,
of some meteors to come from directions nearer to n and to y Persei. All
the meteor-tracks noted by the British-Association observers between 9^ 30""
and 12'M4" on the 10th having been projected upon a single map with the
radiant-point in Perseus near the centre of the projection, a densely crowded
region of intersection of the tracks prolonged backwards was found to occupy
a roughly triangular space of about 10° in length along each side, having its
centre very nearly at the above indicated spot in li. A. 36°, N". Decl. 58°, and
its angles in nearly symmetrical positions at points in E. A. 31°, N. Decl. 61°,
R. A. 36°, N. Decl. 53°, and R. A. 45°, N. Decl. 50°, as shown by the small
circles marked (lo) in the accompanying figure. The first of these points cor-
responds very closely with the definite radiant-point, which was most conspi-
cuous during the early portion of the shower.
On the night of the 11th the principal intersection of meteor- tracks recorded
at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, was still close to the latter point, at
R. A. 31°, N. Decl. 62°, during the hours of observation from 9" until 13" 30'",
with subordinate points of intersection at B and D Camclopardi, and between
»j and P Persei. A projection of all the tracks recorded by the British-Asso-
ciation observers between 9" 45™ and 13" on this night having been made on
a similar map to that prepared for the observations of the 1 0th, the principal
centre of divergence was found to be placed not far from its position on the
previous night, a few degrees northward from j^ Persei, at R. A. 31°, N.
Decl. 58°. A meteor with very short course appealing close to this point
marked its position very nearly. The tracks of the remaining meteors were
almost evenly distributed round it, within distances which included nearly all
the courses of 12° or 15° from its centre. But other apparent centres of radia-
tion also presented themselves somewhat definitely near the north and south
borders of the radiant-region, in the neighbourhood of e Cassiopeiae and r) Persei,
at points in R. A. 25°, N. Decl. 63°, and R. A. 42°, N. Decl. 55°, as shown
in the figure by the small circles marked (u), forming apparent outliers of the
central point.
OBSERVATIONS OP LUMINOUS METEORS.
91
On the night of the 9th of August the apparent paths of 38 rerseVcls re-
corded by the British-Associiition observers between 9'' and 12'' 50'" appear
to have diverged from two definite radiant-points of nearly equal intensity at
the extremities of an oval space, extending from ?/ Persei to near e Cassiopeise,
through which nearly all the recorded paths prolonged backwards passed.
These points were situated in li. A. 29°, N.DccL60°, and R. A. 39°, +55°.
The general centre of divergence of the Perseids during the whole period of
greatest intensity of the shower on the nights of the 9th-12th of August, 1871,
was shown by the combined results of these observations to be a few degrees
northwards from the star ^ Persei, and not far from a point in R. A. 35°,
N. Decl. 59°, which is the average place obtained by giving equal weight to
all the separate radiant-centres shown iu the figure, of which tlic positions
h2
92 KEPORT— 1872.
were determined from the observations of the shower communicated to the
Committee by the observers for the British Association. The figure represents
in plane perspective the apparent paths of all the Perseids noted on the nights
of the 9th, 10th, and 11th of August, 1871, whose visible tracks were in the
immediate vicinity of the general radian-tregion of the shower.
Meteor-showers in October, 1871 . — On the night of October 14th, between
ll*" and 12'' p.m., six meteors, as bright or brighter than Ist-magnitude
stars, were observed at Hawkhurst in one hour, radiating -with considerable
accuracy from a point near the head of Aries, and close to the point of first,
appearance on this date of the radiant R^ in Musca, which appears to contri-
bute bright meteors from the direction of this constellation during the prin-
cipal meteor-showers of October, November, and December, but from which
so many bright meteors in one hour as those seen at Hawkhurst on the above
date form an exceptional display. Another meteor, like one noted on this
date, as bright as Sirius, proceeded from the same radiant-point, passing over-
head at Hawkhurst, and leaving a faint streak, at 11'' 45'" p.m. on the 19th ;
and two scarcely less brilliant members of the same meteor-shower appeared,
with short courses and slow motion, near the radiant-point on the 21st of
October. Three or four bright meteors with swift motion and leaving bright
streaks on their tracks, proceeding apparently from circuinpolar radiants near
Aj^, ,5 and Fj, ^ in Cassiopeia and Auriga, were noted during the same short
watch at Hawkhurst which was kept on each of those dates. The sky was
overcast with rain and wind on the nights of the 18th and 19th at Hawk-
hurst, and at all the other places from which communications were received ;
and although occasional openings of the clouds allowed a few stars to be seen at
Hawkhurst, where the single bright meteor last noticed was observed, and at
Tooting, where Mr. H. W. Jackson kept a watch for them whenever the state
of the sky permitted, no other shooting-stars were recorded. But in a mode-
rately clear sky, from 7'' 45"" until 11'' p.m. on the 18th, six meteors of some
brightness were mapped at the Boyal Observatory, Greenwich, two of which
were directed from E.3, one from the north pole, and the rest from a radiant-
point near A^^ ^j in Cassiopeia, or F^ ^ in Auriga.
On the night of the 20th the sky remained overcast at the southern
stations ; but at Birmingham, Sunderland, and Glasgow a few meteors were
visible through fog and haze, which generally obscured all stars less bright
than the third magnitude, until nearly midnight, when the sky gradually
became more clear. Three small shooting-stars were observed at Glasgow
by Mr. R. M'Clure between 1 1'' and 12'' p.m., and two by Mr. Wood at Bir-
mingham, as described in his observations on the shower.
Between 9 o'clock and midnight on the same evening, four meteors, three
of which were directed nearly from R^, and one apparently from the north
pole, were observed by Mr. T. W. Backhouse at Sunderland ; they were
unconformable to the radiant (Schiaparelli, No. 30, B. A. Report for 1870,
p. 98), or to any of the other radiant-points noted by Mr. Backhouse in the
morning hours of this and the two following nights. Another bright and
unconformable meteor, seen on the same night, was also directed from the
north pole ; while the twenty-one remaining meteors, seen in the course of
about two hours of observation on the mornings of the 21st, 22nd, and 23rd
(and all but three on the earlier dates), indicated the return of the October
meteors, and presented some contemporaneous radiant-points, of which Mr.
Backhouse gives the following description in his remarks on these results of
his observations : —
" The meteors marked A [twelve meteors noted in about an hour and a
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 93
half on the mornings of the 21st and 22nd, and another on the morning of
the 23rd] in the list belong to SchiaparcUi's liadiant No. 36 *, and those
marked C [two meteors noted on the last morning of the watch] to his
No. 37 f. Those marked B [five meteors seen on the mornings of the first
two nights] have a radiant-point in R. A. 113°, N. Decl. -58° J ; but, owing
to the remarkable swiftness of these meteors, this point can be only approxi-
mate. I make the radiant-point of A at R. A. 97°, N. Decl. 15°, taking the
observations of all three nights. The meteors marked U were unconform-
able to all these showers. It will be seen that only one of these appeared in
any of the mornings, and no unconformable ones in the evenings.
"The hourly rate of frequency of meteors of all- kinds, at that time of
morning at which thej were most numerous, was on the 20th [morning of
the 21st] 19, on the 21st 12, on the 22nd 8."
None of the shooting-stars observed at Hawkhurst, or at the Royal Obser-
vatory, Greenwich, on the evenings of the 14th and 18th of October were
directed from the radiant-point in Orion ; but on the night of the 21st the
tracks of eleven meteors from this radiant-point were mapped at Hawkhurst
between the hours of 11*" 30"" and 13'' 30"', and an approximate position of
the radiant-point was obtained. This appeared to be between the stars ■}, v
Geminorum and v Orionis. A
small meteor, almost instanta-
neous, near this point described ^
a short path, which appeared ^
curved towards Castor and Pol- /? a * Gemini
lux, and which lay in the sky '
like a bent whip (see the sketch) •
between y Geminorum and X •
Tauri, at about R. A. 90°, N. © 1:=—-^ & «
Decl. 20°. The last meteor of % T ^V^ ^ .
the shower seen at Hawkhurst v
on this night was directed from
the point C, between Castor (ir'ion
and Pollux, regarded by Mr. ^
Backhouse as having furnished ^•v
a few meteors on the morning A
ofthe23rdof October, at Sun- •
derland, during his observations of this shower.
With regard to the appearance of the October meteors at Birmingham,
Mr. Wood communicated to the Committee the following results of his obser-
vations of the shower in the past and in previous years : —
Luminous Meteors.
Birmingham. Epoch 19th October. W. H. Wood.
The meteoric shower of the above epoch has not been visible from this
station since 1868; and the following are the unpublished results of those
» Brit. Assoc. Eeport for 1870, p. 98.— Oct. 21. Near y Geminorum, at E. A. 96°,
N. Decl. 13°. Apparently identical with the radiant O, near v Orionis, described in
previous Eeports, of the meteor-shower on October 18-21.
t Ibid. Between Castor and Pollux, on October 21-25. About 17° or 18° from
SchiaparcUi's position of the former radiant-point.
X Connected, apparently, wtli the radiants Fj,^ [Report for 1868, p. 403], from the
middle of September to the latter end of November^ at R. A. 83°, N. Decl. 50°, near a, /3,
and h Aurigae.
94
REPORT 1872.
Probable time of maximum,
18th-lyth,
Percentage of colours.
observations, together with those of the succeeding years, to the present date
(1871):-
Meteoric Shower, October 19, 1868.
Centres of radiation and the number
per cent, from each.
Eadiant. per cent.
= 57
K..S = 7
K = 1^
r, = 10
e; ..+R3 = 10
U + G + T.,,3,, = 6
Orange or yellow.
Blue
White
= 40
= 40
= 20
Percentage of magnitudes .
Equal to Sirius = 13
„ 1st mag = 20
„ 2nd mag =23
„ 3rd mag. and under = 44
43 per cent, left reddish trains.
Eate of Apparition.
Date.
Hour (G. M. T.).
Number of
meteors
registered.
Hourly
average.
State of the sky.
18.
18.
19.
19.
20.
21.
12.0 to 12.30 a.m.
9.45 P.M. to 10 p.m.
10.30 P.M. to 11.30 p.m.
11.30 p.m. to 1,2.30 a.m.
P.M.
10.45 P.M. to 11.45 P.M.
6
1
4
10
6
12
4
4
10
6
Clear.
Hazy ; overcast at 10.45.
Foggy ; stars dim.
Clear.
Overcast.
Clear.
As far as the weather permitted observations, it would seem probable that
this shower was above the average of its kind in hourly numbers seen, and
presented its distinctive features of ruddy meteors leaving trains, of which
57 per cent, emanated from the radiant in Orion ; the remainder issued
from seven other radiants. Few meteors were seen before 11.30.
1869, October 19, p.m. — The brightness of the full moon obscxired the
meteors (if any).
October 19, 1870. — From the 18th to the 20th stormy weather (p.m.).
October 19, 1871. — 18th, overcast. 19th, overcast; heavy rains (p.m.).
20th, foggy; from 10.2Q to 11.20 p.m. 2 meteors: 11.10 p.m., 2ud mag.,
blue, 0-5 sec; from 86,4-53, to 74, + 50; radiant F^ ; left a streak (the
other meteor was not observed accurately enough for mapping : 10.35 p.m.,
ruddy, 2nd mag., in head of Cetus, rad. ?).
Meteor-showers of November 1871. — At Brancepeth, Durham, Mr. Joseph
Lawson noticed some conspicuous shooting-stars on the evening of the 8th of
November, of which he gives the following description : — " On Wednesday,
the 8th, at about 6 p.m., I saw four meteors in five minutes ; the brightest
about the 2ud magnitude. One passed through Corona, the other three were
all through Aquila ; but their directions were such that I could see no radiant-
point. One described a course of fully 60° (see the accompanying sketch,
p. 95)."
From a report of observations at Sunderland received from Mr. Back-
house, it appears that one or two meteors from Leo were visible on the
OBSERVATIONS OP LUMINOUS METEORS. ^S
eveniug of tho 8l.U of November, between half-past 10 and half-past 11
o'clock, one of which, at 10" ;37'", was
perfectly similar to the Leonids in all / AjuiLcc
respects, and was as bright as Siriiis. -^^ ^ ^^ • __,-
A 2ud-raaffnitnde meteor, leaving a ^-^i^-^"
long streak, also shot betweeen Ancs ^^ / ^\
and Cetns from the direction of the / "^^^
Pleiades and of the head of Leo as / "^\
late as the evening of the 18th of J, ^x
November, qnite resembling in its ap- n
pearance, and being perfectly conform- ^^
able to the radiant-point of that well- ^s
known group. The following notice of
a contemporaneous radiant-point accompanies Mr. Backhouse's description of
his observations of the shower : —
" I enclose a Table of the most important meteors that I saw last month.
Those marked L are Leonids, and those marked 11^ are conformable to Heis's
radiant-point H*. I was surpiised to see two Leonids so early as November
8 ; although the path of that at 10'' 37'" was not quite in the right direction
for the great shower of the 13th, I have not the least doubt that it was one
of them, for it was exactly like them. I watched for the Leonids for 25
minutes on the 12th [morning of the 13th], between 16'' 17'" and 17" 25"',
and saw two. The next night was throughout cloudy, whenever I looked
out, with very small gaps in the clouds, so I saw no meteors." Besides the
Leonids here noticed five meteors directed from the radiant-point E.^ were
seen on the nights of the 8th and 9th of November.
At the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, the sky was overcast on the nights
of the 11th and 13th, and only clear at intervals on that of the 12th. A
watch was, however, kept on the last two of these nights until after 3 o'clock
on the morning of the 13th, and until daybreak on the morning of the 14th
of November, and the apparent courses of about thirty shooting-stars were
mapped. Of these, four on each night proceeded, roughly, from the direction
of Leo, the remaining meteor-courses being chiefly directed from Taurus and
from other contemporaneous radiant-points in other parts of the sky. On
the night of the 14-15th the sky was again quite overcast ; and as far as
could be gathered from the observations under such unfavourable conditions,
the number of the Leonids observed was two or three times less than that of
the meteors visible from other radiant-points, or of the sporadic meteors visible
on an ordinary November night ; and no distinct return of the November
meteor-shower at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, covxld be recorded as
having been visible on the annual dates in the year 1871.
Although cloudy on the previous and the following nights, the sky was
remarkably clear at Hawkhnrst on the night of the 13th-14th of November;
and a watch for the November meteors was kept from half-past eleven until
half-past one, and again for about half an hour soon after two o'clock. The
first Leonid was visible at 11'' 33"', as bright as Jupiter, passing in a long
course and leaving a long streak from under Ursa Minor to the N.W. horizon.
In the following two hours twelve Leonids and twenty-six other meteors,
none of very great brilliancy, were noted, and their courses were mapped by
one observer. The unconformable shooting-stars all proceeded from a radiant-
region in or near the space contained between the heads of Taurus and Orion
* Also noticed by Mr. Backhouse on the -Ith and 6th of November, 1869 ; see these
Kcports for 1870, p. 97.
96 REPORT — 1872.
and the feet of Gemini and Auriga, while the Leonids were directed from a
better-defined radiant-region in the head of Leo. Two more Leonids, and
two other meteors belonging to the group from Taurus, were recorded during
the short watch between 2'' and 2'' 30™ a.m. on the 14th. One accordant
observation of a meteor from Taurus, simultaneously observed at the Royal
Observatory, Greenwich, at 12'' 3'" 12% was obtained ; and the comparative rate
of frequency of the Leonids and of the unconformable or sporadic meteors
visible during the same watch nearly confirmed the results of the watch kept
by Mr. Glaisher's staff of observers at the latter place.
At the observatory of Stonyhurst CoUege the Ilev. S. J. Perry obtained an
uninterrupted view of the November meteors during several hours of their
appearance on the morning of the 13th of November ; and the following
results are obtained from the list of meteors which he observed. The sky
was overcast until lO*" 15'" p.m. on the 12th (when a regular watch was com-
menced), and was clear, with the exception of a few stratus clouds, until
3^ 15"", when it became quite clear, and remained so until the end of the
watch at 6" 30™ a.m. on the morning of the 13th. The times and other par-
ticulars of the^appearance of fifty-five meteors were recorded, with the posi-
tions of their apparent paths among the stars. Of these about twenty were
Leonids, and fifteen, seven of which were Leonids, were as bright as first-
magnitude stars. The following numbers of shooting-stars, and of the
meteors which appeared to radiate from Leo, were observed in the successive
hours ending at —
1871, Nov. 13th, A.M... 12'' 13'^ 14" 3'' 4" 5" G'' 6" 30™ Totals
Nos. of meteors seen .. 4 9 6 12 3 7 10 4 55
Nos. of Leonids 2 1 71 1 6 2 20
The majority of the unconformable meteors noted during the watch pro-
ceeded from the directions of those parts of Gemini, Orion, Taurus, and
Auriga near the head stars of Orion, or between the Hyades, the Pleiades,
and the Twins.
" In the watch for meteors kept under the direction of M. Le Verrier in
France, on the nights of the 12th, 13th, and 14th of November, those ob-
served on the 12th and 13th issued from a point in the neighbourhood of the
constellation Auriga ; the ' Leonides,' or meteors issuing from Leo, were most
numerous on the night of the 14th" (Notes from the ' Comptes Rendus' of
Nov. 20, 1871, in ' Nature' of Nov. 30, 1871).
The following description of the November meteors, as they appeared at
Newcastle-on-Tyne on the morning of the 15th of November, 1871, was
communicated in a letter from Professor Herschel, in ' Nature ' of the 30th
of November : —
" Shortly before four o'clock on the morning of the 15th the clouds cleared
ofi", and the appearance of several meteors, one of which was as bright as
Jupiter, gave evident signs of the progress of the November star-shower.
The perfect clearness and darkness of the sky, in the absence of the moon, at
the same time gave especial brightness to the meteors and to their phospho-
rescent streaks. Between four o'clock and the first approach of daylight, at
six o'clock, thirty-two meteors were counted, or at the rate of sixteen per
hour, of which three were as bright, or brighter, than first-magnitude stars,
nine as bright as second, six as bright as third, and eight no brighter than
stars of the fom-th or lesser magnitudes. Twenty-six of these meteors were
directed from the usual radiant-point in Leo, which on this occasion, although
not very well defined, appeared to be approximately close to the star Zeta, in
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 97
Leo's sickle. About one half of their number left persistent streaks, which
sometimes appeared to grow brighter after the meteors had disappeared; and
I vainly endeavoured to bring them into the field of view of the direct-vision
prisms of a small spectroscope, the duration of the brightest streaks noted
scarcely ever exceeding one or two seconds. A very brilliant meteor, casting
around a flash like that of lightning, was seen here shortly after nine o'clock
on the evening of the 1 3th (and its appearance was also noted at Woodburn),
traversing the north-west sky. These particulars, imperfect as they were,
uufortunately, rendered by the cloudy weather, are the only descriptions of
the November star-shower which its appearance here has hitherto enabled
me to supply.
" A. S. Herschel."
" Newcastle-on-Tyne, Nov. 17."
Meteor-shower of December 12th, 1871. — Arrangements similar to those
made for observing the other meteor- showers of the past year were prepared
by the Committee in expectation of the return of the December meteors in
1871. On the evenings of the 5th and 9th, and on the night of the 12th and
13th, Mr. T. W. Backhouse recorded eighteen shooting-stars seen at Ilkley
in Yorkshire and at Sunderland, one of which on the 1st, and most of those
seen on the latter dates, were directed very nearly from the usual radiant-
point in Gemini. Three of those noted on the 5th proceeded from the Radiants
A ,._ ,g near Cassiopeia, the appearance of which in November and Decem-
ber has been supposed to be connected, not improbably, with the periodical re-
turns of Biela's comet. Although the clouded state of the sky prevented any
meteors from being seen at Sunderland during the hours appointed for obser-
vations on the evenings of the 11th, 12th, and 13th, three meteors from
Gemini were seen on the evening of the 11th, and two others during a short
watch on the morning of the 13th, when the sky was clear ; while only three
meteors unconformable to the same radiant-point were recorded by Mr. Back-
house during the time in which these five meteors of the December star-
shower were observed. On the nights following the pej-iodic dates, it will be
seen from his report that very few meteors directed from the well-known
radiant-point of this annual star-shower were observed. " On the 13th
[morning of the 14th] I watched for 25 minutes, about IB*" and 17'' (it was
equal to about 9 mirrutes' watch in a cloudless sky), and I only saw one
meteor ; it was not a ' Geminid.' On the 14th [morning of the 15th] I
watched for 45 minutes in a cloudless sky between 17"^ 15™ and 18" 21°\ and
saw nine meteors, all in the first 26 minutes. No radiant-point was, how-
ever, discernible ; one was a ' Geminid,' appearing at 17'' 36™. It was of the
fifth magnitude, and disappeared at | (tt Leonis, 15 Sextantis)." A bright
meteor, described in the foregoing accounts of large meteors, directed appa-
rently from the radiant-point Aj^, was seen by Mr. Backhouse on the
evening of the last-named date.
At the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, the sky was generally overcast on
the periodic nights, and only one small meteor, on the evening of the 12th,
unconformable to Gemini, was observed.
At Hawkhurst the sky was occasionally cloudy on the evening of the 12th
until 11'', when it became quite clear, and a constant watch for shooting-stars
was kept between 10" 15™ p.m. and midnight. Thirty shooting-stars were
observed, of which fourteen were visible before 11 o'clock. The apparent
courses of twenty-six of these meteors projected iipon a map showed that
eight were unconformable to, and of the remaining number four appeared to
98 REPORT— 1872.
be very erratic members of, the group directed from the radiaut-poiut in
Gemini. Tiie tracks of fourteen (or 5-i per cent, of those mapped) jjrolouged
backwards passed through a small circle about 12° in diameter, having its
centre about 3° from Castor, towards d Gemioorum, at 11. A. 108°, N. Decl.
33°, which was the apparent centre of divergence of the shower. About
one-half of the " Geminids " were brighter than second-magnitude stars, and
two of the brightest left a persistent streak of light on their course. They
appeared white, and their apparent motion was, in general, not swift. On
the evening of the 13th the sky at Hawkhurst was completely overcast.
At Tooting, near London, a watch for their a])pearance was kept for
1" 20"', between 9" 40'" and 11'' 20'", by Mr. H. W. Jackson ; the sky was
quite clear, and the ajjparent paths of seven meteors directed from Gcmiui
were recorded on a map. Prolonged backwards the tracks of these " Gemi-
nids " aU crossed a small circle not more than 8° or 10° in diameter, whose
centre was nearly midway between Castor and Pollux (slightly towards the
neighbouring star i Geminorum), at R. A. 112°, N. Decl. 30°. In his remarks
on this night's observations Mr. Jackson observes that his attention was
wholly given to recording the apparent courses of the meteors with exact-
ness, so that their a2)parent places of appearance and disappearance, as drawn
upon the map, were probably not more than half a degree in error either way ;
and all the meteors whose apparent paths were drawn upon the map were
satisfactorily well observed. No particular attention was according^ given
to the appearances of meteors from other radiant-points, nor to the various
characters of brightness, duration, and of leaving persistent streaks which
were presented by the Geminids that were observed. On the evening of the
13th the sky at Tooting was completely overcast.
A definite radiant-point of the shower very near to the latter position
appears also to be indicated by the appearance of one of the meteors of the
December group, with a very short course, on the same evening, as observed
by Mr. W. F. Denning at Bristol. The sky was generally unfavourable for
observations on both evenings of the 12th and 13th of December ; but the
descent of a large meteor (as described in the foregoing list) was noted near
the western horizon at 9'' 42"", and three other meteors were seen during a
short interval of a quarter of an hour on the night of the 12th, when the
sky was clear, and a watch was kept by Mr. Denning for the return of the
December meteors. " At 10'' 3'" p.m. a small meteOr was seen. It was
evidently in close proximity to the radiant-point, its path being very short,
and not extending over more than one or two degrees. It diverged from
t Geminorum (about 4° S. of Castor), and was of momentary duration.
The direction of its extremely short path seemed to be towards the zenith.
" At 10'' 18"" I saw a much brighter meteor. It emanated from Gemini,
and passed to the horizon in the south. One part of the path occupied a
place about 8° south of Bigel in Orion ; there was no tx'ain. Other meteors
were seen, but the exceedingly clouded state of the sky rendered it impossible
to note their paths."
The following observation of a single meteor at Birmingham on the night
of the 13th, together with a notice of the appearance of the shower as
recently recorded there in previous years, was received from Mr. Wood : —
"December 12th, Meteoric Epoch. — Birmingham Observations.
" In 1866. — See the British Association Reports for that year.
" In 1867. — No observations ; probably from bad weather, or impeded by
moonlight.
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
99
" In 1808. — See the British Association Reports for that year.
" In ISOi). — December 12th, a fine night ; one meteor in half an hour,
from radiant G.
" In 1870.— Overcast on the 10th, 11th, 12th, and 13th, excepting a
clearance of an hour's duration from 11" 30'" p.m. on the 12th to 12" 30" a.m.
on the 13th. Five meteors in three quarters of an hour from radiant G,
and traces of radiant K.
" In 1871. — December 12th and 13th, overcast, excepting half an hour
from 11" P.M. to 11" 30'" p.m. on the 13th. Amount of clear sky = |. One
meteor in this time from radiant M^.
" December 13th, 11" 12"' p.m. ; third magnitude ; blue ; duration 0-5 sec.
From K Orionis; path 6°; directed from p Geminorum. liachant Mj*.
At Buntingford, Herts, the only period clear enough for observations was
obtained by Mr. Greg between 9" 45'" and 11" 30'" p.m. on the night of the
12th, the sky on the night of the 13th of December being completely over-
cast. Fourteen meteors were seen, of which thirteen radiated from the direc-
tion of Gemini. They were mostly small, with short paths and moderate
velocities ; scarcely more than two or three sufficiently bright to have attracted
the attention of other observers at distant stations. The December star-
shower appears to be no longer so striking, either in size or in number of the
meteors, as it was eight or ten years since. The apparent velocities of the
meteors were also scarcely greater than half, or perhaps about 40 per cent,
less than those of the meteors of the August shower. The meteors noted by
Mr. Greg were principally those which moved with short courses near the
radiant-point. The backward prolongation of their tracks, projected upon a
map, are closely clustered round the star d Geminorum, which was the prin-
cipal radiant-point, with a tendency also to be concentrated along a line of
the meridian extending 5° or 6° north and south of that star, and principally
southwards from it towards, and apparently nearly as far as, the stars e and
V Geminorum, giving the radiant- region an oblong form, with its greatest
elongation in the direction of an arc of the mei-idian.
At York the condition of the sky was so unfavourable that scarcely one
meteor was visible during the whole of the December period. At Newcastle-
on-Tyne the sky was also completely overcast. At Glasgow rain continued
on the night of the 12th until ten o'clock, when the sky became clear, and
remained so for an hour until about 11" 30™ p.m., when it was again obscured.
During this interval seven meteors from Gemini, nearly equal to first-magni-
tude stars in brightness, were recorded, and their apparent paths were mapped
by Mr. R. M'^Clure. The first (described in the above list of large meteors),
which diverged like the rest from Gemini, was as bright as Jupiter ; and but
one meteor of the shower left a persistent streak. A Geminid was also
observed at 12" 20" on the same night, aud its apparent course was mapped.
The tracks of all these shooting-stars prolonged backwards passed through a
small circle about 12° in diameter, Avhose centre was close to the star c Gemi-
norum at a point in R. A. 97°, N. Deck 28°. Twenty meteors were counted
by two observers during the hour of the watch ; but the paths of only the most
conspicuous, which diverged from the direction of a radiant-point in Gemini,
were recorded upon the map. On the night of the 13th, rain, and a com-
pletely overcast state of the sky, prevented any further observations.
By projecting all the recorded paths of the Geminids upon a single map, a
* This meteor may also possibly have been a " Geminid," the direction of its apparent
path being very nearly conformable to the position of the radiant-point of the shovrer
in Gemini as observed at its return last year.
100 REPORT— 1872.
radiant-region of oval form contained between the meridians of 11. A. 96° and
1 12°, and between the parallels of north declination 20° and 40°, would
include the directions of 37 of the 45 tracks which are thus drawn. In this
area the intersections of the tracks, prolonged backwards, are slightly more
concentrated than elsewhere within the radiant-space, at a point in R. A.
104°, N. Decl, 34°, about 4° from towards a Geminorum, while the general
character of the radiation was diffuse ; and the apparent paths of but few
meteors were recorded near the radiant-point.
Meteor-sJiower of Januarij 2nd~3rd, 1872. — On these dates a watch was
arranged to be kept by observers in different places in England, and at
Glasgow from half-past 10 o'clock until midnight ; and a favourable view
of the shower was obtained at most of them on the night of the 2nd of
January.
Towards 11 o'clock a few detached clouds, which had partially' obscured
the sky in London during the earlier part of the evening of the 2nd of
January, disappeared, and the view of the shooting-stars during the re-
mainder of the watch until midnight was uninterrupted. In the neighbour-
hood of llegent's Park, Mr. T. Crumplen noted the appearance of nine
meteors in this interval, beginning his watch at lO"^ 45"\ and recorded the
apparent paths of six conformable meteors upon a map. Three of these were
as bright as first-magnitude stars. All but one, which appeared ruddy,
were white or bluish, not swift in their motion, and two of the brightest
left a short streak of light upon their course. The courses of all, prolonged
backwards, intersected each other within the space of a small circle 5° or 0°
in diameter, having its centre at R. A. 228°, N. Decl. 52°. So quickly did
bright meteors succeed each other, that it appeared probable that the shower
would continue to be of some brilliancy after midnight. An aurora was
visible at the same time in the north.
In the south-west part of London, near Eaton Square, the meteors were
also watched by Prof. Herschel, between lO** 30"' and midnight, the Hght
of the rising moon, which first appeared at about 11'' 30'° p.m., being the only
obstruction to their view. The paths of 16 shooting-stars were mapped, of
which only one appears to have been unconformable to the usual radiant-
point of the shower. It shot on a very short course close to Polaris from
the direction of the zenith at 11'' 7"', and was not perfectly observed. Four
or five smaller meteors may also have passed unrecorded. Six of the meteors
mapped were as bright or brighter than Ist-magnitude stars, the brightest ap-
pearing white and those of lesser magnitudes o£ yellow colour. The brightest
only of the meteors seen appeared to leave a faint streak of light, visible for
less than a second, on its course. This meteor described a path of 35° in two
seconds : it was as bright as Sirius during the last half of its course ; it
appeared at 11'' 56'", and its appearance was simultaneously observed at
Hawkhurst. Of the fifteen conformable meteors, five were erratic members of
the shower, their apparent paths, prolonged backwards, passing about 20" on
each side of a very definite radiant-point, from which the remaining ten
meteors all diverged. A circle of about 6° in diameter, round a central
point in E. A. 227°, N. Decl. 49°, would include the intersecting prolonga-
tions backwards of the tracks of all the latter meteors. This apparent place
of the radiant-point, which was close to that observed by Mr. Crumplen, is
also not more than 5° from the position of the radiant-point of the same
shower, at R. A. 234°, N. Decl. 51°, as observed in 1864 *. A slight
increase in the rate of frequency during the watch appears to indicate a
* See these Reports for 1864, p. 98.
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 101
growing intensity in the progress of the shower, the numbers of the meteors
recoi'ded in the successive half-hours until midnight being 3, 5, and 8.
At Tooting, near London, the sky was also very clear on the evening of
the 2nd ; and Mr. H. W. Jackson noted the appearances of nineteen meteors
between 10'' and 11'' p.m., the tracks of six of which were very accurately
laid down upon a map. Eight meteors were observed ; and the paths of two
of them were mapped between 11" and 11'' 15"", and only two meteors were
visible in the following 15'" until 11" 30"° v.u. The whole number of meteors
seen by one observer in 1" 30"' was 29. A bright meteor (described
in the above list), whose course was exactly conformable to the usual radiant-
point of 2nd of January shooting-stars, was also recorded by Mr. Jackson on
the night of the 31st of December. Although proceeding generally from
the direction of the radiant-region between Bootes and Draco, no definite
centre of divergence was distinguishable among the meteor-tracks recorded
at Tooting, which appear to have belonged to outlying members of the
group; and one of the eight meteors mapped was unconformable to the
general radiant-point of the shower. These meteors appeared for the most part
white ; they were generally bright, and left faint streaks upon their course,
which remained visible upon the track of one of the brightest 'for about one
second. A flash like lightning was observed at 10" 16'" p.m., and two
similar flashes were noticed between lO*" 16™ and 11" p.m.
At the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, the apparent paths and appear-
ances of fifteen meteors were registered between 10" 12'" and 11" 17"^, of
which four only were less bright than stars of the first magnitude, in a watch
partly kept by one and partly by two observers. They were mostly bluish,
but some yellowish white, and described apparent courses of from 10° to 40°
in length, in one or two seconds of time. Ten of the meteors recorded in the
list left more or less faint persistent streaks of light upon their course. Two
or three of the meteors whose apparent paths were tlius registered appear to
have been unconformable to the general radiant-point, and the tracks of the
remainder prolonged backwards present a sj^ace of somewhat diffuse radiation
in the region about Quadrans and the tail-stars of Ursa Major.
The sky was also free from clouds at Hawkhurst on the night of the 2nd,
and a watch for the January shower was kept from 11" 20'" until midnight.
Fourteen meteors were noted in this interval, and the paths of ten were satis-
factorily observed, and were drawn upon a map. All were directed from the
neighbourhood of the radiant-point in Quadrans ; and the backward pro-
longation of their tracks presents a region of somewhat diff'use radiation,
extending over an area about 25° in diameter, having an apparent principal
centre of intersections at a point in about E,. A. 220°, N. Dec!. 47°. The
meteors seen were principally of the first and second magnitudes, white,
shooting across the sky in long courses, with moderately slow speed ; and
about half of their number left a slight persistent streak of light on the whole
or on a part of their course. Several smaller meteors passed unrecorded,
and the hourly numbers of the meteors seen was not less than twenty for
two observers.
At Birmingham the sky was very clear on the night of the 2nd ; the
courses of fifteen or sixteen meteors were mapped ; and the appearances of
many more were noted by Mr. Wood during the hour between 10'' 15™ and
11" 15"" P.M. At 10" 17'" a flash like that of distant lightning (apparently
the same as that recorded by Mr. Jackson near London, and if so, probably
meteoric) was seen upon the south horizon during an interval of twenty
minutes after 10 o'clock, in which no shooting-stars were visible. At
102 REPORT— 1872.
lO*" 20™ a meteor of fourth magnitude was seen, and at 10'' 21"" a sudden out-
burst of several bright varicoloured meteors made its appearance in all parts,
four or five shooting-stars being visible in the space of an eye-grasp, so that
it was impossible to I'ecord the particulars of more than one or two members
of this group. Two of them noted by Mr. Wood were brighter than first-
magnitude stars, leaving streaks, apparently not conformable to the usual
radiant-point of the January meteor-shower, but rather diverging in
nearly parallel courses from the radiant A, ^ in Cassiopeia, or one of them
possibly from the radiant NG in that neighbourhood. This burst of shooting-
stars gradually subsided, and meteors as bright as first- and second-magnitude
stars continued to succeed each other at short intervals until 10'' 49"", when
intervals of meteoric quiescence, unbroken by the ajjpearance of any shooting-
star for 10'", Hr"", and 20'", succeeded each other ; and the last meteors seen
during the watch were recorded at 10'' 59'" and 11'' 13'" p.m. Among twelve
meteors registered by Mr. Wood during the half hour between 10'' 20'" and
10'' 50'", two were as bright as, and five brighter than, first-magnitude stars,
and five left luminous streaks that remained visible for two or three seconds
on their course. In colour they were mostly blue, white, or yellow ; and the
duration of th'eir flight was generally from one second to about one second and
a half. Projected upon a map, the ajiparent courses appear to diverge from a
centre between the last stars in the tail of Ursa Major and a Draconis, several
of their visible tracks having been noted in or near the constellation Ursa
Major ; but many scattered meteors were observed ; and in the following
remarks on the shower Mr. Wood assigns various radiant-points to the prin-
cipal meteors, whose directions he had projected and compared together upon
the maps.
" Meteoric shoiver of Jannarif 2nd, 1872. — A fine shower of bright meteors,
at the rate of twenty per hour for one observer, radiating in the proportion
of 42 per cent, from K, [radiant of the annual shower],
22 „ from MG,
36 ,, distributed over the radiants A, ^, A,g, NG, DG.^, KG.
" Meteors of slow apparent speed, train-bearing, and varicoloured. The
time of maximum, the duration, and intensity of the shower could not be
ascertained in consequence of clouds supervening on the succeeding night.
The foregoing meteors were probablj- only a fragment of the shower."
A description of the shower by Mr. .J. Morton, at Eccles, near Manchester,
was communicated to the Committee by Mr. W. F. Denning. It was first
noticed at 8'' 40"' p.m. on the 2nd, the sky being then very clear, but after-
wards becoming partially obscured by clouds. One bright meteor, leaving a
train of sparks, and five smaller ones were seen before 9 o'clock ; and eight
meteors of some brightness from that time until 10*" 23"' p.m. Six of the
fourteen meteors noted were as bright as second, and one was as bright as a
first-magnitude star.
At Glasgow the sky was so hazy on the night of the 2nd, between
10'' 55'" and ll*" 20™ p.m., that Jupiter and the brightest fixed stars only
were visible ; but during the remainder of a watch from 10^ to 12'' p.m. the
sk}' was generaUy clear, and fourteen meteors were observed in this interval
by Mr. U. M''Clure. The apparent paths of nine of them were drawn upon a
map ; and of fhese meteors four were as bright as first-magnitude stars,
two were as bright, and the rest fainter than staT's of the second-magni-
tude. All but one, of reddish colour, which passed in a short course from
Ursa Major across the star Pollux, appeared Avhite ; and they described area
of from 5° to 20^ in lengtli, in times which varied from a half to a full
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 103
second in duration. Their tracks projected upon a map, altliougli proceeding,
as in the foregoing observations, from a general radiant-region near and
around the star Bootis, presented within that space no well-marked centre
of divergence.
On the same night, and during the morning of January 3rd, as appears
from the following observations at York and Sunderland, the shower con-
tinued to be very bright, with occasional luUs and apparently outbreaks of
its intensity, imtil near the approach of daylight. At Sunderland Mr.
Backhouse reported that " though the night of the 2nd was for the most part
very fine, yet at the appointed time the sky was so cloudy that I only
watched for a short time, especially as meteors were so scarce. I only saw
one at that time ; but in the morning I watched for at least twelve minutes
in a cloudless but moonlit sky, the radiant-point in Draco being high in the
sky, yet I saw no meteor belonging to that sj'stem, and only one altogether.
The evening of the 3rd was fine till about 10'' p.m., when it clouded over.
I did not see a single meteor, though I watched for about ten minutes at
6"' 30", and equally long about 9" 15"."
Another considerable outburst of the shower must, however, have occurred
shortly before daybreak on the morning of the 3rd, as the brilliancy and rapid
succession of the meteors at that time at Street, Somersetsliire, attracted a
child's attention, who, as related by Mr. Clark, informed him of some of the
particulars of their appearance. " The nights, both of the 2nd and 3rd, were
so unfavourable as to prevent me from sending you any observations. On
the morning of the 3rd, however, I had an account from my nephew, who
though but eight years old is intelligent enough to take a good deal of
interest in simple scientific things, of several meteors which he had seen,
coming rapidly after one another, and evidently somewhat bright."
On the following evening, and night of the 3rd to the 4th of Januarj"-, the
sky was so completely overcast at all the British- Association stations that
no shooting-stars could be observed ; but on that evening a single meteor, as
brilliant as Jupiter (as described in the above list), was observed at Green-
wich, the direction of whose apparent course was almost exactly directed
from the radiant-point K3 in Quadrans (Bode, or in the region of Draco
between Hercules and Bootes), which distinguishes the annually recurring
meteor-shower of the lst-3rd of January.
Meteoric showers of April, 1S72. — Some observations of the April star-
shower in 1871, not included in last year's Report, were obtained by Mr.
Clark, at York, with a clear view of the sky, from shortly before ten
o'clock until midnight on the night of the 19th of April in that year. Six
rather bright meteors, with very short courses of only a few degrees in
length near the constellation Ursa Major, were mapped, belonging apparently
to the meteoric system or group of radiant-points M^ in that constellation.
One meteor from the direction of Lyra was also seen before eleven o'clock, and
six between eleven o'clock and midnight, the .sky being equally clear, — the
numbers of meteors of all kinds seen in the former hour being six, and in the
latter nine. The sky was overcast on the other nights of the shower.
The radiant-point M^ of Heis's and Greg's former list* was marked in
* Eeport for 1^+, p. 00. Radiant at R. A. IGO", N. Decl. .51°, enduring from April
16th-.30lli, apparently identical witli M^ of Heis's list for April, at R, A. 1 5;i°, N. Deel. 47°,
near X Ursa- Majoris : now subdivided by Mr. Greg into separate radiant-points, MZ
and MGZ, near Urs.a' Majoris and Cor Caroli, in March and April ; M.Z near y Leonis
on tlip I0tb-2(lfh of Ajjril ; and MG, in the Lynx, near the fore feet of Trsa Major, from
the end of April to the beginning of June. (See the Table at the end of this Eeport.)
104 REPORT — 1872.
April last by the appearance of some conspicuously blight meteors, to whose
characteristic brilliancy Mr. J. E. Clark drew particular attention in the
following communication to ' Nature ' of May 2nd, 1872 (the meteors
alluded to by Mr. Clark are described in the foregoing list): —
" I noticed in your Number of last week the account of a brilliant meteor
observed in Cumberland on April 19th. Now 1 had reported to me a very
similar meteor at nearly the same time (about 8^ 40" p.m.), an account of
which I forwarded, with the other results of my night's watch, to Mr. A. S.
Herschel, who would gladly receive any further report of the same ; un-
fortunately I have not the Number of 'Nature' at hand, and therefore
cannot make a personal application to your correspondent. On the same
evening, about 11'' 7."\ I myself saw an exceedingly brilliant meteor, which
fell to a point just south of Vega. It is curious that both of these came
from the radiant situated at about R. A. 155°, N. Uecl. 47°, or rather from
one of the group of radiants there situated, M^ of Heis, 56 and 52 of Schia-
parelli. It would be an interesting point of investigation whether the
meteors from that radiant-point are of peculiar brightness." — J. E. Clark,
April 30th, 1872.
The meteor seen by Mr. Clark at York was seen at the same time at
Hawkhurst ; and the direction of its apparent i>ath there, prolonged back-
wards, meets its similarly prolonged track, as observed at York, near ^ UrsiB
Majoris, very near the position of the radiant-point M^. The bright meteors
described in the above list on April 5lh and 19th, and May 3rd, appear all
to have diverged from the same group of meteor-radiants in Ursa Major.
Those recorded on March 26th, April 12th and 22nd, radiated from centres
of a group of apparently equally bright meteor-showers, S^_ g_ ^, in the neigh-
bourhood of Virgo and Comae Berenices.
On the evenings of the 12th, 13th, and 14th of April, 1872, Mr. Greg
watched at Buntingford, Herts, for an early appearance of the April meteor- '
showers from the direction of Cerberus or Lyra (QHj, QH.,), connected to-
gether apparently in one meteor-system making its appearances on the 13th
and 19th-20th of April. The former radiant-point was noted from the paths
of nine small shooting-stars, seen in about two hours on the morning of the
13th of April, 1864, by Prof. A. S. Herschel at Hawkhurst* ; and no appear-
ance of this shower appears to have been again visible in subsequent years.
Its radiant position at E. A. 270°, N. Decl. 25°, was yet distinctly marked,
the meteors resembling each other even more closely than those of the group
from Lyra in their appearance, and moving in swift courses over all parts of
the sky from a region of somewhat diffuse radiation, extending to but not
exceeding the limits of the small constellation Cerberus (Bode), with an
average centre at about the position named. By its close neighbourhood to
the well-established radiant-point of the LyraVds at about R. A. 278°, N. Decl.
34°-5 1, it appears to have been an early commencement of that shower, and
an integral part of the meteor-system which was first shown by Drs. Weiss and
D' Arrest to be apparently connected with the periodic orbit of the Comet I,
1861. Mr. Greg's watch for the early reappearance of the group on the
above date was unsuccessful, two small meteors only being observed from the
radiant DG (in the head of Draco), and two meteors radiating from the
direction of /j Hcrculis, during a very careful watch on each of the above-
named nights.
Shortly after the end of April last, a communication from Mr. AV. F. Den-
* Eeport for 1864, pp. 40 and 98.
t See these Reports for 1864, p. 98, and 1868, p. 399.
OBSERVATIOXS OF LUillXOU^J METEORS. 105
uing informed the Committee that 'Sir. Kiiobel, at Burton-on-Treut, had
observed " many meteors in April, particularly on April 14th, 1872. They
appeared to radiate from a point in ]3ootcs east of ^ Eootcs." This point,
which is very near to /j Herculis, was nearly in the direction of the last two
meteors seen by Mr. Greg, and in the position of the general radiant Q, „ *
of meteors first beginning to be seen about the 23rd of April, but which
appears from these observations to present itself close to the same position at
least ten days earlier, on about April 12th. (See the Table at the end of
this llcport. Eadiant, No. 51.)
The night of tire 19th of April, 1872, was generally not iinfavourable for
observations at most of the British-Association stations. At York, until
nearly 11** r.ir., the sk'y was nearly overcast ; but at that hour the clouds
began to disperse, and soon after the beginning of the watch they had finallj-
disappeared. During the succeeding interval between 10'' 45'" and 11'' 45"^
r.M. nine meteors, two of tliem as bright and two brighter than fii'st-mag-
nitude stars, were observed, six being visible in the first and only three
meteors, Avith two or three faint flashes near a Lyra?, in the last 45'" of the
watch. From 11'' to 11'' 15'" there seemed to be quite a brisk shower, but
after that time their rate of fall diminished considerably. The Ly raids were
all noticeably rapid in their flight, their courses varying from 5° to 2-5° in
length, and the duration, even of the longest, scarcely exceeding half a
second. They were colourless or white, and there was a noticeable absence
of streaks upon their course. Two or three meteors diverged from a radiant,
No. 53 of Schiaparelli, in Comte Berenices, apparently connected with the
radiant S^ ., near the same constellation, in Virgo, of Heis ; others from M^ ;
and five of the nine shooting-stars whose courses were mapped were Lyraids.
The brightest of these appeared at 11'' 28°^, and its apparent course was also
noted at Wisbeach and at Hawkhurst. The radiation of the Lyraids was
not very exact ; but the courses of three, prolonged backwards, intersected
each other very nearly at a point in II. A. 280°, N. Decl. 43°, near tt Lyra?.
Some further observations on the progress of the shower will shortly be given
from Mr. Clark's report of its appearance.
At Buntingford a clear sky prevailed on tlie 19th, between 11'' 15"' and
12"' 45'", and the apparent paths of seven meteors of first and second mag-
nitudes, all of them meteors of the April shower, were drawn upon a map
by Mr. Greg. The backward prolongation of their tracks, which were
generally not far from the radiant-point, presented a very definite area of
intersections 3° or 4° in width, at about B. A. 268°, N. Decl. 25°, in Cerberus.
Their courses were generally short ; and the following is Mr. Greg's description
of their appearance : — " Owing to the moon being so bright the tracks were
rendered rather shorter and the trains less visible than they woidd otherwise
have been, besides causing me, no doubt, to miss seeing a number of others.
Certainly there was distinctly a sliower going on which was not visible on
the evenings of the 12th, 13th, and 14th. Five only of the seven were very
white ; their average brightness was that of a first- or second-magnitude star,
and owing to the shortness of their apparent paths their duration was under,
if any thing, half a second. The radiants QHj [of meteors on the 12th-13th,
in Cerberus] and QH, [of the Lyraids on the 19th-20th of April] appear to
me to be simply one and the same shower, with a slight difterence in the
dates and in the positions of the radiant-points." The sky was quite over-
cast at Buntingford on the night of April 20th.
At Mr. Crumplen's station in London the sky was remarkably clear, but
» Ectioi't for L~^GS. p. 402.
1872. 1
106 REPORT— 1872.
only three meteors radiating from near a Lyrte, and iu the neighbourhood of
that constellation, were observed in a watch of three quarters of an hour, at
about 11 o'clock on the evening of the 19th. The first of these was as bright
as a first-magnitude star, leaving a streak of light iipon its course which re-
mained visible for nearly a second. On the night of the 20th, soon after
10 o'clock, the sky was entirely overcast.
At Bristol, on the 19th, few stars were visible between lO** and 11'', the
sky being very cloudy, excepting for a few minutes in the north-east, at about
eleven o'clock, when one conspicuous meteor and one small one only were
seen by Mr. Denning. The former rather bright meteor is described in the
above list.
At Birmingham a hazy state of the sky also prevailed on the 19th, and
strong fuU-moon light on this and the following evenings only permitted a
single meteor to be seen. The scarcity of meteors on the latter night during
an hour's attentive watch was, however, fully confirmed by the other obser-
vations which will shortly be described.
"Meteor shower of April 1872.
"April 19th, from lO"" p.m. till ll"* p.m. Sky hazy; moonhght; no
meteors.
„ 20th; from 10" 20"" toll'' 20-" P.M. Sky clear; moonlight; one
meteor.
„ 20th, 10" 59" P.M.; brighter than a Ist-mag. star; white; dura-
tion O'o second. From a Aurigae; path 10°, directed from
a Lyra;. Left no streak (a part only of the meteor's coui'se
seen, askance)." — W. H. Wood.
On account of the overcast state of the sky no observations on these dates
were obtained at either Glasgow, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, or Sunderland.
A list of six meteors seen at Wisbeach between 10" 45'" and 11" 30"' p.m. on
the 19th, with a tracing of their apparent courses on a map, was received
from Mr. S. H. Miller, with the following remarks on their appearance : —
" There was a remarkable accordance in their direction, and No. 6 seemed to
take the same path as No. 5. The brightness of the moon interfered with
the observations of their colour, and also of the length of their path, especially
as they were small, and their trains of light a thin streak. I did not see one
on the 20th, although I kept a persistent watch." In reply to a later in-
quiry on the latter point, Mr. Miller adds, " The sky was clear on the night
of the 20th, during the hour I watched, and had there been any meteors
then, I think I must have seen them; but after 11" 30"' it became cloudy,
and there was rain on the next morning early."
On the night of the 19th, at Hawkhurst, the sky M'as very clear, the moon-
light bright, and a faint aurora was visible in the north. Between 11 o'clock
and 12" 15'", four observers counted 16 meteors, whose apparent courses were
more or less exactly recorded. Ten of these meteors were seen in the first,
and six in the last half of the watch, and nine were as bright as, or brighter
than, Ist-magnitude stars. Two of the brightest meteors mapped were also
simultaneously observed at York, and one of them diverging from Lyra was
at the same time recorded at Wisbeach. Nine of the sixteen meteor-tracks
were directed with no distinct centre of radiation from a space between
a Lyrse and Z Herculis, and the remaining meteor-tracks were nearly equally
distributed in their directions from the radiant-points AVG(?) in Cygnns,
Sj,5 iu Yirgo and Comse Berenices, Qj,, in Corona, and M, in Ursa Major.
OBSERVATIONS OP LUMINOUS METEORS. 107
The ouly meteor from the latter radiant-point (near the zenith) was the very
brilliant one seen to fall vertically elsewhere, and described as proceeding
from the same radiant-point by Mr. Clark, at York. The Lyraids appeared
white and swift, and generally left no streak ; but when seen foreshortened
near the radiant-point they sometimes appeared bluish or yellowish, and left
persistent streaks. The sky was overcast on the night of the 20th, and no
meteors were observed.
At the Eoyal Observatory, Greenwich, during an interval of clear sky on
the 19th, between half-past ten and half-past eleven o'clock, six meteors
were registered by one observer of Mr. Glaisher's staff, of which three -vyere
as bright as first-magnitude stars, and four diverged from the neigh-
bourhood of o Lyrae. The Lyraids were all bluish white, with short appa-
rent paths, leaving streaks. On the night of the 20th, the sky at the Eoyal
Observatory, Greenwich, was too cloudy for further observations of the April
shower.
During the night of the 19th of April, it appears, from observations which
wore continued at the lladcliffe Observatory at Oxford, by Mr. Lucas, until
the appearance of daybreak, that the activity of the April meteor-shoAver was
very brightly maintained until the morning of April 20th. During a strict
watch kept for shooting-stars on that morning from I'' a.m. until 4'' a.m., the
sky was quite clear during the. first hour, and only crossed occasionally by
clouds from the south-west dm-iug the last two hours of the watch. Towards
4 o'clock a.m., the brightness of the full-modn light gave way to that of the
approaching dawn ; and a thick haze beginning at this time to overspread the
sky, at length obscured aU but a few stars of the first and second magnitudes.
The appearances of twenty-six meteors were recorded ; five in the first, five
in the second, and sixteen during the last hour of the watch ; the numbers
of Ist-magnitude shooting-stars visible in the same times being two, one, and
six. Seventeen of all the meteors noted were Lyraids, of which the numbers
recorded during the same times were four, three, and ten. Six of the Lyraids
were as bright as first, and six as bright as second-magnitude stars, and they
appeared white even in the strong moonlight. Their courses were generally
very rapid, sometimes 20° or 30° in length, and occasionally leaving a per-
sistent streak. Of the nine remaining meteors, all but two proceeded appa-
rently from a radiant-point in Cygnus eastward from that in Lyra, not far
from the position in May and June of a radiant-point WG in that constel-
lation ; four courses prolonged backwards intersect each other close to e Cygni,
near which one of these unconformable meteors also moved with a short ap-
parent path. The brightest meteor seen during the watch moved from_ the
direction of e Cygni, bursting when it had reached the brightness of Jupiter,
on a long course from y Cassiopeia; nearly to Capella ; its duration was two
seconds, and it was followed by the next meteor, which appeared as bright
as a 2nd-magnitude star, moving upon exactly the same course. Two other
unconformable meteors were directed from the radiant-points S^j in Yirgo
and Comae Berenices.
The tracks of the seventeen Lyraids, prolonged backwards, all passed
through a region of radiation including the chief stars of Lyra and the stars
$, o Herculis, where a circular area, about 15° in diameter, with its centre at
E. A. 275°, ]Sr. Decl. 32°, would include all the directions of the LyraVds that
were observed, and was probably very near the central point of divergence of
the group. The radiant-point being near the zenith when the Lyraids were
most numerous in the last hour of the watch, and their courses extending
round it towards all parts of the sky, this apparent place of the radiant-point,
I 2
108 RKPOKT IHT'i.
although not definitely marked bj' exact intersections of their apparent paths,
yet appears to be the best average position of the somewhat diffuse centre of
divergence which they appear to have presented that was obtained during
the last annnal reappearance of the April meteors.
The notable absence of meteors on the evening of April 20th, after the
somewhat considerable star-shower that was seen at most of the stations on
the preceding night, was especially remarked by Mr. Clark, who described the
following particulars of the watch which he kept at York for the appearance
of any continuation of the meteor-shower which might be visible on the
second night : — " Tlie watch on Saturday the 20th was altogether unsuccessful.
I commenced a few minutes before 10'', and was joined at IC' 25'" by Mr.
Brown, when for about ten minutes a cirrus cloud from the cast obscured
two thirds of the sky, and we were driven in by a snow-storm from the north
at 11'' 10"' ; after which I did not watch, as it remained more or less cloudy.
However, during that period of nearly an hour and a quarter, for half the
time tivo tvatching, we did not see with certainty a single meteor. Such a
remarkable absence of them I have never noticed before. To be sure the
moon was brilliant, but not so brilliant as to obscure 4th-magnitude stars."
Meteoric SJioivcr of May 1872. — Some preparations which were made by
the Committee to watch for the appearance of any star-shower or conspicuous
meteors on the nights of the 17th, 18th, and 19th of May, when such have
been occasionally observed, wore entirely frustrated by a constant succession of
wet and cloudy weather. During the hour appointed for observation on the
evening of the 20th of May, Mr. Miller watched, with a tolerably clear view
of the sky, at Wisbeach, Avithout seeing any meteors.
A single bright meteor of the shower was seen at Newcastle-on-Tyne, in
an interval of clear sky for about twenty minutes, on the night of Maj^ 17th-
18th, at 12*' 10'" (midnight) by Professor Herschel. It resembled a Lyra) in
brightness and colour, and passed in two seconds from between ^, ?; Draconis
to between 'C, t} Ursa) Majoris, beginning its course 5° before, and ending it
5° beyond those stars, and leaving a bright streak upon its whole track,
which remained visible, even in the bright moonlight, for one or two seconds.
The meteor's motion was apparently from the radiant DG^ in Draco, and was
not conformable to the principal radiant-group in Corona and Hercules (Q,,^
of this meteoric epoch.
PaPKHS RELATIXCi TO Meteoeic Astronomv.
A pamphlet of printed instructions to observers of shooting-stars for tlie
year 1 872-73 has been circulated among astronomers and the associated ob-
servers of shooting- stars in Italy by Professor Schiaparelli «nd Signor F.
Denza, appointing five or six nights in each month for combined observations,
together with a list of nights in the whole year for which not more than
twenty meteor-tracks were recorded by Zezioli. Observers at fourteen
Italian stations are engaged in these observations ; and the Italian Luminous
Meteor Association have already recorded the apparent paths of 6151 meteors
in 1870, and of 10,257 meteors in 1871, which have been projected upon
suitable maps for exhibiting the radiant-points which they present. It is
intended to print these maps so as to exhibit the positions and characters of
the different radiant-points, with their dates of appearance, as clearly and
conveniently as possible to the eye. The star-maps employed by the Asso-
ciation of Italian observers are constructed upon the same projection as the
well-known Celestial Atlas of Professor Dorna of Turin. The observations
u
A miMCKAI. 0>M.'AU.Vr.VE TA.U.R "F TlIK n.VDIANT-ros.TlM.S
AND DURATIONS OP MI'.TliOlt-SlloWKItS.
ugnitwi.
K.IM.
n! I
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,110 April..
:iH£i:
AP"!
iU, «.,,(.,
Apnl •<> J. Uh « .
Aprflif-ts
April i| to ll*j ]i-.
ApfJ.
April.
itoll'viV"
Jm,,to4n(.i>
JlJ> I* ,._ ,
Jul; tl ta flipL ■« ,
,(toarpl.t...
Jdf 4taA<i|.it..,
Juljll ■« Au(. I] .
Xuf iiIoOA Iff.
A"« •-JI.-
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Sfpl. i^loOf*. aa .
IV,.
CvtK
Mil 4l«I>Hu"ijl!'
W..T, .(lul)w JO
• ! • i"
t Ib^uiUirai'i InniUUon of IMiltninlli'i aork. Knla
: llnll.). A.^.ltUuir lUpori*, K.I. r.r ilCI.
I la Jan.. I
Deg.i|ta Jin, ]i
l^r-JXC^
FAr-ujijol „.
lUrsh i-it
fth-iloMu. i|..,
Peh ijtuUtr. 11
April i-|a,
April ij-i<
April i-,j
11.7 l-]l^
luf. I-IJ
J<J/l-'»^
J»lj H.,i.., 31..
