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REPORT
OF THE
FORTY-FOURTH MEETING
\.%,3 3°, Qs
Say y y OY
FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE;
HELD AT
BELFAST IN AUGUST 1874.
LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
1875.
[Office of the Association: 22 Aueemarte Srrert, Lonvoy, W.]
PRINTED BY
TAYLOR AND FRANCIS, RED LION COURT, FLEET STREFT,
CONTENTS,
Wrtram Pewertry, F.R.S. (Reporter) .... cess nceene ance duce ys
P
Oszects and Rules of the Association .......... cscs eucceees xvii
Places of Meeting and Officers from commencement ..........., XXIV
Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association from
PMMMCNCEMCNY oil. es ge sss uy aeRO NE VEGAS Teawale Es XXX
MME PERCH do's yialec vile ag PUREE Dale's Weed Fea Pens Oe xl
Lectures to the Operative Classes... 0. (eee cee eee ene xiii
DRA GAD be cichls i's 4% 4h Mae Ode a eee ua ead xhii
Table showing the Attendance and Receipts at previous Meetings. . xliv
Officers of Sectional Committees 20... 0. cece cece ee eee eee xlvi
Officers and Council, 1874-75 2... ccc eee cee eee eee leg xlvii
Report of the Council to the General Committee .........++-00: xlviii
Recommendations of the General Committee for Additional Reports
arid: Researches in Science... ... eee cc tet e tee e teen tee ene li
Bymoptis of Money Grants......... 0.0 cece cere e ene lyi
memos Meotin’ in 1876 oo. os ene vg yyy eee cet e eae teeee lvii
General Statement of Sums paid on account of Grants for Scientific
REET SA tea te Us atee tess ees cee neeies lviii
Arrangement of the General Meetings ..........:. se ence teens lxv
Address by the President, Prof. John Tyndall, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.8. lxyi
REPORTS OF RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE.
Tenth Report of the Committee for Exploring Kent’s Cavern, Devon-
shire, the Committee consisting of Sir Cuartzs Lyetr, Bart., F.R.S.,
Sir Joun Luszocx, Bart., F.R.S., Joun Evans, F.R.S., Epwarp
Vivian, M.A., Grorcr Busx, F.R.S., Witt1am Born Dawx1ys, FE.R.S.,
Witiam Aysurorp Sanrorp, F.G.S., Joun Epwarp Lex, F.G.S., and
1
iv CONTENTS.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Grapstonr, Dr. C. BR. A.
Wrieut, and W. Cuaypier Roserts, appointed for the purpose of
investigating the Chemical Constitution and Optical Properties of
Essential Oils. Drawn up by Dr. WRIGHT ©........ 00sec eees
Second Report of the Sub-Wealden Exploration Committee, the Committee
consisting of Henry Wittert,F.G.S., R. A. C. Gopwix-Avsren, F.RB.S.,
W. Torrey, F.6.8., T. Davinson, F.R.S., Prof. J. Presrwicn, F.R.S.,
Prof. Boyp Dawxnrns, F.R.S., and Henry Woopwarp, F.R.S. Drawn
up by Henry Wrizerr and W. Toruny .... 0... eee e eee eee ees
On the Recent Progress and Present State of Systematic Botany. By
one DENTHOM, LI... oe NS al eee ce ee ons 5 ee ey €
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Pyr-Surra, Dr. Brunton
(Secretary), and Mr. Wesr, appointed for the purpose of investigating
theuNature ol intestinal SeeretiOM +. 5... 00.3 ve -s\s + ws) sieeeeeuae
Report of the Committee on the Teaching of Physics in Schools, the
Committee consisting of Professor H. J. 8. Sutra, Professor Crirrorp,
Professor W. G. Apams, Professor Batrour Srewart, Professor R. B.
Currron, Professor Everett, Mr. J. G. Fircn, Mr, G. Grirrira, Mr.
Marsnarn Warts, Professor W. F. Barrerr, Mr. J. M. Witson, Mr.
Lockyer, and Professor G. C. Fosrmr (Secretary) ........-...000-
Preliminary Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Armstrong and
Professor Torre, appointed for the purpose of investigating Isomeric
Cresols and their Derivatives. Drawn up by Dr. Henry E, Anmsrrone
Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Jams Brycn and
Wi1am Jonny, appointed for the purpose of collecting Fossils from
localities of difficult access in North-western Scotland. Drawn up
by Writram Jotzy, Secretary ........- 1 eee eee eee eee Seamer
Report on the Rainfall of the British Isles for the years 1873-74, by a
Committee, consisting of C. Brooxs, F.R.S., J. Grarsuer, F.R.S., J.
F. Baremay, C.E., F.R.S., T. Hawxstey, C.E., C. Tomson, F.R.S.,
Rogers Fier, C.E., G. J. Symons, Secretary..........eeseeedace
On the Belfast Harbour. By T. R. Sanmonn, C.E. ........ 00000 cs
Report of the Committee, consisting of W. Caanpier Rozerrs, Dr,
Mutts, Dr. Boycorr, A. W. Gaprspen, and J. 8. Sernon, appointed for
the purpose of inquiring into the Method of making Gold-assays, and
of stating the Results thereof. Drawn up by W. Cuanpter Rosrrts,
Seerebary oo. ..c.ckhelen + bos oy te erate +o se dss a
Report of a Committee, consisting of Prof. A.8. Herscnet, B.A., F.R.AS.,
and G, A. Lezour, F.G.S8., on Experiments to determine the Thermal
Conductivities of certain Rocks, showing especially the Geological
Aspects of the Investigation 2.0 i. umes ci sees nsccnwemegpes
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir Jonny Lupnock, Bart.,
Prof. Hueues, Prof. W. Boyp Dawkins, Messrs. L. C. Mratt and R, H.
TrppEMAN, appointed for the purpose of assisting in the Exploration
of the Settle Caves (Victoria Cave). Drawn up by R. H. Troprmay,
OCIGHATV. veins» sels mrs e/4 «nie opsyn ple wit Min ieee ere Benin os oi OS
On the Industrial Uses of the Upper Bann River. By Jouy Suyrn,
are DAL. /C.Bien BLOB. 04 st. ctaoe SORA tha el ORES Re
Page
£7
27
54
128
133
—————————i
CONTENTS. : Vv
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Huxtey, LL.D., F.R.S.,
Professor Harxnuss, F.R.S., Henry Woopwarp, F.R.S., James Toom~-
son, Joun Briac, and L. C. Marz, on the Structure and Classifica-
tion of the Labyrinthodonts. Drawn up by L. C. Mraxx, Secretary
PERE RGOMITIUU UGG cxctsucis) Paes Seka) hci Qislcdabanlone, oft a's: eine Sx sulnnalenere fale 149
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Harkness, Pro-
fessor Prestwicu, Professor Huenes, Rev. H. W. Crossxxy, Professor
W. Bory Dawxtys, Messrs. C. J. Woopwarp, Grorcr Maw, L. C.
Mraz, G. H. Morroy, and J. E. Lex, appointed for the purpose of
recording the position, height above the sea, lithological characters,
size, and origin of the more important of the Erratic Blocks of Eng-
land and Wales, reporting other matters of interest connected with
the same, and taking measures for their preservation. Drawn up
by the Rev. H. W. Crossxxy, Secretary.........-seee seer eeeees 192
Sixth Report of the Committee on the Treatment and Utilization of
Sewage, consisting of Ricuarp B. Granrnam, C.E., F.G.S. (Chair-
man), F. J. Bramwett, C.E., F.R.S., Professor W. H, Corrretp,
M.A., M.D. (Oxon.), J. H. Grizerr, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., W. Hore,
V.C., and Professor A. W. Witt1amson, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S......- 200
Report on the Anthropological Notes and Queries for the use of
Travellers published by the Committee, consisting of Colonel Lanz
Fox, Dr. Brppoz, Mr. Franxs, Mr. Francis Garron, Mr. E. W.
Brasrook, Sir Jonn Lvszocx, Sir Watrer Exxior, Mr. Cremenrs
Marxuam, and Mr. E. B. Trtor. By Colonel A. Lanz Fox, Secre-
Pamywt the ComMitbee 6. ws cise nn ery ee ve gnleii sale enmaies 214
On Cyclone and Rainfall Periodicities in connexion with the Sun-spot
Periodicity. By CuHartus MELDRUM ...... 00s. seen sence seeees 218
Fifth Report on Earthquakes in Scotland, drawn up by Dr. Brycs,
F.G.S. The Committee consists of Dr. Bryce, F.G.S., Sir W. THom-
son, F.RB.S., J. Broven, G. Forzes, F.R.S.E.,D. Mirnz-Home, F.R.S.E.,
SPERM PIRESTETOMSONG oo Mi. ote < fence ot ciate: sais ou- nich bales s ait MARC ANOIL ta, “OINIn Ley aS 241
Report of the Committee appointed to prepare and print Tables of
Wave-numbers, the Committee consisting of Dr. Hucerns, F.R.S., J.
N. Locxyzr, F.R.S., Dr. Reynorns, F.R.S., G. J. Sronzy, F.R.S., W.
Srorriswoonz, F.R.S., Dr. Dz La Rus, F.R.S., and Dr. W. M. Warts 241
Report of the Committee, consisting of Prof. A.W. Wizrauson, F.RS.,
Prof. Sir W. Tomson, F.R.S., Prof. Crerxk Maxwett, F.R.S.. Prof.
G. C. Foster, F.R.S., F. A. Aset, F.R.S., Prof. Freemine Jenkin,
F.R.S., C. W. Sremens, F.R.S., and Mr. R. Sasrye, appointed for the
purpose of testing the new Pyrometer of Mr. Siemens .........+.- 242
Report to the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty on Experiments
for the Determination of the Frictional Resistance of Water on a
Surface, under various conditions, performed at Chelston Cross, under
the Authority of their Lordships. By Wri1ram Frovpg, F.RS. .... 249
Second Report of the Committee for the Selection and Nomenclature of
Dynamical and Electrical Units, the Committee consisting of Professor
Sir W. Tuomson, F.R.S., Professor G. C. Fostrr, F.R.S., Professor J.
Crerxk Maxwett, F.R.S., G. J. Stonzy, F.R.S., Professor Freemine
Jenxin, F.R.S., Dr. C. W. Siemens, F.R.S., F. J. Bramwext, F.RS.,
vi CONTENTS.
Professor W. G. Apams, F.R.S., Professor Batrour Stewart, F.R.S.,
and Professor Evurerr (Secretary) ........... 2.00 bevbeeeees v4
On Instruments for Measuring the Speed of Ships. Memorandum of
Mr. Frovpr’s Experiments in relation to the Pressure-Log, with a
Description of the Apparatus employed. The Committee consists of
W. Frovps, F.R.S., F. J. Bramwewt, F.R.S., A. E. Frercner, Rev.
E. L. Berton, James R. Napvrer, F.R.S., C. W. Merrirrmrp, F.B.S.,
Dr. C. W. Sremens, F.R.S., H. M. Brunen, W. Surrn, Sir Wint1am
THomson, FLRS., and J: N. SHOODBRED .......... 0.000 besesees
Report of the Committee, consisting of the Rev. H. F. Barnus, H. E.
Dresser (Secretary), T. Hartanp, J. E. Harrie, Professor Nuwron,
and the Rev. Canon Trisrram, appointed for the purpose of inquiring
into the possibility of establishing a “ Close Time” for the protec-
PoOumpe SaMmenMAs TmiTDIE i. dss... te tcc see kes vee e bred eames
Report of the Committee, consisting of Lord Hovenron, Prof. Toro
Rocrrs, W. Newmarcu, Prof. Fawcerr, M.P., Jacos Brnrens, F, P.
Fettows, R. H. Ineuis Panerave, ArcuipALp Hamirron, and SAMUEL
Brown, Prof. Lronz Luvi (Secretary), appointed to inquire into the
Economic Effects of Combinations of Labourers and Capitalists, and
into the Laws of Economic Science bearing on the principles on
Which ‘they dre founded cts: 03.1010 d Ebi. bead ee eee
Preliminary Report of the Committee, consisting of J. Gwyn Jerrreys,
F.R.S., G. 8. Brapvy, D. Rozertson, and H. B. Brapy, F.R.S., on
Dredging on the Coasts of Durham and North Yorkshire. Drawn up
by Davip Rozerrson and Groret Srewarpson BRADY ............
Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors during the year 1873-74,
by a Committee, consisting of Jamus Guatsuer, F.R.S., of the Royal
Observatory, Greenwich, R. P. Gree, F.G.S., F.R.A.S., C. Brooxx,
F.R.S., Prof. G. Fornzs, F.R.S.E., and Prof. A. 8. Herscnen, F.R.A.S.
Report on the best means of providing for a Uniformity of Weights and
Measures, with reference to the Interests of Science, by a Committee
consisting of The Right Hon. Sir Srarrorp H. Norrucorn, Bart., 0.B.,
M.P., The Right Hon. Sir C. B. Appertry, M.P., Sir W. Arusrrone,
C.B., F.R.S8., Samuzt Brown, F.S.S., Dr. Farr, F.R.S., A. Hamirton,
¥.G.8., Prof. Franxianp, F.R.S., Prof. Hunnussy, F.R.S., Prof.
Lxone Levi, F.S8.S. (Secretary), C. W. Siemens, F.R.S., Prof. A. W.
Page
255
255
266
268
269
Witiiamson, F.R.S., Major-Gen, Srracnzy, F.R.S., and Dr. Ropers 359
CONTENTS. vil
NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS
OF
MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS.
MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.
; : Page
Address by the Rev. Professor J. H. JELLETT, M.A., M.R.LA., President of
the Section ..se..e.eeeeee Pras ees Rady hiss MA Pia i kha
MatHEMATICS.
Professor W. K, Crrrvorp on the General Equations of Chemical Decom-
RMN on Vt x vi aati ary a fiir nn eee ta ts ont e Nee es sponte
——— on a Message from Professor Sylvester .:.....+:. 10
Professor Curtis on certain Applications of Newton's Construction for the
Disturbing Force exerted by a distant Body ...+-++++sssseserereeeeeres
Professor J. D. EverEtt on Statical and Kinematical Analogues ...sssee0 11
— —_————— on a New Application of Quaternions...... a fk Rie
Mr. J. W. L, Guaisuer on Partitions and Derivations......++++++++ Top atan « i
—___—————— on some Elliptic-transcendent Relations ..i.sssees 15
Professor BreRENS DE Haan’s Contributions to the Report on Mathematical
Males irish vee cass veers v ake ccnseeees as RiaFA, 9/3, 01k rayne ee Soroka 16
Mr. H. Harr on some Conversions of Motion. ....+s+eereees sal emereisietaratens 17
Mr. W. Haypen on Approximate Parallel Motion.....+.+++++e+srsees ease ke
Professor Cuerk Maxwe.t on the Application of Kirchhoft’s Rules for
Electric Circuits to the Solution of a Geometrical Problem ......+++++++-
Professor F. W, Newman on the Calculation of Exponential Functions .... 19
Professor F, Purser on Bitangents to the Surface of Centres ofa Quadric.. 19
Mr. W. Srorriswoopkr on Multiple Contact of Quadrics and other Surfaces . 19
Mr. T. B. Spracur’s Explanations of Mr. M‘Clintock’s Method of finding
the Value of Life Annuities by means of the Gamma Function ......+
ASTRONOMY.
Vill CONTENTS.
Mr. J. N. Locxyer’s Preliminary Note on Coggia’s Comet........ Padiote tiie
—_——_—_——_——-—. on a New Map of the Solar Spectrum
Colonel Stuart Wort.Ley on Photography in connexion with Astronomy. .
Puysics.
Professor T, ANDREWS on Experiments at High Pressures ......0..+0e00es
Professor W. F. Barrett on the Teaching of Practical Physics ........++
Dr. W. B. CARPENTER on the Physical Theory of Undercurrents ..........
Professor F. GuTHRIE on the Flight of Birds............ccceeeeeeeeeeees
Mr. G. JoHNsToNE Stoney on the Confirmation of the Nebular Origin of the
———_—__—_—_——_— on the Physical Units of Nature .............-
Dr. Vaueuan on Physics of the Internal Harth..............44 re
Heat.
Mr. J. Dewar on the Latent Heat of Gases ..... ccc eects ee eee eee tenes
Professor F. GurHrre on a New Class of Hydrates ...... 00sec ee eeeees
Professor Joun PursER on the Source from which the Kinetic Hnergy is
drawn that passes into Heat in the Movement of the Tides............05
Lieut.
Mr. P. Brawawm’s further Experiments on Light with Cireularly Ruled Plates
of Glass..... afer si.c's ib he MOMS Ine: sedate: ecu caste sucha have tera viene ais WG MTN TOre ole eee
Professor Curtis on Extraordinary Reflection ...........cceese eens Ag die
Mr, W. Lapp on the Construction of large Nicol’s Prisms .............0+-
Professor G. G. Sroxrs on the Construction of a perfectly Achromatic Tele-
RESO saraic apau'a's, "4, 4 46.4.4) 5's ale olare & forouanpt Ae a pehiig oh: rosy +ge15 aca
Mr. 8. C. TistEy on a Form of Spottiswoode’s Triple Combination of Double-
Image Prisms and Quartz Plates applied to the ‘Table Polariscope ........
—————--— on a New and Simple Form of adjustable Slit for the Spec-
OSC OPO aiels avec gh' ol ohetaT ota" afl atat eter reloneieveVenaeei Mates @) Cieta aioin 0) aps ceeneeeeeees ve
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM.
Dr. W. FuppERsEN on some Peculiarities in the Electric Discharge from a
OV CONIA 5 reise yo; ace loxerousuerevace.6 ve wera mateaeecnetiae gy a sie ects aetna ee
Professor G. C. Fostrr’s Geometrical Illustrations of Ohm’s Law..........
on Suggestions for a Redetermination of the Absolute
Electromagnetic Units of Resistance and of Electromotive Force ........
Dr, ARTHOR SCHUSTER om Obm' sda wae om kioea teh eres atic iove cremate
on Unilateral (Conductivity. : 2/5. <9. .4,.. sen ealeanente
Mr. W. Symons on a New Method of Constructing Carbon-cells and Plates
for Galvanic Batteries ........0.0s0%es- SROGIEGCO OD DIA OIA Cio sie oe
— on a New Method for the Electrochemical Decomposition
of Oils and other Non-conducting Liquids ................ccceucuenees
on a cheap and convenient Galvanic Battery adapted for weak
but continuous Currents.......... biobindan POOHICIAHIO Din. gD TAS ocy wey
Page
9
“
20
CONTENTS.
; P.
Sir W. Tomson on the Effect on the Compass of the Rolling of Ships ....
Professor Gustav WisDEMANN on the Proportions in which Bases and Acids
present in a Solution combine with each other .........+e++00: iialafateeats
Mons. Aur. Nravpet Brequet’s Notes of Experiments on the Electric
Currents produced by the Gramme Magneto-electric Machine........+5..
METEOROLOGY.
Mr. Isaac Asue on the Cause of the Progressive Motion of Cyclones, and of
the Seasonal Variations in their Paths... 1.1... cece cece eee cece ee enes
Mr. R. B. Betcuer on Disturbance of the Weather by Artificial Influences,
especially Battles, Military Manceuvres, great Explosions, and Conflagra-
ee TE ST ia Reale cee erste lace colele ef efelshafeis's cielo siaidalatele olaitfelslaisia gs
Mr. Henry F. Buanrorp on certain protracted Irregularities of Atmospheric
Pressure in the Indian Monsoon Region, and their relation to Variations of
the Local Rainfall ..........0c cece ee cree eee eeeees a trtiet constey sie ete = ac
Mr. T. Morrat on the apparent Connexion between Sun-spots and Atmo-
spheric Ozone ......ss sees eeeeeen eect ence enerees tis ssneneeses eens
Mr. F. Pasrorexi on a Gymbal-swung Rain-gauge ...s esses e sense rene é
of Strong Winds....... sce cece eee eee eee ee eee e teen ener teen nes
Mr. Joun SmyTH, jun., on the Meteorology at Banbridge for ten Years, and
Rainfall of Ulster ......cceeee ces eeeee SRirido orion cdociinebend 5Ge =<
Rey. Fenwick W. Srow on the Absorption of the Sun’s Heat-rays by the
Vapour of the Atmosphere..... 1... sse se ee reece een ete ee nee eens Abie
Lieut.-Col. A. StRanGE on the Necessity for placing Physical Meteorology
on a Rational Basis......cseee sees rene eee eeeeeee Tack HO) Se OAT OO CO
Mr. G. J. Symons on the Relative Sensitiveness of Thermometers differing in
Size, Shape, or Materials ......+-+.+eeeeeeees stigmas ue bec “jagogioe
on a New Form of Rain-gauge .sssessseeeeeveves Aine
Instruments &c.
‘Professor W. F. BARRETT on an Apparatus for showing the Interference of
Sound ....+. pe ctatehal-y ibis Tas) sie, sieaehs aii Som ao ace? Sl etoitereiiets s Aaa Woah
Mr. Howarp Gruss on Improvements in Equatorial Clocks ..........+4.-
My. F. Hersert Marsuatv’s description of a Trompe or Blowing-Engine for
giving a supply of Coal-gas under Pressure for Sensitive Flames ........
Mr. G. J. Morrison on the Adoption (for the general purposes of Navigation)
of Charts on Gnomonic Projection instead of on Mercator’s Projection ....
My. Henry Necrettr on Negretti and Zambra’s Patent Recording and Deep-
sea Thermometer.......cceccereecceecnreencenseaeneeeasensonsseaes
My. S. OC. Trstey on a Four-Pendulum Apparatus... ....+.. PaO S loti Oo
CHEMISTRY.
Address by Professor A. Crum Browy, M.D., F.R.8.E., F.C.S., President of
1. SQEETOI 6 G2 8 acceepelnio it u.0 DISIRINIODIO cao a gtOI OGIO OOF OO Gag OL Oni CE oa
Dr. Anprews on the Composition of an Inflammable Gas issuing from below
the Silt-bed in Belfast........065 PASC OORO OP DOO OULU OORT tC.
82
33
34
x CONTENTS.
Dr. ANDREWS on an Aspirator .....5... an OMe fiiaeie ns fe ws He sense
Mr. I. Lowrutan Bett on the Joint Action of Carbonic Acid and Cyanogen
on Oxide of Iron and on Metallic Tron. ss. . cise sete cies tee eee ciate arhidat
Mr. P. Brawam and Mr, J. W. GATEHOUSE on the Dissociation of Nitrie Acid
ay cVATLOUS AM CRTIA Mepis ns Bint Hinets Sialets ise ot 81s anand t lista Sitaram
— on a Mode of producing Spectra on a Screen with the Oxy-
hydrogen lame... .mn aio yaer sia sine Pe ahs aisine wis ease eee pe tule
Professor Crum Brown on the Mode of writing Chemical Equations ......
—— and Dr. E.-A. Lerrs on Methyl-thetine ....... ae
Dr. W. B. CarpENTER on the Replacement of Organic Matter by Siliceous
Deposits in the Process of Fossilization ............ Rdoede tc x Sera
Mr, Witt1am CHarzey on the Injurious Effects of Dew-rotting Flax in cer-
(aie. Gaseh las ¢ ibo Du Oa De OO On Ono OOo OO Or OT” Be koe oe tp c
Professor CLIFFORD on the General Equations of Chemical Decomposition . .
Mr. W. J. Cooprr on the Composition of certain Kinds of Food ...... odo
Professor DeBus on Spontaneous Generation from a Chemical Point of View.
Professor DELFFS on an Aspirator ......ss.seeeoeee Scio a sie tenn eteratets
Dr. Dewar on the Latent Heat of Liquefied Gases ..........eccceeeeeess
Mr. Toomas Farrury on Chlorine, Hypochlorous Acid, &c., and Peroxide of
TER teers oineeg chtcind Leoni: OOMOnr Ege Ik Licchbion Gta OC ore ave cic
Professor GLApsTONE and Mr. AuFRED TrRisn’s Electrolytic Experiments on
some. Metallic Chlorides:: 2255 sviaads reves cissrnioeecnsc shee ty Oe eee
on the Composition of ‘Tea and Tea-soils from Cachar. .
— on the Composition of the Fibre of the J ute-plant, and its
USO sas POX GILG MM AGCLIA cea, o,5°01/eaplae cc anaes 8p 205-0 a%e) s1¢.8 aiale hier e ieee RO
Mr, W. Jesse Lovett on an Improved Vacuum Filter-pump............4.
Mr. T. R. Ocrivre on the Estimation of Phosphoric Acid as Pyrophos-
phate of Magnesia ....... ccs eeseeeeeessnsees ols) o/b iae 0 61sie eial ety see
Dr, T. L. Pureson on a Sesquisulphide of Iron ........00..eceeeevees rates
= — on the Presence of Cyanogen in Commercial Bromine, and
a means of detecting it ...... ichiichc Nos .n.0 biokG Se oR t RARER oe obfee hee
Professor Emerson REYNOLDS on the Preparation of the Sulphur-urea
——__—_—___—_—— on the Action of the Sulphur-urea in Metallic
SOMMIONSy tei cet ee erecta eR Relom ines aime tain Sd Sele els, Saree mre
Professor Roscox on a Self-registering Apparatus for Measuring the Chemical
AN GHERIOL GIS bt eee AER ets eee Sarina sree te ids SAL cote eee ais
— on certain Abnormal Chlorides,.........:c00cecueees 52
Professor MAaxwELL Simpson on the Chlor-Bromides and Brom-Iodides of the
IDIGRTICR cis cits ae otic seit ochd cae Sa A ond cabl Thao icheeeachoncacket chs Apert msc: eae
Professor THORPE on the Specific Volumes of certain Liquids ............
Dr. C, R. WRiGHr on some Opium Derivatives, oo... scvsevecsevvnenan
GEOLOGY.
Address by Professor Epwarp Hutt, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.8., President of the
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ati: lla
CONTENTS,
Dr. W. B. Carrenter’s further Researches on Eozoon Canadense,........ :
Rey. Dr. Joun Gratncer on the Fossils of the Posttertiary Deposits of Tre-
RAHI Pi aMHieiseiee 86 05% AY siti Paik ite NTE eet Aetatee, TRAE RS Pe i
ay Epwarp T. HarpMan on some new Localities for Upper Boulder-clay in
tind] RSS ee ier cgeciicno croc ICC cincErOnIDIar :ciior
on the Geological Structure of the Tyrone Coal-
Jel) OS Oe sage diddichticirisig Ogi IniSGnicIvig Dino) IgidIgigre OIcISIGUIGIGIGInInIpIGpinicigin
; on the Age and Mode of Formation of Lough
Neagh, Ireland..........scsaeectbeeeceeeieeeaenee Buc Phbyet (ob saueinsniaee
Professor HARKNESS on the Geology of the, N:E. of Treland..3 0.0.6.5. iar
Professor Huu on the Progress of the Geological Survey of Iveland....... ;
Mr. J. Gwyn Jerrreys’s Note on the so-called Crag of Bridlington........
Sir Wittoucusy Jones's Notes on Cavern Exploration, by M. Emilion
Frossard, in the Vallée de Campan, Hautes-Pyrénées, France............
Mr. G. H. Kryanan on Geological Maps and Sections of West Galway and
South-west Mayo ...... Me Coa Shee no OAc oo Sapo COs ODoCtnIC aaDD :
Mr. G. Lanerry on the Occurrence of the Middle Lias at Ballycastle ......
Dr. H. AtteynE Nicuonson and Mr. W. H. Exxis on a Remarkable Frag-
ment of Silicified Wood from the Rocky Mountains ..........e0.s0000s ‘
on Favistella stellata and Favistella calicina, with
Notes on the Affinities of Favistella and allied Genera .........sseeeeeee
Description of Species of Alecto and Hippothoa
from the Lower Silurian Rocks of Ohio, with a Description of Aulopora
avachnoidea ....sseees “LO ARES eee ys GIG Ok crc Stace ies. Acpun toicad cick cao
— Descriptions of New Species of Polyzoa from
the Lower and Upper Silurian Rocks of North America ....,.........+.
— Descriptions of New Species of Cystiphyllum
from the Devonian Rocks of North America ........:sesenesesansenens
Mr. W. CuHanpier Roserrts on the Columnar Form of Basalt........... é
Mr. R. Russexx on the Permian Breccias of the Country near Whitehaven. .
Professor JAMES THOMSON on the Jointed Prismatic Structure of the Giant’s
Wauseway oeersiesess ie: alo clots DCEO Do CET GEER cae ted :
My, Wriu1am A. Trax on Geological Sections in the co. Down ..........
Dr. VAUGHAN on Physics of the Internal Harth..............eeeeesee nes -
Mr. JosepH Wnricut on the Discovery of Microzoa in the Chalk-flints of the
Worth of Ireland ......080G0W isi e eb beet eet e tener acne senas Geeterdiate
BIOLOGY.
Address by Professor Peter REDFERN, M.D., President of the Section. .....
Borany.
Dr. Hooxer’s Addvess to the Department of Botany and Zoology..........
Dr. Hcserr Airy’s Note on Variation of Leaf-Arrangement...,..... ees
Mr. Wint1am ARcHER’s Notes on Apothecia « occurring in some Scytonema-
tous and Sirosiphonaceous Algal Species, in addition to those previously
PS VTTMMCR es stepsivisieisietsaarieere ss eaptecrsietere s(elsty Temi ptare Ce tee rere tees nese
96
xii CONTENTS.
Page
Mr. AtrreD W. Bennett on the Form of Pollen-grains in relation to the
Fertilization of Flowers .........045 Ain Olasedsteraitevesseahker ea bits Rea Sag od 133
Professor Dickson on the Embryogeny of certain Species of Trop@olum .... 183
on an Abnormality in Chrysanthemum leucanthemum .... 188
Professor Lawson on Structural Peculiarities of the Ampehdee...... “pCR Heats:
Dr. Moor on a Monstrous State of Megacarp@d vivcisccccecccvccunveues 134
— on a Monstrous Flower of Sarracenia ........ sronacucagere Lae
— on Grafted Roots of Mangold-Wurzel ............ Be cies o WBIE 134
— on the Growth of the Stems of Tree Ferns .............e-0es 134
Mr. 8. A. Stewart on the Mosses of the North-east of Ireland............ 134
Mr. James Torpitt on the Potato-Disease ..........cceeeccevceuvceues 134
ZooLoay.
Dr. Hooxer’s Address to the Department of Botany and Zoology.......... 102
Professor ALLMAN on some Points in the Histology of Myriothela phrygia .. 185
Mr. Witi1am Arcuer on Chliamydomyxa labyrinthuloides (n. g. et sp.), a
new Sarcodic Freshwater Organism .............eeseeeeee ahs uate see. 136
Dr. W. B. CarpENTER’s further Researches on Eozoon Canadense......... . 186
Professor CUNNINGHAM on Atya spinipes, and on an undescribed Pontonia .. 137
Mr, E, Ray LanxesTer on English Nomenclature in Systematic Biology .. 137
—_—____—_——--—— on the Genealogical Import of the Internal Shell of
MOMUSCE 5% is aie 5 Ginga hale, olalela buatate BIEN: Ge ehatatthe Senet eee . 187
Mr. T. Lister on Spring Migratory Birds of the North of England ,......, 137
Professor MACALISTER on two new Species of Pentastoma ........eccuucee 137
= Notes on the Specimen of Selache maximus lately
caught at Innishoffin ......... ste cteeets SUMO OO OR DOGO vss. 137
Mz. P. L, ScuaTeR on the Distribution of the Species of Cassowaries ...... 138
ANATOMY anD Prrystonogy.
Professor Peter REDFERN’s Address.........00cecececes AI Nigt hrc cee 96
Mr. I’. M. Batrour on the Development of the Elasmobranch Fishes ...... 138
Professor Crum Brown on some Points in the Physiology of the Semi-
circular Canals of the Ear .. 138
Rev, Jamzs Byrne on the Development ofthe Powers of Thought in Verte-
brate Animals in connexion with the Development of their Brain ...,, re. 188
Dr, Ricuarp Caton ona new Form of Microscope for Physiological Purposes 140
Professor CLeLanv’s Preliminary Notice of an Inquiry into the Morphology
of the Brain and the Function of Hearing ........ 00. .c0eecseceecuceey 141
Mr. W. Wartrrnousr Hawxis’s Observations, with Graphic Illustrations,
on a pair of Symmetrical Bones present with the Fossil Remains of
SP AGOOOI So vans 0's 03,009.00» cn 5 1 RO on eae Cee 141
DPe Ole b Obs OFC thee ke) Cielo biel e be «Sn yp 9 ee ate» ETRE ete TS
rE ———
CONTENTS. xii
P
Professor T, H. Huxtry’s Note on the Development of the Columella Auris —
EERE Is Sal Nal Oc Sey eh es ee de ERC Oss eda eve eed eee we 141
Mr. E. Ray LanxeEstEr on the Development of the Eye of the Cephalopoda 142
Professor MacaLisTErR on the Tongue of the Great Anteater ............4. 143
—_—___——_——-——- on some Anomalous Forms of the Human Periorbital
MINT FUP Ci tase die Mele dw ad aA} RAW ie eave Relate die va eeinv 8 § 143
Professor REDFERN on the Influence of Food, and the Methods of supplying
SuEPMRERUsTiace ELMO, UTNTIAISS yi igieicte'a'd canis eg cede tata y aves Ghaee neds BA 143
— — on the Effects of Ozone on the Animal Economy ...... 143
Mr, Witt1am THomson on the Decomposition of Eggs ........ Wonie cra ae 143
ANTHROPOLOGY.
Sir Witxt1am R. Wixpx’s Address to the Department of Anthropology .... 116
Dr. Brppor on Modern Ethnological Migrations in the British Isles........ 145
Sir Grorer CampBE.t on the Peoples between India and China.......... 145
Mr. Hypr Crarxe’s Note on the River-Names and Populations af Hibernia,
and their Relation to the Old World and America .......ccsessveeenee 146
— Note on the Pheenician Inscription of Brazil.......... 146
on the Agaw Race in Caucasia, Africa, and South America 146
—_——_——— —— Note on Circassian and Etruscan.......... ces eee ees 147
———. Preliminary Note on the Classification of the Akka and
Eyemiyemanetiages| Of Agee soa! ers celtic trelalale Vale Wo telh Sade Sielele a du srnels «147
Mr. FrepEric Drew on the Distribution of the Races of Men inhabiting the
Jummoo and Kashmir Territories... ...cccccsacccceercsccteceveesvans 147
Rey. JosepH Epxins on the Degeneracy of Man .....s cscs eee seeeennes 150
Sir G. Duncan Grpp on Longevity at Five score eleven Years .........40, 152
Major H. H. Gopwin-Avsren’s Note on the rude Stone Monuments of the
EERE eer rar na vin Soa So chatene asiw rhc)d. até iat 00-4 od aad ave Mls ls 153
Mr. W. Gray on the Character and Distribution of rudely worked Flints in
the Counties of Antrim and Down ........ ade DA caelitvonge ielom tata chore 153
Rey. Canon Hume on the Origin and Characteristics of the People in the
Counties of Down and Antrim; an Ethnological Sketch .............40. 153
Mr. T, J. Hurcuinson on the Anthropology of Prehistoric Peru .......... 154
Mr. Wit1r1am JamEes Knowzzs on Prehistoric Times in the North of
MMO ceva ee cde UM ans pice vee avait oe 5 cs Sat aT Ae tht cert wane 155
Rey. Dr. T. M‘Cann on the Methods of a Complete Anthropology...... vo. 156
Mr. Josrpx Joun Murpuy on M‘Lennan’s Theory of “ Primitive Marriage” 156
Mr. J. S. Puen on “An Age of Colossi,” with Examples, by Photographs
and Drawings, of the various Colossi extant in Britain and Ireland ...... 157
—————— on “ Natural Mythology,” and some of the Incentives to its
BET RON 15L EMtAIN ANG PTCA, 4 aye. a,c 5 0:0 xs 0.0.00, 0050s s alana ewieeefe deed 158
Mr. C. Stanr~anp WakE on the Origin of the Moral Idea...........00005 158
Mr, W. F, Waxeman on Irish Crannogs and their Contents ....sseeeseees 159
Mr, M, J. WaLHovseE on a Leaf-wearing Tribe on the Western Coast of India 159
xiv CONTENTS.
GEOGRAPHY.
4 Tajor r A R.G.S8., Director of the Topogra- ie
Ahead Bee isms Gunde Wes Oftioe President of the Section .. 160
Near-Admiral SHERarD OsBorn on the Routes to the North Polar Region., 170
Lieutenant Hersert CuermstdE on Mr, Leigh Smith’s Voyages to Spitzbergen 171
Dr. W. B. Carpenter on the Results of the ‘ Challenger’ Researches into
the Physical Conditions of the Deep Sea... scssseveveceevaee od obeet Teoh Bae
Captain 8. AnprRson on the Demarcation of the International Boundary
between Canada and the United States (1872-73) .......... <Suenante eee ee
Dr. G. ScuweErnrurtuH on the Oases of the Lybian Desert.......... Ane Age
Mr, E. G. Ravensrein on Dr. G. Nachtigall’s Explorations in Africa, 1869-74. 175
Surgeon-Major S. Rowx on Sir John Glover's Expedition from the Volta to
PID MUCAE Et d's os scia's ves hese waists ae SPIRO ion hr ee ier ae = em wy
Lieutenant CamEron’s Journal of the East-African Expedition, Extracts from 176
Mr. T. J. Hurcurnson on the Commercial, Industrial, and Natural Resources
DEBECT Oe iaisig.«'¢ o-5is.0.s,0 * «a's a-ida Gray yee ee tower PaO Bact 177
Mr, E. Drirmar More@an on Travels beyond three Seas, by Athanasius
Nikitin, Merchant of Tyer, 1466-1472 (from the JRUSSIAT) «oe as Se sniltne
Lieutenant R. Conner on the Survey of Palestine ............ 24 tehlgh lakes sheeted
Rey. Dr. J. L, Porter on a recent Journey East of the Jordan............ 179
Colonel BrputrH on the Yarkund Mission ........ aI cic woke yr: re el.
Lieutenant Git on some Roads in Northern Persia and on the Russio-
Persian Frontier .,..... Sr ateb et eyes veenaee rene eS iicic seat ara eck sh i9in-0 » 182
My, J. A. MacGanan on the Russian Expedition to Khiva............ ew lee
Captain ABnry on the Reproduction of Maps and Plans in the Field ....., 183
Lieutenant WARREN on Reconnaissance of a new or partially known Country 184
On Surveys in Ireland. Communicated by the Ordnance Department ....,. 184
Mons. Cuartes Mavnorr on the International Congress of Geographical
Sciences BP
Asn ie. 0. Ole 0. 0 0u0' @) eu8 wletelaue Coe eneece ester erneceve Cy
ECONOMIC SCIENCE anv STATISTICS.
Address by the Right Hon. Lord O'Hacan, President of the Section......,, 185
Miss Lyp1a E. Becker on some Practical Difficulties in working the Elemen-
tary Education Act, 1870 .vcccssccccecccveccce adie ws fergie ete Vales wae (LOS
Miss Brrpy on Reform in the Work of the Medical Profession 10d a Pe oes 192
Mr. W. Boriy on Workmen’s Dwellings from a Commercial Standpoint ., ve lp2
Rey. J. T. Burr on the Principles of Penal Legislation .......s+00sssceqs 199
Rey. W. Carne on the Increase of Drunkenness among the Working Classes,
and the Causes of it ....,, <shavalems atria mantels reat aol Seti ate str te etna 193
Sir Gror¢r Campbett on the Privileges over Land, wrongly called ;
ETOBEMEY ei urseeie
CONTENTS. XV
{ Page
Dr. RicHarp Caton on the Teaching of Hygiene in Government Schools .. 198
Mr. Grorcr Roperts Crown on the Compilation of Statistics, Reaves
by the, Imigh Census Returng ....... eve ile teeta dee seleelane neteen eget 198
Mr. W. H. Dopp on the Economic Law of Strikes ......... cece eee eee 201
Professor DONNELL on the Ulster Tenant-Right *..... 00. eseeeeeeereees 202
Mr. CHARLES Eycock on a New Method for ee the Sanification of
SRM TED Teli te cyelt cere cise’ < «crates sceis als. er/o acticin ote ahs ei e'e' el tasia oa ns . 203
Mr. Frank P. oda on Political Economy and the Laws affecting the
Prices of Commodities and Labour, and on Strikes and Lock-outs.....,.. 203
on Governmental Accounts, with further ener estions
for establishing a Doomsday Book, giving the Value of Governmental
BRIUREUVGE ccs es ss ep tec ess sees s ‘nit O4 db bdis MANobmeMate ane Me AeoH HS 204
Mrs. W. Grey on the Study of Education ag a Science .....eesseeeereees 204
Dr, Taomas W. Grimsuaw on Sanitary Legislation and Organization: its
Present State and Future Prospects............ Ado ooneun mat Se hOBeL 206
Mr. W. Hastings on Postal Reform ..........6. Capra rat erecopereraad 2 Re earners 209
Dr. Henry MacCormac on the Reclamation and Sanification of the Pontine
Lu ASUS) (baka oone Donor aninIsor FOOD OU Meee ede Me oeancta avevenir et teebal 209
Mr. Hans M‘Morpre on the Reformatory and Industrial School System, its
ETN CP DIBTIG OTS! is. s e\s\ele'n'e ¢ aisles sins tieicvee ss Mee wists. Ge te AOD
Mr. G. W. Norman on the Future of the United States ......cesseeeeeees 211
Mr. T. B. SpraGuE on the Cause of Insolvency in Life-Insurance Companies,
and the best Means of detecting, exposing, and preventing it .......... aie
Rey. Witt1am Watson Woop’s Scheme for the Technical Education of
those interested in Land...... arate waco aiailassiarete ey ahh ol apeeree Mensalaset stot vpn puei
MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
Address by Professor James THomson, C.E., F.R.S.E., President of the
UE es ae ala edie ator! cafe eisai a ace 6.3.4 0 0a 4 Biya eiaare Bais 212
’ Mr. G. W. Brynon’s Compensating Apparatus for Distant Signal-wires of
MMMMUS NY SMe Torco oroheis si 6 ves o/6ays1s sce.sisie)¢.0/sis'a ere, 0 Bopva.ere s,s 7 CD ORGRD CLERIC)
_ Myr. Wittram Bortomiey on the Eclipsing-Apparatus constructed for the
: Lighthouse on the Holywood Bank, in Belfast Lough ............ Tapadue a),
Mr. Grorcs F. Dracon on the Differentiating Waste-water Meter’........ 221
Mr, Gzorcr Fawcvs on a new Method of Isometrical Drawing..........5+ 222
| Mr. P. re Neve Foster, jun., on Coal. Mining in Italy’........ are qcone she 222
_ Mr. E. J. Haran on a New Form of Screw-Lowering Apparatus .......,. 222
My, Jeremian Heap on a Higher Education for Engineers .............. 228
: Mr. R. Luxe on Luke’s Patent Safety Facing-point Lock for Securing Rail-
way Facing-points .......... JQCCRMBDOT. oC CANDOR MaODOAROQNonoObOD b 224
| Mr. James Lynam on the River Shannon Drainage and Navyigation...... .. 226
Mr. C. W. MERRIFIELD on the Determination of the Form of the Dome of
Uniform Stress........e0e Mowtinan seeks viata odes wares oa contends Secchi eG
XV1 CONTENTS.
Page
Mr. W. Mor@an on an Improved Tuyere for Smith’s Forges .......... iad) 228
Mr. Joun NevILxE on the means adopted for the Improvement of the Outer
Navigable Channel of Dundalk Harbour.........ceeeeeeeenes tiiheks 220
—_—_____——-_ on a new Construction for finding the Vertical Shearing-
stress and the point of greatest Bending-moment in a Beam loaded in any
THEY? 6 be Wie 5. clots eae cine aOR PIRES AL a tidinecis) dis.0.5\0.- Rie oa ah 229
Mr. W. Sxaton’s Improved Patent Saddle-rail and Railway Permanent-way
UST SNCS or pea nae nc a re RAPES AS a0 PR) ta bs 229
Mr. W. Smrru on the Prevention of Railway Accidents and Automatically
Recording the Movements of the Points and Signals and other Apparatus
Of Railways. (ad cavvec de ds eves 2 eae DOT iaeie RCN sea ET Te 229
Sir W. Tomson on Improvements in the Mariner's Compass .....,....+. 251
Mr. F. H. Vartery and Mr. Epw. Furness on Power-Couplings for Rolling-
MNS amd other Machiiory. ......0c+ so. s+ « ohiiais aipmeeible as tise 231
Mr. ANDREW Wytry on Recent Improvements in Breech-loading Firearms... 232
on the Breech-loading Firearms exhibited at Vienna in
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RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. xix
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=
xx RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
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read, are now as far as possible determined by Organizing Committees for the several
Sections before the beginning of the Meeting. It has therefore become necessary, in order
to give an opportunity to the Committees of doing justice to the several Communications,
that each Author should prepare an Abstract of his Memoir, of a length suitable for in-
sertion in the published Transactions of the Association, and that he should send it, toge-
ther with the original Memoir, by book-post, on or before .. ...s01.sseseeeeseeeesaee , addressed
thus—‘“ General Secretaries, British Association, 22 Albemarle Street, London, W. For
Section ..... «If it should be inconvenient to the Author that his Paper should be read
on any particular days, he is requested to send information thereof to the Secretaries in a
separate note.
* Passed by the General Committee, Edinburgh, 1871.
t This and the following sentence were added by the General Committee, 1871.
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXxi
Secretaries are to correct, on a copy of the Journal, the list of papers which
have been read on that day, to add to it a list of those appointed to be read
on the next day, and to send this copy of the Journal as early in the day as
possible to the Printers, who are charged with printing the same before 8 a.m.
next morning in the Journal. It is necessary that one of the Secretaries of
each Section should call at the Printing Office and revise the proof each
evening.
Minutes of the proceedings of every Committee are to be entered daily in
the Minute-Book, which should be confirmed at the next meeting of the
Committee.
Lists of the Reports and Memoirs read in the Sections are to be entered
in the Minute-Book daily, which, with all Memoirs and Copies or Abstracts
of Memoirs furnished by Authors, are to be forwarded, at the close of the Sec-
tional Meetings, to the Assistant General Secretary.
The Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections become ew officio temporary
Members of the General Committee (vide p. xix), and will receive, on ap-
plication to the Treasurer in the Reception Room, Tickets entitling them to
attend its Meetings.
The Committees will take into consideration any suggestions which may
be offered by their Members for the advancement of Science. They are
specially requested to review the recommendations adopted at preceding
Meetings, as published in the volumes of the Association and the communi-
cations made to the Sections at this Meeting, for the purposes of selecting
definite points of research to which individual or combined exertion may be
usefully directed, and branches of knowledge on the state and progress of
which Reports are wanted; to name individuals or Committees for the exe-
eution of such Reports or researches ; and to state whether, and to what de-
gree, these objects may be usefully advanced by the appropriation of the
funds of the Association, by application to Government, Philosophical Insti-
tutions, or Local Authorities.
In case of appointment of Committees for special objects of Science, it is
expedient that all Members of the Committee should be named, and one of
them appointed to act as Secretary, for insuring attention to business.
Committees have power to add to their number persons whose assistance
they may require.
The recommendations adopted by the Committees of Sections are to be
registered in the Forms furnished to their Secretaries, and one Copy of each
is to be forwarded, without delay, to the Assistant General Secretary for pre-
sentation to the Committee of Recommendations. Unless this be done, the
Recommendations cannot receive the sanction of the Association.
V.B.— Recommendations which may originate in any one of the Sections
must first be sanctioned by the Committee of that Section before they can be
referred to the Committee of Recommendations or confirmed by the General
Committee.
Notices Regarding Grants of Money.
_ Committees and individuals, to whom grants of money have been entrusted
by the Association for the prosecution of particular researches in Science,
are required to present to each following Meeting of the Association a Report
of the progress which has been made ; and the Individual or the Member first
named of a Committee to whom a money grant has been made must (pre-
ylously to the next meeting of the Association) forward to the General
Xx RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION;
Secretaries or Treasurer a statement of the sums which have been expended,
and the balance which remains disposable on each grant.
Grants of money sanctioned at any one meeting of the Association expire
a week before the opening of the ensuing Meeting; nor is the Treasurer
authorized, after that date, to allow any claims on account of such grants,
unless they be renewed in the original or a modified form by the General
Committee.
No Committee shall raise money in the name or under the auspices of the
British Association without special permission from the General Committee
to do so; and no money so raised shall be expended except in accordance
with the rules of the Association. “
In each Committee, the Member first named is the only person entitled to
call on the Treasurer, Professor A. W. Williamson, University College, London,
W.C., for such portion of the sums granted as may from time to time be
required,
In grants of money to Committees, the Association does not contemplate
the payment of personal expenses to the members.
In all cases where additional grants of money are made for the continua-
tion of Researches at the cost of the Association, the sum named is deemed
to include, as a part of the amount, whatever balance may remain unpaid on
the former grant for the same object.
All Instruments, Papers, Drawings, and other property of the Association
are to be deposited at the Office of the Association, 22 Albemarle Street,
Piccadilly, London, W., when not employed in carrying on scientific inquiries
for the Association.
Business of the Sections.
The Meeting Room of each Section is opened for conversation from 10 to
11 daily. The Section Rooms and approaches thereto can be used for no notices,
exhibitions, or other purposes than those of the Association.
At 11 precisely the Chair will be taken, and the reading of communica-
tions, in the order preyiously made public, be commenced. At 3 p.m. the
Sections will close.
Sections may, by the desire of the Committees, divide themselves into
Departments, as often as the number and nature of the communications de-
livered in may render such divisions desirable. -
A Report presented to the Association, and read to the Section which
originally called for it, may be read in another Section, at the request of the
Officers of that Section, with the consent of the Author.
Duties of the Doorkeepers.
1.—To remain constantly at the Doors of the Rooms to which they are ap-
pointed during the whole time for which they are engaged.
2.—To require of every person desirous of entering the Rooms the exhibi-
tion of a Member’s, Associate’s or Lady’s Ticket, or Reporter's Ticket,
signed by the Treasurer, or a Special Ticket signed by the Assistant
General Secretary,
3,—Persons unproyided with any of these Tickets can only be admitted to
any particular Room by order of the Secretary in that Room.
_ No person is exempt from these Rules, except those Officers of the Asso-
ciation whose names are printed,
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXili
Duties of the Messengers.
To remain constantly at the Rooms to which they are appointed, during
the whole time for which they are engaged, except when employed on mes-
sages by one of the Officers directing these Rooms.
Committee of Recommendations.
The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee, which
shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional Committees,
and report to the General Committee the measures which they would advise
to be adopted for the advancement of Science.
All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Researches,
and Reports on Scientific Subjects shall be submitted to the Committee of
Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the General Committee
unless previously recommended by the Committee of Recommendations.
Local Committees.
Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association to
assist In making arrangements for the Meetings.
Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers those
Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire.
Officers.
A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries, and a
Treasurer shall be annually appointed by the General Committee.
Council.
In the intervals of the Meétings, the affairs of the Association shall be ma-
naged by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The Council may
also assemble for the despatch of business during the week of the Meeting.
Papers and Communications. n
The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to reserve
his right of property therein.
Accounts.
The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors
appointed by the General Committee.
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XxX
REPORT—1874.
Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association.
Date and Place.
Presidents. | Secretaries.
1832.
1833.
1834,
1835,
1836.
1837.
1838.
1839.
1840.
1841.
1842.
1843.
1844.
1845.
MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, I.—MATHEMATICS AND GENERAL PHYSICS,
Oxford
Cambridge
Edinburgh
Dublin ......
Bristol ......
Liverpool ..,
Newcastle...
Birmingham
Glasgow
Plymouth...
Manchester
Cambridge. .
1846, Southampton
1847.
1848.
1849. Birmingham
Oxford
vereee
Swansea ..
Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S...
Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S S. hae aseeene
Rey. W. Whewell, SE SRSh deve cae
.|Rev. H. Coddington.
Prof. Forbes.
Prof, Forbes, Prof, Lloyd.
SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.
Rev, Dr. Robinson:.........s0s0-00 Prof. Sx W. R. Hamilton, Prof.
Wheatstone,
Rey. William Whewell, F.R.S..../Prof. Forbes, W. 8. Harris, F. ‘W.
Jerrard.
Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S............- W.S. Harris, Rey. Prof. Powell, Prof,
Stevelly.
Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,/Rev. Prof. Chevallier, Major Sabine,
EVR. Prof. Stevelly.
Rey. Prof. Whewell, F.R.S. ....../J. D. Chance, W. Snow Harris, Prof,
Stevelly.
...|Prof. Forbes, FVR.S. .......:..e008- ge ors Dr. Forbes, Prof. Stevelly, Arch,
mith.
Rey. Prof. Lloyd, F.R.S. .|Prof. Stevelly.
Very Rey. G. Peacock, “D.D., Prof. M‘Culloch, Prof. Stevelly, Rev.
E.R.S W. Scoresby.
Prof. M‘Culloch, M.R.LA. «.|J. Nott, Prof. Stevelly.
The Earl of Rosse, WOR. Ss ete! Rey. Wm. Hey, Prof. Stevelly.
The Very Rey. the Dean of Ely ./Rev. H. peeres Prof. Stevelly, G,
G. Stokes.
Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart.,)John we Dr. Stevelly, G. G.
E.R.S
Sto
Rey. Prof. Powell, M.A., F.R.S. .|Rey. = "Price, Prof. Stevelly, G. G.
Stokes.
..|Dr. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes.
..|Prof. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes, W.
Ridout Wills.
.|Lord Wrottesley, F.R.S. .
William Hopkins, F.R.S..
1850, Hdinburgh..|Prof. J. D. Forbes, F.R.S., Sec.)W. J. Macquorn Rankine, Prof.
R.S.H, Smyth, Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G.
Stokes.
1851, Ipswich...... Rey. W. Whewell, D.D., F.R.S.,|8. Jackson, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Cc. Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.
1852, Belfast ...... Prof. W. Thomson, M.A., F\R.8.|Prof. Dixon, W. J. Macquorn Ran-
L. & E. kine, Prof. Stevelly, J. ae
1853. Hull... ..s.c0s The Dean of Ely, F.R.S. .........(B. Blaydes Haworth, J. D. Sollitt,
Prof. Stevelly, J. Welsh.
1854. Liverpool.../Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A., Sec.|J. Hartnup, H. G. Puckle, Prof.
R.8 Stevelly, J. Tyndall, J. Welsh.
1855. Glasgow .../Rey. Prof. Kelland, M.A., F.R.S.|Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. D, Gray, Prof.
L.& E Tyndall.
1856. Cheltenham|Rey. R. Walker, M.A., EBS. «..|C. ‘BtoB Rey. T. A. Southwocd,
Prof. Stevelly, Rey. J. C. Turnbull.
18575 Dublin:...... Rey.T. R. Robinson,D.D.,F.R.S.,|Prof. Curtis, Prof. Hennessy, P. A.
M.R.LA. Ninnis, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Prof. Stevelly.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
XXXi
Date and Place.
1858. Leeds .....
1859. Aberdeen ...
1860, Oxford...
1862. Cambridge..
1863. Newcastle...
1864. Bath
eee teens
1865. Birmingham
1866. Nottingham
1867. Dundee......
1868. Norwich
1869. Exeter ....
1870. Liverpool...
1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton ..
1874, Belfast
1832. Oxford
1833, Cambridge.
1834, Edinburgh.
1835. Dublin
1836. Bristol
1837. Liverpool.
1839. Birmingham|Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S.
1840. Glasgow .
1841, Plymouth..
.|Rey. B, Price, M.A., F.R.S....
1861. Manchester .
..(Michael Faraday, F.R.S. .....
1838. Newcastle...
Presidents.
.|Rev. W.Whewell, D.D., V.P.B.S.|
The Earl of Rosse, M.A,, K.P.,
E.R.S.
G. B. Airy, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
8.
Prof. ” Cayley, M.A, E.RBS.,
FE.R.AS.
Ww. 2 ar rhein! M.A, E.BS.,
FE.R.A.S.
Prof. Wheatstone, D.C.L., F.R.S.
ree Sir W. Thomson, D.C.L.,
R.S.
ies J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S...
«.|Prof. J. J. Sylvester, LL.D.
E.R
S.
J. Clerk Maxwell, M.A., LL.D.,
E.RB.S.
.|Prof. P. G. Tait, F.R.S.H. ......
.|W. De La Rue, D.C.L., F.RB.S...
1873. Bradford ...)Prof. H. J. S. Smith, F.R.S...
M.R.LA.
Rev. Prof. J. H. Jellett, M.A.,
Secretaries.
Rey. 8. Earnshaw, J. P. Hennessy,
Prof. Stevelly, H. J. 8. Smith, Prof.
Tyndall.
J.P. Hennessy, Prof. Maxwell, H.J.8.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
...|Rev. G. C. Bell, Rey. T, Rennison,
Prof. Stevelly.
Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. 8.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J.S.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
Rey.N. Ferrers, Prof. Fuller, F. Jenkin,
Prof. Stevelly, Rev. C. T. Whitley.
Prof. Fuller, F. Jenkin, Rev. G.
Buckle, Prof. Stevelly.
Rey. T. N. Hutchinson, F. Jenkin, G.
8S. Mathews, Prof. H. J. 8. Smith,
J. M. Wilson.
Fleeming Jenkin, Prof. H. J. 8. Smith,
Rey. 8. N. Swann.
Rev. G. Buckle, Prof. G. C. Foster,
Prof. Fuller, Prof. Swan.
Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. R. Harley,
R. B. Hayward.
,|Prof. G. C. Foster, R. B. Hayward,
W. K. Clifford.
Prof. W. G. Adams, W. K. Clifford,
Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. W. Allen
Whitworth.
Prof. W. G. Adams, J. T. Bottomley,
Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. J. D.
Everett, Rey. R. Harley.
Prof. W. K. Clifford, J. W.L. Glaisher,
Prof. A. 8S. Herschel, G. F. Rodwell.
..|Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. Forbes, J.
W. L. Glaisher, Prof. A.S.Herschel.
J. W. UL. Glaisher, Prof. Herschel,
Randal Nixon, J. Perry, G. F, Rod-
well,
CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, II.—CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY,
.|John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.......
John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.....
James F. W. Johnston.
../Prof. Miller.
sD EMELODE Sere seaccsseteateeesetie soee:
Mr. Johnston, Dr. Christison.
SECTION B,—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY.
Dr. T. Thomson, F.R.S. ......06.
Rey. Prof. Cumming...............
Rey. William Whewell, F.R.S.
..|Dr. Thomas Thomson, F. R. 8..
ADr. Daubeny, FVR.S, vesseseesenes
Dr. Apjohn, Prof. Johnston.
Dr. Apjobn, Dr. C. Henry, W. Hera-
ath.
...(Prof. Johnston, Prof. Miller, Dr.
Reynolds.
.../Prof, Miller, R. L, Pattinson, Thomas
Richardson.
..|Golding Bird, M.D., Dr. J. B. Melson.
..|Dr. R. D. Thomson, Dr. T. Clark,
Dr. L. Playfair.
J. Prideaux, Robert Hunt, W. M.
Tweedy.
XXXli
Date and Place.
1846.Southampton
1847,
1848.
1849.
1850.
1851.
1852.
1853.
1854.
1855.
1856.
. Dublin
1832.
1833. Cambridge ..G. B. Greenough, F.R.S.
1834, Edinburgh . oes Jameson
1842. Manchester.
1843.
1844.
1845.
1. Manchester.
32, Cambridge .
. Neweastle...
5. Birmingham
. Nottingham
. Dundee ...|Prof. T. Anderson, M.D., F.R.S.E.
. Norwich ...
. Exeter
. Liverpool...
. Edinburgh
. Brighton ...
. Bradford ...
. Belfast
—<———
Cambridge..
Oxford
Swansea ..
Birmingham
Edinburgh
Ipswich
Belfast ......
sen eeeeee
Liverpool ..
Glasgow ...
Cheltenham
.|Richard Phillips, F.R.S.
.|Dr. Christison, V.P.R.S.E. ...
..|Prof. Thomas Graham, F.RB.5S....
REPORT—1874.
Presidents.
John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.....
Prof. Apjohn, MBIA.
Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S.
Rey. Prof. Cumming.........+00+
E.R.S.
ERS.
Michael Faraday, D.C.L.,
Rey. W.V.Harcourt, M.A.,
John Percy, M.D., it eet
Thomas Andrews, M.D., F.R.S. .
Prof. J. F. W. Johnston, M.A.,
E.RBS.
.|Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D., F.R.S.
Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B., FRS..
Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R. s.
M.D., F.RBS.,
ag ant ohn,
Sir api 7 Ww. Herschel, Bart.,
D.C.L.
..|Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B., F.R.S..
Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S.
Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D., F.R.S.
Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D., F.R.8.
Dr. Alex. W. Williamson, }.R.8.
W. Odling, M.B., F.R.S., F.C.S.
Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D.,V.P.R.S.|
H. Bence Jones, M.D., F.R.S. ...
Prof.E.Frankland, F.R.S., F.C.S8.
Dr. H. Debus, F.R.S., F.C.S8. ..
‘Prof. H. E. Roscoe, B.A., F.R.S.,
E.C.S.
Prof. T. Andrews, M.D., F.R.S.
Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.RB.S.......
Prof. W. J. Russell, F.R.S.......
Prof. A. ao M.D.,
F.R.S.E.,
Secretaries.
..|Dr. L. Playfair, R. Hunt, J. Graham.
R. Hunt, Dr. Sweeny.
..|Dr. R. Playfair, E. Solly, T. H. Barker,
R. Hunt, J. P. Joule, Prof. Miller,
KE. Solly.
Dr. Miller, R. Hunt, W. Randall.
B. C. Brodie, R. Hunt, Prof. Solly.
..../L. H. Henry, R. Hunt, T. Williams.
R. Hunt, G. Shaw.
..|Dr. Anderson, R. Hunt, Dr. Wilson.
T. J. Pearsall, W. S. Ward.
Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Hodges, Prof.
Ronalds,
H. S. Blundell, Prof. R. Hunt, T. J.
Pearsall.
Dr. Edwards, Dr. Gladstone, Dr. Price.
Prof. Frankland, Dr. H. E. Roscoe.
J. Horsley, P. J. Worsley, Prof.
Voelcker.
Dr. Davy, Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Sul-
livan.
Dr. Gladstone, W. Odling, R. Rey-
nolds.
J. S. Brazier, Dr. Gladstone, G. D.
Liveing, Dr. Odling.
A. Vernon Harcourt, "Ge . Liveing,
A. B. Northcote.
A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing.
H. W. Elphinstone, W. Odling, Prof.
Roscoe.
Prof. Liveing, H. L. Pattinson, J. C.
Stevenson.
A. V. Harcourt, Prof. Liveing, R.
Biggs.
A. V. Harcourt, H. Adkins,
Wanklyn, A. Winkler Wills.
J. H. Atherton, Prof. Liveing, W. J.
Russell, J. White.
A, Crum Brown, Prof. G. D. Liveing,
W. J. Russell.
Dr. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J. Rus-
sell, F. Sutton.
Prof.
.|Prof. A. Crum Brown, M.D., Dr. W.
J. Russell, Dr. Atkinson.
Prof. A. Crum Brown, M.D., A. EB.
Fletcher, Dr. W. J. Russell.
J. T. Buchanan, W. N. Hartley, 1. E.
Thorpe.
Dr. Mills, W. Chandler Roberts, Dr.
W. J. Russell, Dr. T. Wood.
Dr. Armstrong, Dr. Mills, W. Chan-
dler Roberts, Dr. Thorpe.
Dr. T."Cranstoun Charles, W. Chand-
ler Roberts, Prof. Thorpe.
GEOLOGICAL (ann, untrz 1851, GEOGRAPHICAL) SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, III.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY,
Oxford
(R. I. Murchison, F.R.S8.
..|W. Lonsdale, John Phillips.
SOP cere e eee ee eereee
John Taylor.
Prof. Phillips,
Rey. J. Yates,
T. Jameson Torrie,
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
XXxXili
nt
Date and Place.
Presidents.
Secretaries.
ee EE eee
SECTION (.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.
1835. Dublin
1836. Bristol
1837. Liverpool...
1838. Newcastle...
1839. Birmingham
1840. Glasgow ...
seeeee
1841, Plymouth ..
1842. Manchester
a eeeennee
1845. Cambridge
1846. Southampton
1847. Oxford
1848. Swansea
1849. Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh *
teens
1851. Ipswich
1852. Belfast
1853, Hull
1855. Glasgow
1856. Cheltenham |Prof. A. C. Ramsay, F.R.S. ......
The Lord Talbot de Malahide ...
1857. Dublin
1858. Leeds
Sewece
bee eenee
1854. Liverpool . .
aeenee
seeeee
R. J. Griffith .......cceseeeeeeee eens
Rey. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.— Geo-
graphy. R. 1. Murchison,F.R.S.
graphy. G.B.Greenough,F.R.S.
C. Lyell, F.R.S., V-P.G.S.— Geo-
graphy. Lord Prudhope.
Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.8.— Geo-
graphy. G.B.Greenough,F-.R.S8.
Charles Lyell, F.R.S.— Geogra-
phy. G. B, Greenough, F.R.S.
H. T. Dela Beche, F.RB.S..........
R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. .......6.
Richard E. Griffith, F.RB.S.,
M.R.LA
Henry Warburton, M.P., Pres.
Geol. Soe.
.|Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, M.A., F.R.S.
LeonardHorner, F.R.S.— Geogra-
phy. G. B. Greenough, F.R.S.
Very Rey. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.
...\Sir H. T. De la Beche, C.B.,
E.R
RS.
Sir Charles Lyell, F.R.S., F.G.S.
Sir Roderick I. Murchison, F.R.8.
Reyv.Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.8.— Geo-|
Captain Portlock, T. J. Torrie.
William Sanders, S. Stutchbury, T. J.
Torrie.
Captain Portlock, R. Hunter.—Geo-
graphy. Captain H.M.Denham,R.N.
W. C. Trevelyan, Capt. Portlock.—
Geography. Capt. Washington.
George Lloyd, M.D.,H. E. Strickland,
Charles Darwin.
W. J. Hamilton, D. Milne, Hugh
Murray, H. E. Strickland, John
Scoular, M.D.
W.J. Hamilton, Edward Moore,M.D.,
R. Hutton.
BE. W. Binney, R. Hutton, Dr. R.
Lloyd, H. H. Strickland.
Francis M. Jennings, H. E. Strick-
land.
Prof. Ansted, E, H. Bunbury.
Rev. J. C. Cumming, A. C. Ramsay,
Rev. W. Thorp.
Robert A. Austen, J. H. Norten, M.D.,
Prof. Oldham.— Geography. Dr. C.
T. Beke.
Prof. Ansted, Prof. Oldham, A. C.
Ramsay, J. Ruskin.
Starling Benson, Prof. Oldham, Prof.
Ramsay.
J: Beete Jukes, Prof. Oldham, Prof.
A.C. Ramsay. :
A. Keith Johnston, Hugh Miller, Pro-
fessor Nicol.
SECTION © (continued),—GHOLOGY.
...(Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......
Lieut.-Col. Portlock, R.E., F.R.S8.
Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S. .........+++
Prof. Edward Forbes, F.R.8. |...
William Hopkins, M.A., LL.D.,
E.R
.../William Hopkins, M.A., F.B.S...|C. J. FB. Bunbury, G. W. Ormerod,
Searles Wood.
James Bryce, James MacAdam, Prof.
M‘Coy, Prof. Nicol.
Prof. Harkness, William Lawton.
John Cunningham, Prof. Harkness
G. W. Ormerod, J. W. Woodall.
James Bryce, Prof. Harkness, Prof.
Nicol.
Rey. P. B. Brodie, Rey. R. Hepworth,
Edward Hull, J. Scougall, T. Wright.
Prof. Harkness, Gilbert Sanders, Ro-
bert H. Scott.
Prof. Nicol, H. C. Sorby, HE. W.
Sh
RS. aw.
1859. Aberdeen ...|Sir Charles Lyell, LL.D., D.C.L.,|Prof. Harkness, Rev. J. Longmuir, H.
1860, Oxford
* At a Meeting of the General Committee h
subject of Geography be separated from Geology
tute a separate Section, under the title of the “
for Presidents and Secretaries of which see page XxXvii.
E.BS., F.G.S.
ERS.
Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, LL.D.,
C. Sorby.
Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, Capt.
Woodall.
eld in 1850, it was resolved “That the
and combined with Ethnology, to consti-
Geographical and Ethnological Section,”
c
XXXIV
REPORT—1874.
Date and Place.
1861
1862.
1363.
1364,
1865.
1866. Nottingham|Prof.A.C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S.
1867. Dundee...... Archibald Geikie, F.R.8., F.G.S.
1868. Norwich .../R. A. C. Godwin-Austen, F.R.8.,
1869, Exeter [Prof B, Harknoss, PRS, F.GS.
1870, Liverpool...|Sir Philip de M. Grey Egerton,
Bart., M.P., F.R.S.
1871. Edinburgh ..|Prof. A. Geikie, F.R.S., F.G.S...
1872. Brighton ...|R. A. C. Godwin-Austen, F.R.8.
1873, Bradford ...|Prof. J. Phillips, D.C.L., F.B.S.,|
1874, Belfist......,Prot Hull, MLA., PRS, F.GS
1832.
1833,
1834,
1835.
1836.
1837.
1838.
1839.
1840.
1841,
1842.
1843.
1844.
1845.
Presidents,
ee eee
. Manchester |Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.R.S., &e.
Cambridge |J. Beete Jukes, M.A., F.R.S.......
W. Smyth,
Newcastle ...|Prof. Warington
E.RBS., F.G.S.
Bathiccs--is-- Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D., F.R.S.,
G.8
Birmingham|Sir R. I, Murchison, Bart.,K.C.B.
Secretaries.
Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, T. Ru-
pert Jones, G. W. Ormerod.
Lucas Barrett, Prof. T. Rupert Jones,
H. C. Sorby.
E. F. Boyd, John Daglish, H. C. Sor-
by, Thomas Sopwith.
W. B. Dawkins, J. Johnston, H. C.
Sorby, W. Pengelly.
Rey. P. B. Brodie, J. Jones, Rey. E.
Myers, H. C. Sorby, W. Pengelly.
R. Etheridge, W. Pengelly, T. Wil-
son, G. H. Wright.
Edward Hull, W. Pengelly, Henry
Woodward.
Rey. O. Fisher, Rev. J. Gunn, W,
Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood.
W. Pengelly, W. Boyd Dawkins, Rev.
H. H. Winwood.
W. Pengelly, Rey. H. H. Winwood,
W. Boyd Dawkins, G. H. Morton.
R. Etheridge, J. Geikie, J. MeKenny
Hughes, L. C. Miall.
L. C. Miall, George Scott, William
Topley, Henry Woodward.
C. Miall, R. H. Tiddeman, W.
Topley.
F. Drew, L. C. Miall, R. G. Symes,
R. H. Tiddeman,
——
I.
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
Oxford Rey. P. B. Duncan, F.G.S. ......
. Cambridge *|Rev. W. L. P. Garnons, F.L.S....
Pee eee eaten tere e ens eee
Edinburgh |Prof. Graham
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, IV.—-ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, PHYSIOLOGY, ANATOMY,
Rev. Prof. J. 8. Henslow.
C. C. Babington, D. Don.
W. Yarrell, Prof. Burnett.
SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY.
Dublin .
Bristol
omen A Le SALLI eae eeeacenrtenteeseserenee
eoeeee | RUOV, SLU. SLOUSIOW eoeccsererererne
BO eee eee ee eeeeneee
Liverpool ...|W. 8. MacLeay
Newcastle...|Sir W. Jardine, Bart......... Pt
Brimingham|Prof. Owen, F.R.S. ......s00...0
Glasgow ...|Sir W. J. Hooker, LL.D..........
Plymouth...|John Richardson, M.D., F.R.S...
Manchester |Hon. and Very Rey. W. Herbert,
LL.D., F.L.S,
Cork William Thompson, F.LS. ......
Very Rey. The Dean of Manches-
ter.
Cambridge |Rey. Prof. Henslow, F.1.S. ......
1846, Southampton|Sir J. Richardson, M.D., F.R.S.
1847.
* At this Meeting Physiology and Anatom:
Presidents and Secretaries of which see p. xxxvi.
Oxford H. E. Strickland, M.A., F.R.S....
J. Curtis, Dr. Litton.
J. Curtis, Prof. Don, Dr. Riley, §.
Rootsey.
C. C. Babington, Rev. L. Jenyns, W.
Swainson.
J.E. Gray, Prof. Jones, R. Owen, Dr.
Richardson.
E. Forbes, W. Ick, R. Patterson.
Prof. W. Couper, E. Forbes, R. Pat-
terson. ‘
J. Couch, Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson.
Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson, J. A.
Turner.
G. J. Allman, Dr, Lankester, R. Pat-
terson.
Prof. Allman, H. Goodsir, Dr. King,
Dr. Lankester.
Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston.
Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston, H.
Wooldridge.
Dr. Lankester, Dr. Melville, T. V.
Wollaston.
y were made a separate Committee, for
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
Date and Place.
Presidents.
XXXV
Secretaries.
SECTION D (continued).—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY.
[For the Presidents and Secretaries of the Anatomical and Physiological Subsections
and the temporary Section E of Anatomy and Medicine, see p. xxxvi.]
1848. Swansea
1849. Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh. .
1851. Ipswich
1852. Belfast
1858. Hull .........
1854. Liverpool ...
1855. Glasgow
1856. Cheltenham.
1857. Dublin
1858. Leeds.........
1859. Aberdeen ...
1860. Oxford
weeeee
1861. Manchester..
1862. Cambridge...
1863. Newcastle ...
1864. Bath
panne eens
1865. Birmingham
ooo [Le Wi Dillwyn, EURAS. ...cc0cge05-
William Spence, F.R.S...........+.
Prof. Goodsir, F.R.S. L. & H....
Rey. Prof. Henslow, M.A., F.R.8.
RAO tl by MERE wc cutee cefeceeactenes
C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S....
Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S.......
..|Rev. Dr. Fleeming, F.R.S.E. ...
Thomas Bell, F.R.S., Pres.L.8....
Prof. W.H. Harvey, M.D., F.R.8.
C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S....
Sir W. Jardine, Bart., F.R.S.E..
(Rey. Prof. Henslow, F.LS. ......
[Prof. C. C. Babington, F.R.S. ...
Prof. Huxley, F.R.S.
Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S.......
Dr. John E. Gray, F.R.S.
T, Thomson, M.D., F.R.S. .....
Dr. R. Wilbraham Falconer, A. Hen-
frey, Dr. Lankester.
Dr. Lankester, Dr. Russell.
Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D., Dr. Lan-
kester, Dr. Douglas Maclagan.
Prof. Allman, F. W. Johnston, Dr. E.
Lankester.
Dr. Dickie, George C. Hyndman, Dr.
Edwin Lankester.
Robert Harrison, Dr. HE. Lankester.
Isaac Byerley, Dr. E. Lankester.
William Keddie, Dr. Lankester.
Dr. J. Abercrombie, Prof. Buckman,
Dr. Lankester.
‘Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Dr. E. Lankester,
Robert Patterson, Dr. W. E. Steele.
Henry Denny, Dr. Heaton, Dr. E.
Lankester, Dr. H. Perceval Wright.
Prof. Dickie, M.D., Dr. E. Lankester,
Dr. Ogilvy.
W.S. Church, Dr. EB. Lankester, P.
L. Sclater, Dr. HE. Perceval Wright.
Dr. T. Alcock, Dr. E. Lankester, Dr.
P. L. Sclater, Dr. BE. P. Wright.
Alfred Newton, Dr. E. P. Wright.
Dr. E. Charlton, A. Newton, Rev. H.
B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright.
H. B. Brady, C. E. Broom, H. T.
Stainton, Dr. H. P. Wright.
.|Dr. J. Anthony, Rey. C. Clarke, Rev.
H. B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright.
SECTION D (continued).—BIOLOGY *.
1866, Nottingham.|Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S.—|Dr. J. Beddard, W. Felkin, Rev. H.
1867. Dundee
1868. Norwich
1869. Exeter
Physiological Dep. Prof. Hum-
phry, M.D., F.R.S.—Anthropo-
logical Dep. Alfred R. Wallace,
E.R.G.8.
Busk, M.D., F.R.S.
Flower, F.R.S8.
E. B. Tylor.
B. Tristram, W. Turner, E. B.
Tylor, Dr. H. P. Wright.
Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec. R.S.—|C. Spence Bate, Dr. 8. Cobbold, Dr.
Dep. of Zool. and Bot. George
M. Foster, H. T. Stainton, Rey. H.
B. Tristram, Prof. W. Turner.
....Rev. M. J. Berkeley, F.L.S.—|Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, G. W. Firth, Dr.
Dep. of Physiology. W. H.
M. Foster, Prof. Lawson, H. T.
Stainton, Rev. Dr. H. B. Tristram,
Dr. E. P. Wright.
George Busk, F.R.S., F.L.S.—|Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, Prof. M. Foster,
Dep. of Bot. and Zool. C. Spence
Bate, F.R.S.—Dep. of Ethno.
M.D., E. Ray Lankester, Professor
Lawson, H. T, Stainton, Rey. H. B.
Tristram.
* At a Meeting of the General Committee in 1865, it was resolved:—‘That the
title of Section D be changed to Biology
;” and “That for the word ‘Subsection,’ in tho’
rules for conducting the business of the Sections, the word ‘ Department’ be substituted, _
c2
XXXvl
Date and Place.
1870, Liverpool...
1871. Hdinburgh
1872. Brighton ..
1873. Bradford ...
1874. Belfast ......
REPORT—1874.
Presidents.
Secretaries.
Prof. G. Rolleston, M.A., M.D.,|Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, Sebastian Evans,
F.R.S.,F.L.8.—Dep. Anat.and| Prof. Lawson, Thos. J. Moore, H-
Physiol. Prof. M. Foster, M.D.,
F.L.8.—Dep.
Evans, F.R.S.
of Ethno.
T. Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tristram,
J.| C. Staniland Wake, E. Ray Lan-
kester.
Prof. Allen Thomson,M.D.,F.R.S./Dr. T. R. Fraser, Dr. Arthur Gamgee,
—Dep. of Bot. and Zool. Prof.
Wyville Thomson, F.R.S.—
E. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
H. T. Stainton, C. Staniland Wake,
Dep. of Anthropol., Prof. W.| Dr. W. Rutherford, Dr. Kelburne
Turner, M.D.
—Dep. of Anat. and Physiol.
Dr. Burdon Sanderson, F.R.S.
—Dep of Anthropol. Col. A.
Lane Fox, F.G.S8.
King.
.\Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S.|Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, H. T. Stainton,
Prof. Lawson, F'. W. Rudler, J. H.
Lamprey, Dr. Gamgee, E. Ray Lan-
kester, Dr. Pye-Smith.
Prof. Allman, F.R.S.—Dep. of |Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, Prof. Lawson,
Anat. and Physiol. Prof. Ru-
therford, M.D.—Dep. of An-
thropol. Dr. Beddoe, F.R.S.
R. M‘Lachlan, Dr. Pye-Smith, E.
Ray Lankester, F, W. Rudler, J.
H. Lamprey.
Prof. Redfern, |M.D.—Dep. of |W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, R. O. Cunning-
Zool. and Bot. Dr. Hooker,
C.B., Pres. R.S..—Dep. of An-
ham, Dr. J. J. Charles, Dr. P. H,
Pye-Smith, J. J. Murphy, F. W.
thropol. Sir W. R. Wilde,| Rudler.
M.D.
ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, V.—ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.
1835, Cambridge...
1834. Edinburgh...
Wr Haviland. teasctesseadesaiinewene
Dr. Abercrombie
Dr. Bond, Mr. Paget.
Dr. Roget, Dr. William Thomson.
SECTION E. (UNTIL 1847.)—ANATOMY AND MEDICINE.
1835. Dublin
1836. Bristol ......
1837. Liverpool ...
1838. Newcastle ...
1839. Birmingham
1840. Glasgow ...
1841. Plymouth...'
1842. Manchester.
1843. Cork
1844. York
theese
1845. Cambridge
1846. Southampton
1847. Oxford* .
Dri Pritchard’ | rivcsercs,scteccdess
Dri Roget, WARIS. Jvecostcosssasass
Prof. W. Clark, MID. ...::..00.4-
TK. Headlam, MD. ....00825:
John Yelloly, M.D., F.R.S. ......
James Watson, M.D.............4-
P. M. Roget, M.D., Sec.R.S.
Edward Holme, M.D., F.LS. ...
Sir James Pitcairn, M.D. .........
J. ©. Pritchard, MUD. ©. ...c0.0re.
Dr. Harrison, Dr. Hart.
Dr. Symonds.
Dr. J. Carson, jun., James Long, Dr.
J. R. W. Vose.
T. M. Greenhow, Dr. J. R. W. Vose.
Dr. G. O. Rees, F. Ryland.
Dr. J. Brown, Prof. Couper, Prof.
Reid.
..|Dr. J. Butter, J. Fuge, Dr. R. S.
Sargent.
Dr. Chaytor, Dr. R. 8. Sargent.
Dr. John Popham, Dr. R. 8, Sargent.
I. Erichsen, Dr. R. 8. Sargent.
SECIION E,—PHYSIOLOGY.
.|Prof. J. Haviland, M.D. .........
Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S..........
..[Prof. Ogle, M.D., FLR.S. .........
PHYSIOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS
1850. Edinburgh |Prof. Bennett, M.D., F.R.S.E.
1855. Glasgow
1857. Dublin
.../Prof. Allen Thomson, F.R.S. ..
[Prof. R. Harrison, M.D. ........-
Dr. R. 8. Sargent, Dr. Webster.
C. P. Keele, Dr. Laycock, Dr. Sargent.
Dr. Thomas K. Chambers, W. P.
Ormerod.
OF SECTION D.
.|Prof. J. H. Corbett, Dr. J. Struthers.
Dr. R. D. Lyons, Prof. Redfern.
* By direction of the General Committee at Oxford, Sections D and E were incorporated
under the name of “ Section D—Zoology and Botany, including Physiology” (see p. xxiv).
The Section being then vacant was assigned in 1851 to Geography.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
XXXVilL
Date and Place.
. Leeds
. Oxford
. Manchester.
. Cambridge
Newcastle...
1865. Birminghm*.
AC. EH. Paget, M.D. ...........:00008+
Dr. Edward Smith, Tih,
Prof. Acland, M.D., LL
Secretaries.
Presidents.
i i |
—_
Sir Benjamin Brodie, Bart. .E.R.S.|C. G. Wheelhouse.
..\Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec.R.S. ...|Prof. Bennett, Prof. Redfern.
Prof. G. Rolleston, M. D., F.L.S. |Dr. R. M‘Domnell, Dr. Edward Smith.
Dr. John Davy, ERS. L. & E....|Dr. W. Roberts, Dr: Edward Smith.
G. F. Helm, Dr. Edward Smith.
Dr. D. Embleton, Dr. W. Turner.
J. 8S. Bartrum, Dr. W. Turner.
Dr. A. Fleming, Dr. P. Heslop, Oliver
Pembleton, Dr. W. Turner.
Prof. Rolleston, M.D., F.R.S. ...
D., F.B.S.
.D., F.R.S.
GEOGRAPHICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
[For Presidents and Secretaries for Geography previous to 1851, see Section C, p. xxxii.]
1846.Southampton
1847.
1848.
1849,
1850.
1851.
1852.
1853.
1854.
. Cambridge
Oxford
Swansea ...
Birmingham
Edinburgh..
see teneee
Liverpool...
. Glasgow ...
. Cheltenham iol. Sir H. C. Rawlinson, K.C.B.
. Manchester .
. Newcastle...
see eeeeee
. Birmingham
. Nottingham
. Dundee......
Norwich ..
Dr. Pritchard
Vice-Admiral Sir A. Malcolm ...
../Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S., Pres.
R.G.8
ETHNOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D,
Dr. King.
Prof. Buckley.
G. Grant Francis.
Dr. R. G. Latham.
Daniel Wilson.
Prof H. H. Wilson, MLA. ......
SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.
R. Cull, Rev. J. W. Donaldson, Dr.
Norton Shaw.
Col. Chesney, R.A. D.C.L.,|R. Cull, R, MacAdam, Dr. Norton
E.RBS. Shaw.
R. G. Latham, M.D., F.R.S. ...{R. Cull, Rev. H. W. Kemp, Dr. Nor-
ton Shaw.
Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,|Richard Cull, Rev. H. Higgins,
Ihne, Dr. Norton Shaw.
Dr. W. G. Blackie, R. Cull, Dr. Nor-
ton Shaw.
R. ie I. D. Hartland, W. H. Rum-
y, Dr. Norton Shaw.
Rey. Dr. J. Henthawn Todd, Pres.|R. “Cull, 8. Ferguson, Dr. R. R. Mad-
R.LA. den, Dr. Norton Shaw.
Sir R. I. Murchison, G.C.St.8., R.Cull, Francis Galton, P.O’ Callaghan,
F.R.S. Dr. Norton Shaw, Thomas Wright.
Dr.
E.R.S.
Sir J. Richardson, M.D., F.R.S.
...|Rear-Admiral Sir James Clerk|Richard Cull, Professor Geddes, Dr.
Ross, D.C.L., F.R.S. Norton Shaw.
Sir R,. IL Murchison, D.C.L.,|Capt. Burrows, Dr. J. Hunt, Dr. C.
ERS. Lempriere, Dr. Norton Shaw.
John Crawfurd, F.R.S............. Dr. J. Hunt, J. Kingsley, Dr. Norton
Shaw, W. 'Spottiswoode.
./Francis Galton, F.R.S. ............ J. W. Clarke, Rey. J. Glover, Dr.
Hunt, Dr. Norton Shaw, T. Wright.
Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,|C. Carter Blake, Hume Greenfield,
E.R.S. C. R. Markham, R. 8. Watson.
Sir R. I. Murchison, K.OB., H, ate Bates, C. R. Marker Capt.
F.B.S. R, M. Murchison, T. Wrigh
‘Major-General Sir R. Rawlinson,/H. a Bates, 8. Evans, G. Eahet, C.
M.P., K.C.B., F.R.S. R. Markham, Thomas Wright.
Sir Charles Nicholson, Bart.,|H. W. Bates, Rev. E. T. Cusins, Ie
LL.D. H. Major, Clements R. Markhan.
D. W. Nash, T. Wright.
Sir Samuel Baker, F.R.G.S. ......[H. W. Bates, Cyril Errahanh Cree
Markham, 8. J. Mackie, R.Sturroci..
.|Capt. @. H. Richards, R.N., F.R.S./T. Baines, H. W. Bates, C. R. Mar!.-
ham, T, Wright.
* Vide note on page xxxy.
terUKT—1 874.
XXXVili
Date and Place. Presidents. Secretaries.
SECTION E (continued ),—GEOGRAPHY.
1869. Exeter ...... Sir Bartle Frere, K.C.B., LL.D.,{H. W. Bates, Clements R. Markham,
F.R.G.S. J. H. Thomas.
1870. Liverpool ...|Sir R. I. Murchison, Bt., K.C.B.,/H. W. Bates, David Buxton, Albert
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.8., F.G.8.| J. Mott, Clements R. Markham.
1871. Edinburgh. |Colonel Yule, C.B., F.R.G.8. ...|Clements R. Markham, A. Buchan,
J. H. Thomas, A. Keith Johnston.
1872. Brighton ...|Francis Galton, F.R.S. ............ H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston, Rev.
J. Newton, J. H. Thomas.
1873. Bradford ...|\Sir Rutherford Alcock, K.C.B....|H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston, Cle-
ments R. Markham.
1874. Belfast ...... Major Wilson, R.E., F.R.S.,'H. G. Ravenstein, E. C. Rye.
F.R.G.S.
STATISTICAL SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, VI.—STATISTICS,
1833. Cambridge .|Prof. Babbage, F.R.S. .............J. E, Drinkwater.
1834, Edinburgh .|Sir Charles Lemon, Bart. ......... Dr, Cleland, C. Hope Maclean.
SECTION F.—STATISTICS.
1835. Dublin «..;.. \Charles Babbage, F.R.S. ........./W. Greg, Prof. Longfield.
1836. Bristol ...... Sir Charles Lemon, Bart., F. R. S.Rev. J. E. Bromby, C. B. Fripp,
James Heywood.
1837. Liverpool...|Rt. Hon, Lord Sandon ............ W.R. Greg, W. Langton, Dr. W. C.
Tayler.
1838. Newcastle...\Colonel Sykes, F.R.S. ...... seeeee|W. Cargill, J. Heywood, W. R. Wood.
1839. Birmingham|Henry Hallam, F.R.S. ........066 F. Clarke, R. W. Rawson, Dr. W. C.
Tayler.
1840. Glasgow .../Rt. Hon, Lord Sandon, F.R.S.,|C. R. Baird, Prof. Ramsay, R. W.
M.P. Rawson.
1841. Plymouth...|Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S. ....,....|Rev. Dr. Byrth, Rey. R. Luney, R.
W. Rawson.
1842, Manchester .|G. W. Wood, M.P., F.L.S. ...... Rey. R. Luney, G. W. Ormerod, Dr.
W. C. Tayler.
1843. Cork ......... Sir C. Lemon, Bart., M.P. ....../Dr. D. Bullen, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.
1844. York......... Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F. R. 8., F.L.S. |J. Fletcher, J. Heywood, Dr. Laycock.
1845. Cambridge .|Rt. Hon. The iat Fitawilliam..
1846. Southampton
1847 . Oxford
1848. Swansea
1850. Edinburgh ..
1851. Ipswich
1852. Belfast
1853. Hull
1854. Liverpool ...
1855. Glasgow
.. lJ. H. Vivian, M.P., E.R.S. .
1849. Birmingham
G. R. Porter, F.R.S
Cente eee teneee
Travers Twiss, D.C.L., F.R.S. .
Rt. Hon. Lord Lyttelton
fee eennee
Very Rev. Dr. John Lee,
V.P.R.S.E
Sir John P. Boileau, Bart.
His Grace the Archbishop of
Dublin.
James Heywood, M.P., F.R.S...
Thomas Tooke, F.R.S. ............
R. Monckton Milnes, M.P. ..
.|J. Fletcher, W. Cooke Tayler, LL.D.
J. Fletcher, F. G. P. Neison, Dr. W.
C. Tayler, Rev. T. L. Shapcott.
..|Rev. W. H. Cox, J. J. Danson, F. G.
P. Neison.
..|J. Fletcher, Capt. R. Shortrede.
Dr. Finch, Prof. Hancock, F. G. P.
: Neison.
Prof. Hancock, J. Fletcher, Dr. J.
Stark.
\J. Fletcher, Prof. Hancock.
Prof. Hancock, Prof. Ingram, James
MacAdam, Jun.
.'Edward Cheshire, William Newmarch,
E. Cheshire, J. T. Danson, Dr. W. H.
Duncan, W. Newmarch.
.../J. A. Campbell, E. Cheshire, W. New-
march, Prof. R. H. Walsh.
SECTION F (continued).—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS,
1856. Cheltenham
Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, M.P. .
..[Rey. C. H. Bromby, E. Cheshire, Dr.
W. N. Hancock Newmarch, W, M.
Tartt.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIE
S OF THE SECTIONS. XXN1X
ee EEIEEIEEITEEEE ISIE EEEESEREIREET \ainst gist nna
Date and Place. Presidents.
1857. Dublin ...... His Grace the Archbishop of
Dublin, M.R.1.A.
1858. Deeds. :.:.::.. Hdward Baines .........ccccccseeees
1859. Aberdeen ...|Col. Sykes, M.P., F.R.S. .........
1860. Oxford ...... Nassau W. Senior, M.A. .........
1861. Manchester |William Newmarch, F.R.S. ......
1862. Gambidge. Edwin Chadwick, C.B. ............
1863. Newcastle .../) William Tite, M.P., F.R.S. ......
1864. Bath.......... William Farr, M.D., D.C.L.,
1865. Birmingham Ri. Hon. Lord Stanley, LL.D.,
1866. Nottingham Prof. J. B.D. Rogers.....6...0s000
1867. Dundee ....../M. E. Grant Duff, MAP. .........
1868. Norwich .../Samuel Brown, Pres. Instit. Ac-
tuaries.
1869. Exeter ...... t. Hon. Sir Stafford H. North-
cote, Bart., C.B., M.P.
1870. Liverpool.../Prof. W. Stanley Jevons, M.A. ..
. Edinburgh |Rt. Hon. Lord Neaves
2. Brighton ..,|Prof. Henry Fawcett, M.P. ......
. Bradford .../Rt. Hon. W. BH. Forster, M.P....
. Belfast ......[Lord O'Hagan, ......s00c.e0 aides
MECHANICAL SC
Secretaries.
Prof. Cairns, Dr. H. D. Hutton, W.
Newmarch.
T. B. Baines, Prof. Cairns, 8. Brown,
Capt. Fishbourne, Dr. J. Strang.
Prof. Cairns, Edmund Macrory, A. M.
Smith, Dr. John Strang.
Edmund Macrory, W. Newmarch,
Rev. Prof. J. H. T. Rogers.
Dayid Chadwick, Prof. R. C. Christie,
| E. Macrory, Rev. Prof. J. E. T.
Rogers.
H. D. Macleod, Edmund Macrory.
T. Doubleday, Edmund Macrory,
Frederick Purdy, James Potts.
E. Macrory, B. T. Payne, F. Purdy.
G. J. D. Goodman, G. J. Johnston,
E. Macrory.
R. Birkin, Jun., Prof. Leone Levi, E.
Macrory.
Prof. Leone Levi, E. Macrory, A.J. .
Warden.
Rev. W. C. Davie, Prof. Leone Levi.
Edmund Macrory, Frederick Purdy,
Charles T. D. Acland.
Chas. R. Dudley Baxter, EH. Macrory,
J. Miles Moss.
J. G. Fitch, James Meikle.
J. G. Fitch, Barclay Phillips.
J. G. Fitch, Swire Smith.
Prof. Donnell, Frank P. Fellows,
Hans MacMordie.
IENCE.
SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
1836. Bristol ...... (Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S....
1837. Liverpool .../Rev. Dr. Robinson ..........-.+++++
1838. Newcastle ...|Charles Babbage, F.R.S. .......
1839. Birmingham|Prof. Willis, E.R.8., and Robert
Stephenson.
1840, Glasgow .../Sir John Robinson......+-..s000000
1841. Plymouth...|John Taylor, RURIS), oc. 02. et
1842. Manchester .|Rey. Prof. Willis, F.R.S. .........
1843. Cork .......0 Prof, J. Macneill, M.R.I.A.......
1844. York ......... John Taylor, B.R.S. ........-+-.0.
1845. Cambridge ..|George Rennie, F.R.S. ..........
1846, Southampton|Rey. Prof. Willis, M.A, F.R.S. .
1847. Oxford ...... Rey. Prof. Walker, M.A., F.R.S8.
1848, Swansea ...../Rev. Prof. Walker, M.A., F.R.S.
1849. Birmingham|Robert Stephenson, M.P., F.RB.S.
1850.
Edinburgh .,/Rev. Dr. Robinson
1851. Ipswich...... William Cubitt, FVR.S.............
1852. Belfast ...... John Walker,C.E., UL.D., F.RS.
1853. Hull ...... ..-|William Fairbairn, C.E., F.R.S..
1854, Liverpool ...\John Scott Russell, FR.S. ....+
..|Rey. W. T. Kingsley
T. G. Bunt, G. LT. Clark, W. West.
Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.
..{R. Hawthorn, C. Vignoles, T. Webster.
W. Carpmael, Wiliam Hawkes, Tho-
mas Webster.
J. Scott Russell, J. Thomson, J. Tod,
C. Vignoles.
Henry Chatfield, Thomas Webster.
J. F. Bateman, J. Scott Russell, J.
Thomson, Charles Vignoles.
James Thomson, Robert Mallet.
Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.
William Betts, Jun., Charles Manby.
J. Glynn, R. A. Le Mesurier.
R. A. Le Mesurier, W. P. Struvé.
Charles Manby, W. P. Marshall.
Dr. Lees, David Stephenson.
John Head, Charles Manby.
John F. Bateman, C. B. Hancock,
Charles Manby, James Thomson.
James Oldham, J. Thomson, W. Sykes
Ward.
John Grantham, J. Oldham, J. Thom-
son
xl
REPORT—1874.
Date and Place.
_ 1855. Glasgow ...
1856. Cheltenham
1857. Dublin
1858. Leeds.........
1859. Aberdeen ...
1860. Oxford
1861. Manchester .
1862. Cambridge ..
1863. Newcastle ...
1864. Bath
1865. Birmingham
1866. Nottingham
’ 1867. Dundee......
1868. Norwich
1869. Exeter ......
1870. Liverpool...
1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton ...
1873. Bradford ...
1874. Belfast......
..|G. P. Bidder, C.E., F.R.G.S. ..
Date and Place.
1842, Manchester .
1843. Cork
Presidents.
W. J. Macquorn Rankine, C.E.,
ER
George Rennie, F.R.S. .........5+
The Right Hon. The Earl of
Rosse, F.R.S.
William Fairbairn, F.R.S. ......
Rey. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S. .
Prof. W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.R.S.
J. F. Bateman, C.E., F.R.S.......
William Fairbairn, LL.D., F.R.S.
Rey. Prof, Willis, M.A., F.R.S. .
J. Hawkshaw, F.R.S. ............
Si: W. G. Armstrong, LL.D.,
E.R.S.
Thomas Hawksley, V.P.Inst.
C.E., F.G.8.
Prof. W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.R.S.
C. W. Siemens, F.R.S. ............
Chas. B. Vignoles, C.E., F.R.S. .
Prof. Fleeming Jenkin, F.R.S....
F, J. Bramwell, C.E..........008..
W.H. Barlow, F.R.S. ...
Prof. James Thomson, LL.D.,
C.E., F.B,S.E.
Secretaries.
L. Hill, Jun.,. William Ramsay,
Thomson.
C, Atherton, B, Jones, Jun., H. M.
Jeffery.
Prof. Downing, W. T. Doyne, A. Tate,
James Thomson, Henry Wright.
J. C. Dennis, J. Dixon, H. Wright.
R. Abernethy, P. Le Neve Foster, H.
Wright.
P. Le Neve Foster, Rey. F. Harrison,
Henry Wright.
P, Le Neve Foster, John Robinson, H.
Wright.
W. M. Fawcett, P. Le Neve Foster.
P. Le Neve Foster, P. Westmacott, J.
F. Spencer.
P. Le Neve Foster, Robert Pitt.
P. Le Neve Foster, Henry Lea, W. P.
Marshall, Walter May.
P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, M.
A. Tarbottom.
P. Le Neve Foster, John P. Smith,
W. W Urquhart.
.\P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, C.
Manby, W. Smith.
P. Le Neve Foster, H. Bauerman.
H. Bauerman, P. Le Neve Foster, T.
King, J. N. Shoolbred.
H. Bauerman, Alexander Leslie, J. P.
Smith.
.\.H. M. Brunel, P. Le Neve Foster,
J. G. Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.
Crawford Barlow, H. Bauerman, 8.
H. Carbutt, J. C. Hawkshaw, J. N.
Shoolbred.
A. I’, Atchison, J. N, Shoolbred, Johu
Smyth, jun.
List of Evening Lectures.
Lecturer.
Chitlea Vieholes, FRS.....:0
DMNA, We RUNEL =o ices cee cont
EG ols SEU GOISON os cee esioveaeea o
Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.
Aen eneee
1845. Cambridge ..
1846,Southampton
MD MO PIIROM EEE ry treet eaeas cscs +t
Charles Lyell, F.R.S. ...........-
Dr. Falconer, F.R.S.
Subject of Discourse.
The Principles and Construction of
Atmospheric Railways,
The Thames Tunnel.
The Geology of Russia.
......| The Dinornis of New Zealand.
Prof, EB. Forbes, F.R.S. .........
The Distribution of Animal Life in
the Aegean Sea.
The Earl of Rosse’s Telescope.
Geology of North America.
The Gigantic Tortoise of the Siwalik
Hills in India.
G. B. Airy, F.R.S., Astron. Royal) Progress of Terrestrial Magnetism.
R. I. Murchison, F.R.S.........
Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. ......
| Charles Lyell, FLRS. vce
Geology of Russia.
Fossil Mammalia of the British Isles.
Valley and Delta of the Mississippi.
LIST OF EVENING LECTURES, xli
Date and Place. Lecturer, Subject of Discourse,
1846. Southampton} W. R. Grove, F.R.S, ..........+ Properties of the Explosive substance
discovered by Dr. Schénbein ; also
some Researches of his own on the
Decomposition of Water by Heat.
1847. Oxford ...... Rey. Prof. B. Powell, F.R.S. ...| Shooting-stars.
Prof. M. Faraday, F.R.S. ...... Magnetic and Diamagnetic Pheno-
mena.
Hugh E. Strickland, F.G.8. ...| The Dodo (Didus ineptus).
1848. Swansea ...| John Percy, M.D., KES. oe Metallurgical operations of Swansea
and its neighbourhood.
W. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S. ...| Recent Microscopical Discoveries.
1849. Birmingham} Dr. Faraday, F.R.S................ Mr. Gassiot’s Battery.
Rey. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S. | Transit of different Weights with
varying velocities on Railways.
1850. Edinburgh. | Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D.,| Passage of the Blood through the
F.R.S.E. minute vessels of Animals in con-
nexion with Nutrition.
Dr. Mantell, F.RB.S. ......ss0eseees Extinct Birds of New Zealand.
1851. Ipswich......| Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S, Distinction between Plants and Ani-
mals, and their changes of Form.
G. B. Airy, F.R.S., Astron. Roy.| Total Solar Eclipse of July 28, 1851.
1852. Belfast ...... Prof. G.G. Stokes, D.C.L., F.R.S.| Recent discoveries in the properties
of Light.
Colonel Portlock, R.E., F.R.S. | Recent discovery of Rock-salt at Car-
rickfergus, and geological and prac-
tical considerationsconnected with it.
1853. Hull ......... Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D., F.R.S.,|Some peculiar phenomena in the Geo-
FE.G.S. logy and Physical Geography of
Yorkshire.
Robert Hunt, F.R.S. ............ The present state of Photography.
1854. Liverpool ...| Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. ...| Anthropomorphous Apes.
Col. H. Sabine, V.P.R.S. .........] Progress of researches in Terrestrial
Magnetism.
1855. Glasgow...... Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. ...| Characters of Species.
Lieut.-Col. H. Rawlinson ...... Assyrian and Babylonian Antiquities
and Ethnology
1856. Cheltenham | Col. Sir H. Rawlinson............ Recent discoveries in Assyria and
Babylonia, with the results of Cunei-
form research up to the present
time.
W. R. Grove, F.R.S. ............| Correlation of Physical Forces,
1857. Dublin ......| Prof. W. Thomson, F.R.S8. ......] The Atlantic Telegraph.
Rey. Dr. Livingstone, D.C.L. ...! Recent discoveries in Africa.
1858. Leeds......... Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D., F.R.8.| The Ironstones of Yorkshire,
: Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. ...) The Fossil Mammalia of Australia,
1859. Aberdeen ...| Sir R.I. Murchison, D.C.L. ......) Geology of the Northern Highlands.
Rey. Dr. Robinson, F.R.S. ......| Electrical a ee in highly rare-
fied Media.
1860. Oxford ...... Rev. Prof. Walker, F.R.S. ......| Physical Constitution of the Sun,
Captain Sherard Osborn, R.N. .| Arctic Discovery.
1861. Manchester .| Prof. W. A. Miller, M.A., F.R.S.| Spectrum Analysis.
G.B. Airy, F.R.8., Astron. Roy. .| The late Eclipse of the Sun.
1862, Cambridge .| Prof. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S. ...| The Forms and Action of Water.
Prof. Odling, F.R.S.......000....4. Organic Chemistry.
1863. Newcastle- | Prof. Williamson, F.R.S. ...... The chemistry of the Galvanic Bat-
on-Tyne. | . tery considered in relation to Dy-
namics.
James Glaisher, F.R.S, ......... The Balloon Ascents made for the
British Association.
1864. Bath ......... Prof. Roscoe, F.R.S............066 The Chemical Action of Light.
Dr. Livingstone, F.R.S. .........! Recent Trayels in Africa,
xh REPORI—187 4,
Date and Place. Lecturer. Subject of Discourse.
1865, Birmingham) J. Beete Jukes, F.R.S.......0..... Probabilities as to the position and
extent of the Coal-measures beneath
the red rocks of the Midland Coun-
ties.
1866. Nottingham.| William Huggins, F.R.S....,.....,|The results of Spectrum Analysis
applied to Heavenly Bodies.
Dr. J. D. Hooker, F.B.S.......... Insular Floras.
1867. Dundee...... Archibald Geikie, F.R.S.......... The Geological origin of the present
: Scenery of Scotland.
Alexander Herschel, F.R.A.S....| The present state of knowledge re-
garding Meteors and Meteorites.
1868. Norwich ....| J. Fergusson, F.R.S. we... Archeology of the early Buddhist
Monuments.
Ore Wa Odling, BRS. 0... ..-0-155 Reverse Chemical Actions.
1869. Exeter ......| Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D., F.R.8.| Vesuvius.
J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S.......] The Physical Constitution of the
Stars and Nebulze.
1870. Liverpool ...! Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.) The Scientific Use of the Imagination.
Prof. W. J. Macquorn Rankine,| Stream-lines and Waves, in connexion
LL.D., F.R.S. with Naval Architecture.
1871. Wdinburgh | IF. A. Abel, F-RiS. ........ cee. Some recent investigations and appli-
cations of Explosive Agents.
HT se by lOrs eH EUS: cs -esnsie snes The Relation of Primitive to Modern
Civilization.
1872. Brighton ...| Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.D.,) Insect Metamorphosis.
E.R.S.
Prof. W. K. Clifford............... The Aims and Instruments of Scien-
tific Thought.
1873. Bradford ...) Prof. W. C. Williamson, F.R.S.; Coal and Coal Plants.
Prof Clerk Maxwell F.R.S......) Molecules.
1874. Belfast ......| Sir {John Lubbock,!Bart., M.P.| Common Wild Flowers considered in
E.R.S. relation to Insects.
Prof. Huxley, F.R.S. ....... +++e| The Hypothesis that Animals are
Automata, and its History.
Lectures to the Operative Classes.
1867. Dundee...... | Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S. | Matter and Force.
1868. Norwich ....| Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S. ...| A piece of Chalk.
1869, Exeter ...... Prof. Miller, M.D., F.R.8. ......| Experimental illustrations of the
modes of detecting the Composi-
tion of the Sun and other Heavenly
Bodies by the Spectrum,
_ 1870. Liverpool...) Sir John Lubbock, Bart., M.P.,| Savages.
E.R.S.
1872. Brighton ... Mey Spottiswoode, LL.D.,| Sunshine, Sea, and Sky.
RS.
1878. Bradford ...| C. W. Siemens, D.C.L., F.R.S...| Fuel.
1874, Belfast ...... Professor Odling, F.R.S... .,....| The Discovery of Oxygen.
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xliv
Date of Meeting.
1831, Sept. 27 .
1832, June Ig ...
1833, June 25 ...
1834, Sept. 8
1835, Aug. Io ...
1836, Aug. 22 ...
...| Liverpool
1838, Aug. 10 ...
1839, Aug. 26 ..
1840, Sept. 17 ...
1841, July 20 ...
...| Manchester
...| Cork
...| York
...] Cambridge
1837, Sept. 11
1842, June 23
1843, Aug. 17
1844, Sept. 26
1845, June 19
1846, Sept. 10 ...
1847, June 23 ...
1848, Aug. 9....
1849, Sept. 12 ...
1850, July 21
1851, July 2 Baie
1852, Sept. 1
1853, Sept. 3
1854, Sept. 20
1855, Sept. 12 ..
1856, Aug. 6....
1857, Aug. 26 ...
1858, Sept. 22 ...
1859, Sept. 14 .
1860, June 27
1861, Sept. 4
1862, Oct. 1
1864, Sept. 13
1865, Sept. 6
1866, Aug. 22
1867, Sept. 4
1868, Aug. 19 ...
1869, Aug. 18 .
1870, Sept. 14 ...
1871, Aug. 2....
1872, Aug.
1873, Sept. 17
1874, Aug. 19
1875, Aug. 25
A Liverpool
.| Glasgow
..| Aberdeen
...| Oxford
...| Manchester
1863, Aug. 26 ...
...| Bath
...| Birmingham .........
...| Nottingham
Bs Bradford
slMBeIIABT leoswerscossesec
...| Bristol
REPORT—1874.
Table showing the Attendance and Receipis
Where held.
eee eee e seen eeenes
eee nee eeeenee
See eee eee
Newcastle-on-Tyne..
.| Birmingham .........
Glasgow
Plymouth
eer eeeeeeees
eee eee ee eee eeeee
Peete teen ee ee eee
Seis anaes
Oxford
seeeee
Pere ereeseernee
sete ee eeeeecees
Ser eeenecees
Cheltenham
Dablitisweweciteces-sec
AUCEOR cscs seene dieses fete
eee eeeeee
Dect e ener eneees
Cambridge .........
Newcastle-on-Tyne ..
eee eeee
Seer eereecees
seseee ereee
Sees
Se rrr
Presidents.
—. —- ——_
The Earl Fitzwilliam, D.C.L....
The Rey. W. Buckland, F.R.S. ..
The Rey. A. Sedgwick, F.R.S....
Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.C.L. ......
The Rey. Provost Lloyd, LL.D.
The Marquis of Lansdowne......
The Earl of Burlington, F.R.S..
The Duke of Northumberland...
The Rey. W. Vernon Harcourt .
The Marquis of Breadalbane ...
The Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S....
The Lord Francis Egerton
The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S. .....-
The Rey. G. Peacock, D.D. ......
Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart. .
Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Bart.
Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart. ......
The Marquis of Northampton...
The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D..
Sir David Brewster, K.H.
G. B. Airy, Esq., Astron. Royal .
Lieut.-General Sabine, F.R.S. ...
William Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S..
The Earl of Harrowby, F.R.S. ..
The Duke of Argyll, F-R.S. ......
Prof. C. G. B. Daubeny, M.D....
The Rey. Humphrey Lloyd, D.D.
Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L. ...
H.R.H. The Prince Consort
The Lord Wrottesley, M.A.......
William Fairbairn, LL.D.,F.R.S.
The Rey. Prof. Willis, M.A. ...
Sir William G. Armstrong, C.B.
Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., M.A....
Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., LL.D....
William R. Grove, Q.C., F.R.S8.
The Duke of Buccleuch, K.C.B.
Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, F.R.S.°.
Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L. ......
Prof. T. H. Huxley, LL.D.......
Prof. Sir W. Thomson, LL.D....
Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.RS ...
.| Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S.
Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D, F.R.8. .
Sir John Hawkshaw, C.E.,F.R.S.
Old Life
Members.
169
aos
109
226
313
241
314
149
227
235
172
164
141
238
194
182
236
222
184
286
321
239
203
287
292
2.07
167
196
204
314
246
245
212
162
New Lite
Members.
ATTENDANCE AND RECEIPTS AT ANNUAL MEETINGS. xlv
t Annual Meetings of the Association.
Attended by Sums paid on
(0 SSSR Se a ee pees Account of
| Old New arid ‘a e| Grants for
Annual Annual | Associates.| Ladies, | Foreigners.) ‘Total. M ef Scientific
Members. | Members. ayes Purposes.
SEM ME 7s | pone EE
“ “et, See a8 Sor Eicon ih ile cccccc mead bearer on cicisocie
ies tor Ws ue Se GOO a it eccm a nes Lc
. a - DI a lod rh a 20 0 O
. ie . tee ese coc, | Ml) ieee See 167 0 O
. eee tee see ose EZ5Oee | cewcaees 43414 0
eee cas ses see eee 1840 oye eaisne 918 14 6
bea an see > 1100* et 2ACOM se | ieancee de 956 12 2
tee ion — oe. 34. 7 Fol eae ry oe ie 1595 II 0
oa a aed ee 40 M53) Wp ueacsscewt 1546 16 4
46 317 ie 60* oe Sqn PY sesatea 1235 10 II
75 376 33T 331° 28 EQUSL |: Vecreceee 1449 17 8
71 185 was 160 eo See |) eeaceceac- 1565 10 2
45 190 gt 260 =a Perk leaccecece fe 981 12 8
94 22 407 172 35 TOZOP Slt, cencweese 830 9 9
65 39 270 196 36 Cy eal 9 aaa 685 16 o
197 40 495 203 53 T260e rad. .ccaye 208 5 4
54 25 376 197 15 929 707 00} 275 1 8
93 33 447 237 22 1071 96390] 159 19 6
128 42 510 273 44 1241 1085 00} 345 18 oO
61 47 244 141 37 710 62000] 391 9 7
63 60 510 292 9 1108 I0g5 OO] 304 6 7
56 57 367 236 6 876 993 00} 205 0 o
121 121 765 524 10 1802 1882 00| 33019 7
142 101 * 1094 543 26 2133 231100] 48016 4
104 48 412 346 9 1115 1098 00 | 734 13 9
156 120 goo 569 26 2022 2015 0 0|] 507 15 3
III gt 710 509 13 1698 1931 00}] 618 18 2
125 179 1206 821 22 2564 278200] 684 11 1
177 59 636 463 47 1689 160400] 1241 7 0
184 125 1589 791 15 3139 3944 00] 1rII 5 I0
150 57 433 242 25 1161 1089 0 0 | 1293 16 6
154 209 1704. 1004, 25 3335 3640 0 0 | 1608 3 10
182 103 1119 1058 13 2802 2965 00} 1289 15 8
215 149 766 508 23 1997 222700] I59I 7 Io
218 105 960 771 II 2303 2469 00] 175013 4
193 118 1163 771 7 2444 2613 00/1739 4 0
226 117 720 682 45t 2004. 2042 00] 1940 0 0
229 107 678 600 17 1856 1931 00 | 1572 0 Oo
303 195 I103 go 14 2878 3096 00 | 1472 2 6
31r 127 976 754 21 2463 2575 00 | 1285 0 o
280 80 937 giz 43 2593 2649 00/1685 o o
237 99 796 601 Ir 1983 2102 00] 1151 16 o
232 85 817 630 12 1951 1979 90
* Ladies were not admitted by purchased Tickets until 1843.
¥ Tickets for admission to Sections only. ¢ Including Ladies,
xlvi : —) - REPORT—1874.-
OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT THE
BELFAST MEETING.
SECTION A.— MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.
President.—Rey. Professor J. H. Jellett, M.A., MR.LA.
Vice-Presidents.—Professor W. K. Clifford, 'M. A., F.R.S.; Professor Everett,
D.C.L., F.R.S.E.; Professor F. Fuller, M. As, ERS. E; Professor J. Clerk
Maxwell, E.R.S. 5 ’ Professor Purser, M.A., MR.LA.; G. Johnstone Stoney,
E.R.S.
Secretaries—J. W. LL. Glaisher, M.A., F.R.A.S.; Professor Herschel, B.A.,
F.R.A.S. ; Randal Nixon M.A.; J. Perry, B.E.; G. F. Rodwell, F.R.AS., F.C. s
SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY, INCLUDING THEIR APPLICATIONS TO
AGRICULTURE AND THE ARTS.
President.—Professor A. Crum Brown, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.C.S.
Vice-Presidents—1. Lowthian Bell, F.R.S.; Dr. Debus, F.R.S., F.C.S.; Professor
Gladstone, F.R.S.; Professor Hodges, M. D., F.C.8.; Professor Liveing ; Pro-
fessor Odling, F.R. ’S.; Professor Roscoe, FR. S.; Professor Maxwell Simpson,
M.D., F.R. S, F.C.8.; Professor Williamson, F. R. S.; James Young, F.R.S.
Secretaries.—Dr. T. Cranstoun Charles, F.C.S.; W. Chandler Roles, F.C.S
Professor Thorpe, F.R.S.E.
SECTION 0.—GEOLOGY.
President.—Professor Hull, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.8.
Vice-Presidents—The Earl of Enniskillen, F.R.S.; Professor Geikie, F.R.S.,
FE.G.S8. ; Professor Harkness, F.R.S., F.G.S.; Dr. Oldham, F.R.S. ; W. Pengelly,
E.R.S.
Secretaries.—F. Drew, F.G.S.; L. C. Miall; R. G. Symes, F.G.S.; Ri H. Tidde-
man, F.G.S,
SECTION D.—BIOLOGY.
President.—Professor Redfern, M.D.
Vice-Presidents—Dr. Hooker, C.B., D.C.L., Pres.R.S.; Sir W. R. Wilde, M.D.,
M.R.LA. ; J. Gwyn Jeffreys, LI: D;, HER: ’g. , ELS. ; a. Bentham, F.R.S. ; ; Pro-
fessor Cleland, F.R.S.; Professor E. Perceval Wright, E.LS. ; P. L, Sclater,
RS. 3 bo ofessor Macalister ; ; Colonel Lane Fox.
Secretaries. —W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, M.A., B.Sc. F.L.8.; R. O. Cunningham,
M.D., F.L.S.; Dr. J. J. Charles, WM. A} Dr, P. H. Pye- Smith ; deods Murphy ;
FW. Rudler, E.G.S,
SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.
President.—Major Wilson, R.E., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
Vice-Presidents.—John Ball, F. R. She Sir Walter Elliot, G.C.S.I.; J. A. Henderson,
J.P., Mayor of Belfast ; Admiral Ommanney, C.B., E.R.G. S45 ’ Colonel Playfair,
FRG. 8., H.B.M. Consul-General at Algiers ; the Rey. G. Leslie Porter, D.D.,
LL.D. ; Major- -General Strachey, F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
pera ie.—h, G. Rayenstein, F.R.G. 8., F.S.8.; E. C. Rye, F.Z.8., Librarian
R.G
SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
President.—Lord O'Hagan.
Vice-Presidents,—General Sir James Alexander, K.C.B., F.R.S.E.; Edward Bar-
rington, J.P.; R. Dudley Raxter, F.8.S. ; Samuel Brown, FSS.; Rev. Dr,
Campbell ; Sir George Campbell, K.C.S.1.; the Right Rey. the Bishop of Edin-
burgh ; the Mayor of Belfast ; William Farr, M.D., F.R.S., D.C.L. ; John Han-
cock, ip P.; James Heywood, M. Ag EVR.S. .T. B. Spraoue, M. A.; » Rev. Robinson
Scott, 1) D.; Lord Waveney.
Secretaries. Professor Donnell, M.A. ; Frank P. Fellows, F.8.S. ; Hans MacMordie,
M.A,
SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
IER esident. —Professor James Thomson, LL.D., C.E.
Fice-Presidents.—H. Bauerman, F.G. S.; F, J. Bramwell, C.E., F.R.S.; P. le Neve
Foster, M.A.; Professor G. Fuller, CE; ; Sir Charles Lanyon, CE.”
Secretar jes—A. T. Atchison, M.A., O.E.; J. N. Shoolbred, 0.E., .7.G.8,: John
Smyth, jun., M.A., C.F
OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1874-75.
PRESIDENT.
PROFESSOR J, TYNDALL, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.
VICE-PRESIDENTS.
The te Rigo Hon. the EARL OF ENNISKILLEN, D.C.L., | The Rey. P. SHutpAM Henry, D.D., M.R.LA.
G.8. President, Queen’s College, cary
The Right Hon. the Fart oF Rosse, D.C.L.,| Dr. T. ANDREWS, F.R.S., Hon, F.R.8.E., F.C.8
FE.R.S., F.R.A.S. Rey. Dr. RoBINSON, ERS., F.R.AS.
Sir RICHARD WALLACE, Bart., M.P. Professor SroKeEs, M.A., D.O.L, Sec.R.8.
PRESIDENT ELECT.
SIR JOHN HAWKSHAW, C.E., F.R.S., F.G.S,
VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.
The Right Hon, the EarL oF Duciz, F.BRS., Mera Sir Henry C. RAWLINSON, K.C.B.,
F.G.S. E.R.S., F.R.G.S8,
The Right Hon. Sir StarrorD H. Nortxcore, | Dr. W. B. CARPENTER, LL.D., eae E.LS., F.G.8
Bart., C.B,, M.P., F.R.S. W. SANDERS, Esq., F.R.S., FG.
The MAyor OF BRISTOL (1874-75).
LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT BRISTOL.
W. Lant CarPENTER, Esq., B.A., B.Se., F.C.5.
JOHN H. CLARKE, Esq.
LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT BRISTOL.
PrRoctToR BAKER, Esq.
ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL,
BATEMAN, J. F., Esq., F.R.S. MAXWELL, Professor J. CLERK, F.R.S.
Breppoe, Dr. JOHN, F.R.S. MERRIFIELD, C. W., Esq., F.R.S.
BRAMWELL, F. ee Hed . C.E., F.R.S,. OmMMANNEY, Admiral E., C.B., F.R.8.
Drsus, Dr. H., ERS PENGELLY, W., pee ERS.
Dr La Rue, WARREN, Esq., D.C.L,, F.R.8. PLAYFATR, Rt.Hon. Dr.Lyoy, C.B.,M.P.,F.B.S.
Farr, Dr. W., F.R.S. PRESTWICH, J., Esq., F.R.S.
Firou, J. G., "Esq., M.A. Roscor, Prof. Ht. E., Ph.D., F.R.S.'
FLoweEr, Professor Me ae F.R.S. Russert, Dr. W.J., F.R.S. i
Foster, Prof. G. C., ScLaTER, Dr. P. L., "BRS.
GassioT, J, P., Esq., ay % e, LL.D., F.R.S. SIEMENS, Cc. W., Esc., “ah C.L., F.R.S.
JEFFREYS, J. Gwyn, Esq. B R.S. SMITH, Professor H. J. 8 ., E.R.S.
LooxyeEr, J. N., Esq., BE. STRACHEY, Major-Gener: al , E.R.S.
MASKELYNE, Prof, N. 8., v4 A., F.R.S.
GENERAL SECRETARIES.
Capt. Dovetas Gatton, C.B., R.E., F.R.S., F.G-.8., 12 Chester Street, Grosvenor Place, London, 8.W.
‘Dr. MicwHakEt Foster, E.R.S., F.C. 8., Trinity College, Cambridge.
ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY. i
GEORGE GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., F.C.S., Harrow-on-the-hill, Middlesex,
GENERAL TREASURER.
Professor A. W. WILLIAMSON, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.8., University College, London, W.C.
F
EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
; The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents and
' Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former years,
the General Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurer and Secretaries for the
4 ensuing Meeting. .
TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).
General Sir EDWARD SABINE, K.C.B., R.A., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Sir PHitip DE M. GREY-EGERTON, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.G.8,
Sir Jonn Luppock, Bart., M.P., F.R.8., F.L.S.
PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS.
The Duke of Devonshire. The Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D. Professor Stokes, M.A., D.C.L.
The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D. Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L. Prof. Huxley, LL.D., See. R.8.
Sir G.B. rainy: Astronomer Royal. | Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B., LL.D. | Prof. Sir W. Thomson, D.OC.L.
General Sir BE. Sabine, K.C.B. Sir William R. Grove, F. RS. Dr. Carpenter, F.R.S8.
The Earl of Harrowby. The Duke of Buccleuch, K.B. Prof. Williamson, Ph.D., F.R.S.
The Duke of Argyll. Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, D.C.L.
GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS.
FP. Galton, Esq., F.R.S. Gen. Sir E. Sabine, K.C.B., F.R.8. | Dr. T. Thomson, F.R.S.
Dr. T. A, Hirst,-F,R.8. W. Spottiswoode, Esq., F.R.8,
. AUDITORS.
Professor Sylvester, P.R.S, J, Evans, Hsq., F.R.S. Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S.
xlvili REPORT—1874.
Report of the Council for the Year 1873-74 presented to the General Com-
mittee at Belfast, on Wednesday, August 19th, 1874.
The Council have received Reports during the past year from the General
Treasurer; and his Account for the year will be laid before the General
Committee this day.
The General Committee at Bradford referred the following four Resolutions
to the Council for their consideration, and they beg to report their proceed-
ings upon each case :—
' First Resolution.—* That the Council be requested to take steps to bring
the importance of the meteorological researches at Mauritius before
the Government, in order that, when they become convinced of the
value of these researches by the action of the Association, they may
be induced to increase the assistance.”
The Council found that it was unnecessary to take action in this case,
the application made by the Association last year having resulted in an
increase to the Staff of the Observatory by the Government.
Second Resolution.— That the Council be requested to take such steps
as they may consider desirable for the purpose of representing to Her
Majesty’s Government the importance of the scientific results to be
obtained from Arctic Exploration.”
In November last, Sir Bartle Frere, President of the Royal Geographical
Society, requested Mr. Gladstone to receive ajoint deputation from the Royal
Society, the Royal Geographical Society, the British Association, and the
Dundee Chamber of Commerce, on the subject of an Arctic Expedition.
Mr. Gladstone declined to receive a deputation, but requested an application,
stating reasons, in a written form. This was furnished, but a change of
Government occurred. Mr. Disraeli, since his accession to office, has re-
ceived a deputation on the subject, consisting of Sir H. Rawlinson, Dr.
Hooker, and Admiral Sherard Osborne, but no answer has yet been returned
to their application.
Third Resolution.—* That the Council be requested to consider the pos-
sibility and expediency of making arrangements for the constitution
of an Annual Museum for the exhibition of specimens and apparatus
on a similar footing to that of the Sections, and similarly provided
with officers to superintend the arrangements.”
The Council, in accordance with the desire of the General Committee, have
provided a room, and appointed a Committee, consisting of the General and
Assistant General Secretaries, Professor Redfern, Mr. Ewart (one of the
Local Secretaries), and Mr. Ray Lankester, to make the necessary arrange-
ments for the reception and due exhibition of specimens and apparatus illus-
trative of Papers to be read at the Meeting.
Fourth Resolution.—“ That the Council of. the British Association be
requested to communicate with the authorities in charge of the St.
Gothard’s Tunnel, with the view of obtaining permission for the
Committee on Underground Temperature to take observations on
temperature during the progress of the works.”
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. xlix
Steps are being taken in pursuance of this Resolution.
The Council have had under their consideration the advisability of laying
down some systematic rule to govern the election of Members of Council,
and they recommend to the General Committee the adoption of the following
regulations, which are in reality little more than a definite expression of the
general practice of past years :—
(1) The Council shall consist of
1. The Trustees.
2. The past Presidents.
3. The President and Vice-Presidents for the time being.
4, The President and Vice-Presidents elect.
5. The past and present General Treasurers, General and Assistant
General Secretaries.
6. The Local Treasurer and Secretaries for the ensuing Meeting.
7. Ordinary Members.
(2) The Ordinary Members shall be elected annually from the General
; Committee.
(3) There shall be not more than twenty-five Ordinary Members, of whom
not more than twenty shall have served on the Council, as Ordi-
nary Members, in the previous year.
(4) In order to carry out the foregoing rule, the following Ordinary Mem-
bers of the outgoing Council shall at each ‘annual election be
ineligible for nomination :—Ilst, those who have served on the
Council for the greatest number of consecutive years; and, 2nd,
those who, being resident in or near London, have attended the
- fewest number of Meetings during the year—observing (as nearly
as possible) the proportion of three by seniority to two by least
attendance.
(5) The Council shall submit to the General Committee in their Annual
Report the names of the Members of General Committee whom
they recommend for election as Members of Council.
(6) The Election shall take place at the same time as that of the Officers of
the Association. :
In order to assist the consideration of this question, the Council have
appended to this Report a list of the Ordinary Members of Council, showing
the date of election in each case.
The Council have added the following list of names of gentlemen present at
the last Meeting of the Association to the list of Corresponding Members :—
Il Signor Guido Cora. Dr. A. Shafarik, Prague.
Dr. Felix Klein. Professor J. Lawrence Smith, Louis-
Baron von Richthofen, Berlin. ville, U.S.
In consequence of the Nomination to the Presidency of Section D of
Professor Redfern, who was appointed Local Secretary by the General
Committee at the last Meeting at Bradford, the Council have nominated
Professor G. Fuller to be a Local Secretary.
The Council have to announce that Mr. W. Spottiswoode has notified to
them that he is unable to continue to hold the office of General Treasurer.
The Council have received this announcement with great regret, a regret
which they feel will be shared by the Association. Mr. Spottiswoode has
occupied the post of General Treasurer for the last thirteen years, and has
invariably promoted the interests of the Association with untiring zeal and
ability.
1874. d
REPORT—1874.
After much consideration, they have resolved to recommend Dr. A. Wil-
liamson as Treasurer in the place of Mr. W. Spottiswoode.
The General Committee will remember that Bristol has been selected as
the place of Meeting for next year. The Council understand that an in-
vitation to hold a subsequent Meeting at Glasgow will be presented to the
General Committee.
The Council cannot close their Report without making some mention of
the irreparable loss which the Association has sustained in the death of the
late Professor Phillips.
He, in conjunction with Dean Buckland, Canon Vernon Harcourt, and
others, founded the Association in 1831, and, from that time until his death,
his labours on its behalf were untiring.
He acted as Local Secretary at the first Meeting at York; he filled, from
the following year to the year 1862, the office of Assistant General Secretary ;
from 1862 to 1864 that of General Secretary; he was President in 1865;
and, having seldom been absent from any of the Meetings, he presided last
year at Bradford over the Geological Section.
In Professor Phillips, eminence in his own branch of Science and wide
general culture, were united with unselfish sympathetic nature, a genial
kindly manner and with a singularly happy tact in the conduct of affairs.
It was this rare combination of qualities which guided the Association
through its early difficulties to the success it has at present achieved, and
which now makes his loss felt as one which can never be filled up.
APPENDIX,
Ordinary Members of the Council, and the Dates of their Election.
Elected. Elected.
1870. Beddoe, John, M.D., F.RB.S. 1873. Maxwell, Prof. J. C., F.RB.S.
1873. Bramwell, F. J., Esq., C.H., F.R.S. 1871. Merrifield, C. W., Esq., F.R.S.
1870. Debus, Dr. H., F.R.S. 1870. Northcote, Right Hon. Sir 8. H.
1872. De La Rue, W., Hsq., D.C.L., F.R.S. | 1875. Ommanney, Adm. E., C.B., F.R.S.
1868. Hyans, John, Esq., F.R.S. 1873. Pengelly, W., Esq., F.R.S.
1871. Fitch, J. G., Esq., M.A. 1873. Prestwich, J., Hisq., F.R.S.
1872. Flower, Prof. W. H., F.R.S. 1873. Russell, Dr. W. J., F.R.S.
1871. Foster, Prof. G. C., F.R.S. 1872. Sclater, P. L., Esq., F.R.S.
1868. Galton, Francis, Hsq., F.R.S. 1871. Siemens, C. W., Esq., F.R.S.
1871. Hirst, Dr. T. Archer, F.R.S. 1873. Smith, Prof. H. J. 8., F.R.S.
1868. Huggins, W., Hsq., F.R.S. 1871. Strachey, Major-General, F.RS.
1871. Jeffreys, J. Gwyn, Hsq., F.R.S. ' 1868. Strange, Lieut,-Col, A., F.R.S.
1871. Lockyer, J. N., Hsq., F.R.S.
RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. li
RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENTRAL ComMitrer AT tHE BeLrasr
Meetine in Aveust 1874.
[When Committees are appointed, the Member first named is regarded as the Secretary,
except there is a specific nomination. ]
Involving Grants of Money. -
That the Committee, consisting of Professor Cayley, Professor G. G. Stokes,
Professor H. J. 8. Smith, Professor Sir W. Thomson, and Mr. J. W. L.
Glaisher (Secretary), on Mathematical Tables be reappointed, and that £100
be granted to them towards the printing the tables of the Elliptic Func-
tions.
That the Committee on the Magnetization of Iron, Nickel, and Cobalt, con-
sisting of Professor Balfour Stewart and Mr. W. F. Barrett, be reappointed,
with the addition of Professor Clerk Maxwell, and that the sum of £20 be
placed at their disposal.
That the Committee for reporting on the Rainfall of the British Isles, eon-
sisting of Mr. C. Brooke, Mr. J. Glaisher, Mr. J. F. Bateman, Mr. T, Hawks-
ley, Mr. G. J. Symons, Mr, C. Tomlinson, and Mr. Rogers Field, be reap-
pointed ; that the Karl of Rosse and Mr. J. Smyth, Junior, be added to the
Committee; that Mr. G. J. Symons be the Secretary ; that £100 be granted
for the ordinary purposes of the Committee, and £20 extra for observations
in the watershed of the Shannon, and in other parts of Ireland, respecting
the rainfall of which no records exist.
That the Committee, consisting of Mr. James Glaisher, Mr. R. P. Greg
Mr. Charles Brooke, Professor G. Forbes, and Professor A. 8. Herschel, on
Luminous Meteors, be reappointed, and that the sum of £30 be placed at
their disposal for the purpose of providing a sufticient supply of maps and
registers for their observations.
That Professor Clerk Maxwell, Professor J. D. Everett, and Mr. A.
Schuster be appointed a Committee for the purpose of testing experimentally
the exactness of Ohm’s law; that Mr. Schuster be the Secretary, and that
the sum of £50 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That a Committee, consisting of Professor Stokes, Dr. De La Rue, Professor
Clerk Maxwell, Mr. W. F. Barrett, Mr. Howard Grubb, and Mr. G. Johnstone
Stoney, be appointed to examine and report upon the reflective powers of
silver, gold, and platinum, whether in mass or chemically deposited on glass,
and of speculum metal, and that the sum of £20 be placed at their disposal.
That the Committee, consisting of Professor A. 8. Herschel and Mr. G. A.
Lebour, for making experiments on the Thermal Conductivities of certain
rocks, be reappointed ; that Professor A. 8. Herschel be the Secretary, and
that £10 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That the Committee on Thermo-Electricity, consisting of Professor Tait,
Professor Tyndall, and Professor Balfour Stewart, be reappointed, and that
the grant of £50 which has lapsed be renewed.
That Professors Williamson, Frankland, and Roscoe be a Committee for
the purpose of superintending the publication by the Chemical Society of the
Monthly Reports on the Progress of Chemistry ; that Professor Williamson
be the Secretary, and that the sum of £100 be placed at their disposal for
the purpose.
That Professors Roscoe, Balfour Stewart, and Thorpe be a Committee for
the purpose of determining the Specific Volumes of Liquids; that Dr. Thorpe
d2
ce peepee 1874,
be the Secretary, and that the sum of £25 be placed at their disposal for the
purpose.
That Messrs. Allen, Dewar, Stanford, and Fletcher be a Committee for the
purpose of examining and reporting upon the methods employed in the esti-
mation of Potash and Phosphoric Acid in commercial products, and on the
mode of stating the results ; that Mr. A. H. Allen be the Secretary, and that
the sum of £10 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Dr. Armstrong and Professor Thorpe be a Committee for the purpose
of investigating Isomeric Cresols and their derivatives ; that Dr. Armstrong
be the Secretary, and that the sum of £20 be placed at their disposal for the
purpose.
That Mr. H. Willett, Mr. R. A. C. Godwin-Austen, Mr. W. Topley, Mr.
Davidson, Professor Prestwich, Professor Boyd Dawkins, and Mr. Henry
Woodward be a Committee for the purpose of promoting the “ Sub-Wealden
Exploration ;” that Mr. H. Willett be the Secretary, and that the sum of
£100 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
’ That Sir C. Lyell, Bart., Sir J. Lubbock, Bart., Mr. J. Evans, Mr. E.
Vivian, Mr. W. Pengelly, Mr. G. Busk, Mr. Boyd Dawkins, Mr. W. A.
Sanford, and Mr. J. E. Lee be a Committee for the purpose of continuing
the exploration of Kent’s Cavern, Torquay ; that Mr. Pengelly be the Se-
cretary, and that the sum of £100 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Sir John Lubbock, Bart., Mr. Boyd Dawkins, Rev. H. W. Crosskey,
Professor Hughes, Mr. L. C. Miall, Professor Prestwich, and Mr. R. H.
Tiddeman be a Committee for the purpose of assisting the exploration of the
Victoria Cave, Settle ; that Mr. Tiddeman be the Secretary, and that the sum
of £50 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Dr. Bryce, Mr. J. Brough, Mr. G. Forbes, Mr. D. Milne-Holme, Mr.
J. Thomson, and Professor Sir W. Thomson be a Committee for the purpose
of continuing the Observations and Records of Earthquakes in Scotland ;
that Dr. Bryce be the Secretary, and that the sum of £20 be placed at their
disposal for the purpose.
That Professor Hull, Mr. E. W. Binney, Mr. F. J. Bramwell, Rey. H. W.
Crosskey, Professor A. H. Green, Professor Harkness, Mr. W. Molyneux, Mr.
G. H. Morton, Mr. R. W. Mylne, Mr. Pengelly, Professor Prestwich, Mr.
James Plant, Mr. De Rance, Rev. W. 8. Symonds, and Mr. W. W hitaker be
a Committee for the purpose of investigating the circulation of the under-
ground waters in the New Red Sandstone and Permian formations of England,
and the quantity and character of the water supplied to various towns and
districts from those formations ; that Mr. De Rance be the Secretary, and
that the sum of £10 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Mr. Dresser, Viscount Walden, Mr. R. B. Sharpe, Mr. O. Salvin, and
Mr. Sclater be a Committee for the purpose of preparing a Report on the
present state of our knowledge of the Ornithology of the various parts of the
world; that Mr. Sclater be the Secretary, and that the sum of £10 be placed
at their disposal for the purpose of preliminary printing.
That Professor Rolleston, Mr. Ray Lankester, and Mr. Balfour be a Com-
mittee for the purpose of investigating the early stages of the development
of the Myxinoid Fishes ; that Mr. Lankester be the Secretar y, and that the
sum of £20 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. —
That Mr. Stainton, Sir John Lubbock, and Professor Newton be a Com-
mittee for the purpose of continuing a Record of Zoological Literature ; that
Mz. Stainton be the Secretary, and ‘that the sum of £100 be placed at their
disposal for the purpose.
—— eee eee”
RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTED. liti
That Colonel Lane Fox, Dr. Beddoe, Mr. Franks, Mr. F. Galton, Mr.
E. W. Brabrook, Sir J. Lubbock, Sir Walter Elliot, Mr. C. R. Markham, Mr.
E. B. Tylor, Mr. J. Evans, and Mr. F. W. Rudler be reappointed a Committee
for the purpose of preparing and publishing brief forms of instruction for
travellers, ethnologists, and other anthropological observers; that Colonel
Lane Fox be the Secretary, and that the sum of £20 be placed at their dis-
posal for the purpose.
That Dr. Brunton and Dr. Pye-Smith be a Committee for the purpose of
investigating the nature of Intestinal Secretion; that Dr. Brunton be the
Secretary, and that the sum of £20 be placed at their disposal for the pur-
pose,
That Major Wilson and Mr. Ravenstein be a Committee for the purpose of
furthering the Palestine explorations; and that the sum of £100 be placed
at their disposal, to be expended on behalf of the Topographical Survey, and
especially in ascertaining the level of the Sea of Galilee and the fall of the
river Jordan.
That the Committee, consisting of Lord Houghton, Professor Thorold
Rogers, W: Newmarch, Professor Fawcett, M.P., Jacob Behrens, F. P. Fellows,
R. H. Inglis Palgrave, Archibald Hamilton, and 8. Brown, on Capital and
Labour, be reappointed; that Professor Leone Levi be the Secretary, and
that the sum of £25 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That the Committee on instruments for measuring the speed of ships be
reappointed ; that it consist of the following Members :——Mr. W. Froude, Mr.
F. J. Bramwell, Mr. A. E. Fletcher, Rey. E. L. Berthon, Mr. James R. Napier,
Mr. C. W. Merrifield, Dr. C. W. Siemens, Mr. H. M. Brunel, Mr. W. Smith,
Sir William Thomson, and Mr. J. N. Shoolbred; that Professor James Thomson
-be added to the Committee; that Mr. J. N. Shoolbred be the Secretary, and
that the sum of £50 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
Applications for Reports and Researches not involving Grants of Money.
That the Committee, consisting of Dr. Huggins, Dr. De La Rue, Mr. J.
N. Lockyer, Dr. Reynolds, Mr. Spottiswoode, Mr. G. J. Stoney, and Mr, W.
M. Watts, on Wave Numbers be reappointed.
That Mr. Spottiswoode, Professor Stokes, Professor Cayley, Professor Clif-
ford, and Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher be appointed a Committee to report on
Mathematical Notation and printing, with the view of leading mathematicians
to prefer in optional cases such forms as are more easily put into type, and
of promoting uniformity of notation.
That Mr. W. H. L. Russell be requested to continue his Report on recent
progress in the Theory of Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Functions.
That the Committee on Underground Temperature, consisting of Professor
Everett (Secretary), Professor Sir W. Thomson, Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., Pro-
fessor J. Clerk Maxwell, Mr. G. J. Symons, Professor Ramsay, Professor
Geikie, Mr. J. Glaisher, Rev. Dr. Graham, Mr. George Maw, Mr. Pengelly,
Mr. 8. J. Mackie, Professor Edward Hull, Professor Ansted, and Dr. Clement
Le Neve Foster, be reappointed.
- That the Committee on Teaching Physics in Schools be reappointed, with
the addition of the names of Professor J. Clerk Maxwell, Mr. J. Perry, and
Mr. G. F. Rodwell.
. That the Committee on Tides, consisting of Professor Sir W. Thomson,
Professor J. ©. Adams, Mr. J. Oldham, Rear-Admiral Richards, General
Strachey, Mr. W. Parkes, Mr. Webster, and Colonel Walker, be reappointed,
liv REPORT—1874,
That the Committee, consisting of Professor Cayley, Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher,
Dr. W. Pole, Mr. Merrifield, Professor Fuller, Mr. H. M. Brunel, and Pro-
fessor W. K. Clifford, be reappointed to estimate the cost of constructing Mr.
Babbage’s Analytical Engine, and to consider the advisability of printing
tables by its means.
That the Committee, consisting of Dr. Joule, Professor Sir W. Thomson,
Professor Tait, Professor Balfour Stewart, and Professor J. Clerk Maxwell,
be reappointed to effect the determination of the Mechanical Equivalent of
Heat.
That Professor Sylvester, Professor Cayley, Professor Hirst, Rev. Professor
Bartholomew Price, Professor H. J. 8S. Smith, Dr. Spottiswoode, Mr. R. B.
Hayward, Dr. Salmon, Rev. R. Townsend, Professor Fuller, Professor Kel-
land, Mr. J. M. Wilson, and Professor Clifford be reappointed a Committee
(with power to add to their number) for the purpose of considering the pos-
sibility of improving the methods of instruction in elementary geometry ; and
that Professor Clifford be the Secretary.
That Professors Williamson, Roscoe, and Gladstone, Dr. Carpenter, Sir
Walter Elliot, and Mr. Lockyer be a Committee for the purpose of report-
ing on Science-Lectures ; that Professor Roscoe be the Secretary.
That Dr. Mills, Dr. Boycott, Mr. Gadesden, Mr. Sellon, and Mr. W. Chandler
Roberts be a Committee for the purpose of investigating the methods of
making gold assays, and stating the results thereof; that Mr. W. Chandler
Roberts be the Secretary.
That Messrs. H, B. Grantham, Bramwell, and W. Hope, Professor Corfield,
Dr. J. H. Gilbert, and Professor Williamson be a Committee for the purpose
of continuing the investigations on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage.
That Professor Harkness, Mr. Prestwich, Professor Hughes, Rey. H. W.
Crosskey, Messrs. Woodward, Dawkins, Maw, Miall, Morton, Lee, Pengelly,
Plant, and Tiddeman be a Committee for the purpose of recording the posi-
tion, height above the sea, lithological characters, size, and origin of the more
important of the Erratic Blocks of England and Wales, reporting other
matters of interest connected with the same, and taking measures for their
preservation ; that the Rev. H. W. Crosskey be the Secretary.
That Professor Huxley, Mr. Sclater, Mr. F. M. Balfour, Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys,
Dr. M. Foster, Mr. Ray Lankester, and Mr. Dew Smith be a Committee for
the purpose of making a report on the Zoological Station at Naples, and that
Mr. Dew Smith be the Secretary.
That the Rev. H. F. Barnes, Mr. Dresser, Mr. Harland, Mr. Harting,
Professor Newton, and the Rey. Canon Tristram be reappointed a Committee
for the purpose of considering the desirability of establishing “a close time ”
for the protection of indigenous animals, and for watching Bills introduced
into Parliament affecting this subject, and that Mr. Dresser be the Secretary.
That Mr. Spence Bate be requested to draw up a Report on the present
state of our knowledge of the Crustacea.
That the Metric Committee be reappointed, consisting of James Heywood,
M.A., F.R.S., Lord O'Hagan, The Right Hon. Sir Stafford Northcote, K.C.B.,
M.P., Sir W. Armstrong, F.R.S., Samuel Brown, F.S.8., William Farr, M.D.,
D.C.L., F.R.S., Frank P. Fellows, F.S.8., Archibald Hamilton, F.S.8., Pro-
fessor Frankland, F.R.S., Professor Hennessy, F.R.S8., Professor Leone Levi,
F.8.8., C. W. Siemens, F.R.S., Professor A. W. Williamson, F.R.S., Major-
General Strachey, F.R.S., and Dr. Roberts, and that Samuel Brown, F.S.8.,
be the Secretary.
That Mr. W. H. Barlow, Mr. H. Bessemer, Mr. F. J. Bramwell, Captain
RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. LV
Douglas Galton, Sir John Hawkshaw, Dr. C. W. Siemens, Professor Abel,
and Mr. E. H. Carbutt be a Committee for the purpose of considering what
steps can be taken in furtherance of the use of steel for structural purposes,
and that Mr. E. H. Carbutt be the Secretary.
That Mr. F. J. Bramwell, Mr. J. R. Napier, Mr. C. W. Merrifield, Sir John
Hawkshaw, Mr. T. Webster, Q.C., and Professor Osborne Reynolds be a
Committee for the purpose of considering and reporting upon British Measures
in use for mechanical and other purposes.
That Mr. F. J. Bramwell, Mr. Hawksley, Mr. Edward Easton, Sir William
Armstrong, and Mr. W. Hope be a Committee for the purpose of investigating
and reporting upon the utilization and transmission of wind and water power,
and that Mr. W. Hope be the Secretary.
Communications ordered to be printed in extenso in the Annual Report of
the Association.
That Mr. Bentham’s Report “On the recent progress and present state of
systematic Botany, in connexion with the development of the Natural Method
and the doctrine of Evolution” be printed in ewtenso among the Reports.
That the lists appended to Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys’s paper in Section D, entitled
* Additions to the British Mollusca and Notices of rare species from deep
water off the western coasts of Ireland,” be printed in full.
That Mr. Froude’s “Report on the resistance of a full-sized ship” be
printed in the Reports of the Association, together with the necessary
Plates.
That Mr. Froude’s paper “ On Surface-friction in Water” (being a con-
tinuation of the Report on this subject presented ‘at the Brighton Meeting) be
printed in extenso in the Report, with the necessary Plates.
That Mr. J. Smyth’s, Jun., M.A., C.E., F.C.S., paper “On the Industrial
uses of the Upper Bann River” be printed im ewtenso in the Reports of the
Association.
That Mr. T. R. Salmond’s paper “On the Belfast Harbour” be printed
in extenso in the Reports of the Association, together with the necessary
plans.
Resolutions referred to the Council for consideration and action if it seem
desirable.
That the Council be requested to take such steps as they may deem ex-
pedient to urge upon the.Government of India the desirableness of continu-
ing solar observations in India.
That the Council of the Association be requested to take such steps as they
may think desirable with a view to promote the appointment of naturalists
to vessels engaged on the coasts of little-known parts of the world.
That the Council be requested to take such steps as they may think desir-
able with the view of promoting any application that may be made to Her
Majesty’s Government by the Royal Society for a systematic Physical and
Biological exploration of the seas around the British Isles.
That the Council should take such steps as they may think desirable for
supporting the request to Her Majesty’s Government to undertake an Arctic
Expedition on the. basis proposed by the Council of the Royal Geographical
Society at the beginning of the present year, which it is understood will be
again made by that body.
lvi REPORT—1874.,
Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Purposes by
the General Committee at the Belfast Meeting in August 1874.
The names of the Members who would be entitled to call on the
General Treasurer for the respective Grants are prefixed.
Mathematics and Physics.
*Cayley, Professor.—Printing Mathematical Tables ........ £100
*Balfour Stewart, Professor.—Magnetization of Iron........ . 20
*Brooke, Mr,—-British: Rainfall... 65.0. o0e0ce tetas ane ee 120
*Glaisher, Mr. J. —Lnuminous Meteors .......... 000.00 sees 30
Maxwell, Professor C.—Testing the Exactness of Ohm’s Law- 50
Stokes, Professor.—Reflective Power of Silver and other
SAUMMDEOS Gui cc sees spo aY os tig tsetse ae eae 20
*Herschel, Professor.—Thermal Conducting-power of Rocks.. 10
*Tait, Professor.—Thermo-Electricity (renewed) .......... 50
Chemistry.
*Williamson, Professor A. W.—Records of the Progress of
Chemistry tT SEES SPS ASE I SEMIS Mestre CRY Ep aethcntKes ste 100
Roscoe, Professor.—Specific Volumes of Liquids .......... 25
Allen, Mr.—Estimation of Potash and Phosphoric Acid .... 10
*Armstrong, Dr.—Isomeric Cresols and their Derivatives
(TOUBREPO) Somme Ean poeh «Socks evs pi edly hx be eh eee 20
: Geology.
*Willett, Mr. H.—The Sub-Wealden Exploration .. ....... 100
*Lyell, Sir C., Bart—Kent’s Cavern Exploration .......... 100
*Lubbock, Sir J.—Exploration of Victoria Cave, Settle ...... 50
*Bryce, Dr.—Earthquakes in Scotland (renewed) .......... 20
Hull, Professor.—Underground Waters in New Red Sand-
Ptone.wnd Permian’ 2) De ees Vie bocce ee Sie dere ee 10
Biology.
Dresser, Mr.—Report on Ornithology ..............--+- 10
Rolleston, Professor.—Development of Myxinoid Fishes .... 20
*Stainton, Mr.—Record of the Progress of Zoology .......... 100
*Fox, Col. Lane.—Forms of Instruction for Travellers ...... 20
*Brunton, Dr.—The Nature of Intestinal Secretion ........ 20
Carried forwartteree bo viep ori ee eePiehs < hice Sivas creek £1005
* Reappointed,
o1joo eo 0 °°
oo © © Oo
SYNOPSIS OF GRANTS OF MONEY.
t Geography.
Brought torwand soko. te foe re eee £1005 0
Wilson, Major. — Palestine Exploration Fund .......,.... 100 0
Statistics and Economic Science,
*Houghton, Lord.—Economic Effect of Combinations of La-
memrors.,or Capitalists, 300° 2 oS. ct sa eae aia ahehe wake 25 0
Mechanics.
*Froude, Mr. W.—lInstruments for Measuring the Speed of
Ships and Currents (renewed)............ 0.000000 eee 50
Total....£1080 0 0
* Reappointed.
The Annual Meeting in 1875.
Wii
The Meeting at Bristol will commence on Wednesday, August 25, 1875.
Place of Meeting in 1876.
The Annual Meeting of the Association in 1876 will be held at Glasgow.
.
lviii
REPORT—1874.
General Statement of Sums which have been paid on Account of Grants
for Scientific Purposes.
£ 3s. d.
1834,
Tide Discussions .....ceeeree 20 0 0
1835.
Tide Discussions ......0---e-s006 62 0 0
British Fossil Ichthyology ...--- 105 0 0
£167 0 0
1836.
Tide Discussions .........eesee0e 163 0 0
British Fossil Ichthyology ..... . 105 0 0
Thermometric Observations, &c. 50 0 0
Experiments on. long-continued :
FIGAt cis fieeosscccactosecesenes des OE COE TO
Rain-Gauges ..ccccserseccerseeseees . 8130
Refraction Experiments ......... 15 0 0
Lunar Nutation...........e.c.000. 60 0 0
Thermometers .......cseccccereee 15 6 0
£434 14 0
1837.
Tide Discussions .......sseeeseeree 284 1 0
Chemical Constants ........ ecoscose 2413 6
Lunar Nutation........scccssesseee aero Old
Observations on Waves.........++« 100 12 0
Tides at Bristol....sc.sssccceecscses 150 0 0
Meteorology and Subterranean
Temperature ...cccccesesesee sopeutoo) a) aU
Vitrification Experiments......... 150 0 0
Heart Experiments .......000004 8 4 6
Barometric Observations ......... 50 0.0
Barometers sesecessccceveveeeeseoee TW 18"6
£918 14 6
1838.
Tide Discussions ......seeeeeeesee 29 0 O
British Fossil Fishes ............ 100 0 0
Meteorological Observations and “4
Anemometer (construction)... 100 0 0
Cast Iron (Strength of) ......... 60 0 0
Animal and Vegetable Substances
(Preservation Of) ..........0-- 19 1 10
Railway Constants ........++6 eo. 41 12 10
Bristol Tides .......+++ mas ecenanaree 00.0) 0
Growth of Plants ......00....0.... 75 0 0
Mud in Rivers .....scccseseeeseeeee 38 6 6
Education Committee .......0.. 50 0 0
Heart Experiments ....0+....s0+e. 5-3 0
Land and Sea Level............... 267 8 7
Subterranean Temperature .. See
Steam-vessels.....s.seseseee iecsveseseOO) cOln0
Meteorological Committee ...... 31 9 5
Thermometers ....scccccceseseeeeee 16 4 0
$956 12 2
1839.
Fossil Ichthyology.......... aeoverae 1110) 10/500
Meteorological Observations at
Plymouth ....00.eeseeeee. sooeeenes 63 10 0
Mechanism of Waves .,..+....... 144 2 0
Bristol Tides eueege beccsecoctecsstens) SOD LGMEO
£ada
Meteorology and Subterranean
Temperature ..covessessscconeseose OL LA | 10
Vitrification Experiments......... 9 4 7
Cast-Iron Experiments............ 100 0 0
Railway Constants ....sse0 28 7 2
Land and Sea Level .......-.++++ oe he a A
Steam-vessels’ Engines......+ oces LOU 0 0.
Stars in Histoire Céleste ......... 331 18 6
Stars in Lacaille ......+eeeseeeee bs LS 0) 1G
Stars in R.A.S. Catalogue. Broosseees sie Lieb
Animal Secretions....... Sees eas - 1010 0
Steam-engines in Cornwall ...... 50 0 0
Atmospheric Air ... Necedesee) LO ea
Cast and Wrought Tron.. Gessesse oe. 40° 0 0
Heat on Organic Bodies ...... aan Or On U)
Gases on Solar Spectrum......... 22 0 0
Hourly Meteorological Observa-
tions, Inverness and Kingussie 49 7 &
Fossil Reptiles .......s0sseeeeeeeeee 118 2 9
Mining Statistics .....sse00eceee 590 0 0
£1595 11 0
1840.
Bristol Tides ......sccceceees sesesess, LUO) 50) 30
Subterranean Temperature ...... 13 13 6
Heart Experiments ....+0....0+0- « WB! 4910
Lungs Experiments ......+6-..0. 68 13 0
Tide Discussions ....sssseeeeeeeeee 50 0 0
Land and Sea Level ««......++0. Soe, MODAL? 1d
Stars (Histoire Céleste) 0
Stars (Lacaille) ....02..scccceesss soe 0
Stars (Catalogue) .......+ 0
Atmospheric Air .......++ 0
Water on Iron ......+0+08 0 0
Heat on Organic Bodies ......... 7 0 0
Meteorological Observations...... 5217 6
Foreign Scientific Memoirs .,.... 112 1 6
Working Population............... 100 0 0
School Statistics.......ccssecsessseee 50 0 0
Forms of Vessels ....+e+e+sseseeees 184 7 0
Chemical and Electrical Pheno-
MENA ....ccccccccescesscccsseccces 40 0 0
Meteorological Observations at
Plymouth ....+0..s00e teencees ee 80 0 0
Magnetical Observations ...,,.... 185 13 9
£1546 16 4
i ee
1841,
Observations on WaveS.....0... 30 0 0
Meteorology and Subterranean
Temperature .....sesscoccess esecs Gu mOlenO
Actinometers......sccccccsesceesseee 10 0 O
Earthquake Shocks .........00.... 17 7 O
Acrid Poisons..........0+4. neesenase « . 6) 1040
Veins and Absorbents .......... ss) gona iaD
Mud in Rivers ..........+ ovccsnecan) » ROUMOIIED
Marine Zoology.....secsccrseseereee 15 12 0
Skeleton Maps ....+-.se00« Repacdass, . COMO etsy
Mountain Barometers. .......... 6 18 6
Stars (Histoire Céleste)......600 185 0 0
GENERAL STATEMENT.
£ 3. d.
Stars (Lacaille) ....cccscsessrrerreee 79 5 0
Stars (Nomenclature of) ......... 17 19 6
Stars (Catalogue Of) .....c..0000008 40 0 0
Water on Iron .....scseeeeeereeeeee 50 0 0
Meteorological Observations at
Inverness ....se.sseeeeceees sence) 20), 0,0
Meteorological Observations (re-
Auction Of) sccceccoescsrerseeeee 25 0 0
Fossil Reptiles .......+.. .. 50 0 0
Foreign Memoirs ......++2..-se008. 62 0 0
Railway Sections ......c.c0r.e 38 1 6
Forms of Vessels ....cseesseeseeeee 193 12 0
Meteorological Observations at
Plymouth .....sccceseeeeeee evecre OO 0
Magnetical Observations ........ - 6118 8
Fishes of the Old Red Sandstone 100 0 0
Tides at Leith ....... peetglsaesavies 50 0 0
Anemometer at Edinburgh . aoence!) OGue a LO
Tabulating Observations ..... 9 6 8
Races of Men .ss.sscoeseeeeeseeree 5 0 0
Radiate Animals .......0.+.00+ 2 0 0
Ei 235 10 11
1842.
Dynamometric Instruments ...... 113 11 2
Anoplura Britanniz ..,....0..e06. . 5212 0
Tides at Bristol............ sadness ie Sige O
Gases on Light............++. pagvet aa A ee
Chronometers ........00+6 sessecece 26 17 6
Marine Zoology.........+ scacosetiewsh MilysiasTO
British Fossil Mammalia ......... 100 0 0
Statistics of Education .......... . 20 0 0
Marine Steam-vessels’ Engines... 28 0 0
Stars (Histoire Céleste)........... > oo 0-0
Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. of) ...... 110 0 0
Railway Sections .........s0000... 161 10 0
British Belemnites.......++...s000+ . 50 0 0
Fossil Reptiles Uk eas of
Report) ......cccsesseeeereee severe 210 0 0
Forms of Vessels Sasvecea desacese 1S0ufi050/0
Galvanic Experiments on Rocks 5 8 6
Meteorological Experiments at
Plymouth ............ee0ee. a 68 0 0
Constant Indicator and Dynamo-
metric Instruments ......... «2 90 0 0
Force of Wind ....ccseeeeseeeees «- 10 0 0
Light on Growth of Seeds ...... 8 0 0
Vital Statistics ............. wee sbors OU) 40) a0
Vegetative Power of Seeds ...... 8 1 11
Questions on Human Race...... 7 9 0
“£1449 17_ 8
1843.
Revision of the Nomenclature of
RIATADG staudaansaanska=snacacas-dees miso) 0
Reduction of Stars, British Asso-
ciation Catalogue ....+........ - 25 0 0
Anomalous Tides, lrith of Forth 120 0 0
Hourly Meteorological Observa-
tionsat KingussieandInverness 77 12 8
Meteorological Observations at
Plymouth ..........06+ swseccss 55 0 0
Whewell’s Meteorological Ane-
mometer at Plymouth .,.0.... 10 0 0
£ 38. d.
Meteorological Observations, Os-
ler’s Anemometer at Plymouth 20 0 0
Reduction of Meteorological Ob-
SETVALIONS .....scecseessssesesseee 30 0 0
Meteorological Instruments and
Gratuities ....e..scccccecssseeeeee 39 6 0
Construction of Anemometer at
INVerNness ..,ccccccceseoescseresss 56 12 2
Magnetic Cooperation ............ 10 8 10
Meteorological Recorder for Kew
Observatory sse.ssereee ssessereee 90 0 O
Action of Gases on Light ........ 18 16 1
Establishment at Kew Observa-
tory, Wages, Repairs, Furni-
ture and Sundries...... maeepose plo ag 4: Nt
Experiments by Captive Balloons 81 8 0
Oxidation ofthe Rails of Railways 20 0 0
Publication of Report on Fossil
Reptiles ...... suciee Sonsniesneaeaena - 40 0 0
Coloured Drawings of “Railway
Nectlons . Siavse-tncevessavcenccces 147 18 3
Registration of Earthquake
SHOCKS |<... nceenesovecesoncuspus -. 30 0 0
Report on Zoological Nomencla-
CUTE eo oe eennecuossncerces cee 10 0 O
Uncovering Lower Red Sand-
stone near Manchester ........ 4 4 6
Vegetative Power of Seeds, coonns DF 8 8
Marine Testacea (Habits of ) 10 0 0
Marine Zoology.....csssesseee scosssny lO O70
Marine Zoology....s+.s.0++ masaeaens 214 11
Preparation of Report on British
Fossil] Mammalia .........s0s000 100 0 0
Physiological Operations of Me-
dicinal Agents ......ss+seses. soo, 20 0. 0
Vital Statistics ......scessceeseeeere 36 5 8
Additional Experiments on the
Forms of Vessels ....60.....--e.5 70 0 0
Additional Experiments on the
Forms of Vessels «2. o....0s+s0. 100 0 0
Reduction of Experiments on the
Forms of Vessels ........-.-.--- 100 0 O
Morin’s Instrument and Constant
Indicator sccs..csscccscsessserses, 69 14 10
Experiments on the Strength of
Materials .,.cccesscosevscevereeee 60 0 0
£1565 10 2
1844.
Meteorological Observations at
Kingussie and Inverness ...... 12 0 0
Completing Observations at Ply-
MOUH secscscccccsececccaccsesese (05/0) 0
Magnetic and Meteorological Co-
OPETAtiON secrsecceeeecers ecosccee 20 8 4
Publication of the British Asso-
ciation Catalogue of Stars...... 35 0 0
Observations on Tides on the
East coast of Scotland .,....... 100 0 0
Revision of the Nomenclature of
Stars ceccecescveseeee soeonnnedd42 2 9 6
Maintaining the Establishmentin
Kew Observatory ...-seseesee0ee 117 17 3
Instruments for Kew Observatory
56 7
“
lx”
a
o®
» &. 8.
Influence of Light on Plants...... 10 0
Subterraneous Temperature in
VST Seecsepoonricer bapceacoasan 50120
Coloured Drawings of Railway
NECEONS\.ccscdecsscoccstecscssesese sal aia i
Investigation of Fossil Fishes of
the Lower Tertiary Strata ... 100 0 0
Registering the Shocks of Earth-
QUAKES wovssavescssccccccece 1842 23 11 10
Structure of Fossil Shells ......... 20 0 0
Radiata and Mollusca of the
- /£gean and Red Seas...... 1842 100 0 0
Geographical Distributions of
Marine Zoology ......... 1842 10 0 0
Marine Zoology of Devon and
Cornwall .......cseceseenees copes PO Ore
Marine Zoology ‘of Corfu ..... meee POMAQTAND
Experiments on the Vitality of
BECUSuascscen AOC RDO DOSE COEDS ENON 9 0 3
Experiments on the Vitality of
SEEDS ccccccsnscecsessccccssss 1842. 8 7 3
Exotic Anoplura ......00.....e000. 15 0 0
Strength of Materials ............ 100 0 0
Completing Experiments on the
Forms of Ships ........ auchivas'aes 100 0 0
Inquiries into Asphyxia ......... 10 0 0
Investigations on the Internal
Constitution of Metals ..... See OI ORRG
Constant Indicator and Morin’s
Instrument s..eoeeseeeceee 1842 10 38 6
£981 12 8
1845.
Publication of the British Associa-
tion Catalogue of Stars .........
Meteorological Observations at
351 14 6
IMverness ceorcccccccsscccccserece 30 18 11
Magnetic and Meteorological Co-
OPEFAatiON ceeceecsceceeececeere wae, 26 16--°8
Meteorological Instruments at
. Edinburgh......... Recescemeeseseg Sens)
Reduction of Anemometrical Ob-
servations at Plymouth .,....... 25 0 0
Electrical Experiments at Kew
Observatory ..sccccecssscereeee « 43817 8
Maintaining the Establishmentin
Kew Observatory ....... soccosee 149 15 0
For Kreil’s Barometrograph...... 25 0 0
Gases from Iron Furnaces ...... 50 0 0
The Actinograph ..........++. eoose 15520510
Microscopic Structure of Shells 20 0 0
Exotic Anoplura .,..........1843 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ......6.4...1848, 2 0 7
Vitality of Seeds ............1844 7 0 0
Marine Zoology of Cornwall..... 10 0 0
Physiological Action of Medicines 20 0 0
Statistics: of. Sickness and Mor- i
tality in YOrk .....seseseeseeee 20 0 0
Earthquake Shocks .........1843 15 14 8
£830 9 9
1846,
British “Association Catalogue of
Stars’ s...ccscecvces covseeeee1844 211 15 0
Fossil Fishes of the London Clay 100 0 0
REPORT—1874.
Bia same,
Computation --of --the. Gaussian :
Constants for 1829 ........ seas 50) ) O10
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory ......6+. ehedss 146 16 7
Strength of Materials ............ 60 0 0
Researches in Asphyxia ....++... 616 2
Examination of Fossil Shells...... 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds .....0....45 1844 2 15 10
Vitality of Seeds .....e.eeeee 1845 712 3
Marine Zoology of Cornwall...... 10 0 0
Marine Zoology of Britain. ...... 10 0 0
Exotic Anoplura ........... 1844 25 0 0
Expenses attending Anemometers 11 7 6
Anemometers’ Repairs ........0++ Oats ® 6
Atmospheric Waves ...... Sdesanser 3°33
Captive Balloons ............ 1844 819 3
Varieties of the Human Race
1844 7 6
Statistics of Sickness and Mor-
tality in York csnvsvswsevrevs eon 12
£685 16
1847.
Computation of the Gaussian
Constants for 1829 ......... sen “SOROS
Habits of Marine Animals ...... 10 0 0
Physiological Actionof Medicines 20 0 0
Marine Zoology of Cornwall...... 10 0 0
Atmospheric Waves .......+ ovsese tt) MGRSOI AS
Vitality of Seeds .........44. Angfin 7
Maintaining the Establishinent at
Kew Observatory ....esssssseeee 107 8
£208 5 4
1848.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory. «e.seceseeee «» 171 15 11
Atmospheric Waves ...+e+sssseeees 310 9
Vitality of Seeds ...........c00e eres O15 O
Completion of Catalogues of Stars 70 0 0
On Colouring Matters ...... eevee 5 0 0
On Growth of Plants...... secevsese 15 0 0
£275" 1° 8
ee ee
1849.
Electrical Observations at Kew
Observatory). cocecressect ocosnes 50 0 0
Maintaining Establishment ‘at
Gitto .......ce0ee. coesesstooeree sae “COON OD
Vitality of Seeds: <..22..0vsscdeoeee | MDT BMI
On Growth of Plants.......... eonag OleOL 1D)
Registration of Periodical Phe-
TOMENA ....0ccccccecertcesserssecs LOO R 0
Bill on account of Anemometrical
Observations ..:seccccoess-ss.-0ee 13 9 O
£159 19 6
1850. A
Maintaining the Establishment at ;
Kew Observatory ......-.....005 255 18 0
Transit of Earthquake Waves... 50 0 0
Periodical Phenomena ............ 15 0 0
Meteorological Instruments, ;
AZOVES sstscsasso.cesscaces tees 25000 10
0
£345 18
GENERAL STATEMENT.
‘
£ s. d.
my 1851.
Maintaining the Establishment at
{ew Observatory (includes part
of grantin 1849) ........seee0e 309 2
Theory of Heat..... Sactranssctns= 5 20) 1 1
Periodical Phenomena of Animals
and Plants ...... tbeehecescstensee 5 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ....00.....e000- ero or. 4
Influence of Solar Radiation...... 30 0 0
Ethnological Inquiries ........... =e 7} Uden)
Researches on Annelida ........- 10 0 0
£391 9 7
1852.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory (including
balance of grant for 1850) ... 233 17 8
,Experiments on the Conduction
OP HeAL Weccrestiadslareasaasesse te eiiet2ic9
Influence of Solar Radiations ... 20 0 0
Geological Map of Ireland ..... - 15 0 0
Researches on the British Anne-
LAs So cpapessves esas ces sesesds (LO 0i+ 20
Vitality of Seeds ........sseeeeeees 10 6 2
Strength of Boiler Plates . weawa leas 10 0 0
£304 6 7
1853.
“Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory .........c0e00s 165 0 0
Experiments on tie Influence of
Solar Radiation...........s.sse0s 15 0 0
Researches on the British Anne-
Iii de ceisioecopiacceesesacacesss=scssso= 10 0 0
‘Dredging « on the East Coast of
Scotland.......c0.....05. nee
‘Ethnological Queries’
1854.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory (including
balance of former grant) ...... 330 15 4
Investigations on Flax ............ 11 0 0
Effects of Teniperature on
Wrought Iron caeecccoens> 10 0 0
Registration of Periodical Phe-
MOMEHS vesccs tose sins oeteccrssccse -10 0 0
British Annelida ............+00+ ae lO. a0
Vitality of Seeds ....... peveseecaeas 5 2 3
Conduction of Heat ..... PRET ete
£380 19 7
1855.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory ...... suemcen te 425 0 0
Earthquake Movements ......... 10 0 0
Physical Aspect of the Moon...... A aS +5.
Vitality of Seeds ...........+02e00. 10 7 11
Map of the World...........,.00.65 15 0 0
Fthnological Queries,............ 5 0 0
Dredging near Belfast ............ 4 0 0
eda £480 16 4
ee
1856.
‘Maintaining the ease at
\ Kew Observatory:-— - :
1634.....875. 0 OW.
1355..4.2.£500 0 4 a
£ ss. da.
Strickland’s Ornithological Syno-
NYMIS ...ccececcenvcecscccessceers - 100 0 0
Dredging and Dredging Forms... 913 9
Chemical Action of Light ........ ~ 20°"O 0
Strength of Iron Plates ............ 10 0 0
Registration of Periodical Pheno-~
MENA ccccccccssccsscenseesceccesces LOMO
Propagation of Salmon ........3... 10 0 0
£734 13 9
1857.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory .e...s.esee .. 300 0 0
Earthquake Wave Experiments.. 40 0.0
Dredging near Belfast ...... teens 10 0 0
Dredging on the West Coast of
Scotland,........ sedeevescesecees «~ 10 0 0
Investigations into the Mollusca
Of California .....csccccceecseeees 0
Experiments on Flax eeecccvceses 5 0
Natural History of Madagascar. . 0
Researches on British Annelida 0
Report on Natural Products im-
ported into Liverpool ......... 10 0 0
Artificial Propagation of Salmon 10 0 0O
8
Temperature of Mines ........ sdae SINT
Thermometers for Subterranean
Observations ....0...2...006 eaten! opengl?
Life-Boats .......se0eeeeeee Soesases= 5 0 0
£507 15 4
1858,
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory .ss.sesseeee . 500 0 0
Earthquake Wave Experiments... 25 0 0
Dredging on the West Coast of
Scotland .ecsesseesessee EOEPESey - 10 0 0
Dredging near Dublin cceecada «w- & 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ..........-ccsees 5 5 «(0
Dredging near Belfast... 18 13 2
Report on the British Annelida... . 25 0 0
Experiments on the production
of Heat by Motion in Fluids... 20 0 0
Report on the Natural Products
imported into Scotland......... 10 0
£618 18 2
1859.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory .........+6 x... 500 0 0
Dredging near Dublin ............ 15 0 0
Osteology of Birds,........ emstaciee os 50 0 0
Irish Tunicata ...............eeeeee 5 0 0
Manure Experiments ......... sat) 2050) 00
British Medusidee ............... Seb etided On. 0
Dredging Committee..........-.0+. 5 0 0
Steam-vessels’ Performance ...... 5 0 0
Marine Fauna of South and West
of Ireland ......... veseee Senco ' 10 0 0
Photographic Chemistry ......... 10 0 OU
Lanarkshire Fossils ....... eee 20 0 1
Balloon Aacents, ...s0060¢<ssnnaipo 39 11 0
£684 11 1
1860.
Maintaining: the - Establishment
of Kew Observatory.:........... 500 0 0
Dredging near Belfast............. 16 6 O
Dredging in Dublin Bay........... 15 0 0
REPORT—1874.
]xii
£ sd.
Inquiry into the Performance of
Steam-vessels.....eess+ee» cocsecee 124 0 0
Explorations in the Yellow Sand-
» stone of Dura Den............... 20 0 0
Chemico-mechanical Analysis of
Rocks and Minerals............. 25 0 0
Researches on the Growth of
Plants.......ssecseseees wonetnceone! cHOpOn mo
Researches on the Solubility of
Naltsisaisaycses. seuseesscseseeessa - 30 0 0
Researches on the Constituents
Of Manures .......cccsccccsvesersne 25 0 O
Balance of Captive Balloon ‘Ace
COUNES...cessccsoseveceeservesreesee 1 13 6
£1241 7 0
1861.
Maintaining the Establishment
of Kew Observatory .......... - 500 0 0
Earthquake Experiments......... 25 0 0
Dredging North and East Coasts
Of Scotland.......ccecccscseseseeee 23 0 O
Dredging Committee :—
1860 ......,£50 0 0 720 0
eet ec. £22 0 i [?
Excavations at Dura Den......... 20 0 0
Solubility of Salts ..........s0es00s 62000. 40
Steam-vessel Performance ...... 150 0 0
Fossils of Lesmahago ....... sssse, oettO V0
Explorations at Uriconium ..... eR)
Chemical Alloys ....coceececeeeeee 20 0 0
Classified Index to the Transac-
LIONS) covnsusescsewsgcemsecevecsaels - 100 0 0
Dredging in the Mersey and Dee 5 0 0
Dip Circle .....0...cescscecerseceeese 30 O O
Photoheliographic Observations 50 0 0
Prison Diet .c.ccccsececcecssseeseee 20 0 0
Gauging of Water..........0.000.. 10 0 0
Alpine Ascents .....secccscesreeeeee 6 5 1
Constituents of Manures ....,.... 25 0 0
£1111 5 10
1862.
Maintaining the Establishment
of Kew Observatory .........006
Patent Laws ........ceeesseeee eeeeee
Mollusca of N.-W. America......
Natural History by Mercantile
IMG@YINC’ Sp cececceascccecseaces cook
Tidal Observations ........ Spots
Photoheliometer at Kew .........
Photographic Pictures of the Sun
Rocks of Donegal ............000+ oe
Dredging Durham and North-
umberland....... Deceossouseastsae
Connexion of Storms.........+ cbeae
Dredging North-east Coast of
Scotland....... ecececccccccccccccee
Ravages of Teredo ..........0...
Standards of Electrical Resistance
Railway Accidents ...............
Balloon Committee ...............
Dredging Dublin Bay ............
Dredging the Mersey ............
Prison Diet oc. -<scccncewsessesccsne
Gauging of Water......s.sscessevee
500
21
10
oooco oao
_
oso
cooocoocors
coooo ooo
oo
eocooocooosocan
£
Steamships’ Performance......... 150 0 0
Thermo-Electric Currents ...... 5 0 0
£1293 16 6
1863.
Maintaining the Establishment
of Kew Ubservatory............ 600 0 0
Balloon Committee deficiency... 70 0 O
Balloon Ascents (other expenses) 25 0 0
ETILOZO Aree cgssusoos senxocesespaasseep 25 0 0
Coal Fossils ............0.0... wes 20 0 0
LORIN GR Ranesss seaves scsautnaseeeeees 20 0 0
Granites of Donegal...........-.+. 5 0 0
Prison Diet............. Sidetudenseen 20 0 0
Vertical Atmospheric Movements 13 0 0
Dredging Shetland ............... 50 0 0
Dredging North-east coast of
Scotland ......... Gide seueasaereee 25 0 0
Dredging Northumberland and
Durham. 171s eeRee eee ee 17 310
Dredging Committee superin-
tendence:...0.05.0s.cseeceyenescoes LO OID
Steamship Performance .... .... 100 0 0O
Balloon Committee ............... 200 0 0
Carbon under pressnre..... ...... 10 0 0
Volcanic Temperature ............ 100 0 0
Bromide of Ammonium ......... 8 0 0
Electrical Standards............... 100 0 0
Construction and distribu-
US) RRA BARR SE ORENSR RAE A. 40 0 0
Luminous Meteors ....... ....... 17 0 0
Kew Additional Buildings for
Photoheliograph ............... 100 0 0
Thermo-Electricity ...... saneretes 15 0 0
Analysis of Rocks ...........2.65 8 0 0
Elydtoida) «-.ceavsrcavciescovssases sp 10 0 O
£1608 3 10
1864.
Maintaining the Establishment
of Kew Observatory............ 600 0 0
Coal Fossils .. ............0. soorree 20 0 O
Vertical Atmospheric Move-
THEN GB Sr -jcs ness nakacaasaanne nesocs LO LOre O
Dredging Shetland ............ aco fn 0) 10
Dredging Northumberland ....., 25 0 0
Balloon Committee ....... ecssscee LUO) 0 <0
Carbon under pressure....... epraapes |! Sea NT
Standards of Electric Resistance 100 0 0
Analysis of Rocks............:0... 10 0 0
Hydroida ............s008 socccrersee 10 0 0
Askham’s Gift ..........s0..-00008. 50 0 0
Nitrite of Amyle ...............66 10 0 O
Nomenclature Committee ...... 5 0 0
Rain-Gauges.......... pevidenes wee) LOANS 8
Cast-Iron Investigation ......... 20 0 OU
Tidal Observations inthe Humber 50 0 0O
Spectral Rays ................s006 45 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............... 20 0 0
£1289 15 8
1865.