Aii( ii-l>
Jul; rtriuAuc ■
Auf . .( 10 e.pl. V
Sipt. I IvOcL IJ.
Sipt. ilaOoLll
S*pL lUOgbn
(Mobrr .-ij, .
Kr.) .
MSID .
Olrrt...
C*r*t..
Cant...
C^n*.
K,.., ,
Ckfit!.' ,
CatiiL
B«.,an,....rt(lt-1.0*+IflO119'+l0*- CmlnM ^^<^'+t,•f
C.nli»ot.bout i]S-+*S'- -C«ni.lof iMaf (VI,b,).H ij.'+ti'* D«. >
Bwliuil DiulUplK
Cbimturamri b/ Araorlcan otoriiHoiu. A nolablo m.laor opodi. Uauinui
ind'trd Jan.
Frababla tunln nmr i»'+s6'.
rKntinml lir Mr. CUr» »1 Turk, ill..) =!'o. '']■_ . „ . „
(WoiM). M 'Ji; I + »4* '. JaniMi/y (. Itei" protaWj io—'— '
o'+jo"f ; itiflltto anrl r»lti«r uniwl
jlianlniiiUipli'r
iDl'Du'lcll
(ll}'+ (4', bj Jlr. Orrd, (rwii Dtota-t 1
niuliiinl tnultipla. Ccntn i|o*+|>*.
OtaDrraliont ia.
.u>l->m tupiio«! Id 1» 1}* tn dlannUr; n.<ll»nli ".
illr. dng, rnin Zcltoll't olaanaUaiu.
ntiiol bj iLst'iin .
nrin or rullanl
anca rraio R A
lUIiaDi (longBlKl aoDnlinf lo Ssliiaparelli.
1,it), uvn ti; XoumifEf in Aiulnlia. proUblf
P«uNTremni.n«B..nlofBZi. =Cn„,PllT. il6ir(Wr.»
Mi>i4 •«.
ProtelOa cauuatiiflniKnl or 8 ]. «.
InparlsA;.*^ rtJlonlmn. 1 A Z 1- iii'+ji'.
ilnuHir SnullmrUonob-I AZi- 9l*4>4» ■
wml bj Zoinli. |AZ]- j,*+*7"-A j. 4?
Cmind poiilion i4t*+4»*: p»rluip« omioa.iioil "llh II Z.
ProUWa (onUn'ution or U 1. 4 af Ito<>. C.-nirf = ilo'-f t°*
- ■ orDBi. Orocml
Uulliplandiaiil; jngublir nnimini
' -lijKSchir ""
RadunisrCaiBDllV., ilj,, tot ij Fib-lo^' + i?'] (W»I«V
Prof I[rr«4Bl, II April iI64=i7j'+.5t*=0"n'« '■.■'*■ *. nr Conn! 11.
iI4ir(Brfaia|BRllO. UuiniuiuiiApriL Pnihabl; idwlml mtli (lio nnL
Fn>>^rpi<n<i47*+)0^ Pnil. oJl.(.Tr+]ir). =Coiii« I. i(6i ? A
^l^f S^-Ti^-. ,'_!»» (_»
01*+».*). Thu nduxl apptt
Du.(.an or U 6. 7, b-ting U.S -
lUaAHKlungmlol, il/
o«o-ILi, j-lo.i'X. D-l.
iVatl-irnDHl nJoKt u,
o(YT Eton(U»l»d.anir
vali.irtartpd thaavr- RaduuilKaDiro al i3v*+=i*. afld probabtj uiulliplfl
thinlinn nina wnU. () Denrulu In Apnl, pirbapi iiMma. tnm oai
Piutablji
CViront In Juno,
Bad last nil drfliwL
(-UiZ)7 Radluiatonjalad. i6a*loit7*R.
il of Nu.
■,!■„
-.-.^-"HT (Vi>l»,l,jo*+j,*l[Ja61
Dultipla rwUiiL.
lUdi.Dl nlhrr unnrUii
ibiblj-.Vu. «j
liniiedJl. Pouhlful.
- ■ - RaduDt
-CuiDfll
?1] dtfliud at .94' 4- 7*- X^ Fui
ISbHW™)..Iji.'4+So>(
Jun*M-
Ikdianl oiulbplit C«nti*(l i7S*4-tt*r
PwlM; nnsarted wilh Nn* 7t and tl^ nquim furtber imntinUon.
Juna I B lo Au( ) i ; protobl; an •imaira dunUniL Poailiaa bf J. E, Clark,
Yorl. )IJ'+4»'
K*^li«r,t UllTw, alDhratfl^l?
sq.i'.i, ri Julj, ilu«iea*+}}*, Canlfs ii6*+57*? CoaQnoad bj Zo-
l(.,..|..,i,„r,d„„bifuL
1U.IUM miliar <liir<wid anil aloDfalHl.
('..nflroiMl tl» bj Zciiali'a obaendiDna. rrduwt b/ Mr Ortj.
Ohaarirdb^Praf A-S-lltncbel, ■» J»It, il7i- Pocbana-Q 3.
lUdliDI aall daflnid, cloat lu Polaria^ al is-+l3< u if?!. .ComMllI.
iln'fSabupanlli).
BadtaoL muliipl*; nntn at group ooar q Pacui; al fi P^gaai in il;..
-y 1 Ifor Aiigiul) o(!(«i>iua^r and lloii. Southrm hamiapbunmdiaalacar
l^imaUugjL. obacnid bj A S. lletKbot, il Juli. ills; aud in I^IiikI.
V-ll Auiiul. 1)71. ai 34i*-)|-(A.S. H.V S>a>V 11a.
Pnoi Zwoli'a oWnaLoni (A 9], Fowbl; lunnortol with R 1, 1 vtO aod H
A aall-dcBnnl nilianl and luttHiHa ahuirtr. tlCB-7i. Uai. abuui <ub ici'i
.C0Ri(i«II.. i7)7f (Wti-andSckiipanUi).
Pialblf fODBarlvIallh Xo. «l.
Ilaii'i ponUDD not ouiOnanl tij O and U. 9m He. ij.
tU IbapTi-idtb
onfall^ , parbapa di
BnomblanM lu Oaaitl II- il«>. for Auiiut it (Scbiaparal
Obvrrad i<70fb/l'»r. Taeblol al PaWmo. Poanbl/ a
.X,*ulV)»D>a7arai>dlIau..
K^laDl pmnm. VuMum u.
Woll-markiil ahniiar; ndiaiil mil dsSnad.
I>, Porbafc Canibridgr. Ami lo, i<tl = )i*4-I9*
PmbabljWBUuutlaiiurX ii. i)
I ab^rrttl, .7Stfp(,, ilCf, bj A
CViinaetnl oilh U ] f, 8 and Z. No. 171 probaUrapHudo.ndiant. Itaqum
lUill.nlpnihahlralonnMl. SuppaanlbTWaiii.l>'Arral.OalkaiidS()>lapa[<lli
lobaniniiivlnl iilllillloli'i ninial. A ig urilfiU-ii*'|-}4*.
Olaariwl at Oiwinilrfi, it]a ; ridlant niat Cor Oiroll ; InillalJueL '
llailLanI iJolifalad ifn'-l-To'ta I70*+71*. Btwirtf mOl iiiirbd.
Aiiliii|iur1antnialiMrlo.liiii>ar. Mailmum ii.it Dm ILidlniit.MnlnBOtmi.
noruin Ilailiaiital loi'-l-is'. 1. I)m> iKj. IL P.Ons and AS llarKhal.
Ur.WoMlal ioo*.<-j4*iii iltt. Pruhibt; alunpinl, ifa'-l-fs'lo las'+D*.
I'oHJbl] mniimaimnwul uf Nn. 7 (Jmi. 4).
A •uuthorn ndlani In lb» liX uf lldi and Ngumt'tr. Ifhiia obaar'aUKiia In
Kn|laiid.;-ii Auguil, 1171,
I lUduoRl I17 IL 1'. an« rtum Ui* lladoliir« ob.Traiioii. nl Uifunl, ilro-ji
OBSEllA'ATIOXiS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 109
of shooting-stars made at the observatory of Moncalieri contiiuie to be pub-
lished in the Meteorological Bulletin of that observatory, in which nearly
1000 meteor-paths observed before the end of April 1869 have been already
published. All the observers' notes are also transmitted to Milan for final
reduction and arrangement in a collective Catalogue by Professor Schiaparelli.
In connexion with this extensive research, an enlarged edition of his ori-
ginal Memoir on the Astronomical Theory of Shooting-stars* has recently
been compiled by Professor Schiaparelli, and was published last year under
his directions, as a separate volume, in the German language by Dr. vou
Boguslawski, of Stettin f. The materials of the original Treatise have been
much increased, so as to present a full account of the recent investigations in
meteoric science whose results have most contributed to advance this modern
branch of astronomj^ since the publication of his former work. A complete
Table of all the 189 radiant-points obtained from Zezioli's observatiousj,
the full particulars of Avhich have not been previously published, is also em-
bodied in the work, with a supplementary Table showing the position of each
radiant-point with regard to the apex of the earth's way, and the principal
elements of its parabolic or cometary orbit. In a list of notes on the several
radiant-points, a comparison of their positions with those obtained by other
observers, showing them in many cases to corroborate or to correct former
observations, is made to connect the new list of radiant-points in every im-
portant point of agreement with the older lists of Heis, Greg, and Schmidt,
and with the separate determinations of special radiant-points by individual
observers. A useful summary of these results is given by Mr. Greg in the
accompanying comparative Table of radiant-points, presenting in one view aU
the points of difference and resemblance between the several general cata-
logues of radiant-points which have hitherto been published, with the excep-
tion of the extensive Catalogue recently printed by Dr. Schmidt in the second
volume of the publications of the Observatory of Athens, to which the Com-
mittee have not yet been able to refer §. With the aid of observations received
since the appearance of the last printed Meteor-Catalogue in these Reports,
the Committee propose to consider more closely the epochs and positions of
the general radiant-points exhibited in this Table, and to enter in a future
Report into a complete discussion of the identity and of the comparative im-
portance of the difi:erent families or groups of meteoric showers which, in
many instances, it appears most properly to represent.
* "Note e Reflessioni intorno allaTeoria Astronomica delle Stelle Cadenti." (See these
Eeports for 1868, p. 407.)
t Eiitwiirf einer astronomisehen Theorie der Sternschnuppen, von. J. V. Schiaparelli.
Aus dem Italienischen iibersetzt und herausgegeben ron Georg von Boguslawski (8vo, with,
four Plate.s, 268 pp.). Stettin, 1871, Verlag von Th. von der Nahmer.
I A Table of the principal meteor-showers only of this later list was formerly pub-
lished by Professor Schiaparelli (v/dc Eeport for 1870, p. 1)8), with sliglit subsequent alte-
rations in two Memoirs in the Ephemerides of the Milan Observatory, containing annota-
tions on the history and characteristics of each meteor-shower of the List, one memoir in-
cluding the meteor-showers observed in each half year. That for the first half year was
noticed in the last Report (1871, pp. 44-48), and the concluding Memoir has since been
received by the Committee from Prof. Schiaparelli. To this complete cycle of meteor-
showers, and to the descriptive notes wliich it contains, fiu-ther consideration will be devoted
in the next Report.
§ The same Table is also presented by Dr. Schmidt in the ' Astronomiscbe Nach rich ten,'
Ko. 1756.
110
REPORT — 1872.
GEIs^EEAL LIST OF BOLIDES AND
Date.
1783
Jan. 8
Sept.26
Nov. 2.
1794.
June 28
1871.
Sept. 1
10
Hour.
h m s
Evening ..
8 55 p.m.
3 55 a.m.
Place of
Observation.
Slough, Bucks...
[hid ,
Ibid,
Ibid,
10 45 p.m. Knocklong, Co,
Limerick.
10 43 p.m.
Knocklong, Co.
Limerick.
Apparent Size.
Very bright .
Brilliant
Large and bright.
Rocket-like
Very brilliant
Verv bright.,.
Colour.
Very white
17 10 7 p.m. Between Alder-
shot and Farn-
ham.
Oct. 8
11
11
10 28 51
p.m.
Regent's Park,
London.
About iBrompton, Lou-
12 7 or
12 10 a.m.
don.
9 5 50 Royal Observa-
p.m. tory, Greenwich
Fully as bright
Venus.
Nearly as bright
Venus.
as
Very large
Nov. 9 11 56 10
p.m.
11
8 17 30
p.m.
121 7 45 p.m.
(Possible
error 2™.)
ibid.
Brighter than J
piter.
Showed most
beautiful CO
lours.
White
Intensely vivid
green.
11- Bluish ; the
fragments
crimson.
Brighter than Ju-
piter.
Bluish
(bid.
Twice as bright nb Bluish-white
Jupiter.
Tenby, Soutli Brighter than the
Wales. fixed stars.
Orange-yellow
Duration.
Position.
Passed along close
under a Lvrae.
Dropped from S
Cygni.
Meteor-streak.
Ursa Major.
In the southern sky
at an elevation of
about 20°.
First visible near
Pegasus and passed
across the sky to
Capella.
«= =
From 328°+ 17°
to 300- 2^,
ending its flight
a little beyond i
Aquila;.
From altitude 45°,
15° W. from S.,
to altitude 30° or
35°, 20' W. from
S.
By the side and to
the north of Ju-
piter; about as far
from him as Cas-
torisfromPollux.
Moved from Polaris
inanearlystraigi
line between e am
K Ursa; Majoris
6 seconds. ... Passed between
and e Leonis.
Slowand state-
ly motion.
Slow motion.
Two or three
seconds.
6 seconds.
1 second From near the PleJ
j iades, passed closd
i to y Tauri aboul
i halfway between
and X Tauri.
2 or 3 seconds. Course as in sketch.!
Slow motion.
'S a.*
Ursa Major
f
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
IIIGET METEORS OBSERVED IX 1871 A^-D 1872.
Ill
Length of
Path.
20'
Long course.
Direction.
Fell perpendicularly to the ho-
rizon.
Appearance ; Remarks, &c.
Observer.
Course parallel to « and y Cygni
Globular nucleus. Left a streak
visible 40'' after the meteor had
disappeared.
Gave a very bright light. Left a
luminous streak visilile for 1'"
20- or 30" to the eye, and for
about 3"' in the telescope finder.
Horizontal from east to west.
Directed from Andromeda.
35"=
25"
20°
Path
curved.
Dropped straight doven .
Directed from /t Ursa; Majoris
About lO'' 01
12°.
Sir W. Herschel's MS.
Journal.
Id.
Id.
Resembled a faint sky-rocket. A
portion of the train in the posi-
tion shown in the sketch re-
mained visible for 3™ at least.
Several other meteors were seen
on the same night, but none so
conspicuously brilliant as this
one.
Disappeared gradually; left along,
broad, bhie streak for 4 or 5 se-
conds. A clear night ; and a
few lesser meteors were occa-
sionally visible.
The sky was too cloudy to verify
these positions by the stars.
Increased in size gradually, j
and at length became club- I
shaped, as in the sketch. A |
magnificent meteor. The I
green colour most brilliant, v.
Increased gradually ; burst into six
or seven fragments, the last two
of vvhich were of a fine crimson
red colour ; left a bright, very
enduring streak.
Nucleus increased as it advanced ;
and at last burst into several
fragments, some of which were
crimson.
Left a slight streak
At first a faint streak ; increased
gradually, and disappeared sud
denly, with the appearance of
sparks. Left no conspicuous
streak.
Id.
Jerem. Ilenly.
Id.
T. Crumplen.
G. J. Svmonds.
H. W. Jackson.
William Marriott.
Id.
V/. Bishop.
T. W. Webb.
112
REPORT— 1872.
Date.
Hour.
• Place of
Observation.
1871. ; li m j
i\ov.l3 9 5 p.tn.'N^ewcastlc-on-
Tyne.
13 11 25 p.m.
15 5 45 p.m.
151 8 34 p.m.
19
Dec. G
Reclicnliaro,
Kent.
Regent's Park,
London.
West Ilcndon,
Sunderland.
41 p.m. I Royal Observa-
tory, Crccnwicb
10
8 11 p.m
Apparent Size.
Colour.
Duration.
Position.
Much brigbter than White ; no
Venus.
Large Reddish
8 15 p.m.
Birmingham ..
Beeston, near
Nottingham.
12 10 39 p.m. Glasgow
20 10 28 p.m.
31
About 10 25
p.m.
Nancy, France ...
Tooting, near
London.
Brighter than the
fixed stars.
Brighter than Ve
nus.
Brighter than Jii
pitcr.
other colours,
Ruddv colour.
White
As bright as Venus Blue,
at its ma.ximum.
Very large Red
As bright as Jupiter White
Large Green
Brighter than Jupi-
ter.
Apparent path
aliout 10' S. from
West, reaching to
the horizon.
\cross the lower!
part of Ursa Ma-
jor.
From 2 40° + 66°
to 197 + 74
Shot from Algol'
towards v Tauri,
disappearing a
few degrees be-
fore reaching X-
Tauri.
Course near and
parallel to Orion's!
belt.
a.— S^
From 97°+50°
to 76 +17
Shot from /3 Auriga;
towards « Tauri
disappearing at a
point in 11. A.
5" 10"-, N. Decl
31° 30'.
0-75 second .
From Cassiopeia
through Perseus,
towards the Plei
ades, near to
which star it dis-
appeared.
1 or 2 seconds Shot across q and|
TT Orionis.
a= ( =
From 73°+ 13°
to 09 + 4
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
113
Length of
Path.
Direction,
About 25° ... Obliquely down, as in this
bketch.
West horizon.
Shot liorizoutally from east to
west.
'Directed from a Ceti
From radiant K G
[From radiant M^ (or K G ?)]
Appearance ; Remarks, &c.
Observer.
Left a very bright, enduring streaki II. Page,
on a part of the latter portion
of its course. [Seen also at
York, where it appeared not
to be directed from Leo, but
from a radiant-point distant
from it by a few degrees. — E.
Clark.]
Left a long train. [Seen also at The ' Standard.'
Norwood, Kent, moving from
E.N.E. toW.S.W. In a watch
of two hours on the same night
meteors appeared to be un-
usually scarce. — /rf.]
Nucleus appearing to rotate in its T. Crumplen.
flight, leaving some streaks and
a long train upon its course.
Disappeared gradually, without
explosion.
As bright as Venus during most T. W, Backhouse.
of its course, growing suddenly
brighter just before disappear-
ance. Left a short streak for
2'' at the middle of its course,
atN. Decl. 21°.
Left a fine streak. End of the|\V. C. Nash.
meteor's course not seen. j
Meteor increased in size, and col- W. H. Vl'ood.
lapsed at maximum ; leaving aj
transient train on its course.
Short course.
Exploded with a bright flash. E. J. Lowe:
Left some luminous red sparks Dec. 8th.
on its track, and a bright train
of red points, which remained
visible for about three minutes.
Left no streak. [At Bristol Mr. |R. M'Clure.
Wm. F. Denning observed aj
large meteor at O"" 42'" pass
downwards in the west. No
stars were there visible to re-
cord its path.]
The Times,'
Almost vertically down ,
At disappearance the meteor burst,
with a bright green flash,
[The radiants observed in France
during this month appear to
confirm very closely Dr. lleis's
previous results. — M. Faye.]
Increased in size, and
disappeared with a
slight explosion. The
course may have ex-
tended onwards a few
degrees beyond the
stars named.
P. Guyot: ' Comples
Kendus,' Jan. 15,
1872.
II. W. Jackson.
114
BEPOKT — 1873.
Date.
Hour.
Place of
Observation.
Apparent Size.
Colour.
Duration,
Position. 1
1872.
Jan. 3
h m
8 13 ±
Royal Observa-
tory, Green-
wich.
— Jupiter
Bluish white .
More than 1
second.
From centre of Au-
riga, passed half
way between ji
Tauri and i Au- '
riga, across Alde-
baran, and about
10° beyond.
8
About 11
p.m.
Sutton
Larr^e
First appeared in
the N.W. and
passed across the
western sky about
halfway between
the horizon and
the zenith.
Feb. 19
10 20 p.m.
Brompton, Lon-
don,
Brighter than Jupi-
ter.
.\ppeared near Re-
gulus, and passed
across a point
about ^ of the
way from a. lly-
drse to Sirius.
19
10 21 p.m.
Royal Observa-
tory, Green-
wich.
Bright light
blu?.
3 seconds
From a point nearly
midway between
Procyon and Si- ■
. rius moved nearly |
parallel to Procy- l|
on and a Orionis. 1
Mar.26
April 1
7 55 p.m.
12 9 a.m
Bedford
= Jupiter
Orange
From ^ (jj Urs!e Ma-
joris, y Bootis) to
very near /3 Ce-
phei.
From R. A. 6'' 40",
N. Decl. 33°, to
R.A.9'', N.Decl.
0° (point of dis-
appearance).
Barnsbury.[Seen
also at Ray-
Lodge Obser-
vatory, Maid-
enhead, by Mr.
Lasselland Dr.
Huggins.]
At first small, then
large and bright.
■
First white,
then red,
then intense
purple.
Not more than
1 second.
1
8 30 p.m.
Radcliflfe Obser-
vatorVjOxford.
Three times as
bright as Jupiter.
Green ,.
Appeared at an alt i- .
tudeof about 30° 1
under Cassiopeia,
and disappeared
behind tall
houses.
Descended from
aboutl5°toabout
5° above the N.W.
horizon.
Passed between ji
andrLyncisfrora
the direction of f
(near o) Leonis,
disappearing 6°
or 8* beyond
those stars.
5
12
7 37 p.m.
10 45 p.m.
Upton Helions,
Crediton, De-
von.
Somerset House,
London.
As bright as Jupiter
or Venus,
= Jupiter
White, with a
tinge of
green.
White, with
red sparks.
About 5 sees. .
2| seconds ...
A CATALOGUE O? OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 115
Length of
Path.
35°
15°
Direction.
[From Jan, 2nd radiant-point
K3.]
10°
30°
Fell vertically
From radiant S4, -, near 5 Vir-
ginis.
Appearance; Remarks, &c.
Observer.
Left a fine streak
Its whole course seen through
thin clouds, which partly ob
scured ■ Jupiter and Regulus.
The point of disappearance is
perhaps in error 5° or 6°. A
very bright meteor.
Left a streak,
halo.
Sky hazy, lunar
Left a long, persistent streak on
its course.
Presented no extraordinary ap-
pearance at first, but increased
in size and brilliancy to disap-
pearance, illuminating all that
part of the sky. End of its
course hidden by a house. Only
two other small meteors
(moving from the same radiant,
point towards a Tauri) seen be.
tween lli^ 40"' and 13^.
[On the previous evening, March
31st, a very brilliant meteor was
seen at Ray-Lodge Observatory,
Maidenhead, by Mr. Lassell and
Dr. Huggins, which lit up the
whole sky.]
Seen against the bright back-
ground of the sunset sky, while
looking for the planet Mercury.
Nucleus followed by a short tail
of red sparks, which remained
visible when the meteor disap-
peared. Left no streak.
W. C. Nash.
The Surrey Advertiser.'
H. W. Jackson.
W. C. Nash.
T. E. Elger: 'Astrono-
mical Register," May
1872.
F. W. Levander : Ibid.
Mr. Keating.
S. J. Johnson.
A. S. Ilerschel.
116
REPORT 1873.
Date.
Hour.
Place of
Observation.
•
Apparent Size.
Colour.
Duration.
Position.
1872.
h m s
Apr. 19
8 30 p.m.
Greystoke, Cum-
Large apparent disk
Nucleus white.
Slow and re-
Descended in the
berland.
surrounded
with bluish
light.
gular speed.
S.E., and disap.
peared before
reaching the
ground.
19
About 8 40
York
Brighter than Ve-
nus.
About 4 sees..
First appeared
slightly above the
moon ; disap-
p.m.
appearing to
move faster
at last.
peared behind
somehousesatan
altitude of about
20°.
19
11 7 p.m.
York
Twice as bright as
Venus.
Red and pur- 2i sernnds -
From 2-15° -f 41°
pie. At last
white with
to 265-5 +30
red sparks.
19
11 7 30
Hawkhurst
Brighter than 1st-
Yellow
0'5 sec. while
«= a=
p.m.
mag. »
in sight.
From 330°-|-55°
to 335 +45
1
22
10 13 p.m.
VVisbeach, Cam-
bridgeshire.
Brighter than a
first- magnitude
Yellow
3 or 4 seconds
From 168° + 62° |
star.
to 22 +76
From Ursa Major
to Cassiopeia.
30
7 52 p.m.
RadcliflFe Obser-
vatory, Oxford.
Three times as
bright as Jupiter.
Yellow
Began 15°or 20° E.,
and in a line with
the pole. Disap-
peared at an alti-
tude of about 15°
above the hori-
zon.
May 3
9 25 p.m.
Gateshead, Dur-
As bright as Jupiter
White, then
5 sees. ; slow
From 2° north of v
ham.
orange-red.
motion.
Comae Berenicis
to 5° beyond a
point 1° S. of r
Virginis.
28
12 mid-
Regent's Park,
Larger, but not
Orange colour Very swift . . .
From a point 15°
night.
London.
brighter than Ve-
1
south of the ze-
nus.
nith to 7° or 8°
below Arcturus.
July 22
Between
Near Chelms-
Like the moon ...
White, with
About 2 sees. .
From alt. about 40°1
8 30 p.m.
ford, Essex.
other colours
S.W.toalt.aboutl
and
in its train.
30° W.N.W. 1
9'' p.m.
(rough estimaJ
tion of position
more than half
way from the ho-
rizon to the ze-
nith).
22
8 55 p.m.
Dunmow,E?sex.
Brilliant
Front globe
white ; the
Shot across the sky,
about 5° to N. of
rear one
Arcturus.
bluish.
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
117
Length of
Path.
Direction.
Appearance ; Remarks, &c.
Observer.
Fell vertically
Descending with a
sUglitly eastward
slope.
Nucleus gloljular, surrounded at
last by flickering radiations.
Disappeared without explosion.
Left no sparks nor luminous
streak. Sky hazy, with a lunar
halo.
Increased from a first-magnitude
star to beyond the brightness
. of Venus. Left a transient train.
a= d =
Estimated /From 172° +10°
path...l to 188-5- 19-5.
T. Fawcett : ' Nature,'
April 25th, 1872.
Communicated by
J. E. Clark.
Directed like the last meteor, Disappeared with some quickly
from radiant M^ near n
Majoris.
Ursse
Fell vertically ,
I
[From radiant M^
in Ursa Major.]
Descended at an angle of about
45' towards the N.W. hori-
extinguished sparks. The sparks
left upon its course appeared to
follow the meteor. Very bril
liant even in the moon's light.
Left a short sparkling streak,
which advanced along the me-
teor's course, and appeared
more conspicuous than the
head. Last 5° of the meteor's
flight only seen.
A beautiful meteor, even in bright
moonlight. The streak ap-
peared to brighten up after
the disappearance of the nu-
cleus.
zon.
/
Fell vertically from the direc-
tion of Ursa Major.
J. E. Clark.
Miss M. R. Ilerscheland
Miss J. Herschel.
S. n. Miller.
Mr. Keating.
ut40'^
Descending with a slight slope.
S.E. to N.W.
White in the first, and red in the|A. S. Herschel.
last half of its course ; broke at
last into two or three red sparks,
which immediately disappeared.
Left no streak.
Nucleus kite-shaped ; disappeared T. Crumplen.
gradually, left no streak. Seen
among clouds which partially
covered the sky.
Pear-shaped, leaving some sparksiT. Usborne.
in its course. Disappeared with-
out bursting.
The meteor displayed two globes
of light, and appeared to burst
at a great elevation.
H. E. Cockayne.
118
REPORT 1872.
Date.
1872.
July 22
22
22
Hour.
h m
8 55 p.m.
.\bout9p.rn
About 9 p. ru
Place of
Observation.
Bridgewater
[Seen also at
Chelmsford.]
CoDkham, Berks.
[Seen also at
Sittingbourne,
Kent.]
Apparent Size.
= Sirius
Large .,
Large .,
Colour.
Duration.
Position,
Oran.a;e-red ... 1-25 second ,
Bluisb
Intense white.
. afterwards
dull red.
G sees.; slow
speed.
Street, Somerset- Large and veryiBright bluish
shire.
briprlit.
green.
1 seconds, or
perhaps a
little less.
From 2° above Al-
tair to about
5° N. of east, 12'-
above the hori-
zon.
.^bout halfway up
in the sky.
Passed within 20°|
of the zenith.!
[Seen also in the
east at Ponty-
pool ; a comet-
like star with a
following star.]
From 45° above the
E.S.E. horizon to
25° above the
E.N.E. horizon.
Experiments on the Surface-friction experienced by a Plane moving
through water. By W. Eroude^ F.R.S.
[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be i^rinted in exfcnso.]
(Plates II.- VII.)
The object of these experimeuts is to discover the couditions of the resistance
to passage through the water caused to models or ships by the friction of the
water against the sides.
This has been investigated by towing, with the dynamometric apparatus,
planes formed of thin boards ; these being bodies of such a form as to possess
the least possible displacement, and present to the line of motion the least
possible sectional area, compared to the amount of wetted skin, and at the
same time, owing to their flotation, capable of being made stable and self-
supporting in the water, though entirely submerged.
The dynamometric arrangement is as follows :—
The water space is a parallel-sided tank 278 feet long, 36 broad at the top,
and 10 feet deep ; but for the surface-friction experiments it was necessary
to lower the water-level about 15 inches.
The tank is roofed from end to end, and a light railway, carried by the
framing of the roof, traverses its entire length at about 20 inches above the
normal water-level, there being a clear space between the rails, the gauge
of which is independent of sleepers or transomes.
A stout framed truck, suspended from the axles of two pairs of wheels, runs
on the railway, and is moved by an endless wire rope, coiled in a spiral
groove on an accurately turned barrel, which is driven by a small double-
cylinder engine, hanng a heavy and highly speeded fly-wheel, and a ehro-
EXPERIMENTS ON SURFACE-FRICTION.
119
1 Length of
1 I'ath.
Direction.
Appearance ; Remarks; &c.
Observer.
20°
Slope about 35^
OhsPTVPfl tlip flisnnnparaiirp 1)V
I V. r.lnrlr
>/
turning round from west, seeing.
probably only the " spark " at
the end; beginning seen by
others in the town. /3 Fegasi
From E. to W.— H. J. Impey.
(J. E, C.) *
only just visible in the strong
twilight.
About 40°
From a little W. of S. to a little
Left no streak visible in the bright
R. W. Rogers.
wbile in
E. of N.
twilight. Disappeared without
sight.
bursting, dying out to a red
cinder, which went on some
distance on the same course.
'About 50° ...
>
Left some sparks behind it at last,
W. S. Clark, n. P.
and some on its track, but no
Bright Clark, and
y
persistent streak. Disappearedj others.
£
like the hall of a rocket, one
spark proceeding onwards some
way.
f
nometric governor of very exact action, and of sucli arrangements that any
required steady speed between 100 and 1000 feet per minute can be assigned
by it to the truck.
The truck carries the dynamometric apparatus. A skeleton diagram in
Plate 11. shows this in full detail, with the special fittings by which it was
adapted to the surface-friction experiments ; and as the diagram is fully
referenced, the apparatus will be better understood by inspection than by a
verbal description here. Its general character is, however, as follows : —
The plane of which the resistance is to be tested is driven through the
water by a suitable frictionless attachment, so arranged that the horizontal
force driving it is wholly delivered by a spiral spring, like that of a spring
balance, the fixed end of which is held by a strong bracket descending from
the frame of the truck. The extensions of this spring under the various
forces applied form in each case a measure of the force. The extensions,
brought to an enlarged scale by a lengthened index-arm, are self-recorded by
a pen which follows the motions of the arm, and traces a line on a sheet of
paper carried by a cylinder which receives its motion by a band from a pulley
on the hinder axle of the truck, so that the circumferential travel of the
paper represents on a small scale the forward motion of the truck. A second
pen, actuated by clockwork, marked time on the cylinder as it revolved ; so
that in each experiment two lines were marked on the paper, one showing
the resistance experienced at each point in the run, the other showing the
speed at which each portion of the run was performed.
The planes were about y\ inch thick, of various lengths, and as finished
were uniformly 19 inches broad, .and when under experiment were placed on
edge in the water, the upper edge being about 1-^ inch below the surface.
120 REPORT — 1H72.
The lower edge consisted of a quasi keel of lead of the same thickness as the
plane, and made heavy enough to nearly neutralize the flotation of the light
Avood of which the planes were made. But though thus made stahle, and
approximately neutralized as to flotation, the jjlane under experiment required
control to keep it resolutely vertical, and the line of its length correctly
horizontal, while, nevertheless, it required perfect liberty in the line of motion,
in order that the whole towing-strain might be accurately delivered to the
dynamometer.
For this purpose a light but stiffened wooden bar (Plate II. c c) Avas hung
longitudinally beneath the dynamometer truck, just clear of the surface of the
water. To this the planes were rigidly attached. This bar was carried at
each end by a light swing or rocking-frame (e e and e e) , thus forming a
parallel motion perfectlj* free longitudinally, and perfect^ unyielding trans-
versely. It was of course necessary to extend one of the swings above the
point of suspension to carry a weight adjusted so as to counterbalance the
weight of the bar, together with any sinking or floating force that the plane
might exert ; otherwise the frame would not have been in equilibriimi in the
line of motion except in one position, and in any other position would have
exerted a positive or negative force on the dynamometer.
The rigid connexion between the planes (which were of course imder
water) and the swinging bar or parallel motion (which was above water)
consisted of a kind of sheath or cutwater (n d), which received the forward
edge of the plane, and had a long upper end, extending out of the water, and
fastened to an upright on the swinging bar with three strong pins or bolts.
The plane was rebated to receive tlie sides of the sheath, so that the outside
surface at the juncture was flush as far as possible.
Tlie investigation of surface-friction may be separated into three primary
divisions : — (1) the law of the variation of resistance witli the velocity ; (2)
the differences in resistance due to differences in the quality of surface ; (3)
the differences in the resistance per unit of surface due to differences in the
length of surface.
The necessity of investigating the latter of these conditions may not be at
once apparent, it having been generallj' held that surface-friction varies
directly with the area of surface, and will be the same for a given area,
wliether the surface be long and narrow or short and broad. It has always
seemed to me to be impossible that this should be the case, because the por-
tion of surface that goes fii'st in the line of motion, in experiencing resistance
from the water, must in turn communicate to the water motion in the direc-
tion in which it is itself travelling ; and consequently the portion of siirface
which succeeds the first will be rubbing, not against stationary water, but
against water partially moving in its own direction, and cannot therefore
experience as much resistance from it. If this reasoning holds good, it is
certain that doubling, for instance, the length of a surface, though it doubles
the area, would not double the resistance, for the resistance of the second
half would not be as great as that of the first.
In order to reduce the results obtained to the most serviceable form for
determining the three separate conditions of resistance enumerated above,
it was convenient to represent them graphicallj^, by diagram, in two methods ;
in both methods the ordinates represent resistance, whUe the abscissfc repre-
sent in the one case velocities, and in the other lengths of surface. Plates VI. and
VII. are instances^of the two kinds. In the former, if the friction proved to
vary as the square of the velocity, the diagrams would be ordinarj^ parabola;
originating at the zero-point of resistance and velocity; in the latter, if the
42 "^Jiepot / nrilifih Assoc : 18 7k
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EXPERIMENTS ON SURFACE-FRICTION. 121
friction per iiuit of surface were uniform, as is common] j' supiwscd, through-
out the length of the surface, and consequently the total resistance of a plane
of given Avidth varied simply as the length, the diagrams M'ould be straight
lines, originating at the zero-point of both horizontal and vertical scale. If,
again, these lines were straight, but apparently originated at a point above
the zero, this would indicate that there was a constant clement of resistance
throughout (such as head-resistance might be), in addition to the element
varying as the length. If, however, the lines were concave towards the base,
this would indicate that the friction per unit of surface decreased with in-
creasing length of surface.
Since each plane, when once mounted, was, for convenience, tried through-
out the intended series of velocities, the results primarily shaped themselves
in the first-mentioned form. Some transcripts of the resuUs as originally so
'^lotted are shown on Plate IV., the lines on which represent the actual resist-
ances for any veloci'y of certain planes under certain differences of condition
as specified in the margin of the sheet. The cross mprks upon the lines show
the actual spots decided by the individual experimei cs made, and from which.
the curves drawn were deduced. It may be remarked that, wi.h the excep-
tions which will be subsequently noticed (the lines marked b' b', c' c') , there
is scarcely any difference between any of the lines in respect to the law of
variation of resistance in terms of velocity, the resistance varying throughout
nearly as the power 1-8 of the velocity.
From the great multiplicity of the experiments tried, it would have been
confusing to show even a tolerable large proportion of the origiual reductions.
Those given are selected, partly as exhibiting the results of certain sligl tly
varied conditions which will be presently referred to, and partly as fairly
averaged specimens which instructively attest the accuracy of the experiments.
This is shown, not only by the fairness of the curves passing strictly through.
all the spots, but also by the consistency of the contiguous lines.
The results which had been thus reduced to diagram according to the first
of the two methods supplied the data for constructing a general diagram
according to the second method, as shown in Plate VII. The black Hues on
this figure express the finally analyzed and complete results, for one quality
of surface only, up to a length of 50 feet, that beijig the greatest length that
the apparatus can command. It appeared desirable to ascertain the effect of
length of surface (at any rate provisionally) before proceeding to try various
qualities of surface ; and the process by which these results, as given in the
diagram, were finally arrived at requires some explanation.
I commenced by a series of experiments on planes of various lengths, from
one foot to fifty feet, having all a similar surface.
The results of this first series of experiments, when analyzed, gave lines
similar to the dotted line (« a) on Plate VII. This, it will be seen, is con-
cave towards the base, thus indicating that the friction per unit of surface
does actually diminish as the length of surface increases. At the same time
its form, as it approached the zero of speed, seemed to show, either that this
effect was very much more marked in the first two feet of surface, or that
there was considerable body-resistance involved. Moreover, the line obtained,
if drawn strictly through all the spots determined by experiment, did not
give a fair curve.
This might have been thought to be owing to inaccuracy in the apparatu.?,
were it not that experiments, when repeated, always gave identical results,
and that, as has been already mentioned, the results for each individual plane
were perfectly harmonious, thus indicating that the discrepancy in question
1872. K
122 REPORT— 1872.
arose from small differences between the individual planes, probably differences
in the thickness or nature of edge at their ends, diminishing or increasing the
body-resistance.
The initial edge of the planes tried was formed by the sheath or cutwater
befoi-e mentioned, which held the plane in its place; and this was tapered in
horizontal section, fron? tbe thickness of the plane to about jL inch, the
extreme edge being rounded, as shown full size in Plate III. (marked a a).
At the tail edge there was no sheath, and the board was simply cut off square,
as shown in the same figure. Clearly, if there was any great body-resistance
due to these blunt ends, as the line a a on Plate VII. seemed to imply, then
the slight differences in thickness which existed between the different planes
might be sufficient to account for the discrepancies between their results.
Accordingly experiments were tried with certain of the planes, of various
lengths, already tried, but substituting a cutwater having a very thin edge,
tapering to the thickness of the plane in 6 inches, as shown in horizontal
section on Plate III. (marked b). This alteration produced a slight diminu-
tion in the amount of the resistance of all the planes, but rather a greater
reduction in the short planes than in the long ones. The difference, though
almost too small to show, is indicated by the line a! a', Plate VII. Experiments
were then tried with the tail edges of the planes, tapered in the same manner
as the initial edge (c, Plate III). This was tried with the result (indicated by
the plain line a, Plate VII.) of a ver}- much larger reduction in the resistance ;
and this reduction was likewise relatively greater in the shorter lengths.
In order still more correctly to obtain a value by which the results of all
the planes already tried might be corrected for the varying thicknesses of
their after edges, an experiment was tried with one of the thickest planes
(2 feet 6 inches long) by reducing the thickness of its square-edged tail to
that of the thinnest of the planes (a reduction of perhaps -^^ inch). The
results of this are shown on Plate V., where the resistance of the plane with
the thick after edge is shown by the line marked a'", and the resistance of
the same plane with the tail thinned by the line marked a", and that with
the tail tapered to a perfectly sharp edge by the line a.
It is worth notice on this point that the difference between the reduction
of resistance found throughout these experiments on sharpening the tail edge,
and that foiuid on sharpening the initial edge, seems to be entirely owing to
the difference between the original foi-ms of the blunt cutwater and the blunt
tail (the former being partly tapered and rounded, while the latter was cut
quite square). This was proved by trying the above-mentioned 2-feet 6-inch
plane, with its after edge sharpened like the original blunt cutwater. These
results are shown on Plate V. by the dotted lines a' a', a a, from which it
may be seen that the difference between the rounded edge and the perfectly
sharp edge is comparatively small.
The application of the corrections obtained as I have here described to the
results of the experiments previously made gave diagrams of resistance in
terms of length similar to the line marked a" a", Plate VII., the discrepancies
between the jolanes disappearing when thus corrected. But these experi-
ments did not include any made with shorter planes than 1 foot 6 inches,
that being the shortest length that could be constructed with the existing
cutwater ; and in order to make it complete, it was most desirable to extend
the lines as far as possible towards the zero-point of length and of resistance,
by trying very short and thin planes, so as to test the nature of the curve
close to the origin, and discover whether any body-resistance remained owing
to the thickness of the plane hitherto tried.
EXPEIUMENTS ON SURFACE-FRICTION. 123
It was also necessary to eliminate certain other constant resistances known
to exist, namely, that due to the air-resistance on the swinging bar, that duo
to the excess of surface of the cutwater, owing to its projecting up through
the water above the upper edge of the planes, and that due to the projections
and irregularities on its surface, caused by the fastenings of the planes. Of
tliese, the air-resistance was obtained by direct experiment; that due to
excess of surface was calcidable on the data already possessed ; and the
resistance due to the projections <fec. was determined by trying the 1-foot
G-inch plane, with its surface smoothed up Avith paraffine and varnished as
before. The deduction of these constants brought down the line to the plain
lines shown on Plate VII.*
But the first-mentioned object, that of deciding the friction of very short
lengths, I have so far been unable to treat quite satisfactorily, owing to the
difficulty of guiding very thin blades. I have, however, obtained good
results with a 12-inch blade and a 6-iucli blade (see Plate III. d, e) sharp on
both edges, both about similar in longitudinal section to the 1-foot 6-inch
plane ; and the experiments with these gave spots through which the curves
on Plate VII. were drawn for the first 1-foot 6-inch length of surface.
And though, in the absence of any successful experiment with blades of
different thicknesses but the same length, we can scarcely regard as disproved
the existence of possible body-resistance due to the thickness, slight as it was,
of the planes tried, it is obvious that it would be difficult to deduct further
from the diagram of resistance any considerable constant represer iing this,
without making the friction per unit of surface decrease with increasing
length less in the first 6 inches than it would be uacurally expected to do ;
in other words, without making the curvature of the lines on Plate VII. less
sharp at their origin than would be expected, seeing that in the rest of the
diagram the curvature becomes rapidly flatter as the lengths of plane become
greater ; but indeed the thinness of the planes and the smallness of the : e-
duction of resistance which followed the substitution of knife-like for rounded
edges render it almost impossible to credit body-resistance with any appre-
ciable item in the account. It is also most desirable to extend these experi-
ments to greater lengths of surface than I have been able to try with this
apparatus. But it would indeed be almost impossible to do so in the experi-
ment tank ; and I shall endeavour to organize some arrangement by which
greater lengths may be successfully tried in open water.
I have thus far confined myself, in the description of the result, to the
question of the eff'ect of lengths of surface upon resistance. I have now to
deal with the question of quality of surface.
The diiferent surfaces tested may be enumerated as follows :—
Shellac varnish.
Hay's composition.
Peacock's composition.
Tallow.
Glue.
A smooth metal surface obtained by a coating of tinfoil.
The comparison between the first three named was made with planes 5 feet,
16 feet, and 50 feet long, which were each coated first with Hay's and sub-
sequently with Peacock's composition, all the planes having been previously
* It should be noticed, however, that the scale of resistance shown on Plate VII. gives,
not the actual resistances due to the planes tried, but the reduced resistance due to a,
surface one foot wide and of the lengths shown,
k2
12'1 REFOST — 1872.
tried as coated -vritli shellac varnish. The comparison between the shellac and
the Hay's composition is exhibited in Plate IV., in Avliich the plain lines
marked a, c, and n represent the result with the shellac, and the dotted lines
marked a', c', and n' that with the Hay's composition. These two results I
consider practically identical, since such small difference as is observable
might possibly arise from some other difference in the condition of the plane ;
and it is observable that with the 5-foot plane n, d' the scarcely perceptible
difference is opposite in character to that shown by a', a and b', b.
The results with Peacock's composition are not shown in Plate V., being
practically identical with the other two.
The tallow surface was tried on the 10-foot plane onlj-, and gave no diffe-
rence, the diagrams falling between that of the shellac and that of Hay's
composition.
The glued surface was tried as a specimen of a slimy, fish-like surface,
which should partly wash off in the water. The glue was allowed to harden
before being put in the water ; and to test its change of condition consequent
on immersion, three experiments were tried successivelj' at the same velocity.
The resistance was thus found to be throughout on the increase, the first
experiment being about two per cent., and the third about four per cent,
greater than that of the shellac surface, apparently implying that the resis-
tance was increased by the softening of the surface.
The tinfoU surface is the only surface I have yet tried which I have
found to have a resistance greatly different from that of varnish ; and hei'e it
is remarkable that the difference tends to be much less in the greater lengths
of surface. It is consequently most unfortunate that, owing to the delay I
experienced in getting the tinfoil for the purpose, it became impossible to
try it on a greater length than the IG-foot plane in time for this Eeport.
The comparison of the tinfoil surface with that of the varnish was made on
lengths of 16 feet, 1 foot (5 inches, and 1 foot. The results with the 16-foot
plane tinfoiled are shown by the dotted Hne marked c" in Plate IV. ; those
with the 1-foot and l-foot-6-inch tinfoiled are shown in Plate V. by the
dotted lines marked b' and c" respectively. For comparison with these,
Plate V. also shows the results of the same lengths varnished, by the plain
lines marked b and c respcctivelj'.
It will be seen by these diagrams that not only is the difference of resistance
between tinfoil and varnish proportionately less in greater lengths of surface,
but is also proportionately less at greater speeds ; consequently the law of the
increase of resistance in terms of velocity is obviously different in the case of
the tinfoil from what it is in the case of the varnish and the otlier surfaces
■which were tried.
Report on the Antagonism betioeen the Action of Active Substances.
By Thomas R. Fraser, M.D., Secretary to the Committee, consisting
of Sir R. CiiRiSTisoN, Bart., Dr. Laycock^ and Dr. Fraser.
The subject of the antagonism between the actions of active substances
has engaged considerable attention from an early period of medical history.
Many examples of its occurrence have been brought forward, whicli may
be conveniently classified into those that treat of the antagonism of lethal
actions, and those that treat of the antagonism oinon-hthal actions.
ox TIIK ANTAGONISM BETWEEN ACTIVE SUDSTANCES. 125
111 llic latter class there are several well-autheuticated examples, among
which may he instanced the antagonism between the actions on the iris
and minute blood-vessels of opium or morphia on the one hand, and bella-
donna, hyoseyamus, and stramonium on the other ; between the actions ou
the capillary circulation of morphia and quinia ; between the actions on
the vagi nerves of physostigma and atropia, hydrocyanic acid and atropia,
and muscaria and ati'opia ; and between the actions on the iris and on visual
accommodation of physostigma and atropia.
In the /o)-)He;' class the examples are likewise numerous; but a careful
examination of the evidence in their support cannot fail to lead to the con-
clusion that, with very few exceptions, it is of an unsatisfactory nature.
In the majority of cases where an active substance has acquired the
reputation of counteracting the fatal etFect of some other substance or
substances, this reputation has mainly been founded ou the results of
clinical experience. In such experience there are difhcultics in dis-
covering not onlj'^ what dose of poison has been introduced into the sj'stem,
but even when this dose has been ascertained it is generally impossible
to feel assured that it is a sufficient one to produce death ; and, further,
the effects of the substance introduced as a physiological antidote can
rarely be accurately observed. The exigencies of treatment demand that
every likely method of alleviating the symptoms should be applied ; and
among these it is difficult, if not impossible, to discover accurately the
effects of any single antidote. It is not therefore to be wondered at that
the accumulated clinical observations of more than two centuries should
have failed in itroving that opium is able to prevent the fatal effect of
belladonna, and that this evidence has equally failed in establishing the
existence of any one of the examples of lethal antagonism to which atten-
tion has more recently been drawn.
A method whereby the existence of a lethal antagonism can satisfactorily
be tested is by experiment on the lower animals. In such experiments
the most important of the causes of fallacy that have been alluded to can
readily be avoided. It is a simple matter to determine, in any given species
of animal, the minimum dose of an active substance that can produce
death, and then to test the antidotal influence of its supposed antagonist
when a lethal dose of the poison has been administered. The most con-
vincing proof may be thus obtained of an antidotal influence ; and trusting
to this proof, the practitioner may with confidence employ the antidote in
cases of poisoning in man. It is unnecessary to show that the fallacies
asserted to exist in such experiments have been greatly exaggerated, or
that the supposed differences between the results in man and in the lower
animals do not possess the importance that has been claimed for them, as
fortunately nothing remains to be done in this direction since the con^dncing
arguments of Claude Bernard have been advanced and generally accepted.
In this Iteport it is proposed to bring before the Association the results of
an investigation in which the influence of atropia upon the lethal action of
physostigma was examined, by experiments on the lower animals. The
nature of this influence may be shown by a brief account of two of the ex-
periments that were made.
A rabbit received by subcutaneous injection a dose of extract of physo-
stigma considerably greater than the minimum lethal ; and one minute and a
half afterwards it received, also by subcutaneous injection, half a grain of
sulphate of atropia. In seven minutes after the injection of atropia the
pupils measured i-| X ^§ of an inch, the size immediately before the ex-
126 REPORT — 1872.
periment having been -^-q- X ify- of an inch ; the rate of the heart's contractions
■was considerably accelerated ; fibrillary twitches were occurring, and a little
restlessness was present. Soon afterwards the pupils became still further
dilated, and the animal had some difficulty in moving about. In fifty-two
minutes the pupils measured -g-^- X ^^^ of an inch, and the difficulty in moving
about had become greater. In one hour and ten minutes, however, evidences
of recovery wej'e manifested; the animal went about with but little difficulty,
and frequently a perfectly normal sitting posture was assumed. Indeed the
only symptom of an abnormal character that was now apparent consisted
of frequently occurring and well-marked fibrillary twitches. From this
time the condition of the animal steadily improved, until perfect recovery
occurred. As the minimum lethal dose of this preparation of physostigma,
for any given weight of rabbit, had been determined by a preliminary series
of experiments, it was known that the dose given in this experiment was
rather more than twice as large as the minimum lethal. Yet the fatal eff'ect
of this large dose was prevented in a remarkable manner by the dose of
atropia given in conjunction with it. To add to the proof that was thereby
obtained, of an antagonism between these two substances, there was ad-
ministered to this rabbit, nine days afterwards, a dose of extract of physo-
stigma, only half as large as that from which it had thus recovered. Symptoms
of poisoning very quickly appeared, and death occurred in about fourteen
minutes.
In the second experiment, a dog, Aveighing ten pounds and three ounces, re-
ceived by subcutaneous injection three fifths of a grain of sulphate of ph3'-so-
stigmia, dissolved in a few drops of distilled water. Before the injection the rate
per ten se onds of the cardiac impulses was 32, and that of the respirations 4,
and the size of the pupils was 4-2_ ^ ^a of an inch. In four minutes after the
administration of physostigma slight tremors occui'red, and fibrillary twitches
were present. In five minutes a solution containing three tenths of a grain
of sulphate of atropia was injected under the skin. In two minutes there-
after the tremors had become more prominent and strong, the hmbs were un-
able properly to support the body, saliva escaped from the mouth, and the eye-
balls were unnaturally moist. In five minutes the pupils were greatly
dilated ; but now the secretions of the salivary and lachrymal glands were
diminished. In seven minutes the dog lay quietly on the abdomen and chest,
but in thirteen minutes it fell over on the side. This general condition re-
mained until forty-eight minutes, when the symptoms improved ; and after
some efforts the dog rose, and then lay down in a normal crouching posture.
Soon afterwards it again got up and walked about the room with only a Httle
unsteadiness. In one hour and fifty-five minutes the animal seemed to be
perfectly well.
Nineteen days after the performance of this experiment, the same dog
received by subcutaneous injection a dose of suljihate of physostigmia only
one half as large as that from which it had recovered when atropia was
also given, and the result was that death was produced in twcntj'-two minutes.
-It; is manifest that in these two experiments atropia acted as a physio-
logical counteragent to the toxic action of physostigma. In other 195 ex-
periments the fatal cifect of undoubtedly lethal doses of physostigma was
likewise -prevented by atropia.- This investigation has therefore proved that
atropiar is a eounterageut to the lethal action of physostigma.
As both of these substances possess a number of separate actions, it was not
unreasonable to anticipate that several of them are not mutually antagonistic,
and therefore that combinations of certain doses of the tM'o substances mav
0\ THE ANTAGONISM BETWEEN ACTIVE SUBSTANCES. 127
he administered whereby the uon-antagouized actions will be produced in
Bufflcient degrees of energy to be able to cause death. It was probable,
therefore, that successful antagonism would not be exerted throughout an un-
limited range of doses, but only within a definite range.
In order to define the limits of the counteracting influence of atropia upon
the lethal action of physostigma, three series of experiments were made.
It was found necessary to make all the experiments of these three series
on rabbits, as it was impossible to obtain a sufficient number of any other
suitable animal. The rabbits used were generally about three pounds in
weight ; but when they were lighter or heavier than three pounds a correction
was made, so that each dose represented three pounds weight of animal.
In the first and second series a constant interval of time was maintained
between the administration of the two substances ; but in the first atropia
was administered five minutes before physostigma, while in the second atropia
was administered five minutes after physostigma. In both of these series
experiments were made, in the first place, with the minimum lethal dose of
physostigma, and in combination with it various doses of atropia were given,
ranging from one that was too small to prevent death, through a number that
were able to do so, until a dose was found whose administration resulted in
death. Similar experiments were made with a dose of physostigma once and
a half as large as the minimum lethal ; then with one twice as large as the
minimum lethal, and so on, at the same rate of progression, until a dose was
reached that was too large to be successfully counteracted by any dose of
atropia.
The results obtained by the first of these two series of experiments were,
that with the minimum lethal dose of physostigma 0-005 gr. of sulphate of
atropia is too small a dose to prevent death, but that 0015 gr. is sufficient
to do so; and that with any dose ranging from 0-015 gr. to 5-2 grs., the
fatal effect of this dose of physostigma may be prevented ; while if the dose
of sulphate of atropia be 5-3 grs. or more, the region of successful antagonism
is left, and death occurs. With once and a half the minimum lethal dose
of physostigma, successful antagonism was produced by doses of sulphate
of atropia ranging from 0-02 to 4-1 grs. ; with twice the minimum lethal
dose of physostigma, with doses of sulphate of atropia ranging from 0-021 to
3-2 grs. ; with two and a half times the minimum lethal dose of physostigma,
with doses of sulphate of atropia ranging from 0-025 to 2-2 grs. ; with thrice
the minimum lethal dose of physostigma, with doses of sulphate of atropia
ranging from 0-06 to 1-2 gr. ; and with three and a Jialf times the minimum
lethal dose of physostigma, with doses of sulphate of atropia ranging from
0-1 to 2 gr. Successful antagonism could not be obtained above this dose,
and accordingly three and a half times the minimum lethal dose of physo-
stigma is the largest quantity wtose lethal action can be prevented by
atropia administered five minutes previously.
The results obtained by the second series of experiments (in which atropia
was administered five minutes after physostigma) were essentially the same as
those obtfined by the first series, excepting that the region of successful
antagonism was found to be a more limited one. In both series the general
result was obtained, that the range of doses of atropia capable of preventing
the lethal action of physostigma diminishes according as the dose of physo-
stigma is increased.
In the third series of experiments, a constant dose of physostigma (once
and a half the minimum lethal) was given along with various doses of
atropia ; and with each of the doses of atropia several experiments were
123 EEPORT— 1872.
made, which differed from each other by a difference in the interval of time
between the administration of the two substances. On this plan two sets of
.experiments were made, in one of which atropia was given before physo-
stigma, and in the other after it ; and subsequently these two sets of ex-
periments were connected together by a third, in which atropia, in various
doses, was given simultaneoushj with the same dose of physostigma as was
given in the two other sets of experiments. The general result of this series
of experiments is that successful antagonism occurs with a greater range of
doses of atropia, and a greater range of intervals of time between the two
administrations, when atropia is given before physostigma than when it is
given after it.
An eminent authoritj' in pharmacology has recently published the state-
ment that the onlj' method whereby the injuiious action of a poison, absorbed
into the blood, can be made to terminate is by the employment of such
means as will cause or hasten the elimination of the poison. This statement,
fortunately, does not accurately describe our remedial resources. The exist-
ence of so undoubted an example of i)hysiological antagonism as that between
atropia and physostigma shows that the toxic influence of a morbific agent
may be directly opposed bj^ a physiological antidote, and that recovery may
be produced by influencing the abnormal conditions themselveSj in such a
manner as to cause their return to a normal state.
\
Fifth Report of the Committee, consisting o/Sir W. Thomson, F.R.S.,
Professor Everett, Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., F.R.S., Professor
J. Clerk Maxwell, F.R.S., Professor Phillips, F.R^S., G. J.
Symons, F.M.S., Professor Ramsay, F.R.S., Professor Geikie,
F.R.S., James Glaisher, F.R.S., Rev. Dr. Graham, G. Maav,
F.G.S., W. Pengelly, F.R.S., S. J. Mackie, F.G.S., Professor
Hull, F.R.S., and Professor Ansted, F.R.S., appointed for the
purpose of invesiirjating the Rate of Increase of Underground Tem-
perature downwards in various localities of Dry Land and under
Water. By Professor Everett, D.C.L., Secretary.
In December last intelligence was received from Prof. Sismonda that the
administration of the railway owning the Alpine tunnel had given per-
mission to Father Secchi to carry on a series of observations in the tunnel
concerning terrestrial magnetism, and that this distinguished observer was
willing at the same time to conduct observations of temperature in accord-
ance with the plans of your Committee. Two maximum and two minimum
thermometers were accordingly placed in Father Secchi's hands ; but it
appears that the arrangements for commencing the magnetic observations
are not yet completed, and that accordingly no observations of tempera-
ture have as yet been taken.
Prof. Lubimoff, of Moscow, on receiving a copy of last year's Report,
wrote to the Secretary, correcting a mistake in the description of the
thermometer used in taking observations in the Moscow well. The ther-
mometer was enclosed in an hermetically sealed case containing air, and
was therefore completely protected against any possible effect of pressure.
Prof. Lubimoff at the same time asked to be furnished with a thermometer
ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 129
of the new pattern iloscribed in the Report (the upright I^egrctti pattern),
und one of these instruments was accordingly sent.
Dr. Wild, of the Central Observatory, St. Petersburg, wrote in January,
requesting that two thermometers for observations in bores might be ordered
in his name. At this time the Secretary was in correspondence with Sir
Wm. Thomson, who entertained doubts as to the successful working of the
new thermometer, and expressed a preference for the Phillips pattern
(which has been described in preceding Eeports) and the Casella-Miller
pattern (a modified Six), which has been extensively used for deep-sea
temperatures. Thermometers of these two patterns were accordingly ordered
and despatched to Dr. Wild.
A letter was received from Prof. Henry, of the Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, in April, stating that the Chief Engineer of the Hoosac Tunnel
had promised to have observations of temperature taken in the tunnel, if
thermometers were sent. Its total length will be 4| miles, about two
thirds of which has been penetrated, by working from both ends and from
a central shaft 1028 feet deep. The mountain has two ridges, under
which the tunnel passes, and their heights above it are respectively 1720
and 1420 feet. Four thermometers have been sent, viz. two large mini-
mum Rutherfords, for observations in the tunnel, and two upright Negrettis,
for observations in the shaft.
The Council of the School of Mines at Ballar-at, Australia, have, in com-
pliance with a request addressed to one of their number by our observer,
Mr. David Burns, C.E., consented to take charge of some thermometers, and to
furnish observations from the bores and shafts iu that important gold-mining
district. Most of the principal mining manager's are connected with the
school. Four thermometers have accordingly been sent, viz. two upright
Ifegrettis for observptions in bores, and two simple mercurial thermometers,
of large size, for obLcrvations during the sinking of shafts.
Some exceedingly deep Artesian borings have been undertaken in Franco
in recent years ; and the President of the Geological Society, Mr. Prest-
"wich (who has allowed his name to be added to your Committee), has fur-
nished your Secretary with introductions which wiU probably lead to the
obtaining of very numerous and valuable observations from these wells.
The largest of them all is one which is now sinking for the municipality
of Paris, at La Cbapelle, St. Denis, a northern suburb of Paris, and has
ali-eady obtained a depth considerably exceeding that of the Puits de Gre-
neUe. It is expected that its final depth will be about 2300 feet. Appli-
cation was made by the Secretary to the eminent firm of well-borers, Messrs.
Mauget, Lippmann, anu Co., who are sinking the well, and these gentlemen
at once, in the most obliging manner, consented to take observations of tem-
perature in i*-. An upri jht Negretti thermometer was accordingly furnished ;
and about the 20th of June your Secietary had the pleasure of receiving from
them two complete sets of observations taken on the 14th, 15th, 17th, and
18th of that month with their own hands, at every 100th metre of depth,
and also at the bottom of the well, 660 metres deep.
The observations are given in the subjoined Table, iu which the third
column shows the time that the thei'mometer was allowed to remain at the
depth specified before hauling up and reading. The temperature at which
the thermometer was set before letting jt down is also given in Messrs.
Mauget and Lippmanu's report, but is not here inserted.
130
REPORT — 1872.
First series, June 14, 15.
Second series, June 17, 18.
Deptl), in
metres.
Temperature,
Fahrenheit.
Time down.
Temperatiu'e,
Fahrenheit.
Time down.
100
200
300
400
500
600
660
58-0
61-1
65-0
69-0
72-6
75-8
83'25
h m
35
30
30
3 10
30
30
15 45
58°0
61-0
65-0
69-0
72-6
75-4
83-25
h m
3 25
2
2
11 20
2
2
2
The agreement between the first and second set of observations is remark-
ably close ; and as the time of leaving the thermometer in the water was
about half an hour in most of the observations of the first set, and two
hours or more in all the observations of the second set, it is obvious that
half an hour is a sufficient time to give a correct observation. This conclu-
sion is satisfactory both as regards the reliability of the observations them-
selves, and also as establishing the fact that this pattern of thermometer is
not unreasonably slow in its working. The exactness of the agreement also
serves to show that the thermometer can be depended on to the tenth of a
degree, and that we may henceforth use it with confidence.
Before proceeding to discuss the observations, it wUl be convenient to give
a few particulars respecting the well, which have been kindly furnished by
Messrs. Mauget and Lippmann.
It was commenced by the municipal authorities as a masonry well, by the
ordinary method of digging, until it had reached a depth of 34-5 metres.
The intention was to carry it in this way to the depth of about 135 metres,
the estimated depth of the tertiary strata covering the chalk ; but the diffi-
culties and dangers which were encountered, from the want of tenacity in
the soil (la nature essentleJlement ehouleuse des terrains), and latterly from
the insufficiency of the pumps, rendered it necessary to abandon this inten-
tion ; and in May 1865 the task of completing the well by boring was
assigned to Messrs. Degousee and Laurent, the predecessors in business of the
gentlemen to whom we arc indebted for these observations. A small trial
bore (0-2 metre in diameter) was commenced, and continued till January 1866,
by which time the machinery for the heavier work was ready. In order
to sujjport the masonry, which showed signs of giving way, it was tubed
through its whole length with a tube 1-8 metre in diameter and 0-02
metre thick, cemented externally. Erom the bottom of this tube, at the
depth of 34-5 metres, a bore 1*7 metre in diameter was carried to the
depth of 68'7 metres from the surface of the ground. A second tube
1'58 metre in internal diameter was inserted to the depth of 121-6 metres,
and a third tube of internal diameter 1'39 metre was carried down into
the chalky marls and the upper portion of the chalk at the depth of
139-15 metres from the surface. From this point downwards, the bore
has been driven through the chalk, and tubing has been unnecessary, its
diameter at the depth of 662 metres being still 1-35 metre.
The thickness of the tertiary sLrata is 137 metres, and the elevation of
the surface of the ground above sea-level is 48 metres, or 157 feet.
ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE.
131
The springs which -wore met ■with in the tertiary strata correspond to
those found in other parts of the basin in which Paris is situated, and
have not sufficient strength to spout above the surface of the ground at
this elevation. They were encountered at the depths of 19"2 metres,
34-5 metres, 86 metres, and 97 metres, and the water now stands in
equilibrium in the central tube at 16-5 metres below the surface of the
ground.
It was not practicable to take observations of temperature during the
regular progress of the boring ; but an interruption occurred on the 12th
of June, and the tool was not at work from this date till after both sets
of observations were finished. In reference to this point, Messrs. Mauget
and Lippmanu say, under date April 29, " To obtain the natural temperature,
it will be necessarj' to select a time when the work has been interrupted for
several days ; for the boring being executed by the full of a heavy tool upon
the bottom of the well, the percussion developes a considerable amount of
heat, as we perceive by the mud (Jes boues) which we extract, and which
in coming to the surface is found to have still a temperature of from 48°
to 90° C. (118° to 194° F.)." In their letter of June 19, containing the
report of the observations, they remark : —
" You will observe that though the water at the bottom of the well is
still some degrees above its natural temperature owing to the action of
the drill {trepan), the latter has not been in operation since the 12th of
the month. At a convenient time, we intend to observe the temperature
of the mud as it lies at the bottom of the well, immediately after the
withdrawal of the drill, wfien the latter has been working constantly, a
temperature which will probably be found to depend upon the hardness of
the rock."
The following Table exhibits the successive increments of temperature
shown in the second series, which purports to be the more accurate : —
Depth, in metres.
Increase in cleg.
Metres per deg.
Feet per deg.
Fahrenheit.
Fahrenheit.
Fahrenheit.
100 to 200
3-00
33-3
109
200 to 300
4-00
25-0
82
300 to 400
4-00
25-0
82
400 to 500
3-60
27-8
91
500 to 600
2-80
35-7
117
600 to 660
7-85
7-6
25
The last two columns of this Table show that the rate of increase is about
four times as rapid in the last 60 metres as in the rest of the well, a circum-
stance which naturally suggests the explanation given by Messrs. Mauget
and Lippmann. There are, however, some difficulties in the way of accepting
this view. Comparing the two sets of observations, one taken on the second
and third day after the withdrawal of the tool, and the other on the fifth and
sixth day, we have precisely the same temperature at the bottom of the well
on both occasions, although the olaservatious were sufficiently precise to
detect a difference of a tenth of a degree where such ditference existed. It
seems difficult to believe that a temperature 2g degrees above the normal
133 KEPORT — 1872.
temperature could have remained for two daj'S without sensible diminution.
In connexion -with this question, the apparent cooling to the extent of
0°*4 at the depth of 6U0 metres between the first and second observation
demands attention, and is not very easily explained.
If the observed temperature at 660 metres is to be talien as the normal
temperature, the average increase from 100 metres to that depth is at the
rate of 1° F. in 22-2 metres, or in 72-8 feet. If the observed tempera-
ture at 600 metres in the second scries is adopted, the increase from
100 metres to that depth is at the rate of 1° F. in 28-7 metres, or in
9-1-3 feet.
The observations proposed by Messrs. Mauget and Lippmann in the para-
graph above quoted Avill be eminently calculated to assist in showing the
correct interpretation.
Mr. G. A. Lebour, F.G.S., of II.M. Geological Survey, has furnished obser-
vations taken in a bore-hole executed at the bottom of South Iletton Colliery,
Durham. The observations were taken by Mr. J. E. Atkinson, a student at
the Newcastle College of Physical Science, and appear to have been carefully
made. Thanks are also due to the viewer of the colliery, Mr. Matthews, for
granting the requisite facilities.
The hole is 2^ inches in diameter, and was bored out of the pumping
side of the South Hettou shaft, in order that the bore-rods might be the more
readily altered. The depth of the shaft is 1066 feet, that of the bore-hole
863 feet from the bottom of the shaft, or 1929 feet from the surface of
the ground. The section of the boring (not including the shaft) consists
of 123 alternating beds of shale and sandstone*, with occasional thin seams
of coal and some fire-clays. The bottom of the boring has reached a very
coarse white grit, which is supposed to be the topmost bed of the Millstone-
grit series.
The bore was dry at the time of its execution, but has since become
filled with water, probably derived from the shaft above it. Streams, in
fact, pour down the shaft and play about the hole.
Two thennometers, one of them an unprotected Phillips, and the other a
protected Negretti, were supplied by the Secretary to Mr. Lebour, as it was
not certainly known at that time whether the bore was dry or wet. Mr.
Lebour indeed believed it to be dry, but nevertheless selected the Negretti
thermometer, as it was thought that the Phillips could not be read off accu-
rately with the poor light which in the position of this bore-hole was alone
available.
The following Table exhibits the results of all the observations which
have been taken in the bore, including three which were taken in 1869,
while the boring Avas going on. The boring was stopped, in the case of each
of these three observations, only about 20 minutes before the observations
were made ; and the heat due to friction appears to have produced abnormal
elevation of temperature, amounting to about 2° at the depth of 288 feet, to
about 6° at the depth of 582 feet, and to considerably more than this at
858 feet. The other observations in the Table are Mr. Atkinson's, taken
with the Negretti thermometer.
* A complete list of the strata Las been furnished, and will be preserved by the Secre-
tary, with a view to future reference if required.
ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE.
133
Deptli from bottom
Depth from surface of
Temperatures ob-
served diirinn'
Temperatures ob-
of shalt, in ieet.
ground, in feet.
boring, April 1860.
served April 1872.
100
1166
o
• »
o
66
200
1266
, ,
68|
288
1354
72
300
1366
• •
70
400
1466
^ ^
72
500
1566
74 A
582
1648
82
600
1666
^
761
644
1710
• *
75"
670
1736
^ ,
77i
858
1924
96
The temperature 75° at tlie depth of 644 feet, a temperature lower than
either of the two between which it stands, was taken on the first day of Mr.
Atkinson's observations, and was confirmed by repeated trials at that time.
This was the lowest depth that could then be reached, the remainder of the
boring being apparently plugged up with " sludge." A spike was subse-
qtiently attached to the thermometer case, which enabled it to pierce deeper
into the sludge ; but the lowest deptli which could be reached (670 feet)
is still far from the bottom of the bore.
It is intended to take a fresh series of observations at every 50th foot of
depth, and especially to reexamine the temperatures at about 650 feet,
where the reversal of temperature was observed.
The following are the rates of increase deduced from Mr. Atkinson's
observations, omitting the temperature 75° at the depth of 644 feet : — ■
Depth, in feet.
Increase in degrees,
Fahrenheit.
Feet per degree.
100 to 200
200 to 300
300 to 400
400 to 500
500 to 600
600 to 670
2|-
^2
If
1
36
80
50
40
62
70
100 to 670
lli
51-2
The average increase between the depths of 100 and 670 feet is 1° in
51*2 feet. These depths are reckoned from the top of the bore-hole, which
is 1066 feet below the surface of the ground. Mr. Lebour assumes that the
temperature at the depth of 60 feet from the surface of the ground is
48°. Accepting tliis estimate, we have a difference of 29|-° in 1676 feet
(1066 + 670-60 = 1676), which is at the rate of 1° in 57-5 feet.
Mr. David Eurns, F.G.S., reports that, from changes in the management
of the mines and other causes, it has not been possible as j^et to carry out
the dry observations at Allenheads mentioned in last year's Eenort.
Only one other shaft has been met with at all suitable for observation,.
134 REPORT — 1873.
It is called Brandon "Walls shaft, and belongs to the Eookhope Valley Mining
Company, to the courtesy of whose agent we are indebted for liberty to take
observations. This shaft is some G miles cast of those reported on last
year, and is situated in the very bottom- of llookhope Yalloy. - The mouth
is covered over with a wooden shed, the shaft itself is free from all obstruc-
tion, and the water in it has not been disturbed for some years. The shaft
is 333 feet deep, and is full of water to within 25 feet of the surface of the
ground. Observations (by ]Mr. Burns and Mr. Curry, of Bolkburn) were
taken in it on five diftererit days in July of the present year ; but though
agreeing well with one another from day to day, they are so irregular that
they throw little light on the rate of increase of underground temperature.
At the depths of 83 and 133 feet from the ground the temperature was
4S°-5. In the next 50 feet there was an increase of about 3°, the tempera-
ture at 183 feet being about 51°-4, and from this depth to the bottom (an
interval of 150 feet) the temperature was nearly constant. The best deter-
mination of the temperature at the bottom was 51°- 7.
It may be remarked that all observations in shafts thus far have exliibitcd
irregularities of this kind. The water in such large openings seems to have
its temperature governed by springs and other extraneous causes, rather than
by the temperature of the surrounding soil.
The observations at every 50th foot of depth in the Kentish Town well, as
given in previous Reports, are so complete that it has not been thought
necessary to continue them. A very delicate thermometer, reading by esti-
mation to the -j-Lj- of a degree, has, however, been procured, for taking obser-
vations from year to year at one constant depth (1000 feet). It was con-
structed ten months ago, and being enclosed in a partially exhausted glass
tube, wiU probably not undergo much change of zero. It has been four times
tested by comparison Avith standards, and has been foiind to have no error
amounting to nearly so much as 0°*1. In consequence of Mr. Symons's
illness, no observation has yet been taken with it in the well.
A Six's thermometer, which, through tlie breaking of a rope, had fallen
into the mud at the depth of 1090 feet from the surface of the ground, was
extracted by Mr. Symous last November, more than a year after its fall. It
had sustained no damage, and its indication when hauled up was 69°-4,
nearly agreeing with the temperature previously observed at that depth.
In addition to the large number of thermometers above mentioned as
having been issued during the past year, one has been furnished for obser-
vations which are to be made in the projected boring through the Wealden
and underlying strata. With the exception of Mr. Symons's observations at
Kentish Town (London, N.), we have as yet no observations of temperature
from the southern parts of England,
Preliminary Report of the Committee on Siemens' s Electrical-Resistance
Pyrometer, consisting o/ Professor A. W. Williamsox, F.R.S., Sir
W. Thomson, D.C.L., F.R.S., and Professor J. Clerk Maxwell.
LL.D., F.R.S.
The experiments of the Committee have hitherto been confined to testing the
electrical permanence of the coil of wire used in the pyrometer. For this
purpose the resistance of the coil has been repeatedly taken at known
ox THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 135
temperatures, and also at a red heat, at which latter temperature the resist-
ance Avas about three and a half times as great as at atmospheric tem-
peratures. After being heated, it was found that the resistance of the
pyrometer was slightly greater at a low temperature than it liad been at the
same temperature previously ; but the permanent change which thus took
place became smaller and smaller after successive heatings, so that the
instrument may be expected to reach a condition in which no further im-
portant alteration will be produced in it by exposure to a red heat.
The Committee are, however, informed by Mr. Siemens that he believes
that the small amount of variation to which the pyrometer, as hitherto con-
structed, was thus found to be subject, may be considerably lessened, or
altogether prevented, by an easy alteration in the mode of enclosing the coil.
Under these circumstances it is considered desirable to postpone further trials
until the more perfect form of the instrument can be experimented with ; the
Committee, therefore, suggest that they should be reappointed, and that the
grant of =£30, made at the last Meeting, none of which has been expended,
should be renewed. ...
Fourth Report of the Committee on the Treatment and Utilization of
Sewage, consisting 0/ Richard B. Grantham, C.E.,F.G.S. (Chair-
man), Professor W. H. Corfield, 31. A., M.D., *J. Bailey Denton,
C.E., F.G.S., Dr. J. H. Gilbert, FR.S., * John Thornhill Har-
rison, C.E., W. Hope, V.C, *Lieut.-Col. Leach, R.E., Dr. A.
Yoelcker, F.R.S., and Professor A. W. Williamson, F.R.S.
N.B. — Those members whose names have an asterisk prefixed have not attended any
meeting of the Committee during the year.
The Committee, since its reappointment at the last Meeting of the Associa-
tion at Edinburgh, has pursued the inquiry intrusted to it, and, as heretofore,
its investigations have been limited to such matters as have afforded the
promise of practical utility. Among the various methods of treatment or
utilization of sewage brought to the notice of the Committee, that of treating
sewage by Messrs. Weare's process at Stoke Union AVorkhouse, the precipi-
tation and conversion of the deposited matters into cement at Ealing, and
the system of intermittent downward filtration at Merthyr Tydfil have
appeared most important ; and they have accordingly been investigated, the
results appearing in Sections I., II., & VI. of this Report. A process known
as Whitthread's patent has been also examined by experiment on a suffi-
ciently large scale, and the result is given in Section III,
The Committee having reported upon the sewage-farms at Tunbridge WelU
and Earlswood at the last Meeting of the Association, it was thought
advisable to iuspect them again, as the works were incomplete when the
Committee last visited them.
The observations at Breton's Parm have been proceeded with uninter-
ruptedly, and are described in Section VII. of this Report. It is only neces-
sary to add here that these investigations have now extended over a period
of more than two years ; and the experience thus gained from the continuous
records of the flow, and sampling for analysis, of the sewage and effluent water,
of the application of the sewage to the various crops, of the results of such
136 REPORT— 1872.
application upon the produce grown, and the degree of purification effected
n the sewage, will, it is hoped, prove valuable to sewer authorities and
others interested in the question of sewage-farming. Being fullj' impressed
■with the importance of these investigations, the Committee has paid special
attention to render them as complete as possible ; but it is felt that to perfect
them, especially as regards the important branch relating to the effect of
the application of the sewage upon the crops grown, it will be necessary to
continue them for, at least, some months longer. This cannot, however, be
done unless further funds are placed at the disposal of the Committee. The
large number of analyses already made for the Committee, together with the
great expense of an assistant constantly at Breton's Farm, and the various
other investigations undertaken, have now nearly exhausted the Special
Tund contributed by the towns. In requesting its reappointment, the Com-
mittee begs to submit to the Council of the Association the desirability of placing
it in a position to complete the long and anxious inquiry intrusted to it.
Section I. — DeoJorlzafion of Sewage and preapkatlon of Solid Matters, as
carried on loider the Patent of Messrs. Weare and Co. at Stol-e Union
Worhho^tse.
The attention of the Committee was specially directed to this process by the
authorities of towns where the process had been discussed as a possible
means of dealing satisfactorily with sewage ; and although only in operation
on a small scale, the Committee felt it desirable to investigate the results, such
as they were, and accordingly an inspector was sent in September 1871 to
the Workhouse at Stoke-upon-Trent. Every facility was afforded by the
manager for the examination of the process, which was fairly conducted, and
the Governor of the Union kindjy gave the requisite particulars of the
administration of the establishment.
The workhouse contains on an average 750 persons of all ages, whose
diet comprises meat and vegetables, puddings, rice, and soup, each on certain
days of the week. The supply of water tit for drinking and culinary pur-
poses is very small, and is obtained principally from a well pumped by a
steam-engine, and that for washing and scouring is taken from a pond,
which is chiefly supplied by rain-water from roofs. Every department of the
establishment is provided with water-closets, on the trough system, and they
are emptied every 24 hours, and closely attended to in order to prevent
interference by the inmates.
The process of purification of the sewage is protected by a patent. It con-
sists, in the first instance, of simple filtration through coarse ashes and char-
coal, performed in a large tank called the Foecal Tank, which is divided into
two compartments, so that one may be at work while the other is being
cleared. These compartments are again subdivided into two chambers, one
large and one small. The raw sewage is brought to a small receiver and
from it turned, by means of sluices, into either compartment. The samples
of sewage taken by the Committee's inspector were obtained fi'om this
receiver ; the flow was ascertained to be about .5000 gallons in the 24
hours, being much below the capacity of the filters, which were constructed
for 20,000 gallons per day. Erom the large chambers of the faecal tank the
sewage is passed through wooden screens, containing 2 feet of charcoal, into
the small chambers, which contain about 5 feet 6 inches of rough charcoal,
through which the sewage passes to a smaller tank or well, thus completing
the first stage of filtration. The suspended matters are partly arrested by
ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE.
1
O/
tlic wooden and charcoal screens between tlie large and amall chambers, and
a further deposit takes place in the small chamber, which is cleared once iu
six months ; but at the time of the Committee's inspection it had not been
cleared for nine months, owing to the constant visits of persons anxious to
inspect the process. Samples of the sewage at this stage of the process were
duly taken. From the tank or well before described, the sewage (after again
passing through a perforated screen containing 6 inches of rough charcoal)
is conveyed by a 12-inch pipe to the "Deodorizers," Avhich are, in tliis case,
at some distance from the fiecal tank.
The " Deodorizers " are three in number, — the first and largest having a
surface area of nearly 200 square feet, and containing 5 feet G inches depth
of rough charcoal ; the second, with an area of about 70 square feet, contains
2 feet 6 inches of charcoal of smaller size ; the last is a small box containing
4 feet of fine charcoal, Avhich is in this instance supplemented by layers of
flannel and filter-cloth. It was stated, however, that cloth is not a neces-
sary addition if the tanks are specially constructed, in which case the last
deodorizer is arranged for upward filtration. This completes the process, the
effluent water being discharged into a small well, from which the samples
were taken for analysis.
Tlie charcoal used at the time of the Committee's inspection was wood-
charcoal ; but it was stated that it was proposed to use peat-charcoal. The
practice is to remove the "spent" charcoal from the last deodorizer to the
second one, from the second to the first, and from the first deodorizer to the
ftecal tank. Samples were taken of charcoal from each deodorizer after various
periods of service, and analyses of them and of unused charcoal are appended.
The flow of eflluent water for the period of twenty-four hours, during
which continuous gaugings were taken, amounted to about 2000 gallons
only, as against 5000 gallons of sewage received into the fiecal tank during
the same period. The deposit removed from the tanks with tlie refuse of
the establishment is utilized upon the farm belonging to the Union, -which is
cultivated entirely by the inmates.
The following are the results of the analyses of the different samples of
sewage, eflluent water, and charcoal : —
Stoke-upon-Trent Union Workhouse Sewage, Messrs. AVeare's Process,
Samples taken September 1871.
N.B.— Samples taken every two hours during the day, in the proportion of -j-uVo °^' ^^"^
flow per minute. Eesults given in parts per 100,000.
Deserijitlon of
Bamplea.
Solid Matter.
Kitrogen.
Eemarks
(by Dr. Russell).
In solution.
In suspen-
sion.
In solution.
a
o
"S
1
i
9-5
1-27
-l.i
.s 1
o a
il
to
ft"
171-40
8-05
oj O
4
a
"B
tJD
u
o
As ni-
trates and
nitrites.
1
in
Sewage from re-
ceiver before treat-
16.3-80
85-70
6S-E0
87-50
56-50
54-iO
59-45
1-50
28-12
14-91
14-20
24-01
-9-76
2-15
4-94
0-63
0-63
None
23-95
10-S9
2-78
38-45
11-66
2-78
[of sewage.
Had strong smell
Sewage after pass-
ing through " fajcal
tank "filters
£flliient water after
passing through
deodorizing tanks
1^72,
138 REPORT— 1872.
Analyses of Samples of Charcoal from Stoke Uuion Workhouse.
In 100 parts.
Water &c. dried
at 100° C.
Ammonia.
Charcoal before use
24-20
50-42
55-Gl
5412
0-0014
0-0018
0045
0-082
Charcoal after fivo weeks' use in 'No. 3 deodorizing
tank, to bo applied to No. 2
Ciiarcoal after two months' use in No. 2 deodorizing
tank, to be ap ilied to No. 1
Charcoal after five months' use in No. 1, to be applied
1,0 fiecal tank
"With regard to the analyses, the Committee -would observe, iu the first
place, that the se-wage treated -vfas excessively strong, coutaining no less
than 38-45 parts of nitrogen (iu solution and suspension) in 100,000 parts of
sewage ; this is accounted for by the very scanty water-supply, from which
it results that the amount of sewage is only 6| gallons per head in the
twenty-four hours,
Tlio general result of the process is that the suspended matters are
removed and the ammonia and organic nitrogen much reduced in quantity ;
no oxidation takes place, as no nitrates were found in the effluent water,
which was to all rutents and purposes a dilute sewage and " had a strong
smell of sewage."
It is remarkable that the chlorine is reduced to just about half its original
amount ; and it is stiU more remarkable that this should take place almost
entirely in the first or foecal tank : this reduction would seem to imply that
a very considerable dilution must in some way take place ; and notwith-
sta nding this we find that there were only 2000 gallons of effluent water to
,50 00 gallons of sewage in the twenty-four hours, indicating an unexplained
escape of three fifths of the total amount, even supposing that there was
no dilution.
The amourit of water absorbed by the charcoal, although, as indicated by
the analyses, considerable, does not of course in any appreciable degree
account for such a loss.
Section il, — Deodorlzaiion of Sewage and precipitation of Solid Matter, and
conversion of Solids into Cement, at Ealing,
The district of the Local Board of Health of Eahng contains 1222 acres,
and is situated near the river Thames, into vdiich it drains, the sewer out-
let being into a small watercourse about a mile from that river. The Eoard
has executed a complete system of sewerage, and water-closets are general
in the district. The population is about 8000, and the ordinary' or dry-
weather quantity of sewage discharged 400,000 gallons daily. The first
system for the deodorization of the sewage was that proposed by the Sur-
■y-eyor to the Board (Mr. Jones), and consisted in bringing the sewage to two
ingeniously constructed depositing-tanks, where it subsided, and the super-
■liatant water was then passed upwards through 7 feet of filtering media, the
solid deposit being mixed with ashes, dust, &c., and sold for manure.
In 1868 and 1869 the Rivers Pollution Commissioners made an exami-
nation of tbis process, and they very carefully inquired into the various
0\ THE TREATMENT AXD UTILIZATIOX OF SEWAGE.
139
operations, and especially as to the constniction, size, and action of the
tanks. They had analyses made of the sewage and effluent water, and com-
pared the quantity of the sewage with the capacity of the filtering media,
and in all respects fully investigated the matter ; and they came to the con-
clusion, which the analj'ses proved, that the process did not fulfil the condi-
tions of purifying sewage, so as to render it fit to bo discharged into running
streams. They particularly remarked upon the amount of filtering media
not being of sufficient bulk for the purpose.
The following are the results of the analyses as contained in the Report of
the llivers Pollution Commissioners : —
Treatment of Ealing sewage by upward filtration.
EeauUs of analyses espressccl in parts per 100,000, and including both suspended and
dissolved matteris.
Deaeription,
— t V
■g «
E^ a
u
o g
2 -
O s
Ammonia.
Nitrogen
aa nitrites
and iii-
tratcg.
Total com-
bined ni-
trogen.
Sewage as delivered at works April 24tb,
1808
115-5
78-5
27-848
6093
2-930
2-785
7-000
4-250
•OGO
-076
8-695
6361
Sewage flowing from last filter April 24th.
1868
Since this inquiry a series of experiments has been conducted by Gener a
iScott with the sewage of the same place, which the Committee has consi-
dered of sufficient promise to justify an inquiry into the results as far as they
have hitherto gone.
The pi-inciple of General Scott's process is to arrest the flow of the sewage
by tanks, the suspended matters being preciiutated bj'^ means of lime and
clay, which are added to the sewage in the sewer previous to its ari'ival at
the tanks, the proportion of lime so added being about 10 cwt., and of clay
5 cwt. to 400,000 gallons of sewage. After the sludge has sufficiently accu-
mulated in the tanks it is drawn ofi^, placed in a Idln and burnt by intense
heat, and then ground into cement.
The effluent water passes off very much clarified, and without any ofl'en-
sive smell at the time of discharge.
The burning of the deposited matter, with the mixture of the lime and clay,
renders the cement perfectly inodorous, and is one of the means by which
the difficult question of the disposal of the precipitated sludge from sewage
may be solved ; and the method is one which may be adopted in cases where
sewage cannot be used for irrigation in its crude state.
The chief points which are insisted upon in this case are : —
" 1st. The more intimate mixture which can be brought out in the
" sewage--s\'ater, owing to the impali)ible nature of the precipitate of
" carbonate of lime which takes place on the addition of the lime.
" 2ud. The more rapid settlement of the sewage-precipitate than the
" mixture of ch;',lk and clay.
" 3rd. The amount of organic matters which is carried down from the
" sewage with the carbonate of lime and clay, and which serves fcr
" the fuel to burn the mixture into lime or cement."
The amount of fuel which sludge will yield is stated to be so large that, in
1 10 REPORT 1875.
the absence of any better mode of getting rid of it, and in consequence of the
loss whicli results from attempting to deal with it as a manure, it has even
been proposed to destroy it by burning.
The Committee inspected the works at Ealing in September 1871. On
that occasion it was found that General Scott's process was not in operation,
although he was treating the sewage experimentally with deodorizers. It
was decided therefore to test the existing system of treating sewage by up-
ward filtration ; and for this purpose it was arranged that General Scott
should not apply deodorizers to the sewage during the sampling &c. by
the Committee. It appeared, however, that the Local Board kept a man at
the upper end of the town mixing deodorizers with the sewage every day
(except Sunday). The deodorizing-mixture was being added to the sewage
at the rate of 20 gallons an hour, but its composition was not stated.
Samples were taken on behalf of the Committee : — 1st, of the sewage as it
entered the works ; 2nd, of the sewage after leaving the precipitating-tank ;
3rd, after passing through tlie first filter ; 4th, after passing through the
second filter. The samples were taken six times during the day, the quan-
tity taken being proportioned to the flow at the time. It was further deemed
advisable to ascertain the effect of the deodorizing-mixture added by the
Local Board; and for this purpose arrangements were made that nothing
should be added on a certain day, when samples of the sewage and of the
effluent water at the outfall were obtained. The analyses of the six samples
will be found below; and it will be seen that the results confirm the investi-
gations of the Eivers Pollution Commissioners, and that the process does not
render the sewage fit to be discharged into running streams.
The next investigation by the Committee took place in March 1872, when
the sewage works were wholly under General Scott's control. On this occa-
sion gaugings were taken which confirmed the previous statements of the
daily discharge of sewage being about 400,000 gallons. The samples were
taken every two hours, in the proportion of jyVu ^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^°'"'* '-^'^^
gaugings and samplings extended over five days, and the analyses made for
the Committee by Dr. llussell are given below.
A further inspection of the Avorks was made last month (July) during
very hot weather, when it was found that the process was proceeding with-
out any nuisance whatever, although the depositing-tanks are clearly not of
sufficient capacity, a defect which it is intended to remedy. The effluent
water, after leaving the depositing-tanks, contains some suspended matter,
and has a scum on its surface which can only be got rid of by filtration. It
is proposed to filter it with this view; but the liquid will still contain the
soluble organic impurities (see remarks on analyses), which can only be re-
duced in quantity by filtration through soil by means of irrigation, for which
the effluent water of Ealing is well adapted.
The open ditch, before referred to, which conveys the deodorized sewage
from tbe outfall to the Thames, was carefully examined on this occasion, but
not the slightest smeU was detected ; the water has, however, a yellow tinge,
from a slight precipitate which it deposits along the line of the ditch. This
15 no doubt due to the insufficient capacity of the depositing-tanks, the
increase of which will probably effect an improvement.
One of the difficulties attending the process as now conducted, is the dry-
ing of the precipitated sludge with sufficient rapidity. If this is done by
heat, it is liable to cause a nuisance, being by far too slow in action even at
Eahng, with only about 2 tons of sludge daily. It is proposed in this case to
force the water out of the sludge by means of Needham and Kite's hydraulic
I
ON THE TKEATlIJiNT AND ITflLlZATlOX OV SICWAOE.
Ill
press, which will at once render the solid matter nearly dry enough to hum
into cement.
On the whole this process, when perfected, promises well as a means of
treating one of the difficulties of the sewage question — the dispofral of the
sludge precipitated from sewage. It appears not only possible to des'roy
the solid matters by fire, but also to secure some return from their use in
the manufacture of cement.
Bemarl-s on the Analyses of Sewage and Effluent Water from Ealing.
Ealing sewage, upward-filtration process. Samples taken 5th and Cth Sep-
tember, 1871.
]>f.B.— Samples taken every two hours during the day, in the proportion of t.Vt of the
flow per minute. Eesults given in parts per 100,000.
Description of
samples.
1 IJ c
Sewage as it entered
works
Sewage as leaving
preeipitating-tank .
Sewage after passing
througli No. 1 filter
Sewage after passing
through No. 2 alter
Sewage as it entered
works
Sewage from outfall
after passing thro'
filter
<
°F.
62-0
60-0
60-0
60'0
Solid mattL-r.
In solu-
tion.
70-50
72-40
71-00
70-30
7i-60
65-80
lO-JO
a-90
16-70
lO-SO
39-60
41-40
In suspen-
sion.
65-50
16-50
15-20
9-80
97-45
20-70
39-30
3-90
12-28
U-86
3-35 10-79
3-10
35-50
8-60
9-73
10-37
10-44
Nitrogen.
In solution.
5-40
6-48
5-64
5-60
7-41
6-76
0-54-
0-76
1-16
1-31
0-60
5-94
7-24
6-80
5-60
S-72
7-35
2-19
1-37
0-89
trace
4-42
0-97
a .
,2 o
6-1 c3
8-13
S-81
7-69
5-60
13-14
Bemarkj,
Taken Sept. 5, when
.deodorizing - mixture
hid been added b'
Local Board as usual
Taken Sept. 6, when
no deodorizing-mix-
ture had been added
8-32 j J to sewage.
Ealing sewage, General Scott's process. Samples taken March 26th to
April 5th, 1872.
N.B.— Samples taken every two hours during the day, in the proportion of -[uVd of Uie
flow per minute. Eesults given in parts per 100,000.
De cription of
samples.
o
o
o .
^&
<
■A
Solid matter.
C
c
■E
o
2
o
6-31
4-62
Nitrogen.
Kemiris.
In solu-
tion.
In suspen-
sion.
In solution.
i
m
C
2-93
6-59
2-73
i .
n
2-86
■79
6
1
O
0-75
1-41
11
-53
"3
o
H
3-61
2-73
-So
-Co
H
<
Sewage collected )
from main sewer J-
i'i t )wn )
ElUv-.entwater from *i
outfall /
gals.
290
47-5
45-0
61-60
51-40
45-00
43-40
90-38
62-18
i There had been rain
J for some days previ-
( ou;j to the sampling.
I A small amount of
) suspendedmatterpre-
\ sent. Sample not fil-
(_tered.
From these analyses it will be seen that the upward-fi-ltration process,
whether accompanied or not by the previous addition of the deodorizing-
142
HKPOKT 1872.
mixture, effected only a very slight purification of the sewage, which left in the
filters stiU a sewage of average strength ; it was not even clarified. AVith
regard to General Scott's i^rocess, it would appear that by it the suspended
matters are precipitated very completely : as to tlie more important consti-
tuents of the sewage, it is seen from the analyses that the effluent water
contained rather more than two thirds of the chlorine, and three fourths of
the dissolved nitrogen of the sewage ; but it must be remarked that the
dissolved nitrogen appears in a different way in the effluent water and in
the sewage ; the actual ammonia is reduced to one quarter of its amount,
while the organic nitrogen, doubtless from solution of some of the nitrogenous
suspended matters, is nearly doubled in amount in the effluent water. Some
oxidation, too, has taken place by which nitrates appear in the solution. Such
water would be much too impure to be sent into a river, and too valuable to
bo wasted ; indeed it is not pretended that the process is capable oi purifijinjj
the liquid sewage, its object is merely the separation and deodorization of
the sludge (which, in the majority of cases, must necessarily be removed before
the sewage can be utilized), and its ultimate use as fuel in the manufacture
of cement.
Sectiox III.
A process known as " Whitthread's Patent " having been brought under
the notice of the Committee, has been investigated by a preliminary experi-
ment on a sufflcicntly large scale, although it is not at present in operation
anywhere, the supporters agreeing to pay the expense of the necessary
analyses.
The process consists in the addition of a mixture of dicalcic and mono-
calcic phosphate containing, it was stated, two equivalents of dicalcic to one of
monocalcic phosphate (the latter being added as commercial superphosphate),
and then afterwards a little milk of lime. In the experiment referred to 100
gallons of sewage, taken from the Eomford sewer before it joins the tanks
on Ereton's Farm, were operated on, one pound of the mixture being stirred
up in a little water, and added after the addition of a little milk of lime.
The precipitation was very rapid, and the supernatant water remained very
nearly clear and quite inoffensive.
The accompanying Table shows the result of the analyses of the raw
sewage, the supernatant water, and the precipitate : —
Ecsults giYc;i in parts per 100,000.
Description of
eamiiles.
Solid matter.
i
■E
o
Nitrogen.
Eemai-Vs
(by Dr. Kussell).
In solution.
In suspen-
sion.
In solution.
fl
3
a
■S.2
o g
so-
lo
C o
%6
II
d
^'^
1
i
o
0-90
0-02
As ni-
trates and
nitrites.
3
"o
Sewage sample
from 100 gal-
lons as it en-
tered the tanks
Supernatant li-
quid filtered ...
71-20
83-S
41-40
56-2
24-14
9-68
11-57
11-21
2-23
2-50
none.
3-18
2-52
1-93
5-11
P:i05=.5-o3.
ON TUB THEATJIENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE.
Examination of the precipitate after drying it at 100° C.
l-iS
Eesults in 100 parts.
Ammonia
Phosphoric acid (? 0O5)
Limo (CaO)
Phosphate of ahimiua and iron
Loss on ignition • •
Eesiduum, insoluble in hydrochloric acid
3-03
8-18
23 -5 1
32-sa
14-5J:
We have said that the suspended matters Avere in very small amount in
the supernatant A\-ater ; this is evidently merely a question of time allowed for
settling. It will be seen that the amount of ammonia in solution is some-
what greater in the cfflneiit water than in the sewage, doubtless from the
decomposition of some of the soluble organic matter in solution ; but the
most remarkable thing is that the organic matter in solution was almost
entirely removed in this experiment, so that while the sewage contained 0-90
part of organic nitrogen in solution in 100,000 parts, the supernatant water
only contained 0-02 part. It must, however, be distinctly understood that;
this is only a preliminary experiment, from which general conclusions must
not be too hastily drawn. The supernatant water contained a considerable
quantity of phosphoric acid, viz. 5-53 parts in 100,000.
The analysis of the precipitate shows it to contain a largo proportion of
phosphate of lime ; and its value is much enhanced by the three per cent, of
ammonia which it also contains.
The ijresence of phosphoric acid in the supernatant water would be of con-
siderable advantage if this were afterwards used for irrigation, but, unless
means are devised for separating it, would constitute a serious loss if the
water were thrown away.
On the whole, then, this preliminary experiment shows that the process in
question well deserves further and careful investigation.
Sectiok IV. — Additional Note on tJie Dry Earth system.
In the last Eeport'the Committee gave the results which Dr. Gilbert had
obtained from the analysis of soil which had been used in an earth-closet
either once or twice.
It appeared that, " calculated upon the air-dried condition, the increase in
the percentage of nitrogen was only about 0-15 each time the soil was used ;
and, even after using twice, the soil was not richer than good garden-mould."
Prom two agreeing determinations Dr. Gilbert now finds that soil which
has been used three times in the closet contains, when dried at 100° C, only
0-446 per cent, of nitrogen; and dupHcate determinations entirely confirmed
this result, so that we have the following series : —
Ecfora
used .
After using
ones.
After using
t.vicc.
After using
■hree times.
Percentage of nitrogen in soil dried
at 100^
C-073
0-240
0-383
0-446
So that the remark made by the Committee last year with regard to soil
which had been used twice, " that such a manure, even if disposed of free of
charge, would bear carriage to a very short distance only," is applicable also
to soil which has been used three times in the earth-closet.
144 REPORT — 1872.
Section Y. — Seiucir/e-Fanns.
(I. E.VELSAVOOD SkAVAGE-FaEM.
It will be remembered that the Committee investigated the utilization of
the selvage of Rcdhill, Surrey, at Earlswood Common, and reported the result
at the last Meeting of the British Association at Edinburgh. In this Eeport
the extent and mode of laying out the land and applying the sewage were
described, and analyses were given of samples of the sewage and eflBuent
water taken by the Committee. The results of these analyses showed that
the sewage, although very weak, was but very imperfectly purified by the
process ; and that this was so, was attributed by the Committee chiefly to
the absence of underdrainage in the irrigated land, the analyses and various
observations as to the temperatures of the samples pointing to the conclusion
that the land had become saturated, and that the sewage simply flowed over
it instead of percolating through it.
The Committee has again examined this farm, considering it desirable to
ascertain and report any change of circumstances connected with it. No
sampling of the sewage or effluent water was made on this occasion, as it
was found that the farm remained very much in the same condition as when
last visited.
The outfall ditch, which receives the effluent sewage from the lowest beds,
has been lowered 2 feet, so as to admit of subsoil-drainage over the whole
farm ; but none has been executed, although the idea was at one time enter-
tained.
The sewage is still passed through " Latham's patent extractor ;" but the
result is only to disengage a veiy small amount of solid matter, and it re-
quires the attendance of one man daily.
The land has been taken as a sewage-farm for the sewage of lleigate as
well as that of Redhill ; but the sewage from the former place is not j'ct
conveyed to the farm, the sewer, which was in course of construction last
year, being still incomplete.
The flow of sewage and effluent water was found to be aboiit equal in
quantity, viz. 250 gallons per minute. Looking at the results of the pre-
sent system, with the sewage of lledhill only, the effect of adding that from
lleigate cannot be expected to be satisfactory, unless improvements arc made
in the mode of laying out the land, and unless it is properly underdrained.
The croi)s on the farm consist principally of rye-grass and oats, with a
few mangolds. The rye-grass, of which three crops have been cut this year,
is for the most part made into hay, there not being sufficient demand for it in
the green state. It should be stated that on the occasion of this inspection
the efiiuent water was running apparently clear and free from smeU.
I. TrxBEiDGE "Wells Sewage-Farms.
The Committee also deemed it desirable to inquire what had been done at
these farms since the investigation last year.
It will be remembered that the sewage of Tunbridge Wells, which is tole-
rably concentrated, is conveyed by gravitation to two farms, one situated on
the north, and the other on the south of the town. The farms were not
unifoi-miy underdrained, but some previously existing drainage was employed
under a peculiar system to redistribute the eflluent sewage -water. The dis-
tribution was effected by the catchwater system, the sewage-sludge being
previously allowed, to subside in tanks constructed for the purpose.
J
ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 145
Analyses of the samples taken on the first inspection of the Coramittco
sliowed that the purification effected Mas, on the whole, unsatisfactory, espe-
cially on the south farm.
]S"o samples were taken at the recent inspection of the farms, it being
desired principally to ascertain their present working condition. On visit-
ing the north farm it was found that the sewage was running into the tanks
at the rate of 280 gallons per minute. It was muddy, and smelt very
strongly. The cfllueut water appeared to be running clear and free from
smell, and the stream into which it is discharged was clearer than it was at
the last inspection. Some additional catchwater-drains had been put in,
and some defective subsoil-drains repaired ; but, as far as could be learned, no
regular system of subsoil-drainage had been commenced. The crops on this
farm consisted of meadow-grass, Italian rj^e-grass, mangolds, oats, beans, and
wheat, and were generally in excellent condition ; but the rye-grass is not so
strong as it was last year, probably owing to this being the third year after
sowing. There is plenty of demand for it at Is. per rod green ; and about
1 000 cubic yards of hay, of very good quality, had been made from it this year.
The other crops are described as very heavy. It was stated that a large field
of turnips, being infested with the fly, was flooded with sewage, which drowned
the fly and saved the crop, which is expected to turn out well, but rather
late. The wheat was sewaged twice during the spring, and was a very fine
crop, the Committee's Inspector computing the probable average yield at
about seven quarters per acre. The whole farm was described as looking
better and in a healthier state than last year.
On the south farm the sewage was running into the tanks at the rate of
440 gallons per minute, and it smelt very ofi'ensively. The efilueut water
was very clear and free from smell. The crops on this farm were also look-
ing very well, but not generally so fine as those on the north farm. The
ryegrass here, as at the other farm, was not so strong as last year, from
which it would appear that three years is too long to grow and cut from the
same roots. There were about ten acres of wheat, four being on sewaged
ground, and six manured with the sediment from the tanks, both looking
equally well. Some hops which received sewage in the winter compared
very favourably with others which are too high above the carriers to be
sewaged, being stronger in the bine and of a darker green colour. A field
of beans was noticed, one portion of the crop being very heavy and healthy-
looking, and the other very poor and stunted. On inquiry it was ascertained
that the whole field had been equally sewaged, but that the portion where
the crop was so good had been drained 4 feet deep during last winter, the
other portion being left undrained. It seems desirable to call attention to
this circumstance, as aff'ording further proof of the necessity (already insisted
upon by the Committee in a previous Ileport) of subsoil-drainage in con-
nexion with sewage irrigation. It was stated that there was a ready sale for
the green crops produced on this farm. The rye-grass is appreciated by the
locai cow-feeders, who say that their cattle thrive well on it. Judging from
the experience of these farms, it would also appear that sewage irrigation is,
when properly managed, as well adapted for grain crops as for green crops ;
but the quantity which can be applied to them being comparatively very
small, the area for the distribution and application of the sewage must be
greatly increased in proportion as corn crops are grown by its aid.
146 KEPOUT — 187^.
Section YI. — Merthi/r Tycljil Scwar/e-Farm at Troechjrhlw.
In January last the attention of the Committee was directed to a system
of purifying sewage by intermittent downward filtration which was then
completed at Troedyrhiw, near Merthyr Tydfil, for dealing with the sewage
of the latter place.
In 1870 the present Eivers Pollution Commissioners, in their first Eeport,
described some most important experiments which had been conducted in
their laboratory by Dr. Edward Fraukland, F.R.S., which satisfactorily proved
that intermittent downward filtration (which is, in fact, irrigation confined to
a small area), " properly conducted, is a most efficient means of piuifying
sewage." The various trials with different soils showed conclusively that
town sewage might in this manner be cleansed and rendered sufficiently
innocuous for discharge into streams. The Commissioners stated that an
acre of filtering material G feet deep would so cleanse the sewage of 3300
jicople ; but they expressed an opinion that, whilst successful from a remedial
point of view, the system would be very wasteful, as not utilizing the valuable
manurial properties of sewage : and for this reason it was only to be recom-
mended for employment on a small scale, or where circumstances rendered
other processes difficult and expensive.
In 1868, and again in 1869, injunctions were granted by the Court of
Chancery to prevent the Local Board of Merthyr Tydfil from discharging the
sewage of that town into the river Taff.
Merthyr Tydfil contains a population of 50,000; but, according to informa-
tion supplied to the Committee, the excretal refuse of not more than two fifths
of this number is discharged into the sewers, although the slops and other
liquid refuse from a further like number (20,000) is stated to be admitted.
It is not surprising, therefore, that the sewage is, as afterwards appears,,
exceedingly weak.
In 1870 the Local Board gave notice for the purchase of 393 acres of land
in the valley of the Taff, upon which to dispose of the sewage. Of this
quantity 70 to 80 acres were purchased below the village of Troedyrhiw,
which is about three miles from Merthyr Tydfil ; and it is here that an area
of about 20 acres has, under the supervision of a member of the Committee,
been converted into a filter-bed for the practice of the system of downward fil-
tration originated by the Rivers Pollution Commissioners, as above described.
The soil of this area consists of a deep bed of gravel (probably the former
bed of the river TafP, which is embanked upon the east side, and is raised
above the valley), composed of rounded pebbles of the Old Ilcd Sandstone and
Coal-measure formations, interspersed with some loam and beds of sand,
forming an extremely porous deposit, and having a vegetable mould on the
surface.
The land has been pipe-drained at a depth of less than 7 feet, and the
pipes are concentrated at the lowest corner, where the effluent water is dis-
eiiarged into an open drain, which leads to the river Taff at some distance
down the valley.
The area is laid out in square beds, intersected with roads and paths, along
which are constructed the main carriers which receive the sewage from the
outfall sewer and distribute it over the beds.
The sewage before entering the farm is screened through a bed of " slag,"
which arrests the coarser matters. It is applied to the land intermittently ;
for the area being divided into four plots or beds, it is turned on each one
ON THE TREATMDNT AND UTILIZATION Oi' SEWAGE.
117
for six hoiir3 at a time, leaving an interval of eigliteen hours for rest and
aeration of the soil. .
The surface of the land was cultivated to a depth of from 16 to lb inches,
and laid up in ridges in order that the sewage might run down the furrows,
while the ridges were ijlantod with cabbages and other vegetables.
The Committee lias adopted the same mode of investigation in this as in
other cases, and the following is a description of their operations.
It was thought addsablc in this, as in other examinations of se\yage-farms,
that inspections should be made at two seasons of the year,— in winter, when
the laud is saturated with rain or frozen, and again in summer during dry
weather, when there is the greatest activity in vegetable life.
The first examination of the farm was made in January last, in very wet
weather, when the system was in operation as above described. Samples,
extending over a period of seven days, were collected of the sewage as it
entered the farm, and of the effluent water from the outfall drain before de-
scribed. Gaugings were taken of the flow of both the sewage and efliuent
water for eight days, with the following results : —
Date.
Tcmi^erature.
Average Bow per
ininute.
Ecmarks.
At noon.
Averace
during day.
Air.
Ground.
Sewage.
Effluent
water.
1
Sewage.
Efflueut
water.
Jan. 9
10
11
12
13
14
15
10
p_
50
49
48
49
50
40
37
i
49
48
46
47
49
38
39
°F.
49
49
50
48J-
47
48
43
45
°F.
46
46
47
45
45J-
46
45 .J
46
gals.
757
784
i 844
j 875
1119
1 6.30
720
; 730
gals.
1424
1687
1875
1940
2538
1.'60
1424
1150
Showery.
Continuous rain.
Shovrery.
Light rain clay ; heavy at
night.
Continuous heavy rain.
.Fine.
Misty.
(Only two gaugings taken.)
Aver:
'S«
807
1699
It will be seen that the quantity of effluent water discharged was more
than double the quantity of .sewage ; and as the rainfall, though considerable,
could not possibly account for such an increase, it was felt necessary to look
elsewhere for its cause. It Avas ascertained from the Surveyor to the Local
Board that the bed of the river Taft' is 4 feet 7 inches above the bottom of the
effluent drain ; and observation proved that when the water in the river rose
that of the drain rose also, and on the river-water subsiding the same thing
occurred in the drain. 'From this it became evident that a filtering eommu-
nicatiou exists between the river and the drains, the natiu'e of the soil
rendering this very probable. To further test the matter, trial holes were dug
in a field adjoining, and to the north of the filtering-beds, when it was found
that the same thing occurred, the water collected in them rising and falling
•with that in the river.
It should be stated that some gaugings of the flow of the sewage were taken
in November 1871, by Mr. Harper, the Surveyor to the Local Board, which,
as will be seen, agree closely with those taken for the Committee.
148
REPORT 1872.
1871. Nov. 14 and 15. Eain part of the time.
Greatest flow 1075 gallons per minute.
Least „ 7G8 „ „ „
Average flow for the two days . 925 ,, ,, ,,
1871. Nov. 30 and Dec. 1. Dry weather.
Greatest flow 768 gallons per minute.
Least
631
Average flow for the two days
•28
824,796 gallons per day is the summer dry-weather flow of the sewage from
the Avhole of the district.
The second examination was made by the Committee in the early part of
July last, when samples and gaugings were taken for a period extending over
eight days. The samples were taken, as in the previous ease, at the rate
of y77,^y y part of the flow at the time of taking. The following arc the
results of the gaugings on this occasion : —
I
Tunipcratiire.
Averafje (low per |
nunuto.
Date.
At noon.
Avpragc
during day.
1
Kemarke.
Air.
Ground.
a„„.™ Effluent
Sewage. ^^^^^
1
Seivnge.
Effluent
water.
July !
p
o p
°F.
°r.
gals.
gals. I
2.
70
63
60
56
925
icm '■
Rain early in morning.
3.
70
64
60
55
740
1450
Dry.
4.
7.T
73
60
55
030
1425
Dry.
5.
69
70
.60
56
0.30
1425
Dry.
G A.M.
1 68
70
55
68 1
630
1425
Dr'y till 1 1 A.M.
fi P.M. 1
2600
2004
Thunderstorm at 11 a.m.
7. j
68
6i
60
55
4000
4000
Eain in morning and all
previous night.
8. 1
68
44
60
55
925
1800
Slight rain in morning.
9.
68
50
60
55
780
1700
Dry after 7 a.m. Slight
1
1
rain previous night.
Averr
'ge
1318
1936
The samples of sewage and efiiucnt water taken were collected only during
the dry portion of the above period, namely, the afternoon of the 2nd July,
all the 3rd, 4th, and 5th, the morning of the 6th, and the afternoons of the
8th and 9th, when the rains could not be said to have had any effect on them,
and they may be considered fair samples of the dry-weather sewage and
effluent water. Selecting the entirely dry days from the above, it would
appear that the ordinary flow of dry-weather sewage may be stated as 650
gallons per minute, and that of the effluent water at 1425 gallons per minute.
Allowing one fourth of the sewage to be evaporated during dry weather, it
■would appear that the effluent sewage is diluted during dry weather with
about twice its bulk of comparatively pure water from the river and other
sources.
ox THE TREATMENT VXD UTILIZATION OK SEWAGE. 149
The tliuuderstorm which occurred on the Gth July afforded further proof
of the connexion between the river-water and that of the effluent dram.
On the morning following the storm the Avater in the river had risen 7 feet
6 inches perpendicular, and on walking along the bank the Inspector found
the river-water percolating through and flooding the ground 18 inches deep.
The water in the effluent drain was 3 feet 6 inches deep, and was estimated
to be running at the rate of 3500 to 4000 gallons per minute.
The surface of the filtering areas was prepared for cultivation in the spring
of 1871, and in June of that year cabbages were planted and mangolds sown ;
and the crops were sold in the autumn, yiekUng very good prices. As soon
as cleared they were replaced by others, some of which are now in the ground,
and some have been sold at high prices.
The adjoining land at Troedyrhiw, belonging to the Local Board, has been
cultivated as a sewage-farm proper with complete success, the croj^s grown
being of a high class. The Eoard also intends to apply the sewage to the
land before i-eferred to in the valley of the Taff, but has reduced the quantity
previously intended to be taken by 112 acres, since the success of the downi-
ward-filtration system has been demonstrated. It will of course be under-
stood that this latter system is in this case only intended to be used in
conjunction with the ordinary sewage-irrigation ; and, considered as a means
for the disposal of the sewage, and especially of the night-sewage, there
can be little doubt of the success of this method. But whether it would be
equally favourable in other cases, when solely relied on for the disposal and
purification of the sewage of other towns, and under all the difterent con-
ditions as to soil, water, strength of sewage, &c., is a subject upon which
there may be considerable doubt, but which is, nevertheless, a proper one
for further investigation.
The Rivers Pollution Commissioners have recently presented another Report
to Parliament, in which they describe the operations at Troedyrhiw ; and they
therein admit that the fears expressed in their first Report, that the manurial
properties of sewage would be entirely lost in this process, and that the
treatment of the sewage of a large town by it would probably result in a
nuisance, have not been borne out in this case.
The Commissioners state : — •" Our analyses show that the effluent water
entering the Taff from the Mcrthyr intermittent fdters was of even a more
highly satisfactory degree of purity than the samples which we examined
resulting from the process carried out on a small scale in our laboratory ; but
a comparison of the proportions of chlorine in the sewage and effluent
water shows that the whole of the latter is not derived from the former.
AVe find, in fact, that each gallon of the sewage, on June 19, 1871, had
become mixed with 2-2 gallons of subsoil-water, and that on October 20,
1871, each gallon of sewage had become mixed with 1-9 gallon of subsoil-
water. This result involves the assumption that the subsoil-water contained
the same proportion of chlorine as that present in the water of the neigh-
bouring Taff, which, according to our analyses, has 1-2 part of chlorine in
100,000 parts."
It will be seen that this opinion of the C!omraissioners, founded upon
chemical analysis, more than confirms the conclusion of this Committee,
based upon the results of the gaugings taken, that the effluent sewage is
diluted with twice its bulk of comparatively pure water.
The Commissioners consider, nevertheless, that the net result of the action
of the soil of the intermittent filters upon the sewage was highly satisfactory,
150
REPORT 1872,
attention being drawn at the same time to tlic exceptionally -weak character
of the sewage ; and bearing this in mind, they snggest that " it may be neces-
sary, in order to secure efficient pnrification, to lay out as intermittent filters
even double the area of land per 10,000 of population that is employed at
Merthyr Tydfil, where only from two to five acres per 10,000 people were
being employed."
The following are the analyses of the samples taken by the Committee : —
Sewage-Farm at Merthyr Tydfil. Analyses taken 10th to loth January, 1 872.
N.B. — Samples taken every two hours during the day, in the proportion of js^ns of
the iiovf per minute. Results given in parts per 100,U00.
Description of
A, .
Solid matter.
C
a
Nitrogen.
Remarks
In solution.
In suopen-
In solution.
.
c
o
O B
3 'x
samples.
C3 ca
o
O
c
^
&
1|
(by Dr. Russell).
HO
B
4^ •
ao
.3
CJ
_.
<
■130
■=2
^1
'Co
o o
o
Ah d
trates
nitrit
o
U3
1— t
11
°v.