Maintaining the Establishment
of Kew Observatory............ 600 0 0
Balloon Committee ............... 100 0 9
Hyydroida ......cesseesseseeeeeeoes » 13:0 0
GENERAL STATEMENT.
7.
ands
“Rain-Gauges ..... ...secsecreeeernes 30 0 0
Tidal Observationsinthe Humber 6 8 0
Hexylic Compounds..........--+»- 20 0 0
Amy! Compounds.........++++++++ 20 0 0
AMIRI EIGKA, lisse ccscsocteisseees 200) 0
American Mollusca .......++..+++: 3.9 0
Organic Acids ..........-.+++s00+++ 20 0 0
Lingula Flags Excavation ....-. 10 0 0
Eurypterus ......-..sssseeeeeeeeees 50 0 0
Electrical Standards..........++++ 100 0 0
Malta Caves Researches ........- 30 0 0
Oyster Breeding .......:..ee+eee+ 25 0 0
Gibraltar Caves Researches...... 150 0 0
Kent’s Hole Excavations.......+« 100 0 0
Moon’s Surface Observations... 35 0 0
Marine Fauna ...........-+seeeees 25 0 0
Dredging Aberdeenshire ......... 25 0 0
Dredging Channel Islands ...... 50 0 0
Zoological Nomenclature......... 5 0 0
Resistance of Floating Bodies in
RUE. scditcterescrescveacesmes 00 0 0
Bath Waters Analysis ...........- 810 0
Luminous Meteors ............++- 40 0 0
£1591 7 10
1866.
Maintaining the Establishment
of Kew Observatory..........+ 600 0 0
Lunar Committee...... Maceaenecese 6413 4
Balloon Committee ...........+++« 50 0 0
Metrical Committee.........+++--- 50 0 0
British Rainfall..............-.2+0+ 50 0 0
Kilkenny Coal Fields ..........-. 16 0 0
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-Bed ...... 15 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............+.- 50 0 0
Lingula Flags Excavation ...... 20 0 0
Chemical Constitution of Cast
eM et ccc c es cessnevecsereae cess 50 0 0
Amy! Compounds..............++++ 25 0 0
Electrical Standards............... 100 0 0
Malta Caves Exploration......... 30 0 0
Kent’s Hole Exploration ......... 200 0 0
Marine Fauna, &c., Devon and
Cornwall ......... fgdeestacere sons 25 0 0
Dredging Aberdeenshire Coast... 25 0 0
Dredging Hebrides Coast......... 50 0 0
Dredging the Mersey ............ 5.0 (0
Resistance of Floating Bodies in
VATED iccdcvcvcecceccestercenress 0 0
Polycyanides of Organic Radi-
BECAIR soc Ai cccddvtcadsccssen'saveee 20 0 0
Rigor Mortis..............:¢¢s0e-008 10 0 0
Trish Annelida ........-..-+6s0-+0 15 0 0
‘Catalogue of Crania............++ 50 0 0
’ Didine Birds of Mascarene Islands 50 0 0
‘Typical Crania Researches ...... 30 0 0
Palestine Exploration Fund...... 100 0 0
£1750 13 4
1867.
“Maintaining the Establishment
of Kew Observatory.........++« 600 0 O
Meteorological Instruments, Pa-
Vestine ....s.seseeseveceeens paspen 2 02.0) 10
Lunar Committee.......... Svasneexy 220m 040
£
Metrical Committee .............6. 30
Kent’s Hole Explorations ...... 100
Palestine Explorations...... sooeee 90
Insect Fauna, Palestine ....,.... 30
British Rainfall..........2s2seseee 50
Kilkenny Coal Fields ....... tito, CoO
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-Bed ...... 25
Luminous Meteors .......+...6+++ 50
Bournemouth, &c. Leaf-Beds... 30
Dredging Shetland ............+9 75
Steamship Reports Condensation 100
Electrical Standards.............-. 100
Ethyle and Methyle series ...... 25
Fossil Crustacea ......s+-seeseeeee 25
Sound under Water ............+0« 24
North Greenland Fauna ......... 75
Do. Plant Beds ... 100
Tron and Steel Manufacture 25
Patent Laws ........00«+. weeeiorae 30
£1739
1868.
Maintaining the Establishment
of Kew Observatory...........- 600
Lunar Committee........seeeceeees 120
Metrical Committee....... Seer 50
Zoological Record ........ Soaseve 100
Kent’s Hole Explorations ...... 150
Steamship Performances ......... 100
British Rainfall ......... Geers 50
Luminous Meteors. ..........+00 - 50
Organic Acids ......... eveneeneces - 60
Fossil Crustacea ....... erceeceees - 25
Methyl] series .........secee-ceee « 425
Mercury and Bile.........++-..0005 25
Organic remains in Limestone
ROCKS) scccelsssse-ocssntancerbuce 25
Scottish Earthquakes ....... esses 20
Fauna, Devon and Cornwall ... 30
British Fossi] Corals.....-.essses0s 50
Bagshot Leaf-beds ............ -- 50
Greenland Explorations
Fossil Flora .......... Sau siaveb ase
Tidal Observations ..........
Underground Temperature...... 50
Spectroscopic investigations of
Animal Substances ...........- 5
Secondary Reptiles, &c. ......... 30
British Marine Invertebrate
Fauna ....seeseeee ercasmaurie eats 100
£1940
1869.
Maintaining the Establishment
of Kew Observatory............ 600
Lumar Committee ......cssecccceeee 50
Metrical Committee............... 25
Zoological Record...............+4 100
Committee on Gases in Deep-
WOLLAWiAtCR tc cencsacesccsnce neve 25
British Rainfall....................6 50
Thermal Conductivity of Iron,
fs CORE SAS CDEC. Uv ceosin 30
Kent’s Hole Explorations ...... 150
Steamship Performances......... 30
Lxiil
plococo5nooscooooooosososooY’
clocoocooocoscoosooscoososooR
colo coo Soscesooeosco Sososeosoeoeosescoe
colo oo coceocooosse ocosesosesoeoscece
coos ofc o°ooo
eposco So9O S°O9°
Ixiv
£ s.d.
Chemical Constitution of Cast
1 0 erisaehodasadsacaoadoooudcuoocas 80 0 0
Iron and Steel Manufacture ... 100 0 0
Methyl Series ..........2. -...-+5- 30 0 0
Organic remains in Limestone
Rocks.......... noccobacnggeareidadot 10 0 0
Earthquakes in Scotland......... 19 0 0
British Fossil Corals ............. 50 0 0
Bagshot Leaf-Beds ........ 30 0 0
Fossil Flora ..2.....cese0--sseeeeeee 25 0 0
Tidal Observations ........ Footer 100 0 0
Underground Temperature ...... 30 0 0
Spectroscopic Investigations of
Animal Substances .......-.... 0 0
Organic Acids: .........0..-..-.... 12 0 0
Kiltorcan Fossils ...............+.. 20 0 0
Chemical Constitution and Phy-
siological Action Relations ... 15 0 0
Mountain Limestone Fossils :.:... 25 0 0
Utilization of Sewage ............ 10 0 0
Products of Digestion ............ 10 0 0
£1622 0 0
1870.
Maintaining the Establishment of
Kew Observatory ......- wevecene 600
Metrical Committee ......... sesee 20
Zoological Record: «..+++.++++ee++ 100
Committee on Marine Fauna ... 20
Ears in Fishes ......++ése+++-ee0- 10
Chemical nature of Cast Iron...
eco1roocooceooooooooooooooooocn$heae.
clocoocooocooococoocecooececece
Luminous Meteors ....... setue¥oe 30
Heat in the Blood .........650+++ 15
British Rainfall............ dewessose 100
Thermal ConductivityofIron&c. 20
British Fossil Corals............6. 50
Kent’s Hole Explorations ...... 150
Scottish Earthquakes ............ 4
Bagshot Leaf-Beds .........++0+0. 19
Fossil Flora .....seeceeeeseeeseeeees 25
Tidal Observations ........--++.+. 100
Underground Temperature ... 50
Kiltorcan Quarries Fossils ...... 20
Mountain Limestone Fossils ... 25
Utilization of Sewage ............ 50
Organic Chemical Compounds.. - 30
Onny River Sediment ........... 3
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat 50
£1572
1871.
Maintaining the Establishment of
Kew Observatory ........-...00+ 600
Monthly Reports of Progress in
Chemistry ..........00... Sesssecarwl UD,
Metrical Committee............... 25
Zoological Record...............2+. 100
Thermal Equivalents of the
Qxides of Chlorine ............ 10
Tidal Observations ............... 100
Fossil Flora ..........cecsssercceces 25
ooo ooo i)
ooo oco i—)
REPORT—1874.
£. 3. d.
Luminous Meteors ...... cecvcsccs ge ll) LU AO
British Fossil Corals...........-... 25 0 0
Heat in the Blood ..............- 7 2 6
British Rainfall..................06 50 0 0
Kent’s Hole Explorations ...... 150 0 0
Fossil Crustacea .....+...... 25 0 0
Methyl Compounds .............«- 25 0 0
Lunar Objects ............. acateees gteUh aU ama
Fossil Corals Sections, for Pho-
tographing........0..eseseeeeseee - 20 0 0
Bagshot Leaf-Beds ...........0++- 20 0 0
Moab Explorations ......... Shee 100 0 0
Gaussian Constants .............+. 40 0 0
£1472 2 6
1872.
Maintaining the Establishment of
Kew Observatory ...... eeoeees-- 300 0 O
Metrical Committee............... 75 0 0
Zoological Record.........+. sevteds AO) 0
Tidal Committee .................. 200 0 O
Carboniferous Corals ..... apenita 25 0 0
Organic Chemical Compounds 25 0 0
Exploration of Moab ............ 100 0 0
Terato-Embryological Inquiries 10 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration...... 100 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............... 20 oO ¢
Heat in the Blood ............... 15 0
Fossil Crustacea .......ssce-ss0e0e 25 0 U
Fossil Elephants of Malta ...... 25 0 0
Lunar Objects ..... Be eee es 20 0 0
Inverse Wave-Lengths ............ 20.0 0
British Rainfall............2.....068 100 0 0
Poisonous Substances Antago-
ISU s seees ove mach teepeseeihepae 10 0 0
Essential Oils, Chemical Consti-
EUUIONG GCC. cs ecsncssacockveceae a 40 0 0
Mathematical Tables ............ 50 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of Metals 25 0 0
£1285 0 0
1873.
Zoological Record...........++00+++ 100 0 0
Chemistry Record...............--- 200 0 0
Tidal Committee ...... Ssundessase - 400 0 0
Sewage Committee ...... eosesenne LOO 0. O
Kent's Cavern Exploration ...... 150 0 0
Carboniferous Corals ............ 25 0 0
Fossil Elephants ....... - 2 0.0
Wave-—Lengths ......+eesseeeeee-eee 150 UO O
British Rainfall............+0+---..- 100 0 0
Essential Oils .0+---seeeeseeereeeee 30 0 0
Mathematical Tables ..... veeeeee 100 0 0
Gaussian Constants .............46 10 0 0
Sub-Wealden Explorations ...... 25 0 0
Underground Temperature ...... 150 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ......... 50 0 0
Fossil Flora, Ireland............... 20 0 0
Timber Denudation and Rainfall 20 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............... 30 0 0
£1685 0 0
GENERAL MEETINGS. lxv
£ s. d. Sand,
1874. Mauritius Meteorological Re-
Zoological’ Record ..,.........66 100 0 O RGURGHMSE G- taueeiscck eee anease 100 0 O
Chemistry Record ............... 100 O O | Magnetization of Iron............ 20 0 0
Mathematical Tables ............ 100 0 O | Marine Organisms ............... 30 0 0
Elliptic Functions ............... 100 0 O | Fossils, North-west of Scotland 210 0
Lightning Conductors ......... 10 0 O | Physiological Action of Light.. 20 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of Rocks 10 0 O Trades Unions............0esce0e0s 25 0 O
Anthropological Instructions, Mountain-Limestone Corals... 25 0 0
ROSS Tact e. dosawceasisninntes 0 O | Erratic Blocks..................... 10 0 O
Kent's Cavern Exploration ... 150 0 0 | Dredging, Durham and York-
Luminous Meteors ............... 30 0 O shire Coasts ...........cseeeeeees 28 5 0
Intestinal Secretions ............ 15 0 O | High temperature of Bodies... 30 0 0
prtpish Rainfall ....c.0.ssceresses 100 0 O | Siemens’s Pyrometer ............ 38 60
Essential Oils ............0cc0ece0e 10 O O | Labyrinthodont, of Coal-Mea-
Sub-Wealden Explorations ... 25 0 0 BUEOS peepee sss tasecscccnsecent ace 715 0
Settle Cave Exploration......... 50 0 O £1151 16 O
General Meetings.
On Wednesday Evening, August 19, at 8 p.m., in the Ulster Hall, Professor
Alexander W. Williamson, Ph.D., F.R.S., President, resigned the office of
President to Professor John Tyndall, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., who took the
Chair, and delivered an Address, for which see page Ixvi.
On Thursday Evening, August 20, at 8 p.m., a Soirée took place in the
Ulster Hall.
On Friday Evening, August 21, at 8.30 p.m., in the Ulster Hall, Sir John
Iubbock, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., delivered a Discourse on “Common Wild Flowers
considered in relation to Insects.”
On Saturday Evening, August 22, at 7.30 p.m., in the Working Men’s
Institute, Professor Odling, F.R.S., delivered a Lecture on “ The Discovery
of Oxygen”’ to the Working Classes of Belfast.
On Monday Evening, August 24, at 8.30 p.m.,in the Ulster Hall, Professor
Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S., delivered a Discourse on “The Hypothesis that
Animals are Automata, and its History.”
On Tuesday Evening, August 25, at 8 p.m., a Soirée took place in the
Ulster Hall.
On Wednesday, August 26, at 2.50 p.u., the concluding General Meeting
took place, when the Proceedings of the General Committee, and the Grants
of Money for Scientific purposes, were explained to the Members.
The Meeting was then adjourned to Bristol*.
* The Meeting is appointed to take place on Wednesday, August 25, 1875.
1874, e
ADDRESS
OF
JOHN TYNDALL, F.RBS.,
D.C.L. OXON., LL.D. CANTAB., F.C.P.S.,
PROFESSOR OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY IN THE ROYAL INSTITUTION,
PRESIDENT.
An impulse inherent in primeval man turned his thoughts and questionings
betimes towards the sources of natural phenomena. The same impulse, in-
herited and intensified, is the spur of scientific action to-day. Determined
by it, by a process of abstraction from experience we form physical theories
which lie beyond the pale of experience, but which satisfy the desire of the
mind to see every natural occurrence resting upon a cause. In forming their
notions of the origin of things, our earliest historic (and doubtless, we might
add, our prehistoric) ancestors pursued, as far as their intelligence permitted,
the same course. They also fell back upon experience, but with this differ-
ence—that the particular experiences which furnished the weft and woof of
their theories were drawn, not from the study of nature, but from what lay
much closer to them, the observation of men. Their theories accordingly took
an anthropomorphic form. To supersensual beings, which, ‘‘ however potent
and invisible, were nothing but a species of human creatures, perhaps raised
from among mankind, and retaining all human passions and appetites”*,
were handed over the rule and governance of natural phenomena.
Tested by observation and reflection, these early notions failed in the long
run to satisfy the more penetrating intellects of our race. Far in the depths
of history we find men of exceptional power differentiating themselves from
the crowd, rejecting these anthropomorphic notions, and seeking to connect
natural phenomena with their physical principles. But long prior to these
purer efforts of the understanding the merchant had been abroad, and ren-
dered the philosopher possible; commerce had been developed, wealth
amassed, leisure for travel and speculation secured, while races educated
under different conditions, and therefore differently informed and endowed,
had been stimulated and sharpened by mutual contact. In those regions
where the commercial aristocracy of ancient Greece mingled with its eastern
neighbours, the sciences were born, being nurtured and developed by free-
thinking and courageous men. ‘The state of things to be displaced may be
gathered from a passage of Euripides quoted by Hume. “ There is nothing
* Hume, ‘Natural History of Religion.’
ADDRESS. Ixvii
in the world; no glory, no prosperity. The gods toss all into confusion ;
mix every thing with its reverse, that all of us, from our ignorance and un-
certainty, may pay them the more worship and reverence.” Now, as science
demands the radical extirpation of caprice and the absolute reliance upon
law in nature, there grew with the growth of scientific notions a desire and
determination to sweep from the field of theory this mob of gods and demons,
and to place natural phenomena on a basis more congruent with them-
selves.
The problem which had been previously approached from above, was now
attacked from below; theoretic effort passed from the super- to the sub-
sensible. It was felt that to construct the universe in idea it was necessary
to haye some notion of its constituent parts—of what Lucretius subsequently
called the “ First Beginnings.” Abstracting again from experience, the
leaders of scientific speculation reached at length the pregnant doctrine of
atoms and molecules, the latest developments of which were set forth with
such power and clearness at the last meeting of the British Association.
Thought no doubt had long hovered about this doctrine before it at-
tained the precision and completeness which it assumed in the mind of
Democritus*, a philosopher who may well for a moment arrest our attention.
“ Few great men,” says Lange, a non-materialist, in his excellent ‘ History of
Materialism,’ to the spirit and to the letter of which I am equally indebted,
“have been so despitefully used by history as Democritus. In the distorted
images sent down to us through unscientific traditions there remains of him
almost nothing but the name of ‘the laughing philosopher,’ while figures of
immeasurably smaller significance spread themselves out at full length before
us.” Lange speaks of Bacon’s high appreciation of Democritus—for ample
illustrations of which I am indebted to my excellent friend Mr. Sped-
ding, the learned editor and biographer of Bacon. It is evident, indeed,
that Bacon considered Democritus to be a man of weightier metal than
either Plato or Aristotle, though their philosophy “was noised and cele-
brated in the schools, amid the din and pomp of professors.” It was not
they, but Genseric and Attila and the barbarians, who destroyed the atomic
philosophy. “For at a time when all human learning had suffered ship-
wreck, these planks of Aristotelian and Platonic philosophy, as being of a
lighter and more inflated substance, were preserved and came down to us,
while things more solid sank and almost passed into oblivion.”
The son of a wealthy father, Democritus devoted the whole of his in-
herited fortune to the culture of his mind. He travelled everywhere ; visited
Athens when Socrates and Plato were there, but quitted the city without
making himself known. Indeed, the dialectic strife in which Socrates so
‘much delighted had no charm for Democritus, who held that ‘the man who
readily contradicts and uses many words is unfit to learn any thing truly
right.” He is said to have discovered and educated Protagoras the sophist,
being struck as much by the manner in which he, being a hewer of wood,
tied up his faggots as by the sagacity of his conversation. Democritus re-
turned poor from his travels, was supported by his brother, and at length
wrote his great work entitled ‘Diakosmos,’ which he read publicly before
the people of his native town. He was honoured by his countrymen in
various ways, and died serenely at a great age.
The principles enunciated by Democritus reyeal his uncompromising anta-
gonism to those who deduced the phenomena of nature from the eaprices of the
* Born 460 3.c,
e2
Ixvili REPORT—1874.
gods. They are briefly these :—1. From nothing comes nothing. Nothing that
exists can be destroyed. All changes are due to the combination and sepa-
ration of molecules. 2. Nothing happens by chance: Every occurrence has
its cause from which it follows by necessity. 3. The only existing things
are the atoms and empty space; all else is mere opinion. 4. The atoms are
infinite in number, and infinitely various in form; they strike together, and
the lateral motions and whirlings which thus arise are the beginnings of
worlds. 5. The varieties of all things depend upon the varieties of their
atoms, in number, size, and aggregation. 6. The soul consists of fine, smooth,
round atoms, like those of fire. These are the most mobile of all. They
interpenetrate the whole body, and in their motions the phenomena of life
arise. The first five propositions are a fair general statement of the atomic
philosophy, as now held. As regards the sixth, Democritus made his fine
smooth atoms do duty for the nervous system, whose functions were then
unknown. The atoms of Democritus are individually without sensation ;
they combine in obedience to mechanical laws; and not only organic forms,
but the phenomena of sensation and thought are the result of their com-
bination.
That great enigma, “the exquisite adaptation of one part of an organism
to another part, and to the conditions of life,” more especially the construc-
tion of the human body, Democritus made no attempt to solve. Empedocles,
aman of more fiery and poetic nature, introduced the notion of love and
hate among the atoms to account for their combination and separation.
Noticing this gap in the doctrine of Democritus, he struck in with the pene-
trating thought, linked, however, with some wild speculation, that it lay in
the very nature of those combinations which were suited to their ends (in
other words, in harmony with their environment) to maintain themselves,
while unfit combinations, having no proper habitat, must rapidly disappear,
Thus more than 2000 years ago the doctrine of the ‘‘ survival of the fittest,”
which in our day, not on the basis of vague conjecture, but of positive know-
ledge, has been raised to such extraordinary significance, had received at all
events partial enunciation *,
Epicurust, said to be the son of a poor schoolmaster at Samos, is the
next dominant figure in the history of the atomic philosophy. He mastered
the writings of Democritus, heard lectures in Athens, went back to Samos, and
subsequently wandered through yarious countries. He finally returned to
Athens, where he bought a garden, and surrounded himself by pupils, in the
midst of whom he lived a pure and serene life, and died a peaceful death.
Democritus looked to the soul as the ennobling part of man; eyen beauty
withont understanding partook of animalism. picurus also rated the spirit
above the body; the pleasure of the body was that of the moment, while
the spirit could draw upon the future and the past. His philosophy
was almost identical with that of Democritus; but he never quoted
either friend or foe. One main object of Epicurus was to free the world
from superstition and the fear of death. Death he treated with indifference,
It merely robs us of sensation. As long as we are, death is not; and when
death is, we are not. Life has no more evil for him who has made up his
mind that it is no evil not to live. He adored the gods, but not in the ordi-
nary fashion. The idea of divine power, properly purified, he thought an
elevating one. Still he taught, “ Not he is godless who rejects the gods of
the crowd, but rather he who accepts them.” . The gods were to him eternal
* Lange, 2nd edit., p. 23. T Born 342 3.¢,
——-
ADDRESS, lxix
and immortal beings, whose blessedness excluded every thought of care or
occupation of any kind. Nature pursues her course in accordance with ever-
lasting laws, the gods never interfering. They haunt
“The lucid interspace of world and world
Where never creeps a cloud or moves a wind,
Nor ever falls the least white star of snow,
Nor ever lowest roll of thunder moans,
Nor sound of human sorrow mounts to mar
Their sacred everlasting calm” *,
Lange considers the relation of Epicurus to the gods subjective; the indi-
cation probably of an ethical requirement of his own nature. We cannot
read history with open eyes, or study human nature to its depths, and fail
to discern such a requirement. Man never has been, and he never will
be satisfied with the operations and products of the Understanding alone;
hence physical science cannot cover all the demands of his nature. But the
history of the efforts made to satisfy these demands might be broadly de-
scribed as a history of errors—the error in great part consisting in ascribing
fixity to that which is fluent, which varies as we vary, being gross when we are
gross, and becoming, as our capacities widen, more abstract andsublime. On
one great point the mind of Epicurus was at peace. He neither sought nor
expected, here or hereafter, any personal profit from his relation to the gods.
And it is assuredly a fact that loftiness and serenity of thought may be pro-
moted by conceptions which involve no idea of profit of this kind. ‘Did I
not believe,” said a great man to me once, “that an Intelligence is at the
heart of things, my life on earth would be intolerable.” The utterer of these
words is not, in my opinion, rendered less noble but more noble, by the fact
that it was the need of ethical harmony here, and not the thought of personal
_ profit hereafter, that prompted his observation.
There are persons, not belonging to the highest intellectual zone, nor yet
to the lowest, to whom perfect clearness of exposition suggests want of depth.
They find comfort and edification in an abstract and learned phraseology.
To some such people Epicurus, who spared no pains to rid his style of every
trace of haze and turbidity, appeared, on this very account, superficial. He
had, however, a disciple who thought it no unworthy occupation to spend his
days and nights in the effort to reach the clearness of his master, and to whom
the Greek philosopher is mainly indebted for the extension and perpetuation of
his fame. Some two centuries after the death of Epicurus, Lucretius t wrote
his great poem, “ On the Nature of Things,” in which he, a Roman,
developed with extraordinary ardour the philosophy of his Greek prede-
cessor. He wishes to win over his friend Memnius to the school of Epi-
curus; and although he has no rewards in a future life to offer, although his
object appears to be a purely negative one, he addresses his friend with the
heat of an apostle. His object, like that of his great forerunner, is the
destruction of superstition; and considering that men trembled before every
natural event as a direct monition from the gods, and that everlasting
torture was also in prospect, the freedom aimed at by Lucretius might
perhaps be deemed a positive good. ‘This terror,” he says, ‘‘and dark-
ness of mind must be dispelled, not by the rays of the sun and glittering
shafts of day, but by the aspect and the law of nature.’ He refutes the
notion that any thing can come out of nothing, or that that which is
once begotten can be recalled to nothing. The first beginnings, the
* Tennyson’s ‘Lucretius.’ + Born 99 z.c,
Ixx REPORT—1874.
atoms, are indestructible, and into them alk things can be resolved at
last. Bodies are partly atoms, and partly combinations of atoms; but the
atoms nothing can quench. They are strong in solid singleness, and by their
denser combination, all things can be closely packed and exhibit enduring
strength. He denies that matter is infinitely divisible. We come at length
to the atoms, without which, as an imperishable substratum, all order inthe
generation and development of things would be destroyed.
The mechanical shock of the atoms being in his view the all-sufficient
cause of things, he combats the notion that the constitution of nature has
been in any way determined by intelligent design. The interaction of the
atoms throughout infinite time rendered all manner of combinations possible.
Of these the fit ones persisted, while the unfit ones disappeared. Not after
sage deliberation did the atoms station themselves in their right places, nor
did they bargain what motions they should assume. Tom all eternity they
have been driven together, and after trying motions and unions of every kind,
they fell at length into the arrangements out of which this system of things
has been formed. ‘If you will apprehend and keep in mind these
things, nature, free at once, and rid of her haughty lords, is seen to do all
things spontaneously of herself, without the meddling of the gods”*.
To meet the objection that his atoms cannot be seen, Lucretius de-
scribes a violent storm, and shows that the invisible particles of air
act in the same way as the visible particles of water. We perceive,
_moreover, the different smells of things, yet never see them coming to our
nostrils. Again, clothes hung up ona shore which waves break upon become
moist, and then get dry if spread out in the sun, though no eye can see
either the approach or the escape of the water particles. A ring, worn long
on the fingers, becomes thinner; a water drop hollows out a stone; the
ploughshare is rubbed away in the field; the street pavement is worn by the -
feet ; but the particles that disappear at any moment we cannot see. Nature
acts through invisible particles. That Lucretius had a strong scientific
imagination the foregoing references prove. A fine illustration of his power
in this respect is his explanation of the apparent rest of bodies whose atoms
are in motion, He employs the image of a flock of sheep with skipping
lambs, which, seen from a distance, presents simply a white patch upon the
green hill, the jumping of the individual lambs being quite invisible.
His vaguely grand conception of the atoms falling eternally through space
suggested the nebular hypothesis to Kant, its first propounder. Far beyond
the limits of our visible worldare to be found atoms innumerable, which have
never been united to form bodies, or which, if once united, have been again
dispersed, falling silently through immeasurable intervals of time and space.
As everywhere throughout the All the same conditions are repeated, so must
the phenomena be repeated also. Above us, below us, beside us, therefore,
are worlds without end; and this, when considered, must dissipate every
thought of a deflection of the universe by the gods. The worlds come and
go, attracting new atoms out of limitless space, or dispersing their own
particles. -The reputed death of Lucretius, which forms the basis of Mr. Ten-
nyson’s noble poem, is in strict accordance with his philosophy, which was
severe and pure.
Still earlier than these three philosophers, and during the centuries between
* Monro’s translation. In his criticism of this work (Contemporary Review, 1867) Dr.
Hayman does not appear to be aware of the really sound and subtile observations on
which the reasoning of Lucretius, though erroneous, sometimes rests,
ADDRESS. Ixxi
the first of them and the last, the human intellect was active in other fields
than theirs. Pythagoras had founded a school of mathematics and made
his experiments on the harmonic intervals. The sophists had run through
their career. At Athens had appeared Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle,
who ruined the sophists, and whose yoke remains to some extent unbroken to
thé present hour. Within this period also the School of Alexandria was
founded, Euclid wrote his ‘Elements,’ and made some advance in optics.
Archimedes had propounded the theory of the lever, and the principles of
hydrostatics. Astronomy was immensely enriched by the discoveries of Hippar-
chus, who was followed by the historically more celebrated Ptolemy. Ana-
tomy had been made the basis of Scientific medicine; and it is said by Draper*
that vivisection had begun. In fact the science of ancient Greece had
already cleared the world of the fantastic images of divinities operating
capriciously through natural phenomena. It had shaken itself free from that
fruitless scrutiny ‘‘ by the internal light of the mind alone,” which had vainly
sought to transcend experience and reach a knowledge of ultimate causes.
Instead of accidental observation, it had introduced observation with a purpose ;
instruments were employed to aid the senses ; and scientific method was ren -
dered in a great measure complete by the union of Induction and Experiment.
What, then, stopped its victorious advance? Why was the scientific intel-
lect compelled, like an exhausted soil, to lie fallow for nearly two millenniums
before it could regather the elements necessary to its fertility and strength?
Bacon has already let us know one cause; Whewell ascribes this stationary
period to four causes—obscurity of thought, servility, intolerance of disposition,
enthusiasm of temper; and he gives striking examples of eacht. But these
characteristics must have had their antecedents in the circumstances of
the time. Rome, and the other cities of the Empire, had fallen into moral
putrefaction. Christianity had appeared, offering the gospel to the poor, and,
by moderation if not asceticism of life, practically protesting against the
profligacy of the age. The sufferings of the early christians and the extra-
ordinary exaltation of mind which enabled them to triumph over the dia-
bolical tortures to which they were subjected}, must have left traces not
easily effaced. They scorned the earth, in view of that “building of God,
that house not made with hands, eternal in the heavens.” ‘The Scriptures
which ministered to their spiritual needs were also the measure of their
Science. When, for example, the celebrated question of antipodes came to
be discussed, the Bible was with many the ultimate court of appeal. Augus-
tine, who flourished a.p. 400, would not deny the rotundity of the earth ; but
he would deny the possible existence of inhabitants at the other side,
“because no such race is recorded in Scripture among the descendants of
Adam.” Archbishop Boniface was shocked at the assumption of a “ world
of human beings out of the reach of the means of salvation.” Thus reined
in, Science was not likely to make much progress. Later on the political and
theological strife between the Church and civil governments, so powerfully
depicted by Draper, must have done much to stifle investigation.
Whewell makes many wise and braye remarks regarding the. spirit of the
Middle Ages. It was a menial spirit. The seekers after natural knowledge
had forsaken that fountain of living waters, the direct appeal to nature by
observation and experiment, and had given themselves up to the remanipula-
* History of the Intellectual Development of Europe, p. 295.
+ History of the Inductive Sciences, vol. i. ‘
+ Depicted with terrible vividness in Rénan’s ‘ Antichrist.’
xil REPORT—1874.
tion of the notions of their predecessors. It was a time when thought had
become abject, and when the acceptance of mere authority led, as it always
does in science, to intellectual death. Natural events, instead of being
traced to physical, were referred to moral causes ; while an exercise of the
phantasy, almost as degrading as the spiritualism of the present day, took the
place of scientific speculation. Then came the mysticism of the Middle Ages,
Magic, Alchemy, the Neo-platonic philosophy, with its visionary though
sublime abstractions, which caused men to look with shame upon their own
bodies as hindrances to the absorption of the creature in the blessedness of the
Creator. Finally came the Scholastic philosophy, a fusion, according to
Lange, of the least-mature notions of Aristotle with the Christianity of the
west. Intellectual immobility was the result. As a traveller without a
compass in a fog may wander long, imagining he is making way, and find
himself after hours of toil at his starting-point, so the schoolmen, having
tied and untied the same knots and formed and dissipated the same clouds,
found themselves at the end of centuries in their old position.
With regard to the influence wielded by Aristotle in the Middle Ages, and
which, though to a less extent, he still wields, I would ask permission to
make one remark. When the human mind has achieved greatness and given
evidence of extraordinary power in-any domain, there is a tendency to credit
it with similar power in all other domains. Thus theologians have found
comfort and assurance in the thought that Newton dealt with the question of
revelation, forgetful of the fact that the very devotion of his powers, through
all the best years of his life, to a totally different class of ideas, not to speak
of any natural disqualification, tended to render him less instead of more
competent to deal with theological and historic questions. Goethe, starting
from his established greatness as a poet, and indeed from his positive dis-
coveries in Natural History, produced a profound impression among the
painters of Germany, when he published his ‘ Farbenlehre,’ in which he
endeayoured to overthrow Newton’s theory of colours. This theory he
deemed so obviously absurd, that he considered its author a charlatan, and
attacked him with a corresponding vehemence of language. In the domain
of natural history Goethe had made really considerable discoveries; and we
have high authority for assuming that, had he devoted himself wholly to
that side of science, he might have reached in it an eminence comparable
‘with that which he attained as a poet. In sharpness of observation, in the
detection of analogies however apparently remote, in the classification and
organization of facts according to the analogies discerned, Goethe possessed
extraordinary powers. These elements of scientific inquiry fall in with the
discipline of the poet. But, on the other hand, a mind thus richly endowed
in the direction of natural history, may be almost shorn of endowment as
regards the more strictly called physical and mechanical sciences. Goethe
was in this condition. He could not formulate distinct mechanical concep-
tions; he could not see the force of mechanical reasoning ; and in regions
where such reasoning reigns supreme he became a mere ignis fatuus to
those who followed him.
I have sometimes permitted myself to compare Aristotle with Goethe, to
credit the Stagirite with an almost superhuman power of amassing and syste-
matizing facts, but to consider him fatally defective on that side of the mind in
respect to which incompleteness has been just ascribed to Goethe. Whewell
refers the errors of Aristotle, not to a neglect of facts, but to “a negiect of
the idea appropriate to the facts; the idea of Mechanical cause, which is
Force, and the substitution of vague or inapplicable notions, involving only
ADDRESS. xxiii
relations of space or emotions of wonder.” ‘This is doubtless true; but the
word ‘neglect’ implies mere intellectual misdirection, whereas in Aristotle,
as in Goethe, it was not, I believe, misdirection, but sheer natural incapacity
which lay at the root of his mistakes, As a physicist, Aristotle displayed
what we should consider some of the worst attributes of a modern physical
investigator—indistinctness of ideas, confusion of mind, and a confident use of
language, which led to the delusive notion that he had really mastered his
subject, while he had as yet failed to grasp even the elements of it. He put
words in the place of things, subject in the place of object. He preached
Induction without practising it, inverting the true order of inquiry by passing
from the general to the particular, instead of from the particular to the
general. “He made of the universe a closed sphere, in the centre of which he
fixed the earth, proving from general principles, to his own satisfaction and
to that of the world for near 2000 years, that no other universe was possible.
His notions of motion were entirely unphysical. It was natural or unnatural,
better or worse, calm or violent—no real mechanical conception regarding it
lying at the bottom of his mind. He affirmed that a vacuum could not exist,
and proved that if it did exist motion in it would be impossible. He deter-
mined @ priori how many species of animals must exist, and shows on
general principles why animals must have such and such parts. When an
eminent contemporary philosopher, who is far removed from errors of this
kind, remembers these abuses of the @ prior method, he will be able to make
allowance for the jealousy of physicists as to the acceptance of so-called
a priori truths. . Aristotle’s errors of detail, as shown by Eucken and Lange,
were grave anduumerous. He affirmed that only in man we had the beating
of the heart, that the left side of the body was colder than the right, that
men have more teeth than women, and that there is an empty space at the
back of every man’s head.
There is one essential quality in physical conceptions which was entirely
wanting in those of Aristotle and his followers. I wish it could be ex-
pressed by a word untainted by its associations ; it signifies a capability of
being placed as a coherent picture before the mind. The Germans express
the act of picturing by the word vorstellen, and the picture they call a
Vorstellung. We have no word in English which comes nearer to our
requirements than Jmagination, and, taken with its proper limitations, the
word answers very well ; but, as just intimated, it is tainted by its associations,
and therefore objectionable to some minds. Compare, with reference to this
capacity of mental presentation, the case of the Aristotelian, who refers the
ascent of water in a pump to Nature’s abhorrence of a vacuum, with that of
Pascal when he proposed to solve the question of atmospheric pressure by the
ascent of the Puy de Dome. In the one case the terms of the explanation
refuse to fall into place as a physical image; in the other the image is di-
stinct, the fall and rise of the barometer being clearly figured as the balancing
of two varying and opposing pressures.
During the drought of the Middle Ages in Christendom, the Arabian intel-
lect, as forcibly shown by Draper, was active. With the intrusion of the Moors
into Spain, he says, order, learning, and refinement took the place of their
opposites. When smitten with disease, the Christian peasant resorted to a
shrine, the Moorish one to an instructed physician. The Arabs encouraged
translations from the Greek philosophers, but not from the Greek poets.
They turned in disgust “‘from the lewdness of our classical mythology, and
denounced as an unpardonable blasphemy all connexion between the impure
Olympian Jove and the Most High God.” Draper traces still further than
lxxiv REPORT—1874.
Whewell the Arab elements in our scientific terms, and points out that the
under garment of ladies retains to this hourits Arabname. He gives examples
of what Arabian men of science accomplished, dwelling particularly on Alhazen,
who was the first to correct the Platonic notion that rays of light are emitted
by the eye. He discovered atmospheric refraction, and points out that we
sec the sun and the moon after they have set. He explains the enlargement of
the sun and moon, and the shortening of the vertical diameters of both
these bodies, when near the horizon. He is aware that the atmosphere
decreases in density with increase of elevation, and actually fixes its height at
58 miles. In the Book of the Balance Wisdom, he sets forth the connexion
between the weight of the atmosphere and its increasing density. He shows
that a body’ will weigh differently in a rare and dense atmosphere: he
considers the force with which plunged bodies rise through heavier media.
He understands the doctrine of the centre of gravity, and applies it to the inves-
tigation of balances and steelyards. He recognizes gravity as a force, though he
falls into the error of making it diminish simply as the distance increased, and of
making it purely terrestrial. He knows the relation between the velocities,
spaces, and times of falling bodies, and has distinct ideas of capillary attrac-
tion. He improved the hydrometer. The determination of the densities of
bodies as given by Alhazen approach very closely to our own. ‘I join,”
says Draper, in the pious prayer of Alhazen, “that in the day of judgment
the All-Merciful will take pity on the soul of Abur-Raihan, because he was
the first of the race of men to construct a table of specific gravities.” If all
this be historic truth (and I have entire confidence in Dr. Draper), well may
he “deplore the systematic manner in which the literature of Europe has
contrived to put out of sight our scientific obligations to the Mahomme-
dans??*, .
The strain upon the mind during the stationary period towards ultra-
terrestrial things to the neglect of problems close at hand, was sure to
provoke reaction. But the reaction was gradual; for the ground was
dangerous, a power being at hand competent to crush the critic who went too
far. To elude this power and still allow opportunity for the expression of
opinion, the doctrine of “ twofold truth” was invented, according to which an
opinion might be held “ theologically,” and the opposite opinion “ philoso-
phically”?. Thus, in the thirteenth century, the creation of the world in six
days, and the unchangeableness of the individual soul, which had been so di-
stinctly affirmed by St. Thomas Aquinas, were both denied philosophically,
but admitted to be true as articles of the Catholic faith. When Protagoras
uttered the maxim which brought upon him so much yituperation, that
“ opposite assertions are equally true,” he simply meant that human beings
differed so much from each other that what was subjectively true to the one
might be subjectively untrue to the other. The great Sophist never meant
to play fast and loose with the truth by saying that one of two opposite
assertions, made by the same individual, could possibly escape being a lie.
Tt was not “sophistry,” but the dread of theologic vengeance that generated
this double dealing with conviction; and it is astonishing to notice what
lengths were possible to men who were adroit in the use of artifices of this
kind.
Towards the close of the stationary period a word-weariness, if I may so
express it, took more and more possession of men’s minds. Christendom had
become sick of the School philosophy and its verbal wastes, which led to no
* Intellectual Development of Europe, p. 359.
t Lange, 2nd edit. pp. 181, 182,
ADDRESS, Ixxv
issue, but left the intellect in everlasting haze. Here and there was heard
the voice of one impatiently crying in the wilderness, ‘‘ Not unto Aristotle,
not unto subtle hypothesis, not unto church, bible, or blind tradition, must
we turn for a knowledge of the universe, but to the direct investigation of
nature by observation and experiment.” In 1543 the epoch-making work
of Copernicus on the paths of the heavenly bodies appeared. The total
erash of Aristotle’s closed universe with the earth at its centre followed as
a consequence ; and “the earth moves” became a kind of watchword among
intellectual freemen. Copernicus was Canon of the church of Frauenburg
in the diocese of Ermeland. For three-and-thirty years he had withdrawn
himself from the world and devoted himself to the consolidation of his great
scheme of the solar system. He made its blocks eternal; and even to those
who feared it and desired its overthrow it was so obviously strong that
they refrained for a time from meddling with it. In the last year of the life
of Copernicus his book appeared: it is said that the old man received a copy
of it a few days before his death, and then departed in peace.
The Italian philosopher Giordano Bruno was one of the earliest converts
to the new astronomy. Taking Lucretius as his exemplar, he revived the
notion of the infinity of worlds; and combining with it the doctrine of
Copernicus, reached the sublime generalization that the fixed stars are suns,
scattered numberless through space and accompanied by satellites, which bear
the same relation to them that our earth does to our sun, or our moon to our
earth. This was an expansion of transcendent import ; but Bruno came closer
than this to our present line of thought. Struck with the problem of the gene-
ration and maintenance of organisms, and duly pondering it, he came to
the conclusion that Nature in her productions does not imitate the technic
of man. Her process is one of unravelling and unfolding. The infinity of
forms under which matter appears were not imposed upon it by an external
artificer ; by its own intrinsic force and virtue it brings these forms forth.
Matter is not the mere naked, empty capacity which philosophers have
pictured her to be, but the universal mother, who brings forth all things as
the fruit of her own womb.
This outspoken man was originally a Dominican monk. He was accused
of heresy and had to fly, seeking refuge in Geneva, Paris, England, and Ger-
many. In 1592 he fell into the hands of the Inquisition at Venice. He
was imprisoned for many years, tried, degraded, excommunicated, and handed
over to the Civil power, with the request that he should be treated gently and
‘* without the shedding of blood.” This meant that he was to be burnt; and
burnt accordingly he was, on the 16th of February, 1600. To escape a
similar fate Galileo, 33 years afterwards, abjured, upon his knees and with
his hand upon the holy gospels, the heliocentric doctrine which he knew to be
true. After Galileo came Kepler, who from his German home defied the
power beyond the Alps. He traced out from preexisting observations the
laws of planetary motion. Materials were thus prepared for Newton, who
bound those empirical laws together by the principle of gravitation.
In the seventeenth century Bacon and Descartes, the restorers of philo-
sophy, appeared in succession. Differently educated and endowed, their
philosophic tendencies were different. Bacon held fast to Induction, be-
lieving firmly in the existence of an external world, and making collected
experiences the basis of all knowledge. The mathematical studies of Des-
cartes gave him a bias towards Deduction; and his fundamental principle
was much the same as that of Protagoras, who made the individual man the
measure of all things. “I think, therefore, I am,” said Descartes. Only
Ixxvi REPORT—1874.
his own identity was sure to him; and the development of this system would
have led to an idealism in which the outer world would be resolved into a
mere phenomenon of consciousness. Gassendi, one of Descartes’s contem-
poraries, of whom we shall hear more presently, quickly pointed out that the
fact of personal existence would be proved as well by reference to any other
act as to the act of thinking. I eat, therefore I am; or I love, therefore I
am, would be quite as conclusive. Lichtenberg showed that the very thing
to\be proved was inevitably postulated in the first two words, “ I think ;” and
that no inference from the postulate could by any possibility be stronger
than the postulate itself.
But Descartes deviated strangely from the idealism implied in his funda-
mental principle. He was the first to reduce, in a manner eminently capable
of bearing the test of mental presentation, vital phenomena to purely mecha-
nical principles. Through fear or love, Descartes was a good churchman ; he
accordingly rejects the notions of an atom, because it was absurd to suppose
that God, if he so pleased, could not divide an atom; he puts in the place
of the atoms small round particles and light splinters, out of which he builds
the organism. He sketches with marvellous physical insight a machine, with
water for its motive power, which shall illustrate vital actions. He has made
clear to his mind that such a machine would be competent to carry on the
processes of digestion, nutrition, growth, respiration, and the beating of
the heart. It would be competent to accept impressions from the external
sense, to store them up in imagination and memory, to go through the internal
movements of the appetites and passions, the external movement of limbs.
He deduces these functions of his machine from the mere arrangement of
its organs, as the movement of a clock or other automaton is deduced from
its weights and wheels. “As far as these functions are concerned,” he
says, ‘It is not necessary to conceive any other vegetative or sensitive soul,
nor any other principle of motion or of life, than the blood and the spirits
agitated by the fire which burns continually in the heart, and which is in
nowise different from the fires which exist in inanimate bodies. Had Des-
cartes been acquainted with the steam-engine, he would have taken it, instead
of a fall of water, as his motive power, and shown the perfect analogy which
exists between the oxidation of the food in the body and that of the coal in
the furnace. He would assuredly have anticipated Mayer in calling the
blood which the heart diffuses, “the oil of the lamp of life ;” deducing all
animal motions from the combustion of this oil, as the motions of a steam-
engine are deduced from the combustion of its coals. As the matter stands,
however, and considering the circumstances of the time, the boldness, clear-
ness, and precision with which he grasped the problem of vital dynamics
constitute a marvellous illustration of intellectual power*.
During the Middle Ages the doctrine of atoms had to all appearance
vanished from discussion. In all probability it held its ground among sober-
minded and thoughtful men, though neither the church nor the world was
prepared to hear of it with tolerance. Once, in the year 1348, it received
distinct expression. But retraction by compulsion immediately followed ;
and thus discouraged, it slumbered till the 17th century, when it was revived
by a contemporary and friend of Hobbes of Malmesbury, the orthodox
Catholic provost of Digne, Gassendi. But before stating his relation to the
Epicurian doctrine, it will be well to say a few words on the effect, as regards
science, of the general introduction of monotheism among European nations.
* See Huxley’s admirable Essay on Descartes. Lay Sermons, pp. 364, 365.
ADDRESS. Ixxvii
“ Were men,” says Hume, “led into the apprehension of invisible intelli-
gent power by contemplation of the works of Nature, they could never possibly
entertain any conception but of one single being, who bestowed existence and
order on this vast machine, and adjusted all its parts to one regular system.”
Referring to the condition of the heathen, who sees a god behind every
natural event, thus peopling the world with thousands of beings whose caprices
are incalculable, Lange shows the impossibility of any compromise between
such notions and those of science, which proceeds on the assumption of never-
changing law and causality. “But,” he continues, with characteristic
penetration, “ when the great thought of one God, acting as a unit upon the
universe, has been seized, the connexion of things in accordance with the law
of cause and effect is not only thinkable, but it is a necessary consequence
of the assumption. For when I see ten thousand wheels in motion, and
know, or believe, that they are all driven by one, then I know that I have
before me a mechanism, the action of every part of which is determined by
the plan of the whole. So much being assumed, it follows that I may inyes-
tigate the structure of that machine, and the various motions of its parts.
For the time being, therefore, this conception renders scientific action free.”
In other words, were a capricious God at, the circumference of every wheel
and at the end of every lever, the action of the machine would be incalculable
by the methods of science. But the action of all its parts being rigidly
determined by their connexions and relations, and these being brought into
play by a single self-acting driving wheel, then, though this last prime mover
may elude me, I am still able to comprehend the machinery which it sets
in motion. We have here a conception of the relation of Nature to its
Author, which seems perfectly acceptable to some minds, but perfectly
intolerable to others. Newton and Boyle lived and worked happily under
the influence of this conception ; Goethe rejected it with vehemence, and the
same repugnance to accepting it is manifest in Carlyle*.
The analytic and synthetic tendencies of the human mind exhibit them-
selves throughout history, great writers ranging themselves sometimes on the
one side, sometimes on the other. Men of warm feelings, and minds open to
the elevating impressions produced by nature as a whole, whose satisfaction,
therefore, is rather ethical than logical, lean to the synthetic side; while
the analytic harmonizes best with the more precise and more mechanical
bias which seeks the satisfaction of the understanding. Some form of pan-
theism was usually adopted by the one, while a detached Creator, working
more or less after the manner of men, was often assumed by the other.
Gassendi, as sketched by Lange, is hardly to be ranked with either. Having
formally acknowledged God as the great first cause, he immediately dropped
the idea, applied the known laws of mechanics to the atoms, deducing
thence all vital phenomena. He defended Epicurus, and dwelt upon his
purity, both of doctrine and of life. True he was a heathen, but so was-
Aristotle. He assailed superstition and religion, and rightly, because he
did not know the true religion. He thought that the gods neither rewarded
nor punished, and adored them purely in consequence of their completeness ;
here we see, says Gassendi, the reverence of the child instead of the fear of
the slave. The errors of Epicurus shall be corrected, the body of his truth
* Boyle’s model of the universe was the Strasburg clock with an outside Artificer,
Goethe, on the other hand, sang
“Thm ziemt’s die Welt im Innern zu bewegen,
Natur in sich, sich in Natur zu hegen.”
See also Carlyle, ‘Past and Present,’ chap. v,
Ixxviil REvPoRT—1874..
retained ; and then Gassendi proceeds, as any heathen might do, to build up
the world, and all that therein is, of atoms and molecules. God, who
created earth and water, plants and animals, produced in the first place
a definite number of atoms, which constituted the seed of all things.
Then began that series of combinations and decompositions which goes on
at present, and which will continue in future. The principle of every
change resides in matter. In artificial productions the moving principle
is different from the material worked upon; but in nature the agent
works within, being the most active and mobile part of the material
itself. Thus this bold ecclesiastic, without incurring the censure of the
church or the world, contrives to outstrip Mr. Darwin. The same cast of
mind which caused him to detach the Creator from his universe led him also
to detach the soul from the body, though to the body he ascribes an influ-
ence so large as to render the soul almost unnecessary. The aberrations of
reason were in his view an affair of the material brain. Mental disease is
brain-disease ; but then the immortal reason sits apart, and cannot be
touched by the disease. The errors of madness are errors of the instru-
ment, not of the performer.
It may be more than a mere result of education, connecting itself probably
with the deeper mental structure of the two men, that the idea of Gassendi,
above enunciated, is substantially the same as that expressed by Professor
Clerk Maxwell at the close of the very able lecture delivered by him at
Bradford last year. According to both philosophers, the atoms, if I under-
stand aright, are prepared materials, which, formed by the skill of the Highest,
produce by their subsequent interaction all the phenomena of the material
world. ‘There seems to be this difference, however, between Gassendi and
Maxwell. The one postulates, the other infers his first cause. In his
‘“‘ manufactured articles,” as he calls the atoms, Professor Maxwell finds the
basis of an induction, which enables him to scale philosophic heights con-
sidered inaccessible by Kant, and to take the logical step from the atoms to
their Maker.
Accepting here the leadership of Kant, I doubt the legitimacy of Maxwell’s
logic ; but it is impossible not to feel the ethic glow with which his lecture
concludes. There is, moreover, a yery noble strain of eloquence in his de-
scription of the stedfastness of the atoms :—‘ Natural causes, as we know,
are at work, which tend to modify, if they do not at length destroy, all the
arrangements and dimensions of the earth and the whole solar system. But
though in the course of ages catastrophes have occurred and may yet occur
in the heavens, though ancient systems may be dissolved and new systems
evolved out of their ruins, the molecules out of which these systems are
built—the foundation stones of the material universe—remain unbroken and
unworn.”
The atomic doctrine, in whole or in part, was entertained by Bacon,
Descartes, Hobbes, Locke, Newton, Boyle, and their successors, until the
chemical law of multiple proportions enabled Dalton to confer upon it an
entirely new significance. In our day there are secessions from the theory,
but it still stands firm. Loschmidt, Stoney, and Sir William Thomson
have sought to determine the sizes of the atoms, or rather to fix the
limits between which their sizes lie; while only last year the discourses of
Williamson and Maxwell illustrate the present hold of the doctrine upon
the foremost scientific minds. In fact, it may be doubted whether, wanting
this fundamental conception, a theory of the material universe is capable of
scientific statement,
ADDRESS, Ixxix
Ninety years subsequent to Gassendi the doctrine of bodily instruments,
as it may be called, assumed immense importance in the hands of Bishop
Butler, who, in his famous ‘ Analogy of Religion,’ developed, from his own
point of view, and with consummate sagacity, a similar idea. The Bishop
still influences superior minds; and it will repay us to dwell for a moment on
his views. He draws the sharpest distinction between our real selves and our
bodily instruments. He does not, as far as I remember, use the word soul,
possibly because the term was so hackneyed in his day as it had been for many
generations previously. But he speaks of “living powers,” “perceiving”
or ‘percipient powers,” ‘moving agents,” “ ourselves,” in the same sense
as we should employ the term soul. He dwells upon the fact that limbs
may be removed, and mortal diseases assail the body, the mind, almost
up to the moment of death, remaining clear. He refers to sleep and to swoon,
where the “living powers” are suspended but not destroyed. He considers
it quite as easy to conceive of existence out of our bodies as in them; that
we may animate a succession of bodies, the dissolution of all of them having
no more tendency to dissolve our real selves, or “ deprive us of living faculties
—the faculties of perception and action—than the dissolution of any foreign
matter which we are capable of receiving impressions from, or making use of
for the common occasions of life.” This is the key of the Bishop’s position ;
*‘ our organized bodies are no more a part of ourselves than any other matter
around us.” In proof of this he calls attention to the use of glasses, which
* prepare objects ” for the “ percipient power” exactly as the eye does. The
eye itself is no more percipient than the glass, is quite as much the in-
strument of the true self, and also as foreign to the true self, as the glass is.
“And if we see with our eyes only in the same manner as we do with
glasses, the like may justly be concluded from analogy of all our senses,”
Lucretius, as you are aware, reached a precisely opposite conclusion ; and
it certainly would be interesting, if not profitable, to us all, to hear what he
would or could urge in opposition to the reasoning of the Bishop. As a brief
discussion of the point will enable us to see the bearings of an important
question, I will here permit a disciple of Lucretius to try the strength of
the Bishop’s position, and then allow the Bishop to retaliate, with the view of
rolling back, if he can, the difficulty upon Lucretius.
The argument might proceed in this fashion :—
“Subjected to the test of mental presentation (Vorstelung) your views,
most honoured prelate, would present to many minds a great, if not an in-
superable difficulty. You speak of ‘living powers,’ ‘percipient or perceiving
powers,’ and ‘ourselves ;’ but can you form a mental picture of any one of these
apart from the organism through which it is supposed to act? ‘Test yourself
honestly, and see whether you possess any faculty that would enable you to
form such a conception. The true self has a local habitation in each of us;
thus localized, must it not possess a form? Ifso, what form? Have you
ever for a moment realized it? When a leg is amputated the body is
divided into two parts; is the true self in both of them or in one? Thomas
Aquinas might say in both; but not you, for you appeal to the conscious-
ness associated with one of the two parts to prove that the other is foreign
matter. Is consciousness, then, a necessary element of the true self? If
so, what do you say to the case of the whole body being deprived of con-
sciousness? If not, then on what grounds do you deny any portion of the
true self to the severed limb? It seems very singular that, from the
beginning to the end of your admirable book (and no one admires its
sober strength more than I do), you never once mention the brain or
Ixxx REPORT—1874.
nervous system. You begin at one end of the body, and show that its
parts may be removed without prejudice to the perceiving power. What
if you begin at the other end, and remove, instead of the leg, the brain ?
The body, as before, is divided into two parts; but both are now in the
same predicament, and neither can be appealed to to prove that the other
is foreign matter. Or, instead of going so far as to remove the brain
itself, let a certain portion of its bony covering be removed, and let a
rhythmic series of pressures and relaxations of pressure be applied to the
soft substance. At every pressure ‘the faculties of perception and of ac-
tion, vanish; at every relaxation of pressure they are restored. Where,
during the intervals of pressure, is the perceiving power? I once
had the discharge of a large Leyden battery passed unexpectedly through
me: I felt nothing, but was simply blotted out of conscious existence
for a sensible interval. Where was my true self during that interval ?
Men who have recovered from lightning-stroke have been much longer
in the same state; and indeed in cases of ordinary concussion of the
brain, days may elapse during which no experience is registered in con-
sciousness. Where is the man himself during the period of insensibility ?
You may say that I beg the question when I assume the man to have been
unconscious, that he was really conscious all the time, and has simply for-
gotten what had occurred to him. In reply to this, I can only say that no
one need shrink from the worst tortures that superstition ever invented if only
so felt and so remembered. I do not think your theory of instruments goes
at all to the bottom of the matter. A telegraph-operator has his instruments,
by means of ~which he converses with the world; our bodies possess a ner-
vous system, which plays a similar part between the perceiving power
and external things. Cut the wires of the operator, break his battery, de-
magnetize his needle: by this means you certainly sever his connexion with
the world; but inasmuch as these are real instruments, their destruction does
not touch the man who uses them. The operator survives, and he knows that
he survives. What is it, I would ask, in the human system that answers to this
conscious survival of the operator when the battery of the brain is so dis-
turbed as to produce insensibility, or when it is destroyed altogether ?
‘«‘ Another consideration, which you may consider slight, presses upon me with
some force. The brain may change from health to disease, and through such
a change the most exemplary man may be converted into a debauchee or a
murderer. My very noble and approved good master had, as you know,
threatenings of lewdness introduced into his brain by his jealous wife’s philter ;
and sooner than permit himself to run even the risk of yielding to these base
promptings he slew himself. How could the hand of Lucretius have been
thus turned against himself if the real Lucretius remained as before? Can
the brain or can it not act in this distempered way without the intervention
of the immortal reason? If it can, then it is a prime mover which requires
only healthy regulation to render it reasonably self-acting, and there is no
apparent need of your immortal reason at all. Ifit cannot, then the im-
mortal reason, by its mischievous activity in operating upon a broken instru-
ment, must have the credit of committing every imaginable extravagance and
erime. I think, if you will allow me to say so, that the gravest consequences
are likely to flow from your estimate of the body. To regard the brain
as you would a staff or an eyeglass—to shut your eyes to all its mystery,
to the perfect correlation of its condition and our consciousness, to the fact that
a slight excess or defect of blood in it produces the very swoon to which
you refer, and that in relation to it our meat and drink and air and
—
ADDRESS. Ixxxi
exercise have a perfectly transcendental value and significance—to forget
all this does, I think, open a way to innumerable errors in our habits of
life, and may possibly in some cases initiate and foster that very disease, and
consequent mental ruin, which a wiser appreciation of this mysterious organ
would have avoided.” :
I can imagine the Bishop thoughtful after hearing this argument. He was
not the man to allow anger to mingle with the consideration of a point of
this kind. After due reflection, and having strengthened himself by that
honest contemplation of the facts which was habitual with him, and which
includes the desire to give even adverse facts their due weight, I can
suppose the Bishop to proceed thus :—‘‘ You will remember that in the
‘Analogy of Religion,’ of which you have so kindly spoken, I did not profess
to prove any thing absolutely, and that I over and over again acknowledged
and insisted on the smallness of our knowledge, or rather the depth of our
ignorance, as regards the whole system of the universe. My object was
to show my deistical friends, who set forth so eloquently the beauty and
beneficence of Nature and the Ruler thereof, while they had nothing but
scorn for the so-called absurdities of the Christian scheme, that they were
in no better condition than we were, and that, for every difficulty found upon
our side, quite as great a difficulty was to be found upon theirs, I will now
with your permission adopt a similar line of argument. You area Lucretian,
and from the combination and separation of insensate atoms deduce all ter-
restrial things, including organic forms and their phenomena. Let me tell
you in the first instance how far I am prepared to go with you. I admit that
you can build crystalline forms out of this play of molecular force; that the
diamond, amethyst, and snow-star are truly wonderful structures which are
thus produced. I will go further and acknowledge that even a tree or flower
might in this way be organized. Nay, if you can show me an animal without
sensation, I will concede to you that it also might be put together by the suit-
able play of molecular force.
“Thus far our way is clear, but now comes my difficulty. Your atoms
are individually without sensation, much more are they without intelligence.
May I ask you, then, to try your hand upon this problem. Take your dead
hydrogen atoms, your dead oxygen atoms, your dead carbon atoms, your dead
nitrogen atoms, your dead phosphorus atoms, and all the other atoms,
dead as grains of shot, of which the brain is formed. Imagine them separate
and sensationless ; observe them running together and forming all imaginable
combinations. This, as a purely mechanical process, is seeable by the mind.
But can you see, or dream, or in any way imagine, how out of that mecha-
nical act, and from these individually dead atoms, sensation, thought, and
emotion are to arise? Are you likely to extract Homer out of the rattling
of dice, or the Differential Calculus out of the clash of billiard-balls?
I am not all bereft of this Vorstellungs-Kraft of which you speak, nor am I,
like so many of my brethren, a mere vacuum as regards scientific know-
ledge. I can follow a particle of musk until it reaches the olfactory
nerve; I can follow the waves of sound until their tremors reach the
water of the labyrinth, and set the otoliths and Corti’s fibres in motion ;
T can also visualize the waves of ether as they cross the eye and hit the retina.
Nay more, I am able to pursue to the central organ the motion thus im-
parted at the periphery, and to sec in idea the very molecules of the brain thrown
into tremors. My insight is not baffled by these physical processes. What
baffles and bewilders me—is the notion that from those physical tremors
things so utterly incongruous with them as sensation, thought, and emotion
1874.
Xxu1 REPORT—1874.
can be derived. You may say, or think, that this issue of consciousness
from the clash of atoms is not more incongruous than the flash of light
from the union of oxygen and hydrogen. But I beg to say that it is.
For such incongruity as the flash ‘possesses is that which I now force
upon your attention. The flash is an affair of consciousness, the objec-
tive counterpart of which is a vibration, It is a flash only by your
interpretation. You are the cause of the apparent incongruity; and yow are
the thing that puzzles me. I need not remind you that the great Leibnitz
felt the difficulty which I feel, and that to get rid of this monstrous deduc-
tion of life from death he displaced your atoms by his monads, which were
more or less perfect niirrors of the universe, and out of the summation and
integration of which he supposed all the phenomena of life—sentient, in-
tellectual, and emotional—to arise.
“Your difficulty, then, as I see you are ready to admit, is quite as great as
mine. You cannot satisfy the human understanding in its demand for logical
continuity between molecular processes and the phenomena of conscious-
ness. This is a rock on which materialism must inevitably split whenever it
pretends to be a complete philosophy of life. What is the moral, my Lucretian?
You and I are not likely to indulge in ill-temper in the discussion of these
great topics, where we see so much room for honest differences of opinion.
But there are people of less wit, or more bigotry (I say it with humility)
on both sides, who are ever ready to mingle anger and vituperation with such
discussions. ‘There are, for example, writers of note and influence at the
present day who are not ashamed to assume the ‘deep personal sin’ of a
great logician to be the cause of his unbelief in a theologic dogma. And
there are others who hold that we, who cherish our noble Bible, wrought as
it has been into the constitution of our forefathers, and by inheritance into
us, must necessarily be hypocritical and insincere. Let us disavow and dis-
countenance such people, cherishing the unswerving faith that what is good
and true in both our arguments will be preserved for the benefit of humanity,
while all that is bad or false will disappear.”
I hold the Bishop’s reasoning to be unanswerable, and his liberality to be
worthy of imitation.
It is worth remarking that in one respect the Bishop was a product of
his age. Long previous to his day the nature of the soul had been so
favourite and general a topic of discussion, that, when the students of the
Italian Universities wished to know the leanings of a new Professor, they
at once requested him to lecture upon the soul. About the time of Bishop
Butler the question was not only agitated but extended. It was seen by
the clear-witted men who entered this arena that many of their best
arguments applied equally to brutes and men, The Bishop’s arguments
were of this character. He saw it, admitted it, accepted the conse-
quences, and boldly embraced the whole animal world in his scheme of im-
mortality.
Bishop Butler accepted with unwavering trust the chronology of the Old
Testament, describing it as “confirmed by the natural and civil history of
the world, collected from common historians, from the state of the earth, and
from the late inventions of arts and sciences.” These words mark progress ;
and they must seem somewhat hoary to the Bishop’s successors of to-day*,
* Only to some ; for there are dignitaries who even now speak of the earth’s rocky crust
as so much building material prepared for man at the Creation. Surely it is time that
his loose language should cease.
ADDRESS. Ixxxili
It is hardly necessary to inform you that since his time the domain of the
naturalist has been immensely extended—the whole science of geology, with
its astounding revelations regarding the life of the ancient earth, having been
created. The rigidity of old conceptions has been relaxed, the public mind
being rendered gradually tolerant of the idea that not for six thousand, nor
for sixty thousand, nor for six thousand thousand thousand, but for wons em-
bracing untold millions of years, this earth has been the theatre of life and
death. The riddle of the rocks has been read by the geologist and paleon-
tologist, from subcambrian depths to the deposits thickening over the sea-
bottoms of to-day. And upon the leaves of that stone book are, as you know,
stamped the characters, plainer and surer than those formed by the ink of
history, which carry the mind back into abysses of past time compared with
which the periods which satisfied Bishop Butler cease to have a visual angle.
The lode of discovery once struck, those petrified forms in which hfe was at
one time active, increased to multitudes and demanded classification. They
were grouped in genera, species, and varieties, according to the degree of
similarity subsisting between them. ‘Thus confusion was avoided, each
~ object being found in the pigeon-hole appropriated to it and to its fellows of
similar morphological or physiological character. The general fact soon
became eyident that none but the simplest forms of life lie lowest down, that
as we climb higher among the superimposed strata more perfect forms
appear. The change, however, from form to form was not continuous, but
by steps—some small, some great. <A section,” says Mr. Huxley, “a
hundred fect thick will exhibit at different heights a dozen species of Am-
monite, none of which passes beyond its particular zone of limestone, or clay,
into the zone below it, or into that above it.” In the presence of such facts
it was not possible to avoid the question:—Have these forms, showing,
though in broken stages and with many irregularities, this unmistakable
general adyance, been subjected to no continuous law of growth or variation ?
Had our education been purely scientific, or had it been sufficiently de-
tached from influences which, however ennobling in another domain, have
always proved hindrances and delusions when introduced as factors into
the domain of physics, the scientific mind never could have swerved from the
search for a law of growth, or allowed itself to accept the anthropomorphism
which regarded each successive stratum as a kind of mechanic’s bench for
the manufacture of new species out of all relation to the old.’
Biased, however, by their previous education, the great majority of
naturalists invoked a special creative act to account for the appearance
of each new group of organisms. Doubtless there were numbers who
were clear-headed enough to sce that this was no explanation at all, that
in point of fact it was an attempt, by. the introduction of a greater
difficulty, to account for a less. But having nothing to offer in the
way of explanation, they for the most part held their peace. Still the
thoughts of reflecting men naturally and necessarily simmered round the
question. De Maillet, a contemporary of Newton, has been brought into
notice by Professor Huxley as one who “had a notion of the modifiability of
living forms,’ In my frequent conversations with him, the late Sir Ben-
jamin Brodie, a man of highly philosophic mind, often drew my atten-
tion to the fact that, as early as 1794, Charles Darwin’s grandfather was the
pioneer of Charles Darwin*. In 1801, and in subsequent years, the cele-
brated Lamarck, who produced so profound an impression on the public mind
* Zoonomia, yol, i, pp. 500-510.
f2
XXXIV REPORT—-1874.,
through the vigorous exposition of his views by the author of the ‘ Vestiges
of Creation,’ endeavoured to show the development of species out of changes
of habit and external condition. In 1813 Dr. Wells, the founder of our
present theory of Dew, read before the Royal Society a paper in which, to
use the words of Mr. Darwin, “he distinctly recognizes the principle of
natural selection ; and this is the first recognition that has been indicated.”
The thoroughness and skill with which Wells pursued his work, and the
obvious independence of his character, rendered him long ago a favourite
with me; and it gave me the liveliest pleasure to alight upon this additional
testimony to his penetration. Professor Grant, Mr. Patrick Matthew, Von
Buch, the author of the ‘ Vestiges,’ D’Halloy, and others*, by the enunciation
of opinions more or less clear and correct, showed that the question had been
fermenting long prior to the year 1858, when Mr. Darwin and Mr. Wallace
simultaneously but independently placed their closely concurrent views upon
the subject before the Linnean Society.
These papers were followed in 1859 by the publication of the first edition
of ‘ The Origin of Species.’ All great things come slowly to the birth. Coper-
nicus, as I informed you, pondered his great work for thirty-three years. New-
ton for nearly twenty years kept the idea of Gravitation before his mind ; for
twenty years also he dwelt upon his discovery of Fluxions, and doubtless would
have continued to makeit the object of his private thought had he not found that
Leibnitz was upon his track. Darwin for two and twenty years pondered the
problem of the origin of species, and doubtless he would have continued to do so
had he not found Wallace upon his track t. A concentrated, but full and power-
ful epitome of his labours was the consequence. The book was by no means an
easy one ; and probably not one in every score of those who then attacked it had
read its pages through, or were competent to grasp their significance if they
had. I do not say this merely to discredit them; for there were in those
days some really eminent scientific men, entirely raised above the heat of
popular prejudice, willing to accept any conclusion that science had to offer,
provided it was duly backed by fact and argument, and who entirely mistook
Mr. Darwin’s views. In fact the work needed an expounder; and it
found one in Mr. Huxley. I know nothing more admirable in the way of
scientific exposition than those early articles of his on the origin of species.
He swept the curve of discussion through the really significant points of the
subject, enriched his exposition with profound original remarks and
reflections, often summing up in a single pithy sentence an argument which
a less compact mind would have spread over pages. But there is one
impression made by the book itself which no exposition of it, however
luminous, can convey; and that is the impression of the vast amount of
labour, both of observation and of thought, implied in its production. Let
us glance at its principles.
It is conceded on all hands that what are called varieties are continually
produced. The rule is probably without exception. No chick and no child
is in all respects and particulars the counterpart of its brother and sister ;
and in such differences we have “ variety ” incipient. No naturalist could tell
how far this variation could be carried; but the great mass of them held that
never by any amount of internal or external change, nor by the mixture of both,
* In 1855 Mr. Herbert Spencer (‘Principles of Psychology,’ 2nd edit. vol. i. p. 465)
expressed ‘the belief that life under all its forms has arisen by an unbroken evolution,
and through the instrumentality of what are called natural causes.”
_t The behaviour of Mr. Wallace in relation to this subject has been dignified in the
highest degree, ae
—“{_s - a ae ors Mees Se
ADDRESS. Ixxxv
could the offspring of the same progenitor so far deviate from each other as to
constitute different species. The function of the experimental philosopher is
to combine the conditions of nature and to produce her results; and this
was the method of Darwin*. He made himself acquainted with what could,
without any manner of doubt, be done in the way of producing variation.
He associated himself with pigeon-fanciers—bought, begged, kept, and
observed every breed that he could obtain. Though derived from a
common stock, the diversities of these pigeons were such that “a
score of them might be chosen which, if shown to an ornithologist,
and he were told that they were wild birds, would certainly be ranked
by him as well-defined species.” The simple principle which guides
the pigeon-fancier, as it does the cattle-breeder, is the selection of some
variety that strikes his fancy, and the propagation of this variety by
inheritance. With his eye still directed to the particular appearance
which he wishes to exaggerate, he selects it as it reappears in succes-
sive broods, and thus adds increment to increment until an astonish-
ing amount of divergence from the parent type is effected. The breeder
in this case does not produce the ¢clements of the variation. He simply
observes them, and by selection adds them together until the required
result has been obtained. ‘No man,” says Mr. Darwin, “ would ever
try to make a fantail till he saw a pigeon with a tail developed in some
slight degree in an unusual manner, or a pouter until he saw a pigeon
with a crop of unusual size.” Thus nature gives the hint, man acts
upon it, and by the law of inheritance exaggerates the deviation.
Having thus satisfied himself by indubitable facts that the organi-
zation of an animal or of a plant (for precisely the same treatment applies to
plants) is to seme extent plastic, he passes from variation under domesti-
cation to variation under nature. Hitherto we have dealt with the adding
together of small changes by the conscious selection of man. Can Nature
thus select? Mr. Darwin’s answer is, “ Assuredly she can.” ‘The number
of living things produced is far in excess of the number that can be sup-
ported ; hence at some period or other of their lives there must be a struggle
for existence; and what is the infallible result? If one organism were
a perfect copy of the other in regard to strength, skill, and agility, external
conditions would decide. But this is not the case. Here we have the
fact of variety offering itself to nature, as in the former instance it offered
itself to man; and those varieties which are least competent to cope with
surrounding conditions will infallibly give way to those that are most com-
petent. To use a familiar proverb, the weakest comes to the wall. But the
triumphaut fraction again breeds to overproduction, transmitting the qualities
which secured its maintenance, but transmitting them in different degrees.
The struggle for food again supervenes, and those to whom the favourable
quality has been transmitted in excess will assuredly triumph. It is
easy to see that we have here the addition of increments favourable to
the individual still more rigorously carried out than in the case of
domestication; for not only are unfavourable specimens not selected by
nature, but they are destroyed. This is what Mr. Darwin calls “ Natural
Selection,” which “acts by the preservation and accumulation of small
inherited modifications, each profitable to the preserved being.” With this
idea he interpenetrates and leavens the vast store of facts that he and others
* The first step only towards experimental demonstration has been taken. Experi-
ments now begun might, a couple of centuries hence, furnish data of incalculable valve,
which ought to be supplied to the science of the future,
Ixxxvi REPORT—1874.
have collected. We cannot, without shutting our eyes through fear or pre-
judice, fail to sce that Darwin is here dealing, not with imaginary, but
with true causes; nor can we fail to discern what vast modifications may be
produced by natural selection in periods sufficiently long. Each individual
increment may resemble what mathematicians call a “ differential” (a quan-
tity indefinitely small); but definite and great changes may obviously be pro-
duced by the integration of these infinitesimal quantities through practically
infinite time.
If Darwin, like Bruno, rejects the notion of creative power acting after
human fashion, it certainly is not because he is unacquainted with the num-~
berless exquisite adaptations on which this notion of a supernatural artificer
has been founded, His bock is a repository of the most startling facts of
this description, Take the marvellous observation which he cites from Dr.
Criiger, where a bucket with an aperture, serving as a spout, is formed in
an orchid. Bees visit the flower: in eager search of material for their combs
they push each other into the bucket, the drenched ones escaping from their
involuntary bath by the spout. Here they rub their backs against the viscid
stigma of the flower and obtain glue; then against the pollen-masses, which
are thus stuck to the back of the bee and carried away. ‘‘ When the bee, so
provided, flies to another flower, or to the same flower a second time, and is
pushed by its comrades into the bucket, and then crawls out by the passage, the
pollen-mass upon its back necessarily comes first into contact with the viscid
stigma,” which takes up the pollen; and this is how that orchid is fertilized.
Or take this other case of the Catasetum. <‘‘ Bees visit these flowers in order
to gnaw the labellum; in doing this they inevitably touch a long, tapering,
sensitive projection. This, when touched, transmits a sensation or vibration
to a certain membrane, which is instantly ruptured, setting free a spring, by
which the pollen-mass is shot forth like an arrow in the right direction, and
adheres by its viscid extremity to the back of the bee.” ‘In this way the fer-
tilizing pollen is spread abroad.
lt is the mind thus stored with the choicest materials of the teleologist
that rejects teleology, seeking to refer these wonders to natural cases.
They illustrate, according to him, the method of nature, not the “ technic ”
of a man-like Artificer. The beauty of flowers is due to natural selection.
Those that distinguish themselves by vividly contrasting colours from the
surrounding green leaves are most readily seen, most frequently visited
by insects, most often fertilized, and hence most favoured by natural selection.
Coloured berries also readily attract the attention of birds and beasts, which
feed upon them, spread their manured seeds abroad, thus giving trees and
shrubs possessing such berries a greater chance in the struggle for existence.
With profound analytic and synthetic skill, Mr. Darwin investigates the
ceell-making instinct of the hive-bee. His method of dealing with it is re-
presentative. He falls back from the more perfectly to the less perfectly
developed instinct—from the hive-bee to the humble bee, which uses its
own cocoon as a comb, and to classes of bees of intermediate skill, endea-
vouring to show how the passage might be gradually made from the lowest
to. the highest. The saving of wax is the most important point in the
economy of bees. Twelve to fifteen pounds of dry sugar are said to be
needed for the secretion of a single pound of wax. ‘The quantities of nectar
necessary for the wax must therefore be vast; and every improvement of
constructive instinct which results in the saving of wax is a direct profit
to the insect’s life. The time that would otherwise be devoted to the making
of wax is now devoted to the gathering and storing of honey for winter food,
ADDRESS. Ixxxvii
He passes from the humble bee with its rude cells, through the Melipona
with its more artistic cells, to the hive-bee with its astonishing architecture,
The bees place themselves at equal distances apart upon the wax, sweep
and excavate equal spheres round the selected points. The spheres intersect,
and the planes of intersection are built up with thin lamine. Hexagonal
cells are thus formed. This mode of treating such questions is, as I have
said, representative. He habitually retires from the more perfect and com-
plex, to the less perfect and simple, and carries you with him through
stages of perfecting, adds increment to increment of infinitesimal change,
and in this way gradually breaks down your reluctance to admit that the
exquisite climax of the whole could be a result of natural selection.
Mr. Darwin shirks no difficulty ; and, saturated as the subject was with his
own thought, he must have known, better than his critics, the weakness as well
as the strength of his theory. This of course would be of little avail were hir
object a temporary dialectic victory instead of the establishment of a truth
which he means to be everlasting. But he takes no pains to disguise the
weakness he has discerned ; nay, he takes every pains to bring it into the
strongest light. His vast resources enable him to cope with objections started
by himself and others, so as to leave the final impression upon the reader’s mind
that, if they be not completely answered, they certainly are not fatal. Their
negative force being thus destroyed, youare free to be influenced by thevast posi-
tive mass of evidence he is able to bring before you. This largeness of knowledge
and readiness of resource render Mr. Darwin the most terrible of antagonists.
Accomplished naturalists have levelled heavy and sustained criticisms against
him—not always with the view of fairly weighing his theory, but with the
express intention of exposing its weak points only. This does not irritate
him. He treats every objection with a soberness and thoroughness which
even Bishop Butler might be proud to imitate, surrounding each fact with
its appropriate detail, placing it in its proper relations, and usually giving
it a significance which, as long as it was kept isolated, failed to appear.
This is done without a trace of ill-temper. He moves over the subject
with the passionless strength of a glacier; and the grinding of the rocks
is not always without a counterpart in the logical pulverization of the ob-
jector. But though in handling this mighty theme all passion has been
stilled, there is an emotion of the intellect incident to the discernment of new
truth which often colours and warms the pages of Mr. Darwin. His success
has been great; and this implies not only the solidity of his work, but the
preparedness of the public mind for such a revelation. On this head a
remark of Agassiz impressed me more than any thing else. Sprung from a
race of theologians, this celebrated man combated to the last the theory of
natural selection. Onc of the many times I had the pleasure of meeting him
in the United States was at Mr. Winthrop’s beautiful residence at Brookline,
near Boston. Rising from luncheon, we all halted as if by a common impulse
in front of 2 window, and continued there a discussion which had been started
at table. The maple was in its autumn glory; and the exquisite beauty of
the scene outside seemed, in my case, to interpenetrate without disturbance
the intellectual action. Earnestly, almost sadly, Agassiz turned, and said to
the gentlemen standing round, “I confess that [ was not prepared to see this
theory received as it has been by the best intellects of our time. Its success
is greater than I could have thought possible.”
In our day grand generalizations have been reached. The theory of the
origin of species is but one of them, Another, of still wider grasp and more
]XXXvlli REPORT—1874.
radical significance, is the doctrine of the Conservation of Energy, the ulti-
mate philosophical issues of which are as yet but dimly seen—that doctrine
which ‘binds nature fast in fate” to an extent not hitherto recognized,
exacting from every antecedent its equivalent consequent, from every con-
sequent its equivalent antecedent, and bringing vital as well as physical
phenomena under the dominion of that law of causal connexion which, so far
as the human understanding has yct pierced, asserts itself everywhere in nature.
Long in advance of all definite experiment upon the subject, the constancy
and indestructibility of matter had been affirmed; and all subsequent expe-
rience justified the affirmation. Later researches extended the attribute of
indestructibility to force. This idea, applied in the first instance to inorganic,
rapidly embraced organic nature. The vegetable world, though drawing
almost all its nutriment from invisible sources, was proved incompetent to
generate anew either matter or force. Its matter is for the most part trans-
muted gas; its force transformed solar force. The animal world was proved
to be equally uncreative, all its motive energies being referred to the com-
bustion of its food. The activity of each animal as a whole was proved to be
the transferred activity of its molecules. The muscles were shown to be
stores of mechanical force, potential until unlocked by the nerves, and then
resulting in muscular contractions. The speed at which messages fly to and
fro along the nerves was determined, and found to be, not as had been previ-
ously supposed, equal to that of light or electricity, but less than the speed
of a flying eagle.
This was the work of the physicist: then came the conquests of the
comparative anatomist and physiologist, revealing the structure of every
animal, and the function of every organ in the whole biological series, from
the lowest zoophyte up to man. The nervous system had been made the
object of profound and continued study, the wonderful and, at bottom, entirely
mysterious controlling power which it exercises over the whole organism,
physical and mental, being recognized more and more. Thought could
not be kept back from a subject so profoundly suggestive. Besides the
physical life dealt with by Mr. Darwin, there is a psychical life presenting
similar gradations, and asking equally for a solution. How are the different
grades and orders of Mind to be accounted for? What is the principle of
erowth of that mysterious power which on our planet culminates in Reason ?
These are questions which, though not thrusting themselves so forcibly
upon the attention of the general public, had not only occupied many
reflecting minds, but had been formally broached by one of them before the
‘ Origin of Species’ appeared. ;
With the mass of materials furnished by the physicist and physiologist in
his hands, Mr. Herbert Spencer, twenty years ago, sought to graft upon this
basis a system of psychology ; and two years ago a second and greatly ampli-
fied edition of his work appeared. Those who have occupied themselves
with the beautiful experiments of Piateau will remember that when two
spherules of olive-oil suspended in a mixture of alcohol and water of the
same density as the oil, are brought together, they do ‘not immediately
unite. Something like a pellicle appears to be formed around the drops,
the rupture of which is immediately followed by the coalescence of the
globules into one. There are organisms whose vital actions are almost
as purely physical as that of these drops of oil. They come into contact
and fuse themselves thus together. From such organisms to others a shade
higher, and from these to others a shade higher still, and on through an
eyer ascending series, Mr, Spencer conducts his argument, There are two
ADDRESS. Ixxxix
obvious factors to be here taken into account—the creature and the medium
in which it lives, or, as it is often expressed, the organism and its en-
vironment. Mr. Spencer’s fundamental principle is, that between these two
factors there is incessant interaction. The organism is played upon by the
environment, and is modified to meet the requirements of the environment.
Life he defines to be “a continuous adjustment of internal relations to ex-
ternal relations.”
In the lowest organisms we have a kind of tactual sense diffused over the
entire body ; then, through impressions from without and their correspond-
ing adjustments, special portions of the surface become more responsive to
stimuli than others. The senses are nascent, the basis of all of them being
that simple tactual sense which the sage Democritus recognized 2300 years
ago as their common progenitor. The action of light, in the first instance,
appears to be a mere disturbance of the chemical processes in the animal
organism, similar to that which occurs in the leaves of plants. By degrees
the action becomes localized in a few pigment-cells, more sensitive to light
than the surrounding tissue. The eyeis here incipient. At first it is merely
capable of revealing differences of light and shade produced by bodies close
at hand. Followed as the interception of the light is in almost all cases by
the contact of the closely adjacent opaque body, sight in this condition
becomes a kind of ‘anticipatory touch.” ‘The adjustment continues ; a slight
bulging out of the epidermis over the pigment-granules supervenes. A lens
is incipient, and, through the operation of infinite adjustments, at length
reaches the perfection that it displays in the hawk and eagle. So of the
other senses ; they are special differentiations of a tissue which was originally
vaguely sensitive all over.
With the development of the senses the adjustments between the organism
and its environment gradually extend in space, a multiplication of expe-
riences and a corresponding modification of conduct being the result. The
adjustments also extend in time, covering continually greater intervals.
Along with this extension in space and time the adjustments also increase
in speciality and complexity, passing through the various grades of brute
life, and prolonging themselves into the domain of reason. Very striking
are Mr. Spencer’s remarks regarding the influence of the sense of touch
upon the development of intelligence. ‘This is, so to say, the mother-tongue
of all the senses, into which they must be translated to be of service to
the organism. Hence its importance. The parrot is the most intelligent of
birds, and its tactual power is also greatest. From this sense it gets know-
* ledge unattainable by birds which cannot employ their feet as hands. The
elephant is the most sagacious of quadrupeds—its tactual range and skill, and
the consequent multiplication of expericnces, which it owes to its wonderfully
adaptable trunk, being the basis of its sagacity. Feline animals, for a similar
cause, are more sagacious than hoofed animals,—atonement being to some
extent made, in the case of the horse, by the possession of sensitive prehensile
lips. In the Primates the evolution of intellect and the evolution of tactual
appendages go hand in hand. In the most intelligent anthropoid apes we
find the tactual range and delicacy greatly augmented, new avenues of know-
ledge being thus opened to the animal. Man crowns the edifice here, not only
in virtue of his own manipulatory power, but through the enormous extension
of his range of experience, by the invention of instruments of precision, which
serve as supplemental senses and supplemental limbs. The reciprocal action of
these is finely described and illustrated. That chastened intellectual emotion
to which I have referred in connexion with Mr. Darwin is not absent in Mr,
xc REPORT—1874.
Spencer. His illustrations possess at times exceeding vividness and force ;
and from his style on such occasions it is to be inferred that the ganglia of
this Apostle of the Understanding are sometimes the seat of a nascent
poetic thrill.
It is a fact of supreme importance that actions the performance of which at
first requires even painful effort and deliberation, may by habit be rendered
automatic. Witness the slow learning of its letters by a child, and the subse-
quent facility of reading in a man, when each group of letters which forms a
word is instantly, and without effort, fused to a single perception. Instance
the billiard-player, whose muscles of hand and eye, when he reaches the per-
fection of his art, are unconsciously coordinated. Instance the musician, who,
by practice, is enabled to fuse a multitude of arrangements, auditory, tactual
and muscular, into a process of automatic manipulation. Combining such
facts with the doctrine of hereditary transmission, we reach a theory of
Instinct. A chick, after coming out of the egg, balances itself correctly, runs
about, picks up food, thus showing that it possesses a power of directing its
movements to definite ends. How did the chick learn this very complex
coordination of eye, muscles, and beak? It has not been individually
taught ; its personal experience is nil; but it has the benefit of ancestral
experience. In its inherited organization are registered all the powers
which it displays at birth. So also as regards the instinct of the hive-bee,
already referred to. The distance at which the insects stand apart when
they sweep their hemispheres and build their cells is “ organically remem-
bered.” Man also carries with him the physical texture of his ancestry, as
well as the inherited intellect bound up with it. The defects of intelligence
during infancy and youth are probably less due to a lack of individual expe-
rience than to the fact that in early life the cerebral organization is still
incomplete. The period necessary for completion varies with the race, and
with the individual. As around shot outstrips a rifled one on quitting the
muzzle of the gun, so the lower race in childhood may outstrip the higher.
But the higher eventually overtakes the lower, and surpasses it in range. As
regards individuals, we do not always find the precocity of youth prolonged to
mental power inmaturity; while the dulness of boyhood is sometimes strikingly
contrasted with the intellectual energy of after years. Newton, when a boy,
was weakly, and he showed no particular aptitude at school; but in his
eighteenth year he went to Cambridge, and soon afterwards astonished his
teachers by his power of dealing with geometrical problems. During his
quiet youth his brain was slowly preparing itself to be the organ of those
energies which he subsequently displayed.
By myriad blows (to use a Lucretian phrase) the image and superscription
of the external world are stamped as states of consciousness upon the organ-
ism, the depth of the impression depending upon the number of the blows.
When two or more phenomena occur in the environment invariably together,
they are stamped to the same depth or to the same relief, and indissolu-
bly connected. And here we come to the threshold of a great question.
Seeing that he could in no way rid himself of the consciousness of Space and
Time, Kant assumed them to be necessary “ forms of intuition,” the moulds
and shapes into which our intuitions are thrown, belonging to ourselves
solely and without objective existence. With unexpected power and success
Mr. Spencer brings the hereditary experience theory, as he holds it, to bear
upon this question. ‘If there exist certain external relations which are
experienced by all organisms at all instants of their waking lives—relations
which are absolutely constant and uniyersal—there will be established an-
ADDRESS. xcl
swering internal relations that are absolutely constant and universal. Such
relations we have in those of Space and Time. As the substratum of all
other relations of the Non-Ego, they must be responded to by conceptions
that are the substrata of all other relations in the Ego. Being the constant
and infinitely repeated elements of thought, they must become the automatic
elements of thought—the elements of thought which it is impossible to get
rid of—the ‘ forms of intuition.’ ”
Throughout this application and extension of the “ Law of Inseparable Asso-
ciation,” Mr. Spencer stands upon his own ground, invoking instead of the
experiences of the individual the registered experiences of the race. His
overthrow of the restriction of experience to the individual is, I think,
complete. That restriction ignores the power of organizing experience fur-
nished at the outset to each individual; it ignores the different degrees of
this power possessed by different races and by different individuals of the same
race. Were there not in the human brain a potency antecedent to all expe-
rience, a dog or cat ought to be as capable of education as a man. ‘These
predetermined internal relations are independent of the experiences of the
individual. The human brain is the “ organized register of infinitely nu-
merous experiences received during the evolution of life, or rather during the
evolution of that series of organisms through which the human organism has
been reached. The effects of the most uniform and frequent of these expe-
riences have been successively bequeathed, principal and interest, and have
slowly mounted to that high intelligence which lies latent in the brain of the
infant. Thus it happens that the European inherits from twenty to thirty
cubic inches more of brain than the Papuan. Thus it happens that faculties,
as of music, which scarcely exist in some inferior races, become congenital
in superior ones. Thus it happens that out of savages unable to count up
to the number of their fingers, and speaking a language containing only nouns
and verbs, arise at length our ‘Newtons and Shakespeares.”
‘At the outset of this Address it was stated that physical theories which lie
beyond experience are derived by a process of abstraction from experience.
It is instructive to note from this point of view the successive introduction of
new conceptions. The idea of the attraction of gravitation was preceded by
the observation of the attraction of iron by a magnet, and of light bodies by
rubbed amber. The polarity of magnetism and electricity appealed to the
senses; and thus became the substratum of the conception that atoms and
molecules are endowed with definite, attractive and repellent poles, by the
, play of which definite forms of crystalline architecture are produced. Thus
molecular force becomes structural. It required no great boldness of thought
to extend its play into organic nature, and to recognize in molecular force
the agency by which both plants and animals are built up. In this way out
of experience arise conceptions which are wholly ultra-experiential. None
of the atomists of antiquity had any notion of this play of molecular polar
force, but they had experience of gravity as manifested by falling bodies.
Abstracting from this, they permitted their atoms to fall eternally through
empty space; Democritus assumed that the larger atoms moved more rapidly
than the smaller ones, which they therefore could overtake, and with which
they could combine. Epicurus, holding that empty space could offer no
resistance to motion, ascribed to all the atoms the same velocity ; but he seems
‘to have overlooked the consequence that under such circumstances the atoms
could never combine. Lucretius cut the knot by quitting the domain of physics
altogether, and causing the atoms to moye together by a kind of volition.
Was the instinct utterly at fault which caused Lucretius thus to swerve
xcil REPORT —1874.
from his own principles? Diminishing gradually the number of progeni-
tors, Mr. Darwin comes at length to one ‘“ primordial form;” but he does
not say, as far as I remember, how he supposes this form to have been in-
troduced. He quotes with satisfaction the words of a celebrated author
and divine who had “ gradually learnt to see that it is just as noble a con-
ception of the Deity to believe He created a few original forms, capable of
self-development into other and needful forms, as to believe that He required
a fresh act of creation to supply the voids caused by the action of His laws.”
What Mr. Darwin thinks of this view of the introduction of life I do not
know. But the anthropomorphism, which it seemed his object to set aside,
is as firmly associated with the creation of a few forms as with the creation
of a multitude. We need clearness and thoroughness here. Two courses and
two only are possible. ither let us open our doors freely to the conception
of creative acts, or, abandoning them, let us radically change our notions of
Matter. If we look at matter as pictured by Democritus, and as defined
for generations in our scientific text-books, the notion of any form of life
whatever coming out of it is utterly unimaginable. The argument placed
in the mouth of Bishop Butler suffices, in my opinion, to crush all such ma-
terlalism as this. But those who framed these definitions of matter were
not biologists but mathematicians, whose labours referred only to such acci-
dents and properties of matter as could be expressed in their formule. The
very intentness with which they pursued mechanical science turned their
thoughts aside from the science of life. May not their imperfect definitions
be the real cause of our present dread? Let us reverently, but honestly,
look the questiop. in the face. Divorced from matter, where is life to be
found? Whatever our faith may say, our knowledge shows them to be indis-
solubly joined. Every meal we eat, and every cup we drink, illustrates the
mysterious control of Mind by Matter.
Trace the line of life backwards, and see it approaching more and more to
what we call the purely physical condition. We come at length to those
organisms which I have compared to drops of oil suspended in a mixture of
alcohol and water. We reach the protogenes of Haeckel, in which we have “ a
type distinguishable from a fragment of albumen only by its finely granular
character.” Can we pause here? We break a magnet and find two poles
in each of its fragments. We continue the process of breaking, but, however
small the parts, each carries with it, though enfeebled, the polarity of the whole,
And when we can break no longer, we prolong the intellectual vision to the
polar molecules. Are we not urged to do something similar in the case of
life? Is there not a temptation to close to some extent with Lucretius, when he
affirms that ‘nature is seen to do all things spontancously of herself without
the meddling of the gods”? or with Bruno, when he declares that Matter is
not “that mere empty capacity which philosophers have pictured her to be,
but the universal mother who brings forth all things as the fruit of her own
womb”? Believing, as I do, in the continuity of Nature, I cannot stop
abruptly where our microscopes cease to be of use. Here the vision of tho
mind authoritatively supplements the vision of the eye. By an intellectual
necessity I cross the boundary of the experimental evidence, and discern in
that Matter which we, in our ignorance of its latent powers, and notwiti-
standing our professed reverence for its Creator, have hitherto covered with
opprobrium, the promise and potency of all terrestrial Life.
If you ask me whether there exists the least evidence to prove that any
form of life can be deyeloped out of matter, without demonstrable anteccdent
life, my reply is that evidence considered perfectly conclusive by many has
ADDRESS. Xcili
been adduced; and that were some of us who have pondered this question to
follow a very common example, and accept testimony because it falls in with
our belief, we also should eagerly close with the evidence referred to. But
there is in the true man of science a wish stronger than the wish to have his
beliefs upheld; namely, the wish to have them true. And this stronger wish
causes him to reject the most plausible support if he has reason to suspect
that it is vitiated by error. Those to whom I refer as having studied this
question, believing the evidence offered in favour of ‘spontaneous genera-
tion” to be thus vitiated, cannot accept it. They know full well that the
chemist now prepares from inorganic matter a vast array of substances which
Were some time ago regarded as the sole products of vitality. They are in-
timately acquainted with the structural power of matter as evidenced in the
phenomena of crystallization. They can justify scientifically their belief in
its potency, under the proper conditions, to produce organisms. But in reply
to your question they will frankly admit their inability to point to any satis-
factory experimental proof that life can be developed save from demonstrable
antecedent life. As already indicated, they draw the line from the highest
- organisms through lower ones down to the lowest, and it is the prolongation
of this line by the intellect beyond the range of the senses that leads them
to the conclusion which Bruno so boldly enunciated *.
The “materialism” here professed may be vastly different from what you
suppose, and I therefore crave your gracious patience to the end. “The ques-
tion of an external world,” says Mr. J. 8. Mill, “is the great battle-ground
of metaphysics” t. Mr. Mill himself reduces external phenomena to “ possi-
bilities of sensation.” Kant, as we have seen, made time and space “ forms ”
of our own intuitions. Fichte, having first by the inexorable logic of his un-
derstanding proved himself to be a mere link in that chain of eternal causa-
tion which holds so rigidly in nature, violently broke the chain by making
nature, and all that it inherits, an apparition of his own mind+. And it is by
no means easy to combat such notions. For when I say I see you, and that
I have not the least doubt about it, the reply is, that what I am really con-
scious of is an affection of my own retina. And if I urge that I can check
my sight of you by touching you, the retort would be that I am equally trans-
-gressing the limits of fact; for what I am really conscious of is, not that
you are there, but that the nerves of my hand have undergone a change.
All we hear, and see, and touch, and taste, and smell, are, it would be urged,
mere variations of our own condition, beyond which, even to the extent of a
hair’s breadth, we cannot go. That any thing answering to our impressions
exists outside of ourselves is not a fact, but an inference, to which all validity
would be denied by an idealist like Berkeley, or by a sceptic like Hume.
Mr. Spencer takes another line. With him, as with the uneducated man, there
is no doubt or question as to the existence of an external world. But he dif-
fers from the uneducated, who think that the world really is what conscious-
ness represents it to be. Our states of consciousness are mere symbols of an
outside entity which produces them and determines the order of their
succession, but the real nature of which we can never know§. In
* Bruno was a “ Pantheist,” not an “ Atheist” or a “ Materialist.”
} Examination of Hamilton, p. 154,
-t Bestimmung des Menschen.
§ In a paper, at once popular and profound, entitled “ Recent Progress in the Theory
of Vision,” contained in the yolume of Lectures by Helmholtz, published by Longmans,
this symbolism of our states of consciousness is also dwelt upon. The impressions of sense
are the mere signs of external things. Jn this paper Helmholtz contends strongly against
the view that the consciousness of space is inborn; and he evidently doubts the power
XCiV REPORT—1874.
fact the whole provess of evolution is the manifestation of a Power abso-
lutely inscrutable to the intellect of man. As little in our day as in the days
of Job can man by searching find this Power out. Considered fundamentally,
then, it is by the operation of an insoluble mystery that life on earth is
evolved, species differentiated, and mind unfolded from their prepotent
elements in the immeasurable past. ‘There is, you will observe, no very
rank materialism here.
The strength of the doctrine of evolution consists, not in an experimental
demonstration (for the subject is hardly accessible to this mode of proof),
but in its general harmony with scientific thought. From contrast, more-
over, it derives enormous relative strength. On the one side we have a
theory (if it could with any propriety be so called) derived, as were the
theories referred to at the beginning of this Address, not from the study
of nature, but from the observation of men—a theory which conyerts the
Power whose garment is seen in the visible universe into an Artificer,
fashioned after the human model, and acting by broken efforts as man is
seen to act. On the other side we have the conception that all we sce
around us, and all we feel within us—the phenomena of physical nature
as well as those of the human mind—have their unsearchable roots in a
cosmical life, if I dare apply the term, an infinitesimal span of which is
offered to the investigation of man. And even this span is only knowable
in part. We can trace the development of a nervous system, and correlate
with it the parallel phenomena of sensation and thought. We see with un-
doubting certainty that they go hand in hand. But we try to soar in a
vacuum the moment we seek to comprehend the connexion between them.
An Archimedean fulcrum is here required which the human mind cannot
command; and the effort to solve the problem, to borrow a comparison from
an illustrious friend of mine, is like the effort of a man trying to lift himself
by his own waistband, All that has been here said is to be taken in connexion
with this fundamental truth. When “ nascent senses ” are spoken of, when
“the differentiation of a tissue at first vaguely sensitive all over” is spoken
of, and when these processes are associated with “the modification of an
organism by its environment,” the same parallelism, without contact, or even
approach to contact, is implied. Man the object is separated by an impassable
gulf from man the subject. There is no motor energy in intellect to carry it
without logical rupture from the one to the other.
Further, the doctrine of evolution derives man, in his totality, from the in-
teraction of organism and environment through countless ages past. The
Human Understanding, for example—that faculty which Mr. Spencer has
turned so skilfully round upon its own antecedents—is itself a result of the
play between organism and environment through cosmic ranges of time. Never
surely did prescription plead so irresistible a claim. But then it comes to
pass that, over and above his understanding, there are many other things ap-
pertaining to man whose prescriptive rights are quite as strong as those of the
understanding itself. It is a result, for example, of the play of organism and
environment that sugar is sweet and that aloes are bitter, that the smell of
of the chick to pick up grains of corn without preliminary lessons. On this point, he
says, further experiments are needed. Such experiments haye been since made by Mr.
Spalding, aided, I believe, in some of his observations by the accomplished and deeply
lamented Lady Amberly ; and they seem to prove conclusively that the chick dees not
need a single moment’s tuition to enable it to stand, run, govern the muscles of its eyes, and
peck, Helmholtz, however, is contending against the notion of preestablished harmony ;
and I am not aware of his views as to the organization of experiences of race or breed,
ADDRESS. XCV
henbane differs from the perfume of a rose. Such facts of consciousness
(for which, by the way, no adequate reason has yet been rendered) are
quite as old as the understanding; and many other things can boast an
equally ancient origin. Mr. Spencer at one place refers to that most
powerful of passions—the amatory passion—as one which, when it first
occurs, is antecedent to all relative experience whatever; and we may pass
its claim as being at least as ancient and yalid as that of the understanding.
Then there are such things woven into the texture of man as the feeling
of Awe, Reverence, Wonder—and not alone the sexual love just referred
to, but the love of the beautiful, physical, and moral, in Nature, Poetry,
and Art, There is also that deep-set feeling which, since the earliest
dawn of history, and probably for ages prior to all history, incorporated
itself in the Religions of the world. You who have escaped from these
religions into the high-and-dry light of the intellect may deride them;
but in so doing you deride accidents of form merely, and fail to touch the
immoyable basis of the religious sentiment in the nature of man. To yield
this sentiment reasonable satisfaction is the problem of problems at the pre-
sent hour. And grotesque in relation to scientific culture as many of the
religions of the world have been and are—dangerous, nay, destructive, to
the dearest privileges of freemen as some of them undoubtedly have been,
and would, if they could, be again—it will be wise to recognize them as
the forms of a force, mischievous, if permitted to intrude on the region of
objective knowledge, over which it holds no command, but capable of adding
in the region of poetry and emotion, inward completeness and dignity to man.
Feeling, I say again, dates from as old an origin and as high a source ag
intelligence, and it equally demands its range of play. The wise teacher of
humanity will recognize the necessity of meeting this demand rather than of
resisting it on account of errors and absurdities of form. What we should
resist, at all hazards, is the attempt made in the past, and now repeated, to
found upon this elemental bias of man’s nature a system which should exer-
cise despotic sway over his intellect. I have no fears as to such a consumma-
tion, Science has already to some extent leavened the world: it will leaven
it more and more ; and I should look upon the light of science breaking in upon
the minds of the youth of Ireland, and strengthening gradually to the per-
fect day, as a surer check to any intellectual or spiritual tyranny which now
threatens this island, than the laws of princes or the swords of emperors,
We fought and won our battle even in the Middle Ages: should we doubt
the issue of a conflict with our broken foe?
The impregnable position of science may be described in a few words.
We claim, and we shall wrest, from theology the entire domain of cosmo-
logical theory. All schemes and systems which thus infringe upon the
domain of science must, in so far as they do this, submit to its control, and
relinquish all thought of controlling it. Acting otherwise proved disastrous
in the past, and it is simply fatuous to-day. Every system which would
escape the fate of an organism too rigid to adjust itself to its environment,
must be plastic to the extent that the growth of knowledge demands. When
this truth has been thoroughly taken in, rigidity will be relaxed, exclusive-
ness diminished, things now deemed essential will be dropped, and elements
now rejected will be assimilated, The lifting of the life is the essential
point; and as long as dogmatism, fanaticism, and intolerance are kept out,
yarious modes of leverage may be employed to raise life to a higher level.
Science itself not unfrequently derives motive power from an ultra-
scientific source. Some of its greatest discoveries have been made under the
xevl REPORT —1874.
stimulus of a non-scientific ideal. This was the case among the ancients, and
it has been so amongst oursclves. Mayer, Joule, and Colding, whose names
are associated with the greatest of modern generalizations, were thus influ-
enced. With his usual insight, Lange at one place remarks, that “it is not
always the objectively correct and intelligible that helps man most, or leads
most quickly to the fullest and truest knowledge. As the sliding body upon
the brachystochrone reaches its end sooner than by the straighter road of the
inclined plane, so through the swing of the ideal we often arrive at the naked
truth more rapidly than by the more direct processes of the understanding.”
Whewell speaks of enthusiasm of temper as a hindrance to science ; but he
means the enthusiasm of weak heads. There is a strong and resolute enthu-
siasm in which science finds an ally; and it is to the lowering of this
fire, rather than to the diminution of intellectual insight, that the lessening
productiveness of men of science in their mature years is to be ascribed.
Mr. Buckle sought to detach intellectual achievement from moral force. He
gravely erred; for without moral force to whip it into action, the achieve-
ments of the intellect would be poor indeed.
It has been said that science divorces itself from literature ; but the state-
ment, like so many others, arises from lack of knowledge. A glance at the
less technical writings of its leaders—of its Helmholtz, its Huxley, and its
Du Bois-Reymond—would show what breadth of literary culture they com-
mand. Where among modern writers can you find their superiors in clear-
ness and vigour of literary style? Science desires not isolation, but freely
combines with every effort towards the bettering of man’s estate. Single-
handed, and supported not by outward sympathy, but by inward force, it has
built at least one great wing of the many-mansioned home which man in his
totality demands. And if rough walls and protruding rafter-ends indicate
that on one side the edifice is still incomplete, it is only by wise combination
of the parts required with those already irrevocably built that we can
hope for completeness. There is no necessary incongruity between what
has been accomplished and what remains to be done. The moral glow of
Socrates, which we all feel by ignition, has in it nothing incompatible with
the physics of Anaxagoras which he so much scorned, but which he would
hardly scorn to-day. And here I am reminded of one amongst us, hoary, but
still strong, whose prophet-voice some thirty years ago, far more than any other
of this age, unlocked whatever of life and nobleness lay latent in its most gifted
minds—one fit to stand beside Socrates or the Maccabean Eleazar, and to dare
and suffer all that they suffered and dared—fit, as he once said of Fichte, “ to
have been the teacher of the Stoa, and to have discoursed of Beauty and
Virtue in the groves of Academe.” With a capacity to grasp physical prin-
ciples which his friend Goethe did not possess, and which even total lack of
exercise has not been able to reduce to atrophy, it is the world’s loss that, he,
in the vigour of his years, did not open his mind and sympathies to science,
and make its ecnclusions a portion of his message to mankind. Marvel-
lously endowed as he was—equally equipped on the side of the Heart and of
the Understanding—he might have done much towards teaching us how to
reconcile the claims of both, and to enable them in coming times to dwell
together in unity of spirit and in the bond of peace.
And now the end is come. With more time, or greater strength and
knowledge, what has been here said might have been better said, while
worthy matters here omitted might have received fit expression. But there
would have been no material deviation from the views set forth. As regards
myself, they are not the growth of a day; and as regards you, I thought you
ADDRESS. X¢CVll
ought to know the environment which, with or without your consent, is rapidly
surrounding you, and in relation to which some adjustment on your part may be
necessary. A hint of Hamlet’s, however, teaches us all how the troubles of
common life may be ended ; and it is perfectly possible for you and me to pur-
chase intellectual peace at the price of intellectual death. The world is not
without refuges of this description ; nor is it wanting in persons who seek their
shelter and try to persuade others to do the same. The unstable and the
weak have yielded, and will yield to this persuasion, and they to whom
repose is sweeter than the truth. But I would exhort you to refuse the
offered shelter, and to scorn the base repose—to accept, if the choice be
forced upon you, commotion before stagnation, the leap of the torrent before
the stillness of the swamp. In the course of this address I have touched on
debatable questions, and led you over what will be deemed dangerous ground
—and this partly with the view of telling you that as regards these questions
science claims unrestricted right of search. It is not to the point to say that
the views of Lucretius and Bruno, of Darwin and Spencer, may be wrong.
Here I should agree with you, deeming it indeed certain that these views
will undergo modification. But the point is, that, whether right or wrong,
we claim the right to discuss them. For science, however, no exclusive
claim is here made ; you are not urged to erect it into an idol. . Inexorable
advance of man’s understanding in the path of knowledge, and those un-
quenchable claims of his moral and emotional nature which the understanding
can never satisfy, are here equally set forth The world embraces not onlya
Newton, but a Shakspeare—not only a Boyle, but a Raphael—not only a
Kant, but a Beethoven—not only a Darwin, but a Carlyle. Not in each of
these, but in all, is human nature whole. They are not opposed, but supple-
mentary—not mutually exclusive, but reconcilable. And if, unsatisfied with
them all, the hnman mind, with the yearning of a pilgrim for his distant
home, will still turn to the Mystery from which it has emerged, seeking so
to fashion it as to give unity to thought and faith, so long as this is done, not
only without intolerance or bigotry of any kind, but with the enlightened
recognition that ultimate fixity of conception is here unattainable, and that
each succeeding age must be held free to fashion the mystery in accordance
with its own needs—then, casting aside all the restrictions of Materialism, I
would affirm this to be a field forthe noblest exercise of what, in contrast
with the knowing faculties, may be called the creative faculties of man.
Here, however, I touch a theme too great for me to handle, but which will
assuredly be handled by the loftiest minds when you and I, like streaks of
morning cloud, shall have melted into the infinite azure of the past.
REPORTS
ON
THE STATE OF SCIENCE.
Tenth Report of the Committee for Exploring Kent’s Cavern, Devon-
shire, the Committee consisting of Sir Cuarizs Lyrxx, Bart.,
F.R.S., Sir Joun Luszocn, Bart., F.R.S., Joun Evans, F.R.S.,
Epwarp Vivian, M.A., Grorce Busx, F.R.S., Witt1am Boyp
Dawkins, F.R.S., Wittiam Aysurorp Sanrorp, /.G.S., Joun Ep-
ward Lea, F.G.S., and Witu1am Peneeutty, F.R.S. (Reporter).
Berore entering on this, their Tenth Report, the Committee desire to express
their deep sense of the great loss they have sustained in the decease of Pro-
fessor Phillips. No member was more regular in his attendance at the meet-
ings of the Committee, or felt a livelier interest in the investigation with
which they are charged. On March 18, 1874 (little more than a month
before his lamented death), though suffering from a severe cold, he visited
the Cavern, when he carefully inspected those branches of it which have been
explored, and expressed his admiration of the clearness and importance of
the evidence bearing on the question of human antiquity which had been
obtained.
. The Ninth Report, presented to the Association at the Bradford Meeting,
brought the work up to the end of August 1873, when the Committee were
engaged in the Exploration of the “ Long Arcade.” From that time the in-
vestigation has been pursued, without intermission, in the manner uniformly
observed from the commencement, and which was described in detail in the
First Report (1865). The work has been performed in the most satisfac-
tory manner by the workmen mentioned last year (George Smerdon and John
Clinnick); the Superintendents have visited the Cavern daily, and have
exercised the same care as heretofore in accurately recording the results
from day to day.
The interest felt in the exploration by the inhabitants and visitors of Tor-
quay has suffered no abatement; and the Superintendents have had the plea-
sure of conducting a large number of persons through the Cavern, including
the Rev. Dr. Callaway, Bishop of Kaffraria, Rev. T. Bullivan, Rey. C. Chapman,
ate C. Dayis, Rey. W. W, Follett, Rey. W. M. Kingsmill, Rev. W. H.
1874, } «7 B
9 REPORT— 1874.
Self, Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing, Rey. G. C. Swayne, Rev. Mr. Valpy, Rev. H.
L. Williams, Rev. R. R. Wolfe, General Cotton, Col. Bushe, Lieut.-Col. J.
G. R. Forlong (British India), Capt. Baudry (Bombay), Capt. J. C. Boyce,
Capt. F. Miles, Dr. Ayerst, Dr. H. P. Blackmore, Dr. H. Evens, Dr. Houn-
sell, Dr. A. Parr, Dr. Topham, Dr. J. 8. Burdon Sanderson, Dr. Wilks, and
Messrs. C. A. Adamson, T. Aggs, G. Baudry (Bombay), W. Blackmore, W.
H. Bridges, J. Duntze Carew, J. M. Curzon, M. Davidson, E. C. Dunn (Mel-
pourne, Victoria), T. M. Eccles, A. B. Emmons (U.S. America), A. E. Flet-
cher, D. Hanbury, C. W. Hodson, E. D. Mashiter Hooper, T. Hunton, P. Q.
Karkeek, E. Keep (Melbourne, Victoria), C. Lister, R. Lowndes, H. T. Mac-
kenzie, J. I. Mackenzie, G. Meurling, F. A. Paley, T. M. Patterson, F. Rayner,
G. F. Remfry, J. Hassard Short, J. Barclay Thompson, W. Vicary, T. Vicears,
T, Warner, J. F. Webb, and H. Wyndham.
During a meeting at Torquay of the South-western Branch of the British
Medical Association, the Cavern was visited by a large party of the members,
attended by the Superintendents, including Dr. Aldridge, Dr. Baker, Dr. 8.
Budd, Dr. Dalby, Dr. Ellery, Dr. Finch, Dr. Harris, Dr. Henderson, Dr.
Hudson, Dr. L. Shapter, Dr. W. R: Woodman, and Messrs. L. Armstrong,
W. Brown, A. J. Cumming, J. Doidge, S. A. Gill, T. Harper, J. D. Harris,
J. Kempthorne, W.C. Hunt, R. Kerswill, J. Lawton, H. E. Norris, T. E. Owen,
C. Parsons, C. Pridham, G. T. Rolston, C. H. Roper, W. K. Spragge, A. J.
Wallis, and J. Woodman.
The Cavern was also visited, under the guidance of the Superintendents,
by Messrs. W. E. Blatch, A. B. Hill, A. D. Hill, W. R. Hughes, and J. Mor-
ley, members of the Birmingham Natural-History and Microscopical Society,
during a scientific visit of that body to South Devon.
Besides the foregoing, a large number of visitors have been conducted by
the Guide to the Cavern, appointed by the proprietor, Sir L. Palk, Bart., but
who is placed under the directions of the Superintendents of the Exploration.
Tn such cases the visitors are taken through those parts of the Cavern which
have been explored, but not into the branches which have not been examined,
or where the work is still in progress.
- During May 1874 an arrangement was made with the Superintendents by
Professor Alfred Newton, F.R.S., of Magdalen College, Cambridge, for Mr.
HH. H. Slater, one of the Naturalists to the Rodriguez Transit Expedition, to
spend some time in the cavern studying the mode of exploration followed
there, it being not improbable that he might have to explore some very inter-
esting caves which exist in the island, and where, instead of intelligent men, he
would probably have only half savages to digforhim. Mr. Slater reached Tor-
quay on June Ist, when every thing was done to facilitate his purpose, and
he spent some days watching the men at work.
Live rats continue to present themselves in the Cavern from time to time,
and sometimes prove to be very troublesome. On Tuesday, October 7, 1873,
one, which had been seen by the workmen, carried off six candles in the course
of the afternoon, having detached them from a nail at aspot believed to have
been inaccessible even to rats, and which had been used for the purpose during
a period of three years without any previous loss. Gins were at once set for
the marauder, and he was captured on the following Friday. On the 29th of
the same month, another, between the hours of nine and one, ate through
the basket in which one of the workmen had placed his dinner of bread and
meat, and carried off every thing but the bread, the whole of which was left.
A large number have been captured during the last twelve months.
It may not be out of place to remark that during the summer months
ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 3
bees have frequently been seen and heard in the innermost branches of the
Cavern, very far beyond any glimmering of daylight.
The Long Arcade.—It was stated in the Ninth Report (1878) that the
* Long Arcade,” after extending about 50 feet beyond the point reached by
the excavators at the end of August 1873, terminated in a large chamber
termed by Mr. MacEnery the “ Cave of Inscriptions,” and sometimes the “Cul-
de-sac.” On carefully perusing Mr. MacEnery’s “ Cavern researches,” how-
ever, it was found that he regarded a large mass of Stalagmite on which are
numerous inscriptions, and which it is proposed to call “The Inscribed Boss
of Stalagmite,” as being in the Cave of Inscriptions, and not, as the Superin-
tendents considered, in the Long Arcade. In other words, he held that the
line of junction of the two branches was on the north-east of the Inscribed
Boss, whilst they drew it some distance on the south-west. To prevent
ambiguity, it has been decided to adopt Mr. MacEnery’s boundary and to re-
gard the Long Arcade as extending from the south-west corner of the Sloping
Chamber to, but not beyond, the Inscribed Boss. Thus defined, it stretches
for about 225 feet in a tolerably straight line towards the south- south-west,
varies in height from about 10 to 20 feet (the measurements being taken
from the bottom of the excavations made by the Committee), and fiom 5 to
nearly 20 feet in width.
Besides being the only passage to the Cave of Inscriptions, whee 3 may be
regarded as its expanded prolongation, it throws off three branches on the left
or eastern side and one on the right. Of the former, the first, or most north-
erly, is the ‘“ Charcoal Cave ” described in the Eighth Report*, the second is
known as “ Underhay’s Gallery,” and the third, a few feet further south, con-
sists of two successive and considerable chambers, termed “The Labyrinth ”
and “The Bear’s Den.” The branch on the other, or right, side, which it is
proposed to name “ Clinnick’s Gallery,” is at the inner extremity of the
Arcade.
So far as this branch of the Cavern is concerned, Mr. MacHnery’s re-
searches entirely ceased about 12 feet before reaching the end of the Arcade,
and throughout the remaining area the “ Granular Stalagmite ” (that which
covers the “ Caye-earth ”) was everywhere continuous, and varied from 12 to
30 inches in thickness. Its surface was occupied with large natural “ Basins,”
some of them 12 inches deep, such as have been described in previous Re-
portst. Whilst the excavation was in progress seyeral points of interest
connected with the Basins were noted :—
ist. The-Stalagmite forming their walls was harder and tougher than that
surrounding them, whilst that composing their bottoms was comparatively
soft and friable.
2nd. Their walls were traceable through the entire thickness of the Stalag-
mitic Floor ; in other words, during the entire deposition of the Floor, Basins
had existed in it, the bottom-rising with the walls but at a slower rate.
3rd. The water which filled them i in rainy seasons passed down through
the bottom in 3 or 4 hours at most.
4th. Immediately beneath most of the Basins there was an almost conti-
nuous interspace of about half an inch vertically between the bottom of the
Stalagmite and the top of the Cave-earth, caused, no doubt, by the finer par-
ticles of the deposit being carried by the percolating water through interstices
to a lower level.
* Report Brit. Assoc. 1872, pp. 83-44. + Ibid. 1872, p. 45, and Be p. 201,
REPORT—1874.
It happened that the exploration of that part of the Arcade in which the
Basins were thus numerous was carried on during a very wet season, when the
water passing through the Stalagmitic Floor, as just mentioned, caused two
or three slips in the Cave-earth and the “ Breccia.” The largest of these fell
during the night of January 8th—9th, and in the fallen matter a tooth of
Bear, a vertebra, fragments of bone, and a well-rolled flint nodule were found.
It is, of course, impossible to say whether this nodule belonged to the era of
the Cave-earth or that of the more ancient Breccia. This is to be regretted,
as it is the only specimen of the kind which up to this time the Cavern has
yielded.
The “ Crystalline Stalagmite” (that which lies between the Cave-earth
above and the Breccia below, when all these occur in the same vertical sec-
tion) was also occasionally met with in situ, and always beneath the granular
or less ancient variety. In some instances there was a space between them
filled with the true Cayve-earth with its characteristic bones and coprolites,
whilst in others the two Stalagmites were in immediate contact. Where the
older variety did not exist the Cave-earth lay at once on the Breccia.
The only noteworthy objects found in the Granular Stalagmite were a tooth
of Bear, fragments of bone, one considerable “ find ” of coprolites, and charred
wood on two occasions. The following is the complete list of objects of in-
terest found in the Granular Stalagmite throughout the entire length of the
Long Arcade from 1871-2 to February 23rd, 1874, when its exploration
closed :—2 teeth of Hyzna, 1 of Bear, 1 of Deer, a large vertebra, fragments
of bone on several occasions, several specimens of charred wood, a flint tool or
“core” (No. 5990), and a piece of black flint.
Since the period at which the Ninth Report closed the undisturbed Cave-
earth in the Long Arcade has yielded a considerable number of bones and
fragments of bone and 63 teeth (30 of Hyzna, 24 of Bear, 4 of Horse, 3 of
Mammoth, and 2 of Fox).
The total number of Teeth found by the Committee in undisturbed Cave-
earth in the Arcade from first to last was about 340, which may be distributed
as shown in the following Table :—
Tasir I.—Showing how many per cent. of the total number of Teeth found
by the Committee in undisturbed Cave-earth throughout the Long Arcade
belonged to the different kinds of Mammals.
ECS i in a 41:5 per cent. :| Weer ise. 30 6:s's ath ome 2 per cent.
THLOYSO) | 0s) o sie 5s 21 55 Manamothigy.4 11s. ek 2. ah
BOB reais aie s cisays’ Sie 145, Megaceros ........ Al ee
Rhinoceros ...... 9 “ N Yoyo eee ieee eee Destine
1 thc): <2 a oe ee 4:5 re MAGN Fi ro aah Bice atte 1s '
PASS cic a es ete i> je 2 ere Machairodus ...... 1 tooth only.
It is perhaps worthy of remark that in the Long Arcade, as elsewhere so
far as the exploration has extended, wherever Cave-earth presented itself
there also were remains of the Hyxna found, and in greater numbers than
those of any other kind of mammal. Nor were his teeth and bones the only
indications of his presence in the Arcade; for, to say nothing of the fact that
some of the remains found with his were gnawed, nearly 40 “ finds” of his
coprolites were met with. They sometimes, though rarely, consisted of a
solitary ball, whilst at others upwards of 20 were lying together and not un-
frequently cemented into considerable lumps. Occasionally the amount of
ON KEN'l’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 5
matter of this kind found in a single day was sufficient to fill a very large
basket.
The following specimens of flint and chert, found in the Long Arcade since
the end of August 1873, belong to the Cave-earth era :—
No. 6304 is merely a flint chip so angular as to render it improbable that
since its dislodgment from the nodule it has been in any way exposed to the
action of flowing water. It was found in the first foot-level, with 2 teeth
of Bear, bone chips (one of them being burnt), and 11 balls of coprolite, on
December 13, 1873.
No. 6324, found December 30th, 1873, in the second foot-level, beneath
the Floor of Granular Stalagmite from 2 to 2°5 feet thick, is a very symmetrical
tongue-shaped tool, fashioned with much labour out of a chert nodule, and is
worked to an edge all round the perimeter except at the butt-end, where
portions of the original surface remain on both faces. It is 3°8 inches long,
2°3 inches in greatest breadth, 1-5 inch in greatest thickness, and convex on
both faces, from each of which several flakes have been struck. Its era can-
not be determined with perfect accuracy, since it occurred at or near the
junction of the Cave-earth and the Breccia, where, unfortunately, they were
not separated by Stalagmite. The fact that it was fashioned out of a
nodule and not out of a flake, suggests that it belonged to the Breccia; and
this finds some support from its occurrence in the second foot-level, for though
the Cave-earth occasionally attained this depth in the inner part of the
Arcade, it did so but rarely. On the other hand, its symmetrical outline and
comparatively high finish are equally suggestive of the Cave-earth or less
ancient period.
The presence of man in the Cave-earth of the Arcade was also indicated by
several bones having the appearance of the action of fire. Specimens of this
kind were met with on six different occasions.
Without including those found in the materials dislodged by their pre-
decessors, the Committee have met with a total of 27 implements of flint
and chert in Cayve-earth which they found intact in the Long Arcade.
From the end of August 1873 to the end of July 1874 a considerable
number of bones and 149 teeth of Bear, but no known remnant or indication
of any other kind of animal, were found in the Breccia in the Arcade, making
a total of about 200 teeth of this genus met with in this oldest deposit of the
Cayern deposits, so far as is known at present, in the branch of the Cavern
now under notice. Though several good specimens were obtained, none of
them require special remark or description.
The same deposit yielded 10 tools, flakes, and chips of flint and chert
during the year just closed.
No. 6186 is a chert pebble, displaying some chipping, but not sufficient to
convert it into a useful tool. It was found in the third foot-level, without
any other object of interest, September 2, 1873.
No. 6192 is a rude flake of flint, retaining a portion of the original surface
of the nodule, and distinctly showing the “bulb of percussion.” It was
found alone, in the fourth or lowest foot-level, September 10, 1873.
No. 6201, a chert pebble, which has undergone some chipping and pro-
bably subsequent rolling, was found by itself in the second foot-level, Sep-
tember 18, 1873.
No. 6204 is simply a chip which has the appearance of having been arti-
ficially struck off a flint nodule, the original surface of which it retains on
one face. It was found, with a few fragments of bone, in the third foot-level,
September 23, 1873.
6 REPORT—1874.
No. 6291, a piece of coarse chert, having the form of a horseshoe-shaped
scraper, is about 2-1 inches long and broad, and 7 inch in greatest thickness.
The hinder end is sharply truncated, and the “bulb of percussion ” is well
developed near it on the inner face, put everywhere else its margin is a thin
edge. It was found alone, in the fourth foot-level, November 29, 1873.
No. 6292, found on the same day and in the same “ parallel” and “level”
as No. 6291, but about 3 yards on the left of it, is a portion of a white’flint,
probably a “‘core” from which flakes had been struck. It retains a part
of the original surface of the nodule. No other object was found near it.
No. 6299 is a rude flake of chert having little or nothing about it suggestive
of an artificial origin. It has undergone the metamorphosis so frequently
observed in Cave flints, by which it has acquired a granular chalky texture
and has lost a part of its weight. It was found without any other object,
in the third foot-level, December 8, 1873.
No. 6358, a coarse chert tool, which has also been metamorphosed, is of a
very irreoular nondescript form, and remains partially surrounded with
Breccia. “It was met with in the second foot-leyel, February 3, 1874, and
was unfortunately broken by the workmen, but has been repaired.
No. 6364, a rather rude flake of coarse chert which has been rolled since
it was struck off, retains much of the original surface of the nodule, and,
though perhaps not intentionally fashioned as a tool, may haye been utilized.
It was found, with a tooth of Bear, bones and fragments of bone, in the third
foot-level, February 14, 1874.
No. 6367, an angular chip of flint, was found, with 2 teeth of Bear and
fragments of bone, in the fourth foot-level, February 23, 1874.
The entire number of noteworthy specimens of flint and chert (most of
which, at least, have been made and used by man) which the Committee have
found in the Breccia in the Long Arcade amounts to 27.
The materials which Mr. MacEnery had dug up and cast aside in that part
of the Arcade explored during the period over which the present Report ex-
tends were found on examination to contain 13 teeth of Hysna, 9 of Bear,
8 of Horse, 2 of Deer, 1 of Ox, several bones, numerous lumps of coprolite,
and 1 flint flake (No. 6328). The specimens thus overlooked or neglected
by the earlier explorers, which have been recovered by the Committee in the
Long Arcade from first to last, are 63 teeth of Hysena, 15 of Horse, 9 of Bear,
7 of Rhinoceros, 4 of Deer, 3 of Ox, 1 of Elephant, 1 of Fox, numerous por-
tions of bones and of antlers, a large quantity of feecal matter, and 9 tools and
flakes of flint and chert.
Underhay’s Gallery.—Atabout 185 feet from the entrance of the Long Arcade
in the Sloping Chamber there is in the left or eastern wall, as already stated,
‘a small lateral branch, to which the Superintendents have given the name of
*‘ Underhay’s Gallery,” after the late Mr. John Underhay, who for some years
was Sir L. Palk’s guide to the Cavern. Before the Committee commenced its
exploration its mouth was almost closed with the large masses of limestone
mentioned in the Ninth Report as lying in wild confusion beyond “The
Bridge” *. Notwithstanding this, Mr. Underhay and his son forced a passage
into the Gallery several years ago, even though after passing the entrance they
must have found the Granular Stalagmitic Floor within a foot of the roof in
certain places. They contrived, moreover, to bring back several small bones,
which proyed to be phalanges of human feet, which they had found on and in
the Floor.
* Report Brit. Assoc. 1873, p. 199.
ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 7
The Gallery extends about 20 feet in a south-easterly direction, varies
from 2°5 to 7 feet in width, and, when measured from the bottom of the ex-
cavation made by the Committee, from 7:5 feet at the entrance to less than
6 feet in height within. The roof and walls have the appearance of an old
watercourse, and are worn smooth, with but little of that fretted character so
prevalent in some other branches of the Cavern. Near the mouth there are
four circular holes in the right wall, about 6 inches in diameter, which look
like the mouths of “ flues,’ but are found to extend not more than a foot
into the rock and to run into one another. A Floor of the Granular Sta-
lagmite, never exceeding 10 inches in thickness, extended from the mouth to
16 feet within it, where it “thinned out.” Beneath it there were, in certain
places, chiefly adjacent to the left wall, remnants of the Crystalline Stalag-
mite in situ; but the greater part of this older Floor had, as in many other
parts of the Cavern, been broken up by some natural agency.
With rare exceptions, a thin layer of Cave-earth lay at once on the Breccia
without any Stalagmite between them. In the Breccia itself, however,
there were numerous fragments or blocks of Stalagmite which cannot but be
regarded as remnants of a Floor still older than the Crystalline Stalagmite
found on the Breccia. Similar indications of this Floor, of what may be
called the third order of antiquity, have frequently been met with elsewhere
in the Cavern, and mentioned in previous Reports*. The Breccia was ex-
tremely hard, and had to be split out with wedges to the depth of 2 feet.
This, added to the contracted dimensions of the Gallery, rendered the work
probably the most severe that has been experienced in the Cavern from the
commencement.
Though the human bones found by Mr. Underhay on and in the Granular
Stalagmite, as already mentioned, did not appear, from their aspect or specific
grayity, to be of an antiquity equal to that of the Cave-hyzna and his con-
temporaries, the Superintendents, in the hope of finding some further traces
of the skeleton, very carefully watched the progress of the work; and on
reaching Mr. Underhay’s very limited diggings, they met with a series of bones
also on and in the Stalagmite, some of which were certainly human, whilst
others were as clearly infra-human. The whole were at once forwarded to
Mr. George Busk, F.R.S. &e., a member of the Committee, who has been so
good as to forward the following reporton them. They were all numbered
east 6xeet? &e., ages ga aos &e., and so on.
Me. Busx’s Report.
“TT. Human.
No.
6261. 1. Lower end of left humerus.
6285. 1. Right astragalus (small size).
. Fragment of rib.
Do. do.
. Second phalanx of fourth finger.
. Fragment of proximal epiphysis of humerus.
. Fragment of eleventh or twelfth rib.
. Fragment of cervical vertebra.
. Fragment of rib?
. Navicular bone.
a
* See Report Brit. Assoc. 1868, p. 57.
8 REPORT—1874,
6285. 12. A trapezium.
13. Fragment of rib.
14, Fragment of cervical vertebra.
15. Fragment of rib.
17. Second phalanx of fourth toe.
18. 92 Do: do. do.
6289. 1. Fragment of rib.
2. Right patella.
3. Right first metatarsal.
4, Right ectocuneiforme.
6. Fragment of cervical vertebra,
7. Fragment of lumbar (first) vertebra.
8. Fragment of axis vertebra.
9, Fragment of cervical vertebra.
10. Do. do. do.
13. Second phalanx of little finger.
14. Fragment of rib.
15. Fragment of cervical vertebra.
“TI. Not Human.
No.
6285. 2. Gnawed fragment of small cannon-bone of Sheep or Goat.
3. Fragment of shaft or humerus of very young Sheep or Goat.
6. Ungual phalanx of very small Sheep (not Goat nor Roebuck).
6289. 5. Ectocuneiforme of very large Deer.
11. Fragment of tooth of ?
12. A tooth ?
6261. la. Fragment of skull of ?
«« With respect to the human remains, they appear to be those of an adult
individual of small size and delicate make, probably therefore, at that period,
a female ; but it is impossible to speak positively as to this. I should imagine
them not necessarily of any very remote antiquity.
«The Sheep must have been of the smallest Welsh type.
«There are two or three specimens of a much more ancient type. One of
these (4337) is the ectocuneiforme of a Deer as large, I imagine, as the Wa-
piti Deer. Another is the fragment of a large tooth (,41,), it may be of
Bear or Hyena ; and the third (,42,) is a single-fanged tooth of singular
form, which may by remote possibility be a premolar of a large Bear. These
specimens are in a widely different mineral condition from that of the human
and ovine remains.
(Signed) ‘‘GrorcE Busk.”
“32 Harley Street, January 3, 1874.”
When the very contracted character of this Gallery, prior to its excavation
by the Committee, is borne in mind, it is difficult to understand how the
remains were introduced. There were neither potsherds, nor charcoal, nor,
in short, any thing suggesting that the bones were the remnants of a body
disposed of by cremation, such as were met with in the Charcoal Cave *; nor
were there any marks of teeth on the bones such as might have been ex-
pected had they been taken thither by a carnivorous animal, or the relics of
* See Report Brit. Assoc. 1872, pp. 58-41.
ON KEN’’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 9
a skeleton buried or secreted there, of which all other portions had been
earried off by some carnivore.
The commingling of a few specimens of a more ancient type with the
comparatively recent human and ovine remains was no doubt produced by
Mr. Underhay’s diggings at the spot.
Besides the foregoing specimens no object of interest was found in
connexion with the Granular Stalagmite.
The Cave-earth in Underhay’s Gallery yielded 2 balls of coprolite, numerous
bones, and 94 teeth; of which 61 were those of Hyena, 22 of Horse, 4 of
Rhinoceros, 4 of Fox, 1 of Bear, 1 of Lion, and 1 probably of Wolf.
The following specimens of flint and chert were also met with in the Cave-
earth :— ;
No. 6234, a mere angular chip of drab-coloured flint, was found, with
1 tooth of Hyzena and one of Rhinoceros, in the first foot-level, October 14,
1873.
Nos. gysy, gosy and gs*zy are three small fragments of flint (two of them
angular and the third subangular), having no appearance of having been
artificially formed, and were found, with 7 teeth of Hyena and 1 of Fox,
part of a jaw of Fox, part of a skull, and a gnawed bone, in the first foot-
level, November 10, 1873.
No. 6289 is a small bit of flint, found, with 15 teeth of Hyena, 7 of Horse,
1 of Bear, and a few bones, lying on the Cave-earth in the innermost part of
the Gallery, beyond the point at which the Granular Stalagmite had thinned
out.
The Breccia in Underhay’s Gallery produced several bones, 115 teeth of
Bear, and the following specimens of flint and chert :—
No. 6220, an irregular flint chip, which has been somewhat rolled, was
found, with three teeth of Bear and fragments of bone, in the second foot-
level, October 30, 1873.
No. gs571s apparently a flint “ core,” which retains a portion of the original
surface of the nodule, and was found, with three teeth of Bear, also on
October 30, 1873, and one foot below No. 6220.
No. 37 1s a rolled flake of chert found with No. <34,.
No. 6279 is a flake of chert still imbedded in the Breccia, and was found,
with bone fragments, in the second foot-level, November 17, 1873.
No. 6281 is a small flake of chert, found, with three fragments of teeth of
Bear and pieces of bone, in the fourth foot-level, November 18, 1873.
The Breccia in this Gallery also yielded a piece of iron-ore and a small
piece of umber.
The Inscribed Boss of Stalagmite—Though inscriptions exist in various
parts of the Cavern, the huge mass of Stalagmite, standing at the point where
the Long Arcade, the Cave of Inscriptions, and Clinnick’s Gallery meet, is,
with the exception perhaps of the “Crypt of Dates”*, more thickly scored
with names, initials, and dates than any other equal area within the Cavern.
Indeed it seems to have been the spot where visitors usually left their
names. Those alone who were sufficiently adventurous and expert to get
beyond the “ Lake” could leave a proof of the fact in the Crypt. The Boss,
which may be described as a frustum of an oblique cone, measures 43 feet
in basal circumference and 14 feet along the slant side, which, forming an
angle of 70° with the horizon, gives a vertical height of fully 18 feet. The
cubic contents are probably not less than 630 cubic feet of Stalagmite. Its
* See Report Brit. Assog. 1869, pp. 194-196,
10 REPORT—1874.
base consists of the Older or Crystalline Stalagmite, and the upper portion
(without any intervening Cave-earth) of the Granular variety, which not only
surmounted and completely encased the former, but, by flowing in vast sheets,
formed the thick Granular Floor spreading far and without a break in every
direction.
The inscriptions occupy its outer or most accessible semi-surface, where in
certain places they form quite a network. Letters of all sizes, from some
fully three inches in height to others as small as ordinary writing, cross each
other and add to the difficulty of decipherment. Some of them were cut
with great care and finish, and must have occupied a large amount of time,
whilst others were but hasty scratches.
It seems to have been somewhat fashionable to surround the inscriptions
with rectangular parallelograms, varying from 6:5 to 3°75 inches in length
by 5:5 to 3:5 in breadth. In, at least, one or two cases the cutting of the
parallelogram preceded that of the inscription, as the latter extends beyond
the space intended. Not unfrequently several names occur together, whether
within a parallelogram or not, and in each such case the entire work seems
to have been performed by the same hand. The following, which are the
most legible, may suffice as examples :-—
*1, PETER LEMAIRE 2, THOMAS TRENHELE
RICH: COLBY OF 1617.
LONDON. 1615.
3. [ANE 4. 16 [22] ¢
PRIDE EMBROSE LANE
ELIXI MILDRED
1626 + TORKINTON
5. JOHN TAYLOR 6. VIZARD
1700 1809
7,R. H. THOMAS 8. RICHARD
LONDON LANE. FEB.
1811
9. M. CHAMPERNOWNE 10. DELYVO
GILBART 11. W. P. WILLIS
STAPLYNS
12. N. I. FURSE 13. W. WISH
14.1. WISH 15. R. LEAR
16.8. CRAMPTON 17. J0B. F. LIEVR
* The numerals prefixed to the inscriptions form no part of the original. Mr. Mac-
Enery, who copied some of these inscriptions, appears to have made a few mistakes.
Thus, in No. 1, instead of “ Lemaire” he copied “ Lemaine,” and instead of “Colby,”
“Calley ;? and in No. 4, instead of “Torkinton,” ‘“Torkington.” (See Trans. Devon
Assoe. vol. iii. p. 275, 1869.) :
+ The first three lines of No. 3 are within a parallelogram, 4°75 in. X 3:25 in., having
the date, which seems clearly to belong to it, immediately below. It does not seem easy
to attach a meaning to the third line.
t The two last figures of the date in the upper line of No. 4, represented aboye by two
notes of interrogation within brackets, are illegible.
§ The characters employed in No. 9 are very peculiar, and are the same for the three
names, which are close together, and clearly were inscribed at the same time.
ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 11
Of the foregoing names, No. 10 may perhaps be that of Mr. J. A.
DELUO, F.R.S. &. He visited Torquay in October 1805, but, as the
following passage in his ‘Geological Travels’ shows, does not appear to
have entered the Cavern at that time. Speaking of the “ lime-stone strata,”
between Babbicombe and Tor Bays, he says, “There is, as I was told, a
succession of caverns within this mass, resembling those of the Mendip hills,
which I shall hereafter describe: the Caverns here have the name of Kent's
Cave”*, This appears to be the only mention he makes of the Cavern. The
inscription is in comparatively small capitals, which, though no great pains
appear to have been bestowed on them, are very distinct, and stand imme-
diately above the parallelogram containing the inscription No. 1.
The name of Champernowne (No. 9) is that of a well-known Devonshire
family, now represented by A. Champernowne, Esq., F.G.8., of Dartington
House, near Totnes, the seat of his ancestors for many generations. It is
worthy of remark, perhaps, that the mother of Sir Humphrey Gilbert, born
near Torquay, the half-brother of Sir Walter Raleigh, was a Champernowne.
In the inscription, however, the name is Gilbart, not Gilbert. Whether
“Staplyn,” also in No. 9, is the name of a person or of a place, there seems
to be no mode of determining; but it may be observed that “Staple” is the
name of a hamlet in the parish of Dartington.
Some of the names inscribed on the boss are no doubt those of persons of
the immediate neighbourhood. “W. Wish” (No. 13) was the name of one
of the principal builders at Torquay when Mr. MacEnery’s Cavern researches
were in progress, and he had a nephew named ‘James Wish” (No. 14).
The name of ‘‘ Lear” (No. 15) is yery prevalent in the adjoining parish of
St. Mary Church.
It must be unnecessary to add that every care has been taken to preserve
this Boss with its inscriptions uninjured. ,
The Cave of Inscriptions—Though the principal entrance to Clinnick’s
Gallery is between the Inscribed Boss of Stalagmite and the right wall of the
Long Arcade, a second, but smaller one, opens out of the Cave of Inscriptions
immediately beyond the Boss; in fact the original entrance was partially filled,
and thus converted into two, by the Boss. As the smaller of the two
entrances was the more convenient for excavating the Gallery, it was
decided to complete the exploration of the Cave of Inscriptions so far as to
render this entrance available, that is up to 16 feet from its commencement.
Mr. MacEnery had not broken ground in any part of this area, and the
Granular Stalagmitic Floor was everywhere intact and continuous from the
slopes of the Inscribed Boss. The Crystalline Stalagmitic Floor lay beneath
it, and, as already stated, formed the base of the Boss without any inter-
mediate deposit ; but towards the left or remote wall of the Cavern there
was a space between them filled with a wedge-like layer of Cave-earth.
Not unfrequently, however, the lower or older Stalagmite had been broken.
In some instances the severed portions were not dislodged, whilst in others
considerable masses had been removed by some natural agency, and were
not always traceable.
In this commencement of the Cave of Inscriptions the Caye-earth yielded
20 teeth, of which 11 were those of Bear, 5 of Elephant, 3 of Hyena, and
lof Horse. There were also several bones, of which 6 had been burnt and a
few gnawed; and a considerable quantity of coprolitic matter was met with
in 14 distinct “ finds.”
* ‘Geological Travels,’ by J. A. De Lue, F.B.S., vol. ii. 1814, p. 300,
12 REPOR'T—1874,
The following specimens of flint and chert were also found in the Cave-
earth in this branch of the Cavern :—
No. 6378 is a mottled, grey, angular flake of chert, 2°3 inches long,
1:5 inch broad, ‘3 inch thick, very concave on the inner face, and has had
_ several flakes struck off the outer face. There is little or no evidence of its
having been used, and it was found, with two specimens of plates of Elephant
molars, 2 teeth of Bear, gnawed bones, 1 burnt bone, and 5 lumps of copro-
lite, in the first foot-level, March 6, 1874.
No. 6382, a small grey flint flake or chip, with the ‘‘ bulb of percussion
strongly marked, was found in the first foot-level beneath a cake of stalag-
mite 12 inches thick, with 3 teeth of Bear and 11 balls of coprolite, March
11, 1874.
No. 6384 is a rudely lanceolate flake of grey flint, 2-2 inches long, ‘9 inch
in greatest breadth, 3 inch in greatest thickness, slightly concave on the inner
face, reduced to an edge along both lateral margins, haying two ridges
extending its entire length on the outer face, and has been but little, if at
all, used. It was found, with 4 teeth of Bear, fragments of bone, and a
coprolite, in the first foot-level, March 13, 1874.
No. 6390 is a small flint flake, 1-4 inch long, °8 inch in greatest breadth,
‘3 inch in greatest thickness, slightly concave in both directions on the inner
face, strongly carinated on the other, sharply truncated at each end, reduced
to an edge on the lateral margins, one of which is broken or jagged, of a
light drab colour on the surface and to some depth below it, but retaining
the original almost black colour at the centre. It was found in the first
foot-level beneath 10 inches of stalagmite, with 1 tooth of Bear, 2 fragments
of burnt bone, and 4 lumps of coprolite, March 24, 1874.
No. 6399 is a nearly white flint of fine texture, 29 inches long, varying
from ‘7 to ‘9 inch broad, °5 inch in greatest thickness, sharply truncated at
the butt-end, round-pointed and blunt at the other, sharp and unworn at the
lateral margins, longitudinally concave on the inner face, and having a
strong central ridge on the other extending from the butt-end nearly two
thirds of its length, where it bifurcates in consequence of the dislodgment
of a small flake, which has left an uneven surface. At the butt-end there is
on one of the slopes a portion of the original surface of the nodule about an
inch long, and the “bulb of percussion” is well developed near the point.
It was found, with 2 fragments of bone and 2 lumps of coprolite, in the first
foot-level beneath a layer of Granular Stalagmite 24 inches thick, on April
1, 1874.
No. 6435 is a grey flint flake, 1:5 inch long, -7 inch broad, °35 inch in
greatest thickness, which it attains along one of its lateral margins, sharply
truncated at one end, round-pointed and blunt at the other, where, on the
inner face, the “‘ bulb of percussion” presents itself, reduced to a thin edge
along one of its lateral margins, where there are indications of its having
been used as a scraper. On its outer face it has, for a short distance near
the middle of its length, a central ridge which bifurcates towards each end.
It was found in the first foot-level on May 28, 1874.
Nothing was met with in the Crystalline Stalagmite; but the Breccia
beneath it yielded remains of Bear as usual, including numerous bones
and fragments of bone and 91 teeth, but, so far as is known, no trace of
any other animal.
The following specimens of flint and chert were also met with in this
oldest of the Cavern deposits :—
”
ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 13
No. 6375 is a large rude flake of a very rough flint nodule, which has
undergone sufficient metamorphosis to produce a granular texture and render
it capable of being scratched with a knife, but without any marked loss of
weight. Its form is rudely quadrilateral with the angles rounded off. The
inuver face displays the ‘bulb of percussion” near the truncated butt-end,
but elsewhere has a tendency to flatness. The outer face retains a large
portion of the original surface of the nodule. It is 4:25 inches long,
3 inches broad, 1-5 inch in greatest thickness, and was found in the fourth
or lowest foot-level, with 2 teeth of Bear and a small flint pebble, March 3,
1874.
No. 6388 is a bluish-grey flint of somewhat coarse texture, 2 inches long,
-7 inch broad at the truncated butt-end, whence it tapers toa point at the
other, -4 inch in greatest thickness, slightly concave on one face and very
strongly ridged on the other. It was found, with 2 teeth of Bear and frag-
ments of bone, in the second foot-level, March 17, 1874.
No. 6392, an irregularly shaped flake or chip of pinkish drab chert,
2-2 inches long, 1:8 inch broad, and °3 inch in greatest thickness, was
1 without any other object of interest, in the third foot-level, March 25,
1874,
No. 6396 is a subtriangular flake of coarse chert, 1-8 inch long, 1-1 inch
in greatest breadth, -4 inch in greatest thickness, nearly flat on one face
and has a strong curvilineal ridge on the other. It was found, with frag-
ments of bone, in the first foot-level, March 31, 1874.
No. 6455 is a small specimen, or rather a portion of one, it having been
broken in extracting it from the matrix. It is ‘9 inch long, scarcely
*5 inch broad, and -2 inch in thickness, which it retains to each of its
lateral margins. -It was found, with fragments of bone, in the fourth
foot-level, June 19, 1874.
Clinnick’s Gallery.—As already stated, the Long Arcade throws off a
lateral branch at its inner extremity, at its junction with the Cave of
Inscriptions and in the right wall. Its principal entrance is about 225 feet
from the mouth of the Arcade. It was left entirely untouched by Mr. Mac-
Enery; but in 1846 the Torquay Natural-History Society appointed a
Committee of three of its Members, including the two Superintendents of
the present work, to make some very limited researches in the Cavern.
That Committee broke ground in three different places, and found flint
implements in each. One of the spots selected was the smaller or innermost
of the two mouths of this Gallery, immediately behind the Inscribed Boss of
Stalagmite. Mr. Vivian, speaking of the flint tool found there, says, “In
the spot where the most highly finished specimen was found the passage was
so low that it was extremely difficult, with quarrymen’s tools and good
workmen, to break through the crust; and the supposition that it had
been previously disturbed is impossible’*. The specimens found during
those researches are now in the Museum of the Torquay Natural-History
Society. y
The work on that occasion was performed as in all previous cases: the
excavated materials were examined by candlelight as they were dug out,
and then thrown on one side, but not taken out of the Cavern to be re-
* See Report Brit. Assoc. 1847, Proceedings of Sections, p. 73. Also Trans. Devon
Assoc. vol. ii. p. 518 (1868),
14 REPORT—1874.
examined by daylight. The excavation was about 7:5 feet long, 5 feet
broad, and penetrated to a depth of not more than 2 feet below the bottom
of the Granular Stalagmitic Floor. The materials then cast aside have been
taken out of the Cavern by your Committee, and the following objects found
in it:—7 teeth of Bear, 1 of Fox, and 13 lumps of coprolite. Before its
removal, the surface of the mass was carefully examined to ascertain what
thickness had been reached by the Stalagmite which, as the Superintendents
well knew, had been accreting on it since its lodgment in the spot it had
occupied for 28 years, beneath one of the overhanging walls of the Cavern :
the result was a film of the thickness of writing-paper only, and limited to
two examples of from 2 to 3 square inches each: When your Committee
began the exploration of this Gallery, they supposed it likely to prove but a
very small affair; but at the end of July 1874 three months’ labour had been
expended on it; and it is still unfinished. The Granular Stalagmitic Floor
so very nearly reached the Roof as to lead to the conclusion that the entire
Gallery was exposed to view; but as the work advanced the space between
the Floor and Roof became steadily greater, until John Clinnick, the work-
man after whom the Gallery is named, was able to force himself through the
low tunnel, and to enter a chamber which he speaks of as being large and
beautifully hung with Stalactites.
This Gallery, up to the point at present explored, must have had a
perfectly continuous floor of Granular Stalagmite before it was broken in
1846, as already stated. It varied from 14 to 30 inches in thickness; and
at about 3 feet from the base of the Inscribed Boss there rose from the Floor
another, in the form of a tolerably regular paraboloid, which, though dwarfed
by its gigantic companion, would have arrested general attention elsewhere.
It measured 10 feet in basal circumference, 3 feet in height, and had to be
blasted in order to effect its removal, when it was found to be pure stalag-
mite throughout.
Up to 18 feet from the entrance of the Gallery a small quantity of Cave-
earth uniformly presented itself, beneath which lay the Breccia occasionally
separated from it by remnants of the Crystalline Stalagmite in situ; but at
the point just mentioned the upper Stalagmite rested immediately on the
lower, and that on the Breccia; and this condition has been retained up to
the present time, that is through an area 16 feet long. The Committee, -
however, are not unprepared to find Cave-earth, at least in the form of
“pockets,” between the two Floors, with its characteristic remains, as the
work progresses, as was the case in the “‘ South-west Chamber” *.
The Caye-earth in Clinnick’s Gallery yielded 8 teeth of Hysena, 2 of Fox,
a tolerable number of bones, 13 “finds” of coprolite, and the following
specimens of flint and chert :—
No. 6401 was a rather large chert implement broken into several pieces
by a blow of the workman’s tool. It was found, with a tooth of Hymna, in
the first foot-level, on which the Granular Stalagmite was 24 inches thick,
on April 7, 1874.
No. 6426 is a small white flint flake, 1:3 inch long, 1 inch broad, °3 inch
in greatest thickness, nearly flat on one face, strongly ridged rather near
the margin on the other, blunt at the ends, but reduced to a thin edge
everywhere else ; one margin is nearly straight, whilst the other is an almost
circular arc, giying the specimen a semicircular form. It has undergone
* See Report Brit, Assoc. 1869, p. 193.
ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 15
the prevalent metamorphosis, and was found in the first foot-level, May 12,
1874,
The Breccia in this Gallery had produced; up to the end of July 1874;
86 teeth of Bear, numerous bones, including a large portion of a skull
(No. 6458), and the following specimens of flint and chert :—
No. 6408 is a pinkish drab flake of chert, somewhat pentagonal in form,
about 2°1 inches long, 1:5 inch broad at what may be regarded as its front
edge; 45 inch in greatest thickness, and probably an efficient ‘‘seraper.” It
was found alone in the fourth foot-level, April 15, 1874.
No. 6415,°a pinkish drab flake of chert, 2:2 inches long, 1 inch broad;
35 inch in greatest thickness, with the “bulb of percussion” on the inner
face, which is concave in both directions, whilst the outer face is convex and
retains the original surface of the nodule on about one third of its length.
It does not appear to have been used, but a considerable part of its margins
are concealed by portions of the Breccia. It was found, with 3 teeth of
Bear, in the first foot-level, April 28, 1874.
No. 6427 is an irregular pentagon in form, 2°9 inches in length, 2*4 inches
in greatest breadth, -9 inch in greatest thickness, nearly flat on one face;
which shows the “bulb of percussion,’ and convex on the other, whence
several flakes have been dislodged leaving conchoidal facets; It was
probably reduced to a thin edge along each of its sides except one; and it
seems to have been pretty much used. It was found, with fragments of
bone; in the fourth foot-level, May 14, 1874.
No. 6462 is a rough irregular flake, 2-4 inches in length, 1:2 inch in
greatest breadth, and ‘5 inch in greatest thickness. It was found, with a Bear’s
tooth and a few fragments of bone, in the first foot-level, July 18, 1874,
No; ¢7;; the finest stone implement found in the Breccia since the Ninth
Report was presented, has, on that account, been reserved for the last to bé
here described. It was found April 23, 1874, in the fourth or lowest foot-
level, with 1 tooth of Bear, fragments of bone, and a small chert flake (,4+)
which had probably been rolled. It measures 4°5 inches in length, 3 inches
in greatest breadth, 1:1 inch in greatest thickness, is very convex on oné
face, slightly so on the other, retains a portion of the original surface near
the butt-end, and is rudely quadrilateral in form with the angles rounded off;
Several flakes have been struck off each face; the edge to which it has been
reduced along its entire margin, except at the butt-end, is by no means
sharp; its surface is almost entirely covered with an almost black, probably
manganesic, smut, whilst a slight chip near the pointed end shows it to
consist of a very light-coloured granular chert. Several lines, betokening
planes, probably, of structural weakness or perhaps of fracture, entirely
surround it. If it has really been fractured, it must have occurred where
the tool was found, and the parts have been naturally reunited without being
faulted. Its character, as well as its position, shows that this fine implement
belonged to the era of the Breccia.
This specimen is of considerable interest, both on account of the lines which
cross its surface and of the position it occupied.
Amongst the flint implements found in Brixham Cavern, that known as
No. 6-8 has attracted considerable attention, and has been described and
figured by Mr. John Evans, F.R.S., P.G.S., a member of the Committee, both
in his ‘Ancient Stone Implements’ * and in the “ Report on the Explora-
* ‘Ancient Stone Implements, &c. of Great Britain,’ by John Evans, F.R.S., F.S.A,,
1872, pp. 468-469, fig. 409.
16 REPORT—1874.
tion of Brixham Cave’*. It was found in two pieces—the first on the
12th of August, 1858 ; the second, 40 feet from it, on the 9th of the following
September ; and it was not until some time after the latter date that the late
Dr. Falconer discovered that the two fragments fitted each other, and, when
reunited, formed a massive spear-shaped implement. The lines on the
Kent’s Cavern implement just described (;74,) show that it had either been
fractured where it was found, or, what seems more probable, that it is
traversed by planes of structural weakness, such that a slight blow would
break it into two or more pieces, which a stream of water would easily
remove and probably separate, and thus produce a repetition of the Brixham
case.
- The Kent’s Cavern tool was found in a small recess in the wall, just
within the outer or wider entrance of Clinnick’s Gallery, a very few feet
from the Inscribed Boss of Stalagmite, and, as has been already stated, in
the fourth foot-level of the Breccia—that is, at the greatest depth in the oldest
of the Cavern deposits to which the present exploration has been carried ;
and is thus wonderfully calculated to take the mind step by step back into
antiquity.
First, very near the spot occupied by the specimen there rises a vast
cone of Stalagmite, which an inscription on its surface shows has under-
gone no appreciable augmentation of volume during the last two and a
half centuries.
Second, prior to that was the period spent in rearing the greater portion
of this cone, which measures upwards of 40 fect in basal girth, reaches a
height of fully 13 feet, and contains more than 600 cubic feet of stalag-
mitic matter.
Third, still earlier was the era during which the Cave-earth was intro-
duced, in a series of successive small instalments with protracted periods of
intermittence, when the Cavern was alternately the home of man and of the
Cave-hyzena, and the latter dragged thither piecemeal so many portions of
extinct mammals as to convert the Cave into a crowded paleontological
Museum.
Fourth, further back still was the period during which the base and
nucleus of the cone or boss was laid down in the form of Crystalline
Stalagmite. f
Fifth, and earliest of all, was the time when materials, not derivable from
the immediate district, were carried into the Cavern through openings now
probably choked up, entirely unknown, and the direction in which they lie
but roughly guessed at—when, apparently, the Cavern-haunting Hyzna had
not yet arrived in Britain. At an early stage in this earliest era man
occupied Devonshire ; for prior to the introduction of the uppermost four
feet of the Breccia one of his massive unpolished tools, rudely chipped
out of a nodule of chert, found its way into a recess in the Cavern, and
having a character such as to show that it must have lain undisturbed
in the same spot until it was detected by a Committee of the British
Association.
It may be of service before closing this Report to show, in a tabular form,
the distribution of the different kinds of Mammals in the Cave-earth in
various branches of the Cavern.
* Phil. Trans, vol. clxiii. part 2, pp. 550-551,
CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION ETC. OF ESSENTIAL OILS. 17
Taste I1.—Showing how many per cent. of the Teeth found in the Cave-
earth, in different branches of the Cavern, belonged to the different
kinds of Mammals,
|
South | North Smer- Slop- Cave , Char- | Long Under-
Sally- | Sally- | 4on's | ing |Wolf's| oe Ro.| coal | Ar- | bay's
port. | port. | Pas- |Cham-| Cave. |dentia,| Cave. | cade. | Gal-
sage. | ber. | lery.
tiveng ...... 27 | 31 |438 39 | 44:5) 44 | 29:5} 41°5 | 65
arse... . 29°) 31 27 28°5| 25 | 28 | 383 | 21 | 23-5
Rhinoceros....| 11 | 16 {15 14 | 15 9:°5/ 10°5| 9 4:25
wees. es 8 1 2 2-5| 3 3 3:°5| 14:5|
pEeep tT... .. Z Cae " 5) “oO bie ae
Badger ...... 3 4 rs | ae or os 6 Bi :
EEE eer ccss a» « 3 5| 1:5 : * * | 12 4:5| 4:25
Mabbit... ss... 3 2 oes. 5 ; “fs - oH
Elephant 2 2 ia Wa SL a 3 a ls 2 ae
Mee Ts... ts 2 6 i S73.|—" 55). S5|) .. 3 a
meee. ak 2 2 a gl i a: 6 1 *
ae Se 1 5| 3 2 i 2 i ag
es... 5 gd ie 2 i * 2°5 *
alec D 3) : rs Bre
1 0 (0) Ran tea 5 *25) x : 1
aun eeee 5 5 25
Heaver ...... dip id ee Ag
ae Sif aa ge ae He iy dp oe
Machairodus ..| .. aa ig: =: ie as bie *
No trace of Machairodus has been met with since the Eighth Report (1872)
was presented.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Guapstons, Dr. C. R. A.
Wricnt, and W. Cuannier Roserts, appointed for the purpose of
investigating the Chemical Constitution and Optical Properties of
Essential Oils. Drawn up by Dr. Wricut.
Smycr the last Meeting of the Association the following results have been
obtained :-—
I. Or or Wormwoop (Artemisia Absinthium, L.).—By fractional distilla-
tion, a sample of pure oil obtained from Dr. 8. Piesse was split up into :—(1)
A terpene boiling at about 150°, and constituting about 1 per cent. of the oil.
(2) A smaller quantity of hydrocarbon, probably a terpene, boiling between
170° and 180°. (83) An oxidized product, the absinthol of Gladstone, indi-
eated by the formula C,,H,,0, and hence isomeric with camphor, boiling at
200°—201° (corrected): this product was first obtained by Leblanc, and stated
by him to boil at 204°; Gladstone found the boiling-point to be 217°; whilst
+ There is reason to believe that the remains of Sheep found in the Cave-earth had been
introduced in comparatively recent times by burrowing Carnivores.
+ The “Trish Elk,” Reindeer, Red Deer, &e. are all included under the general name
“Deer.” The asterisks in the Table denote that only 1 tooth was found,
1874, Cc
18 REPORT—1874.
in a paper published during the progress of these experiments Beilstein and
Kupffer state that the substance boils at 195°. (4) Resinous substances not
volatile at 350°. (5) “ Blue oils” boiling at near 300° and upwards.
Absinthol differs from its isomeride myristicol (boiling at 212° to 218°, or
about 15° higher) in that it is not appreciably polymerized by continued
rectification; like this substance, however, it is dehydrated by hot zinc
chloride forming cymene, thus,
C,,H,,O=H,O + C,H, 3
the yield of cymene is, however, but small (20 to 25 per cent.), most being
converted into a non-volatile resinous mass.
When treated with phosphorus pentasulphide absinthol loses the elements
of water, cymene resulting ; the yield of this hydrocarbon is not much greater
than when zine chloride is used: a portion of the absinthol also becomes
converted into cymyl-sulphhydrate, C,,H,,.SH, apparently identical with that
obtained from camphor by similar treatment ; camphor and absinthol, there-
fore, are identical in so far as the action of pentasulphide of phosphorus is
concerned. The production of cymene from absinthol in this way has also
béen observed by Beilstein and Kupffer, who, however, did not observe the
simultaneous production of cymyl-sulphhydrate,
‘TI. Ot: or Crrronetxa (Andropogon Schenanthus).—A pure sample of this
oil was found to consist mainly of an oxidized substance boiling at near 210°,
but altered by continued heating, becoming somewhat resinized and partially
losing the elements of water. This substance gave numbers on combustion
agreeing with those calculated for the formula C,,H,,0; therefore it is iso-
meric, not with camphor, myristicol, and absinthol, but with cajeputol from
oil of cajeput. ' (Gladstone found in a sample of citronella a body termed by
him citronellol, boiling pretty constantly at 199°-205°, which gave numbers
agreeing sharply with the formula C,,H,,0 ; essential oils not improbably
differ in the character of their ingredients with the season, age of plant, &c.)
When two equivalents of bromine are cautiously added to this oxidized
substance combination takes place, much heat being evolved; the resulting
dibromide breaks up on heating into water, hydrobromic acid, and cymene,
thus,
C,,H,,Br,0=H,0+2H Br+C,,H,,,
a considerable amount of resinous by-products being also formed,
When treated with phosphorus pentasulphide, the first action is the removal
of the elements of water, a terpene or a mixture of terpenes boiling between
160° and 180° being formed, thus,
C,,H,,0 =H,0 + 2: 5
polymerides of terpenes boiling at about 250° and upwards are also produced ;
by a further action the terpene becomes partially conyerted into cymene,
sulphuretted hydrogen being evolved, thus,
es ai S= HS + C,H,
When heated with zine chloride the oxidized constituent of citronella-oil
is decomposed, a mixture of hydrocarbon being apparently formed, amongst
which a terpene boiling between 170° and 180° predominates ; nine tenths
of the. substance are, however, converted into a resinous non-volatile mass.
Phospherus pentachloride forms a chlorinated product which splits up on
CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION ETC. OF ESSENTIAL OILS. 19
heating, forming hydrochloric acid, a terpene boiling between 168° and 173°
and polymerides of higher boiling-point, the reactions being
3 C,,H,,0+ PCl,= HCl+ POCI,+0,,H,,Cl
an
C,,H,,Cl=HCl+ 0,,H,,.
III. Or or Caserut,—The “ cajeputene hydrate ” of Schmidt (the “ caje-
putol ” of Gladstone) was approximately isolated from resinous higher boiling
substances simultaneously present in the oil by fractional distillation, and
boiled between 176° and 179°, or more than 30° lower than the isomeric
substance from citronella-oil ; like its isomeride, it combined with two equi-
valents of bromine, evolving much heat, and forming a dibromide splitting up
by heat into hydrobromic acid, water, and cymene, thus
C,,H,,Br,0=2HBr+H,0+40,,H,,-
The yield of cymene, however, was much greater with the cajeputol dibro-
mide than with the citronella product, 100 parts of C,,H,,O from cajeputol
yielding about 67 parts of cymene, and 100 of that from citronella Jess than
half as much.
With phosphorus pentasulphide cajeputol behaves just as its isomeride,
forming first a terpene and then cymene, the elements of water being first
abstracted, and then two equivalents of hydrogen removed.
TY. Acrron or PoospHorvs PEnrasuLPHipE on TERPENES.—In order to prove
that the cymene formed when pentasulphide of phosphorus acts on the pro-
ducts C,,H,,O from citronella and cajeput oils is really produced from a terpene
first generated, the action of phosphorus pentasulphide on other terpenes was
examined, oil of turpentine (boiling at 159°) and hesperidene (boiling at 178°)
being chosen as being near the extremes of the range of boiling-points of the
terpenes as a class. In each case most of the hydrocarbon was converted
into a resinous mass; torrents of sulphuretted hydrogen were evolved, and
some cymene formed, the yield being about 30 per cent. with oil of turpen-
tine, and 40 per cent. with hesperidene; in these cases evidently the cymene
is formed by the reaction
Ce +S= HS ste C,.H,,.
In each case a trace of cymyl-sulphhydrate appeared to be formed.
_ Y. Examryarton oF vARIous Crmpnes.—The cymenes obtained as above
described were carefully examined in the way detailed in last year’s Report ;
all seemed to be identical with each other and with each of the eight kinds
of cymene formerly examined as described in that Report. The following
numerical values were obtained :—
A Cymene from absinthol and zinc chloride.
a vs Ns and phosphorus pentasulphide.
citronellol dibromide."§ © © - -
Fe a m and pentasulphide of phosphorus.
cajeputol dibromide. ye ree
re ? » and pentasulphide of phosphorus.
hesperidene and pentasulphide of phosphorus.
oil of turpentine and pentasulphide of phosphorus,
; C4
2 2?
”?
HPotbyaw
20 REPORT—1874.
in : 5 Specific .
Boiling-points Specific Ere Specific
festtrcted). peavity.. ee dispersiot
A 175-178 08508 0:5652 00397
Boe. lS aL73 0°8622 0:5562 0:0413
Cae eral (Lit 0:8373 0°5620 0:0414
Dee. L75-L77 0:8555 0:5611 0-:0407
KE. . 176-177 08682 0-5510 0-0391
Reticit etal (oie 0°8455 0:5654 0-0406
g G . 176-177 0:8577 0:5626 0:0420
H 175-178 0°8534 05589 0-0404
Each of these specimens yielded terephthalic acid (averaging 40 per cent.)
free from all trace of isophthalic acid, together with acetic acid free from all
trace of higher homologues, by the action of chromic acid liquor.
The statements of Riban, that cymene is formed by the action of sulphuric
acid on certain terpenes by the reaction
C,,H,,+H,80,=2H,0+80,+C,,H
10°14?
have been verified ; nevertheless the opinions expressed by the reporter in
last year’s Report that cymene may be isolated from certain hydrocarbons,
e.g. oil of turpentine, by the polymerizing action of sulphuric acid have been
found correct, it being found practicable to obtain a few per cents. of cymene
from an old sample of turpentine-oil without any evolution of sulphur dioxide
by careful manipulation. Orlowski also has recently obtained cymene from
old oil of turpentine by continued fractional distillation, the mode of produc-
tion of the cymene being probably first the absorption of oxygen and produc-
tion of a camphor-isomeride like myristicol, or the analogous products obtained
in small quantity by the action of chromic liquor on hesperidene and myris-
ticene (British Association Report, 1872), and the subsequent breaking up of
this product into water and cymene by continued distillation.
2), .H,,+ 0,=20,.H,,0,
C,,H,,0=H,0+C,,H
107" 16 10~-14°
Physical Properties of Essential-oil Constituents and Conclusions.
The following values were obtained for some of the other constituents of
the essential oils examined :—
Terpenes.
¥. E . Specifi 3
Souris: Boiling-point Specific Rae ret Specific
(corrected). gravity. energy dispersion.
I. Citronellol and phosphorus } ,2 ,-° wee 94
Scene ‘} 175-178 08484. «= -0:5570-——0-0271
IT. Citronellol and zine chlo-
mae Bea te 170-180 0°8375 0:5400 0:0285
Oxidized substances.
Absinthol 5% 0 oes. ek o-202 0:9128 0:4887 0:0234
Cajeputol ; ... 5. Seaisieeenleb—l ago 0:9207 0:4916 0:0251
Citronellol <. {ee 6 4200=205 0-870 0:5213 0:0289
t © lew Mee lrerep er O-elled 0-890 0:-5176 0:0284
5 ide Ries ake co—lOU) 0°887 0-5247 0-0301
Neither of the two terpenes were perfectly pure, I. being admixed with
ON THE SUB+WEALDEN EXPLORATION. 21
a little cymene formed, as above stated, by the further action of the phosphorus
pentasulphide, and II. yielding on combustion carbon 86°55, hydrogen 12-81,
agreeing more nearly with the formula C,,H,, than with C,,H,,, which requires
carbon 88:24, hydrogen 11-76.
The physical properties of the three oxidized bodies agree tolerably well
with the previous determinations.
The three specimens of citronellol are certainly not identical, for that with
the lowest boiling-point rotated the polarized ray very strongly to the left.
The intermediate one was without circular polarization, and that with the
highest boiling-point showed a very little right-handed rotation.
The experiments made so far appear to indicate that many of the consti-
tuents of essential oils are closely related to the hydrocarbon cymene, this
body being as it were the central form of matter from which terpenes and
their derivatives of the forms C,,H,,O and C,,H,,O are all derived by various
operations. As yet no reasonable prospect of success has appeared in the
attempt to determine the different amounts of energy involved in those ope--
rations which yield isomeric products (e. g. in the operations whereby cymene
is converted into camphor, myristicol, or absinthol, or into terebene, hespe-
ridene, myristicene, &e.), one great difficulty in the way being the almost
impossibility of obtaining absolutely pure homogeneous substances to operate
upon.
Second Report of the Sub-Wealden Exploration Committee, the Com-
mittee consisting of Henry Witter, F.G.S., R. A. C. Gopwin-
Austen, F.R.S., W. Torrey, F.G.S., T. Davipson, F.R.S., Prof.
J. Prestwicn, F.R.S., Prof. Boyp Dawkins, F.R.S., and Henry
Woonwarp, F.R.S. Drawn up by Henxy Wixert and W. Torey.
Av the Meeting at Bradford the General Committee granted £25 in aid of the
Sub-Wealden Exploration.
In August 1873, 290 feet, at a diameter of 9 inches, had been bored ; and
it was during the Bradford Meeting that Mr. Peyton, F.G.S., discovered
Lingula ovalis in a core at the depth of 290 feet from the surface, indicating
that at such a depth the boring was traversing Kimmeridge Clay. The slow
rate of advance by the old system of boring was most disheartening ; and at a
Committee Meeting held 7th November, 1873, a definite tender having been
obtained from the Diamond Rock Boring Company, it was accepted. This
Company forthwith energetically commenced, ably performed, and completed
it to a depth of 1000 feet on June 18th, 1874, at a cost of over £1400 for the
additional 700 feet. The funds being by this time exhausted, at a Committee
Meeting it was considered by the Members to be very important that the
work should not be abandoned, and a Subcommittee (consisting of Professor
Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S., Director-General of the Geological Survey of England,
John Evans, Esq., F.R.S., President of the Geological Society, and Prof.
Joseph Prestwich, F.R.S., Ex-President of the Geological Society) was ap-
pointed to draw up a fresh appeal to the public for additional subscriptions ;
and Mr. Willett was urged to continue in office as Honorary Secretary and
Treasurer. An interview also for Professor Ramsay and Mr. Willett with the
Chancellor of the Exchequer was obtained by the Secretary of the Treasury,
at which a grant of the public money in aid of the prosecution of this enter-
29 REPORT—1874,
prise was solicited on the ground that it was of national importance, and that
such an exploration had been recommended by a Parliamentary Committee
(Coal Commission). In response a Treasury Minute was received to the effect
that a maximum grant of £1000 would be recommended to Parliament, £100
of which is to be paid for every 100 feet bored beyond the first 1000 feet*.
This recognition will, it is hoped, induce the Members of the G eneral Com-
mittee of the British Association, at the Meeting at Belfast, to vote a liberal
grant in aid on similar conditions ; for under the most favourable calculation
from £3000 to £4000 (including the cost of lining-tubes) will be needed ere
2000 feet (or Paleozoic strata) are reached.
* No favourable opportunity having presented itself for observing the under-
ground temperature, owing to the constant obstruction in the hole, these ex-
periments are postponed until the bore-hole shall be lined.
The cost of the lining-tubes will approximate £500, towards which it is
proposed to apply the grant which it is hoped will be made at Belfast.
Geological Report by W. Topley, F.GS., Assoc.Inst.0.H., Geological Survey
of England.
When the last Report upon the Sub-Wealden Boring was read at the
Bradford Meeting of the Association, a depth of 300 feet had been attained,
but no good fossils had been observed, and no certain information could be
given as to the age of the beds traversed. ‘The only point certainly esta-
blished was that the higher beds of the boring, as well as the “‘ Ashburnham
Beds” of the neighbouring district, belonged to the Purbecks; but how
deep the Purbecks extended, and what was the age of the underlying strata,
were points then undecided.
We are still in some uncertainty as to the first point. Some imperfect
specimens of Hstheria (Cyclas) were observed by Mr. Peyton at about 100
feet from the surface, but no other fossils were noticed until the Kimmeridge
Clay was reached. It is then only by the lithological characters of the
intermediate strata that we can form any idea as to their age. A detailed
section of the strata was given in the last Report, and specimens are still
preserved at the boring. We should probably not be far wrong in as-
signing the beds down to the depth of 180 feet to the Purbecks, and re-
garding all between that depth and 290 feet as Portland. This classifica-
tion places the gypsum and associated gypseous marls with the Purbecks,
the sandy beds (sometimes almost a sandstone) and all the beds containing
chert nodules with the Portland. Almost at the base of the Portland beds
there are some veins of gypsum in pale shale. Some of the Portland sand or
sandstone is rather greenish in colour.
At the last Meeting of the Association some specimens of the strata tra-
versed were shown, including pieces of clay from the lower part. After the
Report was read this clay was broken up by Mr. Peyton, who noticed some
fragments of fossils which Prof. Phillips recognized as Lingula ovalis, a
characteristic shell of the Kimmeridge Clay in England, but which was then
unknown in the Boulonnais. Shortly after this, Mr, Peyton, in examining
the cliffs near Boulogne, was fortunate enough to find there several examples
of the same species,
* The grant was subsequently made by the House of Commons.
ON THE SUB-WEALDEN EXPLORATION, 23
At the end of last year (1873), the contract with Mr. Bosworth (then the
contractor) having expired, the work was handed over to the Diamond Rock
Boring Company. By their system of boring long cores of strata are brought
up, of which the mineral character and fossil contents can be ascertained with
great accuracy*.
The boring is now (August 1874) 1030 feet from the surface, but the lowest
17 feet of core are not yet extracted. The strata from about 350 feet to
1013 feet haye been examined with care, and many thousands of fossils or
_ fragments of fossils have been observed. The greater part cannot be deter-
mined at all ; in a large number of instances the genus only can be ascertained ;
but several hundred specimens can be with certainty assigned to their
respective species. I have to thank Mr. Etheridge for much assistance in
determining the fossils. Mr. G. Sharman and Mr. E. T. Newton have also
kindly given me their aid. To Mr. Davidson I am also much indebted; he
has looked over and named the Brachiopoda, and has drawn specimens of
Lingula ovalis and Discina latissima from the boring for the forthcoming
Supplement to his ‘ Monograph on the Brachiopoda,’ published by the Paleon-
tographical Society.
The greater part of the cores have been broken up on the spot, and the
fossils sorted out for more detailed examination in London. In this task I
have often had the assistance of Mr. Willett and Mr. Peyton. Some of the
cores have been broken up and examined by Mr. Willett at Brighton.
- The greater part of the strata traversed below 290 feet is clay ; generally it
is rather calcareous, and from 640 feet downwards there are bands of cement-
stone. The higher part of the Kimmeridge Clay is rather sandy, but no beds at
all approaching a sandstone in character have been observed in that formation.
The middle and lower part of the Kimmeridge Clay contains much petro-
leum ; at some horizons there is so much that the shale will burn. The petro-
leum shales of the lower part are generally very fossiliferous; but those of
higher portions are often very bare of life.
The Oxford Clay often contains much petroleum, and it also is very fossili-
ferous.
Generally in England the Coral Rag comes between the Kimmeridge and
Oxford Clays; this is also the case in the Boulonnais. Occasionally, however,
in England the two clays come together without the intervention of the Coral
Rag. ‘This appears to be the case in the boring. An Oxford-Clay fossil
(Ammonites Sedqwickii, Pratt) was observed at 972 feet from the surface.
Below this several imperfect specimens of ornate Ammonites occur. A good
example of Am. Jason, Rein., occurred at 990 feet, and Am. Lamberti, Sow., at
1000 feet. A fragment of Pollicipes (probably P. concinnus, Sow.) occurred
at 993 feet, and a doubtful Gervilla at 998 feet. Pollicipes and Gervillia both
occur in the Oxford Clay, but I believe have not yet been recorded from the
Kimmeridge Clay of England.
With regard to the exact point at which the Kimmeridge Clay leaves off
and the Oxford Clay begins there is some doubt. We must be guided in
this case by paleontological evidence, assigning all those strata to Oxford
Clay which contain fossils only hitherto known from that formation, and
doing the same with the Kimmeridge Clay. We have seen that an Oxford-
Clay fossil (Ammonites Sedqwickii) occurs at 972 feet. Gryphea virgula,
Defr., a Kimmeridge-Clay fossil, occurs at 950 feet ; this is therefore Kim-
* It should be mentioned that other methods of boring (in holes of small diameter)
succeed in extracting solid cores of strata; but probably no other would give such long and
unbroken cores. : rm :
24 REPORT—1874.,
meridge Clay. Between 950 feet and 972 feet we have no good palewonto-
logical evidence. The fossils which occur here are the following :—
Avicula. 952 feet. Ostrea. 953, 965 feet.
Cardium striatulum. 951, 952 feet. Pecten arcuatus, Sow. 952 feet.
C. striatulum, yar. lepidum, Sauwv. e¢ Rig. Astarte (a smooth species). 956 feet.
967 feet. Thracia depressa. 966 feet.
Nucula. 951, 952 feet. Ammonites biplex? 957, 969 feet.
Lingula, resembling L. ovalis, Sow. Tornatella. 967 feet.
. All of these (excepting perhaps Tornatella) occur in the Kimmeridge Clay.
Thracia depressa is very characteristic of the Kimmeridge Clay, but it also
ranges downwards to the Great Oolite. It occurs at 965 feet in a soft dark
clay, which ranges with much the same characters from 963 feet to 976 feet ;
and as it is this clay which (at 972 feet) contains Ammonites Sedgwick, we
can hardly take a boundary at this point. Above this there are 5 feet of
unfossiliferous sandy clay, and then come 8 inches of hard, dark grey, heavy,
and sandy clay, with much petroleum. Just above this there is a little hard
sandy clay, containing a layer of a smooth form of Astarte, and above that
some soft dark clay.
If we have to fix upon a definite line, it would probably be advisable to take
it just below the soft clay last named, at 956 feet. One reason for doing this
is, that at 965 and 972 feet there are sometimes well-marked signs of a dip
across the bore-hole ; sometimes this is shown by the layers of fossils lying
obliquely ; and at 965 feet it was very distinctly shown by a layer, 1 inch
thick, of light-coloured clay; the dip of this was about 10°.
The dips in these places are not owing to an unconformity, because the
layers of fossils just above and just below are quite horizontal. But nothing
of the sort has been observed in the true Kimmeridge Clay ; and this is one
reason, though a very slight and untrustworthy one, for taking the boun-
dary above these beds. Higher up in the Kimmeridge Clay there have been
cores breaking obliquely, which at first look like inclined strata; but in all
such cases careful examination has shown that these appearances are due to
thin veins of carbonate of lime.
It was stated above that Gryphea virgula is solely a Kimmeridge-Clay’shell.
In Damon’s ‘ Geology of Weymouth’ it is stated that this shell occurs in
the Oxford Clay of that district; but in the Atlas of Plates which accompa-
nies the Handbook, a figure is given as Gryphwa (Ostrea) virgula, which is
certainly not that shell, nor one in any way resembling it. We must therefore
conclude that the true Gryphca virgula has not yet been found in the Oxford
Clay of Weymouth.
In the Sixth and Seventh Quarterly Reports, Modiolu pectinata, Sow., appears
amongst the lists of fossils. Further examination of these shells has shown
that, although they resemble the shell figured under that name in Phillips’s
‘Geology of Oxford,’ they are really distinct from the shell figured by Sowerby.
Sowerby’s shell is really a Mytilus, and as such he described it (Mytilus
pectinatus); whilst the shells of the boring are certainly Modiole. They.
somewhat resemble the Mytilus Morris: of Sharpe, originally figured from
specimens from the Sub-Cretaceous limestone of Portugal, but which also occurs
in the Kimmeridge Clay of Wootton Bassett and in the Boulonnais., They are,
however, distinct from this, and must be regarded as a new species. In
the Museum of Practical Geology there is an unnamed specimen of this
species from the Kimmeridge Clay of Hartwell.
Dr. Lycett has kindly examined some specimens of 7Z'rigonia from the
boring. Amongst them he recognized a young form of Trigonia Juddiana,
ON THE SUB-WEALDEN EXPLORATION. 25
Lye., and another species which is apparently new. We have also observed
some specimens of a small elongated ribbed Astarte which appears to be new.
In the Sixth Report Astarte aliena, Phil., was mentioned, and in the
Seventh Report Astarte Autissiodorensis, Cotteau. More careful examination of
a greater number of specimens has shown that these names cannot be retained.
The small ribbed Astartes of the boring'vary a little in size and in the number
and character of their ribs ; but it seems preferable to regard them all as slight
varieties of the Astarte Mysis of De Loriol. The ribs are always less in
number than in the true Astarte Autissiodorensis.
Considerable difficulty has occurred in naming the Cardiums. The French
palwontologists have founded several species upon what most English paleon-
tologists would regard as simply varieties of the original Cardiwm striatulum
of Sowerby. In the higher part of the boring the Cardiums are large,
and may with tolerable certainty be referred to C. striatulum. In the lower
part, both in the Oxford and Kimmeridge Clays, the shells are smaller.
MM. Sauvage and Rigaux have described similar shells from the Kimmeridge
Clay of the Boulonnais as Cardium lepidum. It may perhaps be advisable
to retain this name, regarding the shell, however, as a variety of C. striatulum
and not a distinct species.
The following is a list of all the fossils hitherto observed. Those species
which occur in both the Oxford Clay and Kimmeridge Clay are marked
with an asterisk.
List of Fossils from the Kimmeridge Clay.
Serpula. Attached to Cardium at 842 and 847 feet.
Cidaris Boloniensis, Wright. At 397 feet.
Discina Humphrisiana, Sow. At 569 and 570 feet.
D. latissima, Sow. Common.
*Lingula ovalist, Sow. Common.
Arca. Species not determined. Tolerably abundant.
Avicula. Rather rare. 380, 420, 438, 456, 952 feet.
Astarte Hartwellensis, Sow. It is not easy to distinguish fragments of this
shell from Thracia depressa.
A. ovata, W. Smith. At 570 feet.
A. Mysis, D’Orbigny. Common.
Astarte, new sp. 463 feet.
*Qardium striatulum, Sow. Common, especially in the higher part.
*(. striatulum, var. lepidum, Sauvage et Rigaux. 813, 814, 817, 818,
898, 913, 925 feet.
Corbula. 784 feet.
Gryphea nana, Sow. 430, 900, 902 feet.
G. virgula, Defr. Several crushed specimens at 913 feet; a perfect form
at 950 feet.
Hinnites? 478 feet.
Leda. 494 feet.
Leda, allied to L. Dammariensis, Duv. 415, 511 feet.
Lima. 380, 804 feet.
Incina. 415, 465, 493 feet.
+ There is a Lingula in the Oxford Clay, which is distinguished from Z. ovalis only by
its size, it being always small, whilst L. ovalis varies much in size. Mr. Dayidson pro-
poses to distinguish the Oxford-Clay she]l by a new specific name.
26 REPORT—1874.
Modiola, n. sp. Common down to 782 feet.
Myacites. 380, 388, 415 feet.
Nucula. 388, 951, 952 feet.
Opis. Depth uncertain.
Ostrea deltoidea, Sow. 4522, 470, 478 feet.
O. Thurmanni, (var. of) Etallon. 719, 794 feet.
Ostrea, ?sp. Numerous fragments.
Pecten arcuatus, Sow. 888, 396, 418, 480, 492, 493, 496, 576, 952 feet.
Pecten. A form with coarse ribs.
Pholas compressa, Sow.? 526 feet.
Pholadomya. Fragments of large forms at 725 and 789 feet.
Tellina. 910 feet.
*Thracia depressa, Sow. 397, 415, 437 feet.
Trigonia Juddiana, Lye. (young form of). 926 feet.
T. Pellati, Mun. Ch. 376 feet:
Trigonia, ? new species. 402 feet.
Alaria. Rather common.
Cerithium. 789 feet.
Pleurotomaria reticulata, Sow. 830, 900, 913 feet.
Pleurotomaria, ? sp. (probably P. reticulata). 726, 741, 898, 902 feet.
Turbo. 783.
Belemnites. Rather common.
* Ammonites biplew, Sow. Common.
Hybodus-tooth. Depth uncertain.
Fish-vertebra. 492, 550 feet.
List of Fossils from the Oxford Clay.
Pollicipes concinnus, Sow. 993 feet.
*Lingula (2 L. ovalis). 988 feet.
Arca. 976, 991, 992, 995, 996, 998, 1009 feet.
Avicula. 993, 1000 feet.
Astarte. 969, 976, 990, 993 fect.
*Cardium striatulum, Sow. 979 fect.
*C. striatulum, var. lepidum, Sauy. et Rig. 967, 977, 979, 990, 993, 999,
1001 feet.
Corbula. 995, 996 feet.
Gervillia. 998 feet.
Macrodon. In hard sandy strata at 1013 fect.
Ostrea. 965, 990, 994, 996, 1004, 1612 feet.
Tellina. 990 feet.
*Thracia depressa, Sow. 965 feet.
Alaria. 990 feet.
Cerithium. 998 feet.
Tornatella. 967, 1003 feet.
* Ammonites biplew, Sow. 957, 969, 972, 991, 998 feet.
RECENT PROGRESS OF SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 27
Ammonites Jason, Rein. 990 feet.
A, Sedqwickii, Pratt (var. of A. Jason). 972 feet.
A. Lambertti, Sow: 1000 feet.
Ammonites, ? sp. (with tubercles). 979, 998 feet.
Fish. 1001 feet.
Hybodus. 1004 feet.
On the Recent Progress and Present State of Systematic Botany.
By Grorcr Bentuam, F.K.S,
[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed 77 extenso. |
Ir is now some years beyond half a century since I took up the pursuit of
systematic botany—at first as a mere recreation, rather later as a study either
subservient to or as a diversion from others which my then social position
rendered more important, but for the last forty years as the main occupation
of my life. During that long period the science has undergone various
vicissitudes. At one time generally regarded as constituting the whole or
nearly the whole of botany, subsequently reduced by some to a mere tech-
nical cataloguing of names, it became the fashion, especially among physio-
logists, who arrogated to themselves the exclusive title of scientific botanists,
to sneer at it as a trivial amusement; it has now again vindicated its im-
portance, especially since, by the promulgation of the great Darwinian
theories, it has become absolutely necessary to include in it, not only the
life-history and distribution of races, but also the results at least of the
investigations of physiologists and paleontologists, whilst physiologists
themselves have but too frequently been led astray by their neglect of the
labours of scientific systematists. Having in my early days personally con-
versed with one of Linnzus’s active correspondents (Gouan of Montpellier),
having received many useful hints on the method of botanical study from
the great founder himself of the Natural System (Antoine Laurent de
Jussieu), having been honoured with the intimacy of the chief promoters
and improvers of that system (Auguste Pyrame De Candolle, Robert Brown,
Stephan Endlicher, John Lindley), having enjoyed the friendly assistance
either personally or by correspondence of almost every systematic botanist
of note of this nineteenth century (whether followers or, in earlier days,
antagonists of the Jussieuan methods), I had from the first taken some part
in the controversies which ensued, and always watched them with an in-
terested eye. And now at the close of my career I had sketched out a
review of the position this, my special branch of the science, has occupied
in relation to the others for my valedictory address to the Linnean Society.
My premature resignation of the Presidency having rendered unnecessary
the drawing-up of that address, I have put my notes into a form which I
have thought might not be unacceptable to the Association, as some compli-
ance with the request made to me at its Meeting at Cambridge in 1833.
Before the days of Linnzus, the attempts to scale and explore the steep
and rugged acclivities of the Parnassus of Science on the side of Natural
History, and especially in the district of Systematic Botany, had been many,
but vague and unsuccessful. Some general ideas of the direction to be
28 REPORT—1874.
followed had, indeed, been formed by Ray, and after him by Tournefort,
Allioni, and others of undoubted eminence; but it was reserved for the
master-mind of the immortal Swede to mark out a clear, safe, and definite
road along the first great ascent, and to fix on its summit, by the establish-
ment of genera and species upon sound philosophical principles, a firm stage
to serve as a basis and starting-point for further progress and exploration.
Such further progress under the guidance of the same principles was indeed
contemplated and to a certain degree sketched out by Linnzeus himself, but
the territory forming the next acclivity was too little known to disclose the
best paths for ascending it. Among the eight or ten thousand species
known to Linneus, chiefly from the northern hemisphere or from the Cape of
Good Hope, a sufficient number of genera were exhibited to him in their
entirety to enable him to fix the relations of genus and species ; but of the
higher groups, the orders or natural families, too large a proportion were as
yet undiscovered or were too sparingly represented to encourage any imme-
diate attempt to define them. A further knowledge of the territory was
necessary in order to clear the ground for its regular ascent, and yet it was
necessary to ascend in order to effect its survey; as a temporary assistance,
therefore, Linnzus devised the scaffolding, known under the name of the
sexual system, with its artificial and easy though frail ladders, the twenty-
four classes and their sudsidiary orders.
The progress was now wonderfully rapid. A very few years doubled the
number of plants known, and after the commencement of the present
century new discoveries and more accurate studies of those previously known
were being published in all parts of Europe in an increasing ratio. It was,
however, rather earlier, and not long after the death of Linneus, that
Antoine Laurent de Jussieu, following in the footsteps of his uncle Bernard,
with a methodical mind yielding but little to that of the great Swedish master,
having all the advantages of the additional materials at his disposal, and
having to start from the elevated platform so firmly established by his pre-
decessor, was enabled, in his ‘Genera Plantarum’ (begun in 1778 and —
finally published in,1789), to carry the high road up the next rising, marking
it out perhaps at first rather vaguely, but upon principles so sound that it
was warmly taken in hand by the French school in the first instance, soon to
be followed up in this country, and later and less willingly in Germany.
Among the earliest and most important contributors to the perfecting the
work were Robert Brown and the elder De Candolle; and their labours had
_already been sufficiently advanced to enable me, when I first came upon the
stage, to avail myself of the road thus established and ascend with ease to
the higher platform. The great Linnean thoroughfare to species and genera
had long been universally followed, and my apprenticeship to the science,
from 1817 to my first botanical publication in 1826, was entirely under the
guidance of De Candolle’s ‘ Flora’ and ‘ Théorie ;’ so that I had no occasion to
make use, or even to take any notice, of the Linnean scaffolding and ladders.
I never learnt the twenty-four classes till after the publication of my ‘ Cata-
logue des Plantes indigénes des Pyrénées et du Bas Languedoc.’ Easy as
they were supposed to be, I found, for purposes of reference, alphabetical
indexes still ‘easier.'
Towards the close of this same year (1826), in which I had thus entered
my name in the roll of working botanists, I returned to England after a
twelve years’ residence in France; and although logic, law, and law-making
were at first the chief subjects of my studies and publications, I gradually
gave up more and more time to botany, and having spent two vacations
RECENT PROGRESS OF SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 29
among the naturalists of Germany, I had by the year 1832 become acquainted
not only with the principal continental botanists, but also with the practical
working of the botanical establishments of Paris, Berlin, Vienna, Munich, and
Geneva; and as this was a period when the gradual substitution of natural
to artificial systems had given a general impulse to the scientific study of
plants, I take this year as the starting-point for comparing the state of syste-
matic botany with that of future periods.
In France, under the guidance of De Candolle of Geneva, and of Brongniart,
the younger Jussieu, and other Professors of Paris, it was now universally
taught, and it had become generally acknowledged, that the main object of
systematic botany was not the finding out the name of a plant, but the
determining its relations and affinities, the making us thoroughly acquainted
with its resemblances and differences, with those properties which it pos-
sessed in common with others or which were peculiar to itself, whether
these properties consisted in outward form, inner structure, physical con-
stitution, or practicable applicability to use, all of which had to be taken into
account in the formation of orders, genera, and their subdivisions. As text-
books, De Candolle had developed his ‘ Théorie’ into the five volumes of his
‘Cours de Botanique ’ (‘ Organographie Végétale,’ two vols., 1827, and ‘ Phy-
siologie Végétale,’ three vols., 1832), while Richard, in the successive editions
of his ‘ Eléments de Botanique,’ then in general use by teachers of the science,
was substituting an elaborate exposition of the natural orders for the some-
what modified Linnean classes he had in the first instance adopted; and for
practical use, although De Candolle’s admirable ‘ Flore Frangaise’ was
already out of print, Duby’s synopsis of it and a few local floras drawn
up under the natural method had expelled from the market all technical
works which adhered to the sexual classification. For the general botanist,
De Candolle’s ‘ Prodromus’ had already reached its fourth volume, describing
under the natural arrangement about 19,000 species, or nearly one third of
those then known *.
In England considerable progress had also been made in the substitution of
the scientific instead of the technical arrangement of plants for study, but only
among the more advanced followers of the science. Owing in a great mea-
sure to the influence and persevering labours of Sir James Smith, whose pos-
session of the Linnean collections and long Presidency of the Linnean Society
gave him great and generally acknowledged authority in the country, the
cataloguing of plants under the twenty-four classes was still adhered to in
our botanical schools and examinations, and in the standard British floras as
well as in all local ones. But this was not to be of long duration. The
great advances made by Robert Brown, although better known on the Con-
tinent than at home, were beginning to have their influence in England
also. The example and teaching of Sir William (then Dr.) Hooker, whose
vast collections and library had already, from the liberal use he made of them,
become of national importance, had caused the natural method to be regarded
as the only one for illustrating exotic botany and for the useful arrangement
of herbaria. Lindley had commenced that series of works which more
than any others tended to that final acceptance of the natural method in this
country which it had obtained in France. The first edition of his ‘ Intro-
duction to the Natural System’ was published in 1830; and he was much
* For further details on the origin and progress of this great work I may refer to an
article I contributed to the ‘Natural-History Review’ for October 1864, and to that
recently published by Alphonse de Candolle in the ‘ Bibliothéque de Genéve,’ entitled
“ Réflexions sur les Ouvrages g4néraux de Botanique descriptive.”
30 ; REPORT—1874,
engaged inthe preliminary labour of a ‘ Genera Plantarum’ he contemplated.
Monographs also of individual natural orders or large genera which De Can-
dolle always strongly recommended, not only as the best exercise for young
botanists, but as the best means of promoting the science for those whose
circumstances prevented their undertaking more general investigations, were
in some instances being prepared in England as on the Continent. Hooker,
Greville, Arnott, and others had devoted special works to Ferns and Mosses ;
Lindley had made considerable progress with his ‘Genera and Species of
Orchidez,’ and at his suggestion I had taken up the Labiate. Even for the
British flora 8. F. Gray’s ‘ Natural Arrangement’ and Lindley’s ‘Synopsis’
were intended to bring the natural orders into use by our local botanists ;
but owing to defects in form and to the want of any artificial Clavis, neither
of these works was calculated to overcome the prejudices then prevailing in
favour of the Linnean classes.
In Germany the progress had been slower. The country abounds in those
plodding minds which revel in the working out minutie of detail, and, to find
their way, are satisfied with a sexual, alphabetical, or any other artificial
index, as well as in pure speculators, who, in developing the conceptions of their
brain, will not be bound by any system. The advantages of the natural
method were long in overcoming the force of habit, kept up as it was by
the number of works which the German press supplied for the use of
collectors and technical botanists. The most important of these took
the form of new editions of Linneus’s ‘Systema Vegetabilium’ or of his
‘Species Plantarum.’ The last two of these had a very general circulation
in the botanical world: Sprengel’s, completed in four volumes from 1817 to
1820, would have been useful from its compactness had it been a conscientious
compilation, and actually served for the arrangement of herbaria in the charge of
mere librarians *; but it was so carelessly and recklessly worked out as to be
soon rejected by all true botanists who attempted to use it, Roemer and
Schultes’s ‘ Systema,’ continued through eight volumes from 1817 to 1830, was
the result of great labour and was generally accurate in detail, and would
have been really useful had it been brought to a conclusion within a short
time. But by the time it had reached the end of Hexandria, the progress
of De Candolle’s ‘Prodromus’ had even in Germany driven it out of the
- market, leaying it, in its incomplete state, nothing but a long succession of
disconnected genera, the confusion of which was still further increased by a
series of ‘Mantissas’ and first and second Additamenta to ‘Mantissas.’ Neither
the ability of the younger Schultes, the author of the last two and best
volumes (Hexandria), nor the arguments of Roemer (who in the preface
justified the use of the sexual system, first on the authority of Linneus,
secondly because it was easy, and thirdly because, like nature, it never changed)
could any longer sustain the crumbling fabric, The Natural Orders were
becoming generally taught, and Bartling, in his ‘Ordines Naturales Plantarum,’
1830, had proposed one of those speculative rearrangements of the Jussieuan
and Candollean Orders which have since been so frequently indulged in to
so little purpose. But as yet there was no flora of the country or other
practical work calculated to place the natural or scientific method within
reach of the beginner,
Other more distant countries showed still fewer outward signs of the spread
of the philosophical teaching of botanical systems, which, however, through
the influence especially of French works, was gradually gaining ground in
* Even at Paris the rich herbaria of Delessert were to the last arranged according to
Sprengel, to the thorough disgust of all working botanists who had to consult them,
RECENT PROGRESS OF SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 81
Sweden, Russia, and North America, whilst in Southern Europe Spain and
Italy, which during the preceding half century had produced so many emi-
nent botanists in various branches, seemed now disposed to limit themselves
to local floras and the sexual classes.
We may take as the next period in the progress of systematic botany the
seventeen years that elapsed from 1832 to 1859, during which the advance
had been wonderfully successful. The change from the technical to the scien-
tifie study of plants, which during the preceding period had been working its
way through so many obstacles, was now complete, The Linnean platform,
established on the relations of genera and species, had now been so long and
60 universally adopted as the basis or starting-point, that the credit due to
its founder was almost forgotten in the triumphant destruction of the sexual
scaffolding he had erected for the ascent of the higher stages, and now com-
pletely superseded by the progress of the Jussieuan roads, although it was
chiefly by the consistent following out the principles laid down by Linneus
himself that the change had been effected. No would-be botanist was allowed
any longer to eschew the labour of the methodical study of plants, or to
indulge in the belief that their technical sorting constituted the science. At
every stage he was taught that plants must be grouped upen a philosophical
study of their affinities, whether morphological, structural, or physiological,
The natural orders, as well as genera, were exhibited to him in every work
prepared for his use. Their exposition formed part of the admirable text-
books of the De Candolles (father and son), Adrien de Jussieu, Lindley, and
others; Endlicher’s ‘Enchiridion’ and, above all, Lindley’s ‘ Vegetable
Kingdom’ exhibited the rich stores of knowledge disclosed by their study,
As systematic guides, Endlicher’s ‘Genera Plantarum’ was complete, and
De Candolle’s ‘ Prodromus’ for Dicotyledons and Kunth’s ‘ Enumeratio’ for
Monocotyledons were far advanced, the gaps being also partially filled up by
numerous monographs of various degrees of merit ; whilst in Cryptogams the
works of Hooker, Mohl, Mettenius, Montagne, Fries, Tulasne, Berkeley,
Agardh (father and son), Harvey, Thuret, Kiitzing, and many others were
already showing that for their discrimination and study it was no longer suffi-
cient to rely upon outer characters alone, but that their inner structure and
physiological changes must be taken into account; and monographs or
species” of Ferns, Mosses, Hepatice, Lichens, Fungi, and Algae, arranged
upon principles more or less philosophical, were prepared for the use of the
student in these several branches. For more local botanists and amateurs
most European countries, and a few distant ones, had now their standard
floras in a more or less advanced state, arranged according to the natural
method, the more important of which I shall presently haye occasion to
refer to.
It would seem, therefore, that at this advanced stage of our progress the
guide-posts indicative of the principal paths had become go firmly established,
the principles upon which plants should be scientifically classed so clearly
laid down and so far carried into practice, that little remained to be done
. towards completing the survey of the territory, towards a general distribu-
tion of species according to their natural affinities, beyond the more accu-
rate delineation of details and the interpolation of newly discovered species,
and that the systematic botanist could already look towards that summit,
upon reaching which his labours in aid of the general advance of the science
might come to a close. But there was a rock a-head which had long been
looming in the distance, and which on a nearer gpproach opposed a formidable
obstacle, to most minds apparently insurmountable, What is a species?
oz REPORT—1874.
and what is the meaning of those natural afiinities according to which species
are to be classed ? were questions which in 1859 it was generally thought vain
to discuss, or the answers to which, given to us by doctrinal teachers, unsup-
ported by or independent of facts, it was considered as sacrilegious to doubt.
We were taught, and some may still believe, that every species, such as we
now see it, was an original creation, perpetuated through every generation
within fixed limits which never have been and never will be transgressed.
We were less authoritatively told that resemblances of different species were
owing to their having been formed upon one plan variously modified. To the
question why they were so modified, the ready answer was, such was the will
of the Creator ; and in order not to suppose that that will was influenced by
mere caprice, it was suggested that the modifications were either to suit the
plant to the circumstances it was placed in, or to remedy defects in the
original plan, or we were simply told that the subject was beyond our powers
of comprehension *,
One consequence of this apparent impossibility of proceeding further in the
investigation of the causes of affinities and of this necessity of taking species
as separate creations in enormous numbers, with resemblances and differences
in endless variety according to the inscrutable will of the Creator, was the
encouragement it gave to arbitrary classifications and interminable disputes
as to the limits of individual species. It was, indeed, generally admitted that
plants should be arranged in genera, orders, &c., in groups of higher and
higher grades according to the importance of the characters they had in com-
mon, and that the test of species was the persistence of its characters through
two or more generations ; but there were no means of estimating the import-
ance or value of characters except by such vague standards as the number of
species in which they had been observed to prevail, no means of determining
what degree of variation and persistence actually distinguished the species
from the variety. The botanist who affirmed that Rubus fruticosus, Draba
verna, or Sphagnum palustre were each one very variable species, and he who
maintained that they were collective names for nearly four hundred, for at
least two hundred, or for some twenty separately created and invariably pro-
pagated species, had each arguments in their favour to which no definite
reply could be given ; and systematic botany was in too many cases begin-
ning to merit the reproach of German physiologists, that it was degenerating
into an arbitrary multiplication and cataloguing of names and specimens, of
use to collectors only, and serving as impediments instead of aids to the
extension of our scientific knowledge of the vegetation of the globe.
It is true that long before the period under consideration some indications
by which this great obstacle to further progress might be surmounted had
* In my frequent intercourse during the above perivd with foreign botanists, I heard
more than one German Professor affirm that a type-form was created for each natural
order (the common clover, for instance, being that for Papilionacer), that Nature set to
work to modify this type-form in framing species of a more complicated structure, till,
tired of the exertion, she next produced new species by the simple omission of some of
the complications. A French botanist of great eminence, to account for the number of
plants in cultivation which are not known to exist in a wild state, observed that we could
not suppose that man would have been created without a simultaneous creation of plants
for him to cultivate for food, quite independent of the wild vegetation which existed before
him for the food of animals. And many other still wilder theories were propounded to
account for facts inconsistent with the presumed independent creation and absolute fixity
of species. The best authorities went no further than defining affinity as correspondence
of characters, physiological or structural, and estimating the value of characters and the
importance of peculiarities or modifications of character according to their known connexion
with the phenomena of life,
RECENT PROGRESS OF SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 33
been vaguely given, and the theory of a common descent of modern species
had been broached, or generally proposed as a solution of some of the dif-
ficulties ; but not in a manner sufficiently plausible to overcome the prejudices
against following up any such track, nor supported by facts and observations
sufficient to awake the attention of the more anxious pursuers of the science.
It was reserved for the publication of the ‘ Origin of Species’ in 1859 to
mark out a practicable path by which the higher summits might be attained.
The doctrine of evolution of species, according to laws originally fixed,
instead of arbitrary intervention upon each and every occasion, was in this
remarkable work clearly traced out, supported by powerful arguments, and
founded upon facts and observations the accuracy of which no one could
‘doubt; and a way was thus opened up to a pinnacle, which in a wonderful
degree enlarged the range of vision of those who had the courage to follow
its propounder up the giddy height. It was immediately and successfully
taken to by several of the most eminent of our naturalists accustomed to
philosophical deductions from ascertained facts; it was blindly accepted, but
misused, by some German and Italian speculators, who, in their hurry to
_ adopt Darwinism before they well understood it, and in their eagerness to
go beyond the point to which the road had been securely marked out by
the author, or to diverge into by-paths which led to precipices and pitfalls,
added to the alarm of the timid; whilst it was not only shunned, but de-
_ nouneéd as fraught with the utmost danger by the great majority who were
accustomed to place tradition above reasoning. We systematists hesitated
at first to advance in a direction so contrary to that which we had deter-
minately followed for so long a period; but after a careful study of the facts
and arguments upon which the new course was founded, and of the guide-
posts which had been set in it, we most of us have felt but little doubt of
its safely leading us over difficulties, which we had so long reckoned as in-
surmountable, into a vast and entirely new field of observation, calculated
to give a stability to the results of our labours, of which we had hitherto
formed no conception. The last of the eminent observers of nature who
persistently maintained the independent creation and absolute fixity of spe-
cies (the late distinguished Professor Agassiz) has recently gone from among
us; and it may now be given as a generally received doctrine, that all natural
methods must be founded on affinities as dependent on consanguinity. Fifteen
years have sufficed to establish a theory, of which the principal points, in as
far as they affect systematic botany, may be shortly stated as follows :—
That although the whole of the numerous offspring of an individual plant
resemble their parent in all main points, there are slight individual differ-
ences between them.
That among the few who survive for further propagation, the great majority,
under ordinary circumstances, are those which most resemble their parent,
and thus the species is continued without material variation.
That there are, however, occasions when certain individuals with slightly
diverging characters may survive and reproduce races in which these diver-
gences are continued even with increased intensity, thus producing Varieties.
That in the course of an indefinite number of generations circumstances
may induce such an increase in this divergency, that some of these new races
will no longer readily propagate with each other, and the varieties become
New Species, more and more marked as the unaltered or less altered races,
descendants of the common parent, have become extinct.
That these species have in their turn become the parents of groups of spe-
cies, i.e. Genera, Orders, &c., of a higher and higher grade according to the
1874. D
34 REPORT—1874,
remoteness of the common parent, and more or less marked according to the
extinction or preservation of unaltered primary or less altered intermediate
forms. '
As there is thus no difference but in degree between a variety and a
species, between a species and a genus, between a genus and order, all disputes
as to the precise grade to which a group really belongs are vain. It is left
in a great measure to the judgment of the systematist, with reference as
much to the use to be made of his method as to the actual state of things,
how far he should go in dividing and subdividing, and to which of the grades
of division and subdivision he shall give the names of Orders, Suborders,
Tribes, Genera, Subgenera, Sections, Species, Subspecies, Varieties, &c., with
the consequent nomenclature. In the limitation of his orders, genera, spe-
cies, &c. he must carefully observe those cases where the extinction of races
has definitely isolated groups having a common parentage; and in other
cases where the preservation of intermediate forms has left no such gaps, he
is compelled to draw arbitrary lines of distinction wherever it appears to be
most convenient for use. In the pre-Darwinian state of the science we were
taught, and I had myself strongly urged, that species alone had a definite exist-
ence, and that genera, orders, &c. were more arbitrary, established for prac-
tical use, and founded on the combination of such characters as appeared the
most constant in the greater number of species, and therefore the most im-
portant ; we must now test our species as well as genera or other groups, by
such evidences as we can collect of affinity derived from consanguinity.
In valuing these evidences, in estimating the comparative value of cha-
racters, a new difficulty has arisen, that of distinguishing the two classes of
characters to which Professor Flower has appropriately given the names of
essential and adaptive, the former the result of remote hereditary descent,
the latter the more recent effect of external influences. This distinction is
often the more difficult, as the essential ones are often only to be found in
embryos, in the early stages of organs, or are merely indicated by slight
rudiments requiring close observation to: detect them; whilst the adaptive
ones, of comparatively small systematic importance, are often developed in
external form, in ramification, spinescence, foliage, &c., and are the most
striking to the eye. Oue consequence is, that the systematist of the present
day sees more and more the necessity of preparing a double arrangement of
his genera, species, and other groups—a natural one according to the best
evidences of affinity for the purpose of scientific study, and an artificial clavis
by which the student can be led to identify genera or species by the more
readily observed characters, which may only form part, or be but chance
accompaniments, of the essential ones. The greatest change, however, which
the adoption of the doctrine has effected in the methodical study of plants
is the having rendered it necessary, in the case of every genus or other group,
to take into account and specially to estimate the value of all the characters
observed—no one can be taken as so absolute as to obviate the need of con-
sidering others, no one can be passed over ‘as theoretically worthless; and
whilst this adds immensely to the ‘labour of the systematist and to the calls
on his judgment, it gives equal increase to the value of the results obtained.
The principal works through which the systematic botanist contributes to
the scientific study of the vegetable kingdom are:—1. General treatises or
descriptive reviews of the natural orders (Ordines Plantarum); 2. Methodical
enumeration and descriptions of genera (Genera Plantarum); 3. Methodical
enumeration and descriptions of species (Species Plantarum); 4. Monographs
of separate orders or genera, subgenera or species; 5. Floras of separate
RECENT PROGRESS OF SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 35
countries or districts ; 6. Detached and miscellaneous specific descriptions.
Before considering how far the works now complete or in progress answer
our requirements under each of these heads, a few general remarks are sug-
gested with regard to the languages in use,
In the pursuit of my systematic studies, and especially in the preparation
of my reports and addresses to the Linnean Society, I have had to consult or
refer to botanical publications in no less than fifteen different languages *.
This, to say the least of it, entails the use of a series of dictionaries which
but a small number of botanists can have access to ; and many an important
observation or discovery recorded remains, for this reason alone, long un-
known to the general botanist. That works intended for the use of the
beginner or local amateur, or exclusively teaching the well-known botany of
a particular country, should be in the familiar language of the country, is a
rule that every one will admit the expediency of; but for purely scientific
treatises and technically descriptive works which all botanists may have to
take cognizance of, and for which the commercial demand may be too limited
to ensure their translation into various languages, it is essential that that
one should be selected which is most likely to be intelligible to the greater
number of students of all countries. With this view Latin had been very
generally adopted during the last and the early portion of the present cen-
tury. It was tanght in all European schools, and served even as a vehicle
for general interchange of ideas between the votaries of science of different
countries where the study of modern languages was exceptional ; and even
now it is found to be the best suited for technical diagnoses and descriptions
from its concise character and from its susceptibility of being subjected to tech-
nical forms, without jarring upon the conventionalities of living languages
in familiar use. Every botanist must still, therefore, learn to read, and every
descriptive botanist to draw up, these Latin formule, notwithstanding the
character of dog-Latin which the scholar may be disposed to charge them
with ; but general descriptions, treatises, and discussions require a language
more thoroughly understood and in familiar use for other purposes. A clas-
sical education is now much less common than it was, and almost unknown
in some countries where science is eagerly pursued. Modern languages are,
on the other hand, much more frequently taught for general use ; and there
are three which at the present day every botanist ought to understand, and
in one of which he ought to be able to write—all three having a rich lite-
rature in every branch to repay the labour of learning them, independently
of science; these are, French, English, and German.
French has long been considered the one among modern languages
forming the nearest approach to a common one; it is easy, comparatively
simple in construction, not overburdened with redundant words, and, above
all, is readily broken up into short phrases, an invaluable qualification for
clearness of methodical exposition. It has long been the recognized diplo-
matic language, and the first foreign one taught in most European schools ;
and although within my own recollection national animosities may have
from time to time thrown it into disfavour in Germany and Eastern Europe,
yet it always appears to recover its prestige there in general society. At
the meetings of the botanists of various nations congregated at Florence last
May it was the general medium of intercourse, although the Frenchmen
present were in avery small minority. And in every branch of science or
literature to which I have paid more or less attention, it possesses more
* Latin, English, French, German, Dutch, Danish, Swedish, Russian, Polish, Bohemian,
Hungarian, Portuguese, £ Spanish, Italian, and modern Greek.
D2
36 REPORT—1874.
instructive elementary works, more readily intelligible treatises and clear
expositions of abstruse subjects, than any other language I am acquainted
with. For the botanist, therefore, as well as for all naturalists, its study is
still, and I believe will long remain, of first-rate importance.
The English language has of late years been recommended by more than
one continental naturalist for general adoption as a vehicle for international
scientific intercourse. It partakes of some of the advantages of both the
French and the German. Though less brilliant, it offers more variety than
the former, it is less involved than the latter, and it appears to be capable
of giving more precision and force to argument than either. It is now the
national language of the largest proportion of the civilized population of the
globe, and its use continues steadily to spread out of Europe generally, and
to a certain extent among European naturalists and other educated classes,
especially in eastern and northern Europe. They begin to admit the neces-
sity of consulting our untranslated treatises and memoirs, and our German
and east European botanical correspondents, at least, accept English letters
as readily as French. In southern Europe French is still much more gene-
rally understood; but even there the objections to the extended use of our
language for botanical works have now, I believe, lost much of their force.
The German is a more difficult language, much more difficult, indeed, for
the Latin nations of southern and western Europe than for ourselves. Its
construction is involved, its extraordinary copiousness occasions a strain upon
the memory ; but it affords great facilities for giving expression to minutely
distinguished details, whether of fact or of thought. It may thus frequently
give greater solidity to their theoretical expositions than the French, but is
infinitely more difficult to translate; and to those who are not thoroughly
used to its intricacies it seems to foster, if not to create, confusion of ideas.
Germany has now, however, so long included so many publishing centres of
scientific importance, and its language has been so generally used by Scan-
dinavian and Sclavonian, as well as by their own naturalists, that a sufficient
acquaintance with it, to study the very numerous works it produces, can no
longer be dispensed with by the general botanist.
The Dutch language, notwithstanding the number of scientific working
naturalists the country has fostered, both at home and in its Malayan colo-
nies, has too limited a range to be generally studied, and is not likely to
extend. It is much to be regretted, therefore, that it should have been so
much made use of for works intended for the use of others as well as of their
own subjects. Some of the late Professor Miquel’s most valuable essays
(that, for instance, on the vegetation of Sumatra with relation to its physical
conditions) remain a sealed book for the botanical community at large. I
perceive now, however, that their more important papers in the ‘ Archives
Néerlandaises’ and some other journals are being printed in French as well
as in Dutch, and we must hope that so commendable a practice may in future
be generally adopted.
The Scandinavian nations, Denmark and Sweden, whose men of science
have included a large proportion of the most eminent naturalists, have always
felt the objections to the publication of the results of their labours in their
own language. Linneus conducted his foreign correspondence and edited all
such works as were intended for foreign use in Latin, and his example was
much followed. In the first half, however, of the present century, both
Danes and Swedes began to indulge more in the use of their native languages,
and some important essays, especially on geographical botany’ and on the
cryptogamic section of systematic botany, have appeared in that disguise.
RECENT PROGRESS OF SYSTEMATIC BOTANY, 37
More recently the botanical papers in the Copenhagen Transactions and
Journals are frequently accompanied by a French abstract; and in Sweden
some of their Natural-History memoirs, such as Morell’s ‘ Monograph of
Spiders,’ have been printed exclusively in English. German is also a lan-
guage very generally understood by Swedish men of science, more so amongst
some of them than French or English; and it cannot be too strongly recom-
mended to them to bear in mind that, at the present day, the study of
Swedish and Danish is not usually treated as more necessary to the general
botanist than that of Dutch.
Still less is it the case with the Russian language, which, notwithstanding
its poetic beauty, its conciseness, and many other intrinsic advantages,
besides the extent of territory over which it is officially spoken, is far too
uncongenial with those of Western Europe to give any prospect of its being
generally learnt, and the publication in it of any works intended for foreign
circnlation cannot be too strongly deprecated. The Academy of Sciences of
St. Petersburgh and the principal Natural-History Society of Moscow accord-
ingly admit in their Transactions and Bulletins memoirs in French, German,
or Latin ; but still there are a few important ones issued by these bodies as
well as by a second Moscow Society, and others at Kazan and Odessa, entirely
in Russian. These are of course ignored by the rest of the botanical world
until translated or abstracted in one of the western languages. Such is also
the fate of the fortunately very few botanical papers which I have met with
in Polish, Bohemian, and Hungarian publications.
The Portuguese and Spaniards, with the vast possessions they formerly
held in America, where their languages have persisted as national, and those
they still retain (the former in tropical Africa, the latter in the Philippines
and West Indies), have in their time done good work in botany, and have
generally had the good sense to publish in Latin. There are some floras,
however, of their present or former colonies, more used by foreigners than
by themselves, which are entirely in their own languages. But these
languages, are, I believe, not now spreading further, and in America, at least,
English is gaining upon them for business transactions. For the Portuguese
language I have little sympathy, for it has always appeared to me harsh and
disagreeable ; but one cannot but feel some regret that so noble and powerful
a language as the Spanish should now be applied to so little purpose.
Italian botanical publications are rather numerous and of some importance,
especially in physiological and theoretical botany (their floras are mostly in
Latin); the language is also so generally and deservedly admired in a literary
point of view, and so far from difficult to those who are acquainted with
Latin and French, that some knowledge of it might be recommended to
botanists. Yet such general acquaintance with it ought not to be too much
relied upon; and Italian botanists will do well in continuing to resort to
Latin or French for such works as are intended for the use of foreigners.
And, lastly, with regard to modern Greek, we can only hope that its use will
be closely restricted to purposes of local instruction, which is indeed the
character of the few botanical publications I have seen in that language.
We may now proceed to consider the principal works in systematic botany
recently published or now in progress, under the several heads above
enumerated.
1, OrpINEs Pranrarvm, or General Expositions of the Orders and Sub-
orders constituting the Vegetable Kingdom.
It is to these ‘Ordines Plantarum’ that we are now obliged to limit our
38 ; REPORT—1874.
demands for single general histories of all plants. Alph. de Candolle, in the
« Réflexions ” above referred to, has shown how hopeless it is to expect the
completion of any single ‘Species Plantarum,’ even if limited to the technical
elaboration of the 150,000 or more species and subspecies now known, and
a ‘Genera Plantarum’ has now become a long and tedious labour. But we
have a right still to hope that a general account of the Vegetable Kingdom,
such as pre-Linnean botanists used to edit, but keeping pace with our
advanced knowledge, may still be issued from time to time, in a single volume,
as the work of a single author, provided he limit himself to the higher groups,
to orders and suborders in number not above a few hundred, neglecting the
lower groups, genera, and species, except for illustration or exemplification.
In such a work we should expect, for each order or other group illustrated,
the following particulars :—
(1) A diagnosis or short indication of its most important or most generally
prevailing character.
(2) A more detailed technical description of its general characters, with
indication of known exceptions.
(3) A discussion of its affinities, including an indication of the line of
demarcation adopted for its separation from the orders into which it may
pass insensibly, as well as of such aberrant or isolated forms as may le
betwe n it and some order otherwise separated by a wide gap.
(4) Its geographical distribution and the modifications of its characters
which prevail in different countries.
(5) Its connexion with extinct forms,
(6) Its properties and applied relations, industrial, economical, or phar-
maceutical.
Such a general history of plants is so useful not only to all classes of
botanists, but to the followers of other branches of natural and other science,
that it is most desirable that it should be drawn up in one or more of the
most widely diffused modern languages, and accompanied by well-selected
explanatory illustrations.
We have two works which have fulfilled the greater number of the above
conditions, bringing the science down to the comparatively recent periods
' when they were first prepared :—Lindley’s ‘ Vegetable Kingdom,’ published
in 1845, in English, somewhat modified in Endlicher’s ‘ Enchiridion Botani-
cum’ in Latin in 1846, and reissued by the author, with many additional
notes, in 1853; and Le Maout and Decaisne’s ‘ Traité de Botanique,’ pub-
lished in French in 1868, translated into English by Mrs. Hooker, with .
considerable additions and some modifications by Dr. Hooker, in 1873.
Lindley’s ‘ Vegetable Kingdom ’ was chiefly founded upon a large number
of original observations, notes, and other materials he had collected and
partly worked up in contemplation of a ‘ Genera Plantarum,’ a work which the
increasing calls upon his time and thoughts obliged him in the first place to
postpone, and which he finally gave up on the appearance of the first parts
of Endlicher’s ‘Genera.’ These materials were elaborated with great care
into his ‘ Natural System of Botany,’ 2nd edition, 1836, and afterwards
extended, chiefly by compilation, but always under the guidance of his very
extensive practical knowledge of plants, into the ‘ Vegetable Kingdom,’
which long remained a most valuable résumé of all that was important to
know of the 303 orders into which the subject matter was divided. This
work, however, is now nearly thirty years (or the greater part of the original
matter nearly forty years) old, and is thrown quite out of date by the great
progress the science has made during that period. The present proprietors
RECENT PROGRESS OF SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 39
have, I understand, made proposals for the preparation of a new edition ; but
this would scarcely be fair to the memory of the talented author. There are
many errors in it which he would have corrected and which must be cor-
rected, there are many views which he would now have modified and which
must be modified, but it would be impossible to tell to what extent he would
have admitted such corrections and modifications ; and they at any rate would
bear so important a part upon the whole plan, that the new editors would
not be justified in issuing the altered work under the sanction of his name.
It must be in a great measure rewritten, as will clearly appear on conside-
ration of the following particulars :—
The technical characters of each order would be carefully checked in
every particular. They were often taken from some one or two genera sup-
posed to be typical, and in some instances have been proved inapplicable even
to the great bulk of the order, or to have been founded wholly on error. In
many cases they may require considerable extension as to particulars which
have proved to be more important than they were originally estimated.
The affinities given require reconsideration throughout. Lindley insisted
on the principle, which was at that time generally prevalent amongst the
first naturalists, that affinity was no more than correspondence in structure,
more or less modified in proportion to its connexion with the phenomena of
life, and that an absolute scale of the relative value of characters founded on
their degree of constancy could be drawn up, so as to form a practical test of
natural affinities ; and it was from an adherence to this rule that, in grouping
his orders, he was led to dissociate such natural allies as Apocynes and
Asclepiadew or Ericaceze and Vacciniez in order to class them with others
universally acknowledged to be more remote. The new light thrown on the
subject by the doctrine that affinity is the result of consanguinity, would,
there is very little doubt, have been taken fully advantage of by Lindley
himself. He would have acknowledged that there is no character whica
may not be of very different importance in different orders or genera, or even
in different countries in one and the same order or genus, and that the true
characters of all natural assemblages are not so extremely simple as he then
believed them to be (see ‘ Veg. Kingd.’ Introd. p. xxix). The adoption of
this theory would entail the rewriting and extending the important para-
graphs introduced by Lindley immediately after the technical characters of
each order, and destined to indicate the most generaliy constant features and
the most important aberrant forms exhibited in it, and their connexion, near
or distant, with other orders or isolated genera or species.
Geographical distribution has, since Lindley wrote, acquired great impor-
tance with reference to natural method, as well as forming now an essential
item in the general history of plant-races. Although never neglected in the
‘Vegetable Kingdom,’ it requires much further development, with a résumé
of such evidences as the recent progress of the science has collected, respect-
ing the presumed origin and extension of the several orders. And to this
should be added a reference to the localities and the presumed geological
periods among the remains of which well-authenticated representatives of
any order may have been found. This, however, should only extend to the
few cases where the evidences are really satisfactory. The numerous
paleontological identifications derived from impressions of leaves only, upon
which so many expositions of ancient distribution have been founded, are
for the most part mere guesses, more likely to lead astray by giving a false
support to preconceived theories than to supply any sound data for the
history of plant-races.
40 REPORT—1874.
The properties and applied relations, the “ qualitates et usus” of Endli-
cher’s ‘Enchiridion,’ are very fully exhibited by Lindley, and would only
require revising in conformity with the advance of the science of applied
botany, much promoted of late by various important works and essays, and
in no small degree by the establishment of the Kew Museum.
The sequence of orders adopted in the ‘ Vegetable Kingdom’ is a very
objectionable one. The practical convenience of following the Candollean
sequence in its main features, until some other one shall have been pro-
pounded which shall prove to be such an improvement as to ensure its
general adoption, has been too clearly brought forward by Dr. Hooker and
others to make it necessary for me to repeat the reasons adduced. Lindley
felt its defects, as we all do, but failed in his repeated attempts to remedy
them. He was, indeed, so little satisfied with any of the four different
systems he successively proposed, that he adopted none of them for his own
herbarium, in which he arranged the orders alphabetically. Brongniart’s
arrangement has found its way into a few French works, and Endlicher’s
into a few German ones; but the very numerous ones proposed by other
French, German, and Swedish systematists have rarely been followed by more
than the individual authors, and many of them have only been broached in
text-books without ever having been put into practice. The Candollean
series is so generally adopted in ‘floras, that these attempts to interfere with
its universality have hitherto only produced confusion.
To sum up, it appears to me that the most useful work a competent
botanist could now apply himself to would be a new ‘ Vegetable Kingdom,’
founded on that of Lindley, but extended and modified espa to the
above suggestions.
Le Maout and Decaisne’s ‘ Traité de Botanique’ is an excellent and most
valuable work, bringing down the science, in most respects, to the year
1868, taking well the place of Lindley’s ‘ Vegetable Kingdom,’ and now our
standard history of plants. With great original merit it is still further im-
proved by Hooker’s notes and additions, including a rearrangement of the
293 orders according to the Candollean sequence; and the illustrations, many
of them original, from Decaisne’s own drawings, may be thoroughly depended
upon for that most essential of all qualities, their correctness. Yet in some
respects it seems to require rewriting, which of course could not be done by
an editor. Independently of a few oversights and accidental errors, there
are some partial views which are more or less out of date, and the general
principles followed are essentially pre-Darwinian. How far the French
authors may or may not be prepared to adopt the theory of evolution does
not appear, it is not in any manner alluded to; but the old doctrine that
affinities are to be determined by a calculation of resemblances, estimated
according to a fixed scale of the relative value of characters, is as absolutely
insisted upon by Decaisne and Le Maout as it was by Lindley, and is to a
certain degree practically carried out in this and others of the principal
author’s excellent systematic works, with the usual result. Some of the
groupings of species or genera, which, when tested by the value assigned
a priori to the characters used, ought to be highly natural, have proved, on
the contrary, to be purely artificial, This, however, is not frequently the
case with Decaisne ; he knows too well how to appreciate natural affinities to
follow strictly in practice the rules so stringently inculcated in theory.
I can scarcely include Baillon’s ‘ Histoire des Plantes’ amongst methodical
‘Ordines Plantarum,’ for there is no method in it; it is rather a series of
essays or notes on the principal genera of various orders taken at random,
RECENT PROGRESS OF SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. Al
intended, in the first instance, to illustrate Payer’s views on organogenesis,
and thence enlarged into desultory reviews of the orders, exhibiting in many
instances undoubted talent, containing a number of shrewd observations,
accompanied by beautiful illustrations, and followed by technical characters
of genera, in which but very little is original, being mostly transcripts from
our ‘Genera Plantarum’ and some other works. The result is a work not suffi-
ciently concise, exact, or methodical for scientific reference, too much encum-
bered with technical matter for general popular use, although it may well
adorn a scientific drawing-room table. It was begun in 1867, and four
volumes and a half are now completed. These, however, scarcely embrace
one sixth of the vegetable kingdom; and if the same plan is followed
throughout, the work must ultimately extend to some five and twenty to
thirty volumes. An English translation is in progress, two volumes being
already published. That Baillon should have undertaken so cumbersome a
work, with so little of that clear method for which his countrymen are justly
celebrated, is the more to be regretted, as the theory of organogenesis, which
it has been his great object to develop, is one of the greatest aids recently
introduced into the investigation and determination of natural affinities,
wherever it has been critically applied and properly checked by other classes
of observations.
2. Genrra Prantarvm, or Systematic Descriptions of all the Genera con-
stituting the Vegetable Kingdom.
This is the utmost extent to which we can expect to see all known plants
methodized and described within the limits of a single work by a single
author ; and even in that work they can only be treated of scientifically and
technically for the use of the botanist, without the generalities and accessory
details which adapt the ‘Ordines Plantarum’ to a wider circulation. Taking
for genera those groups of species, those plant-races of au intermediate grade
between the order and the species, which appear to be the best defined in
the present state of nature, and to which the generic nomenclature can be
applied with the greatest practical advantage, we should estimate them as
rather above eight thousand for Phenogams and vascular Cryptogams, and at
least a thousand more for cellular Cryptogams. Such a work can still be
brought within the compass of about three manageable volumes. Indis-
pensable as it always is for the working botanist, the demand for it would
neyer be sufficient to admit of its being simultaneously issued in the three
generally diffused modern languages, and it therefore usually has been, and
will still be, most usefully drawn up in botanical Latin.
Since the introduction of the natural method, there have been but two
good complete ‘Genera Plantarum,’ the original one of Jussieu in 1789 and
that of Endlicher, with its supplements ranging over the five years from
1836 to 1840; the latter was the work of a clear methodical head, applied
with great care and assiduity to a stock of materials very fair for the time,
and the general plan is good. But it was necessarily in a great measure a
compilation, and it affords no means of judging how far the characters given
had been confirmed by actual observation. This would have been the more
useful, as it is evident that in many cases ordinal characters are repeated
under each genus upon no other authority than that the genus had been
referred by its proposer to the order in question, The work had, moreover,
become quite out of date; and the need of a new one was so much felt, that
Dr. Hooker and myself undertook the preparation of a ‘Genera Plantarum’
on a plan which long experience had led us to hope might be an improved
4.2 REPORT—1874.
one. The first part was published in 1862, and the whole of the first
volume (completing the Polypetalous Dicotyledons) was, with the aid of a
supplement, brought down to the year 1867. The first half of the second
volume, issued last year, contains nearly half the Gamopetalous Dicotyledons,
the remainder of which, completing the second volume, will, we hope, be in
the printer’s hands early next winter. Monochlamydous Dicotyledons and
Monocotyledons will probably fill a third volume.
The plan which we have set to ourselves has been to prefix to each volume
a methodical diagnosis or short conspectus of the most striking characters of
the several orders contained in the volume, and under each order to give the
following particulars :—
(1) The general characters of the order.
(2) A short sketch of its geographical distribution.
(3) An equally abridged sketch of its affinities.
(4) An enumeration of the aberrant forms observed in individual genera,
an addition which is, I believe, here introduced for the first time, we having
both of us long felt the want of it in general works.
(5) A conspectus of the genera—that is, a short and as much as possible
contracted exposition of the most salient characters of each genus, as a guide
to the determination of plants. Where the order is large enough, or hetero-
morphous enough, to be subdivided into distinct suborders or tribes, the
tribual characters are given in this conspectus; and where the tribes are
numerous, as in Leguminosxz, Umbellifere, Rubiacez, and Compositee, a short
conspectus of them precedes that of the genera. This arrangement into
tribes has been everywhere thoroughly investigated, and in the case of most
of the large orders entirely recast.
(6) An enumeration of genera which are either so nearly allied that they
might be supposed to belong to the order, or which have been erroneously
included in it, or have been so imperfectly described as to be wholly doubtful.
(7) Then follow the detailed characters of each genus, with an evaluation
of its extent, its geographical distribution, a full synonymy, references to
plates illustrating it, and such occasional notes as appeared necessary on
affinities, on genera confounded with it, or in our opinion unadvisedly sepa-
rated from it. Where the genera are sufficiently large or varied, the characters
of its primary sections are entered into.
We have taken care to indicate the genera, very few in number, of
which we have been unable to examine any specimen, and the characters
which we have not personally investigated, indicating always the sources
whence those we give have been taken ; and we have also thought it neces-
sary to pay particular attention to the typographical details of the work, an
element of clearness which is sadly neglected in many German and some
French systematic works.
3. Species Prantarum, or Systematic Enumeration and Descriptions of all
known species.
In the above-quoted article in the ‘ Natural-History Review’ for October
1864, I gave a sketch of the last attempts made to publish a complete ‘ Spe-
cies Plantarum,’ including a detailed history of the great work of modern
days, De Candolle’s ‘ Prodromus,’ which I need not now repeat. This work
has now been brought to a conclusion by the issue, last autumn, of the
seventeenth volume, forty-nine years after the publication of the first. Its
celebrated originator began in 1818 a ‘Systema Vegetabilium,’ with all the
details of the so-called new editions of Linneus, but drawn up and arranged
nECENT PROGRESS OF SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 43
according to the principles of the natural method, After the issue of the
second volume in 1821, he found himself obliged to give up the task as ©
already far beyond the means of a single life, and substituted an abridged
‘ Prodromus,’ which he long continued, almost uaassisted, at first with a vague
idea of its being preliminary to a more detailed work. As that hope was
finally extinguished, and especially since the elder De Candolle’s death, the
* Prodromus’ has been gradually extended into a series of concise monographs
by different authors, differing much in merit, but drawn up as nearly as
could be according to one plan, and uniformly printed in the successive
volumes of a single work—the younger De Candolle, besides working up
many of the orders himself, having gone through the tedious labour of edit-
ing them, giving to the botanical world a splendid monument of industry
and perseverance, which will long be of great practical utility. It is now
nominally complete, but only as to Dicotyledons, and the first volumes are
quite out of date. They are, however, to a certain degree, supplemented by
Walpers’s ‘ Repertorium’ and ‘ Annales ;’ and the botanist has thus, in thirty
volumes, a very fair repertory of all described Dicotyledons up to a recent
date. For Monocotyledons he has only Kunth’s ‘ Enumeratio,’ which extends
to little more than half the class, having been put an end to by the author's
death in 1850. For the remaining portion of Monocotyledons, for Crypto-
gams, and for all recently discovered species or recent methodizations of old
ones, he must have recourse to detached monographs and floras, which are
henceforth likely to be his only resource for the history of species. Alphonse
de Candolle, in the above-quoted ‘“ Réflexions,” has shown how little chance
there is of a uniform ‘Species Plantarum’ being again undertaken with any
prospect of its being brought to a successful conclusion. He calculates that
it would require fifteen or sixteen years’ labour of some five-and-twenty
botanists, working under the direction of about eight to ten editors, a com-
bination which it is highly improbable will ever be practically brought to
bear. His calculations may, however, be a little overcharged. He supposes
that each botanist would not work up more than 300 species in a year ;
that may be the case in a monograph when every detail is to be gone through
from personal observation, but this would not now be necessary in a general
‘Species Plantarum,’ which would be most useful as a concise methodical com-
pilation. Much of the labour expended on the ‘ Prodromus’ and on detached
monographs and floras need not be repeated. As pre-Linnean synonyms,
upon which so much time was formerly expended, have now been generally
given up, so, for post-Linnean synonyms, there would now be no use in
repeating those given in the ‘ Prodromus’ and other works compiled from,
unless where errors have been detected; and this alone would save a great
deal of time, labour, and expense. And with regard to the greater number
of the orders or genera contained in the recent volumes of the ‘ Prodromus’
and the best modern monographs and floras, a careful and intelligent
abridgment of the specific characters without reexamination is all that would
be necessary.
It might be useful to consider what would be the requisites of any such
abridged ‘Species Plantarum’ or ‘Synopsis,’ restricted within limits which
should render it possible, at least as to phenogamous plants.
We might expect it to follow the sequence of orders the-most generally
adopted, that of the ‘ Prodromus’ and of our ‘Genera Plantarum,’ with such
slight modifications only as the progress of science has rendered necessary,
without attempting hypothetical improvements.
To each order and to each genus should be given short diagnostic cha-
44, REPORT—187 4.
racters, abridged from the last ‘Genera Plantarum’ or other best sources,
selecting chiefly those which are most essential and contrasted, but including
also the most striking or the most general amongst the adaptive ones, and a
general indication of geographical range, with careful reference to the works
where more details are to be found.
Where the orders or genera are large, a synopsis or conspectus of the
principal divisions and subdivisions would be useful. ‘
To each species should be given :—
(1) The name.
(2) The diagnosis, specific character, or abridged description, which are
but different names for the same thing, and which it appears to me would
be always more satisfactory in the nominative than in the ablative case.
After the example of Linnzus, and based upon the doctrine of the fixity of
species, it has been almost universally the custom to distinguish the specific
diagnosis and description, the former to contain the absolutely distinctive
characters (any deviation from which would exclude a plant from the spe-
cies), the latter to aid the student in identifying a plant by the enumeration
of characters which, though general, might vary in the same species, or
which it may possess in common with other species. In order to mark the
more strongly this difference, the diagnosis, when in Latin, has been given
in the form of the ablative absolute, the description in the ordinary nomina-
tive form. There is, however, nothing really absolute in nature. There is
no class of characters which may not occasionally admit of exceptions; and
although care should be taken to select the most important and constant
ones, yet, in some instances, those which are generally discarded as too
variable for a diagnosis, such as dimensions, colour, &c., may yet be most
useful, or even essential, for the distinction of species or even of genera.
These diagnoses, moreover, to be useful should be short. We cannot now
restrict them to the twelve-word law of Linneus, but a twelve-line ablative
diagnosis is an absolute nuisance.
(3) Reference to the source whence the diagnosis is taken, to the work
where a further description, tle synonymy, and history of the species are to
be found, and to any plates where it may be satisfactorily represented ; and
all further synonymy should be avoided, except where it may be necessary
to refer to descriptions, names, or modifications published since the one
specially abstracted from.
(4) The habitat of the species.
(5) Occasional notes on affinities or other points in the history of the
species should be very sparingly indulged in, and only when they may assist
essentially in the provisional determination and elucidation of a plant. All
discussions on doubtful points and all details should be reserved for mono-
graphs or separate papers, where alone they can really tend to the advance-
ment of the science.
Each volume of the ‘Synopsis’ would of course be accompanied by a full
index of genera, species, and such synonyms as it may have been found
necessary to give.
The whole work would be so indispensable to botanists of all nations, that,
like the ‘Genera Plantarum,’ it should be entirely in botanical Latin, which,
moreover, from the number of conventional expressions to which a technical :
meaning has been assigned, is specially suited for short diagnoses.
No new species should be first published in this ‘Synopsis.’ Nothing has
tended more to produce confusion in systematic botany than the publication
of real or supposed new species, with short diagnoses, unattended by any full
EE ——
RECENT PROGRESS OF SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. AS
description or detailed indications of its affinities, &c. However carefully
the diagnosis may be worded so as to distinguish the species from those
previously published, it would be insufficient for its identification, and full
descriptions would be inadmissible from the plan of the work. At the same
time it is to be expected that the author, in preparing the ‘ Synopsis,’ should
meet with new forms, which he may be desirous to make known, in order
to render his work as complete as possible. But his course should be to give
their full history in a separate monograph, to which, when published, he
could refer in the ‘Synopsis.’ He should here not only thus avoid all addition
to the numerous puzzles with which the science is overloaded from insuffi-
cient description, but strictly abstain from all mention of manuscript and
other names which, accerding to the recognized rules of nomenclature, are
not admitted as sufficiently published.
The grade of plant-race to which the specific name and diagnosis should
be attached, would be the species in the Linnean sense, which, though not
susceptible of a strict definition, is pretty generally understood amongst
botanists, whether they may designate it as a true species, a Linnean, or a
compound species. The ‘Synopsis’ might also distinguish marked varieties
whose admission or rejection as species might be doubtful; but the innume-
rable forms variously termed varieties, subspecies, or critical species should
be passed over in silence, as their admission would simply render a general
work impossible, and a more partial one comparatively useless. The enume-
ration and distinction of the various forms of Brassica campestris and oleracea,
of Pisum sativum, Viola tricolor, &c. may be serviceable to the agriculturist
or gardener, that of the forms of Rubus fruticosus may be interesting to
the investigator of the flora of a limited district, but they are only useless
encumbrances to the general systematist as well as to the naturalist in other
branches who would have to make use of the ‘ Synopsis; ’ and the names and
diagnoses of two hundred forms of Draba verna would be a simple nuisance,
of no use whatever to any one*.
Taking the species, therefore, in the Linnean sense, we should, with Alph. de
Candolle, estimate the number of Phenogams now published, or in the course
* The mode of dealing with species which in the present state of vegetation pass into
each other through a series of intermediate forms which cannot fairly be supposed to be
hybrids, is well discussed by Nageli in a series of papers in the ‘Sitzungsberichte’ of the
Munich Academy for 1866, the result of careful observation chiefly of the genus Hiera-
cium. After admitting himself to have been originally a firm believer in the fixity of
species and a strong advocate of the hybrid parentage of the large number of intermediate
forms observed, he acknowledges his conversion to the doctrine of evolution. ‘In the
present state of the science” he sees “no other possibility than the assumption that the
species of Hieracium have arisen by transmutation either from extinct or from still sur-
viving forms, and that there are still persistent a great number of the intermediate stages
(xaces) formed either by the original differentiation of the extinct species, or in the course
of the transformation of one yet living species into the diverging forms.”—Sitzungsber.
1866, i. 330.
In a subsequent paper he shows that the genus Hieraciwm affords instances of great
diversity in the degree to which differentiation has attained and in the definiteness of the
species established by the extinction of intermediates. He instances, amongst those to
which he would in their present state assign the rank of species :—
1. Aggregate forms, such as H. p2losella, which cannot as yet be separated into distinct
groups. H. Hoppeanum, Schult., H. Pelleterianum, Mérat, H. pseudopilosella, Jen., are
not yet sufficiently isolated by the disappearance of intermediate forms to be ranked as
species.
PO. Forms which, by the disappearance of closely allied ones, have attained sharper and
more fixed jimits, and yet between which isolated intermediates may still be found, are
exemplified by H. awricula, H. aurantiacum, and H. pilosella, or by H. murorum, H. vil-
losum, and A. glaucum. On the other hand, it is wacertain whether the relations of
46 REPORT—1874.
of publication, from materials already in our herbaria, at between 110,000
and 120,000. A competent botanist would readily:get through three or four
thousand in a year. In the ‘ Flora Australiensis’ I had no difficulty in pre-
paring a thousand to twelve hundred in the year, and that was all original
work, entailing the personal examination of every species often in numerous
specimens, and a long and tedious investigation of synonyms. Such a com-
pilation as I have above characterized would require, it is true, a competent
knowledge of plants and occasional verifications ; but still the labour would be
reduced by at least two thirds ; and 300 species a month, with a month or six
weeks’ vacation, would be no great strain upon the mind. Thus three or four
botanists might complete the synopsis of ten thousand species in the year;
and the general synoptical enumeration of all known Phenogams would not
be beyond the range of possibility, however little chance there may be of my
living to see it commenced.
Cryptogamic details require the cooperation of more special botanists, who
have already furnished us with monographs or synopses of some of the
primary groups. In Ferns, Hooker's ‘ Species Filicum’ is very complete, and
is brought down to the present day by his ‘ Synopsis Filicum,’ edited by Baker,
of which a new edition is now ready. For Mosses, the last general work
is Carl Mueller’s ‘Species Muscorum,’ completed in 1851, since which date
the number of species described has been at least doubled. Modern musco-
logists have, however, so much lowered their generic and specific standards,
that they have placed the study of this most interesting class of plants almost
beyond the reach of the general botanist. A monographer who would boldly
reestablish the species according to Linnean principles, and group them in a
manageable number of genera, treating the lower grades as subspecies only,
disencumbering the binomial nomenclature from them, would render a great
service to science. In Hepatice there has been no general ‘Species’ since that
of Gottsche and Lindenberg, begun in 1844, and, by means of supplements,
brought down to 1847. Lichens are still more in arrear. Nylander began,
indeed, a new ‘ Synopsis’ in 1867, but it has never been continued. In Algee,
Agardh’s ‘Species Algarum,’ commenced in 1848, was completed in 1863; °
and Kiitzing’s ‘Phycologia’ and ‘Species Algarum, issued in 1849, have,
through the nineteen volumes of his ‘Tabule,’ been brought down to 1869,
The enormous class of Fungi is much more complicated, and their study much
more specialized than any other branch of systematic botany ; and although
mycologists, no more than phenogamists, have at present any general com-
prehensive systematic work, they have the advantage of Streinz’s ‘Nomen-
clator,’ a convenient general index to the numerous detached monographs
and papers descriptive of fungi.
4. Monoerapus of Orders and Genera.
Monographs, like « Ordines Plantarum,’ are general histories of plants; but
the feld being limited to single orders or genera, the author can descend to
#. auricula and H. glaciale, or of H. murorum and H. vulgatum, should be included in
this stage, or are still in the first-mentioned category. ;
3. Species between which no constant intermediates survive, but which still are capable
of producing intermediate hybrids, are represented by H. alpinum and H. villosum, by
H. alpinum and H. glaucum, by H. murorum and H, umbellatum, &e.
4, Lastly, the three sections Pilosella, Archicracivm, ard Stcnotheca are races which
have become so far distanced frcm each other that hybrid fertilization no longer takes
place between them.—Sé/zungsh. 1866, i. 472.
RECENT PROGRESS OF SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 47
species and primary varicties instead of limiting himself to orders and tribes,
They are at the present day amongst the most important botanical works.
They are required by the systematist for the identification of plants, and by
the general naturalist as the source whence he is to derive the data he requires
respecting individual species in theoretical, geographical, physiological, or
applied botany. This preparation has been recognized as the best exercise
for the young botanist ; and monographs of difficult orders have been re-
ceived as most valuable contributions from some of the most eminent heads of
the science.
Our requirements for a complete monograph are analogous to those we
expect in ‘ Ordines’ and ‘ Genera Plantarum,’—methodical arrangement, tech-
nical diagnoses and descriptions, indications of geographical distribution,
*‘ qualitates et usus,” and occasional notes on affinities and systematic limits,
including an investigation of synonyms, well selected illustrations adding
always to the practical value. The technical diagnoses and descriptions for
the use of the systematist ought invariably to be drawn up in botanical Latin ;
the more general matter would usually be more readily written, and often
much more intelligible, in one of the three general modern languages.
_ This similarity required in the histories of orders, genera, and species
has not, however, been hitherto generally acknowledged, and could not even
have been admitted so long as it was believed that there was an essential
difference between the groups—between the definite fixity of species and
the more arbitrary limitation of genera and orders. In early systematic
works, therefore, whilst the definitions of orders and genera were single
and in ordinary phraseology, it was thought necessary, in the case of species,
to give a double definition—a diagnosis containmg the supposed fixed
characters, by which the species could be absolutely tested, and therefore
expressed in the ablative absolute, and a description admitting all classes of
characters in the ordinary form of phraseology. As the number of specics
increased, greater extension was habitually given to both diagnosis and de-
scription, till they became unwieldy for use, without some short indication
of the most striking points to be attended to. This has been done in two
ways, either by prefixing to the group of species described a tabular clavis or
a short conspectus of the contrasted characters to which attention is specially
called, or by italicizing them in the long diagnosis. The former course en-
tails often the useless repetition of the same characters three times over, in
the clavis, in the diagnosis, and in the description ; the latter, seeing that the
italicized words are usually adjectives, often occasions confusion and loss of
time in searching for the substantives to which they belong. Now that it is
laid down that there is no more absolute fixity in a species than in an order
or genus, the complication is no longer necessary ; there is no more need of an
absolute test in the one case than in the others. In all we want a short
indication of the most prominent contrasted characters for approximate or
preliminary determination, prefixed to the detailed description for subsequent
verification.
These short characters are given in three different forms :—Ist, a tabular
clavis, more or less on the dichotomous principle, as is now frequently exem-
plified in local floras; 2ndly, a conspectus prefixed to the whole group of
‘species; 3rdly, the short character prefixed to each description, In
elaborate monographs, where the descriptions are long, the conspectus is pro-
bably the most satisfactory form ; in more concise ones, where the descrip-
tions are short, the tabular clavis will be found more useful. In synopses,
swhere the descriptions are reduced to occasional notes or limited to new
48 REPORT—1874.,
species, the short characters or diagnosis (which, I think, should never be
omitted) would form the body of the work, and the notes and descriptions,
when they occur, should be given under each diagnosis.
It should always be borne in mind by the monographist that the great test
of the quality of a descriptive work lies in short descriptions, diagnosis, and
conspectus or clavis. Any tyro with a little practice can draw up long descrip-
tions of specimens, fairly detailing every organ; but the selecting the characters
necessary to give a good idea of a species in a short description requires a
thorough knowledge of the subject and a methodical mind. Still more diffi-
cult is it to prepare a good clavis. After half a century of experience in using
as well as in making these keys, I find that I have failed in some of those on
which I had spent the greatest pains; and in some floras I have met with
tabular keys which are in many respects rather impediments than aids to the
determination of plants. At the same time a successful clavis or contrasted
conspectus is an excellent test of the quality of a method—of the appropriate
grouping into genera, sections, and species.
Really good monographs are not very numerous, and several of them not
very recent. Some of the best among complete monographs have proceeded
from the French school; and I may refer as models to Richard’s Coniferze,
Adrien de Jussieu’s Malpighiacee, Decaisne’s Mistletoe and Lardizabalee,
Weddel’s Urticez, Tulasne’s Monimiacee, and others. Their illustrations also,
as wellas some of the German ones, far exceed our own in neatness, clearness,
and correctness of analytical detail. For more concise and technical mono-
graphs some of the recent volumes of the ‘ Prodromus’ afford good examples.
Amongst the worst I have had occasion to refer to are De Vriese’s detailed
monograph of Goodenoview and Steudel’s more concise synopsis of Glumaceee.
The Germans have of late years done but little in this respect beyond what
has been incidental to the ‘ Flora Brasiliensis.’ In England the principal recent
ones have been Hiern’s Ebenacez, remarkable for the scrupulous care with
which the minutest details have been worked out, and Miers’s Menispermacez,
the value of which we fully recognize, although we do not accept the low
grades to which he assigns the rank of genera and species respectively. Some
good partial ones have appeared in the Swedish and Danish as well as our
own Transactions; and we have had excellent Russian and North-American
monographic memoirs, limited, however, to plants of their own territories,
and therefore scarcely coming under the present head.
The orders now most in need of the labours of able and methodical mono-
graphists are, in the first place, the Monocotyledonous ones. The largest of
them, that of the Orchidex, was once well worked up by Lindley ; but the
enormous additions made to it since thest curiously diversified plants have
been brought into fashion by horticulturists have thrown the ‘ Genera et
Species Orchidearum ’ quite out of date. The next two in point of number,
Graminee and Cyperace, have been undertaken chiefly by Germans; and if
Trinius, Kunth, and Nees von Esenbeck had partially cleared up the confusion
which prevailed among them, Steudel has in a great measure contributed to
throw them into a worse chaos than before. Munro, who has long made the
Graminee a subject of special study, has as yet only published his monograph
of Bambusew. In Cyperacex, Bockeler’s desultory descriptions of those of
the Berlin Herbarium are sometimes perhaps rather obstacles than aids to
a general systematic acquaintance with the order. Masters’s monograph of
Restiacez is limited to the African species. Klatt’s Iridez do not very well
bear the test of practical use. Martius’s splendid work on Palms requires
already much supplementing. Baker is now rendering good service in working
RECENT PROGRESS OF SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 49
up the Liliaceous groups ; but some of the remaining orders appear to have
been almost entirely neglected.
Among Dicotyledons the orders which I would particularly recommend as
the subject of specific monographs are those which are contained in the first
yolume of the ‘ Prodromus,’ and more especially such as comprise a large
number of plants from the temperate and mountain-regions of the northern
hemisphere (e.g. Ranunculacex, Crucifere, many genera of Papilionacee,
Rosacez, &c.); and this not only, for the purpose of methodizing the data sup-
plied by the numerous writers on local floras, but with a view to the careful
and intelligent, but merciless excision of the overwhelming numbers of races
of lower grades which have, to the great detriment of science, been allowed
to rank with those legitimately deserving the name of species. Tropical and
southern orders are so much within the scope of the great floras now in
course of publication, that special monographs, except as connected with those
works, are not in such immediate demand.
Monographs of variable or ill-defined species have also their importance, if
worked out with a view to ascertaining the extent to which, and the circum-
stances under which, a species varies or is connected with others, and not
for the sole purpose of dividing and subdividing it into races of a lower grade,
to receive the same binomial nomenclature as the normal or compound species.
Such a monograph should comprise the history of the species throughout the
area it occupies, the investigation of the modifications which its several organs
undergo in different localities, of the extent to which the. divergencies are
earried out under different circumstances, of the relative numbers (that is, of
the frequency or rarity) of the divergent forms, of the extraneous circum-
stances (such, for instance, as the vicinity of allied species &c.) which may be
supposed to have influenced these divergencies—every thing, in short, which
might tend to show whether the variability is an indication of a progressive
differentiation of a flourishing race, or a temporary result of hybrid fertiliza-
tion, or the immediate effect of climatological or other conditions affecting the
individual rather than the race. The working out such a monograph in
some one or two species would be highly instructive to the general botanist,
and the data obtained might consolidate the foundations of more general
speculations. It may even be useful to define and to give subordinate names
to those varieties which approach the state of distinctness which might entitle
them to rank as species; but the technical defining of the slight diversities of
form assumed by a species in a limited locality, however constant those varie-
ties may there be found, can be of little interest but to the inhabitants of that
locality, and the giving them names as of species to be received by general
botanists is only adding to the encumbrances with which the science is over-
loaded, without a single corresponding advantage. :
5. Froras, or Histories of the Plants of particular countries or districts.
_ Floras, like monographs, are histories of plants so limited that the author
can descend to species; but the limit is geographical instead of systematic.
The general requirements as to their contents are the same as in respect of
Ordines Plantarum and Monographs, but with greater variety in the details,
according to the class of persons for whose use they are intended. If the
country of which the flora is given is large and the civilized inhabitants com-
paratively few, the work is chiefly useful to the general botanist, and requires
special attention to the technically systematic portion in botanical Latin.
Where the geographical extent is more limited, or the science generally cul-
tivated amongst its inhabitants, the general description and history should be
1874, "rR
50 REPORT—1874.
more extended, and the local language may be admitted or preferred accord-
ing to circumstances. The more botany is cultivated in a country, the more
yariety mey be given to its floras—a scientifically morphological one for a
text-book in classes, an easy descriptive one for the beginner and amateur, a
very fully detailed one for study at home, an abridged synopsis for a com-
panion in the field. In all, correctness and clearness of method and language
are the first qualities requisite ; and wherever any instruction or information
beyond the means of determining plarts is the object, geographical distribu-
tion (without as well as within the special area of the flora) is a most essen-
tial point to be attended to. It is to local floras that the general botanist
must hare recourse for most of the data he requires for the investigation of
the history and development of plant-races; and his reliance upon the cor-
rectness of the facts supplied depends much upon the intrinsic evidence of a
careful comparison on the part of the author of his plants with those of coun-
tries adjoining to or otherwise connected with his own. It tends also very
much to enlarge the ideas of a local botanist to learn how very widely spread
are species which he has been accustomed tacitly or expressly to consider
rare local creations, and how very differently plants may be distributed or
varied in other countries from what he has observed at home. Exotic dis-
tribution is, however, a point very little attended to in many of our best
modern floras. I well recollect the interest that it gave to the firstin which
T met with it, Cambessedes’s enumeration of the plants of the Balearic
Islands, published in 1827; but his example was but rarely followed. More
recently, I believe, I was the first to introduce it into British floras. Dr.
Hooker has paid particular attention to it in all his systematic works ; it is
one of the conditions introduced by the late Sir William Hooker in his plans
for the series of Colonial Floras, and has been partially attended to by some of
the contributors to the great work on Brazilian plants. We may hope, there-
fore, to see it gradually included in the standard continental floras, as well as
in more local ones. It is gratifying to observe that in that of Dorsetshire,
just published by Mr. Mansel-Pleydell, special indications are given of the
species which extend to the opposite coast of Normandy.
In seyeral of my Linnean Addresses, especially in those of 1866 and 1871,
as well as in two articles in the ‘ Natural-History Review’ (one on Maxi-
mowitz’s ‘Amur Flora” in April 1861, the other on ‘ South-European
Floras”’ in July 1864) I had occasion to enter into many details relating to
the Floras recently published or in progress, which it would be superfluous
now to repeat. I may only state generally that those of the central and
northern States of Europe are well kept up, Lange and Willkomm’s
Prodromus of Spanish Plants has very recently made a.step in advance by
the issue of the first part of the third and last volume, which it may be hoped
will be now soon complete, Parlatore’s Italian Flora gives no such pro-
mise, thovgh it still drags its long pages slowly on. The vegetation of the
eastern portion of the vast Russian empire is being thoroughly and scienti-
fically investigated by Maximowitz. Boissier’s much-wanted ‘ Flora Orien-
talis ’ has reached the end of Polypetale in its second volume, and a third is
said to be far advanced. The still more important ‘ Flora Indica’ is at
length fairly afloat; two parts, by various authors, under the enlightened
editorship of Dr. Hooker, are on sale, and a third is nearly ready. The
‘Flora Australiensis ’ reached its sixth volume last summer ; and if health and
strength be spared me, I hope to complete the seventh and last next summer.
Weddell is, I understand, preparing the third and last volume of his ‘ Chloris
Andina ;’ and that splendid monument to systematic botany, the great ‘Flora
RECENT PROGRESS OF SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 51
Brasiliensis,’ thanks to the munificent patronage of the Emperor and his
Government, and to the unwearied zeal and energy of the present able editor,
Dr. Eichler, has so far advanced, that its completion, once thought hopeless,
may now be fairly reckoned on at no distant period.
Turning to the desiderata in this branch of systematic botany, besides the
completion of the above-mentioned works in progress, and of the remaining
colonial floras begun or contemplated according to the plans of Sir W. Hooker,
there are three which are much in need of a thorough investigation and re-
working up on sound scientific as well as practically useful principles. These
are the European, the Russian, and the North-American. The three together
comprise the whole vegetation of the temperate and cold zones of the northern
hemisphere, by far the most extended continuous flora of the globe, and the
most closely connected with what we know of the vegetation of the latest
preceding geological periods. Its present continuity, with only a gradual
east-and-west change in the northern portion, but more and more marked
divergencies as it recedes from the arctic regions, and the evidences we have
of that continuity having been as great at a former period and in some
instances perhaps yet wider extended, would suggest that it ought to be
treated as one whole. That would, however, be too great an undertaking for
a single hand; and there are other advantages in dividing it into three
separate floras, provided the three are carried out according to one plan, with
a uniform estimate of specific and generic grades, and each one always in close
connexion with the other two. ‘The different materials which each of the
three investigators would have to work upon would require some differences
in their treatment, besides that each one ought to be an inhabitant of
the region he inyestigates, so as to have some personal experience of its
living flora.
The writer of the European flora would be much more bewildered by a
superabundance of data than at a loss on account of any deficiency. His first
great difficulty would arise from the enormous number of names published
by local botanists, and the consequent call upon him to carry out on a large
scale that judicious excision of insufficiently differentiated species which I
have above urged in the case of monographs.. His work would be more in
the hands of the general than of the local botanist, and conciseness, method,
and accuracy would be more important than minuteness of detail. Innova-
tion would be avoided unless upon very strong grounds. The most useful
sequence to be adopted in the present state of the science would be, without
doubt, the Candollean, the genera and species restricted to the higher grades
sanctioned by the best modern monographists and other systematists. In the
majority of cases he would have little difficulty in this respect ; and when he
comes to such involved genera as Ranunculus, Hieraciwm, Rubus, &c., where
there are really so many indefinite species, he would limit his specific names
and descriptions to the ‘ Hauptformen’ of Nigeli, which one set of botanists
_ may designate as Linnean or legitimate and another as compound species.
Isolated intermediate forms, whether hybrid and evanescent or more or less
constant, and a few of the principal subspecies, varieties, critical or, in the
Jordanian view, true species, may require mention by name, with a few
_ descriptive notes where the low grade may be doubtful; but the great majority
may be dismissed with a general statement of their having been proposed by
dozens or by hundreds, as the case may be, with a careful indication, however,
in so far as possible, of the degree in which the species admitted have been
observed to vary, and of any difference in this respect in different parts of
- the area of the flora. The language of such a European flora should be,
E2
52 3 _REPORT—1874.
without doabt, botanical Latin for the technical descriptions; French or
English might be better suited for the occasional notes and geographical
distribution.
This geographical distribution would be a most essential feature in the
general flora of Europe, which exemplifies the gradual extinction southwards
of the arctic plants, and eastwards of a very interesting western flora, whilst
a certain number of Asiatic plants enter its eastern limits, but fail to reach
the western States ; and much interest attaches to the botanical connexion of
the Pyrenean and Alpine floras with the north and with each other. Accu-
rate data are much wanted for the inquiry into the history of the dispersion
of plant-races, their origin, progress, decline, and final extinction ; and to
supply these data all general floras will be expected to record for each species
the area it occupies within the flora, distinguishing the localities where it is
most common and the direction in which it becomes rare, and its ultimate
limits if within those of the flora, or if not, noting generally its extension
into adjoining regions in identical or representative forms. For the European
flora the limits are well marked on three sides: —To the westward, the Atlantic
opposes an insurmountable obstacle to any gradual extension of European
plants, except in the extreme north. To the south, the Mediterranean and
Black Seas and the ridge of the Caucasus give a good natural boundary ; for
though many of the European forms are still prevalent on the African coasts
and in Asia Minor, yet they are very soon arrested southwards by climato-
logical conditions. To the north, the limits of the European flora are those
of all vegetation. To the east only is there no definite limit, and an arbitrary
line must be drawn to separate it from the North-Asiatic region ; that of the
Ural, though no better marked botanically than physically, is on the whole
the most convenient.
For the Russian, or rather the North-Asiatic, flora (for it ought to include
or to be drawn up in close connexion with that of Japan) a methodical and
geographical work, by one who should have the intimate acquaintance with
the vegetation and the sound views of Maximowitz, would be a great boon.
Here, again, the northern limits are those of all vegetation, and the southern
ones at present fairly defined by the comparatively unexplored mountain-
masses of Central Asia, beyond which the northern plants are replaced by a
totally different vegetation ; but besides the actual continuity with the Euro-
pean flora to the westward, there is a close connexion with that of North
America to the east, notwithstanding the definite limits interposed by the
Pacific—a connexion which has been already exhibited by Asa Gray from an
American point of view, and by Maximowitz on the part of East Russia and
Japan, but still requires a much fuller development. Ledebour’s ‘ Flora
Rossica’ would form a very good basis for the new work: it is the best
complete flora of so large a tract of country which we possess; but it now
requires a thorough revision, with the insertion of the numerous additions
made by recent explorations, and the geographical data must be entirely
remodelled and extended to meet the above-mentioned requirements. With
regard to the Japanese flora, abundant materials have been collected and
published in various works, chiefly by Dutch botanists; but the absence of
all method in Miquel’s ‘ Prolusiones,’ where they profess to be enumerated,
renders that work of little use to the general botanist, and a geographical
flora is very much needed. The connexion, indeed, between Asia and America
cannot be studied without constant reference to Japan.
For the North-American flora we must look to AsaGray. The Americans
have for many years past been most active in the exploration of their vast
RE CENT PROGRESS OF SYSTEMATIC BOTANY, 53
territory, and its botany has been partially worked up monographically by A.
Gray, geographically by Sereno Watson, Porter, and others ; but the great
mass of data collected are scattered over so great a variety of publications as
to render them almost useless to the general botanist. We cannot even
approximately fix upon the boundary-line to separate the North-American
from the very different Mexican flora to the south-west. Northward it
should, if it is wished to make it really instructive, extend, like the two other
great floras, to the limits of vegetation ; eastward and westward the Atlantic
and Pacific afford definite boundaries. But the comparative degree in which
the external connexion with Europe and Asia is broken off by the two oceans,
the causes of the difference observed, as further illustrated by recent paleon-
tological discoveries, the effect of the north-and-south ridge of mountains and
other causes in separating eastern and western races within the territory, and
many other important elements in the history of plants can only be satisfac-
torily investigated with the aid of such a comprehensive, methodical, and
geographical flora as we are in hopes the distinguished Harvard- University
botanist is now preparing. °
6. Sprcrric Descriptions, detached or miscellaneous.
Had I to report only on the progress,"and not on the present state also, of
systematic botany, I should here stop, for the great majority of recent detached
and miscellaneous descriptions are almost: as much impediments as aids to the
progress of the science. I have too often in my Linnean Addresses, espe-
cially in those. of 1862 and 1871, animadverted on the mischief they produce
to enter now into any details ; I can only lament that the practice continues,
and is even rendered necessary by considerations not wholly scientific. Hor-
ticulturists must have names for their new importations. It is due to tra-
yellers who, under great perils and fatigues, have contributed largely to sup-'
plying us with specimens of the vegetation of distant regions that the results
of their labour should be speedily made known; it is even important to
science that any new form influencing materially methodical arrangements
should be published as soon as ascertained. But all this is very different
from the barren diagnoses of garden-catalogues, and the long uncontrasted
descriptions hastily got up for the futile purpose of securing priority of name.
I own that I have myself erred in the want of sufficient consideration in the
publication of some of the species of ‘ Plante Hartwegiane ;’ and some descrip-
tive miscellanea, even by men who stand very high in the science (such as
Miquel’s ‘ Prolusiones,’ above referred to, and Baron von Mueller’s ‘ Frag-
menta’), are rendered comparatively useless from their utter want of method.
Whilst, therefore, discouraging as much as possible all such detached publi-
cations of new species, I would admit their occasional necessity, but suggest
the following rules as the result of a long practical experience :—
No detached description of a new species should be ventured upon unless
the author has ample means of reviewing the group it belongs to; and if any
doubts remain of its substantive validity, he should refrain from giving it a
name till those doubts are cleared up.
The description, when given, should be full, but contrasted, and accom-
panied by a discussion of affinities with previously known species, and an
- indication of the place the new one should occupy in the several monographs
and floras in which it would be included.
An illustration of the new plant, with analytical details, should never be
neglected where circumstances admit of it.
In conclusion, if I am correct in the views I have taken of the desiderata
54: REPORT—1874.
under the six heads above detailed, I hope it may be admitted that, notwith-
standing recent progress, there is still a wide field open for the researches of
the systematic botanist, and that his branch of the science is not the mere
child’s play or herbarium amusement it has been charged with; for no
thorough knowledge of plants can be satisfactorily obtained or success-
fully communicated without scientific method, and no such method can be
framed without a thorough study of the plants methodized in eyery point
of view.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Pyz-Smiru, Dr. Brunton
_ (Secretary), and Mr. West, appointed for the purpose of investi-
gating the Nature of Intestinal Secretion.
For some time the opinion has prevailed among physiologists that the nervous
system not only exerts an influence upon the calibre of the vessels supplying
glands with blood for secretion, but that the secreting cells themselves are
excited to action by nervous stimuli. So firmly, indeed, has this opinion been
held, that Pfliiger’s discovery of nerves terminating in the secreting cells has
been almost universally accepted, notwithstanding his failure to demonstrate
these structures to others. Partly, no doubt, this belief has been due to the
high personal consideration in which this distinguished physiologist is justly
held, but it is also due in part to the conviction which prevails that such
structures must exist.
A distinct proof to this effect has been afforded by the researches of
Heidenhain, on the effect of atropia upon the secretion of the submaxillary
gland.
When one of the nerves going to this gland (viz. the chorda tympani) is
stimulated, two effects usually follow :—First, the vessels going to the gland *
dilate, the blood flows quickly through them, and a free supply of lymph is
poured out into the lymph-spaces surrounding the gland; secondly, the cells
of the gland absorb this lymph, convert it into saliva, and pour it out into the
duct of the gland.
If the animal be partially poisoned with belladonna (or its active principle
atropia), or if atropia be injected into the vessels of the gland itself so as to
exert its poisonous action upon the branches of the chorda tympani ending
in the gland, a very different result takes place.
When the nerve is then irritated the vessels dilate as before, the blood
pours rapidly through them, but not a drop of saliva is secreted. That part
of the chorda tympani which acts on the vessels has not been affected by the
poison, but those fibres which go to the secreting cells and stimulate them
to secrete have been paralyzed by it.
_ It is obvious, however, that the salivary secretion is only exceptionally
induced by direct irritation of the chorda tympani nerve, lying as this does
far below the surface and well protected from external influences. Usually .
secretion is induced reflexly from the mucous membrane of the mouth or
tongue, the impression made by sapid substances upon the sensory nerves of
these parts being transmitted up to the brain and then reflected outwards
along the chorda tympani to the gland.
ON THE NATURE OF INTESTINAL SECRETION, 55
There is, however, yet a third way in which secretion may be induced, and
that a somewhat extraordinary one, viz. by paralysis of certain nerves going
to the gland instead of by irritation. What the cause of this secretion is
has not been clearly made out, but the secretion itself is distinguished by its
profusion and long continuance. It has not yet been ascertained whether
this kind of secretion is arrested by atropia or not, We propose to ascertain
this in future experiments ; but as the question did not lie directly within
the limits of our present investigation (although closely connected with it),
we have not as yet attempted to solve it. There are, then, three ways in
which secretion may be induced in the salivary glands :—Ist, by direct irri-
tation of the secreting nerves ; 2nd, by reflex irritation of these neryes; and
ord, by paralysis of nerves,
We have entered thus fully on the physiology of secretion in the submaxil-
lary gland, because in it alone has the secreting process and the action of
nerves upon it been at all fully studied.
Regarding secretion in the intestines very little is known, but it is probable
that the process is performed in much the same way as in the salivary
glands.
The reasons for this belief are as follows :—
1st. When the process of digestion is going on and the food is present in
the intestines, their vessels are fuller than at other times, just as they are in
the salivary glands,
2nd. Stimulation of the mucous surface of the intestire induces secretion of
intestinal juice, just as stimulation of the mucous membrane of the mouth
induces a flow of saliva.
3rd, Section of all the nerves going to the intestine produces a profuse
secretion of intestinal juice, which at once reminds us of the paralytic secre-
tion observed in the submaxillary gland after section of its nerves,
This secretion of the intestine was first discovered by Moreau, who isolated
a loop of intestine by means of ligatures, and then divided all the nerves
passing to it on their course along the mesentery. On examining the intes-
tine after four hours, the loop which had previously been empty was dis-
’ covered to be filled with fluid.
This fluid was investigated chemically by Professor Kiihne, now of Heidel-
berg, who found it to be neither more nor less than very dilute intestinal juice
and almost identical in composition with the rice-water fluid which is poured
from the intestines so abundantly in cholera (Kiihne and Parkes),
The intestinal secretion can therefore be excited like the salivary one:—
1st, reflexly by stimulation of the mucous membrane of the intestine ; and
2nd, by division and consequent paralysis of all the nerves passing to the
intestines.
Unlike the salivary secretion, however, it has not yet been induced by
direct stimulation of the secreting nerves; and, indeed, these nerves are not yet
known. It is not improbable, however, that they are extremely short, and
are situated in the wall: of the intestine itself, in which, indeed, the whole
apparatus necessary to secretion would appear to be contained. This consists
of the secreting glands, vessels, and nerves. The nerves immediately inducing
secretion are probably the ganglia contained in Meissner’s plexus, the
short afferent fibres’ passing to these from the intestinal mucous membrane,
and the short secreting fibres passing from them to the intestinal glands.
The stimuli which excite secretion, when applied to the intestinal mucous
membrane, are of various sorts.
Mechanical stimulation, such as tickling the surface of the mucous mem~
56 ; REPORT-—1874.
branes, at once excites it. The application of dilute hydrochloric acid and
induced electrical shocks have a similar effect. Sulphate of magnesia and
other purgatives, however, instead of exciting secretion at once, do so only
after an interval; and for some time it was supposed that they did not excite
secretion at all. The experiments of Moreau, in which he injected magnesium
sulphate into a loop of intestine and left it there for four hours, showed that
the failure of previous experiments was due to their having applied it to
the intestine for too short a time. These experiments were repeated by
Vulpian, and also by Brunton, with similar results.
Your Committee, starting from the facts we have briefly enumerated,
endeavoured to ascertain, first, whether other neutral salts have a similar
effect to magnesium sulphate on intestinal secretion; secondly, whether any
other compounds have the power of preventing such action ; and thirdly, what
are the nerves which regulate this secretion during life.
Serres I. Action of other neutral. salts on intestinal secretion. The
method adopted in each case was as follows :—
A cat was chloroformed and an opening was made through the abdominal
wall in the middle line. A coil of small intestine was then drawn out
through the opening, and four ligatures were tied round it at a distance of
10 centimetres (4 inches) from each other, so as to isolate three pieces of
intestine from each other and from the remainder of the intestinal tube.
The measured quantity of solution was then injected into the middle loop,
either by a very fine Wood’s syringe, when the fluid was quite clear, or
by making a puncture in the middle loop close to one end, inserting the
nozzle of a syringe, and then after the injection of the fluid tying another
ligature round the intestine close to the wound so as to prevent the exit of
any fluid. This proceeding hardly diminished the length of the loop by
more than 3 millimetres (3 of an inch).
The intestine was then returned to the abdominal cavity, the wound sewn
up, and the animal allowed to recover. After about four hours it was killed
by a blow on the head with a hammer; the abdominal cavity was opened and
the intestine examined.
Experiments were made with potassium acetate, chlorate, ferrocyanide,
iodide, sulphate, neutral tartrate, with sodium acetate, bicarbonate, chloride,
phosphate, and sulphate, as well as with tartrate of potash and soda. [For
particulars see Series I. and Table I. in Appendix. }
From these it appears that several of the other neutral salts possess a
similar action to that of magnesium sulphate, though none are so constant or
so marked in their action.
The amount of secretion obtained from similar pieces of intestine with
similar quantities of the salts differed considerably in different experiments.
The cause of this we have not yet determined. It is not improbable that it
depends to some extent on the stage of digestion when the injection was
made; but this we purpose to ascertain hereafter. ;
Serres II. We next tested the effect of various drugs in preventing this
action of neutral salts, and for this purpose took a saturated solution of
magnesium sulphate as that of which the action is the most constant yet
ascertained.
In some cases we mixed the modifying agent with the magnesium sulphate
in order to obtain the local action of the drug on the mucous membrane, in
others it was introduced into the circulation by subcutaneous injection so as
to obtain its general action on the nervous system. The drugs tested in the
former way were :—
ON THE NATURE OF INTESTINAL SECRETION. 57
Gramme.
‘32 sulphate of atropia.
‘82 iodide of methyl-atropia.
*32 chloral hydrate.
064 emetia. ‘
"13 morphia.
32 sulphate of quinine.
*32 tannin.
‘064 sulphate of zinc.
Those introduced by subcutaneous injection were,
d a } Used ‘in cholera by Dr. Hall, of Bengal.
“064 acetate of morphia.
In none of these experiments was there any effect of the above drugs in
diminishing the average amount of secretion produced by magnesium sul-
phate. There appears, therefore, to be no action analogous to that of atropia
upon secretion of the submaxillary gland. For summary see Table I. in
Appendix.
Direct ligature of the mesenteric veins produced profuse hemorrhage into
the loop of intestine, without any apparent secretion.
Series III. The last point we proposed to investigate was the precise
manner in which the nervous system influences secretion.
We first repeated Moreau’s experiment by dividing the filaments of nerve
in the mesentery which passed to a ligatured loop of intestine. In two
cases we obtained a negative result, owing probably to some of the smaller
fibres having escaped ; but in the third a more successful division was followed
by profuse secretion into the loop. This, therefore, is an effect common to cats
as well as to dogs and rabbits.
We next divided both splanchnic nerves below the diaphragm ; and as this
produced no abnormal result on the intestine, we determined to excise the
semilunar ganglia (dividing the splanchnics in the same operation).
In 18 experiments we only once found any considerable secretion in the
loop of intestine. ;
The results on the vascularity of the intestines, their peristaltic movements
and tonic contraction are given in detail in the Appendix, Series ITT.
It would appear from these experiments that the splanchnic nerves are
not the channel by which currents from the cord pass to the secretory appa-
ratus of the intestine.
What this channel is we hope to ascertain by further investigation, which
we intend to apply not only to the secretion but also to the movements of
the intestinal tube.
APPENDIX.
Seriss I,
Ewperiment 1.—Saturated solution of magnesium sulphate. Three loops
were isolated, and 24 c, c. injected into the middle loop,
On examination,
Middle loop contained 85 c. c. of opalescent fluid, which gave an
. , abundant precipitate with HNO,.
er loo
rover f empty
Mucous membrane pale in all loops.
58 REPORT—1874,
Experiment 2.—Saturated solution of potassium acetate. 5 ¢.¢. were in-
jected into the middle loop.
On examination,
Middle loop contained 8c. c. blood-stained turbid fluid with very little
* mucus,
= 7 5c. c¢. after filtration. Precipitated by HNO,.
MRGEE os cana en 8 c.c. yellow.and turbid,
= 5 cc. after filtration. Not changed by the
addition of HNO,.
Lower, sis iis Se GH OG,
= 35. ¢, after filtration. Precipitated by HNO,.
Mucous membrane :—
Middle loop pale, covered with tenacious mucus; serous coat greatly
injected,
Upper ,, pale.
Lower ,, pale, covered with mucus,
Experiment 3.—Saturated solution of potassium acetate. 23 ¢.¢. were in-
jected into the middle loop. Weight of cat 2? lbs.
On examination,
Middle loop contained 15°5 c, ¢. of turbid fluid.
Upper ,, empty.
Lower ,, about 1c. c. of mucus.
Mucous membrane :—
Middle loop slightly congested, covered with flakes of mucus. The
mucous membrane appeared very thin.
Upper ,, normal; bile stained.
Lower ,, soft, moist, covered with mucus.
Experiment 4.—Saturated solution of potassium chlorate, Into the middle
loop 24 c.c. were injected,
On examination,
Middle loop | each contained;13 c¢.c, of a fluid resembling white of
Lower ,, } egg, both in colour and consistency.
Upper ,, empty.
Mucous membrane ;—
Middle loop
Lower ,,
Upper ,, moist, covered with bile-stained matter,
The fluid from the middle and lower loops was not coagulated by heat, It
was rendered turbid by HNO,, and slightly so by acetic acid.
\ normal in colour ; soft.
Experiment 5.—Saturated solution of potassium chlorate. Weight of cat
3lbs. 23 c¢.c. of the saturated solution were injected into the middle loop.
On examination,
Middle loop contained ? c. c. of a grey muddy fluid.
Dpper—, x 3 C. C.
Lower ;, “1 zc. C.
Mucous membrane :—
Middle loop pale, moist.
Upper _,, do.
Lower ,, do.
Experiment 6.—Saturated solution of potassium ferrocyanide, Three loops
were isolated as before; into the middle one 23 ¢, ¢, were injected,
ON THE NATURE OF INTESTINAL SECRETION. 59
On examination,
Middle loop contained a small quantity of fluid, probably about 5 c. c.;
but as the intestine was punctured in opening the abdomen and some
of the fluid escaped, it could not be exactly measured, and was esti-
mated approximately. Other loops empty.
Experiment 7,—Saturated solution of potassium ferrocyanide. 22 ¢.c. were
injected into the middle loop, The cat escaped, and twenty-two hours after
was found dead. Weight of cat 3 Ibs.
On examination,
Middle loop contained 5:5 c. c. of a purulent-looking fluid,
Upper _,, oY 3 ¢.c. of ‘ do. do.
Lower ,, empty.
Mucous membrane :—
Middle loop. All the coats deeply congested.
Upper _,,
Lower ,, } pale.
Experiment 8.—Saturated solution of potassium ferrocyanide, 22 ¢. c.
injected into middle loop.
On examination,
Middle loop contained 13 ¢, c.
Upper ',, be 10 ¢. ¢.
Lower ,, empty.
The fluid gave no colour with perchloride of iron.
Mucous membrane :—
Middle loop moist, pale.
Upper ,, dry, pale.
Lower ,, moist; contained a little moist fecal matter.
Experiment 9.—Saturated solution of potassium iodide. 24 c.¢. injected
into middle loop. After tying the ligatures round the intestine, it a
to the thickness of a pencil. Weight of cat 6 lbs.
On examination, ©
Middle loop empty; has a hole in it.
pope ‘ } both contained about 3 ¢. c. of fluid.
Mucous membrane :—
Middle loop. Part of this loop seems to have been eroded by the potas-
sium iodide, causing the formation of a hole in the intestine.
The mucous membrane is congested and partly covered
with bloody mucus.
Upper ,,
Towen \ pale; normal.
Experiment 10.— Almost (but not quite) saturated solution of potassium
iodide. 5 c.c. injected into the middle loop.
On examination,
Middle loop empty ; contained no liquid,
Upper _,,
Lower
Serous coat of middle loop deeply congested and bright red all over,
Upper loop
Lower
empty.
} normal,
60 -— - REPORT—1874,
Mucous membrane :— y
Middle loop normal, but the deep injection of the submucous coat shines
through it.
see Lae normal
Lower ,, ;
Experiment 11.—Nearly saturated solution of potassium iodide. 1 ¢.c. was
injected into the middle loop, and by gentle pressure was brought into contact
with the whole of its surface.
On examination,
Middle loop contained 8 c. c.
Tawer 7 y empty.
Mucous membrane :— —
Middle loop congested.
Upper _,,
tetera. } normal, dry.
~ Experiment 12.—Saturated solution of potassium sulphate. 5 ¢.¢. injected
into middle loop.
On examination,
Middle loop contained 14 c. ¢., which after filtration = 9 ¢. ¢.
Upper .,, 2 0, C,
Lower _,, “A 3.¢. C,
Mucous membrane,
Middle loop moist, not congested.
Upper, } normal.
Lower ,,
Experiment 13,—Saturated solution of potassium sulphate. 23 c.c. injected
into middle loop. Weight of cat 43 lbs.
On examination,
Middle loop contained 9 ¢. c. of turbid fluid, with many flakes of thick
mucus.
U ,
Tae } gaint
Mucous membrane :—
Middle loop faintly congested, covered with soft flakes of white mucus.
Upper ,, normal, dry.
Lower ,, do. do.
Experiment 14.—Saturated solution of potassium sulphate. 5 ¢.¢. injected
into the middle loop.
On examination,
Middle loop contained 14 c. c., which after filtration = 9 c.c.
Upper ,, > 3 C. C
Lower ,, a 3 ¢. C.
Mucous membrane :—
Middle loop moist, not injected.
Upper -,,
te } normal.
Experiment 15.—Saturated solution of potassium soe 22 ¢.c. were
injected into the middle loop.
ON THE NATURE OF INTESTINAL SECRETION. 61
On examination,
Middle loop contained 7 c. c. of fluid, which after filtration = 2
Upper ,,
Lower ,, } emp ty.
Experiment 16.—Saturated solution of sodium acetate. 2} ¢. c. were in-
jected into the middle loop. Weight of cat 63 lbs.
On examination,
Middle loop, 10 c. c.
Wuper’ =, 9c. ¢c.
Lower ,, empty.
Mucous membrane :—
Middle loop congested, covered with soft mucus.
Upper ,, pale, covered with soft mucus.
Lower ,, covered with bile-stained matter.
Ss
io)
Experiment 17.—Saturated solution of sodium acetate. 5c. c. injected into
middle loop. :
On examination,
Middle loop contained 10 c. c. of fluid, after filtering = 5 c. c.
Upper ,, t
Lower ',, | emp ys
Mucous membrane :—
Middle loop soft, surface exceedingly so.
Upper,
ahs } natural.
Experiment 18.—Saturated solution of sodium bicarbonate. - 5 ¢. ¢. of the
solution injected into the middle loop.
On examination,
Middle loop contained a tapeworm and some fluid.
The worm, mucus, and fluid were = 15 ¢.¢
After filtration, the fluid only .. = 65.¢.¢
Upper ,, contained a worm and fluid...... = 8 cae
ME ReCE MORIN Mes hs Sa eae ee = Garele
Lower ,, empty.
Mucous membrane :—
Middle loop much congested.
Upper ,, much thickened, not congested.
Lower ,, natural.
Experiment 19,—Saturated solution of sodium chloride. 5 ¢.c. of the solu-
tion were injected into the middle loop.
On examination four hours after,
Middle (injected) loop contained 10-25 ec. ec. fluid.
Of this about one third appeared to be thick mucus,
Upper loop
sae } completely empty.
3
Mucous membrane :—
Middle loop much thickened and congested.
yo : \ natural.
Experiment 20,—Saturated solution of sodiam phosphate. 22 ¢. c. were
injected into the middle loop. The omentum stuck in the wound in the abdo-
62 REPORT—1874.
minal walls and was caught in the stitches and attached to the wound while
it was being sewn up. Weight of cat 47 lbs.
On examination,
Middle loop contained soft feces. No fluid.
Upper ,,
Lower ,, su;
The whole intestine was pale.
Middle loop
Upper ,, not congested.
Lower ,,
Experiment 21.—Saturated solution of sodium phosphate. 5 ¢.c. injected
into middle loop.
On examination,
Middle loop contained 11 ¢, ce. blood-stained fluid, which =5°5 c. e. after
filtering.
Upper ,, empty.
Lower ,, 75c.¢c., =4c. ¢. after filtering.
Mucous membrane :—
Middle loop much congested.
Upper ,, natural; contains a little blood slightly altered.
Lower ,, soft, not congested.
Experiment 22.—Saturated solution of sodium sulphate. 23 ¢. ec; ‘were
injected into the middle loop. Weight of cat 3 lbs.
On examination,
Middle loop contained 18 c. ¢. of a mailky fluid.
Upper ” ” 5c. ¢.
Lower ,, 9 3c. .
Mucous membrane :—
Middle loop slightly congested, soft, moist.
Upper ,, pale, moist.
Lower ,, do. do.
Experiment 23.—Saturated = de sodium sulphate. ‘5 c. c. injected
into middle loop.
On examination,
Middle loop contained 9 c. c., after filtering = 7c. ¢.
ae empt
Lower _,, Ply:
Mucous membrane :—
Middle Joop soft, but not at all congested,
Upper
ieee r } natural.
Experiment 24.—Saturated. solution of sodium tartrate. 5 ¢. ¢. injected
into middle loop.
Middle loop contained 11 ¢.¢. blood- stained fluid, after aieeeraie =| 75 c.c.
Upper ,,
Lower ,, } Spy:
Mucous membrane :—
Middle loop slightly congested and soft,
Upper _,,
Lower
Experiment 25.—Saturated solution of sodium and potassium tartrate. 22:
¢.e, were injected into the middle loop. Weight of cat 43 Ibs. The wound
\ natural ; covered with a layer of black fecal matter.
ON THE NATURE OF INTESTINAL SECRETION.
63
was sewed up as usual, but the sutures gave way, and the intestines protruded
for some time before examination.
On examination,
Middle loop contained 16 c. . of fluid mixed with flakes of soft mucus
and small coagula of blood.
Upper ,;
Lower ,,
Mucous membrane :—
Middle loop
Upper _,,
Lower ,,
congested.
} each contained about } c. c. of soft glairy fluid.
Taste I. Exhibiting the results of the tucaty-five experiments above described.
Salt injected.
Magnesium sulphate .
Potassium acetate... .| 5
MEO ENE NY bol 2:5
Potassium chlorate 2:5
(DAE OF ENN POE 25
Potassium ferrocyanide} 2°5
BEACON Mt ety Say crcs ste atone.) 2:5
LI? eS 2 2°5
Potassium iodide of eo
Di® ~oe aa 5
DSU) cee 1
Potassium sulphate 5
BD IREM bem pereien’ pinemwye ty s 2:5
MOEOMI TE cee ce as 5
Potassium tartrate... .| 2°5
Sodium acetate ...... 2:5
BELG forsee forstbod yo myo 619 8 5
Sodium bicarbonate , .| 5
Sodium chloride ..../5
Sodium phosphate... .| 2°5
MEME Pete cy Svs oa 580s. 5
Sodium sulphate | 2°5
ee 5
Sodium tartrate...... 5
Sodium and potassium
SUORATETALC 6 ems 2+ 01 25,
Experiment 26.—Sulphate of atropia.
Quantity. |
ail 2a Cs Cs
Fluid found in middle loop.
8°5 c.c. opalescent, albuminous.
75 ,, blood-stained, turbid, albuminous.
155 ,, turbid.
13 ___,,_ giairy.
9 4, muddy.
5 _,, approximately.
5D ,, puriform.
13 ”
.. 5, Intestine corroded.
ease COD.
8 ”
9 ,, after filtration.
DA og .0 batbid.
9 ,, after filtration.
25 ,, after filtration.
10. ,
5 ,, after filtration.
Oa, ditto worm pregent.
OAS, ditto ‘about 3 mucus.
ae) sy) to fluids
5:5 ,, blood-stained.
HS... oy»), mailky.
Bsn 34
75 ,, blood-stained.
16 _—~«,,_- mucus.and blood.
Series IT.
24 c.c. saturated solution of mag-
nesium sulphate mixed with 5 grains of sulphate of atropia were injected into
middle loop.
On examination,
Middle loop contained 15-5
after filtration.
Upper
Lower s } empty.
c.c, turbid and blood-stained fluid, us 8-5 ec,
64 REPORT—1874.
Mucous membrane :—
Middle loop injected, minute points of ecchymosis.
Upper ,, } als:
Lower _,, P
Exper iment 27.—Todide of faathe' -atropia. 2% ¢.¢. saturated solution of
magnesium sulphate containing 5 grains of iodide “of methyl-atropia injected
into middle loop.
On examination,
Middle loop contained 6 c. c. opalescent fluid, = 4-5 c. e. after filtration.
It gave a copious precipitate with HNO,.
Upper ,,
Lower ,, } empty.
Mucous membrane :—
Middle loop injected, with minute ecchymosis, and covered with tenaci-
ous mucus.
Upper _,,
Lower ,, | pale.
Experiment 28.—Chloral hydrate. 23 c.c. saturated solution of magnesium
sulphate containing 5 grs. of chloral hydrate were injected into the middle loop.
On examination,
Middle loop contained 10 c. c. slightly blood-stained fluid, = 9 ¢, ¢. after
filtration.
Upper
Lower i \ empty.
Mucous membrane :—
Middle loop pale.
U
aa < | pale also.
Experiment 29.—Emetia. 23 c.c. saturated solution of mag TOSHEn sulphate
with 1 grain of emetia injected into the middle loop.
On examination,
Middle loop contained 12°5 ¢. c. blood-stained fluid mixed with mucus,
= 10 c.c. after filtration. It gave a dense precipitate
with HNO,.
Upper _,, :
Teer aa | ompid
Mucous membrane :—
Middle loop injected, with minute ecchymosis, covered with thick yellow
mucus,
Upper ,,
aver PA \ pale.
Experiment 30.—Morphia. 23 c. ec. saturated solution of magnesium sul-
phate containing 2 grains of morphia were injected into the middle loop.
On examination,
Middle loop contained 7-5 c. ¢. of clear fluid, with a little mucus ; after
filtration = 6-5 c.c. It gave no precipitate with HNO,.
Upper »> | omnt
Power 55 J eas
Mucous membrane :—
Middle loop slightly injected and covered with thin mucus.
Upper _,,
Lower \ pale:
ON THE NATURE OF INTESTINAL SECRETION, 65
Experiment 31.—Sulphate of quinine. 2} ¢.¢. saturated solution of mag-
nesium sulphate containing 5 grains of sulphate of quinine were injected into
the middle loop.
On examination,
Middle loop contained 19 c. c. of turbid fluid and thick mucus. After
filtration it was = 7 c.c. and opalescent. It gave a copious
precipitate with HNO,.
Upper ,, empty.
Lower ,, contained a very little fluid.
Mucous membrane :—
Middle loop slightly injected, covered with gelatinous mucus.
Upper _,, 1
Lower ,, \
Experiment 32.—Tannin. 23 c.c. of a saturated solution of magnesium
sulphate containing 5 grains of tannin were injected into the middle loop.
On examination,
Middle loop contained 7 c. c. thick fluid with a granular sediment; no
mucus. After filtration = 6 c. ¢.
Upper ,, contained a tapeworm and a little fluid.
Lower ,, % 7-5 ¢.c., after filtration = 5°5 c. c.
The fluid gave an abundant precipitate with HNO,.
Mucous membrane :—
Middle loop slightly injected, with extensive submucous extravasation,
Upper _,,
Lower ,,
Experiment 33.—Sulphate of zinc. 24 ¢c.c. saturated solution of magnesium
sulphate with 1 grain of zinc sulphate were injected into the middle loop.
On examination,
Middle loop contained 8 ¢. c. clear fluid, no mucus. It gave an abundant
precipitate with HNO,.
Upper
”
Lower ,, \ oN
Mucous membrane :—
Middle loop slightly injected.
Upper _,,
Lower
Experiment 34.—Chloral hydrate. 24 ¢. ¢. of a saturated solution of
magnesium sulphate were injected into the middle loop, and after closure of the
abdominal wound 15 grains (1 gramme) of chloral in 2 ¢. c. of water were in-
jected subcutaneously. The cat weighed 43 lbs.
On examination,
Middle loop contained 133 ¢.c. of clear fluid with lumps of gelatinous
mucus.
} pale.
} pale.
ao Upper
ower ee } empty.
Mucous membrane :—
Middle loop pale, cedematous, covered with soft gelatinous mucus.
i. ia =i id } both pale and swollen.
Experiment 35.—Chloral hydrate. 23 c.c. saturated solution of magnesium
sulphate were injected into the middle loop, and as soon as the abdominal
1874, F
66 REPORT—1874,
wound had been closed, 3 grains of hydrate of chloral in 30 minims of water
were injected subcutaneously into the flank of the animal, It weighed 33 lbs.
On examination,
Middle loop contained 113 c. ¢. of clear fluid, with flakes of mucus,
Upper ,, t
Lower ,, empty:
Mucous membrane :—
Middle loop moderately injected and covered with mucus, The serous
covering of this loop was much injected.
Upper _,,
Lower 7 \p ae,
Experiment 36.—Acetate of morphia. 23 ¢.c. of a saturated solution of
magnesium sulphate were injected into the middle loop, and immediately
after closure of the abdominal wound 1 grain of acetate of morphia in 2 c.c.
of water was injected subcutaneously into the flank of the cat, which weighed
5 Ibs.
On examination,
Middle loop contained 10°5 e. c. of turbid fluid, tinged with blood.
Upper _,, 3 a large tapeworm,
Lower ,, empty.
Mucous membrane :—
Middle loop pale, covered with thin gelatinous mucus.
Upper _,,
Lower } pale.
Tanre II. Evhibiting the results of the Second Series of experiments.
Drugs injected. Quantities. Fluid found in middle loop.
1. Magnesium sulphate ....| 2-5 ¢.¢. | | 15°5 ¢.e. turbid, blood-stained, =
Atropia sulphate ...... 5 pu 8°5 c.c. after filtration.
2. Magnesium sulphate....| 2°5 c.c. | | 6 ¢.¢. opalescent, albuminous, =
Iodide of methyl-atropia. 5 grains \ 4'5 c.¢. after filtration.
3. Magnesium sulphate.... ze 5 c¢.c. | |10¢.c. blood-stained,= 9 ¢.c. after
fedoras. 8) free, 5 grains } filtration.
4, Magnesium sulphate... .| 2° 5c. ce. | | 12°5 c.c. blood-stained mucus, =
PPBAE Go5y:t cose ge Fa 1 grain } 10 ¢,c. after filtration,
5. Magnesium sulphate....|2°5c.c. | |7°5 c. c. clear mucus, = 6:5 ¢.¢.
MOFORIR ba ig bok ere 2 grains at after filtration,
6. Magnesium sulphate... .| 2°5 ¢.c. ) | 19¢.c.turbid fluidand thick mucus,
Quinine sulphate ...... 5 grains } = 7 c.c. after filtration,
if alec sige slp si esa he pee \ 7 ¢.¢., = 6 ¢.¢. after filtration.
8. Magnesium sulphate... .| 2-5 ¢.¢. 8
Zine sulphate ........ 1 grain } Ee
Subcutaneous injection of chloral, with injection of 2-5 ¢. c, magnesium
sulphate into the loop in each case.
es Chloraly oo, 47 eee 1 gram. | 13°5 ¢.¢. clear gelatinous mucus.
LO, sChloral so eee ‘29 4, |11°5c.c¢. clear fluid, mucus.
11. Morphia acetate ...... 065 ,, | 10°5 ¢.c. turbid, blood-stained.
ON THE NATURE OF INTESTINAL SECRETION. 67
Kepevimen 37.—Effect of ligature of the mesenteric veins. Three loops of
intestine were isolated as usual, but nothing was injected into any of them.
The veins passing along mesentery from the middle loop were carefully
isolated and ligatured.
On examination,
Middle loop contained 6°5 ec. ¢, of coagulated blood.
Upper _,,
Lower
Mucous membrane and all the coats of the middle loop were intensely
congested, the mucous membrane being more so than the other coats. There
was very little mucus upon it.
Upper loo
Tae oe } pale.
\ empty.
Series IIT.
Experiment 38.—Division of the mesenteric nerves. Three loops were
isolated as usual. Nothing was injected, but the nerves passing along the
mesentery to the middle one were carefully sought for and divided. No
microscopic examination was made afterwards, however, and it is therefore
uncertain whether all the filaments were divided or not. The animal
weighed 5 lbs.
On examination,
Middle loop
Upper _,, all empty.
Lower ,,
Mucous membrane :—
Middle loop
Upper ,, all dry.
Lower ,,
Experiment 38 a—This experiment was repeated on another animal with
a similar result.
Experiment 38 b.—Division of the mesenteric nerves, Three loops of intes-
tine were isolated by ligatures, In one of them the vessels were carefully
isolated, and the nerves and remaining structures in the mesentery connected
with the loop were divided,
On examination,
Operated loop contained 15 e. e. of fluid,
_ Other loops empty.
Mucous membrane :—
Operated loop somewhat congested.
Other loops normal.
Experiment 39.—Division of both splanchnics. The loops were isolated
as usual; nothing was injected into any, but both splanchnic nerves were cut,
The animal weighed 53 lbs.
On examination, about four hours after the operation,
Middle loop
‘Upper ,, | all empty.
Lower ,,
Mucous membrane :—
Middle loop
Upper ,, | all pale and contracted,
- Lower ,,
F2
68 REPORT—1874.
Ruperiment 40,—Extirpation of the upper two thirds of right semilunar
ganglion. Division of the right greater splanchnic.
On examination,
Duodenum
Jejunum
Lower part of ileum closely contracted.
The loop of ileum 10 centims. long, which had been isolated, was empty.
The part of intestine above the loop was full.
The A) i below 35 empty.
Experiment 41.—Excision of lower two thirds of right semilunar ganglion.
Splanchnics not divided. One loop of intestine was isolated.
On examination the intestines were found much contracted. Their dia-
meter was only about half their normal one, and they were also contracted
in the direction of their length.
The loop, originally 10 centims., had contracted to 5 centims. The whole
intestine was empty.
Experiment 42.—Extirpation (complete) of right semilunar ganglion. In
this operation the receptaculum chyli was wounded. The great splanchnic
of the right side was divided in removing the ganglion ; the lesser splanchnics
were unhurt. The animal was in full digestion, and the lacteals and recep-
taculum were full of milky chyle. The cat was killed about four hours
afterwards by a blow on the head.
On examination the whole intestine was normal as regards vascularity and
contraction.
One loop of intestine (10 centims. long) had been isolated by ligatures at
the time the ganglion was removed. It was situated 35 inches (89 centims.)
from the pylorus and 18 inches (453 centims.) from the ileo-cxcal valve. The
loop was distended with fluid. On measurement this amounted to 13 ¢.¢.
The intestine above the loop did not contain more than 12 c¢. ¢. of fluid,
although it looked full. The intestine below the loop was empty. There
was no worm in the loop. The mucous membrane of the loop was normal.
Experiment 43.—Extirpation of right semilunar ganglion. The right semi-
lunar ganglion was excised as usual, and a loop of intestine 10 centims. long
was isolated. On examination about four hours afterwards the whole intes-
tine was normal as regards contraction and vascularity when the abdominal
cavity was opened.
After the cavity was opened the intestines contracted; after division of
the mesentery they again relaxed, the loop, originally 10 centims., contract-
ing to 7-5 centims., and again relaxing to 10 centims.
The intestines above the loop were empty.
Loop was empty.
Intestines below the loop were full.
Mucous membrane of loop pale, covered with bile-stained mucus.
Experiment 44.—Extirpation of right semilunar ganglion. One loop of
intestine isolated in the jejunum and another in the ileum, close to the ileo-
crecal valve.
On examination all the intestine was normal as regards both vascularity
and state of contraction.
Jejunal |
_ Experiment 45.—Extirpation of right semilunar ganglion. The ganglion
in this case was reached from the inner side of kidney.
normal.
ON THE NATURE OF INTESTINAL SECRETION. 69
A loop of intestine isolated close to duodenum and another at ileo-cacal
valve.
On examination,
Duodenal loop
Iliac
There were some worms in the duodenal loop and none in the iliac. The
latter was more contracted than the former.
Vascularity of intestine normal.
} both empty.
Experiment 46.—Extirpation of right semilunar ganglion. It was cut out
from the inner side of the right kidney. One loop of intestine isolated close
to the duodenum and another at the ileo-cecal valve.
On examination,
Jejunal loop contained some worms, but was otherwise empty and dry.
Iliac é i 3c. c. of fluid. Its mucous membrane was moist.
Experiment 47.—Excision of left semilunar ganglion and upper two thirds
of rigkt ganglion. Section of both greater splanchnics.
On examination,
Duodenum natural.
Jejunum natural.
Ileum pale.
The mucous membrane of the isolated loop was moist and pale. The
loop contained about 3 c. c. of fluid.
There were no Z'enie nor Ascarides present.”
Experiment 48.—Extirpation of both semilunar ganglia. Right semilunar
was excised from the inside of the right kidney, and all the nerves attached
to it were divided.
One loop of intestine was isolated close to the duodenum, and another
near the ileo-cecal valve.
On examination,
Duodenal loop contained 1 e. ec. of fluid.
Iliac 43 4} c. c. of pale opalescent fluid. It effervesced
and coagulated ‘with nitric acid.
Mucous membrane :—
Duodenal loop swollen, soft, pale.
Tliae » pale.
Experiment 49,—Extirpation of both semilunar ganglia, splanchnics on
both sides divided, but some small branches of right great splanchnic not
divided.
One loop isolated close to the duodenum and another close to the ileo-cxcal
valve.
On examination both loops empty.
Vascularity of intestines normal.
Experiment 50.—Extirpation of both semilunar ganglia. The right gan-
glion was reached from the inside of the right kidney.
One loop of intestine isolated at the upper end of the jejunum and another
at the lower end of the ileum.
On examination the whole intestine looked large. Instead of the opposite
sides lying flat against each other the intestine was round like a rope.
Jejunal loop contained 1 ce. c. of fluid and some fecal matter.
Iliac loop nearly empty.
70 ; REPORT—1874.
Mucous membrane :—
Jejunal loop swollen.
Tliac » pale, moist.
Experiment 51.—Excision of semilunar ganglia. Both semilunar ganglia
were excised. One loop of jejunum near the duodenum was isolated. When
the animal was killed about four hours afterwards, and the intestine examined,
it was found to be normal.
The loop contained about 1 c. ¢. of fluid.
Experiment 52.—Extirpation of semilunar ganglia. Both semilunar gan~
glia were excised, and one piece of small intestine 10 c. c. long isolated.
About four hours after the cat was killed by a blow on the head.
On examination the duodenum was normal.
The jejunum and ileum were shortened and thickened.
The loop, originally 10 centims. long, had shortened to 7-5 centims. On
pressing any part of the jejunum or ileum strongly between the fingers the
part contracted to half its former diameter, but there was no peristaltic propa-
gation of the contraction. On cutting away the intestine from the mesentery it
lengthened, the loop again becoming 10 centims. long. When any part of the
intestine was now pressed after its separation from the mesentery, the con-
traction occurred most strongly at the point of pressure, but it was also pro-
pagated to the adjoining portions of intestine.
The mucous membrane of the whole intestine was moist and bile-stained.
The loop contained about 1 ¢. e. of clear fluid.
Experiment 53.—Excision of semilunar ganglia ; division of splanchnics.
The splanchnics, large and small, were divided on both sides, and both semi-
lunar ganglia completely excised. Four hours afterwards the eat was killed
by a blow on the head.
There was no hyperemia of the intestine, which was, on the contrary,
rather pale. The mucous membrane was pale and dry.
Experiment 54.—Excision of lower two thirds of right semilunar ganglion ;
division of right splanchnic, with the exception of one or two small commu-
nicating branches with left splanchnic and branches to suprarenal capsule.
Two loops of intestine isolated, one at upper end of jejunum; and the other
at the lower end of ileum.
On examination both loops were empty.
Mucous membrane in both normal in colour, dry, biliary matter covering
its surface.
Experiment 55.—Excision of right semilunar ganglion; division of nerves
passing from it around the blood-vessels. Three loops of intestine isolated—
one at upper end of jejunum, one at ileo-cecal yalve, and one midway
between the two.
On examination all the loops were empty. Mucous membrane normal
in all.
Experiment 56.—Excision of the left semilunar ganglion and division of
nerves passing from it around the vessels.
_ Three loops of intestine isolated—one at upper end of jejunum, one at
ileo-cxecal valve, and one midway between the two.
; a examination all the loops were empty. Mucous membrane normal
in all.
All the loops were the same length when tied, viz. 10 centims.
ON THE TEACHING OF PHYSICS IN SCHOOLS. 71
On measurement,
Lower loop, 7‘5 centims.
Middle ,, 10 is
Upper , 87 ,,
Experiment 57.—Division of left vagus at the diaphragm, Three loops
isolated—one at the upper end of jejunum, one at the ileo-cecal valve, and
one midway between the two.
On examination the stomach was distended with food; contained little
fluid. The duodenum appeared: full, but on opening it it was found to con-
tain no fluid.
All the loops were empty,
On measurement,
Upper loop, 7:5 centims,
Middle , 87 ,,
Lower ,, 62 ”
Report of the Committee on the Teaching of Physics in Schools, the
Committee consisting of Professor H. J. S. Smitu, Professor Curr-
ForD, Professor W. G. Apams, Professor BaLrour Stewart, Pro-
fessor R. B. Cutrron, Professor Everett, Mr. J. G. Fircu, Mr.
G. Grirrita, Mr. Marspatt Warts, Professor W. F. Barrett,
Mr. J. M. Winson, Mr. Lockyer, and Professor G. C. Foster
(Secretary).
Iy view of the very great diversities in almost all respects of the conditions
under which the work of different schools has to be carried on, the Com-
mittee considered that, in any suggestions or recommendations that they
might make, it would be impossible for them with any advantage to attempt
to enter into details. They have therefore, in the recommendations which
they have agreed upon, endeavoured to keep in view certain principles which
they regard as of fundamental importance, without attempting to prescribe
any particular way of carrying them out in practice.
They have assumed, as a point not requiring further discussion, that the
object to be attained by introducing the teaching of Physics into general
school-work is the mental training and discipline which the pupils acquire
through studying the methods whereby the conclusions of physical science
have been established. They are, however, of opinion that the first and one
of the most serious obstacles in the way of the successful teaching of this
subject is the absence from the pupils’ minds of a firm and clear grasp of the
concrete facts and phenomena forming the basis of the reasoning processes
they are called upon to study. They therefore think it of the utmost im-
portance that the first teaching of all branches of physics should be, as far
as possible, of an experimental kind. Whenever circumstances admit of it,
the experiments should be made by the pupils themselves, and not merely by
the teacher; and though it may not be needful for every pupil to go through
every experiment, the Committee think it essential that every pupil should
at least make some experiments himself.
For the same reasons, they consider that the study of text-books should
be entirely subordinate to attendance at experimental demonstrations or
72 REPORT—1874.
lectures, in order that the pupils’ first impressions may be got directly from
the things themselves, and not from what is said about them. They do not
suppose that it is possible in elementary teaching entirely to do without the
use of text-books, but they think they ought to be used for reviewing the
matter of previous experimental lessons rather than in preparing for such
lessons that are to follow.
With regard to the order in which the different branches of Physics can
be discussed with greatest advantage,—considering that all explanation of
physical phenomena consists in the reference of them to mechanical causes,
and that therefore all reasoning about such phenomena leads directly to the
discussion of mechanical principles,—the Committee are of opinion that it is
desirable that the school-teaching of Physics should begin with a course of
elementary mechanics, including hydrostatics and pneumatics, treated from
a purely experimental point of view. The Committee do not overlook the
fact that very little progress can be made in theoretical mechanics without
considerable familiarity with the technicalities of mathematics; but they
believe that, by making constant appeal to experimental proofs, the study of
mechanics may be profitably begun by boys who have acquired a fair know-
ledge of arithmetic, including decimals and proportion, and as much geometry
as is equivalent to the First Book of Euclid. They believe that it will be
found sufficient to impart such further geometrical knowledge as may be
required (such, for instance, as a knowledge of the properties of similar tri-
angles) in the first instance provisionally, without demonstration, during the
course of instruction in mechanics.
In reference to the order in which the other departments of Physics
should be studied, the Committee do not think it possible to prescribe any
one order that is necessarily preferable to others that might be adopted ; but
they consider it desirable that priority should be given to those branches in
which the ideas encountered at the outset of the study are most easily appre-
hended, and illustrations of which are most frequently met with in common
experience. On these grounds they suggest that the elementary parts of the
science of heat may advantageously follow mechanics, that elementary optics
(including the laws of reflexion and refraction, the formation of images,
colour, chromatic dispersion, and the construction of the simple optical
instruments) should come next, and afterwards the elements of electricity
and mdgnetism™. When it is found possible to include in the work of a
school a fuller or more advanced course of Physics than that here indicated,
the Committee are of opinion that the discretion of the master, guided by
the circumstances of the case, will best decide in what direction the exten-
sion should take place; they suggest, however, that an early place in the
course should be given to elementary astronomy, both because it furnishes
the grandest and most perfect examples of the application of dynamical
principles, and because it promotes an intelligent interest in phenomena
which, in their most superficial aspects, at least, cannot fail to arrest atten-
tion, and familiarizes the mind with the wide range of application of physical
laws.
The Committee are strongly of opinion that no very beneficial results can
be looked for from the general introduction of Physics into school-teaching
unless those who undertake to teach it have themselves made it the subject
of serious and continued study, and have also given special attention to the
best methods of imparting instruction in it, They therefore suggest that,
* Tt should be stated that one member of the Committee did not approve of the order
of subjects suggested in the text,
ON ISOMERIC CRESOLS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES, 73
with a view to affording facilities to persons desirous of becoming teachers
of Physics, of familiarizing themselves with the most efficient methods and
of gaining experience in them, the Council of the British Association should
invite the leading teachers of Physics in the universities, colleges, and schools
of the United Kingdom to allow such persons, under suitable regulations, to
be present at the instruction given by them, and, when practicable, to act as
temporary assistants. The Committee do not hereby mean that aspirants to
the teaching function should be encouraged to drop in at random to hear a
lecture by any established teacher who may happen to be within reach ; the
kind of attendance they have in view would be systematic, and continued for
not less than some moderate period of time, such perhaps as two or three
months, agreed upon at starting. They believe that the benefits which
might result from the adoption of such a plan are very great; the advantages
to those who might avail themselves of it are obvious; and while teachers of
established success would have a chance of spreading widely their methods
of instruction, and, in fact, of founding schools of disciples, the stimulus to
exertion, afforded by the consciousness that they were being watched by men
who were preparing themselves to occupy positions similar to their own,
would be of the most efficient kind.
Preliminary Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. ARMSTRONG
and Professor THorre, appointed for the purpose of investigating
Isomeric Cresols and their Derivatives. Drawn up by Dr, Henry E.
ARMSTRONG.
A number of isolated observations have shown that the so-called cresylic
acid from coal-tar contains both para- and ortho-cresol, but a satifactory
examination of the crude product which would enable us to say that it con-
sists of these two modifications alone has not hitherto been made ; moreover,
supposing it to contain only these two isomerides, no method is at present
known by which it is possible to separate them and obtain each in a state of
purity. In conjunction with Mr. C. L. Field your reporter has therefore
sought, in the first place, to ascertain what are the constituents of ordinary
eresylic acid; and, in the second, to devise a method of separating the isomeric
cresols.
The method of examination employed is as follows :—The cresylic acid is
heated with an equal weight of concentrated sulphuric acid for 15-20 hours
at about 100°; the resulting mixture of sulpho-acids is then thrown into
water and neutralized with baric carbonate, and to the solution separated
from the precipitated baric sulphate baric hydrate solution is added as long
as a precipitate is produced. The basic baric salt of paracresolsulphonic acid
thus precipitated is separated from the liquid, decomposed by a slight excess
of sulphuric acid, the excess of sulphuric acid is removed by plumbic car-
bonate and hydric sulphide, and the solution of paracresolsulphonic acid thus
obtained neutralized with potassic carbonate. On concentrating the result-
ing solution potassic paracresolsulphonate, C, H, SO, K, 20H,, separates out
almost in a state of purity.
The solution filtered from the basic baric salt is treated with sulphuric
acid, and thus at least two thirds of the barium present removed as sulphate ;
74. REPORT—1874,
potassic carbonate is then added until a precipitate of baric carbonate no
longer forms. The solution then contains a mixture of potassic salts of very
different solubilities, which may be separated by fractional crystallization.
Finally, three products are obtained:—1, potassic phenolparasulphonate ;
2, potassic phenolmetasulphonate ; 3, which is the most soluble portion,
more or less pure potassic orthocresolsulphonate. Hitherto no indication
has been obtained of the presence of the third isomeric eresol (metacresol) in
the coal-tar product; but it is by no means certain, although probable, that
this modification is absent. Until characteristic derivatives of this cresol are
known this point must remain undecided.
Having thus separated the sulpho-acids derived from the isomeric cresols,
it is easy to obtain the corresponding cresols in a state of purity; all that is
necessary for this purpose is to heat the sulpho-salt with hydrochloric acid
in sealed tubes at about 160° during a couple of hours. The potassic para-
cresolsulphonate above referred to is thus resolved into paracresol and hydric
potassic sulphate; the orthocresolsulphonate into orthocresol and hydric
potassic sulphate. In order to purify the cresol thus separated, it is advan-
tageous first to distil it in a current of steam before it is distilled alone.
The orthocresol separated from the sulpho-acid gave a large quantity of sali-
cylic acid on fusion with potassic hydrate.
A number of derivatives of paracresol have already been prepared, but
their study is as yet by no means completed. On treatment with nitric acid,
paracresol yields a mononitrocresol of low melting-point and volatile in a
current of steam; a second body, crystallizing in prisms and non-volatile,
which is formed simultaneously, is perhaps an isomeric compound. On further
treatment with nitric acid the volatile nitrocresol is converted into dinitro-
cresol (m. p. 81°); this dinitrocresol apparently cannot be converted by
further nitration into a trinitrocresol. Potassic paracresolsulphonate is
readily converted by the action of dilute nitric acid into potassic nitropara-
cresolsulphonate, which by the continued action of the acid is converted into
dinitrocresol (m. p. 81°). Potassic nitroparacresolsulphonate yields on treat-
ment with bromine a dibromonitrocresol, which appears to be isomeric with
that obtained on brominating the volatile nitroparacresol previously mentioned.
By the action of bromine potassic paracresolsulphonate is successively con-
verted into bromoparacresolsulphonate, dibromoparacresolsulphonate, and
finally into tribromocresol.
Considerable quantities of the isomeric cresols having now been obtained
from coal-tar by the method above given, it is intended to institute a careful
comparative examination of their derivatives.
No portion of the grant made to this Committee having been drawn, it is
requested that they be reappointed, and that the same sum be again placed
at their disposal.
Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. James Bryce and
WiuraM Joy, appointed for the purpose of collecting Fossils from
localities of difficult access in North-western Scotland. Drawn up
by Wiiu1aM Joy, Secretary.
Tux Committee are sorry to have still to report that no organic remains
have yet been discovered by them in any locality along the great limestone
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 75
strike of the N.W. Highlands, other than the Durness basin, from which the
fossils found by the Committee have alone been obtained. The Committee
have not been able personally to prosecute the search during the past year,
and the Secretary’s official work as Inspector of Schools, which formerly
extended over the whole of the district of investigation, is now confined to
other localities ; so that the same active search and personal superintendence
of diggings are not now possible. But they have the services of gentlemen
resident in the district, who are willing to prosecute the search. The Com-
mittee still hope that their labours will have successful results in some of
the localities hitherto barren, and this all the more certainly that fossils were
discovered by Mr. Peach at Inchnadamph on Loch Assynt.
The Committee beg to propose that the fossils already obtained from
this N.W. limestone should be submitted to Mr. Etheridge, Dr. Duncan,
Dr. Hicks, or other competent paleontologists, whose report would be
presented to the next Meeting of the Association, on the age and species of
the fossils, so as, if possible, to lead to a more certain determination of the
place in the geologic series of the rocks in which they are found, than was
possible with the few and imperfect specimens submitted to Mr. Salter
in 1858. ‘The fossils available for this examination consist of :—(1) those
collected by the Committee; (2) those collected for Professor Nicol of
Aberdeen, and now deposited in the College Museum there; (3) those
submitted to Mr. Salter in 1858 and deposited in the Geological Museum in
Jermyn Street; and (4) any others that may be obtained by the Committee
during the next year. These would form material for a more certain determi-
nation of the age of these fossils than has hitherto been possible, as they are
both more numerous and more perfect than those originally discovered by
Mr. Peach, which were submitted to Mr. Salter and figured in Sir Roderick
Murchison’s paper on the subject.
The Committee would therefore propose their reappointment by the Asso-
ciation, for the purpose of arranging for this examination and Report, and
of prosecuting still further their search in this interesting and important
field.
Report on the Rainfall of the British Isles for the years 1873-74, by a
Committee, consisting of C. Brooxs, F.R.S., J. Guaisuer, F.R.S.,
J. F. Bareman, C.H., F.R.S., T. Hawnsiry, C.H., C. Tomuinson,
F.R.S., Rogers Firpp, C.H., G. J. Symons, Secretary.
Tue attention of your Committee during the past year has been mainly
directed to completing work previously commenced, and to the carrying out
of all measures likely to tend to still greater accuracy on the part of the
observers.
Position Returns.—It will be in the recollection of the members of the
Association, that as a partial substitute for the expensive, although most
important, practice of personal inspection of rain-gauge stations by our Secre-
tary, we issued (in 1872) to every observer a blank form, on which he was
to send full particulars respecting the position of his rain-gauge. A spe-
cimen of this form is given in our 1871 Report, page 99. Upwards of 800
were duly filled up by the observers and returned to our Secretary, and they
76 REPORT—1874,
have all, during the past year, been examined and reduced to the compact
form shown on page 259 of our last Report. The number is, however, so
great that they would occupy nearly 100 pages of the annual volume, even
if further condensed and the utmost economy of space exercised. Your
Committee therefore, although fully impressed with the great value of the
information which they have thus obtained, do not insert them in the present
Report, which is necessarily rather heavy from other causes, and reserve
them for next year, when these causes will be absent.
Examination of Rain-gauges in situ—Your Committee have always re-
garded this as the most important branch of their work. Only those who
have personally inspected large numbers of stations can realize fully the
variety of details which it is the duty of an inspector to notice and have
rectified. It is worse than useless to collect masses of statistics unless at
the same time every effort is made to ascertain that the observations have
been in all respects properly made. It is therefore with much pleasure that
we are able to state that the number of stations visited by our Secretary
since the preparation of our last Report is 50, being, as will be seen by the
following Table, considerably above the average.
Number of stations inspected and rain-gauges tested im situ each year :—
1862 .. 51 Isey .. 50 | 1871... 21
1863 ,. 44 1868 .. 40 1872 .. 24
1864 .. 20 1869 .. 115 1873 .. 27
1865 .. 17 1870 .. 39 1874 .. 50 (to Aug, 12th).
1866 .. 60 | |
The total number tested up to the present time is 558, and they are
tolerably well scattered over Great Britain (as was shown by the map exhi-
bited at the Meeting, whereon the locality of each station which has been
visited by our Secretary was marked by a red disk). We can only once
more express our regret that the limit of our grant prevents our providing
that which the present system of rainfall observations imperatively requires,
viz. one permanent travelling inspector. The results of the inspections since
December 4th, 1872, are given in the usual form in the Appendix to this
paper. Weare glad to state that asteady approach towards accuracy appears
to prevail amongst observers, and also a firm conviction that, if it is to be
attended to at all, it should receive very careful attention.
List of Stations.—In our last Report we stated that we hoped ‘at an carly
date to present a revised edition of the list of stations published in the Report
of this Association for 1865,’ which mainly, in consequence of the work
under the auspices of your Committee, had become obsolete, as it does not
contain more than two thirds of the data now collected. This work, though
mentioned last year for the first time, has been in progress under the super-
vision of our Secretary for upwards of five years, is now in a forward state,
and will form a remarkably complete index of all rainfall observations ever
made in this country, anda voluminous one, too, for it would occupy 60 or 7
pages of the annual volume instead of less than 50 pages, as was the case
with the last one.
Gauges in the Eastern Lake-district—In the autumn of 1866 thirteen
gauges were placed in the watersheds of Ullswater, Haweswater, Easedale
Tarn, &c., by Mr. Symons. These were transferred to your Committee in
1869, and the observations continued at their expense. At their meeting on
September 18th, 1873, the Secretary reported that seven years had elapsed
since their erection, that several of them were out of order, and new observers
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 77
were in charge of others, concerning which personal instruction was desirable.
‘Thereupon he was directed to proceed to the district and take such steps as
he thought most expedient for securing accurate observations at a moderate
cost. The following is an abstract of his reports :—
The returns from Wet Sleddale have at all times been sent with great
irregularity, and for two years none have been received. As a new station
had been organized at Shap, that at Wet Sleddale was abandoned. If, how-
ever, a good position and a good observer could be obtained in the Sleddale
valley, it would be very advantageous.
At Mardale Green the gauge was found to be in perfect order, but the
measuring-rod had been broken and clumsily mended; a new one was
supplied.
At Measandbecks, Haweswater, the observer had been obliged to move the
gauge, and had placed it on ground sloping too precipitously ; it was removed
a few feet, so as to place it on a level plateau.
The Matterdale Common and Gowbarrow gauges were not visited, as they
were repaired some time previously, and the observer reported them to be in
perfect order.
Owing to the removal and subsequent death of the observer at the Green-
side Mines in Patterdale, the series of observations instituted there, which
embraced gauges at 500 feet, 1000 feet, 1550 feet, and 2000 feet, were
stopped. Aware of the great importance of accurate observations from that
locality, our Secretary visited it, and had the pleasure of finding that the
manager of the mines had resumed observations at 1000 feet, the gauge (a
very accurate one) being well placed.
The gauges at Wythburn, Easedale Tarn, and Watendlath were in perfect
order, and the observations made by the observers originally appointed.
The observer of the gauge at Berkside, Helvellyn, died a few years back,
and the gauge had become out of order; the gauge was sent to Keswick for
repair, and a new observer instructed in the duties.
The gauges at Seathwaite were in good order, except the large float one,
which was repaired at Keswick.
A new observer had been appointed to Kirkstone Pass, who consequently
had not received personal instruction ; neither of his gauges was in perfect
order, but both were put so, and the subsequent records are very satisfactory.
The returns from Skiddaw, though carefully kept, have always been ex-
cessively small for the altitude (1677 feet) of the gauge. This is probably
due to its very exposed position on the §.W. flank of the mountain. In
accordance with a suggestion by the observer (who is on the mountain in all
weathers) a second gauge has been placed on Skiddaw, the new site being at
the head of Whitbeck.
Map of Stations in operation.—In consequence of the intimation conveyed
to your Committee last year, they have discontinued entirely the issue of
rain-gauges on loan, and have endeavoured to induce gentlemen to purchase
gauges for themselves. With a view to determining the districts in which
additional gauges are most needed, a map was prepared, showing the site of
every rain-gauge known to be in operation. It will be seen from it, that
large as is now our field of operations, there are many districts in which all
our efforts to obtain observers have been futile; this is especially the case in
the West of Ireland.
Gauges along the Highland Railway.—Your Committee are happy to be
able to report that the observations by the station-agents of this Company
appear to be carefully and correctly made; but this is another matter which
783 REPORT—1874.
would be much improved if it were possible to provide a travelling inspector.
At present the demands upon the time of our Secretary have been such that
he has not been able to visit any of these stations; but he is still hoping
shortly to do so. With a view to lessening as far as possible the heavy cost
of travelling, your Committee purpose applying to the railway companies for
a free pass for their Secretary when travelling for such an essentially national
urpose.
: oe Case presented to the Scottish Meteorological Society—We are glad
to say that Mr. Buchan has made very good use of the above ; the pressure
on his time has prevented his yet forwarding us the details of the examina-
tions of 35 stations visited and tested by him, and of numerous gauges tested
before issue; but the work has been done, and the results are promised for
our next Report.
Rainfall of the British Isles during the years 1872 and 1873.—The very
exceptional character of the rainfall of 1872 was mentioned in our last
Report; but in accordance with a custom which has now prevailed for twelve
years, it was only incidentally referred to, the details being deferred until
the two years 1872 and 1873 could be published together. This course,
which was originally adopted with a view to economy in printing, has, in
the present instance, had the fortunate result of bringing together two very
remarkable features, of each of which we must speak separately.
Rainfall of 1872.—Records of rainfall have been collected and discussed
in our previous Reports, which enable us to compare the total fall in any year
or years from 1726 to the present time with the mean fall. One of these
Tables (that facing page 286, British-Association Report, 1866) contains nine
long registers, extending over 140 consecutive years ; but the greatest excess
above the mean, even at a single station, was only 58 per cent. (at Oxford
in 1852). In 1872 this value was largely exceeded at a number of stations,
as is shown by Tables I. and II., whence it appears that at 14 stations out
of 115 (or 12 per cent.), it exceeded this previously unparalleled value. At
13 the excess was greater than 60 per cent., and it reached or exceeded 7
per cent. at the following stations :—
Shropshire ...... Shitinagl “senses oe Rainfall 77 per cent. above average 1860-69,
at Set Mae Shrewsbury ........ aD B » 9
ig atsis' sis 5 Hengoed, Oswestry... ,, 70 “ » ”
Northumberland .. Bywell ............ apes i + 4 ra
Haddingtonshire.. East Linton ...... 5 70 i. os A
Aberdeenshire .... Braemar ...,...... iy eG ar ” ”
No similar fall has occurred since 1726, and there is no evidence of such a
fall since rainfall observations were commenced nearly two centuries since.
Full details respecting the monthly fall of rain in this very remarkable year
are given in the Appendix to this Report; and we think it may be regarded
as fortunate that so extraordinary a fall has occurred at a period when (owing
largely to the operations of this Committee) the system of observation is in a
state unprecedentedly near perfection.
The Rainfall of 1873.—If this year had stood by itself, it would merely
have been classed as a rather dry year, and would have soon passed into
oblivion. Coming, howeyer,-immediately after such an exceptionally wet
year, it has produced the unusual result of giving two consecutive years, one
with twice the rainfall of the other, and in many instances with much more
than twice. How rare is this occurrence may be judged from the fact that
there is no case in the 140-years Table just referred to. The nearest ap-
proaches are, Chatsworth, in 1788 19°86 inches, in 1789 36-31 inches, the
Division,
i
II.
Ii.
VII.
Vill.
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES.
Tasie I.—Ratio of Rainfall in 1872-73 to Mean of 1860-69.
(See B. A. Report, 1871, p. 106.)
Stations. 1872.) 1873.
Camden Square............ 132 | 88
@EOVdOT Fircceesscsts ese 140 | 94
Hunton Court ..........- 135 | 85
GHMETOVE ...05,2.00vesen0y: 130 | 94
RRGREAPKG 31.00% cecsceseses 7 124] 92
GRE | tiecceycccsssesocgs 124| 96
Isle of Wight (Osborne).| 128 | 84
Aldershot »...092+:s05++59: 140 | 93
Berkhampstead.......... | 133 | 95
ROystOn ......seeceegeceees +-| 121 | 8g
High Wycomb ............ 120] 92
Banbury, High Street...) 135 | 87
PAIGHOMPE As, cetsecsapeh os 55% 153 | 106
: ae ex eeeppaye ses = 135 | 95
Wacvevagepeonesepelsgen esse: 132 | 87
Witkaw, Dorward’s Hall] 148 | 99
Aldham ..,,..... seangepeeees 139 | 90
Barton Hall ...........-40. ue 98
Honingham Hall . 143 | 93
Salisbury Plain( Chiltern) 124| 85
Swindon, Penhill,,.,..... 125 | 84
lane pert fig agp ecapesn esses se 85
MPA os vegissotcoseu pert sce: 94
Tavistock, West Street... : ; - 95
Exeter Institution......... 145 | 106
Broadhembury ............ 140 | go
Barnstaple...............++- 145 | 99
Helston .........cseeceesee- 137 | 103
Truro Institution ......... 124 87
Bristol ...,.....006 ppesenees 125 | lor
MROSS: cceshe) cop susdpbaeecess 147 95
flativial cep escpsscsvese ones 177 99
Shrewsbury .........-++++.| - 175 | 86
Oswestry, Hengoed ...... 170 | 88
Orleton ...,.....- eayune soa? 10143, || Be
Wigston, ...ssoscoesersseseee 156 | gt
Spalding, Pode Hole . 128 | 78
Lincoln .......... peceseeyer: 154| 88
Welbeck.........cecscseerons 155 | 91
Sry ois ok cccass vie Saondennes 146 33
Macclesfield ..,....6....++- 143 | 94
BolmMOues, | ssceasesapsorss 119 | 93
AP TSTOT EL s Spas Soncuuee tspes 149 8 q
(ALON; . dee gasenrtecteessec2 147 84
Coniston ...... o.neraganae 117 | 80
Redmires ...... Gkeeeeeveyes|| GE 81
Well Head............. reese] 142] 77
Holbeck............0008 esos] 157 77
York, Bootham.,.......... 163 | 77
EGU! op pperlossseenre ceases 146 | 88
Maltom \iittiesssssstvcsdses 152 75
Bywell Sap secreeeereseerenys 177 83
Wylam Hall .,..,.......... 166 | 71
Lilburn Tower .........,.. 163 83
Seathwaite ...,...0.ps+ps.+s 118 | 93
Keswick Post Office ...... 133 88
Kendal, Kent Terrace ...) 130 | 93
Appleby ......covrsonttcctets 128 | 8r
Division.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
XIV.
XV.
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.
XIX.
XX.
XXII,
XXIII.
Stations. 1872
War diye occ capetenegs cesses 134
RHAYVAGGR a sescerccwes ences 164
Maes-y-dre, Holywell ...| 152
Milan dudnOven. cesses aces 155
Mull of Galloway......... 110
Corsewall ..:...0.seserses: 120
Little Ross..........s.se006: 151
Dumfries! «ssteovvevssesreaes 136
Carlesaill) tip Abert apse 116
Bowhill ...... wanageaeateed ey 151
Danses !-53 generac vageos ss 166
Blast Lantorie ss eceddvanseee 170
Tnyeresk.....jspsssseievcecee 155
Bothwell Castle............ 160
Pladday ...sie1ssitusnegesers 132
Castle Toward ...,........ 132
Callton Mor ...,.........5 129
INVEtary® . Jeseseneascaceates 106
APPUT. Wh ausgeteet wcdsegdes 107
Mull of Cantire ...,..... 152
Rhinns of Islay......,..... 136
ism pres} ovrsenissseosrs vee] LOS
Hynishi? ss sacvaifesepeetannct 84
Isle of May .........0.000. 145
Aberfoyle} osc syertecersset 134
Deanston. cisskivesdodhfosst 132
Scone Palace............+.+ 163
Ralbead h eoeseveednseee 148
Arbroath ¥.ivisvtcss.ccclsece 134
The Burn, Brechin ...... 151
Girdleness,,.....ca:sssveoss- 152
IBTACINAD | socesccess Fubtts: 178
Buchanness ............... II5
Gordon Castle ............ 150
StORnOWAaW. s.pscnmsetereres 112
TROPA e tay 5.5.00. -eeceevedeees 158
POKER. ccs c0s catheesaeesss 82
Barrahead ....,............- 128
South Wist.........sc0.:00- 134
Island Glass ..............- 157
Culloden t,..:.0s.6eces005 118
Galepiet: ct iiesetstsery ss 129
Cape Wrath ....0.0s.0;-+:+ 116
Noss Head...............00 133
Pentland Skerries......... 11g
Sandwich “-o.scs..+- sarees 103
ABEGEGAY: J+ nose converses sped 135
GOEK Re ispiherncssheceres obras 119
Waterford...,........+009-- 139
Wallaloe:. ... .sapegereteavece IIt
Woodstock ..............- 163
Portarlin gton Seas 102
MR MOTe!,sransecss;s5iss5 128
Black Hoek | si... /s.0.-0+=- 156
Enniskillen ............... 138
SARA OS |S cass peasy ineacy ss 124
IBGUBSD oy pasciesssapp san aie 130
79
80 REPORT—1874.
Taste I1.—Mean and Extreme Ratios in each Division.
Abstract of Table I.
| om
og
ae ae Bs Ratio for 1872. | Ratio for 1873.
Division.) Description. = Be |
Z, 2 | Mean. |Highest.| Lowest.|| Mean. |Highest.| Lowest. i
ENGLAND AND WALES.
T. | Middlesex .........cce..+ss00 I 132 132 132 83 88 88
II. | South-Eastern Counties...) 7 132 140 124 gI 96 84
IIL. | South Midland Counties...| 7 133) | 153 120 93 106 37 if
IV. | Eastern Counties ..... peeve 4 143 148 139 95 99 go
V. | South-Western Counties... 10 133 145 122 93 103 84
VI. | West Midland Counties .... 6 156 177 125 92 IOI 82
VII. | North Midland Counties... 5 148 156 128 86 gI 83
VIII. | North-Western Counties...) 5 135 149 117 88 94 80
EX) Vorkshine iiedsceasavesnvncses 6 152 163 142 79 88 75
X. | Northern Counties ......... 7 138 177 118 83 93 71
XI. | Monmouthshire, Wales, &e.} 4 151 164 | 134 86 gI $2 |
Scornanp.
XII. | Southern Counties ......... 5 127 151i B® fe) 84 100 60
XIII. | South-Eastern Counties ...) 4 161 170 151 104 122 97
XIV. | South-Western Counties ... I 160 160 160 112 112 112
XV. | West Midland Counties ...|. 9 120 152 84. 95 108 79
XVI. | Hast Midland Counties 6 143 163 132 95 100 86
XVII. | North-Eastern Counties ...) 5 149 178 115 || 106 128 94
XVIII. | North-Western Counties...) 7 127 158 82 || 98 138 74
XIX. | Northern Counties ......... 6 123 135 103 |] 107 | 123 89
| |
TREvAnp. |
PXOX a IVENNSLEM <Snuy es ee seneasve sen 3 123 139 rt || 101 | 4¥1r 94
OX | MOISE! ooc.cssenasrstieceincebae 4 137 163 102 98 119 80
PRSNGNT Tera Wilstorscsccscewarecaseceteeceetes 3 131 138 124 88 gI 84
WMGHiGscersc. esse chee tnereny Supn < 139 155 122 94 104 84
NaXiMUM! . 2. ...++secsnsoseee ne = 161 178 160 112 138 112
DMG INF MATETA ovesscsdu eee see ees £ 120 | 132 82 79 88 60
a |
former being 55 per cent. of the latter. A still nearer approach occurred at
Cobham, in Surrey, in 1851 and 1852, when the totals were 17°38 inches and
34:19 inches respectively, the former being 51 per cent. of the latter. In
Table III. no cases are admitted unless much more striking than the above.
The districts in which these exceptional ratios occur are (as might be ex-
pected) principally those in which the excess in 1872 was greatest ; but there
are also a few of which the explanation is not so obvious. It is very satis-
factory to feel that these two exceptional years have found in the British
Isles the most nearly perfect system of observation in the world.
Your Committee cannot close their Report without expressing, as far as
words can do so, the loss which they have sustained in the death of Professor
Phillips, one of the original members appointed in 1865, who, notwithstand-
ing the numerous other demands upon his time, was always as willing as he
was able to assist the Committee in any of the various difficulties which the
extent of their operations inevitably involve,
Taste III.—Comparison of total Rainfall in 1872 and 1873 at Stations where the fall in the latter year was less than half that of 1872.
1874,
Division.
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES.
Station.
VI. | Leysters, Leominster .......60....5-
VIII.
Ix.
Craven Arms, Stokesay ............
SHLEWEOULYE fe cesancccnetiausencecces cess
Newport, Cheswell Grange .........
WIRTEGHOTCH! 5..cc.ssccconsenarsecaserer
Penkridge, Rodbaston ..............
Chester, Pulford Tall ...............
Bosley Manns, ......00..2..sesc0.see
Chester, Newton Nurseries .........
Neston, Hinderton ............,.0685
Marple Top Lock .......06.....006
Handsworth Grange, Sheffield......
Broomhall Park, Sheffield .........
Crookes, Sheffield................20006
Tinsley Locks, Sheffield ............
Moorgate Grove, Rotherham ......
Wath-upon Dearne, Rotherham ...
West Melton, Rotherham .........
Elsecar, Barnsley .........seeseeseseee
Doncaster ..... BM ss cdeactaicedcnahees
PA (Magdalens)... PEMA bhameeten
Worsborough, Barnsley ............
Dunford Bridge Station ..........:.
PONISHONO cece ce fecoeceesesessaveccenses
[Barmsley; oc. e-deovccdesetsces ee. c8
6 Church Street ............
Ackwonth® <j. ecckecdeevsse cca stavae.
WWNiishallMdeseskeasceroccatcsst dacestesst
Rastrick, Huddersfield...............
Bradford Mechanics’ Institution...
2 (Chellow Dean) *
Holbeck, Leeds ...........sceccseseeees
Bootham, York..........:cceeseseee ees
Cherry Hill, York ...............44.
mee Littlethorpe ..............606-
WENO Dic codesqbonmooeadorenbaducnocdt
TRL ge nncatoceaananbnconspecdsoneDusene
Thorpe Perrow, Bedale ............
Leyburn — .ccacecscesesessccsersncsesecs
Northallerton .........sc0.se+-+sssees
Tunstall, Catterick ...............06
GOSMONtasenesete soe so ceuteele ade Cleo
Whitby, North Lighthouse .........
As Guisborough Road ......
Giveta SIG GG) f ven- ase coesascecapenar
Grey Towers, Middlesborough ...
Marton Hall, 3 Soe
Upleatham....c.coscsceseesreccceneeees
Middlesborough .............s0eeeeee
Haglescliffe [Yarm] ...............64.
Vitter dlivoyn, eeseeroccdsoabenocopeesaacnce
NGC SOLE Gia riders tenciateeaseesccttestas
WVGISINPHADA ee. te.cncdebntscncstases de
Durham Observatory ........ sock
Seaham Vicarage .........:.seserseers
Shotloy Hall ....c...cscscsvsscsecccees
MSY WG MMi ants diecwe ede. tnaadeseaceas
Wylam Hall... Bereich
Newcastle, Rye Hill ..
7 Philosophical Society...
Town Moor...........+++-
Nor th Shields, Whitley .....sss0.
Glanton Pyke .......cscossscseeeeeres
——— $i
| Potal Fall,
1872.
in.
54°03
50°87
34°15
46°36
55°93
48°16
48°31
51°87
§2°02
45°45
54°35
37°60
45°81
43°00
45°91
39°26
40°16
39°53
41°07
42°29
38°39
56°86
85°74
54°42
42°28
45°54
41°07
37°45
43°44
43°12
51°52
35°90
39°97
40°38
42°68
42°07
34°05
41°79
46°81
44°22
49°66
40°53
42°10
57°18
39°95
38°62
44°75
482
40°64
36°25
34°79
39°46
41°69
39°34
53°80
48°47
41°62
48°03
51°16
44°64
41°56
41°33
41°49
39°97
50°87
81
Total Fall, ‘Per cent.
| of 1872. |
1873.
in.
26°82
25°32
16°70
22°33
26°87
23°96
2121
25°65
24°49
21°74
26°53
17°65
22°40
21°41
21°54
17°63
16:92
16°84.
18°79
19°39
18°18
22°33
42°44
25°78
15°90
18°45
19°07
18°65
19°31
19°96
24°75
17°50
18°80
19°87
20°52
19°63
16°73
20°71
21°07
19°29
21°53
19°92
19°05
18°88
17°04.
19°07
20°80
17°18
19°20
17°30
15°86
19°69
20°21
19°67
24°98
22599
20°27
21°67
24°00
19°16
20°43
19°02
20°35
19°87
23°42
G
82 — ~REPORT—1874.
TABLES OF MONTHLY RAIN-
ENGLAND.
Division I.—MrppiEsEx. Div. I1.—S8.E, Counties.
Mippiesex. Surrey.
Heicht of Camden Upper ee Winchmore | Dunsfold, | Weybridge
aa ange Square. Clapton. TEN Hill. Godalming. Heath.
above | | ee
Ground ...... 0 ft. 6 in. 1 ft. 1 in. 1 ft. O in, 1 ft. O in, 2 ft. 6 in. 0 ft, G in.
Sea-level..,... 111 ft, 98 ft. 388 ft. 350 ft. 166 ft. 150 ft.
1872.| 1878.| 1872.| 1873.| 1872.| 18738.| 1872.) 1873,] 1872.) 1873. | 1872.| 1873.
in. in. in. in, in. in. in. ; in. in. in. in.
January ..,... 3°46] 244] 3°33) 2°36) 3°48] 2°34] 3°92| 2°76] 582] 3°84) gor) 2°68
February ...| °96| 1°96 *81) 1°36 85) 1°28 *98| 2°29] 2°04] 2°06] 1°22] 1°95
March %. <1... 2°66| 1746| 2°50] 1°44] 2°37] 1°54] 2°95] 1:86) 2:32) 1°62) 3°85] 1°64
April Bel G39 spi ata 67| 1°57 *56| 1°43 66 ‘97 *70| "10 “66
NE sopesonare 3'05| 31°56] 2°90} 188] 3°27] 1°73) 3°45] 2°25} 2°96] x40] 3°38) 1°57
June ......... 2'55| 2:24] 31'99| 2°32] 2°30) 2°24] 3°31] 2°31] 2°54] 2°03] 2°39) 1°54
July . 2's7| x81} 2°55| 3163) 2°61) 1°99} 3°38] 208] 2°47] 1°96] 3°63) 1°48
August ..,... 2'05| 2°87| 2°74] 2°35| 2°22| 3°06) 2°61) 2°54) 2°27) 1°44] 1°88) 1°89
September 1°64} 2°46] 1°30) 2°29| 1°54] 3°03} 3°60) 3°26) 41°73] 2°78) 3127) 2°44
October ...... 5120] 2°97] 4°42) 2°84] 5°52| 3°20] 5:40] 2°84] 5°60! 3°07} 4°45] 3°22
November ...| 3°98] 1°87] 3°39) 480] 3°55) 1°95] 4°09] 2°TO} 5°03] 2°49) 3°36) 2°19
December ...| 4°35] 48) 4179) °31| 431) “60/) 4°73) ° 471| "50| 4°03} °38
Totals...... 33°86 | 22°67 | 31°53 | 21°25] 33°59| 23°52) 37°85 23'89| 92°57 21°64
Division II.—Sourn-Easrern Countries (continued).
Kent (continued). Sussex.
Heicht of River Head, Acol, Sidcup, Brighton, Chichester | Bleak House,
Paine sonte Sevenoaks, Margate. | Foot’s Cray. || Lewes Road.| Museum. Hastings.
above | | || | eee
Ground ...... 1 ft. O in. 1 ft. O in, 0 ft. 8 in. 3 ft. 9 in. 0 ft, 6 in. 1 ft. Oin.
Sea-level.,,... 520 ft. 70 ft. 231 ft. 90 ft. 50 ft. 80 ft.
1872. | 1873.) 1872.| 1873.| 1872.| 1878. || 1872.) 1878.) 1872,| 1873.| 1872.
in. in. in. in. in. in, |) an: in, in. in. in,
January ...... 6°62) 42x) 3°32) 448) gor) 2°32)| 5°64] 3°08] 5:20] 3°39] 4°33
February ...| 180] 2°50 48) 1°52 75| 2°33|| 2°52] 1°83] 1°98] 2°90] 1°50
March ...... 2°59| 2°01) 3°60] 47:06) 2°09] 1°39); 2°49] 2°06] 2°69] 2°25] 2°28
PATIL o, cenee 1°13 | rex) 1°25)| aee2 |, zr07 66 "85 "97 84] 1°02 86
AUER peepanads 3°69) 160] 3:01] 120) 4°17 *96|| 3°14] 1°03] 2°70 97] 2°22
JUNE ......... 2°88| 248) 2°81} 404] 1°62] 1°93], 2°66) 2°30] 1°94] 1°96] 27°08
BIULY, sesetese= 2°58] 218] 3:00] 415] 2°44] 2°20]) 1°38] 1°93] 3'05| 1°77] 1°79
August ...... 2:20\| sqrGx:|) azo E50) 1°76) 4*oGieerts)+ 3:54) 207) x'7Ai mas
September ...| 2°07] 2°65) 129] 4¥71| 140) 1°85|| 2°33] 3:22] 342] 2°31] 2°35
October ...... 5°23] 4°00} 3°53] 3°16] 5°26] 3°35]| 5°36] 4°69] 4:98] 3:18) 5°73
November ...| 5°84) 3°15] 5°52] 3°54] 3°24] 2°32/|| 646! 3°39] 4°86! 2°36) 692
December ...} 5°96 *76| 4°71 31] 3°94 "42 || 5°61 *78| 4°70 56) 5°97
Totals...... 42°65 | 30°23 | 31°75 | 16°89| 31°75 | 22°79) 40°69) 28°75 | 36:93 | 24°44 | 37°98
Se SS eee
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES,
FALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES.
ENGLAND.
i>)
vo
Division II.—Sourn-Eastern Covntres (continued).
0 ee ee ee ee ener seen
Surrey (continued). | Kenr.
|
q Kew Kennington | Dover Linton, Falconhurst,
Chobham. Observatory. Road. | Castle. anyite- Maidstone. | Edenbridge.
| 1 ft, 2 in. 1 ft. 3 in. 5ft.Oin. || 1 ft. 6 in. O ft. 6 in. 0 ft. 6 in. 1 ft. O in.
93 ft. 19 ft. 19 ft. | 32 ft. 12 ft. 296 ft. 400 ft.
1872.) 1873. | 1872.| 1873.| 1872.| 1873. || 1872.| 1873.| 1872.| 1873.| 1872.| 1873.| 1872.| 1873
im | im, | in. | in. | in, | in || inn | im | im | im | in | in. : :
G20) 2°50} 3°43; 2°15] 2°71) 199)| 4°45) 3°78) 5°03] 3°35) 4°68| 2°69] 615] 3°65
1:28| 1°92 “81 | 3°57 85} 80) 31°34) 2°20| 3°54) 2°28] 3°33] 2:24| 31°65] 2°19
P53) Y70! 174) 41°37) 82] ro04)| 2:41] 182) 2°93) 2:27] 393, 1°66 Peay Morar
rei2 ‘24 | 1°43 "41 ‘97 77\| 64) wa2| 97] 4rgo| 156] ‘8x *83| 1°08
2°95) E4t] 2°95) 11°32) 3°16) 341 3°79| 2°05] 3°26) 2:09) 4°35) -97, 2°48) 140
2°06} 1°35] 1°48] 2°79 75| 2°57)| 2°68) 2°35) 2°57) 41°63) 4*33| 3°70| 2:18) 2:88
#10) 2°47) 81) 198} 3°06) 152|| 3-30/ 402) 2°56| 2:08] 2:21| 360] 1°78
155) 8x) 1°45) 1°84] 2°61) 3°41 |/ 1°95) 212) 1°57) 3°39] ¥°35| 2:13} 1°74] 2°79
1°44) 2°25] 4:29] 221] 1°23] 2°23 r89| 2°45| 211| 3°63] 2°01; 2°69] 2:73] 2°38
4°43| 2°66) 4:31] 2°91] 4:27| 2°75/| Go8| 461] 4°66] 4:17 448 | 3°31] 6°16
3°53} 182) 2°96) 3°96) 3°18) 3°95)| 10°44] 2°96| 8°53) 2°87] 581| 1°73 Seger ra
4 ep ars) 40, S78) 32 G6r poe) ashtray) ea6) 26) REE Pe
| 32°33 | 20°55 | 27°39} 20°81 | 28°32) 21°76 || 46°58 | 27°08! 44°31 30°51 | 39°10 | 23°99] 38°07| 28°18
Division IJ.—Sovrn-Eastern Counties (continued).
‘ !
Sussex (continued). || Hampsnrre.
| Balcomb |
Dale Park, Battl Uckfield Chilgrove, Pl Petworth || St. Lawrence,
Arundel. gee Observatory. | Chichester. me
Cuckfield, |. Rectory. [Tle of Wight.
3ft. 5 in. 1f.3in. | GFLOin. | Of: Gin, 1ft.3in. | 2.0m || 146 Oin.
316 ft. Pea 149 ft. 284 ft, 300 ft. 190ft. || 75 ft.
1872. | 1873.
1873. | 1872.) 1873.| 1872.| 1873. | 1872.} 1873.| 1872.| 1873. || 1872. | 1873
| — —
in, in. in. in. in. in. in. in, in. in. in.
3°68) 5°36] 3°60} 7:42) 4'or| 62) grr} 7°05| 5crx 5°84) 424
222| 480} 2°02| 2°83) 3°20) 2°38) 2°70] 2°30] 2°977|| 2:06] 3:04
2°87) x94) 2°18| 2°77) 2°44| 311] 1°85] 2°81] 2°39 3°60) 2°35
102 61 "64; *96 "74, 64. 68 "79 “68 || reer iy ir.
136) 3°16] ro2z| 282] 1°46) 4°87) 128] 3:30] ro08|| 2:76 "89
2°67) 2°72) 2°79! 2°03] 2°52] 2°95] 2°63] 3°12) 2°85]] 1-881 Ca
178} 1°59) 2°35| 3°02) 2°60/ 2°91) 2°49] 4°35] 2°48|| 3:23] 84
2°54| 80) 3°62) x60] 2°03) 1°26] 415] 31°87) 1°72|) Fog! 4°57
2°59| 1°83) 3°07) 2°54] 3716] 2:01] 2°62] arr] 2:81] x70} 2°38
459) 5°03] 4°67) 5°97| 4°49| 6°33| 5°64| 7:c4| 4°57!) 5:15] 5°03
2°61} 6°92) 3°16) 5°39] 2°90) 613) 2°48) 5:02] 3:02]) 531 2°99
84.| 5°88 *94.| 5°86 ss Ry 64.) 5°33 *64.|| 6:02 "85
28°77 | 38°64 | 30°06| 43°21! 31°17} 44°61| 31°27] 44°89} 30°12 39°95 | 28°05
S+ REPORT—187 |.
ENGLAND.
Division I1.—Sourn-Eastern Counties (continued).
Hasrsuie (continued).
: Ryde, Osborne, Otterbourne, Liss,
Rel onoee Isle of Wight.|Isle of Wight. Fareham. Winchester. Selborne. | . Petersfield.
above
Ground ...... 7 ft. Oin. 0 ft. 8 in. 10 ft. O in. 1 ft. 3 in. 4 ft. 0 in. 0 ft. 7 in.
| Sea-level...... 20 ft. 172 ft. 36 ft. 115 ft. 400 ft. 250 ft.
1872. | 1873.| 1872.| 1873.| 1872.| 1873.) 1872.| 1878.| 1872.) 1873.) 1872.) 1873.
in. in, in. | in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
January ...... 6°30| 4°87] 568| 4°62] 5°60} 4:25] 6:00] 3°73] 7°87] 5°38] 9°73} 676
February 1°995| 3°95| 2°28) 2°77| 3x07] 1°44] 2:14] 1°82] 3:10] 2°60) 2°79] 2°05
March ...... 3:16| 229] 2°68} 2-10] 3°17] 3°74| 2°84] 2736] 3:02] 2°95) 421) 287
April ......... 105| 122] 1o§| t:25] IO} oo} 1°56 "79| 1°49 °54| 1°67 68
DMT. sso csss 2°83| xo2z| 2°28] roo] 241] 127] 2°59] 1°43] 3°49] 90] 3°34] 1°35
June ......... 2°24] 1°49] 2°40] 1°54] 3°07] 1°73] 3°61} 1°40} 3°68) 1°53] 2°85] 4°70
ST. ss txoess 318| 2°64] 2°84] 1°96] 128] 2°55} 3°00] 2:02) 348) 3°48] 5°68) 3:19
August ...... 132} 1°38) 1:86] 165] 2:07) 2°28] 1°86] 2°71) 2°03] 2°36] 2:02) 92
September...) 2°02} 2°30] 1°97) 2°45] 2°83] 2°85] 3°72] 2°77) 2°27) 3:19] 213] 2°69
October ...... 5°56, 3°81] 5°88) 3:71] 4:41) 2°88) 5°62] 2°93) 681) 3°72) 7°55] 417] |
November ...} §°52| 1°83] 5°46] 2°00] 489) 3°09] 4°34| 2°18) 5°78] 261] 540} 2°80)
December ...| 6°10 *67| 5°00 -74| 461] °47| 5°83 °53| 6°63 *56| 6:44 654,
Totals...... 41°23 | 27°47 | 39°38) 25°79| 36°41 27°55| 4x11| 24°67| 49°56) 30°82] 53°81) 30°83
| Division I1I.—Sovurm Mripranp Counrins (continued),
|
BuckKINGHAMSIIIRE. NortTHAMPTON. || Brprorp. | CAMBRIDGE.
|
|
0 ; Althorpe Welling- | Se ) re Stretham,
me HighWycomb. Taare es | Cardington. | Wisbeach. Ely.
above | | | —_ |i- =: =
Ground ...... 0 ft. 9 in. 3 ft. 10 in. Oft.lin. || Oft. Oin. 0 ft. 6 in, 4 ft. 9 in.
Sea-level...... 225 ft. SlOth. +. | iieeeeceeees | 106 ft. LO ft. . 1 aoestrautemer
1872. | 1873. |) 1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1873. || 1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1873. | 1872.) 1873.