Sewage from main
sewer
48
45-60
40-CO
12-CS
6-77
4'i;6
0-84
O-of,
i-40
O-oO
1-90
Effluentwater from'
*
outfall : '16
32-40
L'U-2.5
a-4s
0-04
O-Ol'
0-59 ;0'65
0-0.5
Subsoil-water from'
adjoining field,]
/Hardness: —
where sewage is!
Temporary 3-7S
not applied 1 '13
18-S.J
113-Si
0-1I2
0-OUi'
O-OI
trace
0-05
0-05
■< Permanent 5-93
9-71
Sewagc-Farm at Merthyr Tydfil. Analyses taken 2nd to 8th July, 1872.
N.B.— Samples taken every two hours duririg the day, in tlie proporlion of tdJcu of
the flow per minute. Results given in parts per 100,Ut)t).
Ceseription of
.san)ple8.
Sewage as entering
farm
Effluentwater from
outfall
Solid matter.
Insolation I--P-
■Co
\
CO j 44-SO
65 35'cO
■s.\ 7°.
< ?,
.'S\ P'
31-80 IC-Ii
I
co-so ...
4-08
6-53
"•SO
Nitrogen.
a .
c
In solution.
^
•^
11
00
c3
'3
03
t3
1 P 05
1
5
o
^|-E
^ Hi
c
1-S2S
0-29
I
2-12' 0-48
2-60
0-077
0-0.39
0-402
0-518
With regard to the winter sewage, we see, from the decrease in the amount
of chlorine in the effluent water, that in this case each gallon of the sewage
had become mixed with 1-39 gallon of subsoil-water, containing -92 of
chlorine in 100,000 parts; this .shows a smaller amount of dilution than
that stated by the Elvers Pollution Commissioners, and so far agrees better
with our gaugings as above recorded. It will be noticed that the Coramis-
ox THE TKEATHENT AND TTILIZATIOX Or fsEWAGE. 151
sioners cousidercd the subsoil-water to contain as much chloriue as the
•water of the river TafF, whereas actual analysis of it shows it to contain only
0-92 against 1*2 of chlorine in the river-water. Had we taken the composi-
tion of the river-water as given by the Commissioners, the dilution would
have appeared in this case to be 1-7 gallon of subsoil-Avater to 1 of sewage,
instead of 1-39 to 1.
Now the total nitrogen in solution in 100,000 parts of sewage was 1*40,
in the effluent water 0-G5, and in the subsoil-water 0-05 (see Table).
Again, one volume of this sewage, mixed with 1-39 volume of this subsoil-
water, would give 2-39 volumes of water, containing exactly 0-07 part of
nitrogen in solution in the 100,000 parts — that is to say, that the apparent
diminution of the nitrogen in solution is, within a small fraction, entirely due
to dilution with subsoil-water ; and the nitrogen retained in the soil is eipial
to the amount in the suspended matters of the sewage, that is to say, rather
more than a quarter of the total nitrogen.
What is most important, however, is that, although all the nitrogen
originally in solution is lost, it is almost all oxidized; for about \\ of the
nitrogen in the effluent water is in the form of innocuous nitrates and
nitrites.
In the summer the dilution with subsoil-water was, according to the
gaugings, equal to about twice the volume of the sewage. As the chlorine
in the subsoil-water was not determined in the summer, we can only say that
the smaller proportion of total nitrogen in solution in the effluent water
seems to confirm the results of the gaugings.
The effluent water this summer was not quite so pure as last winter, but
still four fifths of its nitrogen was in the form of nitrates and nitrites.
It is to be noted that the sewage was cooled by its percolation through the
soil, and especially so in summer.
The general results seem to be that by the process the suspended matters
are removed, and the ammonia and nitrogenous organic matters in solution
are almost completely oxidized, and escape in the effxuent water as nitrates
and nitrites ; so that the sewage is satisfactorily purified, though the process
cannot be looked upon as one of utilization.
Section VII. — Breton's Farm, near Bomforcl.
It will be in the remembrance of the members of the British Association
that the Committee has been conducting a series of observations on the appli-
cation of the sewage of the town of Romford to this farm, both as to the
purification of the sewage and its utilization as a manure ; accordingly the
observations and analyses recorded in previous years have been continued
during the past year, and the results will be found in the accompanying
Tables.
The Committee have, however, extended their observations still further
during the past year, and have supplemented them by the particulars of the
crops which have been grown on the farm during the twelve months from
March 25th, 1871, to ]\Iareh 24th, 1872, both days inclusive. But to make
this inquiry more complete, and of greater practical utility, the Committee
made an alteration in the form of the analysis of the sewage and effluent
•water, so as to determine the total nitrogen.
The observations Avhich were made in rolalion to the crops gave the fol-
lowing results ; — ■
152 REPORT — 1872.
tons.
The quantity of sewage from the town received on tlie farm from
March 25th, 1871, to March 24th, 1872, inclusive, is, according
to the gaugings 410,787
The quantity of efliuent water returned from the land to the
tanks and rejnimped, during the same period, is 52,406
The quantity of sewage, dilute or otherwise, which we have to
account for is therefore 469,253
According to the cropping table the quantity of
sewage applied to the cropped land (chiefly by
jiumping, hut also to a small amount by gravita-
tion) during the aforesaid period is 380,227 tons.
Mr. Gooch (the adjoining farmer) was supplied with 4,131
There was applied to the garden (wliich is not
reckoned as part of the farm proper) 933
Total quantity 385,291 tons utU'ized.
Leaving 83,902 tons, ■which quantity was run upon a plot of land at the
lower part of the farm by gravitation and simply filtered, during periods
when it could not be put on the farm, owing to further drainage-works
being in progress.
Prom Table III. it appears tliat the 380,227 tons of sewage so used con-
tained 21'0245 tons of nitrogen, and that the total amount of effluent water
l"unning from the subsoil-drains during the twelve months, viz. 195,536 tons
(of which 52,460 tons were returned to the tank, and repumped with the
sewage on to the land, and the remainder discharged into the river Rom),
contained 2-2430 tons of nitrogen, or approximately one tenth part of that
applied in the sewage.
It must, however, be remarked that the figures in the columns marked * are
calculated from the results of the analyses of the sewage and effluent water
during the corresponding period of the present year (1872), as the method
of analysis employed before July 1871 did not give results in the same
denomination as that now used.
The total amounts of nitrogen in the sewage and effluent water respec-
tively were calculated from the results of the analyses during the various
l^eriods ; and the absolute averages were, for the sewage 5-529 parts, and for
the effluent water 1-147 part in the 100,000.
In Table IV. "will be found a detailed description of the crops, arranged
according to the plots into which the farm is divided. The figures in columns
III., VII., X., and XI. are as exact as possible, but those in columns VIII.,
IX., and XII. are at the best only approximations. The figures in column
VIIL, from which those in columns IX. and XII. are deduced, profess to
represent the quantities of sewage applied during the twelve months to the
several crops and plots ; but it is obvious that with the means at the disposal
of the Committee no precise measurements of these quantities could be ob-
tained ; for to gauge the quantities of sewage applied at various times to
twenty-four plots with separate subdivisions, each having its own conduit,
would require a preliminary outlay in plant estimated at £500, and the con-
stant services of four additional educated assistants at probably not less than
£250 a year each. The only way, therefore, that even approximate figures
could be obtained for this column was by recording the number of acres to
which the measured daily total quantity of sewage was applied, and assuming
ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 153
that it -was equally distributed over those acres— an assumption which,
although giving a fair average approximation in the totals, necessarily
often gives fallacious results in the particular instances, because, while
some portions of the land had been consolidated by previous dressings of
sewage, other portions sewaged at the same time were loose and hollow from
recent cultivation, and therefore absorbed very much greater quantities of
sewage.
Table V. gives a summary of the totals of Table IV., and in addition the
approximate estimates of nitrogen corresponding to the approximate estimates
of sewage, and also the amounts of nitrogen contained in the various crops,
as calculated from proportions given by the best authorities. In all cases,
however, the grand totals may be relied upon, as where they were not
obtained by actual measurement they are (as, for instance,'in the case of the
weights of crops) the ultimate results of a very large number of carefully
obtained averages.
Table VI. is also a summary of Table IV., but arranged according to the
crops instead of according to the plots. It will be at once seen, from the
remarks already made, that the separate total amounts of sewage, and there-
fore of nitrogen, assigned to each crop are much less reliable than the cor-
responding numbers for the plots ; but, as in the last case, the grand totals
(which are, of course, identical with those in the corresponding columns of
the previous Table) are either absolutely correct or very reliable.
The important result to be deduced from the grand totals in these Tables
is, that of every 100 parts of nitrogen distributed over the farm during the
twelve months, 10-67 parts, or about one tenth, were found in the effluent
water; 41-76, or approximately four tenths, were recovered in the crops,
making together about half; and 47-57 parts, or in round numbers the
other half, were unaccounted for. Of this half a portion must have remained
in the soil; and as the average composition of the soil previously to the
application of the sewage was determined by the Committee (see Second
Report, to the Meeting at Liverpool), it is intended to determine the pro-
portion of this unaccounted-for nitrogen which actually does remain in the
soil at various depths.
The Committee thinks it right to call attention prominently to the fact that
the above proportions (representing the manner in which the nitrogen of the
sewage was ultimately disposed of in the case of Breton's Farm, during the
twelve months to which the Tables refer) are, for the sewage and effluent
water, as absolute and exact as accurate gauging and careful analysis can
make them, and are, for the crops, calculated by means of the most reliable
published data ; they are, moreover, the final results obtained from a much
greater number of continuously applied observations over a greater area, and
with a much greater variety of crops, than have ever hitherto been scien-
tifically made.
The two main results of practical importance which, from the evidence of
the observations, may be accepted as generally attainable are : — first, that less
than eleven per cent, of the total nitrogen applied to the land escaped in the
effluent water, and of that only a fractional percentage in an organic form ;
and, secondly, that upwards of forty per cent, was actually recovered in the
crops grown upon the land — a proportion which must be considered highly
satisfactory (especially when the extreme porosity of the soil and limited area
of the land are taken into account), as in the experiments of Messrs. Lawes
and Gilbert only from forty to sixty per cent, of the nitrogen applied in
solid manures was recovered in the crops within the season of application.
1872. M
154
KEPORT 1872.
Table I. — Breton's
Statement of Weekly Quantities of Sewage received on the Farm, of Sewage or
Effluent Water escap-
[Continued from
3
o ,
h a
^ 3
Date (inclvsiTe).
c «
bDP<
em
.9
3 ^
|o,
0'« H
■*5 43
«g.g a
'■E _gJ3
58.
59-
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71-
7^-
73-
74-
75-
76.
77-
78.
79-
80.
81.
82.
83.
1871.
July 16 to July 22
July 23 to July 29
July 30 to August 5 ,
August 6 to August 12
August 13 to August 19
August 20 to August 26
August 27 to Sept. 2 ...
Sept. 3 to Sept. 9
Sept. 10 to Sept. 16
Sept. 17 to Sept. 23
Sept. 24 to Sept. 30
Oct. 1 to Oct. 7
Oct. 8 to Oct. 14
Oct. 15 to Oct. 21
Oct. 22 to Oct. 28
Oct. 29 to Not. 4
Nov. 5 to Nov. 11
Nov. 12 to Nov. 18
Nov. 19 to Nov. 25
Nov. 26 to Dec. 2
Dec. 3 to Dec. 9
Dec. 10 to Dec. 16
Dec. 17 to Dec. 23
Deo. 24 to Dec. 30
1871. 1872.
Dec. 31 to January 6 . .
Jan. 7 to Jan. 13
o p
71
66
60
77
75
695
72-5
68
67-5
59
S3
57
54-5
58
S3
49
4J
39'S
36
39
32-5
40
43
45
44
40-5
o'56
©•40
0-85
0-07
0-92
3"5o
0-86
O'OI
0-47
o-i8
0'02
0-05
0*23
©■04
O'lO
0'02
O'OI
0-48
0-46
0-8 1
0-57
galls.
1,409,400
1,760,000
1,549,600
1,462,500
1,708,900
1,560,400
1,610,400
1,752,400
1,514,500
1,696,700
2,620,500
2,134,100
1,657,300
1,870,200
1,792,300
1,738,700
1,556,800
1,488,400
1,492,100
1,575,000
(computed)
i,3°5.300
1,570,500
1,643,600
1,846,600
2,069,200
2,380,400
64 ■
63
63-5
66-5
67
67
66
66-5
67
64
60
60
60
60
595
59
57
55-5
53
SI'S
50
49
5°
49
49
49
galls.
824,700
896,900
634,600
670,200
652,300
617,500
495,700
631,100
801,100
715,400
818,200
(partly computed)
1,178,000
(partly computed)
1,275,900
1,334,900
1,272,900
1,172,700
915,900
651,700
716,100
519,500
569,500
709,200
833,300
845,300
963,400
1,027,500
(partly computed)
ON THE TKEATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE.
155
Sewage-Farm.
Diluted Sewage pumped or flowing by gravitation on to the Land, and of
ing from the Drains.
last Eeport.]
a £
a"^ ^-^ |.| S
Sewage only.
3
P4
•°i3 2
-ts ^ at
all
3 *j Si)
Effluent water.
Ah
S
3
-A >»>
°ai
3 -.J 00
°F.
59
59
59
6o
62
61
61
60-5
61
60
58
57
55-5
55
54-5
53
51
48
46
44
44
44
44
44
44
galls.
1,791,400
2,050,900
1,983,100
1,926,300
2,1 15,000
1,756,100
1,481,500
1,705,700
1,665,900
1,872,000
1,025,900
(5 days only)
669,700
(4 days only)
2,003,800
1,940,000
(7 days)
2,220,200
(7 days)
2,011,100
(7 days)
1,794,100
1,545,000
1,221,400
(5 days only)
nil
1,239,900
1,608,500
1.947.300
1,682,700
(7 days)
1,898,500
1,550,700
O Jl
63
63
63*5
65
66
65-5
66
66
66
63
S8
59
58
59
58
57
56
54
52
48
47-5
48
48
47
47
■460
■437
•320
•348
•308
•351
•335
•370
■481
•382
■797
1-759
•636
•688
•573
■583
•510
•422
•586
•419
•441
•428
•502
•507
•663
galls.
1,409,400
1,760,000
1,549,600
1,351,800
1,620,900
1,560,400
1,034,200
1,284,600
1,209,900
1,432,900
504,200
871,100
1,657,300
1,804,500
1,792,300
1,688,500
1,556,800
1 ,408,400
893,800
nil
1,257,500
1.534.500
1,643,600
1,496,600
1,604,300
1,418,100
■galls,
nil
nil
nil
110,700
88,000
nil
576,200
467,800
304,600
263,800
2,116,300
1,263,000
nil
65,700
nil
50,200
nil
80,000
598,300
1,575,000
47,800
36,000
nil
350,000
464,900
962,300
galls.
348,100
389,900
313,800
601,900
474,200
195,700
435.300
445,200
508,900
643,100
52,800
114,800
312,300
318,000
267,200
252,200
207,800
1 50,000
110,300
nil
168,500
113,400
251,200
242,600
262,800
56,100
galls.
476,600
507,000
320,800
68,300
178,100
421,800
60,400
92,400
238,400
53,200
541,500
838,200
963,600
990,900
1,005,700
916,300
708,100
494,900
544,700
344,500
364,200
595,800
582,100
551.400
634,600
818,900
k2
galls,
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
93,500
53,800
19,100
223,900
225,000
nil
26,000
nil
4,200
nU
6,800
61,100
175,000
36,800
nU
nil
51.300
66,000
152,500
156
REPORT 1873.
Table I.
3
o .
Date (inclusive).
11
MO.
a
1
Quantity of sewage
delivered to the
farm from the
town.
Average tempera-
ture thereof.
Quantity of effluent
water flowing out
of the drains.
84.
1872.
.Tan 14 to Jan. 20
°F.
40
in.
o"6i
galls.
2,368,5,0
°F.
49
galls.
837,600
(partly computed)
8S-
Jan 21 to Jan. 27
44
0-94
2,341,900
48-5
989,200
(partly computed)
K6
Jan. 28 to Feb. 3
48
0-03
2,341,600
49'5
(partly computed)
87.
Feb 4 to Feb 10
50
o'ai
2,229,800
5I-5
725,900
(partly computed)
88.
Feb 11 to Feb. 17
465
0-07
51-5
857,900
(partly computed)
89.
90.
Feb 18 to Feb 24
49
5°
0-23
o-o8
1,907,600
1,875.000
52-5
52
1,107,000
Feb 25 to March 2
(partly computed)
91.
March 3 to March 9
54
021
1,992,100
55
821,100
92.
March 10 to March 16
49
0'02
1,900,000
(computed)
5^
697,000
(partly computed)
93-
March 17 to March 23
42
0-55
2,113,800
53
726,200
94-
March 24 to March 30
48
r22
2,500,000
(computed)
50'5
700,000
(computed)
95-
March 31 to April 6
51
0-83
2,350,000
(partly computed)
5^
700,000
(computed)
96.
April 7 to April 13
58-5
o'o4
2,019,500
(partly computed)
54-5
687,400
97-
April 14 to April 20
51-5
O'OI
2,029,500
54
1,013,900
98.
April 21 to April 27
56
0-48
2,041,700
55
1,429,600
99.
April 28 to May 4
60
o'o7
1,878,200
565
1,773,200
100.
May 5 to May 11
53
o'68
2,026,200
57-5
1,621,800
101.
May 12 to May 18
52
177
2,762,700
55"5
1,429,400
102.
May 19 to May 25
58
004
2,025,400
56
1,284,330
103.
104.
May26 to June 1
64
58
O'lO
1,990,000
1,875,100
58
58
June 2 to June 8
059
1,408,400
105.
June 9 to June 15
65-5
0-29
1,785,100
59
880,700
106.
June 16 to June 22
74
67
0'27
1,475,000
2,003,500
62-5
63
1,231,300
914,800
107.
June 23 to June 29
108.
June 30 to July 6
73
009
1,479,900
64
949,800
109.
July 7 to July 13
72
i-o8
1,618,300
65-5
1,242,900
ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE.
157
[continued).
r
L
Quantity of sewage,
or diluted sew-
age, pumped on
to tableland (six
days per week
where not other-
vrise stated).
a °
Proportion of ef-
fluent water to
sewage pumped.
Sewage
only.
Efil lent water.
1
3
P4
Eun on to bot-
tom land by
gravitation.
"3
s
a
Ph ■
Eun into river.
1
Eun on to bot-
tom land by
gravitation.
°F.
galls.
p
galls.
galls.
galls.
galls.
galls.
44
1,115,100
(5 days only)
46 ■
•75'
1,052,400
1,316,100
nil
837,600
nil
452,900
(2 days only)
46-5
2-184
504,400
1,837,500
nil
100,000
889,200
45
1.353.5°°
49
•464
1,346,000
995,600
nil
472,700
155,300
1,596,000
5°'5
■454
1,505,400
724,400
nil
675,900
50,000
1,930,000
5°
■445
2,008,000
nil
161,100
696,800
nil
45
2, 126,500
50-5
•521
1,725,600
182,000
172,500
915,100
19,400
45
23,000
(1 day only)
nil
1,875,000
592,800
nil
210,000
47
1,790,900
53-5
•458
1,642,100
350,000
173,700
597,200
50,200
46
nil
nil
1,900,000
nil
447,000
250,000
46
1,990,100
51
•365
1,803,800
310,000
220,300
478,700
27,200
44,700
(i day only)
95,000
2,405,000
10,500
450,000
239,500
119,700
( I day only)
nil
2,350,000
nil
450,000
250,000
48
793,900
(4 days only)
54
•866
1,029,500
990,000
71,300
495,000
121,100
49
2,258,700
53
■449
2,029,500
nil
229,200
784,700
nil
49
2,281,500
54
•627
2,041,700
nil
207,300
1,222,300
nil
5°-S
2,247,000
56
■789
1,878,200
nil
328,900
1,444,300
nil
51
2,185,400
56
•742
2,026,200
nil
215,300
1,406,500
nU
S«
2,778,200
54
■515
2,485,900
276,800
272,100
1,132,300
25,000
5^
1,748,600
56
•734
1,553.700
471,700
159,000
1,055,300
70,000
53
2,052,400
59
•546
1,990,000
nil
198,300
922,800
nil
54
2,253,200
57-5
•625
1,875,100
nil
326,400
1,082,000
nil
54-5
1,789,200
59
•492
1,515,700
269,400
222,900
626,700
31,100
56
2,399,100
61-5
•5'3
1,475,000
nU
974,700
185,200
71,400
58
2,088,300
62
•438
1,911,100
92,400
175,900
738,900
nil
59
1,400,000
(5 days only)
63
•678
1,118,000
361,900
295,100
612,900
41,800
59
2,394,100
64
•519
1,441,700
176,600
752,900
473,000
17,000
158
REPORT 1872.
Table II. — Breton's
Statement showing results of analyses for Nitrogen in Sewage as
Results given in
9-
II.
13-
14.
15-
16.
17-
18.
19-
20.
21.
22.
23.
Bates.
1871.
July 10 to July 15
July 24 to July 29
August 7 to August 12
August 21 to August 26
September 4 to September 9 . . .
September 18 to September 23. . .
October 2 to October 7
October 16 to October 21 ,
October 30 to November 4 . . .
November 13 to November 18
1872.
January 1 to January 8
January 22 to January 27 . . .
January 29 to February 3 ...
March 18 to March 23
April 9 to April 13
May 13 to May 18
June 10 to June 15
Sewage as pumped.
Nitrogen.
In solution.
As am-
monia.
2-93
2-58
2*70
184
243
1-66
2-98
2'17
3'S
2-51
4-54
3-426
1-96
1-88
Organic.
I 64
0-65
°'53
1-41
0-50
I '06
2-15
2-28
124
1-27
067
0-88
0-30
1-50
0-87
As
nitrates
and
nitrites.
Total.
4*33
3-80
4"57
3-23
m
3-25
2-62
3*49
381
5-26
3'4i
442
318
S"4i
372
3-12
27S
In sus-
pension.
115
o'4S
0-87
0-99
2-53
IIO
295
1-50
2-47
1*46
2-64
2*20
336
114
2-67
0-91
127
ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE.
Seivage-Farm.
pumped and Effluent Drainage-water from July 1871 to June 1872.
parts per 100,000.
159
Drains.
A
B
C
D
B
c
D
B
C
D
B
C
D
B
C
D
{?:=;=:
Id
U^
ID
I?:::::;:::
Id
Average three drains.
Average three drains.
Average three drains.
No samples taken.
Average three drains.
Average three drains.
Average three drains.
Average five drains .
Average five drains ,
Effluent drainage-water.
Nitrogen.
In solution.
As am-
monia.
Organic.
O-OI
©•026
0"004
0"027
o'o83
o'ooy
o"oi9
O'lOO*
0-013
O'lOO
0'020
O'oog
0'032
0-04.9
0-019
0-046
0-0I2
o-oii
0-103
0-109
0-013
0-045
o-iii
0-165
0-023
0-138
0-055
0-044
0-054
A3 nitrates
and
nitrites
0-19
0-31
o-i8
0-34
o-i8
0-17
0-28
0-29
0-24
0-31
0-17
0-15
0-25
0-21
0-20
o-zo
083
0-90
0-24
0-23
o-ii
0-236
0-15
0-22
0-147
0-I2
0-03
0-30
0-09
2-00
0-84
049
trace
174
1-12
0-24
1-22
0-63
i'53
1-86
nil
0-73
0-76
1"20
1-12
1-04
0-47
0-60
303
1-72
1-27
i-io
0-53
0-52
0-38
0-27
0-05
1-61
1-46
0-26
077
Total.
lu sus-
pension.
0-87
0-13
1-95
145
0-42
158
0-88
171
216
0-37
0-97
128 J
1-32
0-72
0-82
3'i7
2 56
2-i8
1-36
0-85
0-64
0-65
0-51
0-266
1-78
1-70
1-83
0-60
0-91
Total in
solution
and sus-
pension.
Average
1-12
1-27
1-39
1-17
1-27
0-95
2-67
0-95
0-65
0-51
0-266
1-78
1-70
1-83
0-60
0-91
* Strong smell of sewage.
160
KEPORT 1873.
Table III. — Breton's Sewage-Farm.
Statement showing the Monthly Quantities of Sewage distributed and Nitro-
gen contained therein, and of Effluent Water discharged and Nitrogen
contained therein, for the period from March 25, 1871, to March 24, 1872.
Dates (inclusire).
Sewage (or diluted
pumped.
sewage)
Effluent water.
Quantity.
Nitrogen
per 100,000
tons.
Total
Nitrogen.
Quantity.
Nitrogen
per 100,000
tons.
Total
Nitro-
gen.
1871.
tons.
tons.
tons.
tons.
tons.
tons.
March 25 to April 24 ...
24,059
6-48
1-5590
1 5.4^4
1-76
•2711
April 25 to May 24
37.'54
5'2I
1-9357
18,092
1-2I
-2189
May 25 to June 24
39.°»7
403
1-5724
'6,335
•76
■1241
June 25 to July 24
31,809
535
1-7018
16,319
»-33
-2170
July 25 to August 24 ..
39,862
463
1-8456
13,604
1-28
•1741
August 25 to Sept. 24 ...
37.424
478
1-7889
12,931
1-13
-1461
Sept. 25 to Oct. 24
37.684
34.985
ii.954
5-30
6'5o
1-9973
2-2740
1-4007
22,578
(partly
computed)
18,194
12,649
1-30
0-58
0-39
•2935
-1055
•0493
Oct. 25 to Nov. 24
Nov. 2 5 to Dec. 24
6-38
Dec. 25 to Jan. 24 (1872)
18,231
6-35
1-7926
(partly
computed)
18,444
0-56
•1033
1872.
Jan. 25 to Feb. 24
31,168
16,880
658
6-55
2-0509
11056
(partly
computed)
16,732
1-78
-2978
-2423
Feb. 25 to March 24
14.254
1-70
380,227
average
55*9
21-0245
195.536
average
1-147
2-2430
The proportion of nitrogen escaping in the effluent water to the total
quantity applied is therefore -1067, or about y^.
ox THE TRKATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 161
The succeeding Tables, Nos. IV. to VI., show the relations between the
ajiount and composition of the Sewage applied to the land during the twelve
mouths under review (the amount given as applied to each plot being neces-
sarily, at the best, only an approximation) — the amount of the various Crops,
as estimated from the weight of average samples, and their composition as far
as it could be ascertained from the most reliable data, viz. tables furnished
by Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert, and those published in the Second Report of
the Sewage of Towns' Commission — and the amount and composition of the
effluent water.
Tables V. and VI. also show the amount of nitrogen unaccounted for,
which either remains in the soil or has partly drained away into deep subsoil-
waters.
1S72. K
162
REPORT — 1872,
Table IV. — Breton's
Statement showing Sewage applied and Crops grown
Description.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
Plot.
No. of beds
(inclusive).
Con-
tents.
Crop.
Date when sown or
planted.
Date when cut or
gathered.
A
it
I to 29
1 to 18
19 „ 20
21 „ 26
1 „ 29
acres.
9-8
57
0-8
2-3
i-o
9-8
Cabbages and greens
Cauliflower and broc-
coli-plants.-
Savoys
Oct. 1870
May to Aug. 1871 1
July 1871 J
Feb.andMarchi872
Oct. 1871
April 1871
Aug. ,,
Cabbage-plants
Cabbages
Cauliflowers and vege-
table marrows
Fallow
June „
>j »»
Aug. to Oct. 1 871 ..
Total A
All.
9-8
B
1 to 20
21 „ 26
9 „ 26
I „ 8
9'5
2-6
8-25
3-87
Italian rye-grass
Potatoes
fpart April 1870 '
\ part Sept. „
1 part March 1871^
March 1871
Oct. ,
April to Oct.1871...
Oct. 1871
Cabbages
Italian rye-grass
fpart Sept. 1870 1
\part Mar. 1871 J
Total B
121
1
C
All.
ti
2-0
2-0
Cabbages
June 1871 . . Opt. i8-7i 1
Fallow
"... 1
1
Total C
All.
2'0
1
D
All.
It
6-9
6-9
Potatoes
Anril 1871
July to Sept. 1871 ..
Dec. to March 1872
Hardy greens
Sept. „
Total D
All.
69
The figures in, columns Inarmed thus (#) are to be considered
OV THE TRE.iTMEXT A\D UTILIZATION- OF SEWAGE.
1G3
Sewage-Farm.
from March 25, 1871, to March 24, 1872.
Approximate estimate of
sewage applied.
Produce.
Eemarks.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
No. of
dress-
ings.
Total.
*
Per acre.
*
Total.
Per acre.
Sewage
applied
per ton of
produce.
*
4
■ 7
6
7
tons.
6.433
13,720
356
4,212
1,942
9.563
tons.
656
2,407
444
1. 831
1,942
tons.
[354-66
I 336
93-48
15-48
52-21
6-53
tons.
} 36-53
-
16-39
19-35
22-70
6-53
tons.
17-9
146-7
23-0
80-7
297-4
/'One quarter only of this crop was
sold. It received four dressings of
J sewage previous to Mardi 1371, be-
' ing about the same quantity as
here stated. The small plants
1, computed to weigh -\ oz. each.
This crop, with the exception of 1-7
ton, was consumed by cattle on the
farm.
Plants computed to weigh ^ oz. each.
This sewage was applied to the fallow,
Dec. 1871 to Feb. 1872.
...
36,226
3.697
525-72
53-60
68-9
2
2
I
39,012
1,033
8>577
1,108
4,106
397
1,050
286
451-20
5'i5
47'5
1-98
864
200-0
I" This grass received a large quantity
of sewage (nearly as much as is here
[ stated) previous to March 2 5th, 1 8 7 1 .
This crop received no more sewage, and
was cropped May and June 1872.
[There was no cutting of this grass
previous to March 25th, 1872.
• ••
49.730
4,110
45635
37-7
108-9
There was a standing crop of cabbage
at the end of the year.
...
5,062
20,328
2,531
10,164
68-31
34'i5
74' I
Applied Nov. 1871 to March 5th, 1872.
•••
25,390
12,695
68-31
34"i5
371-7
It will be aeen that the greater part of
this sewage went on the fallow. Only
cultivated four months.
4
4
7.703
11,502
1,116 ■
1,667
23-40 3-40
61-24 8-88
329-2
187-8
.
19,205. ) 2,783 .
* *
84-64
12-27
226-9
*
■ ■• ;
mly as approximations, for reasons stated in the Keport.
n2
164
REPORT — 187'2.
Table IV.
Description.
I. 11.
III.
lY.
V.
TI.
Plot.
No. of beds
(inclusive).
Con-
tents.
Crop.
Date when sown or
planted.
Date when cut or
gathered.
E
))
1 to 6
7
8 to II
1 2 and 1 3
14 to 22
I ,> 13
acres.
17
0-3
i-i
°-s
2-2
3-6
Onions
April 1 87 1
Sept- „
I Sept. „
Oct 1 87 1
Saroy.s
r Hardy greens
(^ Savoy-plants
f Cabbages
. Julv
Oct. to Dec. 1871 ...
July 1871
\ Cabbage-plants ...
Strawberries
Autumn 1870
Fallow
1
t
. • •* t
Total E
5-8
P
»»
I to 3
4 ., 14
15 „ 18
I „ 3
4 .. 14
o'64
2-33
0-85
o'64
^•33
Potatoes
Cabbages
Carrots
March 1871
Oct. 1870
March 1871
Sept. ,
Sept. 1871
May to Aug. 1871 ..
Aug. to Oct. „ ..
March 1872
Cabbages
Hardy greens find
cauliflowers.
Fallow
July and Aug. 1871
Sept. 1871 to Feb.l
1872.
Total F
3-82
'' T!ie figures in columns marked thus (Jf) arc to be considered
ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE.
1G5
(contimied).
Approximate estimate of
sewage applied.
VII.
No. of
dress-
ings.
VIII.
Total.
*
9
9
lo
tons.
5,690
985
4,110
1.643
742
6,670
IX.
Produce.
Per acre.
tons.
3347
3283
3736
32S6
337
1853
Total.
tons.
26-83
XI.
Per acre,
tons.
1578
4-53 15-10
n
29
24
1I-25
520
19,840
397
3.304
34^>
76-34
25-94
I 3i'9o
XII.
Sewage
applied
per ton of
produce.
*
13-if
4 to 5 1,318
* 559
1 to 4
3.531
2,218
620
1418
1551
873
1087
10,328
*
2704
*
1-71
98-64
10-45
6-75
24-20
14175
2-67
42.-33
12-29
10-54
10-39
37-11
tons.
212-1
217-4
144-0
Remarks.
f About one tenth only of the greens
I was bunched for market. The re
] maining nine tenths were consumed
y by cattle on the farm.
fOne half only of the cabbages was
I sold ; the remainder ploughed in.
The strawberries received 279 tons of
sewage previous to March 1871. The
plants remain in the ground. The
yield was thirty punnets only.
Applied Deo. 1871 to March 1872.
259-9
232-0
33'5
126-1
82-8
64-6
Three quarters of this crop was ploughed
in, th^re being no sale for it.
One half of this crop was ploughed in,
there being no sale for it.
Applied Nor. 1871 to Feb. 1872.
72-8
*
only as approximations, for reasons stated in the Keport.
166
REPORT — 1873.
Table IV.
Description.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
Plot,
No. of beds
(inclusive).
Con-
tents.
Crop.
Date when sown or
planted.
Date when cut or
gathered.
G
J)
JJ
)»
))
Ji
»>
)»
)»
J>
»i
»)
J»
J}
»»
»)
2 and 3
17
i8
I
10 and II
4 to 9
12 to 13
14
15 and 16
19
20 to 22
3- 17. 20.
21 and 22
I and 2
4 to 9
10 and II
12
13 and 14
15 „ 16
3 & 17 to 20
acres.
0-47
0-23
0-23
0'23
0-47
1-41
0-47
0-24
0-47
024
071
ji-i8
0-47
141
0-47
023
0-47
0-47
I 64
Cabbages
Oct. 1870
May to July 1871 ..
Parsley
April 1871 •••
Brussels sprouts
Beans
March 1871
Sept. 1871
Onions
Au£r
Clover
Mav
Cauliflowers
July to Sept. 1871 .
Aug. 1871
Oct. „
Lettuce
Cauliflowers
" !>
July
Spinach
April and May 1871
July 1 87 1 ••.
May and June 1871
Aug. to Oct. 1871 ..
March 1872
Cauliflowers
A
Hardv erreens
Sept. „
Onions
Aue
Cabbages
Sept
March 1872
Savoys
Hardv creens
Oct
Spinach
Fallow
Auff
Jan. 1872
Total G
5-17
II
It
I to 24
I „ 24
6-4
6-4
Onions ^.
Cabbages
March 1871
Sept
July to Oct. 1 87 1...
Total H
6-4
I
))
)»
)»
)»
I to 3
4 >. 9
10 „ 18
I .. 3
4 ,. 9
10 „ iS
III
2-27
3-29
I'll
2-27
3-^9
Potatoes
March 1 8 7 1
Sept. 1871
May to Aug. 1871 ..
Sept. 1871
Cabbage
Oct. 1870
Carrots
March 1871
SeT)t.
Hardy greens
Ditto and cauliflowers
Cabbages
July and Aug. 1871
Sept. and Oct. „
Sept. 1 871 to Feb.
1872.
Total I
667
-
The figures in columns marked thus (») are to be considered
ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE.
167
(continued).
r
Approximate estimate of
sewage applied.
Produce.
Eemarks.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
No. of
dress-
Total.
Per acre.
Total.
Per acre.
Sewage
applied
per ton of
ings.
*
*
produce.
*
tons.
tons.
tons.
tons.
tons.
S
I
2
759
109
163
1615
474
709
4-29
6'oo
9'i3
26-10
176-9
27-2
This crop was ploughed in. Quantity
not ascertained.
Part of the plants was transplanted;
the remainder was pulled for cattle.
3
S
I
211
928
4,050
162
917
1974
2872
345
0-27
10-65
6-22
4"23
1-19
22-67
4-41
9-00
781-0
87-1
651-1
38-3
This crop was cut only once, and then
ploughed in.
6
S
526
983
2192
2092
0-56
0-30
2-34
064
939-3
3277-0
Only one quarter of this crop was sold ;
the remainder consumed by cattle.
5
5
443
1,263
1845
1779
o'56
1-23
2-34
173
791-0
1318-0
One third of this crop was sold ; the
remainder consumed by cattle on
farm.
4
a.477
2099
2-24
i'9o
1 104-0
S
I
5
6
6
926
802
1,126
590
1,109
1970
569
2396
2565
2360
2-13
4-30
369
4-53
9-17
16-05
434-1
261-6
159-9
This crop remained in the ground till
May 1872.
This crop received no more sewage, and
was gathered May 1872.
I
I
247
5,198
525
3170
1-02
i-6o
329-3
Applied from October to February.
...
22,072
4269
4769
9-17
4628
6 to 7
about 2
14,015
6,387
2190
998
136-47
21-32
102-7
This crop received no more sewage, and
commenced cutting April 1872.
...
20,402
3188
136-47
21-32
149-4
Standing crop at the end of the year.
2
10
708
S.724
638'
2521
3-41
iio-io
3-°7
48-50
207-6
52-0
Only one quarter of this crop was sold ;
the remainder ploughed in.
8
4
7-044
1.758
2141
1584
47-03
14-30
149-8
This crop received no more sewage, and
was gathered in the summer of 1872.
7
4,612
2032
27-31
12-04
168-9
2
2,691
818
This crop received no more sewage, and
-was gathered Ajiril 1872.
...
"-537
*
3379
187-85
28-16
120-0
*
Standing crop at the end of the year.
only as approximations, for reasons stated in tlie Keport,
168
REPORT — 1873.
Table IV.
Description.
I.
11.
III.
IV.
V,
VI.
Plot.
No. of beds
(inclusive.)
Con-
tents.
Crop.
Date wben sown or
planted.
Date when cut or
gathered.
K
1)
All.
acres.
4'4°
3-66
Cabbaires
Nov. 1870
June to Aug. 1871 ..
March 1872
Hardy greens
Sept. 1871
Total K
average
4-03
M
All.
1)
356
3-17
March 1871
Oct
Aug. to Oct. 1871...
Cabbages
'
Total M
average
3-36
N
J)
1J
1 to 4 and J ^•y?- i r'abbae'e
Oct. 1870
May to July i87i_. .
Nov. and Dec. 1871
9 to i6
I to 6 and
9 to 1 6
7 and 8
^•63
0-52
Hardy greens and
cauliflowers.
Broccoli
May to July 1871 ..
July 1 87 1
Total N
415
1)
All.
5-92
5-92
Italian rye-grass
Cabbages
Sept. 1870
Anril to Julv 1871..
July 1871
Feb. 1872
Total
5-92
P
if
Part.
All.
1-45
1-6
0-45
3'S
Potatoes
Beans (scarlet)
April 1871
Sept. 1871
Aug. to Oct. 1871...
Oct. 1871
May „
June 1871....
Savoys
Fallow
Total P
3'5
* The figures in columns marked thus («) are to be considered
ON THE
(continued).
TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF. SEWAGE. 169
Approximate estimate of
sewage applied.
Produce.
Remarks.
VII.
Till.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
No. of
dress-
ings.
Total.
*
Per acre.
*
Total.
Per acre.
Sewage
applied
per ton of
produce.
10
6
tons.
10,300
8,876
tons.
2341
2425
tons.
192-37
45-00
tons.
43-72
12-30
tons.
53-2
197-2
Only one quarter of this crop was
sold ; the remainder ploughed in. It
received 2636 tons of sewage between
iVov. 1S70 and March 1871.
Only one tenth of this crop was sold;
the remainder ploughed in.
19,176
4758
237-37
5S-90
80-8
The acreage of this plot has been altered.
5 to 6
3
7,559
4.394
2123
1386
57-18
16-05
132-2
This crop received more sewage, and was
gathered May and June 1872.
...
11.953
3557
57-18
17-01
209-0
Standing crop at the end of the year.
Tlie acreage of this plot has been
altered.
about 8
about 6
6,798
9.683
2,194
13.543
2179
2738
4219
166-81
55-53
5 3 '46
15-30
407
174-3
One quarter only of this crop was sold ;
the remainder ploughed in. The
crop received 3718 tons of sewage
previous to March 25, 1S71.
This crop received no more sewage, and
was gathered April 1S72.
Applied Dec. 1871 to March 1872.
...
32,218
7763
222-34
53-57
144-9
5
9.936
9.599
1678
1621
117-18
141-03
19-80
23-82
84-8
681
This crop received nearly 10,000 tons of
.sewage previous to March 25, 1871.
Only half this crop was sold ; the re-
mainder consumed by cattle on the
farm.
...
19.535
3299
258-21
43-62
75-6
4
8
5
1.235
4,096
1.074
9,249
852
2560
2387
2643
1-875
1-45
20-34
1-29
0-90
45-21
660-4
2824-9
52-8
One third of this crop was sold; two
thirds consumed by cattle on the
farm.
Applied Oct. 1871 to Feb. 1872.
15.654
*
4473
*
23-665
676
661-5
*
only as approximations, for reasons stated in the Eeport.
170
REPORT — 1872.
Table IV.
Desciption.
I.
II.
III.
IV. .
V. VI.
Plot.
No. of beds
(inclusive).
Con-
tents.
Crop.
Date when sown or
planted.
Date when cut or
gathered.
Q
I)
Part.
tt
It
»»
acres.
0-43
02 1
075
0'2I
Mangold
Beet-root
Hardy greens
Carrots
April 1871
May „
Aug. „
May „
Nov. 1871
Oct. to Nov. 1871...
Dec. 1871
Nov. „
Total Q
i-6o
R
tJ
I to 7
8 „ 20
I .. 7
o'9o
1'62
•90
Oats
Parsnips
April 1 87 1
Aug. 1871
Dec. ,.
Sept
Hardy greens
Dec. 1871 and Jan.
1872.
Total E
2-52
S
Part.
°-33
Cabbages
Oct, 1871
T
All.
tt
o"34
0-34
Potatoes
Cabbages
April 1871
Sept. 1871
Sept. „
March 1872
Total T
0-34
U
Part.
All.
2-03
0-50
2-53
Hardy green plants...
Peas
Sprouting broccoli ...
April 1871
Aug. and Sept. 1871
Sept. 1871
Oct
Total U
2-53
V
I)
a
Part.
tt
)t
It
tr
1-36
o'36
o'5o
0-26
2-00
Mangold
Cauliflowers
White broccoli
Cabbages
Cabbages
Fallow
May 1871
June ,
Nov. 1871
Aug. 1871 to Jan.
1872.
May
Nov. and Dec. 1871
Oct. ,,
i
1
Total V
4-48
1
1
W
Part.
All
i-o
Hardy green plants. . .
Fallow
April 1S71 ' Aug. and Sept. 1871
1
1
Total W
3-0
1
1
X
All. ! 3-86 ' Savoys Aug. 187 1 Jan. to March 1872
y
All.
56 jHay
Permanent grass ...
Permanent grass ...
* The figures in columns marked thus (#) are to be considered
ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE.
171
(continued).
Approximate estimate of
sewage applied.
Produce.
Remarks.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
No. of
dress-
ings.
Total.
*
Per acre.
Total.
Per acre.
Sewage
applied
per ton of
produce.
7
5
5
3
tons.
1,595
1,207
1,871
881
tons.
3709
5748
249 5
4195
tons.
7-45
2-10
3-03
075
tons.
17-33
10-00
4-04
3-57
tons.
214-1
574-8
616-9
1174-7
...
5.554
3471
13-33
8-33
416-7
I
4
3
450
2,328
2,o66
500
1437
2296
13-00
12-50
3-74
3-33
7-71
4-25
150-0
186-2
497-2
fThis weight includes straw 2-25 tons.
...
4,844
1922
1924
7-63
2517
I
70
211
-65
8-05
26-4
nil
nil
2-10
0-96
6-18
2-82
These crops received no sewage.
...
nil
306
900
No sewage applied.
nil
3
17
nil
655
5.797
1310
229a
17-86
0-87
8-80
1-74
7529
These plants received no sewage, and
were replanted on the farm.
This crop received no more sewage, and
was gathered April 1872, yielding
13-40 tons.
6,452
2550
1873
7-40
344-4
4
8
8
7
I
2
1,873
1,812
2,126
832
2,053
1,850
1429
5°33
4252
3200
1027
22-8o
090
3-73
16-76
2-50
14-37
82-1
2013-5
2227
This crop received no more sewage, and
was gathered April 1872, yielding
2-91 tons.
This crop commenced cutting May 1872.
AppHed Jan. 1872.
...
10,546
2354
27-43
6-12
384-4
3
552
8.345
552
2782
892
892
619
These plants transplanted to other parts
of the farm.
...
8,897
2966
8-92
2-98
997-5
7
2,773
718
759
19-66
36-5
Only one tentli of this crop was sold ;
the remainder carted to cattle.
abt. 12
16,825
3004
*
21-3
3-8
789-9
*
The grass remains.
only as approximations, for reasons stated in the Eeport.
172 REPORT— 1872.
Table V. — Breton's
Summary for the Year ending March 2J:, 1872, showing the Nitrogen applied
DescriiJtion.
Plot. Contents.
A
acres.
9-80
B
I2'IO
C
a'oo
D
6*90
E
5-80
F
3-82
G
II
I
K
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
w
X
5'i7
6-40
6-67
4-03
3-36
4"iS
5-92
3-50
i'6o
2'52
Crop.
Cabbage, cauliflower.s, and savoys.
Italian rye-grass and potatoes ....
Cabbage
Potatoes and hardy greens
f Onions, savoys, hardy greens, cabbage, and [
[ strawberries J
Potatoes, carrots, cabbage, and hardy greens
Cabbage, brussels spront.s, beans, onions, 1
carrots, clover, cauliflowers, lettuce, !•
[ spinach, and hardy greens J
Onions
I
f Potatoes, cabbage, carrots, hardy greens,
\ and cauliflowers
Cabbage and hardy greens
Onions
Produce.
Total.
•33
•34
a-53
4-48
3 '00
386
5'6o
103-88
f Cabbage, hardy greens, cauliflowers, and \
\ broccoli J
Italian rye-grass and cabbage
Potatoes, scarlet beans, and savoys
Mangold, beet-root, hardy greens, and carrots
Oats, parsnips, and hardy greens
Cabbage
Potatoes and cabbage
Hardy green plants and peas
Mangold, cauliflowers, and cabbage
Hardy green plants
Savoys
f Hay (equal to four and a half times this "
\ quantity when green)
tons.
52572
456-35
68-31
8464
76'34
141-75
47-69
136-47
187-85
237-37
57-18
222-34
258-21
23-665
13-33
19-24
2-65
3-06
18-73
27-43
892
75-90
21-30
Per acre.
2714-445
tons.
53-64
37-71
34-15
12-27
13-16
37-11
9-23
21-32
28-16
58-90
17-01
53-57
43-62
6-76
8-33
7-63
805
9-00
7-40
6-12
2-98
19-66
3-80
26-13
Approximate estimate of
sewage apjilied.
Total.
Per
acre.
tons.
36,226
49.730
25.390
19,205
19,840
10,328
22,072
20,402
22,537
19,176
11.953
32,218
19.535
15.654
S.554
4.844
70
nil
6,452
10,546
8,897
2.773
16,825
380,227
tons.
3.697
4,110
12,695
2,783
3,421
2,704
4,269
3,188
3.379
4.758
3-557
7.763
3.299
4.473
3.471
1,922
211
nil
2,550
2.354
2,966
718
3,004
3,660
* The figures in columns marked thus (*) are to be considered only as ajiproximations
ox THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATIOX OF SEWAGE,
173
Seiuage-Farm.
to the Land during that period, and its relation to the Produce of the Farm,
1 Ax^proximate estimate of nitrogen.
Quantity applied.
i
II
DiiTerence (in soil,
crops, &c.).
Calculated to be in
crops.
Not accounted for (in soil,
and drained away).
Per cent.
•i
o
il
1
i
u
a;
11
3
9
u
3
i
u
Ph
t
M
s
c
8.S
#
*
#
O" «
#
■*
#
H
Ph
^ "
#
*
*
*
#
•^ *
lbs.
lbs. Iba.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
4,486
458
8-5
479
4,007
409
7-6
2.944
300
5-6
1,063
108
2-0
66
23
6,159
5°9
13-5
657
5.502
455
I2-I
5.487
453
I2*0
IS
1
89
...
3.145
1572
46-1
335
2,810
1405
4I-I
383
192
5-6
2,427
I2I3
35-5
12
77
2.379
345
28-2
254
2,125
308
25-1
474
69
5-6
1,651
239
19-5
20
69
2.457
424
32-2
262
2.195
378
28-8
410
71
5 '4
1.785
308
23-4
17
72
' 1,279
335
9-0
136
1.143
299
80
782
205
5"5
361
95
2-5
61
28
2.734
529
57-4
292
2,442
472
51-2
294
57
6-2
2,148
416
45-0
11
78
2.527
395
i8-6
270
2,257
353
i6-s
672
105
4'9
1,585
248
11-6
26
63
2.792
419
14-9
298
2,494
374
133
999
150
5-3
1. 495
224
8-0
36
53
2.375
590
lO'O
253
2,122
526
8-9
1.330
331
5-6
792
196
3-3
S^
33
1,480
440
25-9
158
1,322
394
23-1
282
84
4-9
1,040
310
l8-2
19
70
3.990
961
17-9
426
3,564
859
i6'o
1,245
300
5-6
2,319
559
10-4
31
58
2,420
409
9'4
258
2,162
365
8-4
2,206
373
8-5
..,
...
...
91
...
1.939
554
81-9
207
1.732
495
73-2
157
45
6-6
1. 575
450
66-6
8
81
689
431
517
73
6i6
385
46-2
74
46
5-6
542
339
40-7
11
78
600
238
31-2
64
536
213
27-9
147
58
77
389
154
20-2
24
65
9
27
3-5
I
8
24
3"o
J5' 45
17 50
5-6
5-6
...
...
167
...
800
316
427
85
715
282
38-2
166 65
8-9
549
217
29-3
21
68
1,306
291
47-5
139
1,167
260
42'6
154 34
5-6
1,013
226
37-0
11
78
1 1,102
367
123-5
iiS
984
328
1 103
50 17
5-6
934
311
1047
4
85
. ^"^^
89
4-5
37
306
80
4-0
425 ,110
5-6
...
.,.
...
124
2,084
372
97-8
222
1,862
332
87-6
9541170
1
44-8
908
162
42-6
46
-13
'47.095
453
i7'35
5024
42,071
405
15-50
19,667 189
7-2
22,404
216
8-3
42 11
47
(_for reasons stated in the Report), with the escL-ption of the grand totals.
174
REPORT — 1872.
Summary of Crops gathered during the
[N.B. — The Sewage here stated is only that
Table YI. — BretorCs
period from March 25, 1871, to
Sewage applied
applied during the above period. In
Crop.
Italian rye-grass
Hay (meadow)
Clover
Cabbage
Hardy greens
Savoys
Brussels sprouts
Broccoli (crop in ground at end I
of year) ]
Spinach
Lettuce
Cauliflowers
Parsley (crop ploughed in. "1
Quantity not ascertained ...J
Beans
Peas
Carrots
Parsnips
Beet-root
Mangold
Onions
Potatoes
Oats
Strawberries (yield of straw-"]
berries very small, quantity V
not stated) )
Mixed crops — cauliflowers and"[
vegetable marrows J
Hardy greens and cauliflowers ...
Fallow land
Total
Total
acreage of
each
description
of crop.
acres.
15-42
560
•47
59-06
18-39
10-54
•23
3"S5
118
•47
2-02
•23
1-83
•5°
5-76
1-62
•21
1-79
13-54
13-04
•90
2-20
1-00
8-23
Produce of each crop.
Total.
tons.
568-38
21-30
4-23
1242-10
i66-2i
202-18
6-00
2-25
■3°
4-26
1-72
•87
64-45
12-50
2-IO
30-25
23113
3y64S
3-00
6-53
107-04
2714-445
Per acre.
tons.
36-97
3-80
9-00
21-03
9-04
19-18
26-09
1-91
•64
2-10
■94
174
11*19
7-71
lo-oo
16-90
17-07
2-88
3'33
6-53
13-01
Sewage ap-
the
Total.
tons.
50,056
16,825
162
80,879
32,770
19,142
163
10,117
1,510
983
5.258
109
4.307
655
'3.^93
2,328
1,207
3,468
28,994
11,076
450
742
1,942
16,827
76,964
380,227
* The figures in columns marked thus (♦) are to be considered only as
ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OP SEWAGE.
175
Sewage-Farm.
March 24, 18^
thereto.
some cases, therefore, it does not represent the total quantity applied to the Crops.]
March 24, 1872, showing the quantity of each kind of Produce and the
thereto.
plied to
crops.
Per acre.
tons.
3246
3004
345
1369
1782
1816
709
2850
1280
2092
2603
474
2353
1310
2308
1437
5748
1937
Z141
849
500
337
194a
2045
Sewage
applied
per ton
of pro-
duce.
tons.
811
789-9
38-3
6s-i
197-2
964-2
27-2
671-1
3277-0
1234-2
2504-1
752-9
206-2
i86-2
574-8
114-5
125-4
294-2
150-0
297-4
157-2
Nitrogen.
Quantity
applied in
sewage.
140-1
Per cent.
lbs.
6,200
2,084
20
10,017
4,059
2,371
20
1.253
187
122
652
13
533
81
1,646
288
149
431
3,591
1,372
57
92
241
2,084
9,532
47,095
Quantity
escaping
in eflfluent
water.
*
100
lbs.
661
222
2
1069
433
253
2
134
20
13
69
57
9
176
31
16
46
383
346
6
10
26
222
1017
5024
1067
Quantity estimated in
crops.
Per cent.
0-54
2-00
0-65
0-25
0-25
0-25
0-25
0-25
0-25
0-25
I -00
3-40
0-20
0-22
0-25
0-25
0-22
f Oats 2-00, "1
\ straw o-6o J
0-25
025
Total.
Not ac-
counted
for (in soil,
&c.).
lbs.
6,875
954
62
6,955
930
1,132
34
12
2
24
39
66
289
62
12
169
1,139
211
64
36
600
19,667
41-76
lbs.
908
1,993
2,696
986
1,119
155
107
559
12
437
6
i,i8i
195
121
216
2,069
1,015
8a
179
1,262
8,515
22,404
47'57
Rpprosimations (for reasons stated in the Report), with the exception of the grand totals,
176 REPORT— 1872.
Interim Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of making
experiments on instruments for Measuring the Speed of Ships and
Currents by means of the difference of height of two columns of liquid,
— the Committee consisting of Prof. W. J. Macquorn RankinEj
C. W. Merrifield, F.R.S., Mr. F. J. Bramwell, and Mr. Alfred
E. Fletcher (Secretary).
Your Committee have to report that, owing to the business-eugagements of
the Members, it has been found imjjossible to hold a meeting at a sufficiently
early date to enable a systematic plan of operations to be agreed to and acted
upon, and also that a proposed experimental trip in a yacht has been un-
avoidably postponed. No expense has been incurred, and no part of the
grant of =£30 has been drawn.
Your Committee recommend that they should be reappointed, and that the
sum of ^30 should again be placed at their disposal.
Rejyort on the Rainfall of the British Isles, by a Committee, consisting
of Charles Brooke, F.R.S. {Chairman), J. F. Bateman, C.E.,
F.R.S., J. Glaisher, F.R.S. , R, W. Mvlne, C.E., F.R.S., Prof.
J. Phillips, F.R.S., T. Hawrsley, C.E., Prof. J. C. Adams,
F.R.S., Prof. J. J. Sylvester, F.R.S., C. Tomlinson, F.R.S.,
R. Field, C.E., Dr. Pole, C.E., F.R.S., Prof. D. T. Ansted,
F.R.S., A. Buchan, F.R.S.E., and G. J. Symons, Secretary.
YoTTR Committee have the pleasure of reporting that every branch of rainfall
work continues in efhcient working order, and that, notwithstanding the very
limited funds at our disposal and the long illness of our Secretary during the
winter, all arrears have been overtaken, and, owing to the completeness of
the orgp.uization, no hitch or interruption occurred.
At the Meeting of the British Association in Edinburgh, very strong repre-
sentations were made to your Committee respecting the desirability of es-
tablishing additional rain-gauge stations in different parts of the Highlands ;
and as your Committee had long been aware of the necessity which existed
for these stations, and, moreover, as somewhat larger funds than usual were
at their disposal, they resolved on taking every means in their power to secure
the efficient establishment of these stations. In addition to ordinary cor-
respondence, oi;r Secretary took two special steps to secure the most promis-
ing possible distribution of the new gauges. In the first place he wrote to
iEr. Euclian, the Secretary to the Scottish Meteorological Society, acquaint-
ing him with the assent of the Committee, and requesting him to state what
number of gauges he coiild provide good observers for. On receipt of his
reply ten gauges were sent to him, which he was kind enough to distribute
as follows : —
1. Springfield, Tain, lloss. G. Sannox, Arran.
2. Kilmalcolm, Port Glasgow. 7. Kilchoman, Islay.
3. Arrochar, Loch Long. 8. Port Charlotte, Islay.
4. Strahane, Brodick, Arran. 9. Port Ellen, Islay.
5. Strathfillan, Perthshire. 10. Clcnbaru Abbey, Mull of Cantiro.
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 177
The other step was to send the following letter to the Secretary of the High-
land liailway Company, whose line, as is probably generally known, traverses
much of the most thinly inhabited part of Scotland : —
" 62 Caniden Square,
December 7th, 1871.
" British Rainfall.
"Dear Sir, — At the Meeting of the British Association held at Edinburgh
last August, it was resolved that steps be taken to obtain observations of the
fall of raiu in those parts of Scotland in which they have not hitherto been
made ; a grant of money was voted for the construction of the instruments,
and I was directed to take such steps as might seem best calculated to secure
regular and trustworthy observations. As an indication that this application
is for no mere crotchet, I may mention that the Board of N'orthern Light-
houses are already assisting all round the coast, and the Scottish Meteorolo-
gical Society, the Marquis of Breadalbanc, and others inland. After all our
efforts, however, the route traversed by your line is very poorly supplied with
observers ; and I have therefore to ask whether 5'ou would cooperate in the
matter by instructing certain of your station-masters to make the necessary
observations and forward the results monthly. The gauges are similar to
(but smaller than) those used by the station-masters on the Manchester,
Sheffield, and Lincolnshire Railway ; they are extremely simjjle, and the ob-
servations (which may be made any time between 8.30 and 9.30 a.m.) only
occupy about two minutes : I should, of course, provide printed instructions
and blank forms. The preliminary arrangements to ascertain exactly where
additional observations are required have taken so long that there is now
necessity for somewhat prompt action to secure that the instruments shall aU
be at their destination a few days before the end of the year. I shall there-
fore be glad of a prompt reply, especially as, after receiving it, either I or my
colleague Mr. Buchan, of the Scottish Meteorological Society, mil have to
send communications to the ' Scotsman ' and other papers. I have only to
add that if the Dingwall and Skye line is not under your control, I should be
much obliged by a line or telegram stating to whom I should apply, unless,
indeed, you could submit the tenour of my views to the authorities of that
line, which would be the most rapid course. I enclose sketch of the gauge
and instructions, which can be further simplified for the special purpose, and
have only to add that, should any further explanation be required, I shall
inost cheerfully supply it.