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
January ......| 4°31] 3°53 || 3°56) 2°14] 2°88) 2or]! 2°75) 2°95]) 2°54] 1°88) x8r) 144
February ...) 1°69} 1°87/| 1°74) 1°26] 1°53| 4:29)| tO] 1°46) 1°31| 1°69 "74. 59
March ...... 2°20] 2°34/| 1°87) 2°06] 1°70} 1°43 1°975| 1746)) 2°44) 1°56) 245 |, ox02
AYE << .sc0cs<: I"50 537il eae ABO eee E °79|| 790] 1:20]! 4:03] t:06| 1°82 85
BUN contr aise 2:26) 1°56)! | 2263 '|| 2-45) 2-23) 2738 2°08} 2'00]) 2°15] 2°84). 12°32), 1-80
June ......... 2°72| 80|| 3°41! 482] 2°99] 3°20]| 2°50) 2°35]! 2:97] 160} 2°43] 1°57
DULY“ .2se00..- 2°12} 1°87]| 4°66) ago} 3°76} 2702]/ 4:30] 2°00]| 5:93] 25x} 4°05]. 1°95
August ...... 146] 219 2:70) arog) 2g eae 3700] 2°20]! 448] 4°02] 2°35] 2°31
September ... Br | 2°85|/ 1°54) x21) 1:36] 4o4|| 115] I90]] 249] 1°87) 1°54] 2°02
October ......| 3°62] 2°68 2:00) (2320) \3200)| sarosiengers,| . r2c15 I 3°35] 2°39] 3°03 2°48
November...) 3°75| 2°03]! 4°03] 2°33] 3°68/ 1°75) 3°36) 2°00) 3°50| 142) 3°49) 1°47
December ...| 4°37 "43 || 3°70 *65| 3°09 "51 |, 3°20 50 3°27 *5 5 | aie Ly “53
| |
j
Totals...... 30°81 | 23°52 || 35°62} 24°66) 32°17] 20°77]| 30°24! 21°37]|| 38°46] 23°39] 27°20] 18°03
ON THE RAINVALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES,
| Division I.—Sourn-
Eastern Counties
ENGLAND.
Division IIT.—Sovurx Mipranp Counties.
(continued).
Hamrsme || Beexsnien, FLERTFORDSHIRE. OxrForpsuIrE. i
(continued).
Long Berkhamp- cae Radcliffe
Aldershot. Mitienhani. Bild dl Royston. Hitchin. Observatory. Banbury.
6 ft. O in. 1 ft. 0 in. 1 ft. 6 in. 0 ft. 6 in. 1 ft. Oin. O ft. 11 in. 7 ft. Oin.
316 ft. 70 ft. 370 ft. 266 ft. 238 ft. 208 ft. 350 ft. |
1872. | 1873. || 1872.) 1873.| 1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1873. || 1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1873.
ar a, in. re in. ¥ in. in. in. in. in. | in. in. in. in.
561} 3°87]! 4°42) 3°42 444} 2°92| 2°64) 3°74|/ 2°80]! 4°06| 220] 4:27] 2°45
2°07} 2718)| 1°36] 1°30 1°76/ Yo0g} 2°32) 25} 164)/ 50] 1°52) 1°88] 1°50 |
2°15}; 2°28)! 1°44] 2°09 247| 211} 149] 197) °52|| 1°77| 2°34] 2:r1| 2°22
1°40 *53 || 2718 "79 85) 181 ‘74| 1°88 83 || 1°87 48] 2°15 "44
2°51) 314]! 2°44] 1°74 2°46} 2°75] 1°70) 3ror} x80]] 2°55] 2:30] x11) 2°48
2°60} 1°49|| 2°29] 2°37 2°06 | 2°70] 09] 2°47] 1°68]| 2°87] 2°78] 2:76] 3°68
2°57| 2°03|/ 3°68] 150 2°84] 2°76; 1:45) 2:27] 3I'99]| 2°91] 2:22] 4°43] 2°18
2°12} 1°86)|| 1°88] 2°31 2°06} 1°95} 2°94] I°50| 2°17 116) 2°62) 2°84] 2°61
1°44] 2°49)| 1:05] 1°99 2°96 *88| 1°90 *69| 2°49 °97| 1°82) 1°46] 1°49
4°62] 2°54 |) 2°94] 2°40 2°95} 3°39| 2°36] 3°73] 248] 289] 2°69| 345] 1°84
3°20] 2'26 2°34] 2°11 2°23]; 2°74) 1°96/ 3743] 1°87 313] 70) 4°87] 1°13
465| °64)| 3°68) 52 79] 3°42) "50/ 3°78} “6o/| 3°79] "51/ 4:00] “80
34°94| 23°31 || 29°70] 22°54] 38°97] 27°78 | 28°52] 21-09] 29°72! 21°87 || 29°47] 23°18 35°33 | 22°82
Division [V.—Easrern Counties, |
a |
Essex, SUFFOLK.
; Culford.
he Hemnalls,) Dorward’s Bocking. Ashdon : d
: ; . Dunmow. baits Grundisburgh.| Bury St.
Epping. (Hall, Witham. Braintree. Rectory. Edmund's,
0 ft. 8 in. 1 ft. Gin, 0 ft. O in. 4 ft. Oin. 1 ft. 6 in. 3 ft. 9 in. 1 ft. 6 in.
345 ft. 20 ft. 234 ft. 200 ft. agQiter ||) sede: Re: | Ilys Saree aes
1872. | 1873.| 1872.| 1873.| 1872.| 1873. 1872. | 1873. | 1872.| 1878. || 1872. | 1873. | 1872.| 1873.
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
402) 2°86) 3°08) 1°57] 3°53} 3°02] 3°94] 2°96] 3°08| 3:12/]] 3:77 1°93] 2°83] I'91
Vor] 1°94 86) 1°63 92] 1°65 87] 1°99 89} 1°70 66] 191 *g0} 1°88
2°84} 1°48] 2°59] 1°43] 1°96] 1°33] 2°60 149] 2°69! 1°48]] 3°22] 1°44] 2°50] 1°66
1go| 107| 1°35 56) 2:30)|| i12|) 2:00 *99| 1°75 *90}/ 2°35] roo} 1°86] 1°31
371) 186) 3°05) 427/ 242] 3°54] 2°71] 450] 1°96] 3°75]] 2°82] 1°¢0 2°53] 2°06
2°86/ 189] 2°56/ 2°35] 2:94] 2°66] 2°65] 4:29] 2°87 2°09 || 3°74| 1°69] 2°01] 2°50
3°77| 2°08) 3°46; 1°83] 3:04] 31°77) 4°48) 1:45] 5°08} 2:16]| 2°72 ¥273)|| .6-21,| p23
2°00| 3°43] 240} 2°50] 1°70] 1°69] 1°64] 1°94] 112] 1°80 I59| 1°33] 249] 2°19
W50) 2°96) 3115} 2°53] 3138) 2°55] 489] 3°09] 1°27 2°89 || 2°03] 2°45] 2°35) 2:72
41) 2°78) 3°35) 2°15! 4745) 2°62) 3°75} 2°33] 3°66] arsqi] 432| 212] 3-12] 3°57
3°51) 2706; 3°07} 1°93] 2°82] 2:14] 3:20) 1°71] 3°40 2°40 || 4°75] 1°53] 4°01] 2°00
1443| 48) 3°37] °43| 4°08) 46| 3°67) +52) 3°90) +54 || 3°25] 52] 3°83] 69
36:16 | 24°89] 30°29| 20°18 | 31°54| 22°55| 33°40| 24°26] 31°67 23°37 || 35°22 | 19°55] 34°64 ae
86 REPORt—1874.
ENGLAND. ‘
Division V.—
Division IV.—Eastern Counties (continued). Sourn-WestERN
CovnrIxs.
NorFour. Witrs,
F Geldeston, Cossey, Wilton, Marlborough
a. Beccles. Norwich. Srat. Holkham. Salisbury. College.
above aes CNTR Peewee l es Fl) eee
Ground ...... 1 ft. Oin 1 ft. Oin. 1 ft. Oin, Oft.Oin. | Oft.5in. | Oft. Oin.
Sea-level...... uo... ) ANE 160 ft. 39 ft. 180 ft. 456 ft. :
1872. | 1878.| 1872.) 1873.| 1872.| 1873.| 1872.| 1873.] 1872.| 1873.| 1872.) 1873.
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
January .,.... 2'78| 190] 2°05] 1'99| 2°63] 2°20] 2:10} 180] 7°33] 5°59] 6°34] 4°38
February .. 98] 1°49 93} I'90] 40] 1°84 83) 3:18] 2°82] 92} 2°65] 40
March *.:.... 2°76] 1°52] 3°96) 2°02] 2°29] 1°88) 2°30/ 31°72] 3°05] 3°25] 2°39] 2°79
dAtpril | isd--.. 2°05] Tt07| 2°26) 3x°g4| 2°53] ° 427| 2:60| x07] 22n| Zor) ©s'96) “x85
May |,.e%:.- 2°47| 149] 2°08] 3°88] 2°25] 2:28/ x70] 2:10} 2°81] 1°35] 2°30} 3°89
June ......... Bigg | 5273 | 9823) 167] 42 | 14 | 175 | ES | Bg | S| ear | Sas
ALY ibs us 4°60/ 2°24] 3°29] 1°98] 5°89] 1°95] 3°50) 2°00f 3°00] 1°39) 2°63] 2°95
August ...... 2'20 85 | °3°67| 2°63) 421] ¥'90}. G23] ¥75] 243) “2:65 | “2'g2') Rares
September 1'94.| 2°03 | 92°81} 3°02] “3°93 | Jroz| “2°65| 2°758 91977) 19g | ASE | ety!
October ...... 3°08| 2°69] 3°15] 2°29] 2°84] 242] 2°55] 215% 5°89] 1°98] 5:67] 2°63
November ...| 5°17 76) ar7| © 2°28) (4°28)! 62°37) 9°85] zsh $49 | § 30) PFA. -9a8
December ...| 3°44 39| 3°74 *66| 3°96 "76| 3°38 7 5°72 93) 5°51 *60
Totals ...... 33°91 | 18°16] 35°24] 22°06] 40713 | 22°43) 33°44) 21°42 46°01 | 27°90] 41°99| 27°71
Division V.—Sovurn-Wesrern Counties (continued).
DervonsuireE (continued),
Heicht of Landscore, Bugouben- Cove, Castle Hill, Great Banshee
Rain gauge Teignmouth, ane. Tiverton. 8. Molton. | Torrington. ites
above Se
Ground ...... 0 ft. 6 in 1 ft. 6 in. O ft. 4 in. 4 ft. O in. Tt. lo: 1 ft. O in.
Sea-level......| 200 ft. 400 ft. 450 ft. 200 ft. 328 ft. 3l ft.
1872. | 1873. | 1872.) 1873. | 1872.) 1873.| 1872.| 1873.| 1872.| 1873.| 1872.| 1873.
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
January ...... 750| 6°79) 546) 466) 717] 5°78] 7°55) 4°87} 631] 6:02] 5°98] 5°43
February ...) 4°72} 3°55| 4'26| 2°09] 6:40] 2°33] 5:30 16) 4°91] 3°48] 4°64] 2°29
March ....., 3°37| 5°33) 2°73) 416) 3°39) 478] 3°91) 3:21] 4°81] 328) 3°74] 3°77
Wipril |e... 2°99| I't7| 271| 00) 2°78) Ig} 3°52| 31°84| ex) 1:16) 2°68) —x-rx8
May j.t-a0r.. 2°07) Igor) 2°25] 1'25] 2°26| 2:10] 2°60) 2°95] 1°85] 1°92] 1°93] 2°30
SUAS iis. 3°04] 0g} 4°58) 1°83) 2°87) IO] 4°52) 1°84] 4°79] 1°62} 5°32) 1°50
July ......... 4°05| 2°17/ 4°77) 1°95) 3°36] 3°33) 7°39] 5°51] 410] 4°35] 635| 4°50
August ...... 1°42) 4°35] 140) 482) 2°38) 4°50| 415] 7°47] 2°73| 5°76] 282] 7°19
September...) 3°05] 3°01] 3°28| 2°26| 3°66) 2°82} 4:79) 4°86| 437] 3:22] 514] 316
October ...... 5°19) 198] 5°86} 2°03] 6:43} 3°66) 867) 4:62) 7:49] 483] 7°38] 4°46
November ...! 4°99} 4°55] 4°70] 4°57| 623] 4°07] 6°38] 2:84] 6-30 3°44.| 6°27) 214
December . 7°23 Sr |pvers2 43) 828) ros] 6:04} 1°45] 643) x13] 5°71] 1°45
Totals...... 49°62 | 36:41 | 48°32) 31°05 | 55°21 | 36°71 | 64°82] 41°62] 57°20) 4o'2r | 57°96 | 39°30
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES,
ENGLAND.
87
Division V.—Soura-WEsTtERN Countixs (continued),
Wints ;
(continued). Dorset. DEVONSHIRE.
ereny Longthorns. Upwey. Bridport. ee Totness. ertmogs ;
1 ft. 2 in. 0 ft. 4 in. 1 ft. O in. O ft. 8 in. 0 ft. 3 in. 1 ft. O in. 0 ft. 2 in,
150 ft. 360 ft. 70 ft. 63 ft. 95 ft. 120 ft. 1400 ft.
1872. | 1873. || 1872. | 1873.} 1872.| 1873.) 1872. | 1873. || 1872.) 1873.| 1872.| 1878.) 1872.| 1873.
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
4°46| 3°17|| 880] Gor} 648) 446| 5794) 3°88|| 8°71] 7°90] 11°82] 8°99| 11°21] 10°89
2°63} 1°16)| 4:20} 2°42) 2°51) 3°81) 2°53) 3°17|| 603] 3°75) 6°54) 433] 8:99] 6:99
1°74| 2°76/| 4°27| 4°75] 3°14] 3°84] 3°00] 3°04] 5°37) 4°85] 5°30/ 5:90] 6:16/ 6°59
2°28 *719|| 3°95| 405] 2°52 "67| 2°18 “78 "65 54| 2°81 HG 4:07. Tome
2°46] 1°65|| 3°05 83] 2°22] 120] 1°88 *83/) I'Ig| 2°04] 2°94] 1°54] 3°41] 3°10
371] 1°36) 3°63; 1°69) 3°94) 3°75] 4:12| 1°76)| B70] 2°05) 4°36] 1°41] 7°69) 3°59
3°24} 3°29) 2°54) 2°05) 3°84) 179) 3°93) 1°61) 3°71) 3°34) 4°25) 2°45| 5:17) 540
194] 2°02|/ 2°39] 2°73] 125] 2:28] 416} 3:46] 1°28) 5:20] 1°31] 5°26] 3°66) 10°59
40] 1'65/} 2:27] 2°90) 31°38| 31°63) 1°76] 1°66)| 2°27] 3°47) 3°62] 2°77] 5°76] 3°42
3°79| 2°22|| 544] 3:11) 614] 3°22) 676) 2°49] 5°95) 2°27} 7°99] 104! 9°95) 5°69
469] 2°30] G50) stor} 5715] 4:20) 5°76] 4'28|| 7:04] 4°60} 7°66] 5:00| 8:24) 7°33
3°99 *52|| 4°64 "44| StI *57| 5°04 *34|/ 8:60! 2°00] 8:10] 190} 9°82] 2°59
36°33} 22°89 || 50°78} 32°99| 43°68 | 29°42] 44°06) 27°35 || 52°50] 42°01 | 66°70] 40°15 | 84°13 | 67°29
Division V.—Sourn-Wusrern Countiss (continucd).
CornwaLL.
Tehidy Park, | Truro, Royal} Trevarna, Bodmin,
Helstone. omar Redruth. Institution. | St. Austell. | Castle Street. Altarmum.
5 ft. 0 in. 3 ft. O in. 0 ft. 6 in. 40 ft. O in. O ft. 6 in. 2 ft. 4 in. 1 ft. 0 in.
115 ft. 94 ft. 100 ft. 56 ft. 300 ft. 338 ft. 570 ft.
1872.| 1873.) 1872.) 1873.) 1872.| 1873.| 1872.| 1873.] 1872.| 1873.| 1872. | 1873.} 1872.| 1873.
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
793| 488) 8:99) 5°77) 9°70] 5°88) 8:13) 5°32| gr) 627) 9°73) 8:06) 12°47| 10°72
—625| 3°89) 632) 6°62) G60) 4:40} 6°98; 5:03) 8:40) 5°73) 9:02) 4°70) 9°59) 4°74
~379| 550| 44x} 4°28) 4'15| 4:28] 3°98) 4:05} 3°49] 4°56) 5°25] 433] G10) 5°68
p36r) 83) 3°06) 58) 3°25) 50) 2°77| “§1| 3°71} “80| 4:36) 64) 4:33) °55
}2°09| 2°01) 1°86] 2°22] 3°35] 2°00] 2°79! 1°49] 2°60] 2°64) 3:0r| 2°06] 3°34] 2°83
ergs) ‘E33 | 3°30| 2'02|) 4¥e| 1°75) 2°77) 3°38] 9°35| 24R| 37OR| 2°22] 3°92 ].. 224
3°39| 3°84| 2°65] 4°23) 2°00] 4°23] 2°69] 3°69) 3°46) 3°86] 3:12] 3°96) 4:00) 5°19
221} 4°04] 2°08! 512) 1°75] 420] 99] 4°81] 1°82] 5°55} 218] G25] 284) g12
I. 2°94| 3°13; 2°53) 2°73] 2°90] 2°30] 3°26| 241] 443) 2°81! 479] 3°99] 59°} 4°6r
/ 75) 361] 7°42] 425) 640) 3°70) §°67| 3°34) 624) 3°30) 7°75| 437| 9°80). 6°53)
492| 4°31| 678] 3°99 540! 4:05| 5°96| 4:05] 7°64) 4:40] 7°42/ 5°82) 9°39] 5°89!
§78| xxg| 7°81| 1°36) 650] 3:50) 6:13] 1:23) 7°87] x13] Qtrg| 41:26) 12°43] 182
§1°62| 39°01] 57°21] 43°07| 56°10 40°79 | 53°12| 37°31| 62°42] 43°46) 68°83) 47°66) 84-11) 59°92
88 REPORT—1874,
ENGLAND.
Division V.—Sourn-Werstern Counties (continued). pigs ae a
Miptanp Covntizs,
SoMERSET. GLOUCESTER.
Fulland’s Sherborne ;
Height of School, Ilchester. Reservoir, Bethea Clifton. The Fire,
< eservoir. Cirencester.
Rain-gauge Taunton. E. Harptree.
above 5) ener
Ground ......! 1 ft. 4 in. 2 ft. O in. 1 ft. O in. 2 ft. O in. O ft. 6 in. O ft. 8 in.
Sea-level......) .....s.0008 40 ft. Saeutemy | | QOGit: 192 ft. 352 ft.
1872.) 1873.| 1872.| 1878.| 1872.| 1878.) 1872.) 1873.] 1872.| 1873.) 1872.) 1873.
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
January ...... 5°59| 463) 4°50) 3°93| 10°09) 7°52) S00} 3°45] 642) 4°44) 5:04) 3°72
February ....| 2°92} 1°88) 3714] 11g} 5°38] 2°02] 3:20 85) 4:19) 1°42] 2°87] 1°63
March ...... 2°51} 3°66) 2°70] 3°73] 3°40) 5°00] 2°35| 2:95] 2°20] 3°63) 2754] 3706)
PAN 7... sce as|| 22007 *70| 3°05 87| 3744 66! 2:80 754 2t75'| Go| j2eg7 82)
May .....0..| 2°16 88} 125) r07/ 3°28] 2742] 2°30] 4954 2°65) 2°64] 2°69] 2°60
June ...... pa|) S2a7 5) | 575i, PSE74 *99| 5°59] ‘40 | 3°82] ugg 3:42)| mem) ged) 23am
DULY) ...cnae es 3725] 2:00] 3°63) 3°05) 3°23 3°78] 3:20] 2971 3:72] 4x4] 4165)| 2ig4
August ...... 1:67| 3°96) 1:67| 2°73] 2°54| 4°04] 2°75) 2°85) 2:08 | 3°78] 3:27) ox
September...| 1°99] 2°22] 2°37) 2°42] 3°58) 2°37] 280] roo} 221} 2:92/ £61] 1°63
October ...... 454) 2954) $29 | 2:42) 63m) 338m] 3°75: argoq| 4rra,| 3¢8g)|~ si65ul e5g6
November 436| 3°32] 4°52] 3°72] 686) 3°95] 440] 2:20] 4:33| 2°73) 4:82] 2:08
December . 5°52 35) 5°83 64) 880} 1°16/ 4°80 55} 418 *71| 4°04 "97 |
Totals...... 40°13| 27°89] 41°69 | 26°76| 62°50! 38°63| 41°17} 24°07] 42°37| 32'07| 40°40} 26°63 |
soe - |
Division VI.— Wrst Mipnanp Counties (continued). puagen Vilas
Mrvtanp Counttizs.
Worcester (continued). Warwick. LEIcEsTER.
\| = if =
|| Arden House, .
Height of | Bromsgrove. 7 aden || Henley-in- | Birmingham.] Wigston. ee
Rain-gauge We Arden. ¢
above ——_—_—___——_
Ground ......| 4 ft. 0 in. O ft. 9 in. 2 ft. 2 in. O ft. 8 in. 0 ft. 10 in. 2 ft. 8 in.
Sea-level...... 278 ft. 200 ft. 400 ft. 340 ft. _ 220 ft. 420 ft.
1872.| 1873.) 1872.) 1873. || 1872.| 1873.) 1872.| 1873.) 1872.) 1873.) 1872. | 1873.
in. in. in. ip. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
January ...... 3°99| 2°75| 5'49| 3°29|) 430] 1921 4°75| 4°15] 3°43] 161] 3°34] 2°93
February ...| 2°79 *97| 414| Y02|| 2°43| 1°44) 341) 71] 2:05] 31°74] 2742 "74
March ...:.. 138| 2°64] 2°30] 3°38) 1°88] 2:17] 237] 285] 190] 2°06] 14q| 2:16
April .........) 3°20 *g1} 2°82 87 2°37 "79| 3°92 "781 3°03 557.0 ea 47
May ou...) 1°70] 2°24] 1°96] 2°38)| 2°06] 2'27| 2:27/ 2°39] 2:13] 2°03] 1°43] 2:30
SNES... ontwis: 4°55| 2°80] 5:29] 2°78|| 7°73] 2°06] 5°77) 4451 4°68) 406] 4:96| 3:24
July .......-. 4:27| 2°02] 3°71] 2°63 | 2°71} 3°or 3°56] 2:72] 5°88] 2°34] 3°40] 2°96
August ......| 3°77] 2°68) 2°57] 3°63 | 421] 3°41 3°81 | 3°07] 3°44] 2°68] 3:09] 2°86
September...) 2°10} 1°44] 2°08] 1°34|| 1°96) 161] 2°65) 2:12] 2:28] 1:45) 3:47] 1°83
October ...... 4'41| 1°94] 4°52] 2°05 i 430| 189} 465] 1:68] 3-72] 201] 3.43] 2°41
November... 4°47) 132) 442/ 1°59) 4°30| 94) 3°47] 2°30] 3°58| 1°97) 3°83] 2°73
December ...| 3°94 54 | 4°86 *62 3°67 43) 4°51 *56) 3°13 49| 3°49 37
Totals...... 41°07] 21°65| 44°16 | 25°58 | 41°32 21'94.| 45°34.| 28°78] 39°25 | 23°01 | 36°43] 24°20
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES.
ENGLAND,
89
Division VI.—Wesr Mrptanp Counties (continued).
GuovcEstER |) Hyrzrorn. SHROPSHIRE, SraFrrorp. Worcester.
(continued).
men |
Stretton Haughton Hengoed Barlaston Northwick
| Quedgeley. Rectory, Hall, chine see” g 1c West Malvern.
Teroford. Shifnal. Oswestry. Stoke. Park.
|
0 ft. 10 in. 1 ft. O in. 38 ft. 6 in. 6 ft. O in. Oft.6in. || 1ft.6in 1 ft. 6 in.
50 ft. 198 ft. 353 ft. 470 ft. 530 ft. || stedtatete ee 850 ft.
1872. | 1873. || 1872.| 1873. || 1872.| 1873.| 1872.| 1873. || 1872.) 1873. || 1872. | 1873.| 1872. | 1873.
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. | in. in. in. in.
427) 2°90|| 5°17| 3°40) 463] 237| 662] 4°97] 5:72) 268) 419) 3°75) 406] 3°72
248| 1r00|| 3°56| 1°32)| 2°89 94| 4:16] 17°56]| 3°94] 319|| 2°63) 161] 3°70] 1°38
2'25| 3':22|| 200] 2°95)| 2°04] 3°20] 3°33] 3°69]) 2°85) 3°06|| 2:cr| 2:26) 216) 2°53
on 7% *84)| 2°85] 1'08|| 2°96 "78 | 3°55] 2°01 3°18 "go 2°75 | 14] 2°02] 116
130] 2°53] 1°25] 1°63|| 2°06] 2°70) 2°86] 474]! 2°96] 2:27|) Igo] 2°75| 3°18] 2°33
459| 2724]| 3:41] 2°66) 472] 2°61] 5310] 1°78]| 5:29] 2°30 3°25| 2°47| 5°34] 1°28
6:51) 2°73|| 4:78| 2°76!) 3°84] 2°73] 5°06] 3:10]] 5:12) 3°32/| 3°62] 3°40] 3°15] 4°77
2°82| 2°33|| 212] 2°48|) g21] 317] 3°51) 2°83|| 4°27] 2°94)) 2°92] 2°80) 1°77] 2°97
3720] 1°46)) 189] 1'49/| 3°72] 1°43] 6:23] 2°34]| 3°74] 2°35 1'45| 2°02] 2°29] 2°04
3°33| 2706|| 3°79] 160) 6:07) 238] 709] 333) 540} 3°60]/ 431} 3°85| 4'0g] 221
§76| 165|| 5°64) 180) 321] 60} 642] 2°61) 3:18) 2:26)) G86/ 2°23) 531] X52
2go| 58) 5:02) 81) 3-71) 85] 652) 1°38] 4°38) *72|| 465] °78) 4:34] °67
—_-— =| —_—_— — | -—
42°12 | 23°54|| 41°48 | 23°98 |) 44°06 | 24°76| 60°45 | 31°34 50°03 | 27°59) 40°59 | 27°06) 41°41 | 26°58
Division VII.—Norrn Mipianp Countims (continued).
| Lercesrer
| (continued). Tanspem:
Lincoln. [Market Rasen. Gainsborough.| —_Brigg. Grimsby. |New Holland.
3 ft. 6 in. 3 ft. 6 in. 3 ft. 6 in. 3 ft. 6 in. 15 ft. 0 in. 3 ft. 6 in.
26 ft. 100 ft. 76 ft. 16 ft. 42 ft. 18 ft.
1872. | 1873.| 1872.| 1878.) 1872.| 1878.| 1872.| 1878.) 1872.| 1873.| 1872.| 1873.
5 in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
2°95| 2°00|| 2739] 1°57| 2:20] 1°69] 2°02] 1°87] 3:00) 2°42| 2°34] 1°48) 3°57} 1°69
2°10| 159|| 2717) 1°34] 3°04] 1°35] 4°78] Yoo] 1°96] 1:27} 188] 41°67) 2°13) 1°53
2°17| 3164/| 1°45{| I'04] 1°69] 1°56] 1°06 *96| 2°04] 4361) 1°52] 1°66] x'90) 1°76)
438) %'07|| 3°22 *82/| 1°96 "93| 3°21 *37| 2°90 *55| 2°81 SS) eae 46
1°83] 2°25 93,| x07) Sirsa | 2:37 | 143 84 "91| 1°86 *94| 2°20] 118] 1°g2||
2°92} 1°32|/ 280} 1°54) 148] 115] 3°14 *60| 1754| 1°30 63] 05] 149] 215
| 423] 108 5709| 1°72] 2:23] 2718] 4°40) 1°45} 3°76| 2°71] 4:16] 2°70! 3:41] 2°52
| 2°60] 2°61 2°39] 2°95] 2°70| 2:71] 5°13] ?°95| 3°10] 2°82] 2:05] 2°81) 2°02] 2°30
} 2°83} 1°64]' 2°90] 1°95| 2°90] 2°00] 5°52 *98| 3°04] 180} 2°09] | 2°30] 2°70! 2:78
3°65) 194) 3°39) 2°57) 497| 2°79) 5112) 186) 3°47) 1°74) 194) 30K) 3:02) 1°85
3°43| 2°49) 2°83) 1758) 3°52) 95) 4748) 1°84) 227] 145) 3:19] 1°42) 4°32) 1°36
3°36) "19)) 2°59) 86} 198) 23) 2°54) 28) 2°33) 38! 2°93) “17/ 3°49] “20
: 35°45 | 19°82 | 32°15 | 18°31 | 30°19| 19°31| 39°83 |? 13°00] 30°32 19°91 | 26°39] 21°02] 31°70| 20°52
! |
=
90 REPORIT—1874.
ENGLAND.
Div. VUIL—|
IN.- WESTERN
Division VII.—Norru Mipitanp Countins (continued),
CounrTIzs.
Norricuam. Dersy. CiEsHIRE.
: @hauslanss Cholmondelly
Height of Welbeck. Derby. Chesterfield. | Comb’s Moss. "Brith. “1 Castle,
Rain-gauge aN Nantwich.
above ars =
Ground ...... 4 ft. 6 in. 6 ft. O in. 3 ft. 6 in. 3 ft. 6 in. 3 ft. 6 in. 1 ft. 6 in.
Sea-level...... 88 ft. 180 ft. 248 ft. 1669 ft. 965 ft. 42 ft.
1872.| 1878. || 1872.) 1873.| 1872.| 1873.| 1872.| 1873.} 1872.| 1878. 1872.) 1873:
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
2°93 || 3°72| 2°04] 348] 3°65) 8:02) 3°97] 7°45 424) 2°59
1°r5 || 2°87 *68| 2°61 *81| 6:37] 124} 3°36 2°30 *98
2°23 || 1°84] 2°15] 3°93] 2°00] 6:27] 2:51} 4°90 3°20| 3°94
63 || 2°24 46| 2°33 55] 518] 31°84) 3°81 3°40| 1°00
2°10 || 1°63] 2°31] 3°13] 4°82] 4°84! 3°94] 3°80 2°67} 1°93
1°53 || 5°27] 221] 4°02] 129] 40°54] 3°86) gt12 6°59| 2°01
2°02 || 4°68} 2°14] 5°00} 1°77] 5°36] 3°81] 5°78 4°39| 3°32
2°65 3°34| 2°92] 2°28) 2:60| goo) 4°41] 3°67 3°30] 4°12
1°87 || 2°93| 1°58) 4°12| 2°35] 10°52| 4:20) 7°85 O74) Se5
2°42 || 4°56| 2°40) 5°22| 3°34) 9°30| 6°53] 8:47 7°49) 3°23
November ...| 3°21 | 2°77|/ 2°36) 2°03] 3°43] 2°70] 6:82] 4:88] 5°52 3°85| 240
December ...| 3°57 ‘Ir || 3°78 *26| 3°25 08] 5°33} 1°83] 4°04 #51 | wag
2118] 41°30] 22°96] 83°05) 43'02| 67'77| 34°68] 51°68 | 29°71
Division VIIT.—-Norra-Western Counties (continued). Diy. [X.—-Yorxsurme,
LAancasuire (continued). Yorx.—West Rivine.
Broomhall .
. Caton Holker ‘ Redmires
Height of | Stonyhurst. a 4 Coniston. Park, ”
ain-gauge y Lancaster. Cartmel. Sheffield. Sheffield.
Ground ...... 1 ft. O in. 1 ft. 4 in. 4 ft. 8 in. 1 ft. O in.
2 ft. O in. 5 ft. O in.
Sea-level...... 376 ft. 118 ft. 155 ft. 287 ft.
330 ft. 1100 ft.
1872. | 1873. | 1872.| 1873.| 1872.| 1873.| 1872.) 1873.} 1872.) 1878.| 1872.| 1873.
_ in. ; ie in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
anuary .,.... 5°5 17| 7:09) G19} 8:19] 5°71] 13°86 zs ; ZaHE
February ...| 4°58 82] 47% "77| 4°68! 1:06} 9°46 8 pee $7
March ...... 4°75| 3°40] 4°98] 3:12] gitar] 3°83] 8°73 2°74.| 3°25) 93°62
pH ccaccesds 3°68 *82| 2:27 *59| 1°83 *62| 2°58 ‘91| 4°82] 107
May” .c..s4... 3°20) 2°85) 247] 3'62| 1°68| 2°47] 3°97 2:29| 9°57) 4°30
GANS ..ichdeds 5°04] 4°01] 5°45] 2°36] 4°95] 2745] 8°63 1°996| 6:27] 3°23
WMG ....0d 5. 4°49| 4°81] 7°48] gar] 5°95} 4:46! 6704 1°55| 7°16} 2°48
August ...... 5°57| 638! 5°52] 5:26) 4:86] 581| 7:61 1°85 | 3%0 (4-77
September...| 8°85] 2°82] 7°96] 2°54] g'16| 2°81/ 31°43 195] 5°34] 2°55
October ......) 6°00) 8°68) 647] 6°32) 6:53] 652] 12°22 2°44] 6:97] 3°42 |
November...) 4°70] 3°87} 5705] 2°05] 5°04] 2°98] 9794 2°51| 4°93| 3°83
December .... 4°09| 2°40) 5:24) 190) 4:79] 1°94] 9°47 39) 451) 107
Totals...... 60°51 | 47°03} 64°69) 37°13] 61°87] 40°66 |103°94.| 75°96] 45°81] 22°40 59°84] 31°92
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 91
ENGLAND.
a's * a = _—
Division VIII.—Norru-Western Counties (continued).
CHESHIRE
: LANCASHIRE.
(continued).
: Bolton-le- Rufford, Audley Place, | South Shore,
' pemoteneeld. || Manshestor. | Waterhouscs. Moors. Ormskirk. | Blackburn. | Blackpool.
3 ft. 6 in, 2 ft. 7 in. 3 ft. 6 in. 3 ft. 6 in. 0 ft. 8 in. O ft. 6 in, 1 ft. 8 in.
589 ft. 106 ft. 345 ft. 283 ft. 38 ft. 450 ft. 29 ft.
1872. | 1873. || 1872.| 1878.) 1872.) 1873.} 1872.| 1873.| 1872.| 1873.| 1872.) 1873.) 1872.| 1878.
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in: in. in. in. in. in. in.
473| 2°14] 4°26) 3°14) 4:12/ 3°23) 5°35) 5°07! 4°57] 431) 603) 612| §45| 3°70
3°62| 106} 3°02 67| 3°83 42| 4°60| 1°29] 3°41 "74| 3°17| 1°43] 2°60 “65
320) 2°55|| 2°77|/ 179! 3°22] 2°96) 415] 3°92) 3°95| 3°30) 612) 3°22] 3°20) 3°49
3°82 “51 || 2°98 sor © 2 97 66) 3°08 5) ee 7 | © 3:49 °$7| 1°65 48
3°34] 2°78 | 2°14) r'9r) 2°62} 2°44) 3°03) 2°29) 225) 199) 3°94) 342) Igo) 1°75
529] 2°72|| 690] 2°97) 654] 3°29| 6756) 2°47) 6:05] 1°62] 5°68) 2°28] 5:05] 1°93
698} 3°56) 7°66) 4°65) 727) 4°91) 4°34] 7°03) 7°08| 3°34! 4°50/ 4°68| 655) 2°70
218) §16|| 2°78) 4:20] 3°21| 488) 3°79] 5:21 12} 3°48] 5°96] 6:23] 1°95! 2°20
3°37| 2°72|| 7704) 2°48) 657] 3°59| 842] 3°18 *60| 2°76] 7°08} 3°02) 7:20] 2°20
$64) S10|] 4°40} 4°44] 4°58] 6'04/ 5°32/ 643) 4°77/ 4°59; 631/ 7718) 540) 4°32
3°09] 3°10|| 3°77] 2°28) 4:46) 3°25] 4°80] 347] 3°81] 2°04] 5°72|) 414] 3°18) 1°65
3°95 "99 || 2°97 *78| 2°16 97} 415] 41°38) 3°38] 442] §5702| 81] 3°72] 3°20
_——
49°21 | 32°39 || 50°69 | 29°82/ 51°49 | 36°64| 57°59] 42°69 | 52°26) 30°31 | 63°02) 44°10| 47°35 | 26°27
Division [X.—YorxsH1re (continued).
Yorx.—Wesr Rivine (continued).
Well Head, Crendep
oor,
Halifax.
Ackworth,
Penistone. | Saddleworth. Pontefcact. Goole, Halifax
3 ft. 6 in. 5 ft. 0 in. 1 ft. 6 in. 3 ft. 4 in. 1 ft. 0 in. 0 ft. 10 in.
717 ft. 640 ft. 135 ft. : 1375 ft.
1872. | 1873.
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
289| 1 s2x| 2° ; ‘ é : : : F : 590] 4°50
2°10 . 3°58 . . . . . . . . 8 4°80 *go
1°78 * 2°48 * . : . , . : ‘ ‘ 3°40| 2°60
3°14 . 3°82 . . . . . . . . . 4°00 ‘60
1°12 . 2'23 . . . * . . . « . 2°40 2°80
391 F 4°29 : 3 : . . ° ° . 6'60| 1°60
6°08 * 8°31 . . . . . . . . . 4°30 3°70
168 . 2°21 . . . . . . . * . 5°90 4°40
3°71 , 4°97| 2° ; : : ? : ; : 3 700! 2°70
4°11 . 6°93 . . . . . . . . . 5°60 6° go
2°85) 1° 544| 2° : ; : : é : ; : 640! 3°60
aol) 495 i : : ¢ : : ; , : 4°40] 2°10
| 36°62 | 18°33) 54°42 *78 | ‘0? ; ; "02 | 47°21 | 25°56 “60°90 36°40
REPORT—1874.
~
ENGLAND.
Division [X.—YorxsHirE (continued).
Yorx.—West Rinine (continued). Yors.— Hast Riprve.
f Eccup, Filta: : BeyerleyRoad,| | Warter,
ee of Tein. York. Harrogate. Arncliffe. Hull. Pocklington. |
ain-gauge |
above
Ground ...... 0 ft. 9 in. O ft. 6 in. O ft. 6 in. 2 ft. 9 in. 3 ft. 10 in. T ft. 10 in.
Sea-level...... 340 ft. 50 ft. 380 ft. 750 ft. 11 ft. 230 ft.
1872.| 1873.} 1872.| 1873.| 1872.| 1873.| 1872.) 1873. | 1872. | 1873.| 1872.| 1873.)
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in, in. in. in. in. a
January ...... 3°72| 2°57] 2°89] 2:12] 4°50] 3°18] g18] 8:G0]/ 3°40] 3°72] 3°78] 2°05 |
February 3:24] 11g] 2°50] 128] 3:75] 169) 7°91) 127|/ 266) x81] 3:22] 1752)
March ...... 2:28] 2°86] 2:17| 2°16] 2°31] 3°39] 639] 3°85]] 2°55] 2:45] 2°74] 2:92!
April). cgain-- 3°35 64.| 2°81 Bo] 3°51 °95| 4°44 69 || 2°88 -78| 2°96] 1°18 |
May seve wae| esag | 2°82 | oaro2 || Hares) 2-64) 22:68!) grog | 2°55 168] 2°28] 2°02] 2°69
PUBS -veiwaes. 4°74.| 1°33] 5°84 96) 4°70] I'90| 6°05} 2°53 1°83} 1°36] 3°36] 1°47)
uly: aeasc 5°31} 3°01] 4°30] 1°74! S790] 2°65] 3°42] 5°47] 4°83] 3°08) S20] 3:15.
August ......, 3°18] 2°65| 28r/ 2°15] 4°48| 2°76) 4°58] 6°68|) 2:24) 2°81] 3°63) 2°82
September...| 3°95} 2°08] 3°63) 1°84] 5°18 2°18) 9°59| 4°49 | 375° 1°98| 5°56| 2°48
October ...... 541] 2°18] 3°94) 1°67] S30| 2°39) 7°28] g10|| 3:19] 2:04] 4°58| 2:27
November ....| 4°31] 2°11] 4°30] 1°45] 5°23] 2°22] ro‘21| 466] 446] 1°48] 5746! 1°27
December ...| 3°94 *50| 3°76 38) 418 *70| Gor] 3°57|| 3°28 30| 4:24 “Bz
Totals,..... 44°87 | 23°94) 39°97| 18°80] 49°38 | 26°69 | 79°00} 53°76) 36°50| 22°09 | 46°75| 24°34
Division X.—Norrsern Countizs (continued).
NorTHUMBERLAND. H CUMBERLAND.
|
Nort! . ilbur
Height of Bywell. Noe Haltwhistle. zee Bootle. Seathwaite.
Rain-gauge
above : -
Ground ...... 0 ft. 6 in 1ft.0in. | Oft. 9in. 6 ft. Oin. 1ft.0in. | 1ft.0in.
Sea-level...... 87 ft. 126 ft. 380 ft. 300ft. | 80 ft. ' 422 ft.
1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1873. || 1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1873.
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. — ae
January ...... 430| 2774) 2°78] 4102} 3°75] 634] 2°88] 1°88) 855] 5°18] 32°14] 28°64
February 3°72| 1°65] 2°39] X91] 2°60 61) 2°62) 2°12]! 6:26) 1°43] 17°53] 3°05
March ...... 4°60! 238] 3°45) 1°86} 2°36) 1°86) 2:92] 1°73]) 4°38] 4°33] 11°23] 7°30
aha Ree gi8o0)|' ator | gxs94)|| eos) |hoze79)|| wes)! 1 3:855 "48 || 1°38 55] 5:08] 1°76
MUR. sianjne's 1°73] 2°86] 1°96) 3°03] 2°82] 195] 2°52) 3'50]| 2°69] 1°39] 9°54] 5°58
dune ......... 2°57| 162) 2:95] 1°43] 3°52] 1740] I'50/ 1°04]| 6:90] 2°64] 12°30] 7°78
PUEUIV Ss enaane.' 460] 2°22] 2.39] 2°27) 425] 182} 5°63) 1°90]] 4°83] 5:57] 5:90] 16:96
August ...... 4°18} 249) 3°71| 347] 454] 461} 3°42) 3:73]| 4:08] 410] 9°34! 18°73
September .... 5:20) 2°19] 4°79] 2716] 4°37/ 2°56| 5:98) 2°47)) 7:98] 2:23] 20°85] 13:70
October ...... 5°83} 2°85) 5:96) 224] 5°47] 4:02} 5°98) 3°22/|| 8-11] 591] 19°13] 21°23
November ...| 5°33} 2°07| 4°11) 1°30] 4°77] 2°44) 443] 2°47]! 519] 2°89| 18°64| 10°c6
December ...| 5°50 "721 4°46 "29| 4°05) 189] 4°86) 1°34]/ 6:79) 2°32 | 20°37| 11°74
Totals ...... 51°16 | 24°00] 40°89} 22°03] 46°29] 30°17] 46°59) 23°88 || 67-14] 38°54 |182°05 |146°53
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES.
ENGLAND.
Division [X.—Yorxsurtre (continued).
Division X.—Norruprn
CounTIEs.
Yorx.—Norru Ripina. Durum.
: + ;
Malton. Otte Scarborough. |Northallerton. puck Pee ak Wolsingham.
1 ft. 0 in. O ft. 6 in. 1 ft. 0 in. 1 ft. 3 in. 1 ft. 6 in. 0 ft. 10 in. 1 ft. 0 in.
75 ft. 192 ft. 102 ft. 133 ft. 21. ft. 600 ft. 464 ft.
eee a es
1872. | 1873.| 1872.| 1873.| 1872.| 1873.| 1872.| 1873.| 1872.| 1878.] 1872. | 1873.| 1872. | 1873. |
ine | ime | in. | in. | in| im. | in | im | in | i eset fae | im:
314) 81) 3°59) 1°73] 2°99) 129) 2°02) 1°56) 4147} ° r80| 4:78) 3°28
2°25) 41°36] 2°64) gt] 1°98| ror] 2°44] 1°03] 2°00 161} 3°77| 2°01
2°78| 2°04] 2°79] 2:91] 2°82] 1'60| 2°62) 2°69] 2°38 2°38] 448} 3°10
2°66 *96| 3:00) 1°65} 2°22) I'0o| 2°93) 1°26] 2°52 tog] 3°85 "99
147| 2°26) 195] 1°90| 2°33] 81} 211} 2°29) 2°62 2°63} 2°23] 2°44
414) 137) 440) 1°94) 2°40) 1°39) 4°77 "98 | 3°24 2°14) 2°74) 1°32
466) 2°18) 3:98) 5°14) 3°78| 2°24] 4°40] 2°44) 3°15 2°26| 5:03] 2°26
2°82 | 227) 3°39) 4°80) 2°48) 3°76) 3°62) 1°73/ 3°53 3°03| 3°64) 2°77
518| 1°66] 5:04) 2:46] 6:02] 2°57) 3°75] 1°35| 5:26 161] 4°65}. 1°92
3°92| 2°74) $24) 2°09) 3°98) 2°16) gio} 1°98) 3°43 1°96| 7:02| 2°29
488| 158) 5:96] 1°78] 5°56] 341] 4'42| 2°28] 2°80 1°34| 6:27] 191
3°89 48) 4:02 29| 2°74) 58! 3°35 =33' |) 2730 MS By She|| oe *69
41°79 | 20°71 | 46°00] 28°60} 39°30] 19°72] 40°53] 19°92] 34°70] 15°86 22°22] 53°80] 24°98
Division X.—NortHern Counties (continued).
CumBERLAND (continued), WESTMORELAND.
hinfell Hall,| Post Office, Kirkb Saeet
kermouth.| Keswick,” |Setleby Hall.) Kendal. | stephen, | Appleby. | Strickland,
Penrith.
2ft. 0 in. 1 ft. 0 in. 1 ft. 1 in. 1 ft. 6 in. 1 ft. Oin. 1 ft. Oin.
270 ft. 112 feet. 146 ft. 574 ft. 442 ft.
1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1873. || 1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1873.
in. in. in. in. | Pad . in. in. in. in. in.
11°62 | 13°96| 4°95) 5°73 9°87) 9°44) 7710] 9°08) 5°98] 8'93| 8°86) 8-72
5°37} °93] 2°99; °53]| 5°93; . 65} 4°97; 64) 4°38| 1°38) 9°47| I°15
3°82) 9°79) (27r| "2:07 || 15:61 | ~ 3°30] g'92| (2°29 | 2°62) “zor) 3°32)|" 2°94
2°54| 66] 1°36 "36 || 2:19 Rpt ek ie “69| 114) 67 93 26
- 2°74| 2°05] 2°67] 2°30 | 2°73) 2°52 2°46} 1°54] 2°44 *92| 1°56] 1°42
, 4°99| 2°27] 3°37) 1°38|| 4°65] 2°69] 5705) 1°59] 3°26] 1°36] 2°84] 1°30
: 3°80) 7°15} 463) 7°09) 4:80) 7°30} 3°97) 3°39] 3°03] 2°59] 4°09] 3°39
6 425) 615] 2°37| Gor] 464) 5°90) 4°76) 3°24) 445/ 3°26] 3°92] 3°58
i 8°89) 3°44) 4°68) 3°53 || 818 | pace seca ae aes | Ree | oS ce | Or aye |g eee
Forn6 | 7°35) 9°74] G12) 5°34) 4°64) 7°57) 836] 7°23) 3°77) 623) 2°90] 7°06) 3°72
7%16| 326] 10°17} 3°09] 2°91| 1°87|| 664) 333] 5°74] 2°30] 3°79] 2716] 5:92] 2°03
759| 2°78| 841) 3°65) 4:13] arr) 637) 243] 579] 1°50] 4:25) 1743] 5°62) 1°64
. === ||
: 12'50 50°24 | 76°34.| 53°26] 42°02] 36°62 || 69°18) 49°37] 59°12| 32°26) 45°92 | 29°03| 59°16] 31°48
| Se eee Se ee ae ed Sena -
94
REPORT—1874.
WALES.
Division XI.—Monmovru, WALES, AND THE IsLANDS,
January
een enenee
November ...
December .
Division XI.—Monmoutn, WALES, AND THE IsLAnps.
|
Monnovrn. GLAMORGAN. | CARMARTHEN. || PEMBROKE.
H |
nfrechfa, Pentyrch, || Carmarthen v -
Height of Pate t. Abergavenny. Swansea. C aiff Gach. me -
Rain-gauge |
above : | 5 ; |
Ground ...... 4 ft. 0 in 1 ft. O in. 14 ft. 9 in. 1 ft. hin. | 0ft.6in. | 1 ft. 0 in.
Sea-level...... 326 ft 220 ft. 40 ft. 100%. || 9af. |) gate
1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1873. || 1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1878. || 1872.
— les So ate | eas
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
January ...... 9°85| 977| zor] 615}) 7°76) 5:72] 881} 663]; 9°75) 8'99|| 8:90
February ...) 5°29) 181) 5°42] 2°22]| gor 85| 5:07| 3°86|) 7°34) 294)! 16:62
March ...... 5°34| 603] 3°41] 4°34] 3°47| 3°33| 410) 478) 626) 3°57|| 5°37
April ......... 2°20 62| 2°84 63 || 160 °53| 2°08 "49 || 2°69 "72 \| 2°45
May. ...ere: 2°06| 2°53) 119] 2°23|) 1°31] 2°84) 2°87] 3:10]/ 2°23] 280]! 230
June wel 418] 3°30] 39°50] 3°04|] 487] 206) 5°52) 2°73|| 7°43] 3991] 5°38
July ...c0ee| 3°68) 4°18) 4°34] 2°82 || 3°42] 3°00) 5°92) SOK |) 2°99] 439\| 4°61
August ...... 2°68} 4°03| 2°09} 3°67|| 2°65| 438) 3°50) 5°33|| 345] 672|| 2°02
September...| 3°29] 3°06) 2°25] 1°89) 3°33 | 2°72 corsa! scsi 5°66| 3:66 5°50
October ...... 690} 4700} 491} 1°99] 616| 3°56) 5°97| 5°62) 7°70) 4*56)| 7°93
November ...|. 9°67) wor| 7°58] 2°41 525% | 1773 | Goo| 283 9°67| 2°46|| 8-71}
December ...| 7°13] F09| 7°66 70 || 612] 4°52] 7°75] 2°62|| g'69| 2°24]| 9°99
Totals ......| 62°27 | 41°43] 52°20] 31°79 || 50°69| 31°24) 62°73| 44°34/| 74°86 44°04 || 69°78 45°67
MERIONETH, Furr. CARNARVON,
Dele ’ Bala. Maes-y-dre. | Hawarden. || Beddgelert. & pt
1 ft. 6 in. 1 ft. 0 in 5 ft. 0 in. O ft. 6 in. 3 ft. 0 in. 1 ft. 1 in.
500 ft. 544 ft 400 ft. 270 ft. 264 ft. 120 ft.
1872, | 1873. | 1872. | 1873. || 1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1873.
in. jn. jin. in. in. in. in. in. in. in, ey, ab,
10°78 | 13°93| 881) 8°87|| 2°53) 1°95) 3°24] 2°16) 22°53] 21°46) 6°58| 6:26
8°35| 3°57) 6:06) 31°38|| 2°04) °66) 2°65 "89 || 12°47] 3°50] 4°52) 394
713| 454| 467) 3°58]) 31796) 2°34) 3°64) 3°44] 13°51] 859] 3°74] 2°04
1°57| 2°04] 3°32) 132|| 2°07) “€7| 3°40 92) 5°45) 3°73) 194] F22
463] 2°90] 2°92] 2°36|) 2°03) 3°49/ 1°93) 1°90]) 5°96] 5°37) 2°32] 1°66
7°93) 3°33] 470) 1°54|) 3°68; x18) 4°65! 121]| 12:21] Gor] §5:29| x40
6:08| 5°75| 5702) 4°61 || goo} 1°47) 6:76; 1°48]| 6:49] 10°56] 4:61] 3:01
518| 7°50] 3°43) 4°35) 2°04| 2°63) 240| 3°27) 684) 11°86) 3°13] 4°49
11°82| 4°49] 8:29) 3°51 || 5°20] 2°74) 488) 4°34/| 14°77] Io°eg| 6752} 3°00
9°42) 9°84 8°88 | 611 5708; 2°53) 702) 2°56]/ 16:95) 12°12] 10°28] 5°54
14°24) 4'21| 11°65] 3°16) 2°88) 1°73) 4or| 2°01 |] 17°06] 8°36) 6:12] 1°96
13°26| 2°69} 7°43] 1°98]) 3°61) °73| 3°90] °89]] 15°97) G29| Gar) ror
100°39 | 62°79) 75°18| 42°77] 37°12] 20°12] 48°48) 25°07 ||150°21 |107"94| 61°26| 34°33
_ PEeMBrokE
(continued).
Role aes
-_ Castle
_ Malgwyn.
1 ft, 2 in,
=50 ft.
1872. | 1873.
in. in.
4°96| 822
621 | 2°06
6°43} 3°05
39) 49
165| 240
4°83 | 1°32
4°63 | 3°87
qa. 5°53 |
>| | 3°37
862| 2°45
B57 | 212
930| 1°78
68:26 | 36:66
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES.
WALES.
Division XI.—Monmovurn, Warks, AnD THE IstAnps.
|
Brecxnock. || Montcomery. CAarpIGcAN.
Brecknock. Carno. Lampeter. Goginan.
2 ft. 0 in, 1 ft. O in. 4 ft. 6 in. 2 ft. 6 in.
437 ft. 550 ft. | 420 ft. 290 ft.
|
1872. | 1873. || 1872. | 1873. || 1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1873.
in. in. in. in. in. in, in, in.
10°30] 9°74) 7°50 6°20 es 5720] 5°81] 4°80]
6°57| 1°38|| 5°30] 7°30) «9 158| 3°51) 1°34)
4°62| 3:26 3°60] 4'00|/ 8 & | 2°99/ 3°97] 3°33
3°45| 2°57|| 3°30) 80] 3 &) wor! 3°28] 1°45
1'72| 1°72|/ 3°70] 3°20)| +3 2'19| 2'20] 3°05
4°53| 2'r1|| 5'20| 160) 2% 63) 618] 1°64
| 607) 192]| 5:30] 3t10]/ OB | 2:79| 414) 4°53
|| 3°69} 3°68|/ 4°00} 4'00 ae 3°91 | 2°63) 5°46
438| 2:26|| 5:80] 4°30 Ss | 214) 708] 514
680} 2°75]| 670} 470]) 9°47] 3°74| 7°66) 6°52
13'06| 3°52/| 850} 3:20|| 8:03) 2°47] 8'06| 2°46
10°34} 1°51|| 810! 4'20 *87/ 5:72] 1°60
75°53 | 36°42 || 67°00} 47°60 29°52 | Gor24 | 41°32
Ravnor.
Heyhope
Rhayader. Rectory.
2 ft. O in, 1 ft. O in.
880 ft. 690 ft.
|
1872, | 1873. | 1872. | 1873.
in. in. in. 1n.
751| 5°64) 7°79) 653)
| 5°85) 2°26) 5°76) 3°43)
3°51] 3°30) 3°77] 4°36
3°63| 1°87) 3°33] 1°86
3°28) 3°41) 2°55) 2°35
5°72| 395| 4°33] 2°47
5°43) 3°78) 5°99] 3°55
4°34) 5°77] 3°08) 3°40
5°75| 2°71) 4°25] 2°15
860] 3°34) 6:75] 3°75
10'48| 3°30] 8°63] 2°80
9'°66|} 1:24) 7°87] 31°27
73°76| 38°57 | 64°60) 35°82
Isiz or Man.
Douglas. ao oe Guernsey. Sark.
1 ft. 1 in. 1 ft. O in 12 ft. 0 in. 1 ft. 0 in.
98 ft. 78 ft. 100 ft. 204 ft. 340 ft.
2. | 1873, || 1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1873. || 1872. | 1873. || 1872. | 1873.
in. in. in, in, in. in. in, |] in. in.
3°35| 5°81 || 872) 7°87] 683) 5°S2)| 61) 6°63)! 4°95] 4°86
3°04] 1°23] 4°98| x80) 6:72) 2°86)| 2°77) 3°31 2°37| 3°65
21g] 2°09|| 3°61| 3°68/ 3°27/ 3°94/| 4-41] 3°85]| 3°05| 3°46
2°17| r04|| 2:23 *42| 2°18 "23 || 2°40 47 || 1°94] °§3
2°02} 1318j} 97] 65] 41°76] 18] gos} 1°64]] 3°71] 1°67
520} 66) 614) I1t) 5°16 "x9)| 3°73 1°62 || 2°48) 372
3°46) 2°28) 42) 2°75) g22) 2°28) 4°53) 3°34] 4°14) 2°35
2°15, 2°44)| 5°61] 2°9r| 3°69) 2°08|/ 2°19] 5709]| 1°13] 4°62
6°83| 2°65) 637) 249] 4:90) 1°69] 2°14] 27341) 2°05] 2°09
816, 3°98) 4°98| 4°53) 6°36) 2°45] 11°04) 2°58 Hewes. Sea
522] 1°68|| 6°79) 3:04) 5:90} 189|| 7°40, 5°87] 7°56) 3742
4°23| 144/| 7°44] 52] 8°33] 1°33]| 679] 41:05 | 608] 1°59
48°02 | 26°48 62°94 33°77 | 59°32 | 25°94|| 56°96 | 37°72 } 47°17 | 33°25
JERSEY.
Millbrook.
1 ft. 0 in
50 ft
1872. | 1873.
in. in,
4°42') 4°07
1'27| 3°40
2°49| 4°56
174| 49
3°53} 00
|| 2703} 2°40
| 4°58] 2°96
i} 45) 4°43
2°52 | 2°74
7°39| 2°95
7790| 2°66
i A a
46°49 | 32°65
96
REPORT—1874:
SCOTLAND.
Division XII.—Sovuruern Countries.
Wicrtown. Kirxcupsriqaut. Dunrries.
_|l = E —
| | Wanlock-
Height of Balfern, Little Ross. | Carsphairn. Cargen. Drumlanrig. | heal
Rain-gauge :
above Secs | |
Ground ...... 0 ft. 11. in. 3 ft. 3 in. 3 ft. 10 in. Otte iat. 1 :|) occa it O ft. 4 in
Sea-level...... 75 ft. 130 ft. 574 ft. 80 ft. 191 ft 1330 ft
1872. | 1873. || 1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1873. || 1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 187:
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in,
January ...... 9°33| 5°48 4°43| 2°90] 13°14] 11°60! 10°02] 8°70/|| 11°00] Io"10|] 16°75] 12°52
February 5°36 "97 || 2°55 *51| 8°73| 1'98| 6°76) 1°05 7'40| 1120] 9°36| 1°
March ...... 4°20] 3°49 2°72| 2°76| 540! 3:30} 3°96] 3°59 3°99| 3°70] 6°80
April ieee 78 “51 "49 "20| 1°39 ry. 1 fe oo Ge "IO 2°00 205] 20ai5
IMAG «.5snce. 2°58} 41'90|] 2°19] 1°93) 3°62] 2°42) 3°54] 2°22 3°30| 2°30| 2°96 :
JUNC .iseee 5281 159] 4339) 653) 7irr| 2°37| 5:91] x742 8:00} 1°60} 9°25 ‘
LT ee 3°79| S°79|| 4°42] 2°81! 3°94] 689) 4°31] 5°46]| 4:10] 7°70] 3°78] 12°95
August ...... 5°38) 436] 339] 2°43) 5°85| 5°87| 327) 649]! 430| 5:90] 6:12 :
September 5°93| 3°32|| 4:07] 214] 8:90] 5°58] 5:62) 3°76 5°79| 4°30| 8-41
October ...... 4°96| 5°46 3°57| 435] 5§33] 7°79] 5:12] 6:08 400) 810} 5:82
November ...) 5:46] 1°82 || 2°64| 1°59) 9°47) 4:44| 530] 2°44|| 8:40] 3°60] 10°56
December ...| 9'26| 1°65 5°83 *67| 13°80] 3°95) 8:56) 2°21 9°59) 3°50] 15°54
Totals ...... 62°22 | 36°34 || 40°69) 23°83) 86°68) 57:02] 63°50] 43°52 | 71°60} §2°15| 97°70) 71°92
Division XITVY.—Sovrn-Wesrrern Covunttizs.
LANARK. Ayr. | RENFREW.
Heicht of Newmains, | Auchinraith, Glasgow Hole House, | Mansfield, |} Newton
ad ake Douglas. Hamilton. | Observatory. Patna. | Largs. | Mearns.
above ~ eS 8
Ground ...... Oft.4in. | 4f.9in. | Oft.1in. 1ft.Oin. | Oft. Gin. 1 ft. 0 in.
Sea-level...... 783 ft. 150 ft. 180 ft. | 446 ft. 30 ft. 300 ft.
1872. | 1878. | 1872. | 1873. | 1872. : 1873. || 1872. | 1875. | 1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1873.
———- Se) ee eS ee ees, Cee a eal es a ee
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. Ins.
January......| 9123] 8:47] 4°65} 4:50] 5°95] 667)| 8:54] 6:07] 8:00] 710] 8°56| 9:26
February ...) 3:45] 1:13] 2°45] 115] 3°09| 2°02/] 3°49 | *82| 6:00] I30]| 3°65| E25
March ...... 2°85| 3°37| 174] 2:10] 2°61] 2°52] 2:24| 2°87] go] 2°00]) 3°71] 3°14
PAPID ce sacys I'll "59 “62 *o8 *92| 26||. °99 °26| I'40 “30 || 12532, "30
May 3°57} 3°45| 2°78) 2°35| 368) 3:47] 3°28) 2°30) 280| 260] 343] 2°94
dune ......... 5°27} 178] 6°68] 3°30} 9:04 2°54|| 5°79; 3°64) 7°50) 2°30} 6°55) 3°02
aly: css. 3°72| 5°42) 6:26] 4:35] 6°52) 5°33]] 3°60) 4°98] 4:50] 6:10] 4°80] 5°49
August ...... 3°93| 5°69} 3°50] 4°02] 5:19] 4°56) 421 | 547| 3°40| 5°20] 3°86) 5716
September...) 8:51| 5°70| 6°60} 4:06) 980] 516] 817 | 608} 7°90} 5700} 876) 5°03
October ...... 4°78| 8:04] 2°60] 476] 3:69) 6°35 } 4°56) 6°76) 4°50] 5*90]] 4°71] 8cor
November ...J 6°69] 2°80] 4:04] 1°35] 5S*1x| 2°39 | 5°75| 2766} 8:00) 4:00]) 7°47] 3°25
December ...|. 7°81} 3°81] 4:02] 2:05] 6:00} 2°25] 5:08] 2:95] 7:20] 3:00|| 814] 4°90
Totals ...... 60°92 | 50°25] 45°94| 32°07| 61°60| 43°52 55°79, 42°86] 65°30] 44°60 ! 64°96 51°75
j
_ Roxsuren.
P Silverbut
all, Hawick.
in. | in.
3°97| 5°62
3°32] 1°18
2°56) 161
3°03 “60
3°66] 191
2°78| 1°52)
5°62} 4°06
422) 4°09
3°84| 2°56
3°86) 3°91
4°92| 2°37
148
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES.
SCOTLAND.
97
Division XIII.—Sovru-Easrern Covntizs.
SELKIRE,
Galashiels.
0 ft. 6 in.
416 ft.
1872. | 1873.
in. in.
425) 4°72
3°99] 1°72
2°94] 1°64
3°16 82
2°97| 2°15
3°13) 63
3:99| 417
4°23| 3°45
449] 2°96
4°59| 4°07
6°54| 282
4°74| 1°53
49°02 | 30°68
PEEBLEs. Berwick.
North Esk
Reservoir, Thirlestane.
Penicuick.
0 ft. 6 in. 0 ft. 3 in.
1150 ft. 558 ft.
1872. | 1873. || 1872. | 1873.
in. in. in. in.
5°20} 4°60]| 4°20] 3°10
2°35) 145)| 4°00) 1°90
3°20] 2°15|| 2°80] 1°40
1'95 ‘20 || 2°90 "30
415) 2°85]| 2:70] 1°70
3°55}; 30}| 2°50 “40
2°50) 3°75|| 3°50) 4°00
415) 4°50}! 3°70} 2°70
6°05} 4°45 || 5'10| 1:60
515] 5°70|| 6:30} 4°30
710} 4°35 || 6°60] 2°30
2°95] 2°55|| 4°65| 1°60
48°30 | 37°85 || 48°55) 25°30
HAppineron. Epinpureu.
East Linton. || Glencorse. “Hainberse
0 ft. 3 in. 0 ft. 6 in. 0 ft. 6 in.
90 ft. 787 ft. 230 ft.
1872. | 1873. || 1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1873.
in. in. in. in. in. in.
421) 1'44|) 5°50] 4°85] 3°63) 2°32
2°34} 1°98|| 2°60] 3:40] 2°02} 1°38
3°32] 1°72|| 4°60] 4°50] 3°30] 1s°60
2°63 85 3°35 *40| 1°70 21
3°20] 2°40]| 5°20] 2°50] 3°46] 2°70
310| 218 R595) OS. | . 32k 3" | teee
2°70} 5°43|| 3°85) 3°85] 3°58} 280
3°72| 327|| 3°75) 4°50} 3°28) 4°53
515] 246|| 5°30} 3°25| 580] 4°46
3°53] 3°5ti] 5°55) G10} 3°38) 3°07
3°82) 2°51 || 5°75} 420] 3°60} 2°47
2°66] 1°37]| 2°90} 2°90] 2°08] 1744
40°43 | 29°12 || 51°70| 36°50 | 38°96] 28-19
Division XV.—West Mintanp Counttes.
Dumparton.
Ballock Arddarock,
Castle. Loch Long.
O ft. 4 in, 0 ft. 10 in.
91 ft. 80 ft.
. | 1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1878.
in. in, in.
8°74| 12°34] 14°05
1°52 | 10'S] 1°36
2°33) 658) 3°57,
“32 3°5! “94
3°62} 3°94] 4°19
2°47| g'18) 4°36
6°34] 6'26| 8:69
5°57| 8°55] 7°07
5°87] 10°82| 5°77
8°85) 9°53) 11°48
4°75| 12°89] 6:92
4°61] 12°34] 8'06
73°84) 54°99 | 106753] 76°46 | 51°40
STIRLING. Bure.
Polmaise
Gardan, Pladda.
O ft. 9 in, 3 ft. 3 in.
12 ft. 55 ft.
1872. | 1873. || 1872. | 1873.
in, in. in. in.
5°00} 7°5°}| 5°43) 7°53
3°50] 1°30]! 3°58) "29
2°60} 2°'co 3°61) 190
z'40 *30 64. “41
3°80] 2°40 2°46| 2°73
6°20| 1°70 712) 1°96
3°20} 4°70]! 4°21] 3°68
4°80] 4°20 4°53| 4°01
54°| 410] 641| 3°39
3700} 5°50]! 4°58) 9°37
5°80} 1°70) 5°30) 4°51
§°70| 3710]] 5:27| 212
38°50 | 53°14 41°90
ARGYLL.
Castle i
1 ‘owar d. Callton Mor.
4 ft. O in. 4 ft. 0 in.
65 ft. 65 ft.
1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1873.
in. in. in. in.
8-21) 7°77) 9°15] 7°46
5°35| 177|.5°89| “61
435) 179! 4°55] 2°70
1°82 39) 1:62 87
79 Po RIS)|.. 3:00] ZI08
8°67] 2°39] 8:09] 2743
4°23) 5°36| 3°65) 5°77
6°33) 489] 5715] 618
8-39] 5°34| 927} 856
5°71| 8:19] 6:29] 10°36
8°39] 5°19) 749] 4°21
6°32} 3°39] 5°67| 4°99
72°16 | 49°65 | 69°83 | 57°15 |
98 REPORT—-1874.
SCOTLAND.
LOE Re aiid REL Ene I SIE RN
Division XV.—West Mrpranp Countins (continued).
a ge
ArayLt (continued).
eee ee ae ane eer anciumuisimpanen (een Si cca
Heicht of Inverary Airds, Corran, Ardnamur- Devaar, . Skipness
R alent Castle. Appin. Loch Hil. chan. Campbeltown. Castle.
ain-gauge
above | | | |
Ground ...... O ft. 2 in. 0 ft. 5 in. 0 ft. 4 in. 3 ft. 6 in, 3 ft. 4 in, 1 ft. 4 in,
Sea-level...... 30 ft. 15 ft. 14 ft. 82 ft. 75 ft. 20 ft.
1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1878. | 1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1878. | 1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1873.
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in, in. in. in. in.
January ...... 700| 8:00] gt10| 7°40] 11°80] 13°60] 6°82] 7°32} 9°56] 7°20) 5°70 6:30
February 6'00| 2°00} 5°10 *60| 8:15 60} 4°64 *38| 4°74] 133] 4°20] 1°30
March ...... goo} x00] 3°80] 2°70] 2°35] 3°20] 2°39] 3:99] 3°53] 2°07| 3°50) 2°30
ANT r ese 05: too| 100] 2°40] 1°30] 3°95 *95| 2°02 61] 1°25 54] 3°70] 2°50
May. Wasi..o.2 4:00] 4°00] 2°50] 2°60] 3°65] 2°70] 2°70] 2:29] 3°38 2°26| 3°50 *79
June .. 11'00| 4:00] ro'l0| 3°90} 7°30] 5°50] 5°49] 3°08] 5°34] 1°67] 6°70] 2°50
MtLy: OFS. 005. 4:00] 850] 400] 7:20] 4°05] 940] 3°37] 3°99] 3°94] 4°57] 3°50] 5°20
August ...... 6:00] 8:00] 6°70] §50| 7°80] 710] 3°12] 4°72) 3°52} 4°57) 3°79 6°20
September ...} 5°50} 6:50] 7°60] 5:00] 9°25] 645] 6:42] 3°92] 5°25] 3°%4 8*60| 5°60
October ...... 6:00] 11°00] 6:10] 7°60] 8:15] 8°50] 7°74] 830] 3°62] 8°59) 5°30] 7°40
November ...) 9°00! 7:00] 6:50| §40| 9'65| 6:90] 6:43] 5:44] 6:29] 4°41] 6:10) 4710
December ...| 8:00] 11°00] 4°30] 630] 5°90] 12°25] 4'04| 5°30] 8°02) 2°23) 540} 3°70
Totals ...... 71°50 | 72'00| 68:20] §5°50| 82°00] 77°15| 55°18| 47°34] 58°44] 42°58] 59°90 47°80
Division XVI.—Easr Miptanp Counrixs (continued).
Pertn (continued), '
‘ Loch Auchterarder |Stronyar, Loch Trinit Scone
sare Deanston. Katrine. House. Earn Head. Gask. Palace,
above a | os
Ground ...... 1 ft. 0 in. 0 ft. 6 in. 2 ft. 3 in. O ft. 4 in. 0 ft. 1 in. 2 ft. 6 in.
Sea-level...... 130 ft. 830 ft. 162 ft. 460 ft. 133 ft. 80 ft.
1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1878. | 1872. | 1878. | 1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1878. | 1872. | 1878.
ut in. tas in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in,
anuary ......| 5°52 *67| rI'0o| 13°40] 4°85] 5°93] 12°25-| I1‘IO “go 35] 4g'10| 3°88
February ...| 4°12] 1'o8| 1160} 140} 5°84 fas es 1°25 ii oe ae rho
March ......) 3°74] 1°45] 5°60] 3t10| 2°05] 31:40] 4°00] 2°95| 2°90] 1°55] 2°61) 1'20
PATIL wee dese 1°35 *38| 2°80] roo} 1°08 *20| 2°90] :1°80 *98 *20|, "90| "20
May ......... 2°99| 3°17| 3°30] 4:40] 3708] 2°88] 3:82] 3°90] 480] 3°08] 3°38] 2°88
UME (erty... 6°88] 2:06| 11:20] 4:20] 3°74 °63| 7:00] 3°20] 5°20] I*20] 3°68] 3°17
PEDLV pea is += 65] 6:84] 7:20] goo] 2'50| 3°73] 5'85| 7°70] 2°96] 4°54], 3°00] 3°25
August ...... 6:26) 4:82] ro'r0| 7°30] 2°35] 3°33] 6°85] 5:50] 3°00] 4°26] 4'60] 41°65
September...) 711] 4°02] 9:90} 5:20] 4°65| 2°15] gt10] 4:25] 5716] 3°55] 5°40] 3°52
October us...) 3°43} 6:26] 830] 9:60} 3:95] 3°48| 7°30] 8°35] 3°45] 3°80] 3°25] 3°40
November ...J. 7°70} 2:91| 13°10] 5°50] 5764 +16 | 12°99, 5°80] 5°44] 2°03] 4'90|) 1°40
December . 5°48| 3°69] 13700] ro‘r0| 5718 | f 7 * | 10°80 9'15| 610] 2°23) 620) 1°60
Totals ...... | 58:23 | 43°35 |r07"10| 74:20 44°91 | 27°14| 95°77| 4°95 49°69 | 34°44 | 47°66 | 25°15
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES.
SCOTLAND.
99
Div. XV.—Wesr Miptanp Counriss (continued).
Division XVI.—Easr Mipranp Countries
Division X VI.—East Mrpranp
CounzI£s.
Areryuu (continued). Kiyross. Fire. Prrtu.
| Rhinns of Hallabus, ; i Loch Leven :
Islay. Islay. Lismore. Hynish Sluice. Nookton. Kippenross.
3 ft. O in. 1 ft. Oin, Sit, Sin, | dseitests O ft. 10 in. Oft.6in. | Oft.4in,
74 ft. 71 ft. Srey fk. hE 360 ft. 80 ft. 150 ft.
| 1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1878. | 1872. | 1878. | 1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1873. || 1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1873.
in, in, in, in. in. in. i ie in. ie in. in. in. in.
S71) 4°56) 7°47| 613] 685) 729] 4°57 4°80} 4°30|/ 4°15] 3°69] 4°75| 645
2°86) -79| 4°68] 83] 629] 54] 8°63 5:00] 1°20|| 4°06] 1°13|| 3°90] 100
1°76) 2°35] 3:05] 2:28] 2:07] 1:28] 6:02 3°30| I90}) 2°61; 1°70) 2°35] 1°40
2°05 88] 112 W51 583 47| 4°07 1°30 "IO || 1°75 "29 || 1°20 "00
2°06} 2°57| 2°27) 1:87] 2:06] 2°32 5°08 3°50| 3°10]/ 2°92| 2°77|/ 2°70] 2°30
5°32) 1°73) 4°97| 2°16] 6°50/ 2°33] 6°39 4°40] 1'40|/ 3°63| 1°39) 5°50] 1°75
$272) 377 1°47] 4°96] 3°61] 5°59] 3°09 2°60] 5°00 3°37)| + 3762 3°50] 4°15
2°82/ 4°03) 4°13] 5°14) 4°35] 4:17] 3°69 5°80) 4°00]) 5°98) 3°43]| 3°80) 4°00
5°22] 2°93] 7°70| 4°98] 3°44] 2°73] 3°20 3°30] 3:60 3°92| 3°42 5°80} 3°50
5°56) 7°85) 630] 7°96] 5:09] 5:73] 853 3°50] 4°30]/ 3°58) 3°73]) 2°55| G00
606} 2°53) 7°75] 3:24] 3°66! 4:45] 9°32 600] + 3°r0|| 4°44] 1°97]| 7760] 3°00
423) 2°19| 4:77| 3°76] 2°75| 4°31] 4°49 4°80] 2°00]/ 3°04) 1°56]| 6°80] 3°20
| 45°37| 36°18] 55°68| 44706] 48:00| 41-21| 67°08 48°30) 34°00 |4 3°45 | 28°70 || 50°95} 36°75
Division X VII.—Norru-H astern
(continued).
| Prrrn " K
| (continued). [Forrar. TROAROT TE:
Strath-tay, Dundee Montrose, The Burn
Logierait. Necropolis. Arbroath. Bridge Street.] Brechin. ;
1 ft. 0 in. 0 ft. 5 in. 2 ft. 0 in, 0 ft. 3 in. O ft. 4 in.
318 ft. 167 ft. 60 ft. 25 ft. 235 ft.
1872. 1878. || 1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1878. | 1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1873.
in. in. in. in. in, in, in. in. in. in.
23) 5°44|) 3°75| 2°80) 3:63) 318} 3:42| 287] 4:50] 3°70)
608) 75 || 615 80] 3°60] 89] 4°63] ror} 7°70| 3°10
182) 198|| 2°65] 190] 252] 1°81] 2°33| 2:00] 2°70) 2°30
1105 78 1'7o "10| 1°98 24] 1°94 27 | 2°20 *60
2°40| 2°43 || 2°85] 3°30) g:o2| 2:23] 3°31] 2°14] 3°60] 2°80
$20) 140), 430) 125) 437] 1°37] 3°75| Too} 6:20] ‘go
341) 4°06]} 2°15| 5:10] 4:72] 4:70] 1°88] 3°15] 2°60| 5°60
2°88) 2:67|/ 2°70) 3:00] arr] 2:66} 2:25| 2°73] 2:80] 2°70
4#79| 3°31) 4°65| 3°70] 4761} 465) 4°75| 6261 gc| 5700
«4°98 420], 3°00] 2°70] 3°34] 2:79] 2°50) 2°85} 4°30] 3°30
580} 138] 4°70] 190] 4°63] 2:59) 4°82) 2°45] 5:90] 3°30
§°56| 2°69] 4:20] 31°85] 3:45| 3°84] 3°65] 1°90] G10] 2°00
| 48°20] 31°09 || 42°80} 28:40] 38:98] 2895 28°63} 52°70) 33°30
Countiss.
ABERDEEN.
Aberdeen,
i Rose Street.
O ft. 9 in. 0 ft. 5 in.
1114 ft. 95 ft.
1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1873.
in. in. in. in.
6°70| 4°48]. 2°51) 2°13
6°16 °87|. 3°91| 1°30
2°62 "6g9| 1°70] 2°48
3°29| 1°74) 2°34] ‘82
3°91 | 618] 2°87] 2°63
5°49| 2°83] . 3°06] 1°02
2°38| 421] 166/ 4°13
3°64| 2°64] 3°08] 4°82
5°78| 7°27] 5°81) 3°66
4°83) 3°89] 410) 2°59
7°26| 4°82]. 5'71| 3°93
7°19| 3°16).. 3°06) 1°77
59°25| 42°78 |. 39°81) 31°28
H 2
100 REPORT—1874.
SCOTLAND.
Div. XVIII.—Norra-
Division XVII.—Norra-Easrern Countres (continued). Wavicun Conan
ABERDEEN (continued). Banrr. | Ezxern. Ross-anp Cromarry.
: Inverinate
Height of Lapehe. Bae as Gant '| Grantown. House, Gairloch.
Rain-gauge ushnie, on. ‘astle. Look Aish.
above Ree ee AS |e fr ee el neh es k=
Ground ...... 3 ft. O in. 0 ft. 4 in. 1 ft. 6 in. 1 ft. 1 in. 3 ft. Oin. 6 ft. 0 in.
Sea-level...... 882 ft. 349 ft. 70 ft. 712 ft. 150 ft. 13 ft.
1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1873. || 1872. | 1873. || 1872. | 1873. | 1872. 1873. | 1872. | 1873.
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
January ...... 3°61] 1°84] gor} m91|| 3:24] 125] 2°37] x04] 11°08] 12°37| 11°13] 5°69
February ...| 5°39) 1°43] 3°74] 198]} 1°36] 1°43 *60/ 130] 4°43} 1°85] 3°76| 1°52
March ...... 3°28| 2°22] 281) 2°43]| 2°51] 2°22]| 31°56] 3°93] 1°85] 3°20| 3°67) 2°08
April) ede.ene- 3°96| 167] 2°91] x21] 2:27] 1°56]) 3°71] 2:99] 3°45] 2°03] 3°00] 2°28
MAY Tessie «= 5°55| 444] 435] 2°77|| 4or| 3°60] 3°65) 3°39] 697] 5°98) 3°79| 2°32
Pune okt... 429] 117| 4:12| 4x18|| 6:33) 1°73] 5°62) 3°58] 8°32] 7°38) 13°42] 3°72
SROULY, pceteas..-e 2°61| 5712) 1°98] 4°19|| 1°85} 3°06]| 2:29] 3:98] 3°45] 5°04] 6:60] 3°40
August ...... 3°47| 3°06] 2°98] 433]! 4°02] 2°94|| 3°67] 2:26] 3°35] 9°35] 2744| 4°90
September ...| 646] 4°67) 5°86] 4°02] 5°63] 4°83)! 8:10] 5:00] 11°25) 6°71) g'21| 5°47
October ...... 4°69} 2°95| 4°26] 3°26|| 6:00] 3°26]! 4°33] 2°89] 9°60] 11°07] 7°34) 7°27
November ...| 7°06] 4°25) 5°03] 3°53|| 4137] 417]| 501] 3:45] 7°65| 7°40] 5°78] 3°86
December ...| 4°60} 2°37) 4°30] 1°56|| 2°48] 2°26|| 1°72] 2°47] 5°55] 15°75] 3°89] 6:20
35°29 | 45°85 | 32°37 || 43°67 | 32°31 | 42°63 | 34°28] 76°95) 88°13 | 74°03] 48°71
Division Snead FY Countrzs Division XIX.—Norruern Countizs.
INVERNESS (continued). SUTHERLAND.
; Corrimony, :
Height of ile Glen Laggan. Dunrobin. Scourie. | Cape Wrath.
Rain-gauge eet Urquhart.
above a a rl cc I lt | Sl
Ground ...... 8ft.4in. | Oft.7in. | OQ ft. 9 in, 0 ft. 3 in. 0 ft. 3 in. 3 ft. 6 in.
Sea-level...... 50 ft. 540 ft. 821 ft. 6 ft. 26 ft. 355 ft.
Ne Se ee ae a
1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1873. | 1872.) 1873.] 1872.| 1873.| 1872.| 1873.| 1872.| 1873.
in. in. in. in. in. in. in, in. in. in. in. in.
January ...... 9°03} 4°84] 845] 9:90] 5:28] 7:49] 2°80] 202] 6:10] 450} 5°61] 3793 ||
February ...| 3°60 ‘91 | 3°60 *40| 3°05] 2°88] 2°00] 2°20] 100] 1°60| 1°62 *20
March atoone 2°79| 1°45] 1°30 90) 1°75] 2229 20] 1°31] I-70] 2*50| 2°13] 2°52
PAIPLUL) Je. sesee) 1. 3°00)|e 1-11 || aero *90| 3°28) 3°42] 60] 1°80] 2°30] 1°30] 2°33 83
Migy. 22. 3f..0 2°83} 151] 3:00) 4°50] 3:24] 429] 1°43] 2°52) 1°60] 2°70] 97°70| 2:20
June ......... 428] 3°20) 5°80] 2:30) 3:63] 5°83) 5:42] 1°73] 4110] 2°00] 3°61| 2°29
July wse..0e-] 3°52] 4°50] 3°40] 3:00] 5:49] S10] 2°50| 3°61] 3°50| 3°50] 3°59 "95
August ...... 1°84] 4°57] 240) 280] 3°87] 465] 1°83] 3°82] 2:00 4°80] 2°47| 4°36)
September ...} 4°09) 2°89] 5°50) 4:70] 832] 5°34] 3°50] 3°30 560} 3°20] 4°25| 5°47
October ...... 5°35| 734] 5°80] 5:20] 6:09] 4:08} 5:00 3°30| 7°90] 6:60) 5:35] 8°33
November ...| 4°94] 4:10] 6'50| 4°60] 9:20] 4*52 5:80 4°96|° 3°50] 2*r0| 4°15) 4°05 |
December ...) 3°70) 6°51] 5°25] 680] 8:34] §s'1z] 2°70]: 3°60| 2-90] 610| 2°75| 6°09)
|~ Totals ...... 48°88 | 42°93 | 52°80] 43°00] 61°54] 54°93] 35°78 | 34°17| 42°20 45°56 | 41°72
i
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES,
SCOTLAND.
Division XVIII.—Norru-Wesrern Counties (continued).
101
Ross anp Cromarty (continued).
Lochbroom.
: 0 ft. Sin.
48 ft.
in.
in.
5°990| 681
212] 2°36
162] 1°43
2°83] 3°05
3°93] 2°38
566) 2-49
180} 3°54
277| 5°75
690] 5°07
772| 9°80
6°67} 5°16
3°35| 816
51°25] 56:00
Cromarty.
28 ft.
in. in.
D99' B55
“7% ey
1'03| 1°02
"89 *62
2°59| 2°28
4°69] 1°13
281} 2°58
158] 1°58
3°10) 4°42
3°35] 2°76
3°35| 2°35
120), 2°25
27°88) 23°61
3 ft. 4in.
INVERNESS,
Ardross i
Ushenish, Culloden
nate Oronsay, | Barrahead. | goin Vist. Rauvd
1 ft. Oin. 0 ft. 6 in. 3 ft. O in. O ft. 4 in, 3 ft. O in.
450 ft. 15 ft. 640 ft. 157 ft. 104 ft.
1872. | 1873. || 1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1878.
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
3°37| 2°86) 6316) 17°30] 5:24] 3°84] 7°82] 5°98] 2°54] 1°52
3°26) 91) 4°75) 76) 3:77} 45] 7722} “go| *52) "82
2°04] 1°75|] 3°00] 3°40] 1°60] 1°64] 2°48) 1°71 84) 1°50
3°34| 3°34) 4°67] 3:20) 3°62) “60/ 415) 1:23| ‘92) °87
3°09} 5°50) 677) 4°75] 1°40] 1°37] 2°73] 2719] 3°63] 3718
6°35} 2°69]) G92) 7°36) 4:07] 148/ 3°35) 3°83] 4°94) 17°45
3°15] 4°68) 658) 630) 3:01| 3°74]. 3:70) 645] 3174] 3°50
2°39] 4°09] 4°74] 10°50) 1°61] 3:00) 2°35] Sr] 2:41] 1°98
5°75} 660] toco} 5°87) 5:15] 1°95) 6:54) 3°96] 3°76) 5°57
4°33] 5°71 | 9°66} 10°06] 4°60]. 3°66] 7:00} 6°85) 3:37] 2°30
6°03] 3°13 || 14°96] 11°56] 3:90| 3°19] 6°61] 4°72] 4°34] 37:18
2°61} . 3°53] 5°00] 19°30] 2°80] 2°91] 4°67] 4or| 1744| 2°51
46°21 | 44°79 || 83°21 |100°36| 40°77| 27°83] 58°62| 47°84] 31°85| 28°38
Nosshead.
3 ft. din.
127 ft.
1872. | 1873.
in. in.
2°95) 1°67
DDD) | .+-2 03
1°78| 1°65
188} 371
Vir] 1°43
454) 1°35
245] 1°58
2°67| 3°40
3°22] 2°92
3°55] 5°32
3°52} 3°92
3°61| 2°49
Division XIX.—Norrnern Counties (continued).
CAITHNESS,
Pentland Balfour
Eictoreenood Skerries. Castle.
0 ft. 4in. 3 ft. 3 in. O ft. 6 in.
60 ft. 72 ft. 50 ft.
1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1878. || 1872. | 1873.
in. in. in. in. in. in.
260] 1°50] 3°35] 2°15]| 5°30] 2°10
1°60 *50}] 1°80 *65)| 3°10 ‘IO
1°20] 2°40] 1°32) 2°30|/ 1°60] 1°90
2°50| 180} 2°81 °20|| 3°10 80
I'50/ 2°00] 1°48] 1°97|| 1°60) I'ro
3°00| 1°60] 2°08] 1°31] 4:00] 1:20
2°40} 1°40] 2°55] 1°39|] 210} 2°00
2°10] 3°30] 2°49] 2°10] 3°10| 2°20
4°00] 4°90] 2°68] 2°23]] 3°40| 2°80
5°50| 640] 5:07] 3°78]! 6:20! 6:20
3°79) 4°79} 454] 4°10|| $:10|' 4°70
510} 34°) 3°97| 3°32|| 620] 4:20
44°80 | 29°30
Orkney.
39/99) 37273
parc Stourhead.
Atte Opin jl sass cdves
a Sa | ah a
1872.'| 1878. || 1872. | 1873
in. in. in. in.
4°44] 3°52) 360! 9:60
2°16] 1°54|| 1°40] 1'00
2°04] 2°20]] 1°50] 3°00
2°40] 1°44]| .*80] 2°10
1°69] 1°71 || 2°40] 3°40
3°52| 1°82)| 1°60] 5°70
2°60] 2°39] 3°40] 5:70
3°40| 4°06 *80} 4°80
SES Oh BRS Ei! 025301) 5 3520
4°72| 6°56)) 490) 4:60
57c2| 4°69!! 4°70| 3°60
441| 4:29] 520] 640
53°00
SHETLAND.
Bressay.
O ft. 4 in.
60 ft.
1872. | 1873,
in. in.
5°96| 4°70
3°51] 1°54
1°78} 3°93
3°65) 1°79
2°81) 1°83
4°20|. 1°66
3°07| . 4°37
460) 5°03
4°20] 3°33
5°69| 4°51
4°39) 2°57
5:22] 5°23
49°08 | 40°49
102 REPORT— 1874.
IRELAND.
eins : Div. XXIL—|
Division XX.—Monster. Tcrestak.
Corn. Kerry. WaArtrErrorD. CLARE. CarLow.
Cork, Fenagh
Height of Queen’s Fermoy. Darrynane. || Waterford. Killaloe. House,
Rain-gauge College. Bagnalstown.
aboye | —__——— SS See
Ground ...... 6 ft. 0 in. 4 ft. 0 in. 1 ft. 1 in. 4 ft. 6 in. 5 ft. 0 in. 1 ft. 0 in.
Sea-level...... 65 ft. 114 ft. 12 ft. 60 ft. 123 ft. 340 ft.
1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1878. || 1872. | 1878. || 1872. | 1878. || 1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1873.
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
January ...... 7'26| 9'70| 4°94| 7°47|] 7°81] 7°79]! 6°94] 8:or|| 644] 7°724 5°22] 4°95
February ...) 5°32] 146] 51r}| 2°24]! 5°62) 4:49] 5°52] 2°92] 4°59] 201] 4°96) 1°44
March ...... 3°80] 4°85] 3°51] 3°83 || 4°67] 465]| 5:46) 3°87]| 2°92] 3°98] 3°21] 2°99
April ...... . sir] 3x98] 126] r80l] 1°72 2°26]/ 3°04] x'oz || 246) 2-714 2°76 87
May m5o| 1°47] 130] x'2ri} 2°45] 3°03]] 3°41] 1°36/| 244] 3°09] 1°78] 2°20
June 3°52] 2°43] 2°68] 4x°54]1 5:27] 2°99]| 3°20] 3°44]! 4°73] 2°91) 4:39] 1°18
OULY ieee te. 6°94} 3°40] 4°54] 2°96]! 5°72] 6:07]! 2°76) 3°73]|/ 188) 4°18] 2°09] 3°49
August ...... 683] 324] 4°59] 3°85] 5°38] 5°95|| 4°25) 6:00|/ 5701] 8°61} 5:40} 6:09
September ...} 3:16] 2°80] 2°26] 2°22]| 5:04] 6°59]! 3:20; 3°39]| 4°59] 5°26] 3-41] 2°48
October ...... 5°27] 2171] 3:15} 3°04] Sr} 695]] 3°30] 4:19]| 5°70] 6°57] 3°56] 3°35
November ...| 6°27] 2°52] 4°89] 2°07|| 6-50] 4°41|] 624) 3°17|| 5°51] 3°18 5°48] 2°16
December ...| 10°59 77\| 8°97, 87 || 8-73] 41°86]| 1r°08| 1°16]] 6°78] 2°51 9°66 80
Totals ...... 61°57| 36°79 | 46°60] 33°10 || 67°02] 57°04.|| 56°40} 40'26]| 53°05] 52°73] 51°92) 32'00
Division XXII.—Conrnaveur (continued). Division XXIII.—Utsrer.
Roscommon. Mayo. SuIGo. Cavan. ENNISKILLEN, ANTRIM,
Mount | Red Hill Fl Aghal
Height of Holywell. Doo Castle. Shannon, Belt vert ‘ek i tg ee,
Bait-ganee Sligo. elturbet. ourt. urgan.
above eS ded Tat os eee
Ground ...... 5 ft. 0 in 1 ft. O in. 4 ft. 5 in. O ft. 9 in. 1 ft. 11 in. 1 ft. O in.
of oahs LNG bean (eats aesdgecece tine || Mima Ecsta 70 ft. 208 ft. 250 ft. 105 ft.
1872. | 1873. || 1872. | 1878. |) 1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1873. || 1872. | 1873. || 1872. | 18738.
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
January ...... 5°31] 3'09|| 644] Stor|] 59x 529]| 917} 9°92)) 5°05} 3°90
February ...| 2°27] 1'18|/ 3°60] r'o2]| 3°33 80] 4°50 “OS line ae "66
March ...... 2°66) 2°99|| 4°70] 2°83]! 3:01 2°45|| 3°62] 2°02]| 2°61] 211
April "56 99 1°16} 1'29 2°08 1°41 1°56| wiz 3°54 *62
Ny adhonse es 2°57| 2'10/| 243] 2°45]! 2:29 1'74|| 3°40] 1°32 || 3°15] 1°78
JUNC §..-.0.008 3°48) 169]] 3°96] 1°39]] 6°15 1°42 || Brg! F491" 3798) a-O7
BY, Vases Ss... 1°75| “s'co| “2'15) 4°23 ]| 81 3°73 || 1°74] 443]) 2°43) 7°17
August ...... 4°02] 2°99}]| 4°28} 5°35 3°79 5°62 || 6°51] 7°20 3°40] 4°95
September...) 5:11] 2°62]! 6:96) 242]] 7:17 3'20|| 663] 3°03]| 4°59] 2°91
October ......) 5°68] 4:90]/ 6°33] 4°81]! 6:97 2°77\| 51x] 3°91 || 4°58] 2°77
November ...| 4°33] 1°20 5°82| 1°86 5°33 2°05 57990] 2°6r|| 4°13] 2°35
December ...) 5°22] 1'00]/ 5°03] 1°63} 5°49 1°13] 7°69] 2°36|| 6°02 75
Totals ......| 42°96| 29°75 || 52°86} 34°29 |} 53°83] 38°58 31°61 || 61°00] 40°26 || 46°79) 31°94 :
ee ee SSS ES EEE
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES, 103
IRELAND.
| Division XXI.—Leinster (continued). Piven elles
Connaveut.
Zz
} , CARLOW Krva’s Co. Wicxtow. Dustin. Gatway. |
| (continued).
| Brown's Hill Fassaroe Sahay it (|
Cai Portarlington.| Tullamore. Bray. : Black Rock, | Cregg Park. I a :
ege.| |
| 1ft. Oin. 1 ft. 2 in. 3 ft. O in. 5 ft. O in, 29 ft. 0 in. 3 ft. 0 in, 9 ft. O in.
291 ft. 240 ft. 235 ft. 250 ft. 90 ft. 130 ft. 30 ft.
1872. | 1873. || 1872.| 1873.| 1872.| 1873. || 1872. | 1873. || 1872. | 1873.] 1872.| 1873.| 1872.| 1873.
Hin:, |! in. rat odes oe ir ing || ins ‘ fae |) inp a ines |pant
4°43] 4°92 4°32| 3°45] 5°22 || 4°97) 4°37]| 3°74 564] 7°06) 6°63) 7°13
4°61 “88 49| 2°41 *82|| 4°97] 1°35 ]| 3°91 3°61) 164) 3°93] 1°51
2°84] 3°16 3°24| 2°11] 3°49]| 2°88] 3°24/| 2°41 1°85] 2°95] 2°72| 3°13
2°57| 1°26 214| 210] 219|| 3°25 *53 || 3°02 TGS e2DOvese7a)|| a4eao.
mra6|) 2°32 178} 1°87] 1°72\| 2°48 *84.|| 1°97 3°24| 2°41 | 2°30] 2:40
3°32] 10 147) 3°99) FIZ) 3125) 104i) 2°92 4°43] 2°23] Gog! 3°54
2°40| 3°29 3°17.) 2°84) 63°96|| 1°40) 3°33i|? 9°52 2°31] 5°14] 280] 6°47
6°33 4°33| 3°51| 422 ; 4°31 3°39| 5°40] 5:25] 6:28)
; 1°76} 2st} 2°55 2°68 3°56| 3°21] G90] 4°14
3°58) .3°85| 4°62 4°23 4°48] 5°32) 645] 5°50)
2XF)) ©3759} 0290 Be] 418] 1°94| 5°77] 2°92)
Itog| 4°15 “gI 6°32 5°88] 28] 5°83) 1°84
47°29 | 31°01 || 37°72} 29°50/ 35°68} 33°12 || 50°50] 27°74 || 42°32 | 24°96] 44°17| 40°74] 56°37) 48°08
Division XXIII.—Uzster (continued).
Antrim (continued). Lonponpirry. TYRONE. Donzeau.
Antri Queen's |) Monedi, | rondona Omagh. || Dungl Moville
rim, ueen’s “pital ondonderry. magh, ungloe. ‘
College. Garvagh. 7
«1 ft. Oin. 7 ft. 4 in. 1 ft. O in. O ft. 3in. 1 ft. Oin. 0 ft. 6 in. 4 ft. 0 in.
150 ft. 68 ft. 120 ft. 80 ft. 275 ft. 10 ft. 100 ft.
1872. | 1873. | 1872. | 1873. || 1872.| 1878.| 1872.| 1873. || 1872.) 1873. || 1872. | 1873.) 1872.) 1873.
in, in. in. in. in. in. in, in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
418| 3°73] 4°26] 3°58|| 658] 4°56] 6ro2| s20|} 5°65| 4°69|| 826] 6:00) 669) gut
314| °541 3°55] "76//° 9°89) 1:29) 3:05] °86]) 3°65) ‘77|| 3°77) -°83) 2°79) 145
3:27) 1°37} 1°79| 2°23 3°16] 2'29] 3°25] 2°62]| 2°00] 2'01 3°40] 2°71| 3°68] 2°38
3°83] 80) 2°59| °33|| 3:44) ‘81| 2-70] "75|| 2°49) 56) 142) 3°30} 410) “go
2°15} 192] 2°60] 2°12]! 3:44] 2°61] 2°90] 2°10|| 1°90] 2°36|| 2°79] 3°32] 3:26] 3°67
3°70] 1°67| 417) 1°8r|| 4:78{ 1°61] 3°65] 2°20]] 5°27) 2714]] 5°60) 218] 4:77] 1°62
} 161) 6°58| 3°05] Scroll’ 2°08] 4:82) 1:25] 57o4]] 150] 4°43]| xr] 5°04] 2°39) 4°60
} 405) 541] 3°25) 5°63|! 450] 5773] 4°15] G50] 3°05] 615] 4°63] 702/ 4°77) 5:90
447| 1'92| 4°28} 2°44/| 6%90| 3°61) 4°90] 3°75|| 6°71} 4°13]| 7°65) 415) 9°28) 4°59
498| 3°93] 510) 3°97]| 5°95] 4°58| 430] 5790]! 4°47) 4°00]; 5°05| 7°48) 5°30] 7°30
2°74) 2°65) 4°53) 2°55|| 5°27] 2°02] 4°30] 2°40]] 5°30] 2°09]| 5:02) 3°85] 6°68| 2°68
448| 104] 5:29] ~-*61]/° Stor] 2°03] 3°20] 2°75]) 4°20) 1°55]/ 4°08] 3°33] 3°80) 2°99
| 42°60] 32°06 | 44°46] 31°13 || 55°00] 35°96| 43°67] 40°07|| 46°19) 34°88) 52°77) 47°21 | 57°51) 42°19
104
Reference
number.
Date of
examination.
Lal
oo
si
: |
4.
b
i)
oO
is)
®
°
483.| July 13.
484.| July 13.
485.| Aug. 14.
486,| Aug. 15.
487.| Aug. 15.
488.| Aug. 15.
489.| Sept. 29.
490.| Sept. 29.
REPORT—1874,
COUNTY.
Station.
OWNER.
Observer.
——
OXFORDSHIRE.
Banbury, Parson Street.
J. JARVIS, ESQ.
J. Jarvis, Esq.
OXFORDSHIRE.
Banbury, Parson Street.
J. JARVIS, ESQ.
J. Jarvis, Esq.
HERTFORDSHIRE.
Rothamsted.
J. B. LAWES, ESQ., F.R.S.
KENT.
Harefield, Selling.
E. NEAME, ESQ.
E. Neame, Esq.
KENT.
Sheldwich Vicarage.
REV, B. 8S. MALDEN.
Rev. B. 8. Malden.
SUSSEX.
Crowborough Beacon Observatory.
C. L. PRINCE, ESQ.
C. L. Prince, Esq.
SUSSEX.
Uckfield Observatory.
C. L. PRINCE, ESQ.
C. L. Prince, Esq.
SUSSEX.
The Grange, Framfield.
CAPT. DRAKE.
Capt. Drake.
SUSSEX.
Buxted Park.
COL. HARCOURT.
Mr. J. Edmeads.
WESTMORELAND.
Mardale Green.
BRITISH ASSOCIATION,
Mr. Hebson.
WESTMORELAND.
Measandbecks, Haweswater.
BRITISH ASSOCIATION.
Mr, J. Rigg.
Constructio
of gauge
EXAMINATION OF
Height of
gauge.
n
Maker’s name.
1 Wee veetssct: sober
RT. 7 CueedvesMsensecantews
XII. | Casella .........0..
III. | Casella ......
Wile covseeete vesesseseues
VI.
Negretti & Zambral.........
Negretti & Zambra| 9 a.m. 193
Casella -sssvecscsore-
Casella sersesvseee| Q
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES.
105
RAIN-GAUGES (continued from Brit. Assoc. Rep. 1873, p. 303).
Wee,
“Diameters
(that
‘Equivalents of | Error at
Azimuth and an-
water. scale-point | gular elevation of 38
specified in| objects above Remarks on position &c. a
Scale- : revious | mouth of rain- Sa
< Grains. P
poate column. gauge. a
in. in.
1760 afi. hayet ve ebesnanun cones Welg In garden in centre of town, fair | 480.
2 3523 +:024 exposure.
3 5283 4-037
“4 745 +.049
75 8805 +061
I 1980 gels) | ual te cpeor pacer Deter dab Close to 480. 481.
‘2 3954 | -+°003
3 5939 | "005
‘4 7908 | -+'007
5 9885 | -+'009
se Ge crond RODE beeen noe seseereeslesesersceecceeeeeseeeee-| Gauge in large experimental field. | 482.
Measuring-glass not accessible ;
said to have been verified in the
laboratory.
> 495 correct. |S. Tree, 46°. Position not good, but no better | 483.
“2, 990 correct. |S.E. ,, 35°. available for daily observations.
3 1470 +°c03 Establishment of a monthly
4 1970 +:003 gauge at a little distance sug-
28 2450 +°006 gested.
I 49° Sie cinites | aoe cosamvascevonves ...| All clear, S.E. of church and} 484.
2 980 +002 within 100 yards of it.
a4 1470 +002
"4 1970 +'oo1
5 2470 correct.
I 2265 SEBOLCM l||Seten cons cdenececcsewese This gauge not in use, being con-| 485.
"2 4550 +019 sidered incorrect.
3 | 6825 | +:028
"4 g100 +:038 ; }
5 | 11375 +:047
‘I 2450 +-ooz2 |N.W.Chestnut,25°)...... Bas he toanictat ics sickens sevsceseroee| 496,
2 4940 +-oo2 - |S.E. Apple, 24°, ;
og 7300 +:008
‘4 9720 + o11
"I 1280 —‘oor |W.N.W. Tree, 15°.| On lawn; no better position avail- | 487.
2 2500 +:003 _|N.W.-N.N.W. Ho. 459] _—_ able.
3 379° +-oor |N. Trees, 30°.
"4 5100 — "002 }
oe 6330 +001
‘I 1360 —‘oo7 |S.W. Tree, 48°. | Gauge to be moved further north-| 488.
2 2550 —‘oor | N.E. Fir, 31°. wards; on lawn N. of house.
4 3800 correct.
4 5040 +°003
of 6250 +007
ekano ave): Sceapromsss eudemescate esas E.S.E. Hill, 31°. | Else clear. Rod and gauge correct. | 489.
s [oe eeecescesees| 9-0-H. Firs, 36°
echvetue]sosuedssenuntunenant suceeeecleseenseeeseceneeentenies The gauge was moved two years) 490-
ago; rod correct and gauge true.
492.
493.
494-
495.
496.
497.
498.
499.
500.
5or.
106
Date of
examination.
in]
oo
“
bred
Sept.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
30.
w
Ii.
13.
20,
REPORT—1874,
COUNTY.
Station.
OWNER.
Observer.
WESTMORELAND.
Crosby Ravensworth.
REV. G. F. WESTON.
Rev. G. F. Weston.
Ve ee D.
Reagill.
MR. W. WILKINSON.
Mr. W. Wilkinson.
WESTMORELAND.
Belsfield, Windermere. }
H. W. SCHNEIDER, ESQ.
Mr. Chaplin,
LANCASHIRE.
Backbarrow, Cartmell.
MAJOR AINSWORTH.
LANCASHIRE.
Lanehead, Coniston.
R. T. BYWATER, ESQ.
R. T. Bywater, Esq.
LANCASHIRE,
Lanehead, Coniston.
R. T. BYWATER, ESQ.
Rt. T. Bywater, Esq.
WESTMORELAND.
Greenside Mines.
MR. TAYLOR,
Mr. Taylor.
CUMBERLAND.
Barrow House.
8. Z, LANGTON, ESQ.
CUMBERLAND.
Brow Top, Keswick.
W. SHERWIN, ESQ.
Mr, J. Barker,
CUMBERLAND.
Shu-le-Crow, Keswick.
H. DAWSON, ESQ.
H. Dawson, Esq.
CUMBERLAND.
The Stye.
ISAAC FLETCHER, ESQ., MP.
Mr. J. Wilson.
Construction
of gauge
Ne
XI.
Iii.
fy.
_ EXAMINATION OF
~ I
S i
O.n
Maker’s name. ag
Ae
Baker aca ks
Baker .......04... 9 a.m
Casella .iiiisisiss. 9 a.m
Hartley 5j2:fi::|5e2.0shee
Negretti &Zambral.........
Negretti &Zambral 9 a.m.
Casella ...sss.ce00e] rstof
month,
Negretti &Zambra| 9 a.m.
OGG te eee 8 a.m.
Chadburn .,....... 9 a.m.
Cook +2: 23).iss000855 tst of
month.
Height of
gauge.
Above alge
ground.| level,
ft. in.| feet.
I o| 600
© 10} 8go
4 6} 160
3 2 ie
t Od 287
I o| 287
I 0 | 1000
o° 6] 282
oO F384 AGF,
30" 278
r 4] 1077
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 107
RAIN-GAUGES (continued).
— | Equivalents of | Error at | Azimuth and an- ae
§ 4 z 3 water. scale-point| gular elevation of FI 3
E a 4 g [) specified in| objectsabove | Remarks on position &e. Fs |
~& Il cale- | Grains, | previous | mouth of rain- SS
A | Point | | column. gauge. mF
in. in, in.
7°92 ‘r 1250 +‘oor |8.E. Stables, 28°.| S.H. of church ; gauge in garden, | 491.
8:00 | ‘2 25 3 —"002 dare Mgt: of| clear except as noted.
8:02 ‘o 3790 +-‘ool trees, 25°.
8:00 “4 5030 +002
M 7°985| ‘5 6300 | +-002
7°98 ‘I 1310 —‘oo3 |S. House, 20°. |In field, quite clear except as| 492.
8:00 ‘2 2550 —'oor noted.
8:00 3 3780 +:002 }
8:00 “4 5100 —*'002
M 7995} ‘5 6340 correct. :
5700 4 $i elo’) tad Ober ee See Pee In gardens, quite clear. 493-
5°00 —*002
5°00 3 1490 —‘oo1
5°00 “4 2000 —'003
M 57000} ‘5 2479 +'002
12'10 | ‘082 780 +056 |. Fir, 54°. In garden, very much shut in by | 494.
12'05 *I10| 1650 +052 |S. ,, 34°. trees. Gauge out of order, and
1205 | ‘'138| 2570 seroa7 TW iss. O°. believed to have been subse-
TI'QO |eeseereee COSCO Oo Oo Beene N rhs Seas eal quently abandoned.
M12°025 |eeeeeeees tseeseescverlsecsseceeessess| Ne Louse, 10°.
4°98 c fee yi secncect Pererpecnec eer ee Quite open, on lawn. 495.
5°00 : ‘ool
soz | ~°3 1479 +'005
5°04. “4 1960 +'006
M s010| ~°5 2470 +'004.
2 oie Pa "OUS | |oecevcsdctancoscossese>s Close to 495. 496.
"02 2 —*002
8°03 *372| 473° —"oo!
mar}, 5 |) 6250. | ~-008
M 8:000 j
7°00 i 1090 ALA PilGeetacatceadassuns setae On N. slope of valley, but near its | 497.
6'99 2 2000 —-006 bottom ; unsheltered except by
7:02 “4 3000 — 008 the ground, which runs up at
7°00 "4 39°00 — ‘ool perhaps 45° to between 1500
M 7002} * 4900 —"003 ; and 2000 feet.
a8 3 1260 +'oor E. Shrubbery,53°.| Position not good, but no better | 498.
8-02 2 2540 correct. |S. Oak, 48°. available near the house.
7 8 “4 3800 +'oor
a. 4 5048 +:o02
M 8:000] °5 6300 +:004
one | °X™ 490 BRCOUN laters ethcsaacacsostaiare Clear ; on N, corner of lawn. 499.
gos | ‘2 | 970 | +007
Box | °3 1480 +7005
5°05 4 1980 +005
M 5:030| °5 247° +7008
12°00 "09 ao ONE ele side cvsnessqanteuss- (all paces. on bank of Derwent, | Soo.
4 2 000 —"020 uite clear.
EA oA Pe gooo —*020 ; q
1201 06 | 12C00 —"ol4
Mi2:000| *51 | 15000 —'015
BOO Jerec secon [tte eereeeteal sy cosessenssbeleccsnsrceecesesscscnngs Measuring-glass_ not accessible.| sor.
4°00 Gauge concealed among rocks
3°99 on the eastern slope of the Stye
4°01 Head Pass.
M 4:000
108 . REPORT—1874.,
- EXAMINATION OF
Height
COUNTY. of gauge.
Station.
OWNER.
oO
>
S| Maker's name,
GS
Observer. ra)
Date of
examination.
Aiave Above
sea-
ground. level.
Reterence
number
Construction
Time of
reading.
: ft. in,| fect.
Oct, 2.2, CUMBERLAND. ST: || Casella, :....as00e gam.| 1 8] 300
Deer Close, Keswick.
H. C, MARSHALL, ESQ.
wn
°
n
™
co
NI
w
§03-| Oct. 23. YORKSHIRE. X.
Moorside, Halifax.
L. J. CROSSLEY, ESQ.
Mr. Page.
aebbclpp eas cseosoaphents gam.) x o 429
504.| Oct. 24. YORKSHIRE. III.
Settle.
505.) Oct, 24. YORKSHIRE. X. | Negretti &Zambral......... 1 46:44) 623
Langcliffe, Settle.
MISS SEDGWICK.
Miss Sedgwick.
506.) Oct. 25. YORKSHIRE, III.
Cherry Hill, York.
H. RICHARDSON, ESQ.
507.| Oct. 25. YORKSHIRE. III.
Cherry Hill, York. Second gauge.
H, RICHARDSON, ESQ.
H. Richardson, Esq.
508.) Nov. 1. NOTTINGHAM. TED, | Davis.....¢.secasssp-|:e-vavene erase eee
Southwell.
W. W. P. CLAY, ESQ.
W. W. P. Clay, Esq.
509.| Mar, 31. YORKSHIRE. VIII. | Casartelli
Penistone.
M.S. § L. R. Co.
vianasise eens ovensnncets gam.j)2 0; 40
510.) Mar. 31. YORKSHIRE. VIII. | Casartelli
: Carlcotes.
M. 8. § L. R. Co.
ospasise | setosseee 2 11 | 1075
511.| Mar. 31. YORKSHIRE. aT.
Dunford Bridge Reservoir.
DEWSBURY WATER Co,
Mr. G. Whitfield,
512.) Apr. 1. YORKSHIRE. VIII. | Casartelli ......... a0! Bok
Dunford Bridge Station. pyeBe es 954
M.S. § L. R. Co.
seeareccessesesveeserees|Q @IM.} 2 © | 1100
8-00 Be
8:02 2
8:00 3
798 | 4
M 8-000] °5
496 |
5°02 °2
4°94 3
5'ot “4
M 4983) °5
5°02 “ri
5°07 ‘2
5700 «i
505.) 4
5°035| °5
6:05 05
UPFUNBRPU NS
1255 +'003
2520 +70c4
3800 +'002
5100 —"004
6310 +'007
450 +'008
948 | 007
1415 +012
1915 “FOr
2400 +012
450 +'orl
948 +'o12
1415 +'019
1915 +'019
24.00 +'023
440 — ‘oll
880 — ‘022
1750 —'042
2630 —*064
3500 —*098
1280 +012
2600 +'017
3860 +"030
5270 +'032
+'043
—"005
—"‘o1o
+'oor
—'006
-—"OOI
+°005
correct.
—"003
correct.
belong to contractor of Settle
and Carlisle Railway.
Gauge in dwarf stump. Good po-
sition in garden.
N. House, 22°.
S.E. Laburnum, 16°
W. Tree, 13°,
W. Tree, 58°. In garden, too much sheltered by
Bsr Rj abe trees; better spot selected.
Be x. “D0%
Ni a peoOes
Close to 506.
The measure supplied with the gauge
was broken shortly after, and a me-
morandum was made previously that
0°25 in. in measure =5 oz. in the
large graduated measure, which holds
8 oz. The memorandum probably
should have been that 0°25 in.=4 oz.,
instead of 50z., a most serious error.
E.N.E. of church, in the yard of
the old station.
she eeeeeee Ce eeesrererrens
Gauge not firmly fixed.
Same gauge and in same position
as when visited April Sth, 1869.
See No. 299.
Misfits os tekest ses Since previous testing (No. 293) a
new glass has been provided,
and the funnel either bent or
renewed.
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 109
RAIN-GAUGES (continued).
‘ : :
| » S| Equivalents of | Error at | Azimuth and an- 2.
os. '3 FA water. scale-point | gular elevation of F &
(ga 4 g specified in| objects above Remarks on position &c. 53
| 2 = g ll | Scale- | Guins. |. previous | mouth of rain- 33
et “ay” Pome. column. gauge. a
in. in. in.
696 | “I 97° correct. |N.E. House, 32°, } Good position in front of house.| 502.
qoo | ‘2 1960 —"oo2! Set on a large stone, which had
6°95 2 2940 —"004, sunk towards §.W.: requested
700 | “4 3880 —*002 that it might be rendered level.
M 6978) °5 4855 —"002 On edge of lawn, quite clear.
S04 “I 1260 PRM | casiarioct ews soueeas cvasliter sous temas acactce sae atau ki seencess 503.
7°90 2 2520 +°002
8:03 3 3800 —"002
7°96 ‘4 5040 +:003
M 7°983| °5 6260 +012
500 | ‘I 496 correct. |...... Rath cacndecopedoes On a bracket from west eaves of| 504.
5700 :3 1490 correct. cottage. Gauge was tipping one
5.01 5 2450 +:006 inch to the west. Believed to
bie.
506.
507.
508.
509.
510.
grr.
512.
110 .. +. -REPORT—1874.. -
EXAMINATION OF
. qd S
qa Ss Height
g F Se Couey. 3 Sp ‘6 8 | of gauge.
o : E 9 = an [ae a eR os
8 F = 5 OWNER. $& Maker's name. A 3 Above
S31 4 A Ob. Sea Pa Above | “<eq-
pg A # SEP VET. 3 ° ground.| jovel
1874, ft. in.| feet,
513-| Apr. 1. YORKSHIRE. ; TIT. | Negretti& Zambra} 9 a.m.|....... alee deo tes
Border Hill, Swinden.
WAKEFIELD NEW WATER Co.
514.) Apr. 1. YORKSHIRE. III. | Negretti& Zambra} 8a.m.] 1 1 |...
Swinden Lodge.
WAKEFIELD NEW WATER Co.
51s.| Apr, 1. FORRSHTEE- III. | Negretti &Zambraj......... 1, Gallessesees
ngsett.
WAKEFIELD NEW WATER Co.
516.| June 16. YORKSHIRE. XII. | Guest & Chrimes| 9a.m.| 5 0 | 568
Gibbet, Halifax. :
HALIFAX CORPORATION.
J. E. Lambert, Esq.
517.| June 16. YORKSHIRE. XIL | Guest & Chrimes | 9a.m.} 1 0 | 795
Victoria Reservoir, Halifax.
HALIFAX CORPORATION.
Mr. G. Moore.
518.| June 16. YORKSHIRE. X. | Negretti&Zambra} ga.m.| 1 2] 805
Ramsden Wood, Halifax.
HALIFAX CORPORATION.
Mr. EF. Dennis.
19.| June 16. YORKSHIRE. Mi seacaeos sessdecosadges] QOL] I °
5*9 Ogden Reservoir, Halifax. 9 =
HALIFAX CORPORATION.
Mr. John Smith.
"520. June 16. YORKSHIRE. X. | Negretti&Zambra| ga.m.| 2 © |...+00...
Stansfield Hall, Todmorden.
J. FIELDEN, ESQ., M.P.
Mr. W. Fielden.
521.| June 17. YORKSHIRE. SA! ROME SP Re Mon-| 0 3 | 1380
Walshaw Dean. days
HALIFAX CORPORATION. and
J. Midgeley. 1st of
month. Li
522.| June 17. YORKSHIRE. hie elt | ARR Penne Sem ee Mon-| 0 6 | 13250
Midgeley Moor. days
HALIFAX CORPORA TION. and
Mr. N. Greenwood, 1st of
month. ;
523.| June 17. YORKSHIRE. 1 | |-sscasservecnsscazabio] Mone] @ aeristaes
Warley Moor. days
HALIFAX CORPORA TION. and
Mr. N. Greenwood. 1st of
month
ON THE RATNFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 1l1
RAIN-GAUGES (continued).
|» ..- | Equivalents of | Error at | Azimuth and an-
4 5.38 water. scale-point | gular elevation of g #
ie s specifiedin| objects above Remarks on position &e. oa
i aoa j| | Seale- | Grains, | Previous | mouth of rain- Bo F
‘ ra) fe | ROBE column. gauge. ial
in in. in
Feisah«: seseaspea|ssstececeeeel sesssscessces[soeeetsessseasceesvsssee| DUte Only Of gauge inspected, the | 513.
gauge haying been broken and
removed. Very open tableland,
good position.
5104 | “I 490 gE GWA acu h ow. edoacess sons Rim of gauge rather flat. Gauge | 514.
: biog | 32 1020 —*002 well exposed in open field.
5°04. 43 1500 +002
5°04, 4 2000 +'003
M 5:040} °5 2500 +'004
santenceesecses[teetertes|teeeeeesteelecespererees »+.| N.W.-N.E. Wail, } Site only inspected, which was ex- | 515.
40°, _|. tremely bad, a mere shelf-like
path on the northern side of a
gorge.
4°98 | ‘I 499 | +'oor | 8. House, 33°. Gauge erected on the base of the) 516.
5700 2 960 +:006 |S.W. House, 52°.| old Gibbet; site bad, but no
4°97 3 1450 +'006 | N. Buildings, 12°.| better available,
57or *4 1948 +'oo5 | W.Buildings,25°.| .
4°990| °5 2450 +'004.
5°00 ‘I 460 SBOGFs leech feb csbosceatevensone Very open position on side of re-| 517.
5°00 2 950 +:008 servoir,
5700 3 1450 +°007
498 | “4 1950 +7006
M 47995} °5 | 2435 | +7008
7°96 ‘I 1275. correct, | S. House, 33°. Clear except as noted. 518.
8-02 2 2550 —v‘oor | W.Reservoirbank,
8'04, ae 3820 —"‘oor 25°,
8-00 "4 5040 +°003
8'005| °5 6320 +'003
8:02 | «I 1280 SIOOE foc igh ieeace. Reoracactn: Very open position. - | 519.
8:00 J 2520 +002
798 | °3 375° +'005
803 | “39 | 4900 | +'005
8:007
7°98 I 1320 SIDOAG lest di ¥ya gece “coca corn In garden, quite unsheltered. | 520,
8-05 2 2590 —'003 Gauge old, and measuring-glass
7°92 3 3760 +'005 broken off at -41.
8-10 4. 5050 +:003
8-012
BERIT LGt>)..0+|-0t peershess|ccveahl eepefess vedebheryoecveseroneasns Gauge sunk~in a box which was] 521.
3-10 nearly leyel with the rim; put
8°10 in sods to raise it 2 in. above
8:00 the wood. Site quite open, and
M 8:07 gauge correct.
6°76 hess apes lestususer eae Sab guNvepatda)| gi geheisss< >>> seseeees-| Gauge correct, and site very good. | 522.
6°97 i
6°36
6°96
M 6°888
MRED labs aaah asleptss=yeree ie ROREGGDY (|S. GS {o2iec-cecevescsses On open moor. . 523-
Reterence
number.
524.
526.
529.
530.
531.
532.
533.
534-
Date of
examination.
.| July 30.
| July 30.
July 31.
July 31.
July 31.
July 31.
Aug. 1.
Aug. 1.
REPORT—1874.
COUNTY.
Station.
OWNER.
Observer.
YORKSHIRE.
Ovenden Moor.
HALIFAX CORPORATION.
Mr. N. Greenwood.
HAMPSHIRE.
Ashdell, Alton.
F. CROWLEY, ESQ.
F. Crowley, Esq.
HAMPSHIRE.
East Tisted Rectory, Alton.
REV. F. HOWLETT.
Rev. F. Howlett.
HAMPSHIRE.
The Wakes, Selborne.
T. BELL, ESQ., F.R.S.
Mr. W. Binnie.
HAMPSHIRE.
Chawton House, Alton.
MR. FRANCES.
Mr. Frances.
- HAMPSHIRE.
Wester Court, Alresford.
T. P. MAY, ESQ.
T. P. May, Esq.
HAMPSHIRE.
Arle Bury, Alresford.
F. MARX, ESQ.
Mr. Kinge.
HAMPSHIRE.
Otterbourn, Winchester.
J. B. YONGE, ESQ.
J. B. Yonge, Esq.
HAMPSHIRE.
Otterbourne, Winchester.
J. B. YONGE, ESQ.
HAMPSHIRE.
Red Lodge, Southampton.
R. C. HANKINSON, ESQ.
R. C. Hankinson, Esq.
HAMPSHIRE.
Red Lodge, Southampton.
(Plantation Gauge.)
R. C. HANKINSON, ESQ.
R. C. Hankinson, Esq.
Construction
of gauge.
I.
Square
III.
Iii.
Tif.
XII.
Ii.
stern ee eeserseetees
Smith & Beck ..
Casella .......
(ANIOMeccisccper
Casella
seeeere
Casella .......
Casella .......
Casella
scenes
seeeeee
EXAMINATION OF
Height of
“st so gauge.
|
é 8 Above Auoye
ground level.
ft. in.| feet.
aden Mon-| 0 6] 1375
days
and
ist of
month.
gam.|3 3] 396
saatelsaeneeeer 1 3] 420
ssevee]9a.m.| 4 7 | 400
eons gam.| 1 0| 445
o 9} 253
iets gam.| r 4] 308
Peivelasibec a] tof} 115
sodeslecereseee 1 3 I 1§
aint ga.m.| 0 § | 200
chee gam.|4 0} 194
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES.
-RAIN-GAUGES (continued).
113
(that
Diameters
marked
> | Equivalents of
g water.
i
ss one Grains,
in.
eb 1290
9 2550
oe 3800
“4 5400
5 6340
a 495
2 980
3 1480
“4 1980
eS) 2470
028 200
139 | 1320
278 2740
‘417 | 4050
*556 | 5210
“rr 180
= 340
3 520
“4 692
5 865
4 1248
“2 2500
3 3759
“4 5010
5 6280
ax 470
‘2 980
3 1480
a BOSS
°5 24.50
I 500
2 1000
2 1500
"4 20c0
5 2509
E 480
oe 1000
‘3 1470
"4 1960
°5 2460
oI 490
e 1000
3 1460
4 1970
iS 2450
Error at
scale-point
specified in
previous
column.
in.
correct.
— "002
—‘ool
correct.
—'026
correct.
correct,
+'002
+'oo1
correct.
+°‘oor
—*003
—"024
—'obr
—'033
—'087
correct.
+'0o10
-+'010
+'013
+017
+'oor
+'c03
+:0c4
+°c0§
+'co4
+°005
+'oc2
+'coor
+°co7
+:'006
—‘OOI
O{s cle cio ced ap allaaaloeibee aac cie esse eC p@ewsluie sv cjqmoaien ened
Azimuth and an-
gular elevation of
objects above
mouth of rain-
gauge.
8.8. W. Peas, 20°.
S.E. Church-tower,
28°.
N.E. Yew, 38°.
S.W. Hill wooded,!
10°.
'S.E. Firs, 48°. |
|
|S... Limes, 42°. |
S.W. Trees, 32°.
EL.N.E. Peas, 30°.)
N.E. House, 25°.
Reference
Remarks on position &e.
SS
On open flat moorland,
In garden, quite clear; ground level,
but falling rapidly at a short
distance,
On lawn N.W. of church.
Position good, but glass very in-|
correct ; a new one supplied.
Gauge not in use, but to be re-
started August Ist, 1874. Fair |
position in garden.
On N. side of a sunk fence, and
about 3 ft. from the edge ; other-
wise good position.
In kitchen-garden ; clear, except as
noted,
Open position in kitchen-garden.
Close to 531.
On lawn; clear, except as noted.
In plantation, S.W. of house;
clear at present,
ee
number.
|
524.
526.)
527°
528.)
533-
$34-
Reference
number,
535-
536.
537-
538.
540.
541.
543:
544.
114
REPORT—1874.
Date of
examination.
-_—
os
)
>
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
.| Aug.
Aug.
5°
Aug.
.| Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
| Aug.
COUNTY.
Station.
OWNER.
Observer,
DORSETSHIRE,
Upwey.
J. MILLER, ESQ.
J. Miller, Esq.
‘DORSETSHIRE.
Osmington Lodge, Weymouth,
MAJOR HALL.
Major Hall.
DORSETSHIRE.
Abbotsbury.
EARL OF ILCHESTER,
Mr, Dight.
DORSETSHIRE.
St. Andrew’s Villas, Bridport.
A, STEPHENS, ESQ.
A, Stephens, Esq.
DORSETSHIRE.
Bridport.
A, STEPHENS, ESQ.
Mr. H. Hoare.
DORSETSHIRE.
Spring Cottage, Lyme Regis.
H, TUCKER, ESQ.
H. Tucker, Esq.
DEVONSHIRE.
Clevelands [Lyme Regis].
L. L. AMES, ESQ.
DEVONSHIRE.
White Ciiff Glen, Seaton.
Dt. A BY BSS:
T. F, A. Byles, Esq.
DEVONSHIRE,
Sidmount, Sidmouth.
DR. RADFORD,
Dr. Radford.
DEVONSHIRE.
Sidmount, Sidmouth.
DR. RADFORD.
Dr. Radford.
DEVONSHIRE.
Mount Tavy, Tavistock.
H, CLARK, ESQ.
XII.
XII.
III.
IIT,
EXAMINATION OF
‘5 bb
ais
Maker’s name. = i
aS
He
CASEY Bi. .cesrany0s 9 a.nt
Cagella..... sess soe 9 OM
Casella ...... eveves| 9 O-M1.
Negretti & Zambraj 9 a.m.
Negretti& Zambra! 9 a.m.
Ist.
Negretti & Zambral.........
Negretti & Zambra
9 a.m.
Negretti& Zambra
Cacella
eee taeeesees
POOR Emenee emma tenes) teen eeeee
Above | Above
ground.|
ft. in.
3
Height
of gauge.
level.
feet.
7O
270
140
270
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES,
_ RAIN-GAUGES (continued).
115
a ee
| N.W. Pear-tree,
= = Equivalents of | Error at
$582 water, scale-point
s2864 specified in
se FI | iSeale- previous
A = | point, | Grains. column.
in in. in.
4°98 (® Fe 510 —'002
5°03 “2 Iolo —'003
5°03 13 1500 —'0o1
5°00 4 2900 —'002
M so10| *5 2500 —'oo2
5°00 ‘I 490 +'0ooI
5°00 a2: 980 +'003
5702 *3 15co —*co02
5°00 4 1980 + "oor
M 57005} ‘5 2450 +:007
498 | 1 490 +'oor
5°02 2 broken.
4°99
5°01
M 5000
$02 I 1210 +'004
7°98 PZ) 2510 +-002
ape) *3 3740 +005
799 “4 5090) Te. 20%
M 7°993/ °5 6340 correct,
8-00 1270 correct.
8°00 2 2570 —'003
8-00 3 3770 +:003
7°98 4 5050 +002
M 7°995! °5 6350 —‘oor
4°98 1 500 —"oor
4°99 2 1000 —‘co2
501 ‘3 1470 +:003
5700 "4. 1980 correct.
M 4995) °5 2480 —‘0o1
5°00 oy 475 +'004
sor 2 940 +co1r
5°02 4G) 1450 +'008
5°00 4 1950 +008
IMeigoo7 | *5 2465 +'004
5°02 ai 460 +:007
4798 | ‘2 950 +°co9
502 £3 1450 +008
500 | "4 1940 +009
M 5:005| °5 2440 +009
5°03 I 49° +'oo1
4°98 Z 980 +'0c2
4°95 =) 1480 +001
5°O1 *4 1970 +'002
M 4°993|] °5 2460 +'co2
5°02 ze 490 +002
5°01 +2) 980 +°003
5*co $3 1470 +005
5°01 "4 1960 +:006
M so10
5:00 I 500 —'Oo!
4°99 2 990 correct,
5700 :3 1490 —‘oo1
4°99 4 1980 correct,
M 4.995] °5 2470 | Foor
Azimuth and an-
gular elevation of
objects above
mouth of rain-
gauge.
E. Thorn bush,
43°,
N.W. House, 25°.
973
“i.
S.E. Oak and
mulberry, 42°,
E. Elms, 52°.
N.W. House, 42°.
N.E. Elms, 30°.
ee eee eer reer
S.W. Trees, 38°.
E.N.E. Pear, 33°.
N.N.W. Tree,44°.
8: Ell 32°,
S.E.&S.W. Elms
40°.
S.E. Elns, 20°.
N. Beech, 72°.
Remarks on position &e. (=
Se
Fa
On lawn in rear of house; good | 535.
position,
536.
Gauge to be moved 40 ft. N., when | 537.
all will be under 20°,
Position not good, but no better | 538.
available.
Very good position in field; kept | 539.)
as a check on 538.
On N.E. slope of hill, at side of | 540.
road. Position not good, but
no better on the promises.
Very good position in kitchen-} 541.
garden. :
On a rapid slope, in the best posi- | 542.
tion available.
:
On lawn; open, except as noted. | 543.
Very good position. 544.
Gauge to be moved 40 ft. S., where | 545.
tree = 40°, and all else clear,
‘Keterence |
& |
fon)
347.
number.
548.
549:
550.
551.
552.
116
Date of
examination.
.| Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
554.| Aug.
555.| Aug.
-_
oo
N
as
te:
se
556.| Aug. to.
REPORT—1874.
EXAMINATION OF
COUNTY.
Station.
OWNER.
Obser ver.
DEVONSHIRE.
Rundlestone, Dartmoor.
G. J. SYMONS, ESQ.
DEVONSHIRE.
Prison Garden, Dartmoor.
G. J. SYMONS, ESQ.
&. E. Power, Esq., M.D.
DEVONSHIRE.
Kilworthy Hill, Tavistock.
W. MERRIFIELD, ESQ.
W. Merrifield, Esq.
DEVONSHIRE.
Oaklands, Okehampton.
W. H. HOLLEY, ESQ.
W. H. Holley, Esq.
DEVONSHIRE.
Lit. and Sci. Instit., Barnstaple.
IIT, AND SCI. INSTITUTION.
Mr. Kniil.
DEVONSHIRE.
Northam, Bideford.
REV. J. D. CHURCHWARD.
Rev. J. D. Churchward,
DEVONSHIRE.
Horwood, Bideford.
REV. J. DENE.
Rev. J. Dene.
DEVONSHIRE.
Great Torrington.
REV. S. BUCKLAND.
Rev. 8. Buckland,
DEVONSHIRE.
Langtree Wick (daily).
MISS NUNES.
Miss Nunes.
DEVONSHIRE.
Langtree Wick (monthly).
MISS NUNES.
Miss Nunes. |
SOMERSET.
Gay Street, Bath.
C. S. BARTER, ESQ.; MB.
C. 8S. Barter, Esq., M.B.~
Construction
of gauge.
as
_
4
XII.
XII.
XII.
XI.
IIT.
XII.
XII.
XI.
ce
Maker's name. 2 3
Be
Casella) <<. s:ssenaslsseseeees
Casella ........000 9 a.m
Casollay....s sass vee] 9 &.m.
Casella .. ...s0e00(9 a.m.
Negretti& Zambra| 9 a.m.
Casella .......0.0.. 9g a.m
Pastorelli ......... g a.m,
App .. seeseeeeee.| NOOn, |
Pastorelli ......... 9 a.m
daily
Casella... :sc.snsmee|sccmoatenl
Rates Niateflets/ae's « o eaterainitotars 9 a.m
Height |
of gauge.
Above | Above
ground.| jeyel,
ft. in. | feet.
I 0} 1450
o 10 |} 1381
o 8 | 362
I “Ost §21
o 8 31
Pe al, 073
I oO} 304
r oO le-33o
r o.\foasn
1 o| 451
1) s3ilzoencourn
2 an
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. d17
RAIN-GAUGES (continued),
ee) Equiualents of | Error at | Azimuth and an- iGo
$4325 water. scale-point | gular elevation of Bo
|| s£5 & |-——_,—_\apecified in| objects above Remarks on position &e, 2 g
S—g |- | seale- eer previous | mouth of rain- E-ial
A point. rains: | ‘column, gauge.
in in. in
PREETI E Natssags:|sneceenariesiliincedesnteceee. S.E. House, 30°. | Gauge removed; site very good, 546.
" in small garden,
5*co a 49° STOO 1 || Mtvitve tang. cteneoodehet In garden, quite open ; good posi- | 547-
5700 | ‘2 975 +°003 | tion.
5°00 53 1470 +°c03
499 “4 1975 +'0901
M 4°998| °5 2460 +'003
5'O1 I 500 —‘oor |N.N.W. Walland| In small garden; clear, except as 548.
5°co ao) 99° correct. trees, 30°. noted,
500 3 1480 +002
5°00 "4 1950 +°co7
M 5:002] ‘5 2490 —'oo2
5°02 oF 490 SPIGOL Me ll Peveeeninctt oc ecsonees Excellent position in very large | 549:
4°98 2) 97° +°c05 garden.
5700 $3 1470 + *co4
5702 4 1960 +:005
M 5.005] °5 2470 +003
Sco | tr 3270 correct. |S. Pear, 44°, In small garden, and rather too} 55?
800 | *2 2500 +:c03 sheltered.
H 7°98 “3 3760 +004
Sor "4 5050 +:oc2
| M 7998) °5 6300 +:003
' 5700 oy 500 SSCOONS || Secaeme crs wace series vis Quite clear, in large level garden, ; 55!-
5700 | ‘2 990 core ct. near the church,
4°98 “3 1490 —-‘oor
5°00 ‘4 1980 correct.
M 4°995| °5 2480 —‘oo1
5°01 ‘I 490 +'oor |N. Firs, 52°. On edge of lawn. Position good, | 55:
5°00 2 980 +:ooz2 |S.W. Tree, 28°. ground nearly level.
5700 et 1490 —‘ool :
rt
M neo
4°98 ‘I 500 correct. |S.S.E. Trees, 40°. | On lawn in Rectory garden. 552:
5°04 2 995 +'oor |N. Trees, 28°.
5°O1 +3 1450 +009
5°03 "4 1960 +°co7
M 5015] °5 2455 | +7008
5°01 ui 475 BOODLE ||. 5k sicansiabyucs acinus Good position in large garden. 554:
5°00 "2 980 +:003
5°Or "3 1480 +:002
S00; |) 4 1970 +'003
M 5:005| °5 2460 +:005
498 | 1 AESOP EDOE. ay sanngs eT eee Close to No. 554. 555:
500 980 +002
5°02 “4 1480 + oo!
497 | “4 1970 +"002
M 4993| °5 2460 +:002
4°95 ‘I 49° +*oor |B. House, 32°. | Position not good, but no better 556.
4°85 | 2 | 980 | +002 |W. Tree, 35°, | available.
495 3 1480 +001
484 | “4 1950 +006
5
2440 + 006
118 REPORT—1874,
On the Belfast Harbour. By T. R. Satmonp, C.E.
[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso, |
(Pxartes I.-ITI.)
Ir is with no small degree of diffidence that I have undertaken to draw
up an account of the Port and Harbour of Belfast, the subject being one
of considerable importance, and the materials at my disposal somewhat
meagre, at least so far as the ancient history of the harbour is concerned.
I have, however, endeavoured to prepare, in as concise a manner as possible,
a synopsis of the various improvements which have been effected in the
harbour, at least so far back as the sixteenth century; prior to which time
the position of Belfast as a seaport or place of resort for shipping was rather
vague and indefinite, if we can judge from the fact that no mention whatever
is made of its existence as a harbour in any historical record prior to that
date. On examination of the map of Belfast (vide Plate I.) which was
prepared as early as 1660 (perhaps one of the most ancient maps of the
town now extant), it will be seen that the old town was, as compared
with Belfast of the present, a very insignificant pla¢e indeed. The limits of
the town were circumscribed by an extensive line of fortification, which
encompassed it on the north, south, and western sides only, it beiig bounded
on the east side by the river Lagan, the land entrances to the town being by
two gates called the North Gate and the Mill Gate. The North Gate was
situated in North Street, at its juncture with John Street, and the Mill Gate
was situated in Mill Street, at a point about 330 yards from the entrance to
the Old Castle. It would, then, appear that the ramparts of the town ceased
at William Street and commenced at Mary Street, now called Corporation
Street, the interval between these points being bounded by the Lagan river
precluded the chance of land attack from the eastward side of the town.
At this time Belfast only consisted of five streets—High Street, Bridge
Street, Skipper’s Lane, Waring Strect, and North Strect ; and the number of
houses then in existence were, exclusive of the Castle, 150, the greater
number of which were thatched houses of an inferior class,
Previous to the year 1637 the harbour appears to have been under no
regular system of government, and was assumed to be the property of the
Chichester family. The trade was at that time as insignificant as the harbour
itself, which was, in point of fact, a port of secondary importance to Carrick-
fergus, which was the only stronghold in the bay occupying the same position
relative to the latter town that Carlingford did in respect to Newry. Prior
to the date I have just mentioned, the Corporation of Carrickfergus enjoyed
the privilege of reserving to their use one third of all the Customs duties
payable on goods imported into that place, together with other trading mono-
polies. These immunities, however, the Earl of Strafford succeeded in pur-
chasing in 1637, since which time the commerce of this port has become a
matter of importance. A Custom House was then for the first time esta-
blished in Belfast, and the revenue business of the port removed from Carrick-
fergus. In the year 1729 tho first legislative interference with the port took
place, when an Act, 3rd George II., was passed, which delegated to the
Sovereign and free burgesses of the town the conservancy of the harbour.
The Corporation of Belfast had the harbour-trust committed to their care,
and the reason assigned for appointing them as the conservancy was that, as
expressed in the Act, ‘*The harbour had become extremely shallow, by
which means voyages have been prolonged, to the very great prejudice of
ON THE BELFAST HARBOUR. 119
trade, and His Majesty put to extraordinary expense and charge in keeping
officers longer on board the vessels trading to and from the said town than
would be needful had the said harbour and channcl been preserved in the
same condition as it formerly was.” This Act was, however, repealed in
1785 by the Act 25th George III. cap. 64, which appointed a separate Cor-
poration, giving to them the sole management of the affairs of the port; and
with the appointment of the Harbour Commissioners as a distinct body, the
substantial improvements of the port may be said to have commenced.
Among the first acts performed by the new Corporation were the removal
of several artificial fords, which formed bars across the Lagan, and also the
gradual deepening of the bed of the river by dredging; and in 1786 the
course of the old south channel was ordered to be marked with buoys and
perches down to the Pool of Garmoyle.
In the year 1791 a graving-platform was erected for the repairing of small
eraft ; and subsequently two graving or dry docks, which are at present in
existence, were constructed, the first of which (No. 1) was completed and
opened in the year 1800, and the second, now called No. 2 Dock, was opened
in the year 1826.
These docks are situated on the south-west side of Clarendon Dock, and are
found to be of great service for the repairing of vessels of small draft and
tonnage. Their gencral dimensions are as follow :—-
Dock No. 1.
ie aE
ERM TLOOES oo ease tie «tun s t's 8 85 «tk ee 245 0
(ETI na a aR ce 252 6
PRAT TOD oa ote oc Ae, day vids ko 6a ss oyn eye ns 50 0
SRG AMGEh AG ORO oie sce ways e, sc.s, ye icue eye ns 3a 6
Level of sill above datum ................ ibe,
Depth of dock from coping to floor.......... 14 0
UG GL CRAIGS a aes i gna ao tA sagh os os pe oe te 30 0
Dock No. 2.
TU ee 1 gg a Per a fe
PP SEUNG See ata a ale duds patted 6.0) <[5-0\5, 200m ee 2 299 0
SRA MO bh LO essaaionsa.d5n, od. vas) G50 Fd cg basaeetenentigs 58 0
PIGAGt Di MORCO ein ¥a cig his ae hte cto oy 6 bt 0
| A ee ee renee mer ee datum
(which is 3 ft. above the Ordnance datum)
IDRC COR orcs) s0s.c;0 tue 163.65, disuse oes sue 15 6
UR aR aa a5. mo Baars ayes, « Di Gens 36 0
In the year 1826 Mr. John Rennie reported upon the state of the harbour
with a view to its being extended and improved, and in the year 1829 Mr.
Telford reported for a similar purpose. Mr. Rennie again reported in 1829.
No action, however, was taken on either of these reports, and the improve-
ment of the harbour was consequently delayed until a report and plan had
been received from Messrs. Walker and Burgess in the year 1830, which plan
was adopted by the Commissioners, and received the royal assent in the year
1831. Obstacles were, however, thrown in the way of procuring the neces-
sary funds to carry out the work, and the result was an application to Parlia-
ment, in the year 1837, for a new Act, Ist Vic. cap. 76, which was acceded
to; and the works directed to be undertaken in connexion therewith were :;—
120 REPORT—1874.
1st. The making of a new channel for the river Lagan, from Duntar’s
Dock to Thompson’s Tower, cutting off the first bend of the old channel
nearest the town.
2nd. The purchase of the existing quays and docks, which were private
property, and the widening and improving of the same.
3rd. The continuation of the straight cut for the river as far as deep
water, cutting off the second bend of the river, so as to form a straight
channel from the town towards Garmoyle, and other works contemplated by
the Act.
The first of the foregoing works, being the first section of the new channel,
was undertaken by Mr. Dargan, the contractor, and was completed and
opened in the year 1841, the cutting of the channel forming a very valuable
property called the Queen’s Island, which contained an area of seventeen
acres of land. The entire cost of this work, including the purchase of pro-
perty, amounted to £42,352.
In the year 1842 the whole quays and wharves on both sides of the river,
together with Dunbar’s dock (now called Prince’s Dock), quays, timber-pond,
and nineteen acres of ground, the site for future docks, were all purchased
at a sum amounting to £152,171; and a sum of nearly £1000 was expended
in the improvement and permanent repair of Prince’s Dock, the walls of which
were composed of timber and brickwork.
In the year 1844 the construction of new quays was commenced on the
county Down side of the harbour for a length of 2500 feet—about 500 feet,
next the Queen’s Bridge, being in front of an old wharf purchased from Mr.
Batt, and the remaining portion on the slob land lying between it and the
Queen’s Island. This work was called the Queen’s Quay, in the construction
of which was expended the sum of £31,167. It is composed of a facing of
timber securely tied back by three rows of strong piles, which are connected
together with tie-rods of iron 14 inch in diameter; the main piles are
12 in. by 12 in., and the sheeting-piles are 7 inches in thickness, driven to
a batter of 1 inch to a foot. The quay being formed, a landing-shed was
erected on it, 300 feet in length. The material used for filling in or backing
up the quay was mainly procured by the deepening of the river, which was
also considerably widened in front, a quantity amounting to about 524,175
tons of material being deposited in forming the quays.
Among other works carried -out at this time were a large pond for the
storage of timber on the east side of the Queen’s Island, formed at a cost of
£1878; and the lighthouse, erected on piles, which is situated on the Holy-
wood Bank, and which is used as a pilot station, was constructed at a cost of
£1300.
Having in the year 1844 secured possession of the old quays and other
property on the county Antrim side of the river, the construction of new
quays on that side was immediately proceeded with. The total length of
quayage erected at that time was 1375 feet, of which 713 feet was an
increase, the remainder being the restoration of a portion of the old work.
These quays were formed of timber, and were carried out on the same plan
as that adopted for the Queen’s Quay.
The total monies expended previous to the year 1847 on the various works
embraced in the Act of 1837, including the construction of the Holywood
Bank Light Station, amounted to £238,740.
In November 1846 a contract was entered into with Mr. William Dargan
for forming the second section of the new channel, which was completed and
formally opened in the year 1849, when it received the title of Victoria
ON THE BELFAST HARBOUR. 121
Channel. This, the second portion of the channel executed, lies between the
Twin Islands, which were formed by the material excavated from the bed of
the second cut, and cast up so as to form a sea-slope of about 4 feet horizontal
to 1 foot vertical, the channel faces of which:slope were protected by a heavy
facing of stone-pitching. The length of this cut is about 3300 feet, the
width at top being about 450 feet, with a depth of about 23 feet at high
water, and the amount expended in its formation was £41,000.
The next work of importance which was proceeded with was the rebuilding
of the county Antrim quays from the Queen’s Bridge to Dunbar’s or Prince’s
Dock, and their extension, or the formation of new quays, from that point
to the Milewater River, the latter portion being commenced and completed
in the year 1847—the entire quays being handed over by the contractor,
Mr. Cranston Gregg, complete during the year 1848, their cost being about
£44,390. This work is composed of timber facing, similar to that adopted
on the Queen’s Quay, and the entire designed with a view to having about
10 feet of water close to the quay at low tide.
In the year 1847 the construction of a patent slip was commenced on the
south end of the Queen’s Island. This slip is 560 feet in length, and
was designed so as to be capable of taking on vessels of 1000 tons burthen.
It is worked by a twenty horse-power steam-engine, with hauling machinery.
The cost of the entire work in connexion with the slip was about £16,753.
The work was completed and opened for traffic early in 1849. In the year
1847, owing to improvements then in contemplation and in course of
progress, it became necessary to procure a new steam-dredger in addition to
the one then in the Commissioners’ possession. The new machine was con-
structed in that year by Messrs. Coates and Young, and was provided with a
twenty horse-power engine ; the cost of the new machine was £5260, The
way in which the dredgers were principally employed at this time was in
deepening of the river between the new wharves, and the material raised was
used for filling up the spaces between the old and new Ballymacarrett quays,
filling up the old town dock at the foot of High Street, and other old docks
on the county Antrim side of the harbour, and in backing up the new quay
of the first cut of the channel, now called Albert Quay.
In the year 1847 a second timber-pond was constructed on the county
Antrim side of the river, and is situated convenient to Prince’s Dock and
Albert Quay. This pond was made by Mr. Dargan in a field adjoining the
old pond, about 20,000 cubic yards of stuff being removed in its formation.
The only additional works worthy of notice which were undertaken in the
year 1848 were the erection of a stone beacon on the tail of the west bank
at Garmoyle, at a cost of £218, and the construction of a wrought-iron
swing-bridge to span the entrance to the then Graving-Dock Basin, at a cost
of about £1351. These works were completed during the year 1849.
In the year 1849, in order to meet the growing requirements of a very
important class of shipping, such as the moderate-sized vessels carrying
valuable cargoes from the Mediterranean and Baltic ports, it was determined
to extend the basin in front of the graving-docks. This work was proceeded
with, the basin being extended in a southward direction so as to form a dock,
which in 1850 was designated the Clarendon Dock. In the same year, 1849,
the old tidal docks, situated at the foot of Waring Street and Great George’s
Street, were filled up, and the spaces occupied by them thrown open to the
public.
Prior to the commencement of the improvements embraced in the Act of
1837, the cost of dredging had always formed a large item in the annual
122 REPORT—1874.
expenditure of the Belfast Harbour. This had, however, considerably
increased during the four or five years just preceding the year 1849—as, in
addition to maintaining the original depth, the course of the river opposite
what was then called Ritchic’s’ Dock was diverted from its natural channel
_ by the extension of the quays, and the entire space from the Queen’s Bridge
to the Prince’s Dock doubled in width, the depth of the water being at the
same time increased 5 to 7 feet.
It was anticipated that the formation of the straight channel would obviate
the necessity of so much dredging as hitherto in the lower part of the river ;
and the fact that the upper section of it maintained its depth without dredging
from its opening in 1841 for a period of nine or ten years, confirms this view.
The increased depth, however, given to the river opposite the quays, being
much below its natural bed, will always require an additional amount of
dredging to prevent it from silting up, which would, of course, vary and
increase in extent as the sewerage of the town increases, if allowed to be
discharged into the harbour.
In the year 1850 the only works worthy of notice which were entered upon
were the erection of coal-oflices, yards, and weighing-machines on Queen’s
Quay, and six landing- or goods-sheds on Donegall Quay, and contracts for
the erection of a stone wall on the north side of the Clarendon Dock.
In the year 1851 three lighthouses were constructed in the Channel,
between Garmoyle and the town of Belfast, and provided with accommodation
for resident lightkeepers in order to supersede the difficult and uncertain plan
previously resorted to, %.¢, of attending to the Channel lights (which were
fixed upon perches) by means of a boat. One of tho houses, a substantial
stone structure, is situated on the lower end of the East Twin Island, and
provided with a bright green light; one on the margin of the old Seal
Channel, provided with a red light; and the other at the Pool of Garmoyle
below the stone beacon and on the opposite side of the Channel, which is
provided with a green light. The two latter lighthouses are constructed on
the borders of the slob banks, and are composed of timber supported upon
strong piles, braced with wrought-iron tie-rods, the cost of the three houses
being about £741.
In the year 1852 an iron foot-bridge was constructed across the entrance
to the Prince’s Dock at a cost of £309, and a timber bridge across the entrance
to the Milewater River, thereby opening up an uninterrupted traffic for foot
passengers from the Queen’s Bridge to Thompson’s embankment.
In the year 1854 a new Harbour Office was erected at the foot of Great
George’s Strect,.at a cost of £8306; and the only other new works carried
on in that year were the construction of a branch line of railway, com-
mencing at the main line, a short distance from the terminus of the Northern
Counties Railway, running along the reclaimed ground purchased from Mr,
Thompson, and connected with the Albert Quay; and a new street called
Whitla Street, running from the north end of Garmoyle Street to York
Street, opening up a connexion between the quays and the railway.
Tho Harbour Commissioners having in the year 1854 obtained a Bill
empowering them to reclaim a large portion of the slob lands lying on the .
county Down side of the river, consequently in the following year a com-
mencement was made upon that work, Mr. James Connor being appointed
contractor for the execution of a bank extending from the Queen’s Island to
Conswater Railway Bridge. This work was completed in 1858. This
portion of the reclamation included the part to be devoted to the purposes of
a public park, to be called Victoria Park.
ON THE BELFAST HARBOUR. 123
In the year 1858 a commencement was made towards the regular deepen-
ing of the navigable channel from the Holywood Lighthouse to the upper end
of Donegall Quay. The improvement made by the dredging, which con-
tinued from 1858 to 1861, was such that vessels with a deep draft-of water
were enabled to get up to the lower end of the Victoria Channel without
lightening their cargoes, as they had hitherto done, two miles lower down the
river, in order to enable them to take a berth at the quays or to enter the
docks ; and steamboats were also enabled to reach their berths at all times
of the tide. The next works of magnitude which were undertaken by the
Belfast Harbour Commissioners were commenced in the year 1864, and con-
sisted of the construction of a floating dock and tidal dock on the county
Antrim side of the harbour, and a graving or dry dock and tidal basin on the
county Down side of the harbour. ‘These may be said to be the first really
important works, apart from the deepening of the harbour, which were
undertaken since the year 1847.
Unlike the previous mode of constructing the wharves with timber, the
Commissioners were advised in these cases to resort to the use of stone as a
building material. On the county Antrim side of the harbour, where the
ground for foundations is of such a treacherous nature, the entire works had
to be built upon bearing or supporting piles. On the top of the piles a layer
of concrete two feet in depth was laid, on which the superstructure was
raised. The walls are generally of the section shown on the contract
drawing, and are built of rubble stonework, faced with random rubble. On
the county Down side of the river, the nature of the soil being firm hard
sand, no artificial foundation was necessary. On both sides, however, the
precaution has been adopted of driving a row of sheet piles, 6 inches thick,
along the face of the work, to preclude the chance of the foundations being
undermined by dredging or other causes.
These dock works, though commenced in the year 1864, were not all com-
pleted till the year 1871. The Hamilton Graving-Dock and Abercorn Basin
were, however, finished and formally opened by the Lord Lieutenant in the
year 1867.
The Abercorn Basin is 725 feet in length by 635 feet in breadth, having a
water-area of 121 acres. The average depth of water in that basin is now
about 11 feet at low water, and a canting space secured in the harbour which
will allow a vessel of 600 feet in length to turn upon its own centre as a
pivot. The cost of this basin was £23,163,
The Hamilton Graving-Dock is in length at top 470 feet, and at bottom
4517 feet. It is 84 feet 6 inches broad at coping, and 50 feet broad at
bottom. The coping is 15 feet above datum, and the level of sill at entrance
is 5:60 feet below datum. The entrance of the dock is G0 feet in width, and
the depth of the dock is 22 feet 9 inches below coping. It is provided with
a caisson gate, which can be used as a bridge or road for horse-and-cart
traffic when set in place. A powerful engine and centrifugal pump, with
pumping machinery, is provided for clearing the dock of water when requisite
for repairing vessels. The cost of this graving-dock, including mooring-
paals, paving, gas- and water-pipes, capstans, paals, &c., amounted to £33,756.
_ Of this, £2376 was expended on the caisson; and a further sum of £5140,
not included in the above, was expended on the engine and pumping
machinery and buildings in connexion therewith.
The works on the county Antrim side, comprising the Spencer Dock,
Dufferin Dock, and entrance-basin, were formally opened by Earl Spencer,
Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, in the year 1872. The Spencer Dock is a tidal
124. REPoRT—1874.
dock, 600 feet long by 550 feet broad, haying a water-area of 73 acres, and
a quayage in length 1900 feet. The average depth of water in this dock is
14 feet below datum, and the coping is 15:6 feet above datum. The entrance
to the dock is 80 feet in width by 265 feet in length. The entrance-basin
has an area of 5 acres of water, with a quayage of 200 feet in length.
The Dufferin Dock is a floating dock, provided with gates, inside which
vessels with a draught of 22 feet can discharge afloat at all times of the tide.
The entrance to this dock is from the Spencer Dock, and is 60 feet in width
by 139 feet in length. The platform for gates is 14 feet below datum, and
the sill is 12 feet below datum. ‘The dock is in length 630 feet by 225 feet
in width, having a water-area of 3; acres and length of quayage of
1645 feet.
The walls of these works are all constructed of stone, the lower portion of
the dock from bottom up to datum-level being composed of hammerstone
ashlar, the stone being from the Scrabo quarries, county Down; and the
portion above datum is composed of freestone hearting, with facing of
Dundonald whinstone, the coping being of Cornish limestone in large blocks.
The cost of these works amounted to £95,334, including gates, mooring-
paals, chains, paving, &c. Simultaneously with the execution of these
works, other incidental works, though of minor importance, were being
carried on. ‘The Milewater River was diverted into a new channel, and two
extensive timber-ponds, one of 5 acres and the other of 14 acres, formed
on the Antrim side of the harbour, chiefly by the excavations from the dock
works. The branch railway was diverted along Albert Quay, and a per-
manent line of tramway laid connecting it with the Northern Counties
Railway.
The slob reclamation in county Down was being proceeded with from year
to year; and in 1864 a carriage-road bridge was constructed across Conns-
water to connect the Victoria Park with the Ballymacarrett reclaimed pro-
perty, at a cost of £652.
In 1867 a double line of tramway was laid along the south side of the
Abercorn Basin, and connected with the county Down Railway. A number
of goods-sheds were erected along the quays from time to time, and dock-
master’s houses and other tenements, as required by the extension of the
harbour; and in the year 1871 a large pair of masting-sheers were erected
on the east side of Abercorn Quay, capable of lifting a weight of 50 tons
and masting the largest vessels afloat; the cost of these sheers amounted to
£2732, including foundations, engine-house, &c. In the same year (1871)
a line of tramway, commencing at the junction of the Central Railway at
Oxford Street and extending along the Antrim quays around Prince’s Dock,
formed a junction with the Northern Counties branch of the quay’s tramway
at the south end of the Dufferin Dock. Owing to the extension of the harbour
works, it became necessary in the year 1870 to provide for extensive
dredging. A contract was therefore entered into for a new steam-dredger
of 40 horse-power, capable of working in 26 feet of water, which was com-
pleted in the following year at a cost of £7923, and a large number of new
scows were constructed in connexion with this machine. In the year 1872
an inclined discharging-slip was constructed at the lower end of the Queen’s
Island, and provided with a hauling-engine and gearing for the purpose of
disposing of the dredging-material in the embanking of the county Down
reclaimed lands; and for the transit of the stuff a locomotive engine and
stock of tipping-waggons were provided, by which means the material can be
both cheaply and expeditiously transported to any part of the county Down
ON THE BELFAST HARBOUR. 125
property. In the same year, the Commissioners having secured by purchase
from Dr. Ritchie a large tract of slob land on the county Antrim side of the
channel north of Thompson’s embankment, a commencement was made with
its reclamation from the sea. This work is still in course of progress, and
when reclaimed will afford a valuable parcel of ground for harbour exten-
sion, 95 acres in area. The embankment is being entirely formed of material
raised by the dredgers in deepening the harbour. ‘he slope is formed on
the outside, at an inclination of 4 to 1, and is being securely protected by
stone-pitching. Having acquired the latter grounds, steps were at once
taken to form a large portion of it into a timber-pond, which was done by
enclosing an area of about 26 acres with a row of closely driven round larch-
iles.
‘4 In the year 1872 a work of considerable magnitude was commenced, and
is at the present time in course of progress ; it consists of the renewal of the
entire length of Albert Quay, and its further extension to the circular pier
head of the Spencer Dock. A portion of this work for a length of 267 feet
is constructed of stone, in the same manner as that in which the other stone-
work of the docks is executed, the remainder being constructed of timber.
The entire length of the work is about 680 yards, which will give, besides
the renewal of the decayed portion of the Albert Quay, an additional length
of quayage of 207 yards. The timber-wharf is about 1776 feet in length by
25 feet in width at the top, is composed of three rows of bearing-piles of
creosoted pitch-pine timber, 12 inches square, the front row being 45 feet in
length, the middle row 43 feet, and the back row 40 feet. These piles are
driven 5 feet apart, centres longitudinally, and between the piles in the front
and mid row sheeting-piles of the same timber 11 inches in thickness are
driven quite close together, the length of the front row being 37 feet, and
that of the middle row 32 feet. The front and back rows of main piles are
secured together by diagonal braces. The platform is composed of strong
joists 12 inches by 6 inches, sheeted with timber planking 53 inches thick,
which is covered with a layer of bitumen, and paved with square setts.
The back of the wharf is sheeted with timber 4 inches in thickness, against
which is filled a backing of engine ashes and cinders, in order to secure the
least possible lateral thrust against the wharf. The space underneath the
wharf, between the front and back row of piles, is formed into a slight slope,
which is paved with pitching-stones, in order to prevent the abrasion of the
water from carrying away the soil; and the front face of the wharf is cleaded
with open timber work to prevent the deposit and accumulation on the
slopes of bulky matters held in suspension by the water. Mooring-piles of
egreenheart timber, cuppd with cast-iron hoods, are driven every 60 feet apart
along the entire wharf to secure vessels to; and a number of sets of strong
piles are driven 60 feet back from the wharf, and are connected with it by
strong tie-rods of wrought iron, in order to guard against the possibility of
the wharf being driven forward by any undue weight placed on the platform,
or by the weight of the materials by which it is backed up. The piling of
this work is so designed that a depth of 16 feet at low water may be
secured by dredging without the risk of injuring the stability of the super-
structure, and by the setting back of the quay line as it is done a water
space of about 335 feet in width will bé provided in the river opposite the
new wharf. This work is being carried on by Messrs. H. and J. Martin,
contractors, aud will, when completed, cost about £50,000. During the
present year an extensive double line of tramway has been laid by the
Harbour Commissioners from the South Quay of the Abercorn Basin through
126 neport—1874l.
their property in Ballymacarrett, and connected with the Central Railway
near the point where it crosses the county Down line. This tramway com-
pletes a system which opens up a thorough line of communication between
the county Antrim and county Down sides of the river, and affords a valu-
able means of transit of goods by rail from almost all quays in the harbour
to the County Down, Central, Ulster, and Northern Counties Railways. In
order to meet the rapidly increasing requirements of the trade of Belfast for
additional dock and harbour accommodation, I lately received instructions
from the Commissioners to prepare plans and specifications for works of con-
siderable magnitude proposed to be carried out on the county Antrim side of
the harbour. The plans which I submitted were approved of by the Com-
missioners. They consist of a large wet dock 1200 feet in length, exclusive
of the entrance, and 280 feet in width, with a depth of 20 feet at low water.
This dock it is proposed to extend, when the trade of the port shall have
increased to such an extent as to warrant it, from where it is at present
shown to terminate to the foot of Corporation Square, an additional distance
of about 1250 feet, which would close the Clarendon Dock, and do away
with the two old graving-docks situate off that dock. The entire length of
the dock when completed would be 2450 feet, giving a water-area of about
152 acres, with two entrances, one where the present entrance to Prince’s
Dock is situated, and one entering from the Spencer Dock; and I may just
state that my reasons for recommending an open wet dock in preference to a
dock closed by gates are, that the moderate range of tide which exists in this
harbour being only 8 feet average, together with thesimproved modern
\echanical appliances for loading and discharging vessels, renders the rise
amefall of a few feet of tide an immaterial question either as regards time
or Mpney ; and further, that with an open dock vessels will not require, as
they would with a close dock, to accumulate opposite the entrance to such
an extent as to impede the general traffic in the outer or Spencer Dock, a
free and open means of communication being maintained with the river,
so that vessels can arrive and depart at all times of the tide. The gates
and sluices of a close dock are also liable to derangement or accident, and
tend under any circumstances more or less to limit the amount of traffic to
the dock.
It is also proposed, in order to meet the demand for additional graving-
dock accommodation, to construct, on the county Antrim side of the river, a
dock of about 600 feet in length, capable of receiving the largest vessels
built in or frequenting this port.
Another extensive improvement, which has for some time oceupied the
attention of the Commissioners, is the formation of a new straight channel
across the west bank, in continuation of the Victoria Channel, between the
Twin Islands and Whitehouse Roads; and will, no doubt, when carried out, -
afford great fagjlities (as compared with the present circuitory route) for
vessels either entering or leaving the port, and lessen the risk of danger and
delay consequent upon vessels taking the ground on the slob banks lying on
either side of the present channel. I have thought it might be interesting,
and have therefore appended detailed information as to the areas, &c. of
the property at present in possession of the Belfast Harbour Commissioners.
The total area of property on both sides of the harbour is 1008 a. 2r. 17 p.;
of which 526 a. 1 r. 11 p. is on the county Antrim side, and 482a, 1r. 6 p.
on the county Down side according to the original county boundary, 95 acres
of the property on the county Antrim side being at present in course of
reclamation. Of the above area about 470 acres have been reclaimed from
Plate 1
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THE PORTAND HARBOUR
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WAP OF
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9
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ofa
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COUNTY OF DOWN
Sruile
Fetl000 3000 1000 Feet
Tomine tive Salvwrnul. GB. lel!
4 Plate °.
Stone Cua Lv Walls
Cross Sectionw
hee ingram, Scalp
_ $$ —— ———_ ” —_ es a ———_—— —— —_
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J ¢ Yowt Neairdeater Fase 5
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Tongttudtiual Sectron
Of the River Lawan from first Canal Lack to Queens Bridae tn 674.
=And of the Harbour and resent Navivable Channel fiom Queens Bridue to Hohwood livhthouse, showing the orcatest depths inthe Nears 1826. 56, and 74
‘ a é g ‘ 4 £ gs i
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Aasingrar Seals
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ON THE METHOD OF MAKING GOLD-ASSAYS. 127
the sea. The total water-area of the harbour, including docks and basins,
amounts to about 100 acres; and the total length of available quayage
16,433 linear feet. The area of timber-ponds at present in existence is
64a. 2r. 20 p.
The total number of vessels which entered the Port last year was 7538,
of an aggregate registered tonnage of 1,268,845 tons ; and the revenue for
the same year (1873) amounted to £69,681 8s. 7d.
The Plans illustrative of this paper are :—
Prats I. Map of Belfast in 1660, and Map of the Port and Harbour of
Belfast in 1840, j
Pure II, Map of the Port and Harbour of Belfast in 1874.
Prarn III. Sheet of Sections of the Timber and Stone Quays; and a Lon-
gitudinal Section of the river Lagan from first Canal Lock to Queen’s Bridge
in 1874, and of the Harbour and present navigable channels from Queen’s
Bridge to Holywood Lighthouse, showing the greatest depths in the years
1826, 1856, and 1874. ;
Report of the Committee, consisting of W.Cnanpirr Roserts, Dr.
Mitts, Dr. Boycortr, A. W. GaprspeEn, and J. 8. Seton, appointed
for the purpose of inquiring into the Method of making Gold-assays,
and of stating the Results thereof. Drawn up by W. CHANDLER
Roserts, Secretary.
Iw their last Report the Committee described the results of a series of
experiments made with a view to determine the degree of accuracy to which
it is possible to attain in gold-assaying. It was proved that the error was
included between the iru and wan parts of the portion of metal operated
upon. They recommended that a standard plate of pure gold, prepared by
the Chemist of the Mint, should be adopted as a basis for a new series of com-
parisons between the reports of different assayers ; but during the past year
the Committee haye rejected this plate in favour of a second, which proved to
be of a sensibly higher degree of purity.
This new plate was submitted in December last to a jury of assayers, sum-
moned by the Goldsmiths’ Company, and their certificate as to its purity is
published in the Report of the Deputy Master of the Mint for 1873, p. 58.
Portions of this plate have since been sent by the Warden of the Standards,
to whom the custody of the trial plates is entrusted, to Mr. Du Bois of the
United States Mint, to M. Péligot at Paris, to the Chevalier Van Riemsdijk of
the Netherlands Mint, and to M. Stas at Brussels, as well as to the Assayers
of the Mints at Sydney and Melbourne.
- Only one Report has as yet been received, and the Committee therefore
considered that they were not in a position to proceed further with the
investigation before this Meeting of the British Association.
128 REPORT—1874.
Report of a Committee, consisting of Prof. A. S. Herscuer, B.A.,
F.R.A.S., and G. A. Lusour, F.G.S., on Experiments to determine
the Thermal Conductivities of certain Rocks, showing especially the
Geological Aspects of the Investigation.
Description and Results of the Experiments, By Prof. A. S. Herscurt.
Iy the introductory notes on these experiments in the Transactions of the
Sections, p. 223, in the volume for 1873 of these Reports, the list of rocks
selected and the manner of experimenting on them were described. With
the exception that sections of Calton trap-rock, of a great pyramid casing-
stone (nummulitic limestone), Caenstone (or Normandy building-limestone),
cannel-coal, chalk, and red brick were added to this list, and that the
apparatus received some small but very important improvements to make it
heat-tight, the material of the experiments, as well as the method of making
them, remained substantially the same as last year. Instead of a conical tin
vessel with 1 Jb. of water, a cylindrical one holding 23 lbs., with an internal
agitator and thermometer, was used as the cooler. The opposing surfaces
of the heater and cooler are faced with velvet, and are each encircled by a
caoutchoue collar, which projecting a little beyond them clasps the circular
edge of the rock plate when it is placed between them ; two small slits in
each collar-edge allow the wires of a thermocouple to be introduced, touching
the rock-surfaces while the rock is being heated. With the view of traversing
the plate with the thermopile in different directions, the piece of stout
palladium wire (about 18 gauge), used as the electromotive element between
two iron wire terminations of a delicate reflecting galvanometer, was silver-
soldered to the iron wires at its two ends, all the wires being first rolled thin
and flat to some distance from the junctions. The scythe or scimitar-blade
shape generally given to the wire in rolling it thin was advantageous in the
construction, because instead of uniting the wires continuously in one straight
length and folding the points of junction upon opposite sides of the rock (thus
confining their range upon it to a single diameter or to one straight line),
advantage of the curvature was taken to connect the wires by superposition,
instead of by prolongation at their junctions, without overlying each other,
into two flat ogee-arches or merry-thought-like blades, between which the
rock is held as in a foreeps. The unrolled parts of the wires are bound very
firmly to a small square picce of wood, which acts as a handle to guide the
points of the forceps to various parts of the rock-faces, while it keeps them
securely in their places, and also allows the small elastic pressure of the wires
to help to clasp the rock gently between the points of the thermoelectric
pincette without assistance from the velvet covers. After thus inserting a
rock section in the apparatus, protecting the rock and cooler from below with
a stout wooden screen, and from loss or gain of heat in other directions by
a suitably thick case of woollen stuff and a few bandages of similar mate-
rials, the rate of rise of temperature in the cooler, when agitated, was noted
by the average number of seconds taken by a delicate thermometer con-
tained in it to rise 1° F, (one graduation on its stem), as soon as this rate
of rise was found to have become sensibly constant. About twenty minutes
were usually occupied in the beginning of an experiment with watching for
a steady condition of the thermometer-readings ; and ten or twelve minutes
more were required to ensure it, and to obtain the average rate of their
increase for the rock specimen under observation. The temperature-differ-
ence shown by the galyanometer at the same time at first rose rapidly to a
ON THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF CERTAIN ROCKS. 129
high maximum, and then descended very gradually to a fixed lower reading.
The pincette was traversed to and fro over the rock-surfaces while the
_ thermometer was being noted, and exhibited during these motions fluctu-
ations answering to about one or two Fahrenheit degrees on either side of
an average position; corrected for zero of the scale, and reduced by trials
for this purpose between every two or three experiments to Fahrenheit
degrees, the temperature-difference thus found, divided by the quantity of
heat transmitted to the cooler per minute, gave the apparent thermal con-
ductivity of the plate. The results, in Peclet’s units, were scarcely more
than one third of what Peclet and other earlier experimenters had obtained.
It was obvious that instead of marking the temperature-difference between
the two solid contact surfaces of the rock and velvet which they touched,
the points of the thermoelectric forceps showed the temperature of the fluid
air-bath in which those two Surfaces are immersed. The extreme mobility of
this fluid medium, enabling it to pass to and fro through the velvet between
the plates of the heater and the cooler, while it equally insinuates itself
_ between the rock-surface and the thermopile that can only enter into actual
solid contact with each other (at least theoretically) at three points, controls
the temperature of the metallic thermometer far more powerfully than the
rock-face that it touches, and the real temperature-differences between the
rock-faces are accordingly completely masked. It is very probable that if
the velvet covers on the instrument are replaced by caoutchouce or soft wash-
leather, the source of this error will be very much reduced ; and although it
is certain that the confronting rock and leather surfaces will never have
actually the same temperature from the existence of a sensible quantity of
resisting air between them (so that, as before, the thermopile will not mark
the true rock-temperature-difference, but a mean between that difference
and a similar difference for the leather-faces), yet the range of this error
will be considerably smaller than in the experiments already made with
velvet covers, whose loose texture makes air-currents the principal medium
of heat-transmission through them. The comparative results now obtained
are accordingly only subjoined with this Report as first approximations,
from which the crrors, anticipated last year as likely to arise from surface
characters of the rock sections, are as yet far from having been satisfactorily
removed.
To obtain the true rock-temperature-differences means were taken to
cement the thermopile-points to the rock with plaster, which it would be
desirable to adopt with as few samples as possible, on account of the tedious-
ness of the process, and the injury from using them thus .as standards of
correction for the rest done to the beautifully worked surfaces of many of the
plates. If the correction found to be required ‘can be restricted by the
mode of operating to a range of such small limits as to be applicable gene-
rally, without appreciable influence of the surface characters in making its
occasional departures from a mean value very sensible, then the reduction-
factor, found by absolute experiments with a few rocks of characteristically
rough and smooth or polished surfaces giving the true temperature-
difference for a given heat-flow from the apparent one shown by the thermo-
couple placed simply between the rock and leather faces, will be admissible
(within the limits of error of the observations) to convert a list of apparent
conductivities, as just supposed to be obtained, from a mere comparative
table of relative conducting-powers to a table of absolute thermal conducti-
vities, in which the errors of the values given will certainly not be greater
than i. in all probability have been committed had the direct method
1874. K
130 REPORT—1874,
of absolute measurement been applied separately to each specimen of the
list instead of only to a few rocks which furnish data for calculating the
absolute conductivities of the remainder. Circular disks of linen well wetted
with plaster of Paris (mixed with a little glue or white of egg) were laid over
the surfaces of two or three of the rocks, enclosing under them and against
the rock the two points of the thermopile-pincette, which were also first
dipped into plaster. When these had set quite hard under pressure, and were
thoroughly dried by a gentle heat, they were placed in the apparatus, and a
measurement of the absolute temperature-difference and accompanying heat-
flow was thus obtained, affording the real conductivity and a means of com-
paring it with the apparent one found by similar observations of the same
rock when no plaster was used, and when the points of the thermopile
merely pressed against its surface. Thus the thermoelectric difference ob-
tained with the wire couples merely touching the surfaces of white statuary-
marble between velvet faces was 16°; while for the same heat-flow, when
the arms of the thermopile were firmly plastered to the marble plate, the
temperature-difference observed was only 6°2*, being more than twice .
and a half as large a difference in the former as in the latter case. With
whinstone the corresponding temperature-differences were 26° and 8°65, in
the proportion of very nearly 3:1. A similar experiment was made with
cannel-coal, of which the conductivity is much less than those of the last
mentioned rocks, the temperature-differences obtained being for the same
heat-flow in the plain and plastered plate 53°-4 and 39°-7 ; in the proportion
of only 1:37:1, a far smaller reduction than was observed in the two fore-
going cases. Care is, however, necessary to introduce wet plaster under as
well as over the points of the thermopile in cementing them to the rock, that
air may be excluded and the junction may be solid—a precaution which was
omitted in this case, and plaster without size was used, which in drying
sometimes flakes off from the rock-surface, either entirely or in places, which
may render an experiment, as that on cannel-coal may not impossibly have
been from this cause, entirely valueless ; yet this result presents itself, with
many others met with in the investigation, as very well worth repetition,
with fresh precautions and with new arrangements, to guard against the
possibility of false conclusions.
Adopting for the present, as probably not far from the truth, a common
reduction-factor of 22 as the proportion in which the recorded temperature-
differences of the plain rock-surfaces between velvet faces exceeded the true
temperature-differences of the surfaces of the rocks examined, and intro-
ducing some very small corrections for the thicknesses of the plates, the
thermal capacity of the metal cooler, &¢., which are all probably (as well as
the allowance for heat-absorption in raising the temperature of the rock
plates very slowly during the observations) really negligible in comparison
with the uncertainty that attaches (except in one or two well-ohserved cases
of absolutely measured temperature-differences of the rock-faces) to the
great majority of the determinations from unknown peculiarities of surface-
contact and heat-transfer where air surrounds the thermopile, the following
Table gives the absolute thermal conductivities (in centimetre-gramme-second
* The heat-flow through the plate was actually greater in this latter than in the former
case in the proportion of about 5:4, showing that the rough plaster-washed linen surface
received and delivered heat to the velvet coyers much more readily than the smoothly
dressed surface of the stone; and the whole resistance was less in the former than in the
latter case, although the rock plate itself had been made thicker. The same diminution
of the total resistance oceurred also in the experiment with plasteged whinstone,
ON THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF CERTAIN ROCKS,
13
or absolute British-Association units) thus provisionally obtained, together
with a few similar results (in the third column of the Table) found by Peclet,
Forbes, and Sir William Thomson in rocks differing little in their description
from those included in the present list ;—
Provisional determinations of Thermal Conductivities of certain Rocks.
First Experimental Results,
Description of rock.
Grey Aberdeen granite...
Red Cornish serpentine...
Calton trap-rock (first
specimen),
WHiINStONC....00.s0srrrreree
Kenton sandstone.,.,,....
Congleton “ second grit ”
sandstone,
PISS Tose ke scyicasens oasis
Alabaster” .............0000
Sicilian white statuary-
marble.
Trish fossil marble ,
Devonshire red marble...
Italian vein marble(white,
grey veins).
Trish green marble ,.....
Nummulitic limestone (a
piece of Great Pyramid
casing-stone, presented
by Prof. C. P. Smyth).
Caen (building) limestone}
WESLALES ctesreeste ttc etree sy
Black shale (Newcastle-
on-Tyne).
Cannel-coal
Soe eeeresenees
Plaster of Paris (for cast-
1) eRe ce eed
Thermal conductivity
(gramme -water-de-
gree heat-units per
sec., at 1° difference
of the faces, through
a centimetre-cube).