" Yours very truly,
" A. Dougall, Esq., Inverness:^ " G. J- SrsiONS."
To this letter the following reply was received : —
" Highland Railway Company, Inverness,
I'ith December, 1871.
" British Rainfall.
" Dear Sir, — I have your favour of the 7th instant on the above subject,
and beg in reply to state that the Directors of tliis Company will be happy
to cooperate in the matter by instructing several of their station-masters to
make the necessary observations and to forward the results monthly. This
will apply to the Dingwall and Skye line also.
" I am, yours faithfully,
" A, Dougall."
1872.
178 REPORT— 1872.
The result of subsequent correspondence was the establishment of a chain
of stations over the entire system of the Highland and Dingwall and Skye
railways. Fifty gauges, with pegs for fixing, instructions, and blank obser-
vation forms were sent to Inverness, and distributed and erected by the offi-
cials of the Company at various selected stations, with the exception of a few
•which are retained in store until the northern extension of the line will en-
able them to be placed in Sutherland and Caithness. It only remains to add
that the station-agents, with scarcely an exception, understand their work
and do it punctually and well. Another district in which additional stations
are urgently required is that traversed by the Caledonian Canal ; and there-
fore a letter similar to the one abeady quoted was addressed to the gentleman
who, our Secretary was informed, was iu charge of the Canal. As, however,
the letter has not been acknowledged, our efforts in that direction have been
futile.
It is generally the case that expenditure on the part of this Association
leads to equal or greater expenditure for similar objects by other persons.
This has been specially the case with rainfall work, and an illustration may
be quoted from the events of 1 ist year. Simultaneouslj' with the above action
of the Committee, the Earl of Breadalbane (through his agent Mr. J. P. Smith,
C.E.) has undertaken to supply returns from a scries of stations between
Aberfeldy and Tyndrum and other important localities in the Avatershed of
the Tay and Rannoch. Several of the gauges were fixed by our Seeretar}'-,
and the sites for others selected by him ; and if the observations are regularly
taken they will be of great utility.
A very limited number of gauges have also been supplied to I'emote districts
of England and Wales; but the price of rain-gauges is now so low, that there can
be but few persons, who are able and willing to take charge of a gauge, to whom
the cost can be prohibitory. Your Committee are fully aware that in many
parts of the country additional observations are desirable ; but there are so
many expenses incidental to the collection of the observations and their dis-
cussion, that they do not feel justified, considering the very limited means
at their disposal, in lending gauges except to very isolated stations. Their
Secretary will, however, be happy to render any information or assistance in
his power to persons who may be willing to set up gauges ; and it is hoped
that by tKe maintenance and development of the present organization, these
vacant spaces may gradually be occupied.
Owing to the illness of our Secretary, the forms of inquiry respecting the
positions &c. of aU the rain-gauges in the country (not only of those belonging
to this Association, but also of the much more numerous private ones) were not
issued as soon as was originally intended. About 1000 arc, however, now cir-
culated, and the rest will foUow in less than a month. Those which have been
returned have nearly all been filled up in a very complete and satisfactory
manner, auguring well for the success of the proposal.
Another step taken with the same object, viz. the attainment of precise
knowledge respecting the gauges in use, their eTrors and position, has been
taken during the past year. Our Secretary has long possessed a travelling-
case containing the standard measures necessary for verifying any rain-gauge
without removing it from its position ; and in previous reports we have given
the results of several hundred examinations of rain-gauges in situ made with
this apparatus. Owing, however, to oui' limited funds, this examination has
been obliged to be curtailed ; and as a partial counterpoise to this curtailment,
we have caused to be constructed a precisely similar testing-case, and pre-
senlcd it to the Scottish Meteorological Society, whose Secretary will in futiu'e
ox THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES.
179
-iisc it in his inspections of the stations of that Societ)', and will communicate
the results to us. We shall thus obtain a large amount of very valuable in-
formation at the mere original cost of the apparatus.
Eatio of RainfaU in the British Isles in 1870 to Mean (1860-69 = 100).
1870.
"We regret that, owing to the cause already referred to, the discussion of the
monthly percentages during 18G0-69 is not quite ready for publication ; the
means are all taken, and the whole of the percentages (some 4000) are worked
180
REP0RT 1872.
out ; the subsequent discussion will, we hope, be completed long before it is
required for our next lleport.
_ The onlj' remaining subjects to which we have to direct attention are the
biennial tables for 1870-71, which are given in the Appendix, and the re-
Eatio of Rainfall in the British Isles in 1871 to Mean (1800-69 = 100).
1871.
suits of a comparison of the fall in each of those years with the averages at
the same stations and with the same instruments during the ten years 1860-
69, given in our last Report. This is given in Table I., and an abstract of
the same in Table 11.
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES.
181
Among the many points of interest brought out by this mode of treatment,
pcrliaps the only one to which we need call special attention is the general
distribution of rain during 1870 and 1S71. And lirst respecting 1S70 : the
accompanying sketch map (p. 179) shows that there were two areas in which
great deficiency of rain occurred, and that there was no division in which the
fall reached the average. The areas of deficieucy were the south-west of Eng-
land and the Avest of Scotland ; and on reference to Table I. it will be found
that several stations in those divisions had less than two thirds of their average
fall. The divisions in which the fall most nearly approached the average
were the north-east of Scotland and Yorkshire, the latter owing to a very
heavy local fall in North Lincolnshire, in October 1870, having partially ex-
tended into the former county.
In 1871 the fall was not very much below the average (only 5 per cent.),
and the chart docs not reveal such prominent features as in 1870. The
greatest differences are found in the two sides of the north of Scotland, no
other division differing more than 6 per cent, from the mean of the whole ;
and even this is mainly due to a belt of excess running north-eastward across
the centre of England. This belt, moreover, is due to a single rain, that of
September 6th, which in South-east Yorkshire amounted to nearly four inches,
and to between one and two inches at nearly all stations thence south-west-
ward to Devonshire. The area of that rain, it may be as well to state (in-
cluding only those parts at wliich upwards of an inch fell), was about 14,000
square miles ; and taking the fall at the low average of one and a half inch,
not less than 1,357,000,000 (thirteen hundred and fifty-seven million) tons
of water fell during the twenty-four hours.
Table I.*- — Comparison of Eainfall, 1870 and 1871, with Average, 1860-69.
Division.
I.
II.
Station.
Camden Square
Weybridge Heath
Tan field Lodge
AValdronhurst
Wimbledon
Kew Observatory
Linton Park
Himton Court
West Thorn ey
Chichester Museum . . .
,, Shopwjke..
,, West Dean
,, Chilgrove,
Dale Park
High Wiekham
Forest Lodge
Osborne
Fai'eham
Petersfleld
Selborne
Aldersbot
Mean,
1860-69,
in.
25-68
25-05
26-33
24-39
23-48
23-28
27-56
26-00
26-88
29-03
29-19
37-08
33-22
3373
26-37
31-48
30-73
33-9'
38-03
34'43
27-04
Total Fall in
1870.
in.
21-32
i9"5S
21-69
19-80
18-22
16-64
21-69
20-49
20-58
21-37
2489
28-35
27-57
27-40
24-61
24-02
21-96
24-52
28-05
26-89
22-94
1871.
in.
25-02
2322
24-18
20-24
22-50
21-44
25-12
2294
26-19
25-86
26-19
34-39
33-19
29-87
26-74
30'45
29*26
29-07
347*
33'43
2559
Eatio of Fall.
(1860-69=160.)
1870. 1871.
83
78
82
81
78
72
79
79
77
74
85
76
83
81
93
76
72
72
74
78
85
97
93
92
83
96
92
9J
88
97
89
90
93
100
89
lOI
97
95
86
91
97
95
Mean
Divi-
sional
Katio.
83 97
* Full particulars respecting the counties in which these stations are, and the heights of
the r.iin-gauges above the ground and aliove sea-level, will be found on p. 106 of our last
Report.
183
JREPORT 1872,
Table I, (continued).
Division.
Station,
Mean,
1860-69.
II.
III.
IV.
Keadiiig
Long Wittenham
Bayfordbury
St. Albans
Hemelhempstead
Tring
Hitehin
Eoyston
High Wycomb
Eadcliff Observatory. .
Banbury
Althorp House
Wellingborough.
Ivimbolton
Cardington, ft. in.
oft. Bin.
36 ft. in.
Ely
Wisbeach
Witham
Dunuiow
Braintree
SaflVou Walden
Hadleigh
Abbeygate St
Westley
Barton Hall
Ciilfiird
Diclileburgb
Outwell
Fincliam
Norwich Institution ..
Cossey
Iloningham Hall
Egniere
Hoikham, Oft. Oin. ..
4 ft. in. „
Hunstanton ,
Salisbury Plain
Swindon
Bridport
Saltram .
Ham
Eidgeway
Tavistock Library
,, West-street.
Bovey Tracey
Cory ton Lew Down . .
Exeter Institution
Clyst Hydou
BradnJnch
Brondhembury
South Molton
Barnstaple
Helstone
Penzance
^573
27-38
25-01
27-Ss
26-39
27-59
23-92
23-57
25-71
26"i3
26-22
23'35
24-09
23-13
22-49
21-76
18-17
20-61
24-04
20-47
22-75
23-98
23-06
2 5 '47
23-96
23-52
23-68
24-83
22-22
22-64
23-14
22-17
24*04
23-98
25-10
23-88
23-23
19-56
29-2S
28-59
32"25
44-81
42-S9
4S-65
43-36
53'i7
43'i3
45'94
31-76
32-69
38-06
34-56
47-12
39-91
37-87
41-51
Total FaU in
1870.
m.
16-85
16-88
1812
23-56
2164
24-40
17-76
17-16
18-81
17-56
19-93
17-21
17-21
16-47
15-87
14-87
12-86
1740
20-71
18-77
17-11
18-99
17-27
18-14
1578
17-43
17-58
18-94
19-35
16-61
20-50
1887
21-29
21-44
24-41
20-74
20-20
18-36
22-59
20-10
20-32
31-31
30-27
32-17
36-89
37-40
30-32
3826
21-74
22-98
22-20
22-48
33-12
28-79
27-66
31-65
1871.
in.
22-14
21-52
23-42
24-43
i3'49
23-69
20-84
19-07
20-94
21-14
24-80
22-43
20-17
21-73
21-20
19-69
16-53
20-33
24-77
20-77
21-66
22-73
21-46
21-83
19-55
22-So
22-6l
24-78
21-85
18-37
23-14
23-13
24-02
24-56
24-47
22-28
21-01
21-45
28-06
28-14
30-84
46-88
45-75
47-72
51-88
5 3 '4°
40-97
46-93
32-50
3221
33-10
34-38
36-80
38-00
41-60
44-71
Ratio of Fall.
Mean
(1860-69=100.)
Divi-
sional
1870.
1871.
Eatio.
6s
86
62
79
77 9^
72
94
85
88
82
89
88
86
74
87
73
81
73
81
67
81
76
95
74
96
71
84
71
94
70
94
. 69
91
71
91
84
99
86
103
76 90
92
lOI
75
95
79
95
75
93
71
86
66
82
74
97
74
95
76
100
87
98
P
81
89
100
5
104
89
100
89
102
97
97
^7
93
87
90
94
110
8z 96
77
96
70
98
63
96
70
105
71
107
66
98
85
120
70
100
1°
95
83
102
68
102
70
99
58
87
65
99
70
78
72
95
73
no
76
108
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES.
183
Table I. (cGntimted).
Division.
VI.
VII.
Station.
Mean,
1860-69.
VIII.
Eedruth
Truro R. Institution..
„ Peuarth
Bodmin
Warleggan
Wadebridge
E. Harptree
Small Street
Clifton
Quedgeley
Archenfield
Rocklands
Leominster
Burford
Ludlow
Shiffnall
Shrewsbury
O-swestry
Northwick Park
Orleton
Wigston
Thornton
Belvoir Castle
Grantham
Lincoln
Market Easen
Gainsborough
Stockwith
Brigg
Grimsby
Barnetby
Appleby Vicarage
New Holland
Soutliwell
Wei beck Abbey
AVorksop
Retford
Derby
Chesterfield
Kilnarsh
Combs Moss
Combs Reservoir
Chapel-en-le-Frith .
Woodhead
Bosley Minns
„ Rehcrvoir ....
Macclesfield
„ ParkGreen
BoUington
Whaley
Marple Aqueduct . .
„ Top Lock . .
Godley Reservoir . .
Mottram
Newton
Arnfield
m.
42-88
42-56
4771
54-56
42-10
3o'55
34-09
27-42
28-21
33'59
27-11
26-74
28-53
24-87
19-50
35-65
28-02
30-90
25-17
25-61
24-48
22-41
20-87
23"43
21-66
21-35
24-12
21-39
22-16
24-10
22-67
20-84
24-64
22-47
22-74
26-81
26-93
24-59
49-62
50-01
41-95
52-19
32-85
32-04
34-54
36-75
37-46
43-89
34-81
35-25
33-98
37-73
31-63
37-23
Total Fall in
1870.
m.
37-00
29-43
28-54
39-73
44-21
23-16
35-35
21-41
23-43
19-15
20-18
26-20
18-87
20-23
21-91
21-48
16-80
31-26
21-76
24-17
18-27
19-33
19-28
17-12
16-29
25-26
16-44
18-42
24-06
20-10
26-90
2320
23-67
16-33
21-58
18-08
17-02
18-73
2I-00
19-07
40-24
47-58
37-9°
42-21
26-49
24-33
23-83
29-01
26-80
39-90
30-01
32-98
30-04
32-28
30-30
34-45
1871.
39-92
39-85
40-96
49-12
48-75
30-16
40-52
26-31
29-10
27-96
29-41
33-77
27-76
31-25
30-02
26-06
21-45
36-00
27-63
30-99
24-28
26-10
23-54
22-19
19-12
23-15
22-37
23-05
24-17
22-68
27-65
25-66
24-56
19-02
25-48
25-31
23-49
28-70
26-56
27-15
46-12
45-14
41-55
40-93
32-86
29-82
36-34
32-82
32-40
38-54
25-70
27-74
31-45
34-20
31-18
33-88
Ratio of Fall.
(1860-69 = 100.)
1870.
90
69
67
83
81
59
84
70
69
70
72
78
70
76
77
86
86
88
78
78
73
76
79
76
78
108
76
86
100
94
121
96
104
78
87
81
75
70
78
77
81
95
90
81
81
76
69
79
72
91
86
94
88
86
96
93
1871.
97
93
96
103
89
77
96
86
85
102
104
100
102
117
105
105
110
101
99
100
97
102
96
99
92
99
103
108
100
106
125
107
109
91
103
113
103
107
99
110
93
90
99
78
100
93
105
89
86
88
74
79
93
91
99
91
Mean
Divi-
sional
Ratio.
72 98
77 loi
86 101
184
REPORT — 1872.
Table I. (continued').
DiTision.
Station.
VIII.
IX.
Mean,
1860-69.
XI.
Ehodes Wood
Woodhead
Denton
Gorton
OldTrafford
Ardwick
Piccadilly
Fairfield
Waterhoiises
Oldham Gas-Works...
Strines Dale
Bolton (The Folds)
Belmont
Heaton
Eoohdale
Ormskirk
Preston
Blackpool
Stony liur.st
Clitheroe
Lancaster
Cartmel
Broomliall Park . . .
Eedmires
Tickhill
Dunford Bridge . . .
Saddleworth
Standedge
Longwood
Warley Moor
Well Head
Midgeky Moor ...
Overden Moor
Leventhorpe
Holbeck
York
Arncliffe
Hull
Malton
Richmond
Shotley Hall
Bywell
Wylam
Wallsend
Eosella Place
Stamfordham
Lilburn Tower
Seathwaite
Ullswater
Bast^enthwaite ...[Hall
Cockermoutb,Wliinfell
Carlisle
Kendal
Appleby
Cardifl'
Rhayader
in.
46-32
5183
32-97
33-71
34'73
32-60
36-78
40-90
36-13
37-12
36-01
48-98
56-61
44-21
44-13
35-co
3830
3299
48-56
4479
43'94
45-63
31-28
39-68
23-99
56-18
41-97
53-70
34-01
46-33
33-31
50-00
46-09
2326
22-85
24-48
60-08
25-C2
27-46
31-11
28-49
28-87
26-90
26-64
26-07
27-64
28-66
154-05
59-91
53-76
57-37
27-62
53-32
35-99
42-02
44-98
Total Fall in
Ratio of Fall.
Mean
(1860-69 = 100.)
Divi-
sional
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
Ratio.
in.
in.
39-88
38-99
86
84
46-62
43-73
90
84
28-08
29-16
85
89
28-93
29-58
86
88
2955
33-23 ■
85
96
3°*54
33-64
94
103
27-67
29-18
75
79
33-44
36-30
82
89
33-64
36-91
93
102
3^-49
32-11
87
86
31-35
33-86
87
94
43-47
40-93
89
84
52-80
46-80
93
83
41-10
40-40
93
91
35-18
34-65
80
78
29-84
31-95
85
89
34-17
34-25
89
89
31-41
29-94
95
9'
45-56
43-91
94
91
38-05
38-25
85
86
3967
3959
90
90
39-24
42-41
86
93
86 90
26-01
30-63
83
98
33-46
34-82
84
88
20-68
2644
86
110
54-44
46-93
97
84
38-11
37-73
91
90
47-75
42-25
89
79
24-14,
1 9-04 V
71 9
56?
36-10
3580
' 78
77
29-59
27-90
89
84
42-30
39-60
85
79
35-30
36-70
77
79
21-99
25-36
94
109
20-50
22-80
90
100
24-37
28-68
100
117
50-14
52-73
83
88
25-81
25-68
103
102
26-32
27-76
96
lOI
25-95
29-05
83
93
88 91
25-38
26-96
89
94
25-84
33-53
89
116
24-43
26-69
91
99
23-90
25-87
90
97
25-22
26-18
97
100
^
26-15
26-51
95
96
23-27
25-44
81
89
11960
115-15
78
75
50-70
45-80
85
76
48-97
40-12
91
75
48-86
41-70
85
73
20-50
23-58
74
85
43-09
50-25
81
94
27-31
31-80
76
88
86 90
35-60
41-16
85
98
41-35
43-93
92
98
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES,
185
Table I. (continued).
Division.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
XIV.
XV,
station.
Ha warden . .
Holywell ..
Llandudno
Isle of Man
Guernsey . .
Alderney . .
Mean,
18GU-G9.
XVI.
Scotland.
Mull of Galloway...
Stranraer
Corsewall
Little Koss
Cargen
Dumfries
Westerkirk
Wanlockhead
Kelso
Bowhili
Penicuick
Lauder
Dunse
Haddington
East Linton
Cobbinshaw
Inveresk
Auchinraith
Bothwell Castle
Cessnock Park
Glasgow Observatory..
Baillieston
Shotts
Ayr
Largs
Eyatt Lynn
Waulk Glen
Middleton
Mearns
Greenock
Arddarocli
Falkirk
Stirling
Pladda
Castle Toward
Lochgilphead
Inverary
Appiu
Ardnamurcban
Mull of Cantire
Campbeltown
Khinns of Islay
Lismore
Sound of Mull
Hynish ,
Loch Leven
Balfour
Leven
m.
16-44
24-43
31-00
30-61
37-i8
28-62
27-66
4960
37-03
26-98
44-37
37-05
6009
66-63
24-66
33'o3
38-01
29-98
28-49
25-63
23-77
37"4S
29-02
3''95
28-89
37-96
44-41
46-47
33-45
44-83
48-92
47-80
49-S5
5668
50-14
66-16
78-32
32-96
41-30
40-14
54-55
54-25
67-37
63-64
45-59
44" '7
47-31
33-43
46-22
72-16
79'99
35-78
28-59
28-99
Total Fall in
1870.
m.
23-29
22-91
27-43
23-89
2505
21-05
21-58
62-25
32-05
22-95
39-97
28-32
47-68
49-31
19-27
25-06
23-65
22-40
23-85
19-33
19-30
23-50
16-50
21-76
21-19
26-62
35-25
36-17
24-13
33-22
40-80
33-75
33-35
40-25
36-69
47-00
59-15
21*50
26-65
27-63
41-06
50-26
42-00
53-30
30-98
3316
38-32
25-42
31-67
24-43
59-53
21-40
23-41
21-69
1871.
u\.
28-22
24-63
30-56
24-21
36-26
27-18
24-22
56-15
34-88
27-60
44-54
35-32
52-20
(59-74)
25-47
31-23
34-3°
31-60
29-28
25-42
25-62
36-40
30-42
32-02
28-22
34-00
40-54
45-69
26-53
40-17
42-80
46-60
46-15
50-70
47-88
62-31
71-40
32-20
3S-10
37-18
48-10
52-28
41-50
50-70
37-61
45-77
45-00
34-76
35-78
89-20
57-38
34-10
34' 14
30-94
Ratio of Fall.
(1860-69 = 100.)
1870. 1871.
88
94
89
78
68
74
78
126
87
85
90
77
79
74
78
76
62
75
84
76
81
63
57
68
73
70
80
78
72
74
83
71
67
71
73
71
75
65
65
69
75
92
62
84
68
75
81
76
68
34
75
60
82
75
107
101
99
79
98
95
113
94
102
100
95
87
(9°)
103
95
90
105
103
99
108
97
105
100
98
90
91
98
79
89
88
97
93
89
95
94
91
98
92
93
88
96
62
80
83
104
95
104
77
121
72
95
119
107
Mean
Divi-
sional
Eatio.
84 97
86 97
72 100
73 93
71 90
186
REPOKT — 1872,
Table I. (continued).
Division.
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.
XIX.
Statioa.
Mean,
1860-69,
XX.
XXI.
xxni.
Aberfoyle
Dunblane ••
Dean^ton House ...••
Lanrick Castle ■•
Bridge of Turk
Auchtcrarder House- •
Trinity Gask •
Stronvar ■■
Perth Academy • •
Scone Palace • •
Barry • •
Craigton ••
Kettins ■ ■
Hill Head ••
Arbroath • •
Brechin
Girdleness •■
Braemar ■•
Aberdeen ■•
Kinnairdhead • ■
Gordon Castle ■■
Stornoway
Bemera ••
Cromarty ■•
Oronsay ••
Kyleakin • •
Kaasiiy
Barraiiead
S. Uist I
Harris •••'
Culloden House j
Dunrobin Castle '
Cape Wrath
Wick
Pentland Skerries...
Hoy. East
Hoy, West
Balfour Castle
Sandwick
fe'anda
North Eonaldsay . . .
Sumburghead
Bressay, L. H
Ireland.
Cork
Fermoy
W^aterlord
KiUaloe
Portarlington
TuUamore
Bray
Black Eock
Enniskillen
Armagh
Belfast, Queen's Coll. .
m.
61-82
36-17
4399
4S-i;i
61-89
34'3i
35-32
82-43
23-58
29-18
29-73
34-88
33-17
35-19
29-05
34-91
22*72
33-40
29-43
24-17
2919
31-79
68-03
25-94
72-36
82-07
77-12
31-73
43-9'
31-13
27-08
27-69
3'/37
24-70
28-76
39-01
32-69
32-41
3!i-85
31-37
31-02
26-45
36-49
34-77
Total Fall in
1870.
m.
40-60
23-70
30-22
28-90
46-10
24-05
24-59
61-33
i5'94
21-39
24-22
29-65
27-11
29-48
22-40
28-70
19-49
30-38
24-00
30-28
23-56
24-22
37-90
16-28
34-95
49-07
55-4"
2562
42-78
33-51
17-91
26-76
29-26
22'c6
19-64
27-34
17-63
29-60
30-72
29-76
14-40
21-19
24-48
28-46
1871.
37-21
2909
40-67
33-55
47-65
40-78
36-86
26-04
27-94
24-86
41-82
33-14
27-10
25-02
44-37
42-97
32-01
22-29
34-23
30-14
m.
60-60
32-40
41-81
40-90
64-10
31-85
34-69
75-57
21-35
29-67
33-64
40-41
33-62
3915
26-69
33-20
20-61
30-35
25-18
34-65
28-83
27-81
52-10
20-87
49-48
61-70
70-10
3089
37-86
42-57
20-76
24-75
33-12
18-91
21-36
33-22
18-53
26-40
32-17
38-64
17-04
23-69
33-84
35-66
35-56
44-67
40-70
2S-51
29-09
33-25
28-11
46-29
28-40
31-91
Ratio of Fall.
Mean
(1860-69=100.)
Divi-
sional
1870.
1871.
Eatio.
66
98
66
90
69
95
59
84
74
104
70
93
70
98
74
92
68
91
73
102
82
113
85
116
82
101
84
111
77
92
73 100
82
95
86
91
91
91
82
86
125
143
81
99
91 lOI
76
87
S6
77
63
81
48
69
60
75
71
91
81
97
97
86
107
137
66
77
73 88
97
89
74
84
89
77
68
74
70
85
54
57
91
81
79
83
95
123
46
55
80
90
67
93
76 83
82
102
78
96
83
110
85
85
82 98
71
77
89
104
79
79
92
104
83 91
97
104
70
89
88
93
85 95
ON THE UAINFALL 01' TIIE BHITiSU ISLES.
187
Table II. — Mean and Extreme Eatios in each Division.
Division.
Description.
It
1-
Eatio for 1870.
1
Eatio for 1871.
Mean. :
Highest.
Lowest.
Mean.
Sighest.
Lowest.
England and Wales.
I.
11.
Middlesex
I
22
83
77
83
93
83
62
97
92
97
101
97
79
South-Eastem Counties ...
III.
South Midland Counties ...
17
76
88
67
90
103
81
IV.
Eastern Counties
19
82
97
66
96
no
81
V.
South- Western Counties ...
25
72
90
58
98
120
78
VI.
West Midland Counties ...
13
77
88
69
lOI
117
85
VII.
North Midland Counties . . .
24
86
121
70
lOI
125
78
VIII.
North- Western Counties ...
34
86
96
69
90
105
74
IX.
X.
Yorkshire
18
14
88
86
103
97
71
74
91
90
117
116
56
73
Northern Counties
XI.
Monmouthshire, Wales, &c.
8
84
94
68
97
107
79
XTT
Scotland.
Southern Counties
9
8
86
126
74
97
113
87
XIII.
South-Eastern Counties ...
72
84
57
100
108
90
XIV.
South -Western Counties ...
13
73
83
67
92
100
88
XV.
West Midland Counties . . .
IS
71
92
34
90
121
62
XVI.
East Midland Counties ...
18
73
85
59
100
119
84
XVII.
North-Eastern Counties . . .
6
91
125
81
lOI
143
86
XVIII.
North-Western Counties ...
10
73
107
56
1 88
1
137
69
XIX
Northern Counties
12
76
82
83
§5
97
85
103
46
83
123
57
XX.
XXI
Ireland.
4
3
78
71
98
91
no
104
85
77
XXIII.
Ulster
97
70
95
104
89
Mean
t-H
80
97
66
95
114
79
TVTflximinn
3
91
71
126
83
34
lOI
143
97
83
83
97
56
188
BEPORT 1872.
TABLES OF MONTHLY EAIN-
ENGLAND.
Division I. — Middlesex.
Div. II.-S.E. Counties.
Middlesex.
Surrey.
Height of
Kain-gauge
above
Ground
Sea-level
Camden
Square.
Upper
C'lajiton.
Hampstead,
Squire's
Mount.
Winchmore
Hill.
Dunsfold,
Godalniing.
Weybridge
Heath.
ft. 4 in.
Ill ft.
1 ft. 1 in.
91ft.
1 ft. in.
385 ft.
1 ft. in.
350 ft.
2 ft. 6 in.
166 ft.
ft. 6 in.
150 ft.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
January
February ...
March
April
in.
1-38
1^2I
2-31
•47
•70
■S3
1-22
2-69
2'00
3-68
176
3'°7
in.
199
r27
I-I9
2-84
•92
3-49
4^12
•8s
5-28
1^34
•60
1-13
in.
I '46
1^02
i'96
•42
•62
•56
•98
2'63
r98
3 ■48
1-52
2-98
in.
r89
1-32
1-32
2-79
•65
3^6o
3-67
•73
5-22
126
■56
I -06
in.
1-40
i-i8
209
•53
•85
■77
r52
1-97
2-15
3'5o
1-36
2^8o
in.
1-79
'■33
ri2
3-12
1-09
2-48
3^9°
•89
483
1-25
•52
i^i5
in.
i'46
i'47
1-76
■43
i^o6
•86
•63
2-l8
2^04
4-00
1-20
299
in.
1-69
'■S5
^■53
2-69
■85
2^50
3-54
•72
4-98
1-02
•66
1-44
in.
1-71
2-70
182
•20
r36
•61
3-01
2-o8
2^84
3-66
'■83
2^82
in.
2-74
1-43
i'43
3-39
•29
2-28
3^73
r36
5'49
1'20
•43
1-43
in.
1-54
1-87
2^23
•32
■75
•59
ro3
2'19
i^7i
312
124
2^96
in.
2^22
■97
1-31
3^78
•36
2^99
3^66
•97
4-27
III
•37
1-21
May
June
Julv
August
September ...
October
November ...
December ...
Totals
21-32
25'02
19-61
24-07
20'12 23-47
20-08
23^17
24^64
25'20
i9^S5
23-22
Division II.-
—South-Eastern Counties {continued)
•
Kent {continued).
Sussex.
Height of
Eain-gauge
above
Ground
Sea-level
River Head,
Sevenoalis.
Acol,
Margate.
Sidcup,
Foots Cray.
Brighton,
Lewes Road.
West
Thorney.
Chichester
Museum.
1 ft. in.
Ift.Oin.
60 ft.
ft. 8 in.
231 ft.
3 ft. 9 in.
90 ft.
ft. 8 in.
10 ft.
ft. 6 in.
50 ft.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
January
February . . .
March
April
in.
2-43
1-99
2-II
■39
1-37
■63
1-39
191
2-21
6-05
2^09
3-75
iu.
4' 10
1-93
1-76
3-71
-66
2-8i
3^37
2^49
4^7«
r92
•89
2-17
in.
•92
-32
1-24
-30
i-ii
1-31
1-19
116
216
3^i3
r25
2^29
in.
2-85
•61
I^OI
2'06
•69
2-63
2^05
•93
3-28
ri4
•68
1-82
in.
1^09
•86
2-i6
■33
•67
•46
1-41
1-67
2^2 1
3-07
1-42
3^28
in.
276
I'OO
i-ii
2-86
•79
2-76
3-3S
I'OO
5-02
■99
■49
1^22
in.
1-79
r87
178
■SI
•90
-29
•76
2-50
3-02
5^21
2-70
4-09
in.
2-98
176
I -02
4^55
-19
4-03
3^76
1^55
3-46
1-69
•77
r56
in.
3^42
2-57
•30
•00
176
■CO
-98
1-51
1-51
3-95
2-14
264
in.
4-05
109
•57
2-20
•57
3-55
4-48
i'6o
4^47
1-76
•35
'■5°
ill.
169
2^48
1-43
•17
•90
■24
1-94
213
r6i
4-38
1-79
2^6l
in.. \
3-09
■S3
4^12
•'5
311
3-98
r4i '
4-51
r32
■94
i^c6
May
June
\July
August
September . . .
October
November ...
December ...
Totals
26-32
30-52
16-38
I9'7S
18-63
23-35
25-42
27-32
20-58
26-19
21-37
25-86
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BllITISH ISLES.
FALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES.
ENGLAND.
189
Division II.—
-SotrXH-E.4.STERN CoUNTIES
(conti
nued).
SuuREY {continued).
Kent.
Chobham.
Kew
Obserratorv.
Kennington
Eoad.
Dover,
Castle St.
Hytlie.
Linton,
Maidstone.
Falconhurst,
Edenbridge.
1ft.
Sin.
1 ft. 3 in.
5 ft.
Oin.
2 ft. 2 in.
Oft.
6 in.
ft. 6 in.
1ft.
Oin.
93 ft.
19 ft.
19 ft.
30 ft.
12
ft.
296 ft.
400 ft.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
\z6
219
1-23
1-76
I'OI
1-54
2-44
3-32
2-41
3-13
1-66
3-50
1-90
3-73
2"00
■95
1-27
•99
-50
1-02
45
1-83
•84
223
1-14
1-07
249
I -80
175
116
178
•98
1-84
•89
1-93
1-42
1-57
1-84
1-64
1-44
2-48
1-80
•4b
3-39
•40
2^69
•3«
2-41
■34
4-59
•43
4-03
•43
2^8o
•43
360
•90
•29
•82
79
■47
i-io
1-27
•«3
1-82
1-03
1-14
1'20
i-ji
1-14
•51
3-51
•56
2-98
j-oo
3-76
•32
2-67
•7'
3''5
-32
2^92
•49
3'i5
•55
2-84
•65
3'i3
i-S«
4-05
•72
2-42
1-31
2-92
1-95
2^84
2-59
3-24
177
100
2-02
•95
2'00
-68
1-31
•88
1-23
-84
2-c6
1*09
1-72
1-63
1-37
373
i'37
4-42
2^0O
4-84
1-71
4-67
2'39
4-66
2-08
4-44
2-8o
4-07
294
1-19
2-57
10%
3-16
•82
4-60
1-40
490
1-77
3-89
1-44
4-64
.•58
1-58
*33
i'36
•51
175
•35
3-96
3-04
3-53
2-01
1-70
-76
2-44
-69
248
1-24
2-6i
I'I2
2'17
•86
4-19
3-20
4-36
2-83
3-68
1-62
4-1 1
1-99
i7-57
21-82
16-64
21-44
17-86
22-32
23-24
30-27
25-50
30-44
21-69
25-12
27-20
28-42
Division II.-
-South-Eastern Counties (continued)
Sussex (continued).
Hampshire.
Bleak House,
Hastings.
Dale Park,
Arundel.
Bat
tie.
C'bilgrove,
Cbicliester.
Balcomb
Place,
Cuckfield.
Petworth
Eectory.
St. Lawrence,
Isle of Wight.
1 ft.
3 in.
3 ft. 5 in.
1ft.
Sin.
ft. 6 in.
1 ft. 3 in.
2 ft. in.
1 ft. in.
77 ft.
316 ft.
284 ft.
300 ft.
190 ft.
75 ft.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
2-S2
2-07
2-52
2-85
2-55
2-62
2-40
3'53
2-17
4-33
1-85
3-21
183
3^.8
I 02
1-48
2-40
1-84
1-39
1-46
3-38
1-94
2-44
2-31
3-66
1-8,
2-20
1-35
i'97
1-32
1-88
1-28
1-96
1-62
2-o8
1-47
2-o6
1-74
2-21
1-92
1-79
•96
•32
3'96
■10
5-02
■41
4-76
•21
4-78
•30
4-10
•23
3-60
•33
3-53
1-20
-90
1^30
-82
1-98
1-12
1-44
•61
I'lO
79
1-88
-28
1-23
•06
•43
151
■32
4-37
-66
2^45
•44
3-84
•28
2-64
•56
2-39
•-'•r
2-C2
•89
2-68
3-44
4-50
1-39
3-09
r62
5-31
2^23
315
2-34
4'34
i-6o
4-14
>75
-9b
2-63
1-50
2-c8
I -20
[5-66
.76
2-70
1-93
i-So
1-36
1-24
1-46
2-39
3-66
2-21
3-70
3-55
3-96
5-08
2-87
4-18
2-36
4-82
1-59
5-70
4-96
1-42
5-77
1-84
5-24
143
4-81
,-76
5-06
1-25
5-64
1-53
4-59
2-09
273
•5b
2-53
•85
2-81
•5«
1-96
•85
2-32
-81
2-IO
-48
228
■47
2-85
1^57
2-30
1-30
4-43
1-87
3-57
2-26
4-02
2-o6
3-iS
1-82
3-06
1-17
23-03
22-09
27-40
29-87
28-45
26-16
27-57
33-19
27-55
29-29
27-81
27-60
21-99 2613
190
REPORT 1872.
EA^GLAND.
■V
Division II.
Sou
EH-EASTEfiN Counties (continued).
Hampshire {continued). 1
Height of
Rain-gauge
above
Ground
Sea-level
Eyde,
Isle of Wight.
Osborne,
Isle of Wight.
Fareham.
Shirley
Warren,
Southampton.
Selborne.
Liss,
Petersfleld.
7 ft. in.
20 ft.
ft. 8 in.
172 ft.
10 ft. in.
36 ft.
4 ft. in,
106 ft.
4 ft. Oin.
400 ft.
ft. 7 in.
250 ft.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
Janixary
February . . .
Marcli
April
in.
i^8i
2-94
1-23
•21
1-42
•19
1-27
1-94
r68
4^46
2^83
3'>5
in.
325
r46
1-30
4.-C9
•19
2^6S
4-13
r8o
631
r89
■49
1-55
in.
1-81
2-32
1-58
■28
1-42
•j8
•72
2-09
1-93
4-46
J-95
3-22
in.
3-30
1-53
1-24
4-12
•35
2-48
4-07
1-44
6-12
1-92
•49
2-20
in.
2-73
2-43
r8o
•19
177
■17
•66
2-42
r^^
4-37
2^24
4-02
in.
260
i-iS
r23
3-98
•50
3-05
4-53
4"93
1-79
I^32
1-84
in.
263
2-38
,•84
■44
1-39
•38
1-37
1-82
2-45
3-88
2^04
^•S5
in.
2-12
1-28
1-48
4-04
•27
2^98
4-53
1-44
6-i6
2'00
•82
2-13
in.
2-00
3-95
2'67
•35
1-95
•5^
■49
r66
2-39
4-8 5
2'77
3-29
in.
3-12
177
2^04
4-55
•20
377
4'43
2^30
6-43
1-85
•57
2-40
in.
2-58
4-08
2^86
•36
177
•40
•35
2-49
1-31
S'72
2-66
3 '47
in.
2^41
2-o8
3^24
4-87
"22
2-86
S"4i
1-89
6-56
2-02
■55
2-61
May
July
August
September ...
October
November ...
December ...
Totals
23-13
29-14
21-96
29'26
24-52 29^07
23-47
29-25
26-89
33-43
28^05
34-72
Division III. — South Midl.\nc Counties {continued).
BUCKIXGIIA.MSIIIRE.
Northampton.
Bedford.
Cambridge.
1
Height of
Rain-gauge
above
Grovuid
Sea-level
HighWycomb.
Althorpe
House.
Welling-
borough.
' Cardington.
1
Wisbech.
Outwell
Sluice.
ft, 9 in.
22o ft.
3 ft. 4 in.
310 ft.
ft, 3 in.
ft. in.
106 ft.
ft. 6 in.
10 ft.
4 ft. in.
16 ft.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
in.
•97
l^OI
I-C9
75
•69
2'47
2^04
1"46
i'96
3^28
1-38
3'39
1871.
1870.
1871;
January
February . . .
March
April
in.
1-50
2-22
1-71
•29
■93
■43
•86
1-87
2-17
3-°3
1-23
2-57
in.
1-50
i-io
IT3
2^94
•28
2^50
2-72
-81
5-IO
1-03
•62
I^2I
in.
r24
1-84
•96
•S3
•63
■81
.■65
2-17
i-io
3-14
I-2T
1 1-87
in.
1-14
1-09
1-19
2^44
•64
3-94
4-17
79
4-04
I^2S
•82
•89
in.
112
1-27
I'OO
•63
•65
•90
2-17
2-16
•S3
3-07
1-09
2-32
in.
101
I-.5
i'3i
2-45
■54
3-17
3^8o
•51
3^47
•97
•Si
•88
ill.
•70
1-05
vdo
•50
•65
I'OO
i'6o
; 1-50
•80
2-62
1 I'CO
1 .-85
in.
•90
110
J-3I
2 -co
1'20
3-25
3-25
•60
4-90
-84
I'OO
•85
in.
•87
2^07
ri5
3-07
•74
4-1 1
3-52
5-35
3-92
1-35
1-59
1-28
in.
1-27
•47
•69
•54
•43
1^90
3-29
I -41
115
2-37
•86
2-23
in.
•46
1-39
•52
2-86
■73
4-00
1-89
■47
3-21
1-C4
1-13
-67
May
June
July
August
September . . .
October
November ...
December ...
Totals
18-81
20^94
lyai
22-43
17-21
20" 1 7
15'87
21*20
20^49
24-82 1 i6^6i
18-37!
^'1
0\ THE RAINFALT, OF THE nUlTlSH ISLES.
EA'GLAIsD.
191
Division II. — Souxn-
Eastern Cofnties
Division III. — South Midland Cottnties.
{continued).
■.IPSIIIRE
Berkshire.
Hertfordshire.
Oxfordshire.
ifinucd).
Aldershot.
Long
Wittenliam.
•
Berkhamp-
stead.
Eoyston.
Hitcliin.
Ptadcliffe
Observatory,
Oxford.
Banbury.
6 ft. in.
1 ft. in.
1 ft. 6 in.
ft. 6 in.
1 ft. 4 in.
ft. 8 in.
7 ft. in.
316 ft.
170 ft.
370 ft.
266 ft.
238 ft.
207 ft.
350 ft.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870. 1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
175
2-17
1-30
1-47
i'6o
i^8o
■82
■67
1-17
rij
1-16
i-ii
1-33
1-13
2-5«
1-33
1-82
ri6
2-82
i'55
I ■CO
1-30
1-36
I'ZO
i'9i
■97
2-44
1-20
3-«
1-38
1-47
r26
■2.-00
i^6i
2^00
1-32
1-S2
1-40
rb,
-95
1-49
i"33
•;+
3-i8
■63
2-05
•47
2-89
•38
2-i8
•43
2-14
-53
2'6l
•66
2^65
i-s
•5^
■95
■76
rij
I'12
•74
-97
•«5
-92
1^03
-43
1-17
-98
•55
3-66
■50
2^6l
•8X
3-45
1-17
2^92
79
2-43
•66
3-17
•75
3-99
•53
3-51
•73
4^i8
r66
3-32
1-48
2'IO
I '20
3-b7
■89
3-78
1^09
4-07
1-58
1-67
3'oo
•50
3'°'
■84
1-58
-43
K23
•62
2-35
•50
173
75
2'IZ
4' 14
•77
4^26
2'2I
5-28
1-50
4-90
1-55
4-40
1-32
4-66
1-33
5-41
3-68
1-74
2-95
r36
4-5«
ri4
2-73
•52
3-47
•81
2^91
1-19
3-84
1-20
rS!o
■49!
I-I4
•48
rSb
-76
i-°5
•88
1-29
-93
1-15
•70
1^90
-So
3-i8
i-8ol
1-62
1-43
3'o6
i-6o
2-71
•88
2^6o
1-15
2-00
1-07
2-20
1-29
Z2-94
25-59
16-88
21'52
25-02
25-36
I7^i6
19-07
17-76
20-84
17-56
21-14
19-93
24-80
Division I
V. — Eastern Counties.
Essex.
Suffolk.
he Hemnalls,
Dorwarcl's
Dunmow.
Booking,
Ashdou
Culford,
Epping.
Hall, Witham.
Braintree.
Eectory.
Grundisburgh.
Bury St.
Edmund's.
fi ft 8 in.
1 ft. 6 in.
ft. in.
3 ft. 6 in.
1 ft. in.
3 ft. 6 in.
1 ft. 2 in.
■Mo ft.
.>20ft.
234 ft.
200 ft.
300 ft.
1871).
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
in.
in.
in.
■ in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
rbs
1-78
rS2
'•59
-98
1-40
1-07
1^72
■85
•74
i-oi
1-22
•8q
i-o8
1-24
170
•97
r29
■75
'•53
•83
1-76
1-87
1-77
•76
2-II
•78
2*07
'•59
i-6i
1-83
1^40
1-68
I -20
2-13
ITI
1-78
I'lO
1-96
•97
1-87
1-47
•30
2-75
•48
2'94
-40
2-6o
■33
2^65
-52
2-37
-61
3-6i
78
3-70;
I"22
•72
■5b
I'H
■ii3
ro7
■90
-47
■49
-68
75
-59
-36
r63l
•63
3-50
■28
2-26
•49
2'34
-61
2-54
■90
2-89 {
-42
2-5'
•98
3-301
•88
267
ri5
2-68
■99
2^90
133
3-15
1-22
3-53
1-36
2-77
2-00
2-93 i
1-66
•83
2-75
■99
1-68
•h5
2^17
■92
1-70
•53
1-76
-65
1-77
•29
2-54
4-60
1-93
3-6.
2-3I
4^42
1-55
4-53
1-39
4-47
1-49
3-74
1-58
4-40 1
s-^s
116
2-94
•9R
2^8o
r26
3-47
1-28
2-75
1-24
3-16
■63
3-°3
1-40
'■34
•bj
r3o
•25
l^CO
76
•83
•89
-90
•81
•63
1-85
-89
1-52
3-12
1-82
2-7b
1^64
3^20
i'53
377
1-71
2-90
1*33
3-71
i-o6
4^oi
•99
9-82
2379
1877
20-77
I7-II
21-66
18-99
■22-73
17-27
2 1 -46
17-62
21^7I
18-94
24-78
192
REPORT 1872.
EJs^GLAND.
Division IV. — Eastern Counties {continued).
Division V. —
Sottth-Westeen
Counties.
Norfolk.
Wilts.
Height of
Rain-gauge
above
Ground
Sea-level
Geldeston,
Beccles.
Cossey,
Norwich.
Egmere,
Fakenham.
Holkham.
Wilton,
Salisbury.
•
Marlborough
College.
1 ft. in.
40 ft.
1 ft. in.
4 ft. 8 in.
l.JOft.
ft. in.
39 ft.
ft. 5 in.
100 ft.
ft. in. 1
456 ft.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870. 1871.
1870.
1871.
January
February . . .
March
April
in.
ro8
•6i
1-48
•61
75
I -08
2-35
2-l6
1-35
3-08
77
3-95
in.
•95
159
i'09
3"i3
J '47
2-55
r8o
•91
4-04
I'I2
2-50
1-03
in.
1-21
•80
1-54
•88
•61
I-I2
1-91
218
161
3-85
I "43
4"i5
in.
73
1-88
-96
3-12
1-03
3-50
2-79
•62
3-9J
1-65
2-55
1-28
in.
1-26
■84
1-96
•91
•66
I -90
2-03
273
i'33
4^1
1-90
479
in.
■43
1-63
•91
2-99
1-36
3-30
3-13
4-56
171
2-26
1-68
•80
l^OO
1-63
■95
1-65
1-36
2^20
1-05
3-60
1-95
4-10
in.
"5°
i-So
•68
3-05
2-^3
3-IO
•60
4'4S
1-70
1-95
I-I2
in.
2-35
3-40
1-89
■44
1-21
-40
1-32
1-98
r?9
5-62
2-70
2'S5
in.
2-89
1-81
i-6i
4-58
-72
1-98
4-93
2-04
474
2-77
•67
2-92
in.
1-87
2-48
2-o6
■54
2-14
•35
1-73
1-26
4-54
2-02
2-51
in.
2-92
1-50
1-35
3-83
1-17
2-9S
4'33
1-16
6-22
1-86
•66
248
May
June
July
August
September ...
October
November ...
December ...
Totals
19-27
22-l8
21-29
24-02
24-41
24'47
20-74
22-28
25-25
31-66
23-41
30-46 ,
Division
7. — South- Western Counties (
continued).
Devonshire {conibuicd).
Height of
Rain-gauge
above
Ground
Sea-level
Landscore,
Teignmouth.
Broadliem-
bury,
Honiton.
Cove,
Tiverton.
Castle Hill,
S. Molton.
Great
Torrington.
Barnstaple.
ft. 6 in.
200 ft.
1 ft. 6 in.
400 ft.
ft. 4 in.
? 400 ft.
3 ft. .5 in.
? 200 ft.
1 ft. 1 in.
323 ft.
ft. G in.
31ft.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
January
February . . .
March
iV-pril
in.
2-06
3"i2
2-53
•35
I '43
•10
•84
•65
1-39
3-25
2-48
3-42
in.
2-69
2-39
2-88
4-71
•31
1-87
379
i"4i
7-07
3-32
3 '44
2*69
in.
2-08
2-74
•56
1-27
•18
•64
1-05
i-8o
5-08
2-71
2-46
in.
296
1-96
I 06
5"09
•55
2-93
4-98
i'53
5-32
3-69
1-50
2^8l
in.
2-92
3'29
2-47
•21
2'39
-28
■47
1-62
2-05
8-60
3-28
2-31
in.
4-40
2-53
1-76
4-36
•34
2-64
477
113
6-49
485
2-14
4'3«
in.
2-99
2-4.8
1-62
■49
2-36
1-49
2-00
2*44
2-59
9-71
2-43
2-52
in.
4-20
308
2'20
3-60
■33
2-II
6-31
I -00
4*55
4-14
2-42
2-86
in.
2-96
1-85
'•95
-22
2-16
•64
III
1-59
2-23
903
4-30
1-96
in.
2-93
2-85
2-20
3-66
•73
295
485
1-42
5-09
626
1-51
3-34
in.
3-19
1-89
1*74
•58
1-63
•92
ri7
1-35
2-04
8^50
3"36
2-42
in.
3-78
2-68
174
3-83
•96
243
6-OI
175
4-37
6-12
1791
2-54 1
May
June
July
August
September . . .
October
November ...
December ...
Totals
21-62
36-57
22-48
34-38
29-89
3972
33-12
36-80
30-00
3779
28-79
38-00
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES,
■ ENGLAND.
193
Division V. — Souin-WESTEKN Counties (continued).
Wilts
( contimicd).
Dorset.
1
Devonshire.
I
'
Chippenham,
Tyt lerton.
Blandford.
Dorchester.
Bridport.
1
Saltrani
Gardens.
Totness.
Dartmoor
Eeserroir.
1 ft. 2 in.
1 ft. in.
ft. (i in.
ft. 8 in.
ft. 3 in.
1 ft. in.
Oft. .
2 in. 1
150 ft.
250 ft.
60 ft.
95 ft.
120 ft.
1400 ft.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
_1871.
1870.
1871.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in. 1 in.
in.
in.
in.
1-8S
1-84
1-75
3-07
2-41
3-99
174
2*99 i
3-9°
4-10 j 390
4-63
5-47
5-37
1-57
i'o6
4-05 2-02
2-90
2-04
2-23
2-26
3-90
278
4-57
3-35
5-67
623
1-31
1-17
177 2-90
2'o6
2-58
1-93
177 >
3-00
2-20
3-31
2-46
5-09
3-04
•45
3'23
•29
4-81
■5«
5-86
•53
4'96,
•50
6-35
•34
5-56
■77
9-99
I "44
141
1'2I
•84
1-67
1-15
1-44
•99,
184
-i8
2-40
■27
3-76
-54
■50
3-26
•35
296
•40
3-17
76
2-04 ,
■25
2-1 1
•25
2-6S
1-07
4-43
•92
4-06
129
4'37
•85
4-11
•66
3-96
i'35
6-86
1-20
6-07
2-77
11-47
172
1-26
2-13
1-69
i-6o
1-91
•82
-80'
3-05
2-50
1-44
1-64
2-s8
3-i6
ri7
5-68
1-33
4-63
i'96
5-60
•99
4-50
2-00
4-44
2-10
8-62
2-79
8-i8
3-52
1-37
5'3i
2-89
4-55
5-09
3-52
2-75
4-15
911
636
5-50
9-27
8-o8
1-62
■59
2'6o
1-46
2'42
2-02
1-86
1-29
4-20
1-55
339
2-39
3-94
193
2-OI
2-00
3'03
2'59
4-26
2-97
3-84
2-53
3-17
4-70
3-71
5-27
3-77
696
—
18-14
2693
25'I1
34'23
25-66
40-49
20-32
30-84
31-31
46-88
32-97
48-41
46-95
69-38
•
Divisio
u V. — South
-Western Counties {continued).
Cornwall.
Helstone.
Penzance.
Tehidy Park,
Eedruth.
Truro, Royal
Institution.
Bodmin,
Castle Street.
Treharrock
House,
Wadebridge.
Altamum
5 ft. in.
3 ft. in.
ft. 6 in.
40 ft. in.
2 ft. 6 in.
2 ft. 9 in.
Oft.
10 in.
116 ft,
94 ft.
100 ft.
C6 ft.
338 ft.
303 ft.
670 ft.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
1
2-46
4-95
277
5-96
4-85
3-30
3-19
4-29
4-16
4-82
3-i8
2-08
5-19
5-64
1
277
1-67
3-53
2-24
4-50
310
3-6i
2-19
5-37
3-66
2-73
1-53
644
4-13
276
1-14
3-31
1-53
3-50
1-00
2-45
i'57
2-79
1-80
2-02
i-i 1
3-8.
2-99
•20
4-87
•10
4'47
J -45
3-80
•18
4-14
-301 5-64
-22
3-56
•33
6 42
1-44
•90
172
•37
•32
1-60
1-72
•55
2-67
-40
1-66
■51
377
•71
•66
1-25
•43
1-20
■50
1-90
-32
119
•89
2-67 1 -20
-81
•53
3-17
191
5-25
176
5'34
i-oo
5«5
1-49
5-24
2-10
5-671 I-2S
4-77
2-o8
7-07
212
1-35
2-00
1-94
4-30
2-37
2-25
1-8,
3'94
2-50 1 1-41
1-20
3-47
2-64
123
8-27
1-69
7-96
2-00
6-00
1-49
8-50
2-14
8-25, r68
5-94
2-57
7-84
478
5-38
602
636
6-II
4-90
579
5-19
7-56
7-39 4-11
524
10-55
8-56
469
3-41
5-II
315
4-87
3-30
4'i3
2-28
4-23
1-77; 2"S^
1-16
5-21
1-94
2-64
316
3-21
4-19
3-6o
3-50
2-81
2-86
3-5S
4-49; 2-' 5
2-25
3-84
5-13
1
2766
4i'6o
3165 4471
37-00
39-92
29-43
39-85
39-73
49-12
23-16 30-16
47'79
56-24
187
2.
P
194^
REPORT — 1872.
England;
Division Y. — Sotjth-Westerjt Cotjuties {continued).
Di^-ision YI. — West
Midland Coxtnties.
Somerset.
Gloucester.
Height of
Eain-gauge
above
Ground
Sea-level
Fulland's
School,
Taunton.
Ilchester.
Sherborne
Reservoir,
East Harptree.
Batheaston
Reservoir.
Clifton.
Cirencester.
ft. 5 in.
1 ft. G in.
2 ft. in.
40 ft.
1 ft. in.
338 ft.
2 ft. in.
226 ft.
ft. 6 in.
192 ft.
1 ft. 2 in.
420 ft.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871. j
January
February . . .
March
A]3ril
in.
1-44
1-95
1-41
•45
i-o8
•78
■19
2-42
1-17
3-90
3-02
162
in.
279
I '22
1-55
3-24
■75
1-93
2-99
1-33
2-65
2-95
1-35
2-15
in.
1-85
2'09
106
•41
70
I 06
276
1-67
1-37
4'oi
2-68
2-09
in.
3-19
1-45
I -40
4-34
■80
'■34
452
2-12
4-94
2-68
■98
2-54
in.
4'39
2-88
2-6o
•87
277
•87
2-21
1-98
1-52
964
2-95
2-67
in.
296
2-58
259
5-59
I -02
2-48
6-21
2-15
5-67
3-54
1-48
4-25
in.
1-85
1-65
1-13
•50
1-70
■70
-87
•95
-80
4'45
1-75
1-50
in.
1-90
1-20
1-20
2-65
l-lo
2-40
4-70
-80
4-65
1-65
-62
2-20
in.
2-48
1-40
1-58
•57
i'54
-62
1-47
2'00
1-77
5-33
2-74
1-93
in.
2-12
1-56
1-49
3-76
1-21
1-45
5-11
1-86
5-24
2-43
-63
2-24
in.
2-45
1-80
176
•68
1-80
•75
1-81
2-74
1-22
4-54
2-26
2-20
in.
1-86
1-72
1-65
3-65
1-70
3-00
4-31
278
6-70
2-30
•40
2-33
May
June
July
August
September ...
October
November ...
December ...
Totals
i9'43 ! 24'90
2175
33-30
35-35
40-52 17-85
25-07
23-43
29-10
24'0I
32-40 ^
Division YI. — West jMidl.\nd Couxties
{continued).
Division YII. — North Midland
Counties.
Worcester {coyitmued).
Warwick.
Leicester.
Height of
Rain gauge
above
Ground
Sea-level
Orleton,
Tenbury.
'Arden Hou.se,
Henley-iu-
Arden.
Birmingham.
Wigs ton.
Thornton
Reservoir.
Belvoir Castle.
ft. 9 in.
200 ft. ?
2 ft. in.
; 400 ft. ?
ft. 10 in.
340 ft.
ft. 9 in.
220 ft.
2 ft. 8 in.
420 ft.
1 ft. in.
237 ft.
1870.
1871.
in.
2-82
1-93
1-76
2-84
■97
3-45
3-48
i-29
7-25
2-93
•80
I '47
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
January
February ...
March
April
in.
2-33
2-50
1-S6
•79
1-40
-61
1-68
2-09
t-25
4-87
2-78
2-01
in.
1-27
1-53
I '47
•71
•97
•88
1-18
1-86
1-33
3-66
2-12
2-16
in.
1-40
1-43
•98
3-17
261
4-30
5-i8
•97
575
1-17
-89
1-49
in.
2-29
2-30
1-66
■9>
1-30
•78
1-27
1-72
•80
6-22
2-20
2-2C
in.
1-49
1-73
1-24
3-85
216
3-00
4-55
2-18
6-OI
i-g6
•S3
1-62
30-62
in.
1-63
1-64
i-io
•55
•71
-60
i-co
1-89
i-6o
3^45
1-38
2-72
in.
■96
1-29
•94
276
1-34
3-87
4-28
•88
4^57
1-12
I -04
1-23
in.
1-67
'•47
'•55
•49
•80
l-c6
]-i6
r6i
I-I7
4^37
1-65
2-33
in.
1^07
1-28
•87
2-86
2^07
3-7S
A-22
•69
5-47
i-6i
I^IO
I -08
in.
1-62
2-13
1-51
-89
•62
•97
1-03
1-14
■54
3-84
158
3^4i
in.
1-27
115
1-04
2-93
1-14
2-87 ;
4-29 !
-56 1
4^67 1
1-24 I
1-50 1
-88 1
May
June
July
August
September . . .
October
November ...
December ...
Totals
24-17
30-99
19-14
29-34
23-65
18-27
24-28
19^33
26^10
19-28
^3-54
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLE.S,
ENGLAND.
19:
Drasion VI. — Wesx Midland CotrNxrES
{continued).
Gl.OCCESTER
Hereford.
Shropshire.
Worcester.
(continued).
Quedgeley.
Stretton
Rectory,
Hereford.
Hauglitou
Hall,
Shifnall.
Hengoed,
Oswestry.
Northwick
Park.
West Malvern.
Bromsgrove.
ft. 10 in.
1 ft. in.