00600
00483
00520 | -00266
00312 | -00169
00489 | -00689
00462
00392
00412
00559 | -0097
00559 | -0077
00525 | -0058
00512 | -0047
00507
00433
: 0037
00305 | { Noss
00384
00178
00161
‘00145
| } ‘00163 |) .op129
Earlier observations of con
of similar rocks,
Description of rock.
Calton trap-rock .,....
Sand of experimental
rock, Thermometer
Garden.
Craigleith sandstone...
Fine-grained grey mar- \
ble
Coarse erystallino white
marble.
Fine-grained calcareous
stone.
Ditto ditto
Coarse - grained Lias
building-stone
seneee
Ordinary fine plaster
(made up).
Finest plaster for cast-
ing (made up).
|
I
ductivities
Observers.
Forbes
and
Thomson.
Peclet.
Peclet.
Peclet.
Geological Aspects of the Results of the Experiments. By G. A. Lenour.
So far as these experiments have gone, they have certainly warranted the
importance, from a geological point of view, which it was hoped they would
have.
Not only have the relative conductive powers for heat of a consider-
able number of rocks been arrived at, but a distinct grouping of the various
kinds, according to their conductivity, has sketched itself out sufficiently
clearly, if one considers the limited amount of substances yet tested.
K2
1322 _ REPURT—1874.
Speaking broadly, one may say that the lighter and more porous the rock
the greater its resistance to heat; the more compact and crystalline the less
is this resistance. Of the specimens operated on, granite of averaged-sized
grain offered the least resistance to the passage of heat, and coal and plaster
of Paris were at the other end of the scale with the greatest resistance.
The intermediate grouping of the other substances is interesting, and may be
perhaps best understood by means of a mental diagram. Imagining a line
divided into nine equal parts, the ten points being marked A, B, C, D, E, F,
G, H, I, K respectively ; then, according to the resistances calculated from
the Table of conductivities given in the first part of the Report :—
A =Granite (with least resistance).
B= Grit.
C =Chalk.
D =Basalt.
K=?
oe : (not known yet).
H=?
=Shale.
K=Coal and plaster of Paris (highest resistance).
Now between A and B we get five kinds of marble and Calton trap-rock,
and close to B, Kenton sandstone and Red Serpentine ; between B and C we
get Nummulitic limestone, alabaster, and slate.
When a much larger number of rocks have been experimented on we may
hope to fill up the gaps, and show the natural grouping still more strikingly ;
and it will then become a question whether a scale somewhat of the nature
of that just sketched out may not be constructed fully and accurately, which
to the geologist would afford a ready means of referring new observations
to their proper relative positions. A scale of this kind would become to the
physical geologist something analogous to what the scale of hardness is to
the mineralogist. Using even the imperfect one which is all we can arrive
at yet, I have translated, so to speak, some of the detailed sections of strata
in which underground temperatures have been observed into heat-resistance-
equivalents with such results as I hope to be able to embody in next year’s
Report, showing how far the connexion which undoubtedly exists between
the conductivity of the various rocks and the temperatures observed is dis-
turbed, altered, and, I believe, occasionally reversed by external conditions.
I have especially worked this out in the case of the South Hetton Colliery
section, which for the accuracy of the temperature observations and the
exactness of the boring records, together with considerable depth, is second to
none (see Brit. Assoc. Report, 1872, p. 132). In this case an evident rela-
tion is observable between the calculated conductivities and the thermometric
results. This case and the others, however, require considerably more working
out before the result can be published.
ON THE EXPLORATION OF THE SETTLE CAVES. 133
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir Joun Lussock,
Bart., Prof. Hueuss, Prof. W. Boyp Dawkins, Messrs. L. C. Mian
and R. H. Tippeman, appointed for the purpose of assisting in the
Exploration of the Settle Caves (Victoria Cave). Drawn up by
R. H. Trppreman, Secretary.
Tur Committee have to record their deep sorrow at the loss sustained by the
death of one of their number, the late Professor Phillips, a loss so univer-
sally felt, that any remarks upon the matter would be superfluous ; suffice it
to say that Professor Phillips took great interest in the exploration, and was
very anxious for its further prosecution.
On the 18th of September the Committee with a select party of the Mem-
bers went to see the Cave and the Cave Collection at the invitation of Mr.
John Birkbeck, Sen., and were most hospitably entertained by him and his
son, the Treasurer and Secretary to the Settle Committee. Although the
weather was very bad and dusk came on earlier than was convenient, enough
was seen to show the members of the expedition the chief bearings and diffi-
culties of the exploration. On their return, the Museum at Giggleswick
School was visited, and much satisfaction was expressed at the results already
obtained, Professor Phillips in particular being very warm in his admiration.
At a Meeting of the Settle Committee held at Giggleswick on the 9th of
October, Sir J. P. Kay-Shuttleworth, Bart., in the chair, the further working
of the Cave was discussed, and it was decided that work should be recom-
menced so soon as subscriptions to the amount of £100, inclusive of the As-
sociation grant, had been received. It was further proposed and agreed that
your Reporter should be entrusted with the scientific direction of the work.
There being a debt of over £37 from the work of the preceding year, Mr,
John Birkbeck, Sen., one of the most energetic promoters of the work from
the commencement, generously paid that sum in order that the Committee
might start afresh unhampered by any liabilities.
The Settle Committee have raised and expended in the course of the year,
besides the British-Association grant of £50, £113 4s. 3d.
On the 7th of October a most important communication was received from
Professor Busk. It was to the effect that a certain bone from the cave, which
had been in his keeping some time and had been doubtfully referred to
elephant, was undoubtedly human—a fibula of unusually clumsy build, and
in that respect not unlike the same bone in the Mentone skeleton. This
bone was exhumed by the Committee in May 1872, and was lying in juxta-
position with and under circumstances which left no doubt of its having been
contemporary with Ursus speleus and ferox, Hyena, Rhinoceros tichorhinus,
Bison, and Cervus elaphus; also close by it were two small molars of Ele-
phas. It was at first supposed that these were primigenius. Dr. Leith
Adams, however, during the past year expressed a doubt upon the determi-
nation, and after a careful comparison with type specimens in the British
Museum, pronounced them to be Elephas antiquus, an opinion in which Mr.
T. Davies concurs. Professor Busk, after examining them again does not
commit himself to a definite opinion, but thinks on the whole that they are
most likely antiquus. The balance of opinion, therefore, strongly preponde-
rates in favour of Dr. Leith Adams’s decision, and this is important as ex-
tending the range of that species. It had been before found at Kirkdale, but
was previously unknown in the north-west of England.
_ On the 9th of December Professor Busk read a paper upon the human
134 REPORT—1874.,
fibula to the Anthropological Institute. He states that “there is nothing
in the condition of the bone opposed to its belonging to the most remote
antiquity, nor to its owner having been coeval with the extinct mammalia
(before mentioned), with whose remains the specimen, as to condition, differs
in no appreciable respect. Its interest, therefore, as representing one of the
earliest extant specimens of humanity, will be at once obvious. But in
another regard also it appears desirable that some notice of it should be placed
on record.. The very unusual form and thickness of the bone have caused
such great difficulty in its recognition as human, that it is well worth while
to draw attention to its peculiarities.” Professor Busk proceeds to state that
after much hesitation he was induced to think, at the suggestion of Mr. James
Flower, that the bone in question might be referred to a small form of ele-
phant ; but considerable doubt remained on their minds until Professor Busk
saw the Mentone skeleton at Paris, and noticing the thick and clumsy fibula
belonging to it, was at once struck with the apparent resemblance between
it and the Victoria-Cave bone. Following up this suggestion, Mr. James
Flower discovered in the Museum of the College of Surgeons a recent human _
fibula of unusual thickness, which at once removed all doubt. The cireum- |
ference of the cave bone about the middle is 2'-2. The unusually thick
fibula with which Professor Busk compares it measures 2”, whereas he con-
siders that ordinary full-sized human fibulas may be taken at from 1'"4 to
1'"8. It is obvious, therefore, that the Settle specimen is unusually thick.
Professor Busk expresses his opinion that it does not appear from the form of
the bone that the corresponding tibia was platyenemic, but he hopes that
further exploration may clear up this and other interesting points. (Journal
of the Anthropological Institute, vol. iti. No. 3, pp. 392-4.)
This communication was of the greatest interest, for it had been some time
before pointed out that there was much chance of the beds in which this bone
occurred being preglacial, or at any rate of an age preceding that time when
Scotland, a great part of Ireland, and the north of England were slumbering
beneath a great sheet of ice similar to those which now cover the greater
part of Greenland and enshroud a portion of the southern hemisphere.
The Committee was decided by this in its course of work for the year. The
question was one of such importance, that we felt the first thing to be done
was to develop all the evidence that eould be procured upon the question of
whether these beds containing the older mammals and Man were of pre-
glacial or interglacial age or not.
In order that these operations may be the better understood, it is neces-
sary briefly to recapitulate the order and succession of beds inside and out-
side the cave. The three principal beds inside the cave are
The Upper Cave-earth,
The Laminated Clay,
The Lower Cave-earth.
These beds were described by your Reporter in a communication to the Scttle-
Caves Committee early in 1871, and subsequently to the British Association
in 1872, but appeared in full in the ‘Geological Magazine’ for January 1873,
to which he must refer for detailed description. In those communications
reasons were given for thinking it probable that the laminated clay was ac-
cumulated under glacial conditions from the muddy water of a glacier or an
ice-sheet. Such water would penetrate hollows in the rocks anywhere, and
have a tendency to throw down its mud. Subsequent explorations have only
served to confirm this view. First (in 1872) came the discovery of the Pleis-
ON THE EXPLORATION OF THE SETTLE CAVES. 135
tocene fauna at some depth below the laminated clay, they never having been
found above it. Next, the exploration brought to light the existence of a
bed of glacial boulders resting on the denuded edges of the lower cave-earth.
The work of the past year has shown exceedingly well the extent and im-
portance of this bed, and further has brought to light the existence of several
well-glaciated small boulders in the laminated clay itself. This clay, so far,
has yielded no organic remains. It ranges quite across the cave, and is co-
extensive with the explorations so far as they have gone, and in one place
attains a thickness of 12 feet. It has been a horizon of great importance
from its continuity, distinguishing the earlier from the later beds. The latest
work in chamber D (on the right), however, appears to show that it is di-
minishing in thickness as we go inwards in that direction. Besides the main
bed of it, many of the little chinks between fragments of rock in the lower
cave-earth have been filled up with it. This filling in may have occurred at
about the same time as the formation of the great mass above; for certainly
glacial conditions imply amongst other things the running of much muddy
water, and wherever preexisting chinks occurred, they would have much
chance of being filled up. Laminated clay of course may be, and often is,
formed under other than glacial conditions (that of the Victoria Cave, indeed,
bears a strong resemblance to the famous Nile-mud); but here its thickness and
the contrast it affords to the deposits above and below, taken with its extent,
seem to demonstrate a change and a long continuance of distinct physical
conditions,
It was noticed by those who visited the Victoria Cave last year that it is
approached by a narrow cutting on the right as you face it. This had been
imade through a great thickness of “screes” or limestone talus ; and below that
talus, close to a large fallen block of limestone, which, with the face of rock
on the right, formed a natural arch about 7 feet high, were visible at that
time a few glaciated boulders. It was determined to expose these boulders
and follow them, noting their position and range; but, in order to do this,
we were under the necessity of removing a great mass of talus. Moreover,
the “tip” of the old workings had accumulated in the front to such an extent
as to seriously impede the operations. We therefore proceeded to remove a
large breadth both of the tip and of the talus. The removal of the tip was
of course mere mechanical labour, but the talus was removed with careful
searching for the following reasons.
In the first place, it occurred to us that if the boulders beneath the cliff
had fallen from that cliff, or from hollows in it, it was not improbable that
other boulders might be found at different heights in the talus.
Secondly, we thought that if the boulders at the bottom of the talus had
been deposited in their position in glacial times, and the talus represented
the wearing away of the cliff by frost and other atmospheric influences, we
might get a succession (an imperfect one, but still a succession) of the differ-
eut forms of life which had followed one another through that long period.
Our first inquiry established the fact that through this great thickness
(19 feet) of talus, from the base of the Roman layer which lies within the
first two feet of the surface down to the horizon where the boulders lie in a
great mass, not a single fragment of foreign rock, whether of Silurian grit,
of Millstone-grit, or of limestone, other than that of which the cliff above is
composed, occurred. The whole mass consisted of sharply angular fragments
of white limestone. No rounded forms existed; nothing with any of the.
characteristics of ice-worn boulders or of stream-borne pebbles. The whole
deposit spoke of the slow wearing away of a cliff, free. from drift, by the
136 REPORT—1874,
ordinary effects of winter frosts and summer rain. The edge of the cliff, on
the retiring of the ice-sheet, was probably as free from glacial drift as we
now find it.
- Our second inquiry, which proceeded simultaneously with the first, met
with only negative results. From the bottom of the Roman layer to the main
mass of the boulders we met with no bones whatever, nor with any evidence
of man’s presence*. If, through the long time represented by these 19 feet of
talus, animals existed in the neighbourhood, either they did not happen to
die at or to be carried to the spot excavated, or their bones have been entirely
dissolved by the action of rain. The former seems the more probable alter-
native ; for if bones were dissolved, some remains of teeth at any rate would
probably survive. A few bones, however, were found upon and among the
boulders; these we haye not yet had an opportunity to determine, and from
their position it is doubtful to what age they may belong, for it is quite pos-
sible that they may have been washed out of the sloping denuded edges of
the lower cave-earth on which the boulders rest. One appears to be a frag-
ment of a very large bone, and possibly may be elephant; another is the
os calcis of an ox.
The Roman layer, as the black band is with much reason called, contained
several different kinds of pottery, some coarse and black, others white, and
some red Samian ware. Of bronze articles six were found: two were brace-
lets, one consisting of three strands of wire twisted, with the hook by which
it was fastened still remaining at one end; a second was thicker, consisting
of five strands, but merely a fragment, only one fourth of what must have
been its entire length; a band of thin bronze plate, which looks as if it
might have bound a sword- or dagger-sheath ; the bow end of a broken key ;
a scent-box or vinaigrette perforated with four holes, in appearance some-
thing like the top of a peppercaster, only one side of it remaining, together
with the hinge still in working order, and the loop by which it was sus-
pended round the fair neck of its wearer. Similar ornaments are figured in
‘Roman Antiquities, Mansion House,’ by Mr. J. E. Price, F.S.A., to whom we
are indebted for its identification. A sixth object was found amongst some
of the Roman layer which had been thrown over the tip, and is of doubtful
age. It is a circular plate 14 inch in diameter, with a hole in the centre and
two rivets at the back. It must have been affixed to some perishable mate-
rial, for the rivets which project for some distance at their distal ends are
quite perfect. It seems to have some traces of silvering at its centre. During
the removal of the talus, the Reporter found three rudely. discoidal pieces of
Carboniferous gritstone, which appeared to have been roughly chipped to a
diameter of between 5 and 6 inches. They were red, and had evidently been
subjected to fire ; most probably they had been used as pot-boilers, and their
discoidal form was given to them that they might better fit the bottom of the
pot. They were from the upper portion of the talus, that containing the
pottery, but the exact position had been forgotten by the workmen.
As the summer advanced, the talus and overlying “tip” were so far re-
moved that it was determined to convene a Meeting of the Committee and
others to witness the removal of the last layers of talus and the uncovering
of the boulder-bed. Invitations for the 6th of July were issued to all the
Committee, to all who had written papers on the cave, and some other
geologists.
Of the British Association Committee, only Mr. Miall and I were able to
* The Neolithic layer appears to have died out down the slope, or to haye coalesced
with the Roman layer,
ON THE EXPLORATION OF THE SETTLE CAVES. 137
attend; Mr. John Birkbeck, Jun., represented the Settle Committee: we had
the valuable assistance of Messrs. Aveline, Dakyns, and other gentlemen.
We were unfortunately deprived at the last moment of the valuable services
of Professor Ramsay, who had expressed his intention of being present, but
was prevented by public business.
In the course of the 6th and 7th of July the boulders were quickly brought
to view and in great numbers; we counted over two hundred, of dimensions
from a few inches to 6 feet in diameter, besides numberless smaller ones
which it was not possible to preserve. Wherever a boulder was exposed it
was left in situ, and the clearing away of the talus proceeded along the face
of the bed, In several places we found a little clay above the boulders; but
it was apparently of very recent introduction, and had been washed into the
talus by the draining of water from above before the workings had got down
to their present leyel. This was apparent from its containing blades of grass
and pieces of straw which had not rotted away.
The boulders were found to be lying in an irregular layer from 3 to 4 feet
thick at bottom, dipping outwards from the cave in a direction W. 40° S.,
and extending across its mouth at the level where we were then working ;
but at the north-western extremity of its range it curved round more to the
north, and therefore dipped more westerly, showing in all a breadth of glacial
deposits of about 12 yards. The boulders consisted almost exclusively of
blocks of Silurian grit and of Carboniferous Limestone in about equal num-
bers, but there were one or two of Carboniferous Sandstone. The form was
quite enough to distinguish the Carboniferous Limestone boulders from the
sharply angular blocks of the talus; but, besides, many of them were of black
bituminous limestone, and not of the white limestone in which the cavern is
excavated. They were nearly all of well-marked glacial form, and most re-
tained glacial markings. One round pebble of limestone was found near the
base of the bed. The sites, dimensions, and arrangement of-some of the
principal were noted with reference to a level datum-line running N. 40° W.
from a mark upon the wall of rock on the right, and after the section had
been well cleared of talus ; the boulders were marked (S) for Silurian and (L)
for limestone, and then photographed. Angular pieces of limestone, similar
to those in the lower caye-earth and in the talus, were mixed up with
boulders throughout, and the whole was filled in with mud, but much of it
appeared to be rather recent. The boulder-bed thinned away upwards, and
is apparently thickening rapidly towards the dip ; doubtless it will be found
much thicker at a lower level.
In accordance with a suggestion from Professor Prestwich, a hole was dug
in front of the large fallen block which forms the arch already mentioned,
and the boulder-bed penetrated. A great many large and small boulders
were dug out of this hole. Beneath was a bed of angular grayel filled in
with clay a few inches thick. When washed, the small pieces of stone of
which it was composed were found to be really small boulders, many of
them scratched and bruised. Whilst wet it bore some resemblance to the
gravel which covers little cones of ice low down upon a glacier near the
moraine, and which offers such appartntly good, but really bad foothold to
unwary travellers*. Below this were a few inches of yellow. clay, which
Mr. Jackson, our Superintendent, says is similar to that which was found at
the bottom of the 12 feet of laminated clay in the 25-foot shaft in Chamber B.
This is an interesting point; for if the laminated clay and the boulder-bed
are both of glacial age, it seems likely that this thin bed of yellow clay
* Forbes, ‘Theory of Glaciers,’ p. 241,
138 REPORT—1874.
beneath them may have been forming simultaneously inside and outside the
eave ; and these two spots, we believe, are the only places where we have
found distinctly yellow clay during the explorations. Some small fragments
of bone were found beneath the yellow clay in ordinary cave-mud with an-
gular limestone, to all appearance lower cave-earth, similar to that more fully
exposed in the cave; but we came down upon some very large blocks of
limestone, and did not think it advisable to enlarge the hole.
This is the only vertical hole which the Committee have dug this year, and
it is shallow, not more than 4 feet deep. All our operations have been con-
- ducted by digging out in horizontal layers, to avoid any confusion which
might arise from the falling in or mixing up of things of different ages in
vertical shafts.
Those who were present at the uncovering of the boulders were unani-
mously of opinion that they had not fallen from the cliff in postglacial times,
for the following reasons :—
1. The cliff immediately above the cave is free from any boulder deposits
for a considerable distance.
2. The boulders lie at the base of all the talus, which must have been
forming eyer since glacial conditions declined, and no other falls of
even isolated boulders have occurred throughout the whole thickness
of screes.
3. The boulders are so close beneath the cliff, that if all the limestone
which has fallen from it and is now lying on the boulders could be
restored to the cliff, it would project so much further forward, that
the fall of the boulders from the cliff to their present position would
be impossible.
Professor Prestwich and Mr. Bristow, who were good enough to visit the
cave earlier in the year, both give it as their opinion that the boulders had
not fallen from the cliff, but were part of the ordinary drift deposit which
covers the bottom of the valley and lines the hill-sides up to the bottom of
the cliffs hard by.
The important bearing of these questions upon the correlation and age of
the drifts of England and the antiquity of Man cannot be overestimated*.
If rightly interpreted, it may give the key to much that has hitherto been
unsatisfactory, and even contradictory, in Pleistocene geology.
In conclusion, the Committee have much pleasure in offering their thanks
to the Settle Committee for the generous and liberal manner in which they
have carried on this important investigation, and to Mr. John Birkbeck, Jun.,
for his valuable services as Honorary Treasurer and Secretary from the com-
mencement.
They have also to thank the following gentlemen for assistance kindly
given :—Professor Busk, Dr. Leith Adams, Mr. Franks, and Mr, T. Dayies of
the British Museum.
Your Committee propose that they may be reappointed.
* “The Relation of Man to the Ice-sheet’in the North of England,” ‘ Nature, vol. ix.
No. 210, p. 14.
ON THE INDUSTRIAL USES OF THE UPPER BANN RIVER. 189
On the Industrial Uses of the Upper Bann River.
By Joun Smytu, Jun., M.A., C.L., F.C.S.
[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.]
Tue river Bann rises in the Mourne Mountains and flows a distance of 85
miles, in a northerly direction, through Lough Neagh into the North-Atlantic
Ocean at Coleraine. Its drainage-area, including that of its many tribu-
taries and the surface of Lough Neagh, is 2345 square miles, and is surpassed
in Ireland only by that of the Shannon, which is 6946 square miles, and the
Barrow Nore and Suir, which is 3410 square miles. This area or rainfall
gathering-ground is well surrounded by mountains flanked by high table-
land, the descent from which is rapid. The banks of the various branches
of the Bann, therefore, offer peculiarly favourable sites for mills, a fact which
has been well taken advantage of by the industrious inhabitants of this pros-
perous district, and, to a large extent, contributed to the establishment of the
linen trade in the north of Ireland. The principal branches or tributaries of
the Bann are the
Blackwater river, which drains part of the counties of Armagh, Monaghan, and Tyrone.
Ballinderry 3 43 % Tyrone and Londonderry.
Moyola Pr, Fo county of Londonderry.
Claudy ” ” ” ”
Agivey 3 ” ” 3
Maine #3 if - Antrim.
Six-Mile Water ra 5 FF, %
Upper Bann ae i 4 Down.
Cusher Fe Ff Pe Armagh.
Although the Upper Bann drains a much smaller area than either the
Blackwater or Maine, it is the most important and interesting in an econo-
mic and engineering aspect. For in that valuable work ‘The Industrial
Resoyrces of Ireland,’ published thirty years ago by Sir Robert Kane, he says
“ The Upper Bann is the most fully economized river in Ireland,” and refers
to it as of an example worthy of imitation in the application of engineering
science to the development of natural resources by the construction of its
reservoirs. I therefore proceed to describe what has already been done to
turn its natural advantages to good account and the result. ;
The Upper Bann, from its source to the point where the water from the last
mill is returned to the river, is about 31 miles long, and drains an area of
134 square miles, or one seventeenth of that of the Bann-system. From this
point to Lough Neagh, a distance of 10 miles, it is navigable, and forms with
the Cusher river and canal part of the Newry navigation. Theré is no record,
as far as I have been able to discover, of the time mills were first erected
-on the Upper Bann. The weir-dams which are found in the old maps
bear the appearance of ancient construction; and reference is made in ancient
leases to the repair of weir-dams and the necessity of grinding corn at the
manor mill. There is no doubt but that the establishment of the linen trade
on the river Bann is of very ancient date. It is stated that in the year 1772
there were 26 bleach-mills on the Bann, and the linens from that district were
well known and highly esteemed in England and Scotland. The machinery
in these mills was driven by undershot-wheels, which only give out about 25
per cent. of the theoretical useful effect of the fall of water. About the year
1833, however, application was made by Mr. Law, of Hazelbank mill, to the
late Sir William Fairbairn, F.R.S., the celebrated hydraulic engineer, who,
140 REPORT—1874.,
through a professional connexion with Ireland of fifty years, has so much
advanced the usefulness of the Upper Bann by improved mechanical and en-
gineering appliances ; unfortunately for the world that eminent and invalu-
able life has just terminated, after having accomplished more than the most
sanguine could hope to see realized in a lifetime. He put up an iron breast-
wheel, which gave great satisfaction and is still capable of doing good work.
Tt was at first used for driving linen beetling-machines, and was calculated
to give a useful effect equal to 60 per cent. of the theoretical power of the
water. He erected another of the same kind shortly after this at Seapatrick, to
drive beetling-engines and power-looms, and subsequently several others were
put up at different mills on the river by Mr. Boyd and the firm of Coates and
Young, of Belfast. In 1835 the principal mill-owners formed themselvesinto
a provisional Committee to take steps to procure a better and more regular
supply of water by the construction of reservoirs. They placed the matter
in the hands of Sir William Fairbairn, who, assisted by J. F. Bateman, Isq.,
F.R.S., suryeyed the collecting-grounds of the river Bann and its several
tributaries, and made an excellent and most interesting report of the water-
bearing resources of the district. He recommended the construction of two
impounding reservoirs, Lough Island Reavy and Deer’s Meadow, and one
auxiliary one, the Corbet Lough. The Bann Reservoir Company was then
formed, and Lough Island Reavy first constructed according to the plans and
under the superintendence of Mr. Bateman, and was finished in the latter
part of the year 1839.
The Corbet reservoir was also constructed, but not to the full extent
contemplated, the embankment having been made to impound the water to
a depth only of 11 feet 3 inches instead of 18 feet. Much difficulty was
encountered in the work, which was not finished till the year 1847.
The Deer’s-Meadow reservoir was abandoned, as the works were of a heavy
character, and the gathering-ground being small, it was feared there would not
be sufficient water to fill it. A detailed account is given of the works at
Lough Island Reavy by Mr. Bateman in the ‘ Transactions of the Institution
of Civil Engineers’ for 1841 or 1842, so it is not necessary to do moré than
to describe a few specialities. The works are most substantial, and the em-
bankments never showed any deficiency or weakness ; one peculiarity in their
construction is the use of a wall of peat on the water side of the puddle-wall
and another on the water face of the embankment. ° Its application has been
most successful, as there has been no leakage through the embankment. I
haye found peat used in this way in conjunction with clay puddle most effi-
cacious in mill-dams and river-courses, and for surrounding smooth iron pipes
in their passage through banks; indeed the value of its use is well attested by
the prevalent practice of its traditional adoption in difficult cases in those
districts where it is procurable. Some experiments made to determine the
rationale of its action, showed that, like a sponge, it expands to fill the space
left by the shrinkage of the puddle; if this space were not thus occupied,
water would trickle into the fissures and gradually wash soft material away.
In the solid ground under the main embankment a culvert is built about
150 feet long, filled at the half of its length by a solid plug of masonry,
into which three iron pipes are inserted. These pipes are each 18 inches in
diameter; one of these, which lies above the other two, is for use in cases of
emergency, only 73 feet long and closed (by a dead flanche) on the discharge
end; the others, which are laid on the bottom of the culvert, are 82 feet long
and provided with sluice-valves. These valves are surrounded by an arched
chamber (an enlargement of the outer culvert), and are regulated, according
ON THE INDUSTRIAL USES OF THE UPPER BANN RIVER. 141
to the depth of water in the reservoir, to give the regular supply allowed to
the mills. The greatest depth to which the reservoir is filled over the level
of discharge of these pipes is 384 feet; when this is the case the surface of
the lake is about 250 acres in extent. It was intended to have been 40 feet,
but the works were not carried out to that extent. The culvert, as Mr.
Bateman tells us in his paper, has given some trouble, since the superin-
tendent did not carry out the work in accordance with his designs, having
surrounded the arch with rubble-backing. The cement, which was made on
the ground from the specification of M. Vicat, just then published, gave way
under the water pressure, was washed out of the joints and allowed the
water to escape from the reservoir through the rubble-backing. Mr. Bateman
then had part of the backing removed and replaced by puddle, and the inner
joints of the tunnel caulked with oakum. This cured the evil for some time;
but in a few years the leakage again appeared, and had increased so much in
1867 that Mr. Bateman was brought over to examine it. He recommended
as the only effectual remedy to the leakage to cut out the centre of the em-
bankment down to the culvert, take away the rubble-backing and all loose
material around the culvert, and erect perfectly water-tight walls closely
connected with the existing masonry on each side of the puddle-trench. As
it was then too late in the season to carry out this great work, he recom-
mended as a temporary expedient to repeat the measures adopted in 1839,
of puddling round the mouth of the inner culvert and caulking all its open
joints, also, if necessary, to make good the concrete under the invert. The
Directors of the Bann Reservoir Company were unwilling toincurthe expense
of cutting out the centre of the embankment, as it would not only have cost
a large sum for the work, but also have stopped the rates for at least a year.
I was therefore requested to make the smaller work, recommended as tem-
porary, if possible so effectual in moderating or stopping the leakage as to
prevent recourse being had to the larger work. I had therefore a portion of
the bank excavated so as to expose about six feet of the culvert close to the
forebay or mouth, the concrete under the invert removed for about three feet,
and a close wall of fire-brick and Portland cement built under and around
the culvert, with which it was closely united. The excavation was then
made up with puddle and dry peat, so staunch as to prevent access of water
from the embankment to the backing of the culvert, and the old plan of
caulking and cementing the open joints prevented the water getting to it
through the inside of the arch. This caulking was not carried out as com-
pletely as I wished, since it was then so late in the season that further delay
in getting water into the reservoir would have been likely to entail serious
loss ; so only the points that showed weakness were attended to, anda lining
of cement applied to the whole of the inner culvert.
The result was mostsatisfactory, asthe leakage was almost entirely stopped,
and since then has given no trouble. The insignificant escape then left,
although somewhat increased by the softening of the cement in some of the
joints, may be stopped when a convenient opportunity occurs by caulking; or
the difficulty of the imperfect masonry may be got over by continuing the
iron pipes back to the mouth of the culvert, and securing them there by a
solid plug of masonry. A portion of this leakage is probably derived from a
spring, as it is harder than the water in the reservoir. A more detailed descrip-
tion of these repairs may be found in a paper by me published in the ‘ Trans-
actions of the Institution of Civil Engineers of Ireland,’ vol. ix. p. 51.
Lough Island Reavy reservoir is 430 feet above the sea-level, and is mainly
supplied from the Muddock river by a feeder of about one and a half mile
142 REPORT—1874.
long, which leaves the river at a point 10 feet higher than the top level of
the reservoir,and three miles from its source on the Butter Mountain, There
are stop-sluices at the head or intake of the feeder to turn the water back
into the river when the reservoir is full, Another feeder from the Money-
scalp river supplies to the reservoir about one fourth the quantity derived
from the Muddock, and is also supplied with stop-sluices. This Moneyscalp
riyer runs to the sea at Newcastle. The whole rainfall gathering-ground of
Lough Island Reavy, including the lake itself, is about five square miles.
The water from the pipes for the supply of the mills is delivered into an open
conduit, which is about one mile long, and joins the Muddock again about a
mile below the intake.
The river Muddock is one of the most important branches of the Bann ; it
rises about 1200 feet above the top water-level of the reservoir, and conse-
quently falls nearly 400 feet per mile above the intake of the feeder. For
three miles below the reservoir the fall is about 40 feet per mile, and from
that to its confluence with the river Bann (which is also three miles) the fall
is only 3 feet per mile. This last three miles of the river Muddock has been
a source of great trouble and expense to the Bann Reservoir Company, as it
is not only sluggish in its flow, but exceedingly tortuous, and consequently
continually silting-up. There is a difficulty in point of law as to whether
the riparian owners or the Reservoir Company should clean the river. This
question is at present being argued. The Reservoir Company did clean out
the river sixteen years ago, when they were in fault in not putting down the
sluices at the intake of the Moneyscalp feeder when the reservoir was full ;
consequently in time of flood water flowed down the old Muddock river
which had never done so before the formation of the reservoir; and the Com-
pany were held responsible under an arbitration and recommended to scour
the river. As they had no power over the banks of the stream, they were
obliged to pay large sums to the farmers for their use, and also for throwing
out on and remoying from them the scourings and weeds, although by the
construction of the reservoir floods are caught which previously overflowed
these low lands for the greater part of the year. Since then some of the
banks have fallen in, and the weeds have increased so much as to form
with the siltings a serious obstruction to the discharge of sufficient water
for the mill supply, which in some places makes its way up the side drains,
and (where the back drains are not attended to) overflows grounds lower
than the banks; and actions have been taken against the Company. The
banks also are low—indeed, for this three miles of the Muddock’s course,
under the level to which floods sometimes rise in the Bann at its mouth;
consequently these floods make their way back and overflow to a great depth
large tracts of low land on each side. The outlet is through a narrow bridge,
and so, augmented by the Muddock’s own floods, they are prevented from
running off rapidly and thus injure these lands, for which the Bann Reseryoir
Company were obliged to pay damages.
There is a great obstruction to the flow of the Bann at its confluence with
the Muddock, which if removed, and the channel of the Muddock altered for
about fifty yards, so as to flow with instead of against the stream of the
Bann, the Bann also widened and deepened for a short distance, and the nar-
row Muddock bridge referred to aboye widened and deepened, the floods of
the Bann might in a great measure be prevented from interfering with the
Muddock, and the drainage of the Muddock itself much improved. The
“Reservoir Company were at that time willing to unite with the proprietors
of the land in carrying out this improvement, but the latter were not willing
ON THE INDUSTRIAL USES OF THE UPPER BANN RIVER. 1438
to join: From the confluence of the Muddock to Kate’s Bridge, a distance
of six and a half miles, there is 27 fect 9 inches of unoccupied fall. There
were two weir-dams on this reach, called Ronghan and Ballyroney; the former
was taken down more than ten years ago, and the latter has become dila-
pidated since the mill was burnt a few years ago. From Kate’s Bridge to
Aughnacloy or Ervin’s Weir, a distance of two miles, there is one fall of
7 feet 3 inches oceupied by a corn-mill and 24 feet of unoccupied fall, The
intake of the feeder to the Corbet reservoir from the Bann is about thirty
yards above Ervin’s Weir, and is regulated by sluices 20 feet wide, which
admit a large quantity of water when the river is flooded. Outside these
sluices a stone ridge or sill, at a level 14 inch below that of Ervin’s Weir, is
built across the widened mouth of the feeder to regulate between the Bann
Reservoir Company and the mill-owners on this fall. On this sill the care-
taker daily measures the depth of water, and, when he finds it below the
standard, supplies the deficiency from the Corbet Reservoir ; when that is
exhausted he sends for a supply to Lough Island Reavy. The rainfall
gathering-ground of the Bann above this point is eighty square miles, and
there is a rain-gauge now kept there by the caretaker, who also keeps a
register of the depth of the daily flow of water over Eryin’s Weir and the
daily height of water in the reservoir. The feeder is one and three eighths of
a mile long and 24 feet wide. At its entrance to the reservoir there are
self-acting gates, which close when the water in the reservoir is higher than
that in the feeder. The area of the reservoir when full is 70 acres, and
the greatest depth of water above the lowest point of discharge 11 feet
3 inches. The sill at Ervin’s Weir is 7 feet above the lowest point of dis-
charge, so the river raises the reservoir as much in excess of that height
as the floods rise above the sill. A small stream at the north-east end of
the reservoir makes it up to the top level in winter. The water from the
reservoir is discharged through three iron sluices 3 feet wide each, and capable
of being raised to a height of 1 foot: one only of these is now used. The
sluice-frame is secured in a strong water-tight wall in the centre of the em-
bankment, behind which is an arched chamber, into which the water flows,
and passes down a conduit, a quarter of a mile long and 20 feet wide, to the
river. There was only embankment required for this reservoir; a considerable
‘portion of the feeder also required embanking. It cost more, in proportion
to the extent of the works, than Lough Island Reavy, as the contractor was
not able to carry out his contract, and the Company were obliged to finish it
themselves. Lough Island Reavy cost for engineering works £15,000, and
for land £6000. The capital of the Company is £31,000; deducting the
reserve fund of £1000, there remains £9000 for the Corbet reservoir and
parliamentary expenses. The income of the Company is derived from the
falls, on which the charge is £10 per annum per foot to linen-bleachers,
manufacturers, and spinners and flour-millers, and £5 to corn-millers and
flax-seutch millers.
The fall from the outlet at Lough Island Reavy to the tail-race of the last
mill at Moyallen is 350 feet; of this, 180 feet 2inches are occupied by mills,
and can be rated. Of this 180 feet 2 inches, 7 feet 3 inches are occupied by
the Linen Hill mill, about one and a quarter mile above the intake to the
Corbet reservoir, and 6 feet 4 inches by the Ardbrin Mill on Ervin’s Weir at
the intake. The remaining fall of 166 feet 7 inches is below the outlet from
the Corbet reservoir, and is divided over a distance of eleven and a half miles
of the course of the Bann, passing the towns of Banbridge and Gilford, and
ending at Moyallen, below which the river is joined by the Newry canal and
144: REPORT—1874.
the Cusher river. Of this 166 feet 7 inches, 155 feet 4 inches are rated at
£10 per annum per foot fall, and 11 feet 3 inches at £5. Linen Hill and
Ardbrin falls are also rated at £5, and make the total income £1675 8s. 4d. ;
but £224 11s. 8d. must be deducted from this for four falls unoccupied at
present, leaving a net sum of £1450 16s. 8d. For so far the undertaking has
not paid the shareholders well, as the expenses connected with the Muddock
river sometimes absorbed the entire dividend ; latterly, however, the dividend
has amounted to above 3 per cent.; and if the present litigation was favour-
ably settled and the falls more fully occupied, a fair return may be expected.
The recent material advance in the price of fuel and the expected opening of
the Banbridge Extension Railway should contribute to this end.
Lough Island Reavy reservoir has now been worked for thirty-four years,
and has well borne out Sir William Fairbairn’s anticipations of its utility in
impounding water and giving out a supply to the mills. In his calculations,
as no extended rainfall observations had been made in that district, he
assumed the rainfall as 36 inches, which was the average for the whole of
Ireland. He deducted one sixth of the rainfall for absorption and evapora-
tion, and concluded there would be sufficient left to fill the reservoir once
and a quarter, on the average, in the year. I have, however, maintained
a rain-gauge at Lough Island Reavy since May 1861, and find the average
fall at a level of 6 feet above the top water of the reservoir is 46 inches.
That amount over the five square miles drainage-area of the lake yields
535,000,000 cubic feet, and the capacity of the reservoir filled to 38 feet
6 inches above the outlet is 270,000,000 cubic feet. A rainfall of 23 inches,
if there were no loss, would fill the reservoir; but it requires about 30 inches
to do so from the beginning of October till that of April (the season it is
generally filled), and the evaporation during the other six summer months is
about four times as much. We may therefore assume the loss to be about
one third the whole rainfall, leaving sufficient to fill the reservoir one and
one third times. The rainfall must be greater on the high ground than at
the gauge, so that only one half the whole rainfall is probably available.
The Butter Mountain, from which most of the drainage is derived, is peaty,
which will account in some measure for the large amount of absorption on
such steep ground. It is also to be remembered that the evaporation from
the surface of the reservoir is very great. At the intake of the Corbet reser-
voir, where the drainage from eighty square miles of mixed flat and moun-
tainous country passes down the river Bann, I found, on comparing the
quantity passed over Ervin’s Weir with the average rainfall for the year
1872, the former to be only one fifth the latter, equal to a loss of four fifths
the rainfall by evaporation and absorption. This calculation can only be
taken as an approximation, since Eryin’s Weir is not constructed for accurate
gauging, and I was obliged to deduct 20 per cent. from the calculated dis-
charges as a rough estimate of the loss from the absence of a level ridge
board and the broad and irregular surface of the weir; besides, to obtain an
accurate idea of the amount of rainfall, returns should be obtained from a
number of gauges well placed over the varying surface of the country. This
inquiry as to the relative amount of rainfall and absorption in yarious
districts of country is very interesting, and more information on the subject
is desirable. .
A register of the daily height of the water in Lough Island Reavy has been
kept since 1847 by the caretaker. It shows that this reservoir has been of
great service to the mill-owners on the Upper Bann, as during twenty-six
years an average supplementary supply of about two fifths of the standard
ON THE INDUSTRIAL USES OF THE UPPER BANN RIVER. 145
summer discharge allowed over Ervin’s Weir, or about 30 cubic feet per
second (equal to two and a half horse-power to the foot fall at Sir William
Fairbairn’s estimate of 12 feet in its best application to a water-wheel equal
to one horse-power), has been granted for 2663 days, or, on an average,
102 days yearly ; and the reservoir has only been empty 303 days, or, on an
average, eleven and a half days yearly. The Corbet reservoir has been of
much more service than its capacity would lead one to expect, as it may be
filled and emptied four or five times in each year by small floods in the river,
and all the Sunday’s water can be sent into it and let down to the mills on
Monday and Tuesday. It is generally exhausted before the upper reservoir
is called upon, and keeps up a supply when there is a scarcity in frosty wea-
ther in winter ; and when a flood comes at the end of these short terms of
scarcity it is ready to receive it, and thus diminish the amount of back water
on the wheels. If its area were five or six times as great, it would be almost
that much more valuable, as so many floods pass when it is full; for its
drainage-area is about sixteen times that of Lough Island Reavy. According
to the original plan, the embankment should have been raised so as to impound
the water to a depth of 18 feet instead of 11 feet 3 inches, and contain
46,783,440 cubic feet instead of 28,177,221 cubic feet ; unless, however, the
intake from the river was at a much higher level, say at Linen Hill weir, it
would not be much advantage, for the drainage-area of the lake itself is
very small.
The register of the Corbet reservoir has not been kept so long or as accu-
rately as that of Lough Island Reavy, so it is not possible to show so well the
service it has done the mills; from the average of three years, however, and
compurison with the register of Lough Island Reavy, I calculate it has given
120,000,000 cubic feet in the year, exactly one half that of Lough Island
Reavy, or a good supply for fifty-one days; add this to the Lough Island
Reavy supply, and there is a total of 153 days of twenty-four hours each.
Sir William Fairbairn calculated that when all the reservoirs should be made
(including the Deer’s Meadow and the full completion of the other two reser-
voirs), there would be a supply of 60 feet per second for 108 days of twenty-
four hours each year. Reducing it to 108 days, the supply really has been
44 cubic feet per second, which is very nearly in the same proportion to the
amount that can be impounded as his calculation was to that proposed to be
impounded. As the supply from the reservoirs has only failed, on an average,
eleven and a half days yearly, the standard water-power may be said to have
been almost constantly maintained. This constancy in the supply makes the
Upper Bann most valuable as a power; indeed it is almost as good as steam-
power, but at a much less cost.
Whilst the average value of water-power in Ireland is about £2 per horse-
power per annum, on the Bann it may be estimated at £4 where only ten
hours’ work per diem is available, and £7 where constant work is maintained
after paying the water tax. Steam-power on the Bann costs about £6 per
annum per horse-power, calculating 4 pounds of coal equal to one horse-
power per hour. The first cost and maintenance of works necessary to render
these powers available would be greater in the case of steam than water.
More convenient mill sites can, however, be obtained for the application of
steam than water. On the Bann it is found more economical to work steam
and water in conjunction where much power is required, as advantage can be
taken of moderate floods to ease the steam; this method of working is parti-
cularly applicable’ to bleach-works, where the steam, after passing through
the cylinder of a high-pressure engine, can be used for boiling and heating.
1874. L
146 REPORT—1874.
Table of Falls on the Upper Bann River from the
ge STE RS es Sha Se ee es SE as a eee
g
Ta oo
o
q BS Name of
6 Ts | Millor Names of Description Amount
2 RS ® | Nearest Occupiers. of Mill. of Fall.
2 4 | Townland.
Be 8
Z, °
ft.:in:
Tnaippropristed)) jac aesrereeies=-a0.'o0.'| eu fant “pias rs)
2 Roughan ..| Alexander Stewart ............--+seeeee Taken down ......... 8 3
Wnappropriaved Ait kessmeencsesssss<ca| 7 eauesesaranpar (alg
2 Ballyroney | Mrs. Murphy............csscescssensoeeees Cornand FlaxSeutch.| 8 10
Lnappropriabedys). -: shew esemdeesccersz=s| Oi!) eere st aeertene 4 7
24 \ |Linen Hill) Alexander Porter ..............sscssecres Corn and Scutch (Oe)
LWiineryajaniajayaten iets lh WAR Sopa ene Beer eeeonee |e hub Set esot sss: 2 6
Va Ard prin’ <0.) William Kar reese ces cescesencnceesens Beutel cscscesceme | Pawar
Muughnay'!) Mire! Wr vin... cccacsccsscssesevscesecesenses Taken down ......
cloy.
Unappropriated ........-scess.ssese0ee- e rcbige appears Ox: 6
23 |Corbet...... John Simms Linen Beetling ... aw
” (OlF9 ipearse AEA cc
i Ballievy ...| George Crawford Linen Beetling ...... 6 1
Vics g
4 | Lisnaree...| Thomas E. Henry...........sseccccceeees Scuteh! 0<...ts-anchnae- ee Le
3 Ballydown | G. Lindsay and J. Lindsay ............ Linen Bleach...... <=
: Tow 2h
9 + Syinents a-ha » Beetling ... 2
4 =| Tullyear ...) James M‘William............ -...cc.200s Yarn Bleach ........ 3 11
4 Banbridge. 3 ECE cette a alecesees Linen Bleach SRT Ee ae Oe
i" "9 59d: iv esetep seth. seaches if » Beetling ea, 9 1
” ” TTPO COSCO e TT OLN) © vccccccacscocecs
1 Millmount 5 aH a Mee dices een ep eeccins saan Linen Bleach...... } 10 0
+ Seapatrick. William Hayes .. fedlieh aa eis Flax Spinning ... oe) 8 6
3 | Milltown. | W. Smyth and g SEO poate Linen Bleach... | 8 24
3 Lenaderg. . : Ht fe att Linen Beetling ....
5 4
3 | Banville... s j 6 teak. - oof, Stan
oS
3 Hazelbank.| Mys. M‘Tier and Miss Law.........-.. Flax Spinning .. 4 8 72
4 Knockna- | William Uprichard eis Sa: .:| Butch vogssxcteee
gor. 4 1
Med mec sse Nea ine ca eieet Ral cnsecapeuse ea Corn “viase-<aepaaee
4 |SpringVale| W. Uprichard and H. Th lag .| Linen Bleach...... } i Ae
} | Millpark... . . * ere hy |
3 Banford .,.|T. Haughton and J. Jaffé ............ ‘i ms 4 | 7 10
t Mount George Mullin” Eusewes eee ee Linen Beetling ...
Pleasant. 6 2
» 3 Raye yee es os fhe sos wee ilour csocecebe sae
3 Glenda! Gatch cenisank gueceentae bread inc aires. cess »||. ilies ja dhe eee eee Suu
$ | Thornhill .| H. D. M'Master and J. G. M‘Master| Linen Beetling .. 3.49
1 Gilford . 53 55 Aj Corn) \vscceseseceee 19 6
i ” ” ” ” Flax Spinning eoee
1} Moyallen. David Mercier ........s.s00+0 Site Flour ......:-sscene-shf 26 5
214 “10 10] |
Sees (eee 5 Wf Se ee eres tt ae Me meee Et
ON THE INDUSTRIAL USES OF THE UPPER BANN RIVER. 147
Confluence of the Muddock River to Moyallen Mill.
Prime Movers.
Tee
he
ose Remarks,
Water- Steam- S 8,
wheels. engines, 5 Ee
aos
rs r
cece a eee ee ial be eee Weir and race levelled.
so tbocoocetiiogy Geille Fitaass ee tela arene Weir broken down.
@iUmdershot) ..|)\)- ....cessses. 18 | Mill partly burnt; not working.
i. D7 ae 15 | N. side. [feeder. | Water divided
oo etoile Nee ae . | S. 5, Intake of Corbet f on same fall.
dplisor® Breastet iy teetnnssscke 8. .
Hebd ershot.i.o.| 0. jcaseescaerae | a4 th Water divided.
PeMHOMSON' | tcc cee socee 25
Vortex.
mabiudershot 2) (ef. ..cesise 18
1 Tron Breast...| 1 High-pressure. . 90 Wheel and Engine connected. | Water
se sre cabal see hae: } Basin np Mudtiea adr states dadtes divided.
1 Undershot ...)1 High-pressure..| 26 | Wheel and Engine connected.
ccnchanteras 2 Condensing...... hog Beetling-mill.
1 Turbine ...... 1 SH ORCA 170 |4 N.side. sis?
SUidershotyc..) o:5.se0ecb ss | Sy Water coved.
1 Iron Breast...| 1 High-pressure. . 106 Wheel and Engine connected. } Water
i Paras i 4 cdeten <okees | ae ge passes eeeeaadeeeinacen divided.
a ;, 1 Condensing...... 300 Wheel and Engine connected.
--screchuane % occas | Close to foregoing.
: nC Se : oie oan \ 130 | Wheel and Engine connected. Water divided.
1 Undershot ...
{dershot. =UESSER SAS 20 | Water divided.
1 Poneelet Un-
1 Iron Poncelet
Undershot. |} ....... apse 20 | Water divided.
1 Undershot ...
iron, Breasts 3.22. .....66 200 MeN vales ss alegh ov aaccawancanre Water
ee, » ++-|1 Condensing...... } { wikssi and Engine ash} divided.
1 Undershot ...
| AMM Tia sas ave 12 | Water divided.
elron Breasti.d jt ', + Woieseasee 120 en emeacene da scatvieen scciass [Pikes
ie; » ++-| 1 Condensing... } { wissai and Engine connected. { divided.
Senta re ee Not working.
rbine ...... 2 High-pressure .. - +s
Penal. Bronat | 1.0 oa bai Pi } 176 | Wheel and Engine connected. Water divided.
RE DOCrSNOt sso eet Tell oe li ces vensencaceauagesedeesnets ce :
65 Water divided.
1 Breast ......... 1 Condensing...... Wheel and Engine connected.
A Tron Breast...) > wdiescsces : 59 | Wheels close together.
iyUndershot:....|!. svestnuders’ 12
pelsteust'.....s.5.|) ~~ saeceeuenes Water divided. Wheel and Engine con-
| 1 Iron Breast...|2 Condensing...... 760 } nected.
Bes iseecsss. 2 3 SIRT Close to foregoing.
1 Iron Breast...| 1 ” vagers 110 | Wheel and Engine connected.
2496
148 REPORT—1874.
For the utilization of the water-power of the Bann there are thirty-one
mill-falls (besides the two mentioned before, where the weirs have been taken
down): eight of these are above the confluence of the Muddock, one of them
on the Rocky river and one on the Leitrim river (both important branches
of the Bann); the other six are on the Bann itself. As none of these derive
any advantage from the reservoirs, the Deer’s Meadow not having been
made, their power is small and variable, and they are nearly all occupied by
small corn- and scutch-mills. In the preceding Table (pp. 146 & 147) full
particulars are given of the remaining twenty-five falls, which are more
important, inasmuch as, in addition to the Bann, they command the water
of the Muddock and the reservoirs.
An inspection of the Table shows that the first four falls are at present
unprofitable to the Reservoir Company, as the rates annually struck on them
are annually remitted on account of the mills not being worked. There are
several reasons for this: some of these are flax-scutching mills and have been
burnt; and as that is a bad business at present, and steam scutch-mills can be
kept going by using the waste products of the scutching for fuel, there is no
inducement to put up new mills and pay the reservoir rate. Although the
rate is the same as below the Corbet reservoir, these falls are deprived of the
advantages of that reservoir; and the busiest season for both scutch- and
corn-mills is subsequent to the time the greatest use is made of Lough Island
Reavy. They are at a distance from large and important towns, surrounded
by a poor part of the country, much of which is mountainous.
The Banbridge Extension Railway is almost finished as far as Ballyroney
Mill, and runs close to the river all the way trom Banbridge; when it is
opened a great stimulus will be given to the trade of that part of the country,
and, it is expected, capital drawn to it for the establishment of mills engaged
in permanent manufactures, such as have clustered themselves around Ban-
bridge. An improvement may therefore be looked for; and manufacturers,
as they become alive to the fact that steam, although a very convenient, is a
most expensive power, will gladly avail themselves of such a cheap and con-
stant water-power as the Upper Bann offers.
A consideration of what has been already done on the Upper Bann shows
that had the Act of Parliament been such as, after forty years’ experience, is
now adopted for such works, and power over the various watercourses secured,
much litigation would have been prevented, and the Bann Reservoir Company
much more prosperous; also, that many of the falls could be nearly doubled
in value by improved water-wheels.
I hope this brief description of what has been already done on the Upper
Bann may induce other districts, profiting by this experience, to economize
the vast amount of water-power that runs to waste in all parts of Ireland.
Were such the case, it would go far to make up for the want of coal in that
country, and much promote its industrial prosperity.
The Upper Bann was formerly celebrated for its trout-fishing, which has
been much injured of late years by the discharge of flax steep-water into the
river, instead of lifting the flax out of the water when the water is low. It
is said if some improvements were made in the weirs, salmon would come up
the river. Eels can be taken during floods, but are not much sought after.
Pearls have been found in rare instances in the river. The water is exceed-
ingly soft (about 5°, Clark’s test), and peculiarly well adapted for bleaching,
which is extensively carried on at the various establishments along the river.
ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE LABYRINTHODONTS. 149
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Huxiry, LL.D.,
F.R.S., Professor Harkness, F.R.S., Henry Woopwarp, F.R.S.,
James Tuomson, JoHn Brice, and L. C. Matt, on the Structure
and Classification of the Labyrinthodonts. Drawn up by L. C.
Mia, Secretary to the Committee.
(PuatEs IV.-VII.)
In this, as in the preceding Report, the Committee have included the Permian
and Secondary Labyrinthodonts. Before their work had made much pro-
gress it was perceived that the Carboniferous species cannot be satisfactorily
studied alone.
The present Report treats of all the well-investigated species hitherto
recorded, and the Committee have not, therefore, recommended their own
reappointment. In laying down their commission, they desire to thank the
many friends who have assisted their labours. Professor Cope, Messrs.
Embleton and Atthey, Mr. T. P. Barkas, and the Natural-History Society of
Northumberland and Durham have forwarded publications on Labyrintho-
donts ; the authorities of the Warwick and Bristol Museums, Mr. John Ward
of Longton, Mr. James Thomson of Glasgow, Mr. George Maw of Broseley,
Mr. T. P. Barkas of Newcastle, and Mr. William Horne of Leyburn, Wens-
leydale, have sent specimens for examination ; while Professor Cope and Mr.
Thomson haye sent photographs from fossils in their possession. Every
facility for examination of Labyrinthodont remains has been afforded by
the officers of the various public museums visited; and two members of
the Committee have had the advantage of inspecting a‘large part of the
valuable collection belonging to Mr, Thomas Atthey, of Gosforth, near New-
castle.
It does not appear necessary to prefix to the arrangement of the Laby-
rinthodonts here proposed any discussion of the opinions of previous writers
on this subject. In no classification that has yet appeared have evéh one
fourth of the genera here recorded been noticed at all. We are sensible of
the great imperfection of the materials at our command, and can only regard
the present arrangement as a sketch to be filled in and corrected hereafter.
CHARACTERS OF THE ORDER.
Body elongate, furnished with a tail. Postorbital, supratemporal, epiotic,
and paired supraoccipital ossifications usually present in the skull. A _ parietal
foramen. Palatine and vomerine teeth in most or all. Dentine usually much
folded’; the apex of the young tooth two-edged. A sclerotic orbital ring in
some, possibly in all. Vertebrae amphiccelous. Three. thoracic plates’, and a
ventral armour of small scutes. Limbs four’, often, perhaps usually, pentadactyle.
TABULAR VIEW OF THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE
LABYRINTHODONTA.
A. Centra of dorsal vertebre discoidal*.—Genera 1 to 23.
I. Evetypra. Cranial bones strongly sculptured. Lyra conspicuous. Mandible
1 Slightly folded at the base only in some of the teeth of Dendrerpeton; simple in
Hylonomus and Hylerpeton.
* Unknown in the Microsauria, as well as in various genera and species which have
been hitherto represented only by fragmentary examples.
8 Believed to be wanting in Ophiderpeton and Dolichosoma.
4 This character is not of primary importance, but seems to be available for an arrange-
ment determined by other considerations.
150 REPORT—1874.
with well-developed postarticular process. Teeth conical; their internal structure
complex; dentine much folded. Palato-vomerine tusks in series with small teeth.
Short inner series of mandibular teeth. Sculptured thoracic plates, with reflected
process upon the external border.
* Palatine foramina large, approximated,
+ Mandible with an internal articular buttress.
t Orbits central or posterior.
1. Mastodonsaurus, Jager.
2. Capitosaurus, Miinst.
3. Pachygonia, Hualey (?).
4, Trematosaurus, Braun.
5. Gonioglyptus, Huzley.
tt Orbits anterior.
6. Metopias, Von Meyer.
7. Labyrinthodon, Owen’.
++ Mandible without internal articular buttress.
8. Diadetognathus, Miall,
** Palatine foramina small, distant.
9. Dasyceps, Hualey.
10. Anthracosaurus, Huxley.
II. Bracuyopina. Skull parabolic. Orbits oval, central or anterior. Postar-
ticular process of mandible wanting (?).
11. Brachyops, Owen.
12. Micropholis, Huzley.
13. Rhinosaurus, Waldheim.
14. Bothriceps, Huzley.
III. CuHavrroponta*®. Skull vaulted, triangular, with large postero-lateral ex-
ansions, Lyra consisting of two nearly straight longitudinal grooves, continued
ackwards as ridges®. Orbits moderate or large, posterior. Temporal depressions
passing backwards from orbits’. No postarticular process to mandible*. Teeth
unequal, clustered.
* Teeth with large anterior and posterior cutting-edges.
15, Loxomma, Hualey.
%** Teeth conical.
16. Zygosaurus, D’ Lichwald.
17. Melosaurus, Von Meyer.
IV. Aruroéponta. Maxillary teeth wanting. Vomerine teeth aggregated.
Orbit imperfect.
18. Batrachiderpeton, Hancock §- Atthey.
19. Pteroplax, Hancock § Atthey ®.
Ae = uncharacterized group for the reception of some or all of the following
genera.
20. Pholidogaster, Hualey.
21. Ichthyerpeton, Hualey.
22. Pholiderpeton, Huailey.
+ Orbits unknown.
* The name of Malacocyla was previously proposed for this section. The name, how-
ever, is inappropriate for Melosawrus, which we have since seen reason to associate with
Loxomma and Zygosaurus. 3 Unknown in Melosaurus.
Loxomma, Zygosaurus. ° Loxomma, Melosaurus.
* The yomerine teeth are unknown, and this genus may therefore require to be
removed.
ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE LABYRINTHODONTS. 151
VI. ArcuecosauriaA, Von Meyer. Vertebral column notochordal. Occipital
condyles unossified.
23. Archegosaurus, Goldfuss.
B. Centra of dorsal vertebra elongate, contracted in the middle.—Genera 24 to 31.
VII. Hetrorurerra. Skull triangular, with produced, tapering snout. Orbits
central. Mandibular symphysis very long, about + of the length of the skull.
24, Lepterpeton, Hurley.
VIII. Necrriprka. Epiotic cornua much produced. Superior and inferior pro-
cesses of caudal vertebree dilated at the extremities and pectinate.
25. Urocordylus, Huxley.
26. Keraterpeton, Husley.
IX. Aistopopa. Limbs wanting.
27. Ophiderpeton, Hurley.
28. Dolichosoma, Hucley.
X. Microsauria, Dawson. Thoracic plates unknown. Ossification of limb-
bones incomplete. Dentine nearly or altogether non-plicate; pulp-cavity large.
29. Dendrerpeton, Owen.
80. Hylonomus, Dawson,
31. Hylerpeton, Owen.
DESCRIPTION OF GENERA AND SPECIES.
I. EUGLYPTA.
Mastodonsaurus, Jiiger.
Salamandroides, Jiiger.
Labyrinthodon (part.), Owen.
Skull (figure). Triangular, broad, sides slightly concave (in the uncompressed
skull) near the orbits; snout obtuse. Orbits. Oval, narrowed and pointed in front,
moderate, somewhat posterior, approximated. Palatine foramina. Large, broadest
near the middle, approximated. External nasal foramina. Small, roundish, sepa-
rated by a distance about equal to the interorbital space. Choane. Roundish oval,
distant, posterior to external nasal foramina. Teeth (disposition). Premaxillary
apparently 8 or 10 on each side, larger than maxillary; maxillary very numerous,
small, diminishing in size behind; palato-vomerine, two or more tusks in front
of the choana, two behind it, succeeded by a few small teeth; a row of small teeth
internal to these, which is continued transversely across the fore part of the united
yomers; mandibular a nearly uniform series; one or two tusks form a short inner
row near the symphysis. Teeth (structure). Conical, pointed, externally striate,
with a thin investment of enamel above; dentine much complicated; pulp-cavity
with sinuous and branching extensions. Mandibular articulation. A strong internal
articular buttress; postarticular process well developed. Cranial sculpture. Radiate
its and grooves upon each ossification ; an oval lyra commencing in the interor-
pital space, expanding upon the face; in the premaxillary region the two grooves
paldenly take a paced and longitudinal direction, passing between the external
nasal foramina; maxillary and malar grooves; on the mandible there is an alveolar
groove and a descending angular groove, which disappears near the angle of the jaw.
Thoracic plates. Median plate rhomboidal, with four concave borders ; lateral plates
triangular, the postero-lateral angle being produced backwards and reflected ; outer
surface of all three strongly and radiately sculptured. Vertebre. Centra discoidal,
biconcave, well ossified. Ribs. Some of the ribs in the dorsal region are long, stout,
compressed in the antero-posterior direction towards the head, curved and bicipital.
Limbs. The osseous elements of the limbs are dilated at the ends, and contracted in
the middle, differing from each other chiefly in size.
152 REPORT—1874.
M. GicanTEus, Jager (M. Jégers, Alberti).
Interorbital space much less than transverse diameter of orbit. Parietal foramen
round, in the middle of the parietal suture. Choana roundish. Palatine foramen
bluntly angulated at its anterior extremity. Teeth regularly conical, slightly
curved, striate, except at the apex, an additional series of alternate and equal striz
being intercalated towards the base.
The largest known Labyrinthodont.
Measurements. (From a fragment figured by Von Meyer, ‘ Saurier des Muschel-
kalkes,’ t. lviii.)
in.
Widthiof,palatine-foramen cercetioncemeetncs te ace see ae © ae ere 4:8
Least distance between palatine foramina..................0005 2°56
Extent of mandibular’ symphysis \ jncnritdih eis. Jee». oe ne eo ie 3
Greatest length of palato-vomerine tusks..... Sonera Sabie (about) 4
Diameter of largest palato-vomerine tusk..............0000enee 15
(From the Gaildorf specimen in the Stuttgard Museum.)
Motalslenophyons alleee ras crheteis sts leiei Gi agle’ + sje 'o ss oKeloretetets atateeds 30°5
ength of skulllvalonp middle Liners. vic oie ci. « epee oh « emis ioeenes 23°625
(Chnpatie st Drend Lan Otys Hath ceacawe tes ajeteata sts) «fs, o> fole/niw’ «lolol heumtele ol akeaale 22°75
Breath ai Ab CAVES OfsOL DUDS aye ajo.s satrase.o \s\aveve cielovnlayel ebehols thereto ten 19°5
From centre of occiput to posterior end of orbit ..............-. 6
From tip of snout to anterior end of orbit. ......... 2.00. ee eee es 13°5
[Daisey Ord. 016 Onis pioneaegocionictiner ASIBIO id tidib crn iW Oiuoicicta oOo rt 6:25
VAG COON eas An ceo OcOn COB Satay OntaD SOT Cc soso Dob © 4
Least width. of, interorbital space, + sj). eres ogee ww ieperew ams ote aS tae
Meng th’ of palatine SOAIMOM «etre vie aves oe e's vele) aie vale e/viaivle (about) 14
Width: of palatine foramen! sammie sergiss «cies cs owe wei slce ec sieeiens 4:75
Least distance between palatine foramina..............eeeeeeee
Extent of mandibular ‘symip byes oor. oc wy bya Be os owes ore es cincrele 2
Length of postarticular process of mandible.............. (about) 4
Locality. Lettenkohle, Gaildorf, Wiirttemberg; Keuper Sandstone, Guy’s Cliff,
Warwick; Rheetic, Aust Cliff (near niet Muschelkalk of Schwenningen?
References. Jiiger, Fossile Reptilien welche in Wiirttemberg aufgefunden worden
sind, pp. 35, 38, t. iv. figs. 4, 5, 6, t. v. [1828 ].—Von Meyer, Palologica, p. 107
[1832 }.—Jd. Bullet. der Geol. Soc. in Frankreich, vol. iii. pp. 86-89. Jia-
ger here unites the two genera Mastodonsaurus and Salamandrovdes | 1833 ].—
Alberti, Beitrag zu einer Monographie des Bunten Sandsteins, Muschel-
kalks, und Keupers, &c, p. 120 Boe gl aah ee Meyer and Plieninger, Palion-
tologie Wiirttembergs, Ep 6, 21, 57, &c., tt. ili—vi. fig. 1, t. vil. fig. 1, t. xii.
fiz. 14 [1844].—Owen, Trans. Geol. Soc. 2nd ser. vol. vi. p. 537, t. xlvii.
[1842].—Jd. Odontography, p. 195 &e., t. Ixiii. fig. 1, tt. Lxiv., Ixy. [1840-5].
—Von Meyer, Saurier des Muschelkalkes, pp. 93, 144, &e. tt. lviii., 1x1.
figs. 4-9, t. lxiv. figs. 1, 2, 15 Fa 1 seers Ueberblick iiber die
Trias, &e., p. 255 [1864].—Miall, Q. J. Geol. Soc. vol. xxx. p. 480, &e.,
fig. 2 is74)
M. PACHYGNATHUS, Owen.
Numerous fragments have occurred in the Keuper Sandstone of Warwick, which
indicate a species of Mastodonsaurus considerably smaller than M. giganteus. The
mandibular teeth are less conical than in the last-mentioned species ; they preserve
much of their thickness to near the apex, when they taper rapidly. Though some
arts of the fossils attributed to this species throw light upon the structure of the
abyrinthodont skull, their zoological value is hitherto small, and the species can-
not be regarded as thoroughly established.
References. Owen, Trans. Geol. Soc. 2nd ser. vol. vi. p. 526 &c., t. xliii. figs. 4-11,
t. xliv. figs. 1-3, t. xlvi. figs. 6, 7 [1842].—Von Meyer & Plieninger, Pali-
ontologie Wiirttembergs, p. 36 [1844].—Jd. Saurier des Muschelkalkes,
p. 159.—Owen, Odontography, p. 205, &c., t. xiv. B. figs. 1, 2 [1840-5].—
ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE LABYRINTHODONTS. 153
Miall, Q. J. Geol. Soc. vol. xxx. pp. 418, 43], &c., t. xxvi., xxvii. figs. 1, 2,
4? [1874)}.
M. FirstenserGanvs, Von Meyer.
Differs from M. giganteus in its much smaller size, in the proportions and posi-
tion of the palatine foramina, which are relatively larger and wider, as well as more
posterior, and in the elongated choana. Von Meyer is disposed to refer it to Tre-
matosaurus ; but the great breadth of the fore part of the palatine foramen, and the
numerous inner series of vomerine teeth, disposed as in Mastodonsaurus, oppose this
determination. The resemblance to Labyrinthodon (and in some points to Capito-
saurus) is considerable. A cast only of part of the palate is known.
Measurements. si
From choana to anterior end of palatine foramen .......... (about) 2
From tip of snout to anterior end of palatine foramen ...... (about) 4:5
enpth of palatine foramen ........:sceescccsescceneste (about) 4:5
Wan Gaof Palatine foramen) [. «.e:eilscloltore'e » oveleie + su hhaleelare (about) 1°75
Least distance between palatine foramina...............eeee eee 375
Locality. Vosges Sandstone (Bunter) of Herzogenweiler.
References. Von Meyer, Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie, 1847, p. 186.—Zd. Saurier des
Muschelkalkes, p. 138, t. lxiv. fig. 16.
M. VasLENnEnsIsS, Von Meyer.
Interorbital space wider than transverse diameter of orbit. Skull about one half
the size of MV. giganteus, but wider in proportion. Parietal foramen transversely
oval, rather behind the centre of the parietal suture. Teeth unknown.
Locality. Vosges Sandstone (Bunter) of Wasslenheim, Lower Rhine.
References. Von Meyer, Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie, 1847, p. 455.—Zd. Saurier des
Muschelkalkes, p. 136, t. lix. figs. 6, 7, 8 (skull), and t. Ixiii. fig. 12 (thoracic
plate ?).
To the same genus are referable some or all of the following, which are imper-
fectly known :—
Xestorrhytias Perrini, Von Meyer, Muschelkalk of Liineville, and other Laby-
rinthodont fossils from the same locality. (Saurier des Muschelkalkes, pp. 77, 78,
t. Ixii. figs. 12, 13, 14.)
M. Adriani, Miinst.; from the Keuper of Wiirtzburg. (Petref. i. 1839, p. 102,
t, xili. fig. 8, and Saurier des Muschelkalkes, p. 151, t. Ixiv. fig. 4.)
M. Meyeri, Miinst., Muschelkalk of Rothenburg. (Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie,
1834, p. 527; Saurier des Muschelkalkes, p. 93, t. xiv. fig. 5.)
Odontosaurus Voltzii, Von Meyer, Bunter Sandstone of Sulzbad. (Mémoires de
Strasbourg, p. 3, t. i. fig. 1; Saurier des Muschelkalkes, p. 136, t. Ixiii. fig. 10.)
Also the remains from the Muschelkalk of Crailsheim (Saurier des Muschelkalkes,
p. 91, t. Ixiii. figs. 7, 8, 9, 13); of Lésau, near Baireuth (7. p. 92, t. xiv. fig. 7) ;
of Bibersfeld (2. p. 92, t. xiii. fig. 4); of Pfiffelbach (2d. p. 91, t. xii. fig. 17); and
from the Lower Keuper of Golsdorf (Palaontologie Wiirttembergs, pp. 66, 72,
t. xii. fig. 15).
Capitosaurus, Minster.
Skull (figure). Triangular, with broad and obtuse snout. Orbits. Small, oval,
slightly convergent in front, situate far back, distant about twice the lateral dia-
meter of one of them. Zzternal nasal foranmuna. Oval or roundish, convergent,
distant. Palatine foramina, Large, closely approximated, expanded in front, pointed
behind. Choane. Oval, marginal, about an inch behind and external to the external
nasal foramina. Teeth (disposition). Premaxillary and maxillary, a nearly uniform
series, diminishing in size behind ; palato-vomerine, large tusks adjacent to choana,
numerous smaller teeth on palatal; mandibular, a regular and uniform series. In C,
arenaceus there are indications of an inner row of one or two tusks close to the sym-
physis; the mandibular and palatal series do not extend backwards so far as the
maxillary row (in C. robustus). Teeth (structure). (C. robustus) Crown with small
154 REPORT—1874.
anterior and posterior cutting-edges, which disappear with age; base transversely
oval, or even oblong-rectangular, adherent to the alveolar parapet, where there is
one; no central pulp-cavity visible in the adult tooth; dentine much complicated,
as in Mastodonsaurus. Mandibular articulation. (C. robustus) Postarticular pro-
cess well developed ; a strong internal articular buttress ; glenoid cavity transversely
extended, and bounded in front by a broad recurved flange, which receives the ante-
rior edge of a horizontal plate (formed apparently by the quadrate and pterygoid
jointly), so as to prevent dislocation of the mandible backwards. In C. arena-
ceus the postarticular process is similar; the other details cannot be made out.
Cranial sculpture. Each ossification strongly pitted towards the centre, and radiately
grooved towards the circumference. Thoracic plates. (C. robustus) Median plate
rhomboidal, with rounded entering angles; lateral plate not produced backwards,
with strong reflected process ; radiately sculptured. Vertebre. Not certainly iden-
tified ; those attributed to Capitosawrus robustus are discoidal, biconcave, very short
in the antero-posterior direction.
C. ARENACEUS, Minster.
Orbits roundish. Parietal foramen transversely oval. The only skull known is
smaller than any example of C. robustus.
Locality. Keuper of Benk, Franconia; Bunter Sandstone of Bernburg ?
References. Miinster, Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie, 1836, p. 580.—Von Meyer,
Paliontologie Wiirttembergs, p. 10 [1844].—Jd. Saurier des Muschelkalkes,
p. 141, 152, t. lix. figs. 3-5 [1847-55].—Burmeister, Trematosaurus, p. 3
1849}.
Measurements (from Von Meyer's figure). pee
Greatest breadth of Skil op... 5. sysyerstevnscloie ose. of6 ele) sjeca.efeye elm 9s ain lees 11?
From tip of snout to anterior end of orbit ...........+6. (about) 14
Tenet ioionbl bite ope opc:cfetsiststa tis she plaiaje,di> uolbie wo fao pie) a vie aieopemeaae 3
AVAL EIEGIIO LONER tu. tereihegts bsteatagsys otis es oie el Gieleitic hale ae Senator (about) 2
Least width of interorbital space ........... Sqaban soc (about) °75
Greatest'\depth of mandible... 2. bis... elise eee wean 2°5
Average length of mandibular teeth ........... essences ereree 625
C. nopustus, Von Meyer.
Orbits oval. Parietal foramen round.
Locality. Keuper Sandstone of Wirttemberg.
References. Von Meyer & Plieninger, Paliontologie Wiirttembergs, pp. 6, 21, 75,
76, 77, &c., t. ix. figs. 1, 2,3, 7 [1844].—Quenstedt, Die Mastodonsaurier im
Griinen Keupersandsteine Wiirttembergs &c. passim, t. i. figs. 1, 3, 4, 6, t. il,
t. iii. figs. 4, 11?, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, t. iv. (the shields and cranial bones in
this plate cannot as yet be accurately determined) [1850].—Von Meyer,
Saurier des Muschelkalkes, p. 146, t. lxi. fig. 10 [1847-55].
Measurements (from Quenstedt’s Plates).
in.
Tineil Temes alll ooh coude Gado dosodn 5 5 on OU nmGOpe eo ou or 23°5
Greatestibrendih Of sks otras. epistve ase peseis’s «+ 0 > ose e vels ne 21
Breadth at middle of orbits.............+4. Para nisle.a'« (eran eee 15
From centre of occiput to posterior end of orbit ............000s 55
From tip of snout to anterior end of orbit...............ee ee ees 14:2
eneth wo on iets atte aetes ete uuetsl cise a ne ese ’e +c 6 oh ets othe em 2°5
eWiidth of orbotterences teaver ttet en rctcae eects chet es ale's a la'w ss te felblatte 3
‘Least width of interorbital paver” Toshio ees eee clenen 3°875
Distance between external nasal foramina.........0 se sees ecco 24
From tip of snout to external nasal foramen ............ (about) 2:2
Lenptlvom palatinetoramiean tay strate tates aetse's o'r) = c's e's sete. cite aval 12:25
Wridth of palatine foramen’ .).)0). ic. epeetateetayels(o's ie 'Fs (ss siesta ie wials 4:25
Least distance between palatine foramina................60. joel SOs
Greatest'depth of mandible.) oss iieteewles ss sieeieiciv velveteen olele 4:5
ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE LABYRINTHODONTS. “155
Pachygonia, Huxley.
The mandible upon which the above genus is founded presents the following
peculiarities :—The external surface is strongly sculptured, and has mucous canals
similar to those of Mastodonsaurus. “The outer wall of the ramus swells out, sud-
denly, just behind the level of the articular cavity, and the upper edge of the supra-
angular process is, as it were, bent in by the development of this projection.” ‘The
outer surface of the postarticular process is clearly more convex than usual, but we
fail to detect in the text or woodcut of Prof. Huxley’s memoir any really important
difference between this part of the jaw of Pachygonia and the same part in Masto-
donsaurus.” The splenial plate (of the articular bone) “exhibits minute, round,
crater-like elevations.” Teeth transversely oval at the base, conical above, small,
regular; 16 or 16 only, in the back part of the ramus, are known.
Measurements (from Prof. Huxley’s Memoir).
in.
Greatest depth of mandible. .......... ccc cece cleeencnes (about) 875
Transverse diameter of mandibular teeth ............0c.e- sees ‘1
Longitudinal diameter of mandibular teeth.............. (about) 035
P. iwcurvaTa, Huxley.
Locality. Panchet Rocks (Triassic ?), Ranigunj, Bengal.
References. Huxley, Paleeontologia Indica: Part [V. On Vertebrate Fossils from
the Panchet Rocks, p. 6, figs. 1, 2 [1865].
Trematosaurus, Braun.
Skull (figure). Elongate-triangular, with rounded apex; superior surface flattish,
concave along the middle line. Orbits. Small, oval, separated by about twice the
transverse diameter of one of them; margin slightly raised. Palatine foramina.
Large, closely approximated, semielliptical, the straight sides being adjacent.
External nasal foramina. Large, elongate-oval, separated by about twice the width
of one of them. Choane. Elongate-oval, distant. Zeeth (disposition). Premaxil-
lary 12 to 14, the central ones larger; maxillary numerous, small, nearly uniform ;
palato-vomerine, two tusks in front of the choana; behind, the teeth gradually
diminish from large tusks to the ordinary size of maxillary teeth; there are four
small teeth internal to the choana; mandibular, outer series numerous, uniform, one
or more tusks forming a short inner row close to the symphysis. Teeth (structure).
Elliptical in section at the base, conical above, slightly recurved, striate ; internal
structure similar to that of Mastodonsaurus. Mandibular articulation. The articular
surface is produced inwards beyond the plane of the ramus, but the nature of the
supporting mass is not known; a well-developed postarticular process. Cranéal
sculpture. The centre of each ossification is strongly pitted, and the margin radiately
sculptured. Thoracic plates. The median plate resembles a Latin cross, with the
entering and salient angles rounded ; the short (posterior) arm is radiately sculptured
on the exposed surface ; the rest of the plate is nearly smooth; the lateral plate
has a thickened and reflected external margin, a short, notched posterior side, and
a tapering anterior extremity. The sculpture is not known, but doubtless radiated
from the thickened postero-external angle.
T. Braunu, Burmeister.
Orbits central. Palatine foramina narrowed to an acute angle, especially
in front.
Locality. Bunter Sandstone of Bernburg.
References. Braun, Bericht der deutschen Naturforscher und Aerzte, Braunschweig,
1841, pp. 74, 75 [1842 ].—Zd. Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie, 1844, p. 569.—Von
Meyer, Daltentolngte tirttembergs, pp. 4, 6, 7 [1844].—Burmeister, Die
Labyrinthodonten aus dem bunten Sandstein von Bernburg. I. Tremato-
saurus [1849].—Von Meyer, Saurier des Muschelkalkes, p. 189, t. 1xi.
figs. 11, 12 [1847-55).—Jd. Reptilien aus der Steinkohlenformation in
Deutschland, pp. 111, 112 [1858}.
156 REPORT—1874.
Measurements (from Burmeister’s figures).
Total Lemp cat slat op, so sstecas« wise opti» o'eanth te eget hy eluded sto. «0 x RR 9:25
Length of skull along middle line .........0..0seeseseee cece 8:25
faredpestbread thy ofysa ll ccc ters siatele the sea ynale aternre oI 5125
Breadth pi middle of Orbits «16.5 ain oapaiewcidbentleye bios s.s o> fs dun eae 2:9
From centre of occiput to posterior end of orbit ............060- 3°38
From tip of snout to anterior end of orbit. .........00eee cee eee 4
[DistaTeed VL eR ROME ee ean eels cron SS GOO Gnmtne ORME Ie O05 85
MACRO OND ILI cieets dreW eclaienerep Acyeisee ue paket ata Na te ysuny's leis <ipebounne “4
Least width of interorbital space ...... cei svc ee cence eve vee eee 1:25
Distance between external nasal foramina................00000 375
From tip of snout to external nasal foramen............000000ee 1
enpth ofspalatine Loramen \. iscjejscernicbesaiee eieValels A oe¥visieis a lageie eres 47
Width. of palatine domimon.in75h lca th. cowie s chiawiewieaish see esas 9
Least distance between palatine foramina..............++-.000e 13
Greatesindepthy ofmmandiplesint en eke eee csc esse ais soe (about) 1:38
Length of postarticular process of mandible.................... i
Average length of maxillary teeth ......0 2... ccc cee eee ete 125
Greatest length of palato-vomerine tusks .........-....+. (about) ‘5
Average length of mandibular teeth ........... ccc cee seen 13
Greatest length of mandibular tusks.................00. (about) °5
Diameter of largest palato-vomerine tusk............... 0.00 ee 38
Length of median thoracic plate ........e.eecceeeveaes (about) 69
Greatest width of median thoracic plate ..............eeeeeeee 3°85
T. OCELLA, Von Meyer.
This second species differs from 7. Braunii in the somewhat broader form of the
skull, in the blunt anterior end of the palatine foramen, and in the backward posi-
tion of the orbit, which, instead of lying anterior to the centre of the palatine
foramen, falls in its posterior half. The orbits are not, however, so far back as in
Capitosaurus. The differences between the two species are not due to difference of
age; for 7. ocella is the smaller, and yet its distinctive peculiarities are such
as increasing age would not diminish but exaggerate.
Locality. Bunter Sandstone of Bernburg.
References. Von Meyer, Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie, 1848, p. 469.—Zd. Saurier des
Muschelkalkes, p. 140, t. lxi. figs. 1, 2 [1847-55].
Measurements (from Von Meyer’s figures).
in.
Creppesmbread th of Sullie aie etree wee laehelsleialae «i Wieck’ eie wa ale arate em 5-4
ereadthran mid le‘OR OL OUtsiaerye tis: tc cet ++ seuss. sc aye onvie «eee ene 4:2
eerethwotvorbit ov Weccteeme memes ec reicigners ie elorte soe one sere ene aie 66
AWirdinvOLlOnbit arsenate: evAce te estonia vis hes cree tree ee 6
ideas: width ‘of interorbital spate “Ts. .s ee ee sss eee tes ste ee IGE
ligne th of palatine toramieniae terse oie oreeattslicse esse +s. «tle 4:25
Wadthrotipalative foramon':.. fc. dene t+ ses >see ec cen 12
Least distance between palatine foramina...................005 3°8
Gonioglyptus, Huxley.
Skull (figure). Imperfectly known ; the small part preserved agrees in its general
proportions with Zrematosaurus Braunit. Palatine foramina. Pointed in front,
relatively more distant from each other and from the choanx than in Trematosaurus
Braunii. Choane. Elongate-oval, approximated. Teeth (disposition). What is
seen of the maxillary, palatal, and maxillary series is similar to the same parts of
Trematosaurus. Mandibular articulation. The articular surface is concave forwards,
and produced internally beyond the vertical plane of the inner surface of the ramus;
a well-defined postarticular process. Cranial sculpture. A conspicuous group of
pits and grooves upon each ossification. Lyra with distinct ee (directed out-
ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE LABYRINTHODONTS. 157
wards) in front of the orbit; there is a maxillary groove, and upon the mandible a
descending and a horizontal groove, as in Mastodonsaurus. Thoracic plates. A
fragment of a lateral thoracic plate, which is probably referable to this genus and
species, shows a radiate sculpture upon the external surface; the postero-external
angle is reflected.
Measurements (from Prof. Huxley’s Memoir).
in.
Donen th attoreypant Of Orbits ..{.pud ee. afumreaoalin). Vasile 6 »,9 bere ete 1:06
Least distance between palatine foramina and choane .......... 5
Greatest depth of mandible .............sceeeeeeeeeee (about) ‘5
Length of postarticular process of mandible .............0eeeaee 7
G. Lonerrostris, Huxley.
Locality. Panchet Rocks (Triassic ?), Ranigunj, Bengal.
References. Huxley, Paleontologia Indica: Part IV. On Vertebrate Fossils
from the Panchet Rocks, p. 1, t. vi. figs. 1, 2, 3-8? [1865].
Metopias, Von Meyer.
Skull (figure). Triangular, with obtuse snout and scmewhat convex sides;
posterior border unknown. Orbits. Far forwards, oval, small, distant, converging
in front. Eaternal nasal foramina. Large, oval, separated by about half the inter-
orbital space, converging in front. Palatine foramina. Large, broadest in front and
towards the middle, somewhat contracted behind, approximated. Choane. Directly
in advance of palatine foramina, and distant about half an inch from them, oval, con-
verging in front, more distant from each other than are the external nasal foramina,
situate upwards of 13 in. further back. Teeth (disposition). Premaxillary and maxil-
lary unknown ; palato-vomerine, large tusks in series, with very numerous small
teeth, a transverse row of small vomerine teeth in advance of the choane ; mandibular
imperfectly known, a few of rather large and uniform size have been found together
in one example. Teeth (structure). Conical, dilated towards the tip, blunt, striate.
Cranial sculpture. Strongly pitted, with radiating grooves towards the margins of
the ossifications ; a deep oe conspicuous lyra, beginning in the interorbital space,
rather behind the orbits, expanding into a nearly circular figure upon the face, and
much contracted between the external nasal foramina. A sell -rilarlied malar
groove™.
Measurements. Fa
RRP ee DRO R CMO MBE UN 20d scil -is) ssp apenas Sfustieyarausl\oaysy (about) 12
Breadth at middle of orbits...............+-e00- (upwards of) 8
Resa EAC MO ROGUE eectiseogsy cotter tek h ah iat o 5 ala shaai'n1acesa ie: oxniacnsi sis) esis ayeye laa) ous 16
\WWICHIRT OOH OH. see Ge ROAR REED Gane OOr OPH. Oe acre 1:25
Least width of interorbital space ..............ecceeeeeeeeees 31
Distance between external nasal foramina............-.000ee005 16
Bengt Or Palmira OTAMEN | oi 6... cis ojs.e cone e on wis a mpeleiejeis,aihie,« 65
WV YGU OE RATAN ok a sei one leno eetnneedivee ae 2:25
Least distance between palatine foramina.................00005 1
Average length of mandibular teeth .................... (about) ‘5
Diameter of largest palato-vomerine tusk ,...............000005 “4
M. praenosticus, Von Meyer.
Locality. cE: Keuper Sandstone of Stuttgart; Rhetic of Aust Cliff, near
Bristol.
References. Von Meyer & Plieninger, Paliontologie Wiirttembergs, pp. 18, 75, &c.
t. x. fig. 1, t. xi. fig. 11— Von Meyer, Saurier des Muschelkalkes, p. 146,'t. lx.,
_ t. Ixi. fig. 3, t. Ixiv. fig. 10.
There is a skull in the British Museum, from which part of the above descrip-
tion has been taken. The Rhxtic example quoted is in the Bristol Museum.
* Only the internal half of this is shown in Von Meyer's figure (‘ Saurier des Muschel-
kalkes,’ pl. 1x.), ‘
158 REPORT—1874.
Labyrinthodon, Owen.
Choane. Large, oval, distant. Teeth (disposition). Maxillary, at least one large
tusk, succeeded by small serial teeth ; palato-vomerine, a transverse row of a few
small teeth between choana and anterior palatine foramen, one or more tusks in
front of choana, a short row of small teeth internal to it, the rest unknown;
mandibular numerous, subequal, a short inner series of one or two tusks adjacent
to the symphysis. Teeth (structure). Slender, tapering to the apex, somewhat
elliptical at the base, conical above ; the lower third is fluted; the internal struc-
ture is similar to that of Mastodonsaurus, but the folds of dentine are fewer in pro-
portion to the diminished circumference of the tooth. Cranial sculpture. Radiate,
consisting of ridges enclosing flat spaces; elsewhere tuberculate and irregular; a
well-defined lyra (imperfectly preserved) and maxillary groove.
Measurements of Teeth (from Owen’s ‘ Odontography’). Wo
Anterior mandibular tusk, diameter qc: ss css +s vo a oa sfebeielers 5
DosteMor Mandi ar ibeStliMitsy me i isle ieee: «(ole \-->/s 010 «less u/s nino 125
Maxillary tusk, Dig hn, incica cca ce PARDEE, ORT. .cr0 2
Serial maxillary teeth, et 0 Hoey PEE e 5 ciao ot 027
Serial maxillary teeth, length (imperfect). ........0.+.ceesseees 12
L. LEPTOGNATHUS, Owen.
Locality. Keuper Sandstone of Warwick.
References. Owen, Trans. Geol. Soe. vol. vi. pl. ii. p. 503, pl. xliii. figs. 1-3, pl. xliy.
figs. 7-9 [1842].—Jd. Odontography, p. 207, t. lxiii. a. figs. 1, 1’, 2, 2', 3,
t. lxiii.p [1840-45].— Von Meyer, Palaontologie Wiirttembergs, p. 36
[1844].—Miall, Q. J. Geol. Soc. vol. xxx. pp, 425, 430 [1874].
Diadetognathus, Miall.
Mandibular articulation. A large postarticular process, concave above; no in-
ternal articular buttress. Teeth. Much compressed, antero-posteriorly, at the base,
so that in section they present the form of a rectangle, with the long sides perpen-
dicular to the axis of the jaw; above, the teeth gradually become conical; the
external surface exhibits numerous striz, but no conspicuous ridges; the dentine
is much folded, but there are many intricacies of arrangement which no folding,
however complicated, can explain; no pulp-cavity is visible, but the upper part of
the tooth has not yet been microscopically examined. Cranial sculpture. Similar
to that of Mastodonsaurus, but less sharply defined.
D. VARVICENSIS, Miall.
Locality. Keuper Sandstone of Warwick.
References. Miall, Q. J. Geol. Soc. vol. xxx. pp. 425, 482, fig. 3, t. xxvii. fig. 3,
t, xxviii. [1874].
Dasyceps, Huxley.
Skull (figure). Triangular, rounded in front, slightly convex on the sides, with
projecting epiotic cornua and large truncated postero-lateral expansions ; a facial
“fontanelle.” Orbits. Small, round, distant, placed far back. Palatine foramina.
Relatively small, distant. Haternal nasal foramina. Small, round, distant, un-
usually far back. Choane. Large, oval, marginal, unusually far back. Parietal
foramen. Large, round, but little posterior to the orbits. Teeth. Maxillary,
“ pointed, much curved, and about a quarter of an inch long, their bases having a
diameter of three fortieths of an inch. They are directed outwards, their curved
sides being downwards and inwards (in the natural position). They are anchylosed
to the margins of the jaw, which exhibits no alveolar groove. Their bases are
longitudinally striated, and they present apparently a wide pulp-cavity; but I can
say nothing respecting their minute structure, as I did not feel justified in detaching
any of the few which remain. Obscure traces of teeth are seen in the rest of the
ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE LABYRINTHODONTS. 159
alveolar margins.” —Hualey. Cranial sculpture. Pitted, with the intervening ridges
rising at intervals into slender truncated prominences; obscure traces of a lyra.
Measurements (from Prof. Huxley’s Memoir and figures).
Length of skull along middle line ....... 2... ..ccec esses eeeee 10
Gieeieet brent th OSM, 1b... oar sinlccewadsvetsespncaces 4
Biemath af muddiGiOr OFDIts. .. 6 is cus yenescvvevinacece's (about) 7:5
From centre of occiput to posterior end of orbit ..............05 2:25
From tip of snout to anterior end of orbit. .... 0.0... cece eee eae 75
Bene thot Orbit. oe. ee HELA ae canes a LEON Ue Aias cs AR «, SONY 75
SE CEOM ON WED sc Uicte waters vg.’ wo ois niches mNBMabIcl me welh, glia se oiws ‘75
Least width of interorbital space.......... cscs eeeeeeeceeceees 2-4
Distance between external nasal foramina............ eee eee ees 2:25
From tip of snout to external nasal foramen............0.e ee eee 3°25
Least distance between palatine foramina................00000% 2°8
Average length of saucillary ENO ie dd Aookudan cones tbe (about) +25
D. Bucxuannt, Lloyd.
Locality. Permian Sandstone of Kenilworth.
Reference. Huxley, Appendix to Howell’s Memoir on the Warwickshire Coal-
field &c., Mem. Geol. Surv. [1859].
As to the age of the rocks in which Dasyceps occurs, see Howell, ibid. p. 32, and
Ramsay, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xi. p. 198.
Anthracosaurus, Huxley.
Skull (figure). Triangular, with rounded anterior end, back part not known; the
upper surface is flat, with a median ridge in the anterior part. Palatine foramina.
The separate existence of these foramina is doubtful. Choane. Circular, distant.
Teeth (disposition). The premaxillary and maxillary teeth form a somewhat irre-
gular series, the teeth being very unequal in size and relatively few in number;
there is an internal row of vomerine and palatine teeth, including large tusks in
front, and diminishing in size somewhat irregularly behind; mandibular teeth un-
equal. Teeth (structure). Conical, pointed, laterally compressed and recurved
towards the apex, somewhat angular at the base. “Transparent transverse sections
of the teeth exhibit a singularly beautiful and complex structure. The relatively
small pulp-cavity sends off primary radiating prolongations, which pass straight to
the circumference of the tooth, and at a small distance from it terminate by dividing
usually into two short branches, each of which gives off from its extremity a wedge-
shaped pencil of coarse dentinal tubuli. These spread out from one another, and
terminate in a structureless or granular layer, which forms the peripheral portion of
the dentine, and, from the small irregular cavities scattered here and there through
its substance, reminds one of the ‘globular dentine’ of the human tooth, An
extension of this peripheral layer is continued towards the centre of the tooth,
between every pair of primary prolongations of the pulp-cavity. The short
secondary processes which are sent out from opposite sides of the primary prolonga-
tions of the pulp-cavity give off in the same way, from their ends, pencils of con-
spicuous dentinal tubuli, the ends-of which terminate in the inward extensions of
the peripheral layer. The secondary processes of adjacent primary prolongations
alternate and, as it were, interlock with one another, so that the inward extension
of the peripheral layer takes a sinuous course between them. A thin layer of dense
and glassy enamel invests the tooth continuously, but sends no processes into its
interior ; and, of course, under these circumstances there can be no cement in the
interior of the tooth, nor can its surface be said to be plaited or folded. It will be
understood that this description gives merely the principle of arrangement of the
parts of the tooth; its details could only be made intelligible by elaborate figures’”’*.
Mandibular articulation. Strong, transversely elongated; a well-developed post-
articular process and an internal buttress are present. Vertebre and ribs. There is
* Huxley, doc. cit.
160 REPORT—1874.
no proof that the vertebres and rib figured by Prof. Huxley really belong to
Anthracosaurus.
*,* Professor Huxley has described a “supratemporal foramen” in the skull of
Anthracosaurus. It occurs on both sides of the only skull yet discovered, and is of
elongate-oval figure, measuring 1°3 in. x “4 in.
A. Russet1i, Huxley.
Locality. Glasgow, Newsham (Northumberland), Fenton (Staffordshire).
References. Huxley, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xix. p. 56, fig. 1 [1863].—
Hancock and Atthey, Nat. Hist. Trans. Northumberland and Durham,
vol. iv. p. 386, pl. xii. [1872].
Il. BRACHYOPINA.
Brachyops, Owen.
Skull (figure). Parabolic, rather broader than long*; muzzle rounded. Orbits.
Situate far forwards, large, oval, converging in front. Cranial sculpture. Faintly
radiate; lyra consisting of two shallow grooves, which converge as they pass for-
wards from the squamosals to the posterior part of the interorbital space, thence
curving outwards and again inwards in a sigmoid line; there is a trace of malar
grooves.
Measurements (from Prof. Owen’s Memoirs and figures).
Motalilenptihyor skull <5. cr omcerostsucics stout Pie « con ls) toetel gett ee 4:25
Length of skull along middle line........... cece eect eee nee 36
Greatestibreadth ofsiull.., cis vas kaha nje-ubiocm ny oegh-ee ee Fane 4:75
From centre of occiput to posterior end of orbit .........+..++.- 2:25
From tip of snout to anterior end of orbit .............. (about) 1:2
Bene th col onbiby a5 ahiuak pasties cine Secs. se hastens ete rue 1
Warlthas ctgion Ditincrsage tt. Cutts penstioyetaba/s gays iarsisvomaate leh segths kage: eaten 7
Jheast.width of interorbital Space’. + j0is + sysie)s,q\0/s\e «jwlatgim inte lojueuaiels 16
B. LaticEps, Owen.
Locality. Jurassic (?) Sandstone of Mangali, Central India.
References. Owen, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. x. p. 473 [1854], vol. xi. p. 37,
t. ii. [1855].
[For oat details as to the Mangali Sandstone, see Hislop & Hunter, Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. x. p. 472 [1854], vol. xi. p. 345 [1855]. ]
Micropholis, Huxley.
Skull (figure). Parabolic; postero-lateral angles produced backwards. Orbits.
Large, oval, occupying the middle third of the skull, converging forwards ; inter-
orbital space less than the transverse diameter of the orbit. Nasal foramina.
Rounded, “ distant less than twice their own antero-posterior diameter from the
anterior edge of the orbit ;” separated by an interval equal to the interorbital
pie Mandibular articulation. Transversely elongate; postarticular process
absent, or very short. Teeth. “ Very numerous and close-set, slender, conical,
sharply pointed, and either straight or concave inwards; they are stronger in the
lower jaw than in the upper, and in the anterior than in the posterior part of the
lower jaw.”
Measurements (from Prof. Huxley’s Memoir and figures).
Motel Tenpth of skull et /7. 20 ete. (about) 1:7
bene th of sill alone middle line. ..6-.-+.. 22s eee eee 1-4
(Sreatesh breadth ot sical ele e. .). cbr at leicl- |. > «0a. ae 1:3
* The single example known is probably flattened by post mortem pressure. A median
depression may be due to the same cause.
.
ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE LABYRINTHODONTS. 161
Breadth at middle of orbits, restored... 1.1... 2. cece cece ee eee 1:25
From centre of occiput to posterior end of orbit .............0.. 68
From tip of snout to anterior end of orbit .............. (about) +55
UL ORL: te RAGA ae eee ee ied ae ‘75
PUTO OL OU ISS > oe op pee oa 2 hadi ala anaaidell 26 «hte: 3)
Least width of interorbital space ..... cece ee cece eee eeveeeees 75
M. Srown, Huxley.
Locality. Triassic rocks at the foot of the Rhenosterberg, a branch of the
Sneewbergen Range, S. Africa.
References. Huxley, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xv. p. 642, pl. xxi. [1859].
Rhinosaurus, Waldheim.
_ Skull (figure). Triangular, rounded in front, sides somewhat convex ; auditory
openings conspicuous, wide and deep ; epiotic cornua short, broad ; postero-lateral
expansions large, overlapping much of the posterior part of the mandible. Orbits.
Large (length about one fourth the length of the skull along the middle line), central,
roundish, irregular, distant. External nasal foramina. Large, round, approximated,
close to the tip of the snout. Parietal foramen. Large, situate in the fore part of
the interparietal suture, much nearer to a line joining the posterior ends of the
orbits than to the occipital border. Zeeth. Maxillary and mandibular apparently
nearly regular, smaller behind, slender, slightly compressed, conical, pointed,
curved. Cranial sculpture. Pitted radiately ; no mucous grooves visible.
*,* The single skull of Rhinosaurus shows a round foramen (situate apparently
in the fore part of the quadrato-jugal). This may be accidental, or it may represent
what Prof. Huxley has called the “ supratemporal foramen” in Anthracosaurus.
Measurements (from Fischer de Waldheim’s Memoir).
(French) in. lines.
3.5
rerimesnetneot Siti lews n shins sterea sistas Satie ae aie neta eae
Length of skull along middle line...............e cece eee eee 2 11
Pcaresiorendub Of ekOller.. voce vest cs ttre eect ote keene 2 4
came aL TG LO OUOLDIbs, or ad e's a ce ciccina ten ee tok aaiere 1s
Lost OaL OT OGL thd ein pike SiRiin rea Cin ito ee Glemeiok (about) 0 9
Least width of interorbital space ........... ines Cosgdedn ode 0 10
Distance between external nasal foramina ..............-005 0 4
Ceeutese COU GL MINOT Gee esse eee s ett sens pecenens Ore
R. Jasrxovu, Waldheim.
Locality. Oolite of Simbirsk, Russia.
References. Fischer de Waldheim, ‘‘ Notice sur quelques Sauriens de 1’Oolithe
du Gouvernement de Simbirsk,” Bull. Soc. Naturalistes de Moscou, tom. xx.
pt. 1, p. 364, t. v. [1847].
Bothriceps, Huxley.
Skull (figure). Parabolic. Orbits. Large, oval, central, converging forwards;
interorbital space greater than transverse diameter of orbit. Nasal foramina.
Large, roundish, separated by about half the interorbital space. Teeth. “ Very
numerous and close-set, not more than one eighth of an inch long; they are
conical, straight, and sharp-pointed, and their bases are expanded and marked by
about twelve longgitndsind olds, which extend to near the apex of the tooth.”
Cranial sculpture. Pitted closely and irregularly.
Measurements (from Prof. Huxley’s Memoir and figures).
in.
Length of skull along middle line .................ee esse eee 1:3
Greatest breadth of atl - 57 OE ere oe aoleeeny Get ae (about) 1:5
Breadth at middle of orbits ....... op enals tegen ence nas « (about) 1:75
M
162 REPORT—1874.
From centre of occiput to posterior end of orbit .......eeee sees 16
From tip of snout to anterior end of orbit........ 2... e eee eens 1-25
TienethtOmarpibtas's «ales wallets tsk sec stemimatcrte eile fl. \e cattle oo Fae aS
WWiadtbitchorbitire stasis cane ws aia thsla se awe wee ss 6 ove abe lelatenenaete 6
Least width of interorbital space ......-...0sseccevsreacsnnes “45
From tip of snout to external nasal foramen ....... fe 375
B, AUSTRALIS, Huxley.
Locality. Triassic (?) rocks of some part of Australia. Precise locality unknown.
References. Huxley, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xv. p. 647, pl. xxii. figs. 1, 2
[1859].
III. CHAULIODONTA.
Loxomma, Huxley.
Skull (figure). An elongated isosceles triangle, with large rounded postero-lateral
expansions and short epiotic cornua; coronal tract elevated, bounded on each side
by temporal depressions; auditory openings indenting considerably the upper
surface. Orbits. Very large, irregular-oval, with cusps proceeding from the
posterior part of both inner and outer margins; narrowed in front; slightly
oblique, the long axes diverging forwards ; edges raised ; interorbital space less than
the transverse diameter of the orbit. External nasal foramina, Oval, lateral,
distant *. Choane. Marginal, distant, small, slightly posterior to the external nasal
foramina. Teeth (disposition), Premaxillary, three or four on each side, larger than
maxillary; maxillary numerous, subequal ; palato-vomerine, large tusks before and
behind the choane ; mandibular very unequal, 18 to 25. Teeth (strngiuney: Coni-
cal, striate, with opposite (anterior and posterior) cutting-edges; a thin layer of
enamel invests the crown of the tooth, and descends low down upon the sides ; the
dentine forms a thick and compact internal lining to the cap of enamel in the upper
half of the tooth, occupying nearly all the space, and reducing the pulp-cavity to a
small flattened cylinder in the centre of the tooth; in the lower half of the tooth
the pulp-cavity expands and the parietes become somewhat thinner; at the same
point the dentine separates into numerous vertical lamellz, or folds, and a LS laced
layer of dentine appears ; towards the base of the tooth the pulp-cavity is large,
occupying about one third of the diameter; the dentinal lamellae are numerous,
irregular, rarely branched, and radiately disposed around the pulp-cavity; the peri-
pheral layer of dentine occupies the outside of the tooth, and takes a sinuous course
along the centre of each lamella; when seen in cross section, each turn of the
sinuous lamella of peripheral dentine appears to be strengthened by a short out-
standing process, so that the lamella itself appears to be angulated ; dentinal tubules
pass from the peripheral layer at right angles. Mandibular articulation. Shallow,
transversely elongated ; postarticular process wanting. Cranial sculpture. A honey-
comb pitting covers the chief part of the skull: there is a lyra consisting of two
grooves which occupy the summits of slightly elevated ridges in the preorbital
tract; the grooves begin in the interorbital space, and pass forwards, diverging
regularly, to the maxillo-premaxillary suture ; they are connected in front by a
transverse groove: short maxillary grooves; no malar grooves. Thoracic plates
have been described as those of Loromma, but without satisfactory identification.
Vertebre. Centra well ossified, biconcave ; spinous processes broad and lofty.
Ribs. Long, slightly curved, strong.
* Tn the restoration of the skull of Loxomma given in last year’s Report (t. i.) the ex-
ternal nares are incorrectly placed. They are shown by Mr. Atthey’s fine specimen,
figured in the paper referred to below, to be external to the mucous grooves upon the pre-
maxilla. The same paper will enable us to rectify and complete the delineation of the
sutures upon the upper surface of the skull in this genus. Wecannot accept Messrs. Em-
bleton and Atthey’s interpretation of the palate of Loxomma, which is founded upon an
analogy with Crocodilia which we believe to be mistaken. The “palate-plates of the
maxillaries” are true palatals, and no ectopterygoid exists in the Labyrinthodont skull.
The apertures named by them ‘posterior nares” are probably vascular canals, and we
regard the foramina marked ‘“‘ 4p” in t. y. as the true choane.
eS Sees err th
pe eS
ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE LABYRINTHODONTS. 163
Measurements (from Messrs. Embleton and Atthey’s Memoir and Plates),
in.
Margen othyopslcmllpes.. wet crasgidleds «4 ave siasunbia ole garelele (about) 13-5
Length of skull along middle line ......... eee eee ec even eee enes 115
Greatest breadihot Gull). .:..5 - lacie aitielareie javeyols ee clebie ee wesiarearen 8
PPC R CGD. 8 ATA! OF OFDILS 0! «sna: 2°45. dinjnie 8! Reins aye 0, nae 0; le) (about) 6
From centre of occiput to posterior end of orbit ......... ee eeeee 25
From tip of snout to anterior end of orbit............. eee eens 5
MS HL Ol ONO tiga ah ey Sciety chia by vids & 1s) aH PO GEOR: Sanlah Jolove\eyoreragarecod yrs.» 4:5
Sober ae Fea chia ET Ctae rat eto sy atcha lone ove) < yes: 50: enerat sear emelptoketelal © gigi oligo iq: #feuaters)s 15
cant wren Of nterorbital Space... i,.s,.4 5 csisiy eetien «+e clepeeie ae ® 15
Distance between external nasal foramina.......... eee eee eens 2-76
From tip of snout to external nasal foramen.........+.esee renee 2
Prentestdepuln of mandible .'!.’.’./:0's wecges res qyocuccls me hana 2°75
Extent of mandibular symphysis ........0cessececcseeceewoes 175
Diameter of largest palato-vomerine tusk (longitudinal).......... 7
Rs * A (irensyerse) lees vel m3)
Antero-posterior depth (superficial) of largest vertebral centrum .. 65
Greatest width of vertebral centrum ..........cce eee e ener cee 13
Length of longest rib preserved ...........005 Shi Get RIE OR © or 809
L. Auimant, Huxley.
Locality. Edinburgh, Glasgow, Newsham, Broseley, Longton.
References. Huxley, Q. J. Geol. Soc. vol. xviii. p. 291 [1862].—Hancock &
Atthey, Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. Northumberland and Durham, vol. iv. pp.
201, 390 [1871].—Embleton & Atthey, Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 4, vol. xiv.
p. 38, pls. iv.~vil. [1874].
Zygosaurus, Eichwald.
Skull (figure). Triangular, with concave sides and obtuse snout ; occipital border
concave; skull lofty in the occipital region, falling away gradually in front and
rapidly on the sides.
Hichwald remarks that “the skull is distinguished by large temporal grooves,
similar to those of the Crocodilian Sauria, which serve for the reception and attach-
ment of the temporal muscles. These are observed in the Labyrinthodonts also,
but especially in the Enaliosauria, as in Nothosaurus and Simosaurus. Thus
Zygoscurus in this respect connects the Labyrinthodonts with the Hnaliosauria and
Crocodilia” *.
It does not, however, appear that Zygosaurus is fairly comparable as to the tem-
poral region of the skull with Crocodilia. It has doubtless wide postorbital depres-
sions, which probably served for muscular attachment; and these depressions may
have been destitute of sculpture, though in the only skull known the original sur-
face of this and other parts has been removed by fracture. The sutures are effaced,
and it is therefore impossible to say positively whether the supratemporal and post-
orbital ossifications, which best distinguish the upper surface of the Labyrinthodont
from that of the Crocodilian skull, were present in Zygosawrus or not. Probably
they were, and the temporal depressions of Zygosawrus would in this case much
resemble those of Loxromma. There is only a distant similarity between the shallow
postorbital grooves of Zygosaurus and the vacuities circumscribed by bone which
occupy a large part of the temporal region in Nothosaurus and Simosaurus. Eich-
wald’s remarks may refer to the depressions in the occipital tract of the skull,
though nothing quite similar is found in recent Crocodilia. The state of the speci-
* “Der Schidel zeichnet sich durch grosse Schlafengruben aus, die in ahnlicher Ent-
wicklung in den krokodilartigen Hidechsen zur Aufnahme und Befestigung der Schlafen-
muskeln dienen, und auch in den Labyrinthodonten, vorziiglich aber in den Enaliosauriern,
wie im Nothosaurus und Simosaurus beobachtet werden, so dass der Zygosaurws hierin die
Labyrinthodonten mit den Enaliosauriern und Krokodiliern verbindet.’’—Bull. de la Soc.
des Naturalistes de Moscou, tom. xxi. (1848), p. 159.
; mu 2
164 REPORT—1874.
mon is such that it is not clear whether these dspressions represent natural cavities
or fractures.
Orbits. Slightly posterior, large, irregular; interorbital space equal to transverse
diameter of orbit. Teeth (disposition). Premaxillary, two or more teeth on each
side, larger than the maxillary; maxillary about 16-18 on each side, small, uni-
form; palato-vomerine tusks in series with small teeth. Teeth (structure). Conical,
strong, nearly straight; apex smooth and obtuse, base with about 20 simple, regular
grooves. Cranial sculpture. Tuberculate, radiate ?
Measurements (from Eichwald’s Memoir and figures).
in.
Total length of skull 2.0... .c ees eee senensaentenseen (about) 7
Length of skull along middle line «0.6.6... cece eee rete ee eens 6
Greatest breadth of skull... ... ccc cece sec e creer ewes er enenens Ey)
Breadth at middle of orbits..........secececeeeeeseseeeseeees 4°75
From centre of occiput to posterior end of orbit ........+.se sees 2
From tip of snout to anterior end of orbit..... 16. cesses eee eee . 3125
Length of orbit... 1. sc ce cece eee e nee eect eee entree een ne enes 15
SOV lt reer eeaneb ati etcte te voici nes hss actedol Vans: Rake Siosarecdis to wi shew lavens (about) 1
Least width of interorbital space ........eee eee eee tenet eeeees 1:12
Z. Lucius, Hichwald.
Locality. Zechstein of the Government of Perm, Russia*.
References. Eichwald, Bulletin de 1a Société des Naturalistes de Moscou, tom. xxi.
p. 159, tt. ii., iii., iv. [1848].—Pictet, Paléontologie, vol. i. p. 550 [1853 ].—
Eichwald, Lethza Rossica, vol. i. pl. ii. p. 1630 [1860-61].
Melosaurus, Von Meyer.
Eurosaurus, Lichwald.
Skull (figure). Triangular, with concave sides, obtuse snout, and concave occipital
border. Orbits. Moderate, oval, posterior, interorbital space equal to transverse
diameter of orbit. External nasal foramina. Rather small, further back and more
central than usual. Parietal foramen with raised edges. Teeth. Mandibular
about 30 on each side, small behind, irregular in front, small teeth in series with
very large ones; conical, slightly recurved, pointed, striate at the base. Mandi-
bular articulation. Postarticular process wanting. Cranial sculpture. Radiately
itted. Vertebre, &c. The vertebrae and limb-bones attributed to this genus by
ichwald are not proved to belong to it; and some of them differ much from the
same parts of undoubted Labyrinthodont skeletons.
Measurements (from Eichwald’s figure).
Motalelang ili otesktll lw gates ieasles eisisicka’ss/: aici +», ©'s age’ Sete mRE 7°75
Greatest preadhisot Sk casi itekalis l)atacleis sere ip\n\a >, vicielle'© aieleleleiey 5:25
From centre of occiput to posterior end of orbit ........++..00% 2°25
From tip of snout to anterior end of orbit...........6....e00s ae 3)
Tig OP OTUs os cess ainisis x islreiapastnkG o.9 6+ oes as aeialy yi Seles
THAR Gi 0h OL Bae SnWae daly yaa CORO con SSS OO aSORE OMT Or SJ. 75
Least width of interorbital space .....01..+cecs5 coscwsenencs 75
Length of postarticular process of mandible...............++065 2°5
Greatest length of mandibular tusks .......... 6. ec eeeee seers 1
M. URALENSIS, Von Meyer.
Locality. Calcareous marl (Permian) of Orenburg. (The single example is now
at Berlin.)
References. Von Meyer, Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie, p. 298 [1859].—Jd. Palzon-
tographica, vol. vii. p. 90, t. x. [1859].—Eichwald, Lethza Rossica, vol. i.
pt. 2, p. 1621, t. lvii. fig. 25 [1860].
* Hichwald has identified the Chelonia radiata of Fischer with Zygosaurus; it appears
much more like a fossil fish.
ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE LABYRINTHODONTS. 165
IV. ATHROODONTA.
Batrachiderpeton, Hancock & Atthey.
Skull (figure). Wide; postero-lateral expansions large, produced far backwards ;
maxillz deficient ; coronal bones defined by raised lines. Number of ossifications.
No maxille; probably no jugals or quadrato-jugals. Orbits. Anterior, oval ?,
large ?, incomplete, being bounded by bone upon the inner side only. Choana. Large,
oval. Parietal foramen. Far forward, large, with raised margin. Teeth (disposi-
tion). Premaxillary about 9 on each side, strong, equal ; palato-vomerine, a dense
and large central mass of aggregated (vomerine ?) teeth, with a lateral (palatine ?)
row in advance of the choana; mandibular about 16, in the anterior part only of
each ramus. Teeth (structure). Conical, pointed, strong; striated and somewhat
compressed towards the apex. Crunial sculpture. Tuberculate or rugose.
Measurements (from Messrs. Hancock and Atthey’s Memoir), m
Total length of skull ........ Soot b Sc bamconcuan doe ce carLoor 2:3
Length of skull along middle line .......... cece eee eee e eens 1:875
Greatest breadth: of Shall yes wey. « s seidisun wats a Felareld 0 sieve etajeye vlbrele e's 2°625
Average length of premaxillary teeth ......... cece eee ee eee 06
Average length of mandibular teeth ............seeeeeeeseeees 06
B, rinEatuMm, Hancock & Atthey.
Locality. Newsham (Northumberland).
References. Hancock & Atthey, Nat. Hist. Trans. Northumberland and Durham,
3 vol. iv. p. 208 [1871].
Pteroplax, Hancock & Atthey.
Skull (figure). Spatulate, narrowed in front, with acute postero-lateral (epiotic)
projections; occipital margin concave. Number of ossifications. There are appa-
rently no maxill, lachrymals, prefrontals, postorbitals, jugals, squamosals, supra-
temporals, or quadrato-jugals. Orbits. Large, anterior, incomplete, being bounded
by bone upon the inner side only. Cranial sculptwre. Pitted, the intervening
ridges imperfectly defined; irregular. Vertebre. Biconcave, thick, well ossified.
The teeth and premaxilla described by Messrs. Hancock and Atthey as those of
Pteroplax belong to Loxomma.
Measurements. (From Messrs. Hancock & Atthey’s Memoir.) in
Total length of skull (imperfect) 2.0... csccsewnsnevsvcercces 7
Length of skull along middle line ....... cece cece tenet eens 3°75
SUE earaee TEL, OLN ULG OTHE OLIN «chee, 5.10) ejainin sje se sie-s's 1+ « wlee/sial oleic (about) 1
(From specimen in the Lecds Museum.)
Greatest breadth of skull (along occipital margin) .............. 4
Abernethy GOpIGME CONN UG </. -Sy0:0:<y0i 8 Aiare(et epotol oie oie's 4 haraity mol Palen reneets 1-75
Antero-posterior depth (superficial) of largest vertebral centrum ,. —*45
Greatest width of vertebral contrum .........s cece ec eenereees 1:3
P. cornuta, Hancock & Atthey.
Locality. Newsham (Northumberland).
References. Hancock & Atthey, Nat. Hist. Trans. Northumberland and Durham,
vol. iii. p. 66, t. ii. fig. 1, vol. iv. p. 207.
[V. Uncharacterized. ]
Pholidogaster, Huxley.
Skull (figure). Imperfectly shown ; snout obtuse. Teeth. Two premaxillary teeth
visible; these are conical, recurved, and strongly grooved at the base. Thoracic
166 REPORT—1874.
plates. Lateral plates triangular, with a reflected process at the outer angle ; radiately
sculptured. Vertebre. Centra completely ossified, somewhat broader than long,
constricted in the middle, biconcave. Scutes. A ventral armour, consisting of im-
bricated oat-shaped scutes, occurs between the pectoral and pelvic limbs.
Measurements (from Prof. Huxley’s Memoir).
in.
rere OPeattH Of SONS Mort ss sen cue me deh + > os hems (about) 5
Gera AMONG shoe pie t tiny so Rte Me pete wrmiere eye ce.g.e s+ os cue em df
WenennvoLmrembexl! (ary TOOtM. nt hia uet emiuect eye oes syne «ic anes 2
Total length of head, trunk, and tail (slightly imperfect) ........ 43-4
P. prsciForMis, Huxley.
Locality. Edinburgh Coal-field.
References. Huxley, Q. J. Geol. Soe. vol, xviii. p. 294, t. x. figs. 1, 4 [1862].
Ichthyerpeton, Huxley.
Vertebre, Centra discoidal; caudal vertebrae imperfectly ossified P Ribs
(posterior dorsal region). Short, tapering. Seztes. A ventral shield of minute
scutes disposed in a chevron pattern. Hind limb, “Four distinet digits, with
three short and thick phalanges in each, can be distinguished; the fifth digit is not
apparent.”
Measurements (from Prof. Huxley’s Memoir and Plate).
Antero-posterior depth (superficial) of vertebral centrum ........ 15
Bengthvol 10 thoracic: vertebrae’ .). 50 - + wlele «+ vow'e oh eietel tests om eels 16
I, BrapLEy®, Huxley.
Locality. Jarrow Colliery, Kilkenny.
References. Huxley, “Description of Vertebrate Remains from the Jarrow
Colliery, Kilkenny,” Trans. Royal Irish Acad. vol. xxiy. p. 17, t. xxiii.
fig. 1 [1867].
Pholiderpeton, Huxley.
Teeth (structure). Maxillary and mandibular series nearly uniform; a detached
tooth of large size has been distinguished upon the same slab with a skull and
vertebral column; the teeth are conical, pointed and recurved at the apex. Cranial
sculpture. Close and irregular pitting. Vertebre. Centra well ossified, discoidal,
biconcave. Ribs. Long, stout, and curved, some bicipital. Scwtes. A ventral
armour of large bony scutes, most of which are elongate, pointed at one end and
rounded at the other, with a raised central ridge.
Measuremenis. :
in.
Average length of maxillary teeth .......... 0... ccc cee veeueees 45
Antero-posterior depth (superficial) of largest vertebral centrum .. “4
Greatest width of vertebral centrum ............ 0.0. cece rece eed.
Length of longest rib preserved (chord) ............00 ccc ee ees ‘
P. scuTiceruM, Huxley.
Locality. Toftshaw, near Bradford, Yorks.
References, Huxley, Q. J. Geol. Soc. vol. xxy. p. 309, t. xi, [1869].
VI. ARCHEGOSAURIA,
Archegosaurus, Goldf.
Skull (figure), Triangular, with rounded angles, sides slightly convex. Orbi
Situate in the posterior half of the skull (A. Decheni), or abovs the middle (4.
Me eT a ee
ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE LABYRINTHODONTS. 167
latirostris) ; oval, small, somewhat oblique, distant *, the pointed anterior ends con-
verging; orbital margin raised. Palatine foramina. Hlongate, large, adjacent,
pointed in front. External nasal foramina. Elongate-oval, approximated. Teeth
(disposition). Premaxillary not fewer than 8 on each side in 4. Decheni, or 11 in
A, latirostris; maxillary not fewer than 30, irregular, of small size, diminishing
behind ; palato-vomerine, two or three tusks in front of the choana, and 12 or more
behind, diminishing backwards to size of maxillary teeth; mandibular, a single row
of nearly uniform ,teeth. Zveth (structure). Conical, finely striate, tipped with a
two-edged crown of enamel when new and small; the dentine gives off a relatively
small number of converging folds, which alternate with simple, radiating extensions
of the pulp-cavity. Mandibular articulation. Somewhat weak ; postarticular pro-
cess short. Cranval sculptwre. An incomplete lyra, faintly marked ; pitting radiate,
obscure in young specimens. Thoracic plates. Rhomboidal plate further produced
in advance of the centre of radiation than behind it, with a slight median ridge ;
lateral plates triangular, truncated behind, extending backwards a little beyond the
centre of the median plate; sculpture radiate, rather obscure. Vertebre. Noto-
chordal ; the superior and inferior arches are ossified, and there are also three osseous
cortical plates to each vertebree, one ventral and two lateral. Ribs. Short, nearly
straight, extending throughout the trunk and into the caudal region. Fore limb.
About half the length of the skull; at least four digits (number uncertain). Hind
limb. Rather larger than fore limb (as 3: 2 in adult specimens) ; at least four digits.
Scutes. Oval, lancet-shaped, &c., imbricate; ventral armour forming a chevron
pattern, which is reversed behind.
A. Decuent, Goldf. (A. medius, Goldf. ; A. minor, Goldf.).
Skull nearly twice as long as broad (adult). Orbit elongate-oval.
Measurements +. in
Mishel lath yotip allt jis. splat urea sibletavolsye,s) aiphelelewr siaie-pigle: Sayeleerera ee bel,
Length of skull along middle line .......... 66sec eee eee ee eee 10:9
Greatest breadth of skull. ............eeeeee Heer bY Moon cir ne 5°62
renataat AGI e\OL- Obits: 5 cis-cise fe om «niepeln ajebblales > elsfereieiee si) 3575
From centre of occiput to posterior end of orbit .........+..+-4- 2°55
From tip of snout to anterior end of orbit........... cece eee e eee 75
GHENT OLDIpie .% ya olois.vin = piabs, > wpm pipet niniens “lee rel rleasleys as) 1:3
IECELY ET 0) Ole ORS Ot COC GICOT te ae EO pe ICr ara thre ‘75
Heast widthoot interorbital Space... s..ccce eter eases daaane 1:25
Distance between external nasal foramina...... 6. sees eee eeee ‘875
From tip of snout to external nasal foramen............++ +. eee 1:375
rentestid ent hl OkmaMNG DION Teor u's t/t 7. o's sere whee aiethe pice = ate 15
Greatest length of mandibular tusks ......... cece eee cece eee eee ‘48
Length of median thoracic plate ............eeeees (upwards of) 7
Greatest width of median thoracic plate .........eee cesses eae 2"
Length of 8 posterior thoracic vertebree..........5 are u ne gions sary eG
Locality. Coal-measures of Saarbriick ; Coal-measures of Artinsk, Ural}.
References. Goldfuss, Beitriige zur vorweltlichen Fauna des Steinkohlengebirges
[1847].—Burmeister, Die Labyrinthodonten aus dem Saarbriicker Stein-
kohlengebirge (Archegosaurus) [1850]—Von Meyer, Reptilien aus der
Steinkohlenformation in Deutschland {1858].—Jordan, ‘‘ Frgiinzende Beo-
bachtungen zu der Abhandlung von Goldfuss iiber die Gattung Archego-
saurus,”’ Verh. nat. Vereins d. Preuss. Rheinlande, p. 76, t. iv. fig. 1, t. vi.
[1849].—Owen, Paleontology, p. 168 [1860].—Kichwald, Lethza Rossica,
vol. i. pt. ii. p. 1683 [1860].
* That is, separated by more than the transverse diameter of one of them.
+ The measurements of the skull are taken from the nearly perfect example figured by
Von Meyer (Reptilien aus der Steinkohlenformation, t. 4). The other measurements
are from large and perfect examples of the individual parts belonging to different
skeletons.
¢ Hichwald, loc. cit. The identification rests only upon alimb-bone, and is questionable,
168 REPORT—1874.
A. LATIROSTRIS, Jordan.
Length of skull about once and a half the breadth. Orbit roundish oval.
Measurements (from Von Meyer, ‘ Reptilien’ &c., t. i. fig. 1).
in.
Length of skull along middle line....... cece cece eee eee about) 4°75
Greatest breadth. of slo. 5.05.15 5 fut ie woibie i viel ale’ visine about) 4°75
BreaGshiat middle Gforpits). «1. \). «tere cites pciess + si +lele slowmele 3°125
From centre of occiput to posterior end of orbit ............044 15
From tip of snout to anterior end of orbit.............64 (about) 2°875
EME TNO OLbIbt ey. %,hapshetetaetelae «ki oieinyee sale eis eNainip le: ele +o \epataie et 87
Vidi rot oxrbibi Meike tiie! okie el oteledstaeie ie Bit Es ais Tato havens ich sbay roa ae 65
Least width of interorbital space.....5cecscsssevecesscrevsvase ‘75
(Greateshidepth lof mandible -inuciemis .ietieedelelsmeinletoiass <tvel Sle elolels 2c 8
Locality. Coal-measures of Saarbriick.
References. TH. Jordan, “ Beobachtungen &c.,” Verh. d. naturf. Vereins d. Preus-
sischen Rheinlande, vi. p. 78, t. iv. figs. 2, 3[1849].—Burmeister, Die Laby-
rinthodonten aus dem Saarbriicker Steinkohlengebirge (Archegosaurus), p. 69,
t. ii. figs. 8, 4 [1850]—Von Meyer, Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie, 1854, p. 422.
—Id. 7b. 1855, p. 326.—Id. Reptilien aus der Steinkohlenformation in
Deutschland, p. 119, tt. i., ii. figs, 1-4 [1858].
VII. HELEOTHREPTA.
Lepterpeton, Huxley.
Skull (figure). Triangular, with produced, tapering snout. Orbits. Central, oval,
moderate. Teeth. “There are indications of relatively long, pointed, and slightly
curved teeth, set at intervals in the upper jaw.” Mandibular symphysis. Elongate ;
“the slender rami of the mandible converge towards one another to the symphysis,
where they become parallel, and are united for nearly 0°3 in.” Vertebre. About 20
precaudal and 25 caudal vertebre ; centra elongate, narrowed in the middle; neural
spines low, elongate. Ribs. Short and curved. Fore limb. Carpus unossified ;
manus longer than the rest of the limb. Hind limb. “The hind limb is penta-
dactyle, and has a small hallux, the other digits (each of which appears to have
possessed three phalanges) being very long and slender ;” tarsus unossified; pes
longer than the rest of the limb. Scates. Indistinct traces of a ventral armour.
Measurements (from Prof. Huxley’s Memoir).
in.
pineal ena, OLisir ll! cy cysts stata afeioryohe + sisce.« 15 cee) Bpwls, shared ses ogsvats 85
Hest CA COTMOR Didi = t0/ >, care gsepapalel vine ialons/s,c\eeiojoie ote ,0%5 (aj0le. a ists regener ae 13
Antero-posterior depth (superficial) of average vertebral centrum.. ‘1
Hararte HINO LAB] Uineta Ne (eee tote ots lel saisBic eictcais 10s 9up.0'6 0.0 8 Saleamiale vies ele
SUifeseec ANG LOTS MILLI we vers (afer tats eeepc yaielsie lstatass/r/ 9.0 «11s a «(0/6 pic). ee 5
ben endo meray ll Cher] OFS am boos Ogos UO Dao CeeO noe oa oc 85
Total lengthof head; trunk, and'tail «2.00 tis ee le elele elena 6
L. Doxgst, Huxley.
Locality. Jarrow Colliery, Kilkenny.
References. Huxley, “ Description of Vertebrate Remains from the Jarrow Colliery,
Kilkenny,” Trans. Royal Irish Acad. vol. xxiv. p. 12, t. xxi. figs. 1, 2[1867 ].
VIII. NECTRIDEA.
Urocordylus, Huxley.
Skull (figure). Triangular, truncated behind, with rounded snout ; prominent
epiotic cornua*; postero-lateral expansion angulated, but not produced as a horn f.
* These are seen in the specimen described by Messrs. Hancock and Atthey, and also
in an example found by Mr. John Ward, of Longton.
t+ Shown in Mr. Ward’s specimen.
ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE LABYRINTHODONTS. 169
Teeth (mandible of U. reticulatus). Small, slightly curved, the apices apparently
abruptly pointed. Cranial sculpture. In U. reticulatus the surface of the cranial
bones exhibits “ a coarse reticulated structure of elevated ridges or lines, which, from
the elongation of the meshes in some of the bones, have the appearance of strong,
raised, parallel striae ” (Hancock & Atthey). Thoracic plates. Covered (in U. reti-
ewlatus) with “a minute reticulation of raised lines, which assume a radial disposi-
tion, as if from centres of growth” (Hancock & Atthey). Vertebre. Probably
20 precaudal vertebree, “ with long and low, plate-like, neural spines, the faces of
which are striated, and the edges serrated, as in Keraterpeton” (Huxley); about 75
caudal vertebrae, their neural spines fan-like, narrow beneath, expanded and trun-
cated above, with distinct lateral strize and serrated superior edges; cheyron-bones
similar to the caudal neural spines, but broader and shorter; ‘up to and including
the thirty-sixth vertebra, the axes of the neural spines and subvertebral bones coin-
cide, or are parallel, both being vertical to the long axes of the vertebree ; but in the
succeeding vertebrze the axes of both incline backwards, and meet at a very obtuse
angle; up to the forty-second vertebra the spines and subvertebral bones, though
gradually diminishing in antero-posterior extent, retain their strong grooves and
striations and their frayed or notched edges; but further backward they first taper
towards their ends, and finally assume the characters of ordinary spinous processes”
(Huxley). - 2bs. “Traces of numerous, short, curved, and stout ribs are visible in
the confused mass which occupies the dorsal region of the trunk” (Huxley). Scutes.
A ventral shield composed of numerous oat-shaped scales, ‘2 inch long; specimens
from Kilkenny, acquired by the British Museum since the publication of Prof.
Huxley’s description, show that these were disposed in a chevron pattern. Fure
and hind limbs. Pentadactyle ; “ the fore limb had probably two thirds the length
of the hind limb” (Huxley).
Measurements. (From Prof. Huxley’s Memoir.)
in.
Antero-posterior depth (superficial) of dorsal vertebral centrum .. ‘2
Total height of anterior caudal vertebra ...........eeeeeee eae tat ie)
Length of ten caudal vertebrae (51 to G0)... . cece eee eee eee eee 1
Length of ten anterior caudal vertebree ..........0 eee (nearly) 2
AUB exe oat amenarbea trys ilagshcha hs tain 275 Gade CSTa fo’, Ava iaKol zs 3 | VR abal sNetober obi whe about) 13
Total length of head, trunk, and tail............. 0-000. about) 19°
(From Mr. Ward’s specimen. )
100 23.0 ia aa ‘9
Length of skull along middle line ............ cece ee eeneeeees 625
MEE UEP EL cs prea: sora, o:akn glaie nis jciene sO an wings See. wide 65
U. Wanpvesrorpu, Huxley.
Locality. Jarrow Colliery, Kilkenny ; Longton, Staffordshire.
_ References. Nuxley, “ Description of Vertebrate Remains from the Jarrow Col-
liery, Kilkenny,” Trans. Royal Irish Acad. vol. xxiv. p. 9, t. xx. [1867].
U. rericuLatvs, Hancock & Atthey.
The specific distinctness of this example is not clear.
Measurements (from Messrs. Hancock & Atthey’s paper).
in.
Length of skull along middle line........ Sd CUE. SRS BROS See ‘4
BpTOReat Ire Rea ec ec ny cry eas cp cleewins ote e ss cone eis a3)
Derigth GhepiitterCortas 6s... e cece cscs ssc ee ess euanebas 2
Antero-posterior depth (superficial) of vertebral centrum ........ ‘1
Total height of caudal vertebral centrum ..............00eee0es 25
Total length of head, trunk, and tail ................ (estimated) 4:5
Locality. Newsham Colliery, Northumberland.
References, Hancock & Atthey, Nat. Hist. Trans. Northumberland and Durham,
vol. iii. p. 310 [1870].
*,* The genera Oéstocephalus and Ptyonius of Cope appear to belong to Urocor-
dylus, Professor Cope enumerates and distinguishes the species as under :—
170 REPORT—1874.
Pryonivs.
a. Abdominal rods coarser, not more than ten in ‘005m.
Median pectoral plate broad, radiate, ridged .....,...... P, Marshit.
aa, Abdominal rods hair-like, fifteen or more in ‘005 m.
Middle pectoral shield with radii from the centre, the principal forming a
Grosse arm iWwAGer es wurst tire culate sce vies see P. Vinchellianus.
Middle pectoral with pits at the centre, and few or no radii; form narrow.
P. pectinatus.
Middle pectoral shield narrow, closely reticulate medially, and radiate towards
the circumference; size half that of the last ......... P, serrula.
OisTOCEPHALUS.
I. Vertebree elongate ; fan-like caudal processes narrower. Size large; mandi-
bular teeth of unequal lengths, with the apices turned backwards.
O. remex.
II. Species only known from cranial bones with teeth ; teeth equal, erect, with
acute conic apices, eleven in ‘005m.............+04- . rectidens.
All the species from the Coal-measures of Linton, Ohio.
References. Cope, Proc. Acad, Sci. Philadelphia, 1868, p. 217, &e.—Id. Synopsis,
Trans, American Phil. Soc. vol. xiv. p. 16, &c. fi86o}.—Ia. Supplement,
p. 4, &e.
Keraterpeton, Huxley.
Skuil (figure). Hexagonal; prominent postero-lateral and posterior (epiotic)
cornua ; snout very short, obtuse. Orbits. Large, oval, anterior ; interorbital space
about equal to the transverse diameter of the orbit. Teeth. Mandibular minute,
close-set, pointed. Craniul sculpture. Obscure; general surface perhaps smooth,
epiotic cornua longitudinally striate. Thoracic plates. Form indistinct; covered
with a conspicuous reticulated sculpture. Vertebre. Twenty vertebre, bearing
ribs, in advance of the first caudal; centra elongate, slightly constricted in the
middle; neural spines (of precaudal region) low, truncate, the sides striate, the
edges serrated; distinct zygapophyses; caudal vertebrae with “ broad wedge-shaped
subvertebral bones, which are anchylosed to the middle of their centra,” devoid of ribs ;
neural spines and subvertebral bones similar. -Rzbs. Twelve pairs can be counted ;
“it is probable, however, that all the vertebrae between the occiput and the first
caudal (21) bore ribs;” “they are stout, and strongly curved, with distinct tuber-
cula and capitula; the anterior ribs are rather larger than the posterior ones, and
are equal to about three of the vertebra in length ; their ventral ends are rounded,
and no traces of sternal ribs are anywhere visible; the ribs behind the posterior
limbs (in their present position) are shorter than the others.” Fore limb. Radius
and ulna similar; carpus unossified ; five digits, the greatest number of phalanges
in any one being four; somewhat shorter than hind limb, Hind limb. Femur short
and stout, about one third longer than the tibia and fibula, which are similar to the
radius and ulna; five digits, the first with two phalanges, the rest with three.
Scutes. Ventral shield consisting of small, elongate, imbricate scutes.
Measurements (from Prof. Huxley’s Memoir and Plates).
in.
Total length of skull, including epiotic cornua............ (about) 1:5
Benethrot sical alone middle [ine ci exe eure 0b 5.3.0 0.)5,518 Spee ee 1
From centre of occiput to posterior end of orbit............ (about) °5
From tip of snout to anterior end of orbit ............000e (Ghout} 3
Tipo Of On btt se ate cue iee betel lal coli ig 35 SRSA OROE DIB cis oo - 625
Width ‘Gf Oriibit nm ane vee ior sae voc 08 IORGRR EOS OTs 6 2
Wpast width of inberonbitel Spacey es crtetdisistapesiers.+.c.+ + s+» ofojoce phanstaieee 2
Antero-posterior depth (superficial) of largest vertebral centrum
(DEAT Y) i vos. cn vucke dice MEMES 8 Note Gee's ele etna are 2
Length of 20 foremost'vertebree oc... tice eee e cece ccc e ee enies 3:6*
Total length of head, trunk, and tail.............. (not exceeding) 10
* In the text of Prof. Huxley's Memoir, p. 7, this measurement is given as 2°75 in., but
this does not agree with the figure.
ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE LABYRINTHODONTS. 171
K. Gatvant, Huxley.
Locality. Jarrow Colliery, Kilkenny.
References. Huxley, “Description of Vertebrate Remains from the Jarrow
Colliery, Kilkenny,” Trans. Royal Irish Acad. vol. xxiv. p44, t. xix.
IX. AISTOPODA.
Qphiderpeton, Huxley.
Skull, In all the examples hitherto discovered the skull was in an unsatisfactory
state of preservation. Prof. Huxley remarks concerning one of these that “the roof
of the skull is broad, and has an obtuse and rounded anterior end ; the ramus of the
mandible is strong, and has a curved lower contow, its articular end being especially
curved up.” Vertebre. The number may have amounted to one hundred or more;
centra elongate, contracted in the middle; spinous processes low, shorter antero-
posteriorly than the centra. Ribs. Long, nearly straight. Limbs. Probably want-
ing; no trace of fore or hind limb has occurred in any one of several specimens
which have been discovered in Ireland and Northumberland. Sceutes. A ventral
shield, long and narrow, made up of elongate, imbricate, slightly curved scutes, dis-
posed in a chevron pattern,
Measurements (from Prof. Huxley’s Memoir).
Total length of the largest example (incomplete)
Length of middle vertebra of ditto... ...... csc eee twee cree 25
Length of the largest skull
O. Brownricen, Huxley (0. nanum, Hancock & Atthey ?)*.
Locality. Jarrow Colliery, Kilkenny (O. Brownriggii); Newsham Colliery,
Northumberland (0. nanum).
References. Huxley, “ Description of Vertebrate Remains from the Jarrow
Colliery, Kilkenny,” Trans. Royal Irish Acad. vol. xxiv. p. 14, t. xxii. [1867].
—Hancock & Atthey, Nat. Hist. Trans. Northumberland and Durham,
vol, iii. p. 79 [1869].
Delichosoma, Huxley.
Skull (figure). “ Narrow, tapering from the occiput to the snout, so as to have
the form of an isosceles triangle ; the lower jaw repeats the form and general dimen-
sions of the head, and has very slender rami” (Huxley). Vertebre. Complete
number unlmown; about fifty in the single incomplete specimen hitherto disco-
yered ; centra stout, slightly constricted; neural spinous processes low; zygapo-
physes apparently well developed. ibs. Slender, straight, short (hardly longer
than the vertebrae), rapidly tapering. Limb. No trace of fore or hind limb in the
single example known.
Measurements (from Prof. Huxley’s Memoir).
in.
A tol ear iterststeMe Narre ss, shir cs 4 a.% > sidielcad op sates. vb op cidde ce « 32
Greatest bresditiofdidll....<......0.scc 0s ceencwecune cle ceee 13
Merigin OF WO AMtetIOn VELLCDTS occ ec ssc cet ee ess ests vues 55
Total length of head, trunk, and tail (incomplete) ...........4+. 37
D, Emersont, Huxley.
Locality. Jarrow Colliery, Kilkenny.
References. Huxley, “Description of Vertebrate Remains from the Jarrow
near Kilkenny,” Trans. Royal Irish Acad. vol. xxiv. p. 16, t. xxi. fig. 3
18687].
* Doubtfully distinct. The specimen is very imperfect, and differs chiefly in size from
0. Brownriggii.
33)/
172 REPORT—1874.
X. MICROSAURIA.
Dendrerpeton, Owen.
Skull (figure). Parabolic. Orbits. Circular, central, distant, small*. External
nasal foramina. “Small, and near the muzzle” (Dawson). Teeth (disposition).
Premaxillary larger than the maxillary series; palato-vomerine, a close series of
teeth internal to the maxillary teeth, and larger; Dr. Dawson finds also blunt
teeth attached to loose bones, which he thinks may represent the vomer ; mandibular,
“in the lower jaw there was a uniform series of conical teeth, not pte oe en-
larged toward the front, and an inner series of larger....teeth....” (Dawson).
Leeth (structure). (D. acadianum) “Those of the vomer are thinly walled and
simple, the outer series on the maxillaries and intermaxillaries [and eee
simple and flattened, while the inner series of teeth [in both jaws] are conical an
plicated” (Dawson). Cranial sculpture. Reticulate and radiate, minute. Vertebre.
Centra contracted in the middle, deeply biconcave; broad transverse processes,
tapering to a point at their free ends, have been found attached to some of these,
and distinct zygapophyses have been observed in others; “there is a large and
flattened neural spine ;” “there are other [vertebre] with long spines above and
below” (Dawson). Abs. “Long and curved, with an expanded head, near to
which they are solid, but become hollow toward the middle” (Dawson); some,
at least, have a distinct tuberculum and capitulum. ore limb. Supposed by
Dr. Dawson to have been as large as the hind limb or larger; “the bones were
hollow....; the humerus, however, was a strong bone, with thick walls and a
cancellated structure toward its extremities” (Dawson). Hind limb. The compo-
nent bones, as in the fore limb, are narrowed in the centre and expanded at the
ends; Dr. Dawson supposes that “the foot must have been broad, and probably
suited for swimming or walking on soft mud, or both.” Seutes. “The external
scales are thin, oblique-rhomboidal, or elongated-oval, marked with slight concen-
tric lines, but otherwise smooth, and having a thickened ridge or margin.....; in
one of the specimens the scales of the throat remain in their natural position, and
are seen to - of a narrow ovate form, and arranged in imbricated rows diverging
from the mesial line” (Dawson).
D. acapianum, Owen.
Dr. Dawson’s account of the differences between this species and D. Oweni is
given below (see D. Oweni).
Measurements (from Dr. Dawson).
in.
aT. COSI oun Forcitapinte ousleieyens. 1ypdei+ ¢e + wait? sapeuetals Came 2°75
PSEA UHFAL.NIG CLE" OL OTBILS te ceisisic, vig is oisws: ble veusiva ead Rieke Omen 2
Wa LRO EMMI GRMN Ses cuckjevackeichele ofa cb o's Goin tke eyeitor soy eae 1:33
ILGZIE 1, CLE TE ARR 5 SABRI In OF SAUNAS TMOG DSO CR Sr Bin. 1
Bore TMyOR MONE ys. tars tater letetnvalees iaicis toes eieteteneas |e is7¥1 +. (o.< v's « ieice oie eae 1
Mone thiOtll VerteNreeedr crac ce sm stam MER. cotaes cs coe ee 2:25
Locality. South Joggins, Nova Scotia.
References, Lyell & Dawson, Q. J. Geol. Soc. vol. ix. p. 58, tt. ii, iii, [1853],—
Owen, dbid. vol. xviii. t. ix. fig. 13, t. x. figs, 5, 6, 7 [1862].—Dawson, ¢bid.
vol. xix. p. 469 [1863].—Jd. Acadian Geology, 2nd edit. p. 362, fig. 142
[1867].
D. Owrntr, Dawson,
“Differs from D. acadianum in the following particulars :—(1) Its much smaller
size; (2) its long and hooked teeth....; (8) the greater plication of the ivory in
the intermaxillary teeth (in D. acadianum these teeth are on the outside simple
* Larger in D. Oweni than in D. acadianum, according to Dr. Dawson.
t In Dr. Dawson's ‘ Air-breathers of the Coal Period’ [1863], p. 61, t. vi. fig. 54, the
vomerine teeth are represented as aggregated into symmetrical lateral masses, which
follow the outline of the maxillaries, but are most dense towards the middle line,
i ee
ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE LABYRINTHODONTS. 173
almost to the base, and plicated on the inner side, while in this species they are
licated all around like the inner maxillary teeth); (4) the form of the skull, which
as the orbit larger in proportion, and is also shorter and broader”’*.
Locality. Coal-measures of South Joggins, Nova Scotia.
References. Owen, Q. J. Geol. Soc. vol. xviii. p. 242, t. ix. fig. 4, t. x. fig. 3 [1862].
—Dawson, ibed. vol. xix. p. 469 [1863]—Jd. Acadian Geology, 2nd edit.
pp- 362-370, figs. 142, 145 [1867
Hylonomus, Dawson.
Teeth (disposition). Maxillary about 30 on each side; mandibular about 40 in
each ramus; “in the anterior part of the lower jaw there is a group of teeth larger
than the others” (Dawson). Teeth (structure). Conical, sharp, “perfectly simple,
hollow within, and with very fine radiating tubes of ivory” (Dawson)t. Cranial
sculpture, The bones of the skull “are smooth on the outer surface to the naked
eye, and under a lens show only delicate uneven striz and minute dots” (Dawson).
Vertebre. Centra elongate, contracted in the middle; some of the superior spinous
rocesses broad and lofty. Ribs. Long and curved, but some short and straight,
Pista or notched at the proximal end, hollow. ore limb. “The anterior limb,
judging from the fragments procured, seems to have been slender, with long toes,
four or possibly five in number” (Dawson). Hind limb. “The thigh-bone is well
formed, with a distinct head and trochanter, and the lower extremity flattened and
moulded into two articulating surfaces for the tibia and fibula, the fragments of
which show that they were much shorter ; the toes of the hind feet have been seen
only in detached joints; they seem to have been thicker than those of the fore foot
....3 the limb-bones present in cross section a wall of dense bone, with elongated
bone-cells surrounding a cavity now filled with brown cale-spar, and originally
occupied with cartilage or marrow” (Dawson){. Scutes. The ventral surface
occupied by oval bony scutes; “the bony scales differ in form from those of Den-
drerpeton; they are also much thicker; on the inner side they are concave, with a
curved ledge or thickened border at one edge; on the outer side they present con-
centric lines of growth” (Dawson): Dr. Dawson has also described an “ ornate appa-
ratus of horny appendages,”’ which he supposes to have covered H. Lyelli above.
H. Lyext1, Dawson.
The description of the genus is that of this, the typical species.
Measurements (from Dawson’s ‘ Acadian Geology ’).
in
ETE GO LAE a och our KE “2 +9 wparey gins le, « sighed diatslgnas) « eke, h
[rere Colle Ole MIE CRUR GG ct scapetal tioreicha. a} voi ae oie + oy ale <-@.0.0-0i0 etme aise § aganel OIG 5
aE ER ech Ne oete es 05k wxcsis a: oco do's ape algae ne pies fi
SB tiene fads visan atate, oeeevet ofa, ovehs, seess, Sicha PLUS. ID TRE, Bae ae 45
Length of longest rib preserved (chord) .........ecseeeeeeeees 6
Locality. Coal-measures of South Jogeins, Nova Scotia.
References. Owen, Q. J. Geol. Soe. vol. cia 238, t. ix. figs, 1-6, 14 [1862].—
Dawson, tbid. vol. xix. p. 473 [1863].—Jd. Acadian Geology, 2nd, edit. p.
370, fig. 144 [1867].
* Dawson, ‘ Acadian Geology,’ 2nd edit. p. 368.
+ In Dr. Dawson’s ‘ Air-breathers of the Coal Period’ [1863], p. 61, t. vi. fig. 54, a
patch of “ palatal”? (vomerine ?) teeth is shown in the centre of the palate and far forward.
t “All the long bones, even the ribs, are hollow; and the cavity is enclosed by a com-
pact wall of almost uniform thinness throughout each bone, indicative that such cavity was
not properly a medullary one, in the sense of having been excavated by absorption after
complete consolidation of the bone by the ossifying process, but was posthumous, and due
to the solution of the primitive cartilaginous mould of the bone, which had remained un-
changed by ossification in the living species. I conclude, therefore, that these hollow long
_bones (and, indeed, the bodies of the vertebrae seem only to have received a partial and
superficial crust of bone) were originally solid, and composed, like the bones in most
Batrachia, especially the Perennibranchiates, of an external osseous crust, enclosing solid
cartilage.” —O wen, Q. J. Geol. Soo. vol. xviii. p. 238 [1862].
174 REPORT—1874.
Hi. ACIEDENTATUS, Dawson.
About twice as large as the last species. “Its teeth are very different in form.
Those on the maxillary and lower jaw are stout and short, placed in a close and
even series on the inner side of a ridge or plate of bone. Viewed from the side
they are of a spatulate form, and present a somewhat broad edge at top... . Viewed
in the opposite direction they are seen to be very thick in a direction transverse to
that of the jaw, and are wedge-shaped. There are about forty on each side of the
mandible, and about thirty on each maxillary ” (Dawson). Pulp-cavity relatively
smaller than in H. Lyelli.
Locality. Coal-measures of South Joggins, Nova Scotia.
References. Owen, Q. J. Geol. Soc. vol. xviii. ‘p. 239, t. ix. figs. 7 a, 9 [1862].—
Dawson, Acadian Geology, 2nd, edit. p. 376, fig. 145 [1867].
H. Wyant, Dawson.
Teeth bluntly conical, and fewer in number than in the other species. The
remains hitherto found have belonged to very small individuals, not exceeding 4 or 5
inches in length. They are too scanty to admit of precise definition of the species.
Locality. Coal-measures of South Joggins, Nova Scotia.
References. Owen, Q. J. Geol. Soe. vol. xviii. p. 240, t. ix. figs. 8, 11, 12 [1862}.
—Dawson, ibid. vol. xix. p. 471 [1863].—Jd. Acadian Geology, 2nd edit.
p. 378, fig. 146 [1867].
Hylerpeton, Owen.
Teeth. Relatively larger than in Hylonomus or Dendrerpeton, conical-pointed ;
dentine non-plicate.
Fragments of ribs, a few centra of caudal (?) vertebra, the bones of a foot, and a
few ovate bony scales are attributed to the same genus by Dr. Dawson.
H. Dawsontr, Owen.
Locality. South Jogzins, Nova Scotia.
References. Owen, Q. J. Geol. Soc. vol. xviii. p. 241, t. ix. fig. 16.—Dawson,
Acadian Geology, 2nd edit. p. 380, fig. 147 [1867].
ANALYSIS OF CHARACTERS OF LABYRINTHODONT GENERA.
Skull elongate; length more than once and a half the greatest breadth.
Trematosaurus, Gonioglyptus, Loxomma, Pteroplax, Archegosaurus Decheni,
Lepterpeton.
Skull broad; length not more than once and a half the greatest breadth,
Mastodonsaurus, Capitosaurus, Metopias, Dasyceps, Anthracosaurus, Brachyops,
Micropholis, Rhinosaurus, Bothriceps, Zygosaurus, Batrachiderpeton, Pholido-
gaster ?, Archegosaurus latirostris, Urocordylus*, Keraterpeton.
Skull triangular, with rounded snout.
Mastodonsaurus, Capitosaurus, Eurosaurus, Trematosaurus, Gonioglyptus, Metopias,
Dasyceps, Anthracosaurus, Loxomma, Zygosaurus, Archegosaurus, Lepterpeton,
Urocordylus, Dolichosoma.
Skull parabolic.
Brachyops, Micropholis, Rhinosaurus, Bothriceps, Batrachiderpeton?, Dendrerpeton,
Skull polygonal, with projecting postero-lateral cornua.
Keraterpeton.
Skull much contracted in the frontal tract, expanded and truncated behind,
with postero-lateral (epiotic) cornua.
Pteroplax. 8
* Not including the epiotic cornua in the length of the skull.
ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE LABYRINTHODONTS. 175
Macille deficient, premacille with free termination behind.
Batrachiderpeton ?, Pteroplax ?
Orbit round.
Dasyceps, Rhinosaurus (irregular), Dendrerpeton.
Orbit oval.
Capitosaurus, Eurosaurus, Trematosaurus, Metopias, Brachyops, Micropholis, Both-
riceps, Archegosaurus, Lepterpeton, Urocordylus, Keraterpeton.
Orbit irregular-oval.
Mastodonsaurus, Loxomma, Zygosaurus.
Orbit large; not less than one fourth of the length of the skull.
Brachyops, Micropholis, Loxomma, Keraterpeton*.
Orbit moderate ; not less than one eighth of the length of the skull.
Mastodonsaurus, Eurosaurus, Rhinosaurus (nearly +), Bothriceps (nearly }), Zy=
gosaurus (nearly +), Archegosaurus latirostris, Lepterpeton.
Orbit small; less than one erghth of the length of the skull.
Capitosaurus, Trematosaurus, Metopias, Dasyceps, Archegosaurus Decheni.
Orbit central.
Trematosaurus, Micropholis, Rhinosaurus, Bothriceps, Loxomma (slightly posterior),
Zygosaurus (slightly posterior), Lepterpeton.
Orbit anterior.
Metopias, Brachyops, Batrachiderpeton, Keraterpeton.
Orbit posterior.
Mastodonsaurus, Capitosaurus, Hurosaurus, Dasyceps, Archegosaurus.
Interorbital space equal to transverse diameter of orbit.
Eurosaurus, Rhinosaurus, Loxomma, Keraterpeton.
Interorbital space greater than transverse diameter of orbit.
Capitosaurus, Trematosaurus, Metopias, Dasyceps, Brachyops, Bothriceps, Zygo-
saurus, Archegosaurus, Dendrerpeton.
Interorbital space less than transverse diameter of orbit.
Mastodonsaurus, Micropholis.
Palatine foramina large, approximate.
Mastodonsaurus, Capitosaurus, Trematosaurus, Gonioglyptus, Metopias, Archego-
saurusf.
Palatine foramina small, distant.
Dasyceps, Anthracosaurus, Loxomma ?
External nasal foramina relatively near.
Mastodonsaurus, Trematosaurus.
External nasal foramina relatively distant.
Capitosaurus, Metopias, Dasyceps, Micropholis, Bothriceps, Loxomma, Archego-
saurus, Dendrerpeton,
External nasal foramina oval.
Trematosaurus, Metopias, Loxomma, Archegosaurust, Dendrerpeton§.
* Not including the epiotie cornua in the length of the skull.
+ Inferred from the slenderness of the processus cultriformis of the parasphenoid.
t Or hippocrepiform. § Trausyersely oval; longitudinally oval in the rest.
176 REPORT—1874.
External nasal foramina roundish,
Mastodonsaurus, Capitosaurus, Dasyceps, Micropholis, Rhinosaurus, Bothriceps.
Auditory opening indenting posterior margin of upper surface of skull.
Mastodonsaurus, Eurosaurus, Trematosaurus, Dasyceps?, Micropholis?, Rhino-
saurus, Loxomma, Archegosaurus.
Auditory opening not indenting posterior margin of upper surface of skull.
Pteroplax, Urocordylus, Keraterpeton.
Epiotic cornua conspicuous.
Dasyceps, Loxomma, Batrachiderpeton, Pteroplax, Urocordylus, Keraterpeton.
Epiotie cornua inconspicuous or wanting.
Mastodonsaurus, Capitosaurus, Trematosaurus, Micropholis, Rhinosaurus, Arche-
gosaurus *.
Mandible with well-developed postarticular process.
Mastodonsaurus, Capitosaurus, Eurosaurus, Pachygonia ?, Trematosaurus, Gonio-
glyptus, Diadetognathus, Anthracosaurus?
Postarticular process of mandible inconspicuous or wanting.
Micropholis, Loxomma, Archegosaurus.
Mandible with internal articular buttress.
Mastodonsaurus, Capitosaurus, Pachygonia ?, Gonioglyptus, Anthracosaurus,
Mandible without internal articular buttress.
Diadetognathus, Loxomma, Archegosaurus.
Mandibular symphysis short, not exceeding twice the vertical depth of the
ramus in front.
Mastodonsaurus, Capitosaurus, Trematosaurus, Labyrinthodon, Archegosaurus,
Keraterpeton.
Mandibular symphysis long, exceeding twice the vertical depth of the ramus
im front.
Lepterpeton (upwards of one third the length of the skull).
Maxillary teeth wanting.
Batrachiderpeton, Pteroplax.
Maxillary teeth equal or subequal.
Mastodonsaurus, Capitosaurus, Trematosaurus, Gonioglyptus?, Dasyceps, Rhino-
saurus, Zygosaurus, Pholiderpeton, Archegosaurus, Dendrerpeton.
Mazillary teeth unequal.
Labyrinthodon, Anthracosaurus, Loxomma.
A transverse row of vomerine teeth.
Mastodonsaurus, Metopias, Labyrinthodon.
Vomerine teeth aggregated.
Batrachiderpeton, Dendrerpeton +, Hylonomus +.
Mandibular teeth (outer series where there are two) equal or subequal.
Mastodonsaurus, Capitosaurus, Trematosaurus, Labyrinthodon, Diadetoenathus,
Batrachiderpeton, Pholiderpeton, Archegosaurus, Dendrerpeton, Hylonomus,
Hylerpeton.
* In one example of A. Decheni the cornua are 4 in. long, the length of the skull along
the middle line being 11 in. t Dawson.
~
ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE LABYRINTHODONTS. ye 4
Mandibular teeth unequal.
Melosaurus, Anthracosaurus, Loxomma, Pteroplax.
One or two mandibular tusks near the symphysis, forming a short inner series.
Mastodonsaurus, Trematosaurus, Labyrinthodon.
A numerous inner series of mandibular teeth.
Dendrerpeton acadianum *.
Teeth recurved at apex.
Anthracosaurus, Rhinosaurus, Pholiderpeton, Dendrerpeton Oweni.
Teeth with anterior and posterior cutting-edges.
Loxomma.
Dentine non-plicate.
Dendrerpeton acadianum (outer premaxillary, maxillary, and mandibular series, and
vomerine P teeth)+, Hylonomus, Hylerpeton.
Dentine simply plicate,
Archegosaurus.
Dentine complex-plicate.
Mastodonsaurus, Capitosaurus, Trematosaurus, Gonioglyptus, Labyrinthodon, Dia-
detognathus, Anthracosaurus, Loxomma, Pteroplax.
Lyra enclosing an oval or rounded space in front of the orbits.
Mastodonsaurus, Trematosaurus, Metopias, Labyrinthodon, Brachyops.
Lyra angulated.
Gonioglyptus.
i Lyra consisting of two straight or nearly straight lines, diverging in front.
Loxomma, Zygosaurus.
Lyra imperfect.
Archegosaurus.
Lyra absent.
Rhinosaurus, Pteroplax ?
Thoracic plates externally sculptured.
Mastodonsaurus, Capitosaurus?{, Trematosaurus, Gonioglyptus?{, Archego-
saurus, Urocordylus, Keraterpeton.
Lateral thoracic plate with a reflected process.
Mastodonsaurus, Capitosaurus, Trematosaurus.
Vertebral column notochordal.
Archegosaurus.
Vertebral centra discoidal.
Mastodonsaurus, Anthracosaurus, Loxomma, Ichthyerpeton, Pteroplax, Pholider-
peton.
* Dawson.
+ The inner series on the premaxillz, maxillx, and mandible are described as plicated.
The outer series (?) in the premaxille of D. Oweni are described by Dr. Dawson as plicated
like the inner maxillary teeth.
5 oa pectoral plates believed to belong to these genera are not certainly identified.
. N
478 REPORT—1874.
Vertebral centra elongate, contracted in the middle.
Lepterpeton, Urocordylus, Keraterpeton, Ophiderpeton, Dolichosoma, Dendrerpeton,
Hylonomus.
Superior and inferior processes of caudal vertebre expanded distally.
Urocordylus, Keraterpeton f.
Limbs wanting.
Ophiderpeton, Dolichosoma.
Ventral armour consisting of scutes in a chevron pattern.
a. Chevron pattern continuous.
Urocordylus $.
b. Chevron pattern reversed behind.
Archegosaurus.
TABLE OF DISTRIBUTION.
Abbreviations :—C. Carboniferous. P. Permian. B. Bunter. M. Muschelkalk.
K. Keuper. R. Rhetic. O. Oolite.
| Central India.
| South Africa.
Nova Scotia.
| United States.
| England.
| Scotland
Treland.
| France.
| Germany.
| Russia.
Australia.
|
|
|
Mastodonsaurus, Jég.
eiganteus, Jig. M.?, K., R.
ar ieee OES enti
‘urstenberganus, Meyer. B.
vaslenensis, Meyer. B......... ‘
Gani} WE Sno .cindaocn on can sot auenlllRe. wales arte
Capitosaurus, Miinst.
arenaceus, Miinst. B.?, K. ....)..]..]..]..]
robustus, Meyer. “K........... a5 Ist |s Galficet |e
Pachygonia, Hux.
imcucvata, zee. MTIASSIGL \.). a|lieeu|\ie es |e elles ||)"e lo | (tone ge
Melosaurus, Meyer.
uralensis, Meyer, =P mene bis Ria dee limarylseler| ie leo
Trematosaurus, Braun.
Braun, Burm. B.~s : vateswuns pciinvwe thy dal sox}. ae
ocellaeMevyer, WBS Wesiecwe'- ole eu ei nlsysaikt> «|
Gonioglyptus, Huz.
longirostris, Huz. Triassic? ..|..}.cfeolee|eelsetp
Metopias, Meyer.
diagnosticus, Meyer. K.,R.....| x |-.] +. | +. |
Labyrinthodon, Owen.
leptognathus, Owen. K. ...... *%
Dinietoonateie Mail.
varvicensis, Miall, K. ........ re
_#&
*
* *
+ An example in the collection of the British Museum shows that the spinous processes
are expanded, though not to the same extent as in Urocordylus.
{. Not known to be reversed. The entire ventral armour has not been seen,
: |
‘
4
..
Dasyceps, Hux.
ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE LABYRINTHODONTS
TABLE (continued).
Bucklandi, Lloyd. P...........
Anthracosaurus, Hus.
Roussel, ea. Cs deena ves
Brachyops, Owen.
gland.
| Scotland.
| En
*
*
laticeps, Owen. Jurassic?...... xf
Micropholis, Hua.
Stowii, Hur. Triassic ........ :
Rhinosaurus, Waldh.
Jasikovii, Waldh. O.........4
Bothriceps, Huc.
australis, Hux. Triassic ?
Loxomma, Huc.
Pllmant, Hires (Oso. 6h sck oes s
Zygosaurus, Eich.
Macias; tehs oP a. deca ts. ste -
Batrachiderpeton, H. & A.
mesinm, HS As. dea. vi cases
Pteroplax, H. § A.
(LSD Ie o7 Bar eee Cerene
Pholidogaster, Hux.
pisciformis, Hur. C. ........ as
Ichthyerpeton, Hux.
Bradley, Hua.
Pholiderpeton, Hua.
scutigerum, Hur. C...........
Archegosaurus, Goldf.
Decheni, Goldf. ©. .......... “is
latirostris, Jord. C. .......... 3.
Lepterpeton, Hux.
1D Ye) RES (7 Ss Rn Ne ae wn
Urocordylus, Huz.
Wandesfordii, Hux. C.........
reticulatus, H. g& A. C. ......
DVCCWAS A Oebictemera tarde sats eis 3
Keraterpeton, Hux.
Galvani, Huc.
Ophiderpeton, Hux.
Brownriggii, Hur. C. ........
Dolichosoma, Hua.
Ce
Bimersony,. br IOS wale si acevs as
Dendrerpeton, Owen.
acadianum, Owen. C. ........ Sa
Owen, Dawe Cicada cae s«.< <5 s
Hylonomus, Daws.
pyelli, Dawss 1 Cater saahs s+ © “
aciedentatus, Daws. C......... a
Wiymant, Laws O mica. ts 3 a4
Hylerpeton, Owen.
Dawsoni, Owen. C. .......... at
Ireland.
*
17
| France.
| Germany.
| Russia.
| Central India.
| South Africa.
| Australia.
| Nova Scotia.
| United States.
e
180 REPORT—1874.
The genera and species enumerated in the Appendix may next be tabulated,
omitting such as are evidently founded in mistake or too imperfectly known
for definition.
Treland.
Germany.
Russia.
Nova Scotia
United States
Amphibamus, Cope.
prandiceps, Cope! Os): ) «cece les vars
Apateon, Meyer.
pedestris, Meyer. WC. (oo. 52% joes « en's Es *%
Baphetes, Owen. a
planiceps, Omen. (CO. ne cas mies sos a in te *
Brachydectes, Cope.
INewiberryt, Cope. O.4.\5 cise 16705 ,50iele =
Chalcosaurus, Meyer.
*
*
eyrimoides, Cope. 'C. i... 8 6site cee cote.
*
©
a
@
ae
|
a
WN
S.
eS
=|
ie
lB
>
an
jae
ie)
ok
Leptophractus, Cope.
Dbsolepus, wove! (Cotte ced es ote steers
Molgophis, Cope.
MGCrurUs, pooper: Os Li.. witavesion ete t Be *. <. He *
Wiheatleyi, Cope Ol. cobs. dsicuhine nt rs ne ee +: *
Oéstocephalus, Cope.
POMIGESNCOVE WMO, dniveirteee iar ier 37% ac Bt + *
rectidens, (Cope. \O.; kinmiesias sis bs oe ae x ae os *
Osteophorus, Meyer.
omen, Meyer: Pa tic. wae ole cee ee ae x
Pariostegus, Cope.
miyops;.Cope.” Triassic... 0. 2:.....%. 8 Me as a *
Pelion, Wyman.
Mirela ay ray mans 0 'C.. Ps. cctele ok eevee cis eee
Phlegethontia, Cope.
MaPeAIIG COMED On x sic, satiate ee ree
BORPCHS WCOME. Oey -cletereie ela niettieroe ce
Ptyonius, Cope.
Narshiis@Cope:. (O-: inech « shiek teen:
Vinchellianus, Cope. C. ........ Sues
pectinaiussCope. Css. occ cc see elo ce
SCMTU A GOVE Os | 5 Scrccpiee tte s ince os
Sauropleura, Cope.
longipes, ‘Coperr IOisieien tn cin. ss.
Giprtata, Caper (Orie ae tps cis ite sisles
Sclerocephalus, Goldf.
Hebert, Goldf, Wr nicaka ste soso ns See *
Tuditanus, Cope.
ee ernie Cope." “Oaire. ee capa bee ae
revirostris, ‘Cope. “©.°*....52 5. hia oo
radiatus, Cope. C...26.....4 REAGAN
obtusus,W@oper WC... sieve ste vise,» «, tesserete
mordax, Cope. C. .... oats ve 6iSke te eyanenedriede
Huxleyi, Cope. C...... Ser neve
*
* * * #
* *
** ee KH *
ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE LABYRINTHODONTS. 181
APPENDIX.
In this appendix are recorded various published genera, which are either
founded upon very imperfect examples or are insufficiently described by the
authors for the purposes of a classification. Hence some are not known to
be Labyrinthodonts at all; others, while doubtless belonging to the order,
cannot be satisfactorily placed; and a third class are of doubtful distinctness
from previously published genera. The genus Ichthyerpeton might fairly
have been placed in the appendix, for we know very little about it. The
reader will regard its insertion in a provisional group (p. 166) as a mere
suggestion, which may be adopted or discarded when more perfect specimens
haye been brought to light.
Some of the American descriptions have the air of rapid determinations
published to save priority. In the absence of figures, and without an oppor-
tunity of examining specimens, we have often been unable to recognize any
characters of systematic value in these genera and species. When Prof.
Cope’s detailed account of the Carboniferous Amphibia of Ohio shall appear*,
we hope that these difficulties will be removed, and that the important Laby-
rinthodont fauna of the United States will then render its full service to
paleontology.
Amphibamus, Cope.
Skull broad. Orbits large, rounded. Premazille each with 11 or 12 teeth.
“The integument of the head was squamous. .... The dentition is pleurodont ;
the teeth are only visible on the mandible and the outer edge of the upper jaw;
they are there of but one kind, small, closely set, acute-conic, not compressed,
hollow, and without any inflections of the enamel” f.
The dorsal vertebrze were originally described as opisthoccelian}, without traces
of ribs or transverse processes. ‘‘ The impression of a sacral vertebra is distinctly
preserved.” Centra of caudal vertebrae probably unossified ; of the neural spinous
processes of the caudal vertebrae “ twelve very distinct impressions may be counted
to the sacral region; the posterior are most slender, the median most elevated, the
anterior lower and of greater longitudinal extent.” Inferior arches were probably
present in the caudal region.
“ The anterior limbs were short and weak.” Humerus slender, not much dilated,
without condyles. Ulna and radius separate and slender. ‘The femur is slender,
much dilated distally, slightly curved in the posterior direction, and without con-
dyles..... The tibia and fibula are one half the length of the femur, are slender,
most dilated proximally..... The tarsus was probably cartilaginous. .... The num-
ber of phalanges is 3, 3, 4, 5,4. ....The terminal phalanges are elongate acute.”
‘« A few traces indicate that the dermal integument was covered, on the anterior
es of the body at least, with small and subangular scales, There have been ab-
ominal scales arranged in narrow imbricate series, directed inward and posteriorly.
Traces of plates are wanting, excepting a smali fragment lying beside the cervical
vertebrze.”
Professor Cope believes that the iris and pigmentum nigrum of the eye are pre-
served in the fossil. A median lenticular vacuity is “ obviously the vertical pupil
of a nocturnal animal. .... These appearances cannot be explained on any suppo-
sition of artificial production.”
“This animal combines with its Batrachian, a few Lacertilian characters, having
some resemblance to Dawson’s genus Hylonomus, and much affinity with Prof.
‘ * Paleontology of Ohio, vol. ii. (unpublished). + Peripheral layer of dentine?
¢ This was afterwards found to be erroneous. “There were actually, however, only
osseous neural arches present ; and I am now decidedly of the opinion that the vertebral
centra were either cartilaginous or annuliform, as in Archegosaurus,’—Cope, Synopsis,
p. 8.
182 REPORT—1874.
Wyman’s Raniceps Lyellii, Its squamous integument and narrow nasal roof give
it the somewhat Lacertilian physiognomy, more especially Geccotian, in its broad
cranium and orbits, its large marginal palpebral scales, and rather short digits. Its
true affinities are indicated by the presence of two premaxillaries, with a squamoso-
postorbital arch, asin Labyrinthodontia, some Batrachia Gradientia, and Crocodilia ;
its quadrato-jugal arch as in Labyrinthodontia and Batrachia Salientia ; its poste-
riorly directed oblique quadratum and lack of ribs, as in Batrachia Salientia; its
probably short pelvis, short separate bones of the leg and forearm; its opistho-
ceelian dorsal vertebra, and long caudal neural spines, as in Batrachia Gradientia.
It is, then, the type of a group intermediate between the Labyrinthodontian and
Gradient Batrachians, distinguished from the former by the opisthoccelian vertebrae,
absence of ribs, and pleurodont dentition ; and from the latter by the scaly integu-
ment, absence of ribs, and structure of the nasal and prefrontal regions. But one
genus of Salamanders, Glossolega, has a similar os quadrato-jugale, and but a part
of one family, the Salamandridx, the postfronto-squamosal or posterior zygomatic
arch. A ribless type might, however, well exist among Gradientia, when we con-
sider the great difference between their development in Plewrodeles on the one hand
and Amphiuma on the other. From the Salientia the dentigerous mandible, squa-
mosal arch, form of vertebra, sacrum and extremities, &c. widely distinguish it.
To the Batrachian orders Labyrinthodontia, Gradientia, Gymnophidia, and Salientia,
the present may be added, under the name Xenorachia.
* * # # * # * * * * * *
“If we compare the peculiarities of this genus with those of the Batrachia of the
same period, we find it to be distinguished, independently of the ordinal characters,
from such genera as Osteophorus, Melosaurus, Sclerocephalus, Xestorrhytias, Baphetes,
and Brachyops, by the absence of the sculpturing of the cranial bones, the lack of
dermal shields, characteristic of most of these, and by the presence of cranial and
palpebral scales. The crania of the first genera are much more elongate, and imitate
those of some Crocodilia. Similar differences exist between the Illinois Batrachian
and Dendrerpeton (Owen); the latter possesses also a double row of. teeth. Hylo-
nomus (Dawson), supposed to possess Lacertilian affinities, exhibits ribs and bicon-
cave vertebre. The ribs of Zelerpeton will distinguish it also. The only genus as
yet known to approach closely that under consideration has been described by Prof.
J.Wymaa under the name of Raniceps. This animal is only known from a study of
the inferior aspect of a portion of the skeleton; nevertheless it is certainly different,
being nearly double the size, and having relatively longer and stronger anterior
limbs. The angles of the mandible appear to have been considerably more incurved
than in the Illinois species. They may have belonged to the same genus; in that
case the name here given will not prove superfluous, as the older appellation was
previously applied to a genus of Gadid Fishes.”
A. GRANDICEPS, Cope.
Locality. Coal-measures of Morris, Grundy co., Illinois.
References. Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1865, p. 184.—JZd. Geol.
Survey of Mlinois, vol. ii. p. 135, t. xxxii.— Synopsis of Extinct Batrachia,
&c. of North America,” Trans. American Phil. Soc. vol. xiv. p. 7 [1870].
Amphicelosaurus, Barkas.
Founded upon three biconcave vertebral centra, with minute notochordal foramina.
A. Tayxort, Barkas.
Locality. Sandstone above the High-Main Coal, Northumberland.
References. Barkas, Coal-measure Paleontology, p. 104 [1873].—Atlas of Car-
boniferous Fossils, t. x. figs. 234 a, b, c [1873].
Amphisaurus, Barkas.
This genus is apparently founded upon part of a mandible with teeth of Anthra-
cosaurus.
ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE LABYRINTHODONTS. 183
A. AMBLYODUS, Barkas.
Locality. High-Main Coal-Shale, Northumberland.
References. Barkas, Coal-measure Paleontology, pp. 72, 91 [1873].—Atlas of
Carboniferous Fossils, t. ix. fig. 192, t. x. figs. 221, 221 a, 222 [1873].
Anisopus, Owen.
This genus is very imperfectly known, and is probably not Labyrinthodont. (See
Rhombopholis, p. 190.)
A. SCUTULATUS, Owen.
Locality. Keuper Sandstone of Leamington.
References. Owen, Geol. Trans. 2nd ser. vol. vi. p. 538, t. xlvi. fig. 1 [1842].—
Id, Paleontology, p. 194 [1860].—Brit. Assoc. Report, 1873, p. 243.
Apateon, Von Meyer.
The fossil upon which this genus is founded is of considerable historical interest.
Upon it was based the first distinct assertion that the Carboniferous formation
yielded vertebrate remains of higher rank than those of fishes. Unfortunately the
only example known is somewhat obscure. It may prove to be identical with Ar-
chegosaurus ; if distinct, its generic characters are not yet apparent. Von Meyer
considered it distinct, and remarked its minute size, the absence of thoracic plates
and ribs, as well as certain differences of proportion between it and Archegosaurus*.
The imperfect state of preservation deprives these considerations of much of their
weight.
A. PEDESTRIS, Von Meyer.
Locality. Brandschiefer of Miinster Appel.
References. Gergens, Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie, 1844, p. 49.—Von Meyer, 2.
1844, p. 336.—1d. Paleontographica, i. p. 153, t. xx. fig. 1 [1851 ].—Jd. Rep-
tilien aus der Steinkohlenformation in Deutschland, p. 123, t. xi. fig. 1
[1858].—Owen, Palzeontology, p. 168 [1860].
Baphetes, Owen.
The fossil “displays accurately the contour of the fore part of the upper jaw,
which was broad, obtuse, and rounded. ....The parts preserved include the pre-
maxillaries, nasals, and portions of the frontal, prefrontal, and maxillary bones, the
proportions and connexions of which best agree with those in the skull of the Ca-
pitosaurus. .... The premaxillaries, which show some obscure traces of a symphysial
suture at the median line, anterior to the nasal or naso-palatine vacuities, extend
outwards, on each side, for an extent of 25 inches, and there join the maxillaries.
Traces of round alveoli for teeth, some of which are 2 lines in diameter, are visible
on the alveolar border of the premaxillaries. The alveolar border is continued,
* “Gegen den Archegosaurus muss bei dem Apateon zuniichst auffallen, dass, ungeachtet
der Kleinheit des Thiers, die Wirbelsiule auf der Nebenseite liegt, dass die Kehlbrust-
platten zu fehlen scheinen und dass keine Rippen wahrgenommen werden, die daher, wenn
sie knéchern entwickelt waren, unmoglich von Belang seyn konnten. Der Apateon is ein
Thier yon der Grosse der auf Taf. VI. Fig. 4, 6, 7 abgebildeten Exemplare von Archego-
saurus ; allein sein Kopf war nur halb so gross als am Meinsten Exemplar Fig. 4 und
verhaltnissmassig breiter oder weniger spitz. Die gegenseite Entfernung der vorderen und
hinteren Gliedmaassen ist dieselbe. Dabei aber ist der Oberarm und Oberschenkel gegen
Archegosaurus langer und starker, was insbesondere fiir den Oberarm gilt ; und wenn die
yom Becken iiberlieferten Knochen die Sitzbeine darstellen, so ist hervorzuheken, dass sie
in Archegosaurus bei einem Alter, wo sie ahnliche Grésse einnehmen wiirdev, wohl noch
gar nicht knéchern entwickelt waren; die kleinsten aber, welche vorliegen, sind weniger
quadratisch geformt. Das Thier konnte hienach, wenn auch seine Wirbelsaule auf embryo-
naler Stufe stand, nicht zu Archegosaurus gehirt haben.”—Reptilien aus der Steinkohlen-
formation, p. 124.