3 ft. .5 in.
6 ft. in.
1ft.
6 in.
1ft.
6 in.
4 ft. 4 in.
50 ft.
198 ft.
355 ft.
470 ft.
850 ft.
273 ft.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
in.
in.
in.
in
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
173
1-44
i-6o
2-53
1-50
1-78
3-33
2-71
1-67
2-05
1-65
2-51
^•3«
1-27
1-28
170
206
1-35
1-76
1-62
2-63
3-60
-81
1-18
2-48
i-o6
1-98
1-77
'•57
1-50
I-S7
1-28
1-54
-84
3-28
2-14
1-77
1-31
1-69
1-51
1-49
i-oi
•75
2-8o
•56
2-12
1-09
2-92
1-05
2-75
•95
3-33
-66
3-70
•88
2-12
1-44
1-30
I 08
■95
-76
i-i8
2-31
i-8o
1-31
•74
-92
i-ii
-90
1-95
•68
273
■21
372
■54
2-31
•54
3-201
■74
3-34
I-07
b-33
•99
2-88
1-30
4-34
I -02
3-14
1-04
3-46
-52
4-67
1-24
3-41
1-13
3-50
1-58
4' 30
I-I3
142
■40
177
2-92
1-49
1-70
1-94
3-00
1-64
1-74
1-66
2-40
•68
I 62
S-5^
•86
6-43
-70
5-27
1-93
5-09
i 1-82
6-87
1-19
7-53
-84
6^o8
2-88
2-25
3-96
3-40
4'47
2-98
7-26
5-09
3-3«
1-04
3-99
1-64
4'43
r89
275
•^6
17S
■95
275
•89
4-00
i-i I
i ^•54
-86
3-00
1-24
1-78
•42
2'02
2-40
1-67
1-53
2-41
1-32
2-71
1-90
1 2-53
1
1-86
1-88
1-92
1-96
'■24
19- 1 5
2796
1677
29-17
21-48
26-06
31-26
36-00
21-76
27-63
21*40
3371
20-61
25-61
Division VII. — North Midland Cottnties (continued).
Lincoln.
NoTTINCnAM.
Lincoln.
Market Easen.
Gainsborough.
Brigg.
Grimsby.
New Holland.
Welbeck.
3 ft.
6 in.
3 ft. 6 in.
3 ft. 6 in.
3 ft. 6 in.
15 ft.
Oin.
3 ft. 6 in.
4 ft. in.
26 ft.
100 ft.
76 ft.
16 ft.
42
ft.
18 ft.
80 ft.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
1
•94
•42
135
-70
.•30
■37
i-io
-66
79
1-23
1-12
-78
1-45
•98
'
■39
1-23
I^72
'"95
ro2
1^04
2-41
1-79
1-23
1-44
1-63
1-89
1-62
1-41
I^20
-50
»'54
-88
•61
•31
2-17
-65
1-53
77
1-99
•81
2-20
•93
•48
2-90
•68
306
•55
477
•44
2-91
73
2-74
•43
3-07
•66
3-05
•82
•63
-63
1-25
•76
■44
•59
175
"59
i'55
■94
1-03
•95
1-73
175
2-21
1-88
3-40
.•38
3-35
2-4S
2-57
1-80
2-11
3-33
3-61
1-89
37>
•90
2-98
-90
3-00
K05
2^94
-68
2-73
-30
3-26
7b
3-05
i -60
321
'•■9
•55
1-87
1-03
.-56
J^c4
174
1-76
1-68
i'37
1-64
1-07
■ ri3
•98
I -co
483
I-2I
4-06
1-22
4-68
1-46
5-«7
ro3
4-06
1-13
5-07
; I-2I
5-3«
3-92
•70
9-sS
•43
5-15
1-16
6-73
1-03
5-37
1-35
b-.5
I-C2
5-58
.•78
.-5b
1-20
1-91
1-77
•53
1-09
1-42
1-16
2-15
1-39
1-12
1-85
1-81
•82
2-14
•97
1-99
1-62
1-31
1-18
2-84
1-29
2-90
1-41
3"43
1-31
2-48
i'57
16-29
19-12
25-26
23-15
16-44
22-37
24-06
24-17
20-10
22-68
2367
24-56
: 2i'58
25-48
X'2
196
REPORT — 1872.
ENGLAND.
Division VII. — Nokth Midland Counties (continued).
Div. YIII. — NoETH-
'Westeen Counties.
'i
i
Derby.
ClIESIIIUE.
Height of
Kain-gauge
above
Ground
Sea-level
Derby.
Chesterfield.
Comb's Moss.
Chapel-en-le-
Frith.
Macclesfield.
Cholmondelly
Castle,
Nantwich.
6 ft. in.
180 ft.
3 ft. 6 in.
248 ft.
3 ft. 6 in.
1669 ft.
3 ft. 6 in.
965 ft.
3 ft. 6 in.
539 ft.
1 ft. 6 in.
42 ft.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
in. i
'•55^
2-54
r58
2-68
1-52
3-i8:
5 '49
129
4-90,
3-97
1-34,
i'69
January
February ...
March
April
in.
1-43
1-09
1-47
75
7^
1-23
79
115
1-13
4-91
199
2-07
in.
•82
1-51
1-15
372
1-68
4-16
4-68
i"35
4-92
2-37
1-05
I 29
in.
1-99
1-84
2-25
■^5
122
•98
in.
1-12
1-94
118
2-25
I '40
A-2'?
in.
3-92
3-08
3-95
i-Ss
1-97
r8i
283
i-8i
3-26
9"9-
276
3-08
in.
1-59
3-23
175
629
4-40
4'oo
4-86
294
667
4-93
193
3'53
in.
3-94
2-42
3-24
1-57
203
i6g
178
1-57
311
nil
2-82
2'62
in.
i'55
3-84
1-46
4-30
3-23
4-85
4-53
i-45
475
6-03
173
2-83
in.
1-64
•89
1-85
178
73
1-93
2-02
2-o6
2'62
5-67
•84
i-8o
in.
77
1-95
•76
2-84
2-86
3-97
578
1-93
4-58
5-92
2-47
2-51
in.
173
1-22
2-52
172
1-31
170
1-50
i'54
2-2 1
5 '44
246
2-86
May
June
July
•S3 -?-^q
August
September . . .
October
November ...
December ...
•66
1-04
5-58
1-95
2-41
119
4-80
2'9I
•85
1-30
Totals
1873
2870
2i'oo 26'56
40-24
46- 12
37'90j 4i'55
23-83
36-34
26-21
3173
Division YIII. — Noeth-Westeen
Counties {continued).
Division IX. — Yorkshire.
■
1
1
L.i.NCASiiiRE (confinued).
York. — West Ridi.nq.
Height of
Eain-gauge
above
Ground
Sea -level
Caton,
Lancaster.
Holker,
Cartmel.
Broomhall
Park,
Sheffield.
Eedmires,
Slieffield.
TickhiU.
Penistone.
1 ft. 6 in.
120 ft.
4 ft. 8 in.
155 ft.
2 ft. in.
340 ft.
4 ft. in.
1100 ft.
2 ft. in.
61ft.
3 ft. G in.
717 ft.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
January
February . . .
March
April
in.
3-96
2-64
2-56
176
251
2-12
2-02
2-27
3-39
9-86
3-02
3'56
in.
195
4-45
1-89
2-97
178
2-44
5-97
1-95
3-96
614
i-8i
4-28
in.
4'34
216
2-28
i-6o
279
1-88
1-56
1-97
365
ii'30
3-07
2'64
in.
2-13
4-37
2-23
379
r8i
2-25
4-93
319
378
6-36
2-36
5-21
in.
2-S2
1-85
2-19
-66
•94
1-27
•97
•86
163
7-87
1-92
3-°3
in.
I-2I
2-10
1-26
3-12
1-42
4-63
3-08
165
6-40
2-74
1-52
1-50
in.
363
2-87
2-71
1-19
1-29
1-69
i-i8
1-47
238
9-67
2-22
3-i6
in.
1-25
3-11
1-38
474
177
3-81
3-42
2-06
609
3-30
1-86
2-03
in.
I-2I
1-37
2-13
•47
•58
2-o8
78
■97
■68
571
173
2-97
in.
•96
154
-83
2-77
1-85
4-23
3-63
159
5-23
1-51
-89
1-41
in.
3-52
2-15
2-21
■88
1-62
'■93
•55
•98
2-66
8-66
2*26
2-14
in.
174
2-76
1-42
3-07
1-31
4-42
2-63
1-83
634
3'i3
1-5,
1-39
May
June
July
August
September ...
October
November ...
December ...
Totals
3967
3959
39-24
42"4i 26-01
30-63
33-46
34-82
20-68
26-44
29-56
3«-55
ON THE R.VIXFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES.
EN'GLAND.
197
Division
VIII.
— ]S"obth-Westeen
CoTJUTiES {continued).
Lancashire.
Manchester.
Waterhouses.
Bofton-le-
Moors.
Eufford,
Ormskirk.
Howick
House,
Preston.
South Shore,
Blackjjool.
Stonyhurst.
2 ft.
7 in.
3 ft. 6 in.
3 ft.
6 in.
ft. 8 in.
ft. 6 in.
1 ft. 8 in.
ft.
8 in.
106 ft.
345 ft.
283 ft.
38 ft.
73 ft.
29 ft.
376 ft.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
187L
1870.
1871.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
3-M
3-25
I'22
3-95
170
2-45
1-32
3-30
1-50
3-30
I'ao
4-1 1
173
•8?
273
■95
3-31
1-41
4-59
1-02
282
1'20
3-20
172
2-88
r6i
4-55
2-38
rs6
2'02
1-26
3-31
2'09
209
1-12
2-30
2-00
2-40
1-45
2-92
1-97
2'22
3-52
r8o
4-39
2^46
378
1-44
2-56
I '60
2-40
I'lO
2-20
2-64
3-60
75
2-07
ri3
213
1-91
1-86
1-62
1-62
1-50
1-70
1-45
1-45
1-95
i-8o
1-79
2-66
1-47
472
4-01
3-57
1-58
2-05
l-6o
2-25
1-15
1-75
2-23
3-36
•8i
3-55
2'00
4-32
113
4-82
•55
4-94
•bS
4-80
i-io
4-43
2-27
8-o8
1-65
i'6o
2-24
171
^■5'
1-71
2-12
1-09
3-10
2-0O
1-23
.■38
2-87
2-07
;-66
3-82
2-26
4*93
378
5-30
2-72
362
2-90
2-90
3-00
2-90
3*99
4-20
836
4-51
11-33
475
11-54
611
8-8o
6-90
10-62
6-90
9-60
6-I5
13-36
6-58.
2-42
1-41
3-05
1-57
3-89
176
3-14
1-40
3-00
1-40
2-70
1-50
3-52
2-o3
a-53
2'50
2-14
2'6o
3-57
3-64
2-31
2-51
2-40
3-20
2-66
2-65
4-09
3-89
*9"55
33-23
33-64
36-91
43-47
40-93
29-84
31-95
34-17
34-25
3i'4i
29-94
45-56
43-9"
Division IX.-
— ^YOEKSHIEE
{continued).
York. — West Riding {continued).
Saddleworth.
Longwood,
Huddersfield.
Ackworth,
Pontefract.
■WVU Head,
HaUfax.
Orenden
Moor,
HaHfax.
Eccup,
Leeds.
York.
.3 ft.
Oin.
4 ft. 6 in.
ft. 3 in.
Oft. 11 in.
ft. 10 in.
ft. 9 in.
Oft.
6 in.
640 ft.
650 ft.
135 ft.
487 ft.
1375 ft.
340 ft.
50 ft.
1>70.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
3-28
2'07
3-33
-92
1-42
-66
3-36
I -00
3-80
1-50
a-26
•77
1-68
-70
1-86
2-35
156
2-34
1-47
164
1-77
2-60
2-IO
370
1-07
2-84
1-88
2-51
2-59
2-14
2-54
-96
1-89
•56
2-20
i-iS
2-40
i-io
1-71
I -09
1-80
1-21
*-97
3-59
•96
2-89
-42
2-75
•80
3-88
1-70
5-20
•83
3-25
-66
2-76
1-65
2-12
1-17
1-39
75
1-50
1-43
1-90
2-00
2-20
1-36
•97
1-08
I-3I
2-39
4-03
118
296
173
5->3
1-78
3-28
i-8o
3-50
1-54
3-70
2-81
3-72
1-13
4-67
•47
,-56
-68
2-71
-55
2-77
I -00
5-30
•80
3-58
•51
2-80
2-21
1-97
■99
-90
1-33
i-8i
1-30
1-28
1-50
1-70
1-93
1-19
1-58
1-03
4-13
5-24
1-94
2-73
•93
5-80
176
4-73
2-00
4-80
1-05
6-70
1-18
6-60
9-97
5-07
5-47
'-43
5-53
1-69
896
2-98
io-8o
3-90
7-26
3-25
6-10
267
2-88
-86
2-78
•31
1-75
•96
2-74
-87
3-20
1-00
2-19
1-04
1-93
1-25
3-05
3-62
175
•65
2-93
■99
2-94
1-43
3 -co
2-80
3-39
1-44
3-16
2-12
38-11
3773
24-14
19-04
20-83
26-20
29-59
27-90
35-30
36-70
26-29
29-82
24-37
2868
198
■
Rjspottx — 1873.
ENGLAND.
Division IX. — Yorkshire (continued).
Yoke.— M^EST Riding {continued).
York. — East Riding.
York, — North Riding.
Height of
Rain-gauge
above
Ground
Sea-leyel
Harrogate.
Arncliffe.
Beverley Road,
Hull.
Wartcr,
Pocklington.
Malton.
Beadlam
Grange.
ft. 6 in.
380 ft.
2 ft. 9 in.
750 ft.
3 ft. 10 in.
lift.
1 ft. 10 in.
230 ft.
1 ft. in.
75 ft.
ft. 6 in.
192 ft.
1^70.
1871
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
January
February ...
March
April
Mav
in.
2-59
2-72
2-16
79
i'33
1-48
■69
135
•88
7-56
2-85
374
in.
79
2-98
i'55
3-14
1-04
4-24
a-38
1-86
6-63
3-24
1-29
2-o8
in.
6-24
5-10
3-06
2-46
2-48
3-52
•59
2-24
2-90
13-38
3'94
4-^3
in.
2-65
664
4-67
3-95
2-03
^77
922
2-86
6-04
5-'3
2-13
4-64
in.
1-19
2-09
2-28
•52
•81
3-17
71
1-76
1-52
579
1-62
4-35
in.
1-04
179
-90
3'i4
I-2I
2-99
374
■95
477
121
2-23
1-71
in.
1-43
1-99
1-62
•62
I 40
2-83
-36
2-04
1-80
571
232
4-41
in.
•80
2-44
I -20
3-52
1-69
2-95
4-17
•94
7-8.
1-80
1-95
2-26
in.
1-88
a'33
1-60
■67
1-13
2*6o
•27
1-93
1-10
5-98
2-82
4-01
in.
1-00
2-34
75
2-8o
179
2-98
3-82
•87
5-9«
2-13
177
I "60
in.
2-13
249
■94
■57
1-64
2-40
•32
2-23
1-31
6-01
4-20
4-21
in.
i'o6
2-48
•93
3-52
1-34
4-05
3-98
1-24
5-15
2-63
1-78
2-l6
July
August
September ...
October
November ...
December ..
Totals
28-14
31-22
50-14
5^73
25-81
25-68
26-53
3i'53
26-32
27-76
28-45
30-32
Division X. — Northern Counties {continued).
KORTUUMBERLAND {continucd).
CUMBEULAND.
Height of
Rain-gauge
above
Ground
ujea-level
Haltwhistle.
Lilburn
Tower.
Rootle.
Seathwaite.
Whinfell Hall,
Cockermouth.
Post Office,
Keswick.
ft. 9 in.
380 ft.
6 ft. in.
300 ft.
1 ft. in.
87 ft.
1ft. Oin.
422 ft.
2 ft. in.
265 ft.
1 ft. in.
270 ft.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
January
February . . .
March
April
in.
3-22
2-38
1-29
■83
1-50
2-49
1-46
1-35
2-32
5-14
rSo
3-12
in.
2-33
2-17
1-63
3 '45
1-27
2-27
4-63
2-34
4-40
278
1-81
3-93
in.
1-87
2-76
1-19
-62
I 62
I 26
-63
1-92
1-05
3-43
2-44
4-48
in.
•31
2-43
-85
3-62
T
2-84
2-54
1-24
3-67
2-73
2-71
i-6o
in.
3-87
2-88
2-67
i'95
2-73
1-64
1-46
,-63
3-26
8-33
3-42
1 3-42
in.
2-53
5-90
2-52
3-62
1-36
1-65
3-12
2-15
2-43
6-83
4'44
4-36
in.
13-48
13-67
9-51
6-50
13-49
6-41
I-7S
2-68
12-70
24-17
8-03
7-21
in.
11-95
15-99
10-26
6-36
2-63
2-82
12-57
9-10
5-53
624
9-91
2179
in.
5-82
5-°7
2-56
2-85
5-55
1-52
-95
2-03
5-22
11-27
3-58
2-44
in.
4-37
4-71
3-33
2-43
1-24
1-75
3-38
3-82
2-60
4-18
278
7-11
in.
3-35
5-96
2-36
2-71
5-56
4-10
-98
3-33
6-82
12-44
4-20
2-62
in.
4-93
4-7°
4-50
2-57
•67
1-73
4-49
3-67
2-20
4-48
8-13
May
June
July
August
SepLember ...
October
November ...
December ...
Totals
26-90 33-01
23-27
25-44
i 37-26
40-91
ii9'6o
115-15
48-86
41-70
54-43
43-91
ox THE lUINFAIiL OF THE DRITISH ISLES.
ENGLAND.
199
Rvision IX. — Yorkshire
(continued).
Division X. — Northern Counties.
<
i oBK. — North Riding
(contmued).
Durham.
NOKTHU-MBEELAND.
Thirsk.
Scarborough.
Darlington,
Southend
Gardens.
Usliaw,
Durham.
Stanhope
Castle.
Bywell.
North Shields.
2 ft. 6 in.
1 ft. in.
1 ft. in.
ft. 10 in.
4 ft. in.
ft. 6 in.
1ft.
Oin.
114 ft.
102 ft.
140 ft.
600 ft.
G70 ft.
87 ft.
124 ft.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
171
■59
i'6o
1-07
1-38
-67
2-05
117
4-59
2-60
i"53
1-50
1-60
1-13
'■94
2'50
2'20
171
1-09
1-29
1-69
1-78
1-41
1-51
1-89
2-46
1-95
1-97
1-37
•97
I '40
•62
1-20
7b
1-40
•93
2-50
1-05
1-16
1-20
1-21
-69
•55
1-92
•8s
3-24
•47
2-02
•62
3-12
1-50
3-05
•64
3-40
78
379
■34
ri6
I'lO
1-44
70
1-32
1-35
1-89
•10
1-50
•80
-90
1-40
1-59
yzo
4-'5
2-84
2-4.9
i-6o
3-21
I '54
3-41
1-17
3'oo
1-61
3-60
2-44
2-54
•42
3-57
•5b
375
■44
2-89
79
3'35
•60
377
71
4-40
•55
379
2 iS
•69
231
79
179
i-o8
2-29
1-49
3-OI
i-os
2-17
77
2-12
-96
104
4"20
•81
577
■55
3-30
-80
503
1-09
6*40
1-52
648
■99
4-01
5-3
2'48
5-5"
1-99
4' 54
1-95
5-08
2-35
8-08
3-39
S-iS
3-30
3 '47
1-97
3- '5
I'2I
3-17
3-04
i-b7
1-64
2-46
1-56
2-70
2-00
2-44
328
3'5o
1-84
3-40
170
6'oo
2-02
2-54
■97
479
i-8o
477
3-5°
6-19
2-24
5-22
1-90
H-53
25-14
28 '40
27-93
17-97
21-10
24-86
27-88
3i"52
32-82
25-84
33-53
25-22
26-18
Division X. — Northern Cofnties (continued).
Cumberland (continued).
Westmoreland.
Dockcrmouth.
Mire House,
Basseuthwaite.
ScalebyHall.
Kendal.
Ifirkby
Stejjhen.
Appleby.
Great
Strickland,
Penrith.
ft.
6 in.
ft. 7 in.
1 ft. 1 in.
1ft.
6 in.
1 ft. in.
1ft.
Om.
1 ft. 6 in.
l.>8 ft.
310 ft.
112 ft.?
146 ft.
574 ft.
442 ft.
6.50 ft.
1 --70.
1871.
in.
1870. 1871.
1870.
1871.
in.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
rin.
in. in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
4-41
3-98
S-68
4-56
3-81
1-72
5-67
2-85
4-09
2-34
3-28
2-07
4-14
3-46
3-5*'
3-52
5-i8
3-89
2-27
2-54
3'29
5-04
3-00
3-26
3-07
2-88
4-19
3-65
i-3 5
2-94
3-44
3-57
i-o6
1-33
2-85
2-66
165
2-34
1-18
2-30
1-29
6-16
2-1 1
2-50
2-34
2-29
1-30
3-23
2-06
3-26
1-18
2-68
75
174
1-49
2-26
4-02
•97
4-30
]-21
2-6i
i-i6
4-87
,■83
2-24
1-00
2-35
123
2-70
J-35
>97
175
1-40
1-63
2-35
2-94
1-58
1-98
1-52
3-57
I 33
2-79
1-56
2-73
1-05
2-92
I -08
2-82
i-o6
3-92
J-2S
7-67
2-46
6-50
-76
477
71
3-35
2-85
3-31
3-39
4-81
1-49
2-27
174
699
1-81
2-56
2-31
2-72
2-15
2-59
4-32
2-23
471
2-81
2-28
2-07
3-09
3'94
2-33
3-64
2-48
3-20
3'44
3-29
9-56
3S1
11-13
3-65
5'oo
3-«3
10-25
665
7-36
4-30
5-18
3-72
8-12
4"35
3-52
2-64
3-53
2-22
2-25
1-61
4-05
i-5«'
3-20
1-19
2-39
■93
2-62
1-24
2 00
6-32
2-79
6-66
I -41
375
a-39
5-82
2-87
3-58
2-23
3-45
2-90
3-69
41-72
3689
48-97
40-12
26-89
30-37
43-09
50-25
3377
36-96
27-31
31-80
35-31
38-12
200
REPORT— 1873.
WALES.
Division XI. — Mo:kmouth, Wales, axd the Islands.
Monmouth.
Gl.\moegan.
CAEM.iRTHEN.
Pembkoke.
Brecknock.
Height of
Rain-gauge
above
Ground
Sea-level
Llanfrechfa,
Newport.
Abergavenny.
Swansea.
1 Carmarthen
Gaol.
Haverford-
west.
Brecliiioek.
4 ft. in.
360 ft.
1 ft. in.
220 It.
14 ft. 9 in.
40 ft.
! ft. 6 in.
92 ft.
1 ft. in.
95 ft.
2 ft. in.
4.37 ft.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
m.
7-14
3-42 .
375 i
4761
•9>
2-28 1
3-3°
4-8i!
5-25 I!
5-99 II
1-05 j
4"o5|
January
February . . .
March
A pr il
in.
4-07
4-27
i'9o
•33
262
■22
3-31
3-85
279
8-25
4-64
2-54
in.
2-39
3-37
^•53
6-15
I -co
1-91
5-20
4'6o
8-32
376
I-2I
4-67
in.
2-96
4-24
1-96
•35
2-oS
■17
1-92
i'39
1-50
6-22
4-68
2-43
in.
3-05
263
1-96
374
•87
2-43 i
4-54
2-46
662
4-93
•85,
272
in.
2-44
2-49
2-28
-23
177
•33
1-83
1-87
1-91
6-26
3-5^
i-oi
in.
3-65
2-40
173
4-10
-86
78
5-34
1-70
2-99
5-20
1-28
2-66
in.
4" 1 7
5-55
3-99
•81
3-24
-80
174
2-68
2-80
9-36
564
1-S5
in.
4-80
4-02
3-06
4-69
-89
2-99
7-17
3-28
6-66
7-38
2-09
5-09
in.
4-28
39^
3-88
71
3-26
118
2-21
2-70
2-75
8-52
3-98
2-62
in.
6-05
331
2-24
4"44
•53
1-50
4-97
218
7-48
7-64
1-81
4-58
in.
5-22
8-38
■33
•50
3-C3
-22
1-73
2-75
2-89
I0-20
618
2-14
Mnv
Jmie
July
August
September . . .
October
November ...
December ...
Totals
3879
45-11
29*90
36-80
25-94
32-69
42-63
52-12
40-01
46-73
43'57
46-71
Division XI. — Monmottth, "Wales, and the Islands {continued).
Carnarvon {continued).
Isle op Man.
Guernsey. '
Height of
Rain-gauge
above
Ground
Sea -lev el
Plas Brereton.
Llanfeirfe-
chan.
Llandudno.
Douglas
Head.
Point of Ayr.
Guernsey. |
1 ft. in.
25 ft.
ft. 8 in.
150 ft.
ft. 6 in.
99 ft.
Oft. Gin.
3 ft. 4 in.
27 ft?
12 ft. in. ,
204 ft. !
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871. '
1
January
February . . .
March
April
in.
374
1-93
2-61
2-03
1-49
1-30
■83
1-95
2-57
8-27
6-52
3-35
in.
374
3-03
2-24
2-19
75
1-84
4-65
1-84
3-14
571
1-38
3-91
in.
3-85
2-38
3-15
2-21
1-72
1-16
■89
1-61
a-55
9'34
4-48
3'39
in.
3-96
3-05
1-85
3-09
-83
i-6i
3-29
1-37
4-41
6-19
185
2-25
in.
2-80
1-53
1-88
2-o8
73
1-06
•54
1-44
2-18
7-04
2-94
3-21
in.
1-87
2-02
77
2-57
1-19
2-27
3'33
1-24
3-59
6-17
3-24
2-30
in.
3 '43
2-89
2-i8
•33
1-08
•63
•55
1-65
1-42
5-65
2-20
1-63
in.
3-37
3-28
1-25
4-25
•45
1-12
170
3-72
I -2 I
6-51
4-55
5-00
in.
2-30
2"55
l-6o
•49
I '47
-90
75
1-28
2-51
5-82
2-47
'■95
in.
2-05
2-94
1-15
2-58
-61
1-18
173
2-17
•88
3'5J
2-27
3-14
in.
3-45
1-88
2'55
•76
1-65
•21
1-26
lOI
-66
5-35
370
257
in. j
5-9''
2-05.
113
3'45
3'97|
i'43|
5-3>l
1-6^^ 1
2-60 1
^lav
T •'
J une
July
August
September ...
October
November ...
December ...
Totals
36-59
34-42
36-73
3375
27"43 1 3°'56
i
23-64
36-41
23-89
24-21
25-05
36-26!
ON THE R.VINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES.
WALES.
201
Division XI. — Monmouth, AYales, and the Islands (continued).
lONTGOMERY.
Carno.
1 ft. in.
550 ft.
1870.
in.
37°
2'6o
2'90
230
210
2'O0
2'40
2' 10
3-50
1 I '20
6-30
3'20
44" 30
1871.
in.
3"6o
2*40
2*90
4-30
I'20
2-8o
5-50
2'90
570
4-80
r8o
2 '40
40-30
Cardigan.
Aberystwitli.
1 ft. in.
42 ft.
1870. 1871
44-56
in.
m.
2-67
3"95
2-48
2-47
2-36
2-13
2-27
3-12
1-87
•75
1-52
2-74
329
5-50
3-42
2-g6
3-32
2-76
11-53
5-11
6-40
3-01
3 '43
2-26
36-76
Eadnou.
Rliayacler.
2 ft. in.
880 ft.
1870. 1871.
m.
4'49
3-92
2-79
-89
2-73
•90
1-98
2-00
3-II
12-23
3-85
2-46
41-35
3-19
4-88
1-48
615
-98
373
6-04
2-97
4-15
6-89
1-24
2-23
43'93
Merioneth.
Dolgelly,
Brithdin.
1 ft. 6 in.
500 ft.
1870. 1871.
474
7-62
5-6S
3-88
4-66
2-65
2-05
3-67
4'45
16-72
882
6-78
71-72
in.
6-43
7-90
4-60
5-76
1-17
2-01
7 '47
3'S3
4'3S
8-82
2-30
6-33
60-67
Flint.
Maes-y-dre.
5 ft. in.
400 ft.
1870. 1871.
m.
1-88
-90
2-03
-61
i'34
1-31
•37
1-41
176
5-48
3-56
2-IO
22-85
m.
•86
173
1-14
2-o8
i-io
2-67
3'54
1-05
2-97
4-53
I '43
1-53
24-63
Hawarden.
Oft. 4 in.
270 ft.
1870. 1871
in.
2-32
1-33
1-85
1-30
1-02
-78
•58
2-32
1-90
4-41
2-60
2-88
23-29
m.
2-29
2-07
1-25
2-13
1-56
2-8o
3-23
1-02
4-29
4-38
i-6i
i'59
2S-22
Carnarvon.
Beddgelert.
3 ft. in.
264 ft.
1870. 1871
m.
12-30
474
779
6-o8
8-00
4-82
2-58
4-67
8-40
22-92
10-58
8-70
101-58
in.
8-17
17-38
8-So
9-11
2-70
4-35
16-33
5'fi9
5-96
iA-09
5-38
12-93
11089
Div. XL-
Monmouth,
SCOTLAND.
Wales, &c.
{continued).
Division XII. — Southeen CorrNTiES.
Sark.
Alderney.
Wigtown.
Kirkcudbright.
Dumfries.
Sark.
Alderney.
South Cairn.
Little Eoss.
Carsphairn.
!
Cargen.
Drumlani-ig.
1 ft. in.
10 ft. in.
1ft.
4 in.
3 ft.
3 in.
3 ft. 10 in.
Oft. 4 in.
Oft. 6 in.
:i40ft.
48 ft.
209 ft. j
130 ft.
574 ft.
80 ft.
191 ft.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
2-88
4-46
i-,6
3-38
8-35
5-05
2-40
1-46
6-02
4-67
5-29
3-92
4-40
5-00
r6s
I-S7
1-41
2-75
8-85
8-95
2-13
4-30
7-30
571
5-20
5-90
6-20
5-00
2-15
•98
1-72
-69
3'oo
2-85
1-14
l-QI
2-20
5-18
J-29
3-47
1-60
•90
•66
3-20
•48
2-42
5-65
8-20
•60
3-30
2-71
5-ib
r6i
4-33
2-20
■3-20
I "43
-63
1-15
•42
485
2-05
1-67
-50
4'iS
1-29
4-68
I -co
3-90
-90
•18
2-6,
-06
196
3 '9 5
2-40
177
1-16
1-84
5-19
1-40
2-18
1-70
3-20
1-12
3-83
1-30
2-70
4-05
5-^5
77
1-85
i'3i
4-58
1-16
4-83
2-CO
4S0
1-51
1-02
I '45
2-10
2-90
3-10
I 31
3-37
»75
439
2-14
3'02j
-II
5S0
1-69
4'97
•99
4-35
6-30
2-80
2-12
1-26
5'3i
2-24
4-06
2-60
4-40
I"2C
5-20
4-12
4-20
3-52
810
4-80
4-41
3-53
12-19
5-50
8-<;6
4-00
7-50
4-70
2^62
1-32
,-78
1-47
4-05
7-15
2-58
2-83
3-35
4-83
2-32
3 •40.
2-80
2-90
3^24
2-57
4-95
1-42
2-20
3"5S
2-05
3'°3
3-20
8-67
2-26
5-89
2-00
6-30
24"33
3>-32
21-05
27-18
62-25
56-15
22-95
27-60
51-33
57-41
39-97
44-54
38-81
41-90
203
REPORT 1872,
SCOTLAXD.
Div. XII. — Southern
Counties (continued).
Division XIII. — SoDTn-EASTEKN Cou>'tie.s,
Dumfries {continued).
RO.XBURGII.
Selkirk.
Peebles.
Be u WICK.
Haddington.
Height of
Kain-gauge
above
Ground
Sea-level
Wanlockhead.
SilverbutHall,
Hawick.
Bowhill.
N. Esk
, Eeservoir,
Penicuick.
Thirlestane.
!
: East Linton.
i
ft. 4 in.
1330 ft.
■1ft. Gin.
512 ft.
lift. Oin.
537 ft.
ft. G in.
! 1150 ft.
ft. 3 in.
558 ft.
ft. 3 in.
yo ft.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
in.
2-03
3-50
2-13
389
1-05
3-37
3-i6
2-74
1-73
2-83
1-92
2-8 ■-
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870-1 1871.
January
February . . .
March
^pril
in.
5-66
6"94
2-66
3-07
5-36
2*02
189
I "90
4-59
7-95
. 4-50
277
in.
6'io
8-84
6-26
4-28
1-05
2-02
5-84
5-59
3-35
467
2-53
9-21
in.
2-58
2-38
1-03
■96
1-93
1-86
2 '04
i'54
1-97
3-35
171
1-64
in.
1-8;
I 91
2-00
4-08
i-o6
2-87
3-02
2-IO
1-95
2-45
2-cg
3-, 6
in.
3-34
2-89
1-I2
•80
2-63
2-IO
1-25
1-43
2'10
379
ro8
^'53
in.
2-40
2-95
1-40
•70
I'OO
2-90
1*20
1-00
2-45
3-65
1-15
2-25
in.
^■55
3-05
1-90
4-50
I-JO
2 -20
3-15
3-55
2-2 5
2-15
4-60
3-30
in.
2-40
i-6o
I -00
'°J
i-8o
2-35
•90
i-8o
i-6o
3-50
1-50
3-90
in.
i-6o
4-10
1-50
3-80
-90
3-10
3-50
I 50
3-00
2-70
370
2-20
in.
79
294
XI 3
•22
■57
1-68
•93
1-69
2-26
2-45
•80
3-84
in.
1-13
2-26
•38
4-69
■ -35
3-22
2-27
1-27
2-43
2-55
3-i6j
'•4« I
May
J une
July
August
September ...
October
November ...
December ...
Totals
49-31
5974
22-99
28-50
25-06
31-23
23-65
34-30
22-40
31-60
19-30
256*:
Division XIV. — South- Western Counties {continued). 1
L.iNARK {contimied).
Ayr.
Eenprew. 1
Height of
Rain-gauge
above
Ground
Sea-level
Hill End
House, Shotts.
Girvan.
Auchendrane.
Mansfield,
Largs.
Nither Place,
Mearns.
Greenock.
7 ft. in.
620 ft.
1 it. in.
187 ft.
2 ft. 3 in.
9(5 ft.
ft. 6 in.
30 ft.
i ft. 6 in.
360 ft.
ft. 6 in.
64 ft.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
in.
3-30
7-50
4-50
3-30
-70
1-90
3-40
3-40
2-60
3-8o
4-C0
4-40
i 1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
January
February . . .
March
April
in.
2-52
i'55
-88
1-24
2-35
2-49
2'53
7')
2-66
3-31
1-89
1-92
in.
2-54
3-S3
2-22
2-12
•32
•46
4-98
3-24
1-76
2-16
1 23
1-67
in.
4-15
5-M
2-o6
2-29
2-30
3^88
1-81
2-o6
370
12-29
3-28
2-85
in.
4-36
7'i4
4-14
2-97
1-02
2-57
2-84
4'45
2-52
4-03
6-03
576
in.
3-54
2 '45
1-43
21 I
4-15
2-40
2-02
2-06
3-87
4-99
2-J5
2-05
in.
3-99
4-53
4-04
3-34
-85
2-13
3-55
S-'5
2-08
2-65
2-80
5-06
in.
5-80
4-90
i-oo
1-90
5-00
1-90
2-6o
2-30
3-90
5-60
2-8o
3-10
in.
2-00
375
1-50
2-25
5-13
1 2-06
2-12
2-25
4-37
S-38
2-50
3-38
in.
5-00
5'75
4-50
4-25
1-25
2-00
4-50
}6-5o
3-50
4-25
6-38
in.
7-13
5-64
1-30
2-55
5-64
1-91
2-51
1-77
4'45
7-15
2-33
4-62
in.
5-90
8-65
611
5-14
i-6o
373
3-51
4-40
2-32
6-62
4-82
9-5.
May
June
July
August
Sejiteniber. .
October
November ...
December ...
Totals
24-13
26-53
45-81
47-83
33-22
40-17
40-80
42-80
36-69
47-88
47-00
62-31
1
OS THE RAINFALL 01' THE BRITISH ISLES.
SCOTLAND.
203
I tivision XIII. — South
-Eastern
Di\ision. XIV.—
-South-Western Countii.
s.
Counties {contmued).
Edinburgh.
Lanaek.
Charlotte-sq.,
Newmains,
Aucbinraitb,
Glasgow
Glencorse.
Inveresk .
Edinburgh.
Douglas.
Hamilton.
Observatory.
Oft. I
1 in.
2 ft. in.
ft. 6 in.
ft. 4 in.
4 ft.
Din.
ft. 1 in.
Oft.
3 in.
787 ft.
(jO ft.
2.30 it.
783 ft.
160 ft.
180 ft.
230 ft.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in. •
in.
in.
in.
2-40
270
1-67
1-26
1-68
1-25
3-48
4'49
2-S9
2-65
4-18
m
5 '44
377
4-05
290
205
179
570
2-41
5-66
3-27
2-05
275
6-33
4-86
2-31
4-63
3-26
2-25
i-8s
I'OO
■94
i-ii
1-07
ro8
4-54
-63
I 94
-93
3-°5
I 09
■75
4'6o
•27
S-ii
•43
4'55
I '47
3-04
•80
3-02
J -46
4-42
1-29
5-52
I -60
70
■77
-71
1-31
•83
3-17
•61
2-18
78
3-20
1-12
3-72
I 43
3'2S
2-35
i-8o
2-98
2-25
1-90
2-75
329
1-45
175
1-84
2-72
2-49
3-16
5-82
195
3-10
1-26
3-90
i-6s
2-8o
175
499
1-67
4-05
2-52
4"5i
371
165
2-6s
■93
2-14
1-29
2-56
2-48
4-29
1-03
6-55
1-76
3-66
125
4-82
2-50
3'05
177
3-23
1-84
^■55
4-09
i-8o
2-32
I "43
371
i-6o
4-37
2-12
3'5°
2-55
173
2-42
176
2-45
475
4-28
2-95
1-97
4-61
3-10
477
3-00
I '40
470
•85
4-21
•69
2-87
2-7b
21 1
1-95
2-40
1-84
3-27
2-53
3-57
a'4o
3"ao
2 '40
1-73
2-40
163
178
5-38
1-84
i73
2-87
4-85
3-20
4-59
2770
3+-35
16-50
3042
22-11
26-87
35-"
42-09
2176
32-02
35'2S
40-54
36-17
45-69
Division XV.— -West Midlaitd Counties.
Dumbarton.
Stirling.
Bute.
Argyll.
Balloch
Ca.stle.
!
Arddarock,
Loch Long.
Polniaise
Garden.
Pladda.
Devaar,
Campbell-
town.
Bhinns of
Islay.
Eallabus,
Islay.
ft. 4 in.
01 ft.
ft. 10 in.
soft.
Oft. 2 in.
12 ft.
3 ft. 3 in.
5.5 ft.
3 ft. 4 in.
75 ft.
3 ft. in.
74 ft.
1 ft. in.
67 ft.
1-70.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
iii.
5-40
5'oo
I-20
2-51
3-95
177
1-78
1-78
375
6-86
1-97
4-03
in.
4-23
6-8i
3-90
5-11
1-25
2-03
398
5-21
1-89
5-33
3-19
5-60
in.
7-19
7-51
2-30
3-06
6-13
3-07
3-14
I 32
6-c6
10-38
3 16
5-83
in.
7-52
7-93
667
656
2x2
1-86
6-23
5-86
2-38
8-50
6-45
9-42
3-80
1 3"3o
•60
-60
2-70
1-60
1-30
I"00
3-10
3-50
1-55
3-60
in.
3-60
4-60
280
4-30
1-30
2-00
4-10
3-20
2-50
3-10
260
4-00
in.
2-89
1 ^-38
1 75
1-3'
2-75
2-o8
3-OI
1-33
2-21
4"25
177
2-90
in.
4-1 1
6-76
1-92
3-76
•37
2-48
3-35
3"34
2-71
2-10
2-46
3-82
37-i8
in.
370
508
i-Si
1-79
4-28
2-45
2-i6
1-24
3-91
8-52
1-31
~'°7
in.
6-45
7-i6
3-41
4-47
-80
-89
3-12
2-71
219
4-05
5-05
470
in.
1-94
1-76
1-22
1-68
1-84
2'C9
2-37
77
4-05
5-28
1-32
1-10
in.
2-78
370
2-58
3-37
•87
1-80
5-25
2-27
1-72
3'57
3-03
3-S2
in.
3"39
330
1-25
2-58
3-09
2-81
2-6i
1-39
5-00
S-13
2-62
' 3-63
in.
4-i6
516
379
3'95
113
1-53
494
279
391
5-13
467
436
45'5^
1 40-00
4853
S9'i5
71-40
2665
38-10
i 27-63
\ 38'3»
45-oc
25-42
34-76
39-80
^04
REPORT 1872,
SCOTLAND.
Division XY. — West Midlaxd CottiYties (continued).
Argyll {continued).
Height of
Eain-gauge
above
Ground
Sea-level
Castle Toward.
Airds,
Appin.
Callton Mor.
Inverary
Castle.
Lismore.
Hynish.
4 ft. in.
65 ft.
ft. 3 in.
15 ft.
4 ft. in.
05 ft.
ft. 1 in.
30 ft.
3 ft. 4 in.
37 ii.?
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
January
February . . .
March
April
in.
3-99
5'53
1-33
2-48
3-98
2-32
2-68
2-03
3-80
6-21
2-52
4-19
- in.
3*39
6-5,
4-04
5-43
2-44
2-65
3*94
4'oo
i-6i
4-69
3-72
5-68
in.
3-20
11-50
I -40
4-40
5'3o
2-80
5-10
2-20
5-90
6-60
1-90
3-00
in.
3-60
5 '4°
5 '4°
2-70
I -20
1-90
5-00
4-00
rSo
5-00
57°
9-00
in.
4-01
6-30
1-32
2-39
4'59
3-09
671
1*40
4-70
9-19
2-61
395
in.
4-45
6-45
4-23
3-69
2-17
2-70
5-81
3-29
1-97
4-85
5-i6
7-51
in.
3-00
3-50
•50
3-00
7-00
2-50
2-00
2-00
5-00
9-00
2-50
2-00
in.
3-00
2-O0
1-50
•50
I-OO
2-00
5-00
6-0O
I -00
1-50
6-00
12-00
in.
169
2-47
•64
2-41
3-34
2-36
3-13
'•39
4-36
6-48
1-64
176
in.
4-24
4-38
S-io
1-84
■93
1-64
3-64
1-48
1-38
2-35
3'94
486
in.
7-61
4'oi
2-85
4-45
6'27
2-78
4-16
76
8-07
8-17
463
577
in.
8-04
6-53,
7-S7
374
1-65
2-23
4-5S
1-25
374 ,
5-90
8-12
375
May
June
July
August
September . . .
October
November . . .
December ...
Totals
4fo6
48'io
53-30
50-70
50-26
5228
42-00
41-50
31-67
3578
59'53
57-3?
Division XVI. — East Midland Cottnties (eontumed).
Perth {continued).
Height of
Rain-gauge
above
Ground
Sea-level
Loch Katrine.
Aucliterarder
House.
Stronvar, Loch
Earn Head.
Trinity Gaslc.
Scone Palace.
■■
Strath-tay,
Logierait.
ft. 6 in.
830 ft.
2 ft. 3 in.
162 ft.
ft. 4 in.
460 ft.
ft. 1 in.
133 ft.
2 ft. 6 in.
86 ft.
1 ft. in.
313 ft.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
January
February . . .
March
April
May . .
in.
5-00
9-80
1-30
3-60
7-30
1-80
2-90
1-20
660
11-30
2-90
370
in.
6-10
9-40
6-20
4-80
1-80
2-60
6-00
6-40
2-40
8-70
6-40
9-20
in.
2-15
3-70
-70
-70
2-20
-90
1-30
1-30
2-10
4-30
70
4-00
in.
2-75
3-20
2-30
5-20
-85
1-25
3-50
2-80
1-40
3-75
2-00
2-85
in.
5-03
14-10
2-43
3-10
6-]o
2-55
2-6o
-70
7-32
10-25
3-25
3-90
in.
8-05
7-82
7-90
4-70
2-10
2-gi
8-05
5-75
2-28
7-95
5-75
12-30
in.
278
3-16
■30
•28
2-CO
I-OO
1-65
1-40
3-00
3-76
-90
4-36
in.
2-26
3-68
2-30
5-30
-60
1-85
4-30
3-30
2-10
4-10
2-20
2-70
in.
2-05
a-8o
-56
-24
1-45
-96
I-20
1-04
2-12
3-30
1-42
4-25
in.
2-31
3-95
1-50
4-28
-83
2-22
4-10
2-07
1-85
3-56
2-1 6
•84
in.
2-40
5-68
-49
•79
1-90
•75
•86
2-12
3-54
4-C8
1-82
2-70
in.
1-67
4-c8
2-03
a-55
•69
2-18
4'o6l
3-28I
riql
3-25 1
116 1
3-12 ;|
June
July
August
September . . .
October
November ...
December ...
Totals
57-40
70-00
24-05
31-85
61-33
75-57
24-59
34-69
21-39
29-67
^7-13
29-26 j
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES,
SCOTLAND.
205
J)iv. XV.—
1
(^continued).
Division XVI.
— East Midland Counties
1 Argyll (continued).
Clackmannan.
1
Kinross.
Fife.
Perth.
f Gorran,
' Loch Eil.
Ardnamur-
chan.
Dollar.
Loch Leven
Sluice.
I
1
Nookton.
Kippe
nross.
Deanston.
Oft. 4 in.
3 ft. 6 in.
Oft.
G in.
ft. 10 in.
ft. 6 in.
Oft.
4 in.
Oft.
4 in.
14 ft. •?
82 ft.
174 ft.
! SO ft.
100 ft.
130 ft.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
4-65
665
2-37
3-64
3-60
2-94
2-20
2-30
2-21
1-31
4-30
2-50
394
2-93
4-30
9-40
1-49
2-71
3-80
6-23
I -00
4-40
2-00
3-89
260
4-10
4-23
5-70
275
795
•97
2-74
•27
373
•50
1-80
■77
1-06
•10
^'45
•<;i
3-48
6'io
i«5
1-82
1-17
i-3b
6-43
•50
5-30
-50
5'i7
•20
4-20
1-21
4-40
S'4i
1-6.5
2-C9
1-30
3-53
1-04
1-70
-80
1-72
-90
2-20
•45
2-96
i-io
5-<'S
1-05
1-91
-81
1-98
2-32
1-80
2-30
1 i'9i
2-32
I -GO
2-30
1-71
1-87
5-80
595
3-20
3-30
1-88
3-93
•80
4-40
1 '97
3-90
1-80
4-20
2-05
5-35
2-50
770
1-84
2-93
1-42
2-64
•70
2-40
i '95
2-32
1 '5°
3-10
•95
4-11
8S5
2-25
4'95
2-32
4-1 1
2-74
260
2-20
2-47
1-44
; 2-20
1-60
3-15
1-90
8-40
5-00
S'lo
5-19
4-24
2-94
4-20
4-20
3-24
3-24
4-50
2-30
5-31
3-54
170
3-«.5
2-94
4-28
2-35
3-56
1-50
2-70
1-55
3'43
1-20
2-20
1-33
3-13
4-20
11-95
2-30
7-22
3-07
3'49
3-90
1-30
3 '4°
1-98
3-10
3-10
2-87
4-30
603 1
65-25
30-98
37-61
31-61
41-99
21-40
34-10
21-69
30-94
23-70
32-40
30-22
41 81
Division .
XVI.— East
Midland
Division XVII.-
— Noeth-Easteen Counties.
Counties (conunue(().
Forfar.
KlNCARDINE.
Aberseeit.
Dundee.
Necropolis.
Arbroath.
Montrose
Asylum.
The Burn,
Brechin.
Braemar.
Aberdeen.
Leocliel,
Cushnie.
n ft. 5 in.
2 ft. in.
ft. 4 in.
1ft.
Oin.
ft. 4 in.
3 ft. in.
167 ft.
60 ft.
200 ft.
235 ft.
1114 ft.
95 ft.
882 ft.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
in.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
ill. 1 in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
170
-90
1-60
i-io
1-50 1-00
2-20
1-80
-80
-6i
1-38
1-30
1-36
1-01
: ■ 1
4-20
2-36
3-00
2-40
4-35
4-00
4-70
4-40
3-62
2-52
3-42
4-°3
3-03
, So
•75
-68
-69
■47
-5b
-70
-70
•37
2-73
-83
•38
'■43
-70
•30
610
•39
5-51
•65
5-11
-60
4-40
2-03
2-65
1-50
4-16
i-o8
4-09
1-15
•«?
1-20
-72
1-47
2-12
2-40
-70
2-66
I -06
1-36
•63
2-38
•91
1 »-ss
1-80
1-83
1-42
2-98
162
-90
i-8o
t 1-28
1-90
•«3
i-o6
1-30
2-50
t f'^S
3-C0
I-II
3-21
4' 34
4-34
1-70
5-20
'"97
374
3-03
2-85
2-72
4-42
1-40
175
1-70
1-48
-72
2-3b
-30
2-50
479
2-49
-80
2-21
i-8i
2-63
1 «-65
1-95
2-14
249
2-54
3-10
3-10
2-00
3-6S
3-72
1-91
1-76
3-05
3-30
3'5
3-50
3-59
278
4-92
3-5^
4-20
5-40
' 4-00
4-5'
2-55
3-57
3-76
4-08
I -85
2-6o
2-i8
2-90
328
4-'7
3-90
2-6o
2-45
1-70
2-39
2-42
3 '44
175
4-25
1-25
3-62
1-39
574
I 49
47°
1-40
1-95
1-62
490
1-42
5-95
•95
22-15
28-65
22-40
2669
3101
3374
28-70
33-20
; 30-38
30-35
24-00
25-18
32-31
29-37
206
REPORT — 1872.
SCOTLAND.
Di^^[sion XVII. — Noeth-Eastern
Counties (continued).
Division XVIII. — North-Western Coitnties.
1
Aberdeen {coniimied).
Banff.
Eo.ss AND Cromarty. 1
Ileight of
Bain-gauge
above
Ground
Sea-level
Tillydesk,
Eilon.
Gordon
Ca,stle.
Inverinate
House,
Loch Alsh.
Lochbroom.
Cromarty.
Ardross
Castle,
Alness.
ft. 4 in.
34'J ft.
1 ft. C^ in.
70 ft.
3 ft. in.
150 ft.
ft. 8 in.
48 ft.
3 ft. 4 in.
28 ft.
1 ft. in.
450 ft.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870. 1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
January
February . . .
March
April
in.
1-63
3'02
1-73
2'01
173
76
1-25
■94
2-22
3-15
4-19
6-S6
in.
1-53
4 '44
■59
4-30
•73
1-25
2-98
2-i8
2-22
4'12
2-6o
1-90
in.
-86
2-28
•98
i'34
1-19
I-S7
1-22
2-19
2-53
2-22
312
406
in.
■66
i'54
■44
3-07
•78
i-8o
5-42
3-50
5-61
175
3-3°
•96
in.
269
i'95
'■57
7-78
4-52
475
357
1-27
3-80
5-80
2-30
3-95
in.
4-25
6-53
6-80
1-28
2-00
2-00
9-42
4-29
1-72
985
2-65
8-. 5
in.
4-42
1-16
i-io
6-44
.•58
2-36
3-62
2-21
4-68
5-20
4-I7
4-88
in.
4' 1. 1
4-67
3-95
1-41
i-ii
-72
3-55
3 '44
1-76
5-04
2-69
5 '04
in.
1-52
-86
■47
1-12
i-oo
1-37
1-40
■51
1-86
1-74
1-92
2-51
ill.
-70
178
•54
77
•12
2-02
599
2-IO
395
73
,•63
■54
in.
2-87
2-o6
-70
2-34
1-96
-84
1-99
2-12
3'37
3-6,
4-12
4-82
in.
2-51
3-00
1-71
4'°9|
-42:
2-00
47^
1-95
4-45,
378
2-80
2-37
IViay
July
August
Sejitpmber . . .
October
November ...
December ...
Totals
29-49
28-84
23-56
28-83
43-95
58-94
41-82 37-49
16-28
20-87
30-80
33-80
Division XVIII. (continued).
Division XIX. — Northern Counties.
~
Inverness (continued).
Sutherland,
Caitiines.s.
Ileight of
Rain-gauge
above
Ground
Sea-level
Grantown.
Laggan.
Dunrobin.
House of
Tongue.
Cape Wrath.
Nosshead.
1 ft. 1 in.
712 ft.
ft. 9 in.
821 ft.
ft. 3 in.
6 ft.
1 ft. in.
33 ft.
3 ft. 6 in.
355 ft. ?
3 ft. 4 in.
127 ft.
1870.
1871.
1870. 1 1871.
1870.
1871.
1870. 1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
January
February . . .
March
April
May
in.
1-57
i'54
i-ii
1-44
1-52
189
2-06
2-81
2-84
2-71
5-72
3-05
in.
,•56
1-88
i'47
1-83
1-59
1-69
4-86
2-65
4-31
1-15
3-01
1-27
in.
2-41
3-13
2-26
4-48
2-61
'■34
2-02
1-82
5-12
539
294
4'i7
in.
1-94
3-58
3-91
2-CO
78
1-37
3-38
3-25
161
2-15
1-99
6-34
in.
2-41
2-13
•58
1-32
-90
-85
•50
-92
1-95
2-88
312
9-20
in.
1-63
3-25
1-30
3-63
-42
•80
3-50
1-50
2-77
2-55
2-50
-90
in.
3-00
2-8o
I 90
2-50
1-40
1-20
2-OD
•90
8-10
3-50
3-80
4-00
in.
(1-90)
2-00
1-80
1-70
-60
-20
3-40
2-10
260
1-60
2-50
2-50
in.
,-83
I -2 1
1-46
3-43
1-98
1-69
2-41
i"34
4-68
2-59
3-76
2-88
in.
2-85
3-35
1-84
1-91
•84
•58
5-"5
3 20
3-16
5-06
1-38
3-80
in.
1-73
1-14
1-03
1-64
1-66
•83
I-II
•40
2-48
2-30
2-72
5-02
in.
-60
1-04
•53
2-01
1-33
-67
2-12
3-19
1-74
1-58
2-65
'•45
Jiuie
Jul
August
September ...
October
November ...
December ...
Totals
28-26 : 27-27
37-69
32-30
26-76
24-75
35-10
(22-90)
29-26
33-12
22-06
18-91
I
ON THE RAINFALL Or THE URITISH ISLKS.
SCOTLAND.
207
Division XVIII. — iS'oRTH-'WESTBEif CoTTNTiES (continued).
IiN'VEUNESS.
Oronsay.
Eaasay.
Barraliead.
Usbenish,
South Uist.
Culloden
House.
Island Glass,
Harris.
Corrimony
Glen,
TJrquliart.
Oft.
fi in.
1ft. 4 in.
3 ft. in.
ft. 4 in.
3 ft. Oin.
3 ft. 4 in.
ft. 6 in.
15 ft.
80 ft,
640 ft.
157 ft.
82 ft.
50 ft.
537 ft.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
I'JO
682
4'45
8-85
1-31
4-03
3-02
3-69
1-56
i'74
2-68
3-34
3-20
3-S0
i-6o
4-91
570
7-55
1-72
I 90
3-03 : 2-29
-78
•99
1-57
360
2-70
3-20
a-20
5 55
i-So
7-35
I -00
2-14
199
3-30
•28
1-72
2- 1 I
5-27
1-50
5-70
5-10
175
675
2'00
1-90
2-09
b-53
1-85
•93
1-96
3-80
2-47
3-50
1-80
4-00
2-34
575
2-15
2-00
•90
3-00
1-14
•74
■45
2-16
I'lO
-80
•40
3-80
III
3-10
I'20
1-94
•68
2-82
-95
1-69
•92
1-47
•b5
•70
1-90
2-17
5'93
2-65
8-20
2-30
3-29
2-30
4-2.7
1-33
4-02
3-47
6-34
1-50
3'3°
•72
2^96
2-IO 4-45
i-6o
2-98
1-81
3-64
•97
1-82
1-64
3-58
1-90
2-20
5-76
1-51
6-O0
1-75
4-49
2-65
5-47
2-39
2-IO
2-90
4-95
2-84
3-50
1-80
47°
8-44
6-95
8-8o
3-96
3-54
4-65
5-19
2-32
i-oi
3-83
5-21
2-40
3-00
1-30
2-90
4'io
800
200
3-12
3-84
3-28
2-23
2-35
3-46
3-^5
1-80
i-io
2-10
5-26
6-05
9-80
1-40
3-57
4-32
5-87
2-98
-88
2-37
4-92
3-10 6-60
34-95
49-48
55-40
70-10
25-62
30-89
42-78
37-86
17-91
20-76
33-51
42-57
26-60
34-80
Division XIX. — Northern Counties (continued).
Caithness (contimted).
Orknet.
Shetlaxd.
Holburnhead.
Pentland
Skerrie.s,
Balfoiir Castle.
Sandwick,
Manse.
Sumburghead.
Bressay.
East Yell.
Oft. 4 in.
3 ft. 3 in.
ft. 6 in.
2 ft. in.
3 ft. 4 in.
ft. 4 in.
Ift.
Oin. 1
CO ft.
72 ft.
50 ft.
78 ft.
265 ft.
GO ft.
178 ft. 1
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
•
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
1-50
2-10
1-65
1-65
2-30
3-30
2-31
1-65
1-62
2-66
2-17
2-41
3-15
590
■45
2-6o
I'OO
2-57
2-10
3-30
2'92
4-40
2-98
3-39
2-07
S-93
3-83
8-00
-50
i-8o
-b5
I -2 I
1-00
1-50
1-25
2-30
i-oi
2-45
1-52
1-26
2-17
3-57
2-50
I 60
1-86
1-25
3-C0
1-30
2-77
1-74
1-14
2-35
2-71
2-57
3-37
2-97
i-6o
i-io
1-52
•87
1-70
•60
i-b7
I-I2
1-27
•86
1-51
•70
1-41
2-09
-80
•20
•69
•47
1-00
•30
1-70
•33
75
2-03
1-13
1-12
1-83
1-98
1-20
3-90
•56
2-i8
•40
2-30
1-33
2-85
•93
-52
-3fe
1-66
1-17
2-34
1-30
2-90
-73
2-73
•70
3-30
I'l I
2-93
-9b
3-04
1-30
4-25
1-88
i-23
3"35
1-70
2-86
2-59
3-80
2-70
3-30
2-85
1 1-14
2-23
1-5.1
4-04
1-75
2-,6
1-90
1-50
1-97
1-57
2-50
2-30
317
3-9b
! 2-96
i-i6
3-16
4-33
2-43
6-47
3-03
2-CO
2-c8 2-71
3-80' 1-90
3-^7
4-04
3-43
1-25
3-58
2-40
4-49
5-83
4-04] 1-90
407 1-56
7-30 3-60
5-5^
3-9S
300
21-19
1-75
3-46
3-17
4-94
6-94
21-97
23-30
19-64
21-36
29-60
26-40
30-72
32-17
23-69
24-48
33-84
32-42
50-88
208
REPORT 1872.
IKELAND.
Division XX, — Mttnstee.
Div.XXI.-
Leinsxer.
Cork.
Kerry.
Watekford,
Clare.
Carlow.
Height of
Eaiii-gauge
above
Ground
Sea-level
Cork,
Queen's
College.
Fermoy.
Kenmare,
Killarney.
Waterford.
Killaloe.
Fenagh
House,
Bagnalstown.
G ft. in.
65 ft.
4 ft. in.
114 ft.
4 ft. in.
: 100 ft.
4 ft. in.
60 ft.
5 ft. in.
123 ft.
1 ft. 5 in.
340 it.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
January
February ...
March
April
in.
4-76
4'39
2-24
I-I4
2-38
-64
l-oi
1-60
3 "44
6-70
3-33
3-98
in.
4-92
4'47
264
4-48
•65
4-22
4-67
2-05
459
3-43
5-06
4-20
in.
3-50
3-07
2-55
•91
2-i6
1-16
2-75
6-18
2-23
2-89
in.
4-32
4-55
2-28
3'i9
-66
3-10
3-80
1-53
2-87
3-82
1-92
3-52
in.
3-37
4-67
496
5-63
495
-26
•28
5-51
12-68
16-51
8-66
1-53
in.
7-50
6-78
378'
2-48
-06
570;
7-53
5'H
3-98
7-05
4'43
8-29
in.
475
3-26
2-99
-82
3'5°
1-29
■47
2-17
2-36
574
378
2-42
in.
4-81
3-93
2-1 8
4-51
71
374
5-02
3-57
2-6o
5'3i
4'39
3-90
in.
575
3-02
2-74
2-07
3'93
•71
1-30
2-49
3-66
99'
2-2C
3 'CO
in.
4-96
3-70
2-52
4-92
•99
275
5'99
2S1
2-02
4-5°
2'00
3-54
in.
4-12
2-83
2-34
i-oi
1 96
i'o6
1-53
2-88
2-63
3-86
2-34
2-51
in.
3-48
3-31
2-C4
3'57
•24
2-25
4'45
2-72
3-00
385
2-37
2-6o
May
June
July
August
September . . .
October
November ...
December ...
Totals
35-61
45-38
29-09
35-56
69-01
62-72
33'55
44-67
40-78
40-70
29-07
33-88 j
Division XXII. — Connattght (continued).
Division XXIII. — Ulster.
KOSCOMMON.
Sligo.
Cavax.
En.niskillen.
Antklm.
Height of
Rain-gauge
above
Ground
Sea-level
Holywell.
Doo Castle.
Mount
Shannon,
Sligo.
Red Hills,
Belturbet.
Florence
Court.
Aghalee,
Liirgan.
5 ft. 6 in.
1 ft. in.
4 ft. 5 in.
70 ft.
ft. 9 in.
208 ft.
11 ft. Oin.
300 ft.
1 ft. in.
105 ft.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
January
February ...
March
April
in.
3-^8
2-74
1-58
1-46
1-68
1-81
2-12
2-48
3-32
592
1-93
2-90
in.
2-98
3-62
2-15
3*22
1-34
4-27
5-49
2-48
1-95
2-21
1-92
1-99
in.
3-31
4-12
2-23
1-72
3-30
1-53
1-66
•86
3-59
9-92
2-56
3-41
in.
4-57
3-86
3-06
4-18
1-42
3-65
5 64
2-41
2-21
3-67
2-57
3-60
in.
3-32
2'26
3-30
1-75
2-86
2-22
1-86
3-05
4-07
10-12
3-25
4-«5
in.
4-II
3'34
3-21
3-51
1-06
2-71
6'53
2-66
«-55
321
3-26
3-35
in.
4-19
2-51
1-54
1-16
2-91
1-22
,-65
1-24
3-35
7-60
1-86
3-22
in.
4-33
3-36
2-83
3-3"
-92
2-09
7-82
2-46
2-03
2-59 (
1-78
2-52
in,
4-86
5-38
I -.14
2-01
3-62
1-13
-27
1-38
3-74
12-I5
2-64
4-35
in.
4-49
4-75
3-93
4-56
I-I7
1-91
8-22
3-37
2-19
3'57
4-24
3-89
in.
2-95
1-91
1-46
I-20
2-i8
1-06
2-25
1-45
229
7-57
1-57
2-97
in.
3-33
2-84
1-35
2-86
-55'
2-02
5-°9|
2-4I
2-02I
2-I5I
May
June .
July
August
September . . .
October
November ...
December ...
Totals
31-22
33-62
38-21
40-84
42-21
38-50
32-45
3604
42-97
46-29
28-86
3o-i8|
OA
r THE
RAINFALL OF Tilt:
BRITISH ISLES.
209
IRELAND.
Division XXTT. —
Division XXI. — Leinstee {continued).
CONNAUGHT.
( '\RLOW
Queen's Co.
King's Co.
WiCKLOW.
Dublin.
Galway.
•I'l'wnes Hill,
Carlow.
Portarlington.
Tullamore.
ra.ssaroe,
Bray.
1
Black Eock.
Gregg
Park.
Galway,
Queen's
College.
1ft.
Oin.
1 ft. 2 in.
3 ft. in.
5 ft. in.
29 ft. in.
3 ft.
Oin.
8 ft. 2 in.
291 ft.
240 ft.
235 ft.
250 ft.
90 ft.
130 ft.
30 ft.
870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
n.
in.
in.
in.
in.
:1
m. 1' ni.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
3'i4
3-59
2-83
3'43
281
3 '43
4'20
3-79
2-59
3-i6
3-82
3-60
4-1 1
6-44
2*42
278
'75
2"00
1-82
2-14
3-36
3-98
2-68
2-63
2-97
a-8i
2-72
4-78
2-4 I
175
2-28
1-46
2-67
175
3'i5
1-72
2-12
-68
1-22
3-02
1-45
2-21
i-oS
461
■93
3-17
•98
4-00
•65
3-47
-65
2-86
1-81
4-98
2-6l
3-44
275
■41
2-15
•63
2M2
•45
2-27
■32
1-20
-16
3-79
-86
4-36
1-28
I-o6
2-37
■86
2-33
-69
2-71
•48
3-08
70
2-54
■98
3-97
1-45
3-50
•74
S-20
1-17
S-b2
1-07
629
-46
4-1 1
•68
5-94
1-33
4-95
3-43
6-20
1-99
2-62
i-6i
197
1-49
1-70
2-20
1-24
1-96
i-io
1-99
2-14
3-29
3-S4
2-05
2-19
2-95
i-6o
2-66
1-19
2-64
4-46
1-32
4-10
3-02
1-39
3-51
2-lS
5'6o
313
6-54
2-83
5-54
2-29
8-64
3-48
664
284
6-09
3-48
9-69
220
22 1
1-82
l'04
i-bs
•6,S
1-44
2-19
r8i
1-54
111
-89
1-46
4-57
1-38
2ln
2-b3
1-93
1-82
2-36
1-70
2-90
1-79
2-94
-99
2-10
4-18
3-65
2-44
S-24
33-IO
26-04
28-51
24-86
29*09
33-14
33-25
25-02
28-11
30-01
36-84
44-84
39-69
Division XXIII. — TJlstei
I (continued).
A>
fTRiM {continiict
0-
Londonderry.
Tyrone.
Donegal.
Belfast,
Ant
rim.
Queen's
College.
Carrickfergus.
Londonderry.
Omagh.
Letter!
kenny.
Dungloe.
1 It.
Oin.
7 ft. 4 in.
1 ft. in.
ft. 6 in.
1 ft. in.
1 ft.
Sin.
ft. G in.
i:.o
ft.
68 ft.
18 ft.
80 ft.
280 ft.
108
ft.
10 ft.
-iTii.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
1870.
1871.
11.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
i
in. I
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
i-;.2
318
2-44
4-38
3-37
3-41
3-00
4'44i
2-87
411
3-93
5-70
2-73
4-37
1 74
2-64
2-6,
3-24
2-81
3-67
2-55
2 -jO 1
2-6i
2-42
4-11
3-50
3-3°
2-70
9'
1-63
I '40
178
I-2I
2-01
1-05
3-05!
•89
2'OA
1-77
4-48
1-68
4-37
•!!6
3-90
i'35
3-22
1-83
4-12
2-20
4-12 1
1-76
3-75
3-26
4-42
2-35
3-22
.-,8
1-03
2-64
-58
2-5S
•87
2-04
-16 1
284
-67
3-16
1-29
2-IO
1-23
1-69
'■94j
1-2 1
1-97
I-20
1-58
1-70
2-40 '
i"55
2-33
270
3-82
2-02
2-84
i6o
6-29 1
r6i
3-86
2-27
5'oo
>-95
6-20
2-o6
5-79
1-82
9-43
2-14
S-77
z-S/
rySi
2C9
2-83
•57
3-97
2-40
2-8o;
2-15
219
233
3-50
2-78
2-29
1-36
3-'4!
1-43
3-39
2-23
2'54
4-53
378
3-15
1-67
590
2-78 4-70
3-63
7-60
2-57;
990
3-08
8-31
2-44
9-80
1-63:
7-70
2-49
11-05
4-74! 8-50
4-12
•7.5
2-52:
1-03
174
j-36
299
2-50
3-4°'!
2-15
1-47
4-49
4-50 4-02
3-58
l-S'o
2'II ^
2-39
1-84
2-96
2-45
3-55
270 i
2-33
2-5 =
4-90
4-47 2-86
5-53
43-65
h
3273
30-14
31-91
30-70
35-05
37-27
37-18
32-06
31-43
49-42
1
52-63! 39-18
[S72
210 heport— 1872.
Jleport of the Committee, consisting of the Rev. Dr. Ginseurg^ W.
Hepworth Dixon, Rev. Dr. Tristram, F.R.S., General Chesney,
Rev. Professor Rawlinsox, and John A. Tinnk, appointed for
the purpose of undertaking a Geographical 'Exploration of the
Country of Moab.
Report on tlie Exploration of Southern Moab.
By Cheistian D. Ginsbtteg, LL.D.
The expedition left London on Wednesday, Jauuaiy 10th, 1872, and
arrived at Jaifa on Monday, January 22nd, about eleven o'clock in the
morning. The party consisted of Dr. Ginsburg, Dr. Tristram, and Mr.
Johnson. Mr. Klein, the original discoverer of the Moabito Stone, arranged
to join them at Jerusalem. The object of the expedition was to get to Moab
as soon as possible ; it was determined not to tarry in the Holy Land, how-
ever much some of us felt tempted to explore the country. We therefore
proceeded, at 3..30 p.m. on the same day, to Ramlch, taking Lydda on our
Tvay to Jerusalem. Early in the morning of the following day (January
23rd) we started for Jerusalem over Beth-Horon, and reached the sacred city
in the dark.
After waiting six days at Jerusalem for an escort, and making the neces-
sary preparations, we left for Hebron January 30th, at 10 a.m., where we
arrived about six o'clock in the evening of the same day. Here we engaged
Abou Dachouk, the 8heikh of the Jehalin tribe, to conduct us safely to
Kerak. He entrusted his old uncle, Abou Salama, to head the escort ; and
we left Hebron at 1.30 p.m. on Thursday, February 1st. As it had been
determined to enter Moab by the south, we now made our way to Engedi,
and arrived at Um Ghazelat at 5.30 p.m.
Though this place is halfway between Hebron and Engedi almost in a
straight line, and though the old Abou Salama, our guide (who, like his an-
cestors, was born and brought up in this neighbourhood), has acted as a guide
to former explorers, yet he does not seem to have mentioned Um Ghazelat
to those few travellers who have come this way before to explore the basin
of the Dead Sea, nor can it be found in the most recent maps of Syria.
We pitched our tents for the night at this supposed new place, near the
encampment of the llaabneh tribe. At 10.5 a.m. on Friday (February 2nd)
we left for Engedi, where we arrived at 4.30 p.m. Here we encamped near
the beach of the Dead Sea, and opposite the Moab shore and mountains, to
which we were maldng our way. We left Engedi in the afternoon of
the following day, which was Saturday, and determined to pitch our tents
for Sunday at Sebbch.
Between Engedi and Sebbeh we passed on the shore of the Dead Sea the
following four Wadys : — Wadj- Ghar, which is close to Engedi, and which we
crossed at 12.37 p.m. ; this Wady, which our old Sheikh solemnly assured
us was Ghar, is marked both in Van de Yelde's and in Lynch's maps as
Areyeh. The next is Wady Chobrah, which, according to Mr. Klein's most
painstaking cross-questioning, we found to be the proper spelling, and not
Khuberah, as it is spelled in Yan de Velde's map ; this AVady, which we
reached at 2 p.m., is an hour and twenty-three minutes from the former one.
The third Wady, which is an hour's distance from the second, and which is
marked in Van de Velde as Wady Halil, we were jjositively assured is Wady
Mochrath ; whilst the fourth Wady, which is about forty mimites' distance
from the third, and which has no name at all in Van de Velde, we were tol^
GEOGRAPHICAL £XPL011ATI0\ OF MOAB. 211
is Ncmriyeh. The distance between this Wady and Wady Seyal, where wo
camped, we did in a little less than an hour.
Having spent Sunday, February 4th, at Sebbeh, and explored the ruins of
the famous fort, we started on Monday, at 7.45 a.m., for the AYady Zuweirah,
where we arrived at 3.30 p.m., and encamped for the night. In the seven
hours and three quarters which it took us to get from Wady Seyal to the
AVady Zuweirah, we passed no less than ten Wadys, respectively called
(1) Wady Sebbeh, (2) Wady el Kattar, (3) Wady Havhav, (4) AVady Senin,
(5) Eabbat el Jumuz, (6) Wady el Kitter, (7) AYady Mersed, (8) AVady
Chasrurah, (9) AYady um Berrek, and (10) AYady JSTejd.
Of these ten AVadys, which are almost equidistant, only sis are laid down
in A^an de Velde's map ; and even of these six the names of three only cor-
respond, the names of two out of the three being reversed (viz. Nos. 4 and
5 in this Report), whilst the names of the other three (viz. Um el Bedun,
AYady Hatrura, and Um Baghek) arc not to be found. It may be here
remarked that AYady Ncmriyeh, which, according to our guide, is on the
south of Sebbeh, is in Yan de Yelde's map on the north, that the cliffs come
up quite close to the sea between AA''adys 8 and 9, leaving no beach whatever,
and that we had here to make our way over the rocks. This fact is not
pointed out in A'an de A^elde's map.
Being determined to cross the dangerous Valley of Salt early in the day,
we left the Zuweirah at 6 a.m. on Tuesday, February Gth. Before leaving
this remarkable spot we were determined to explore it, as well as the range
of salt mountains which is known by the name of Khafhm or Jebel Usdum.
It will be remembered that this is the spot marked in De Saulcy's map, as
well as in the map of Palestine used in our British schools, as the site of
Sodom ; indeed De Saulcy declares that he saw here " the ruins of a build-
ing which was anciently a part of Sodom." Anxious as some of our party
were to see the relics of the doomed city, a careful inspection of the heap of
stones referred to left no doubt upon the mind that they are the remains of
a mediaeval square tower, which was erected here to protect the labourers in
the salt mountains who carried on traffic with Hebron and other towns.
Between the Zuweirah and our entering the VaUey of Salt we passed the
marvellously torn and rent salt mountain, as well as three Wadys. Our
Sheikh, Abou Salama (the brother of the very man who was De Saulcy's
guide, and who gave him such minute information about the ruins of Sodom),
could not even tell us the name of any of the AA^adys. One of these had
actually bored a tunnel through the salt mountain, and thus made a remark-
able hole through the cave in Jebel Usdum. The beach now was nothing
less than a soft slimy mud. The distance between the AYady Zuweirah and
the extreme point of the Es Sabkah, where we began crossing it, is an hour
and a half. At 7.30 we entered upon the margin of the barren flats of back-
water. After marching for about three hours knee-deep in slush, and cross-
ing seven drains, some of which were dry and some still draining, we arrived
in the front of the Saphia at 10.3 a.m.
Here our troubles began. Seeing our cavalcade crossing the Salt valley,
the Moabites must have thought that we were fair game for plunder, or that
we were come to invade their homesteads. On approaching the Saphia, we
found three tribes arrayed against us in front of the wood, beyond a narrow
intervening stream. The grotesque mob, as we nearcd them, uttered shrieks,
yells, and war cries, firing off their few guns, and refusing to let us enter
their territory. Abou Salama, our old Sheikh, and Daud, our dragoman,
with a few of our Bedouins, bravely jumped over the stream. The horses of
q2
212 REPORT— 1872.
the old Sheikh and the young dragoman fell into the water, and the riders
■were soon seen rolling on the ground and struggling with their enemies.
One of our Bedouins was Ij'ing prostrate on the ground, and bleeding pro-
fusely. After a few minutes the Sheikh and the dragoman were again on
their legs and parleying with their assailants, assuring them with solemn
oaths that we had not come to invade the country. "VVe were at last allowed
to cross, and were led by these bands of robbers into the Saphia, where a
place of encampment was assigned to us about three miles towards the north.
After pitching our tents Ave clearly saw that our safety consisted in keep-
ing together, and not straying singly into tlio wood, since these robbers were
lurldng behind the trees and bushes for prey. The three tribes who occupied
the Saphia, and who now considered us fair game, are the Bene Attia, the
Maaz, and the Warroney. We were, in fact, virtually prisoners, inasmuch
as we did not venture to go beyond our tents ; and we therefore deemed it
more prudent to remain within our encampment the rest of the da}% which
was Tuesday, February 6th. In the mean time the robbers secretly des-
patched messengers to the Mugelly of Kerak to inform him that a batch of
European magnates were in the Saphia, and that they too should come and
have their share out of us. The son of the Mugelly Sheikh of Kerak, as it
might be supposed, immediately came over and declai'cd tliat we were in the
hands of cut-throats and robbers, and that he came to save us from them.
From the respect and deference which the Saphia tribes paid him we believed
his declarations, and indeed began to feel ourselves more secure and at
liberty.
We now determined to explore the Saphia and the extensive ruins in the
neighbourhood. To do this we had to negotiate with the Sapbia robbers,
not only for permission but for escort. Their demands were exorbitant. As
we decided to see what could be seen here Ave made the best bargain Ave
could; and about 11 a.m., February 7th, we started on our explorations, ac-
companied by eight of the Saphia princes on horseback. Our direction Avas
south-Avest of the Saphia, and we rode through a forest of acacia, thickets of
tamarisk, and dwarf palms, till we came to very extensive ruins. These
ruins, according to our guides, are divided into three parts ; one is called
Sheikh Isa (Jesus), the other Kasur el Bashaira, and the third the Mashnaka
(hanging-place). In the second of these ruins A^■e saw corpses of women
lying about.
After carefully inspecting the ruins, which cover between one and two
miles of the ground, it may be inferred that though the bulk of those which
still rise to a considerable height above the ground are decidedly remains of
mediaeval sugar-mills and other buildings of that period, the foundations, and
indeed the larger portion of the hcAvn stones strewn aboiit, are as decidedly
partly rehcs of buildings of the lloman period and partly the remains of edi-
fices of a much older date than the lloman occupation of this district. They
most probably exhibit the Moabite fortified frontier, both against the Jews
on the west of the Dead Sea and against the Edomites on the east and south-.
east.
The fact that this is the southern frontier of Moab suggested another con-
clusion, which elucidates a geographical remarlc in the Pentateuch on the
limits of Moab that is greatly obsciu'cd, and is perfectly without meaning in
the authorized version. In Numbers xxi. 12, 13, we are told that the
Israelites removed from Zared, "and pitched on the other side of Arnon,
which is in the Avilderncss that cometh out of the coasts of the Amorites."'
This verse therefore gives the Arnon as the northern limit of Moab, thus
GEOGRAPHICAL EXPLOKATION OF MOAB. 213
assuring the Israelites that all north of the Arnon up to Ileshbon is to be
theirs. In confirmation of this statement, the sacred writer qiiotes in the
verse immediatel}' following the declaration made respecting the frontiers of
Moah from " The Book of the AVars of Jehovah/' wherein the M'hole extent
of Moab from south to north is most minutely fixed, and the two boundaries
are distinctly specifi^ed, viz. the southern boundary is Vahab in Suphah
[Saphia], and the brooks of Arnon the northern boundary.
Completely surrounded by the escort of these savages, we left our encamp-
ment at 8 A.M. As our tents were pitched almost in the centre of this oasis,
we passed through, for about two miles, a forest of acacia, tamarisk, dwarf
palms, and reeds on the shores of the Dead Sea, bearing north-north-east.
At about 8.20 we reached the ruins of Um el Hashib, and about 8.40 we
crossed the Wady Korcha.
The name of this Wady disclosed a remarkable fact, which Dr. Giusburg
believes will henceforth definitely settle a geographical point mentioned in
the famous inscription on the Moabite Stone. On this triumphal pillar King
Mesha tells us, in line 3, that he erected the monument in question at Korcha.
In lines 21, 24, 25 we are told that this king built and greatly fortified
Korcha after the expulsion of the Jews from Northern Moab ; and though
the word is treated as a proper name, and hence is without the article, yet
epigraphists of great distinction maintain that the word, according to its
form, cannot be a proper name, and therefore is the Flat-land or Market,
Now the existence of a Wady named Korcha, spelled in exactly the same
way as on the inscription, leaves, it beyond the shadow of a doubt that Korcha
on the Moabite Stone is the proper name of a town. When, in the sequel,
we come to Dibon, we may be able to show the position of this town.
Going on still due north we came (circa 9.2 a.m.) in about twenty-two
minutes from Wady Korcha to Wady Mirwacha, and in an hour and a quarter
more reached the ruins of Numeira (i. e. circa 10.15). These ruins are in
extent more than half a mile, and cover a surface of imeven ground. The
stones of ancient buildings, which are strewn about in all directions, are
mostly very large, about a foot and a half in diameter, but roughly cut.
Some foundations of buildings, as well as the remains of a quadrangular wall,
ai'c distinctly discernible. The great geographical interest of this place arises
from the fact that it figures on the maps of the few eminent travellers who
have explored this region as the site of two remarkable places mentioned in
the Bible. Thus Irby and Mangles (p. 448), as well as Lynch (p. 345),
identify it with the ancient Zoar, to which Lot and his daughters fled for
shelter at the destruction of Sodom ; whilst De Saulcy marks it as the site
of Zeboim, which Avas destroyed at the same time as Sodom. The locality,
however, as well as the name, correspond far more with the ancient Nimrim
mentioned in Isaiah xv. 6, and Jeremiah xlviii. 34, than with either of these
hypotheses.
Marching due north for about three quarters of an hour, we entered a
thicket of thorny trees and bushes, and then crossed Wady Azzal at 11.30 a.m.,
leaving a fringe of reeds near the beach of the Dead Sea to our left. We
co-ntinued our march north-east, ascending a hill and leaving the promontory
or peninsula of Lissan somewhat to our left. We now ascended the southern
portion of the ravine through which the Wady Drah flows into the Dead Sea,
and crossed the Wady at about 2 p.m. Our journey was now almost due
east, ascending all along by the side of the ravine : and at 3.30 we reached
the top of the hill Drah, about 600 feet aoovc the Dead Sea. The scene of
our encampment here was most charming. To our left was the deep ravine
214) KKroKT — 1872.
through which the Wady Kerak flows, with a perfect oasis on its slopes and
with a Bedouin encampment. To our right there was a perpendicular moun-
tain rising above us, on the summit of which are the ruins of an ancient
tower, which was evidently designed to guard the pass to Kerak. At our
back was the peninsula of El Lissan, and in front of us wore the steep moun-
tains of Moab, through the defiles and over the giddy heights of which Ave
had to wind our way to Kerak. By the lurid light of our bivouac fires this
remarkable spot looked sublimely lonely. The Mugelly with great cunning
selected this place as best serving his purpose.
We retired to rest, little dreaming what we should have to wake to. In
order to show how secure we were under his protection, and to luU us to
sleep pleasantly, the Mugelly got up a sham fight with the Saphia robbers,
charging them with mean behaviour towards us, and threatening to stab
them, for which purpose he actually drew out his dagger. As it was an aifair
between themselves, quarrelling about the money we gave them to buy them-
selves a lamb for supper, we did not interfere, but went to sleep as soon as
the deafening noise of these villains subsided, and rose early to resume our
journey to Kerak, which was only four hours and a half distant.
It was here that the true character of the young Mugelly showed itself,
and that we learned to our bitter cost why he urged us to dismiss our Jehalin
escort, and why he adroitly selected this lonely spot for our encampment.
No sooner did he perceive that we had begun to strike our tents than he
demanded £70, and declared that he would not allow us to proceed unless
the money was forthcoming. He at last consented to take 25 napoleons ; and
at about 8 a.m. we started on our journey. What might happen to us at
Kerak when lodged in the clutches of this vagabond was more than any of us
dared to think of. We tried to comfort ourselves with the fact that one of
the gang was a Christian, and that he might be of help to us when the worst
came to the worst. We proceeded on our journey not in a very good humour
for exploring. We continued ascending a ridge of wild mountains, called
Akabat Charaza, crossed the Wady Charaza, and came to the ruins called
El Kabo {i. e. the cave), about 1000 feet above the Dead Sea (circa 9 a.m.).
Here we were told a Christian Sheikh lived in olden days, who exacted tri-
bute from all travellers to or from Kerak. The hill on the right of El Kabo
is called Botheneh, whilst the hill more to the north still is called Elmanzar
(i. e. watch-tower). Ascending still higher we climbed a ferruginous hill,
called Jebel el Hadid, passed Wady Umeshanan at 9..30, Wady Ruseis, with
the spring called Ayin Iluseis, at 11.15, reached the plateau of Omsidre at
12, and descended to the bottom of Wady Kerak at 12.40. Wc now began
climbing an almost perpendicular zigzag, leading to the summit on which
the ruins of this famous fortification, with its enclosed huts, are planted.
On our way to Kerak, the Mugelly was very anxious that we should camp
outside this vulture's nest in the deep valley below, which is exceedingly
fertUe, and where there are ruins of ancient buildings and a sugar-mill. To
this we decidedly objected, as we should have been cut off from all communi-
cation with the inhabitants, and in that case the vagabond could make any
demand upon us without the possibility of our appealing to any one. He had
therefore to lead us up to Kerak. The road consists of a very steep terrace
on a charming ravine, strewn all over with stones of different shapes and
various sizes. These stones being imbedded in the precipitous ascent, form,
in fact, crooked steps. So steep is the ascent, that we had to dismount and
lead our horses. We reached the top at 1.30 p.m.
It was fortunate that wc went to examine the place immediately after our
[
GEOGRAPHICAL EXPLORATION OF MOAB 215
arrival ; for soon after we returned to our tents the son of tlie Mugelly, who
brought us from the Saphia, came aud demanded no less than 600 napoleois,
as the remainder of the money for bringing us here and for allowing us to
encamp at Kerak. We of course refused to pay any thing, aud told him that,
although he had extorted 25 napoleons from us, he had no right to act in this
hostile manner. Seeing that we were determined not to be bullied out of
any more money, he forbade us to leave our tents, and we thus became pri-
soners. In this plight we were visited by the Greek catechist, whom Mr.
Klein knew. He procured us a messenger, whom we secretly despatched to
Jerusalem with a letter to Mr. Moore, the British Consul, informing him that
we were prisoners and that 600 napoleons were demanded of us.
As it was Saturday we made up our minds to a quiet rest in our tents for
two days, which we did not grudge, as we were tired and wearied out with
annoyance from the Kerak vagabonds. In the midst of our gloom, however,
a ray of hght appeared. We heard that Zadam, son of the Sheikh of the
Bene Sachar, with whom Mr. Moore the consul had made a contract at Jeru-
salem to take us from Kerak to the north of the Arnon, had arrived here, and
was the guest of the Mugelly.
The old Sheikh, the father of the Mugelly who had plundered us on our
way from the Saphia, we had not seen as yet. We were told that he camped
three hours from Kerak, that he was a better man than his rascally offspring,
and that though " his belly, too, was as large as our tent, his mind was as
wide as the ocean." We therefore sent a messenger to our future protector
and guide Zadam, requesting him to come to our tents. At about 12 a.m.
the old Sheikh of the Mugelly, with Zadam of the Bene Sachar, and a hosj
of Moal)ite grandees came to pay us a visit. To this old Mugelly Sheikh
in conclave we recited our troubles. He at once set us at liberty, and
told us we were perfectly free to go where we liked, that his country
was our country, and no man should dare to touch us or make any demand
of us.
Our joy was now beyond bounds. We were not only set at liberty without
money and without price, but we were told we might go wherever and do
whatever we Uked. To our further satisfaction we saw the old Sheikh taking
his seat on the ground among his magnates, fifty yards from our tents, with
his son opposite him in the ring, and heard him rating the scoundrel as hard
and as loud as possible, telling him that he had brought shame and confusion
of face upon his old father in the sight of these Consuls (which is the name
they give to distinguished foreigners), aud dei landing that the 25 napoleons
taken from us should at once be restored. We even heard that the money
which had been divided between the chief robber and about a dozen minor
scoundrels was actually being collected. Being thus set at liberty, we devoted
the rest -of Saturday and the following day to the exploration of this stupen-
dous ruin and the town. The following is a summary of the results : —
The very entrance into this ext aordinary ruin of Kerak, or the " Bock of
the Desert " (Petra Descrti), as it was called in the middle ages, is remark-
able. It consists of a long and winding passage of about 100 feet through a
high ridge of the natural rock, Avhich forms a cavern gate. It is in such a
zigzag that we could not see those of our party who were fifteen yards before
lis. It is surmounted by an illegible Arabic inscription. Looking at it from
the summit of the neighbouring mountains which overtop it, Kerak exhibits
the form of a rude triangle ; whilst from the bottom of the ravine it appears
like a vulture's nest, constructed on a peak more than 4000 fcQt above tho
Dead Sea.
216 REPORT — 1873.
To understand the plan * of this fortification, it is necessary to bear in
mind tliat the hill, the summit of which contains Iverak, rises on three sides
from a deep valley, thus yielding natural buttresses, which, from their im-
mense height and perpendicular form, defy any attempt at scaling them. It
is only the north-west and south sides which are joined to the neighbouring
mountains by crests of rocks ; these, therefore, require artificial protection,
and it is for this reason that the fortification consists of two distinct parts,
viz. the tower on the north-west and the castle on the south.
The tower is a large oblong building of immense height, constructed of
very huge and neatly cut sandstone. Yiewing it from the town, it looks like
three out of four skeleton walls of an unfinished edifice, being open towards
the defile. It is furnished with galleries and staircases inside the thickness of
its walls, putting the different stories of which it consists in communication
with each other. It presents its three faces (the circumference of which
measures about 131 yards) to the defence of the exterior, and is joined by
its two extremities to the town which it was designed to defend. The stones
of which it is built have been cut from the side of the rock on which it is
erected. By this process the north-western side has not only been separated
from its adjoining mountains, but the tower has obtained a very steep but-
tress. From the Arabic inscription El Melelc — Dalier — Byhars in the central
wall, it is called " The Tower of Daher,"' or " The Tower of Bybars." It was
within this three-walled toAver that we camped, and were imprisoned in our
tents. We saw Jerusalem most distinctly from the top of this tower. The
castle or fortress on the south, which was designed to defend this side, left
by nature unprotected, is in form a long square, widening towards the north,
the north face being about 153 yards, the south 87, the cast 218, and the
west 240, thus making a cii-cumference of about 698 yards. It is separated
from the city on the north by a wide ditch, and is defended on the south by
an immense reservoir, which is flanked by an enormous ditch, more than
98 feet wide, cut in the rock. A rampart, with galleries stretching across
the length of the enclosure of the castle, divides it into two courts, viz. a
lower court towards the east, and a higher court towards the west.
In the eastern or lower court is a chapel, with nave of 82 feet long, four
windows, tw.o in each side, and ending in a semicircular arch. There is a
staircase in the thickness of the north wall, which leads to the platform on
the top of the edifice. Irby and Mangles have noticed remains of large fresco-
paintings, one apparently representing a king in armour, another the mar-
tyrdom of a saint who has his bowels twisted out, as well as an imperfect
inscription in Gothic letters (p. 364). But with the exception of the inscrip-
tion nothing is now to be seen. This court also contains the dungeon.
In the angle of the Avestern extremity of the higher court is the gate of
the castle, which leads, through a long and narrow passage, to two other
doors furnished with portcullis and complicated defences. These had to be
passed before entrance could be obtained into the enclosure. The court con-
tains numerous cisterns and immense magazines of five or six stories high,
which are now partly dilapidated. This castle was built about a.d. 1143
by Payen, Avho was cup-bearer to the King of Jerusalem, and who received
Kerak as a fief after the execution of Knight Romanus.
* Por a sketch of the plan of Kerak, as well as for an able treatise and some verbal com-
munications on the same subject, according to wliicli I have been enabled to correct and
supplement my rough notes, I tender my best thanks to M. Maiiss, the learned architect
of the Due de Luyne's expedition to the east of the Dead Sea. For the working out of the
plan which was exhibited I am indebted to my wife. — C. D. Gi.nsburq.
GEOGRAPHICAL EXPLORATION OF MOAB. 217
Between the Tower of Bybars on the north end and the castle on the south,
there arc ruins of numerous buildings as well as an immense reservoir.
The plateau on which the town is built measures in its greatest length
from north to south 852 yards, and in width from east to west 77G yards.
Taking it as a rude triangle, the north-east face of the rampart measures
about 1028 yards, the south face 8G8 yards, and the west face 732, making
a total of 2G28 yards. In other words, the plateau of the rock on which
Kcrak is built is not only more than 4000 feet above the Dead Sea, but is
surrounded by a rampart more than a mile and a half in circumference, ex-
clusive of the tower on the north and the castle on the south.
But though the fortifications are of the crusading period, some of the ruins
in the town, and of the materials used in the construction of the modern
dwellings, are decidedly relics of the lloman occupation of this place. These
houses, which are some distance from the fortifications, are, as a rule, under
the ground. They exhibit a very extraordinary appearance at a distance,
since little more than the outlines of squares are visible above the ground.
Dr. Ginsburg rode over several of them without perceiving that he M'as on
the top of human residences. On going or descending into one of them, he
found it consisted of one large room only, and had a few arches thrown across
it, on which were the rafters. In this house, which was occupied by a rela-
tive of the Sheikh of Kerak, were the bases of four ancient columns, with a
Mosaic pavement in the centre, of which the occupant made a circular hearth,
with a raised rim around it. A fire was burning on it ; and as there was no
hole in the roof to serve as a vent, the whole room was full of smoke, so much
so that he could not remain there more than a few minutes, much as he
wished to examine the place. There wore also raised recesses in the room,
serving as a bed and as receptacles for corn. Part of the room also was set
apart for the horse, and the goats too were admitted. There is not a single
dwelling-place among the hundreds of houses with a window.
The population of Kerak is about 8000, about 6000 Mussulmans and 1600
Greek Christians. The former eomit about 2000 muskets, and the latter
from about 500 to 600. After a minute inspection and examination of the
ruins of the place. Dr. Ginsburg could discover no trace whatever to justify
us in marking Kerak on our maps as the Kir Moab or the Kir Haraseth of
the Bible.
We were now determined to make the best of our time ; and having heard
that the Sheikh of the Mugelly, who appeared as our second deliverer, was
likely to disappoint us, we endeavoured to see as much as possible. We
therefore started early on the following day accompanied by two horsemen,
nephews of the Sheikh, to survey the neighbourhood of Kerak. We rode to
the south of the town over magnificent ridges, down rugged and steep ravines,
and across beautiful highland country from 8 a.m. to 5.30 p.m.
We first came to the place called Gelameh el Sapcla, from which Ibrahim
Pasha bombarded the town.
At 9.15, still travelling S.S.E., we reached the first ruin of Kirjathaim,
which is on a hiU. The stones which mark the basis of the walls are now
in a different position from what they originally were, and distinctly show
that the traces of the buildings which they indicate are of a much later date,
probably of the crusading period. As the summit of the hill is only about
1000 yards in circumference, and as the ruins on the slope around do not
extend very far down, the town must originally have been small. Still the
immense stones which are strewn about in all directions, and the extensive
caves on the ridges, show that it was in olden days a very strong and im-
218. . REPORx — 1873.
portant place. There are terraces running down at regular intervals to the
bottom of the hill.
At 9.20 wc reached the sister hill, on which the second pait of Kirjathaim
stood. Its ruins are almost exactly like those on the other liill. And as the
terraces here like those there descend all around, the rings of which they
consist, as a matter of course, becoming wider and wider as they
near the bottom, the last terraces of the two hills meet at the foot, and so
connect the two parts of the town. For this reason the place was called
Kirjathaim = " the duuhk-towned." In each part we saw a deep well, with
thoroughly cemented walls, capable of holding a very large quantity of water.
As the crow flies, Kirjathaim docs not seem more than ten minutes from
Kerak.
At 9.30 ■we left Kirjathaim, and in less than ten minutes we reached a
place called lui-bach Xulet, and in about a quarter of an hour after (9.45) we
came to Kirbath Aziza. Here we found an old wine-jiress cut in the rock,
and on the other side of the rum we saw an enormous well. A very little
further on we came to Kirbath Nukad, and at 10.10 to Chorba Chaviya. We
then reached (at 10.40) a tremendous natural cavern, called Gava, and got to
Mochra at 10.53. This is a very extensive ruin, and has some remarkable
cisterns, caverns, and other remains of former glory rarely seen in other
places. The most interesting part of this place, however, is in its bearing on
the history or geography of Moab as recently disclosed on the Moabite Stone,
inasmuch as it supplies one of the two missing places mentioned on this
Triumphal Pillar. In lines 13 and 14 of the inscription, Mesha, king of
Moab, teUs us that after capturing Atarotli and slaying its inhabitants, " the
men of Gad who dwelled in it from time of yore," he repeopled the place
Avith "the men of Mochrath." The context plainly shoAvs that these men
must have been faithful subjects upon whom Ihe king could rely, and that
hence their dwelling-place was south of the Arnon ; but as far as our knoAV-
ledge goes, no such place has hitherto been identified. There can therefore
be hardly any doubt that this is the place.
Within live minutes of the aboA^e ruin (10.57) we came to a place in ruins
called Gel-gul. After an hour and a quarter (12.7) we reached Mode, where
Ave saw a Eoman mile-stone. The inscription was so defaced that we could
not decipher in Avhich reign it Avas set up. At 1.25 Ave passed the Wady
Medin. On our Avay back we examined the ruin Chorbath Theniah, which
is close to Kerak. It is an extensive ruin, and it is rather remarkable that
so large a fortification and town should have been erected so near the for-
midable forts of Kerak.
It was well that we had made use of our liberty thus to examine the
neighbouring countiy ; for on our return Ave found the old Sheikh Avith his
retinue of sons, cousins, nephews, brothers, and officials sitting in council
around and Avithin our tent. He heard that Ave Avere to leave Kerak soon ; and
as he wanted a pretext to plunder us, he told us lie had been infoi-med that we
had sent a messenger to Jerusalem to report his son's conduct. The fact is
that the Greek priest, Avho for some reason or other expected money from us,
and of course was disappointed, got to know that his catechist had secretly i^ro-
cured us a messenger, and reported to the Mugelly Sheikh that we had sent a
letter to Jerusalem. What harm this could have done to the old Sheikh was
a mystery, since he pretended to repudiate his son's robbery. The motive,
however, Avas apparent. In spite of all his cunning devices to conceal it, we
saw perfectly well that he wanted to extort money from us, and that he must
do it at once. This pretended deliverer of pui's therefore suddenly chaiiged
GEOGKAriUCAL EXPLORATION OF M0A13. 219
into an insulted enemy. He declared in the midst of his people in our face,
that he cared neither for the Governor of Nabulus nor for the Pashas of all
the East, nor for the Consuls at Jerusalem, and that he was determined to
send us back to the Saphia to the robbers, from whom he now said his son
had delivered us. The young Mugelly had therefore no more made his face
black by his conduct to us at the Drah as the old rascal declared before, but
rendered us unspeakable service by saving our property and our lives.
This was now the story of the old Mugelly Sheikh, and to this we had to
address ourselves. Our feelings may easily be imagined when we found our
professed friend suddenly changed into as great a robber as his son. The
Bene Sachar chief Avho came to Kerak to fetch us told us that it all meant
money, and that we must make up our minds to submit to another extortion.
The question was therefore discussed what would satisfy the old vagabond.
We decided to give him twenty napoleons and his brother five napoleons, and
with this he was satisfied.
With feelings of great relief we left the old ruined castle, congratulating
ourselves that we had at last actually escaped from this fiery furnace. But
we had not gone more than 300 yards when a very violent rain commenced,
accompanied by a terrific hailstorm. The horses refused to proceed, and we
had to return to take shelter behind the walls of the Greek church. In a
few minntas we were wet to the skin, and it seemed that even the elements
conspired against us to keep us at Kerak.
After waiting for an hour and a half behind the waUs and among the
tombs in this drenching flood, we made a fresh start at 12.30. The anxiety
of the muleteers to get away was so great that they would not allow the
storm to stop them, and had gone on without us. Our joy in leaving, which
was now brightened by a little sunshine, made us forget that we had tre-
mendous ravines to descend and precipitous heights to climb of thousands of
feet. It was only when we were actually facing these giddy heights and
depths that we began to think how their natural difliculties were now en-
hanced by the heavy rain. However, we got through without any further
accident than some of the mules falling down and upsetting the luggage,
which created a Babel of swearing and such an incessant shouting and cla-
mouring amongst the Arabs as only those can realize who have ever had the
misfortune to hear it.
On our way to Rabba, after ascending the next height, we passed along a
beautiful highland, which might be made exceedingly fertile by a little cul-
tivation ; but these Bedouins prefer plunder to work, and^ only sow that
which they absolutely require for themselves and cattle. The whole journey
from Kerak to liabba took us three hours and a half. We passed through
Chorbath Rakin, a small ruin about an hour from Kerak, Bether, and Min-
char. Whatever these places may have been in olden days, at present only
large scattered stones and the bases of walls remain to show that at all events
some of the buildings were strong and capable of defence. At four o'clock
in the afternoon we reached Rabba.
This is supposed to be Ar, the ancient capital of Moab (Dent. ii. 9, 29).
We camped on the site of an ancient pool, about 50 by 60 yards, and about
21 feet deep. There were three large caverns in the walls, which were a
godsend to us ; for it was pouring rain on our arrival here, and these caves
afforded shelter to us and our horses Avhilst the tents were being pitched.
Between our camp and the ruins of Rabba there was about a quarter of a
mile, and there were two more pools from Avhich the ancient city derived its
chief water-supply. As the. rain continued we could not do more than inspect
220 . REPORT— 1872.
the ruins before nightfall ; but early in the morning Dr. Giusburg and IVIr.
Klein went to examine them more closel)^ Unlike Kerak, Kirjathaim, and
other ancient places, the ruins of Kabba, which are about a mile and a half
or two miles in circumference, are situated almost on a level, Avith the ex-
ception of one part, which is on a very low hill. On the northern side are
the remains of an old temple, with several columns still standing. Qliere arc
on all sides caverns, large and small, cisterns of various dimensions, and wells
of all sorts, which show that the i^lace in its entirety must have been of great
importance. There are, moreover, scattered among the ruins, large blocks
of basalt, which are hewn into smooth stones for use, and which are evidently
of much older date than the bulk of the ruins.
It was here they saw a basalt slab, of almost exactly the same dimensions
as the celebrated Moabite Stone, which had evidently been prepared for an
inscription, but which, for some reason, had been left uninscribcd. Several
others of smaller size were also seen, which, from their slabby appearance,
Avere apparently intended for tablets. These ancient relics aiford every op-
portunity to the dealers in Moab and Jerusalem, whose cupidity has been roused
by the discovery of the Moabite Stone, to supply the demands of the market.
The impression that was formed of the ruins of Eabba is, that though there
are among them many vestiges of the Boman period, such as pillars, cisterns,
extensive roads, &c., there are very few relics of an older date. To examine
Habba thoroughly, as it ought to be done, one should remain on the spot, and
work quietly for at least a week, turn up all the important stones, and in-
vestigate and measure all the various pools, cisterns, and caverns. This,
however, we could not do. But after a close examination of the place and
its surroundings, they came to the conclusion that liabba is not the ancient
Ai; the antiquated form of III, or AE Moab, as it is stated on the most
recent maps. Eabba is almost in the centre of Southern Moab, whilst the
Scripture Ar Moab was on the confines of the Arnon, and marked the ex-
treme northern limit of the trans-Arnonic Moab, Vahab in the Saphia de-
fining the southern frontier (comp. Dent. ii. 36; Joshua xiii. 16; Numb,
xxii. 36, and ibid. xxi. 13 and 14). The Greek name Areopolis was first
given to the ancient Ar Moab on the Arnon, and afterwards, when Ar Moab
was destroyed by an earthquake (comp. St. Jerome on Isaiah xv.), it M'as
transferred to the modern Rabba.
We left Eabba at 8.2.5 (Feb. 15th) on Thursday. At 9.30, travelling
N.N.E., wo came to a place called Kasr Eabba ({. e. the Palace of Eabba).
The ruins here, though small, are exceedingly massive. The stones of which
the palace was built are cnormousty large ; they are bevelled, and somewhat
resemble those of the old wailing-place at Jerusalem. The bases and cor-
nices of columns which lie about on the ground measure 4 feet 8 inches in
diameter. The fact that in many parts of the shattered walls the bevelled
part of the stones was turned the wrong way, shows that the buildings have
been shaken by a violent earthquake.
In leaving Kasr Eabba at 9.55 we saw, at a distance to the left, ruins on
a hiU, which are called Shichan. On the greater part of the way to these
ruins, the old Eoman road is still most distinctly traceable. Whilst some of
our party were marching with the mules to the Arnon, we galloped to Shi-
chan, which we reached at 11.20. It is 4700 feet above the Dead Sea, and
has a very remarkable cistern on its summit. The distance between Kasr
Eabba and Shichan is about 8 miles. In descending the summit we found
ourselves for at least a mile and a half on regular terraces, M'hich had evi-
dently been most carefully cultivated in olden days.^
GEOGRAPHICAL EXPLORATION OF MOAB. 221
On leaving this place at 11.35, and marcliing to the Arnon, the change of
the soil was extraordinarily sudden. From the fertile ground around these
ruins we all at once came upon a most dreary wilderness, which was only
relieved by tremendous holes in the ground, and by dricd-up and stunted
bushes. It was not till we came close to the verge of the Arnon that signs
of fertility began to show themselves. We reached this awful ravine at
1.55 P.M.
The southern side, though not as perpendicular and as grand as the descent
at Engedi, is exceedingly steep, being 2150 feet deep. It took us fully an
hour and a half before we reached the stream at the bottom at 3.30. All
the way down the traces of the old Roman road and unfinished Homan mile-
stones are to be noticed. The stream is narrow and rapid, and to the right
of the descent are still to be seen the ruins of two arches of the bridge, which,
however, in its present form, is not older than the time of the Crusades.
The cliff at the northern ascent is 1900 feet high. As the road extends
over a wider ground, it is on the whole not so steep. It took, however, quite
as long a time to ascend it as the descent on the southern side occupied.
Here, where the maps put the ancient Aroer, Dr. Ginsburg and Mr. Klein
left Dr. Tristram and his friends, A messenger had arrived from Jerusalem
with the sad tidings of the dangerous illness of Mr. Klein's eldest child. He
at once decided to return to Jerusalem, which was perfectly natural. Mr.
Klein was the only one who could talk with the Arabs, and we were almost
entirely dependent upon him for the information from the Bedouins. The
Arabs pronounce the same word differently ; and apart from a thorough
knowledge of the language in all its various provincialisms, it requires great
tact to obtain the necessary information from them. Mr. Klein, with his
complete mastery of the language, and especially his intimate acquaintance
■\nth the ways, manners, and customs of the Arabs, not onlj'- knows how to
get information out of them (a tact which he acquired by twentj^ years' resi-
dence among and intercourse with them), but, above all, he understands how
to test the correctness of the information by a series of direct and indirect
cross-questioning, which is quite an Eastern art. As it appeared to Dr.
Ginsburg that Mr. Klein was thus an essential member of the expedition, he
determined to return with him.
Dr. Ginsburg coiitinues: —
We left the Arnon at 7.30 a.m., February 16th ; travelling due north,
almost all the way on the remains of the old Iloman road, and passing the
imaginary site of the Biblical Aroer, we came to the ruins which go by the
name Dibau at 8 a.m., i. e. in about half an hour. From the fact that the
famous Moabite Stone was discovered here, I devoted some time to the ex-
amination of the place. The whole of this once celebrated stronghold is in
ruins ; there is not a single hut to be found on the spot. The circumference
of the ground on which the ruins lie prostrate is at least a mile and a half.
Like Kirjathaim in the south of the Arnon, this town was originally built on
two hills, the sloping terraces of which joined at the bottom ; and by this
means the place, which looked at a distance like two distinct cities at the
top, was joined into one at the bottom. jSTotwitlistanding its undoubted age,
few traces of antiquity are to be seen among the shattered ruins of the walls.
The old stones have evidently been used up for later buildings ; and it
would require a sojourn in the place fur at least a fortnight carefully to turn
up the foundations and the heaps of ruins to ascertain whether some other
valuable relics are to be discovered here.
From a careful inspection of the place in connexion with the ruins not far
222 iiEPORT— 1872.
off, I am convinced that it is not the site of the ancient Dibon, but of Korcha.
My reasons for this conclusion are as follows : — i. In all the eight passages
of the Bible Avherein the name Dibon occurs (Numb. xxi. 30 ; xxxii. 3, 34 ;
Josh. xiii. 9, 17 ; Isa. xv. 2 ; Jer. xlviii. 18, 22), no data are given to fix its
exact site. The christening, therefore, of these ruins by the name Diban, on
the part of the Arabs, like the naming of many other localities, has been
suggested by Biblical explorers, ii. The Moabite triumphal pillar which was
found here gives us the direct information that Mesha erected it at Korcha,
a city which this monarch built. As no one who will examine the enor-
mously heavy fragments of this huge block of basalt, with its delicate inscrip-
tion, will suppose that it has been brought here intact from another place
without the inscribed letters being injured, the spot where it was found must
be the site of its original erection. And, iii., between this place and the
stream Valeh, an hoiu-'s distance, there are several old ruins, the names of
which our Bedouin guide could not tell. One of these is most probably
Dibon,
After a careful investigation of this ancient site, we left to cross the north-
Arnonic portion of Moab. Our route was now to have been over the upland.
Going in a north-westerly direction, we passed several ruins, and crossed the
stream Valeh, about an hour from what is called Dibon. From this place,
instead of pursuing the usual course, due north over the highland, our Bedouin
took us westward, right over the range of mountains to Mayin, or what is sup-
posed to be Callirrhoe. In this charming valley, to the hot springs of which
Herod the Great resorted during his last illness, we pitched our tents close to
the encampment of the Awazim tribe, to whose protection we were recom-
mended by Abou Zadam of the Bene Sachar.
Early in the morning, February 17th, we left for the Jordan, escorted by
Abou Wardy, the Sheikh of the Awazim. lie, too, led us across the range
of mountains instead of by the usual upland road. The most remarkable and
significant part of my experience, bearing on the value of the information
obtained from the Bedouins, I gained on this part of mj' journey. In looking
at a map of Palestine, it will be seen that this range of mountains has played
a most important part in the history of the Jews. From these heights Balak
king of Moab, and Balaam the prophet of Baal, beheld the Israelites en-
camped on the Plains of Moab. From here Moses the great lawgiver saw the
promised land : here he died and was buried. Hero we passed across the
very spot marked on the maps as Pisgah and Nebo.
We had with us, from the Arnon to Mayin or Callirrhoe, a Bedouin who
■w;a8 a native of Northern Moab, the tvhole extent of which is onlj- about
twenty miles in length and as many in width. The fact that he was the
only companion of Zadam, the magnate of the Bene Sachar, and that with
this chief he was to be our guide for more than a month, sufficiently shows
that he was no ordinary man of his tribe. From Mayin again to the
Plains of Moab and the Jordan wc had with us the Sheikh of the Awazim
himself, who was not only born and brought up in the neighbourhood, but
is the chief of the whole district. Yet neither tlic second in command of the
Bene Sachar nor even the chief himself of the Awazim could tell us a single
name of gorge, valley, mountain, or ruin between Diban and the Jordan.
The reason of it is simply this. In Palestine, which has been visited by
pilgrims ever since the fourth century, who came in search of the places
wherein the events connected with the life of our Saviour have transpired,
the law of demand and supply has brought to the surface whole regions
which would otherwise never have been named. Those who came thousands
GEOGRAPHICAL irXPLORATION OP MOAB. 223
of miles under the greatest privations to do homage in the birthrphice of the
Saviour, on the various spots where the greatest of his miracles were per-
formed, -where he suffered, died, and was buried, were determined to have
the scenes. Hence the different sections of the Church, inspired by pious
devotion, and aided by the cupidity of the natives, have not only been able
to discover the place of every event, but to secure for themselves severally a
different spot where the same event was enacted.
The ease, however, is different in Moab. Here no events connected with
the life of Christ have taken place. Here no pilgrims have come in search
of sites. Very few even of explorers have traversed the country. Hence
the natives, who can neither read nor write, and who are dependent for
information upon hearsay, have never heard from outsiders what places are
wanted, and therefore do not know them, and cannot supply them.
GeograpMcal Exploration of Moah. By Rev. H. B. Tristram, F.B.S.
The expedition for the exploration of the countiy of Moab, so liberally
aided by the grant of the British Association, set out from Jerusalem on the
30th of January. Our party was reinforced by Mr. E. C. Johnson, who proved
himself invaluable both as a surveyor and a photographer ; Mr. Buxton, not
less efficient as a photographer and observer ; Mr. Hayne, who devoted him-
self with great success to the botany of the country ; Mr. Mowbray Trotter,
to whose gun we were indebted for many a meal ; and the llev. F. A. Klein,
of Jerusalem, the discoverer of the Moabite Stone, whose thorough knowledge
of Arabic and of the people and the country rendered him an invaluable
member of the party, till suddenly recalled home by a melancholy domestic
affliction.
"VVe determined to enter the country from the south, as being the most
difficult and least known route, our course being by Hebron, Engedi, Masada,
or Sebbeh, Jebel Usdum, and thence across the Stbkha, or barren sand-flat,
which extends for several miles to the south of the Dead Sea. This we ac-
complished with a guard of the Jehalin tribe of Arabs. At the edge of the
Sebkha we were on the frontier-line of ancient Moab and Edom ; and here
we met with some little difficulty from a robber tribe, the Beni Atiyeh, with
whom, however, after a faint show of hostilities and a few random shots, we
were able to make terms. Wo found the Ghor es Safieh, which we were able
to examine at leisure, very much more extensive southward and eastward
than it is marked in the maps. It is, in fact, a fertile belt scarcely raised
above the level of the Dead Sea, IG miles from north to south, and fed by
the numerous perennial streams and springs which gush from the lofty sand-
stone range that forms the buttress of the Hants Plateau of Moab. On the
heights above the southern extremity are the villages of Tufileh and Feifeh,
on the banks of streams, which we were not aljle to visit. Our exploration
of the Safieh was carried out under considerable difficulty, as the natives were
lawless, and we could only move with an escort of horsemen. However, we
were able to ascertain, in our rides with our guards and in several rambles
on foot, that there are no remains of importance in the oasis itself. The
principal ruins arc of some 'extent, indicating a well-built village, with
several fragments of columns and Roman work, called Kasr el Bushireh ; and
a little higher up is a tolerably perfect water-mill, and a Saracenic gateway
of rather mde construction, belonging apparently to a ruined Khan ; it ia
224 REPORT— ISrS.
now called " Mushnekkr," or " the gallows." No other ruius could we find.
We explored ou foot the widest part of the Safieh towards the Dead Sea, on
the edge of which a rank vegetation of sedge and reed takes the place of the
dense thickets of nuhk and dom tree which stud the cultivated plain, here
ahout four miles wide.
Leaving the Safieh we proceeded hy the route of Irby and Mangles to Dnia.
The day's journey led us through every conceivable variety of vegetation and
non-vegetation. Leaving tlie Nahr el Hassan, the great source of fertility to
the Safieh, we passed through a scrubbj' plain, rushes, canebrakes, and finally
a bare salt marsh, without a scrap of vegetation to the sea, and a gravelly
shelving slope, with scattered gnarled acacias above it; near its commence-
ment is a ruined village, Um el Hashib, not far from the Wady Grahhih.
The barren plain is fringed by a fetid ditch, well named Mir'whar, or " stink-
ing river," with salt and offensively smelling liquid. Having crossed the salt
plain, we came to the Nahr Hanyir and Nahr Nimeirah, salt streams. At
this latter are the mean and almost obliterated ruins of a large place, appa-
rently iinfortilied, and usually marked in the maps as the ancient Nimrim of
Scripture. This, however, we have reason to believe is incorrect, as the
position is defenceless ; and we were told of ruins higher up near the sources
of the stream in the mountains, which still bear the name of " the waters of
Nimcirah." Near them is another Scripture locality, " the brook of the
willows," which is given to the head of the next stream before it leaves the
mountains.
A little above this lower Nimrim we visited the ruins of a fort, Ivhirbet es
Sheikh, which appears to have been nothing more than a watch-tower to
guard the road.
After crossing the Nahr es Asal, or Honey Eiver, we began to ascend the
shoulder of the Lisan, a mass of barren salt marl, without a trace of life, past
or present, and in a few hours reached Draa, generally said to be the an-
cient Zoar, after crossing the Wady Weydah, in which the palm-tree is
abundant.
Draa, though the seat of a bishopric in the time of Euscbius, has left no
traces beyond lines of foundations and heaps of sandstone, some of them
squared and dressed. But the deep glen on the crest of which the city stood
is richly wooded with palm, oleander, and other trees ; and its fertile belt can
be traced by the eye as far as the Mezraah, a wide, scrubbj^, tree-dotted plain,
opening on the bay to the north of the Lisan, and now covered with the
tents of the Beni Atiyeh. This has been traversed by Messrs. Palmer and
Drake.
From Dr.ia we ascended to Kerak by the route so well described by Irby
and Mangles. A fort, hitherto unnoticed, guards the pass about halfway
up, called El Kubboh. The character of the architecture is crusading, and
the local tradition makes it the stronghold of a Christian Sheikh. Just to
the south of this, the " Wady of the Willows " was pointed out to us. AVe
calculated the ascent from Draa to Kerak to be 3720 feet, — Dnia, thougli
on the brow of a bold shoulder, being 570 feet below the sea-level, and
Kerak 3180 feet above it (barometric).