184 REPORT—1874.
by the maxillary bone, for an extent of 43 inches beyond the premaxillaries; and
this border shows still more distinct traces of alveoli, of a circular form, about a
line in diameter, and rather closely set in a single series, The fore part of the orbit
is very unequivocally displayed, the smooth under or inner surface of the bone
forming that part being entire; and this shows the fore part of the orbit to be
formed, partly by the maxillary, partly by a lachrymal or prefrontal bone in close
sutural union therewith ,—a structure which does not exist, to my knowledge, in any
recent or fossil fish with a dentigerous superior maxillary bone. Where the sub-
stance of the bone has been detached so far as to expose the exterior layer in con-
tact with the coal, as, e.g., on the frontal and part of the prefrontal bones, the ex-
terior surface of those bones is shown to have been impressed by subhemispheric
or elliptical pits, from 1 line to 13 line in diameter, and with intervals of half that
extent: and this coarsely pitted character agrees with that Pe by the outer
surface of the similarly broad and flat crania of the Labyrinthodont Batrachia, e. g.
Trematosaurus, Cupitosaurus, and Labyrinthodon proper.....The traces of the
nostrils are less definite and satisfactory than the remains of the orbits; but the
latter appear to me to be decisive against the piscine nature of the fossil.” —Owen.
The teeth are conical and slightly curved, grooved below, and smooth towards
the tip. The peripheral dentine gives off simple, slightly undulating processes
towards the centre. Pulp-cavity rather large. If, as is probable, the section here
described was made in the upper part of the tooth, the structure has not a little
resemblance to that of Labyrinthodon leptognathus.
B. PLANICEPS, Owen.
Locality. Pictou Coal-field, Nova Scotia.
References. Owen, Q. J. Geol. Soc. vol. x. p. 207, t. ix. [1853].—Jd. Palzonto-
logy, p. 184 [1860].+ Dawson, Acadian Geology, 2nd ed. pp. 328, 360, figs.
137, 141 [1867].
Brachydectes, Cope.
“This genus is indicated by two rami of a mandible and a portion of a premax-
illary only..... The teeth are elongate cylindric cones, with their acute tips turned
a little posteriorly. The fractured ones display a large pulp-cavity. he three
premaxillaries preserved are similar, but without curvature of the tips. They do
not exhibit striz or any other sculpture. So far as the remains go, the genus is
nearer Hylerpeton than any other.”
B. NEWBERRYI, Cope.
Locality. Coal-measures, Linton, Columbiana County, Ohio.
References. Cope, Proc, Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1868, p. 214.—Jd. Synopsis,
p. 14.—Id. Supplement, p. 8.
Chalcosaurus, Von Meyer.
The skull only is known. Von Meyer's description (from a photograph) is aps
pended. The few characters furnished seem to associate Chalcosaurus with the
Brachyopina.
“The skull is of nearly equal length and breadth, which amount to 150 millims.,
not quite half a Paris foot. The hinder tg appears to be injured ; the obtusely para-
bolic anterior end is well preserved. The regularly oval orbits are situated in the
middle of the anterior half of the skull. They appear to measure 29 millims. in
length and 20 millims. in breadth, and are hardly more than their own length
distant from each other. The margin of the [lower] jaw is set with a single row
of small teeth. Indications of sutures are present, which do not, however, suffice
to determine the composition of the skull.”
C. rosstcus, Von Meyer.
‘ Locality. Kupfer-Sandstein of the southern side of the Obschtij-Syrt, near Oren-
urg.
References. Von Meyer, Paleontographica, vol. xv. p. 124, t. xxi. fig. 1 [1866].
ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE LABYRINTHODONTS. 185
The age of the deposit from which Chalcosaurus was derived is still somewhat
doubtful. Murchison refers it to the Permian formation. Eichwald, Ludwig, and
Geinitz dissent from this view, and regard it as either Triassic or as intermediate
between the Paleozoic and Neozoic epochs. Summaries of the evidence will be
found in Naumann’s ‘ Geognosie,’ 2nd ed. p. 658, and in Von Meyer’s ‘ Palzonto-
graphica,’ vol. xv. p. 98.
Cocytinus, Cope.
“ Vertebra and ribs osseous ; anterior limbs, thoracic shields, and abdominal arma-
ture apparently wanting, Teeth on the premaxillary bone, none on the maxillary.
Hyoid elements largely developed. An axial hyal with basihyal on each side,
closely united with the corresponding ceratohyal, at the end of which is an element
in the position of a stylohyal. Hemal or basal branchihyals three, the anterior
two each supporting one pleural branchihyal, and the third supporting one also.
The first or anterior hemal-branchihyal on the hemal side of the ceratohyal, ap-
proaching the median line, and with elongate pleural element. Urohyal not seen.”
C. GyRrnomes, Cope.
Locality. Coal-measures, Linton, Columbiana County, Ohio.
References. Cope, Proc. American Phil. Soc. 1871, p. 177.—Id. Supplement,
p. 16.
Colosteus, Cope.
We fail to perceive any distinctive features of this genus. “The usual three sculp-
tured pectoral bones are present. .... The abdominal region is protected by a series of
scales which extend obliquely forwards to the medial line, where they meet, forming
chevrons. ....Most of the teeth are coarsely incised sulcate for perhaps their basal
half. .... The affinities are thus obviously to Apateon, and it is not beyond possi-
bility that future investigations may prove it is the same.”
C. scuTELLATUS, Newberry (= Pygopterus scutellatus, Newberry ; Colosteus crassi-
scutatus, Cope).
C. FOVEATUS, Cope.
C. PAUCIRADIATUS, Cope.
Locality. Coal-measures, Linton, Columbiana County, Ohio.
References. Newberry, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1856, p. 98.—Cope,
Synopsis, p. 22.—Jd. Supplement, p. 15.
Dictyocephalus, Leidy.
The posterior part of the upper surface of the skull is known. Dr. Leidy remarks
that in the arrangement of the cranial plates Dictyocephalus bears considerable
resemblance to Trematosaurus. A radiate sculpture is conspicuous. The parietal
foramen is situate in the centre of the parietal suture. “ The occipital outline of
the skull is much less sinuous than in Archegosaurus and Trematosaurus, there being
only a moderate transverse concavity on each side between the mastoid and
mpanic lines, instead of a deep notch.” The occipital condyles are figured as
close together.
' “Breadth of the specimen in its present condition, 2} in. Breadth of occiput
outline, about 2} in. Length of occipitals, 41 lines; breadth, 32 lines. Length of
parietals, 81 lines; breadth anteriorly, 32 lines ; posteriorly, 3 lines.”
The teeth figured artd described as possibly those of Dictyocephalus appear to be
Deinosaurian, The rib and “bone of the forearm” have no Labyrinthodont cha-
racters. The skull is doubtless that of a true Labyrinthodont, though we are unable
to assign it a definite place in the order.
D. evecans, Leidy.
Locality. Coal-field (Triassic) of Chatham County, North Carolina.
References. Emmons, American Geology, pt. vi. p. 58, figs. 31, 82 [1857].—
Leidy, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. viii. p. 256 [1857]
186 REPORT—] 874.
Eosaurus, Marsh.
Two vertebral centra, about 23 inches m diameter, biconcave, discoidal, well-
ossified. They were described as Enaliosaurian, but Prof. Huxley has suggested
that they may possibly be Labyrinthodont.
HK. ACADIANUS, Marsh.
Locality. South Joggins, Nova Scotia.
References. Marsh, American Journal of Sci. & Arts, vol. xxxiy. p. 1, t. i. figs. 1,
2 [1862].—Id. Q. J. Geol. Soc. vol. xix. p. 52 [1863] (abstract).—Huxley,
Q. J. Geol. Soc. vol. xix. p. 62 [1863].—Dawson, Acadian Geology, 2nd ed.
p. 382, fig. 148 [1867].
Erpetocephalus, Huxley.
Skull (figure). Parabolic? ; posterior border indented by wide auditory openings,
Orbits. Central, oval, rather large, distant. Cranial sculpture. Irregular, rugose ;
no mucous grooves distinguishable. Teeth. “The right ramus of the mandible ex-
hibits a number of small sharp-pointed conical teeth, set in a single series.”
E. rucosus, Huxley.
Locality. Jarrow Colliery, Kilkenny.
References. Huxley, “Description of Fossil Vertebrata from the Jarrow Colliery,
Kilkenny,” Trans, Royal Irish Acad. vol. xxiv. p. 18, t. xxiii. fig. 2 [1867 ].
Eupelor, Cope.
Founded upon a pitted fragment of the upper cranial surface. The teeth origi-
nally described as those of Eupelor are now supposed by Prof. Cope to belong to
Thecodonts.
E. purus, Cope (= Mastodonsaurusdurus, Cope).
Locality. Triassic Red Sandstone near Phcenixville, Chester County, Pennsyl-
vania.
References. Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1866, p. 249.—Jd. Synopsis,
p- 25.
Eurythorax, Cope.
“ Wstablished on a large thoracic shield of peculiar form. It is a median, and
exhibits broad smooth surfaces for the contact of the overlapping margins of
the lateral plates. The form is subrotund, with a large excavation from the pos-
terior margin on each side. The narrowed portion left has a convex outline.
Sculpture none. The form resembles remotely the corresponding scute of Tudi-
tanus punctulatus, the posterior narrow face representing the xiphisternal process of
that species.”
E. sustzvis, Cope.
Locality. Coal-measures, Linton, Columbiana County, Ohio.
References. Cope, Proc. American Phil. Soc. 1871, p. 177.—Id. Supplement, p. 15.
Labyrinthodontosaurus, Barkas.
The teeth and fragment of mandible thus named are known to us only from Mr.
Barkas’s description and figures. They can hardly be Labyrinthodont, but much
resemble a genus of fossil fishes,
L, Suma, Barkas.
Locality. Low-Main Coal-Shale, Northumberland.
References. Barkas, Coal-measure Paleontology, pp. 75, 94 [1873].—Atlas of
Carboniferous Fossils, t. ix. fig. 194, t. x. figs. 223, 223 a, 224 [1873].
ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE LABYRINTHODONTS. 187
Lepidotosaurus, Hancock & Howse.
There does not appear to be adequate ground for reckoning this fossil among the
Labyrinthodonts.
L. Durru, Hancock & Howse.
Locality. Magnesian Limestone (Permian) of Midderidge, Durham.
References. Hancock & Howse, Q. J. Geol. Soc. vol. xxvi. p. 556, t. xxxviii.
[1870].—Reprint in Nat. Hist. Trans. Northumberland and Durham, vol. iv.
p- 219, t. vi. [1871].—Brit. Assoc. Report for 1873, p. 245 [1874].
Leptognathosaurus, Barkas.
This genus is not adequately characterized by Mr. Barkas, and the figure (of a
mandible with teeth) does not enable us either to identify or discriminate the
fossil.
L. ELoneatus, Barkas.
Locality. Low-Main Coal-Shale, Northumberland.
References. Barkas, Coal-measure Paleontology, p. 160 [1873].—Atlas of Car-
boniferous Fossils, t. x. fig. 236 [1873].
Leptophractus, Cope.
The description of the superior surface of the skull does not yield any characters
of which we can avail ourselves. ‘The teeth are rather distantly grooved for
some distance above the base. They are of different sizes; the smaller are com-
pressed and with fore-and-aft cutting edges... .. The smaller ones are close together,
and their crowns are curved backwards; the larger ones are at more remote inter-
vals; both have enlarged bases; whether both forms are in the same series I
cannot determine.”
“The Leptophractus was about as large as a medium-sized alligator.”
L. oBSOLETUS, Cope.
Locality. Coal-measures of Linton, Ohio.
Reference. Cope, Proc. Acad, Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1873, p. 340.
Macrosaurus, Barkas.
A vertebral column, containing 80 biconcave centra, with numerous ribs attached.
“The diameters of the larger vertebrae are 23 in., and the diameters of the smaller
li in.” ‘The fossil is doubtless Labyrinthodont, but inadequately characterized.
M. potysponpyLvs, Barkas.
Locality. Low-Main Coal-Shale, Northumberland.
References. Barkas, Coal-measure Paleontology, p. 57 [1873].—Atlas of Car-
boniferous Fossils, t. vii. [1873].
Megalerpeton, Young.
“Cranium narrower than that of Anthracosaurus in the proportion of 4 to 5;
posterior nares between first and second pairs of tusks ; pterygomaxillary apertures
commence an inch behind them; mandible tapering rapidly to symphysis, coarsely
pitted externally ; teeth regular, equal, their base oval transversely to jaw ; crown
circular, blunt, slightly recurved. The vertebree differ somewhat in proportion from
those of Anthracosaurus; their transverse processes are oblique downwards, those
of Anthracosaurus horizontal.”
M. PLicmENs, Young.
“ Convolutions sinuous, occupying larger part of transverse section, encroaching
very much on pulp-cavity.”
188 REPORT—1874.
M. stmpLex, Young.
“ Pulp-cavity larger ; folds straight, the alternate long plice reaching only half-
way from circumference to pulp.”
Locality. Lanarkshire Coal-field.
Reference. Thomson & Young, Brit. Assoc. Report, 1869, ii. p. 101.
Megalocephalus, Barkas.
To judge from the figure, this genus is based upon the posterior part of a skull of
Loxomma. Mr. Barkas enumerates it among the true Reptilia.
M. macromma, Barkas.
Locality. Low-Main Coal-Shale, Northumberland.
References, Barkas, Coal-measure Paleontology, p. 69 [1873 ].—Atlas of Carbo-
niferous Fossils, t. ix. fig. 189 [1873].
Mesosaurus, Barkas.
M. Taylori, Barkas, respecting which we have no information, is enumerated by
Mr. Barkas among the Amphibia of the Northumberland Coal-field (Manual of
Coal-measure Palzontology, p. 116).
Molgophis, Cope.
“ The characters of this genus are :—Body long, serpentine, without dermal arma-
ture, so far as known. Vertebrz large and broad, with very prominent zygapo-
physes and moderate neural spines; ribs large, convex.”
M. MAcRURUS, Cope.
M. WHEATLEYI, Cope.
Locality. Coal-measures, Linton, Columbiana County, Ohio.
References. Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat, Sci. Philadelphia, 1868, p. 220.—Jd. Synop-
sis, p. 20.—Id. Supplement, p. 3. ,
Oéstocephalus, Cope.
See Urocorpytvs, p. 170.
Orthosaurus, Barkas. 3
The illustrative figure represents a skull of Zoxomma. It is considered by Mr.
Barkas a distinct genus of true Reptiles.
O. PACHYCEPHALUS, Barkas.
Locality. Low-Main Coal-Shale, Northumberland.
References. Barkas, Coal-measure Paleontology, pp. 61, 102 [1873].—Atlas of
Carboniferous Fossils, t. viii. figs. 183, 184, 185, t. x. fig. 282 [1873].
Osteophorus, Von Meyer.
The upper surface only of the skull is known from an imperfect natural cast. ‘“‘ The
total length of the skull amounts to 207 millims., the breadth to 274 millims. The
length, as far as the hinder margin of the parietal tract, measures little more than
the breadth. The orbits lie in the posterior half of the skull, nearer the middle
than the hinder end; they are nearly circular, and not noticeably oblique in posi-
tion; their transverse diameter is to the longitudinal dimension as 2 to 3. The
external nasal foramina are more distant from the anterior end of the skull than
from the external margin; they are somewhat less distant from each other than
the orbits, while the distance between the nasal foramina and the orbits is about
ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE LABYRINTHODONTS. 189
two fifths of the length of the skull. The nasal foramina are set obliquely, and
their length amounts to more than twice the breadth; they lie for the most part
in the premaxilla, and only behind are they bounded externally by the maxilla, in-
ternally by the nasal bone. The lachrymal is excluded from the nasal foramina as
well as ae the orbits.” The interorbital space is equal to once and a half
the transverse diameter of the orbit. The most distinctive feature which appears
in Von Meyer's description of the cranial bones is the presence of an azygous inter-
nasal bone. This is a narrow slip, somewhat shorter than the frontal, which lies
in its anterior half between the nasals, and in its posterior half between the frontals.
Von Meyer proposes for this bone the name of ‘‘ Zwischennasenstirnbein ” (inter-
naso-frontale or naso-frontale). Dugés has pointed out, in the skull of Cecilia, a
similarly placed bone, which he calls the ethmoid*. It is the “single frontal” of
Cuvier. The “facial fontanelle ” of Dasyceps occupies precisely the same position.
The parietal foramen is situated a little behind the middle point of the parietal
suture. Von Meyer remarks that if the occipital border is perfectly preserved, it
must have been remarkably concave. The cranial sculpture consists of deep pits
and furrows upon each bone; no evidence of mucous grooves appears. Obscure
indications of an affinity with Loromma, Melosaurus, and Zygosaurus may be
traced in the skull of Osteophorus ; but we are not yet able to place it satisfactorily.
Of its Labyrinthodont character and its generic distinctness we have no doubt.
O. Romenrt, Von Meyer.
_ Locality. Black Marl-slate (Rothliegende) of Lowenberg, Silesia.
References. Von Meyer, Saurier des Kupferschiefer, p. vi [1856].—Jd. Jahrbuch
fiir Mineralogie, 1856, p. 824.—Zd. Zeitschrift der Deutsch. geolog. Gesell-
schaft, 1857, p. 61.—Jd. Paleontographica, vol. vi. p. 99, t. xi. [1860].
Parabatrachus, Owen.
The type specimen, now in the British Museum, is believed to be the inner sur-
face of the upper jaw of Megalichthys.
P. Coxe1, Owen.
Locality. Coal-measures, Carluke ?
Reference. Owen, Q. J. Geol. Soc. vol. ix. p. 67, t. ii. [1853].
Pariostegus, Cope.
“The maxillary appears to extend posteriorly to a free termination, as in modern
Salamanders, and the supratemporal bone presents a very prominent, obtuse, arched
margin. This margin extends from the orbits on each side, and is inclined towards
the posterior part of the cranium. There is therefore no quadrato-jugal piece.”’
The median region of the mandible “ exhibits a succession of shallow transverse
notches, enclosing thirteen obtuse elevations.” “The orbits are remarkably small,
and situated probably near the middle of the longitudinal measurement of the
cranium.
P. myops, Cope.
Locality. Coalfield (Triassic), Chatham County, N. Carolina.
References. cops Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1868, p. 211.—Jd. Synop-
sis, p. 10.
Pelion, Wyman.
Originally named Raniceps, an appellation previously applied by Cuvier to a
genus of Acanthopterygit.
This fossil is doubtless amphibian, but it does not exhibit indisputable Labyrin-
thodont characters. ‘The general form of the head resembles that of frogs; it is
triangular, and its greatest breadth nearly equals its length.” The quadrate extends
backwards beyond the occiput. Preemaxille with “small single-pointed teeth.”
* Recherches sur les Batraciens, t. xiv. fig. 92, pp. 201, 209.
190 : REPORT—1874,
“The palatine bones could not be traced. The atlas is in close apposition with the
occiput, so that the articulating surfaces are not visible. The expansion of the
atlas indicates, however, that two condyles probably exist. No portions of the
hyoid bone or of branchial arches were recognized. The vertebree are very imper-
fectly preserved, and are remarkably small in proportion to the size of the animal;
and though several of them are destroyed, it is estimated that about twenty existed
between the occiput and the pelvis. The transverse processes, if any exist, are not
visible; nor is there evidence of ribs..... A slightly raised outline appears to be
the only thing to indicate a scapular arch, but there are no details of structure. The
arm is better preserved, the humerus is much contracted in the middle as in Ba-
trachians generally ; the radius and ulna are separate as in Urodels, and not united
asin Anoura. In consequence of the displacement or concealment of some of the
phalanges, the number of fingers could not be ascertained with precision. There
were certainly four, but a fifth is doubtful. It would be of great importance if a
fossil should be detected with five fingers, since no existing Batrachians have more
than four, while many of the supposed Batrachian footprints of the coal-formations
have five, The pelvis was destroyed, but traces of the right and left femur and of
the right tibia remain.”
P. Lyrtiu, Wyman.
Locality. Coal-measures, Linton, Ohio.
References. Wyman, American Journal of Science and Arts, 2nd ser. vol. xxv.
p- 158 [1858]. The description is accompanied by an outline drawing.—
Cope, Synopsis, p. 9.—Id. Rapplanteet p- 9.
Phlegethontia, Cope.
“Head elongate triangular; body and tail extremely elongate, the dorsal ver-
tebrze without ribs, and the caudals without dilated spines. No ventral armature
nor limbs. .... Chevron bones are not observable on the caudal vertebre. This
form is a true Batrachian snake.”
P. LINEARIS, Cope.
P. SERPENS, Cope.
Locality. Coal-measures, Linton, Columbiana County, Ohio.
References. Cope, Proc. American Phil. Soc. 1871, p. 177.— Id. Supplement, p. 2.
Ptyonius, Cope.
See Urocorpy ts, p. 170.
Raniceps, Wyman.
See PExtron, p. 189.
Rhombopholis, Owen.
A substitution for Anisopus, which had been previously used by Templeton for a
proposed genus of Amphipodous Crustacea. ;
Reference. Owen, Comp. Anatomy of Vertebrates, vol. i. p. 15 [1866].
Salamandroides, Jager.
See Mastroponsavrts, p. 151.
Sauropleura, Cope.
“Vertebree and ribs well developed, no fan-shaped processes of the former,
Limbs four, well developed and elongate,” pentadactyle. ‘‘ Ventral armature of
slender rods arranged en chevron, the angle anterior. Probably no thoracic arma-
ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE LABYRINTHODONTS. 191
ture. This is the most Lacertilian of the Carboniferous genera, and might almost
be suspected to be a reptile were it not for the ventral armature, which is precisely
that of Oéstocephalus and other genera. It appears to lack the thoracic shields of
those genera.”
8. LonGIPEs, Cope,
8. prerrata, Cope.
Locality. Coal-Measures, Linton, Columbiana County, Ohio.
References, Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1868, p. 215,— Id. Synopsis,
p. 15.—Jd. Supplement, p. 9.
Sclerocephalus, Goldf.
The single imperfect skull known seems to belong to Archegosaurus, and is not
improbably identical with A. latirostris,
S. Hausert, Goldf.
Locality. Coal-measures of Heimkirchen, north of Kaiserslautern, Bavaria.
References. Goldfuss, Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie, &c. 1847, p, 403.—Beitriige zur
vorweltlichen Fauna des Steinkohlengebirges, p. 13, t. iv. figs. 1-3 [1847].
—Von Meyer, Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie, &c, 1848, p. 468.—J6, 1854, p. 431.
—Reptilien, &c. p. 120, t. vii. tig. 9 [1858].
Strepsodontosaurus, Barkas.
We do not gather either from the text or the figure any evidence of the Laby-
rinthodont nature of this fossil.
S. CARINATUS, Barkas,
Locality. Low-Main Coal-Shale, Northumberland.
References. Barkas, Coal-measure Paleontology, p. 107 [1873].—Atlas of Car-
boniferous Fossils, t. x. fig. 237 [1873].
Tuditanus, Cope.
“ Cranium broad, flat, orbits anterior, bones more or less sculptured. Teeth on
premaxillary and maxillary bones of nearly equal sizes. Three pectoral shields
sculptured externally. Form lizard-like ; two pairs of limbs of medium proportions.’
Ventral scutes unknown.
T. punctuLatus, Cope; T. BREvirosTRIS, Cope; T. RapDIATUS, Cope; T. oB-
Tusus, Cope (=Dendrerpeton obtusum, Cope) ; T. mMoRDAx, Cope ; T. Huxtey1,
Cope.
Locality. Coal-measures, Linton, Columbiana County, Ohio.
References. Cope, Proc. American Phil. Soc. 1871, p. 177.—Zd. Supplement,
p. 11.
Xestorrhytias, Von Meyer.
- The fragment of cranial bones from the posterior part of the skull figured in
‘Saurier des Muschelkalkes’ has few distinctive features. The ridges which divide
the pits and furrows are flat and smooth, and the pattern of sculpture is unusually
large. The generic value of the fossil cannot be asserted. It is apparently nearly
allied to Mastodonsaurus.
X. PEerrint, Von Meyer.
- Locality. Muschelkalk of Liineville. ‘
Reference. Von Meyer, Saurier des Muschelkalkes, p. 78, t. Lxii. fig. 5 [1847-55].
192 REPORT—1874.
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
All the figures are reduced to one length. ‘The natural dimensions are given in the
text.. The bones are lettered thus :—Pmz, Premaxilla; Mz, Maxilla; Na, Nasal; La, La-
chrymal; PFr, Prefrontal; Fr, Frontal; P¢Fr, Postfrontal; Pa, Parietal; P¢O, Post-
orbital; Sg, Squamosal; SO, Supraoccipital; Ep, Epiotic; Ju, Jugal; QJ, Quadrato-
jugal; Q, Quadrate; Pal, Palatal; Vo, Vomer; P2, Pterygoid,
Prats LY.
Figs. 1, 2. Slightly altered from Von Meyer's ‘Saurier des Muschelkalkes,’ t. lxi. figs. 4, 5.
8, 4. Reduced from Burmeister’s ‘Trematosaurus,’ tt. i., li.
Puate V.
Fig. 1. Slightly altered from Von Meyer’s ‘Saurier des Muschelkalkes,’ t. lxi. fig. 10.
2. Chiefly from specimen in the British Museum.
3. Adapted from Huxley’s Appendix to Howell’s ‘Memoir on the Warwickshire
Coalfield” &c. (Mem. Geol. Survey), figs. 1, 2.
4, Adapted from Prof. Owen’s figure, ‘Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.’ vol. xi. t. ii.
Puates VI.
Fig. 1. From Waldheim’s “Notice” &c., Bull. Soc. Naturalistes de Moscou, tom. xx. t. v.
2. Chiefly from Embleton & Atthey, ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.’ ser. 4, vol. xiv. t. iv.
3, 4. Adapted from Hancock & Atthey, ‘Nat. Hist. Trans. Northumberland and Dur-
ham,’ vol. iv. t. iv.
Puate VII.
Fig. 1. Partly from Hancock & Atthey, ‘Nat. Hist. Trans. Northumberland and Durham,’
vol. iii. t. ii. fig. 1. The conjectural restoration (in dotted lines) from the recent
Menopoma.
2. Adapted from Huxley, ‘Trans. Royal Irish Acad.’ vol. xxiv. t. xix.
3. Reduced from Von Meyer's ‘ Reptilien’ &c., t. A.
4. Compiled from various fragments figured by Von Meyer in the same work.
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Harxness,
Prof. Prestwicu, Prof. Hucusrs, Rev. H. W. Crosskey, Prof. W.
Boyp Dawkins, Messrs. C. J. Woopwarp, Grorcze Maw, L. C.
Misti, G. H. Morton, and J. E. Lee, appointed for the purpose of
recording the position, height above the sea, lithological characters,
size, and origin of the more important of the Erratic Blocks of
England and Wales, reporting other matters of interest connected
with the same, and taking measures for their preservation. Drawn
up by the Rev. H. W. Crosskey, Secretary.
Your Committee, in fulfilment of the duty entrusted to them, prepared and
distributed a schedule of questions having reference both to isolated erratic
boulders and groups of boulders, defining boulders as masses of rock trans-
ported by natural agency from some locality more or less remote. The sche-
dule was adapted from one issued by the Edinburgh Boulder Committee
(quoted in the last Report); but it was thought desirable to extend its scope
so as to include groups of boulders as well as isolated specimens, and to
place no limit of measurement to the definition.
As far as possible also the schedule has been made complete, and the ques-
tions asked have been extended to details of considerable scientific importance.
The following is a copy of the schedule issued :—
-
4 Report Brit-Assoc: 1874. Plate 4.
1. Mastodon saurus. 2. [Mastodons auries.
Upper Surface. Under Surface.
aa
eS
\ SSS
=)
}
OO
eo
3. Trematosaurus. 4. Trematosaurus.
Upper Surface. < Under Surface.
oe
Enaraved by Chat Ineram.
442 Report Brit-dssoc: 1674. Plate J,
ae
) ae
i 1. Capito saurus. 2.°Metopias.
Upper Surface. Upper Surface.
:
2. Da sy ceps. 4. Brach wops.
Upper SUIT ace. Opp Hr SUITALE.
; f
Enaraved by Chat Inaram:
Se
— 42’ Report Brit: Assoc 1874. Plate 6.
D
Wa Rhinesaurus 2. Loxaomma,
Bs Batrachiderp etorm. 4.Ba trachiderpetor.
j
Upper Surface. Under Surface.
Engraved by Clngram
orks
Report Brit: Assoc: 1874. Plate 7.
vi Preroplax 2 Keraterpeton
Upper Surface Upper Surface
3. Archegosaurus 4. “Archegosaurus
Opper Surface Under Surface
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. . 193
If there are in your District any (A) Isouatep Erratic Buocgs or Bounpers, or (B)
Groups or Bouupers (i.e. masses of Rock evidently transported by natural agency from
some locality more or less remote), please return this paper, with answers to the following
Queries, to the Ruv. H. W. CROSSKEY, Secretary to the Boulder Committee, 28 George
Road, Birmingham.
(A) ISOLATED BOULDERS.
QUERIES. ANSWERS.
1. Whatis name of the Parish, Estate, and )
Farm on which Boulder is situated? {
adding nearest Town and County, and
any particular enabling its position to
be marked on the Ordnance Map.
2. What are dimensions of Boulder, in
length, breadth, and height above
ground ? :
angular ?
4. If the Boulder is long-shaped, and has
not been moved by man, what is direc-
tion by compass of its longest axis ?
3. Is the Boulder rounded, subangular, 2h
\
. If there are any natural ruts, groovings,
or striations on Boulder, state—
() Their lengths, depth, and number.
(0) The part of Boulder striated, viz.
whether top or sides.
(c) Whether the striations are in the
direction of the longer axis, or at
what angle to it.
an
6. What is the nature of the rock com-
posing the Boulder? Ifit is of a species
of rock differing from any rocks adjoin-
ing it, state locality where, from person-
al observation, you know that a rock of
: the same nature as the Boulder occurs,
. the distance of that locality, and its
bearings by compass from the Boulder. )
_ 4. If Boulder is known by any popular
name, or has any legend connected with
| it, mention it.
8, What is the height of Boulder above ig
sea?
does it mark any boundary of a County,
9. Is the Boulder indicated on any map? or
Parish, or Estate?
the Boulder, please to say how Com-
10, If there is any Photograph or Sketch of \
mittee can obtain it. J
ridges of gravel or sand, or is it iso-
11. Is the Boulder connected with any long
lated ?
12, On what does the Boulder rest ?
el
1874, 0
194 , REPORT—1874.
(B) GROUPS OF BOULDERS.
Though there may be no one Boulder in your district so remarkable as to deserve descrip-
tion, there may be Groups of Boulders.
QUERIES. ANSWERS.
1. What is the name of the Parish, ean
and Farm on which they are situated ?
adding the nearest Town and County,
and any particular enabling their posi-
to be marked on the Ordnance Map.
2. What are the dimensions of the smallest
~ and largest Boulders of the group?
3. Are the Boulders rounded, subangular, |
or angular?
4, If any large Boulder of the group (which
has not been moved by man) is long-
shaped, what is direction by compass of
its longest axis ?
5, If there are any natural ruts, grooving,
or striations on any Boulder, state—
(a) Their lengths, depth, and number.
(4) The parts of the Boulder striated,
viz. whether top or sides.
(¢) Whether the striations are in the
direction of the longer axis, or at
what angle to it.
edly of the same nature asthe Boulders
occur.
[Be careful to ascertain that none of the
Boulders have been brought from
a distance by human agency.|
(6) The distances of those localities and
their bearings by compass from
the Boulders.
7. What is the nature of the Rocks com-
posing the Boulders? and in what pro-
portions do the Boulders of the various
rocks represented in the group occur?
6. State (a) localities where rocks =
8. What ia the height of the group above
the sea?
and what number of Boulders are there
9. Over what area does the group extend?
in the group or per acre?
10. Are the Boulders exposed on the |
face or are they surrounded by any de-
posit? Add any observations explana-
tory of the position in which the Boul-
ders are found. ~ ‘ ‘
LL lteter NR
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 195
The Committee have reason to believe that inquiries are being made on its
behalf in many parts of the country, although the returns at present received
are not sufficiently complete to admit of systematic classification. It is felt,
indeed, that a classified arrangement of the facts can only be attempted when
the investigation approaches its termination, So many speculative theories
are involved in glacial geology, that the greatest service can be rendered by, in
the first instance, collecting the facts from every quarter, afterwards proceeding
to their classification, and finally pointing out the relation of the classified
facts to the various theories under discussion. This is the course which it is
intended to pursue.
The Committee would respectfully ask Members of the Association who
have received schedules to return them with the information desired.
Districts in which boulders are rarest are of especial importance. The
evidence respecting the southward extension of the ice-sheet over England,
or the reach of the waters of the glacial sea, depends largely upon the facts
connected with their presence or absence; while the method of distribution
of boulders over England and Wales will furnish the key for the solution of
many problems.
The necessity for the work of the Committee is increased by the fact that
all over England and Wales the destruction of boulders is rapidly proceeding.
Fields are being cleared for agricultural purposes, while the boulders of many
districts furnish building-material out of which houses and bridges as well as
walls are constructed. It is not too much to say that, in the course of a few
years, some of the most curious and important facts connected with the cha-
racter and distribution of boulders (facts involving the explanation of many
of the phenomena of the glacial epoch) will remain simply matters of record
‘without any possible verification in the field. The importance of a careful
and thorough carrying out of the work of this Committee will be evident, how-
ever long and tedious it may prove to be.
NoRTHUMBERLAND,
The following is reported by Mr. Topley :—
(A) Isozatep BoupErs,
Answers.
1. Parish of Rochbury, Northumberland. Itis marked on the 6-inch map
of Northumberland (sheet 44) as “‘ Main Stone,” about 34 miles west south-
west of the parish church.
2. Length 14 yards, breadth 5 yards, height 4 yards,
N.B. It rests on surface of rock.
3, Nearly rectangular.
4. Longer axis §.8.E. and N.N.W.
5. No markings except natural lines of weathering.
6. Composed of sandstone, Similar sandstone forms the mass of the hill
on which it rests.
7. Called the “Main Stone.”
8. Height above the sea about 1350 feet.
9. Marked on 6-inch map of Northumberland (sheet 44). A township
boundary-mark. 4
11, Not connected with any long ridges of gravel or sand,
YorKsHIRE,
Mr, E, G. Spencer reports a remarkable isolated boulder.
196 REPORT—187+4.
Answers.
1. The isolated boulder lies in the division of Icornshaw in the town-
ship of Cowling, Sutton, in the parishes of Kildwick and Keighley. See
Ordnance Map (185) Yorkshire.
2. At least 20 yards round and some 8 yards high above ground.
3. Angular, but one or two rounded corners.
4, The boulder nearly square, but very irregular. Its longest axis from
east to west.
5. There are some marks, but more like what would appear from washings.
The markings are in the softer parts of the stone.
6. Composed of Millstone-grit, and no rock similar excepting Hanging
Stone Quarry. This stone is within 2 inches of south left-hand corner of
Ordnance Map (sheet 185). Hanging Stone Quarry is 4 to 5 inches north,
so will be near a mile off.
7. Popularly known as Hitching Stone on Hitching Stone Hill.
8. About 1175 feet above the sea,
11. Perfectly isolated; but within some few hundred yards there are others,
but of much smaller dimensions.
12. On heath, and the bottom of stone may be imbedded.
LANCASHIRE.
Two large boulders are reported by Mr. Latham, which he describes as “ap-
parently granite,’ in the lane called Birkdale Cop, Scambrick, Lancashire.
One is much larger than the other, and is 2? x 7} x7 yards, and lies about 23
miles in a direct line from the coast of the Irish sea, and is only 3 of a mile from
the Moss, which lies between the sandstones on the coast and the clay land.
The other is in a brick-yard at Snape, 2 of a mile more inland, and was found
in the clay.
Miptanp District.
In the Midland district the plan suggested by the Geological Section of the
Birmingham Natural-History Society, and described in the last Report, is
being actively carried out. The minuteness of detail attempted will necessarily
render the mapping of the district a work of considerable time. When com-
pleted, a map will exist in which the approximate number of boulders and
the character of the rocks of which they are formed will be shown, as well
as the effect of the configuration of the country on their distribution.
It is necessary to record the general position of the boulders in order to
understand their geological meaning.
In the Midland district, around Birmingham as a centre, the general po-
sition of the boulders may be described in the following way :—The softness
of the Bunter Sandstone of the district has prevented the preservation of gla-
cial strie to any extent; but in one part (California near Harborne) they
have been observed upon the native rock. The striated rock is covered by a
thick clay containing boulders in the sense in which they occur in the oldest
Boulder-clay of Scotland, many being striated.
Upon this old Boulder-clay, covering a glaciated surface, occurs gravel fol-
lowed by a thick clay with many boulders scattered through it, striated spe-
timens being less common and less clearly marked.
This is succeeded by sands and gravels, in which boulders of any size are
far less frequent and evidently worn. Over the surface of the ground many
boulders are spread, any sand and gravel which may at any time have sur-
rounded them having been washed away. These boulders have possibly been
dropped by floating ice over the Midland glacial sea, These facts have been
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 197
mentioned to show that boulders exist over this district deposited at several
ages.
Al) Boulders of the earliest ice period.
(2) Boulders of the period of submergence, in the lower parts of the gla-
cial clays.
(3) Boulders of the period of the reelevation of the land.
These varieties have yet to be traced to their various sources; and upon
this work members of the Committee are engaged. It is as impossible to
assign all boulders to one epoch of distribution as it is to assign all glacial
sands, clays, and gravels to one period.
LEICESTERSHIRE.
Mr. J. Plant reports both remarkable isolated boulders and groups of
boulders, and records one remarkable fact of especial importance. Below the
drift-clay, and quite distinct from the surface-boulders freely scattered over
the county, a group of boulders has been exposed in an excavation made in
the centre of Leicester, 25 feet deep, composed of rocks which Mr. Plant
failed to recognize as British. This group, it is suggested, was deposited by
a stranded iceberg. The fact of the existence of groups of boulders belong-
ing to the earliest part of the glacial epoch and of foreign origin, points to
the submergence of the Midland district in very early glacial times, and is
worthy of detailed investigation.
Mr. Plant states that he looked over hundreds of the blocks as they lay
piled up on both sides of the roadway, and could not recognize one tenth as
“Forest Rocks.” Many were dark hornblendic-looking masses, neither
dolerite or diorite, but fibrous or slaty rather than granular.
All these patches of boulders (and, in the instance reported, Mr. Plant
registered five hundred blocks) are below the drift-clay, and quite distinct
from the surface-boulders that lie all over the country, either on the surface
or 1 to 3 feet below.
(A) Isozarep BovuxpeErs.
Answers.
1. (1) In the “Johnstone Close,” one mile from Leicester, and near
Leicester Abbey. (2) Parish of Humberstone, Leicestershire, on Kirby’s
Farm.
2. (1) In 1806 stood 7 feet above ground, now about 2 feet; depth in the
ground unknown ; oval shape. (2) About same height.
3. (1) Has been shaped roughly. (2) Rounded.
4, (1) Upright on short end. (2) Cannot say.
5. No striations seen on either.
6. (1) May be Millstone-grit or may be Upper Keuper Sandstone; no
rock near like it. (2) Syenite or granite from Mount Sorel or Buddon,
Charnwood Forest, distance 6 miles N.W.
7. (1) Known as the Little John’s Stone or St. John’s Stone. (2) Known as
Hell-Stone. Both have legends connected with them, and one has a festival.
8. (1) About 250 to 300 feet above the sea. (2) Ditto.
11. (1) Has gravel-beds near. (2) Drift-clay.
12. Bottom not seen,
(B) Grovrs or BoutpErs.
Answers.
1. All Leicestershire. Potter’s Hill in Melton, Leicester; forest near
Desford, Hoby, Ratliffe,
198 REPORT—1874,
2. One near Leicester, Victoria Road, at 12 feet deep ; 7 feet x 6 feet, 2 feet
exposed; was not dug out. None under 1 cubic foot.
3. All angular or subangular.
5. Striations, sometimes only one side, in other cases two sides, and often at
right angles; rarely seen on the granite or syenite, but on greenstone and slate.
Erratics of black basalt, not Leicestershire, occur at Hoby, towards Melton.
6. Localities where rocks undoubtedly of the same nature as the boulders
occur—Mount Sorel, Buddon Wood, Bradgate Park, Grooby, and Markfield.
5 to 10 or 12 miles from the supposed source, Charnwood Forest, E., 8.E.,
S., S.W., W. One large group at Long Whatton, near Regworth, is due N:
7. Boulders composed of syenite, granite, greenstone, basalt, chert, moun-
tain-limestone, lias limestone, sandstone, but principally igneous rocks.
8. 160 to 300 and 400 feet above the sea. Never saw any boulders on
the marlstone, which in this county is 600 to 700 feet.
10. Boulders occur on the surface, but generally seen in excavations of 1
or 2 feet; many have been uncovered in lowering the top of a hill or
widening or straightening the road.
Note.—Great numbers of boulders existed over all this county four years ago
6 to 7 feet long, 3 to 5 feet high, particularly in the Leicester forest district,
near Desford. They have been gradually broken up by gunpowder. A large
water-colour representation of the Little John’s Stone, made at the beginning
of the century, makes it 7 feet high. It is now much reduced. In a recent
uncovering of the granite of Mount Sorel a deposit of drift with boulders and
pebbles has been removed, about 8 feet in depth; and the rock below shows
clearly that it was subject to the action of waves. It is rounded and worn
precisely as rocks upon modern shores.
WARWICKSHIRE.
Tn this district a great change occurs, The drift-beds are reduced almost
to beds of pebbles; and local geologists give the name of boulders to speci-
mens which in other parts would not be regarded as worthy of the name.
Striations are faint and rare; the grouping, however, is remarkable. They
come from all parts of the compass (some possibly from Scandinavia); and
metamorphic and volcanic rocks are numerous. Quartzose pebbles with
Lower Silurian fossils are abundant; and it is a question of much interest to
trace their origin.
The Rey. P. B. Brodie makes the following report of groups of boulders :—
Answers.
1. Groups of boulders at Rowington, Hatton, Lapworth, Hazeler, Pack-
wood, Knowle, Preston, Wroxall, Temple Balsall, Eddsone, Brown’s Wood
near Watton Wawen, Baddesley.
2. In Hatton and along line in gravel between Hatton Station and Wilm-
cote many large angular flints occur, and a few flints and some hard chalk are
scattered over fields, and in drift generally. One rounded boulder (Rowing-
ton) measured 13 ft. x 2 ft., and 1 ft. in depth, the average size of large boul-
ders. I have seen some still larger. Boulders are of all sizes (frequently as
large as a man’s head) and are numerous. The still larger boulders are not
so frequent. One large block of granite. Other larger ones occasionally oc-
cur, but I have not measured them. Scattered about here and there.
3. Both rounded and angular.
5. Have observed a few groovings and striations, but very faint and not
numerous ; and on small pebbles in district referred to.
6. (a) Rocks of the same nature occur at Cumberland and Salop, Malvern.
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND AND WALES, 199
(6) I believe they are derived from all points of the compass, some pos-
sibly from Scandinavia, &e. Metamorphic and volcanic rocks are numerous,
The most abundant are the quartzites and siliceous pebbles (Budleigh-
Salterton pebbles) with fossils (Orthis reduw, Lingule, &c.). Carboni-
ferous sandstones and mountain-limestones occur. Not much Lias, and afew
pieces of oolite (Great Oolite and Cornbrash) with characteristic fossils,
In one small field in Rowington numerous oolitic rock-fragments with
chalk and flint and older rocks occur. Felstone (Cumberland or North Wales)
recognized ; voleanic rock (The Wrekin, Salop) recognized ; peculiar amyg-
daloid granite (Malvern ?).
7. Primitive limestone, porphyritic greenstone, trap, volcanic grit, several
varieties of granite, syenite, hard siliceous grit (abundant), pebbles of quartz,
jasper agate (numerous), crystalline and schistose slate, sandstone pebbles,
felstone, dolerite (varieties of).
Chalk (hard and soft, the former predominates), Cornbrash, forest-marble,
Great Oolite, Lias, Magnesian limestone, Mountain-limestone, chert (Carboni-
ferous), Millstone-grit, Permian wood, Calymene in nodule (?), Lower-Silurian
fossiliferous pebbles. All the above are fossiliferous.
See, on the drift in Warwickshire, Proceedings Geological Society and W.
N. Field-Club, 1866, by Rev. P. B. Brodie. Later ‘Proceedings’ will also
give an account of drift near Coventry by Messrs. Whitler. A list and full
account of drift in both, Geol. Proc., 1857.
8. The height of the group above the sea is about 400 feet or more. Can-
not state this positively.
9. In reply to No 1, many miles,
10. Sometimes exposed on surface in fields, and in the gravel (drift) pits
in district.
It must be remarked that the stones called “ boulders” in this communi-
cation are not of the same size and character as the glaciated boulders scat-
tered over Staffordshire and other neighbouring districts. Attention is called
to the quartzose pebbles with certain Lower-Silurian fossils which predominate
in the drift of this district. Orthis redux, so common in Devon and Nor-
mandy, is the most frequent fossil in these pebbles, although fossils are few
and far between. The question raised is whether they really have drifted, or
whether an old Lower-Silurian centre once extended in this direction,
Devon.
Mr. Widger reports travelled boulders at Bishop’s Steignton parish, Lind-
ridge Estate, Coombe Farm near Teignmouth, Devon, from 6 inches to 4
feet in diameter, 300 feet above the sea.
That very great interest attaches to boulders in Devonshire, appears from
Mr. Pengelly’s remarkable description of the granite boulder on the shore of
Barnstaple Bay, North Devon, given in last year’s Report. It is hoped that
Mr. Pengelly will favour the Committee by carrying on his investigations
and contributing them to next year’s Report.
Liayrwst.
Mr. Norris reports as follows :—
1. Boulder at Llanrwst, Gorphwysfa, co. Denbigh, one mile N.E. of town
next to Cae Brachina.
2. (1) Conical stone, height 7 feet 6 inches, greatest circumference 10 feet,
tapers to a point. (2) Height 5 feet, circumference 9 feet.
3. (1) Angular siliceous conglomerate, rough fracture on two sides at right
200 REPORT—1874.
angles, weathered in spurious conchoidal forms. (2) Fine- grained white fel-
spathic stone with somewhat slaty fissure ; rolled on two thirds of its surface,
weathered and fissured on the other.
4. Moved.
Note.—Gorphwysfa is 336 feet above the sea-level on the western slope of
a hill 500 to 600 feet high towards the vale of Conway. The soz of the hill
and neighbourhood is Boulder-clay on the Denbyshire grit and imperfect slates.
All the old walls and hedge-footings have boulders built into them; and the
foundations of my own modern house include a large number, some from Pen-
y-bryn. At Cae-Mellor Farm near ten tons were removed from two acres
in rounded masses reaching a diameter of 3 feet of varica.
6. Conglomerates. On the mountain-top opposite this, between Llanrwst
and Bettwys-Coed, I came across a boulder of red porphyry.
8. Height above the sea 336 feet.
Sixth Report of the Committee on the Treatment and Utilization of Sew-
age, consisting of Ricuarp B. Granta, C.E., F.G.S. (Chairman),
F. J. Bramwe.., C.E., F.R.S., Professor W. H. Corrizxp, .4.,
M.D. (Oxon.), J. H. Girpert, PA.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., W. Hors,
V.C., and Professor A. W. Wittiamson, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.
Durine the past year the Committee has been able to continue its observa-
tions on the amounts of the various crops obtained at Breton’s Farm, near
Romford, but has not been able, from want of funds, to continue the regular
gaugings of the sewage and effluent water, nor to have any more analyses
performed ; so that neither the quantities of sewage and effluent water nor
their composition can be given for the past year.
It has been thought desirable to keep the corresponding Tables numbered
as they have been heretofore; and as Tables I., II., and III. cannot be given
this year, Table IV. is the first, and shows, as it did last year, the kind of crops
grown on the different beds of the farm, the dates when sown or planted,
and when cut or gathered, the total produce, and the produce per acre, with
other particulars, but does not show this year the approximate amounts of
sewage applied, nor the number of dressings which each crop received.
Table Y. is a summary of Table IV., the acreage of each plot being given,
the kinds of crops grown, and the total amount and amount per acre for
each plot; it only corresponds to a small part of Table V. of last year.
From it we see that 2353:43 tons of crops were taken off the farm from
March 25th, 1878, to March 24th, 1874, this being at the rate of 21-7 tons
per acre. In 1872-73 only 1704 tons were taken off, as against 2714 tons
during 1871-72; and this was, as explained in last year’s Report, due
partly to the fact that a much larger amount of crop was standing on
March 24th, 1873, than on the same day in 1872, and partly to the fact
that cereals were much more largely grown in 1872-73 than in 1871-72.
In Table VII. these particulars are given for the past year; and a com-
parison is also made with the two previous ones; from which it appears
that the area actually fallow on March 24th, 1874, was nearly the same as
that on March 24th, 1873, and very much less than that lying fallow on
March 24th, 1872; from which it might at first seem that the amount of
standing crop left on March 24th, 1874, was about the same as that found
on the land on March 25th, 1873, when the year began as far as the records
are concerned ; but it must be observed that the land sown with spring wheat
ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE, 201
is counted as land in crop, so that a fairer comparison of the crops actually
standing is got by subtracting the acreage of the land so sown from the total
number of acres “in crop” each year; thus :—
March 24th, | March 24th, | March 24th,
1874,
1872. 1873.
ist crop 24.2 >: RCN ee 40°49 7°62 89-09
Acreage of spring wheat re-
cently sown .......... 0-00 22°54 38:13
Do. of crop standing ...... 40°49 65:08 50-96
Thus we see that the amount of crop actually standing was less at the end of
1873-74 than at the end of 1872-73—that is to say, that more of the crop
standing at the end of 1872-73 was gathered and reckoned to the credit of
the year ending March 24th, 1874, than is left from that year to be gathered
during the twelve months ending March 24th, 1875.
It should be noticed that as the total of crops for 1872-73 was smaller
partly on account of the greater amount of cereals grown (26°18 acres), the
total for 1873-74 would be larger than it is but for the still greater amount
(38°82 acres) of cereals grown.
Table VI. corresponds with part of Table VI. of last year’s Report; it is,
like Table V., compiled from the particulars in Table IV., the results being
exhibited according to crops instead of according to plots or beds; the total
acreage of each description of crop is given, the total amount of ‘each crop
and the amount per acre, and the estimated amount of nitrogen for each
crop, these estimates being obtained from the same data which were used in
preceding years.
The total amount of nitrogen estimated to be recovered is 22,766 lbs.,
as against 15,704 lbs. in 1872-73: the amount that year was no doubt
exceptionally small, on account of the large amount of crop still ungathered
at the end of the year. The total amount of nitrogen brought to the farm
from the town was shown in last year’s Report to be practically the same
in 1872-73 as the year before, and may be considered to be approximately
27 tons, or 60,480 lbs.
Assuming the same amount for the year 1873-74, there would be 37-6
per cent. of the nitrogen applied recovered in the crops. In 1871-72 the
amount recovered was estimated at 41-76 per cent., and in 1872-73 at
26 per cent. The amount of nitrogen lost in the effluent water this year has
not been ascertained.
To take the total of the three years during which the quantities of nitrogen
have been determined or estimated, it appears that about 168,000 lbs. of
nitrogen have been distributed on the farm, of which it is estimated nearly
58,200 lbs. have been recovered in the crops, or 34:6 per cent.; of the re-
mainder, some has escaped in the effluent water (chiefly in the form of nitrates
and nitrites) and been lost, and some, as shown in last year’s Report, has
been stored in the soil.
In conclusion your Committee feels very strongly the desirability of con-
tinuing these observations (if they are to be made really useful) through a -
series of years, as only thus can a reliable average be obtained, and considers
it a matter of much regret that, for the reason already given, the analyses of
the sewage and effluent water had to be discontinued.
202 REPORT—1874.
Taste [Y.—Breton’s
Statement showing Crops grown from
No. of beds Date when sown or
Plot. (inclusive). Acreage. Crop. planted.
A. 1 to 29 9°8 Cabbage .:.,..0..:.20:-6 ....-| Oct. 1872
= F 98 Baroy) i Nesaaveckai vase ees) June 1873
+ B 98 Italian rye-grass ......... Ht fie Sad |
Total A | ssscusene 2 Scala inc earn meRORR Soe mottingt
B 8 to 16 4°20 Ga bDeiee sas evap ast ethch wus ee Bapl. 1672 .ictestsctset us
1 ra he 2°43 OEM ied a SER oe aha March 1873 ............
” ey 4 *96 Wheat f:.cisccilaceidé ” 5S Mie ent
ij 17 ,, 26 4°54. 3) San aeedae ease eenee ees FY} titi feeansiaedee sat
3 is) 8 147 | Sprouting broccoli ...... AUg. 3 atesetarer
FK At; <5 "97 Brussels sprouts ......... ” sy aihensuseerens
? ee 1°43 Cabbage’....c.sitesscsetucees ” 39 Beebe eeeenee
” 8 “44. Peas) vas. sschgeccaes de eeenes May ” eee eeseeeres
% 9 to 14 2°80 Cabbage-plants ............ AUG Ei Morteuabiges:
f 15 ,, 16 "92 MRTG osesssdssscstesgiches ” 33..q aaendesenemes
re 17 ,, 26 454 WADDAGG,,ostcseescsseceettce Ovt. se Mea
3 II ,, 16 2°78 Peas ..i:.:.. Neri iiere March 1874 ........0665
y I 4, 10 4°80 Fallow.
Potah Bip .jssteeces Che COPS: Peer PCr CCE a reer meme Pe mMETT BESS Gurg58 ia
Cc All. 1°97 | Wheat w.c..ecesssisseees March 1873 .......s000.
i? i 1°97 Cabbage | icit..di2ee....038 ct. » ¢
Total C oosadaegs 1'97 son ae WM ora Fe
D All, 6°93 Italian rye-grass ......... Aug: 3872 a stegrtestes
E 1 to 22 5:76 WALDBZO tetecsesseccgs sane ce Oct. 1872 c.ccsccseeeceee
3 I ,, 16 4°35 A le IS LGLLEPELEEEL June and July 1873 ...
3 17 "24 Cauliflowers ......,... eee] SUNG 1879 jl.cesereresses
i 18 "24. Sprouting broccoli ...... Joon recdl aPaeeeaaes jas
e part 19 "12 MOTOS Gate sc scecstcass thee 3. ah eeemeees sheen
3 sees, 12 Bette 6. Hiss kes ack 7 yj COeaeeeeseaze ty
a » 19 12 Cabbage-plants ............ Augi’: ag iedexsdess teased
4 20 to 22 *69 Mangold ......ceeeeeeeeee May and June 1873...
i Lic. 22 5°76 Wheat casa kas ct te vas. 008 March 1874, ...........-
Total E bevoccece 5°76 Daveenvunccesce = == Ch Re tence ooe
ee
Gen.
ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 203
Sewage-Farm.
March 25, 1873, to March 24, 1874.
Date when cut or Produce. é Raiineks
gathered. Sr
—————_——_ ——.
April to June 1873 ...
Oot 1875 Voi. .s ec... 88
Dec. 1873and Jan.1874
Including 6'94 tons straw.
Sown the day after the barley ; once cut.
Sennen tere neeae
The whole plot under crop at the end
of the year. (Italian rye-grass.)
One third consumed by cattle, waste, &e.
Aug. 1873 .. 4°33 tons straw.
ye Ba kere rere E 9°54 tons straw.
March 1874. ..sec..04. One third hee in or consumed by
cattle.
- Hhosvetdosaft . : One half plbuglied in or benssiciod by
cattle.
Aug. and Sept. 1873... 1 ton straw,
Sept. and Nov. ,, ...
Plants replanted on farm!
Oct. to Dec.
Po eeeeeeeretens
Crop remained March 1874.
» ” ”
der enadeSdeceen 149°56 Part of plot under crop at end of year.
TT mere | cee | ee
Auge 3893 sneer. 3°47 tons straw.
Soisch ccna Crop remained March 1874.
wbcotsogucuspes Plot all under crop: (Cabbage) at the
end of year.
July to Dec. 1873...... Grass ploughedin. Plot fallow; March
25,1874; Mangold sown afterwards.
May and June 1873... One fourth ploughed in or carted to
cattle,
Sept. to Nov. o a bs ” ” ” ”
Oct. 1873. .ssecdsensioeee [* "2
Jan. re Feb. 1874 .. One half leaves, &c., consumed by cattle
or ploughed in,
Oct. and Nov. 1873 ...
WY 1973 20. .sgpma photos
0
wee e weet eeee
eee O Oe ne ees
Crop remained March 1874.
Pete ee eeeeeneee
Plot all under crop of Spring Wheat at
end of year.
204. REPORT—1874.
Taste IY.
No. of beds Date when sown or
Plot. (inclusive). Acreage. Crop. planted.
F 12 to 18 1°48 Strawberries ........- Seesee March to Noy. 1872...
is : eae 1°27 Oats saiers ooo0| ADEE JS 72 eascem sceteae
5 ae a 1°06 WS ANIGV Ghee csnvcnremssian exc 5 A ecorne:
as ee & "85 CaADBARB oc. 5. <cspsngencoss oe Spt igy-.ce sass pamsone
= I, 14 2°97 WCAG coc asesenecasceses--> Feb. 1874 ..... Pere es -
Total F pans eeeae CP ier | ME Ores eres Bas Af me paaiueeanaaas
G 5 to 10& 2°82 Cabbage ...seccsssessseees Sept. and Oct. 1872...
17 x 22
a Delsi it "94 Carrots ...;.... avhatscee March 1873 ....008 be
+ Ir ,, 12 ‘47 CUNIGHG, | cevsss scare saee escent Sept. 1872 s.ssa.cesxesnas
i II 23 Hardy green plants ...... May 1872: scceccesseesne-
9 13&15 to 16 "70 SPMACH na. scapgoe-cnens es Mere or Raaabpece
- 1to8&11 & 12 2°35 Mangold ...........00008 én| OULY j59 Saesteys 0 see
cf 13 to 16 "94 TTUXNAPS os0...,0¢00r 9008 PoMetee Th ooo oe
5 9 10& 141 Sprouting broccoli ...... PTR nC Tad te
17 5, 20
4 21 23 MSPIUBCH «2. te. sacesysp-us aces PE ee or
- $22 "12 MSbiING \.cetes-naseuess« ote May <5. 3, exssnuxuge facts
be 322 12 Cabbage ......sseeeee cacdslQues. igh OSSERRees EE eae
- $22 “12 Hardy greens ...... ooesse] LLY, 5 te peampnasvernteny
i$ 1to 8& 11t012 2°35 Cabbage ..-cecsssseeeevere NOV: gp. uxaxsausseren ee
# 13t016,9&10,) 2°82 Fallow.
17 to 22
Total G booseee 517 Sie Tssceree eRe of evens sweeties
H 1 to 17} Air | ONIONS ....cesseeeeeeeereees Feb. and March 1873...
as 17} 5, 24 2°29 “fy Re ee eo ” 9 eee
a 17% 5, 19 76 Hardy green plants......
a 17% 5 19 76 CADDALO <1. .cscscccostevone
55 20> 55°24 1°53 French beans
5 eng 1°08 Hardy greens... <<
a 6&7 ‘47 Spinach ...cerreceeevees .
5 8 to 24 4°36 Cabbage .........esseeeee:
ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 205
(continued).
Produce.
Date when cut or
gathered.
June to shee 1873
PANE TSF is sacsesaacepnct : : a tons straw.
3 SL beni sen acincisies m r ” ”
eee Rieee 4 | Seed bed.
Mere ceetagl hal aces Saeneel, “IR lena Crop remained March 1874.
tietscseverssss : : Part of plot under crop at end of year.
May to July 1873... : y One third carted to cattle or ploughed
in.
JuneandJuly ,, «.
June 1873 ........ atast ; : The —_ of one bed only ; the other
failed.
Lh Seite Cate ee 3 B
May to July 1873...... 3 One tenth only sent to market; re-
mainder Bren tocattle or ploughedi in.
INOW. 1879 ..ccecsoosveses : ; One sixth tops &c
Sept. to Dec. mars oes
March 1874 ...........+
PANES 0879) 5 sow cos snseuaes
fs gah
AUG) 5, Morcaacs ne
1.0 ee
Bases Kaancics a aay Crop failed.
BLY 18.74. ...ccsasscasecd ; 6
Oct. and Nov. 1 873 -.
JulytoSept. ,,
Dee. 1873 . 7 : .
Oct. 1873 to Mar. 1874 : This crop still remains.
aececastestes * Befecs Bane Fe .
desehacteniosn i : Part under crop at end of year.
Sept. and Oct. 1873...
PATI. V873 1 ....sasescaaus
_ ms
Dee. en to Feb. 1874) : : One fifth to cattle or ploughed in.
etssccncscseces) MEMIMEMEMeece S| seeses Crop remains.
Peer eseweeeeee . see = =— ft ewe ” ”
deddétectoob des i . Plot all under crop at end of year.
206— ' -. REPoRT—1874,
. Tasre IY.
No. of beds Date when sown or
Plot. (inclusive). Acreage. Crop. planted,
K All, 4°44 Ttalian. rye-grass oes Sept, 1872 © sssecsssases
L Part. 122 Mangold ......525.5.......| SLY 1873, coacecsvederies
- 7 "66 Hardy greens .....:1..... jy 0 Nagy Pinemaveae ss oooee
5 7 1°00 PAVOVRrertarcsctestesccssss 3 fy Bedeeeetessasss
Oe ee: Re Ta, | eee ee Cee
M “AIL 3°17 Italian rye-grass ie Sept. 1872 ......eccceoee ;
N 1 to 16 Ars Italian rye-grass ......... March and May 1872..
“- ” 4°15 Barley’ s....dscs.tessaesecsst June 1873 ..cs..ee one
F s 4°15 Italian rye-grass ........, Tali kei eaetes!
PotalN 4] Becssc.. Ais OW Miuseccscce-ccceeg (tet) RNeeOee een
O All. 5°92 Cabbage
” 1to8&10to17 5°55 Hardy greens
- 9 37 Cabbage-plants
+ 9 *37 Hardy greens ...........
55 1t0 17 5°92 PONIGHA™ ../od,..cccerccecncnt
Total O 3d? Oped | UR nacre see 6
P All. 3°50 Wheat ..... Soro Mareh 1873 sssessees vei
- 2 3°50 Hardy greens ......,...., AUG, igs gereperseaeal
-, a 3°50 WVURGHE <2 c.dscenscecostecccl Web. 237A ceases <tiesest
Dota E A Ssccesece 3°50 AE Ao a | fi ce
—E—E———ee
Q 1 to Io 1104. | Cabbage......... Bibaaseacest OGt. 1892. scents scsakeut
3 i.,, 20 2°34. Mangold ....... passes sas ck May 1879 asescne--c cast
9 I 5; 20 2°24. LER Es Feb.'3874: ceeccsssessesit
Total Q eas dee | PP ay eee ; davadteie
R Part. 2°40 LEN 7 Os i ey April 1873 « ...-cse: ae
+ as 2°40 SLUR Se eee Feb. 1874 .ccovceee teGe4i
a of "12 OE) Ray eee JAN. R73 esccnesrescser
Total B | sss 2°52 i es ike.
8 All. 22 Rhubarb ...... seveesneeees| ED. 1873 caeeiee
ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 207
(continued).
ae ee
Produce.
Date when cut or
ga hoetey Remarks.
see e are ewenee
Plot all.fallow at end of year.
sereee
Crop remains; cut eight times in. year.
Grass ploughed in May 1873.
Including straw 3°47 tons.
This grass was set with the barley and
still remains.
March to May 1373...
Boptin TSG9-<cversesrenross
Noy. 1873 to Mar. 1874)
Plot all under crop at end of year.
April to June 1873 .
Oct. to Dec. eae
Aug.and Sept. ,, ..,
JAN, 1874. ceccecssesevees
eeeeeecoers
Transplanted.
“Seer Crop remains,
Plot all under crop at end of year.
URE BY 9 a5 c0525 900055 6:07 tons straw.
Jan, and Feb. 1874 ..
Sih sace=nsctt sbeeee vated Crop remains.
eeeaney exeeneen , 5 Plot all under crop at end of year.
Shererc.cce cde eee Crop remains.
Seatac ; : Plot all under crop at end of year.
Stree i . cooceeae yt eee Crop remains.
Oziers used for bunching greens, &e.
Sewssevevsduwed : 5 Plot nearly all under crop at end o
Crop remains.
208 REPORT—1874.
Taste TV
No. of beds . Date when sown or
— (inclusive). Acreage. Crop. planted.
U All. 2°53 Wheat sie. stecater ess... March .1873: .i..ssscaes
SS > 2°53 Hardy greens ............ Aug. _ ,) & cctcssese
* 4 2°53 WHOEAG ncccsbscttevcesss cre Feb. 1874
otal YW Ga. ccsese. 2°53 Biiuktobsaeasbore lA ee ae Seeeeeeneves —_
Vv Part. 2'93 | Cabbage .......44 Sedeesee] Oct. 1872 Uanemeeates ae
» a 3°00 Scarlet beans............0+ May 1873 ......... Seana
” All. 5°93 Wheat epsiscdssscesestpes. March 1874. .....00s00
Total V manera 5°93 errr TPT TT nae ieee coo.)
Ww All. 2°75 WViicat! Weep sohoosicsswccissees March 1873 ...ss0cesee
” 9 2°75 Hardy greens ....0..0.... Sept. and Oct. 1873...
fi . 2°75 Wheat s.....resscensavscsces March 1874 ...sesssvssa
N.B, The boundaries of plots Q and ¥
(continued).
Date when cut or
gathered.
ME. 1873 .0..05..5. agers
dan. and Feb. 1874 ...
May to July 1873
Ang.and Sept. ,,
see eee
weeeee
Pee ar eeereeeae
Aug. MTS cried sacaczsean
Feb. to Mar. 1874......
eee eer erry
Pere er erry
ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE,
209
Produce.
Total Per acre.
tons. tons.
7°05 2°8
5°62 22
12°67 5°0
58°48 20°0
0°50 2,
58°98 9°9
6°61 2°4
512 I'9
11°73 43
July 1873
July to Noy. 1873
8°99 23
8°99 2°3
2°8
10°7
aye been rearranged since last year.
1874.
Remarks.
4°62 tons straw.
Crop remains.
Plot all under crop at end of year.
This crop was nearly all destroyed by
an accident with the sewage.
Crop remains.
Plot all under Spring Wheat at end of
year.
Straw 4°62 tons.
Crop remains.
Plot all under Spring Wheat at end of
year.
Straw 6°36 tons.
Crop remains.
Plot all under Spring Wheat at end of
year.
One cutting only. Plot used for gra-
zing from July to November 1873.
Quantity grazed computed.
210 ; REPORT—1874.,
Tastz V.—Breton’s Sewage-Farm.
Season 1873-74.—Summary of Cropping Return.
Produce.
Plot, | Acreage. Crops.
Total. Per acre.
; tons. tons.
A 980 | Cabbage, barley, and Italian rye-grass ...|_ 170°$9 17°4
B 12'12 | Cabbage, oats, wheat, sprouting broccoli,| 149°56 12°3
Brussels sprouts, peas, cabbage-plants,
and turnips.
Cc E07. g NAW BGAG «ye cobanasshegddeacs vosQhocarscodscu otters 5°24 27
“D 6:93 -| Ttalianrye-frassygisc..sspesscscnodecessaasos 452°95 65°4
E 5°76 | Cabbage, cauliflowers, sprouting broccoli,| 180°75 314
onions, lettuce, cabbage-plants, and man-
gold,
F 3°82 | Strawberries, oats, barley, and cabbage... 8°69 23
G 5°17 | Cabbage, carrots, onions, hardy green| 159°31 30°8
plants, spinach, mangold, turnips,
sprouting broccoli, lettuce, and hardy
greens.
H 640 | Onions, hardy green plants, French beans,| 64°25 I0°0
cabbage, hardy greens, and spinach,
I 6°67 | Onions, carrots, savoys, and cabbage ...... 64°99 9°7
K 4°44 | Italian rye-grassS ............sec000s panegce soe] §=277°06 62°4
L 2°88 | Mangold, hardy greens, and sayoys ...... 32°66 114
M 3°17 | [talian rye-grass .sssos.cossseseeee Wedweesenses 182°49 57°5
N 415 | Italian rye-grass and barley ........60..4.. 172°44 41'5
(0) 5°92 | Cabbage, hardy greens, and cabbage-plants} 158-79 268
P 3°50 | Wheat and hardy greens ......sssssseceeee "19°50 5°6
Q 2°34. | Cabbage and mangold ............00ecessssees 40°00 181
R 2°52 | Mangold and oziers ...... Meeancoreevss seed 45°82 18'2
rs) Foo! all GRINUUALD, dcnecciveeneses «catoneectecaacesscsesas “17 *g
U 2°53 | Wheat and hardy greens ..s.sy...seceeeees 12°67 570
V 5°93 | Cabbage and scarlet beans ...........cc..008 58°98 99
WwW 2°75 | Wheat and hardy greens ..............s088 11°73 43
x 3°86. | Wheat Worcs .casness Bese racepasnerss «at cous aaees 8°99 2°3
NG 560 | Hay and meadow-grass .....:c.cccsseeeeeeen 75°50 13°5
10845 2353°43 i)
i SSS SSS jj
ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 211
Italian rye-grass
Grass (meadow)
eee een eeeeereeres
Sennen tone eetans
Ceetentone
Perret eeeeeneees
Heenan eeeeereane
seaeeeees 28°49 1112°83
ecb acc: 60°00
f 5°60
nconeene 15°50
teasoeees or12 o"50
Reeenens 43°85 620°02
Rygies oe 17°55 117°00 67 0°25 655 37
easascee 3°29 30°68 93 0°25 172 52
0°97 6°75 08 O25 4 4:1
BER CACEE 3°12 16°34 54 0°25 94| jo
aeencess 0°24 1'25 52 O25 7, 29
bsscands 1'40 10°94.
Pe See 3°44 23°67
Taste VI.—Breton’s Sewage-Farm.
Summary of Crops gathered from March 25th, 1873, to March 24th, 1874,
showing the quantity of each kind of Produce and Nitrogen contained therein.
Total
acreage | Produce of each crop,
of each
descrip-
tion of
crop.
Nitrogen estimated
in crops.
Total.
tons.
Per acré.| Per cent.| Total. | Per acre.
0°54 |13,461] 472
0°54. 726 ig,
4°53 #3'08
; peas “27 “40
“Aa nan 1'00 ; } Ga te
Reisen sieiiacilastnenocsoe 1°36 39°90 | 21°5 o'18 161 87
Seeteanes cer usas ceraske 0°24. 2°62 10'9 o'25 15 63
Bacwesdesvotnesusasecees g'00 164°72 | 18°3 0°25 922] 102
iealjsuveshacostce scence 6:00 47°41 79 0°22 234. 39
=e Ham oe ea en ee
Ssastssaccametgnee iol \sawmh eae bo Be ae th Ae a ge
Ewesersacscuneheteceates 20°11 ~= 3ace8 ee BE } 3,165 58
seeeesoensonseenes 1°48 0°09 0'06 or
i | ° esseee [22,766] 13374
a Ne | Vt ae a pl aE a NR aki! 2
* Crop nearly all destroyed by accident. ad
212
Statement of Land in crop and Land lying fallow on March 24th, 1874.
Plot,
[Hea ade we OH R NAN HON HY Ow P|
Acreage.
9°80
12°12
1'97
6°93
5°76
3°82
5°93
2°75
3°86
5°60
108744
REPORT—1874.
Taste VII.—Breton’s Sewage-Farm.
Comparison.
mn
In crop. Fallow. Total.
acres, acres. acres,
March 24, 1872... 40°49 63°39 103788
» 9» 1873... 87°62" 19°93 107°55
» 97,-«1874.... 89'09*% 19°35 10844
* In regard to this comparison, it should
be stated that the area described as “in
” comprises land sown with spring
wheat.
On March 24th, 1873, about 22} acres,
” ” ” 1874 ” 38 ”
There was no wheat in on March 24th,
1872. The spring wheat being sown in
March, these figures should be borne in
mind in comparing the above.
Aas
ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 213
Secrron I.—Fourth Note on the Dry Earth System.
Dr. Gilbert has supplemented the results given in former Reports by the
determination of the nitrogen (by the soda-lime process) in soil which has
now passed through a Moule’s earth-closet five times. The determinations
were made upon the air-dried manure; but, for uniformity and for fairer
comparison, the percentage is, in each case, calculated upon the soil as dried
at 100° C. The results of the series are as follows :—
After | After | After
Before | After | After using | using | using
used. | USPS | USING | three four five
times. | times. | times.
Percentage of nitrogen in
soil dried at 100°C. .... | 0-073} 0-240} 0-383) 0-446/| 0-540| 0-614
Dr. Russell has also determined the quantity of nitrogen existing as nitrates
in the soil in its present state—that is, after it had passed through the closet
five times ; and he finds it to amount to 0°20 per cent. in the soil as fully dried.
Supposing the whole of this to be in addition to that determined by the soda-
lime method, the total nitrogen in the dried soil would be raised to 0-814
per cent.—still, therefore, to considerably less than-1 per cent. in the fully
dried condition, and scarcely ? per cent. in the air-dried condition. The
Committee must again say “ ‘That such a manure, even if disposed of free
of charge, would bear carriage to a very short distance only.” It may be
observed, however, that the process of emptying was still unaccompanied by
any offensive smell, and that the soil after drying on the floor of a shed
could scarcely be distinguished from ordinary mould.
The ztncrease in the percentage of nitrogen (determinable by the soda-lime
method) in the soil, calculated as fully dried, by each use was as follows: —
After | After | Que | After | After
using | using nines || fede o|o “eee
ir. three four five
once. 1Ce | times. | times. | times.
Increase in the percentage of nitro-
gen in soil dried at 100° C. .... | 0°1670| 0-1427)| 0-0626) 0-0949) 0-0785
The gain of nitrogen as ammonia or organic nitrogen was therefore
considerably greater by the first and second than by either of the subsequent
uses of the soil. The differences observed may probably be partly due to
the differences in the length of time during which the manure was exposed
to dry, and in the temperature of the periods—circumstances which would
affect the degree of further change, and, as one result of this, the amount of
nitrogen passing into the form of nitrates. The general result is, however,
an average gain of total nitrogen of scarcely 0:15 per cent. by each pas-
Sage through the closet. On this point it may be remarked that, if only
two pounds of soil were used per head per day, and as much as one third of
the total nitrogen voided in feces and in urine by an average individual in
24 hours were collected with it in the closet, the nitrogen so added to the
soil would amount to about 0-5 per cent. of its weight by each use, or by
using five times to nearly 2-5 per cent. Probably in practice a larger
214 REPORT—1874,
amount of soil, and a smaller proportion of the total nitrogen daily voided,
would be collected in an earth-closet. The increased percentage of nitrogen
actually found is seen to be less than one third of the amount calculated on
the foregoing assumption. There can, indeed, be little doubt that there is a
considerable evolution of nitrogen in some form; and the probability is that
it takes place to a great extent as free nitrogen.
The Committee would refer to their former Reports (III. pp. 187 & 188,
TV.p. 143, V. pp. 413 & 439) for their opinion of the system in its other aspects
than that of the composition and manurial value of the product.
Report on the Anthropological Notes and Queries for the use of
Travellers published by the Committee, consisting of Colonel Lanz
Fox, Dr. Beppoz, Mr, Franks, Mr. Francis Gatton, Mr.
KE. W. Brazsroox, Sir Jonn Luspocn, Sir Watrer Extior, Mr.
Cuements Marxuam,,and Mr. E. B. Tytor. By Colonel A.
Lane Fox, Secretary of the Committee.
Tuxssz Notes and Queries are the result of a resolution of the General Com-
mittee passed at the Brighton Meeting in 1872, to the following effect :—
«That Colonel A. Lane Fox, Dr. Beddoe, Mr. Franks, Mr, Francis Galton,
Mr. E. W. Brabrook, Sir John Lubbock, Sir Walter Elliot, Mr. Clements
Markham, and Mr. E. B. Tylor be a committee for the purpose of preparing
and publishing brief forms of instruction for travellers, ethnologists, and
other anthropological observers; that Colonel Lane Fox be the Secretary,
and that the sum of £25 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.”
At the Bradford Meeting in 1873 the Committee was reappointed, and
the grant increased to £50, with the view of covering all possible expenses
and producing a work calculated to suffice for the use of travellers for some
time to come,
A report on the progress of the work was made to the General Committee
last year, to which it is unnecessary to refer here. The object of the book
is to promote accurate anthropological observation on the part of travellers,
and to enable those who are not anthropologists themselves to supply the
information which is wanted for the scientific study of anthropology at home.
Similar instructions on a smaller scale have been published by this Asso-
ciation in former years, as also by the Smithsonian Institute, the Anthropo-
logical Society of Paris, the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and
Treland, and other bodies ; but many of them have become obsolete, and are
but little known to travellers at the present time.
The chief defect of most of these works has been their insufficient detail.
It is not enough to publish such general queries as might suggest themselves
unaided to any well-informed trayeller ; what is wanted is to draw attention
to minutiz which might ordinarily be expected to pass unnoticed, but which
are often of the first importance to the student of the different branches of
anthropological research. ;
To this end it has been thought advisable that the questions on the several
sections should be drawn up by different anthropologists, each of whom has
paid special attention to the subject treated,
The work has been diyided into two main diyisions—the first relating to
the constitution of man, physical and mental ; the second to the history and
development of culture, .
Under the first division we haye questions relating to ethnology proper,
ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES AND QUERIES FOR TRAVELLERS. 215
and directed to the acquirement of knowledge respecting the geographical
distribution, migration, and intermixture of the different races of mankind,
as well as the physical and mental capacity of these races for civilization.
Under the second division we haye questions bearing upon the rise and.
progress of the arts, religions, laws, customs, and institutions of mankind,
and the means by which they have been developed and spread by war, com-
merce, and other causes, and including all that comes under the head of the
new science of Sociology, to which comparatively little attention has been
paid hitherto. ink
The whole of the first or ethnological division of the subject has been
intrusted to Dr. Beddoe, with the exception of the section on physiognomy,
which has been contributed by Mr. Darwin, and some remarks on heredity
by Mr. Galton. In Section I. is given a description of the various instru-
ments to be employed in measuring the different parts of the body and
skulls. A description of the parts to be measured is given in Section
II., which includes two diagrams showing the positions in which the
measurements are to be taken, Under anatomy and physiology are in-
cluded questions relating to the internal organism and the soft parts of the
body—muscles, circulation, respiration, temperature, nerves, tissues, &c, In
Section IV., under development and decay, are given inquiries into the
periods of growth, length of life, puberty, dentition, death-rate, birth-rate,
&e. Section V. is devoted to the qualities, mode of growth, and tex-
ture of the hair. Under Section VI. are given instructions for esti-
mating accurately the colour of the eyes, skin, and hair of races. «« Hyen
educated men,” says Dr, Beddoe, “ differ yery widely as to the appreciation of
colours and their nomenclature. Such a term as olive, for example, is used
Wy different observers to denote hues totally different from each other.
oreover, decided colours, such as bright red or yellow, or coal-black, are
apt to attract the eye, and their frequency is likely to be overestimated. It
is therefore most desirable that information as to the colour of the skin, hair,
and eyes should be collected in a systematic manner, by comparing those of
every individual observer with a table of numbered squares showing the
yarious shades of colour graduated from coal-black to the fairest European
flesh-colour, and including all the different hues that are to be found amongst
the races of mankind,” In order that the data of European and foreign
observers might tally as closely as possible in their system of appreciating
these colours, we have adopted the chromatic tables of M. Broca, who has
kindly given his assistance in obtaining the identical shades which he has
employed. These tables occupy three pages of the book.
Passing over two sections relating to the odour and motions of the body,
we come to Section IX. on physiognomy, by Darwin, which includes such
remarks as the following :—‘ General remarks on expression,” he says,
“are of comparatively little yalue ; and memory is so deceptive that it ought
not to be trusted. A definite description of the countenance under any
emotion or frame of mind, with a statement of the circumstances under which
it occurred, would possess much value. 1. Is astonishment expressed by the
eyes and mouth being opened wide, and by the eyebrows being raised? Are
the open hands often raised high up, with the fingers widely separated, and the
palms directed towards the person causing astonishment ? Is the open mouth
in some cases covered by the hand? or is the hand carried to some part of the
head? 2, Does shame excite a blush when the colour of the skin allows it
to be visible? and especially how low down the body does the blush extend?
3, When a man is indignant or defiant, does he frown, hold his bedy and
head erect, square his shoulders, and clench his fists? 4. When considering
216 REPORT— 1874.
deeply on any subject, or trying to understand any puzzle, does he frown or
wrinkle the skin beneath the lower eyelids? 5, When in low spirits, are the
corners of the mouth depressed, and the inner corner of the eyebrows raised
‘by that muscle which the French call the ‘Grief muscle’?” The questions
on this head are sixteen in number.
After a section on “ Pathology” we come to “ Abnormalities,’ which are
natural deformities, and are distinct from Deformations or artificial deformities,
which have a distinct section allotted to them under the division of “ Culture.”
Under the section devoted to the ‘“‘ Senses” are given various tests to serve
as means of comparison, including two pages of the test-dots used for testing
the eyesight of recruits in the British army. By this means a comparison of
the eyesight of natives with that of Europeans can be made. The instructions
for judging distances in use by the army are also given for the same object.
Under the head of “‘ Crosses” are given tables for indicating the racial posi-
tion of mongrels and mestizos, and for estimating the number of return
crosses which restore apparent purity of blood.
Under “ Psychology” special attention is drawn by a series of questions to
the desirability of distinguishing between the effect of European customs
when introduced amongst savages and exposed to contact with native sur-
roundings; and, on the other hand, to the effect of culture upon natives
of the same race who have been removed at an early age from native
surroundings and brought up in European schools.
All the foregoing sections are included under the head of “ Constitution
of Man,”’ and, as already said, are ethnological in their bearings; but with
the adoption of the term anthropology our science has widened its sphere.
It is true that in the old days ethnology did practically include a broader
range of subjects than are comprehended under the strict derivation of the
term “ethnos.” Itis equally true that anthropology has and does at the pre-
sent time confine itself far too exclusively to questions of race. But as the
widening of our science has been coincident with the change of name it may
be well to consider for a moment the causes that may be expected to assign
to race-questions a less important place in our deliberations than formerly.
According to the old dogma, all human life was destroyed by the uni-
versal deluge with the exception of one family; and as the whole of the
existing races of mankind must have descended from one or other of the
three sons of Noah, the ethnological or racial question was of paramount
and immediate importance, and was limited to the determination of the
period, and the causes by which such races as the Fuegians, the Tasmanians,
Australians, or Esquimaux were constrained to change their colour and other
physical peculiarities, and descend to the comparatively low condition in
which they are now found.
Since, however, science has demonstrated the error of this theory, and
has shown that long prior to the supposed era of the deluge the whole
world was peopled by races of beings some of which were, in all probability,
human only in form, and since the researches of Mr. Darwin and others
have shown the great probability of the descent of the human species from
the lower forms of life, the racial question, though still of primary importance,
zoologically considered, has been transferred to the domain of paleontology,
to be determined perhaps by geologists in the far distant future. And as a
line must be drawn somewhere, man’s origin, in the proper acceptation of
the term—man as a progressive being—has become indissolubly connected
with the origin and development of culture. It is to this science of culture
or sociology that Sir John Lubbock, Mr. Tylor, Mr. Herbert Spencer, and
others have of late years turned their attention,
ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES AND QUERIES FOR TRAVELLERS. 217
It has been shown that the rise of culture in man has been one of evolu-
tion, corresponding in all respects with the evolution of those species of
animals amongst which that of man is included, that every art, custom, and
institution has a history of development which is capable of being studied
apart from that of the development of the particular races amongst whom
those customs thrive, and that the attention of anthropologists in the future
will in a great measure be occupied in tracing the sequence of that develop-
ment and the laws by which it is governed.
This is the science of “ Sociology,” the rise of which has been marked by the
conversion of ethnology into anthropology, or the study of man in all its
bearings, and for the prosecution of which far greater accuracy of detail is
required in the description of the social institution of savages and barbarous
races than has been devoted to the subject hitherto. Every work of man’s
hand and brain has now to be studied in its bearings upon social evolution;
just as in the study of natural history every part of an organism and every
variety of species has to be studied in its bearings upon the evolution of
species. The social anatomy of every tribe and race has to be considered
in all its parts, and the questions by which the attention of travellers have
been directed to the several subjects have therefore been classified, as far as
possible, by their affinities, and by their relation to the general results.
Under the head of “ History” it has been endeavoured to collect all the
information that can be obtained from the traditions of the people, and from
inquiries as to their mode of recording events. Archeology is divided into
Paleolithic period, Cave period, Neolithic or Surface period, Megalithic
monuments, Tumuli, &c. ; engravings of the principal types of implements
to be looked for have been contributed by Mr. John Evans, and the attention
of travellers has been directed, by means of a diagram, to the position in
which such implements are likely to be found. When it is considered that
it is only within the last fifteen or twenty years that archeologists have begun
to study in earnest the prehistoric monuments and implements of civilized
countries, and that the antiquities of savage and uncultivated countries are
entirely unknown, important results may be expected from this branch of
inquiry.
The important subjects of food, narcotics, cannibalism, personal ornament,
tattooing, and clothing have been treated by Mr. Franks. War, hunting,
games, archzology, stone implements, circumcision, drawing, and ornamen-
tation, by myself. Deformations, by Professor Busk. Machinery, string,
weaving, dyeing, basketwork, and engineering, by Mr. John Evans.
Medicine, by Dr. Barnard Davis. Trade, money, weights, and measures,
domestication of animals, by Mr. Hyde Clarke. Communications, causes that
limit population, population, and statistics, by Mr. Galton. Contact of
savages with civilized races, by Sir T. Gore Browne. Marital relations,
relationships, treatment of widows, infanticide, and memorial structures, by
Sir John Lubbock. Pastoral and monastic life, by Mr. Howorth. Govern-
ment, laws, and crimes, by Mr. Brabrook. Etymology, arithmetic, morals,
covenants, religions, superstitions, magic, customs, taboo, language, poetry,
writing, by Mr. Tylor. Music, by Mr. Carl Engel. The subject of religion
is treated by Mr. Tylor in great detail, and is divided under numerous sub-
headings.
The work concludes with a valuable section by Mr. Galton, on the mode
of obtaining statistics and striking averages. Many of the questions through-
out the book are of a nature which, from the apparent insignificance of the
subjects referred to, might appear to those ignorant of the requirements of
anthropology unimportant or even childish; and yet from that very cause
218 REPORT—1874.,
these apparently trivial matters, owing to their having been less influenced
by progressive changes, are often of the utmost value in tracing the con-
nexions between the culture of different races and localities.
The necessity which exists for laying the groundwork of our science on
a sounder basis must have struck most of those who have attended the
meetings of this department during past years. Why is it that cur leading
biologists devote their attention so exclusively to the lower forms of life ?
It cannot be because men of science think the noblest study for mankind is
beast kind, but because beast kind is more scientifically treated than man-
kind, especially as regards the branch of descriptive anthropology, upon
which all sound deductions must be based. .
Travellers have usually recorded only those customs of modern savages
which they have chanced to observe; and, as a rule, they have observed chiefly
those which their experience of civilized institutions has led them to look
for. Nor are there wanting instances in which the information thus obtained
has been lamentably distorted in order to render it in harmony with precon-
ceived ideas.
In attempting to trace the distribution of cognate arts and customs, the
anthropologist is perpetually thwarted by the difficulty of distinguishing
between positive and negative evidence, 7. e. between non-existence and non-
recorded existence; so that, to use the words of Mr, E. B. Tylor, it is “ play-
ing against the bank for a student to set up a claim to isolation for any art
or custom, not knowing what evidence there may be against him buried in
the ground or hidden in remote tribes.”
The rapid extermination of savages at the present time, and the rapidity with
which they are being reduced to the standard of European manners, renders
it of urgent importance to correct these sources of error as soon as possible.
It is hoped that the questions contained in this work may be a means of
enabling the traveller to collect information without prejudice from his indi-
vidual views.
To this end it is particularly to be hoped that they will endeavour to
answer the questions as fully as possible, not confining themselves to a
detailed account of those things which exist, but also, by special inquiries
. directed to the subject, endeavouring to determine the non-existence of
others to which attention is drawn*,
On Cyclone and Rainfall Periodicities in connexion with the Sun-spot
Periodicity. By Cuartes Mrtprumt,
Tux catalogue of cyclones experienced in the Indian Ocean from 1847 to
1873, submitted Jast year, indicates that during that period the number of
cyclones in the space between the equator and 34° S. lat., and the meridians
of 40° E. and 110° E., was much greater in the years of maximum than in
the years of minimum sun-spot frequency.
It will now, and in subsequent Reports, be shown that not only the num-
* The Notes and Queries have been published by Stanford, of Claring Cross, and a
notice has been inserted in the flyleaf requesting that any communications from travellers
relating to the queries contained in the volume may be sent to the Secretary of the An-
. thropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, 4 St. Martin’s Place, Trafalgar
Square, London. The names of Mr. John Eyans and Mr. F’. W. Rudler have been added
to the Committee.
t A grant of £100 was made at Bradford to Prof. Balfour Stewart, Mr. J. Glaisher
and Mr. J. N. Lockyer, to assist Mr. Meldrum in conducting meteorological researches
in Mauritius,
CONNEXION OF CYCLONES AND RAINFALL WITH SUN-SBoTS. 219
ber of cyclones, but their duration, extent, and energy were also much greater
in the former than in the latter years, and that there is a strong probability
that this cyclonic fluctuation has been coincident with a similar fluctuation
of the rainfall over the globe generally.
The present communication is confined to the twelye years 1856-67,
comprising a complete sun-spot cycle.
With regard to the cyclones of the Indian Ocean, the investigation is based
upon the extensive collection of observations made by the Meteorological
Society of Mauritius, on the assumption that the observations are so numer-
ous that no cyclone of any considerable extent or violence can have escaped
detection.
A chart has been prepared for noon on each day of the period during
which a cyclone lasted. The chart shows the positions of the vessels, the
direction and force of the wind, the state of the weather and sea, &c. In
this way the position of the centre of the cyclone is ascertained for each
day, Then, by examining the several charts, the duration, extent, &c. of
the cyclone are determined.
- The number of cyclones thus examined for the twelve years is one hundred
and thirteen, and their tracks have been laid down on six charts,
The results of the investigation are given in Table IJ. Column 1 shows
the dates; 2, the number of cyclone on chart; 3, the distance traversed ;
4, the mean radius of cyclone; 5, area of cyclone, or x77; 6, the duration in
days; and 7, total cyclonic area, or Dzr*,
From Table I. we obtain the following general results :—
2
Number| Total | Sum | gi. o¢ |Dura-| Sumof | parts ated id
Years.| of cy- | distance | of areas, ({io,in} total CNA. FORE ment
clones. | traversed. | radii. * | days. | — areas. AFEAR, | || SUn-SRe
numbers.
miles. | miles.| sq. miles.
i856. 6 850 815 | 856,468:5} 20 | 1,221,931:0 1:00 4:2
1857. 5 1850 740 | 354,820:0| 19 | 1,270,130-0 1:04 | 21:6
1858.; 12 3880 1656 | 75,2158; 389 | 2,890,781-7 2:37 50:9
1859.) 14 5640 2026 |1,107,440-4| 48 | 4,809,189-9 394 | 96-4
1860.| 13 8054 | 3131 |2,620,929:9| 61 |13,616,789:7|; 11:14 | 986
1861.| 12 8730 2861 |2,849,552:1| 72 |14,937,699-7| 12-23 74
1862.| 14 6140 2968 |2,406,879°1| 57 |11,370,279-7 9°53 59-4
1863. 9 6320 | 2137 |1,590,155°7| 49 | 7,550,447-3 618 | 444
1864. 7 4920 1341 | 876,628:5| 86 | 4,893,009°5 4:00 46:9
1865. 8 3970 1426 | 904,150-4/ 28 | 3,396,409°1|. 2°78 30°5
1866. 8 3130 960 | 509,961°2| 44 | 2,762,221-2 2°26 16:3
1867. 6 2280 | 881 | 414,985:°5|} 27 | 1,913,845-5 1:57 73
The total cyclonic area in 1860 and 1861 was about twelve times greater
than in 1856 and 1857, and nearly eight times greater than in 1867.
In short, all the factors were greatest in the years of maximum sun-spot
frequency.
It will be noticed that the cyclonic area increased rapidly from 1858 to
1860, and diminished slowly from 1861 to 1866. qs
The registers for the years 1856, 1857, 1866, and 1867 have been exa-
mined with special care in order that nothing might be omitted; and to
give the utmost possible weight to those years, every instance of even an
ordinary gale has been taken into account.
In 1856 there was no great hurricane at all; and the same may be said
of 1857, 1866, and 1867.
220 REPORT—1874.
From the chart for 1866 it will be seen that in April of that year there
was a number of small cyclones. The S.E. trade and N.W. monsoon were
in collision for a considerable time, and several cyclonic eddies of short
duration were formed.
If we could obtain good values of the mass of air in motion and the velo-
city of the wind, it would probably be found that the ratios of cyclonic
energy were still greater than those of cyclonic area ; for the cyclones were
much more violent in the years of maximum than in those of minimum sun-
spot frequency.
Assuming the mass to be nearly proportional to the area, and the velocity
of the wind in a strong gale to be fifty-five miles, in a whole gale seventy
miles, and in a hurricane eighty-five miles an hour, the amount of cyclonic
energy in 1860 was about eighteen times greater than in 1856, the squares
of the velocities being nearly three to five.
Although the results are necessarily rough approximations, yet the fact
that the number and violence of the cyclones of years of maximum sun-spot
were far greater than in the years of minimum sun-spot is beyond all doubt.
There is independent evidence of this, which any one may examine for him-
self. When a great hurricane takes place in the Indian Ocean the disabled
ships are obliged to put into the nearest port ; and the newspapers, in their
‘“‘ Shipping Intelligence,” announce the arrivals of the vessels, the dates and
localities of the bad weather, and the amount of damage sustained.
For upwards of twenty years the ‘Commercial Gazette’ of Port Louis has
published all arrivals of vessels and all maritime events which have been
reported by them. Considering, then, the geographical position of Mauritius,
a cyclone periodicity, if one exists, should be traceable in the “ Shipping
Intelligence.” Now, from Table II., which gives the published reports for
1856, 1860, and 1867, it will be seen that the number of storms and the
damage sustained in 1856 and 1867 were insignificant compared with the
long list of hurricanes and disasters in 1860.
Table III. gives as complete a list of hurricanes and storms experienced
in Mauritius as I have hitherto been enabled to prepare. The list comprises
only such storms as, from the violence of the wind, committed considerable
damage. Taking each maximum and minimum sun-spot year, and two years
on each side of it, we get the following results :—
Number of Number of
Max. Years. Hurricanes, Min. Years. Hurricanes.
GBS: APR ae 1 1723) |: Bee
ZOO” cide nwee ler 1 U75L 1. SMe. dae 1
L7G0G soe ee 1 Via |. «scene if
(01 Dee erin ae if iy 5": SP eS it
yagi ates sxc cnayapatoas Aes 1h GG) a's saiekan ee A
NG awhinwsd « Feved ae 1 7 8G! ose ys igen 1
NVISIS) peterateb te wisdom toes i 1300)... seek tee 1
PZSGie oe eke «aie 1 5 }27, Sy Soy if
PBUG otenios «setae 1 _—
ISLS » woth gets 1 Total cee 8
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Total... Lo
CONNEXION OF CYCLONES AND RAINFALL WITH SUN-SPOTS. 22]
Table I[V., which contains a list of Bourbon (Réunion) hurricanes and gales
from 1733 to 1754, gives the following results :—
Number of Number of
Max. Years. Hurricanes, Min. Years, Hurricanes,
GOGH * iv cthelaetne « « « 7 Sanaa Wii via y
1737 ais 2 aos alae «Siete ce 1
ESS). x Ste gis datas fh 1/27 Se Se Bayete 1
WZ BO). evareiaietes AE 2 AD). cds ocisiPaicornat L
L740, .homeeeeedes oO Ly 2 ee ares a
TS) OA ene ep een nd SE Ele 0c deia saves 4 aces ee 3
THO} ao eae AOA bad ecceimasa sist
17.6) Gee ie 1 ——
EON Ay ee oid ans eter 2 Total . 11
Totall.... 18
For the two islands the number of cyclones in the maxima years was
thirty-six, and for the minima years nineteen. This result is favourable.
It would appear also from Mr. Poey’s researches, and from investigations
made at Mauritius in 1872, that the cyclones of the West Indies are, upon
the whole, subject to the same periodicity.
The rainfall for the twelve years under discussion is given in Tables V.
to IX.
Taking the mean annual rainfall at thirty stations in Scotland, thirty-one
stations on the continent of Europe, and the annual falls at Greenwich, Cal-
cutta, Bombay, Mauritius, and the Cape, we get :—
Continent
Years. 12 reread cag of Europe, |Calcutta. | Bombay.| Mauritius. ty A Sums.
stations.) wich. | 9) <tations, . Hope.
1856.| 37°6 21-9 24:8 64:2 65:9 46:2 21:9 | 282°5
1857.| 36:0 21°4 21:2 69-0 51:3 43-4 22°7 | 265-0
1858.) 37-4 178 22°6 59°8 62°4 35°5 241 | 259°6
1859.| 408 25:9 25-7 68:7 772 56-9 36-7 | 881-9
1860.| 39:9 32:0 27°5 52°6 62:1 45:1 29:1 | 288°3
1861.} 45°83 20°4 23:7 89:1 769 68-7 25:4 | 349-5
1862.| 466 26°5 26:3 73:4 73°6 28°4. 32:0 | 306°8
1863.| 42°6 19°8 24-6 61-1 77°7 334 25°6 | 284'8
1864.; 40:0 169 239 84:2 456 24] 18:9 | 253°6
1865. 35°7 28:7 23-4 616 778 44-7 18°7 | 290°5
1866.| 447 30°7 26°8 65°7 784 20°6 19:2 | 286-1
1867.) 41:5 28°4 29:1 76:7 62:3 36:0 23:0 | 297-0
It appears from the rainfall at sixty-seven stations that the maximum fall
was in the years 1859 to 1862, and the minimum in the years 1857, 1858,
and 1864, We thus find a certain degree of correspondence between the
cyclone and rainfall fluctuations; and it is possible that if we had returns
from America, the correspondence would be much greater; for it would
appear from researches by Mr. G. M. Dawson that the level of the American
great lakes was considerably less in 1866-68 than in 1859-61*.
A large number of additional rainfall returns has been received from
Europe and other parts of the world; and the results, which will be com-
municated in another Report, afford fresh evidence of a Rainfall Periodicity.
* The year 1867 has been almost the only exception to the rule, in Europe, since the
commencement of the century; and as most of the stations are in that part of the world,
the results for 1856-67 are not so favourable as for previous cycles.
1874,
REPORT
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228 REPORT—1874.
Taste II.—Reports of bad weather experienced in the Indian Ocean from
the Equator to 32° 8. in the years 1856, 1860, and 1867. (Extracted
from the ‘ Commercial Gazette’ of Port Louis, Mauritius.)
Date. | Reports. Remarks.
1856.
(|French ship ‘ Auguste,’ from Muscat, expe- /The reports of the ‘Auguste’
| |_ rienced strong N.W. winds; sprungaleak.| and ‘ Alert,’ which appear
No date ...4 |Brig ‘Alert,’ from Table Bay, experienced | in the ‘Commercial Ga-
1 heavy gales ever since ship left the Cape; | zette’ of the 11th of Fe-
(| carried away sails and masts, bruary, probably refer to
the gale of Feb. 1-6, the
track of which is regis-
tered in Table I.*
| Beh, 4-..00.. Brig ‘Ituna,’ in 32° S. and 58° E.P., expe-
rienced a heavy gale from N.W. to 8. and
W. ; carried away cross-jack yard.
» 4-6 .../Barque ‘ Caliphurnia’ experienced strong
southerly winds; no position given.
» 4,5 .../French barque ‘ Parcou de la Barbinais,’ in
24° §. and 57° E.P., experienced strong
winds from southward and heavy sea.
April4 .s.6> The ‘Annie’ met with a hurricane not far |The track of the small cy-
from the island (Mauritius), and on Fri-| clone experienced by the
day night (the 4th) it was most violent.| ‘Annie’ and ‘ Estafette’ is
The vessel was on her beam ends and in| registered in Table I.
the greatest danger. Lowest barometer
28-40 inches.
No date ....,.|The ‘ Estafette’ that left Réunion for Ceylon |This was the cyclone expe-
on the 29th March, met with a hurricane, | rienced by the ‘ Annie.’
and was obliged to put back; dismasted.
She is at St. Mary, repairing.
Oct. 18 ...... The Belgian barque ‘ Fanny,’ in 14° 56! §. |As the log-book of this ves-
and 83° 30! E., experienced a very severe | gel was not received, and
hurricane, ship making much water; car-| her report has not been
ried away three yards and lost several! confirmed, the alleged
sails. hurricane has not been
entered in Table I,
INGOT Ressccs Ship ‘ Her Majesty,’ in 11° 30'S. and 82° 20'
E., experienced a strong gale ; lost fore
topmast, fore yard, and maintop gallant
mast.
» L1.....|French ship ‘St. Michel,” in 5° S. and 89°
E.P., experienced a gale from 8.E.; sprung
a leak,
Dec. 28......|French barque ‘ Augustine,’ at about 150 [No evidence of a cyclone ;
miles from Mauritius, experienced a gale | not entered in Table I.
of wind from N.N.E.; ship sprung a leak;
put back for repairs.
1860.
Jan. 15.,,,.../French barque ‘Louise and Gabrielle, in From January the 10th to
26° 8. and 61° E.P., experienced a severe | the 28th there were three
hurricane, which lasted twenty-four hours; | hurricanes, the tracks of
wind N.E. to N.W.; muinmast carried} which are entered in
away, with every thing attached toit; three | Table I.
boats stove in, a suit of sails carried away,
every thing on deck swept away; bore up
to Mauritius for repairs.
* In the Overland ‘Commercial Gazette’ the dates are given; they were the 4th to the
6th of February.
CONNEXION OF CYCLONES AND RAINFALL WITH SUN-SPoTS. 229
Tas.E IT. (continued).
Date. Reports.
1860.
Jan. 25...... Ship ‘Atieth Rohaman,’ from Port Louis,
”
”
”
”
”
”
bound to Bombay, experienced a violent
hurricane in 18° 8S. and 57° E.; wind
from E.8.E. to W. ; lost topsails, jib, fore-
top gallant and royal masts, &e.
Ub etaasa Barque ‘Stag,’ in 22°.§. and 59° E., expe-
rienced hard gales from E.N.E., N.N.E.,
and N., with heavy sea, much rain, and
Remarks.
ee
lightning.
The ceacs ‘Ship ‘Gulnare,’ in 30°S. and 70° E., experi-
enced a hurricane which lasted ten hours;
barometer 28°40 inches; wind N.E. to
N.W., W.S.W.and S.; sprung a leak, and
lost spars and sails; bore up to Mauritius
for repairs.
Lee Ship ‘Cossipore,’ in 17° S. and 75° E., at
midnight, got into the vortex of a cyclone,
blew and cut away a suite of sails, lost
main topmast, yards, jib, and flying booms,
mizzen topmast, boats, &c.; wind E. to
E.S.E. and W. to N. and N.N.E. Baro-
meter just before the calm 28°32 inches.
104i...: Schooner ‘ Yarra,’ in 20° S. and 71° E., ex-
perienced a very severe hurricane (baro-
meter 28°30 inches, wind E. by 8. to 8.E.),
and all at once fell calm, then recom-
menced at N.N.H.; lost bulwarks, sails,
&e.
27......|French barque ‘Gironde,’ put to sea from
Réunion, experienced a gale from §.E.;
then calm ; afterwards a gale from N.W.;
sprung a leak.
22 ...... American barque ‘ Uriel;’ violent gale from
N.E., with an awful sea; saw a sail astern
under close-reefed topsails making signals
of distress, the Portuguese brig of war
‘Mondego:’ at 4.20 p.m. had received
fifty-seven men in five boats; at 5.30 the
captain, Ist lieutenant, and eight men got
on board, leaving forty-three men in the
wreck; at 6 the brig heeled to port and
went down instantly. © +. -
27 ...+..|French ship ‘Arthur and Mathilde, in 25°
8. and 58° E.P., experienced a cyclone ;
wind E. by N. to N.W.
TO see: Ship ‘ Anglo-Saxon,’ in 17° S. and 63° E.,
experienced all the symptoms of a cyclone ;
wind veering from HE. to N.W. by the S.
IO ies French brig ‘Ibis, in 18° S. and 62° E., ex-
perienced a gale which lasted twenty-four
hours; wind 8.E. to N.W. by the 8.
12-14..|/Barque ‘Anna Henduron’ experienced very
strong westerly gales, with high cross sea.
OD sarees French barque ‘ Bonne Mére,’ in 23° 8. and
58° E.P., experienced a gale from 8.8.E.
14-15..|Brig ‘Woodlark, in 25° S. and 59° E., ex-
perienced a severe hurricane ; wind 8.E.
to W. by the 8.
——--
230 REPORT—-1874,
Tasxe II, (continued).
Date. Reports. Remarks.
Jan. 10....../French ship ‘Bailly de Suffren,’ in 18° 8.
and 63° H.P., experienced a cyclone which
lasted forty-eight hours; wind H. round
to N
», 12,18..|Ship ‘Maria Gray,’ in 20° §. and 65° E
apie acyclone; windS.E.to H.N. E.
and N.W.
sp oes Ship hie in 20° §. and 62° E., experi-
enced a heavy gale which lasted thirty-six
hours ; wind E. to 8.
ee LTE eee Barque ‘Jane Lakey,’ in 24° §. and 65° E.,
experienced a gale from N.E. to N.N.W.,
W.S.W., and S.
» 15,16..|Danish ship ‘ Calloe,’ in 26° §. and 63° EB
experienced a very heavy gale; wind N.
to §.8.W., with very heavy cross sea;
sprung a leak ; bore away for Mauritius
for repairs.
Feb. 14...... Barque ‘ Good Hope,’ in 30° §, and 51° E
experienced a hurricane which lasted fifty
hours ; wind H.8.E. to N.W.
Wi Davee Schooner ‘ Pheenix,’ from Mauritius, bound |In February there were four
to Johanna, in 14° 8. and 56° H,, experi-| cyclones (see Table I.).
enced a gale from 8.E. ; barometer 28°60
inches; wind shifted to southward and
westward, carried away foremast, jibboom,
and main topmast, &e.; bore up to Mau-
ritius for repairs.
FM csc eos French barque ‘ Rosalie,’ in 18° 8. and 69°
E.P.,experienced very heavy weather, with
high cross sea, stove in long boat, started
the cookhouse, &e.
», 24-27..|Hanoverian schooner ‘Johanna,’ in 18° §
and 56° E., experienced a hurricane ; wind
N.E. to N.N.E.; barometer 28:00 inches ;
lost head of foremast, fore topmast, and
top gallant mast, a suit of sails, &. On
the 29th signalled the French ship ‘ Tur-
got’ (put to sea from Réunion on the 25th),
with loss of main and main topsail yard
and sails.
55 RI. cases French barque ‘Chéne,’ in 17° S. and 52°
E.P., experienced a hurricane which lasted
four days; lost mainmast, sails, and
damaged rudder, &e.
jyin LD sates French schooner ‘ Messager du Nossibé,’ at
about 15 miles N.E. of Bourbon, ex-
perienced a cyclone; wind §.H. to N.;
lost mainmast and every thing at-
tached to it; rigging, boats, and rudder
damaged, &c.; bore up for Mauritius for
repairs.
» 24, 25../French ship ‘ Eléonore’ sprung mainmast
and sustained other damage in the voyage
from Tamatave to Réunion.
Mar. 2) ...... Ship ‘ Adelaide,’ in 10° 8. and 80° E., expe- |There was a cyclone from
rienced heavy gales, with every appearance | the 2nd to the 6th of
of a cyclone passing. March (see Table I.).
CONNEXION OF CYCLONES AND RAINFALL WITH SUN-SPOTS,
Tasie IT, (continued).
Date. Reports.
1860.
Feb. 26..... French ship ‘ Alfred,’ from Réunion, lost
mainmast and long boat.
2) ae French ship ‘ Virginie,’ in 4° $8, and 89° E.,
experienced very bad weather, which lasted
five days; wind at W.; sprung a leak;
put in for repairs,
Dorweses Prussian ship ‘ Der Sid,’ in 12°. and 102°
E., experienced a hurricane; vessel hove
on her beam ends; had to cut away the
fore mast. The hurricane lasted twelve
hours.
No date...... Barque ‘ Helen Lindsay,’ in 18° S. and 62°
E., experienced a hurricane which lasted
thirty-six hours; ship hove on her beam
ends, and sprung a leak. Lost bulwarks,
: sails, &e.
GTA ae Barque ‘Teazer,’ in 18° S. and 64° E., ex-
perienced a heavy hurrciane from N.H.,
shifting to 8.E. ; fore and main masts went
by the board, &. Barometer 28:60 inches.
Jenn ee Barque ‘Bessie Young,’ in 24°S. and 65° E.,
had strong winds from S8.E.; a heavy sea
struck the vessel aft; bore up for Mauri-
tius.
May 6 ...... Ship ‘Blue Rock,’ in 15° §. and 78° E., ex-
perienced heavy gales and heavy sea; ship
hove on her beam ends; had to cut away
the main mast; bore away for Mauritius
for repairs. Spoke the ship ‘ Entoclydon’
from Bombay bound to Liverpool; Captain
reported that on the 6th of May he lost his
rudder, and his ship was very leaky.
29 ......|Barque ‘Josephine,’ in 18° S. and 59° E.,
experienced heavy gales from south-east-
ward ; lost jibboom and sails.
30 ......|Barque ‘Queen of the Wave,’ in 18° S. and
67° H., experienced a-cyclone for thirty-
six hours; barometer 29°25 inches; sprung
main topmast, and lost maintop gallant
yard, a portion of the bulwarks, sails, &c.
Wind N.N.E. to 8.8.E.
30, 31..|Oldenburg barque ‘ Fanny Kirchner,’ in 16°
S. and 80° H., experienced very bad
weather, sprung a leak, and had to bear
away for Mauritius.
28, 29../Ship ‘Shah Allum,’ in 11° 8. and 77° E.,
experienced a very heavy gale from §.H.
to N.W., which lasted thirty-eight hours;
sustained no damage.
380 ......|Ship ‘Mary Sparks,’ in 14° 8. and 79° E.,
experienced a hurricane from N.N.E. to
N.E. and 8.E.; had to cut away main and
mizzen masts, as the ship was lying on her
beam ends; lost boats, bulwarks, sails,
Ore Ship ‘Hurricane,’ in 7° 8. and 83° B., ex-
perienced a hurricane, lost sails, yards,
&e.
231
Remarks.
A hurricane from March
the 18th to the 26th (see
Table I.).
No evidence of a cyclone ;
not entered in Table I.
There is not sufficient evi-
dence that this was a
cyclone; it is therefore
not entered in Table I.
Two cyclones in May: one
from the 27th to the
31st, and one on the 29th
and 30th.
232 REPORT—1874.
Tasxe IT. (continued),
Date. Reports. Remarks.
1860.
May 24...... Prussian barque ‘ Heros’ experienced very |There is not sufficient evi-
heavy weather, lost sails; bore up for| dence of a cyclone.
Mauritius on 2nd of June.
OvtroZi Sesser: Ship ‘ Adelaide,’ in 11° 8. and 81° E., expe-
rienced a very heavy gale; wind W.S.W.
to E.N.E.
Nov. 16)....3- ‘Hamburg brig ‘Canoe, from Batavia, 7th
November, experienced hard gale with
heavy sea since leaving the Strait; on
the 18th November bore up for Mauritius
for repairs.
Fae oy ee American ship ‘John Haven’ experienced a |Not having seen this vessel's
hurricane in 10° 8. and 104° E.; wind | log, her hurricane has not
from N.N.E to N. and N.W.; carried | been entered.
away fore topmast and all attached to it,
main top gallant mast, &c.; lost topsails,
top gallant sails, &c.; bore up for Mauri-
tius for repairs.
Oct. 10) san Barque ‘Skimmer of the Waves,’ in 14°S. |There is not sufficient evi-
and 91° E., experienced a heavy gale from | dence of a cyclone.
8.S.E.; sprung a leak; bore away for
Mauritius for repairs.
WD BeNG aa Barque ‘ Waye,. from Colombo, bound for
London, in 8° S. and 83° E., experienced
a hurricane from W.N.W. to N.:. ship
thrown on her beam ends; carried away
mizzen topmast, main topmast, &c. Baro-
meter 28°563 inches.
Pe i ieecney Ship ‘ Helvellyn,’ in 9° 8. and 85° E., expe- | A cyclone from the 4th to
rienced a hurricane from 8.8.W. toN.W.| the 8th December. See
Sprung a leak; bore up for Mauritius for| Table I.
repairs.
» 9-10...|Ship ‘Algeria, in 15° S. and 77° E., expe-
rienced a hurricane;- wind from N.E. to
8.8.E.; lost top gallant masts, flying jib-
boom, and sails. Barometer fell to 27
inches,
TT” caters Barque ‘ Colinda, in 3° 8. and 85° E., ex-
perienced a terrific gale from N.W. to
8.E., which lasted fifty hours.
1867.
Jan. 9-11 .../Steamer ‘Dromedary,’ in 30° §. and 56° E.,
experienced a very heavy gale, with high
cross sea; wind from FE. to N.W.
oy el Giese ‘Rio,’ in 13° 8. and. 70° E.P., experienced |The track of a hurricane
very heavy weather; wind S.S.W. to} from the 15th to the 19th
N.N.W.; bad weather lasted three} January is entered in
days. Table I.
» 15-19 .|Barque ‘Seringapatam,’ in 18° §. and 70° E.,
experienced a very heavy gale from EH. to
S.E. on the 15th, and on the 18th and
19th a severer gale, blowing a hurri-
cane. Barometer 29°38 inches.
earl Serta ‘ Agenosia’ experienced a complete hurricane
from E. to S.E.; barometer 28-80 inches;
cut away fore topmast, taking with it
jibboom and mizzen top gallant mast &c.
CONNEXION OF CYCLONES AND RAINFALL WITH SUN-SPOTS. 238
Tasre II. (continued).
Date. Reports. Remarks.
es |
186
Wom 2... Schooner ‘Jessie Kelly, in 20° S. and 80° [See Table I. for notice of
E., experienced a severe hurricane, which | hurricane from lst to 2nd
lasted twenty-four hours; wind from east-| February.
ward, veering round the compass; lost
about fifty pieces of timber off the deck.
RN gles cass Ship ‘Montrose,’ in 15° 8S. and 79° E., ex-
perienced a very heavy hurricane from
N.E.; barometer (ranging 29°50 inches)
suddenly fell two tenths of an inch; cut
away mizzen top gallant mast; gale lasted
thirty-six hours, ending W. by N.
fr ess... Ship ‘Briton, in 20° S. and 59° E., expe-
rienced a severe hurricane;’ barometer
ranging 29°75 inches; wind E.N.E. to N.
and N.N.W., and shifted to W. and S.W.;
bad weather lasted.
Dac, 17 ...... Barque ‘ Warrior,’ in 27° S. and 59° E., ex- |See Table I. for track of a
perienced a strong breeze S. by E., with | cyclone from 15th to
a dull cloudy threatening appearance;| 18th December.
barometer falling from 29-90 to 29-70
inches; ended with very rainy weather ;
no gale.
» 16......|Ship ‘Crochranges, in 25° S. and 60° E.,
had a gale with threatening appearance ;
at midnight strong gale and very heavy
squalls.
| RSL ee Barque ‘ Formosa,’ in 20° 8. and 65° E., ex-
perienced a severe gale from N.E. to N. ;
no damage.
No date ...... Ship (Dutch ?) ‘ Zeemanschep,’ in 26° S.
and 67° E., experienced a gale which in-
creased to a hurricane, with a tremendous
sea. Barometer fell from 30°10 to 28°70
inches.
Dec. 16-17 .|Ship ‘ Berar, in 24° 8. and 68° E., experi-
enced a heavy gale, with thunder and
lightning ; ship hove on her beam ends;
cut away top gallant mast; every plate,
all clothing, and every book on board
washed away. Barometer 29:30 inches.
ee French barque ‘Carmeline’ experienced a |No evidence of this having
severe hurricane. No position given. been a tropical hurricane.
N.B. I find no mention in the ‘ Com-
mercial Gazette’ of the cyclones of April
and May entered in Table I.
234
REPORT—1874.
Taste IIT.—List of Hurricanes experienced at Mauritius from 1695 to
1848. Compiled from information contained in the Mauritius Almanacs
for 1837 and 1869, and from observations made by M. Ceré, M. Labrette,
Colonel Lloyd, &e.
Year Day and Month. Remarks.
1695 ...... OUR ebruary: decades sscgeenes Hurricane. ae
1723 ...... 23 December ............... Hurricane.
Efe eee 4, Hebruary.....0xa4s-sspessss Hurricane, Public archives destroyed.
Ife Sa eeaeee 8-9 March (:- a anctesat- cesta Hurricane.
vie Seeree OS eek Reeaaaan age kad Hurricane.
Ur) aa [PMB YER Cicer Sarees Con Hurricane.
W760" =... 3: U8 January |; .cccescesscasts-« Hurricane. On Ist December meteoro-
logical phenomenon.
LF SUS err 2” aanqenktacesnee eas’ Very violent hurricane. On 11th June,
1762, meteorological phenomenon,
1766 ...... iain cdnte tos ttl cides Hurricane.
ML ce cast February ...00+..cse0...00 Strong. Much damage.
bs ase se Mian chistes nas senagtas se Velocity of wind 150 feet per second.
MD 2 ae wns March i :c.cseescarsss .....| Hurricane.
iNichinn< hes OVA). tins ctss afediattenletaas Port Louis Church blown down,
786%. .5..% SUMO ioccjcasteedweseteaeet Strong.
ihffete) pam
1789 a 31 December to 1 January | Stronger at Bourbon.
L800"... February ......... cppcr epee Strong.
1806 ...... 3 is ay ae Ras ae Hurricane.
USOT Joes.- 28 SEL AS ae eae Hurricane.
WSUS esses. 19 5a iets wee.-| Storm
1814 ...... 3 Pe Coca thc Storm
“Bande COPA piri iy. oeare nates sea sauens Storm,
SHS araaeee 15 February ; aes. we. ts Hurricane and meteorological phenomena.
Leeds wis 13.15 = OS eile srmenrlasiel Barometer fell to 27 inches 8 lines (French),
itty] oda 28 3 to 1 March ...| Hurricane. Theatre damaged. Barometer
26 2°6 inches.
LUSH) apace 2H JANUATY jcrgpedsensgedesps Hurricane. Barometer 27 inches (Fr.).
55s eens 28 March ...,...0. ieesseestens Hurricane. % 27 inches | line (Fr.).
1824 Tons 28 February ........++e+.....| Hurricane, Royal College partly destroyed.
Barometer 26 5:0 inches.
WB28 Fer .ce- (agg Fogel lk ry Sen cishanndsecdscce Hurricane. Barometer 26 in. 9 lin, (Fr.).
B20 eoses 9-10 February ...........000000- Hurricane. - 27 in. 6 lin. (Fr.).
1834 ...... 20 January ....... ete ccevacs Hurricane. y 27 in. 16 lin. (Fr.).
1836 ...... Dollar chi wevstseocesos sce Hurricane. rs 28-230 in. (Engl*).
1840) veers =A OPA pri weeceecassssbaseueves Storm. F 29:04," Fe Piss
1kSHe “Spano B-8 January veccececssecenneee Hurricane. Great damage.
1848) ...050 7f WEL TE) Secochacendnoonpaeoke Hurricane.
CONNEXION OF CYCLONES AND RAINFALL WITH SUN-SPOTS. 235
Taste IV.—List of Hurricanes and Violent Winds in the Island of
Réunion from 1733 to 1754, From Grant’s ‘History of
Mauritius,’ page 176.
Year. Day and Month. Remarks.
1733 ...... 10-11 December ...| Violent gale from north.
Ait csanes| nee 4 ++,| Very strong wind from the south.
LG: Sarre 9 January ...... Violent wind from the east, which continued to the
15th, when it changed to the west.
By | <<s000|20—29 Pe eae Violent wind, with heavy rain.
«7: ASRS 13 March .....5... Strong gale in the offing, which was rather violent
at Mauritius.
GED) once 26 January ...... Violent wind began at west and changed to east on
the 27th.
TSG? ...006 22-24 stead cesses Violent wind and rain.
Red sneaker 7 February ...... Violent gale.
TOs 203 tee 28-29 January ...... Very violent wind.
enact 4 April .........| Strong gale.
ETS». 050 13-14 February ...... Strong gale from §.E. to S. and §.W.
1739 12 January ...... Partial gale from west.
vo) Bee 22 March ......... Strong gale from northward.
WV4O scsas; 21-22 January ......| Strong gale from south to N.B.
i Poe 28 February ...... A gale at St. Denis, which was not perceived at St.
Paul but by the state of the sea.
<0, Pe 13 March ......... Strong gale from south.
ATED: cveees 10 January ...... Strong gale from north.
WIAD «.0555 8-9 March ...,.....| Strong gale from the south. It did more mischief
at Mauritius.
gat, ...... 9-10 January ...... Strong gale from north, which changed to south.
1745 ...... 12 February ...... Strong gale from north.
WAG. ...0% 19-22 January ......) Violent gale from east to north, After a short
calm the wind shifted suddenly and successively
to west, east, and south.
33 eseeee[ 16-17 February ...... Strong gale, which lasted a short time.
-- rere GiAprilyy scorers: Terrible wind from north. A Portuguese vessel
wrecked.
BTM s00... 11 January ......] Strong gale from N.E. Wind passed to south.
ish ...:.: ING Gate? s<c.cccenrecen: Strong gale.
28 March ...:..... Very violent gale from south.
PPO! |... 05; 31 January ...... Strong gale from north. Very violent at St. Denis.
. ia 4) March... iss.. Partial gale, ;
7a 18-2 EY eee oe A more yiolent gale.
7)... 20 PGee eh jess. A more violent hurricane than any person on the
island had witnessed. The wind was easterly, and
occasioned very heavy devastations.
TDD. vec. ns 4 February ...... Gale from E.N.E., which was not general throughout
the island,
. 21 December...... Gale from north, with violent rain. Two boats de-
stroyed.
BIDS ....%3 12 March ......... Gale from north, which greatly damaged one of the
Company’s vessels.
. eS 26 4, — seeeee...| A gale which drove a vessel out to sea.
Wied ...... 10 January ...... A gale from N.E. to N.N.W., and then a sudden
shift to S.W.
a ae 19-21 April ......... Gales and hurricane, which laid waste the island.
REPORT—1874.
236
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237
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REPORT
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REPORT—1874.
240
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“S189
ON EARTHQUAKES IN SCOTLAND. 241
Fifth Report on Earthquakes in Scotland, drawn up by Dr. Bryce,
F.G.S. The Committee consists of Dr. Brycr, F.G.S., Sir W.
Tomson, F.R.S., J. Brovcn, G. Forses, F.R.S.E., D. Mitne-
Home, F.R.S.E., and J. Tuomson.
Tux period of extraordinary earthquake disturbance in various parts of
Scotland recorded in last year’s Report has been succeeded by one of entire
quiescence. Neither in the Comrie district, where the disturbances have
been in time past both most frequent and severe, nor in other tracts of country
occasionally agitated, has any earthquake movement been known to occur
during the year, such as either to excite the attention of any one or to
affect the instruments.
The seismometer belonging to the Association, placed in the tower of
Comrie parish church, is maintained in a state of efficient action, and carefully
observed from time to time; and a meteorological record is kept in the house
of a local member of the Committee, whose residence is in the immediate
neighbourhood.
As an additional indicator and check upon the seismometer, a set of
upright cylinders are now to be placed in a separate building arranged as
suggested by Mr. Mallet, and of the size and form which he recommends.
A site for this building has been most kindly granted by Peter Drummond,
Esq., of Dunearn, near Comrie, on the private grounds which surround his
residence. The distance from the parish church is about half a mile, and
the site upon a rock through which any vibrations that occur will be freely
communicated from the supposed centre of disturbance, situated among like
rocks about two miles towards the N.W. This building is to be immediately
proceeded with.
In closing this brief Report the Committee have to refer with the deepest
regret to the lamented death of Mr. Peter Macfarlane, which occurred in
June last. Mr. Macfarlane for-many years had charge of the instruments at
Comrie ; and the Committee have had frequent occasion to refer to his untiring
zeal and watchfulness in conducting this inquiry, and to speak in terms of
high commendation of the ingenious mechanical contrivances which he was
enabled to bring to bear upon the methods of observing.
Report of the Committee appointed to prepare and print Tables of
Wave-numbers, the Committee consisting of Dr. Hucatns, F.R.S.,
J. N. Lockyer, F.R.S., Dr. Reynoups, /.R.S., G. J. Stoney,
F.R.S., W. Srorriswoovz, F.R.S., Dr. De La Ruz, F.R.S., and
Dr. W. M. Warts.
Tur work of this Committee is in progress, and the Committee hope to be in
a position to make a full report at the next Meeting of the Association.
Under these circumstances they ask to be reappointed,
1874, R
242 REPORT—1874.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Prof.A.W.Wit11aMson, F.R.S.,
Prof. SirW. Tuomson, F.R.S., Prof. Clerk Maxwett, F.R.S., Prof.
G. C. Foster, F.R.S., F. A. Anet, F.R.S., Prof. Finmmine Jenxin,
F.R.S., C. W. Stemens, F.R.S., and Mr. R. Sante, appointed for
the purpose of testing the new Pyrometer of Mr. Siemens.
Four pyrometers, numbered by the makers 404, 411, 414, and 445 respec-
tively, have been supplied for the purposes of the Committee by Dr. Siemens
during the course of the experiments. In all the instruments the part by
which indications of change of temperature are given is identical, and con-
sists of a length of fine platinum wire doubled back on itself, and coiled upon
a cylinder of refractory fire-clay. The ends of the coil are fastened to stout
platinum wires of such a length that their further extremities never reach a
very high temperature, and these in their turn are connected by copper wires
with binding-screws on the outside of the case of the pyrometer. The copper
wires are enclosed in a stout tube of wrought iron, about 3:5 centimetres in
diameter and about 120 centimetres long, which projects from the furnace
or other space whose temperature is required, and forms a handle and support
for the whole instrument. The part to be inserted in the furnace (namely,
the coil of platinum wire) is protected by a case or sheath, which is fastened
by screws to one end of the iron tube. In pyrometer No. 404 (which, it is
understood, was constructed according to the plan usually adopted by Messrs.
Siemens Brothers previously to the experiments of the Committee) this sheath
was made of a piece of wrought-iron tubing closed at one end, and the fire-
clay cylinder supporting the platinum coil was inserted in it without any
further protection, beyond a packing of asbestos, employed to prevent it
shifting or being injured by shaking. Pyrometers Nos. 411 and 414, besides
an outer sheath of wrought iron similar to that of 404, had a piece of stout
platinum foil wrapped tightly round the fire-clay cylinder, but of course not
touching the coil. In all other essential respects they were exactly like
No. 404. In No. 445, instead of a wrought-iron sheath, a platinum tube
closed at one end was used to enclose the pyrometric coil, so that in this in-
strument, although it had the usual long stem of wrought iron, no part of
the iron was ever exposed to a red heat ; otherwise, it was just like the others.
In all cases the conducting-wires, where they pass up the stem of the instru-
ment, are kept from contact with it or with each other by being inserted in
clay tubes like tobacco-pipe stems,
The indications depend on the changes which the electrical resistance of
the platinum coil undergoes when its temperature is altered. In ordér to
avoid the errors that might otherwise arise from the heating of the leading
wires connecting the pyrometer with the measuring-apparatus, the undivided
current of the testing-battery is conveyed by a wire, which passes down the
stem of the instrument, and is denoted in the diagram by C, to the beginning
of the pyrometer-coil, where it divides into two parts, one of which, after
traversing the coil, is conveyed up the stem and back to the battery by a wire
marked X, in the diagram, while the other part is conveyed by a precisely
similar wire (X) to the standard against which the coil is to be measured.
Thus, in the comparison, the resistance of the wire X, acts as an addition to
that of the pyrometer-coil, and that of the wire X as an equal addition to
the resistance of the standard. To insure that this compensation between
the resistances of the leading wires is as accurate as possible, the three wires,
ON MR, SIEMENS’S PYROMETER,. 243
C, X, and X,, are not only taken of the same length and gauge, but are insu-
lated with a covering of india-rubber and tape and made into a cable of
G. Resistance-coils. b. Testing-battery.
HE. Platinum-silver resistance- g. Galyanometer.
coils. k, Key.
three strands, so that they are all of them exposed to similar conditions as to
temperature, &c.
The most important points to ascertain, in relation to the applicability of
Siemens’s pyrometer to the purposes for which it is intended, were how nearly
the resistance of the coil is constant at a given temperature, and, in case of
its being found to be permanently altered by exposure to high temperatures,
to determine the extent of such alterations. The investigations of the Com-
mittee have been confined to these two points. The whole of the measure-
ments have been made in the Physical Laboratory of University College,
London, by Professor G. C. Foster, or his assistant, Mr. W. Grant, or else by
students working in the laboratory under Professor Foster’s supervision. The
thanks of the Committee are specially due to Mr. Charles Law and to Mr. O.
J. Lodge for their valuable aid thus rendered. The method adopted was that
of the differential resistance-measurer. Two sets of resistance-coils, both of
them adjusted to the British-Association standard, were available for the
measurements. One of them, made of platinum-silver wire, by Messrs. Elliott
Brothers, gave any whole number of ohms from 1 to 10,000; the other, of
very thick German-silyer wire, by Mr. Grant, gave any whole number from
1 to 200. The resistance of all the pyrometers was marked upon them by
the makers as being equal to 10 Siemens’s mercury units at 0° C., and at the
highest temperature to which any of them was exposed during the experiments,
the resistance never rose beyond about 36 ohms; hence the resistances to be
measured always lay within the range of the German-silver coils. In order
to be able to estimate fractions of a unit, the following method was adopted :—
after the smallest whole number whose resistance exceeded that of the pyro-
meter had been found on the German-silver coils, the other set (Elliott’s)
were connected in parallel circuit with these, so as to act as a “shunt,” and
R2
244 F REPORT—1874.,
the resistance was altered until the balance was got as accurately as possible.
It was found that in this way changes of resistance amounting to 0-001 ohm,
or to about + 4, of the quantity to be measured, could generally be detected
without much difficulty. When measurements were made at atmospheric
temperatures, the pyrometers were always immersed in water nearly up to
the junction of the sheath surrounding the coil with the stem, and were placed
in the water at least an hour before the measurement was made. Owing,
however, to the conductivity of the mass of iron forming the stem, it was
impossible to insure that the pyrometer-wire was even nearly at the same
temperature as the water, if this differed much from the temperature of the
air in the laboratory ; and consequently it was thought better not to attempt
to get measurements at a fixed temperature, but to make the determinations
as nearly as might be at the temperature of the laboratory, and to reduce the
results to a fixed temperature by calculation. As 10°C. was approximately
the mean temperature at which the measures were actually taken, this was
adopted as the temperature of reference.
The formula employed for correcting the observations for temperature was
obtained as follows :—A piece of the same German-silver wire as that of which
the 10-ohm coil was made in the set of coils used was immersed in water
and its resistance measured, in one experiment at 17°-6 and 100° C., and in
another, with a slightly different arrangement of the apparatus, at 18° and
100°. These determinations gave for the value of a in the formula
Ye Yio {1 +a (0 ta 10)],
where @ is the temperature of the wire, y, the observed resistance at 6°, and
Y,> the resistance at 10°, the values 0°000306 and 0:000312 respectively. The
mean value 0:000309 was adopted in subsequent calculations. On the other
hand, the following determinations were made with one of the pyrometers,
No. 404 :—
(1) Temperature of water surrounding pyrometer =18°, temperature of
e ” 11x 400 ‘
- = oO. ] = -—_——____ = 7
German-silver coils =19°%1. Resistance 114400 10-7056 in terms of
German-silver standard at 19° 1. .
(2) Temperature of water =91°-6, temperature of standard =19°-8, Re-
13 x 1040
sistance in terms of standard at 19°-8 =734 1040 712840.
(3) Temperature of water =93°-3, temperature of standard =20°. Re-
é z 13 x 1500
eR > Tet .
sistance in terms of standard at 20 =B +1500 = 1? 888.
(4) Temperature of water =18°, temperature of standard =18°8. Re-
3 ; 11 x 401
°°, = aS 7
sistance in terms of standard at 18°-8 =T14- 401719 70638.
The conditions of experiments 1 and 4 and 2 and 3 respectively were so
nearly identical, that each of these pairs was combined to give a single mean ;
this gave—
Resistance at 18° in terms of standard at 18°-95 =10-7060, whence re-
sistance at 18° in terms of standard at 10°=
10-706 (148-95 x 0:000309)=10:7356, . . . . (1)
: Resistance at 92°45 in terms of standard at 18°-9 =12:864, whence re-
sistance at 92°45 in terms of standard at 10°=
12-864 (149-9 x 0-000809)=128994 . . . + (2)
SS ——
ON MR. SIEMENS’S PYROMETER,. ~ 245
Combining the values (1) and (2), we get for the value of 8 in the equation
R,=R,,[1+6(10—24)],
b=0-002764,
and consequently the formula for the reduction of observations to 10° becomes
1+0:000309 (@—10)
1+0-002764(¢—10)
where @ is the temperature of the air inside the box of German-silver resist-
ance-coils, ¢ the temperature of the water surrounding the pyrometer, Ryg
the observed resistance, and R,, ,, the value which would have been found if
both standard and pyrometer had been at 10°,
The same correction was found also to apply to Nos, 411 and 414; but
No. 445 appears to have been made with a different quality of platinum wire,
for its resistance varied with changes of temperature at a perceptibly more
rapidrate. Measurements of its resistance made at 100°5 and at 9°45 (mean
of 9°-25 and 9°-65) gaye for the correcting factor the value b=0-00307, and
hence the formula for correcting the measurements with this pyrometer was
R R 1+0:000309 (6 —10)
Bo 1-E0-00a07 . (t= 10)
The course of testing to which each pyrometer was subjected consisted in
heating it repeatedly to redness and determining its resistance at the atmo-
spheric temperature after cach heating. The source of heat most often used
was the laboratory fire in an open grate without blower; but in some of the
later experiments a small Hofmann’s gas combustion-furnace, with three rows
of clay burners, was employed. Rough measurements of the resistance of the
pyrometers were made while they were in the fire in order to find out approxi-
mately how long the temperature continued to rise, and whether it was about
the same in the different experiments.
It will be seen from the Tables of results which follow that, on the whole,
the later measurements agree better with each other than those made at the
beginning of the trials. This is no doubt to a great extent a natural result
of practice in the use of the methods*, but it is also probably due in part to
the greater sensibility of the galvanometer employed in the more recent ex-
periments. The galvanometer used at first was a thin wire double-needle
galvanometer by Watkins and Hill, of about 136 ohms resistance; this neces-
sitated the use of a comparatively powerful testing-battery (three cells of
Marié-Davy, zinc, carbon, sulphate of mercury), and it was consequently not
always easy to prevent the resistance of the pyrometer being changed by the
testing current. In all the recent experiments a reflecting galvanometer of
very low resistance, by W. Grant, has been used, and a single Smee’s cell has
been used as the testing-battery.
The results of the measurement of each pyrometer are here given in the
order in which they were made, The symbols ¢, 0, Ry, R,,, ,. at the head of
the columns have the meanings already given. G stands for the resistance of
the German-silver coils, and E for the resistance of Elliott’s coils inserted in
Rio, w= Rea
10, 10
multiple arc with G to balance the pyrometer : Gene Ree.
* One point, which was certainly not attended to sufficiently to begin with, was the
importance of avoiding any thermoelectric action between different parts of the circuit,
in consequence of which, when the resistance of a pyrometer was taken within about a
couple of hours of its being taken out of the fire, the result sometimes differed considerably
from what was found next day.
Inde
No.
SOIBO SS SU CS NOS
1874.
Date.
1872.
22nd March.
23rd March.
25th March.
”
26th March.
27th March.
”
”
28th March.
*
7th August.
8th August.
1873.
21st July,
25th Oct.
27th Oct.
29th Oct.
30th Oct.
3rd N ov.
5th ‘Nov.
6th Nov.
10th Noy.
1874.
12th August.
13th August.
Pyrometer No, 404.
Wrought-iron sheath ; coil not otherwise protected.
heated for a short time in the fire before the first measurement was made. |
ti 6.
fo} fo}
0 11:9
10-2 12
85 9:9
Red-hot. as
t 8-7
Red-hot. +
88 10°5
8:8 10-6
8 10-1
Red-hot. ae
9 11:3
85 98
Red-hot. ait
9:5 11:15
96 11:3
10:5 11°5
11:3 12-1
18 19:1
18 18:8
20'1 21°5
10°5 13
105 13°5
Red-hot. a
85 11:5
Red-hot, aa
85 12
Red-hot. ae
10:0 13:0
Red-hot 4hours.} ...
11 13
Red-hot3shours| ...
11:5 13°75
10 13
17:22 18
16°82 17:8
il
ti
11
11
11
This pyrometer was twice
10-7056
10°7063
10°7005
10-481
10°9235
10913
Ryo» 10°
9-911
9-914
9:927
10°102
10:225
10-275
10-291
10-294
10-283
10-295
10:307
10-307
10-309
10:504
10:503
10-447
10-476
10°475
10°578
10-551
10-618
10-633
10-761
10°760
10737
10:737
Observer.
G.C.F.
Pyromerer No. 445.—Coil surrounded by platinum sheath.
38rd March.
4th March.
5th March,
10th March.
11th March,
12th March.
”
12th August.
13th August.
t é.
ie) ie)
10:4 13-0
Red-hot 2 hours.| ...
10-25 ie lcs}
Red-hot 4 hours.! ...
10:3 11:4
9:25 11:0
9:65 11:4
Red-hot 4 hours.| ...
9-4 10-4
7-0 8:0
10:0 8:2
97 84
17:23 18-0
19-91 17-9
10-108
35°D
10-083
B5°D
10-069
10-049
10-058
36'8
10-044
9-983
10-074
10-066
10-239
10-229
Bio» 10°
10-165
10-080
10-064
10-075
10-074
10:064
10:070
10:069
10:070
10:040
10-040
Observer.
Note.—A gas-furnace was employed for experiment 19 with pyrometer 414, and for
experiments 2 and 4 with pyrometer 445, In all other cases the source of heat employed
was a common open fire.
* After this date No. 404 was used for some time by Professor Williamson, and was
heated many times to moderate redness,
Pyrourter No. 411.
Wrought-iron sheath ; coil protected by casing of platinum foil.
a Date, t @...|. Gy.) Ee Rig. | Byoy yo: | Observer.
1873. 4 3
1 21st July. 20:0 21:3] 11] 146 | 10-229 9:988
Py te Red-hot 5 eee AG el aie? 3l He
3. | 22nd July. 22:2 23:3} 11 | 415 | 10°716 | 10-409
4, 29th Oct. 9 11-7 | 11 | 190 | 10:398 | 10:483
Alternately
5 | heated to red-
: : ” ness and cooled
-* four times.
: 6. | 30th Oct. 85 12:0 | 11 | 229:5) 10-454 | 10-504
fe Fi 3 Red-hot 4 hours.} ... | ... |... S33 oe
8 3rd Noy 10 13°3 | 12 | 139-5) 11-049 | 11-053
| Red-hot, a small
quantity of red
9. He oxide of iron call sss “ec ee te
having been put
inside sheath.
10. 5th Noy. 12 13:0 | 12 | 157-5) 11:150 | 11-099
11. a Red-hot 4 hours.} ... | ... age see ba
12. 6th Nov. 11:5 13°75) 12 | 280-5) 11508 | 11-467
1874.
4 13. | 12th August. 17:23 18’ | 12 |1190 | 11-880 | 11-676
14. | 13th August. 16:9 178 | 12 | 885 | 11:840 | 11:646 4,
Pyrometer No, 414.
Wrought-iron sheath ; coil protected by a casing of platinum foil, which was
removed on 25th October, 1873,
Inde
No Date. | z. @ |G | E Rye Ryo 10: | Observer.
7 1873. Pf
il 23rd Jan. 9°6 12:8 | 10 | 990 9:900 | 9920] G.C.F.
r : : Not 9
| 2, | 25th April, 95 {|re,,| | 10,1300 | 9-924 x
3 Pe Red-hot. ae cblinss aaa 32 ar oc
4. | 2st July. 20:0 21-4} 11] 195 | 10-413 | 10-169 3
5 » Red-hot Peet cee | etet (OD Teanlyt a tses W.G.
6 22nd July. 21:8 22:3 | 11 | 472 | 10°749 | 10462} G.C.F
Ve 25th Oct. 10 13:25] 11 } 206°5) 10-444 | 10:454 74
8, 29th Oct. 9 11-7 | 11 | 198 | 10-421 | 10-455 C.L.
9 93 Red-hot 4 hours.} ... | ... 268 36 he FA
10. 30th Oct. 85 12:0 | 11 | 100-5} 10-881 | 10-923 ;
Alternately heat-
W 3 ed and cooled ok 453
four times. , ites
: 11| 8300 0:98 mean
: par Sudhir: 10 aon { i9|'130-5| 10-985 | + 10°907 } i
13. 5th Nov. 11-25 139 | 12 | 184-5) 11-017 |" 10-992 5
14. 6th Nov. |Red-hot4hours.| ... |...) ... a ne ii
; 15. ares oy. 10-25 130 | 12 | 147-5} 11-097 | 11-100 ie
: 16. | 5th March, 10:7 125 | 12 | 144 | 11-077 | 11-064] O.J.L.
, ive ” 10:9 125 | 12 | 145 | 11:083 | 11-064) GCF.
18. | 10th March. 9:0 10:7 | 12 | 186°5) 11-030 | 11:063 | O.J.L. |
19. 33 Red-hot 5 hours.| ... |...) ... | 333 ie 1"
; 20. | 11th March, 75 99 | 12 | 134 | 11-014 | 11-090 ‘iunla |
21. p Cipne 84 10:0 | 12 | 187-5} 11-037 | 11-086 re
22. 7 9-4 87 | 12 | 143:8} 11-076 | 11-090 s |
23. | 12th Augnst. 17:23 18:0 | 12 | 189 | 11-284 | 11:090 W.G.
24, | 13th August. 16:9 17-9 | 12 | 186 | 11-273 | 11:089 5 |
248 REPORT—1874.
From the results shown in the Tables it appears that the effect of repeated
exposure to a red heat for some hours was to cause a considerable permanent
increase of resistance in pyrometers 404, 411, and 414; while the resistance
of 445 was almost unaffected by similar treatment, the experiments showing
in this case a slight fall of resistance. The following Table gives the resist-
ance of each pyrometer at 10° before and after the series of heatings, the total
change of resistance undergone by each pyrometer, and the change of tem-
perature which would produce approximately the observed change of resis-
tance :—
Resistance at 10° C. Change of Equivalent
Pyrometer. resistance at change of
Before heating. After heating. 10° C. temperature.
Be ak re) PAT: 8S
a. a | 9-917 10°749 +0832 430° C,
INO; EY 2...5 eseaseesees 9-988 11-596 +1:608 +58
INH 6 take Sos snngoccos 9-920 11-089 +1169 +43
UNG. 44D an sneusiaaees 10°105 10-059 —0-046 — 15
The amount of permanent alteration undergone by Nos. 404, 411, and 414
would probably be considered excessive even in an instrument to be employed
merely for industrial purposes ; No. 445, on the other hand, though not pos-
sessing the degree of constancy which would be desirable in a scientific in-
strument, is probably more constant than any other pyrometer yet devised
which is capable of supporting equally high temperatures, and would probably
suffice for most industrial applications. The experiments that have been made
do not indicate much tendency on the part of the first three pyrometers to
attain a constant condition : the effect of the later heatings was not decidedly
less than that of the first. They seem, however, to show that the change
of resistance is due to the continued action of a high temperature rather than
to alternations of high and low temperature (compare experiments 5 and7 on
No. 411, and experiments 9 and 11 on No. 414). Hence it appears probable
that the change is caused by chemical rather than by physical action ; and it
has been suggested by Dr. Williamson that it may result from the combined
action upon the platinum coil of the reducing atmosphere existing inside the
iron case and the silica of the fire-clay cylinder on which the coil is wound.
This suggestion is confirmed by the fact, ascertained by Professor Williamson,
that platinum is readily fused, and apparently becomes alloyed with silicon,
when heated in a reducing atmosphere in contact with finely divided silica.
It is also in harmony with the fact that pyrometer 445, in which there was
no iron in the parts exposed to the greatest heat, did not show a greater change
than might be attributed to a slight annealing of the wire. Professor Wil-
liamson proposed, as a means by which the alteration of the platinum might
probably be prevented, to coat the inside of the iron sheath surrounding the
coil with oxide of iron, whereby the formation of a reducing atmosphere would
be made impossible ; and an attempt was made to test the proposal by putting
some oxide of iron into the sheath of 411; it was, however, thought unde-
sirable to let the oxide come into contact with the platinum, and the quantity
which could be introduced without running a risk of its doing so was proba-
bly too small to produce the intended result; at any rate it did no percep-
tible good.
By comparing the results given above, it will be seen that repeated mea-
surements of the same pyrometer, without intermediate heating, often gave
almost identical results if they were made within a few days of each other ;
EXPERIMENTS ON SURFACE-FRICTION. 249
but that measurements made after an interval of a few months, even when
the pyrometer had not been heated in the mean time, sometimes differed deci-
dedly from the results previously found. Possibly such changes may be due
to alterations of the unsoldered connexions of the conducting-wires ; but, what-
ever their cause, they would probably be met with in actual practice if the
pyrometers were used during long periods of time.
Report to the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty on Experiments
for the Determination of the Frictional Resistance of Water on a
Surface, under various conditions, performed at Chelston Cross, under
the Authority of their Lordships. By Wit4114M Frovupn, F.R.S.
[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.]
(Puates VIII.-XII.)
Second Report*.
Chelston Cross,
13 December, 1872.
As in the Report on the subject handed in in August last, the results of the
investigation will be presented under three principal aspects :—
(1) The law of the variation of the resistance, in terms of the variation of
the speed. :
(2) The law of the variation of the resistance, in terms of the variation
in the length of the surface.
(3) The nature of the variation of the resistance, in terms of the variation
in the quality of the surface.
It will be seen, however, that, as exemplified by the results now presented,
no less than by those presented in the former Report, the three laws are more
or less interdependent.
In this concluding part of the series it was sought to give completeness
to the determination of the effect of quality, in what may be termed its
practical extremes of smoothness and of roughness. The experiments com-
prising the completion of the trials made with a tinfoiled surface on the one
hand, and one coated with rough sand on the other, represent these extremes.
The list of materials used in forming the surface includes (1) tinfoil;
(2) hard paraffine, laid on thin and scraped perfectly smooth (this was also
used as a substratum on which to lay the foil, the medium of adhesion being
a thin coat of tallow) ; (3) blacklead, polished on the paraftine; (4) unbleached
calico; (5) three varieties of sand, differing from one another in the coarse-
ness of grain. The sands, of graduated fineness, were in turn sifted on to a
paraffined surface, having been previously sufficiently heated to melt their
way into it and become fixed there.
There was, as might be expected, some difficulty in securing identity of
quality (1) throughout the length of each individual surface, and (2) (a for-
tiorz) in the planes of different length. Of the smooth surfaces, the scraped
paraffine, naked, was perhaps the most uniform for all lengths; of the rough
* For Preliminary Report vide Report of Brighton Meeting, 1872, p. 118.
250 REPORT—1874,
ones, the calico. But in each case pains were taken to secure uniformity,
and no difference of perceptible amount was permitted.
A tolerably correct perception of the different degrees of roughness ob-
tained with the roughened surfaces will be conveyed by the full-size photo-
graphic representations (Plate XIT.).
In forming all the surfaces care was taken to avoid abnormal roughness,
and to eliminate the effect of thickness of cutwater and of stern-end or run,
the ends of all planes being formed as shown in plate 3 of the previous
Report. In the case of the calico, a fine entrance was obtained by placing a
sharp tin cutwater, 1 inch long, over the seam at the front edge of the
plane; the calico was also carefully closed round the tail, and a fairly fine
run secured.
The results obtained are shown in full detail in the accompanying dia-
grams, four in number, which, as in the former Report, represent them
seriatim, as finally reduced, in two separate forms. In one form (series 1,
Plates VIII. & IX.) the abscissee or measurements along the base line repre-
sent speed; in the other (series 2, Plates X. & XI.) they represent length of
surface. The corresponding ordinates in each case represent resistance.
In the first-named series, each of the successive lengths of surface has a
group of curves assigned to it, corresponding with the various qualities of
surfaces, and exhibiting the law of resistance in terms of speed of surface.
In the second-named series, each of the successive speeds of surface has a
group of curves assigned to it, corresponding with the various qualities of
surface, and exhibiting the law of resistance in terms of length of surface. In
each of the diagrams, curves showing the results given by a surface coated
with shellac varnish are given as a standard of comparison, the former ex-
periments having shown that this quality of surface might be regarded as in
some sense a standard quality—it being easily laid on with invariable
quality, and being practically identical in respect of resistance with Hay’s or
Peacock’s composition, smooth paint, or tallow. These standard curves are
copied from the diagrams which accompanied the former Report.
The planes used in the experiments were, as before, about 19 inches wide ;
but the resistances shown for each length are those of the entire length of
surface, assuming it to be of parallel width, and to expose to the frictional
action one square foot of surface per foot of length.
Tt will be seen that the diagrams of each form are deducible from those of
the other,
The results are shown in a more compendious but necessarily less complete
form in the accompanying tabular statement (p. 251).
This represents the resistances per square foot due to various lengths of
surface, of various qualities, when moving with a standard speed of 600 feet
per minute, accompanied by figures, in smaller type, denoting the power of
the speed to which the resistances, if calculated for other speeds, must be
taken as approximately proportional.
Under the figure denoting the length of surface in each case, are three
columns, A, B, C, which are referenced as follows :—
A, Power of speed to which resistance is approximately proportional.
B. Resistance in pounds per square foot of a surface the length of
which is that specified in the heading—taken as the mean resist-
ance for the whole length.
C. Resistance per square foot on unit of surface, at the distance
sternward from the cutwater specified in the heading,
EXPERIMENTS ON SURFACE-FRICTION, 251
Length of surface, or distance from cutwater, in feet.
2 feet. 8 feet. 20 feet. 50 feet.
me, G. | 0. tae foes | Col As! B.C. AL | Bal C
IVEIMALD, ©. coos coseneaenss | 2°00} *A1 |°390 || 1°85/-325 |-264 || 1-8 5/-278 |-240 || 1-83):250 |-226
Paraffine ...0...5 1.03. 1°95] °388 |°370 || 1°94)°314 |-260 |] 1°93/'271 |-287 |! ... |... |...
MEEREQUG So cdsostisc cence 2°16} °30 |:295 || 1°99|-278 |-263 || 1-90)262 |-244 || 1°83/°246 |-232
@aligg: oi <cesseeesscdeinss| 1°93| °87 |°725 || 1-92)°626 |-504 || 1-89)-531 |-447 || 1°87)-474 |-423
HATE) BAUIC:. cs ccdasca93 > 0% 2°00) ‘81 |690 || 2°00)*583 |-450 || 2°00)480 |-384 || 2°06)-405 |-337
Medium sand ......... 2°00, ‘90 |°730 || 2°00)°625 |*488 || 2°00!534 |-465 || 2°00|-488 |-456
Coarse sand ............ | 2°00}1°10 |°880 || 2°00)°714 |-520 || 2°00)"588 |-490 || ... |... |...
Looking at the subject in its practical aspect, the results exhibited in the
diagrams and tabular statement may be regarded as literal facts, ascertained
with great care and exactness by reiterated experiments, the close mutual
accordance of which was instanced and sufficiently attested by the diagrams in
plate 4 in the series which accompanied the former Report, in which the
points deduced immediately from the experiments are shown in connexion with
the ‘fair lines” drawn through them ; and no difficulty deserving of notice pre-
sents itself in reference to the practical employment of the results, except
that, when the probable resistance of a more or less rough surface is to be
estimated, discrimination must be exercised in selecting, among the qualities
of surface used in the experiments, that which best serves the purpose of the
intended comparison.
Looking at the subject in a speculative aspect, however, certain features of
the results present perplexing anomalies.
It is true that the tabulated powers for each quality are, as may be seen,
very nearly the same, whatever be the length of the surface, presenting only a
slight tendency to a decrease in the “power” as the length is greater; and this
difference is not unsuggestive. And again, if in each case, taking the
resistance at 600 feet per minute as a basis, the resistances at other speeds
be calculated from this according to the tabulated power, they will be
found almost in every case to agree very closely, throughout the entire
line, with those shown in the diagram; and this to a singular degreo as
regards what is treated as the surface of standard quality—namely, the
varnished surface.
But the regularity here exhibited gives additional weight to the discre-
pancies which appear in other aspects of the effect of quality of surface, and
some of these seem extremely anomalous; for whereas on comparing the sur-
faces of tinfoil and again that of scraped paraffine, both of them extremely
smooth, with the slightly rougher and, consequently, more resisting varnished
surface, we find that the rougher surface follows the lower power of the speed
—the power being 2-0 for the tinfoil, 1-94 for the paraffine, and 1°85 for
the varnish ; we find, on the contrary, in the comparison between the compa-
ratively smooth varnished surface and the far rougher and far more resisting
surfaces of calico and sand, that the rougher surface follows the highzr instead
of the lower power of the speed, the power being 1°85 for the varnish, and
1-93 and 2-00 (in one case 2:06) for the calico and sand respectively.
The case of the tinfoil is very remarkable: with a very short plane its
resistance is little more than half of that of the varnished surface ; yet, possibly
252 REPORT—1874.
owing to the combined effect of the greater power of the speed to which the
resistance is proportional, coupled with its less rapid declension in terms of
length of surface, with a length of 50 feet the mean resistance of the tin-
foiled surface is barely less than that of the varnished surface, and its
resistance per square foot at the 50th foot is the greater of the two.
It is true that this apparent anomaly probably in part depends on the fact
that the coating of the longer surfaces with the foil was not so easily effected
as that of the shorter, and therefore perhaps their smoothness was less perfect
and their resistance somewhat increased ; yet, making every reasonable allow-
ance for this, the anomaly is still remarkable.
Again, no rational explanation presents itself of the differences in the law
of variation of resistance in terms of length, exhibited by the rougher and
more highly resisting surfaces. The resistance, for instance, of the medium
sand alters disproportionately little towards the end of the plane, nor do any
of these resistances exhibit as marked an excess of decrease in that direction
as might have been expected. Partly, no doubt, this is owing to the diffi-
culty in securing uniformity of coating; but also, it must be admitted, that
the law which really governs the decrease has yet to be discovered, though it
can hardly be doubted that it depends somehow on the current created by the
passage of the surfaces.
I shall conclude the Report with some remarks on what appears to me to
be the rationale of the declension of resistance in terms of length of sur-
face.
It is certain that any surface which, in passing through a fluid, experiences
resistance, must, in doing so, impress on the particles which resist it a force in
the line of motion equal to the resistance. Now, we cannot regard a fluid as
anchored to the shore or bottom by lines of tension or of thrust which are
snapped or crushed by the force which causes motion ; but, on the contrary,
we must assume the resistance offered by the particles of fluid to be purely
dynamic, and to be dependent on and correlative to their weights and the
velocities imparted to them.
This being so, it is quite certain that the operating force, which (whatever
be its amount) must be precisely equal to the resistance when the speed is
steady, will in each unit of time, say in each second, generate a given definite
amount of new momentum, estimated in the line of motion, in the system of
particles on which it operates. The force must, in fact, generate some-
where and somehow in the surrounding fluid the momentum which exactly
corresponds dynamically to the universal law connecting force and mo-
mentum.
That law may be expressed as follows :—
If F be the force in pounds which operates in a given direction,
W the weight operated on in pounds,
V the velocity in feet per second,
t the time of action,
32-2 ft.
g the force of gravity =
1” >
Fgt
ant ar
then V W
For the momentum, therefore, we have
WV SEG ides os oe os 05 G) O (1)
and this is equally true, whether it be the result of a small force acting
EXPERIMENTS ON SURFACE-FRICTION. 253
on a large mass, or vice versd, or of a single force acting on a succession of
masses.
The expression, therefore, quantifies the momentum which must be gene-
rated in each second in the surrounding fluid, by the transit of a surface the
resisting force of whichis F. In some shape or other, there must be left behind
it, in each second, new momentum to that extent, existing either in the shape
of a narrow and rapid current, or a broad and slow one, or one of graduated
speed and corresponding volume.
This last supposition is clearly the most reasonable one, and it is approxi-
mately in visible accordance with fact; and, without speculating on the modus
operandi by which the motion is communicated, it becomes easy by help of
this supposition to put an approximate value on the breadth of the current
produced under any given circumstances.
It will be seen presently that if the surface is long, the current thus esti-
mated must be of considerable breadth ; and if this be so; instead of finding
it difficult to explain why the resistance per square foot grows less as the
length is increased, the perplexing question is, how the rate of declension is
so slow. For a little reflection obliges us to see that it is the motion of the
surface relative to contiguous particles, and not relative to distant ones, that
governs the resistance ; and if these contiguous particles are already possessed
of considerable velocity, concurrent with that of the surface, their resisting
power must plainly be impaired.
When we proceed to trace the genesis of the momentum in detail, as it
must exist in the completely generated current left behind by the surface, if
we select at any point an element or strip of current parallel to the line of
motion, and possessing the velocity v in feet per second in that line, we see
that in that element the quantity of matter newly put in motion per second
will, at that point, be a portion of the strip, (V—v) feet in length (that being
the length left behind by the surface), while the velocity impressed on it is v ;
and if all the dimensions be in fect, taking the depth of the current parallel
to the surface as unity, and the thickness or breadth of the element as dh
(hk being the distance from the plane of the surface), we shall have for
the weight of the element, dw =o (V—v) dh, & being the weight of a
cubic foot.
- Now if we assume that the current possesses a velocity =V at the plane
of the surface (that is to say, that the particles in contact with the surface
have the same speed as the surface), and that where h=H, then also v=0,
the intermediate gradation of speed being uniform, we have
vV@= h)
Ns sep 2
hence
dw= ove dh ;
H
and if M be the momentum,
aM=vdu= 9" “(H—A)nah :
oV?(Hh? he
we M=tr(--3);
254: REPORT—1874.
and if h=H, we have, for the complete current,
M= sve ;
and this must equal Ft, as given in equation (1) ;
or, since ¢=1",
Fy= sve,
or, since salt water weighs 64 lbs. per cubic foot, so that o=64, and g=32:2,
we may write the equation with sufficient exactness
Von
a ae
3F
or, as the extreme breadth of the current, H= ve"
If we apply this to the 50-ft. varnished surface, having a speed of 600 ft.
per minute, or 10 ft. per second, which had the definite resistance of
12-5 lbs., we have
H='375 ft., or about 43 inches ;
and this was not far from the truth, though, as it is not easy to obtain an
exact measurement, the agreement must not be represented as more than
approximate.
But if the surface had been 500 feet instead of only 50 feet in length, and if
we could assume the same resistance per square foot to be retained through-
out the length, the current would be 3°75 feet broad, and the velocity, to a
sensible distance from the surface, would be not far short of that of the
surface; and we should have to encounter the paradox that under these
circumstances the surface when enveloped in a favouring current more than
3 feet in breadth, and having, for a breadth of many inches, scarcely less
speed than the surface itself, would be experiencing the same resistance as
when entering undisturbed water.
If we suppose the law of distribution of velocity through the current to be
different from that assumed in the above investigation, so as to allow particles
having much less velocity to be near the surface, the breadth to be assigned
to the current must be on the whole much greater, and the method by which
the velocity could be thus distributed would be difficult to conceive.
However, we do in fact see that the current is greatly disturbed by eddies ;
and these, no doubt, furnish a machinery by which the distribution of velo-
city is modified—the modification being of such sort that relatively undis-
turbed particles are being perpetually fed inwards towards the surface from
the outer margin of the current; and it is by this agency alone that the
resistance throughout the length of surface is so little reduced as these ex--
‘periments prove: though, on the other hand, it seems to me certain that
unlimited elongation of surface must nevertheless be accompanied by an all
but unlimited reduction of resistance. At least it appears impossible to con-
ceive a system of eddies such as to bring undisturbed particles across a current
of unlimited width into close proximity with the surface, and in such quick suc-
cession, as a sustained scale of resistance would imply.
Practically, however, although these experiments do not directly deal with
surfaces of greater length than 50 feet, they afford data sufficient to enable us
to predict with tolerable certainty the resistance of surfaces of such lengths as
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Mekiism Sarid. Cecrtantinal
ON INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING THE SPEED OF SHIPS, 255
are commonly met with in ships. For it is at once seen that, at a length of
50 feet, the decrease (with increasing length) of the friction per square foot
of every additional length is so small that it will make no yery great difference
in our estimate of the total resistance of a surface three hundred feet long,
whether we assume ‘such decrease to continue at the same rate throughout
the last two hundred and fifty feet of the surface, or to cease entirely after
fifty feet ; while it is in effect certain that the truth must lie somewhere
between these two assumptions.
Second Report of the Committee for the Selection and Nomenclature of
Dynamical and Electrical Units, the Committee consisting of Professor
Sir W. Tomson, F.R.S., Professor G. C. Fostrr, F.R.S., Professor J.
Crerk Maxwett, F.R.S.,G. J. Stonny, F.R.S., Professor Firmmine
JenxKIN, F.R.S., Dr. C. W. Simmens, -.R.S., F. J. Bramwetn,
F.R.S., Professor W. G. Apams, F.R.S., Professor Batrour
Stewart, F.R.S., and Professor Evernrt (Secretary.)
Tae Committee on the Nomenclature of Dynamical and Electrical Units have
circulated numerous copies of their last year’s Report among scientific men
both at home and abroad.
They believe, however, that, in order to render their recommendations
fully available for science teaching and scientific work, a full and popular
exposition of the whole subject of physical units is necessary, together with
a collection of examples (tabular and otherwise) illustrating the application
of systematic units to a variety of physical measurements. Students usually
find peculiar difficulty in questions relating to units; and even the experi-
enced scientific calculator is glad to have before him concrete examples with
which to compare his own results, as a security against misapprehension or
mistake.
Some members of the Committee have been preparing a small volume of
illustrations of the C. G. 8. system [Centimetre-Gramme-Second system]
intended to meet this want.
On Instruments for Measuring the Speed of Ships. Memorandum of
Mr. Frovupr’s Experiments in relation to the Pressure-Log, with a
Description of the Apparatus employed*. The Committee consists of
W. Frovupe, F.R.S., F. J. Bramwewy, F.R.S., A.\E. Frercusr,
Rey. E. L. Bertuon, James R. Napier, F.R.S., C. W. Merri-
FIELD, F.R.S., Dr. C. W. Siemens, F.R.S., H.M. Brunet, W. Smita,
Sir Witx1am Tuomson, F.R.S., and J. N, SHoonBrep.
(Puates XIII. & XIV.)
Ir seems best to begin by stating broadly the results which appear to have
been established, reserving till afterwards the description of the apparatus
and the details of the several experiments.
* The experiments must be regarded as strictly elementary.
256 REPORT—1874.
(1) If a plane be moving edgeways
through the water, and the end of a pipe
connected with a _ pressure-gauge be
brought square through the plane and
terminates flush with the surface (fig. 1),
the motion of the plane causes a small
positive pressure within the pipe, amount- SC
ing to about :04 of the pressure due to
the speed. If, however, the end of the
pipe be not very exactly flush with the
plane, this positive pressure is increased
when the rearward edge is the projecting
part (fig. 2), and is diminished, or even
becomes negative, when the position is
reversed (fig. 3). If the end of the pipe
is flush with the plane, but has its in-
ternal edge slightly rounded off (fig. 4),
the positive pressure caused by motion of
the plane very nearly disappears.
SVS aw
SSS
If the end of the pipe be closed by a | Fig.3
disk forming a smooth fiush end with a Ef
small aperture in it (fig. 5), there is no ————__}___}... a
SSSA LBSSSS
appreciable positive pressure caused by
the motion of the plane; nor is positive or ssssss
negative pressure caused when this disk
forms a slight angle with the line of
motion, whether facing forward or facing
sternward (figs. 6 & 7), unless the angle
is considerable (say some five degrees or
80), a very much larger angle than pro-
duced considerable effect of this kind with
the open-mouthed pipe. ,
The pipe with which these results were 2
Line of Motion re
=
IN NSANLT SASS SSS
SSSssg7
obtained was about 4 inch diameter, and
the speeds used ranged from 280 to 600
feet per minute.
(2) In acylindrical tube projecting into
the fluid at right angles to the line of SGGSSSS%
motion, with the end closed but with a
hole in the side, the angle of position of
the neutral point, referred (that is to say,
measured circumferentially from the fore-
most side of the cylinder) to the point
where the pressure is not affected by the
motion, depends considerably upon the
relative diameter of the tube and the hole
in it. The greater the relative diameter
of the hole, the greater is the angle of
position of the neutral point. Thus the
angle of position of the neutral point in a
tube 1:1 inch external diameter, having
a z)-inch diameter hole, seems about
40°°5; that of the same tube with a hole GW] FFARR
i
ON INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING THE SPEED OF SHIPS. 257
z; inch diameter is about 43°; and that of a tube 3 inch diameter, with
a hole 4, inch diameter, is about 45°°5.
The position of the neutral point was also in these experiments sensibly
affected by some unknown condition, dependent apparently upon the degree
of projection of the tube into the fluid, and which I think may possibly have
been of the nature of a vibration of the tube. Of this I will here merely
say further that it prevented a precise determination of the degree to which
the neutral angle is affected by close proximity of the hole to the end of the
tube.
(3) The maximum positive pressure (which was obtained, of course, with
the hole pointing directly in the line of motion) falls slightly short of that
theoretically due to the speed, and is apparently unaffected either by the size
of the tube or of the hole init. It appears also to be unaffected by the
above-mentioned unknown condition, being practically identical under all
conditions, except when the hole approaches close to the end of the tube
(within, say, a distance equal to the diameter of the tube), in which case the
pressure is found to diminish.
(4) For some distance on either side of the neutral point the pressure
decreases nearly uniformly, with uniform increments in the angular departure
of the hole from the line of motion. The rate of decrease is about -04 of the
maximum positive pressure for every degree of angle. At angles of more
than 50° the column was always unsteady, and it was impossible to obtain
accurate measures of it; but the observations show consistently a maxi-
mum of negative pressure at somewhere about 70°, and then a decrease
of between one third and one half of the maximum negative pressure
between 70° and 90°. From 90° to 180° the negative pressure remains about
uniform*.
The amounts of these negative pressures, besides being, as already men-
tioned, rather indefinite in consequence of the fluctuations of the column,
are sensibly affected by the unknown condition already referred to, and
therefore it is impossible to speak positively as to their absolute amount.
(5) A hole in the stopped end, instead of in the side, of the pressure-
tube (the tube being set as in the experiment for side pressure) gives a con-
siderable negative pressure, varying in amount according to the position of
the hole in the disk which closes the end of the tube. In the case tried,
the tube was 1-1 inch external diameter, the hole was ,4, diameter, and
was eccentric in the disk by about half the radius of the tube. It was
tried at a speed of 6 feet per second, corresponding with a direct pressure of
-56 foot; and the negative pressure recorded when the hole was nearest the
forward edge was ‘64 foot. When it was 180° from this position (7. ¢. nearest
to the rearward edge) the negative pressure was ‘29 foot; and this appeared
to be the position of minimum negative pressure. The maximum negative
pressure observed was 67 foot, and was at 45° from the foremost position.
At 90° it was -64 foot, and at 135° was -41 foot.
I proceed to describe the principal features of the apparatus, and the mode
of trying the experiments.
The fundamental parts are as follows :—
* The diagram, Plate XIV., shows the pressure for all angles between 0° and 180? under
three of the different conditions tried. The curves thus presented, between 0° and the
neutral angle, somewhat resemble curves of sines. ‘The degree of resemblance is indicated
by the companion lines shown in fainter dots, and which are true curves of sines. It may
be observed that the wider the neutral angle the greater is the departure from the com-
panion curve.
1874. 8
258 REPORT—1874,
(1) A covered tank or water-space, 278 feet long in all, about 228 feet
of this being available for the run. The water is 36 feet wide at
the surface and 10 feet deep.
(2) A railway suspended from the framed roof, dead straight and dead
level, at a height of 19 inches above the water, the space between
the rails being quite clear, and the rails being traversed by an end-
less wire rope.
(3) A small double-cylinder engine to drive the truck, fitted with a special
governor, and capable of assigning to the truck a series of definite
steady speeds (if required, indeed, any definite steady speed) between
100 feet per minute (about 1 knot) and 900 feet per minute (or about
9 knots).
The above-named elements are also the fundamental parts of the apparatus
used in the experiments which I am carrying out for the Admiralty in the
investigation of the resistances of ship-models of various forms at various
speeds.
For the purpose of the present experiments, there was attached to the
truck an additional apparatus, represented in Plate XIII.
It may be serviceable to observe at starting that, with a view to many
(perhaps sufficiently obvious) points of convenience, the principle adopted
in the arrangement of the pressure-gauge is one in virtue of which it might
be termed a “ sympiezometer ”—the variations of pressure to be recorded
being, however, not those of the atmosphere, but those of the pressure of
the water on the open end of the instrument, that is to say, on the pressure-
hole. It is true that were the pressure of the atmosphere to vary during any
individual “run,” that variation would enter into the result; but this is
a condition which, because of its inevitably infinitesimal character, may be
safely left out of the account.
The following references will assist in explaining the arrangement.
Fig. 1 (Plate XIII).
A A, A’ A’, Longitudinal timbers of the truck-frame.
B. Transverse timber of truck-frame.
aa, A stout standard, bolted to the main cross bar.
bb, A shallow headstock (as it may be called) like that of a lathe, securely
screwed to the foot of aa.
ec, A vertical cylindrical steel arbor, which is capable of sliding vertically
through a pair of collars which revolve (without endways-motion) in
the bearings afforded by the headstock. The arbor can be clamped to
the lower of these collars by a pinching-screw at any level which its
length permits—that is to say, with a travel of 10 inches.
dd. A sort of “chuck” or screwed hollow nozzle, to which the various
pressure-pipes used in the experiments are fixed by a union collar, so as
to be thus carried concentrically by the arbor. As the first step in filling
the system with water, the air which this chuck contains is wholly
exhausted by a mouth-pipe which leads out of the highest part of the
interior.
ee, An india-rubber pipe which conveys the water to the indicating part of
the apparatus. This pipe is long enough to allow the arbor to be ad-
jJusted vertically (so as to vary the depth of immersion of the pressure-
hole) and circumferentially (so as to allow the hole to be presented in
any required direction relative to the line of motion). The pipe leads
ON INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING THE SPEED OF SHIPS. 259
out of the lower part of the hollow or chamber in the nozzle, so that
any bubbles of air which may enter the pressure-pipe become im--
pounded in the upper part of the hollow, instead of rising in the
pressure-pipe.
jf f. The pressure-pipe. The pipe here shown is the largest of those used,
G9:
hh.
and it is in the lowest possible position. The range of vertical adjust-
ment is indicated by dotted lines.
A disk 16 inches in diameter, divided to degrees, and, by a vernier, giving
tenths of degrees, fixed to the lower of the two collars in which the
arbor slides—-the collar, namely, in which the arbor is clamped so as to
define its level. The collar, with the divided disk attached to it, can
be clamped in any required circumferential position, so as to secure the
pressure-hole in the required position relatively to the line of motion.
The glass index-tube, forming a connexion between the pressure-pipe
and the vacuum-chamber, and provided with scale for reading the. level
at which the water stands.
jj. The vacuum-chamber. The required degree of exhaustion is pro-
kek.
duced in it by the descending leg of a siphon. It is connected at the
top with the external air by a vertical india-rubber pipe, and with the
siphon by a horizontal one, either of which can at pleasure be closed
air-tight by a clamp.
The siphon, consisting of a water-chamber and a descending pipe.
The lower end of this pipe is turned upwards, and is closed by a cork
while the siphon-chamber is being charged with water through an
aperture with screwed stopper at the top. When the chamber is fully
charged, the cork is removed and the water descends, raising the column
on the other side above the top of the glass: tube. The india-rubber
connexion with the vacuum-chamber is then closed, and air is admitted
to the latter through the india-rubber pipe at the top, until the water
assumes a convenient zero-level. The vacuum-chamber is effectually
‘jacketed ” with paraffine, so that changes of atmospheric temperature
do not rapidly affect its interior.
tl. A plane surface or deck (of thin board, 14 x 19 inches) for restraining
the surface of the water, so as to prevent the formation of waves and
the consequent dissipation of pressure, and give additional stiffness to
the pipe and the arbor which carries it. The deck is securely bracketed
to a pair of transverse bars, carried by vertical slides which are attached
to the side-frame of the’truck, and which are firmly clamped when the
deck is brought to the required level. The brackets which carry the
deck can be adjusted on transverse bars, and are finally clamped to them
(like the saddle of the rest on the bed of the lathe) when the deck has
been duly adjusted to the pipe. The drawing shows the deck as fixed
at its working immersion.
As the hole in the deck is necessarily large enough to admit the
largest pipe, and as it is convenient that the fit should be easy while
the adjustments are being made, each pipe is provided with a detached
stout plate through which it slides with a close fit,. and which by a
suitable arrangement is firmly clamped to the deck and blocked by
wedges on all sides so as to support the pipe effectually, and, more-
- over, prevent the admission of air behind the pipe, which at high speeds
would affect the negative pressure in the rear. To exclude the air with
still greater certainty, a “wall” of tin encloses the sides and rear of
the tube above the plate (acting as a water-trap), so that the hole through
82
260 REPORT—1874.
which the pipe passes shall be always gorged with water when the
apparatus is in motion. Thus the leakage, if any, which the suction
in the rear of the pipe creates is satisfied by water instead of air.
mmm. The brackets, transverse bars, and vertical slides, forming an adjust-
able framework.
The details of these arrangements will be readily understood by inspecting
the drawing, including figs. 2 & 3 (Plate XIII.).
In the tabulated statement of experimental results (p. 261), the diameter
of the tube used, the diameter of the pressure-hole, its level above the end
of the tube, and the immersion of the end of the tube below the surface of
the water are fully stated.
It is obvious that, under the arrangement described, the changes of pres-
sure indicated by the rise and fall of the water in the glass tube include not
only that due to the difference in the height of the column, but also that due
to the small variation in the tension of the air within what has been called the
“*vacuum-chamber.” This circumstance has to be taken account of in the
interpretation of the observed results, and involves a calculation, which,
however, is readily made, in terms of the ratio of the diameter of the glass
tube to the capacity of the vacuum-chamber. Taking account of the
dimensions of the parts, the correction is made by adding 15 per cent. to the
observed change of column. This correction has been made throughout in
framing the table, and the figures there given may be accepted as expres-
sing the true pressures in terms of head of water at about the temperature
of 60° Fahr.
The adaptation of what has been called the water-deck was found to be
absolutely necessary after a few preliminary trials had been made without it.
Indeed, as the depth to which the pressure-pipe could be immersed was of
course limited, it had from the first been. a question how far the pressures
on the apertures would be affected by the proximity of the free surface of
the water—since the natural stream-line forces, which would have existed
in their completeness had the immersion been of unlimited depth, would
inevitably tend to resolve themselves, to some extent, into some kind of wave-
motion or surface-disturbance ; and the first few preliminary trials led to the
suspicion that this cause was producing effects of tangible magnitude, and to
the belief that they might become very great at high speeds: a trial was
therefore made at a speed of 900 feet per minute.
The effect of this speed was so remarkable as to deserve notice, if only as
affording a striking exhibition of some of the forces inherent in stream-line
action.
The end of the pipe was immersed 21 inches, the pipe being 14 inch in
diameter.
Immediately in front of the pipe, and embracing its anterior surface, the
water rose in a thin sheet, which was shattered on the underside of the
divided disk. In the immediate rear of the pipe the exact state of the water-
surface could not be very clearly discerned, because the conoidal sheet of water
which shot upwards from the sides of the pipe, and was broken up by the
framing of the truck, fell in such a “heavy rain” as to obscure the view;
probably, however, the water-surface was opened in a deep “ gash” nearly
to the full depth of the tube’s immersion. .
The most striking phenomenon was that which appeared at a small distance
sternward ‘in the wake.”
At about 3 feet astern of the tube the “gash” had become closed by
261
ON INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING THE SPEED OF SHIPS.
Table of Results of Mr. Frovpn’s Experiments with the Apparatus described in his Memorandum.