Without pretending to compare the country with Switzerland, and at the
risk of incui'ring the sneers of those who, judging only by Ijigness, accuse
any one who is enthusiastic on Palestine of " Holy Land on the brain," any
one less prejudiced than these critics will admit the x^ass to be a magnifi-
cent one, and the situation of Kerak to be majestic.
It has already been described by Irby and Mangles, and is sufficiently
GEOGRAPHICAL EXPLORATION Of MOAB. 223
known to students. The entrance to Kerak is certainly unique, by an arclied
natural tunnel in the side of a precipitous cliff, out of which the traveller
emerges in the midst of the city. The photograph shows this gateway into
Kerak. It is needless to describe the extraordinary position of the city and
its natural and artificial strength against the resources of medioeval or modern
Oriental assault. It was undoubtedly the strongest natural fortress in Syria
before the introduction of modern artillery — a platform of a triangular shape,
each side from | to | mile in extent, inacessible except by exposed mountain-
paths on all sides, save where a neck of land connects it with the adjoining
mountains, and this cut through by a wide fosse of 30 feet deep and touch-
ing massive walls 18 feet thick above it.
The fortifications, Phoenician or Jewish in their lower parts, then Roman,
surmounted by the work of Crusaders, are of vast extent and cnoi-mous
height. The photographs give some idea of the vast labour expended on
these works.
We found Kerak as little hospitable as have our predecessors in this land.
The Mudjilli, though holding a Turkish commission, is practically indepen-
dent, and is an unscriipulous, avaricious, and cunning chieftain. We were
held as prisoners for some days to ransom, after entering under his son's
safe conduct ; but our imprisonment was not severe, though rather costly.
On one day, when our keeper relented, we were able to go out ■with a
guard, and ride many miles to survey, while the rest of the party photo-
graphed nearer home.
Our survey proved very successful in fixing the sites of many ruined places,
some of them hitherto unknown by name, and the others erroneously placed
in all the existing maps. Our course lay chiefly south for twelve miles, and
thence back by a detour to the eastward. Crossing the deep valley of Tziatin,
where the soldiers of Ibrahim Pasha were slaughtered in 1844 in attempting
to cut their way from the north, we marked the position of Jelam es Sebbha,
where Ibrahim Pasha had his camp ; and then of Kureitin (evidently an
ancient Kiriathain), the remains of twin ancient towns close together, each
on a low knoll. This fashion of two adjacent towns with the same name
seems to have been very prevalent throughout the whole of Moab.
Here we foiind ourselves on the high tableland which forms the country of
Moab, studded thickly in every direction with ruined villages and towns,
always situated on gentle swellings — Kirbet Azizeh, Kirbet Nekad, M'hheileh,
Howeiych, Jubah (on the old Roman road), Mahkhennah (mentioned by
Irby), Modeh, Abou Taleb, Mesh'had, and several others. Modeh, like
Kureitin, has been a twin city, and there is a Roman milestone, iinmutilated,
close to it, of the date of Antonino. At none of these ruins did we find any
water, but wells and cisterns innumerable, from fiftj' to one hundred in each
place, generally one for each house, and oil-presses and wine-presses cut in
the rocky slopes. We returned by Madin, more extensive ruins than the
others. Here were sarcophagi and sculptured fragments, and house-walls
quite perfect, but without a trace of mortar between the dressed stones. We
saw, but did not visit, the ruins of Moureyah, Hamad, Suhl, and Nachal,
mentioned by Ivhj.
From the Kerak people wc obtained a long list of names of ruined sites
known to them, upwards of sixty in number, some of which seem the Arabic
representatives of Hebrew names. Dimnah (perhaps the Dimon of Isaiah,
commonly held to be identical with Dibon), Lubcirali, Sumrah, Yaroud,
Retir, Hadadah, Rahun, Zerar, Hhomoud, Azour, and others.
In a few davs, by the aid of Sheikh Zadam of the Eeni Sakkr, we were
1872. ' " R
226 REPORT— 1872.
able to leave Kerak without the payment of a very heavy ransom (^70 in
all), and started for the north.
It must be remembered that Kerak is the one inhabited place in the whole
country, the only town or village in the vast and once densely peopled
region between Es Salt in Gilead and Shobek, a little villnge in the ancient
Edom.
Passing the ruins of Suweiniyeh and Duweineh, after descending from
Kerak, and ascending again more than 1000 feet, we rode through the ruins
of llakim and Mikhersit, from which place we followed the liomau road
to the ancient llabbath Moab, now Kabba. These are some of the most
extensive and finest ruins in Moab ; but the incessant rain prevented our
taking any successful photographs. We camped inside an immense Eoman
tank, GO yards by 50, and, though filled to a considerable extent with the
refuse of the goats which are herded there, still nearly 30 feet deep.
The city seems to have been a square, more than a mile each way. One
fine temple has some columns and two arches left ; but all else are only broken
walls, with long lines of straight narrow streets and countless vaults arched
over. The ruins are Eoman, but with many carved stones from earlier edifices
built in, and many dressed blocks of basalt, telling of a still more ancient city.
There are several greeu mounds covering extensive masses of masonry, which
might probably repay excavation.
Prom Rabba we followed the Roman road northward, passing a very perfect
little Roman temple, one and a half mile from the city, and soon afterwards
a ruined town (the remains of which seem anterior to the Roman occupation),
Missdehh, and immediately afterwards Humcitah, the Hammat or "Animah"
of Palmer, probably an ancient Ham.
Kasr Rabbah, or Beit el Kurm (the house of the vineyards), four miles
north of Rabbah, has possessed a magnificent Corinthian temple ; the diameter
of the columns, many of which with the frieze are standing, is 4 feet 8 inches.
Hence the Roman road divides, one line going towards 8hihau, the other,
more easterly, to the passage of the Arnon. The former crosses the gentle
depression which marks the commencement of the Wady Ghurweh. An
easy slope reaches to the top of Jebel Shihan, on the southern side of which,
lining the Roman road, are very singular remains, countless small enclosures,
fields or gardens, all formed of blocks of basalt, undressed, and no limestone
employed; they cover many acres. The road here has been only 15 feet
wide. The city itself, on the top of the hiU, has been built chiefly of limestone,
with very little basalt. The cisterns are numerous and of considerable depth ;
but they, as well as the wells, are now all dry.
Descending by N.E. we passed through the ruins of Balh'ua, and overtook
the rest of our party, who had followed the other route. Near the edge of
the ravine of the Arnon are the remains of an old fortress, Kirbet Sum'hra,
and then Muhatet el Haj, conjectured to be the Jahaz of Scripture, shape-
less ruins.
The passage of the Arnon has been described by several of our predecessors,
who have certainly not exaggerated its magnificence or their fatigues. By
our barometers the depth is 2150 feet, and the southern plateau is 200 feet
higher than that to the north. The Roman paved way may be frequently
traced, as weU as the remains of the bridge below. From crest to crest,
we computed by triangulation to be about three miles. The upper part of
tbe southern side reveals a superficial basaltic stream, which is absent on the
north. There are numerous ruined forts all along the Roman causeway. On
the northern brow, a mile cast of the road, arc the ruins of Arar, the ancient
GEOGRAPHICAL EXPLOHATIOX OF MOAB, 227
Arocr ; and " the city that is in the midst of the river " (Josh. xiii. 16) is no
doubt indicatorl ])}• the remains iu the luxuriant strip of scmitropical verdure
that fringes the Arnou far below it.
Here, from the news of a sad domestic affliction, brought to us at Eabbah
by a messenger who had been beaten and robbed of the letters by the scouts of
the Kerak ruffians, Mr. Klein, to whose aid we are really indebted for the
success of our expedition, through his masterly knowledge of the language
and his friendship with the Eeni tSakkr, was compelled to leave us and return
hastily to Jerusalem. He was accompanied by Dr. Ginsburg.
From the northern crest of the Arnon bank a good view could be obtained
of the general lie of the Wadys which here furrow the high land.
The Arnou, or Wady Mojib, is formed a little above where we crossed it
by the junction of three ravines of nearly equal height, the northern one
named by Zadam Wady Seideh, the name given iu all the maps to the central
one, and the others Mdkhauas and Balhua.
A ride of three miles across a dreary highland plain brought us to Dhibau,
another double city on two knolls, whose caverns, cisterns, underground store-
houses, and semicircular arches present no peculiar features. To the west of
both knoUsis a little stream, near which the famed monolith was found, and
in which water was running. All the surrounding hiUs are limestone, and
there is no basalt excejit what has been brought here by man. It is need-
less to say that no inscribed remains now exist above ground ; but we found
a very finely dressed basaltic oil-press, with the upper stone lying close to
the outer cylinder, by the bank of tlie stream.
Prom Dibon we struck eastwai'd, by the route taken by Messrs. Palmer
and Drake, towards Um Rasas. The road lay up a wide depression, wliich"
could scarcely be called a valley, known as Kurm Dhibau (the vineyards of
Dibon), and continuously for three miles were the traces of the vineyard-
ridges across the slopes. These are " the plains of the vineyards " of Judges
xi. 33, the route taken by the Amorites after their discomfiture by Jephthah.
llujum JSclim, a shapeless inconspicuous heap, is the ouly ruin on the way
from Dibon to Vm liasas. This latter seems placed too far east by Palmer,
who has also erroneously marked the Hadj road as touching it, and placed
it ten miles too far west — a mistake not to be wondered at when we con-
sider the very great difficulties under which Mr. Palmer and Mr. Drake
accomplished their visit.
A Eoman road does, however, touch Um Easas from Heshbon to the south.
Um Easas was of necessity very hastily examined by our only predecessors,
and is of much greater extent than had been imagined. The outline of
the city and its walls, appai-ently repaired at a later period, is perfect, — no
grass-grown mounds, but simply fallen or falUng buildings, with streets
encumbered bj' the masonry and countless arches ; no heathen temples
within the city, but five Christian churches, one of them probably a cathedral,
and all of the Basilica type. The apse was generally perfect, with the
plinth and beading decorated by bosses carved with alternate heads and crosses.
Some of them we photographed. Outside where we were camped was the
amphitheatre, now grass-groM'n, and several very deep cisterns, not very
large superficially.
The most interesting ruin here is a Christian mortuary tower, which Mr.
Palmer has sketched, close to the ruins of a Byzantine church, of which we
took photographs. This tower is a landmark for miles round, and ludicrous
traditions are locally attached to it.
Um Easas appears to me to be probably the " Thamatha " of the ' Notitio,'
b3
328 SEFORT— 1872.
the station of the first Valeutian " Ala ;" and the name is preserved in the Wady
Thamcd close by. It certainly must have been one of the most important
cities in these highlands in the Eoman times, and is on the Eoman military
road.
We made expeditions eastwards to the ruined fort M'scitbeh, where there
was abundant water in a large cistern, and the Hadj road eleven miles east
of it, cast of which is the ruined Khan Zebib, which places have never before
been visited. Khan Zebib is e\ndently built on the ruins and with the
debris of a former great city ; and to the east of it are the remains of an
interesting Doric temple. Jemail (two and a half miles south of Um Easas)
and Ghazal (Khazaleh of Palmer's map) were also visited. At both of them
there was water, and traces of vineyards in the neighbourhood. Khan
Zebib is above the rise of the Wady Shabelc, the head feeder of the Zerka
Main or Callirrhoe, a wide shallow basin fed by the drainage from a lime-
stone range to the east of it.
The Hadj road is here closely marked by about fifty parallel furrows,
formed by the tread of loug lines of camels pursuing the same tract for
ages in succession.
Near the great temple east of Khan Zebib are numerous natural caverns,
which form subterranean labj'rinths, and have been cemented and used as
reservoirs in past ages : now they seem occasionally employed as hiding-
places and folds by the Bedouins. Beyond these are a number of artificial
mounds and circles of stones, affording unquestionable evidence of the cairns
of the primaeval inhabitants.
We spent several days at Um Easas, in the hope of securing a stone which
is buried there, but which the Bedouins would not reveal to us, I have
seen a squeeze of this stone, which is now in the possession of Dr. Dodge,
of Beirut, having been taken by a Bedouin before the stone was buried ;
it is of basalt, and bilingual. The centre is occupied by a sei'pent biting
a scorpion. On the serpent are inscribed numerous Phoenician characters,
and on one side is a long inscription of many lines in the Phoenician cha-
racter ; on the other, arranged in a similar semicircular fashion, one in
apparently Nabathean letters. I hope ere loug to obtain a copy of this
important inscription.
From Um Easas we travelled N.AV., passing Beihar and the ruins called
Draa, a Moabite city of the very oldest type, probably the Zoas of Eusebius,
and the seat of a bishopric. This place has not been previously noticed, and
solves some of the difficulties which have encumbered the topography of the
Zoas of the Pentateuch,
In two hours we crossed the Wady Thamed, overhanging which, on a
peninsula formed by the river, is an immense heap of stones, apparently an
old keep and enclosure. It is 300 feet above the Wady, and is known as
Um E'mail. We made this our station for a few days. Three miles north
of it is Zafaran, with a fort of large squared stones on the top of a till, and
the remains of the town below it. There are no traces of arches here, and
the place seems pre-Eoman. It may perhaps be the Naar Safari of the
' Notitia,' the station of the second Ala miliarensis. Near it are the similar
ruins of El Alaki, and two miles further El Herri, a fortress on a knoll and
JV town below it, with the old Eoman road passing close by.
The next ruin, N.E. from hence, is Um Weleed, one of the most important
and extensive in the whole country. The ruins are of three distinct types,
pre-Eoman, Eoman, and a Saracenic Khan. No previous traveller has visited it,
and its local name gives no clue to its ancient name. The Eoman road passed
GEOGRAPHICAL EXPLOKATION OF JIOAB. 229
through it. Tlierc is an amphitlicatrc ; the pavement of a forum, surrounded
by the bases of cohimus, is entire, 41 paces by 38, and just beyond it tlie
eastern gate of the city, outside which is an interesting little Doric temple,
12 yards by 10, facing east, the niches being still in sitti.
The streets here have been arcaded ; and we found iu some places the flat
slabs of stone which formed the flooring of the dwellings above the streets
still entire. By the side of these old streets the ancient Khan looked but a
work of yesterday.
We followed the Eoman road from Um "Weleed to Um el Kuseir. There
is no ruined bridge as marked iu the maps ; but there is a long massive wall
across part of the plain, built for the purpose of guiding the ffoods into the
cisterns. Um el Kuseir is of the same type as the last named city, but not
so extensive.
Hence we struck eastward to Ziza, where we spent a week. It is men-
tioned in the ' N'otitia' as the headquartc}-s of the Dalmatian Illyrican cavalry.
The remains of Ziza are very perfect. The tank is simply magnificent, 140
yards by 110 (see Photograph); many of the stones are G feet in length.
Much engineering ingenuity is shown in the mode by which the upper valley
has been banked, and a system of sluice-gates arranged for filling the pool
and letting off the superfluous rainfall.
Above it is a strong Saracenic fort, still entire, and which was occupied by
Ibrahim Pasha. Tiie upper story has been fitted for engines of war, and
many stones taken from Christian chambers marked with plain symbols appear
in the walls. The ancient city is on a long ridge further up, occupying
several acres, and full of sculptured ruins. The whole hill is honeycombed
Avith cisterns. The principal remains seem not earlier than the Christian
period, comprising several churches.
Sis miles east of Ziza we crossed the Hadj road, not far from the base of
the limestone range which forms the eastern limit of the highlands of Moab.
A little beyond this, at the very base of the hiUs, but without any trace
of water, we discovered a palace which surpasses in interest any other of the
niins which this expedition has brought to light. Prom the eminences near
Ziza we had detected a pile of masonry in this direction ; the Beni Sakkr gave
it the name of Mashita, and spoke of it as being like the other ruinous
heaps which we were continually examining.
A gazelle had beguiled our ride, and not a little were we startled when
we reined iu our horses in front of a facade of which only the photographs
can give the slightest idea. Two days were well spent in photographing and
measuring (see Plan and Photographs). We were in utter perplexity as to
the origin of these magnificent buildings ; nor was our difficulty lessened by
the long lines of inscriptions in an unrecognized character on the lower coriieri
outside the inner palace. One thing was plain, the palace had never been
finished, at least in its decorations ; and we have to thank Mr. Fergusson for
having given us the clue to the solution of the problem. Mr. Fergusson is
decidedly of opinion that it is the work of Chosroes II., the Sassanian king
of Persia, after his conquest of Syria, jS'orth Arabia, and Egypt in a.d. 611-
622. The builders seem to have been interrupted, for it is evident that the
decorations were never finished. This is explained by the advance of the
Emperor Ileraclius, who so brilliantlj- swept the Persian out of the whole of
his conquests, and recalled for a moment the glories of old Home.
There are no more ancient remains of any kind in the neighbourhood,
and no Saracenic additions whatever. Mashita stands forth in absolute
solitude and isolation; unlike the cities of Moab, with their traces of many
230 KEPORT— 1872.
epochs. It probably was erected as a hunting-palace, to gratify the luxurious
taste of Chosroes. Mr. Fergusson has pointed out the indications in this
wonderful sculptured facade of Byzantine art, guided by Persian design
(see Plan and Photograph).
It is not a little strange that so perfect and unique a building has remained
unnoticed and undiscovered by any European before us, and without any
tradition attaching to it by the Bedouin. There is no trace here of any de-
struction by the hand of man. The sculpture is of extraordinary depth and
scarcely weathered, as may be seen by the photographs.
Travelling north from Ziza, the ruins of Kustul, evidently some Eoman
" castellum," possess, as may be seen from the photographs, a character distinct
from any other Moabite cities. There are the several walls, cisterns, and
arches, these latter unusually massive and well finished ; but besides them
two castles, with many semicircular bastions, surmounted by a sculptured
balustrade of the Corinthian order. The principal castle is 84 yards square.
The smaller castle, isolated from the city, would seem to have been a temple
fortified. We found a Greek altar of white marble, and several marble capi-
tals, which must have been imported from the Greek islands or Asia Minor.
Below the city is a tank like that of Ziza.
Six miles north of Kustul I visited Thenib, a heap of cisterns, walls, and
arches, and two miles further north Eujum Hamam, a ruined heap of shape-
less stones. This was our extreme north-eastern point.
Travelling west from Kustul, Um Zibarah presents only a large assembly
of hummocks and hollowed cisterns. Crossing the commencement of Wady
Jifar we reached the top of Jebel Jelul, a most remarkable hill, hitherto
unnoticed, or placed close to Heshbou, rising 300 feet above the plain and
covered with ruins. Pieces of Doric entablature were strewn about. The
panorama from Jelul was uninterrupted for several miles in all directions.
From Jelul, turning south, we passed Sufa, crossed Wady Habis, the ruina
of Betan el Bareil, Habis city, and then leaving the highlands followed down
the gorge of the Habis, the main feeder of the Zerka Main. Owing to the
ruggedness of the road it was a two days' journey to the hot springs of Cal-
Urrhoe. We had now left the country of the Beni Sakkr, and were in that
of the Hamaydeh. These latter have been spoken of as an independent tribe,
and the remains of the ancient Moabites. We never found them inhabiting
huts, but only tents like other Bedouins ; physically they seemed decidedly
inferior to the Beni Sakkr, who treat them as mere vassals, pasturing their
cattle and camels where they please in Hamaydeh territory, and summoning
them to their service. They obeyed the orders of Zadam implicitly, when
he desired Ibn Tarif or any other of their Sheikhs to act as our guides in any
part of their country. ISTor were we once asked for backshish from the time
we left the Kerak men till we reached Jericho. Their chief men never pre-
sumed to enter the tent with Zadam, but consorted with the servants. The
gorge of the CaEirrhoe is one of the grandest I have seen. We had to ascend
to a narrow secondary plateau and then descend 1300 feet to the hot baths.
The north face of the ravine is red sandstone below and white limestone
above; the south face is formed by a stream of basalt, in many places co-
lumnar.
Our camping-ground was delicious, by the side of a warm sulphur torrent,
9G° Fahr. just where it dashes into the cooler stream of sweet water in front
of us. The hot sul^jhurous springs aU issue from the north face of the gorge,
at the jiinction of the red sandstone with the limestone. In a reach of three
miles there are ten principal springs and many minor ones, dashing down
GEOGRAPHICAL KXPLOHATION 01' MOAB. 231
little nullah's or canons, all shaded -with date-palms and canebrake. The
temperature of the upper spring was only 85°, that of the fifth and tenth,
which are the largest, was 135° and 14U° at their exit from the rock. The
heated stream of the Calhrrhoe retains a temperature of 70° at its mouth.
There is not a trace of Roman baths or of building of any kind ; this ig
not to be wondered at when wo observe the rapid deposit of sulphur uoW
forming about all the lower springs. These sulphurous deposits form crum-
bhng cliffs, under which the hot stream has in many places made itself a
tunnel, to which the Arabs have pierced holes through the overlying crust,
over which tlicy sit and enjoy a natural vapour-bath.
We made this lovely glen our hcadcpiarters for eight days, and thoroughly
examined the neighbourhood. The castle of lEachterus (M'Kaur), the place of
the martj-rdom of St. John Baptist, does not seem to have been noted by any
predecessor, and is wrongly placed in the maps. It stands to the S.E. of
the head of the Wady Sgara, the next glen to the south of Callirrhoe. Its
natural position is accurately described by Josephus ; but there is nothing left
to give any idea of the great strength of its fortifications. The citadel, isolated,
as Pliny observes, from the city below, has only foundations of the keep just
level with the soil, circular, exactly 100 yards in diameter; within it is a weU
of great depth, a large and deep oblong cemented cistern, and two dungeons,
one of them very perfect. The town occupied the ridge of a long crest running
east and west to the west of the fortress, and is marked by a stupendous heap of
stones, beyond which are the foundations of several forts and of a smaU temple.
The stone heap is 250 yards long and of great height, and the crest is 3800
feet above the Dead Sea. The finest "saew on the east side is, I think, from
the top of the ridge between M'Kaur and Callirrhoe.
Attarus, the ancient Ataroth, and Kureiyat (Kiriathaim) were also visited.
Attarus is certainly in extent among the most considerable of the Moabite
ruins, but featureless ; Jebel Attarus is three miles distant from the site which
bears the name of ancient Ataroth. It has been crowned by a massive square
fortress. The feature most remarkable in this treeless country is a fine tere-
binth, Avhich attracts the eye from far and is noticed by Eurkhardt. Eound
this hill and in the undulating plain between it and the city the ground is
sparsely covered with trees, the only wooded spot in the highlands. Tere-
binths, oaks, and especially the almond-tree in abundance, present an aspect
most refreshing in this bare and monotonous land.
Kureiyat has nothing worthy of note, and from hence to the Anion there
is scarcely a ruin on the eastern edge of the plateau.
In the neighbourhood of the Calhrrhoe we observed several prehistoric
stone circles, like those found at Beitin and elsewhere, and many cairns, which
seem far anterior to the mounds of the cities.
An expedition to Zara (the Zareth Shaphau of the Bible) was full of interest.
The narrow ravine of the Callirrhoe it was impossible to follow ; and we were
compelled to mount the heights, cross two more gorges, and follow the crests
till we descended 2000 feet from a lower plateau upon the oasis of Zara.
Tills is not, as marked on the maps, at the mouth of the Callirrhoe, but consi-
derably to the south. It was a city of Eeuben, its frontier town on the
shore, and shows few traces of later occupation. We may trace the features
of the Jewish town, a central fort on a knoll and the houses clustering round
it, as may be seen to-day at Gibeon and elsewhere. We were surprised to
find a wide extent of rich land fringing the Dead Sea, abundantly watered
by hot springs, some sulphurous and others sweet. This belt reaches to
within a short distance of the mouth of the Arnou. Northwards some bold
&
233- REPORT — 1872.
headlands intervene between it and the Callirrhoe, and a scramble ^ye had to'
get ronnd to the fissnrc tbrong'h which the river emerges, forming a spit
covered with tamarisk at its entrance. It is needless to say that we found
the shore-line laid down by Lynch most accurate, but the sketching-in of the
country, even close to the water's edge, most inaccurate, as his party in this
district seem rarely to have left their boats. There is a striking contrast
between the eastern and western shores ; on the latter there are only a few
patches of verdure, scarcely breaking the desolate barrenness of the coast-line ;
on the east all is exuberant verdure and continually running streamlets to
the water's edge. The palm-tree is abundant, and clings to the sides of the
little ravine from a height of over 1000 feet to the very edge of the sea (sec
Photograph), while the varying shrubs and flowers overpower the botanist.
This must be attributed to the sandstone formation, which, underlying the
eocene deposits, nowhere appears on the west, while it is greatly elevated on
the eastern side.
Arrived at the mouth of the Callirrhoe, we ascended the gorge on foot with
an ibex-hunter for our guide, and though the scrambling was severe, were
richly rewarded. At the shore the cliffs are 600 feet high, and the opening
only 100 yards across, sometimes^ as we ascend, only 30 yards. It winds and
turns suddenly, and the glow of the red sandstone walls is gorgeous. Paths
or tracts of course there are none ; and we were compelled to climb as best we
could up the side, Avhen a waterfall, Jebel Moia, i. c. " waterhill," barred all
progress.
After having thoroughly investigated this district we turned northwards,
visiting at leisure the sites on the western edge of the highlands where the
cities of Moab were most crowded.
In this region, as far as Heshbou, I must notice the great number of dol-
mens which everywhere occur in these parts, which are too rocky to have
been ever subjected to the plough ; I have counted more than twenty in one
morning's ride. They are all of one pattern, three stones placed endwise
forming three sides of a square, and a large stone forming the cover, generally
about six feet in diameter. I never found four sui)porting stones.
We followed a road, Jewish or Pv,oman, to Maon and then to Medeba. On
every side are the foundations that mark the boundary-walls of fields or vine-
yards, while the Belka Arabs here, for the first time, exemplify the natural
fertility of the country by their cultivation of large tracts in wheat and
barley.
For the ruins of Main (Boal Meon), which occupy four adjacent hiUs, and
of Medeba, which retains its Bible name unchanged^ I can but refer to our
photographs.
At the latter we camped for some days and visited the ruins to the east
and north. Medeba contains more perfect lloman remains than any of the
other western cities of the highlands. It is not in a hollow, but, like all
other towns of Moab, on the top of a knoll. The forum, or whatever else it
may have been, is the largest we have seen, 280 by 240 yards, with a colon-
nade, and the bases of the columns still in situ, many temples and later
christian churches. The most remarkable remaining work is the reservoir,
built on the same principles as Solomon's pools, and 120 yards square, with
its walls 30 feet thick at the base, tapering to 18 feet. It would be tedious to
describe the temples and churches of Medeba, which at least prove the dense
population of this part. The other northern cities of Moab call for no special
mention ; they occur every half mile, and are alike in their main features. Man
has had little or nothing to do with their decay. "We examined carefully the
ON THE ELIMINATION OF ARBITRARY FUNCTIONS. 233
heights ovcrhauging the Dead Sea with a view to Nebo. The modern Jfebbeh
affords exactly the view described iu Deuteronomy, and I can find no other to
rival it. The city of Nebbeli is lo-\ver down on a spur of the range, and with
remains more perfect than ordinary. The whole country is here densely
crowded wuth ruins ; but the names do not indicate their ancient equivalents
— Maslubiych, Kuseir, Et Tein, &c.
From Nebbeh w-e worked to Ayun, Mossa, Heshban, &c., which have been
visited by many others. We made some sojourn in the Seisaban, and iden-
tified Kamah, I3eth Jesimoth, and other scriptural sites, and thence worked
down the shore of the Dead Sea towards Callirrhoe. We ascertained that
the Seisaban, the ancient plains of Shittim, is of very much greater extent
than the maps represent. The fertile Ghor extends from the Beit Nemeirah,
or iipper fords, to within 3 miles of the mouth of the Callirrhoe, and is well
watered throughout ; but in ancient warfare this region could never be
defended, and the ruins are unimportant, though there is not a single mound
without the stones which tell of some fort of the olden time.
We trust w"c have by our expedition carried out the intentions of the
British Association. We have carefully mapped . the whole country north of
the Arnon, every previous map of which we found to be a mere work of the
imagination. We have left no ruin in that tract unexplored ; and though we
have brought home no Moabite stones, we never dreamt we should be able
to do so. The grant was iov georirajjlikal exploration, and that we have endea-
voure'd cbnscientio'usl'y tb chrr)^ out, and have brought to light some twenty
ancient cities hitherto un visited and unknown, and others known only by name.
The zeal of my companions enabled me to exhibit about 100 photographs.
Sur I' elimination des Fonctions Arbitraires.
By Ch. HermitEj Corr. Member of the Mathematical Society, London.
[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.']
C'est la definition geometrique d'une famille de surfaces par uu certain mode
do generation qui a conduit ix definir analytiquement une fonction z de x et
y par le systeme de deux equations
^(^, y, z, n, A, B, . . . L)=0, 1
,l.(.r,2/,r, a,A,B, ...L)=0,J '^ ^
ou entrent un parametre variable a et un nombre quelconque n de fonctions
arbitraires de a, representees par A, B, . . . L. Obtenir une equation aux
diflcrenccs partielles, a laquelle satisfait la fonction z quels que soicnt a et
ces Ji fonctions, sera la question traitce dans cette note par une methode
nouvelle.
J 'observe en premier lieu que les relations donne'es permettcnt de conside'rer
X ct y comme dcs fonctions de z, dont les derivees successives,
, dx ,, cl-x ,„ (Px
a; =_, X = -— , .r = . . .
c(z uz' dz^
, dii „ cVy „, d'l/
(3)
234 REPORT— 1873.
s'obtiendront, soit diroctement si Ton peut avoir ce et y explicitemcnt cxprime's
en z, soit par les regies relatives aux fonctions implicites. Dans ce dernier
cas nous aurons d'abord,
^a^'+'^y'+^ll=0, ^ii'^''+^2/'+^=0, ... (2)
iLv ay dz ax ay dz
puis:
'Iix" + '%"+{'^,-ft/]Lijx',ty\ +i^a7'4--^ 2/'+— =0,1
dx dy \dx^\lxdij dy'^-^ ' J^ dxdz' dydz dz'' ' I
''^lx" + %" + C^, ^,'l±rx,y'\ +^ x'+^y' + '^=0,
dx dy \dx' dxdy dy^-'^ J ^ dxdz dydz dz^ ^
et ainsi de suite.
En second lieu je remarque que z=f(x, y) etant la fonction qui resulte de
I'e'limiuation du parametre a, on reproduira identiquement la quantite z si
Ton y remplace a'cty par les valours qu'on tire de la resolution des equations
(1), car autrcment ce serait de deux relations conclure une troisiome qui en
serait distincte. D'apres cela et en regardant x et y eomme fonctions de z,
la premiere derivee de I'identite obtenue donnera I'egalite suivante :
^x'V^y'-l = (4)
dx dy
la seconde et la troisieme celles-ci :
d^,
dx
z ,, , dz It {d'z d'z d'z^^ , ,\ ^ zi--.
/d'z d'z dh d'z^ , \ _
'^\Ix'' d^' d^'' fV-^''"' '^^3""
(6)
les quantite's x', x", x" , y', y" , y'" devant etre remplacees par leurs valeurs
.en fonction de s, ou eliminees au moyen des relations (2), (3), &e. En con-
tinuant les memes calculs jusqu'a la derivee d'ordre n, on parviendra a un
systeme de n equations, ou les derivees partielles de I'ordre le plus eleve
seronjt eyidemipeijt :
d"z d"z d"z
dx"' dx"-hhj ' ' ' dy"'
et, en y joignant les deux relations proposees, il sera possible d'effectuer
relimination du parametre a et des n fonctions arbitraires A, B, . . . L.
C'est le resultat cberche qui est ainsi une equation aux differences partielles
d^ordre n.
Dans le cas le plus simple de n—1, lorsqu'il n'existe qu'une seule fonction
arbitraire, cette equation aux differences partielles s'obtient immediatement
en resolvant par rapport a a et A les equations
?>('^'; >/,~,a, A) = 0, ;/,(a-, y, z,a,A) = 0;
ayant en effet
(i=<t{x,y,z), A = ^ (x, y, z),
ON THE ELIMINATION OF AKBITRAIIY FUNCTIONS.
235
il ne restera plus trace du parametre ni de la fouction arbitraire dans lea re-
lations (2) qui deviennent :
dx dy dz ax dij
dz
efc le resultat de relimination do x' ct y entre cos equations et 1' equation (4)
est immediatement donne en egalant ii zero le determinant :
( dz d^ d^ '^
dx' dx dx
dz d<^ d^
^=< dy' dy' di' >
_-. (Z* fZ^f
dz ' dz
Sans m'arreter a tirer de \a les e'quations aux diflferences partielles des cylin-
dres, des cones etc., jc prcuds pour exemple les surfaces reylees dont la gene-
ra trice est la droite :
x=Az + 'B, y=az+C,
ce qiu nous dounera un cas d'elimination do trois fouctions arbitraircs. Or
ayant
a:'=A.,x" = 0,x"' = 0; y'r^ct, y" = 0, y"' = 0,
les equations (5) et (6) deviennent sini|jlenient
/drz _c^_ d^YX a\ =0
\dx'^' dxdy' dy'^-^ ' /i
/<Fs d'z d'z d^YA a\ =0
yLv'' dx'-dy' dxdy'-' dy''-^ ' /a
et il ne reste plus qu'a effectuer Telimiuation de -, ce qui est bicn en effet
le resultat connu.
La consideration des surfaces enveloppes, ou s'offre un mode de generation
entierement different des precedents, conduit a definir une fonction z de x et
y par deux equations contenaut un parametre variable a, et dont I'une est la
derivee de I'autre par rapport a ce parametre. En designant de nouveau
par A, B, . . . L, n fonctions arbitraires de a, ces conditions s'expriment
ainsi :
f(x,y,z,a,A,'B,...L)=0, (7)
d ,,
j-^f(x,y,z,ci,A,B,...L) = 0, (8)
et nous nous proposons encore de former entre la fonction et les variables
indepeudantes, une equation aux differences partielles qui subsiste quelles
que soient ces fonctions de a.
A cet effet je congois que x et y soient determines par les e'quations (7) et
(8) en fonction de z, de maniere a avoir toiijours les relations prccedemment
obtenues :
dz , clz , , ^ dz „ dz ,, . (d?-z dH d-z~^ , A „ ,
-7- -"^^ +1-2/ —1 = 0, X + — y -^i —r, -J—, -j-rJ^ > y ] =0> etc.
dx dy dx dy \dx^ dxdy dy^'^ *^Ji
236 REPORT— 1872.
Mais je proeederai difFe'remment pour calculer les de'rivees :
, d.v , (III ,
^ = ^-' y= ^^' etc.,
en mcltant a profit uno circonstancc importante qui s'offre lorsqu'on vcut
7-* 7
tirer de ces equations les de'rivees particlles -y^_, ~. Differentiant pour cela la
premiere par rapport a .i-, en supposant a fonction de x, y, z, il vient
dx dz dx du dx '
ou simplcmeut d'apres Te'^uation (8),
et on obtieudrait de meme '•
dx dz dx '
dy dz dy
Or nous n'avons plus dans ccs relations les derivccs des fonctions arbitraircs
par rapport au parametre, et nous en tirerous les quantites cherches x', y',
.... exprimees au moyen seulement de A, B, . . . L, en observant que -^
dx,
par exemplc, etant une fonction cntierement detcrminee de x et y, que
j'appeUerai pour un moment (x, y), on aura
(Id _dd ,, (Id ,
dz dx ^ dy'^ '
d'oii Ton voit qu'on devra ecrirc
d^ nh\ _ d-z , d-z ,,
dz \(h'J ~ dx^ '^' "^ (Ixdy ^ '
et pareillemcnt
" " d'z ,, d'z ,
■j—r •'^" + -,- y
dxdy dy
dz \dy)
D'api'cs cela en representant suivant I'usage, les de'rivc'es particlles du pre-
mier ordre par p et (j ; ceUes du second ordre par r, s, t, nous aurons pour
determiner .r'»et y' , ces deux equations :
dx^ dxdy dxdz \dxdz dydz dz J dz
erf , , (ly , , dy , f dy , . dy ..dy\^, dy, ,.. ,. ^
dxdy dy dydz \dxdz dydz dz- J dz
et il est clair qu'en continuant de diifcrentier par rapport a z, on formera de
proche en proche, les de'rivees de x et y jusqu'a un ordre quelconque n — 1,
avec cette circonstancc que les derivees particlles de z jusqu'a I'ordre n seront
introduites dans leurs expressions. II en resulte qu'en les substituant dans
les relations (4), (5), (6), .etc.> on sei'a conduit a un systeme de n e'quations
ON THE ELIMINATION OF ARBITRARY FUNCTIONS. 237
entre ces derivees partielles et les quantites «, A, B, . . . L, Nous pouvons
done en y joignant celles-ci,
effectuer I'elimination dii paramotro et des n fonctions arbitraires ; c'est Ic
rciultat cherchequi estainsiune equation aus differences partielles d'ordre n.
Nous aliens en faire I'application a deux exemplcs tires de la gcometrie, apres
avoir remarque que les equations ci-dessus, en .v' et y', jointes a la relation
(4), 2xv'+qy'— 1=0, donnent par I'elimination de x' ety', la condition A=0,
A etant le determinant du systeme suivant :
r dp ^ d'f ^ df
dx^ dxdz dz
dxdy ^ dxdz^^ dz
*' dxdy^ dydz^^ dz''
dy' ^ dydz^^ dz
1 '^^f + '^'fp
I ' dxdz ^ dz'^'
V
dv . dy
dydz ^ dz' ^'
s
Mais si on ajoute aux termes de la premiere et de la seconde colonne hori-
zontale ceux de la troisicme, multiplies d'abord par p et ensuite par q, on aura
plus simplement A = B'-— c? en posant:
' W' d^z' dz'^'^JJdz '
p fdj d'f d'f^. \ , df^
dxdy ^ dydz ^ ^ dxdz ^^ dz' ^^^ dz '•
Ce resultat pent s'obtenir directement d'une maniore tres-facile ; je me bome-
rai a en faire Tapplication d'abord aux surfaces developpables enveloppe des
positions d'un plan mobile : z + av+ Ay + B=0, ce qui donne immediatement
A = r, B = s, C = < d'ou par consequent I'equation si connue : s'^—rt=0.
Soit en second lieu les surfaces canaux, enveloppe des positions d'une
sphere de rayon constant,
(x-Af + (y-Bf + (r-«) = a";
dont le centre decrit uue courbe quelconque. On obtient alorS
|A = l+pH (=-«)'•. iTi=pq + (z-a)s, ^G=l + q^+(z-a)t,
ct le parametre s'elimine au moyen des relations
x-A + (z-a)2> = 0, y— B + (r-n)2 = 0,
qui donnent en substituant dans I'equation de la sphere,
De la rdsulte I'equation aux differences partielles du second ordre :
238 REPORT— 1872.
Nous ne nous sommos occiipes jusqu'ici de la formation des equations anx
diflPerences partielles que dans le cas d'une fonction de deux variables.
Considerons maintenant par exemple une fonction ?t de .r, y, z, en la
definissant par ces trois equations, ou entrent detix parametres a, /3, et un
nombre quelconque n de fonctions arbitraires A, B. . . . L, de ces para-
metres, savoir :
<i> {x, y, z, n, a, /3, A, B, . . . L)=0,
^ (.r, y, z, u, a, /), A, B, . . . L) = 0,
(a?, 1/, r, M, o, /3, A, B, . . . L) = 0.
L' elimination des fonctions arbitraires s'effectuera par la meme methode que
precedemment, et donnera pour rcsultat une equation aux differences parti-
elles d'ordre n. La meme conclusion s'obtiendra aussi en considerant les
relations :
.•/(•^,2/,r,ii,a,/3,A,B,...L) = 0, 'J^ =0, [| =0.
Mais elle n'a plus lieu, si Ton pose seulement deux equations avec un seul
parametre variable, savoir :
^(.r,2/,r,tt, t<,A,B, ...L) = 0, ^(.r,y,r,«, a, A, B, . . . L)=0;
car alors on peut former une equation aux differences partielles d'ordre n,
representant le resultat de rclimination d'un nombre de fonctions arbitraires
tl ( 'iX 1 ^
de a supcricur a n, et egal a V) • Lorsque le nombre des quantites
A, B, . . . L n'est point compris dans cette forraule, s'il est egal a 4 par ex-
emple, de sorte qu'on ne puisse pas obtenir une equation aux derivees par-
tielles du second ordre, on parvieudra en introduisant les derivees du troisieme
ordre, a plusicurs relations distinctes au lieu d'une seule. Cette circonstance
que presente souvent I'elimination des fonctions arbitraires, montre qu'on
doit attacher une grande importance aux formes analytiques ou Telimination
donne lieu a une conclusion precise, a une seule et unique equation aux
differences partielles ; et tel a etc le motif qui m'a fait cntreprendre ces
rechcrches dont jc prie I'Association Britannique de vouloir bien agreer
Thommagc.
Report on the Discovery of Fossils in certain remote parts of the
North-western Highlands. By William Jolly.
A LIMESTONE Tuus from Durness and Loch Eribol, in the north of Sutherland,
with varying thickness but more or less continuity south by Loch More.Inchua-
damph, Ullapool, and Loch Maree, to Kishorn near Loch Carron, Avhere it dies
out on the mainland. This limestone rests on a thick deposit of quartzite,
and this again on the red sandstone of the west coast. All of these rocks
enter into some of the grandest scenery of the North-western Highlands.
These rocks were considered unfossiHferous tiU 1855, when Mr. Peach
made his great discovery of those fossils in the Durness limestone which
were classed by Mr. Salter as Silurian, and the discovery of which enabled Sir
Er. Murchisou to complete his classification of tlie rocks of the N.W. of Scot-
O^ FOSSILS FROM THE NORTH-WESTERN HIGHLAXDS. 23^
land. These fossils were discovered ia the limestone of Durness, where they
are numerous, and where more have since then been found. This Durness
limestone forms, geographically, an isolated basin lying to the west of the
great strike of limestone which runs from Eribol to 8kye. In this detached
deposit only have fossils been found, with the rarest exceptions, to be named
below. It is important, therefore, that organic remains should be found, if
such exist, in the great line of strike, in order to determine whether this
last limestone is fossiliferous or not, and also -whether the Durness lime was
deposited under the same or under different conditions. It was for the
purpose of making diligent search along this great line of deposit, that a
grant was asked and obtained last year from the Association ; as also for the
discovery of more perfect specimens, and, if possible, new species, from the
Durness lime, in order to determine more precisely the relations these fossils
bear to the Silurian and other systems, than could be made from the sped
mens submitted to Mr. Salter in 1S58.
Since the Edinburgh Meeting last year, search has been instituted along
this great strike of limestone at Durness, Loch Eribol, Inchnadamph,
Elphin, and Kinlochewe, and Avill be made at Ullapool and Loch Kishorn.
At these points, certain clergymen, teachers, and other gentlemen have kindly
consented to do what they can towards the discovery of fossils, so that more
systematic search will now be made than heretofore. Good results may be
anticipated, if not in the discovery of fossils, at least in greater certainty as
to the presence or absence of organic remains in these remarkable rocks.
At DuKNPiss, in July of last year, many fine fossils were obtained, through
the efforts of some members of the Committee and their friends, from a re-
markable island of limestone near Cape Wrath, called Elian Garve. These
fossils were shown at the Meeting in Edinburgh, and were pronounced by
Mr. Poach much finer than any he had seen from the same locality. They
have been secured as the nucleus of a collection for the Association. A col-
lection of fine specimens was also made by a student resident in the district,
for Professor Nicol, of Aberdeen, who now has them in his possession. This
island is so difficult of access, except in the very calmest weather, that we
were unable to land both this year and last. In June of this year, along
with some friends, I landed on a rocky headland of limestone, on the west side
of the Kyle of Durness, where fossils are exposed on the weathered surfaces
of the limestone in remarkable numbers, and I obtained some good speci-
mens. Several gentlemen in the neighbourhood have kindly agreed to make
diligent search in the Durness limestone at various points, and one of them
has also kindly allowed the use of his boat for this purpose ; so that good
work will be done at the least possible expense.
Loch Eribol. — No fossils have yet been discovered in the extensive lime-
stone rocks on Loch Eribol. An Orthoceratite was presented to the Jermyn-
Street Museum by Sir II. Murchison, which he got from Mr. Clark, of Eribol
House. This Orthoceratite is unique, as being the only organism found in
the quartzite. It was not, however, found in situ, nor at the spot marked
by Sir Iloderick in his paper in the 'Geological Journal' of August 1860,
vol. xvi., but was picked up in a detached piece of rock between Eribol
House and the loch to the west. Lime-works have been established on Loch
Eribol on the limestone peninsiila of Heilim, and quarrying has been done
in connexion with these, but as yet no fossils have been found. These ope-
rations afford an unwonted opportunity for their discovery, and the strictest
watch is to be kept by the lessee.
iNCHNADAMPn, — In the immense development of limestone at the head of
240 REPORT— 1872.
Locli Assynt no fossil has yet been discovered, except two by Mr. Peach iu
the stinking limestone above the manse near Inchnadamph. One of these
was an Orthoceratite. I sjDcnt some time on this limestone this year,
but was unsuccessful, except in finding a piece that may turn out to be
organic. Mr. Peach's discovery shows that fossils may be found here ; and
the parish teacher is to make search during next year.
Elphin is situated, not far from the splendid limestone-cliff of Craig-an-
Knockan, figured by both Murchison and Nicol ia their papers on these rocks.
Here the limestone is largely developed, and has been quarried at various
points. The teacher of the Society school is to look for fossils.
Near Ullapool, on Loch Broom, there has been a good deal of quarrying
for lime-burning, and the sections arc extensive. Something may be dis-
covered there. Search will be made.
At Ktnlocheave, at the head of Loch Maree, there is not so much lime-
stone exposed as in other parts. The Free Church teacher there is to devote
his spare time to a search ; but much cannot be looked for, as the limestone
is in contact with igneous rocks, in Glen Logan, where it is found.
At Locn KisuouN there is a large exposure of limestone along the loch
near Courthill. This will be submitted to careful search.
In this way the whole line of strike of this limestone from N. to S. will be
examined by intelligent men, who have kindly and earnestly entered into the
work, and we consider ourselves fortunate in having secured such cooperation.
The Committee confidently hope that by next Meeting they will be en-
abled to present to the Association a good collection of organic remains from
these interesting rocks ; or, at least, to have done something that will contri-
bute to greater certainty as to whether, and to what extent, these rocks are
fossiliferous or not.
Report of the Committee on Earthquakes in Scotland. The Committee
consists of Br. Buyce, F.G.S., Sir W. Thomson, F.R.S., D. Milne-
Home, F.R.S.E., and J. Bkough.
As Convener of the Committee -on Earthquakes in Scotland, I have to report
that the last year has passed without any incident coming within the scope
of this inquiry ; there has not occurred any sensible disturbance in the
Comrie district, or oscillation of the lakes in the neighbourhood, such as
those recorded in former Reports. In other parts of Scotland the same
freedom from earthquake-movements has prevailed. But this state of
quiescence is not likely to continue ; and the attention of the Committee
has been turned to the remedying of those defects which from time to
time are apt to occur with instruments long in use, and to the extension
of the means of observing to other localities suitably placed for the pur-
pose. The accomplishment of this object renders necessary some more simple
means of noting shocks than any which have hitherto been applied by the
Committee. The seismometer belonging to the Association, which now
occupies the tower of the parish church of Comrie, is of too complex con-
struction, and takes up too much room, to be applicable except in a few
peculiar localities. Some simple and cheap method of indicating earthquake-
movements is thus much to be desired. Any apparatus for the purpose
ON THE STRUCTURE OF CARBONIFEROUS-LIMESTONE CORALS. 241
should occupy small space, be little liable to derangement, capable of being
put up in any ordinary apartment not of special construction, and its indica-
tions such as any intelligent person could easily interpret and readily note.
The Committee are now anxiously considering what instrumental means
will best combine these several requisites and advantages, and what stations
would be most suitable to select in extending the area of the inquiry. Mean-
while the seismometer of the Association, which is the invention of the late
Principal Forbes, is kept in proper working order at Comrie, where also the first
supplemental indicator will be set up. Principal Forbes's son, Mr. Geo. Forbes,
Edinburgh, who has gained some practical acquaintance with earthquake in-
struments at Naples, has been taken into their counsels by the Committee, and
they have now to request that Mr. Forbes be added to their number.
(Signed) James Brtce, M.A., LL.D., Convener.
P.S. — During the Session of the Association at Brighton an earthquake of
considerable severity occurred in the Comrie district, of which an account
wlU. be given next year. — J. B.
Fourth Rejjort of the Committee appointed to investigate the Structure
of Carboniferous-Litnestone Corals. The Committee consists of
James Thomson, F.G.S., and Professor Harkness, F.R.S.
At the Liverpool Meeting of the British Association the Committee reported
that they hoped, by means of a new process, to produce representations of
the most delicate internal structures of corals of the Carboniferous series.
The necessity of such a process forced itself on the Committee by the circum-
stance that none of the existing methods of representing corals reproduced
faithfully the details of their internal structure.
The photographs of the Carboniferous corals exhibited at the Liverpool
Meeting represented these details in some of their most delicate forms.
This result had been obtained by the transmission of light through their
sections ; and subsequent investigations have led us to infer that there are
no better means than that of photography for reproducing generic details.
Great expense, however, attends this process ; and as it is also a very slow
one, experiments have been made in order that the same satisfactory result
might be more readily and less expensively obtained.
At the Edinburgh Meeting they were unable to lay before Section C the
same number of results as at the previous Meeting ; but they had so far
succeeded as to be able to produce two plates, although they were not so
perfect as was desirable : they were, however, sufficiently successful to
justify the Committee in asserting that a more simple and less expensive
process was available. In the application of this process the Committee
have been ably assisted by Mr. Keckie, the artist employed by them in
engraving the copper-plates.
During the past year the investigations of the Committee have been con-
tinued with increasing interest. They have now made sections of upwards
of 1300 specimens, and have been able to add considerably to this branch of
Palaeontology.
In their Eeport presented to the Liverpool Meeting ninety-two forms were
alluded to ; and these presented characters sufficiently distinct to justify thy
1872. • 8
242 REPORT— 1872.
Committee in adding them to those previously described by MM. Milne-Edwards
and Jules Haime. By this addition, the number of British Carboniferous
corals amounts to 156 species.
From the forms which have been recently sliced, and also from those of
former years, the Committee have ascertained that among these species from
300 to 400 varieties occur, an increase which is so great, and the variations
so minute, that it becomes difficult to determine specific characters among
these corals.
The gradations of the varieties are in some cases so constant, and pass
so imperceptibly into each other, that they induce the inference that there
has been an inherent tendency in the polyp to vary independent of, but to
be modified by, the conditions of its surroimdiugs.
The forms occurring in deposits which have resulted from deep water are
not only more symmetrical in outline, but also more perfect in their internal
structure than such as are met with in strata formed in shallow water,
where they have been exposed to the constant shiftiiigs and abrading influence
of shore deposits.
In the case of such forms as occur in a matrix originally in the state of
fine mud, these are small in size ; and they seem to have been gradually
exterminated by the impurity of the water, arising from the increase of the
fine sedimentary matter originally held in suspension.
Many of the specimens which have been sliced are found to be perfectly
useless from their imperfect state of fossilization. Some reveal structural
characters not previously noticed by authors in this branch of Palseontology ;
it is desirable that these should be studied further before a complete classi-
fication of this group of animal life is attempted.
The classification of corals has in some instances been based upon external
aspects ; in others on the number and form of the septa. The number
and arrangement of the lamellfe which pass from the inner margin of the
primary septa and fill up the columeUarian space have also been adopted as
bases of classification.
Some writers regard the form and position of the dissepiments of the
endotheca as of specific importance ; and some rest generic and specific
distinctions upon the presence or absence of the columellarian line which
passes from the inferior to the superior, and terminates in the centre of the
calice. Observations, however, justify us in inferring that, although these
several characters are of importance, they cannot be depended upon for
specific determinations.
During the last fifteen years no less than 10,000 specimens have been
sliced, many of which show structural diff'erences" in character from such as
have been accepted as of specific importance, which induce us to conclude
that further examinations are necessary before determining even a variety.
It has been stated that the columellarian line has been accepted as of
generic value. In a new group of corals, which will form the subject of
an extensive memoir, this line is developed, in some instances, near the
inferior, and in others it occurs only in the superior portion of the coral.
The dissepiments filling up the interseptal space are in some forms angular,
in others subangular and. rectangular. We have, however, recognized these
several outlines in the sa^e form, and cannot, therefore, accept the outline
of the dissepiments as of specific importance.
In the case of the number of lamelke also, some forms present the lamellae
in one part, while in another part of the same coral the space is filled up
by tubulsB.
ON CLAIMS FOR REWARD FOR ADOPTED INVENTIONS ETC. 243
Concerning the number of the septa, this can hardly be regarded as of
value, since this number is dependent on age and surrounding conditions
during the growth of the polyp.
In order that some definite rule may be obtained as a guide in the classi-
fication of corals, it is proposed to select generic types, and, after making
sections of these through different jjarts, to exhibit their structure in plates,
from the ova to their mature forms ; and it is only when this is faithfully
done that we can hope to determine where a sjjecies begins and a variety ends.
We have, in conclusion, to thank the British Association and many kind
friends for the assistance rendered us, and hope for its continuance until this
laborious but interesting investigation be completed, as we are satisfied that
results will be obtained commensurate with the time and expense which the
work has cost during the last fifteen years.
A sum considerably in excess of the grant having been expended, the
Committee have to ask that a further grant of £25 be placed at their disposal
for continuing the investigation.
Report of the Committee, consisting of J. F. Bateman, C.E., F.R.S.,
P. Le Neve Foster, M.A., C. W. Merripield, F.R.S., E. Easton,
F.G.S., F. J. Bramwell, C.E., W. Hope, V.C, and H. Bauerman,
F.G.S., appointed to consider' the mode in ivhich new Inventions and
Claims for Reivard in respect of adopted Inventions are examined
and dealt with by the different Departments of Government, and to
report on the best means of removing any real causes of dissatisfac-
tion, as tvell as of silencing unfounded complaints.
Having regard to the evidence taken by the Committee of the House of
Commons on the subject of the Patent Laws, in 1871 and 1872, on the rela-
tions between inventors and the Government, as well as to complaints made
in Parliament and elsewhere, your Committee were of opinion that they had
before them sufiicient information " as to the mode in which new inventions,
and claims for reward in respect of adopted inventions, are examined and
dealt with by the difierent departments of Government." They therefore
did not think it necessary or desirable to examine witnesses on the subject.
The Committee considered it fully established that the present methodical
mode of dealing with inventions submitted to the different departments of
Government was uncertain and unsatisfactory in itself, frequently unjust to
inventors, and generally detrimental to the public administration. They
considered it established to their satisfaction, that real injustice was
frequently done to inventors, not only by neglect and procrastination in
dealing with their claims, but also by the undue preference of other con-
flicting claims urged by officers of the different departments. Without enter-
ing into the merits of any cases in point, it appeared beyond doubt that the
practical judges of the inventions have been very often rival inventors within
the departments. The Committee considered it obvious that this placed both
the inventor and departmental officers in a false position, and that the con-
sequent decisions could be satisfactory to nobody. As matter of evidence,
they considered that these departmental decisions had failed to give satisfac-
tion either to inventors or to the public.
s2
244 REPORT — 1873.
It remained for the Committee to consider and report on the best means
of removing " any real causes of dissatisfaction, as well as of silencing un-
founded complaints."
The Committee are of opinion that the primary means of effecting this
object is to bring the adjudication of these claims within a jurisdiction inde-
pendent of the administration of departments of the public service. As long
as the Patent Law remains as at present, the Committee are of opinion that
the only satisfactory method of determining what compensation should be
given to inventors, in cases where the Government makes use of their inven-
tions, is to have recourse to arbitration. Any inventor whose patented in-
vention is used, or believed to be used, by any Government official, or agent
under Government authority, should be at liberty to apply to the proper
Government department, stating what is the invention used, and how and
where, and requesting that the application be referred to the decision of two
arbitrators, who shall be appointed, one by the applicant and one by the
Government department, with power to appoint an umpire, and that the
proceedings be assimilated to ordinary compensation cases.
The Committee, hoping that the recommendations of the House of Commons
Committee will, at an earl}^ period, be made the subject of legislation,
recommend that steps be taken, by petition to Her Majesty or otherwise, to
make the grant of Royal Letters Patent for inventions of effect as regards the
servants and officers of the Crown in the same way, and to the same extent,
as Letters Patent are of effect as regards all others of Her Majesty's siibjects.
Your Committee feel that, if in evciy ease officials appointed to investigate
new inventions were required to affix their signatures to their reports,, very
beneficial results would follow, as the personal responsibility thiis attaching to
them would ensure their full attention, and deter them from rejecting hastily,
or on insufficient grounds, anj^ proposition or invention brought before them.
The Committee consider that their Report would be incomplete if they did
not call attention to an Act for preserving secrecy in the case of inventions
connected with warfare.
This Act is the 22nd Vic, cap. 13. Its principal provisions are : —
Section 1. Improvements in instruments or munitions of war may be
assigned by inventors to Secretary of State for War.
Section 2. Foregoing enactment may extend to assignments already made.
Section 3. Secretary of State for War may certify to Commissioners of
Patents that the invention should be kept secret.
Section 4. Where he so certifies, petition for letters patent to be left with
Clerk of Patents, under seal of Secretary of State.
Section 5. Such packet to be kept sealed.
Section 6. To be delivered on demand to Secretary of State or Lord
Chancellor.
Section 7. At expiration of patent to be delivered to Secretary of State.
Section 8. Where Secretary of State certifies after filing of petition, docu-
ments already filed to be put into sealed packet.
Section 9. Copy not to be sent to Scotland or Ireland, nor published, but
otherwise provisions of Patent Acts to apply.
Section 10. No scire facias to be brought.
Section 11. Secretary of State may waive benefit of Act.
Section 12. Communication of invention to Secretary of State not to pre-
judice letters patent.
OBSERVATIONS OF LUNAR OBJECTS. 245
Report of the Committee for discussing Observations of Lunar Objects
suspected of Change. The Committee consists of the Rev. T. W.
Webb, the Rev. Robert Hakley, F.R.S., and Edward Crossley,
Secretary.
•The Committee have pleasure in presenting their Second Eeport on the above
subject. It will be remembered that the Report of last year was confined
principally to the discussion of the possible variations of visibility of the
numerous spots and craterlets upon the floor of Plato under the same condi-
tions of illumination. That now presented is directed chiefly to the discus-
sion of the various streaks aud bright patches which interlace the spots and
craterlets.
One interesting and important change ha^ been fairly shown — the floor of
Plato becomes darker with the increase of the sun's altitude. Mr. Birt has
suggested an explanation of this phenomenon. Whatever be the true cause
of this change, it is very dijBficult to account for it by the ordinary laws of
reflection. ^Yhen we consider the varying aspect of the streaks at the same
time of the luni-solar day, we cannot but think that, with careftil obse 
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