Distance | Depth of “
zal Diameter |of pressurelimmersion F aan pontine” Pressures recorded for various “angles of position” (that is, angular distances of hole from front side of tube)
of pressure pt sure) hole from |, of lower | ¢ yressurelof “netitral at a speed of 6 feet per second.
tube; ole. ee = iy en - eine | point.” The several “angles of position” head the several columns.
in. in. in. in. in, ic 0° 10° 20° 30° 50° 55° 70° 90m |e Leap? 180°
(1-42 0:05 4 16 12 374 549 506 a0 bn nie es — 496+, —345F) ... — 368
| 1-42 0:05 4 13 9 374 048 = oes = soe aes — 502 | —-368 < — 379
ie yl be 0-15 4 16 12 39°3 556 +528 eee wie sts ie —'552 | —'379 oe -—'379
La tae ne ae re ty ae es i nis 5 ns —770 | (t) — 787 | —-528
“ae "Ud . ‘0 ¢ E eee eee eco eee wen ade eae eee oes
1-42 0-05 12 15 3 38:0 B49 eo san oe me sos — 476 | —-368 oes —°370
1-42 0-05 12 21 9 36:4 546 ais Bt 70 ee oe —'632 | —404 Tee —620
142 | 005 | 12 15) |= 2B | o88d “Saab le a, am ih “i ieee er ey a is
142 | 005 | 12 18 6 373 | +549 + +: ai uf - =5a0e “ys =i ‘s
1-42 0:05 4 13 9 376 545 ae Str aes me we — 505 | —'345 eee —368
1-42 0:05 4 19 15 36'9 552 R.. wer oes “39 eae — 511 | —:379 wa — 414
1-42 0:05 1 16 15 35:2 538 ase << oe S5¢ ors — 804 | —-747 26 — 575
1-08 0:05 12 15 3 373 047 Ree nee ae oor “ine —‘dd1 | —-414 Rie —402
1-08 0:05 12 21 9 36:1 542 a oe Sa = ave — 666 | —-534 wee —'O75§
1-08 0:05 4 13 9 38:2 651 Rs wee ane — 269 fs —'494 | —-356 eels — 379
1-08 0:15 4 13 9 40°6 D47 Sas oe Sed —'225 a —d17 | —391 Sc —'373
108 0:05 i 7 6 37:3 545 pi awe Suc — ‘292 om —'572 | —414 oar —402
1:08 | 0-05 0-5 7 65 37°3 “531 tee it oe —296 |... —609 | —425] ... — 437
108 0-15 0:5 7 65 39°5 DSL 1% 2 =f — 255 Es a am pF —
108 | 0-15 4 7 3 429 | -550 | (535 | -484 | 271 ae — 930 | =-368 | —-218 | —-241 | =-218
1:08 | 0-05 4 7 3 405. =)" 549 5 |e “2. 402 ts ms —-264 | —333 | —-218 | —-224 | —-207
05 0:15 4 7 3 45°5 549 “a pe 326 sire —:225 | —460 | —333 | —-333 | —322 |
N.B.—The pressures are throughout given in decimals of a foot, and give the true pressure, not that actually read off the instrument. The theoretical head or
pressure due to 6 feet per second is ‘536 feet.
* These results were obtained before the ‘“ water-deck ” was fitted. + Really taken at 674° and 874° respectively.
+ Less than —-800, but could not be read off, being below the index-tube. § Really taken at 1774°.
262 REPORT—1874.
the gradual meeting of the side streams which had bounded it : from this point
to about 7 or 8 feet further. sternwards there rose vertically a central wall
of water, the crest of which, in its side elevation, had a parabolic form (as
far as could be estimated by the eye), the highest part of the ridge being
certainly over 2 feet above the natural water-level ; its sectional form was
tolerably discernible when it was looked at endways, and was not unlike that
of an ordinary fountain issuing from a circular orifice ; the thickness increased
as the upward velocity lessened, till at the crest the water spread laterally in a
kind of mushroom form, and fell in streams on either side. These streams
in side view formed ragged sheets, through which the central wall of water
could be seen at intervals.
The disarrangement of forces which at high speeds took so intensified a
form would of course produce results of sensible magnitude at smaller speeds ;
but it seemed that a tolerably effective remedy would be supplied by the
application of the water-deck which has been already described.
This was so arranged that the depth of its immersion could be varied
within moderate limits. If too little immersed it would not sufficiently re-
strain the surface-disturbances, or might allow the intrusion of air. If too
deeply immersed it might produce stream-line forces of its own, though its
under surface was plane from end to end and truly horizontal. Eventually
it was found to produce least disturbance when its underside was immersed
about Z of an inch, and at this level it was maintained during the subse-
quent experiments. The area of the deck was 19 inches in length and
14 inches in width.
One valuable purpose which the deck served was to give additional steadi-
ness to the tube. Some collateral experiments showed distinctly that the
pressure in a long tube of small diameter underwent most abnormal dis-
turbances ; and though it can hardly be said with confidence that tremor
would account for these, it is the only condition which suggests itself as a
possibly relevant “vera causa;” and even in the experiments which are
reported, there are certain discordances which may possibly be attributable
to the same cause, though the tubes used were stiff and were pretty rigidly
held at the deck level: the discordances or unintelligible differences were
felt, not in the maximum pressure delivered on an aperture exactly facing
the line of motion, but in the pressure exhibited in the experiments relative
to the position of the neutral point and to the negative pressures.
In performing each experiment the aperture was set in the required direc-
tion and the apparatus clamped. The zero of the pressure-scale was brought
to a convenient level according as a negative or positive pressure was to be
expected. The zero was recorded; andthe mean height attained by the water
in the tube was also recorded when the steady speed was attained.
Partly because time did not permit the extended variation of conditions
which was desired, partly because, at higher speeds, increase of tremor (or of
the unknown cause of irregularity whatever it may be) was to be appre-
hended, the speed adopted throughout the tabulated experiments was 360 feet
per minute.
After these explanations, the details of the tabulated statement must be
allowed to speak for themselves. It does not, however, contain the record
of the experiments with the pipe-end flush with the underside of the deck,
or of those made with the hole in the stopped end of the ordinary pressure-
tube, because the particulars were not readily reducible to the form of the
table. The results were therefore fully stated in the prefatory matter.
The series of experiments requires extension in many directions which
ON INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING THE SPEED OF SHIPS. 263
are at once obvious: one of the most important of these is that which
relates to the effect experienced by a pressure-tube when arranged as a log,
from the stream-line disturbances which the passage of a ship’s hull intro-
duces into the relative speeds of the water surrounding the various parts of
the hull.
It is hoped that this latter investigation, and perhaps all the others that
are required, may be introduced as part of the series of experiments on
the forms of ships which I am conducting here for the Admiralty, since the
two subjects are inherently and closely related to each other, But the
introduction of the experiments now reported has under present circumstances
been, in effect, an interruption ; and though the interruption was permitted,
it has been carried to the full limits of the permission.
Incomplete as the experiments are, they tend, I fear, to confirm rather
than to dissipate the difficulties which have to be overcome before the pressure-
log can be accepted as supplying the greatly desired object, an independent
and self-justifying measure of a ship’s speed.
The inventors whose plans have been before the Committee have, I believe,
felt the difficulties forcibly. Mr. Berthon* and Mr. Napier have indeed
expressed their belief that it was unsurmounted, perhaps unsurmountable.
The foremost of the difficulties to be overcome is that of finding a self-
justifying zero of the pressure-scale.
This, primd facie, might haye been supplied by either of three condi-
tions :—
1) The determination of the position of neutral pressure.
(2) The determination of the position of maximum negative pressure, and
_ the ratio of this to the maximum positive pressure.
(3) The determination of the ratio of the negative pressure, in the region
: of tolerably uniform negative pressure in the rear of the tube, to
the maximum positive pressure.
With regard to the former of these conditions, the present experiments
show, I think, conclusively that the position of the neutral point is governed
by conditions which it is difficult to count on with certainty ; or if this diffi-
culty be surmounted at all, it only can be by much laborious investigation :
there remains the circumstance that the neutral point is placed exactly where
the pressure is changing with maximum rapidity in terms of angle of posi-
tion; so that any small error in taking account of the governing conditions
will produce the greatest relative amount of error in the working zero from
which the pressures are counted.
Thus the very elegant and instructive proposition as to the existence of
this neutral point at a little over 40° from the line of motion, which
Mr. Berthon discoyered and determined with approximate exactness, and
announced long before the promulgation of the doctrine of stream-lines had
shown that such a point should exist nearly in that position, appears to
involve special difficulty in its utilization as the basis of a pressure zero.
And difficulties hardly less serious in amount attach themselves to the
determination of the two other conditions which have been referred to, though
it is no doubt true that subsequent examination may determine with
sufficient exactness the conditions which govern the relation of the negative
pressure in the rear of the tube, to the positive pressure in front of it, in
such a manner that the causes of uncertain variation may be excluded, and
* Mr, Berthon has since informed me that I have rather overstated his opinion on this
point.
264: REPORT—1874.
that the entire disturbance of pressure may be capable of definite inter-
pretation.
If this can be accomplished so that in effect a working zero can be esta-
blished, the only difficulty remaining to be encountered is the collateral one
which arises from the motions impressed by the passage of the ship on the
fluid which she displaces; this too, however, may prove not altogether
intractable.
Apart from the unexpected variations in results the general character of
which had been already known, the only new results which have been brought
out by these experiments have been those which relate to the state of
pressure at the end of the pressure-tube, whether (1) it project into the
water in the usual manner, or (2) be cut off absolutely flush with the sur-
face through which it issues.
The fact that in the former case the area of the pipe-end when stopped is
covered (so to speak) with negative pressures which are of considerable
amount, and which vary largely within a limited area, only serves to show
that this part of the tube cannot be usefully applied to the purposes of the log.
But the fact that (contrary, I own, to my previous belief’), in the latter
case, the pressure seems to be almost absolutely neutral, whether the end of
the tube be stopped with a perforated plane or be wholly open, suggests the
hope that here also might be found a tolerably sound basis for a working zero
of pressure. Doubtless the use of it would be exposed to one important ob-
jection—namely, that if a barnacle were to attach itself to the surface any-
where near the aperture, especially in front of it, the truthfulness of the zero
would be destroyed; it is possible, too, that some causes of error might be
found to exist in the “‘drag’’ of the eddies in the belt of water disturbed
by the friction of the ship’s surface. Nevertheless the idea that a trust-
worthy zero may be obtained on this basis, suggests itself as one deserving
of consideration and inquiry. :
Nothing in these experiments, however, tends at all to disparage the value
of an instrument based on the principle which has been investigated, if
the instrument be regarded as one the scale of which has to be inter-
preted by special experiment after it has been fitted to the ship in which
its indications are to be made use of; and although in some respects its
value would have been considerably greater if its scale could have been
regarded as self-interpreting and self-justifying, yet, even under the prac-
tical limitation which has been referred to, the instrument, if well organized,
must be regarded as possessing the highest practical usefulness.
W. Frovpe.
Report of the Committee, consisting of the Rev. H. F. Barnzs, H. E.
Dresser (Secretary), T. Harztann, J. E. Harrine, Professor
Newton, and the Rey. Canon Tristram, appointed for the purpose
of inquiring into the possibility of establishing a “ Close Time” for
the protection of indigenous animals.
Tur Committee reappointed at Bradford to continue the investigation on the
desirability of establishing a “Close Time” for the preservation of indigenous
animals, beg leave to report as follows :—
1. The Report of the Select Committee, appointed in 1873 by the House
of Commons to consider the subject of the Protection of Wild Birds, which
fF ii i 874.
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British Assocation Committee on Listruments for Measuring: the Speed, of Sheps
TM Froudes ecqperiments with Prossure Tey,
Gmphic eeposition under three Conditions,ofpretinanary experiments to determine
the pressure aeonding to the angle of position of the pressure hole
The three strony lines with distinetive dots, corresponting with the thre conditions (as referenced.
below thow the pressures as ordinates, with the angles of panition as abscaswce
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ON THE DESIRABILITY OF ESTABLISHING A “CLOSE TIME.” 265
had not been published when your Committee agreed to their last Report,
appeared shortly afterwards, and contained recommendations almost entirely
identical with the anticipations of your Committee.
2. These recommendations were so fully considered by your Committee in
their last Report, that they think it unnecessary to refer again to the subject
beyond expressing their regret at finding, from the printed and published
evidence taken by the Select Committee, that its recommendations were not
at all in accordance with such parts of that evidence as your Committee deem
the most trustworthy and valuable.
3. The delay in the meeting of Parliament, occasioned by the General
Election and change of Ministry, made your Committee believe that it would
be inexpedient for them to attempt any amendment of the ‘ Wild-Birds Pro-
tection Act’ during the late Session.
4. In the House of Lords the Earl De la Warr introduced a Bill intituled
“An Act for the more effectual protection of Wild Birds during the Breeding-
Season,” the principal feature of which was to render penal the taking of
certain birds’ eggs. This Bill was not based on any of the recommendations
of the Select Committee of the House of Commons (1873), and still less on
any suggestions which have ever proceeded from your Committee.
5. Lord De la Warr’s Bill was withdrawn; and your Committee take this
opportunity of declaring their belief that the practice of birds’-nesting is and
has been so much followed in England that no Act of Parliament, except one
of the most severe character, could stop it; while any enactment of that kind
would, by filling the gaols with boys (often of a tender age), excite a strong
and universal feeling of hostility against all measures for the protection of in-
digenous animals, even among many of those who are at present favourably
disposed to it.
6. Your Committee believe that the effect of birds’-nesting on such kinds
of birds as are known to be diminishing in numbers is altogether inappreci-
able, while its effect on those whose numbers are not decreasing may be safely
disregarded, and consequently that there is no need of any legislation inter-
fering with the practice. They again repeat their conviction that the only
practicable mode of checking the diminution of such birds as have been
proved to be decreasing, is the effectual protection of the adults from destruc-
tion during the breeding-season.
7. Your Committee find that while the Sea-Birds Preservation Act continues
to work successfully, being not only popular but also effective in its operation,
the Wild-Birds Protection Act has done little if any thing towards attaining
the objects for which it was passed, and in various quarters still gives consider-
able discontent.
8. Your Committee have once more to point out, as they have done in
former Reports, that the birds commonly known as “ Wild Fowl” are subject
to very great persecution through the inadequacy of the present law to pro-
tect them, that they are rapidly decreasing in number, and that they are not
only perfectly innocuous but of great value as food. Consequently your
Committee trust that the efforts they hope to make in behalf of ‘ Wild Fowl”
in the next Session of Parliament will obtain a very general support.
9. Representations as to the inordinate slaughter of Seals which takes
place every spring in the North-Atlantic Ocean have been made to some
Members of your Committee. There can be no doubt that such slaughter
carried on at that season, and with increasing activity, will soon bring these
animals to the verge of extermination, as has been the case in so many parts
of the world; and since their destruction will affect.a very large trade, their
266 - REPORT—187 4.
proper protection seems to be a subject not at all unworthy of the considera-
tion of Her Majesty’s Government. Your Committee, however, are of opinion
that the subject is one lying beyond the powers entrusted to them, since the
Seals of the North Atlantic can in no sense be termed “ Indigenous Animals,”
and accordingly refrain from offering any other remark upon it.
10, Your Committee respectfully request their reappointment.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Lord Houeuton, Professor Txo-
ROLD Rocers, W. Newmarcnu, Professor Fawcett, M.P., Jacos
Benrens, F. P. Ferrows, R. H. Inevis Paterave, Arcurpatp
Hamitton, and Samus. Brown, Professor Lrone Leyt (Secretary),
appointed to inquire into the Economic Effects of Combinations of
Labourers and Capitalists, and into the Laws of Economic Science
bearing on the principles on which they are founded.
Your Committee, appointed to inquire into the economic effects of combina-
tions of labourers or capitalists, and into the laws of economic science bearing
on the principles on which such combinations are founded, beg to report as
follows :—
Public attention has for a considerable time past been directed to the ex-
tensive prevalence of combinations hoth among labourers and capitalists in nearly
all the principal trades and industries, to the frequent conflicts which have
occurred between employers and employed, and the strikes and lock-outs
which have followed. And already several public inquiries have been insti-
tuted on the subject in its general bearings. In 1854 a Conference on strikes
and lock-outs was held at the Society of Arts, when the first point of discus-
sion was “‘ Combinations—are they objectionable, whether set on foot by em-
ployers or employed, as a means of influencing the Value of Labour?” In
1859, the Council of the Social Science Association appointed a Committee
for the purpose of reporting on the objects and constitution of trade-societies,
with their effects upon wages and upon the industry and commerce of the
country ; and their report is extremely valuable for the vast amount of infor-
mation it conveys, as well as for the lessons it contains. In 1866 Her Ma-
jesty’s Government appointed a Royal Commission to inquire into and report
on the organization and rules of trade-unions and other associations, whether
of workmen or employers, and to inquire into and report on the effects pro-
duced by such trade-unions and associations on the workmen and employers
respectively, and on the relations between workmen and employers, and on the
trade and industry of the country. These reports, together with the extensive
literature which has accumulated on the subject, furnish sufficient materials
for arriving at asound judgment on the questions submitted for consideration ;
nevertheless it is too evident that the economic bearings of the question at
issue are as yet but insufficiently appreciated, especially by the parties most
interested in the question. It were, indeed, much to be desired that the rela-
tions of capital and labour were put on a more satisfactory footing than they
now appear to be placed; and your Committee trust that they may render some
practical service to the contending parties, if they are able to test the claims
urged by either employers or employed by reference to the sound principles
of political economy. Generally speaking, the objects of trade-unions are
ON CAPITAL AND LABOUR. 267
twofold. In their character as friendly societies they afford relief to the
members of the unions when incapacitated from work by accidents or sickness,
andthey provide superannuation allowances for members whenincapacitated by
old age, as wellas a sum for the funeral expenses of the members or their wives.
As workmen’s protection societies, trade-unions endeavour to promote the in-
terest of workmen in matters of wages and hours of labour, to bring about a
more equal division of work among the members of the union, and, if needful,
to create a monopoly of labour with its attendant, powers to command a
higher rate of wages. The means used for such purposes are ordinarily the
enforcement of rules limiting the number of apprentices to be'allowed in a trade,
excluding from work, as far as possible, workmen not belonging to the union,
and prohibiting the employment of boys to do work which ought to be done by
men. Whilst the employed have thus organized themselves into trade-unions,
the employers haye likewise resorted to concerted action in many forms,
Often do they combine in order to regulate the prices of sale of any com-
modity, as the ironmasters are wont todo. Often do they combine in getting
privileges for themselves ; but the most signal instance of recent combinations
among employers is the constitution of a specific society for the protection of
their interests.
The National Federation of Associated Employers of Labour, recently orga-
nized in Manchester, is a defensive organization by the employers of labour
to resist the designs of trade-unions, so far as they are hostile to the interests
of employers, the freedom of non-unionist operatives, and the well-being of
the community.
Although, however, the general object of such combinations, whether of
capitalists or labourers, is well known, both from the written rules which bind
them together and from the action they have taken from time to time, your
Committee have deemed it desirable to ascertain, by personal contact with
some representative men from both classes, whether they do now stand by the
rules of their unions, and how far they are prepared to defend them. For
this purpose your Committee resolved to hold a consultative private conference
of employers and employed, not exceeding six or seven on each side, in the
presence of the members of the Committee, and under the presidency of Lord
Houghton, for the purpose of discussing the questions involved in the resolu-
tion of the British Association, and with a view of reporting thereon to the
same. ‘The conference was accordingly held on the 19th of May last in the
rooms of the British Association, 22 Albemarle Street, when the questions
more especially discussed were :—
1st. What determines the minimum rate of wages ?
2nd. Can that minimum rate be uniform in any trade? and can that uni-
formity be enforced ?
érd. Is combination capable of affecting the rate of wages, whether in fa-
your of employers or employed ?
4th. Can an artificial restriction of labour or of capital be economically
right or beneficial under any circumstances ?
And for the discussion of these questions your Committee had the advan-
tage of bringing together a deputation from the National Federation of Asso-
ciated Employers of Labour, including Messrs. R. R. Jackson, M. A. Brown,
H. R. Greg, Joseph Simpson, J. A. Marshall, R. Hannen, and Henry Whit-
worth. As representing labour :—Messrs. Henry Broadhurst, Daniel Guile,
George Howell, Lloyd Jones, George Potter, and Robert Newton—Mr. Mac-
donald, M.P., and Mr. Burt, M.P., haying been. prevented from attending,
And on the part of your Committee there were Lord Houghton, Professor
268 REPORT—1874.
Rogers, Mr. Samuel Brown, Mr. A. Hamilton, Mr. Frank Fellows, and Pro-
fessor Leone Levi.
The discussion at the conference was carried on in the most friendly spirit,
and, in the opinion of your Committee, with manifest utility towards the
elucidation of the questions at issue. From the employers your Committee
have, moreover, received valuable written answers to their inquiries ; whilst
the ‘ Beehive,’ the principal organ of the employed, said of the Conference,
«The case was stated with great frankness, and the attack and defence was
carried on in perfect good humour for three hours; and whether any
conviction on either side was altered or not, it was proved very distinctly
that such meetings, if held more frequently, could not fail to beget a clearer
view of the questions in dispute on both sides, and a stronger disposition
than now exists to arrange differences in a friendly and peaceable spirit.
We do not know whether it would be within the province of the Com-
mittee of the British Association to call a series of meetings composed of men
from each side competent to deal with the question in dispute, where they
might be taken seriatim and thoroughly inquired into and discussed. A
series of such meetings would prepare the ground for some practical work,
such as would bring into reconcilement the reasonable and fair men and lovers
of peace on both sides.” Your Committee have not been able to exhaust the
inquiry on the points of dispute between employers and employed, nor to
enter into any suggestion of a remedial character on which the opinion both
of employers and employed would be extremely useful. And under such
circumstances your Committee have decided not to make a final report on the
present occasion, but to recommend the reappointment of the Committee of
the same members as it stands, with power to add to their number, with in-
structions to renew the conferences already inaugurated between employers
and employed, and to report on the general question ; and your Committee re-
commend that another grant of £25 be made for the purpose of such inquiries.
Preliminary Report of the Committee, consisting of J. Gwyn JEFFREYS,
F.R.S., G. 8S. Brapy, D. Roprrtson, and H. B. Brapy, F.R.S., on
Dredging on the Coasts of Durham and North Yorkshire. Drawn
up by Davip Rosertson and Grorcr Stewarpson Brapy.
Tue dredging off the coasts of Durham and North Yorkshire, provided for by
a grant from the British Association last year, was carried out during the
week beginning on the 13th of July. A suitable steam-vessel was engaged,
and being on the whole favoured by the weather, we dredged every day until
the 18thinclusive. During two days the Rey. A. M. Norman accompanied us ;
we were indebted to him for valuable assistance in naming some of our speci-
mens, as well as for kindly undertaking to report on some sections of the work.
On two days out of the six the sea was too rough to allow of the dredges
being worked very successfully, and one dredge was unfortunately lost by
getting fast on hard ground while a very strong tide was running; but with
these exceptions the work was carried out satisfactorily. The dredging
ranged from near Tynemouth on the north, to Scarborough on the south,
the water varying in depth from 20 to 45 fathoms, the greater portion of
the time being devoted to a belt (known to fishermen as the inner “ fishing
bank ”’) lying from 4 to 8 miles from the shore. One day, however, was spent
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 269
at the greater distance of 30 to 40 miles from shore, and another day at a
distance of about 17 miles.
Time has not allowed of any thing more than safely to preserve and arrange
our captures. On a future occasion we hope to give a full account of the
results obtained.
Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors during the year 1873-74,
by a Committee consisting of James GuatsuER, F.R.S., of the Royal
Observatory, Greenwich, R. P. Gruc, F.G.S., F.R.A.S., C. Brooke,
F.R.S., Prof. G. Forsus, F.R.S.HL., and Prof. A. S. Herscuet,
F.R.AS.
(Puates XV. & XVI.)
Tae appearances of meteors noticed in published journals, and otherwise
ascertained by the Committee during the past year, include some striking
examples ef such remarkable exhibitions discussed and investigated very
ably by astronomers, as well as of others passing almost unobserved excepting
by accidental gazers. A few such large meteors were doubly observed in
England ; some have been visible in the daytime, while many other large
and small fireballs have been described to the Committee, of which it is to be
regretted that notices have hitherto only reached them from single observers.
The months in which these phenomena have been most abundant were Sep-
tember, December, and January last, April, June, and again quite recently the
last few days of July and beginning of August in this year. The Report con-
tains descriptions of the brightest of these meteors, and an account of Prof.
Galle’s calculations and inquiries regarding the real course of a large meteor
which passed over Austria on the 17th of June, 1873, with the probable
path that he assigns to it. With the exception of those of Khairpur, India, in
September, and Vidin, Turkey, in May last, no occurrence of a fall of aéro-
lites, as far as the Committee is aware, has taken place during the past year.
The annual star-showers have been watched for with the usual attention
of observers in correspondence with the Committee, and the results of their
combined observations are described, with accounts of some other occasional
star-showers, at some length in the descriptive part of the Report. Although
little important information was thus added this year to our present know-
ledge of the well-known star-showers of January, April, and October, and
the cometary meteor-streams of November 14 and 27, connected with
Temple’s and with Biela’s comet (all of which, in spite of very favourable
weather for their observation, were this year of not very conspicuous appear-
ance), yet the fluctuating intensities of these showers at their successive
periodic dates is an important element to record; and in the case of the star-
showers of August 10th and December 12th of the past year, the watch was
at least attended with more positive success. Duplicate observations of
meteors were obtained in them, and the general centre of divergence of each
of these two meteor-currents was pretty exactly ascertained. Bright meteors
were more frequent on each of these two nights than is at all usual in ordi-
nary exhibitions of those showers. It will be found among these observa-
tions that the return of Biela’s meteor-shower on the 27th of November last
disappointed expectation; and the small extent and rapid departure of that
meteor-cloud from the earth’s neighbourhood is clearly shown by its visibility
270 REPORT—1874.,
as a star-shower only for a single year. The duplicate observations described
in former Reports have been reduced at the request of the Committee by Mr.
T. H. Waller, whose report of these calculations is added, and whose con-
clusions of their real heights and velocities are without doubt very accurate
and complete.
The publication of Captain Tupman’s observations of shooting-stars in the
Mediterranean during the years 1869-71, with the list of radiant-points
obtained from them, shown on a pair of convenient charts, or plates accom-
panying them, by Captain Tupman (recommended for immediate consider-
ation of the Committee during the last two years), is now brought to a close;
and the catalogue and charts have been sent to astronomers and correspon-
dents of the Committee in England, abroad, and in America; and discussions
of them in foreign scientific journals have appeared, showing the important
light in which the appearance of this valuable new meteor-catalogue has
been regarded. Its principal part, the comparative catalogue of his meteor-
showers with those of other observers, and the charts on which they are
projected, are presented in this Report, with Dr. Schmidt’s similar catalogue
(the remaining two principal meteor-shower lists, of which no account has
yet appeared at full length in these Reports), thus placing before readers of
recent volumes of these Reports all the material contributions to this branch
of meteoric astronomy that have yet been made. They are summed up in a
very concise catalogue contained in this Report by Mr. Greg, who has
selected (to corroborate such observations already published in his former
lists) the greater part of Dr. Schmidt’s and Captain Tupman’s observations,
and has included them with his own former collections, thus forming a very
extended catalogue founded on all the similar work of his contemporaries, and
omitting but few general meteor-showers from his copious list, observed chiefly
by Dr. Neumayer in the southern hemisphere.
Following the method of Dr. Weiss, of calculating the radiant-points of
those comets of early and recent times whose orbits are believed to pass near
the earth, a list of such comets for both the northern and southern hemi-
spheres is annexed to Mr. Greg’s catalogue, and the cases where they corro-
borate each other are pointed out. Many important and well-known comets
are found to have modern meteor-showers as their present representatives, as
would perhaps be still more apparent if more reliable data of their orbits
could be used; but the numerous coincidences are yet striking enough and
sufficiently exact to make the further cultivation of cometary astronomy by
the help of star-shower observations perhaps within the easy reach of ordinary
watchers, who will continue for that end to delineate meteor-flights observed
on fine nights among the well-surveyed fields of the fixed stars and their
constellations.
APPENDIX.
I. Merrors Dovsty OnsERvED.
Detonating fireball of June 17th, 1873; Hungary, Austria, and Bohemia.
Calculation of the meteor’s real path by Dr. J. G. Galle*. Although,
from its great size and some other unusual circumstances of its appearance,
the following description of this large meteor, extracted from the published
account of it by Dr. Galle, might properly be presented in the next Appendix
* Astronomische Nachrichten, Nos. 1989-90, vol. lxxxiii. p. 321 et seg., March 1874.
Published also at somewhat greater length, omitting the mathematical formulz, in a com-
munication by Dr. Galle, presented to the Meteorologische Section der schles. Gesellsch.
fiir vaterl. Cultur at their meeting on December 17, 1873. See Jahresberichte der schle-
sischen Gesellschaft, 1873-74.
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. yas
on Large Meteors and Aérolites, yet the careful investigation of its real path
and of its orbit round the sun made by Dr. Galle and by other German
astronomers, from the many exact observations that were obtained in their
neighbourhood of its appearance, render its description in the first place of
this Appendix especially appropriate. The meteor was seen in full twilight
at 8" 46™ p.at., Breslau mean time, about half an hour after sunset, skirting
the 8.W. horizon at no great altitude at Breslau, and proceeding with very
little downward inclination westwards : by means of a meteoroscope Dr. Galle,
who saw the meteor at Breslau, obtained the exact places of two points on
the luminous streak which it left visible in the sky for more than a quarter
of an hour after the disappearance of the nucleus; and an assistant at the
Observatory, who also saw it, accustomed to observe the time of flight of
ordinary shooting-stars, counted 9 seconds as the duration of the meteor’s
flight from its first appearance until the time of its explosion and extinction.
Dr. Weiss at Vienna, and Dr. Hornstein at Prague, communicated to Dr.
Galle equally valuable observations. In the pages of the ‘ Astronomische
Nachrichten’ (No. 1955) for September 1873, an exact calculation of the
meteor’s real path by Prof. vy. Niessl, of Briinn, from ten or twelve excel-
lent descriptions of its course at places in Moravia and Bohemia (imme-
diately beneath or on the west side of the meteor’s course), had appeared.
Dr. Galle observes that but for the unusual astronomical exactness of some
accounts, the particulars of which had reached him from Silesia and places
chiefly east of the meteor’s course, it would have been superfluous to recalcu-
late the meteor’s course by the new rigorous method which he proposed from
all the observed data, so perfectly did the observations collected, and the cal-
culations made from them by Prof. y. Niessl, establish the general character
of the meteor’s course. Complete mathematical formule are given by Dr.
Galle, showing how, independent weights having first been assigned to the
positions given in the different observers’ descriptions, the whole can be
combined together so as to furnish without very laborious calculation the
most probable path, and the amount of probable error of the determination
of the meteor’s real course. Apart from these calculations, Dr. Galle also
visited the locality in Oberlausitz, between Saxony and Bohemia, over which
the meteor appears to have exploded, and ascertained the correctness of this
supposition from the accounts of many observers who saw the meteor burst
there directly overhead. It has been conjectured by Dr. Galle, in his in-
vestigation of the real path of the fireball and other interesting questions
relating to the shower of stones at Pultusk, near Warsaw, on the 30th of
January, 1868 (see the volume of these Reports for 1868, p. 388), that the
so-called bursting into fragments, or “ explosion,” and the accompanying loud
reports seen and heard at the disappearance of large detonating or aérolitic
fireballs, arise from the expansion of compressed air before the meteorites at
the moment when their once planetary velocity is so arrested and diminished
by resistance as to allow soutid-waves to start from them in all directions ; at
that time the intense illumination ceases and the largest fragments only pur-
sue their onward course, also shortly to become extinguished and to produce
louder and more violent reports than the smaller stones, from their greater
surface and exposure to compression of the air. Thus as each atom, grain,
or fragment of a stone-swarm, when it first enters the atmosphere, is
arrested in its flight, it yields up its light and planetary speed, and following
as a dull spark in the meteor’s train, it marks the first moment of its fall
towards the earth under the mere influence of gravity alone by a more or less
audible explosion. To observers near the point of disappearance of such
large meteors, the loudest explosions arising from the largest aérolites which
aie REPORT—1874.,
penetrate furthest are heard first like one or several cannon-shots, probably
indicating if there is only one or if there are more than one such large
aérolites included in the swarm. The smaller more distant detonations are
heard afterwards following the principal shots as a confused rattling sound,
generally compared to musketry or to the rattling and rolling sound of a near
"peal of thunder. Such is shown both by telescopic examinations and naked-
eye observations of the structure of many large fireballs, as well as by the
frequent occurrence of such showers of stones as those of Pultusk, Stannern,
or L’Aigle, where the largest stones are found leading the fall and the whole
area scattered over lies almost vertically below the point of explosion or dis-
appearance of the meteor. Such was apparently the condition at Pultusk ;
and the height of 204 English statute miles above the earth’s surface at
which the present meteor disappeared, resembling exactly that of the point
of disappearance of the Pultusk fireball, coupled with the fact that few or
no distinct explosions but, as generally described, a prolonged rattling sound
as of many small reports, lasting for nearly a minute, was produced by the
bursting of this meteor, Dr. Galle was prepared to hear in his inquiries on
the spot of some small aérolitic fragments having been discovered near the
place which he ascertained to be under the meteor’s point of disappearance ;
but the ground was thickly clothed with grass and forests ; the hour of the
evening when the meteor appeared was already late, and the chance of their
observation or recovery, if any fell, was on these accounts extremely small*.
It is remarkable that perfectly authentic statements were received of the
deposition, soon after, or about the time of, the meteor’s explosion over Zittau
and its neighbourhood, of a mass of melted and burning sulphur the size of a
man’s fist, on the roadway of a village, Proschwitz, about 4 miles south of
Reichenberg, where the meteor exploded nearly in the zenith. It was stamped
out by a crowd of the villagers, who could give no other explanation of its
appearance on the spot than that it had proceeded from the meteor ; on exa-
mination at Breslau some remnants of the substance proved to be pure
sulphur. With regard to the calculated course, the meteor must, however,
have passed quite 12 or 14 miles south-westwards from the place where this
event is said to have occurred; and its questionable connexion with the
fireball is accordingly rendered very doubtful from the great distance of the
locality from immediately below the meteor’s course. In Chladni’s work on
Fiery Meteors and Stonefalls, only one similar instance is recorded, from
ancient chronicles, where burning sulphur fell at Magdeburg, of the size of a
man’s fist, on the castle-roof at Loburg, 18 miles from Magdeburg, in June of
the year 1642. The fact of this large fireball having deposited any stony or
other aérolitic matter cannot therefore yet be regarded as decidedly esta-
blished.
The most remarkable circumstance connected with this meteor’s real
course, both as calculated by Prof. vy. Niessl and by Dr. Galle, is that the
speed of its motion, combined with the calculated direction of its flight,
belong to an orbit round the sun which was decidedly hyperbolic. The
principal alteration of the real course found by Prof. y. Niessl, that was
introduced by the observations in Silesia, West Prussia, and Austria collected
by Dr. Galle, depended upon an excellent description of the meteor’s first
appearance at Rybnik and Ratibor, two towns in Upper Silesia, as well as on
equally certain positions obtained at the observatory and in the town of
* Some accounts of a brownish dust having been seen falling, and of a deposit of fine
yellow sand having been collected in its descent from the air, are contained in the original
descriptions; but the evidence of these occurrences appears to have been too slight and
indistinct to allow them to be certainly connected with the meteor,
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 273
Breslau in the same province. At the former places the meteor first
appeared to emerge and separate itself from the disk of the planet Mars (then
southing, at -no great altitude), and to pursue its way westwards, gradually
descending towards the horizon, where it disappeared behind a cloud. Dr,
Sage, who noted this appearance of the meteor at Rybnik, was looking
attentively at the planet Mars when he thus saw the meteor apparently issue
from it, and the planet appear as if it was breaking up and dividing into two
parts. After a first estimation, roughly stated at 20 seconds, Dr. Sage con-
sidered that the time occupied by the meteor’s flight until it disappeared was
really not more than ten or twelve seconds. The observers at Ratibor, not
far from Rybnik, were equally positive of the meteor’s first appearance “ as if
issuing from the red star in the south;” and their average estimate of the
time of flight was reckoned to be 15? seconds; one observer, however, espe-
cially able to judge correctly of the duration, would not admit that the
meteor occupied more than ten seconds in its flight. The time of flight
recorded by the assistant at the Breslau Observatory was, as above mentioned,
nine seconds for the whole period of the meteor’s course. The point of dis-
appearance of this meteor being known with great exactness, and the obser-
vations of the earlier part of its flight being unusually accurate, the visible
track along which it shot over Hungary, Austria, Moravia, and Bohemia to
the mountain confines of the latter state with Saxony, is calculated with very
small probable errors by Dr. Galle.
Most probable apparent position of
Point of first appearance.| Point of disappearance. the Radiant-point.
Velocity
rey in - 8.
Long. E. P Long. E of Path| miles
North |Height B- ©) North |j .
Ver | Lati- fin 8 {Om Lati- pies) ee Azimuth | altitude. | RA. [Declination.
5 jude, . ci
1013 {17°16’*| 47°.30'| 20:5 | 14° 20'*! 50°55’| 285 |285(a)} 30°35’ | 14°32’ | 246° 42’|—19° 19!
18°46) | Piet ae
: e
70 or80 miles 8.W. from | Near the village Gross- homens crested 247° 10! |—20° 35! (a)
Vienna, and a few] schiénau, in Saxony, traction. 247° 56! |—22° 31! (d)
miles south of Raab| and the peaks of the
in Hungary. Lausitzer Gebirg, be-
tween Saxony and Bo-
hemia,
The meteor appears from the calculation to have had an unusually long
path, and to have accomplished it with very considerable meteoric speed.
The velocity of 283 miles per second (a) is obtained if the three most cer-
tain measurements of its time of flight at Breslau, Rybnik, and Ratibor, all
fixing it at very nearly ten seconds, are regarded as quite free from doubt,
and as requiring no material corrections. The second calculated velocity of
18-4 miles per second (b) is obtained by adopting the average between the
first and second estimates of the meteor’s duration (20 seconds and 10 or
12, say 11 seconds—average 15:5 seconds) by Dr. Sage at Rybnik, and the
equally general average of the ten observers’ accounts (pupils in the school
at Ratibor), who were asked there by Dr. Reimann to state their recollections
of its duration by counting seconds with a seconds’ clock. The average of
these ten estimates (including the very positive minimum one of 10 seconds
referred to above) was 15-7 seconds. A duration for the whole of the
* The geographical longitudes (E. from Greenwich) are taken from those of Dr. Galle’s
paper (referred to Ferro Isle as the starting-point) by subtracting 18° (about, Ferro Isle in
the Azores, west from Greenwich) from the geographical east longitudes given by Dr. Galle.
1874, T
274 REPORT—1874.
meteor’s visible flight of 15:5 seconds, from these accounts, gives the
diminished meteor-speed marked (b) in the above Table; no reason for further
extending the possible time of the meteov’s flight is in any way suggested by
the scattered examples of less complete observations of its whole course and
duration that appear among the accounts received by Dr. Galle from many
other stations.
Along this long track of nearly 300 miles the meteor increased gradually
in size as it advanced, soon growing to the dimensions of a fireball of the
largest class, which it maintained until it disappeared. The nucleus was pear-
shaped, tapering to a tail of red sparks, several degrees in length, following
the head. Some described the nucleus as triple, consisting of three fireballs
travelling together ; others saw jets of flame, accompanied by detached frag-
ments, projected occasionally, giving the meteor the appearance of haying a
serpentine or wavy course. The prevailing colour of the meteor’s light was
white or yellowish; but in front projecting tongues of red flame, and sparks
like those emitted from burning iron, gave the light in the forward half of
the nucleus a reddish cast, only the middle of the head or body of the meteor
being white or yellow. The following part of the head and some parts of
the tail that shone brightest were distinctly green. The parts into which
the meteor separated in bursting were numerous according to some of the
descriptions—* not descending vertically, but as if projected forwards.” ‘Two
or three of them appear to have been somewhat larger than the rest. A
writer at Schreiberhau (Silesia ?) states that before reaching the horizon the
fireball divided itself into three smaller globes equally bright-coloured with
the first, which together travelled onwards in the same direction and then
disappeared. The rocket-like tail of red sparks exhibited by the meteor faded
away quickly, following the head; but in about the last quarter of its visible
path a bright white very persistent light streak was left by the meteor on its
track. It was at first straight, brightest, according to some observers, at the
edges, as if hollow and cylindrical; it speedily, however, became curved and
zigzag, and separated itself into shining clouds, whose bright white was visible
in the sky for nearly half an hour. The time of the meteor’s appearance
being at about a quarter before nine, and the time when the sun set below
the horizon of the meteor’s point of explosion over Zittau, as found by Dr.
Galle, having been only at a quarter after nine o’clock, it follows that the
meteor-streak was exposed throughout the time of its visibility to the direct
rays of the setting sun, and the brightness of its white light as long as it
could be traced on the darkening background of the evening sky is thus
accounted for. All the higher masses of the light streak had at the latter
time quite dissolved away, and the utmost period of visibility of its knots
and wisps as a distinguishable vapour does not appear to have exceeded half
an hour. Dr. Galle calculates that it extended from a height of about 37
miles at its commencement to a height of about 20 miles, the point of explo-
sion of the fireball; with a real length, when first deposited, of about 69
miles, and a real diameter, taking that of the fireball (as seen by observers
40 or 50 miles from its path, about one third the apparent diameter of the
moon) as its least width, of not less than 230 yards. Its substance Dr.
Galle considers to have been either dust or volumes of still more finely
divided particles of smoke. Another question of great physical interest dis-
cussed in this paper is that of the time taken by the sounds of the reports to
reach observers, and the distances to which they were heard round the point
of explosion of the fireball, From the least of the time-intervals (about
1™ 39° at Grossschénau) to the greatest calculated (at Neukirch, 4" 35%)
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 275
answering to distances of 203 and 57 miles respectively from the meteor’s
bursting-place, the observations at about twenty stations are on the whole
in perfect accordance with the supposition that the detonations and audible
reports of the meteor’s explosion all proceeded from the same point as that’
of the termination of the meteor’s course. If four exceptionally discordant
accounts are retained in the average, it appears as the result that the average
calculated interval of 2™ 12° for the whole list of stations is exceeded by the
average of the observations themselves by 18 seconds, or by about 10 per
cent. of the real value ; this would easily be accounted for by the long duration
(in some cases about 1™) of the thunder-like echoes of the sound, to develop
and prolong which mountainous localities would be particularly favourable:
but if these four very discordant observations (all near the end point of the
meteor’s course) are omitted, the remaining seventeen observations exhibit
no such retardation, and the average observed time-interval is identical with
that found by calculation of the observers’ distances from the end point of
the meteor’s course.
The most important conclusion established by Dr. Galle’s calculations is
one which Prof. v. Niessl had already demonstrated independently, that the
orbit of the meteor-mass composing this fireball round the sun was neither
an ellipse nor a parabola, but an hyperbola. On entering into collision with
the earth’s atmosphere and traversing its outer layers as shooting-stars and
fireballs, meteor grains and masses present different directions of motion
from those which they may be shown, by a proper treatment of the obser-
vations, to have had originally in their orbits. The causes of this difference
are of various kinds, some evident and considerable, and others for the most
part insensible in their effects; but tables have been given by Professor
Schiaparelli for obtaining a meteor’s real radiant-point in its orbit from that
presented by observers’ descriptions of its apparent or atmospheric path,
whenever the latter is known exactly, and when the meteor’s velocity is also
considered to be certainly determined. In such cases every influencing cir-
cumstance can be allowed for, whether it is the earth’s own rapid motion in its
orbit, and its far less rapid rotation (especially in moderately high latitudes)
about its axis, making the meteor’s motion as observed only relative to the
earth’s centre (or surface when extreme accuracy is desired) instead of to
the sun and fixed stars, to whose sphere alone, before its collision with the
earth, the cosmical path of the meteorite properly belongs; or whether it be
the earth’s attraction causing the meteor to dip or descend more steeply as it
approaches, and at last plunges obliquely into the atmospheric ocean, As a
rifle-bullet fired horizontally over a level plain will strike it more and more
perpendicularly the less the force of the charge and the speed of the projectile
is made, so Prof. Schiaparelli shows that by the accumulated attraction of
the earth upon it (until it enters the atmosphere and is finally arrested) an
ordinary meteorite* overtaking the earth with the least possible relative
speed that it can have, and grazing the earth’s atmosphere horizontally at
last, will have its apparent radiant-point raised 17° by “ zenithal attraction,”
which is the name by which he has distinguished this correction. If the
same meteorite moved from the opposite direction, meeting the earth instead
of overtaking it, and at last grazing the atmosphere horizontally, the zeni-
thal attraction of its apparent radiant-point would be less than half a degree,
or about 0° 20’. The actual speeds of these two meteors’ flights through the
* Meteoric bodies with hyperbolic or nearly circular paths (if such exist) are here ex-
cepted, and only those are considered, forming prebably far the most numerous class,
whose orbits are parabolas or very long ellipses. 5
re
“=
276 REPORT—1874.
atmosphere are about 10 miles and 443 miles per second; and between these,
as well as also according to trustworthy observations below and above these
values, real velocities of aérolites, bolides, and shooting-stars have been re-
corded. The amount of zenithal attraction depends also on the altitude of the
apparent radiant-point—meteors that descend almost perpendicularly having
undergone much less deflection from their course than those which reach the
atmosphere from low radiant-points, and which appear to enter it at last very
obliquely. Considering these various conditions, Dr. Galle obtains two new
positions “ corrected for zenithal attraction” of the large meteor’s observed
radiant-point, differing most from its original place in the case (bd) in the
Table corresponding to the case where the least admissible value of the real
velocity is assumed ; and proceeding thence to construct separately from each
of these adopted data the meteor’s orbit round the sun, he finds it to be in
each case an hyperbola of greater or less eccentricity, and that to make it a
parabola the meteor’s time of flight would have to be reckoned as about 17
seconds. Several observations of the duration, besides those already men-
tioned, collected together, show that in only one instance out of twenty-two
(at Bernstadt) an observer recorded the duration of the meteor’s flight as
exceeding 10 seconds (12-15 seconds); and that by the great mass of the
observers the time of the meteor’s flight was estimated as between four or five
and ten seconds, making the hyperbolic character of the meteor’s orbit even
more strongly probable than before. The following are the hyperbolic
elements of the two orbits found by Dr. Galle, to which are added the hyper-
bolic elements (as above referred to in these Reports), also calculated by Dr.
Galle, of the aérolitic fireball of Pultusk.
a. Velocity 28:5 miles b. Velocity. 18-4 miles Hyperbolic orbit of the
per second. per second. Pultusk meteorites (sup. cit.).
P. p. 1873, July 114-66, 1873, July 194-76, 1868, Jan. 284-5, Berl. M. T.
Berl. M. T, erl. M. T.
° fe}
m. 328 21 ...... Kaede ten eteen scale BAS) El A Gaareecsshacwesessuctuuent 116
Beth SG TGinetrceee~ oceonee eetaenave. 2GG (SG, cecesscadsvcsvacecersaserst 310
a. A velo Suistasnaa duatuet ns Ge eeee: « OLY. axceeunan sass tenvassncarh 6
qg- 0°6394 (perihelion distance) 0°7140.....e eee ceeceeseneceeeees 0:6935
a. 0:4637 (4 axis major) ...... 2002: -.cccsicacepecancsntnttens 0°7547
e. 2379 (eccentricity) ......... MARAE a stcdteasteatea tte 2277
motion direct. motion direct. motion direct,
The orbit is in each case nearly in the ecliptic plane, overtaking the earth at
long. 266° 36’, and crossing the earth’s orbit towards the sun at an angle of
about 45° in the first, and of about 36° in the second case. The resemblance
of the first case to the hyperbolic orbit of the Pultusk meteorites is remarkable
by the large eccentricities and perihelion distances, the direct motion and
small inclination to the ecliptic allowing each meteor to overtake the earth
on paths that crossed its orbit towards their perihelion points at angles of
about 45° and 11°. It should also be remembered that the meteor of Pul-
tusk burst and disappeared at a height of 25 miles, and the present large
fireball at a height of only 20 miles, as if its materials were tougher or more
compact than the perfect shower of small stones that fell at Sielk from the
point of the Pultusk meteor’s explosion overhead. Both of these large fire-
balls were well seen and recorded at the Observatory of Breslau ; and the con-
current testimony of two such well investigated cases is, as observed by Dr.
Galle, strongly indicative of a tendency of aérolitic and detonating fireballs
to belong to a class of astronomical bodies different from comets or annual
* From a slight change of inclination of the orbit, the descending here becomes the
ascending node,
:
}
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 277
periodic star-showers by moving in hyperbolas instead of in parabolas or
long ellipses, so as to have motions of their own beyond the sphere of the
sun’s attraction, carrying them apparently from star-system to star-system,
instead of in constant revolutions round a single solar centre. Observations
of the duration, length of path, and points of first appearance of meteors of
the August and November star-showers Dr. Galle suggests will be most valu-
able to show if any shooting-stars of those well-known streams present
speeds that cannot belong to other than hyperbolic orbits, as in those cases it
must be assumed that the excessive velocities observed have their expla-
nation in some physical cause, to which it will then be very desirable to
direct special and the most accurate possible investigations.
The combination of at least two good observations needful for determining
a shooting-star’s real speed of flight is the difficulty that will present itself to
carry out Dr. Galle’s experiments on the Perseids and other annual meteoric
showers. This objection, however, does not apply to the apparent speed, if
even a single observer records that speed without very serious errors; but
eyen such a record is not often reached. Observers’ estimates vary chiefly
as to the apparent lengths of meteors’ courses and their time of flight. An
incomplete view of the course at the beginning, and sometimes also (from
dimness of the meteor owing to distance) at the end, is often the cause of
this, unsuspected by the observer. The time of flight and length of path
recorded should, however, always correspond together, a short observed time
of flight for a partially observed path being never coupled in a record with an
ideal length of course supposed to make up the whole length of a meteor’s
line of flight judged by such indications of it as the meteor may have left. It
may also be forgotten to record the times of flight of some shooting-stars at
all—a very unfortunate omission, because the value contributed by such an
observation to a simultaneous observation of the same meteor made at a
distant station is enhanced immensely by a statement of this astronomically
important datum. Much is due here to hurry in the rapid succession of
meteors in periodic star-showers, and comparatively little to inability to note
and appreciate small intervals of time. The best time for noting the duration
(as well as the magnitude and colour) is while fixing with the eyes the posi-
tion of the path just seen, often marked for some time after the meteor’s dis-
appearance by the persistent streak among the stars; and it can then easily
be borne in mind, and presently afterwards recorded. Stop-watches, how-
ever, or chronographs of the best description, must be resorted to if results of
the most reliable character only are desired to be obtained.
It may be added that if the visual radiant-point and the real height in
miles at disappearance (/ miles) are determined, and the following particulars
of a meteor’s apparent course are taken from a single observer’s description
of its apparent path, viz. the distance from the radiant-point in degrees (d)
of the point of commencement, the altitude in degrees from the horizon (a)
of the point of extinction, the length (7) in degrees of the apparent path, as
well as the time of flight in seconds (s), then the real length of path (L) in
miles is L=A i and the real velocity in miles: per second (V) is
- _ sin a. sin ad
Vv = = For many meteors of a shower, like the Perseids, from a
s sina.sind
single radiant-point, an average value of h, about 52 miles, may be assumed ;
‘and an average real velocity of the meteors of the shower may then be
obtained by the last of these expressions from careful observations, by a
single observer only, of their times of flight or durations and apparent paths.
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284 REPORT—1874,
Notes to a List of Meteor-heights, §c.
By Mr, Watzer and Professor Hzrscuzt.
(1) The brightest meteor noted on the 10th of August, 1871, descended
almost to the 8.W. horizon, from close to Saturn, at Portsmouth (J. P. Mac-
lear), from the direction of a Capricorni at Cardiff (G. H. Thompson), in
the direction of 60° W. of Magnetic South at Hawkhurst, and from 12°
below and right of “ Antares,” at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. The
star Antares had set at Greenwich some minutes at the time of the meteor’s
appearance, and the planet Saturn was evidently mistaken for it. A distance
of 8° below and right of Saturn at Greenwich, and of only 3° from Saturn in
the same direction at Portsmouth, corresponds very exactly with the points of
appearance of the meteor, as described at Cardiff in South Wales and at Hawk-
hurst in Kent. The length of path of the meteor seen at Greenwich is said to
have been 5°, and the point of disappearance of the meteor, where it burst
into fragments like a shell, is more or less distinctly recorded at the other
stations. The height and position of this fine meteor’s path are thus fixed
with considerable certainty, and its identification with some of the bright
bolides, reported by Mr. Le Verrier’s staff of observers to have been seen at
the same time at St. Lo in Calvados, and at Angers on the Loire, may be
the means of fixing its true course and perhaps its real velocity, for which
the very distant observations in England were ill adapted, with greater
accuracy. The real course was over the northern part of the mouth of the -
Bay of Biscay, beginning about 70 miles south, and ending about 120 miles
8. by W. from Brest, in longitudes and north latitudes respectively of about
5° W. from Greenwich, 47° 20' N., and 5° 35’ W. from Greenwich, 46°
30’ N. No sensible appearance of a persistent streak was recorded, probably
from the appearance uf the meteor to all the observers among the cloudy
vapours of the horizon; and from this circumstance of its low apparent ele-
vation and very distant southern apparition, a bright meteor seen almost
simultaneously with it at some considerable altitude in the south-western
sky, at the Luxembourg Observatory in Paris, by Mr. Chapelas Coulier-Gra-
vier, though otherwise resembling it in description (as noted in the list of
meteor accordances of last year’s Report), was certainly distinct, and not
identifiable with this bright fireball of the “Perseid” shower. In deducing its
real height an addition of between 20 and 30 miles is made as an allowance
for the curvature of the earth’s surface at the great distance of between 400
and 450 miles from Greenwich, at which the meteor entered the atmosphere
and pursued its course through the air.
(2) The rough note (in a Birmingham newspaper) of the apparent place
of this meteor’s streak at Leamington, or of the last fading part of it, before
it disappeared “‘ extending N. to 8. across the chief stars of Cassiopeia, 3° or
-4° long, and fading away in 15 seconds,’ may have related to its position
after it became serpentine and was displaced by air-currents: compared with
Mr. Greg’s observations of the meteor at Manchester in the older list it led to
an excessive height of the streak-bearing portion of the meteor’s flight, which
was certainly from the “ Perseid” radiant-area, and to no satisfactory indi-
cation of its radiant-point. The present observation of the same meteor by
Mr. Lucas at the Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford, combined with Mr. Greg’s
excellent description of it at Manchester, supplies an estimation of its real path,
length of course, and velocity, which is probably a much nearer approximation
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 285
to the truth. The point of appearance was nearly over Newark, and that of
disappearance nearly over Derby in the Midland Counties, at heights of about
90 and 40 miles respectively, the brightest and most enduring portion of the
bright streak being left, apparently, at a height of about 54 miles on this
course. The radiant-poivt given by the Oxford and Manchester observations
is a few degrees distant, in the direction of Andromeda, from the cluster (x)
in the sword-hand of Perseus.
(3) The extent of the meteor’s flight at the beginning and end of its appa-
rent course at Greenwich is not stated, leaving the corresponding heights,
and the resulting length of path and velocity of the meteor from these obser-
vations, unverified and doubtful. The meteor’s radiant-point between x Persei
and e Cassiopeiz is probably very well established, and it accordingly formed
one of the meteors of the ‘‘ Perseus” shower.
(4) The recorded paths are in very good accordance with a radiant-point
near y or. Cephei; the meteor belongs to a contemporary shower from
Cepheus or the North Pole, adjoining one between Draco and Cepheus
frequently observed (with but slight intensity) on or about the same date
as the Perseids of the 10th of August. The declination of its radiant-
point appears too northerly to allow it to be regarded as a very erratic
Perseid.
(4a) The recorded appearance at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, of a
bright meteor at 10" 15™ 9° (> 1, &c.) on the 11th of August, 1871, nearly
simultaneous and agreeing in all other particulars of its appearance with a
meteor observed nearly at the same minute at York, Hawkhurst, and in London
(whose height was thence calculated in the older list), is unfortunately of no
useful service to afford a redetermination of the height, the region bare of
stars in which it appeared having evidently afforded no visible sky-marks
for its accurate registration. The direction of its flight, however, confirms
the position of the radiant-point (near B Camelopardi) adopted rather than
obtained directly from the three independent observations of its course already
used, and renders the height and velocity of this true Perseid thus arrived at
in the former list very probably correct.
1871, | hm York, =I1st Began | Ended | Length | Velocity | Radiant-pointa=
August 10. | 10 14-15 London, mag.*, | 85 miles|53 miles} of path | 35 miles | 44°, 5=+60° near
p.m. Hawkhurst. | YJ, or 9. high. high. | 53miles, | per second. | B Camelopardi.
(5) The meteor recorded as a simultaneous observation (in last year’s Re-
port) between Prior Street, Greenwich, and Bolton near Manchester, at 11"
0™ 48° on the 11th, was contemporaneously noted at York ; and the combined
paths at York and Bolton afforded a determination of this meteor’s height in
the earlier list of a perfectly ordinary kind. The meteor seen at Greenwich
is not in proper position for coincidence with York, and when compared with
Bolton the resulting parallax is so small that, with the great base-line be-
tween Manchester and Greenwich, an extravagant scale of heights, length of -
course, &c, is obtained. It must indeed be evident that a meteor already
some distance north of east at York and Manchester (in the constellations
Andromeda and Aries) must have appeared at Greenwich much further trans-
ferred towards the north horizon by the effect of parallax, than to a course
in Perseus “across the star 6” (then at a great elevation in the N.E. sky)
along which it seemed to move. Thus, as in the last instance, the present
Greenwich observation cannot be regarded as affording fresh materials for
verifying the earlier list, a different meteor having evidently been seen at
286 REPORT—1874,
Greenwich in this case with all its features, except those of verified positions,
sufficiently resembling the descriptions of a meteor elsewhere doubly mapped
and calculated to have led it without this certain difference to have been
treated as identical with it, and hence (if the distinction were not observed)
to have been coupled with it in an average result.
(6) The path of this meteor was well mapped at Greenwich, and it is in
excellent agreement with the apparent course as seen at Birmingham. The
original observation of its track by Mr. Crumplen in London is marked “ im-
perfect view ;” and lying as it does transversely as well as at a considerable
distance from the course shown at Greenwich (very near to London), it may
be assumed that the apparent path mapped at Greenwich is more reliable,
and that the above calculations of the real heights, length of path, and
velocity from the Greenwich and Birmingham observations, are more nearly
accurate than those obtained by comparison of London and Birmingham in
the older list. Mr. Waller’s and Prof. Herschel’s calculated paths differ
greatly in the Table, the cause of which is not improbably an uncorrected
printer’s error, 8°+56° instead of 8°+86°, accidentally inserted in the
catalogue of the last Report as the meteor’s point of first observation by Mr.
Wood at Birmingham, the existence of which was only noticed when Mr.
Waller’s calculations had already been completed.
(7) Doubtful conditions of the recorded paths appear in this instance to
lead to very uncertain determinations of the real course.
(8) Probably a ‘ Cygnid,” from its apparently foreshortened paths near
that constellation; but found by Mr. Waller’s determination of the real
from the described apparent positions of its course to have had a nearly
horizontal motion. The original observations are evidently unable to afford,
without notable concessions, a radiant-point near enough to the observed paths
to be regarded as a proper explanation of their curtailed and apparently
foreshortened lengths. This Greenwich meteor at 11” 35" 45° p.w., Hawk-
hurst 11” 34" p.m., is quite distinct from the true Perseid simultaneously
observed at 11° 36™ p.m. at Hawkhurst and London (recorded in the earlier
list), the times at Hawkhurst and London having all been between 1™ and 2™
slow on Greenwich time throughout the watch.
(8a) The Greenwich observation of this meteor (if they are really identifi-
able) is so much at variance with the Hawkhurst observation as scarcely to
permit of the height determination that Mr. Waller has endeavoured to obtain
from them. The London and Hawkhurst observations (of the old list) agree
well together, and Mr. Waller’s recalculation of them (as will be seen in the
Table) leads very nearly to the heights &c. already found. The view of
the meteor at Greenwich was probably imperfect ; but errors may also have
been made at Hawkhurst and in London; and in such cases it would be very
desirable to share the errors as far as possible equally among the different
observers.
(9) A meteor simultaneously observed at about this time (11> 53-54") at
Hawkhurst and London (in the old list) was a “ Polarid;” and although
appearing in nearly the same quarter of the sky with the ‘“‘Perseid ” mapped
at Birmingham and at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, it is found by pro-
jection of the apparent paths to be irreconcilable with and quite distinct from
it, these two duplicate observations having thus been obtained (like the two
last described) independently of each other in a brief interval of scarcely
more than a minute’s watch.
(10) The hour at Hawkhurst (0" 29™ a.m.) is scarcely half a minute
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 287
‘instead of, as usual during this night, a full minute, or considerably more than
a minute slow on the Greenwich time of observation (0" 29™ 25°); and
although in all respects of appearance and relative position, excepting an
extremely small parallax of about 10° or 12° near the zenith, the meteor
descriptions at Hawkhurst and the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, are in very
good agreement, the sensible difference of the times and the excessive length
of path and velocity as well as the extravagant real heights of the meteor’s
course to which the observations lead, make it manifest that the supposed
identity of these meteors is mistaken, or that if the resemblance was real, and
not merely accidental, the errors singularly made in recording the apparent
paths are such as to prevent entirely any satisfactory calculations from being
founded on them.
(11) A large and bright Perseid leaving a long enduring streak that
remained visible at Greenwich about 15 seconds. The meteor’s course well
observed at both places.
(12) The evidence of identity in this duplicate observation is by no means
certain. On the other hand, from the brightness and unusual direction of
the meteors, and from the near coincidence of the times, it is extremely
probable. Even if it can be assumed that no errors have crept into the
descriptions of the two apparent paths, that noted by Mr. E. Neisson in
London, “from Cepheus to Perseus,” admits of very wide interpretations.
Both observations are probably open to very considerable emendation ; but
it cannot be denied that, as they stand, if they refer to one and the same
shooting-star, its real elevation above the earth’s surface was far inferior to
what is usual in ordinary meteors, and ranged no higher than the lowest points
(between 25 and 15 miles above the sea-level) to which detonating and
aérolitic fireballs sometimes penetrate the earth’s atmosphere. The absence
of good evidence both of identity and accuracy in the observations must, how-
ever, leave this general conclusion from them very doubtful.
(13) The three meteors of the January star-shower in 1872, doubly ob-
served at Hawkhurst and in London on the 2nd of January, 1872, were
bright ones of a very fine return of that periodic shower, and they were care-
fully recorded. Their general elevation appears to have been lower than that
of ordinary shower-meteors, and a good average velocity of about 21 or 22
miles per second (which is a very moderate meteor-speed) appears to have
been obtained. Comparisons of this meteor-speed with the known elements
and theoretical meteor-speed of the January meteor-stream will afford an
interesting subject of investigation.
(14) Calculated real height and path from two of the most accurate among
many general descriptions of the course of this large meteor seen at many
ee in the south of England in strong evening twilight on July 22nd,
1872.
(15) Two small shooting-stars simultaneously observed in a combined
watch of the August shooting-stars kept by Prof. G. Forbes at the Royal
a Greenwich, and Captain G. L. Tupman at Bangor in North
es.
(16) 1872, August 10th, 11" 34™ p.m., Oxford and York. Apparently
a very good determination of the height, speed, and direction of the real path
of a meteor from a well-known coradiant of the August shower close to
Polaris.
(16a) Two bright meteors seen at York by Messrs, Clark and Waller, and
288 REPORT—1874.
by Prof. G. Forbes at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, as well as by Mr.
Glaisher’s staff of observers there, and by Mr. Crumplen in London.
(17) A rather bright meteor unconformable to Perseus at 9" 11-12" p.m.,
August 11th, 1872; simultaneously observed at three stations, appearing
with yellowish light, slow speed, and somewhat crooked course. Carefully
observed at all the stations, and the resulting heights, &c. probably pretty
accurate.
(18) A bright “ Orionid” of the annual October shower, with long course
of 40° along the southern horizon at Scots’ Gap, Northumberland, and falling
nearly vertically in the west ; length of path about 20° at Birmingham. The
view at Scots’ Gap near the horizon was unfavourable for exact description by
the stars, and the recorded time of appearance at Scots’ Gap was five minutes
earlier than at Birmingham, where the meteor noted was the first recorded
on that night. It is very doubtful if the same meteor was simultaneously
observed, each of two bright meteors of the shower having apparently been
seen at one, which was at the same time unnoticed at the other station.
19) A small bolide of the December shower, which was observed simul- —
taneously at Glasgow and at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, on December 11th, 1873.
The meteor appeared close and bright at both the stations, and of distinct
greenish light at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, where it really descended at a
distance of 150 miles towards the east, or two fifths of the way across from
the English to the Danish shore of the German Ocean ; and the length, height,
and position of its luminous track were fixed with great accuracy by the
duplicate descriptions of its course.
(20) These two meteors simultaneously observed at Birmingham and
Weston-super-Mare by Mr, Wood and Mr. T. H. Waller, with foreshortened
courses near their respective radiant-points, during the April meteor-shower
in 1874. The first, directed from Come Berenices, presents a very satisfactory
accordance. The agreement of the recorded paths of the second, from Lyra,
is less exact; but the extreme shortness of its visible path at Weston-super-
Mare may have made it rather more difficult to describe its course and its
apparent position there correctly.
(21) A fine bolide, unconformable to the shower from Perseus, seen during
the meteor-shower on August 10th, 1874, at Birmingham and at Newcastle-
on-Tyne. The real height, speed, length of path, and direction are well
defined by the observations as far as the last point of principal explosion.
The meteor then continued its path for some distance as a ruddy fragment,
which, from the low view of the meteor near the horizon, was not visible
at Newcastle-upon-Tyne; it inclined downwards, at the same time, in its
direction until it disappeared. Mr. Wood has calculated the following
real heights and positions of the meteor at the three principal points upon
its course.
He adds that the observations indicate a radiant-point of the meteor’s
course at about a=325°, 6=—17°, which is close to positions well defined
by Captain Tupman (No. 44), at 326°,— 13° on July 28th ; by Dr. Schmidt, at
332°, —14° from July 20th to 31st, and August 3rd to 3lst; and by Heis
and Neumayer (3,, for August) at 337°, —10°,—forming a distinct radiant-
region in Aquarius along a part of the southern arc of the ecliptic at that
season of the year.
“Approximate path of the Meteor.—From near Caermarthen to a point 15
miles off the N.W. coast of Anglesea. Point of first extinction or explosion
=7 miles N. of Bordsey Island.
Te =
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 289
(1) Over (2) Over (3) Over point
Caermarthen., Bordsey Isl. off Anglesea.
Altitudes in miles.......... cri Saal 33
Distant from Birmingham .. 112;8.70°W. 119; N.76°W.
Distant from Newcastle .... 240;8.299°W. 190;58. 41° W.
“Length of path 105 miles, direction 7° E. of south, inclination to horizon
16°, velocity 17 miles per second, amount of deflection 9 miles vertically
down in a path of 36 miles from position No. 2; distance of companion from
—~~SZs if
nucleus } mile, thus : SSSey (distance asunder 12’, between a
ey _— and # Coronz).”
II. A#RoOLxITES. -
It is noticed in the ‘ American Journal of Science’ of September 1873,
that a mass of meteoric iron found at Neuntmannsdorf, in Saxony, in
December 1872, weighing 25 lbs., has been deposited in the Museum at
Dresden.
In the ‘Comptes Rendus’ (vol. Ixxix. p. 276, August 3rd, 1874) are
communications by M. Daubrée on the recent aérolitic falls of Vidin (Turkey)
_and St. Amand (France), of which the following are abstracts.
Virba, near Vidin, Turkey, May 20, 1874.—An aérolite weighing 8 lbs. fell
with the usual loud explosions, and penetrated the earth to a depth of about
1 metre (33 feet). It was entirely coated over with a dull black crust, and,
as preserved in photographs, its form appears to have been fragmentary.
The substance of the stone is light grey, fine-grained, with a rough fracture
and occasional globular structure. Fine grains of metallic nickeliferous iron
and impalpable particles of chrome iron and sulphuret of iron are scattered
through it. The mineral portion is partly attackable (peridot) and partly
unattackable (enstatite) by hydrochloric acid. The attackable part forms
fully one half of the meteoric mass. It is thus a meteorite of the most common
species, like that of lucé or lucéite. The following aérolites are cited by M.
Daubrée as resembling it:—Bachmut, 1814, February 15; Politz, 1819,
October 13; Angers, 1822, June 3; Mascombes (Corréze), 1835, June 30;
Iowa (U.S.), 1847, February 25 ; Ski (Norway), 1848, December 27 ; (sel
Isle, 1855, May 11; Saint-Denis (Western Belgium), 1855, June 7; Bus-
choff (Kurland), 1863, June 2; Dolgowola (Volhynia), 1864, June 26.
Saint-Amand, Loir-et-Cher, France, July 23, 1872.—In addition to the
fragments of this fall found at Lancé (1041bs.) and at Pont Loiselle (2 lb.
in weight), the latter fragment ten kilometres (6} miles) from the former
(see these Reports for 1873, p. 384), M. Daubrée relates that four other frag-
ments, weighing between 7 lbs. and 3 lb., have since been discovered. Two.
of them, weighing about 14 Ib. each, were found 100 metres apart, while the
other two struck the ground some miles from them and from each other.
Ill. Laren Merrors anv Mrtrror-SHowERS.
The following catalogue includes the observations of large meteors during
the past year of which accounts have reached the Committee.
1874, U
290 REPORT—1874.
LARGE METEORS OBSERVED IN THE YEAR 1873-74, 0
SOURCES DURIN
Hour, Place of Apparent
Date.| approx. Ob eee? Magnitude, Colour. Duration. Apparent Path.
G. M. T. servation. | as per Stars &c.
1821.; hh m s
Sept.24; About |Beinsuef (above|Fireball twice the’............. eel ceaenenomminees First observed i
8 0 p.m.) Cairo), on the) apparent size of the zenith.
(local time).| Nile. a man’s fist.
25| 3 43 a.m.|[bids....00..cecesesfeceooes PPR ee Fer Bad ERE Hd tahiti eo asdtastes ...|In the southern s
(local time).
26} 9 53 p.m.|Ibid............00. Dazzlitigly brighit,|...:..ss.:..s6.:..|Remained in Appeared near t
(lecal time). and apparently sight about} north-west ho
as large as the 3 seconds. zon.
1822. full moon,
Apr.12\)One hour |Argo Isle (on the|Large fireball; nu-|--+--++.+++ boabbalssacecane PLAT ery | bine: Sirces case ceeue
after sunset.) Nile), Dongola.) cleus with large
apparent disk.
Aug.17| About |Embukol, Upper|Large meteor ......J.0sie-seee Oda teal seseadhotataacs ...|Passed across 1
4 0 am.| Dongola. zenith.
(local time).
31} About |Ibid.............. v [Large shooting= |.es.ssacsesersleccscesnseeteesecdeestteeause tee ranees
4 0 am. star.
(local time).
1825.
Jan. 31/Before day-|Ga el ma, near|Six fine ShOOtiNg-|.....s.sssereeese-lenecereereees ecvinlaensearaeeastessean Fe
light. Jedda, Arabia.| stars in 23 hours.
PAST
loa
Length of
Path.
4
Re ..
4
x
4
"
N
POROPeeeseseseres
ae eerereeeerscerseecsseetes
Moved from S. to Ni sessesesesss
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS,
YEAR.
Direction or Apparent
Radiant-point. #8 P ee fie ttslaas
few degrees eastwards from
the-zenith> the nucleus dis-
appeared, and the following
spark - trail included many
(four at least were counted)
bright fiery fragments. No
sound was heard.
Meteor itself not seen; on turn-
ing round towards the south,
Oe eerecesenee
291
"REVIOUSLY OBSERVED AND FIRST DESCRIBED IN PRINTED
Ghactvet!
—= ee me |
C. G. Ehrenberg: Phy-
sical observations in
Northern Africa and
Western Asia.
(Poggendorff’sAnnalen,
Jubelband, 1874,
p- 612.)
Id. Ibid. (Ibid.):
its streak alone remained in
sight, between @ Orionis and
Sirius, brightest at the north
end, milk-white, where the
light cloud continued visible
two minutes, three times the
length and about one fourth
of the width of one apparent
diameter of the full moon,
when it was first observed.
Peete eee eee e tesa eee et et eeseess eset eegse®
The nucleus shone with intensely
strong light, but scattered no
sparks. Such large meteors,
the Arabs informed Professor’
Ehrenberg, were of not un-
common occurrence in their
countries ; but of a real fall of|
aérolites they appeared to have
no definite traditions.
Oeeeeees
that remained visible some
time, even when the gaze
having for a moment been
averted was again directed to-
wards it, before it disappeared.
divided into two at the mid-
dle of its length by a dark
space, and evidently, there-
fore, material or substantial
in its character. .
All left very long enduring streaks
sees.
Left a long and brilliant streak/Id.
Left a persistent light streakjId.
Id.
Id, Ibid. _(Ibid.).
Id. Ibid. (Ibid.)
Ibid. (Ibid.)
Ibid. (Ibid.)
Ibid.
v2
292 REPORT—1874..
Hour, Apparent
Date.| approx. on lace “ agnitude, Colour. Duration. Apparent Path.
G. M. T. peeperorh ol aus per Stars &c.
1869.;h m s -
Feb. 11] 5 31 36 |Malta ............ == Mars .c.sccsse0-r Orange - red, |Slow steady oe
p-m. like Mars. speed; 3 /|From 1244°+34°
seconds. to 1464 0
17| 2 59 48 |Ibid....... sesenoces| == 2b sssunsuepasesganes| VWMILC crc eeeee| L SCCON meeees c= =
a.m. From 2294°-+52°
to 2044 +35
Apr. 8} 0 29 O+/[bid.............0.- 10' diameter, many|White ........./5 to 7 seconds ; ei
a.m. times > Q....- moved very|/From 155$°+11°
slowly. to 151 + 4 ©
Aug. 9! 0 50 a.m./Between Rome!= 2 ..ecccssseccereees White (ecassece 0°5 second ... ==
and Sardinia. From 483° + 3° |
to 56 +26
Sept. 9} 1.14 am.!Near Tunis = QP cveseeseeeeeeeeeee(Orange colour|1°5 second ; a= 6=
| (Africa). slow speed. |From 75°-+60°
to 61 +514
20)10 37 p.m.|Tbid....... palisveses aD os5 Meuse ccaasiey Very deep |2°5 seconds; a= O=
orange colour.| slow and uni-/From 20°+44°
form motion.| to 47 +533 —
Oct. 3) 0 14 a.m.jNear Algiers |= or Mars .... -|Orange colour|4°5 seconds ; z= -6=
Africa). (?). very slow. pon 39°— ek
48 —154 |
5) 5 57 O+/Near Oran Large fireball; di-|Nucleus vivid|5 seconds...... Altitude about 38°
(Africa). ameter 5’, emerald- N. 40° E. to}
N, lat. 36° 32’, green; pos- altitude 15° NJ
long. 1° 0' W. terior part 8° E.
from Grcen- crimson ;
wich. sparks white
; or yellow.
12) 2 236 |Near Malta...... |=3rd, then =I1st\White, then |16 seconds, a= d= |
a.m. mag.x; then 3) deep dull | carefully |From 71°-+15°
or 4’ in diameter.| red. counted; at} to 97 —26
first rapid,
then slack-
ening its
speed until!
it seemed to
stop _alto-
gether as it
died out.
13) 0 23 36 |Ibid...........40004| SS Pie bic es bs evstos White .........|l second ...... a= O=
‘} am From 55°-+4 24°
a to 36 +14
13) 059 6 [Ibid........ = Mars or 2 «+... White ........./0°3 second ... a= $=
a. rom 107°+13°
to 109 +1
13} 2 14 30 |Ibid......s.ceeeeees = Mars or I} s...|White ......08. 0°3 second ... ce
‘1 asm p om 744°— 5°
} to 68 —14
13|/2\ 22.18 Whidtseesseane ret oe = Mars or 2} ...... White ........./1 sécond ...... 2 =
a.m. From 66°-+84°
to 76 +4
15} 2 13 18 |Ibid....... Spiess = Mars or % ....../White .........(0°7 second ... eo
a.m cali From 1083°— 4°
‘ to 97 —174
Nov. 4) 2 40 30 |[bids.w..seceee!= Mars or Ys... White ......../1°5 second ... a— (0
a.m.
. = a aeetiaraal SennniianiaenemEiaea seine ae ee
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS,
| Length of Direction or Apparent
. wits Hadiantgeint. Appearance ; Remarks.
Bese sve0ses SERGE Ne sscesvescesssiecorssees seseeeee (Uniform in brightness. PassediG. L. Tupman.
near Mars. Seen in twilight.| (Observations of shoot-
SP Bcaeesse|ie--)-sscoses sane React ncecarcedeesrcs Left a streak 10° long for 2 secs. [
Mee sass cubsasnencouessecccncscceceos[Likey the electric light, shed alld,
strong light around. Died
out, leaving two reddish
sparks, which disappeared
immediately.
T 47; in Eridanus ...... sateen --|Left a streak 5° long for 1 second Id.
BEMUMORNAWERBscnclocseb<escccescccecsscccbeace Sataeiiadeue A very fine meteor; left a streak/Id,
4° long.
MER apeeissearss|iccokssssseee Genesedsaamaavdeesecehdens Nucleus with short train of sparks|Id
Ber ises ces steneesecseecessescseeeseeesesseseesees| NUCLCUS With train of sparks ; leftlId,
a streak.
35° Ss Tee See ee re eee ee eee ee er eeese-(In broad daylight, a few mi- Id
nutes after sunset. The vivid
green colour of the meteor
most remarkable, like burning
barium.
.|Fell exactly vertically............| Nucleus followed by a short train|Tq,
~~ of red sparks. Expanded ‘on
its course from 3rd magnitude
and white to Ist magnitude,
deep dull red; slackening its
speed most singularly.
.|October radiant near Rigel ...|Left a streak 10° long for 2 secs. Tq.
October radiant near Castor|Left a streak 4° long for 2 secs...|rq.
and’ Pollux (G No. 105, S
and Z No. 161).
Orionid (No. 104 G) ............| Left a streak 4° long for 2 secs...|[d.
Bs os +».{R, in Aries and Musca (No. 94|Left a streak 2° long for 1 sec....!Id.
: G).
R, (Aries and Musca; G 94 or/A very fine metcor; left a streakjId,
109). 3° long.
ing-stars, 1869-71.)
d.
(October Gemini radiant?) .../Left a streak 4° long for 2 secs...|[d.
|
|
|
Ce
294
Hour,
Date.| approx.
.M. T.
1869.|; h m s
Nov. 4| 2 58 42
10} 1-37 am.
10/5 39 0+
p-m.
10; 6 14 O+
p-m.
13} 0 50 42
a.m.
14) 1 to 3 a.m.
Dec.21| 5 5 54
p-m,.
1870.
Jan, 5] 3 23 12
Mar.11| 1 58 am.
Apr. 26) 0 50 a.m.
May 3) 2 36 am.
3) 2 40 am
3) 2 47 am.
4| 2 27 am.
June29| 2 2 a.m.
29) 2 52 am.
28) 2 34 am.
29) 2 25 am.
REPORT—1874,
Apparent i
Place of . i '
: Magnitude Duration. | Apparent Path.
Observation. | 4, per Stars &e. dee
eer == |
Near Malta ...... ../2°7 seconds ., |
Near the Isle of}= Mars or 2} .. From 70°+13°
July 9} 2 11 am.
20| 7 30 p.m.
21/10 14 p.m.
28] 1 2 am.
Rhodes 0-'2second.| to 55+ 7
bitltenecs sce aese = Mars or 2} ...... ite ....+.../2°2 seconds ,../From 31°+6°
to 13 —3 2
[bids] 3 .....d5,.s]-= Mars. or 20.2... ite .........|2 seconds...... From 38°+41°
to 58 +43
[ids .cesrepasas ..|From 152°+443°
to 163 +63
Near Malta ......
3 .
ment not seen.)
Ls 16 Eee eee ae i 7 Ase a= $=
P oe |i ; From 165°+48°
to 209 +30
IW pcs pc tae's on Rather slow |From 175°+36°
: speed; 2°5 | to 187 +14
seconds,
Dbid sy esse arvanee 3 seconds......|From 270° -+16°
to 266 +53
Near Catania ~ Y= Qo srssscsseseavces i 0°7 second ,../From 300° —16°
(Sicily). to 275 —214
Hs Dome Neer = From 289°-+-24°
DIGS gepuectiacneel ate ascesishassaseaee HEC 25. ccpnnc]eocadseescesuanees|onpeeeensebsstespeaeene
Thi. a. antes = Mars or 2} ,..... i From 12°+70°
to 124 +62
Near Malta...... = Mars or } ...... ite .....,...,1 second ,..... From 321° +43°
to 328 +734
MDIGD cs cssscseee From 10°—10°
to 330 —25
Near Girgenti
-(Sicily). ” diameter.” ae to 224 +274
Near Messina |= Mars or 2 ...... i 3 seconds......|/From 295°-+-45°
(Sicily), — to 246 —12
Moe ig eccscccusscl==or eesnirevecscctenes sseeesfo SECONS,..... From 285° —23°
; sai to 294 —37
Near Malta ..,...|= Mars or 2} ......
3 to 355 —9%
TOROS | egacespognae = eats OF Ds csep> i 0-2 second; j|From 350°+28°
ve ; very swift. | to 337 +10 —
Ibid) ...:...1....|=: Mars or.2} s000.: i 1 second; slow/From “305° +18°
to 303% +24
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 295
3 th of Direction or A t
i Hepner 0 Ra ffi gat Appearance; Remarks. Observer.
I —
TEP ..o0s s+eeee./Rg ? (Same radiant as the last)..|A very fine meteor with a short|/G. L. Tupman.
train of sparks. Point of dis-| (Observations of shoot-
: appearance very accurate. ing-stars, 1869-71.)
17° vsesseeesere|LOONIG,....s0eeeereeeceeseerseeeees-/Left a streak 6° long for 1 sec....|{d.
Bene lacesseds TET Vat |e Re sieeests Left a streak 10° long for 2 secs..|Id.
15° paeeeeaparealeeepeeeeevereeecrces sccscccccosesseenes (Lett a streak 1° long eccceccene seeee Id.
212 ..reesccecseleerressssperssresecseseorsceeseeseseee-/Wery fine meteor; left a streak|{d.
5° long, 20' broad, for 5 se-
conds.
secveacsreereeseen|{L LOO sssreesesssraeeeee seeeeeepeee/Shower of fine meteors from Leo; |Id.
radiant-point 151°-+-21°°5.
20° cesscnscesselerssecressessseerseetessereeepvereeese+(Like Venus in motion; very fine{d.
meteor. Left scarcely any
train. Velocity decreased al-
most to stopping when it dis-
appeared.
42° ......,...../Radiant near @ Urs Majoris,|Very fine meteor with train 7° or|ld.
M,,.- 8° long, but it left no streak.
salseetsreveneessseesessoeeevererseeaneee-(Nucleus With train of sparks ; left/Id.
"no streak.
From a low southern radiant-|Very fine meteor with a train 15°|Id.
point (T 29), long; left no streak.
25° ....s000eeee/Alpha-Aquariid. (325—23.) |Left a very brilliant streak 8°|Id.
(T 33; ?a branch radiant of| long, 1° broad, for 2 seconds.
Halley’s comet.)
++es++-|Same radiant as the last .,.,..|Very fine meteor, leaving a streak(!d.
10° long.
sessetsoseegeeeees|Prom the same special radiant-|A very fine MeteOr.......ss.cesseeee Id.
; point as the last.
40° see eeseserre Heis A, st) petereeesece TOMO ers ererleccnsneneenatertensessssnsssesepenee ses tee Id.
Between Antinéus and Sagitta-|Left a streak 2° long for 3 secs...|Id.
rius, 290 —15 (T 36, 37).
21° ......002...,Perseid. Eight or ten me-|Left a streak 7° for 3 seconds ...|Id.
| teors on this morning
from a very definite ra-
diant-point near « Andro-
ny tt medz (T 45).
‘16° ......,.00..,Neumayers 2, (305 — 7),/A fine meteor, leaving a streak 2°\[d.
near a Capricorni and p| long.
e Aquarii, (Norma Aqua-
rii.)
Ue Ae bareeoasescodec! seccrseeesersereres-(Seen in daylight ...... Dies ekpa se Id.
JLO° veesesseeees|Byy 5 (2?) srseeeetsereeseereeeeepeee{Nucleus with a very short pointed/Id.
| train of sparks.
0° secsessreeee[By OF BG(?) .sssossseeeeeeseeeee(Left a streak 25° long for 3 secs..|Id.
i Be vaccseksss +o. Schmidt, July, 279°41° ...... A very fine meteOr.........00sccsee Id.
qi
f D°. .cesesseeeseee(O Aquarii (T 43,44; Southern|Left a streak 4° long «.........s008 Id
| radiant of July and August,
} 340 —15).
j
296 REPORT—1874:,
Hour, Apparent
Date.} approx. oF lage Of. Magnitude, Colour, Duration. Apparent Path.
G. M. T. * | as per Stars &c.
1870.;h m s
July 31} 1 21 0 |Near Malta...... = Mars or } ...00 Whiter. 20.5.1 :
31] 1 24 30 (|Ibid. .:2.....0.3. == (MarsOrieLy.detctlecsvses evaededdies
to 333 —12
Aug. 5| 8 0 p.m.|Near Tunis = Mars'or 2f....:.. Very red Brera: 2= =
(Africa). colour. From 338°+83°
to 194 +53
6) 2. 5 am. [bid sawn eee |= Mars or 2} ...... White cccsccesss 2 secs.; slow..|From 13°—7°
to 33 —5
7| 1 43 am./Near Bona Very large meteor White ......... 15 second ...|From 245°+36°
(African coast). to 228 +40
9) 3 43 am.|Near Algiers |= 9 .....sscceceees ++/Red. .....s.0+4-/0°6 second .../From 0°+475°
i (Africa). to 292 +68
(Seen through
thin cloud.)
10) 3 24 am.jNear Oran = Oo aeduee Ratipadbes White ......... 0°5 second ... o—
(Africa). From 98° 435°
to 104 +27
10} 3 46 am.|[bid. ............ = Mars or } ...... White ........./2 seconds...... From 120°+487°
to 124 +67
10} 3 53 a.m:|[bid. ol; adeeece. = Mars or 2 ...... White .....4... ..|From 68°-+65°
: to 83 +67
14| 9 42 p.m.|Gibraltar ......... = Mars or 2} ...... Ruddy .........
29| 3 55 a.m.)Near Oporto = Mars or 2} ...... White .........
(Portugal). to 10 +27
30/3 O am.|Ibid. ........0.3. =Omvak. nih ax White .......:. 0°4 sec.; swift/From 7°+46°
to 340 +30
31; 3 55 am.|Ibid............. = Mars or 2} ...... White .........
to 308 +55
Sept. 6) 2 55 30 |Cape St. Vincent|/= Mars or 2/ ...... White ......... 05 sec.; not|/From 338°+435°
a.m. (Portugal). very swift. | to 320 +53
6} 3 0 am.|Ibid. . 4...2...003 = Mars or } ...... Reddish ......
6) 4 24 am.jIbid. ............ == 9 dar ieben, wae White .........
Dec.12) 5 30 p.m.)Malta ............ Very large fireball)? ..........0006 Vienekiendaebeaes From 355° —18°
to 315 —32
(Position of the
streak.)
19] 6°57 pan. lle) oes: = Mars or 2} ......\White ......... a
From 81°-+425°
to 45 0
F2|972 18° pim-\Ubid>, 2. -se2ce nese == Pinaeneskys cosceccee/ GTN Wei sesacs From 105°+54°
to 103 +74
12} 7 32 p.mjIbid. ............ fe 9 soc conigadenadoco- Bright green...|2 secs.; rather/From 68°+41°
187).
Feb. 27| 6 50 O-+ Ibid. ............ i= Mars or 2} ...... White ..... dece|svevevBbareesecses
p.m. ; to 150 +13
eb eeeeeereee
a eee
.+++-|Scheat (6) Aquarii; much fore-
OBSERVATIONS
Direction or Apparent
Radiant-point.
ee
August to September,
radiant in Pisces (?).
shortened near its radiant-
point.
N, 11 or T45 ...csccsereerresenees
Scheat, or Norma Aquariid|
(5, ?)
QG (y Aguila) 29443
Perseid......cserccssevees
OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
Appearance ; Remarks,
297
Observer.
Left a very bright streak 8° long|G. L. Tupman.
for 3 seconds.
A very fine meteor with train ...
Nucleus with a short train.........
A beautiful meteor ; left no streak
Close to the horizon .........066
Exploded two thirds of the. way
along its course, leaving there
a lenticular cloud of red and
yellow light.
(Observations of shoot-
ing-stars, 1869-71.)
Id.
Id.
Id.
.+ (Id.
Id.
Ps. cuseass.-.cs|PETSCIA ses... veseatscvducautetmioase : eons calldk
20° sereeeeeesee/Q G(y Aquilz) (gammaAquilid)|A fine meteor with a train of\Id.
u sparks.
T° seseeeeeeres|PETSCIG sce eeeeerseseeeseeeeeseeees|Very bright streak. Twelve Per-|Id.
seids in one hour; full moon.
[The same rate of frequency
also on the 11th, a.m.]
ae T, or T, Pegasid ....0........4e+++/Meteor with train ....... wd coiate Id.
Le Opa T 65 (Psalterium or Cetus) ...|Left a bright streak .......... woes Id,
28° eee eeeeereee Perseid CO ee ee eee PO nero eee eeeee ser ceeesreeeeOee ee eeeeeeeeeeeD Ode reresrcecees Id.
ie lesisescoqsse|EPCISCIG? 5..0000c0000e cobtcesc.aoute Left a streak ......c.scccssssccescees Id.
SI os,1TG7=T, 2 (2 Piscim) ..cis01.|scecsssassacanssveesenssossusssvensevicess Id.
feeeeres Se eee eet OO eeerreserseetetaesnee
Geminid
saveeee PO OOeeeresereres tee
Meteor with bright train .........
sesesseeees- (57 (Tg?) (6 Piscium) ...,.....|Left a very bright streak .........
Meteor seen by other observers;
extremely large and brilliant.
The streak remained 10™, and
a nucleus or cloud of it at
330—26 remained in sight
30™ or 40™, drifting to 347—
27, where it disappeared, be-
ing then 5° in diameter.
Id.
Id.
Geminid .....0...seseeeeees cateckestuas sésese ssanvebscsecanevsgtdeucccsebtUteulhGle
Preece eee cree eee rere rer Ty
Benet scewdes|se ePuscacccdvrenwasestnes cso seehudes Position accurate
aeodteces .»-|Geminid .......6 Gudeecnesenve veoee(A Very fine MEtCOF .ee.sscssceeseeeee
Metcor With train ..ccossescessscees
Id.
Seetoass tosses en, Id.
$$ |
ae a
|
i
|
Hour,
approx.
G. M. T.
h “m
2 0
8
a.m.
1 31 am.
11 16 p.m.
0 36 am.
2 11 am,
2 28 am.
247 O+
1872.
Dec.12) 4 53 p.m.
(Washing-
ton mean
time.)
1873.
Feb. 14/A little after
6 p.m.
(Washing-
ton mean
time.)
0 14 52
a.m.
10 5 p.m.
Aug. 8
Sept. 9
Place of
Observation.
Queenstown
(Ireland).
Ibid.
weer eeeee tee
Near Lisbon
(Portugal).
[bid,
Kentucky, U. S..
REPORT—1874.,
Newhaven, ‘Con-
necticut, U, 8.
Royal Observa-
tory, Greenwich,
Ackworth,
Somersetshire.
Less bright than|Foremost nu-
the planet Venus| cleus green;
appeared. the follow-
ing one yel-
lowish.
Bs 2G. aegis: oe White: 4.cscsses
Brighter than |Yellow ......
Venus, even in
moonlight.
Apparent
Magnitude, Colour. Duration. Apparent Path.
as per Stars &c.
= Mars\or 2...... White ........./2 secs. ; slow.. 2= .0=
From 3499°+47°
to 9 +30
we Pacsaed.is ../White ........./0°5 sec.; swift/From 30°+89°
to 240 +78
= Marsior 2} v:.ce0 White ........./1°5 sec.; very/From 50°+33°
slow. to 40 +23
= Mars or 2} ...... White .........)1 sec.; very |From 24°+28°
swift. to 337 +48
= Mars or 2} ...... White ........./0°3 sec.; very|From 33°-+19°
swift. to 15 +18
saiPisiwds ae societies White ...... .../0°3 sec.; very|/From 67°— 9°
swift. to 75 —23
= Mars or 2 ...... White ....,..../0°5 second .../From 38°+65°
to 330 +74
Very large .0is).05. [ White ; [Rapid ; Ibid.]/From altitude 40°.
Marion City, 15° E. of S. to
Kentucky. ] about altitude
10° S.S.E.
soccccvesccsscesss[kirst appeared
near the planet
Venus, and shot
to a direction N.
64° W., altitude
about 15°,
Passed below n An-
dromede.
0°75 second.../From altitude
about 49°, 53°
E. from §. to
altitude 10°,
42° EK. froin S,
1 second
EE eee
= 4
———
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 299
IY
Length of Direction or Apparent z
Path. Radiant-point. Appearance ; Remarks, Observer,
i
ee |
22° sersereeeere| By (?) Draconid ,.. .......++9+54.|Meteor with train 5° long...,...../G. L. Tupman.
j (Observations of shoot-
ing-stars, 1869-71.)
ND) awoncocseene Perseid ...... seeceeseresceeeeeess- (Left a bright streak ........ cesses (Id.
secesserssceeees-|PErseid ? (Ajos yy, and Ajo, ,, ;|Meteor with train ..,....0....e0500-(Id.
40+60 to 60+55).
40° essesreseslnesrecsccerrersepersesepeesepseepeveees/ACcurate observation. Left alld.
streak 20° long.
Remote resrgen [IIL 2]. .casepapnpsesppasy ns s+eeeeee|Left a streak 3° long for 3 secs...|Id.
POevessepepeatea|| LiL 2 ]ecccess.cosee sorereeeegeeseeee|Left a very bright streak ..,.,.,.. Id.
23° ..seeeseeeee|RT (75425, max. Sept. 8-10).|Left a streak 10° long for 3 secs..|Id.
About 30° ..,/Towards the east of south, in-/End of course and explosion seen|D. Kirkwood.
clined about 60° to the ho-| through a southern window; no| [Account by H. A.
rizon, N.N.W. to S.S.E. report heard. [At Marion City} Newton, in ‘ Ameri-
i white; altitude 45° N.W. or| can Journal of Sci-
N.N.W.; at first inclined, then} ence ’for April 1873. ]
immediately angular to the hori-
zon. Smoke-cloud for several
minutes; broke into parts. Re-
: port heard at George Town, Ken-
tucky. At Lixington, from 30°
W.toa point S.W. of the zenith,
a loud report heard in 5™.]
[Meteor’s true path from alti-
tude about 30° or 60° N.W. to
_S.E., exploding about 20 miles
over a point in the direction
of the district of Lebanon,
Kentucky.—H. A. Newton. ]
10° while injInclined northwards and down-|A smaller bright green nucleus|William C. Wood.
sight. wards. in front, followed by a larger| [Reported by H. A.
yellowish one. The principal] Newton; Ibid.]
nucleus also gave out some
sparks. [As seen by Mr.
Middleton, at New Britain,
: 1 the meteor divided into
‘ two large balls and _ se-
. veral smaller ones, which
disappeared while the two
large ones passed on. ]
BO. ssccevseseeeee[PTSEID pespreperserseerereeeeeress( Left a streak ...... asic ws teeseaseees/— Schultzy -
sesseseeeeéeeee++-|20° from horizontal, thus— Position by measurement of\E. Worsdell.
nll window-top and distant tree-| (Communicated by
tops between which its course} J. E. Clark.)
appeared; end perhaps ob-
served, but beginning not seen.
No sparks or streak on_ its
course were visible! through the
closed window-pane.
300
Your,
Date. | approx Flate of
G.M.T. Observation.
REPORT—1874,
Apparent
Magnitude, Colour.
as per Stars &c.
Duration. Apparent Path.
1873.| h m s
Sept.15] 8 55 p.m.'Ackworth, Slightly > @ ...... White ........./1°5 second .../From altitude 43°
Somersetshire. to altitude 20°,
due west.
23} About (Thirteen miles |Multiple meteor, |All the nuclei/Advanced First came into view
4 30 am.| S. of Mooltan,
with many large] brilliant
steadily but} at about altitude
(local time).| India; on Shu-| and small nuclei.) palish green} moved 15° due west;
jabad road, 12 with red slowly. crossed the me-
miles from Shu- trains. ridian at altitude
jabad. about 60°, pass-
ed clcosé under
Orion, and pro-
ceeded to a point
in the east as
nearly as possible
opposite to that
at which it first
appeared.
‘Oct. 14) 7 15 p.m.|Weston - super -|= ¢...... Patctse sess White .........{2 seconds.,.... expt
Mare, Somer- From 18°+39°
| setshire. to 27 +27
|
17|Evening ...\Crowborough —|...........cccsccceceessleaeceeceseees aeceeline cee aevebecseenc|tadsepiaese ctsavepwasaeep
Beacon
(Sussex).
cabana
—
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 301
eee of Dir ee. hy aera Appearance; Remarks. Observer.
$a a ee | ee
RMS Naaaancsel nse «sen doueseiah desessoeceess soeeeee-|Left a slight streak.....ssseeseeseeee/J. Neale and other ob-
servers. (Communi-
cated by J. E. Clark.)
[About 140°|[Nearly due W. to E.] .........|First observed as a bright star/G. Yates, ;
or 150°.] rising slantingly; burst al-| (‘ Astronomical Re-
most immediately like aj gister,’ March 1874.)
rocket without scattering to
any extent, and increasing
continuously from the first
in brightness, long before
reaching its mid course, lit
up the whole country with
a greenish light. Twenty or
more fragments were visible,
i all greenish, moving in pa-
rallel courses, the two or
three largest in the centre
leading. Each nucleus left
a red train, forming toge-
ther a huge band across
the sky that remained bright
for some time, and at last
broke up into an irregular
heavy line and into small
detached clouds, which only
disappeared upwards of an
hour afterwards in the
rays of the rising sun.
Three and a half minutes
after the disappearance of
the meteor, a loud report |
followed, as of many distant
cannons, that shook the
ground and rolled on in |
reverberations for some time ;
|
; until it died away like
f distant thunder. Many
| were awakened by the
report; and the meteor
was seen at Shujabad, but
no accurate accounts of its
appearance could be obtained
there.
Jesssereessseseeee(Fell vertically; undeterminedjAnother meteor, almost as/T, H. Waller.
radiant-point. bright, followed it in the
same part of the sky at
7» 18" pm, and another
was seen at 105 30™ p.m, by
other observers. |
Hee eeeeeeseeres eeelens Sree eet OP ereeeeeeerseteeeeecereetens During the evening a number
‘ of small meteors were ob-
served. ‘ Meteorological
Journal for 1873,’ by C. L.
Prince.
302 REPORT—1874.
Hour, Place 4; Apparent. : ; ve |
Date. | approx. Obs orratign Magnitude, Colour. Duration. Apparent Path.
G. M. T. * | as per Stars &c.
1873.| h m_ s
Oct. 18] 0 15 a.m.|Royal Observa- |= 2U....cceieease. White ..::::::.}0°5 second ; a= O=
tory, Greenwich. very swift. |From 165°+68°
to 210 +56
18] About {Boltsburn Meteor of Consider-|.......sceeseessee|ecsecseseeeeeeeee-(L the north-west
8 30 pm.| (Durham). able brilliancy. part of the sky,
commencing at
altitude about
apes |e ee
18)11 5 p.m.|Edgbaston, =D HOU, AO Reddish ......!2 seconds...... 2— 0=
Birmingham. From 37°+36°
to 1 +24
26/ About |Thruxton Very large and [Flash of light|Streamed Passed while in
8 20 p.m.| (Hereford). bright. intensely across the sight from & Per-
Time un- white. sky. sei above Ca-
certain ; pella (in alti-
“by guess tude), and dis-
only.” appeared in
Lynx.
26| 9 51 p.m.|Royal Observa- {Probably very large|.+...seessesseseeleoessererseeneeee-[ Apparent position
tory, Greenwich. of the streak
from 7 Cephei
to a point a few
degrees to the
left of 6 Dra-
conis.
30] 0 20 am.|Regent’s Park, |Larger than any |Yellow.........|......sccseceeeers From altitude 12°,
London. star. S.S.W. to W.,
to altitude 23°,
S.S.W. to W.
Noy. 4| 4 56 p.m.|Mattishall, A bright meteor ...|Pale green ...|.........sseseeeee In the E.N,E.......
Dereham
(Norfolk).
11} 7 19 25 |Royal Observa- /22 4 :........... ...[Bluish white. |1°5 second .../From about 20°
tory, Greenwich, above the Plei-
ades; fell to-
wards the hori-
zon at an angle
of 40° to the
right.
23) About /|Birmingham ...|Very bright meteor|........... ..|From altitude 60°
6 30 p.m. : Sella W.S.W. to alti-
tude 45° a little
W. of S.
23/Evening ...\Crowborowgh 3 iii. Gbes. dbieedslseccessecesescceeshuvevpveetveerwe| sess ereerwennrs svi:
Beacon
(Sussex).
Dec. 3} 7 0 p.m.|Ibid. (..04..Gi.. VEDESEs OPM ws TARTU GES | sclenscscscscresves|essssasweeses ad pcco 2c coessecese
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
Direction or Apparent
Radiant-point.
Appearance; Remarks.
25° sisssises.s.|Accurately parallel to ¢, Urse/|Left a streak .....:..... radsatibeedes
: Majoris.
-|Shot downwards.......sesse+00
Seen ee eeeneeee
for 9 or 10 seconds.
Beis ssaee Radiant near Castor and|Brightened suddenly just below|T. H. Waller.
Pollux (Schiaparelli, No. 37). 8 Andromede, and there
left a ruddy streak for
ae 4 A lightning-like flash drew at-
tention to the meteor, which
was extremely bright for
two thirds of its flight, leay-
ing a train of sparks; but
in the remaining third of its
course it only showed its
own single expiring light.
Two telescopic meteors, ap-
parently from the same
radiant-point, were observed
later in the evening in
Cepheus.
A brilliant flash of bluish-
white light, at first sup-
Peer eee ene eeeeeee
SOP e OOOH eee ee eeeeeeeeneeeseere Pe eeeene
was observed, which was
very bright, and remained
visible two seconds.
Left no streak.
al PPP Oe me sete reset ereeeneccurenseeconeenees
course.
BHR eee power eer enerereeeseretee Ce erereeeneees
Notice attracted by the light.
small ones were observed on
this evening.
Pee ers Deedee ee eeeee eeeeeras Ceercceee
the eastward.
G. L. Tupman.
..|Left a streak of very red light/y, Curry.
-{J. M. Duport.
Left a streak and sparks on its|— Schultz.
Burst into coloured fragments. F.
eae Ree oe AN vbw vansese mbeen nae TES One large meteor and many(C.
A brilliant meteor was visible to/C.
803
Observer.
(‘ Nature,’ Novy. 6th,
1873.)
(‘ Nature,’ Noy. 6th,
1873.)
W. C. Nash.
(Communicated by
G, J. Symons.)
(Communicated by
G. J. Symons.)
J. Waller.
(Communicated by
T. H. Waller.)
L. Prince.
(‘ Meteorological
Journal’ for 1873.)
L. Prince.
(‘ Meteorological
Journal’ for 1873.)
304
Hour,
Date. | approx.
G. M. T.
1873.;}h m 5s
Dec.11/10 38 p.m.|Newcastle-on-
11/10 39 p.m./Glasgow
7| 5 7 p.m.|Ventnor (Isle of About one fourth
Wight). apparent diam-| yellow.
eter of the full
moon.
Feb. 28} About |Sevenoaks About the second Pale yellow;
7 0 pm. (Kent). magnitude of | uneven edges
large fireballs | of the train
[i.e. about= 9 ,| red.
or brighter].
Apr.11} 9 18 p.m.|Bristol............ HY rccescccenccnaves|seeeecceeescsecees
REPORT—1874.
Apparent
bwin af Magnitude, Colour. Duration. Apparent Path. |
2 aaa as per Stars &c,
ee ee _s
|
ea osc oan Bright pale |1'2 second ...|First appeared at 7
Tyne. green. Cancri. Disap-|
peared with aj
small spark pro-|.
jected to left. |
I
:
=Wererccecece sseeee{White or yel-|l°5 second ,..|From altitude 12° .
(Scotland). low. to altitude 3° or
4°,
Near Colchester |= 9 .........ccse0000 Just the colour|3 or 4 seconds|[n the S.S.W. part
(Essex). and appear- of the sky. (Ap-
ance of
Venus.
Pale greenish
ings only.)
Very slow mo-|In the west, mov-
proximate posi-
tion and _bear-
tion; 5 or ing at an altitude
6 seconds of about 40°.
while in Path dipping at
sight. an angle of about
5° towards the
north.
Much slower|scadeecssescosss ousaeate
than usual
with shoot-
ing-stars.
2 seconds...... a= Oo=
From 242°+47°
to 278 +50 q
About E.N.E. to
N.E., thus—
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 305
Directi A t
. tse Appearance ; Remarks. Observer.
sesseseeeses/Directed from 2° left of Castor|At first small, but uniformly|A. S. Herschel.
(Geminid). bright in the last two thirds
of its flight. Left no streak.
Fell vertically from the direc- Followed by a short train ......+..|R. McClure.
tion of iota Geminorum
(Geminid; identical with
the last).
J
About 15° .../Fell nearly straight down, in-|-+++++++++- SACU CREEC seesseeessesersescee|(de Gripper. (Communi-
clining a little towards the cated by H. Corder.)
south-west. i
seleseccesecssecencssceesessscecseseeeeeefNucieus globular; burst at last/T. Perkins.
into a shower of various-
coloured sparks. Seen in
dusk or afterglow ; sky cloud-
less. A bright light first drew
Said attention to the meteor.
sesseteseceeseseesiAbout §-W. to N.E. ..........,.,4 beautiful meteor, with a long|W. E. Buck.
train of the same colour as
- the head. Moved majesti-
© POLARIS cally across the sky, which
was very clear. No other
meteor visible in a watch of
some length at the same
hour.
URSA MAJOR ‘ s
t 24° ....Radiant near 8 Bodtis (G 36= Nucleus emitted numerous sparks) W. F. Denning. ;
223+-40). while in motion. (a ee April 16th,
1874.
306 - REPORT—1874,
Hour,
Date.| approx, on dace of Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. . Position.
G.M.T. servation.
1874.; h ms -
May 12)Shortly be-|Bristol............ Large fireball; — |..... mapeaaesees Moved rapidly). aselchesaterdierch scam
fore 11 shone as bright :
p.m. as the full
moon.
19] 0 50 a.m.|Off Holyhead .../Elongated oval |Spread a _ At first sta-/Formed near An-
disk: major soft green | tionary for | tares. Disap-
diameter equal light on 2 or 3 peared in the
apparent dia- all objects | seconds, Great Bear.
meter of the throughout | then
sun. its course. moved
slowly
north-
| wards. —
June 9} 0 2 59 |Camden Square,|2X 2 sss.sessecevees Silvery white..|.........cessee{N. 32° E., alti-
a.m. London, N.W. ; tude 18°, to N.
34° E., altitude
12°,
CASSIOPEIA
° =
e EN
17| 9 15 p.m.|Heidelberg, Ger-|Very bright .......1.|+eeseessseeseeeeee[2°D Seconds or] = a= =
Karlsruhe| many. more. From 278°-+35°
* time. to 285 0
[G. M. T.
85 40™.]
DAleO 55: cai: |EDilsdesecss cescesee SS ee Ae White .........(0°75 second... a= 0—
: From 197°-++56°
to 172 +55
24/11 55 p.m.|Regent’s Park, |Large fireball ......|..c:.ccssesesceess[ecneeeeeesesecees From considerably
London. S.E. of the ze-
nith; ended a-
bout midway be-
tween Cassiopeia
and Andromeda.
July 1/10 45 p.m.|Ibid............06 ..|Large meteor ...... Looked very|Moved slowly |Disappeared about
much like 33° above # Ca-
a red+* hot} © pricorni.
cinder. ° c
6|10 30 p.m.|Bridport, Dor- |Brilliant ; a vividly|.ec...cesssseseeeleceeeeeeee coeenos a= =
setshire peak ‘meteor. From 235°-+-55°
to 101 +64
Approximate ap-
‘parent path.
12) 0 29 a.m.|Penge .........08 —Lsdiscpsecce a ta eelicascackwes eee| QUICK sooscses- From near s Ta-
randito a=156°,
o6=+653°.
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
Observer.
Direction or Radiant-point. Appearatice; Remarks, &c,
In a north-westerly direction...|A very brilliant meteor; burst|The ‘Bristol Daily Post,’
at disappearance into beauti-| May 13th, 1874.
ful coruscations of coloured
light.
MMEUMEUU Pec dlUssihe tscccusccvecescechecesens seentere A short time before it disap-
| peared, six sparks as large
as Jupiter were. discharged
from its southern end. A
most brilliant meteor, fol-
one by a crackling sound
(2), Eee
William W. Kiddle.
G. J. Symons.
Betas Left no streak......s:ciececsssseseses Communicated by J. E.
Clark.
Left no streak; attention called|J. E.'Clark.
to the appearance by its bright-
ness.
The light was intense, and the\Communicated by T.
flash lit up the sky. Crumplen.
6 SOOO Sesser lH SPeeEeereceerensccessersseeseeseeeees
Moved apparently from the|Extremely bright for the first/T. Crum plen.
same radiant-point as the| instant, then rapidly disap-
last meteor, peared. A view of the end
only caught as the meteor
J disappeared.
seteveevesss/ Radiant 72, Greg; LQ; ) cases seclecece Pee eeerereceneeeetenersseeeene eters
Communicated by J. E.
Cl Le -
.
>
Fe eeeebeneee
Head varied in brightness;
disappeared suddenly; left
a bright green or blue streak
on its whole course of irre-/
gular brightness, parts re-
maining 1 second.
Sema eeeeeeserersaeeee COCO Ce ree eee reereseee
T. W.: Backhouse.
308 REPORT—1874.
Hour, Place of : . tye
Date. |. aay Observdtion. Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Position.
1874.| h m s {
July 16)About Lewisham, Kent|Magnificent fireball]......... spaces Moderate Passed some de-!
0 45 am. speed. grees (4° to 10°)))
south of Altair. }
View of the end)
of its course lost
behind houses.
27| 8 15 p.m.|Toulon, France.../Shone brighter |Nucleus a |Moved Commenced close
| Paris time. than the full fine yellow | rapidly, to the horizon}
moon. Appa- colour ; traversing in the north-|
rent diameter train bright} its whole west; passed |
of the disk red. course in| through the |
one fourth that about one | south-west part)
of the full moon. minute of the sky ati)
thirty se- | an altitude of
conds. about 60°
65°, and dis
appeared
the sea at an
altitude of
about 15°
above the —
south-east ho-
rizon.
27| 8 50 p.m.|Versailles,France/Apparent disk |... .seccaeacsaeens Three or. four|Appeared in the}
Paris time. about one seconds. constellation
: fourth that Virgo.
of the full
moon, and
much _infe-
22710 35 p.m.|Buntingford,
" 28 About
8 39 p.m.
Herts.
Regent’s Park, |Very large and |The ~ forward
London.
rior to the
full moon in
brightness.
Nucleus with sen-|White .........
sible disk.
bright meteor.
Apparent size
of disk 4 in.
X3in.
half like
a magne-
sium light;
the other |
half. much
the colour
of burning
sodium.
About 1 sec,../From close to /
slowly; in
sight about
3 seconds.
turus nearly to
the horizon.
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 3809
mae Direction or Radiant-point. Appearance; Remarks, &c. Observer.
——— es
¢
‘|Very long |East to west, as in the accom- Streamed majestically “along, be-|H. W. Jackson.
course. panying sketch. coming brighter and brighter,
and the streak growing broader
and broader,
HORIZON
Almost from|N.W. to S.E., following nearly/Nucleus with a broad train like|M. Lecourgeon.
horizon to} the course of the ecliptic.) that of a comet, 12° or 15°| (Comptes Rendus,
horizon. but in a direction opposite} long and 4° or 5° wide, in| 1874, August 3rd.)
to that of the daily motion] its track, along which were
of the heavens. scattered small sparks which
disappeared slowly.
‘bout 15° .../The direction of its course was|....... ssseeeceeeeesessscsseseseee(M. Martin de Brettes.
horizontal, from S.E, to (Ibid.)
N.W.
:.|Fell vertically ; probably al.secessseseeeee seseeececeeceeerersereeeee| Re P. Greg.
“ Cygnid.”
bissaiscescasveeaiee tesessseeeseeecenvees(Left a Jong dark trail on its|William Sowerby.
path rather wider than the| (‘The Times,’ July;
heal; yellow smoke- colour} 31st, 1874.)
at the base, shading to deep
black, and rather tapering
than speading out towards
the end. - Seen in_ strong
evening twilight. Sky very
clear and bright.
310
Hour,
Date. | . approx.
G. M. T
| 1874. hm 5s
Aug. |About
10 50 p.m.
‘Place of
Observation.
Corbridge, near|Large ball of fire |Meteor-heads
Hexham, Nor-
thumberland.
REPORT—1874.
Apparent Size.
with many
smaller ones
in its train.
Colour. Duration. Position.
war vert seoevseeeee{Fell from the west-
green on a ern edge of a/
large bar- dark cloud over
like line of Hexham and
rich blood- Dilston directly
red light. to the earth,
which it seemed
to strike in the} |
region of the|’
north Tyne, just
above its con-
fluence with the
ham. and the wes
i horizon,
10/11 53 p.m.|Birmingham .../=I1st mag.x, then|Blue-white, (6 seconds,..... a= $=
>Venus. Elon-| then red. From 260°-+-18°
gated nucleus 3 to 216 +32
<i apparent dia- Expanded to an
meter of the full oval nucleus in
moon, passing across
Corona, drop-
ping some red
fragments _be-
tween a and £,
and exploded
near 6 Corone.
10)11 53 50 |Neweastle - on - |= Venus ........+46. Orange-yel- |2°8 seconds ro
p-m. Tyne. low, then while in {From 287°—17°
bright sight. to 275 —17
green with
red train.
south Tyne.
3} 8 30 p.m. Roker, near Sun-|Large meteor ......|....... tecvceesecleccnccnonees seee-|About halfway be-
tween the zenith
derland, Dur-
Some additions have been made, of which the principal is a long list of
the largest meteors described in the recently published catalogue of shooting-
stars observed in the Mediterranean by Captain Tupman. An attempt was
made in selecting these large meteors from the list to arrange them under
their most obvious radiant-points, and to determine, if possible, from the
results the dates of greatest intensity of the showers to which they respec-
tively belonged. The exact descriptions of their apparent paths is unusually
favourable to such a preliminary course of treatment of the general catalogue ;
but the indications expected to be obtained of the occurrence of a period of
maximum intensity of any already established or newly traceable star-
shower among their apparent courses, have proved unproductive of any
material results, The dates of their appearance are throughout inconstant ;
and where they nearly synchronize, the directions of the meteors’ apparent
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 811
Path. Direction or Radiant-point. Appearance; Remarks, &c. Observer.
MRWEMEDE Gd etuscos!cccecccceccase secesectecscepesseeeseeee(Principal nucleus followed by)‘ Newcastle Daily Chro-
half a dozen pear-shaped nicle,’ Monday, Aug.
fireballs ; illuminated the sur-| 3rd, 1874.
rounding district for an in-
stant as if by the electric
light.
Ree eies.s. PBT IN. £0.S.) ccccersiseosscnesfeocscpoeobsadecspecsegeerecesscoecosssee(OOmMunicated by G.
: a j lliff. .
Very long path|Radiant(?) in Aquarius ; course|Besides red fragments, the meteor|W. H. Wood.
: deflected downwards at | evolved some white smoke-
Coronz to e« Bodtis, where] wreaths 4° or 5° long, as it
it finally collapsed. passed across Corona. After
oe Sof explosion there, it reappeared
as a first magnitude red star,
pursuing its course further on
a deflected line.
About 12° |Horizontally, thus— Imperfect view of commence-|A. S. Herschel. -
while in ; } ment. Some degrees before
sight. E | disappearance, nucleus ex-
6 pp
; panded with strong inter-
arora ree mittent green light and frag-
ments- on. .a train of red
sparks. Disappeared suddenly
at greatest brightness. Left
- no streak.
courses prove them to have belonged to different meteor-systems, or at least
not simultaneously to any one of the hitherto established systems of occa-
sional shooting-stars. Among the sixty-four bolides of the list, known
radiant-points are assigned to forty-eight (or 75 per cent.), without any signs
_ of recurrence on particular days, or of any such shower exhibiting an unusual
number of large meteors on a certain date. The possible existence of meteor-
showers consisting principally of large meteors is therefore not discernible
from this fireball-list; but as it only extends to three years’ observations, a
wider discussion of the question, if it were possible from the comparatively
small number of bolides of which the apparent paths have been accurately —
observed, will be necessary to determine if no such meteor-showers exist.
The list of radiant-points obtained from his observations by Captain Tup-
man is here extracted. from his catalogue, accompanied by an illustrative
REPORT—1874.
312
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3138 REPORT—1874:.
Appendix to the Catalogue of Radiants, containing the Determinations of the
great August Radiant in Perseus.
A = R.A. and
Date of Observation. Dedlination, 1850: Z.H.N.
1870, July 27-29 ......1000e Perseus.
oO fo)
1869, August 4 .........0008-- 39 + 58
MOUSE ho scckesscece os 475 + 58°0
1870, August 4 ..ieseseeeee 45 + 60 15
ATIPUISHO)<:sxscessceeees 54° + 54 10
1869, August 6 .....sseeeeere 47°5 + 48:0 we Accurate. Subradiant.
1870, August 6 ....cecseeceees 42, +56 13 Accurate.
August 6 ....... fo. 0h 48 + 65 hs :
August 7 .:.stsse-0.002|, : 46 +61 31 Position estimated.
j 50 + 56
{ 42 64 | EE
1869, August 8-10 vise] 450 41.63 26
47°5 + 580 |
R.A. accurate; 14 meteors
1870, August 8 ....ssreecerees 45:0 + 59 95: counted in 94 minutes
at 155 20™,
August 9 ..cccssiseseace 4204575 60 Accurate.
1871, August 10 s.cisseee| 43:0 + 59-0]
aang 40°35 4+ 565 65 Accurate.
1869, August 11 .........06 50. + 56
August] Five dti caves 39. + 65 | Ia
August 11 ..,........ 47°5 + 59:0 20 Accurate.
1870, August 11 ............ 43:5 + 58:5 10 Full moon.
40°5 + 57:5
1871, August ML Wremen sccsrass 40°5 i ceo 13 Both accurate.
August 11 ............ 45 + 62
1869, August 12-15......... 47-5 + 59-0 or Sharply defined.
_ 46:0 + 58°4 Accurate.
1871, August 120... oe 4 B68 18 Declination accurate.
August 13-18 ......... Perseus. ar Z.H.N.=10 on 13th.
Fe Poor 14th and 16th;
1870, August 14-19.. ...... . Perseus. te rich 18th and 19th.
August!22 ...cscceeees 55 + 52 5 Accurate. ; i
1871, August'20-25......... 55 +57 es Declination accurate.
1870, August 29 ...sesesee 45 +50
August 29 ...0.....00- 75 +45 cu No. 66.
40) . Accurate. No. 68;
September 5 Reveeeees fas f + 55 re { > beduchtevaeana! :
1871, September 7-15 ...... bi f+ 86 teil. No, Fae
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
Other Determinations.
319
Authority. Date. Position.
Dr. Schmidt! ............... August B=1O vocied. dcvccectdbcowcetbecvees 46 ™ 455
D. | waVOt Park ecnasead: August: 3=U2 sis 1520. tha cael iene de 31 +55
” icons ....| August 3-12 ...... 50 +48
” eeeteees tees August DL wtacee 50 +62
n ieeaesdees .---| August 3-11..... Pivipecncavestesaa® oesae 56 +47
MPRORTEIS? 668 ees cls ee July 16 to August 15 ......cceseeeee ae 50 +51
99 emcee eceee Ce eeceeee July 1-15 Pee cee esr eetaseneeeeeres tereseees 41 +62
esac ce cas Base sew ssi dnthy: WO— Ale ieccacee sess des xacéoastascsth 51 +55
SybkY [liecscuscaccecat Gan sles ADPUSE DCLIOG fatecccoesvoscrsonsent Bones 51 +55
ee escteccrsteusagrssace August 15-31 ........... 35 +61
” Weetsdacdessecsoced September 1-15 ........ 35 +63
ii seeccsseseneceeceeses| September 16-30 44 +63
” seaeoseeceee Sobers October! 1a16 es eV iat. Ue +61
Dr. Es Weiss® ‘2......3..5058. 1869, August 11 .ec.csscosscevescenssons 49°9 +55°6
i eetayit uclecenec AupustE2 .cadisageasi. 0% die o8s 49°5 +56°7
TEM [Tes ceeceesva gece August 13. .......... wep descncendes 49-1 +61°6
gp) TE eB RR August 11-13, mean of three. 73°1 +53°6
Professor Schiaparelli‘...... 1866, August 10°7 ...secsseceessseeeees 41 +56
Professor Denza? .........++5 1868, August 10 ...ccocccesssccceseseees 44 +57
fe eesecmdcean 1869, August 10 ©.......ccesesscereceees 44 +565
coy | OR eatechcepbedee August) US cc cscssecesassvewsesess 35 +60:
Professor Parnisetti? ......| 1869, August LO ........ccssseeeeeeeeees 23 +57
alte > SAaRe August)... .cscsscaesaee svasedae 61 +43
$e) ee Es oisene ATIguSt TD ........cscecccervevenes 26 +57
Professor Lorenzoni‘ ...... 1869, August 8-13 .........00. badeieeba ~~ 26 +62
ES a ae Beetere August 8-13, ....,..sccsvsssseceee 58 +58
fo eeanee August 8-13 2.0.20. saediaealid 37. +46
Professor Serpieri* ......... 1869, August 10 ....... 9 ceeetee ts UP 4h 565
Professor Tacchini? ......... 1869, August 10 ...0j..cccs cesses cece “a 43°3 +56°2
ee racreccet Aupust 10) tect. ccsbe ected 42°5 +560
A a caterer August EV tes ost sisres aves 27°38 +62°0
PN LLOGISN cecarestuceccsesea rcs W869, August LOG... ccc cceccscccners as 43 +57
Professor Twining? ......... 1869, August 10 .......... BAR, eid: 45 +58
1 Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 1756.
2 Monthly Notices, vol. xxiv. p. 213; and B. A. Atlas for 1868,
3 Beitrige zur Kenntniss der Sternschnuppen, 1870, Mai 19.
4 Memorie (V. and VI.) sulle Stelle cadente. Torino, 1870?
320 REPORT—1874.
map and planisphere of all the regions of the sky visible in the latitude of
Greenwich. A description of these two plates and directions for their use
is added from the pamphlet of Captain Tupman’s observations, 500 copies of
which were this year printed by the Meteor Committee of the British Associa-
tion, and distributed under their directions to the principal Scientific Societies,
directors of Astronomical Observatories, and leading observers of shooting-stars
in this and other countries, from some of whom acknowledgments of its
communication were received. Preliminary discussions of its list of meteor-
tracks have already appeared in foreign journals (‘ Memorie della Societa degli
Spettroscopisti Italiani,’ May 1874), of which an abstract, when the memoir
is received by the Committee, will be given in a future Report. The latest
general list of radiant-points observed by Dr. J. F. Schmidt, of Athens, to
which frequent allusion is made in Captain Tupman’s list, and of which no
copy has hitherto appeared in these Reports, is also appended here, to assist
observers in reducing observations of occasional shooting-stars to the radiant-
points of known meteor-showers. A general list including the two last-
named, and accordingly, as far as such a compilation can be accomplished
successfully, believed to be complete, is offered by Mr. Greg for the same
purpose. From its comprehensiveness, embracing almost exhaustively all
other radiant lists which have hitherto appeared, and adding to them many
special references, it is believed that no fuller Table of the probably existing
centres of meteoric radiation throughout the year can be used and consulted
by observers, in the present largely developed state of this inquiry, as a
standard catalogue for reducing, verifying, and recording. their occasional
notes of shooting-stars, and for identifying meteor-streams on occasions when
their radiant-points can be independently observed and exactly or approxi-
mately ascertained. As intended, however, chiefly for observers in the nor-
thern hemisphere, several of the extremely southern radiant-points of Heis
and Neumayer’s list are for brevity not included in it.
DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES.
Puiate XV.
is a chart of the observed radiant-points, on an equidistant projection, with the North
Pole in the centre.
The meridians and parallels are dotted at intervals of 2°.
The positions of the radiant-points are represented by the numbers in the first column of
the Catalogue, enclosed in a circle, or in an irregular figure resulting from dis-
cordances in the determinations.
The graduations enable the observed tracks of meteors to be suitably projected upon
tracings containing only those radiant-points proper to the season and above the
horizon at the time of observation.
Pruarr XVI.
contains the projections of graduated great circles of the sphere crossing Plate XV. at
intervals of 10° from the Pole, which occupies the centre.
The transparent tracing, prepared as described above, is superposed on Plate XVI, centre
over centre, and turned round until the meteor-track is symmetricaliy situated
between two of the curves seen through the tracing. All the radiant-points from
which the meteor could possibly proceed can then be found immediately by
prolonging the track backwards along the curves.
The proper curve on Plate XVI. can be selected and transferred to the tracing to represent
the observer’s horizon.—[G. L. T.]
001
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° aS)
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290+84
173+-23
260+86
255423 | 242412
a 2GG—12 | i cecccccc cece
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4 Baideves sted POA HIOP|| | ccavedeuscce {
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50+62 51+55
56+47
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———
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a oO
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161 0
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286421
280+29
286-421
312421
336-445
294+ 3
257+13
338-413
315+31
313443
246421
257+13
2564 5
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344412
44456
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20+62
ee
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
Neumayer.
a oO
° °
174+16
269—11
305— 7
305+ 5
269—11
258 —20
See eeeeeeees
List of Radiant-points of Meteor-showers, by Dr. J. F. Schmidt
(Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 1756).
Other
Observers.
a 6
° °
45+58
821
Twining.
322
Epoch.
|
| August 4-11
4-9
”
1-12 ..,
a neeeneee
| September 1-14
” ”
Be 3-14
1-10
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Schmidt.
whrk
fe] oO
w-| 252-453
...| 304-460
345— 7
+4] 847 —32
.| 328—22
,| 2554-24
338+17
1-15
331+
346+
21+18
66—22
337 +20
55— 6
70+32
290+58
309+67
344— 3
3+30
33— 6
40— 8
82+ 6
1424-67
246420
282—22
List of Radiant-points (continued).
Heis.
é
a
dene eeeeeees
297+68
304+62
306+59
en ee ee eenes
262412
ere enrneenee
314+15
at 343410
343 +10
53+35
293+57
295+79
293-+57
311465
REPORT—1874,
é
a
° °
280-455
302444
298+58
307+50
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24642)
333441
347447
335+52
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315431
338+13
344412
327+10
ween eeeeeeee
282+42
246+21
G. and H. | Neumayer.
Other
Observers.
a a
337-10
340--30
325—38
337—10
234—40
346— 3
50— 4 (0
346— 3
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 323
List of Radiant-points (continued),
= =
Schmidt. Heis. G. and H. | Neumayer. Na
ea oe eet 8 a 6 ere (2
seeees
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se eee
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340+58 334+54 :
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BA AA. IO cccastetnc | Soaidcaisons } ur
27-1
| 40—30 i
50+ 2 :
1124.48
115—10
Be -| 140+23
3 .| 316+44
332— 2 : =
345+30
348+52
1-13) 307+53 peacnsasaces 290-455
eotae 279-+-56 x 279+56
21 115+55 ec. .
i finaa ee Many Italian, English, and
I 148 +22 148-424 149423 } teetenennnes , American observations of
North pole.| North pole. this shower.
59+58 H
| 66465 37+59 45-460
vee| 794+ 5
83+50 ;
82445 | ce eceeeeee 74445
113414 | Rees
: | fip7+a1 E . :
..| 180-65 Seseegeapent 160471
111427 | 112439 (ne a | nese | 118484 | Wood, 1866,
41412
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é irmingham,
MO2H19 | rerertetey | nnrcesees | svete ont) fear eae
TE pee 1344 6
TED EE RO) tR voatteg steer aber eves ach gstami |. acengs sega 136+29°5 | Masters, 1866,
TAEEEE [osccveressaes 1394 7
182— 2 -
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———— --
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308
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OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
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840 REPORT—1874,
IY. Perroprcat Merror-SHowers.
A collection of copious notes of the annual meteor-showers of August and
December last, and of April and August in the present year, has been
received, with more than ordinarily full details, from observers of these
showers. An examination of them is unavoidably postponed, from their
length, in this Report, and results of the comparison and reduction of the
observations which are now in progress are reseryed for a future communi-
cation. The annual August shower in 1873, although greatly concealed from
view by clouds, was not much inferior in brightness when it was observed on
the nights of August 10th and 11th to the considerable return of this shower
in the year 1871. In the present year the August star-shower somewhat
surpassed, especially in the brightness of its meteors, the intensity of its
appearance on the two previous occasions.
Few meteors were recorded on the nights of the 18th to 21st of October,
1873, partly on account of cloudy skies; but the majority of those observed
indicated, by their appearance and direction, traces of a slight return of this
annual meteor-shower.
No success attended the watch kept by Captain Tupman at Greenwich
from 11" to 13", and by the observers at Stonyhurst College throughout the
night of the 13th and 14th of November, for the return of the November
shower of Leonids in 1873; a watch was also kept until 13" 15™ on the
same night, with similar results, by Mr. H. W. Jackson and F. H. Ward at
Tooting. A completely overcast state of the sky prevented observations on
the following night. An organized watch was also arranged to observe any
recurrence that might be visible of the Andromedes of November 27th, that
formed a conspicuous star-shower in the previous year. No meteors of this
shower, however, were visible, although clear skies prevailed at the observing
stations on the 27th and on most of the other nights in the last week of
November. A brief notice of an unusual number of meteors seen on the
evening of the 23rd, at Mr. Prince’s Meteorological Observatory in Sussex,
will be found in the notes of occasional star-showers at the end of this
appendix; a solitary meteor (not an Andromede) was seen, in an attentive watch
in clear moonless sky, between 7" 30™ and 8" p.m. on that evening, by Mr.
M‘Clure at Glasgow. If the recorded prevalence was yet observable, perhaps
at some later hour on that evening, as described, it appears highly probable
that it was connected with the branch stream of the main shower of
Andromedes observed and recorded very generally on the night of the 24th
of November, 1872. As far as the Committee haye been able to ascertain,
no traces of a return of the meteors representing Biela’s comet have else-
where been recorded as having been visible in November 1873.
With the exception of the August displays, the brightest annual meteor-
shower of the past year was that of a well-marked exhibition of the Geminids
on the nights of the 10th, 11th, and 12th of December, 1873. The state of
the sky was fayourable for observations on these nights at certain stations,
and unfavourable at all of them on the 13th, so that the termination of the
shower was not observed. Nearly 200 meteor-paths were mapped; and the
appearances of the meteors were described by observers at Heidelberg (where
Mr. J. E. Clark obtained a clear view of the shower) in Germany, and at
Birmingham, Newcastle-on-Tyne, and Glasgow in England and Scotland, and
the time of greatest frequency of the shower was approximately ascertained.
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 341
Meteors were less frequent on the 10th than on the two following nights ;
and they were visible in greatest numbers towards midnight on the night of
the 11th, when the number mapped by Mr. Clark was nearly thirty in an
hour. A greater number of meteor-tracks was recorded at Birmingham by
Mr. Weod on the night of the 12th than on the 11th; and the number of
bright meteors on the latter was also greater than on the former night ; but
a part only of the shooting-stars observed diverged from Gemini, the rest
proceeding from six or seven other radiant-points more or less certainly
included in Mr. Greg’s general list. The percentage number of Geminids
mapped is between forty and seventy in the different accounts, Mr. Clark’s
observations giving fifty-nine. Of the remaining shooting-stars mapped by
Mr. Clark on the nights of the 10th and 11th, thirteen, or 20 per cent., pro-
ceeded with so much precision from an apparently new radiant-point at
R.A. 57°, N. Decl. 6°, that the apparent courses of five of them prolonged
backwards passed within one degree, and those of six others within two
degrees of this point. The radiant-area in Gemini extended, according to
Mr. Clark’s description, from Greg’s*radiant G, near 6 Geminorum, to Heis’s.
radiant M,, a little north of a Geminorum. Mr. Wood assigns to it a
position extending from @ to a Geminorum, and Mr, Greg a region of some
width in Telescopium.
The following numbers of meteors and hourly averages were recorded by
the principal observers of the shower during the half hours ending at :—
December 10th, p.w. | December 11th, r.o. December 12th, p.m. | Total nos.
10®30™ 11» 112 30™ 12410 30™ 11> 11530™ 125105 30™ 115 11530™ 12" | mapped.
. E. Clark...... 6 So Owe tae oD Sipe UR akon aunaiae aca “ail 2
ourly average 12 Monee ees Or ae Oe hep | nae
| H. Waller...| 4* pA OVP. ape > bt 6 4 37
Seemecrarn LAPS LO mehiws wie iionelae 10d eet Th) 88 eos 505
SHEN ood...| <... el Ase, etd 25 6 8 | se By lal 12ileee
ourly average] ... noel aad er Ie Se eG LO} pelt 2 | Sc
The percentage numbers of meteors of different brightnesses seen during
the whole watch by the same observers were found to be as follows :—
As bright as Jupiter, Sirius, Ist, 2nd, 38rd, 4th, 5th magnitude stars.
od: Hy Olark.../:...... 5 5 14 «627° 16—i—‘80
Me EbiWaller;:é:.....< 2 a 18 40 33 eek si:
Vee Es WOOd ss. 2.20. wu 15 13 30 37 (8rd mag. and under).
Most of the bright meteors of the shower were Geminids ; but some bright
ones proceeded from the auxiliary radiant-points, of which several appear to
have been contemporaneously active with the principal one of the display.
Owing to cloudy weather on the first two nights of January last, no
observations of the January meteor-shower in the present year could be
obtained. A watch for shower-meteors was, however, resumed on the annual _
date of the 19th to 21st of April, and the appearances of a few Lyraids of
this annual meteoric shower were placed on record. Although the light of
the full moon, and at some stations cloudy weather, impeded observations,
the results of Mr. Wood’s watch at Birmingham, and of Mr. Backhouse’s
view of the shower at Sunderland, sufficiently determine the general character
* In 20 minutes. + In 10 minutes.
¢ From 12" to 12"15™, six meteors mapped ; hourly average 24.
~ § In 15 minutes. || From 12" to 1215", four meteors mapped; hourly ayerage 16.
342 REPORT—1874,
of the April shower as it was visible at its return in 1874. In a watch of
40 minutes, kept at about 2°4.m. on the morning of April 20th by Mr. Back-
house in an interval of almost cloudless sky, only four meteors, three of
which were Lyraids, were observed. During watches of nearly the same
length, between 105 and 11" and between 11" and 12", on the evening of
April 20th, eight meteors and four meteors were mapped, four meteors in
each watch being Lyraids. A double watch of the same duration (1” 20™)
on the night of the 21st only presented four meteor-tracks, of which two, as
bright as Sirius, are erratic or very doubtful Lyraids. Mr. Wood’s description
of the shower, as summed up from his observations in the following remarks,
is very similar as to its duration and intensity.
‘‘ Night of the 19th overcast ; 20th very fine. From 10" to 10" 30", no
meteors; 10% 30™ till 11" 30", 10 meteors; 11” 30™ till 12", no meteors ;
12" till 12°5™, 2meteors. 21st, fine night ; from 10" till 11" 15", no meteors, -
A very bright but short return of this shower within well-defined limits.
One half exceeded stars of the first magnitude, and were contributed by the
different radiants in the proportion of one fourth from QH, (in Lyra), one
sixth from Q,, and similarly from §, , and DG,, and the remaining fourth
from SG, and WG.
«The shower was of an intermittent character, with half-hour intervals of
quiescence. The maximum was probably reached during the outburst from
10" 30™ to 112 30™ p.m. on the 20th. The night following was marked by a
total absence of meteors; the same feature presented itself at the brilliant
return of 1863.”
Mr. Clark’s general remarks on the appearance of the shower at Heidelberg,
and Mr. Greg’s view of it in England, corroborate the aboye descriptions very
closely. Mr. Clark writes :—‘ The weather during the week ending with the
19th was specially unfavourable, but since then perfectly clear. The hills
behind hid the moon after 10 o’clock on the 20th, and [from 10" 15™ until
12" 30™] in all I saw twenty-five meteors, and mapped twenty-three. From
10" 50" to 12" [Karlsruhe time, corresponding to about 10° 20™-11" 30™
G.M.T.] there was a great run of Lyraids; otherwise they were much out-
numbered by those from other radiants. On the night of the 21st I only
saw three meteors during a 40 minutes’ watch. ... From six apparent
radiants meteors came as follows :—1 from 33 (of Greg’s general list, 1872,
=MZ; Heis’s M,); 2from 43 (M, ,); 2 from 35 (DG,); 13 from 38 and 39
(Cerberus and Lyra); 5 from near 40 (SG,); and 2 from 54 (S, , ,): total
25 meteor-tracks. Very few from Lyraid region, save between 10" 50™ and
12", On the 21st, 54 and 38, 39 seemed the chief radiants.”
A rather larger proportion of Lyraids appears to have been observed by
Mr. Greg, who also communicates from his mapped observations a very exact
position of the radiant-point and the following general description of the
shower :—
“The night of the 20th was very favourable. I looked out from 11" 15™
—12"45™ and saw over twenty meteors, of which about fifteen were from Lyra,
mostly very fine and remarkable ones, flashing and trained ; very rapid when
overhead, moderate in speed when near the radiant. About four or five others
from Cerberus were different, also trained, but slower and duller in colour;
only one other meteor not from these two radiants! The radiant seems very
close to a Lyre, perhaps 2° or 3° below it. On the evening of the 2ist I
looked out from 11" to 12", and saw no Lyraids, except one doubtful one not
by any means from a Lyre.” The plotted apparent paths of eleyen of the
ee
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 343
fifteen Lyraids, prolonged backwards, all pass through the small triangular
area contained between the stars a, B, y Lyre.
Occasional notices of the unusual frequency of meteors on certain nights of
the past year have been received, of which particular accounts were furnished
in the following communications :—
September Ist, 1873 (Ackworth, Yorkshire).—‘ There was quite an abun-
dance of meteors on the night of September Ist. Between 11 and 12" p.m.
I heard from my brother (F. J. Clark) that nine meteors were seen, some
very fine ones, mostly in the south.”—J. HE, Clark.
October 17th and November 23rd, 1873 (Crowborough, Sussex).—“ Octo-
ber: during the evening of the 17th a number of small meteors were observed.
November: one large meteor and many small ones were observed on the
evening of the 23rd.”—Summary of a meteorological journal for 1873 kept
at Crowborough Beacon Observatory, by C. L. Prince, F.R.A.S. &e.
1874, March 18th and 19th (Sunderland).—* There were a good many
shooting-stars on the nights of the #8th and the 19th (particulars enclosed).
The paths traced backwards of six or seven of these agree with a very exact
radiant-point at R.A. 157°, N. Decl. 13°; those of four or five others, as
far as observed, with the radiant-point M,.”—T. W. Backhouse.
From the abstracts of logs kept on board of vessels supplied with meteoro-
logical instruments from the Meteorological Office of the Board of Trade
during recent years, Captain H. Toynbee has obligingly furnished the Com-
mittee with the following entries of observations of shooting-stars near the
Cape-Verd Islands in the month of February, remarking that in the 10-degree
square of the Atlantic that includes those islands upwards of six such entries
are found in the year 1860, and none in any other year. As far as these
Reports extend, no unusual prevalence of shooting-stars or bright meteors in
February was recorded in them in the year 1860; but the occurrence of
meteor-showers on the Ist, 3rd, 6th, 7th, 14th, and 18th—21st of February,
and of unusually bright meteors on the first two of these dates as well as on
the 9th-11th and during the last six or seven days of February, is more or
less well determined from existing records, to which the present important
communication from Captain Toynbee affords a very valuable extension and
corroboration.
Notes of Observations of Shooting-stars in February, observed in the North
Atlantic. Communicated by Captain H. Toynbee.
Square 3. February. (Long. W. 20°-30°, lat. N. 0°-10°, 8. of the Cape-Verd Islands.)
(The following are all that were remarked on in February.)
Sub-square.| Hour. Day. Year. Remarks on Falling Stars.
15 8 P.M. 9th 1855 | A few shooting-stars from §.S.W. to E.S.E.
1 4 A.M, 2nd 1860 | Stars shooting from N.E. to 8.
84 8r.m. | 18th aes Stars shooting to N.E.
81 5 AM. 23rd “ Three stars from §.E. to N.E.: one burst, and
left behind a tail of fire.
22 8 P.M. ord 1867 | Stars shooting from §8.E.
85 4am. | 26th 1870 | Several stars shooting from 8.H. to N.W.
86 10pm. | 24th 1871 | A very brilliant meteor passed from the zenith
towards the N.N.E., and a quantity of small
ones passed the zenith towards the N.E., W.,
and §.E. during the night. None visible
to the westward.
344:
Square 39.
February. (Long.
REPORT—1874.
W. 20°-30°, lat. N. 10°-20°, enclosing the Cape-Verd
Islands. )
(The following are all that were remarked on in February.)
| Sub-square.| Hour. | Day. Year. Remarks on Falling Stars.
601 f 8 PM. 6th ia Shooting-stars from N.N.E. to 8.8.W., one a
; beautiful meteor.
| 41 aot 7th One shooting-star from E. to W.
| 49 7 pM. 10th A yellow, red, and blue meteor shot from §.E.
to N.W. ’
85 ? 14th 1860 | Several small meteors to the eastward falling
8.W.
75 2am. | 19th 1860 | Two stars in 8.E. shooting to the westward.
a 4 AM. Pi ie Two or three stars in the 8.E. shooting to the
south-westward.
13 8pm. | 21st A star in the N.W. shot to the northward
down to the horizon.
11 P.M. A star above head shot to the south-eastward.
Square 40. February., (Long. W. 30°-40°, lat. N. 10°-20°, W. of the Cape-Verd
Islands.)
(The following is the cnly remark on falling stars in February.)
| 21 | 6.30 P.M.
eastward, visible in daylight.
28th | 1871 | A very bright meteor passed to the south-
VY. Papers on Mereoric Astronomy.
The following notices and abstracts of publications relating to luminous
meteors are necessarily confined to brief records, from the limited extent of
space available in the remainder of this Report. A review of Dr. Galle’s paper
on the orbits of fireballs, and principally of that of July 17th, 1873, was
presented in the first Appendix ; and papers of similar importance from other
astronomers on the continent have been received. Professor Weiss, of
Vienna, transmitted a copy of the meteor-observations at Vienna during the
years 1867-1870, of whose copious contents a more particular description is
at present reserved, in order that a full account of them may be given in a
future Report. A letter accompanying this communication presented a list
of tracks of 169 Andromedes observed at Pesth between 8" 15™ and 114 15™
p.m. (Vienna time) on the night of November 27th, 1872, by Prof. Schenzl
and Drs. Baumgartner and Kurlaender, and of 108 tracks recorded between
9" 15™ and 11" 15™ p.m. (Vienna time) on the same evening at Geneva by
Mr. R. Schram, from a projection of the whole of which Dr. Weiss obtained
exact indications of the following radiant-points as active during the period
of the shower :—
Proportions of meteors of
a= = the shower.
°
(MOLE are 200 +44°2............ producing 57 per cent.
Principal meteor ra- | (2)......... B22 49:5... coe a (jen A
diant-points, Noy. j (Owe DOB OA Ges ee. Sy 15 eS
27th, 1872. ACS RES ee 349°3 +40°1............ a 6 a
WS OraGdse tess cb usehend RE decbhns nih 4 Tastes
A copy of the ‘Wicner Zeitung’ of November 30th, 1872, containing his
summary of correspondents’ descriptions of the recent shower, was also
received from Prof. Littrow of Vienna, and an erratum in the list of radiant-
points <f the shower in the No, for May, 1878, of the ‘Monthly Notices’ of
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 345
the Astronomical Society is pointed out in Herr von‘ Konkoly’s determination
of the radiant-point. As extracted from Dr. Heis’s collection (and not from
Signor Denza’s (D) as stated in the list) the N. declination of the radiant-
point observed by Herr von Konkoly was 45°. Signor Denza’s description,
translated from that of Prof. von Littrow in the ‘ Wiener Zeitung,’ gives.
55° as the N. declination. In a letter since received from Herr von Konkoly
he observes that his first accounts of the shower contained an eye-estimation
of the position of the radiant-point, and that on afterwards pointing an
equatorial telescope towards the exactly selected spot, an accurate position of
the radiant-point was obtained. This was at a place in R.A. 1" 45" (+5™),
Decl. +45° (+1°), or about in R.A. 262, N. Decl. 45°, a position agreeing
very closely with the probable true centre of the meteoric shower.
The following few observations of the radiant-point appear to have been
omitted from the above-mentioned list :—
Time of
iaver Place of | Observation. | General Position of the Radiant-point
3 Observation. }|——-——_ by Fixed Stars, &c., and Reference.
From | To
hm/hm
C. Payne ..... IBERDY, Ja=, 2% ca: 7 15 | 7 30|Some degrees north of the Pleiades (‘Astro-
nomical Register, January, 1873, p. 10).
M. J. Mello ...| Chesterfield | 7 5 | 7 25) At some point between the zenith and the
Pleiades (iid.).
Jos, Baxendell .| Manchester ..| 65 3 |12 19] At 22°-5, +44°-5. Near y Andromede.
Centre of an oval area 12°x9°, from
mapped paths of 266 “ Andromedes”
(Manch. Lit. and Phil. Society’s Pro-
ceedings, 1872, Dec. 10).
A. Brothers ...| Manchester..| 5 50 | 8 30] At y Andromedz ; a position most easy to
note with accuracy in this shower (idzd.).
In another portion of his letter attention is directed by Herr von Konkoly
to typographic errors in the accounts contained in the ‘Monthly Notices’
of the Astronomical Society (vol. xxiii. p. 575, and vol. xxiv. p. 82) of
spectroscopic observations of a large meteor’s streak and of the August
shooting-stars made at his recently erected and equipped observatory at
Ogyalla in Hungary. With regard to the August shooting-stars, those
only which were observed by Herr von Konkoly himself were examined
with the meteor-spectroscope on the nights of July 25th and 26th, 1873;
while the large number of shooting-stars recorded by his assistant on these
and the following nights of the August period were noted with Littrow’s
meteoroscope for fixing the positions with the naked eye. The spectra of
three meteors seen with the meteor-spectroscope by Herr von Konkoly nearly
resembled each other, that of the nucleus being continuous and the yellow
sodium band being visible in the streaks. In the spectrum of the third
meteor green predominated in the nucleus, and the green band of magne-
sium, in addition to that of sodium, was visible in the streak.
The next application of the meteor-spectroscope, described by Herr von
Konkoly, was made on the streak of a large meteor on the night of the
13th of October, 1873. The streak was about 15 minutes broad when first
observed, and traces of it were still visible in a comet-finder 25 minutes
after the meteor had disappeared. The appearance of this streak in
Browning’s meteor-spectroscope showed very finely the bands of sodium and
magnesium. Proceeding to direct the telescope armed with a star-spectro-
346 REPORT—1874.
scope towards it, the bright lines of sodium and magnesium, and two lines
in the red and two in the green, were found by Herr yon Konkoly to be
visible in its fading light. The last four lines, when compared with several
Geissler tubes, were found to be absolutely coincident with those contained
in the vacuum spectrum of coal-gas (‘‘ womit die Strassen beleuchtet wer-
den,”—or ‘lighting ”-gas, evidently misprinted ‘lightning”-gas in the
description in the ‘Monthly Notices’), The comparison occupied eleven
minutes, at the end of which time the carbon lines could no longer be distin-
guished; but the bands of magnesium were still very finely visible with the
meteor-spectroscope. Herr von Konkoly adds that accounts of the meteor’s
path were being collected by Prof. Galle, of Breslau; but that hitherto suffi-
ciently accurate descriptions had not been obtained to enable its real path to
be determined.
The following are descriptions of some memoirs and discussions that have
recently been published on the appearances of the August and other meteoric
star-showers of the last few years.
The August Perseids, 1873. (Italian Observations.)
I. Prof. Serpieri, of Urbino, at the meeting of the Royal Lombard Insti-
tution of Science, held 8th January, 1874, read a paper on the Perseids of
August 1873, from which we condense the following brief analysis concerning
the radiant-points of that shower. Prof. Serpieri and three assistants, in
spite of nearly full moonlight, observed 267 meteors from the 8th to
the 15th August, of which 139 were true Perseids whose positions were
duly mapped on a chart by Prof. Lorenzoni. The time of maximum for
the shower was not determined, owing to clouds on the 10th August.
Serpieri considers that there are two principal radiants for the Perseids,
or rather two principal axes of radiation crossing each other obliquely and
having at the same time a nearly common centre. The one which he calls the
“old” radiant, as determined (1847-1867) by Greg and Herschel in their
meteor atlas, and especially by Prof. A. 8. Herschel in 1868, has its position
from
Pri 2f 74:1 anenee SERRE ce 48° 56',+49° 26'
a's Cabsidnelin.s, . hese: 26° 27" 463° 5! | 44°, + 56° mean centre, 1863,
and the “‘ new ” radiant (first determined by Prof. Newton, of America, and
also confirmed by Serpieri himself) from
1058 Camelopardi ......... 48° 30',+59° 30’ ‘
to Nebula Persei.........000.- 32° 30", +56° 30’ } 44°, +559 -tnean eentte,
Out of the 189 Perseids mapped for August, 1873, exactly half, or 87, are
considered by Prof. Serpieri to answer the conditions as belonging to each of
these two radiants. The idea entertained by Serpieri appears to be that
there has in recent years (from about the year 1867) been an evident in-
crease in the proportion of meteors affecting the “new” radiant, or radiant-
axis, as compared with former years (from about 1847 to 1867, according
to the English observations). The mean central points for both are apparently
very nearly the same; but the meteors affect for the two radiants apparently
a somewhat different range of flights, according to the mode in which Prof.
Serpieri has analyzed their distribution in connexion with his definition of
the radiant-regions. He considers that the meteor-flights appertaining to
the “ older ” English radiant have a tendency to a maximum fan-like stream
from & Persei towards that part of the heavens situate between Corona and
Delphinus ; whilst the tendency of the maximum streams from nearly the
SS a eee ee a
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 347
same point in Perseus, for the “newer” radiant, is in a direction more
oblique to the meridian, extending over the region between Corona and
Pegasus as far as Algenib. Prof. Serpieri gives two drawings to show the
relative position of these two radiant-axes, crossing each other near & Persei
at about the angle given in the accompanying
figure, with the valuable addition of the meteor-
flights, indicated by arrows, as most reliably con-
nected with either line of radiant. For A B, the
“new” radiant, there are 52 meteor-tracks
(1873), and for ae 50 tracks. It would appear
that the apparent velocities of the A B meteors
were greater than for a, and for A B also a greater
number of the meteors haying a less precise point +m
a
of radiation. For the ‘‘new” radiant about
22 meteors showed a very good centre at ,.
R.A. 44°, Decl.+55° (Prof. Newton’s centre B
being 43°, +57°); about 17 meteors belonging to the same current and
radiant-axis, from a point at 45°, +59°; and about 8 others from one of Dr,
Schmidt’s radiants at 50°, + 62°.
II. Prof. Serpieri, in another paper, records a strong display of the zodiacal
light on the evening of the 12th December, 1873; also that Professor
Denza had noticed the same evening at Montcalieri, in Piedmont, a remark-
able “lucidity” over the entire sky. An unusual display of meteors (Gemi-
nids) were also seen at both places the same evening. As many as 80 were
seen, of yarious sizes, by three observers (at Urbino) between 6” 20™ and
7» 15™. Meteors were also seen on the evenings of the 10th and 18th,
The general centre of radiation was ascertained by Prof. Lorenzoni to be
an area included between the points
R.A. 90°, Decl.+17° 16 a
to R.A, 102°, Decl. HE bees hie reheat
This latter place differs somewhat from the centre of radiation for the
“ Geminids” of this epoch as given in the British Association Meteor-Atlas,
viz. R.A. 100°, Decl. +33°; most of the meteor-paths recorded were noted
in the constellation of Gemini.
III. Captain Tupman, R.M.A., in his valuable catalogue of shooting-
stars and their radiant-points, lately distributed by this Committee, gives
no less than 28 distinct subradiant positions connected with the Perseids—
giving an average position of 45°-5, +56°-1, as nearly as possible the definite
one observed by Professors Schiaparelli, A. 8. Herschel, Serpieri, and
Newton ; and it is also clear from Captain Tupman’s observations that the
duration of the Perseid epoch is nearly a month, or from about July 27th to
August 25th. That it endured from about the 27th July to the 18th or 20th
August, Mr, Greg had previously entertained a strong conviction. The
interesting and important question as to the radiant-area of the Perseid
shower being only a very diffuse one, or in which direction it is elongated, or
whether it contains several distinct minor or substreams of meteors and sub-
radiants, has not yet been determined with certainty. During the past year
Mr. J. E. Clark undertook the projection on separate maps, for intervals of
successive five minutes (where the observations were sufficiently numerous),
of the tracks of upwards of 2000 Perseids described in the volumes of these
Reports for former years, with a view to discover motions of the radiant-
348 REPORT—1874.
point on successive days or hours of the night ; but, as far as could be judged,
without success, although a progressive motion on successive nights, like that
observed by Prof. Twining in 1859, was thought to be traceable. Oscilla-
tions of the radiant-point accompanying the successive outbursts (with inter-
vening lulls between them) very commonly occurring in the apparent inten-
sity of the shower, were also unsupported by any signs of concentration, in
these meteor-groups, of their apparent directions about definite radiant-
points either movable or referable to a single place. The results in all these
cases, Mr. Clark observes, although not very precise (perhaps on account of
the mixed character of the observations that he employed), point to the con-
clusion naturally to be expected from an assemblage of such miscellaneous
records, that the variations exhibited are utterly irregular from what-
ever point of view it was attempted to examine them.
A valuable list of upwards of 250 meteor-observations made at the Rad-
cliffe Observatory, Oxford, during the year 1873, under the superintendence
of its director, Mr. Main, has lately been published, of which copies have
been presented to the Committee, and they purpose in a future Report to
return to their discussion.
A fourth number of the annual directions to observers of shooting-stars in
Italy was issued last year, for the period 1873-74, by Signor Denza, to astro-
nomers and other observers engaged in contributing materials for the work
of reduction continued by Professor Schiaparelli. It may be expected that
the list of radiant-points obtained from these sources will contribute very
largely to the correction and confirmation of the abundant collections of
radiants now obtained, and to settle the doubtful questions of the distinctness
or connexion together in groups or families of certain meteor-showers as
exhibited in the existing lists.
Important researches have recently been made by Professor Kirkwood, of
Bloomington, U.8.*, on the early recorded appearances of some of the best-
known annual meteor-showers of modern dates. Those of April, October,
and December are found to have been visible in past times in years which
indicate a cycle for these showers of about 283, 273, and 29 years respec-
tively in their returns. Pursuing the investigation, Professor Kirkwood
recognizes similar evidence of a recurring period in the recorded dates of
appearance of the star-shower of the 2nd of January, derived, however, prin~
cipally from observations in the present centuryt. The principal appearances
took place about the years 1825, 1838, and 1864, indicating as very probable
a periodic time of revolution of this meteor-ring of about 13 years. [The
next return of the centre of the cluster may thus be expected in 1877; and
allowing two years before and after as occupied by its nodal passage, con-
siderable returns of this meteor-shower may be anticipated during the coming
years from 1875 to 1879.—WNote by the Committee, 1874. }
Another meteor-system is indicated by Professor Kirkwood as presenting
signs of recurring in old times with some regularity and frequency on a cer-
tain date, of which, unlike that last described, the modern appearances are
either conjectural and uncertain or entirely wanting ¢. The annual date of
this shower is from the last two days in April to the first of May; its period
of revolution appears to be about seven years. For the possible representa-
* See these Reports for 1871, p. 51.
t “On the Meteors of January 2nd,” a paper by Prof. D. Kirkwood, read before the
American Philosophical Society, November 21st, 1873.
igen the Meteors of April 30th and May Ist,” by Prof. D. Kirkwood, ‘ Nature, May
(4.
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 349
tive of the shower in modern meteor-lists, Professor Kirkwood selects the
general shower Q,, , in Greg’s list of 1867, diverging at the end of April and
in May from the direction of Hercules (3 Herculis) or Corona, some indica-
tions of that shower having a 12- or 13-year period being also noted in the
meteor-list. In connexion with the very exact day of its periodical returns
or of its present date on the 29th of April, Professor Kirkwood points out a
resemblance between the supposed meteor-ring and the computed orbit of
the comet B.c. 136, passing very near the earth’s orbit and having its nodal
point coincident with that date*. The radiant-point of meteor-particles from
the comet at the earth’s encounter with it at this node would, however, be
in R.A. 320°, 8. Decl. 28°*; and the star-shower that they would produce
would only rise above the horizon at daybreak, having been invisible through-
out the night, if the elements of the comet’s orbit are correct. Another
comet, that of 1006, similar, apparently, in many respects to that of .c. 136,
whose orbit is roughly assigned by Pingré as having resembled, from the
comet’s course, the orbit of Halley’s comet, but with a different line of nodes,
agrees in that respect, and in passing near the earth’s orbit, with the April and
May meteor-stream. As far as such imperfect descriptions of these comets
as have been preserved can offer any basement for comparison, the comets of
B.c. 136 and a.p. 1006 might be regarded as (except in the node and peri-
helion distance) resembling very nearly that of Halley’s comet. Comets with
such a path as Halley’s comet have (for the present epoch) a date of closest
approach to the earth’s orbit on May 4th, with a radiant-point at about R.A.
337°, Decl. 0°. In the catalogue of meteors and meteor-showers observed
by Captain Tupman, the appearance of bright star-showers on each of the
nights from April 29th to May 3rd, in the years 1870-71, is recorded as the
principal display of shooting-stars (omitting those of August and November)
included in his three-years’ watch, and the position of their radiant-point
(first visible above the horizon at about 1 a.m.) is very exactly fixed at
R.A. 326°, 8. Decl. 29-5. The apparent radiant-centre of this special shower
differs only ten or twelve degrees from that of Halley’s comet; and the near
coincidence of the time of its appearance with the date of the earth’s closest
proximity to the orbit of Halley’s comet renders the possible identity of this
meteor-stream with some dismembered fragments of the latter comet a very
suggestive hypothesis, apparently deserving of more complete investigation.
As a first trial or criterion of the degree of frequency of such accordances
between the apparent paths of meteor-streams and the computed elements
of comet-orbits, as enumerated in a list (compiled chiefly, with later additions,
from that in Hind’s work on ‘ Comets’) in the latest editions of Chambers’s
‘ Handbook of Astronomy,’ approximate calculations of the cometary radiant-
points were made in those cases where the comets’ paths approach (especially
on the inside) to no great distance from the orbit of the earth. An attempt was
also made to identify some of the radiant-points thus obtained with those
of meteor-showers contained in general and in special meteor-lists. The
number of approximate, though seldom very close, agreements exceeded the
Committee’s expectations; and however incomplete, and from since ascertained
sources of error in some cases inaccuratey, the list is acknowledged in its
* [These calculations relate to the year of the comet’s appearance. But for the present
time, allowing for the motion of the equinox between the years B.c. 136 and A.p. 1875,
the nodal date and the cometary radiant-point (uninfluenced by perturbations) would be
about on May 28th, and at R.A. 350°, 8. Decl. 18°.—A. S. H.]
t All great errors of this kind, it is believed, have now been removed. (Note, 1875.)
350
Comet and its
No. Node.
1. pet9Dicgs, IP.
ici
bo
(=
ios)
us
oO
He
o
Weiss .
Peete teeeee
Weiss
eee es
Weiss
1
WGK 23 ic .5s8a0. bie
Weiss
UOTE esssns
Sector eeeeeenes
8. | 1864 V.
feeeeenee
9. } 1862, TV e5 sicensast
WEISS) ontomes vactnck
LO: GB 9Gs 25"! sei Aik...
1846.50 Giants
1864 V ge 50
Comet’s
Radius-
vector at
or near the
Node
REPORT—1874.
Cometary-
shower
ate
(1875).
Dec. 25
Jan. 14
eas
» 20
OU
» 18
March 1
March 16
16
Mar ch 8
_ List of Cometary Radiant-points agreeing approximately with those of
Cometary Radiant-
point (1875).
Remarks.
R.A. Deel.
214 | +84 | Calculations from P. (Pierce's)
179 +69 and H. (Hind’s) Elements.
Accordance apparently very
doubtful,
127 282 \ fs «spas onbsssenbeentens soak ane cs epeeee
128° HOBO | i cs cesseceaneaceremeentettos eric
214 +16 Orbit elements apparently
194 +245 uncertain (?),
188 — 22) saatscecthoesetesteennes Soi rpsccccn,
m6") Lat | Ana che
es +8 Resemble each other very
26 4 ec 17 closely in their orbits, and
266 a 9 may possibly be identical.
283 — 4 | Supposed to be a return of the
comet of 1596 (period 250
years).'See also below,Nos.8, 10.
261 +22) | setswscaansststaaibaeteeeceseneces ase
261 BB | cschies teen ERAN cee es
212 LO P eccsecrnttencet Sentotanee tab sris BSF.
251 = 15 Malls b siseweee 9 saan LAnnaPas ap ans ops pi
250 aB iby od» ovsestesing Pe GhaREAG IS coseesens
249 “EL | ve-cceseednaes ceepttemmneeeeo hee eae
285 rs Mi OTE a3 a cca eno
{* Compare the comets 1558 and
283 — 45} 1854 IV; considered to re
250°5 —125| semble this one remarkably ini
308 +11 their orbits. ]
266 ay (al) WeperebCe ad acoscac>-ocaacuugeeomascnc
275 —38
e OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 351
own Meteor-showers in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.
Ei
a
(a F
Meteor Radiant- Letter or beige
ry point. Meteor-shower Date | No. in : ne
oa a® Dusdifons! Obser- | Authority. Gone: Remarks.
“Ra Deel. Nad ral
ists. Ta
es ASt.
> ° ~ i: ann
157 8.&Z
150 G, G. & H
203 +53 Dee. in 29 ...| 185, 186, |S. & Z
188, and 1,
2, 5, 6, &e.
| 200 +55 Jan, 6-29 ......... visa G. GH...) 5
145 —25 nl ie Pe err 7 Tupman 9
k 105 —27 UN Aa etettaneand D. Heis &
145 —40 ache owt A, Neumayer] ,,
148 —7 » 938-March 16} 8, 8G, |G &H 15
— 183 +15 9» 64H He 2,4, 5,8 | Tupman 5 | Average radiant.
181 +35 Dee. 22-Feb. 6 ...|185, 186, 2,) 8. & Z ll
fee) +86 | Jan. 1-25 ......... MG, |G. &H :
180 +35 Scaptn ol sthanes ‘ Tupman ‘9
" ie “A » 16-Feb.1 . M, Heise }tess| 35
i 2 =_ » Sandill re
% a5 c Bl } (1870), 6,8|Tupman...| 8
ek —17 Feb. 3-17 ...... ++-(6, 11, 12,18] Tupmans..| 20
260 0 » 13 (1869) . 16 Tupman...| 27
|
+30 Jan. 18—Feb. 13...|8, 10, 20,22,)8. & Z. ...| 18
24, 25 ?, 33.
434 rb 28-29 fies Qo | (Goa qs.| wc,
=
+18 and Bb. 13 £1869) } 10 Tupman...| ,,
+25 Jan. 19-Feb. 5 ... |9,14,15,27/8.&Z. . 12
+22 Feb. 3-10 (1870) »4, 5 jinpman...| ys,
+36 3, 9-10 (1870) 9 Tupman...| ,,
+4 jee lo (LS TO)ee 8 Tupman...| ,,
dae | March 2-3 (1870) | 19,20 |Tupman...| 41
415 Two bright showers to-
~18 } March 7 (1869) ...). 19,23 |Tupman...| ,, gether, twenty meteors
ie Mareh 7 (1869) per hour,
‘are
0 ', 7 7 (870) J 27 Tupman... ”
e 8 i -Bk eu AGE OA een We
+19 3 23 aan) 20 Tupman...| 50
+ 6 », 14-15 (1869) 21 Tupman...| ,,
—12 Feb. 10 (1870)...... 14 Tupman...| 22
(not exact).
—22 March 7 (1870)...! 28 (only | Tupman...! ,,
after 3 A.M.)
—38 SAS TAN ch sky wats. A, H.&N. ...| <a (?)
852 REPORT—1874. 3
List of Cometary Radiant-points agreeing approximately with those of know
Comet’s Cometary Radiant-
Radius, | Cometary- | Toint (1875).
N. Comet and its Bower? | @a amie weaeeen lel R k
0. Node vector at Date emarks.
: or near the} (7 875)
Nede.| | (of?) | See) eet
° °o
1 WISTS: ce) a 1:20 March 19 179 —26 |The large ancient comet ex-
WASHERS) losceaeaear- 0:98 ape 2 182 —28 pected by Mr. Hind to have
3 reappeared about the year
1860. (Period ? about 300
years. ) |
HEE IOSONSB: sastaecnosese EOD teil 209 —50 | See also below, No. 40 .........
IWIGISS so724)5 soos oiaar 1:03 tess 207 ABS | ac e.ccnesesebynoenncn ss ¢esancceeeeegem
TSR acedessc cnt. 1:22 April 23 203 OF cescsesdans daaveeaceboisessacceg cosenee
WAS ASDA Woo coe asiems 0:99 Feb. 15 304 +35
1854 TV (Weiss) 3} 0-99 ES fle 304 +37
AGS 405K \a0- sce sene os 1:02 {March 18 312 +20 | Orbit along ellipse ...secseee |
(QUMSTS h Gonaeceesenea 1-02 yes 312 +21
GIO) TUES sccces'ee 1-06 April 24 320 +18 | Resembles 1857 V (long ellipse)
\/2 Ce eee eee 0-94 aye 319 +19 and 1825 I(?).
15. | 1746 (near the g)..! 1-00 Mar. 1-8 31 +31 |) (Points of earth’s nearest {
1231 (near the ¢)..) 1°00 eo 32 +381 |J approach to the orbits.)
NG Sa UGA GL “PS ine asascs ase 0:05 April 11 231 +27 | Accordance with Schiaparelli’s
radiant-point (54) very hypo-
thetical (Weiss and Schiapa-
relli) on account of the comet's
very small perihelion dis-_
tance.
17g || lkslaiy WEP ieonenes 0°72 i es 302 SELL i\yiessconsnaaosmatieseaitamame epi sres cenns
BZD ALG oof... a0ou08 1:38 » 9 312 1D, |. ecieneas cae cenet eee hee sisoeeeem
TSHS ELS, ic. .csnee 0:93 May 1 296 AIS. | sicccecedeseceneeeteeecs teks. Wereteem
VSS | MSSOMSG overs ccecans 0-92 April 16 116 —36 } Orbit supposed to be a long
IWIStSS ie sespec sen. 5-2 0-92 Sy LOG) Gh. MI beac ellipse.
PUBS UUff25) LN to eapepe re 0:89 st aoe 255 +27
= ia 0:89 ce Ws En PF re eeanienesbnriony abesse
POO EC) cr ewatess ans 1-12 May 10 345 =O0:5 ?)]| cc....sdeuons sameeeuaenobeensaese meee
aT AWB. ..5...00s 1:02 eee 390 —18?]
1835 III (near the \ 1-00 4 337 0 ie of earth’s nearest
%); Halley’s comet 4 approach to the orbit.)
22, | 1618 IIE g ........ 1-10 June 10 273 0 |A splendid comet; visible in |
the daytime. :
Dovel LSS AGoS eck ccanscs es 1:08 ae 313 +60 | Numerous radiants near this’
Weisdek.. ceeded... 1:06 » 24 3125| +605| place (B,, 5, 4, BG, E,, >», G.
& H.; B,_.,, Heis; and many radiant-points of Schiaparelli’s and Schmidt's lists, Greg’s new Catalogue,
68, 69a, 77, 78, 81, 101, 112, 125, 180, 144, 151, 161, &e.) form, apparently, fa continuous shower,
from early in May until November, near this cometary place. The best agreement in date and position
with the cometary radiant-point is that of B,, G.& H. The above list of the next best remaining |
agreements in date and position shows that further corroborations of this accordance still continue to be
required. (Comet visible to the naked eye, with a tail. An elliptic orbit has been assigned.)
Ot a RLSGE 09 ates ce omeee 1-00 April 20 270 +32 | Visible to naked eye, with tail
| 3°. Elliptic orbit 415-4 years
WIGIES tye cucsiosesseet - 1:00 3» 20 270'4| +83:5| (Oppolzer). Comet of the
| “ Liyraids.”
| |
BA, |} SGA TT 99° cons cen 0:97 June 27 13 + 6 | An elliptic orbit of long period
NIGIEE) Gaseangnocesat = 1:05 eeu 12 + 63 has been assigned.
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
353
Mietoor-showers in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres (continued).
| Meteor Radiant-
; point.
| RA Decl.
174 ~30
192 —38
194 —30
204 aS
805 +37
— 50 +47
50 +49
b 223 +40
224 +38
mest | (+27
290 ~10
285 vad
298 +5
126 —42
268 425
260 +94
[256 —2
326 —2'5
Letter or
Meteor-shower Date zie
or Duration. Obser-
vers
Lists.
IRTM Lee 3 2ec soc A,
ITATGH, 05% atinacawcoes ie
PAAEUY, . wsisecesse ate H,
March 11-19 ...... 17
March 15-April 20) WZ G. & H....|-
March 1-15 ......... A; G. & H....
eG Es A, Heis.
» 12-April 30 MG, Geen daly ee
t= 4430] 44, 48, 64, 8. & Z.
65.
API Se consceesacee 54 8. & Z.
March 25-April 30 OZ Gy & ier...
May 2, 1870.. ...... 34,35 | Tupman...
PNT stones cates: tose: i, Heis &
Neumayer
March 15-April 23 QH, G. & 0
(max. April 13, 1864).
AED acess 3 ti oe 63 8. & Z.
ile eat coneze aa 3l Tupman 2
April 29-May 3 . 33 Tupman...
PHU ueevasesescseclh esmoncnes Schmidt
GINS nopdneressennace OF H. &N.
Bees. ter ere cell ty savteenas Schmidt
May 6-June 30 . Ww G. &
MUU E ides! .<leoaesssss WwW Heis: ......
» 7-August 12 QG G. & H
June 11-July 11 B, G. & 0
M B, Heis ......
Bs MEL@IS as san
B Heis ......
800 |S. &Z
86 9
89 9
92 13
March 19 ?— April 22} QH, G. & 0
(max. April 19-21).
April 15-30 (max. Cc Hoi) 7.4.
April 20).
aap vec Karlinski.
Apuil 20-21, ol
T8690 vere
Mullis <-sesencanes
” ”
Authority.
TA GaNotee
Tupman...
Serpieri...
Schmidt...
No. in
Greg’s
New
Gene-
ral
List.
Remarks.
A close average position of
three bright meteor-showers,
1870-71.
The meteor and cometary ra-
diant-positions appear not
to be identical. Compare
with this No.20, ~
bo
>
354 REPORT—1874.
List of Comctary Radiant-points agreeing approximately with those of kno
Comet’s Cometary Radiant-
“ : meee, | Comeary- point (1875).
é Comet and its shower) |. “sens -) aieaeneel R k
No. | Nod, vector at Date emarks.
; or near the (1875)
| Node. pee R.A. Decl.
ie} fe}
Za ||ioiech1 Wife SaRAnepeabee 0-94 Aug. 5 259 —36 | Elements pretty trustworthy ;
| inclination of orbit 4°. Tail
Ditto (near the Q)| 1:00 July 23 262 —33 40° long.
Gee Bea 88 wnneacses Meta (ED eee esta 25+ —5+ | Radiant-points about the first
(Orbit very uncer- | point of Y, immediately above
tain. No other | | and below the equator, are
known cometary | very numerous in the lists of
orbit appears to | Tupman, Schmidt, Neumayer,
represent the | | and Greg in August and the
shower.) | | ) latter end of July. The co-
| | met was observed in Greece,
and it is said to have divided
| into two parts (Pingré).
mire, |vle/7( UM Bits eee meee 0-78 Aug. 6 283 a) Ha RRR eS Sh soc.
Ditto (near the ¢).| 1:00 July 8 276 —21 | Point of nearest approach to
Lexell’s comet. | earth’s orbit.
Paste || Uiey/ Ell leroy aeeaesinad 0-98 » 30 180 +68 | Hlements only approximate.
IWIRIBS Gr oo scksenntioct 0-975 » 29 175 +71° (MG, (G. & H.), Greg, No.
84, though earlier (July 1-11),
and a radiant observed by
Serpieri on the latter date,
agreeapproximately in position
(at 218° and 200°, +55°) with
the cometary radiant-point. |
29 a NSbpelyle ......-.- 0-31 Aug. 13 300 +80 | Probably only an accidental
WWRIBS tcc cacessn secs 0-31 » 12 | 299 +80 resemblance on account of
the small perihelion distance.
(Weiss and Schiaparelli.)
CIV lwo Se eee eee 0:89 July 25 49 4G ce bene s.cch cdueeeeenee os eee
PSO2GETE 9s. .c::. 1:02 Aug. 10 43 +575 | Comet of the ‘ Perseids.”
(QUE UC bye KEY fae 8 a wo 51 +52?)| Bright, with tail 20°; period
icy (0) 106) ar seer 1-01 ssl 43°5 +53 123 years (Oppolzer).
Bie LODZ WL (ies. cess 1-00 grintG 42 at Sa RORCRRRR PR terid soc, -oo-<gorce or coc
SWEGISBIS scence decitecnae 1-01 * 10 40:7 —13°5
Use JOE Pay ceraees- 0-84 Poy dint 48 = 58. || sens ceajinlpo> spices ae ce ae
MOOG 5535 eens teaaes 0°75 ei 49 iD or lh nage vos ancient <eieeen saiee eee
SoH | OOS od meee en 0:58 A283 70 Bat Fe rerrore Pererare << eonsbodaet cc
"WISSS eescae renee 0-89 sao 65 —22
Ser || LSOe Watics eee nee 1:03 Pts | 475 +18 | Inclination of orbit small;
'WeelSS ie nccnscusagee 1:03 19 48 +14 cometary-shower date per-
" haps some days uncertain
(Sehiaparelli),
34. | 1780 IL eo... 0-82 * 1S 3°5 -+38°5| This comet was only visible
three days after its discovery
| by Montaigne and Olbers.—
| ? if its orbit is very exactly
. | 4 known.
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 355
eteor-showers in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres (continued).
Meteor Radiant- Letter or Bios ce
pont. Meteor-shower Date | No in iy
y or Duration. bas: Authority. Cae Remarks.
; ra
R.A. Decl. Lists. Tsk.
ae) |
24 —30 Rigby weeds hee | A Schmidt 91
284 —40 Nine cchcsttcansssee A Heis & |
| 258 —20 RW is dect vcdtheecccd O, Neumayer.| 80
| 340 — 8 OBIE se coed 3 Schmidt ...| 109 |
| 340 —16 » 27, 28 (1870) 43 Tupman...| ,, | |
| J 15 Ts 7 Aug. =) te eeeeres | Schmidt j
lb 35° un 8 CE Spore i St Sar hl Ce |
Meer | -10 | Aug $0) Ha awl oy |
3 oe a Sad ct sees AAR cd Schmidt...] ,,
! a PULP he eee tesced ‘
3 6 il coe “i eee } Geieaes eq Schmidt...) 111
358 + 6 PROUD capa ne 57 Tupman. : i
285 Senmauly teAue 31 gs..4) tees: Schmidt ...}......... Average of three radiants.
28 —13 | June 28-July 6 ...... 36 Tupman...}......... Average of four radiants. |
| 16 adobe Sulyster<-c-tcsd| zeke os Schmidt...]........: Compare alsoNos, 22, 25(O),.,
[24 ied Dilved seas deat 108 8. & Z.] H. & N.),
No Race ccecre 118 8.&Z. =.) 99
», 29-Sept. 13 ny. G.&H rst
July 28-Sept. 10...) N,.,,, |G. &H....| 93
TNO Ader Peer aay IELeiB) cess >
Sota SAK | 35. «|S. &Z if
ALLE Me saad aseees 143 8. &Z $s
Sakoomedsscatiee aout 52 Tupman...| ,,
sre ISG Oi ses All cae tas Denza...... He
LA ALOGD: -.aascal o.oo Denza...... *
July 15-31 ......... Axo Heis ......! 108 | The ‘“ Perseid” comet and
Period of Aug. 10 . An Heist 0... 5 meteor-system appear to
July 23-Aug. 20 AS GPaiEee sd. be a branch stream derived
(max. at 44° ,+56°). from the parabolic orbit of
Aug. lu, 1863. the comet 1870 I (?).
July 27-Aug. 22...) ......... Tupman...| ,, | Average of 28 subradiants.
AN GOEL Deets 5, sh Rees ce Schmidt.
LAS. 5 ORCAS Ee eeiod | RCERR Ree Schmidt. 117
Aug. 20-25 ......... 65 Tupman...| ,,
PANEER Se cscs cosdcell. Saeeacet Schmidt... 104
PU es. kees es cack 140 8.62. ...| 105
ND Weeds AI RR cess Schmidt.
ee hee cot|) Pubeatens Schmidt ...| 117
FMMEete sss er Coe tssccs|| | wtRhaces Schmidt...|,,
ye PU S2Di ss ..cs 65 Tupman...| ,,
Sol Oi s2 oe Seg RG, Goes tb
J uly TeSAUg EA Rb esdcest 8. & Z. [?]/ 95 | 8 subradiants near » Pegasi.
Fl Ree eee. 110 8. & Z. [?]] 103
» T—Aug. 25 .../45,51,61,62.| Tupman...| ,,
Aug. 1- 15 CoAT sagen Schmidt...| ,, 4 radiants.
[oe CTR Faecal) Meee ae ee | Daniziinctess |e ne 3 radiants in 1868-69.
45
+36
| wily 28-Sept Sat Ried Dewi pen,
No.
38
39
40
41
42
43
47
48
356
REPORT—1874.
List of Cometary Radiant-points agreeing approximately with those of known
Comet and its
Node.
USIP fede. eapepenadeee
1854 IV 2
1769 3
Weiss
Comet’s
Radius-
vector at
or near the
Node.
1-07
0-91
0-985
Cometary-
shower
Date
(1875).
Cometary Radiant-
point (1875).
R.A. Decl.
89 | +6
92 0
53 —15
53 —158
49 —15°5
111 +38
109 +377
100 +59
145 +50
18 +18
24 +18
54
37
39°2
81
78
157 +39
86 +19°5
90 +36
150°5 +235
24°5 +40
23°5 +43
25:2 +42
162 +35
is — 2
0
Remarks.
The orbits resemble each other
somewhat, but not very closely.
The orbits of these two comets
and of the comet of 1558
(No. 33) resemble each other.
See also Nos. 31, 32.
Orbit-elements only approxi-
mate.
Donati’s comet.
Elliptic orbit,
years; returning about the
year 1870(?). ‘Tail 2° to 4°
long.
Orbit elliptic (Bessel) ; period
about 2090 (+ 500) years. |
Tail 60°-80° long.
oePe eee eT eT eee er ere Te eee e errr re Tre
Vis. to the naked eye ; tail 23°.
Elements very uncertain ; mean
elements of Pingré’s two |
orbits. Comet with a faint tail. |
Elliptic orbit; period 33-17 |
years (Oppolzer). Comet of
the “ Leonids.”
Biela’s comet (comet of the
“Andromedes ”).
For passage in 1866.
Elements only approximate.
Imperfectly observed ; elliptic;
supposed period 5-44 years.
period 190} /
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 357
eteor-showers in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres (continued).
Meteor Radiant- bathe or Geont
- port. Meteor-shower Date ss P New
or Duration. Orne PURTOEIOY: ae Remarks.
: r
Decl. Lists. List.
fe}
—15 ae 31 (1870) ...... 67 Tupman...| 126 a
— 6 RIBRUMS.csecsaneodecesc|| Gedetuees Schmidt...| ,,
— 8 PM ae tote dvietal. saceeeess Schmidt...| ,,
= 6 So cetcoad cree coor Macon Schmidt...) ,,
—22 MECH 2 eeceasdasses| “shdbasoes Schmidt...| ,,
+32 Aug. 20-25 (1871) 60 Tupman...| 119
(Suspected.)
+67 GUMMcoaas cdesececeasl! yeesaccees Schmidt...) 127
+9 MES UO S58 ofos|) - aasesees Schmidt...} 111 | (N.B. No other cometary or-
+30 BU hriclaceccosnccel|| uadeesses Schmidt...) ,, bit appears to represent this
+1 SHS0W ses ssceul)) acieacese Schmidt...) ,, shower.* See No. 26.)
+17 Aug. 22-Oct. 15 . pst G.&H....| ,,
+11 Sept. 16-30 ......... T, Heisieesaie.
+61 Oct Welds e. adscs a INP 1aIGE Geaeee 139
—14 te ZS ap beer eeA ances tee Schmidt _
==) 0 eae eee ee ee eae Schmidt *
+50 Sept. “a Bee) sacsaslieifects aoes A. 8. H....) 136
+81 83 Tupman,,,| _,, 3 subradiants.
+45 Pe 92 Tupman,..| ,,
+44 ” 6GES Aj, Heis asia 6
+45 November’. ..... $22.26) S.ccceees Schmidt...| ,,
+50 Sept. 17-Noy. 24...) F,,, (Eris UES Pee| (General centre. )
+44 Oct. get siete LG G.& H....| 141
+48 ue 2A ace 159 Scie.
+23 Fie sobhh ROAR cer Mins Aa Schmidt...| 149
+13 pile WLS. aS saan 85 Tupman:..| _,,
+40 INOVarigh Beuctesaeeess 97 Tupman...} 165 | (Position estimated.)
+15 Oct. ae ee 13 (?) O G. & H....| 157
+13 Ne fo 2 « cwaanine| e aieee sin Schmidt...| ,,
+17 5 at wadas ca oes Ma lonacaeae Schmidt...| ,,
+ 5 NICK 6 s AbaGoe aC EERE aecenasere Schmidt 2
+10 SOA AE Pe 9 Tupman...| 173
+20 Fe LUI Reewenmeeneree 165 B..doZin, olay
= 98 », 13-14 (1866)... L G. & H....! 171 | Many other Italian, English,
+24 Period of Noy. 14 L Heis ...... a and American observations
+22°2| Nov. ee (1866) 100 Tupman...| ,, of this shower (of the ‘‘ Leo-
+22 ea eel eee Schmidt...| ,, nids”) agree very closely
: with these positions.
+43 EM CLS TA) i crcucedlperacsnecces G. & H....| 172 | Average of 35 good determi-
+47 sy 30, (1867) .-.2:2 ue & V1 ae | Sie nations.
+54 Deel ewcsccsseclh, Ase || RGIS? cone
+33 Noy. 19-Dee. 10 ....178, i 181 &. ‘& Z. 175
0 ene re RR ES 7 utes f
feg0 "|. “Badet® (1867). ns. Masters ...| |,
— 4 IDEGH ons. scacuacsceed|. eedescts Schmidt...| ...... | Cometary radiant endures
near this place throughout
November, December, and
January.
358 REPORT—1874.
List of Cometary Radiant-points agreeing approximately with those of known
Comet’s Cometary- Cometary radiant-
: : p
No Comet and its ae a shower point (1875). R nie
Node. Date wae
ornearthe| (4 875)
Node. | (875) | Ra. | Decl.
fo} °
BOWE UBS: Fines scnnee 0:80 Dec. 5 200 +69 | Hiliptic orbit period 70-7 years;
TOE 23) ta sxccees 1:10 » 20 220 +76 naked-eye comet with tail 2°
MSMR eicc nkc cnn 1:07 » 20 221 +T. long.
PIO a LGSUR ES te 2d.s cok aeniee 0-94 See 133 +22 | Comet with tail of 70° to 90° ;
Weiss ...... ie airaenes 0-96 » 26 132 +21:4| approached almost to grazing
the sun. Supposed by Halley
to be periodic, but no definite
| period can be assigned.
Dl | TS46r Vail ws: ...2... 1-09 ep Wks 200 + 4 |A naked-eye comet; elliptic
; orbit ; period 400 years (?).
HELMED es: Troe. 0:87 > 28 169 —36 | Moved rapidly; a hyperbolic | |
orbit has been assigned to it. ] :
present form to be, it is yet in the main a fairly correet and well verified
representation of the real or apparent coincidences between meteor-showers
and cometary orbits (to the close of the year 1866) that can at present be
offered for purposes of preliminary use. The groups of comets as well as of
meteor-showers that it presents, and the apparent replacement in some cases
of formerly existing groups of comets (as those of 1264 and 1556 a.p., No. 12)
by present well-established star-showers, together with the gradual changes,
dismemberments, or decrease of brightness sometimes traceable in the come-
tary groups, are features of the list which recommend its introduction at the
close of this Report, with a view to its further consideration by the Com-
mittee in future communications, with such corrections and amplifications as
its present condition may require.
Copies of a paper on the “ Latent Heat of Expansion, in connexion with
the Luminosity of Meteors,” presented to the American Philosophical Society,
March 6th, 1874, were forwarded to the Committee by its author, Mr. B. V.
Marsh, and have received their special attention. By means of a somewhat
new mode of considering the heating-effect of compression on air, Mr. Marsh
arrives at conclusions which are substantially the same as those generally ad-
mitted with regard to the high temperature and intense ignition developed by a
meteorite in traversing the rarest strata of the atmosphere, and asks if such
bodies traversing the outer limits of the sun’s photosphere, and thence pro-
ceeding without sensible loss of their energy on their course, might not pro-
duce, without much expenditure of actual mechanical energy, the enormous
luminosity of its surface. Itshould, however, be observed that the immense
quantities of heat emitted from it by radiation would not on this hypothesis
be accounted for.
ON UNIFORMITY OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 359
eteor-showers in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres (continued).
Meteor Radiant- Letter or ae,
Meteor-shower D t gee ne 7
-shower Date : ew
on Domaine par Authority. Gane: Remarks,
é ral
Lists. Tish:
Ween alo). eitseos INGA Heis.
cer) GER ROOTED Ores | ee CoREEeE Schmidt...) 158 |[S. & Z. 189, T. 102, and
WML ccuseswacee sr scaec|’ \cusessscs Schmidt...| _,, Gruey, Dec. 10-11, 1874
“i _batoonbececo Born | mcheonneer Schmidt...) ,, (130°, +-46°),perhaps repre-
Oct. 31—Dee. 12 ... LH (Orage 5 peel re sent this comet better.—
Note, 1875.]
Jan. 1-Feb. 9 ...... M,, >. [?]G.&H.| 2 | [?=1833 ¢ (near the node);
=S. & Z. 23 ?—Note, 1875.]
WGC yeaa aN iesall . santigneey Schmidt...) 184
Report on the-best means of providing for a Uniformity of Weights and
Measures, with reference to the Interests of Science, by a Committee
consisting of The Right Hon. Sir Starrorp H. Norrucorsz, Bart.,
C.B., M.P., The Right Hon. Sir C.B. Appreriey, M.P.,Sir W. Arm-
stRoNG, C.B., F.R.S., Samuet Brown, F.S.S., Dr. Farr, F.R.S., A.
Hamitton, F.G.S., Professor FrRanKLAND, F.R.S., Professor Hen-
nessy, F.R.S., Professor Lronr Levi, F.S.S. (Secretary), C. W.
Sremens, F.R.S., Professor A. W. Wituiamson, F.R.S., Major-
Gen. Stracuey, F.R.S., and Dr. Roperts.
Your Committee, appointed to report on the best means of providing for a
uniformity of weights and measures with reference to the interest of science,
have already in their several Reports indicated their opinion that such unifor-
mity can best be promoted by the diffusion of the Metric System in all civi-
lized countries, and by the adoption of a system of coinage founded on gold
asa single standard, with a uniform proportion of alloy of one in ten and with
a decimal division ; and their opinion has been corroborated by the gradual
extension of the Metric System, notably in the whole German empire, and by
the concurrence of all nations in the same principles of coinage, though notin
the identity of the unit. It isin the United Kingdom that the greatest difficulty
is experienced in introducing the reform ; and your Committee regret that Her
Majesty’s Government have as yet taken no practical step in advance of the
same. Meanwhile, however, the International Metric Conference have pro-
ceeded in their deliberation and in the manufacture of perfect Metric Stan-
dards ; and your Committee hope that as soon as a copy of the same shall have
been deposited in this country, the Warden of the Standards will be authorized
to verify by the same the Metric Weights and Measures in use in the United
Kingdom, and that by this and other means the difficulties still in the way of
the voluntary use of the same may beremoved. Your Committee have already
done their utmost to diffuse information on the subject remitted to them, but
360 merone:2 187A:
they think it will be advisable to recommend the reappointment of the Com-
mittee; and in leaving the subject to be further matured by experience and by
time, they would only reiterate their firm conviction that the uniformity of the
Weights, Measures, and Coins will tend to the economy of time in the ordi-
nary transactions of life, the extension of education and science, and the
general advance of commerce and international intercourse.
NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS
OF
MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS.
MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.
Address by The Rey. Professor J. H. Jetuerr, W.A., M.R.I.A., President of
the Section.
In opening the business of the Section, my first duty is, as you will naturally
anticipate, to return my warmest thanks to the British Association for the honour
which they have conferred upon me by inviting me to occupy this Chair. I do it,
T assure you, with all sincerity, fully sensible how high the compliment is; and if
I do not dwell further upon the subject, it is, as I hope you will believe, because
the President of a Section ought to occupy your time, not by speaking of himself
or his own feelings, but by a review, more or less extensive, of those branches of
science which form the proper business of the Section.
I say “ more or less extensive ;” for in determining what kind of review he will
present to you, the President of this Section has a very wide range of choice.
He may give you a rapid but (in its outline) complete sketch of the progress of
mathematical science during the past year. He may select some one special sub-
ject, probably (and rightly) the ro ee with which he is himself especially con-
versant, giving of that a more detailed account; or he may take a middle course,
neither so extensive as the first nor quite so limited asthe second. It is this latter
course which I wish now to take, proposing to direct your attention, during the short
time which I can allow myself, to the relations, becoming every day more fully de-
veloped, not only among the branches of science which properly belong to us, but
between our Section and the other Sections of the Association, or, in other words,
between the sciences which we ordinarily call mathematical or physical and some
of the other sciences to which the British Association is devoted. I am the more
anxious to direct your attention to this class of subjects, because recent investigation
has shown how fertile for discovery the “ border land,” if I may so call it, between
sciences hitherto considered distinct has been found to be. Instances in proof of
this will present themselves as we go on; some have no doubt suggested themselves
to you already. 1
We are called, in ordinary language, the Mathematical Section. The adjective
must indeed be understood in a very wide sense—too wide perhaps for strict pro-
riety of language, if it be meant to include every thing to which our labours
eve are devoted ; still the use of the term “mathematical ” indicates, and truly
indicates, the preponderance which in this Section we give to mathematics and
to those sciences which are at present capable of mathematical treatment; and
therefore the first question which in the consideration of our present subject
naturally presents itself is, Does this list of sciences show any prospect of increase ?
Are we making, are we likely to make, an increased use of mathematics as an
instrument of physical investigation? Are we trying to improve its use in those
E
1874.
pS REPORT—1874. 7
sciences which are already recognized as belonging to its legitimate province ?
Are we trying to perfect the mathematical treatment of such sciences as optics or
electricity, which have been already brought under the sway of mathematics ?
Are we trying to extend its sway by bringing under it sciences (chemistry, for
example, or biology) in which as yet its power has been but little felt? Or
have we come to the conclusion, to which some writers would lead us, that we
have already pushed the use of mathematics too far? Is it true, for example, and
do we feel it to be true, that in our anxiety to bring physical optics completely
under the power of mathematical science, we have abandoned the principles of the
inductive philosophy, and substituted mere hypotheses for true knowledge? And
are we convinced, at least, that every chemist is bound, as he values the truth and
reality of his science, to resist the introduction into chemistry of the methods of
mathematical analysis, if any such attempt should be made ?
This latter is the opinion of Comte, whose severe strictures on the application
of mathematical analysis to physical optics I shall have to consider further on;
for the present I would confine your attention to the inquiry, What indications on
this subject are presented by the actual progress of physical science? Does its
history exhibit a tendency to widen or to contract the field of mathematical
analysis ?
ie reviewing, with this purpose, the history of physical science, we may leave
out of sight those sciences, or parts of a science, to which the methods and language
of mathematics are applicable without the aid of hypotheses. No scientific man
doubts the advantage of applying, as far as our analytic powers enable us so to
do, the methods of mathematical analysis to such sciences as plain optics or plain
astronomy. Even physical astronomy, although in strict logical precision not
wholly independent of hypothesis, has been long recognized as, in the most proper
sense of the word, a mathematical science. Wherever, in fact, the fundamental
equations rest either on direct observation (as in plain optics) or (as in physical
astronomy) upon an hypothesis, if we may venture to call it an hypothesis, so
entirely accepted as universal gravitation, the extension of the methods of mathe-
matics is only limited by the weakness of mathematical analysis itself. But there
are other sciences, as, for example, physical optics, to which mathematical analysis
cannot be applied without the intervention of hypotheses more or less uncertain.
And if we would appreciate the true character of scientific progress, the question
which we must put to scientific history is this, Is science becoming more or less
tolerant of such hypotheses? A principle is assumed, possessing in itself a certain
amount of plausibility, and capable of mathematical expression, from which we are
able to deduce, as consequences and by mathematical reasoning, phenomena whose
reality may afterwards be proved by direct experiment. And from this experi-
mental verification we infer, with more or less probability, the truth of the original
assumption. The question, then, which we have to put to scientific history is
this, Do the records of science indicate a greater or a less tolerance of this kind
of logic? Is the mode of physical investigation which I have shortly sketched
gaining or losing the favour of scientific men ?
Passing over sciences like astronomy, which, though not wholly free from
hypothesis, do not give us very extended information on this point, I come to a
part of scientific history to which we may put the question with every probability
of obtaining (so far, at least, as one science is concerned) a decisive answer—I mean,
the history ef physical optics.
We have here a science whose basis is purely hypothetical. The definition of
light is an hypothesis, the nature of the vethereal motion is an hypothesis, even
the very existence of the ether is an hypothesis—hypotheses, indeed, which have
led to conclusions amply verified by experiment, but hypotheses still. Does the
history of optical science indicate a desire to discard this hypothetical base ?
Does the history of this science betray a tendency on the part of scientific men to
abandon or neglect mechanical theories of light? Have physicists given up as
hopeless, or perhaps unphilosophical, the attempt to reduce, by the intervention of
a supposed ether, the phenomena of light under the mathematical laws which
govern motion? Are they even abandoning the reasoning or the phraseology of
the undulatory system? The answer to these questions is not doubtful. Com-
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 3
mencing with Fresnel, more than half a century ago, the history of physical optics
is a history of efforts, constantly repeated, to frame what M. de St. Venant has
called “a really rational theory of light.”
Take, for example, the repeated attempts to reconcile the mechanical principle of
continuity with the optical phenomenon of double refraction. When the movement
which we call light passes from one medium to another, if the molecular movement
be continuous, it is hard to see how the elastic force of the «ther can be different
at different sides of the plane of separation. It would seem, then, that the principle
requires that the elastic force of the ether should be the same in all media. But if
it be the same in a crystalline as in an uncrystalline medium, it ought to be the
same in every direction; and if it be the same in every direction, how are we to
account for the phenomenon of double refraction? The effort to overcome this
difficulty may be said to have engaged the attention of Cauchy during all the latter
part of his life. The same question was taken up after his death by other writers,
among whom I may mention M. Boussinesq as the most recent, and is to this day
a question of great interest to mathematical physicists. Iam not now inquiring
whether the reasoning which I have just stated be valid, or whether the difficulty,
which some writers do not appear to haye felt, be real. I allude to it only as a
proof of the anxiety felt by men who have borne the greatest names in optical
science to have a complete mechanical theory of light. It would be easy to mul-
tiply instances, affecting all the great phenomena of optics, which evince the same
anxiety.
Mescther and even stronger proof of the firm footing which the undulatory theory
has obtained in the world of science is the familiarity with which we use the terms
of that theory, as if they denoted actual physical realities. When, not long since,
much labour was expended in calculating the wave-lengths for the several rays of
the spectrum, there does not appear to have been among physicists any conscious-
ness that they were discussing, and even professing to measure, things which had
no existence but in the fancy of mathematicians. On the contrary, we have come
to speak of wave-lengths quite as freely and as familiarly as we speak of indices of
refraction. Nor is this true only of detached memoirs, which might be supposed to
represent only individual opinion. The language and the principles of the undu-
latory theory have found their way into our ordinary text-books—a sure proof that
these principles have been generally accepted by the scientific world. Iam notnow
discussing the question whether, regarded as an indication of scientific progress, this
fact is favourable or unfavourable. I only say that it zs a fact. M. Comte has done
all that the hard words of a man of great genius could do to banish theories of
light from the domain of science, but his greatest admirer will hardly say that he
has been successful.
I pass to the consideration of another branch of science, closely connected with,
and indeed including, physical optics, and exemplifying, even more strongly, the
desire of scientific men to extend the sway of mathematics over physical science—
I mean, Molecular Mechanics. This branch of mechanical science (if, indeed, it be
not more correct to say, this science) is altogether modern. Fifty years ago it had
hardly begun to exist, and even now it is in a very imperfect condition. Imperfect
as it is, however, it has advanced far enough to mark the progress of science in the
direction which I have indicated. And as itis ascience more general than physical
optics, the indications which we can gather from it are more important. Physical
optics does not take us outside our own Section; molecular mechanics shows a
marked tendency to carry mathematical analysis into the domain of chemistry. If
it shall ever be possible to establish an intimate connexion between this latter
science and theoretical mechanics, it is probably here that we shall find the con-
necting link. In truth it is impossible to contemplate the ever-growing tendency
of science to see in so many natural phenomena varieties of motion, without anti-
cipating a time when mathematical dynamics (the science which has already
SB iliced so many of the phenomena of motion beneath the power of mathematical
analysis) shall be admitted to be the universal interpreter of nature, as completely
as it is now admitted to be the interpreter of the motions of the planets. I do not
say that it will ever be. I do not even say that it is possible. It is no true philo-
sophy which dogmatizes on the future of science. But it iscertain that the current
1*
4, REPORT—1874.
of scientific thought is setting strongly in that direction. The constant tendency of
scientific thought is, as I have said, to increase the number of those phenomena
which are regarded as mere varieties of motion. Sound—that we have placed on the
list long since. Light, though here our conclusions are more hypothetical, we have
also long regarded as belonging to the same category ; and Heat may now be fairly
added ; and we have almost learned, under the guidance of Professor Williamson,
to regard chemical combination asa phenomenon of the same kind. All these phe-
nomena (of sound, of light, of heat, and perhaps even of chemical combination)
we now regard as produced by the movements of systems of exceedingly small par-
ticles—whether of known particles, as in the case of sound, or of the hypothetical
zther, as in the case of light ; and a science which proposes to itself the mathe-
matical discussion of the laws which govern the movements of such systems can
hardly fail to play an important part in the future history of physical science. I
shall not then, I hope, be thought to misemploy the time of the Section by offering
some observations on the science of molecular dynamics. ‘
When we have to deal with a science which professes to be more than a mathe-
matical abstraction—a science which assumes to itself the function of representing,
with at least approximate truth, the realities of nature—our first question will
naturally be, What is the basis on which it rests? Is it built upon a pure hypo-
thesis, not derived from experiment, but seeking to justify its claim to reality by
the truth of the results which may be deduced from it ?
The word “molecule,” as Prof. Clerk Maxwell has told us, is modern, embody-
ing an idea derived from modern chemistry. It denotes a material particle so small
as to be incapable of subdivision into parts similar in their nature to itself. Thus
a drop of water may be divided into smaller drops, each of which is also water; but
a molecule of water is regarded as incapable of such division. Not that we regard
it as absolutely indivisible; but we assume that a further division, could it be
effected, would produce molecules, not of water, but of its component gases, hydro-
gen and oxygen. .
Now this conception of a moleeule undoubtedly involves an hypothesis. Are
there such ultimate particles of matter, not only resisting all the a viding forces
which we can command, but absolutely indivisible, by any force, into particles
similar to each other, or perhaps into particles of any kind? Or are we to suppose
that, if we had instruments of sufficient delicacy, the process of division might be
carried on without limit? Experiment gives us no means of deciding between
these alternatives; and if the exigencies of our method of investigation force us to
make a decision, we can make it only by an hypothesis, But we may fairly ask,
Does the logic of molecular dynamics absolutely require this decision? And on this
point I wish to offer one or two remarks. When we propose to determine the
motion of a body, solid or fluid, we ought, as indeed in all scientific problems, to
form in the first place a clear conception of the meaning of the question which we
propose to cia We wish to discover the laws which govern the motion—of
what? Not certainly of the body taken as a whole. That is, no doubt, part of
the information which we seek, but a very small part of it. When we have learned
to determine by a fixed mathematical rule, or formula as we generally call it, the
position occupied at any instant by the centre of gravity of the body and by its
principal axes, we have learned something, but the investigation is far from being
complete. There are, as you know, large classes of movements of which such
knowledge would tell us nothing. Thus, to take a familiar instance, you see aman
(to use our ordinary language) “sitting quiet.” He is at rest, so far as the moye-
ment of the body, taken as a whole, is concerned. He is neither turning on his
chair nor walking about the room ; and yet there is probably not a single particle
of his body which is absolutely quiescent. You see, then, how ignorant we are of
the vital movements of the human body, if we know only that the individual is
“sitting quiet.”
But suppose that we push the inquiry a little further and propose to investigate
the motion of the blood. We obtain an answer to this question in one sense by
determining the rate at which the blood, taken as a whole, is moving—that is to
say, suppose the number of ounces of blood which pass through the mitral valve
in the space of one minute; but having learned this, we are still very far from
—_
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 5
knowing completely the motion of the blood. But suppose that we were able to
assign at any instant the position of each one of the blood-globules considered as a
unit—that is to say, suppose we could assign for each of these globules the position
of its centre of gravity and the positions of its principal axes, we should then
know the motion of the blood, not, indeed, perfectly (for we should still be ignorant
of the motion of the serwm as well as of the internal movements which take place
in each globule), but very much more completely than before.
Further (and this is the point to which I wish especially to direct your attention),
these results would be equally true, whether the globules were really units, inca-
pable of further subdivision, or really aggregates of still smaller particles. In the
former case we should know perfectly the motion of that part of the blood which
consists of the red globules; in the latter, we should know the same motion, but
not perfectly; that is to say, our results, though true as far as they go, would leave
us still in ignorance of one or more classes of motions which are really exhibited
by the globules of the blood. We should then be obliged to imagine a still further
subdivision, If, for example, we divided, in imagination, each globule into a
thousand parts, and could determine the motion of each part considered as a unit,
our results would still further approximate to completeness ; and so on for further
subdivisions. The logic of molecular dynamics may then be shortly stated as
follows :—
In seeking to form the equations of motion of a body, solid or fluid, we com-
mence by an imaginary division of the body into elements of any arbitrary mag-
nitude, and we form the equations of motion for each of these elements considered
asaunit. The results so obtained are true, but, as long as the elements retain a
finite magnitude, incomplete. They do not give us full information as to the
movement of the system. But suppose now, adopting the spirit of the differential
calculus, that the magnitude of ieee elements is constantly diminished; then it
will be found that, as in the differential calculus, these equations tend towards a
certain limiting form, constantly approaching it as the magnitude of the elements
is continually diminished ; and in this limiting form these equations are not only
true but complete.
Stated in this general form, the principles of molecular dynamics are not only
peaily logical, but wholly free from hypothesis. Hypotheses have, no doubt,
een freely introduced for the purpose of forming the actual equations in any given
case ; but molecular dynamics, as such, is not an hypothetical science. The word
molecular is in some respects unfortunate, as tending to identify the science with a
particular hypothesis as to the constitution of matter. But molecular dynamics as
a science has no necessary connexion with the molecular hypothesis. In truth
the methods of this science harmonize quite as readily with the supposition of the
infinite divisibility of matter as with the supposition of ultimate molecules.
Molecular dynamics may fairly be called the differential calculus of physical
science. It is, in its relation to physical science, what the differential calculus is
in its relation to geometry. As in geometry, when we would pass from the small
and exceptional class of rectilinear figures to the infinite varieties of curye-lines,
we must invoke the aid of the differential calculus, so when we would pass from
the abstractions of rigid solids and unbending surfaces to the contemplation of
bodies as they really exist in nature, must we, if we would fully investigate their
phenomena, invoke the aid of molecular dynamics. It is the science of that phe-
nomenon which is gradually drawing all others within its sway; it is the science
of that phenomenon which, “changed in all and yet in all the same,” we have
learned to see in every part of nature. Molecular dynamics is the science of
Motion in its widest and truest sense—of the motion which passes along in the
sweep of the tempest or the fierce throb of the earthquake—of the motion (no
less real) which breathes in the gentlest whisper or thrills along the minutest
nerve.
I have dwelt thus long upon the subject of molecular dynamics because the
amount of attention which in the present century it has commanded, and the great
advance which it has made, mark most distinctly the tendency of scientific thought
to the introduction of mathematical analysis into all parts of physical science ; for
molecular dynamics is the key to this introduction. It is to the perfection of this
6 REPORT—1874.
science that we must look for an increased use of the mathematical instrument ;
and when we combine the indications afforded by the history of this science with
those which we may derive from the history of its principal application (Physical
Optics) we have at least this partial answer to our question — Mathematical
analysis shows no sign of relaxing its grasp upon any of the sciences which have
been hitherto considered to belong to its domain; nay, more, the desire to extend
that domain is indicated by the efforts to perfect the instrument by which that
extension must be made. We may now ask, Is this indication confirmed by the
history of any of those sciences which have been hitherto regarded as lying wholly
without our Section ?
And first, what shall we say of Seetion B? Does chemical science show any
indications pointing to a future union with the group already collected under the
genus (if I may so call it) Theoretical Mechanics? Take, for example, the great
problem of chemical combination. Does the treatment of this problem now show
any signs pointing in the direction of dynamical science? I desire here to speak
with all reserve and even hesitation, being conscious that I am no longer on familiar
ground. Still there are signs which even an outside spectator may read. And we
may, I think, speak confidently of their direction, although the goal to which they
point is far distant and may perhaps be unattainable.
One of these signs is the appearance of time as one of the elements of a che-
mical problem. And in recognizing the necessity of a certain time for the produc-
tion of a chemical effect, chemists are now pointing not obscurely to the analo
of mechanical science. “Time,” says Berthelot, “is necessary for the accomplish-
ment of chemical reactions, as it is for all the other mechanical phenomena.” This
might not in itself be very significant ; but chemists have not merely recognized the
necessity of time as a condition for the production of chemical phenomena, they
have also undertaken to measure it; or rather, taking the converse problem, they
have undertaken to measure the amount of chemical effect produced in the unit of
time ; and the law of this phenomenon announced by Berthelot takes (necessarily,
indeed) a mathematical form quite analogous to equations which present them-
selves in dynamical science. The next step has followed as a matter of course,
and chemists now speak as familiarly of the velocity of chemical reactions as engi-
neers do of the velocity of a cannon-ball.
Still more important in its bearing on the future of chemistry, and tending
distinctly in the same direction, is the theory of Chemical Combination, which
science owes to Prof. Williamson, and according to which this phenomenon, like so
many others, ought to be regarded as in great measure a mode of motion. We
suppose the normal condition of the atomic constituents of a body to be motion, not
rest; and when we say that a molecule of one substance enters into combination
with a molecule of another substance, we do not mean that the same molecules
constantly adhere together, but that the union between the molecules, whatever
be its nature, is continually dissolved and as continually re-formed. According to
this theory, chemical equilibrium does not denote molecular rest, but a system of
molecular motion, in which these decompositions and recompositions balance each
other.
If I may venture to add any thing to that which comes from such an authority,
I would say that this theory leads us naturally to regard the chemical properties
of bodies as, if not wholly modes of motion, yet largely dependent upon the nature
of the movements which take place among their constituent atoms. Hence, if two
bodies incapable of chemical action are brought into chemical presence of each
other, we may suppose that their atomic movements, and therefore their properties,
remain unaltered. If, on the other hand, these bodies be capable of acting che-
mically on each other, their atomic movements are modified by their mutual
chemical presence ; and therefore the chemical properties of the compound, as we
call it, may be wholly different from those of either of the bodies which have
entered into combination.
Now we are not yet prepared to consider chemical combination as a problem of
molecular dynamics. We have not sufficiently clear ideas (even hypothetical
ideas) of these atomic moyements, and of the modifications which are caused by
the chemical presence of another body, to place the investigation of these phe-
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 7
nomena in the same category with the investigation of the phenomena of physical
optics; and I am sure that any attempt to hasten unduly the affiliation of
chemistry to theoretical dynamics would be productive of serious mischief. The
drift of the remarks which I have made has been only to show that the current of
scientific thought is setting in that direction; and while we may not predict such
an affiliation, still less should we be justified in pronouncing it to be beyond the
possibilities or even the probabilities of science.
Time will only allow me to notice very briefly another important application of
mathematics to a branch of science considered hitherto to be altogether beyond the
limits of our Section,—I refer to the application of the methods of geometry and
theoretical mechanics to Biological science recently made by Professor Haughton.
The first example which I shall notice is the establishment of a principle govern-
ing the animal frame, and quite analogous to the principle of “least action” in
dynamics. This principle asserts that every muscle is so framed as to perform the
greatest amount of work under the given external circumstances. If this principle
be admitted as an @ prior? truth, the arranzement of any given muscle may be
mathematically deduced from it; but many, no doubt, will prefer to regard it as an
inductive truth established by the number of instances which Professor Haughton
has adduced and discussed. Among these the work done by the human heart is
considered ; and in order more fully to exemplify the principle of the economy of
work, Professor Haughton has imagined a very obvious construction of the heart
in which the principle would be violated, contrasting this with the actual con-
struction in which, as he has shown, the principle is preserved.
Professor Haughton has also made much use of the geometry of curved surfaces
in estimating the action of the non-plane muscles.
On the whole the work of Professor Haughton is a remarkable example of
pe renting use of mathematical methods in the investigation of physical
roblems.
: We have put to scientific history the important question—Is it probable that the
dominion of mathematics over physical science will be more widely extended than
it is at present? Is it probable, not only that we shall improve the mathematical
instrument as applied to those sciences which are already recognized as belonging
to the legitimate province of mathematical analysis, but also that we shall learn to
apply the same instrument to sciences which are now wholly or partially inde-
pendent ofits authority? And to this question I think that scientific history must
answer, Yes, it 7s probable. It is probable, because physical science is learning
more and more every day to see in the phenomena of nature modifications of that
one phenomenon which is peculiarly under the power of mathematics. It is probable,
because science already indicates the path by which that advance will be made,
because we already possess in molecular dynamics a method (the creation, I may
almost say, of our own age, and still very imperfect) whose proper subject is
motion not in any limited or abstract sense, but as widely as it really exists in
nature. And it is probable, because we cannot look back on the history of
science for the last fifty years without becoming conscious how large is the advance
which has been already made.
Thave thus far endeavoured to show to you the light which is thrown on the
connexion between physical science and mathematical analysis by actual scientitic
history ; and I have given you some reasons for believing, so far as it is permitted
to us to read the future, that this connexion is likely to extend still more widely.
But before we pass from this part of the subject, we are bound to ask the
question, Are we to regard this indication as being favourable to the cause of
scientific progress? Shall we regard the tendency to use, as far as possible, the
mathematical instrument in physical investigation as being likely to extend our
real knowledge of nature? Or will its result be merely to encourage the formation
of yain hypotheses, recommended only by their capability of mathematical expres-
sion, and ieesle injuring the cause of science by means of the facility with which
men accept such speculations as real knowledge ? This latter opinion seems to be,
on the whole, that of Comte, whose severe strictures upon physical theories of light
T have noticed before.
Now I believe that the advocate of the mathematical method of investigation
8 REPORT—1874.
might be, and would be, perfectly content to fight the battle of mathematical physics
on the ground which Comte himself has chosen. We have put one important
question to the history of science, let us put another.
Has the effect of theories of light upon the progress of real optical knowledge
(knowledge which Comte himself would admit to be real) been beneficial or
injurious ?
This question belongs to a class to which the answer is never easy. It is never
an easy task to abstract one from a group of causes which concur in the production
of an effect, and then determine how the effect would have been changed by such
removal, Still we may succeed in obtaining at least a partial answer to the
question.
It has been frequently remarked as one of the benefits conferred upon physical
science by theory, that it suggests experiment. Nowhere is this principle more
strongly exemplified than in the history of perhaps the greatest name in optical
science—I mean, Fresnel. He is an experimentalist certainly ; but he is an experi-
mentalist because he is atheorist. His most valuable experiments had their origin
in the desire to test the truth of a theory. The experiment with the two mirrors
were devised to test Young’s principle ofinterference. His diffraction experiments
were devised at first to test the truth of Young’s theory ; and when that had been
found to be inconsistent with fact, then to test the truth of his own. .And, not to
multiply instances, the experiments by which he established the existence of cir-
cular polarization, and ascertained the true nature of the light which passes along
the axis of a quartz crystal, were suggested by theory.
Among the motives which induced Jamin to undertake the experimental
researches which have given to science such valuable results, not the least was the
desire to test the truth of an hypothetical principle of Fresnel and of a theoretic
formula of Cauchy. And quite recently M. Abria has made an elaborate examina-
tion of uniaxal refraction for the purpose of testing the truth of the construction
of Huyghens. I may here sero that it is much to be desired that some com-
petent observer would undertake the yet more difficult task of verifying experi-
mentally the wave-surface of Fresnel.
But to revert to the general subject. If any physicist is inclined to agree with
the views of Comte upon this subject, let me propose to him the following test :—
Let him strike out of physical optics every thing which that science owes to theories
of light, and then let him try to write a treatise on the subject, excluding the lan-
guage and the ideas of theory. Finally, let him compare his work with some trea-
tise in which these aids have not been neglected, and judge himself of their relative
value. Theoretic science need not be afraid of the result.
Naturally suggested by the subject which we have been considering, namely,
the tendency of scientific progress to a reduction of all physical science under the
power of mathematical analysis, is the gradual development of connexions between
the different members of that great group to which we give the name of physical
science. And among the instances of such growing relationship I take, also sug-
gested by the topics which have engaged us, the connexion between optics and
chemistry. I only say “suggested ” by our former subject, for I do not desire to
attach any undue significance to the fact that of these connected sciences one may
already be called a mathematical science. As yet the connexion between these
sciences has consisted principally in the introduction into chemistry of an analysis
in some respects more refined than any which has been hitherto known. And this
fact does not in itself indicate the extension to chemistry of the mathematical
character which belongs to physical optics. Still, if we hold the assumption
of this character by any science to be the mark of perfection, we shall be in-
clined to regard every improvement in its instruments of research as tending in
that direction.
In speaking of the connexion between Optics and Chemistry, the topic which
will occur first to every one is the Spectroscope; but on this part of the subject it
is not necessary that I should dwell. It has so largely occupied the attention of
physicists, and has been so fully treated by those who have made it their special
study, that I could not hope to add any thing to what they have said. I would
only observe that the spectroscope has enabled chemistry to overleap a barrier
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 9
which Comte pronounced to be insurmountable, and which would have excluded
from the objects of chemical research any thing lying without the limits of our
earth. Comte warned us that our knowledge of the planetary worlds was neces-
sarily limited to their geometrical and mechanical properties—to the nature of their
movements, and the forces by which they are produced,—and that all inquiry into
the constituent elements of the planets or their atmospheres was for ever, and by the
necessities of the case, interdicted to us. But the spectroscope has told quite
another story.
But there is another point of contact between optics and chemistry,—another
spot on the border-land between these two sciences which, I think, promises also
to be fertile in discovery,—I mean the use of polarized light as an instrument of
chemical analysis. It is true that the application of this instrument is limited in
its extent. The physical property on wivel this application depends (namely, the
power possessed i certain liquids to change the plane of polarization of a trans-
mitted ray, or, as it is commonly called, the rotatory power) is almost wholly con-
fined to’ the organic world, and is not universal even there. Still, within this
limited range, the application of polarized light is capable of solving, or aiding to
solye, chemical problems which chemistry;proper would probably find very difficult.
Let me give you two examples.
1. Is it true that an acid salt is decomposed by solution? Or, taking the ques-
tion in another form: If to a solution of a neutral salt there be added, atom for
atom, a quantity of its own acid, does that additional atom of acid enter into com-
bination, or does it remain free? It has been usually inferred from the thermic
researches of Dr, Andrews, followed up by Favre, Silbermann, Berthelot, and others,
that the second alternative is the true one, the solvent being water. Now, if the
roblem be varied a little by making the solvent spirit, the application of polarized
ght gives us this important information :—
If to an alcoholic solution of the ordinary nitrate of quinia there be added an
additional equivalent of acid, this additional equivalent does enter into combination
with the nitrate.
This information leaves to us the alternative of supposing that the ordinary
nitrate, sulphate, &c. of quinia are not neutral but basic salts, or of admitting that
an acid salt is not always decomposed by solution, at least in spirit.
_ 2. When an acid is added to a solution containing two bases, the salts formed
being also soluble, does the acid divide itself between the bases? and if so, what is
the law which governs the division ?
The application of polarized light enables us to solve this question for some of
the organic bases, proving that there is a continuous partition of the acid, and
enabling us in one case, and probably in many others, to assign the law according
to which the partition is aad
One more instance may suffice to exemplify the advantage which chemistry proper
has already derived from its union with optics. Itake this instance from the general
problem of saccharometry.
We have long known how te analyze, both optically and chemically, a solution
containing two kinds of sugar, one of which is sucrose. But as each of these methods
gives but two equations, it is plain that neither is sufficient where the unknown
quantities are more than two. If, then, as is very commonly the case, there are
present in the solution three kinds of sugar, we cannot obtain a complete analysis,
either from optics or from chemistry. But, as Dr. Apjohn has recently shown, this
problem, insoluble by either method taken alone, is readily solved by a combination
of both methods. An important step is thus made in the application of optics to
chemistry. Instead of merely giving to chemistry a new solution of a problem
which chemistry could solve without any assistance, optics has aided chemistry to.
solve a problem which chemistry unaided might have found very difficult.
But it is time that I should bring these remarks to a close ; and I recur, in con-
clusion, to a thought which my subject has already suggested.
Let none presume to fix the bounds of Science. “Hitherto shalt thou come, but
no further ”—that sentence is not for man, Not by our own powers, not by the
powers of our generation, not even by our conceptions of possibility, may we limit
the march of scientific discovery, ‘'o us, labourers in that great field, it is giver
1874. g
TO » REPORT—1874.
to see but a few steps in advance. And when at times a thicker darkness has
seemed to gather before them, men have recoiled as from an impassable barrier,
and for a while that path has been closed. -But only for a while. Some happy
accident, some more daring adventurer, it may be time itself, has shown that the*
darkness was but a cloud. The light of Science has pierced it; the march of
Science has left it behind ; and the impossibility of one generation is for the next
but.the record of a new triumph.
If seeming plausibility could give to man the right to draw across any path of
scientific discovery an impassable line, surely Comte might be justified in the line
which he drew across the path of chemistry. Fifty years ago it might seem no’
unjust restriction to say to the chemist, Your field of discovery lies within the
bounds of our own earth. You must not hope to place in your laboratory the
distant planet or the scarce-visible nebula. You must not hope to determine the:
constituents of their atmospheres as you would analyze the air which is around your
own door; and you never will do it. Fifty years ago no chemist would have
complained that chemical discovery was unjustly limited by such a sentence; per-
haps no chemist would have refused to join in the prediction. Yet even those who
heard it uttered have lived to see the prediction falsified. They have seen the
barrier of distance vanish before the chemist, as it has long since vanished before
the astronomer. They have seen the chemist, like the astronomer, penetrate the
vast abyss of space and bring back tidings from the worlds beyond. Comte might
well think it impossible. We Imow it to be true. ;
We have learned from this episode of scientific history that the attempt to draw
an impassable line between the domain of the chemist and the domain of the astro-
nomer was not justified by the result. Another generation may learn to obliterate
as completely the line between the domain of the chemist and the domain of the
mathematician. When that shall be, when Science shall have subjected all natural
phenomena to the laws of Theoretical Mechanics, when she shall be able to predict
the result of every combination as unerringly as Hamilton predicted conical refrac-
tion or Adams revealed to us the existence of Neptune—that we cannot say. That
day may never come, and it is certainly far in the dim future. We may not
anticipate it—we may not even call it possible. But not the less are we bound to
look to that day, and to labour for it as the crowning triumph of Science, when
Theoretical Mechanics shall be recognized as the key to every physical enigma—
the chart for every traveller through the dark Infinite of Nature.
Maruematics,
On the General Equations of Chemical Decomposition.
By Prof. W. K. Currrorn, RS,
On a Message from Professor Sylvester. By Prof. W. K. Crirrorn, F.R.S..
On certain Applications of Newton's Construction for the Disturbing Force
exerted by a distant Body. By Professor Curtis.
The author remarked that the similarity hetween the expressions for the com-
ponents, round the principal axes through the centre of gravity of a rigid mass A,
of the moment due to the attraction of a distant hody B and those for the eompo-
nents of the moment due to the centrifugal force arising from a rotation of A round
an axis would naturally suggest a physical resemblance between the two; and he
showed, from Newton’s construction, that the couple exerted on A by the attraction
of a distant body B, of mass L and at a distance a, is the same in magnitude as,
and. opposite in sign to, that which would result from the rotation of A, with an
angular velocity , round a line in'the direction of the distant hody, and passing
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 11
a . ©
through the centre of gravity of A, where is given by the equation oat, It
was also shown that Newton's construction affords, in certain cases, an easy method
of estimating the directive effect of one magnet on another.
On Statical and Kinematical Analogues. By Professor J. D. Evererr.
If we take a line AB to represent a force along AB, the moment of this force
round any point P will be represented by double the area of the triangle A BP.
If we take the same line A B to represent a velocity of rotation round A B, the
same double area will represent the velocity of P due to this rotation.
We have thus a direct proof that a force acting along a line is the analogue of a
velocity of rotation round it. Bf
By supposing the line to be indefinitely distant, we obtain a couple as the analogue
of a velocity of translation.
The moment of a force round a line is the analogue of the component velocity,
along this line, of any point upon it; and the resultant moment round a point due
to any combination of forces and couples is the analogue of the resultant velocity of
a point due to any combination of velocities of rotation and translation,
In these statements, the moment of a force round a point is not regarded as a mere
magnitude, but as a quantity having direction; in other words, as the moment of
a couple whose plane.passes through the point and the line of action of the force,
The velocity which is the analogue of the moment will coincide in direction with
the axis of this couple.
The only kinematical principles required for the demonstration of the above ana~
logies are (1) the parallelogram of velocities for a particle, and (2) the proposition
that the velocity of a point due to rotation round an axis is perpendicular to the
plane of the point and axis, and proportional jointly to the angular velocity and
the distance of the point from the axis.
On a New Application of Quaternions. By Professor J. D, Evererr.
If w denote a velocity of translation, regarded as a vector, and o avelocity of rota-
tion round the origin, represented by a vector drawn along its axis, we may-write.
p=aotVap, oii... PEN OE NA
where p denotes the velocity of the particle whose vector is p. Hence the symbol
EMG Gab ei itieovnice tt e/a ae cilew dieleicceen (OP
is a complete representation of the velocity of a rigid body. :
Again, if » denote a couple (represented by its axis), and o a force at the origin,
the value of p in equation (1) is the resultant moment round the point whose vector
isp. Hence the above expression (2) represents a system of forces acting on a rigid
dy.
The expression (2) affords remarkable facility for the discussion of such subjects
as the composition of velocities of a rigid body, the general properties of systems of
forces, the conditions of equilibrium of a rigid body under constraint, and the rate
at which a system of forces does work upon a moving body, |
The author is developing the method in a series of aly in the ‘ Messenger of
Mathematics,’ commencing with the Number for July 1874.
On Partitions and Derivations. By J. W. L. Guatsner, M.A.
It is well known that the number of partitions of x into the elements 1, 2, 3,..,.
(the quotity of n with respect to 1, 2,3,.... i ie to Sylvester) is equal to the
coefficient of x” in the expansion of (i=*) oe") (1-2) so ie the theory
cae : 9!
12 - REPORT—1874.
of partitions miy be reduced to that of the expansion of algebraical fractions. In this
way Cayley has regarded the question in his memoir in the Philosophical Transactions,
1856, p. 127, where, besides considering the general decomposition into partial frac-
tions of the expression to be expanded, he has given the values of P(1, 2)2, P(1, 2,3)
2,..++, P(A, 2, 3, 4, 5)x, and in the Philosophical Transactions, 1858, p. 52, also of
PCI, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)2, PC, 2, 3,....7)x denoting the number of ways of partitioning
x into the elements 1, 2, 3, 4....7. The subject is also considered by Sylvester
(Quarterly Journal of Mathematics, vol. i. pp. 81 and 141, 1857), who likewise has
treated it (though very differently) as an expansion problem. It may, however, be
regarded in another light as follows :—
It is known that if we form the literal derivations of a power of a letter, say a‘,
according to Arbogast’s rule, viz.
a,
a*b,
ae, ab’,
ad, a’be, ab?
ae, a*bd, a’c’, abe, b',
then each term corresponds to a partition; thus if a=1,d=2,....a* corresponds to
1,1,1,1, a to 1,1, 1, 2, the third line to 1,1, 1,3, and 1, 1, 2, 2, and so on, viz.
we have the partitions into four parts of the numbers 4, 5, 6,...., the m+ 1th line
(the nth derivation) giving the partitions of n+-4 into four parts. But by a known
theorem the number of partitions of x+r into 7 parts is equal to the number of
partitions of n into the elements 1, 2, 3,....7. Thus the number of terms in the
ath derivation of a‘ is equal to P(1, 2, 3, 4), and generally the wth derivation of
a” contains P(1, 2, 3,....%)# terms. From these considerations the value of
PC, 2, 3,....n)2 can be found in the way which will now be briefly explained.
Consider a?, and let 2” denote the number of terms in the wth derivation; then,
writing down @? and its first two derivations,
a’,
ab,
ac, b?,
we see that 2?=1-+-2°, whence 2” +2_ 971; oy writing wv, for 2” and E for 1+,
(i? =1)u,=1,
the solution of which, by the ordinary rules for the treatment of linear equations of
differences with constant coefficients, is
mat Aes Be
“where a and f aré the square roots of unity. The complementary function can also
he written in the far more convenient form A+B(1,—1) per 2., adopting Cayley’s
notation, in which (A,, A,..°. A,_1) per adenotes A,a,+A,a,_1... +Ag_14%-a4p
a, being a quantity which =1 when a==0 (mod. a), but which =0 in every other
case, and the coeflicients A,, A,....A,, being such that for every factor b of a
(including unity but excluding a itself), A,+A,....-+A(e—1),=0, A, AAs 41+ ++
+A(e—1)041=0,- ++» Ag_y-. »- +A,g_1=0, where be=a, and for the case of b=1,
A,+A,....+A,_;=0. Determining, then, the constants from the conditions
2° 2'=1, we ind
2*=P(1, 2)r=7{2e+3+(1,—1) per 2,}
Now consider a’, and let 3° denote the number of terms in its th derivation ;
then, by writing down the first three derivations of a’, we see that 3°=1°+-2'+3°;
so that 8°+—3"=142"+1 and the equation of differences is
(B° —1)u, =F {2¢+9+(1,—1) per2,44}-
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 13
The complementary function here is Aa,”+B8,7+Cy,”, a,, 8,, y, being the cube
roots of unity; and it is to be observed that we can easily express it in Cayley’s
form as a prime circulator, for it may obviously be written in the form A3,
+B3,,_,+C3,_9, viz. (A, B, C) circlor3,. And since 3,+8,_)+3,_» is constant
(t. e. independent of .v), we can always, by assigning a proper value to the constant
term, make A+B-+C=0, and so take the complementary function to be P+(Q,
R,8) per3,, where P, Q, R, 8 are to be determined by the conditions 8°=1, 3'=1,
3’=2, For the particular integral we find
1 1
U,=T- E_1 (2x+9) +4 ‘ E_1 (1,- 1) per 2au1.
The first term is readily obtained in the ordinary way by replacing E by 1+A
and expanding in ascending powers of A; and the second term
1 t
=}. wee + similar function of 8}
—1 a*
= =e ; 5 +similar function of 8
[EEN SS 1,0) circlor2?. =1(2 - 9
=#(5 +5 = 7 (1,9) circlor2, =} (2, 0) circlor2,,
which differs only from }(1,—1) per 2, by a constant (viz. +). Thus we have
3, =P, 2, 3)r= 7 {62° +36r+P+9(1,—1) per 2,4+(Q,R,-—Q-R) per3,t;
and by putting 2=0, 1, 2, we find P=47, Q=16, R= —8, agreeing with Cayley’s
result.
From the derivations of a‘ we find 44=1°+2?+3'!+-4°; so that the differential
equation is
(E = 1)u,=3*t Tpgrt2 1
= 7, {92° + 8404287 +18(1,—1) per 2, ,9+9(1,-1)per2,4,
+8(2,-1,-1) per3,,).
The complementary function is (A, B, C, D) circlor 4,, which a little consideration
shows may be written in the form P+(Q,—Q) per 2,+(R, S,—R,—S) per 4,; so
that in finding the particular integral we are not to calculate the terms of the form
P+(Q,—Q) per2,. The algebraical part of the particular integral is easily found,
by operating on the first three terms with (E‘—1)—1, to be 535 (2a°+30a+1352),
The terms with period 2 (omitting the coefficient #,) give
1 2a*—a—1 a*
: a”
Fay (20° -2a+a—1) 5 +Ke. = Ep ae Rp + &e.,
*which takes the form o ; so that we have a term included in the complementary
function + term found by differentiating the numerator and denominator, the
latter being
Ge=1'—ar" a* Toa,” “& Fy
=7 Lt oa Dy +&e. =2 4 . 2 +&e. =4(1,—1) per. 2.
The term with period 3 gives
2a,—1—a,~} a,* 2a,—1—a,~'
wv «&
— Cp. ‘A = —1 ay"
“eae + be = iy + &e. =(2-+a,71) 4 &e,
; = (2, 1,0) circlor 3,=const+(1,0,—1) per3,.
Thus
| 4° =P(1, 2,3, d)a= 515 {20° +802° +13524+P +(92+Q)(1, —1) per 2;
+82(1,0,—1) per 3,+-(R, 8, —R,—S8) per 4,}5
14. nEPORt—1874, -
and since 4°=1, 4'=1, 4°=2, 4?=3, by making #=0, 1, 2, 3, we find P=175, Q=45,
R=36, and S=0, agreeing with Cayley’s value.
The general method of treatment is now clear, and it is unnecessary in this abstract
to proceed further. Thus for 5” we should have the relation 5° = 14+42'+435?+44' +",
the law being evident; and it will have been seen that by the use of prime circu-
lators (in which the sum of the coefficients is zero) the result is exhibited in the
most convenient form, as when so expressed it may be written (A+Bo-!4Co-*
+....)o7+&c., o being an nth root of unity; and the operation (BM*1—1)7! is
performed at once on the circulator as it stands, since a—1 is a factor of the coef-
ficient of w, It will also be remarked that we can always express (A,, A,,....
A,_}) circlor a, as a series of ‘prime circulators, one for each factor of a— having
the same number of constants; and that whenever the complementary function so
expressed contains a term identical in form with one which already appears in the
equation of differences, we shall (as is known from the theory of such equations)
have to expand or differentiate, and so obtain a term with a new form of coefficient
to the same prime circulator. Since x"=1"—!+2"—?,...+n°, we see that, to de-
termine the partitions of 2 into the x elements 1, 2,....2, we should require to sub-
stitute the values of (n—1)**4, (n—2)**?,,,.2°*"-?; so that if m were large the
work would be laborious.
There is an interesting class of questions which arise in connexion with Arbogast’s
derivations, and which admit of solution by the principles explained above. If we
consider, for example, the second derivation of a‘, viz. a°c and a°b’, we notice that
a’c in any succeeding derivation can never give rise to more than one term, while
a°b? gives rise to a*be and ab’. The terms in any derivation therefore are of two
kinds, viz. are (1) extinct or sterile terms which merely continue to give rise in each
derivation to one term of the same type as themselves, or (2) active or prolific terms
which will give rise to two terms in some subsequent derivation. Thus in the
fourth derivation of a* the active terms are a*c’, ab*c, and b*, while ae and a*bd are
extinct. In fact all terms are extinct except those in which the last letter is raised
to a power, or in which the last two letters are consecutive.
Suppose it now required to find the number of extinct terms in the xth derivation
of a; let 2* denote this number, then, as before, 2=1'+2° and 2**?-2*=1, but
here 2°=0 and 2'=0, Solving and determining the constants, we have
2" =1{27—14(1,—1) per2,}.
Let 3° denote the number of extinct terms in the zth derivation of a’, then 3°
=1°+2'+3°, and the equation of differences is
grr —3*=}{2e+5+(1,— 1) per 2541 ;
eee atieerating and determining the constants from the conditions 3°=0,
ed he)
3° = 7p {62° +122 — 1+9(1, —1) per 2,-+-8(—1,—1, 2) per 3,}.
If 4* denote the number of extinct terms in the xth derivation of a‘, we haye
Arts 4214 -98+2 4 get]
a &
= },{6n?+60r4143 +9 (2a? —a—1) © +-&e.48(—a,-142a,-V) > +&e.t,
whence
ry A = 2 2a — 1 _ aa} a®
4? ots {(Z—345A)(62?+6024143)4 362-— 7 — 5 +k&e.
4
+-52(—1~2a,~1) +&e.+compl. funct.}
= ype {2u?+ 182°+39e+02(1,—1) per 2,4+32(—1,—2, 0) cirelor3,4-A
+B(1,—1) per2,-+(C, D,—C,—D) per 4},
a
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 15
On replacing 32(—1, —2, 0) circlor 3,, by 32(0,—1, 1) per 3,, (which only alters the
value of A) and determining the constants by the conditions 4°=0, 4'=0, 47=1,
4°=1, we find
Avs}, { 20° +18x*?4+39r+9+ (92+27)(1,—-1) per2,
+32(—0,-—1, 1) pers,
+36(—1, 0,1, 0) per 4,}.
We may also investigate the number of active quadratic, cubic, &c. terms in any
derivation. Such a term as a*be is a quadratic term, as its derivations are found
exactly as if a” were absent; ab’ is a quartic term, as also is a*b?; but ab’cis a cubic
term, and so on. (Viewed in this manner extinct terms are merely linear terms.)
The equation n"=1"—142n—2,,,,+(n—1)!+2° always holds good whenever 7*
denotes the number of terms of any defined class in the 2th derivation of a” ; so
that the equations of differences are always of the same form, the alterations de-
pending on the different values assigned to the constants. The number of quadratic
terms in the wth derivation of a is of course 1; in the zth derivation of a’ it is
found to be 3{7—1+(1,0,—1) per3,}, and so on. The th derivation of a? con-
tains only one cubic term; and as a verification we notice that 1+ the expression
just written down + the number of extinct terms found previously, =P(1, 2, 3).,
as it should be.
On some Elliptic-transcendent Relations. By J. W. L. Guatsuer, M.A.
. 2) 4 -
The author remarked that every integral of the form | o P(e) cos nade, pu being
an eyen function, gave rise to a series such as
o(a) —o(e— 4) —$(v +4) +(e—24) + $(e+2a) — .. =A, cos my A, cos ae *
see Quarterly Journal, vol. i, p. 316), In this way Sir W. Thomson deduced
the theorem
Be tm oe 0s EO hgh ea ibg, Ets) _. we?
Fed 9x2
5) ee sy Sy Sa
3 TH - Srv
=e}. 4a" cog “+e 4 epg "4+... ;
a a a
which, as was noticed by Cayley, is only another form of
K i
© (ui)= v4 (ee IRE’ H(w+K', h’).
The number of integrals of the above form that have been evaluated is not large,
but all that there are appear to give elliptic-transcendent formule. An interesting
example is the integral
tD
COs rz T li
ent gt dx= Pn nr
a ete 2n
which, as will be seen, may be regarded as a transformation of
1
;. cos am = Cos am (1, h')"
The integral can be written
is)
16 ‘ REPORT—1] 874,
whence, by dividing the course integrated over into parts each equal to a,
1 :: 1 a 1 hi
ee ge) 4 nea) ene ta) 4 o—m@eta) see
bos (2r+1)rx
_ 29 a
Gn 20 “Crflye rt lyn
e 2an +e 2an
Now take woe a= ae so that nr= aK? then
1 1 u
TU mm * T fa da ca 7 et
GE 46 2K ax 7H) | aK (w—2K) fe eae aad
2r+1 ;
BL ts cos ge 1 ye enn)
=°K 2] pel 2
q
By well-known formule we have
2r+1 '
cos am y= vq 93 Crt ljmu
kK 1+q7"+! 2K
dt mu, 46 Sru
sec am (2, ir’) x 7 _ }s0c OY 1 22 gos SU A eg eee ee
(% HD = ore ) Pag Te ot Te OK :
ws
where =e ' ;- whence
1 TU TU
A seg A ela a ok’ Y OK if ae Es
sec am (2?, i eat a | ap eps (c +e ) @-#+0—....)
| 2k 4 2k
~) +(e HH) O—e4e—....)tel
su _™
_@ VE Ma rete eae vier £ |
PB4+e 2K J4eK jae Tk
7 1 1 1
=k! mu _ TU = a Raa 1 mu z _ mu 1 me etre
e2K' 4 ¢ 2K! te2B' 4-4 e 2K’ te 2K’ 4g eek!
so that (1) is the identical relation that results from equating the series for cos em
wand sec am (uz, k’),
Contributions to the Report on Mathematical Tables,
By Professor Brrrens pE Haan.
This important communication, which will form part of a future Report of the
Committee on Mathematical Tables, consisted of three catalogues—the first and
second containing descriptions of 128 logarithmic and 105 non-logarithmic tables
from actual inspection, and the third being a list of 553 logarithmic tables, with
the date, size, place, author's rame, and number of decimals as far as known, being
a development of a similar list of 267 tables published by Prof. de Haan in 1862.
TRANSAGLIONS OF RHE SECTIONS. 17
On some Conversions of Motion*.
By H. Harr, M.4A., late Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.
1. The positive and negative Peaucellier cells may be combined together by the
addition of two extra bars to either, thus making a complete double cell composed
of two rhombs jointed together, giving four points, A, a, 8, B, lying always in a
straight line—a, 8 being the poles, A or B the fulcrum of a positive, and A, B being
the poles, a or 8 the fulerum of a negative Peaucellier cell. Thus each cell has
two fulcra as well as two poles, the convenience of the second fulcrum being mani-
fest in the tracing of certain discontinuous curves. As an example, let A, B be
the poles, a, 8 the fulcra of a negative cell, A’, B', a’, 8’ the poles and fulcra of an
exactly similar cell, c* being the modulus of either.
Let A, B' be fixed and A’, B be connected by a bar whose length 26=AB’. Let
the fulera B, B' be fixed together. Then if c be > 6, 8 will trace out the continuous
oval of Cassini, but if c be <b, B will trace out an oval surrounding B; if B, B’ be
set free, and a, a’ fixed, this point a will trace out the conjugate round A. A similar
statement may be made with regard to the positive cell.
N.B. While § traces the Cassinian, a and a’ trace out a certain Cartesian ft.
2. If four bars, AD, BC, AB, CD, equal two and two, be jointed so as to form the
equal diagonals and equal but not parallel sides of a trapezium ABDC, and if
QPP'Q' be a straight line parallel to AC or BD, cutting the four bars above in the
points P, P’, Q, Q’ respectively, then these points are such that
QP, QP’=Q'PP, Q'P'=PQ, PQ’=P’Q, P'Q'=constant ;
hence Q, P, P’, Q' are equivalent to the four points A, a, 8, B of the completed
Peaucellier cell described above. By means of the above system of four bars it is
evident that, by the addition of a bar which causes FP or P’ to move in a circle
passing through Q or Q’, we make P’ or P move in a straight line. This contradicts
the statement made (I believe) by Professor Tchebicheff, that seven bars at least are
requisite for the conversion of circular into rectilinear motion.
3. If, further, one of the four bars, say AD, be fixed, then the point on the bar
which is equal to the one fixed describes the inverse of a conic; for if AD=BC=
2a, AB=CD=28, and c=the distance of the fixed point P from the centre of the
bar AD, it is easily seen that the equation to the locus of P’ is
4b? — 4a? sin?6= { p —2c cos 6},
which, when inverted and transformed to Cartesian coordinates, becomes
(0° —c*)x* +-(b° — a’) y? 4+2ck?a=x' (2x? being the modulus).
4. Professor Sylvester (to whom I am indebted for various suggestions and
remarks connected with this paper) has shown that three points otherwise free may
be made collinear by the use of fifteen bars; by help of the above trapezium motion
n points may be made collinear by the use of 5 —4 bars.
ie AOA’ be three points always collinear, and AA’ be moreover the angular points
of a rhomb APAP’, whose sides are of any constant length, then OP’ must always
=OP. Hence any number of points otherwise free may be caused always to lie on
a sphere of variable radius:
5. Let A, B, C be three points constrained to move along three axes, Ox, Oy, Oz ;
. let the points A, B be connected by a pantigraph so that a point E always bisects
AB; let D be connected with O by another pantigraph, so that the middle point
of OD coincides with E: then OADB is always a parallelogram in the plane «Oy.
In a similar manner let a parallelogram CODP be constructed ; then OA, OB, OC
are the coordinates of P.
Let another series of pantigraphs determine a point P’ from OA’, OB’, OC’, and
let A, A’, &c. be connected in such a manner that
OA=f(0A'), OB=$(OB'), OC=¥(0C’),
* For the paper iz extenso, see ‘Messenger of Mathematics,’ No. 42, New Series.
1 Its equation is of the form 7,=yp, 7 and p being vectorial coordinates.
18 os |. REPORT—1874,
S(“), $(u), Ww) being any three kinematical functions of w; then, if P move on
the surface
F (a, y, 2)=0,
F{f@), 6%), ¥E)} =9.
Lx. Let P be capable of motion in the plane
le-+-my -+-ns=p.
(i) Let fiw) =v’ =(u)=y(w), then P’ describes the central conicoid
le? +-my? +-nz? =p.
(i) Let A(u)su’ =(u), (uw) =u, then P’ describes the paraboloid
le? +-my? +-nz=p.
There are more simple methods for the description of conicoids, but these are
mentioned as examples of the general method given above.
(iii) In two dimensions we can obtain the unicursal quartics from conics by
putting fw=$(u)=* (Salmon’s ‘ Higher Plane Curves,’ art. 283),
(iv) By putting /(w) =«?=o(u)=(w), we can describe the wave-surface from a
surface of the second degree.
6. Let 0,,0,,0, be three points fixed in space, and P,, Q,, P., Q,, P,, Q, six
points connected with them in such a manner that O,, P,, Q, ave collinear, and
O,P,=fA(0,P,),
or pp=Si(),
also p,=O, o=,(0,Q,) =fi("a)s
Ps=9,P3=f(0,Q3) =fa("s))
Si(), F.(%), f,(u) being kinematical functions of uw; and let R,, R,, R, be three
points such that O,R,=0,Q,, O,R,=0,Q,, O,R,=0,Q.,.
Then, if P,, P,, P, be connected, and also R,, R., R,, it follows that if the P point
be constrained to move on the surface
F(p,, poy ps) =9,
the R point moves on the surface
FIACW ACD Fs) f=.
Ex. Let P move on the sphere
ap, + bp,’ +ep, =a,
(i) Let f,(w)=Vu=f,(u)=f,(u), then R describes the surface
ar, +br,+er,= a.
If the motion be in two dimensions, we thus obtain a method for describing the
Cartesian ovals, and by inverting these we have bicircular quartics and circular
cubies (Salmon’s ‘ Higher Plane Curves,’ art. 281).
Gi) FA,W= F=f =f,
R describes the equipotential surfaces for three electrified points.
P' moves on the surface
On Approwimate Parallel Motion. By W. Havpen,
On the Application of Kirchhoff’s Rules for Electric Circuits to the Solution
of a Geometrical Problem. By Prof, Crerk Maxwett, M.A., F.R.S.
The geometrical problem is as follows:— . - Sigh
Let it be reqaited: to arrange a system of points so that the straight lines joining
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 19
them into rows and columns shall form a network such that the sum of the
squares of all these joining lines shall be a minimum, the first and last points of
the first and the last row being any four points given in space. The network may
be regarded as a kind of extensible surface, each thread of which has a tension
proportional in each segment to the length of the segment.
The problem is thus expressed as a statical problem, but the direct solution
would involve the consideration of a large number of unknown quantities.
This number may be greatly reduced by means of the analogy between this
problem and the electrical problem of determining the currents and potentials in
the case of a network of wire having square meshes, one corner of the network
being kept at unit potential while that of the other three corners is zero.
This problem having been solved by Kirchhoff’s method, the position of any point
P in the geometrical problem, with reference to the given points A, B, C, D, is deter-
mined by finding the values of the potentials p , p,, py p, of the corresponding point
in the electric problem when the corners a, b, c, d respectively are those of unit
potential. f
The position of P is then found by supposing masses p ,p,,?, Pp, placed at
A, B, C, D respectively, and determining P as the centre of gravity of the four
masses,
On the Calculation of Exponential Functions. By Prof. F. W. Newman.
This paper consisted of certain tables of e~*, with an account of the mthod of their
construction, The author placed them at the disposal of the Committee on Mathe-
matical Tables, that they might be used to supplement or verify the tables of e~*
mentioned in the Committee’s Report (Brit. Assoc. Report, 1878, pp. 2 and 167).
On Bitangents to the Surface of Centres of a Quadric. By Prof. F, Pursmr.
On Multiple Contact of Quadrics and other Surfaces,
By W. Srorriswoopz, M.4., PRS,
—-
Explanations of Mr. M‘Clintock’s Method of finding the Value of Life Annuities
by means of the Gamma Function, By T. B, Spraeur, M.A,
ASTRONOMY,
Photographic Operations connected with the Transit of Venus.
By Capt. Asnry, RL, PRAS., FOS,
Tn this es an account was given by the author of the means adopted for
insuring, at the different stations which would be occupied by the parties sent out
to observe the transit of Venus, photographic observations of the phenomenon in
question. It had been determined that at every station a photograph should be
taken every two minutes during the transit, and it has been a matter of consider-
able labour to work out a process that would admit of such a large number of
negatives being taken in a hot climate. In Kerguelen’s Land it would be perfectly
feasible to adopt the ordinary wet process, the low temperature admitting of it ;
but in a temperature of 90° FY the evaporation of the volatile constituents of the
collodion would render such a process inapplicable, as all photographers will
admit. In India, where the author had worked, a large-sized tent had often
proved injurious, and it would have been madness to have trusted to the wet
method. It was therefore determined to use a dry process if practicable; and
after much deliberation it was decided to employ an tongs dry process, using a
20 REPORT—1874,
highly bromized collodion and strong alkaline development. The author gave an
account of the advantages thus secured, and discussed how each could be best
obtained, especially alluding to the phenomenon of irradiation. He mentioned
that at each station the photographic party would consist of one officer and three
sappers all well trained to the process, so that all excitement at the critical
moment might be avoided. Practice on the mock transit at Greenwich has given
them a thorough knowledge of each phase of the phenomenon.
On the Spectrum of Coggia’s Comet. By W. Hueerns, D.C.L., FR.
Preliminary Note on Coggia’s Comet. By J. N. Lockyer, F.B.S,
Preliminary Note on a New Map of the Solar Spectrum.
By J. N. Locxyzr, F.R.S,
On Photography in Connexion with Astronomy. By Col. Srvarr Worrzey.
Having been asked by the Astronomer Royal for some information in connexion
with photographic processes with a view to their being used for the transit of Venus,
and having had the advantage of discussion of the various processes with my friend
Captain Abney, who has been in charge of the transit photographic work, I made
at various times during the past summer a number of experiments in solar photo-
graphy, the result of which may possibly be of use to future workers in this branch
of science.
Taking the ordinary commercial collodions manufactured for photographie pro-
cesses, we are at once struck with the difficulty of getting accurate micrometrical
measurements, in consequence of the varying amount of contraction and expansion
possessed by the collodion-film in its wet and dry states. To counteract this diffi-
culty it is necessary to make the pyroxyline with the maximum of water added to
the acids which they: will bear without dissolving the cotton when immersed
therein ; and it is also desirable to reduce considerably the proportion of nitric acid
to sulphuric, with the object of obtaining a film which shall neither contract nor
expand when either wet or dry. By using such a pyroxyline I have been enabled
to make a film on which the most delicate micrometrical measurements can be
registered with absolute perfection.
The next point to be considered in connexion with astronomical photography is
the radiation and halation produced where the bright and dark parts of the picture
meet. This appears to proceed from two different causes—one, which we may
call “halation,” being the reflection of light back from the glass which supports
the film into the film itself; and the other, which I will call “ radiation,” appears
to be an action in the sensitive molecules of the film itself, and occurs no matter
on what support the film may be laid. Halation from the first of these two causes
can be prevented in two ways—one method being to place a dark pigment on the
back of the glass plate and in optical contact therewith ; and the other, and far
preferable one, to stain or dye the film itself with such an amount of orange or red
colour as shall stop the rays of light from getting down to the glassand being thence
reflected.
But the radiation which takes place in the film itself is much more difficult to
subdue, cannot be subdued by mechanical means, and can only be subdued by the
use of certain chemicals in the film, differing somewhat from those in use in the
ordinary photographic processes. y
Before pointing out what I consider the best means of avoiding this injurious
halation I will point out what I consider it to be, and why I consider it to be so.
I think the radiation in photographic films, which is so unpleasantly apparent when
a bright object is photographed in close proximity toa dark one, is due to what I ma:
call a “creeping ” of the superabundant light, which has done its work on the bright
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 2h
object, over and into the darker portions of the’picture. To illustrate this argument
the following fact in connexion with dry-plate photography should be borne in
mind :—If Bp aniscape photograph consisting of trees and sky be taken in a bright
and actinic light, and when a short exposure is therefore only necessary, there will
be on a rapid dry plate but little radiation ; but if the same view be taken in a dull
light, and when the actinism is infinitely less, the longer exposure required will
certainly produce a great amount of radiation from the sky over the trees: now the
sky, even in a dull light, would be impressed on the film tolerably rapidly, and the
necessity for the long exposure is in order to get the detail in the darker parts of the
picture; and the radiation is thus produced by the creeping of the superabundance
of light that has already finished its work on the sky over the dark parts of the
apn which require the prolonged exposure. That. this ‘‘ creeping of the light”
oes take place, the following experiment will, I think, show with certainty.
In order to find out which of the salts of silver were least liable to give this
radiation I have experimented with a very large number of them, to which I will
presently allude ; and the following singular fact was discovered by me in connexion
with the chloride of silver, which salt has much more tendency to give radiation
than any other that I have experimented with. I had found that a sensitive film
which contained a chloride was always possessed of less satisfactory keeping qualities
than one from which chloride was absent ; and in course of some experiments on
the various keeping qualities of plates between exposure and development the
following observations were made :—A dry film containing a considerable quantity
of chloride was after exposure cut in half; one half developed immediately, and the
other half put away in the dark for forty-eight hours. It was found that on the
half of the plate that had been kept in the dark for forty-eight hours the “ blurring,”
as it is called by photographers, was considerably greater than on the half plate
that was ipecloed. at once; and on repeating the experiment several times ta
enabled to convince myself that the action of radiation, or what I have called the
“ creeping of light” on to the dark parts of the picture, continues after the film has
been removed from the action of the light, and after it has been put away in the
dark. I have noticed this with chloride of silver only, but I was thus led to inves-
pee the behaviour of other salts of silver in connexion with this radiation of
ight.
No photographic process gives such good and rapid dry plates as the one in which
an emulsion is made of bromide of silver formed in the presence of a large excess of
the nitrate of the metal; but when we use the bromide alone it is unfortunately
strongly addicted to the blurring before spoken of. We can, however, entirely
counteract this tendency by the use of other salts of silver. I will not take up your
time by going into very minute details on this point, but will merely say that I
have found that the addition either of the malate, succinate, fluoride, or iodide of
silver to the bromide will, if used in the proper proportion, give a sensitive film from
which radiation shall be entirely absent, and that their suitability to the purpose is
found in the order in which I have written their names ; and with a film containing
a large proportion of malate of silver I have been enabled to take subjects which it
would be impossible to take by any other method, owing to their strong contrasts
of black and white. It should also be noticed that these salts have a peculiar effect
on the colour of the finished negative—the malate giving a golden brown, the suc-
‘cinate a red-brown, the fluoride a pink, and the iodide a delicate green. It is also
a great preventive of radiation to add nitrate of uranium to the emulsion, and what-
ever other salts are used this should never be omitted. I may also mention here
that I have found these various salts to act in a remarkable manner in connexion
with the colours of the spectrum, and to give peculiar results in connexion with
some of the more difficult lines thereof.
There is one final point as to the obtaining of good astronomical photographs. It
appears to me to be essential that they should be developed by the strong alkaline
method of development which was introduced by myself in the course of last year.
It is impossible with the old method of development to obtain results in any way
as satisfactory as those obtained by my new method. Not only is there a very great
increase of sensitiveness obtained, but the development is unusually certain and
rapid, and where the sun has to be photographed it has 4 peculiar effect in giving
29 REPORT—1874,
the outer limb clear and sharp. Captain Abney has, after many experiments,
decided on using my method of development for the dry plates used at the transit
of Venus, the formula being a saturated solution of carbonate of ammonia with
sufficient pyrogallic acid, and bromide of potassium if required.
Puysics.
On Experiments at High Pressures. By Pref. T. Axnruws, F.RS,
On the Teaching of Practical Physics, By Prof. W. F. Barrerr,
=
On the Physical Theory of Undercurrents, By W.B. Carpenter, M.D., F.RS,
On the Flight of Birds. By Prof, F. Gurarin, F.R.S.
Confirmation of the Nebular Origin of the Earth.
By G. Jounstone Srovny, 7. 2.S.
a
On the Physical Units of Nature. By G. Jounstoyn Sronny, FS,
Physics of the Internal Earth. By Dr. Vavenan.
“Hear,
On the Latent Heat of Gases. By J. Dewar, F.R.S.E.
On a New Class of Hydrates. By Prof, F, Gurnee, RS,
———
On the Source from which the Kinetic Energy is drawn that passes into Heat in
the Movement of the Tides. By Joun Pursnr, M.A., M.R.LA., Professor
of Mathematics in Queen’s College, Belfast.
Attention has of late years been directed, by Mayer, James Thomson, and others, |
to the fact that the friction of the tidal currents on the bed of the ocean exercises
an effect in retarding the earth’s rotation on its axis. The late astronomer
Delaunay showed that such effect was appreciable, and that it furnished a not
improbable cause of the unexplained part of the secular inequality in the moon’s
mean motion.
He pointed out that inasmuch as the axis of the tidal spheroid is always behind
the moon’s place, a couple is exerted by the forces of the moon’s attraction, which,
on the one hand, retards the rotation of the earth, and on the other, by its reciprocal
action, increases the dimensions of the lunar orbit.
This alteration of the lunar orbit prevents us concluding, as we should other-
wise do, that the kinetic energy which passes into heat in the movement of the
tides has for its exact equivalent a corresponding quantity drawn from the store
laid up in the earth’s rotation on its axis,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 23
The object of the present paper is to examine whether we can assert such an
equivalence to hold approximately, and if so, to what degree of approximation.
The question was started some years ago by the Astronomer Royal in the ‘ Astro-
nomical Notices.’
In the course of a discussion of M. Delaunay’s views, he proceeds to remark :—
“Tt will probably be difficult to say what is the effect of friction in more compli-
cated cases. Conceive, for instance (as a specimen of a large class), a tide-mill
for grinding corn. The water which has been allowed to rise with the rising tide
is not allowed to fall with the falling tide; but after a time is allowed to fall,
thereby doing work and producing heat in the meul formed by grinding the corn.
I do not doubt that this heat is the representative of vis viva lost somewhere ;
but whether it is lost in the rotation of the earth or in the revolution of the moon,
T am quite unable to say.”
Tt oceurred to me that considerable light might be thrown upon the whole
subject by combining the equation of energy with that of the conservation. of
angular momentum.
Let us first suppose the case of a binary system, consisting of the earth and moon,
the orbit of the latter being supposed to coincide with the earth’s equator.
Let Q denote the energy which during a given interval passes into heat through
tidal action; then, assuming the moon spherical, and her rotation consequently
unaltered, we have ;
Q=-—A (energy of-earth’s rotation) —A (energy of lunar orbit).
By the energy of the lunar orbit is meant the kinetic energy of the revolution of
the earth and moon round their common centre of gravity, together with the
potential energy of their separation.
Now such energy of orbit = const—Zmm'p . is
a
where 72, m’ represent the masses of the two bodies,
p the attractive force at unit. of distance,
a the mean distance ;
: Aa
. Q= —A (energy of earth’s rotation) —3 mm p —.
a
Let hf denote the angular momentum of revolution,
H the angular momentum of the earth’s rotation,
then AH=—Ah;
but pS Vp Va Vine;
MV m--em'
AR mm Vpn), Aa Va.ehe
Vm+m' VIR eo 7 Aca
IfS and N denote the components of the reaction of the disturbing forces exer-
cised by the tidal protuberances, estimated tangential and normal (inwards) to the
moon’s path,
da 2a-7 8
Sirens oilt Saud
de ; N 2a (1-e*)(a-r) §
ae R=er sin p a ad LAM
where 7 is the moon’s radius-vector,
¢ her longitude measured from apogee,
v her velocity in the relative orbit.
As both the coefficients of the disturbing forces in the last expression are small
quantities of the order ¢, it follows that the second term in Ah is negligible with
24. REPORT—1874.
respect to the first, and we may write
Si Oe
Vm+m' 2Va :
. Q=—A (energy of earth’s rotation) + Vmspen' Vp AH;
or, if I denote the moment of inertia of the earth,
o her angular velocity of rotation,
2 the mean angular velocity of the moon in her orbit,
=—Io Ao+QlI Aw
=—To Aw 1- o| '
o
Tt follows that if w has the same sign as Q, not only is all the energy Q turned
into heat drawn from the earth’s rotation, but, as a necessary concomitant,
additional energy is transferred from the earth’s rotation to the store of potential
and actual energy corresponding to the orbital motion of the system.
It also follows that when © is, as in the actual case, very small compared to a,
the energy so transferred bears a very small ratio to Q, and that the energy lost in
the earth’s rotation is almost the exact equivalent of that consumed in friction.
Let us now consider the case where the plane of the earth’s equator does not
coincide with the plane of the orbit.
Let G represent the resultant angular momentum of the system which will be
fixed in magnitude and direction,
6, © the angles which the planes of 2 and H make with the plane of G;
then, since
T?=G°+/?—2G .h cos 6,
HAH=(h—G ¢os 6) Ah+sin 6.GhA 06;
. _ mm'N a Aa —.
“, HAH wn Mh 6 Cheondyigg HOWR in 0.8
us mm'N wn a
Aa j
or AH= aa —cos (8+) 5; +s8in (+8) ae} ‘
Now if Z denote the component perpendicular to the plane of the orbit of the
forces exercised by the protuberances on the moon,
¥ the angle of elongation of the moon from the ascending node,
= =C0s v5 . -
where p= perpendicular from earth on tangent to lunar orbit : but
1 da 2a-r S,
Bis. taal Op iaaho baa
it follows that A@ and = Aa in the expression for AH bear in general a finite
but, in the absence of further information about the position of the protuberances,
unknown ratio to each other.
Let the ratio of the first to the second be denoted by X; then
NV m-+m'
hes £0 Aes, ai BOLO TI) +,
Q= To Ao 1 So rae
AHe — 27m VE jit (6+8) al cos (6+8) pase:
ee —————-
——
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 25
We may therefore still infer that when, as in the actual case, @ is small compared
to o, the energy lost in the earth’s rotation is almost the exact equivalent of that
consumed in tidal friction, or in any work done by tidal action. It would also
appear that as tan (0+) is less than 3, and the mean value of A must be
small, the coefficient of @ 18 positive ; and that consequently, as in the case where
the equator and the plane of the moon’s orbit coincided, so in the actual case
there is a small accompanying transfer of energy from the earth’s rotation to the
orbital motion.
All these conclusions apply nwitatis mutandis to the solar tides, if we regard as
our binary system the earth and sun.
In the case of nature, when we have to consider the three bodies acting together,
the main conclusion that nearly all the energy is drawn from the earth’s rotation
will not be invalidated.
It would also appear that if, as is usually done, we assume the friction to vary as
the velocity, the smaller effects (which consist in the transference of energy from
the earth’s rotation to the energy of the orbit of the moon about the earth and
that of the earth about the sun) will correspond to the values separately calculated
for the binary systems,
Liaut.
Further Experiments on Light with Circularly Ruled Plates of Glass.
By P. Brawam.
On Extraordinary Reflection. By Professor Curtis.
The author drew attention to the fact that in elementary treatises on Experimental
Physics no mention is made of. extraordinary reflection, whereby students are
frequently, although illogically, led to the conclusion that in the case of media
which violate the ordinary law of refraction, the ordinary law of reflection is
fulfilled ; while mathematical considerations show that Huyghens’s construction is as
applicable to reflection as to refraction, and that a ray of light proceeding through
a crystal, and impinging on the surface of contact of the crystal with a surrounding
medium, will give rise to two reflected rays, accompanied by one or two refracted
rays, according as the surrounding medium is ordinary or extraordinary. When
the erystal is uniaxial, one of these reflected rays conforms to the ordinary law of
reflection, while ix general the other does not; if the crystal is biaxial, neither of
the reflected rays in general conforms to that law. If, then, a ray of light falls
upon a crystal surrounded by air, part of this light is reflected and part is refracted,
the latter being in general split into two rays: each of these rays will suffer double
reflection at the point where it again meets the bounding surface of the crystal ;
and in the case where the two portions of the bounding surface are parallel, it is an
immediate consequence of theory that the planes of polarization of one pair are
parallel to those of the other, while the intensities of the light in one pair is not in
general the same as in the other, and in fact one or more may vanish without the
others vanishing.
These facts were illustrated by an apparatus consisting of a horizontal stage free
to move round and along a vertical axis ; on this stage a uniaxial or biaxial crystal
is te and a ray of light is allowed to fall on it through a tube properly adjusted
and fitted by a cap, in which is a small orifice: at the opposite side of the stage is
placed another tube properly adjusted; on looking through it, jive images of the
small orifice in the cap of the first-mentioned tube are seen—one formed by re-
flection at the upper surface of the crystal, and the other four by the double reflection
of the two rays refracted at the upper surface. As the stage is rotated the images
may be four, three, or two; if the cap in the first tube be replaced by a Nicol’s
prism, the images as the stage is rotated may be four, three, two, or one, The
Bi ie) e
26 REPORT—1874.
planes of polarization of the rays proceeding from the four images may be deter-
mined by introducing a Nicol’s prism into the tube, to which the eye is applied.
On the Construction of large Nicol’s Prisms*, By W. Lavp; F. RAS.
On the Construction of a perfectly Achromatic Telescopert.
By Professor G. G. Sroxus, M.A., Sec. LS.
At the Meeting of the Association at Edinburgh in 1871, it was stated that it
was in contemplation actually to construct a telescope, by means of disks of glass
prepared by the late Mr. Vernon Harcourt, which should be achromatic as to
secondary as well as primary dispersion. This intention was subsequently carried
out, and the telescope, which was constructed by Mr. Howard Grubb, was now
exhibited to the Section. The original intention was to construct the objective
of a phosphatic glass containing a suitable percentage of titanic acid, achromatized
by a glass of terborate of lead{. As the curvature of the convex lens would be
rather severe if the whole convex power were thrown into a single lens, it was
intended to use two lenses of this glass, one in front and one behind, with the
concave terborate of lead placed between them. It was found that, provided not
more than about 3 of the convex power were thrown behind, the adjacent surfaces
might be made to fit, consistently with the condition of destroying the spherical as
well as the chromatic aberration. This would render it possible to cement the
glasses, and thereby protect the terborate, which was rather liable to tarnish.
At the time of Mr. Harcourt’s death, two disks of the titanic glass had been
prepared, which it was hoped would be good enough for employment, as also two
disks of terborate. These were placed in Mr. Grubb’s hands. On polishing, one of
the titanic disks was found to be too badly striated to be employed; the other was
pretty fair. As it would have required a rather severe curvature of the first
surface, and an unusual convexity of the last, to throw the whole convex power
into the first lens, using a mere shell of crown glass behind to protect the
terborate, Prof. Stokes thought it more prudent to throw about } of the whole
convex power into the third or crown-glass lens, though at the sacrifice of an
absolute destruction of secondary dispersion, which by this change from the original
design might be expected to be just barely perceptible. Of the terborate disks, the
less striated happened to be slightly muddy, from some accident in the preparation;
ie as this signified less than the strie, Mr. Grubb deemed it better to employ this
disk,
The telescope exhibited to the Meeting was of about 23 inches aperture and
28 inches focal length, and was provided with an objective of the ordinary kind,
by which the other could be replaced, for contrasting the performance. When
the telescope was turned on to a chimney seen against the sky or other suitable
object, and half the object-glass covered by a screen with its edge parallel to the
edges of the object, in the case of the ordinary objective vivid green and purple
were seen about the two edges, whereas with the Harcourt objective there was
barely any perceptible colour. It was not, of course, to be expected that the
performance of the telescope should be good, on account of the difficulty of
preparing glass free from strie, but it was quite sufficient to show the possibility of
destroying the secondary colour, which was the object of the construction.
On a Form of Spottiswoode’s Triple Combination of Double-Image Prisms and
Quartz Plates applied to the Table Polariscope. By 8. C. Tistey.
This instrument consists of an eyepiece substituted for the usual Nicol prism
analyzer of the ordinary table polariscope. It contains five cells capable of being
* Published in ‘ Nature,’ vol. x. p.451 (Oct. 1, 1874). + Ibid. p. 431 (Sept. 24, 1874).
_{ The percentage of titanic acid was so chosen that there should be no irrationality of
dispersion between the titanic glass and the terborate.
Se eee
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 27
brought into the line of vision singly or in combination, and of being rotated sepa-
rately or as a whole. On the stage of the instrument a quartz plate is placed with
a diaphragm, giving the original beam of polarized light. By means of the first
double-image prism this beam is divided into two, showing the component parts of
which the tint is composed. A second prism can be now applied ; this will divide
each beam into two parts, making four images, and the third double-image prism
will give eight images ; so that the original beam can be split up into eight com-
ponent parts. The two quartz plates can then be introduced between the prisms,
giving additional power in the analysis of colowrs.
This instrument also has a small arm for carrying a pocket-specttoscope, which
can be brought into the line of vision over the ordinary analyzer to enable the
operator to analyze the colours by means of the spectroscope.
On a New and Simple Form of adjustable Slit for the Spectroscope.
By 8. C. Trsrey.
The end of the spectroscope-tube is screwed on the outside so that the cap on
pee turned round is gradually drawn down; this being bevelled on the inside, the
bevel acts upon the ends of the jaws of the slit, which are correspondingly bevelled,
and so closes the slit, a spring wire being used to open the slit when the cap is
unscrewed,
Advantage is taken of the cap, and a glass cover is inserted so as to keep the slit
free from dust, the usual pull-off cap or case being entirely dispensed with ; every
part of the instrument is easily accessible, and at the sanie time is solid and compact.
By this means a really practical pocket-spectroscope can be constructed, and no
loose cap or cover is required to protect it when out of use; it is always ready at
a moment’s notice, and the utmost precision is obtained in the adjustment of the
slit without any very delicate screws being employed.
ELEcTRICITY AND MAGNETISM.
On some Peculiarities in the Electric Discharge from a Leyden Jar.
By Dr. W. Frvprrsun, Leipzig.
The author showed a number of photographs obtained by projecting an image of
the discharge-spark of a Leyden battaty on to a sensitive plate by means of &
rotating concave mirror, and illustrated by reference to them the nature of the
movement of electricity which must be conceived of as occurring when such
discharges take place under varying circumstances.
When the Leyden jar is discharged through a circuit of small resistance, the
way in which the discharge takes place is that the opposite electricities of the two
coatings do not neutralize each other at once, but as it were pass through each other
several times in succession in a continually smaller and smaller quantity, so that at
definite successive instants the jar appears to be charged wee positively and.
negatively, hut each time less and less strongly. This is the oscillatory discharge,
which reveals itself in the photographs by maxima of illumination following each
other at equal distances. The known rate of rotation of the mirror gives the
duration of the oscillation. Experiments show that this duration is proportional to
the square root of the number of jars* (capacity of the battery) employed, that it
depends on the form of the discharging circuit, and increases with the length of the
circuit and decreases with its thickness in a complex ratiot, but is nevertheless
independent of the resistance of the conductor. On the other hand, however, the
number of oscillations seems to be essentially affected by this resistance ; when the
resistance increases, the number becomes smaller, and, with a certain very high
resistance (which the author calls the “limiting resistance”), the oscillatory
character of the discharge ceases{. When this resistance has been reached, we
* Poggendorff’s ‘Annalen der Physik u. Chem.’ exvi. 153. t Ibid. exvi. 164-169,
{ Represented in reverse order in Pogg. ‘Annalen,’ exyi. pl. i. figs. 25-28.
28 REPORT—1874.,
have at first a simple flowing off of the electricity, occupying about the period of
one oscillation; but, when the resistance becomes greater still, the discharge
occupies a longer time. This is the continuous discharge. The limiting resistance
in its turn follows special laws*; it is inversely proportional to the number
of jars (capacity), and increases slowly with the length of the discharging circuit
(potential of the current).
The correctness of the author's interpretation of the electrical photographs, and
of similar experiments since made by others, as well as of the conclusions deduced
from it—that in almost all cases when a Leyden jar is discharged through a metallic
conductor an oscillatory discharge takes place, and that the usual mode of representing
the motion of electricity during the discharge (which we meet with, for instance, in
Riess’s ‘Die Lehre von der Reibungselectricitat’) is incorrect-—follows,
Ist. From the agreement with theory. Sir William Thomson} and Professor
Kirchhoff { had previously shown, by theoretical considerations, that under some
circumstances an electric discharge must exhibit such oscillations. Subsequently
Kirchhoff submitted the author’s observations to a numerical calculation§, and,
disregarding a constant factor, found them to agree completely. Moreover the
author has himself examined || theoretically the laws of the strength of the currents
in divided circuits in the case of an oscillating discharge, and has discovered their
agreement with certain remarkable observations by Knochenhauer on the electrical
air-thermometer, as well as their relation to his observations of oscillation.
2nd. From an experimental point of view, the interpretation that has been given
is supported by a variety of other investigations. Without reckoning the experi-
ments of Priestley, Savary, Riess, and others, which were made some of them a
long time ago and only doubtfully indicate this explanation, the following expe-
rimental results may be mentioned :—the proof given by Paalzow** that in some
discharges there is a current in two opposite directions; the negative residual
charge obtained by Von Oettingertt (though not under ordinary conditions) with a
positively charged Leyden jar; and, lastly, the sixteenfold increase of the deflection
of a galvanometer observed by the author {+ when the oscillatory discharge was sent
through its coils interposed between a Gaugain’s double electrical valve. Time did
not allow of mentioning other experiments and observations of the author which
bear on the same point, and are to be found in various places in Poggendorff’s
‘ Annalen.’ !
The question has been raised whether the photographically represented oscillations
might not coincide with the discontinuous discharge observed by Wiedemann and
Ruhlmann §§. The author contradicts this suggestion, and adds that he had ob-
served |||| similar partial discharges before he discovered the oscillations of the
discharge of a Leyden jar. The discontinuous discharge, however, only occurs
with the highest resistances, such as those offered by capillary columns of distilled
water, and when the discharging circuit is well insulated; and successive partial
discharges differ from the oscillations in following each other at continually greater
and greater intervals instead of at a constant distance.
Geometrical Jlustrations of Ohm’s Law. By Professor G. C. Foster, F.R.S.
The object of this paper is to point out an easy method of deducing the permanent
resistance and electromotive force of a galvanic circuit from two observations with
a tangent- or sine-galvanometer, without using trigonometrical tables.
I. Observations with a tangent-galvanometer.—A battery, connected in simple
* Pogg. ‘Annalen,’ exii. 452 et seq. t Phil. Mag. [4], v. 393 e¢ seg.
$ Pogg. ‘Annalen,’ c. 193. § Pogg. ‘Annalen,’ exxi. 551 e¢ seg.
|| Zbid. exxx. 439 et seq.
{| ‘The observations referred to are to be found scattered through Knochenhauer’s various
papers, published for the most part in Poggendorff’s ‘ Annalen.’
**. Paalzow allowed the discharge-current to pass through a Geissler’s tube aboye the
poles of a powerful electromagnet (Pogg. Annalen, cxii. 572).
tt Pogg. ‘Annalen,’ exv. 513 e¢ seq. tt Ibid. exv. 336 et seq.
§§ Zbzd. exly, 235 et seg. || || Zo2d. citi. 69 e¢ seg.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 29
circuit with a tangent-galvanometer and set of resistance-coils, causes the galvano-
meter-needle to be deflected from the magnetic meridian through an angle a; on
adding to the circuit an additional resistance R, the deflection of the needle
diminishes to the value a’. From these observations it is required to deduce the
original resistance 7 and the electromotive force e of the circuit,
A B DB
From any point B in the straight line AB draw BC, so that angle ABC=q; take
BD, in AB produced, to represent the added resistance R, and draw DE so that
angle ADE=a’. Since the angle at B (=a) is greater than the angle at D (=a’),
the straight lines BC and DE must intersect (both being drawn on the same side of
AB). Let F be the point of intersection, and draw FA perpendicular to AB: then
the distance AB, between the point B and the foot of the perpendicular from F, will
represent the original resistance of the circuit 7, on the same scale as that on which
BD represents the added resistance R; and the perpendicular AF will represent the
electromotive force e, in terms of that electromotive force taken as unity which, if
it acted in a circuit of unit resistance, would produce a current capable of causing
a deflection of 45° on the galvanometer employed.
If the strength of the current in the first experiment be denoted by c, and in the
second experiment by c', we have, by experiment,
F AF
inet i e
e=tana=—_ ay and c’=tana —At —————
also, by Ohm’s law,
c= and c’'=—°_
7? rth
Therefore
r AB a 7+R AB+BD,
or REY AO bene mA
whence
ens sae
AB” AF BD’
which proves the construction.
II. Observations with a sine-galvanometer.—In this case let the first angle of
deflection be denoted by 8, and that obtained after adding to the circuit a resistance
30 REPORT—1 874,
R by #'. As before, in the straight line ABD take BD to represent the added
resistance R, and draw BC and DE so that the angles ABC and ADE are respec-
tively equal to 6 and #'; and let BC and DE intersect in F. Draw FA to bisect the
external angle EF'B; and let A be the point where the bisector of this angle cuts the
original straight line ABD, Then the permanent resistance will be represented by
AB, and the electromotive force by the radius of the circle drawn about the centre
A so as to touch the straight lines BC and DE, the unit electromotive force being
that which, in a circuit of unit resistance, would give a current capable of deflecting
the sine-galvanometer employed through an angle of 90°.
The experiments give
e=pin Bao’ and c=sinp'=AB__ AE _
AB’ AD AB+BD’
AC and AE being both of them radii of the circle drawn about the centre A.
Consequently
yr AB 7+R AB+BD
—= =, and =
ee NC} e Ania’
whence
r e R
which proves the construction.
It is evident that, with a perfectly constant battery, if a series of experiments are
made by giving various values to the resistance R, all the lines drawn in the same
way as BC and DE will pass through the same point in the case of a tangent-
galvanometer, and will all be tangents to the same circle in the case of a sine-
galvanometer.
Suggestions for a Redetermination of the Absolute Electromagnetic Units of
Resistance and of Hlectromotive Force, By Prof, G, CO, Fostur, F.2R.S.
On Ohm’s Law. By Anruur Scuuster, Ph.D.
Ohm’s law has often been subjected to an experimental verification. None of the
methods employed, however, were sufficiently delicate to prove the law between very
wide limits. The author thinks that the following method will allow us to judge
with far greater certainty whether Ohm’s law is rigidly true. If we send rapidly
alternating currents through a galvanometer they will not affect the position of the
needle, as the two currents going in opposite directions will balance each other, if
the circuit is inits normal state ee paper on unilateral conductivity, p.31). If we
send in rapid succession two currents through the galvyanometer which have different
intensities, they will have the same effect as one current, the intensity of which is the
arithmetic mean between the two currents. Let the electromotive force of one of
the currents be E+-2, of the other E—w; then, if the resistance is the same in both
cases, the two currents will have the same effect as a single current produced by an
electromotive force E. On the other hand, if this is not the case, the resistance for
the electromotive foree E+z must be different from the resistance for the electro-
motive force E—«.
A weak constant current is sent through a galvanometer and a coil in which a
magnet was rotated. The currents induced by the rotating magnet had no effect on
the galvanometer-needle when the constant current did not pass. When the current
passed, however, the rotating magnet always increased the deflection. In order to
explain this result we are obliged to make one of the two following suppositions :—
1. The resistance of the wire decreases as the current increases.
2. The self-induction of a wire involves a term depending upon the strength of a
current and approaching a limiting value as the current increases,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 31
On Unilateral Conductivity. By Arraur Scuustrr, Ph.D.
While engaged in other work the author discovered a new phenomenon in elec-
tricity which may conveniently be called unilateral conductivity. His experiments
show thatin a circuit composed entirely of copper wires, joined together by means of
binding-screws, the electric conductivity in one direction may be different from what
it is in the opposite direction. Ifa coil of wires be connected with the galvanometer,
and a magnet rotates rapidly within, the coil-currents in alternate direction will pass
through the galvanometer. Their effect, however, on the needle will counteract each
other, and the needle will sliow no permanent deflection if the currents are equally
strong. On the other hand, if the needle shows a permanent deflection, one current
must be stronger than the other; and this again can only be caused by a difference
in the conductivity, as the electromotive force acting in opposite directions must be
equal. It isfound that sometimes the currents induced by the rotating magnet haye
a very strong effect on the needle, and the effect shows best in wires which have not
been used for a certain time. The most remarkable fact connected with unilateral
conductivity is, that a circuit of wires not showing unilateral conductivity may be
made to conduct unilaterally by merely introducing for a short time a wire which
shows the effect. When the wire is taken out, the original circuit will again show
unilateral conductivity. The air condensed on the surface of the wire may possibly
cause the phenomenon. Two wires screwed together may not touch each other,
but a small layer of air may separate them, A voltaic arc, the two electrodes of
which are of different form, will, as is known, show what is called unilateral conduc-
tivity, and a copper wire separated from the binding-screw by a thin layer of air
will act somewhat like a voltaic arc. In order to test the theory according to which
the facts mentioned above are easily explained, air was artificially condensed on the
wire by having its ends put for a certain time into powdered charcoal. A wire
which showed no unilateral conductivity was thus made to show it; and after it had
been destroyed again, which generally can be done by rubbing the wire or screwing
it to another binding-screw, unilateral conductivity was produced a second time by
the same means. A third attempt, however, failed, and from that time all the
means by which usually unilateral conductivity had been produced were not suc-
cessful, If, therefore, the above theory is the correct explanation of unilateral con-
ductivity, some unknown secondary cause (perhaps the diffusion of the gas into the
wire) must be active, which at certain times prevents it being produced,
A New Method of constructing Carbon-cells and Plates for Galvame Battertes,
By W. Symons, F.0.8.
The author mixes finely powdered wood-charcoal with a syrup of white sugar to
a proper consistence, In this thick syrup he dips paper moulds, only covering the
outside. After drying he redips, and repeats until sufficiently thick. When well
dried, the cells are packed in sand and baked in an oven sufficiently hot to burn out
the paper moulds. Then soaked in weak hydrochloric acid, dried, soaked in sugar-
syrup, then buried in sand and gradually brought up to a white heat. The carbon
has a good metallic ring and a brilliant fracture. The outside of the cells can be
covered with paper and dipped in melted paraffin, Rods and plates of carbon can
be easily rolled out or pressed if made of a similar mixture, but thicker.
Notes on a New Method for the Electrochemical Decomposition of Oils and
other Non-conducting Liquids*. By W. Symons, £.C.S.
The author described a method for subjecting various oils, carbon disulphide, and
other non-conducting liquids to the action of a weak but continuous galyanic current,
by dissolving them either in a solution of zine chloride in alcohol or of ferric chloride
in ether. The latter he finds the best medium ; and oils &c. dissolved in it may be
subjected to the galvanic current for some days, various products of decomposition
* The paper is printed in full in the ‘ Pharmaceutical Journal’ for October 1874.
32 ; REPORT—1874.
being the result. Carbon disulphide may also be added to the oils, or acted on
alone. Other conducting liquids, not miscible with ether, may also be used as
anodes or cathodes.
Oils, however, which are not soluble in alcohol are only partially soluble in the
ferric ether, which fact also suggests matter for future experiments, The author
considers it a significant fact that in some of these experiments carbon disulphide
was evidently decomposed, either directly or indirectly, by the current, although he
has not yet succeeded in getting a deposit of carbon.
A cheap and convenient Galvanic Battery adapted for weak but continuous
Currents. By W. Symons, F.C.S.
This home-made battery, adapted either for a water-battery or for a weak saline
solution, was used in the previous experiments, and is also described in the
‘ Pharmaceutical Journal’ for October 1874.
On the Effect on the Compass of the Rolling of Ships*.
By Sir W. Tuouson, F.RS.
On the Proportions in which Bases and Acids present in a Solution combine with
each other. By Professor Gustay WIEDEMANN, Leipzig University.
When a base is introduced into a solution containing two different acids, it is
divided between them ; likewise, when salts are dissolved in water, they very often
undergo a partial decomposition. Thus, for example, the salts of iron peroxide
dissolved in water are partially decomposed into acid, and colloid peroxide of iron
remaining in solution.
The author has applied to the investigation of this phenomenon a method pre-
viously employed by him for the determination of the magnetism of chemical com-
pounds. In this process the effect which is to be determined is not measured
during the continuance of the chemical action, as is customary in measuring calo-
rific effects, but after the complete termination of the action, and without the inter-
vention of any external agent, physical or chemical.
This method has as its basis the difference which exists between the magnetism
of the colloidal peroxide of iron and that of the peroxide contained in the salts.
When in a solution of a neutral or feebly acid salt of peroxide of iron a portion of
the salt is decomposed into free acid and colloid peroxide in solution, the modifi-
cation which the magnetism undergoes should enable us to calculate the quantity of
salt decomposed.
If we designate by m, the magnetism in a unit of weight of iron in its ferric salts
in a solid state or dissolved in an excess of acid, by m, the magnetism of a unit of
weight of iron contained in the colloid peroxide in solution, by m the magnetism
of the unit of weight of iron in any solution whatever of a salt of iron peroxide
which has undergone a partial decomposition, and, finally, by 1—2 : x the ratio of
the quantity of the peroxide remaining combined in the form of salt to the quantity
of the peroxide that has assumed the colloid state, we have
m=m,(1—x)-+m,2,
and consequently
__m,—m
x :
My — My
The ratio 1 : « is thus immediately deduced from the measure of the magnetism
of the solution. In this way the following results have been obtained :—
1. The magnetism of a solution of ferric sulphate does not undergo any sensible
change, even when so diluted as to reduce the quantity of iron contained in 10
cubic centims. of the solution from 0°57 gramme to 0:07 gramme.
* Published in ‘Nature,’ vol. x. p. 338 (Sept. 10, 1874).
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 393
2. If to a solution of colloid peroxide of iron containing a small quantity of
sulphuric acid we add constantly increasing quantities of (diluted) sulphuric acid,
the quantity of ferric sulphate contained in the solution also gradually increases,
while a portion of the colloid peroxide and a portion of the acid remain side by side
uncombined.
8. If the quantity of sulphuric acid is less than that which corresponds to an
equivalent of the peroxide, the formation of the ferric sulphate takes place at first
more rapidly than normally should be the case, considering the increase of the acid ;
consequently it tends gradually to a maximum.
Even when in this case the quantities of sulphuric acid and peroxide of iron are in
the ratio of their equivalents, not more than 75 per cent. of those two substances
borin into combination, 25 per cent. of the oxide and the acid remaining free in the
solution.
By taking larger and larger quantities of the acid (2 or 2'5 equivalents) for one
equivalent of the peroxide, the quantity of free peroxide is gradually diminished
(to 10 or 4 per cent.).
4. It follows from these results that, on taking increasing quantities of sulphuric
acid for an equivalent of the peroxide, we observe at first that the quantity of free
acid in the solution diminishes; and this phenomenon continues until the total
quantity of acid, free as well as combined, is 4 little more than one equivalent.
As we continue to add acid to the solution, the proportion of free acid increases
still further.
5. We obtain, moreover, the remarkable result that the quantity of peroxide of
iron, combined with a constant quantity (one equivalent) of acid in these solutions,
attains its maximum when the proportion of acid exceeds by a small quantity the
oxide of iron, equivalent for equivalent.
6. The solutions of iron-ammonia alum give numerical results, which are almost
identical with those obtained with a solution of one equivalent of peroxide of iron
and one equivalent of sulphuric acid. The ammonia-salt contained in the alum
exercises in this case no sensible influence upon the decomposition which results
in the aqueous solution; so that we are justified in concluding that the iron alum in
solution is entirely decomposed into sulphate of ammonia and ferric sulphate, the
latter of which undergoes partial decomposition.
7. By measuring the magnetism of a solution of peroxide of iron containing two
different acids or of a solution of an acid containing peroxide of iron and another
base (alumina), we may determine in the same way the division of the peroxide of
iron between the two acids, or of the acids between the two bases.
8. It would be difficult to give a mathematically exact theory of the facts just
presented, for a great number of different factors come into play. We can, how-
ever, henceforward regard as inaccurate all those formulee which give the quantities
of base remaining free in a solution containing an acid as a function of the second
degree of the quantity of the acid.
For further details the reader is referred to the complete memoir, published in
the ‘Berichte der konigl. siichsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, Math.-
phys. Classe.’
Notes of Experiments on the Electric Currents produced by the Gramme
Magneto-electric Machine. By Arr. Nravput Bruever, of Paris.
Two Gramme machines (called, for distinction, A and B) are placed in the same
circuit. On turning the first, A, an electric current is produced which traverses the
second, B, and the latter begins to turn.
It therefore appears that the Gramme machine is equally fitted to convert force
into electricity and electricity into force. In fact all electric and electromagnetic
machines have that property, but none have hitherto possessed this reversibility in
the same degree.
This experiment proves that a system of two Gramme machines might be applied
to the transmission of force to a considerable distance, the immovable conductors
replacing the means of transmission or teledynamic cables of Mons. Hirn, An
analogous combination would permit the distribution of the force applied to a large
34 REPORT—187 4:
Gramme machine through a certain number of smaller machines, placed at points
more or less distant.
Experiments now in progress will, it is hoped, prove to the British Association at
its next Meeting how far these ideas are practicable and may be useful; these expe-
riments will, to use the language of the mechanical theory of heat, show the eco-
nomic coefficient of the system in question.
The first experiment may be slightly modified as follows :—
In the circuit of the two Gramme machines insert a platinum wire; stop machine
B and turn machine A: the platinum wire heats, and indeed becomes red-hot by
the passage of the current from A; machine B remains quiescent, having heen
stopped; but if the stoppage be removed it will be seen to move immediately, and,
immediately also, the platinum wire ceases to be red.
The second experiment presents, I think, a sufficiently striking example of the
equality of mechanical action and heat ; besides which it realizes in a new manner
an experiment described by Helmholtz in his paper on the “ Conservation of Force,”
Helmholtz operated with a pile which turned an electromagnetic machine; a gal-
vanometer was placed in the circuit, and its deviation was seen to diminish in pro-
portion as the rapidity of the machine increased ; he showed that the deviation of
the galyanometer would be xz? at a certain rapidity of the machine. We shall show
that in our experiment, the two machines being supposed to be alike, the deviation
of the galvanometer and the intensity of the current would become ni/ when the
rapidity of the two machines is the same.
inally, our second experiment may also be looked at from another point of view ;
it affords an illustration of Neumann’s principle, which may be described in the
following words :—‘ Eyery effect produced by an electric current inyolyes a dimi-
nution of the intensity of such current.”
We observe, in conclusion, that so extensive and general a principle cannot be
proved by experiment, any more than the principle of action being equal to reaction ;
with truths of this nature we can but claim to accumulate demonstrative verifica-
tions, and it is without doubt interesting to search for such as may strike the mind
of the student.
[M. Breguet’s instruments referred to in this abstract were exhibited to the Mem-
bers of the Association on Tuesday, August 25, after the Sections were closed. The
paper was not read at the Meeting, but the abstract is printed with the authority of
the Council.—G, G.]
METEOROLOGY.
On the Cause of the Progressive Motion of Cyclones, and of the Seasonal Varia-
tions in their Paths. By Isaac Asuz, A.B., M.B., T.0.D.
Dr. Ashe pointed out the importance of arriving at a correct theory regarding the
causes of the onward progress of cyclones over the face of the globe, on account of
the light which would thereby be thrown on the question of seasonal variations in
their paths, such as had been observed by Captain Fryers, R.E., in the South-
Indian Ocean. <A correct theory would serve to indicate the line of research in
future observations directed towards this point. Seasonal variations of path would
be due to special modifications of the more constant forces governing the paths and
progress of cyclones, such special modifications being dependent on the changes
induced in the action of the forces causing such progress in consequence of changes
of season. The general law would depend on the more constant, and the seasonal
variation on the less constant elements of these forces. The more constant elements
would be those inherent in the cyclone itself; the less constant elements would be
those depending on the prevailing winds of the zone and their seasonal variations.
The varying elements were better known than the fixed, though perhaps their
causal relation was not recognized from want of acquaintance with the fixed ele-
ments and more constant forces inherent in the cyclone itself, on which the onward
progress of the cyclone depended.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 35
Dy. Ashe reviewed the known laws of cyclonal progress, their motion towards the
8.W. in the southern, and the N.W. in the northern hemisphere while within the
tropics, and remarked that in both cases this direction was nearly at right angles to
the trade-wind of the hemisphere, and could not therefore be a motion due to the
trade-wind, He noticed their recurving at the tropics, and subsequent course to
8.E. in the southern and to N.H. in the northern hemisphere, and pointed out that
since this occurred in the open sea as well as near land, it must depend on the
latitude and some causal change connected therewith, and not on the proximity of
land as some had supposed. He adduced Captain Fyers’s observations (Trans. Met.
Soc. Mauritius, vol. iii. p. 29) as to the onward progress of cyclones being very slow
at first on their formation near the equator, and increasing in rapidity afterwards,
apparently part passu with their poleward motion. The author then pointed out
that, in consequence of the difference in the rate of the earth’s diurnal rotation at
different latitudes, air drawn into a cyclone from equatorwards would be moving
more rapidly than the centre of the cyclone, and hence as it revolved round the
centre in the eastern half would be discharging force into the mass of moving air,
and thus accelerating its speed of revolution; while air drawn in from polewards,
since it would be moving more slowly than the centre, would similarly use up the
force of the western half, and so retard its speed of revolution. The same causes
would also make the cyclone assume an elliptical, rather than a strictly circular
figure, as usually supposed ; and the western half would present a greater excentri-
city, on account of the greater differences of length in the degrees of longitude for
equal intervals of latitude as we approach the pole; air from polewards would pass
more to westward than air from equatorwards would to eastward ; hence the
western half would have the larger surface, and would therefore experience more
friction against the surface of the ocean than would the eastern. Both these effects
would tend to produce the same result, namely, the comparatively slower revolution
of the western half, a slower motion of the air composing it; this would cause the
eastern half to roll over or past the western, and so produce a general onward
progress of the cyclone in a direction parallel to a tangent to the extreme western
point of the storm; that would, in fact, be along the minor axis of the ellipse, since
such the author regarded it, formed by the storm, or, in short, in a poleward direction
in both hemispheres. Some persons had supposed that the air in the western half
of a cyclone would move the fastest because it moved along with the trade-wind,
while that in the eastern half moved against it; but the author pointed out that
this could only affect the rate of motion relatively to a ship at sea, and not as
regarded the internal constitution of the cyclone, We should investigate the proper
motion of the cyclone independently, and afterwards consider the entire cyclone as
being carried on along with the trade-wind within which it was generated. The
proper motion, then, the author considered to be to polewards in both hemispheres,
or due south in the southern, and due north in the northern, though some easting
might occasionally be due to a rapid poleward progress of the whole storm. To
this proper motion the trade-wind component should now be added, or a N.W.
progress in the southern hemisphere and a 8.W. in the northern. The resultant of
these two, supposing them about equal in force, would give the actual intratropical
path of the storm in each hemisphere, or W.N.W. in the northern and W.S.W. in
the southern. ‘This was in exact agreement with the observed paths. At the
tropics, the trade-wind failing, the proper poleward motion would alone remain ;
this also was in agreement with observation. Beyond the tropics the storm would
come under the influence of the 8.W. and N.W. counter-trades, and the resultant
would be a N.N.E. path in the northern hemisphere and a §.8.E. in the southern;
this also corresponded exactly with the results of observation. As the trade-winds
increased in strength in the summer of each hemisphere the component of force
due to their action would be greater, and a storm in the northern hemisphere would
take a more southerly course, and in the southern hemisphere a more northerly
course than at other seasons. This also was in accurate agreement with Captain
Fyers’s observations of the storms of the South-Indian Ocean, since he finds (Trans.
Met. Soc. Maur. vol. iii. p. 13) that “the November and December storms take a
more southerly course than those of the succeeding months, January, February, and
March.” After April the hurricane season as a rule is over in the South-Indian
36 REPORT—1874.
Ocean, which the author accounted for by supposing that the trade-wind component
of the cyclone’s motion is then sufficiently strong to draw any cyclone that may be
formed into the equatorial calm-belt during its period of slow proper motion on
its first formation near the equator, where the degrees of longitude differ but little
in length at different latitudes. Captain Fyers had observed this slow progress on
the first formation of a storm, and the cyclone would in consequence be soon lost in
the ascensive motion of the air within the equatorial calm-belt.
On Disturbance of the Weather by Artificial Influences, especially Battles,
Military Manewvres, great Explosions, and Conflagrations. By R. B.
Bricuer.
Many instances were quoted, from the siege of Valenciennes in 1793 to the
Ashantee and Carlist wars this year, to show that storms follow immediately upon
battles. The loss of the great battle of Solferino, which closed the Italian campaign
of 1859, was attributed by the Austrian commander to a terrific thunder-storm
which burst over the field and obscured movements of powerful masses of the
enemy. The decisive battle of Sadowa, which closed the Austro-Prussian war in
1866, was in like manner accompanied by a terrible storm, to which again the
Austrian commander attributed his defeat.
The sham-fights at and near Aldershot this year, viz. May 19, June 19, 20,
July 8, 20, 21, 27, 29, were in each instance followed by thunder-storms, lasting
several days, with fine weather in the intervals.
The manceuvres at Dartmoor and Cannock, August 1873, brought such storm
weather, that the former was broken up prematurely, and the latter carried on wi
difficulty. Correspondents at Cannock Chase describe the artillery below as setting -
in motion the artillery above and bringing down the rain in torrents.
Instances of great explosions being immediately followed by thunder-storms were
a notably one in the harbour of Bordeaux, September 1869, which was followed
y a cyclone accompanied by an enormous wave which swept the shores of France
and England; it was succeeded by a remarkable lightning-storm.
Instances of large conflagrations which appeared to cause storms were given.
On certain protracted Irregularities of Atmospheric Pressure in the Indian
Monsoon Region, and their relation to Variations of the Local Rainfall.
By Henry F. Buayrorp, F.G.S.
After briefly noticing the distribution of atmospheric pressure which in Northern
India normally accompanies the two monsoons, and which has been described at
length elsewhere, the author draws attention to a fact disclosed by a discussion of
the barometric registers for the last seven years, viz. that the abnormal peculiarities
of relative pressure distribution which may appear in any season, tend to last for many
months, and in some cases apparently throughout several alternations of the mon-
soons. Inthe year 1868 aremarkable and unusually intense barometric depression in
the N.W. corner of the bay of Bengal characterized the whole of the S.W. monsoon,
while in Lower Bengal the pressure was for the most part above the average. In
1871 a similar but less intense barometric depression existed in the east of the bay,
and another in Orissa; also in Central India, north of the Satpoora range, the
pone was unusually below that of the Gangetic plain on the north and that of
Nagpore on the south of the range. In 1872 the last depression had disappeared,
and that of Orissa and that in the east of the bay were united into one, the depres-
sion being greatest in that part of the bay off the coast of Orissa. In 1873 this
last depression continued, while another existed in the neighbourhood of the Nicobar
Islands, and a third in the province of Oudh, which was very intense during the
S.W. monsoon. The author concluded, from the facts adduced, “that amid the
never-ceasing changes of condition and place to which every part of the atmosphere
is subject, certain states tend to perpetuate or reproduce themselves in the same
region, in such manner as to maintain a constant difference in the mean or average
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 37
pressures of two neighbouring regions; and that this tendency to a constant local
difference is, in certain cases, maintained throughout those great revolutions of
atmospheric density, composition, and movement which accompany the alternations
of the monsoons. Nevertheless these states, though protracted, are not perma-
nent, and disappear after a longer or shorter time, sometimes suddenly, but more
sac peel by a graduated decrease.”
he author then proceeded to notice certain relations between these barometric
irregularities and the distribution of the rainfall in these years. In 1868, more
especially in the months of June and August, when the pressure was at its lowest
in the N.W. corner of the bay of Bengal, there was an excessive fall of rain in the
S.W. corner of the Gangetic delta—the greatest fall in each of these months being
about 100 miles to the north of the place of greatest depression, thus showing a
certain analogy to the case of cyclones, in which the heaviest rainfall isin advance
of the centre of the storm. The year 1871 was one of unusually heavy rainfall in
Bengal, the N.W. Provinces, and Central India, indicating a somewhat similar
relation to the areas of abnormal barometric depression of that year. In 1873,
again, which was one of very deficient rainfall in most parts of Northern India,
the Punjab (which lay beyond the Oudh depression) and Burmah (which lay beyond
that of the Nicobars in the direction of the monsoon currents) enjoyed a plentiful
rain Le But the deficient rainfall of that and the preceding year in Bengal
cannot be thus explained; and although it can hardly be doubted that the abnormal
peculiarities in the distribution of pressure must be very influential in determining
those of the rainfall, the author thinks that no satisfactory discussion of their rela-
tions is possible without a knowledge of the state of atmospheric pressure over the
whole region concerned with the Indian branches of the monsoons.
_—
On the apparent Connexion between Sun-spots and Atmospheric Ozone.
By T, Morrar.
The author stated that he had compared the mean daily quantity of ozone for
each year for nineteen years with the number of new groups of sun-spots which
appeared in each year, and the results showed that the maximum of sun-spots
occurred in the same year as the maximum of ozone, and the period of minimum
of sun-spots coincided with that of the minimum of ozone,
On a Gymbal-swung Rain-gauge. By F. Pastoretxt.
The author submitted for criticism a gymbal-swung rain-gauge provided below
the gymbals with a spherical receptacle of so much larger area than the funnel,
that the pressure of the wind upon it should tilt the funnel towards the point
whence the rain is falling. He also suggested that by duly weighting it might
answer on board ship.
On the Importance of Improved Methods of Registration of Wind on the Coast,
with a notice of an Anemometer designed by Mr. W. De La Rue, F.R.S., to
furmsh Telegraphic Information of the Occurrence of Strong Winds. By
Rosert H. Scort, M.A., F.R.S.
It is hardly necessary to draw the attention of men of science to the fact, that the
configuration of the earth’s surface exercises an overwhelming influence on the wind
both as to its direction and force. Some statements and tables contained in a
pene: by the author in the last Number of the ‘Quarterly Journal of the Meteoro-
ogical Society ’* abundantly prove this assertion, and it is therefore easy to see what
an imperfect representation of the actual force of the wind at sea can be furnished by
reports from a broken and mountainous coast, such as the Atlantic coasts of Ireland
* “ An attempt to establish a relation between the Velocity of the Wind and its Force
(Beaufort scale), with some Remarks on Anemometrical Observations in General,” by
Robert H. Scott, F.R.S., Quart. Journ. Meteor. Soe, vol. ii. p. 109,
38 REPORT-—1874.,
and Scotland, where the telegraphic stations are, perforce, situated in sheltered
places, inasmuch as harbours ave naturally found where there is as little exposure
to wind as is possible.
In the practice of weather-telegraphy and storm-warnings, as the number of re-
ports received per day from each station is strictly limited, on financial considera-
tions, it is quite obvious that if the actual epoch of the commencement of a gale
does not fall within the hours of attendance at the Telegraphic Office and at the
Meteorological Office, which practically only extend from 8 a.m. till 3 p.m., much
time will be lost in sending news of the fact to London. If it commences at
6 p.m, at Valencia, we cannot hear of it in London till 9 a.m. next morning.
On the other hand, if the observer be living in a sheltered spot such as Plymouth,
Nairn, or Greencastle, we shall not get a true report of the gale at all, inasmuch as
the observer will not have felt it himself.
The first-named defect in our system can only be met by a considerably increased
expenditure on the service, and that is not a scientific, but an administrative ques-
tion, with which the Government can alone deal.
In order to meet the second difficulty, Mr. De La Rue has kindly devised an
instrumental arrangement by which the fact of any given force of wind having
been reached at an exposed point (such as Rame Head for Plymouth, or Malin
Head for Greencastle) can be at once conveyed to the reporter in his own office,
or even to the central office in London. The instrument has been made by Messrs.
Negretti and Zambra.
The following is the construction of the new signalling-anemometer :—
To the ordinary Robinson’s anemometer-spindle is affixed a toothed wheel, which
is geared with another and larger toothed wheel, fixed on a second vertical spindle,
carrying a centrifugal governor. The governor-spindle is made to rotate at one
half or one third of the velocity of the anemometer-spindle, in order that the
rods carrying the governor-balls may not have to be made inconyeniently short.
A provision is made for adjusting the length of the arms of the governor, so that
different wind-velocities may be indicated within certain limits.
The governor-balls act in the well-known way, and expand when driven at a
given rate ; and the upward motion of these governor-balls is used to raise a secon-
dary wheel to bring into gear a third spindle, on which is fixed the armature of a
magneto-electric apparatus, which, like Sir Charles Wheatstone’s instruments, con-
sists of a compound permanent magnet with four soft iron cores, two of which aré
mounted on the N. pole of the magnet and two on the 8. pole; these iron cores are
surmounted with fine insulated copper wire, and on rotation of the armature give
alternately + and — currents in rapid succession, according to the rate at which
the armature is driven. These currents are converged inland to the observing-
station by insulated wires and give warning by ringing an alarum as long as the
anemometer-cups are revolving at a velocity suflicient to raise the goyernor-balls
so as to bring the magneto-electrical apparatus into geay.
We see, therefore, that by adjusting the governor of the apparatus to indicate
any required speed, a warning will at once be given when the wind reaches that
speed, be it that of 60, 40, or 20 miles an hour, as may be required.
All the attention which the instrument requires, after the apparatus is fixed, is
to lead two insulated wires from the anemometer into the observing-station, and to
connect these wires to the two terminals on the alarum.
In order to enable the observer to communicate at once, and at as little expense-
as possibie, to London the fact of the velocity in question having been reached,
the individual stations might he known by letters or symbols, which might simply
be telegraphed to London as an announcement that the alarum was acting at the
station in question.
It is obvious that this plan is exceedingly simple; and there seems little
reason why it should not be thoroughly efficacious, if only the registering portion
of the apparatus can be properly protected from wilful damage by mischievous
persons.
As usual, we are met by the question of cost, not only of the apparatus, but of
the connecting wires, and last, though not least, of the transmission of the mes-
sages, To enable us to render our service more effective than it is, we must be
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 39
supplied with the sinews of war. The £3000, which is the very utmost we expend
annually on telegraphy, including salaries, rent, and every item, is but small com-
peed with the £50,000, entirely exclusive of salaries, with which the chief Signal
ce of the United States is so munificently endowed.
On the Meteorology at Banbridge for ten Years, and Rainfall of Ulster.
By Joun Suyru, Jun., A.M.
Banbridge lies in the valley of the Bann, 20 miles from its source, lat. 54° 23'N.,
long. 6° 18’ W., height above sea-level 200 feet. Meteorological observations have
been carried on since 1861; tables of the results of these and diagrams of the ther-
mometer-stand and rain-gauge were exhibited. The mean pressure of the atmo-
sphere for ten years.is 0'133 less than that of Greenwich for 32 years. June has the
highest mean monthly pressure and January the least. The year 1870 shows the
highest mean annual pressure, and 1872 the least. The mean temperature of the
air is 48° F., or 1°-2 below that of Greenwich for 15 years. July has the highest
mean monthly temperature, viz. 59°-2, or 2°°5 below that of Greenwich. January
has the lowest, 38°-4, or 0:3 higher than Greenwich ; February is 2° higher. The
winters are therefore warmer, and the summers cooler than at Greenwich. The
highest reading of the thermometer was 88° F, on August 4th, 1868, the lowest 11°
on January 8rd, 1867. The mean humidity is 82 per cent. of complete saturation,
being 0-4 drier than Greenwich. June is the driest, and January the dampest month ;
February and March are fergeeye: 2 and 3 per cent. drier at Greenwich, and all the
other months, except July, November, and Decembef, damper than at Banbridge,
June and October being 8 percent. The prevailing winds have been from the south,
and the least frequent from the east. The mean rainfall for the ten years, from
1862 till the end of 1871, has been 29:2 inches; October shows the greatest rainfall
and June the least. The rainfall for the year 1872 is the greatest recorded (46:6),
and for 1864 the least (25°1); the greatest fall in 24 hours was 2:3 inches, in Oc-
tober 1865. The mean evaporation is 15’6 inches.
At the Bann Reservoir, lat. 54° 15' N., long. 6°2' W., height above sea 440 ft., the
mean rainfall was 46 inches, the greatest in 1866 (54°6 inches) and the least in 1869
(28-9 inches); in the exceptional year 1872 the fall was 61-2 inches; the greatest fall
in 24 hours was 3°3 inches on October 29th, 1865. The author ceased observing the
amount of ozone in 1873, as he found always when the same volume of air was exa-
mined by means of an aspirator, the same amount of ozone was registered, except
when the test-paper was damped by fog; he was led to expect this from finding the
intensity of the wind correspond with the intensity of the ozone, as observed in
Clarke’s cage (this subject is treated more at large by him in a paper read before
the Association in 1865).
Rainfall of Ulster—The amount of rainfall at the various stations, as obtained
from Mr, Symons, were shown on the map exhibited. It was seen that they
are rather few and unequally distributed, and that the westerly show greater falls
than the easterly. There is great variety in the physical configuration of Ulster,
and it is hoped that more observers will be obtained. Our present data are not
sufficient to enable us to arrive at exact results.
On the Absorption of the Sun’s Heat-rays by the Vapour of the Atmosphere*.
By the Rey. Fenwicx W. Srow, M.4., FILS.
The observations of solar radiation, which are relied on in this paper, are taken
with “ blackened-bulb thermometers 7x vacuo,’’ suspended 4 feet above the ground,
the indications of which, when compared with those of the ordinary shade thermo-
meters, give a measure of the intensity of the solar rays.
The absorption of the direct solar heat-rays by the vapour of the atmosphere is
proved in several distinct ways :—
1, It is found that the elastic force of vapour is less on the ten days in each
month on which radiation is most powerful than on an average of the whole month,
* Printed i extenso in the ‘Journal of the Meteorological Sovicty’ for 1874.
40 REPORT—1874.
This is proved by five years’ daily observations at Strathfield Turgiss, Hants, 1869-
74; two years’ at Hawsker, near Whitby, Yorkshire (1869-71); and one year’s
observations in 1872, at Harpenden, Herts.
2. It was also found by the above observations that N. and N.W. winds, which
contain little moisture, are very favourable to solar radiation, whereas S. and S.F.
winds are usually accompanied by much less powerful sunshine. The N.E. winds of
spring, which are excessively dry, are also accompanied by intensely powerful solar
radiation.
3. By frequent observations during cloudless weather with nearly constant va-
pour-tension, curves are obtained representing the daily variations in solar radiation
produced by the changes in the sun’s altitude and consequent alteration of the
length of the path which the beams pursue through the atmosphere. From these
the percentage of the sun’s heat-rays which would be absorbed by the atmosphere
if the sun were vertical can be approximately determined, assuming that the ten-
sion of yapour remained as it was on the day or days of observation. It is then
possible to calculate the amount of radiation due to the altitude of the sun at noon
in the middle of each month for a constant vapour-tension, and to compare this
with the amount actually observed in each month on cloudlessdays. In this way itis
found that when the tension of vapour falls below the amount on the day which
furnishes the data for calculation, the radiation rises above the calculated amount,
and vice versd. In fact the sun’s rays are more intense in winter than in summer,
when the difference of altitude at noon is allowed for, because the absolute amount
of vapour in winter is so much less. About ten or twelve per cent. is the mini-
mum of absorption of the sun’s heat-rays, while the maximum equals or even
exceeds 20 per cent.
The paper concludes with a few observations on the increase of solar radiation
with elevation above the sea-level, from which it would appear to have amounted,
between the heights of 470 to 1800 feet, to about 5 per cent. of the amount observed
at the lower station when the sun’s altitude was 20°, and to above 3 per cent. when
the altitude was 26°.
On the Necessity for placing Physical Meteorology on a Rational Basis*.
By Lieut.-Col. A. Srraner, F.R.S.
The author points out the two great branches into which the science of mete-
orology is divisible, viz. that which is concerned with its great fundamental laws,
and that which concerns climate—the first being of a cosmical, the second of a more
local character. The present paper refers principally to the first of these branches,
which he considers to have been greatly neglected, and to need being treated on
systematic and rational principles.
He indicates the elementary considerations which point to the sun as the chief
origin of meteorological phenomena, and recommends, now that science has pro-
vided many of the necessary means for the purpose, that the physical study of the
great central luminary should be commenced in earnest.
He points out that such solar researches as have been undertaken, though most
valuable as far as they go, are insufficient because their continuity is interrupted
by cloudy weather. He holds that we require a daily record of the changes which
are perpetually going on in the sun, in order to trace their course, their character,
and their laws. He points out that this indispensable object can only be attained
by establishing a certain number of stations, equipped for such rssearches, so
situated that there shall be a fair probability of clear weather daily at one or more
of them. He mentions India as peculiarly suited for the purpose on account of
the great variety of climate to be found there.
He maintains that such investigations must devolve on the State, and lays down
the broad principles applicable to the particular case in question. The first prin-
ciple is that private enterprise should, in all matters within its scope, be encouraged
and aided in every possible way. The second principle is that the State should
step in where private enterprise fails, and itself conduct scientific research, whether
obseryatorial or experimental, subject to the following main conditions ;—
* Published in ‘Nature,’ vol. x. p. 490 (Oct. 15, 1874).
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 41
(a) That the probable results of the research will be beneficial, in the widest sense
of that term, to the community at large, or to the various Departments of the State.
(6) That the research is too costly, or commercially too unremunerative, to be
undertaken and vigorously prosecuted by individuals.
(c) That the research requires continuous uninterrupted work, extending over
very long periods, and conducted by systematically organized establishments.
The case under consideration completely satisfies these conditions. It is futile
to expect that individuals will carry on continuously work which requires nume-
rous well-equipped establishments conducted on a uniform system, the operations
of which will certainly extend over generations, possibly over centuries.
Whilst advocating the study of the sun as the rational basis of meteorology, the
author does not desire to abandon those methods of observation now in use, though
they admit of improvement; but he likens meteorology, as at present prosecuted, to
studying the steam-engine without giving any attention to the furnace and boiler.
On the Relative Sensitiveness of Thermometers differing in Size, Shape, or
Materials. By G. J. Symons, Sec. Met. Soc.
The author exhibited a series of 14 very carefully made thermometers, all differing
either in the size or shape of the bulbs, or in the materials with which they were filled,
some being filled with mercury and some with alcohol. They had been specially
constructed with a view to testing the relative sensitiveness of different patterns and
sizes. The results of the experiments had been printed in the ‘ Quarterly Journal
of the Meteorological Society,’ and were briefly the following :—that very large
spherical mercurial bulbs are very little better than those filled with alcohol, but
that with small bulbs mercury is much the most sensitive. The new minimum
thermometers (the bifurcated and the double cylinder) introduced respectively by
Mr. Casella and Mr. Hicks, were highly praised. The author said that he brought
them before the Section mainly in order to offer the loan of the entire series to any
experimentalist, with more leisure than himself, who would develop and complete
the inquiry which he had begun.
On a New Form of Rain-gauge. By G. J. Symons, Sec. Met. Soc.
The author exhibited and explained a new form of rain-gauge designed by him-
self to facilitate accurate observations of the rate at which rain falls in heavy storms,
and thus supply data on a subject of equal interest from a meteorological and engi-
neering point of view. The arrangement is extremely simple. The rain is collected
in a funnel 8 inches in diameter, is then led into a cylinder in which a copper float
rests on a water-surface. As rain falls the float rises, and a fine cord passing round
a horizontal axis causes it to revolve once for each inch of rain. At one extremity of
this axis are two hands attached to separate wheels of such diameter, that while one
revolves only once the other revolves five times. The former is the one attached
to the axis, and thus one hand completes a rotation for one inch, and the other for
five inches. Behind these hands is an opal-glass dial about one foot in diameter ;
so that the appearance of the instrument is that of a clock, the minute- and hour-
hands being replaced by hundredths of an inch and inches. The resemblance is car-
ried further by the fact that arrangements have been made for the dial being illumi-
nated at night by gas or oil. The author expressed much satisfaction with the way
in which his design had been carried out by the maker, Mr, Pastorelli.
INSTRUMENTS &c.
On an Apparatus for showing the Interference of Sound,
By Prof. W. F. Barrerr,
On Tinprovements in Equatorial Clocks. By Howarp Gruss.
1874, f
42 REPORT—1874.
Description of a Trompe or Blowing-Engine for giving a supply of Coal-gus
under Pressure for Sensitive Flames. By F, Herpert MarsHatt.
The apparatus consists of a modification of the ordinary Catalan Trompe,
whereby pressure is imparted to a stream of gas by the velocity of a fall of water
carrying the gas with it.
A vertical glass tube, 6 feet long and 3-inch bore, is enlarged in a funnel-shape
at the top to about 1 inch; into this fits tightly a cork through which pass two
tubes of about } inch internal diameter, connected, one with the water-main
and the other with the gas-main, the tubes passing just through the cork on
the inside.
The lower end of the large vertical tube passes through an air-tight cork to
within an inch of the bottom of a 3-pint bottle.
A siphon with india-rubber connexion and a screw pinch-cock, having a rather
larger bore than the vertical tube, passes into the same oldie, as far removed from
the principal tube as possible, and leads to a sink or waste-pipe.
A third tube of about j-inch bore passes through the cork about 3 inch into the
bottle: this tube is connected with the sensitive jet, either directly or, better,
with the intervention of a regulator in which a few inches of benzol take the
lace of the water usually employed in such apparatus. The regulator should be
arge, and the tube leading into it rather less than j-inch bore, to obtain greater
steadiness of flame.
The working of the apparatus is frequently improved by inserting a loose piece
of glass tube, about 3 inch long and of such diameter as to remain supported in its
position, at the point where the long vertical tube begins to expand. The check
imparted to the stream of water by this contraction seems to assist the formation
of water-pistons, so to speak, in the principal tube, instead of allowing the water to
flow down the sides of the tube in a film without carrying gas with it, as some-
times happens if the supply of water be not sufficient.
The connexions being made, and all joints air-tight, water and gas are turned
on from the mains, and the siphon started in action by holding the finger on the
sensitive jet for a moment. When all air is expelled from the bottle and
regulator, the gas is lighted, and the flame is adjusted to any desired degree of
sensitiveness by regulating the supply of water and gas and the outflow from the
siphon, care being taken to keep 2 or 3 inches of water in the bottle.
On the Adoption ( for the general purposes of Navigation) of Charts on Gnomonie
Projection instead of on Mercator’s Projection. By G. J. Morrison.
I,
1. The great circle course or shortest distance between any two points on the
earth’s surface is shown by a straight line on the chart. By means of a ruler,
therefore, it is easy to find out in one moment the position of the great circle
track along the whole course from point to point, and thus to see at a glance if
there be any obstacles in the way, whereas the plotting of a great circle track on a
Mercator chart involves the expenditure of a great deal of time and trouble.
2. When it is impossible to adopt the great circle course on account of obstacles
in the way, it is easy in a few moments to lay down the best practicable course,
whereas it is very difficult to do so on a Mercator chart.
3. The measurement of distances on a Mercator chart is somewhat difficult,
whereas on these maps distances can be measured with a transparent scale or a
pair of compasses in a few moments.
4, The relative position of the various points on the earth’s surface is more
correctly shown on these maps than on those of Mercator. i
The great circle course appears to be the shortest and natural route, whereas on
an ordinary chart it appears to be much longer than the Mercator route, and
seamen get a better idea from these charts of the proper route to follow than they
do from a Mercator chart.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 43
IL,
It may be objected that :—
1. Only a small portion of the earth can be got on one sheet, and there is a
difficulty in drawing a great circle course between points situated on separate
sheets. This is true; but by taking some pains in arranging the maps, as has been
done in this case, and by repeating portions of the earth on two or more sheets,
matters have been so arranged that scarcely any voyage can be named in which the
ports of arrival and departure cannot be found, either on the same sheet or on
opposite sheets, in either of which cases the course can be laid down instantly; and
even in the rare case of two ports being found on adjacent sheets only, the course
can be laid down infinitely more easily than it can on a Mercator chart.
2. It is impossible to find the bearing of one point from another, as can be done
on the Mercator chart by a compass and a parallel ruler.
This really is no disadvantage. No one ought to sail along a curved course, and
no one need care to know any thing about such a course. If this objection be
seriously urged, it only proves that Mercator’s charts have put false ideas into
people’s heads, and that other charts are required to replace them,
Negretti and Zambra’s Patent Recording and Deep-sea Thermometer.
J i] ap
By Henry Neererrt.
This thermometer differs from all other registering or recording thermometers in
the following important particulars :—
1, The thermometer contains only mercury without any admixture of alcohol or
other fluid.
if It has no indices or springs, and its indications are by the column of mercury
only,
3. It can be carried in any position, and cannot possibly he put out of order
except by actual breakage of the instrument.
And, lastly, it will indicate and record the exact temperature at any hour of the
day or night, or the exact temperature at any depth of the sea, irrespective of
either warm or cold currents or stratum through which the thermometer may
have to pass in its descent or ascent; this last very special quality renders this
thermometer superior for deep-sea temperatures to any others ; those which are now
used in the ‘Challenger’ sounding-expedition are liable to give erroneous indica-
tions, because their indices may slip and they may become otherwise deranged; and
under certain conditions of temperature it is not possible by the old thermometers
to obtain true temperatures at certain depths. Prof. Wyville Thomson says, in
his work ‘ Depths of the Sea’ :—
“T ought to mention that in taking the bottom temperature with Six’s thermo-
meter the instrument simply indicates the lowest temperature to which it has been
subjected, and not necessarily that of the bottom itself;’ and in confirmation Mr,
_ Negretti quoted a report to the Admiralty from Captain G. 8. Nares, of H.M.8,
‘Challenger,’ dated Melbourne, March 25, 1874 :—
“ Ata short distance from the pack, the surface-water rose to 82° F., but at. a depth
of 40 fathoms we always found the temperature to be 29°; this continued to 300
fathoms, the depth in which most of the icebergs float, after which there is a stratum
of slightly warmer water of 33° or 34°. As the thermometers had to pass through
these two belts of water before reaching the bottom, the indices registered those tem-_
peratures, and it was impossible to obtain the exact temperature of the bottom whilst
near the ice, but the observations made in lower latitudes show that it is about 31°,
More exact results could not have been obtained even had Mr. Siemens’s apparatus
been on board.”
The thermometer described, the author believes, will be found free from the
defects of the thermometers now in use in the ‘Challenger’ and other sounding-
expeditions.
he bulb of the thermometer is protected so as to resist the pressure of the ocean,
which varies according to depth, that of three thousand fathoms hea shout three
Jf. REPORT—1874.
tongs pressure on the square inch, The manner of protecting the bulb was invented
by Messrs. Negretti and Zambra in 1857 (at which time a number were made for
the late Admiral FitzRoy), and has been lately copied and
brought out as a new invention by other persons.
The construction of the instrument for deep-sea temperatures
is as follows :—
In shape it is like a siphon with parallel legs, all in one
piece and in continuous communication. The scale of the
thermometer is pivoted on a centre, and being attached in a
perpendicular position to a simple apparatus, is lowered to any
depth that may be desired. its descent the thermometer
acts as an ordinary instrument, the mercury rising or falling
according to the temperature of the stratum through which it
passes; but so soon as the descent ceases, and a reverse motion
is given to the line, so as to pull the thermometer towards the
surface, the instrument turns once on its centre, first bulb
uppermost, and afterwards bulb downwards. ‘This causes the
mercury, which was in the left-hand column, first to pass into
the dilated siphon bend at the top, and thence into the right-
hand tube, where it remains, indicating on a graduated scale
the exact temperature at the time it was turned over. The
woodcut shows the position of the mercury after the instru-
ment has been thus turned on its centre. A is the bulb; B the
outer coating or protected cylinder; C is the space of rarefied
air, which is reduced if the outer casing be compressed ; D is a
small glass plug on the principle of Negretti and Zambra’s
Maximum Thermometer, which cuts off, in the moment of
turning, the mercury in the tube from that of the bulb, thereby
ensuring that none but the mercury in the tube can be trans-
ferred into the indicating column; E is an enlargement made
in the bend so as to enable the mercury to pass quickly from
one tube to another in revolving; and F is the indicating tube
or thermometer proper. In its action, as soon as the thermo-
meter is put in motion, and immediately the tube has acquired
a slightly oblique position, the mercury breaks off at the
point D, runs into the curved and enlarged portion KE, and
eventually falls into the tube F when this tube resumes its
original perpendicular position.
The contrivance for turning the thermometer over in the sea,
either at the bottom or at any depth which may be desired,
may be described as a vertical propeller to which the thermo-
meter is pivoted; this is fixed to a line, and as long as the
apparatus is descending the propeller remains still; but as soon
as the line is pulled up and the ascent commences, it begins to
revolve and continues to do so until the thermometer is turned
over (which it does in less than two fathoms), and then
remains fixed and immovable.
For atmospheric purposes and observatories the thermometer
is turned over by means of a simple clockwork; two thermo-
meters fitted as hygrometers can be turned over as easily as
one; and it is suggested that this instrument might supersede
the large, cumbersome, and expensive thermographs at present
in use.
LONDON
& ZAMBRA
=
he
u
&
10]
W
z
A Four-Pendulum Apparatus. By 8. C. Trstry.
At the Bradford Meeting the author described a two-pendulum apparatus for
drawing rectangular harmonic curves. In the construction of that apparatus two
defects were present—each vibrator working on the other as a centre, the tracer
described portions of two circular ares; but when each was vibrated separately,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 45
instead of straight lines, it gers the resulting figures a peculiar twist. To over-
come this defect a double link motion has been adopted :—
Pe
B
CY er,
E
|
Pe 8 |
AB and CD are two rods moving freely on their centre, E. At the points A, B, C,
and D are ball-and-socket joints connected with the tops of four pendulums,
P,, P., P,, Pj, by means of wire arms.
e pendulums can be set in motion either in pairs or in threes or all four at once,
the resulting motions of the tracer E producing very curious figures.
By this arrangement, if the two opposite pendulums (say P, and P, or P, and P,)
are set in motion, the other two being fixed, and a strip of paper drawn under the tracer,
a modification of the curves described by Mr. A. E. Donkin in last year’s Report will
be produced.
CHEMISTRY.
Address by Professor A. Crum Brown, M.D., P.RS.E., F.CS., President of
the Section.
One hundred years have elapsed since the discovery of oxygen by Priestley. Per-
haps we should say rediscovery, for there is no doubt that about one hundred years
earlier Mayow prepared from nitre nearly pure oxygen, and observed and recorded
some of its most marked properties. Mayow’s discovery, however, led to nothing,
while Priestley’s was the most important step in that reconstruction of speculative
chemistry which was commenced by Black and carried on with surprising energy
and thoroughness by Lavoisier and his associates. I shall not detain you by enu-
merating the ways in which this discovery has affected chemistry both practical and
speculative. The preeminent position to which oxygen was at once elevated, and
which it so long retained, males this altogether unnecessary. I wish, however, to
point out one character of the phlogistic controversy which sharply distinguishes it
from many others. The truth represented by the theory of Phlogiston was not re-
cognized with sufficient distinctness by the supporters of that theory to give them
any chance of success in opposition to a band of devoted adherents of a view which
was clearly understood by all. The phlogistists were completely defeated, and the
theory ceased to exist. It has been left for chemical antiquaries to pick out, with
difficulty and uncertainty, a meaning from the ruins.
I have mentioned this character because I wish to draw your attention to ancther
more recent controversy, the result of which was very different.
46 REPORT—187 4.
The questions as to chemical constitution raised about forty years ago by Dumas
and the new French school, in opposition to Berzelius, may now be said to be prac-
tically settled. The great majority of chemists are agreed as to what is to he
understood by chemical constitution, and also as to the nature and amount of evi-
dence required in order to determine the constitution of a substance. How has this
agreement been produced? Some historical writers seem to wish us to believe that
it is the result of the triumph of the ideas of Dumas, Gerhardt, and Laurent, and
the defeat of the dualistic radical theory of Berzelius; that the arguments of Ber-
zelius and his followers were only useful as giving occasion for a more full and
convincing proof of the unitary substitution theory than would otherwise have been
called for; that, in fact, the adherents of Dualism played the part (not untrequently
supposed to be that of the conservative party in polities) of checking and criticising
the successive developments of truth, and thus allowing them time to ripen.
In opposition to the view thus broadly stated, I would place another, and for the
sake of contrast shall state it also in perhaps too broad a form. That the two
theories, the dualistic radical theory and the unitary substitution theory, were both
true and both imperfect, that they underwent gradual development, scarcely in-
fluenced by each other, until they have come to be almost identical in reference to
points where they at one time seemed most opposed.
I have said that the development of the one theory was scarcely influenced by
that of the other. Of course the facts discovered by both parties were common
property, and the development of both theories depended upon the discovery of these
facts; but the explanations of facts and the reasoning from them given by each party
seemed to the other scarcely worthy of serious consideration and were treated as
matter of ridicule. And the habit of mind created by this mode of viewing the
opposed theory has rendered it difficult for those who were engaged in the contro-
versy on either side to see how nearly the two theories have now come to coinci-
dence. Their language still remains different; but as the facts are the same for both,
it is not difficult for a neutral critic to translate from the one to the other; and if
we do so we shall see that there is much real agreement between the two modes of
representing chemical ideas, historically derived, the one from Berzelius, the other
from Dumas, Laurent, and Gerhardt.
In both, chemical constitution is regarded as the order in which the constituents
are wuited in the compound; and the same fundamental notion is indicated in the one
by reference to proximate constituents, in the other by the concatenation of atoms.
To show that thisis so, and that the fundamental notion can be arrived at from the
dualistic as well as from the unitary starting-point, I shall cite an illustrative case.
Kvery student of chemical history will remember the view of the constitution of tri-
chloracetic acid propounded by Berzelius, and afterwards supplemented by a similar
view of the constitution of acetic acid and an explanation of the likeness of some
of the properties of these two substances. This has sometimes been spoken of as a
subterfuge of a not very creditable kind, by means of which Berzelius apparently
saved his consistency while really yielding to the arguments of his opponents. But
if, instead of looking at it in the light of the substitution controversy, we consider it
in itself as a contribution to speculative chemistry, we at once recognize in it a
statement, in Berzelian language, of the views we now hold as to the constitution of
these acids. The view was that acetic acid is a compound of oxalic acid and methyl,
trichloracetic acid a compound of oxalic acid and the sesquichloride of carbon.
They differ considerably from each other, because the “ copulze ” (methyl and sesqui-
chloride of carbon respectively) are different; but their resemblance is strongly
marked because they contain the same active constituent, oxalic acid; and most of
the prominent characters of the substances depend upon it, and not upon the copula.
Let us first free this statement from what we may call archaisms of language. It
will then assume something like the following form :—The carbon in acetic acid is
equally divided between two proximate constituents, one of which is an oxide, the
other a hydride of carbon. ‘'Trichloracetic acid similarly contains an oxide and a
chloride of carbon, between which the carbon is equally divided. The oxide is the
same in both acids, and is that oxide which occurs in oxalic acid. The hydride
and the chloride have the composition of the substances, the formule of which are
C,H, and C, Cl, respectively. Oxalic acid undergoes chemical change much more
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 47
readily than the corresponding hydride or chloride; and therefore the chemical
character of acetic and of trichloracetic acids depends much more on the oxidized than
on the other constituent, and they thus have a marked resemblance. The oxidized
constituent is united to the other in a manner different from that in which oxalic
acid is united to bases in the oxalates, inasmuch as, while the basic water of
hydrated oxalic acid is displaced when oxalic acid unites with a base, in hydrated
acetic and trichloracetic acids there is the same proportion between the basic water
and the oxidized carbon as there is in oxalic acid.
Now has not this a great resemblauce to the view entertained by most modern
chemists, that acetic acid is a compound of the radical carboxyl (half a molecule of
oxalic acid) and the radical methyl (half a molecule of methyl gas), that trichlor-
acetic acid similarly contains the same radical carboxyl and the radical C Cl,, and
that the prominent chemical properties of these bodies depend upon their contain-
pip Mette and that they therefore resemble each other ?
he modern view contains nothing inconsistent with that of Berzelius; but it no
doubt contains something more: it contains an explanation of the difference between
the manner in which carboxyl is united to methyl in acetic acid, and the manner in
which oxalic acid is united to bases in the oxalates. But it will surely be admitted
that Berzelius was here far ahead of his opponents—so far ahead, that they alto-
gether failed to see his meaning, and looked upon his argument as a clumsy device.
The treatment by Berzelius of the constitution of the sulpho-acids furnishes a
aia, similar case. These are now regarded as compounds of the radical
O, OH (which we may call sulphoxyl). This radical is half a molecule of hypo-
sulphuric acid ; and Berzelius considered them coupled compounds of hyposulphurie
acid, adopting at once the view first brought forward by Kolbe in his classical me-
moir on the sulphite of perchloride of carbon and the acids derived from it.
I might pursue the history of the carbon- and sulpho-acids further, and trace the
development of the theory of their constitution through the discoveries of Kolbe,
and his beautiful application to the cases of carbon and sulphur of Frankland’s far-
sighted speculation on the constitution of the organo-metallic bodies, pointing out
the relation of Kolbe’s views of the constitution of acids, alcohols, aldehydes, and
ketones to the Berzelian theory on the one hand, and to the opinions of modern
chemists on the other; but the greater part of such an historical sketch has been
given very recently by Kolbe himself in the ‘Journal ftir praktische Chemie,’ and
I may therefore omit it.
It would be easy to bring forward cases to show that our present views can be
directly derived from the substitution theory and the types of Dumas and Gerhardt,
through the complications of multiple and mixed types and the labyrinthine
formule to which these gave rise, to the wonderfully simple and comprehensive
system of Kekulé ; but that is unnecessary, as this development has been fully and
ably described by more than one thoroughly competent writer.
We have been discussing a case in which Berzelius was right in considering a
compound of carbon, oxygen, and chlorine as composed of two parts—an oxide and
a chloride of carbon. It is only just that we should take some notice of cases, at
first sight similar, in which modern chemists would be inclined to think that he was
wrong. This is the more necessary, as an examination of these cases will enable
us to see what was the really valuable contribution made to speculative chemistry
by the substitution theory.
Compounds containing three elements were formulated in two different ways by
Berzelius :—
Ist. One of the elements was represented as combined with a radical composed
of the other two, as:—hydrocyanic acid, H,.C,N,; ether, C, H,,.0.
2nd. The ternary compound was represented as composed of two binary com-
pounds, having one element common, as :—caustic potash, KO, H, 0; chromochloric
acid, 2Cr O,, Cr Cl,.
Phosgene gas was at first formulated in the former of these ways as CO, Cl,; but
latterly he was forced, in consistency, to give up all radicals containing oxygen or
other strongly electro-negative element*, and to write the formula of phosgene gas
* In 1838 Berzelius was inclined to regard C, O,, to which he gave the name “ oxaty],”
as the radical of oxalic acid and oxamide,
43 REPORI—1874.
CO,,CCl,. Similarly, in every case where a positive element or radical is combined
with two negative elements or radicals, he represented the compound as composed
of two binary compounds, thus—chloride of acetyl, 2C, H, O,, C, H, Cl,, as a com-
pound of acetic acid and the corresponding terchloride.
This was in perfect consistency with the mode in which ternary compounds con-
taining one negative and two positive elements or radicals were formulated, as
caustic potash, KO, H, O, sulphate of copper, CuO, SO,, &c.; but it lacks the prac-
tical justification which can be given for the formula C, H,, C, O, for acetic acid ;
for phosgene acts readily on water, forming carbonic and hydrochloric acids, an
action which does not take place with perchloride of carbon; and it is not easy to
see why the latter substance should be more readily attacked by water when com-
bined with carbonic acid than when free. This difference did not escape the
attention of Berzelius, and led him to distinguish two modes of chemical union :—
Ist. Where the constituents were held together by the electro-chemical force, and
wholly or partially neutralized each other, as in the oxygen and sulphur salts; and
2nd, where a so-called ‘‘ copula” was attached by an unknown force to a substance
without greatly modifying its chemical activity. The distinction seems arbitrary ;
but it was not, as is usually supposed, a mere artificial bulwark to protect the
electro-chemical theory ; it has a real and very important meaning, a meaning which
the development of the substitution theory enables us to explain.
The phenomena of electrolysis, upon which the Berzelian system is based, bring
forward into great prominence one of the chemical units, viz. the equivalent; and
the preeminent position of oxygen as the most electro-negative element made it
most natural to select the atom of oxygen as the standard of equivalence, so that
an equivalent of any element or radical was defined as that quantity of it which
is equivalent to one atom of oxygen. Gay-Lussac’s law of gaseous volumes,
which was adopted by Berzelius, and which, by a curious accident, happens to be
true for all elements gaseous at ordinary temperatures, led to the formule H, and
Cl, for the equivalents of hydrogen and chlorine; but although these formule
explicitly indicate the divisibility of the equivalents of these elements, this divisi-
bility was not recognized, and integral numbers of equivalents were alone tolerated.
Thus hydrochloric acid was written H,Cl,, ammonia N, H,, &c., and the etymological
meaning of the word atom was soon lost. The use of barred letters to indicate two
atoms or one equivalent of such elements as hydrogen and chlorine further contri-
buted to hide the important fact of their divisibility.
The first great result of the substitution theory was to change the unit of equiva-
lence, and to take as the standard the atom of hydrogen or of chlorine instead of
that of oxygen; and although it would be most unjust to forget the services of
Dumas, Gerhardt, Laurent, and Odling in this matter, the credit of removing the
bars from H, Cl, and their comrades, and allowing the hitherto chained partners
to walk at liberty, undoubtedly belongs mainly to our distinguished colleague and
master Professor Williamson.
The establishment of the water type, or (to put it in another form) the proof that
the atom of oxygen contains two units of oxygen, inseparably united but capable of
separate action, led the way to the explanation of all the difficulties which beset the
theory of radicals and copulze. It at once explained how two oxides or two sulphides
unite together*; and the idea of “ polybasic,” or, as we should now say, polyad
atoms and radicals, was soon used to explain the existence of polybasic acids, double
salts, acichlorides, and many other kinds of ternary compounds.
But a fact does not cease to exist because it is explained. Quicklime and water
unite together, although we can now explain how they do so; and a useful purpose
may still be served by the enumeration, as in the old dualistic formule, of the pairs
of united equivalents. Although some of these equivalents belong to the same
atoms, it is nevertheless true that they are united in pairs. Caustic potash might
thus be formulated, KO:, HO: or 3(K,O, H,O); phosgene gas, 3(CO,, CCl,); and
chlorochromie acid, }(2CrC,, CrCl,). These formule are not so well suited for
general use as those now current; but the consideration of them as accurate repre-
sentations of facts may enable us to see that the copule of Berzelius had a real and
* Tt does not explain the existence of double chlorides, bromides, &c. These compounds,
apparently so similar to the double oxides and sulphides, are still unexplained.
a
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 49
yaluable meaning. Take, for instance, the formula of acetic acid, H,C—CO—OH,
or 3CH,, 2C00,, 3H,0, 4U,; it is this last term which indicates the coupled cha-
racter of the compound. If we look upon acetic acid as a compound of carbon,
it is a coupled compound because all the equivalents of carbon in it do not be-
long to the same atom, and the two atoms of carbon are directly united together,
and replacement of the equivalents united to one of these atoms does not very
greatly affect the function or chemical character of the equivalents united to the
other.
I have perhaps spent too much of your time upon these historical questions. Let
us now shortly consider what is the present state of our knowledge as to chemical
constitution. This I have already defined as the order in which the constituents
are united in the compound. We may indeed use metaphorical language, and speak
of the relative position of atoms, perhaps deluding ourselves into the notion that
such language is more than metaphorical ; but the phenomena of combination and
decomposition, although we cannot doubt that they depend solely upon the relative
position and dynamical relations of the atoms, are not alone sufficient to prove even
that atoms exist. Our knowledge of the intimate structure of matter comes from
another souree—from the study of the properties rather than of the changes of sub-
stances, and of the transformations of energy which accompany the Lanarntatere
of matter.
This is strictly a branch of Chemistry: the aim of chemistry is to connect the
properties of substances and the changes they undergo with their composition,
taking this word in its widest sense; and we must not allow our friends in
Section A to cut owr science in two and appropriate the half of it. We all frankly
admit that Chemistry is a branch of Physics; but it isso as a whole—no section of
it is more purely physical than all the rest. To accept a narrower definition
of Chemistry is to reduce ourselves to the position which the collector occupies
among naturalists; it is to admit that it is our business to provide part of
the materials out of which a science in which we have no share may be constructed
by others. Butwe need not fear that this so-called physical side of Chemistry will
ever be divorced from the study of chemical change. The names of Faraday and
Graham among those who have left us, of Andrews among those who are still at
work, are sufficient proof of this; and a study of their researches will conclusively
show that great results can be looked for in this direction only from a physicist
who is also a chemist.
There are three special directions in which such investigations have already
influenced chemical theory :—Ist. Electrolysis, which has confirmed the equivalent
as a chemical unit, has proved that equivalents unite in pairs, thus forming the
basis of the electro-chemical theory, and has shown us how to estimate the amount
of energy involved in the union of a given pair of equivalents. 2nd. Vapowr-
density, from which Avogadro inferred the law of molecular volumes (since proved
by Clerk-Maxwell), which has given us the molecule as a chemical unit, and
formed the basis of the Unitary theory. 38rd. Specific heat, from which Dulong
and Petit inferred their empirical law, which gives us the most satisfactory
physical definition of the atom as a chemical unit.
‘We naturally turn to the future, and try to guess whence the next great revolution
willcome. For although periods of quiet have their use, as affording time for filling
up the blank schedules furnished by the last speculative change, such periods have
seldom been long, and each has been shorter than its predecessor.
But it is impossible to make a certain forecast: looking back, we see a logical
sequence in the history of chemical speculation; and no doubt the next step
will appear, after it has been taken, to follow as naturally from the present
position. One thing we can distinctly see—we are struggling towards a theory of
Chemistry. Such a theory we do not possess. What we are sometimes pleased
to dignify with that name is a collection of generalizations of various degrees of
imperfection. We cannot attain to a real theory of Chemistry until we are able to
connect the science by some hypothesis with the general theory of Dynamics. No
attempt of this kind has hitherto been made ; and it is difficult to see how any such
attempt can be made until we know something in reference to the absolute size,
mass, and shape of molecules and atoms, the position of the atoms in the molecule,
50 REPORT—1874.
and the nature of the forces acting upon them. Whence can we look for such
knowledge ?
The phenomena of gaseous diffusion, of gaseous friction, and of the propagation
of heat through gases have already given us an approximation to the size and mass
of the molecules of gases. It is not unreasonable to suppose that a comparative
study of the specific heat of gases and vapours may lead to some approximate
knowledge as to the shape of their molecules ; and a comparison of such approximate
results with the chemical constitution of the substances may lead to an hypothesis
which will lay the foundation of a real theory of Chemistry.
Chemistry will then become a branch of applied Mathematics ; but it will not
cease to be an experimental science. Mathematics may enable us retrospectively to
justify results obtained by experiment, may point out useful lines of research, and
even sometimes predict entirely novel discoveries, but will not revolutionize our
laboratories. Mathematical will not replace Chemical analysis.
We do not know when the change will tale place, or whether it will be gradual
or sudden ; but no one who believes in the progress of human knowledge and in the
consistency of Nature can doubt that ultimately the theory of Chemistry and of all
other physical sciences will be absorbed into the one theory of Dynamics.
On the Composition of an Inflammable Gas issuing from below the Silt-bed in
Belfast. By Dr, Anprews, [.2.S.
In sinking for a well upon the premises of Messrs. Cantrell and Cochrane, in
George’s Lane, Police Square, Belfast, after having passed through a deposit of
silt to the depth of 33 feet, a layer of gravel was reached, 7 feet in thickness,
and containing a quantity of organic débris. It rested upon a thick deposit of very
tenacious clay. On entering the gravel-bed, a large flow of water occurred, which
rose to within 4 feet of the surface of the ground, and interrupted the operation of
boring, till a pump, worked by a small steam-engine, was erected, which, so long
as it was in action, kept the boring free from water as far as the surface of the
gravel-bed. A workman, having lowered a light to examine the bottom of the
well, was surprised to see a lambent flame playing over the surface. On examina-
tion this was found to arise from a disengagement of inflammable gas, which had
accumulated between the lower surface of the bed of silt and the layer of gravel.
An iron pipe, terminating in a funnel-shaped mouth, about one foot in diameter,
was now sunk till it reached the gas-stratum ; and the water in the well was kept
by pumping at such a level that an extra pressure of about one inch of water was
maintained upon the gas below. The gas now flowed freely, at the rate of about
40 cubic inches per minute, through the upper end of the iron pipe, and, when
ignited, burned with a yellow flame, which could scarcely be distinguished from
that of ordinary coal-gas.
Two portions of the gas were carefully collected by displacement, the stream of
gas being allowed to pass till the whole of the atmospheric air in the vessels was
completely swept away. The connecting tubes were then carefully sealed, and the
pas was afterwards analyzed in the laboratory of Queen’s College.
A measured volume of the gas, standing over mercury, was exposed to the action,
first, of caustic potash, and afterwards of pyrogallic acid, and the residual gas was
afterwards analyzed with the following results :—
Vv. TT | B. C.
Atmospheric air ............65 78:7 12:2 7706 308°8
After addition of residual gas....} 1205 12:4 7715 2722
After addition of oxygen........ 190:0 12:8 771°8 221°8
Ater CON. ese Teneo s te yc 1265 13:0 7717 271°6
After action of potash.......... 90:0 11°8 7720 299°7
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 51
In this Table V is the volume of the gas, T its temperature in Centigrade
degrees, B the height of the barometer in millimetres, and C the height of the
mercury in the tube in which the observations were made. From these data, and
the results of the previous action of the caustic potash and pyrogallic acid, it fol-
lows that the composition of the gas was :—
Marsh-gas (C H,).....+-.. nchioda ga see bans eed O
Carbonic acid ..... ae WEA he 8) GOAL Ede ib dope a4
Oxypen) 3 Mipsis. ts coms ohana oot aonedcon 1-06
Nitroreha traits oslnat. 062 aw Resayhin opts on ghar (O
The density of the gas (air=1) was found to be 0661, which corresponds nearly
to the foregoing composition. The gas was inodorous, and contained no compound
of carbon and hydrogen except marsh-gas.
From this analysis it is evident that the gas formed in this subterranean sheet
of water isin all respects the same as that which is produced in stagnant pools
containing leaves and other vegetable matters,
On an Aspirator. By Dr. AnpRuws, F.2.S.
On the Joint Action of Carbonic Acid and Cyanogen on Oxide of Iron and
on Metallic Iron. By I, Lowratan Bett, F.RS., FCN.
In the operation of smelting iron the reducing agent for all practical purposes is
carbonic oxide. The power this substance possesses of depriving an ore of iron of its
oxygen is greatly weakened by the presence of the resulting carbonic acid. From
my own experiments, it would appear that when one third of the carbon in the gases
of a blast-furnace is raised to its highest state of oxidation, further action is so re-
tarded as virtually to place a limit on the economy of fuel in the process in question.
Besides this reducing property exercised by carbonic oxide, there is a second one
which, like the former, takes place in the upper and cooler parts of the furnace, viz.
the splitting up of itself in considerable quantities into carbon and carbonic acid by
contact with iron. This rearrangement of elements is accompanied by an eyolu-
tion of heat, and at the same time returns a quantity of carbon to the operation,
Here also, when carbonic acid exceeds certain limits, this reaction ceases.
In certain smelting-works in Austria, where charcoal is employed, white pig is
Ge uest with a smaller quantity of fuel than I would have supposed possible,
eeping the law just mentioned in view. This difference might be supposed due to
some peculiarity in the ore itself, which was of the spathose variety. It was found,
however, when coke was substituted for charcoal in a properly constructed furnace,
haying a height of 60 feet, the fuel required rose from 14 to nearly 24 ewt. to the
ton of metal, which is something more than that required in this country.
In a furnace in the county of Durham, where coke was exclusively used, I
found cyanogen combined with sodium and potassium exist in more considerable
quantities than had been hitherto suspected. Supposing it possible that these
cyanides might be more abundant in charcoal-furnaces, where the fuel is richer in
alkaline substances than is the case with mineral fuel, I had the following experi-
ments performed in the laboratory of the Clarence Iron Works by Mr. Rocholl, to
determine the effect relatively of carbonic acid in restraining the reducing and
carbon-depositing powers of carbonic oxide and cyanogen.
Carbonic acid and cyanogen, carefully prepared and dried, were introduced in
measured quantities into a mercurial gas-holder. The specimens of oxide of iron
were exposed in porcelain tubes to a current of the mixed gases, all air having been
previously expelled. Heat was applied by means of a Hofmann’s gas-furnace,
and the temperature of the interior of the tube was ascertained by means of the
electric pyrometer of Dr. Siemens, which during the experiment did not indicate
a greater fluctuation than 25°C,
I formerly ascertained that when equal volumes of carbonic oxide and carbonic
acid were passed over peroxide of iron at a red heat, it was impossible to remove
oxygen balow that required to form protoxide of the metal; and in like manner,
52 REPORT—1874.
when metallic iron in the form of sponge was similarly treated, it was transformed
into porous oxide. In neither case was any deposited carbon produced.
In the present trials, the proportions of cyanogen and carbonic acid first employed
were one volume of the former and six of the latter, because in such a mixture the
relation of oxygen to carbon is the same as that subsisting in equal volumes of the
two gaseous oxides of carbon which, as just stated, were incapable of reducing iron
to the metallic state.
Experiment 1.—Such a mixture (1 of Cy+6 of CO,) was passed through the
tube containing no oxide of iron at a temperature of 814° C., which was gradually
lowered. The gas as it escaped was so nearly absorbed by potash as to be
accounted for by a trace of atmospheric air remaining in the apparatus; for the
slight trace of unabsorbed gas burnt with the characteristic blue flame of carbonic
oxide. It was therefore inferred that heat alone effected no change in this mix-
ture of the two gases.
Experiment 2.—A similar mixture (1 Cy+6 CO,) was passed over pure peroxide
of iron at a temperature varying from 685° to711° C. Large quantities of nitrogen
and carbonic oxide were given off during the whole of the experiment, accompanied
by cyanogen and carbonic acid escaping unchanged.
The original weight of the ferric oxide was.......... 16465 gramme.
After an exposure of 13 minutes, during which 1:28 litre
of the mixed gases had passed through the tube, it
SWVC Ue GC pete ast cates stndelinib ka. o1sce Sint oyate 6 7s.0ce lee ofa lagapnes 15295 A
After a lapse of 2% hours, and after 8°5 litres of the gases
had passed yatiweiphedss.t. vif siewlet Stee ilelekles onl 1:5855 F
_ On analysis the substance exposed was found to consist, for every 100 parts of
iron, of—
Tron in the metallic state ........ csc cece eee . 56:3
Dryoniasian OXIA $., cecapnaieraisraleleorsa dein als yradebatye .. 43:7
Oxygen...... Rex wisi Viel ferro ieih ad ite eto tat 9:1
Cainbonyadieediirers:tstsyeaiisiste crabeloseieearcias <ictemiarerals 28:5
In this case 799 per cent. of the original oxygen has been removed.
Experiment 3.—Spongy iron was now exposed to the same mixture (1 Cy+6 CO,)
at a temperature of 712° to 726°C, The issuing gases contained carbonic oxide and
nitrogen, as in the previous experiment.
The original iron weighed............ SR CMIRR ER. ORE 1:314 gramme.
In 56 min. 6:7 litres of the mixed gases had passed through
the tube, the iron was found to weigh.............. 1:596 +
In 2 hrs. 20 min. 14 litres had been used, and the pro-
UGH EWCTE HEM! Lik cise. litsmyaueeiers voltetelerels winllairiele we eeaters 1600) so;
For every 100 parts of iron it consisted of—
Tron in the metallic state ........sseeeereeees 58'7
Tron as an oxide ..... afar’ Getepher bacwediee 41°3
Oxygen..... cia Sines ook xe stwrathe sae bats vier totetet 96
Warbon. berr{« Fie 2earste biviosy ow dae er Gee Me sak el
There is such a similarity in the composition of the products in experiments 2
and 3 as to render it probable that at the same temperature, when about 57 or 58
per cent. of the iron exists as metal, and the remainder consists of 8 equivalents of
iron united to 6 equivalents of oxygen, further action ceases, whether iron or its
peroxide be the substance employed.
The superior power of cyanogen over carbonic oxide to keep in check the oxi-
dizing tendency of carbonic acid haying been demonstrated, the latter was now
increased in quantity.
Experiment 4.—Pure peroxide of iron was exposed to a current of 1 yolume
ovanegen and 15 volumes of carbonic acid, the temperature varying from 801° to
The issuing gases again contained, as before, nitrogen and carbonic oxide.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 53
The oxide employed weighed ...........0c0.eeseuee 1:6700 gramme.
In 15 hr. 8:2 litres of gas had passed over, when the
substance weighed ........ RI Sa ncletche up ecele ce 15955 cp,
In 2°5 hrs. 16°5 litres of the gases had gone over, and it
Tp CLT Ae ria tee cacacicacicaci ee Se artes 1-561 Ne
For every 100 parts of iron it consisted of—
Tron in the metallic state ............ Biers opyere = 65
TRON AS; ATM OXI, s, cis: 01545%> heyeiplayteusti hate) Smiwiagset esis 93-4
ESV MAT g cscpslecepeieht s1al syoiensyeusuagaysPorskoustuartiour ste Ke. ¢ 32°2
MOAR PIOYER oie, 2, fare,» oa! «; cache) ofaxsbavereenahecy tarcks aitage efeh acre 1:5
Experiment 5,—Spongy iron was similarly exposed.
The original metal weighed.............cceeeeesees 1:1340 gramme.
After 15 hr, ae to 7°7 litres of gases it weighed 15015 _s,,
After 2°5 0. 17 a 5 15635 ss,
After which for every 100 parts of iron it consisted of—
Tron in the metallic state ........cceeeeeveees 4°93
Tron as an oxide .......... FOO OLCOTT ic 95-7
Associated With OXYgen.....sccseeeeereeeeees OO
Carbon...... as atten berets icsts atataraye amen oes 4-7
In these last two experiments the oxygen and iron exist in proportion of 6
equivalents to 5; and haying regard to the circumstances of the trials, it appears
probable that a position of static equilibrium has been reached.
The quantity of carbonic acid was then doubled, ¢. e. for each volume of cyanogen
30 volumes of carbonic acid were made use of.
Experiment 6,—Pure peroxide of iron heated to 770°-780° C. was exposed to
such a mixture (1 yol. Cy+30 vols, CO,).
Weight of peroxide of iron employed............. ... 1:0615 gramme.
After 2 hrs. exposure to 8 litres of gasesit weighed .. ‘9915 ,,
After 3 rb - t 1:0130 _s,,
For every 100 parts of iron the product consisted of—
Tron in the metallic state..........0eeseee Sudip tGOU
MEENAS: AGRO) os dia eta on 42 45,4,0.0,0 Uda 00.88 99:10
Associated with oxygen .........e cess evens 33°82
WArDODEer ee iseptae os Teeee Lou St oat aC One 2°52
Here, again, 6 equivalents of oxygen are combined with 5 of iron, but the metal
in its free state is diminished in quantity. The small difference in weight between
the ends of the second and third hour indicates here the probable absence of further
change.
The next series of experiments was performed in a Griffin’s blast-furnace at a
temperature at which cast iron is fused.
Experiment 7 proved that a mixture of 1 volume cyanogen and 6 of carbonic
acid were unaltered by mere exposure to this degree of heat.
Experiment 8,—W hen the two gases in these proportions, 1 vol. Cy +6 vols. CO,,
were passed over peroxide of iron, the amount of nitrogen and carbonic oxide was
very trifling. On examination it was found the ferric oxide had fused with the
substance of the porcelain, and thus it might have interfered with the action. A
trace of carbon was detected, probably deposited as the apparatus cooled.
Experiment 9.—The temperature was lowered, but with the same results as in
Experiment 8.
Experiment 10.—Further reduction in the temperature, but still no definite
result was obtained.
Experiment 11.—Recourse was again had to Hofmann’s furnace, and a bright
red heat employed something under fusing-point of silver,
54 REPORT—1874.,
14:4 litres of the mixture, 1 yol. Cy+6 vols. CO,, during 3 hrs, 10 min. were
passed over pure peroxide of iron, after which for every 100 of iron it was found to
consist of —
Tron in the metallic state, ,.,..secsespeonseess Bod
Tron as an oxide ........ fo asehaatel 'aeSiacelakels Rieteene 77°3
Associated with oxygen.............. aici aurea pean
CAPbOM sieve wiwhesereiece varaldle MMM eer | 13:8
Experiment 12.—Pure peroxide of iron was exposed during a period of 2 hrs.
50 min, at a similar temperature to that of the previous experiment; but the gas
(16 litres) consisted of 1 volume of cyanogen to 15 volumes of carbonic acid, and
for every 100 of iron the product consisted of—
Tron in the metallic state......,..000eee msoge- OD
Tron as an oxide ........... t state's @iuame ies 100-0
Ore sige anh Re om omeHiaR qee enale eg temnaals 28°9
CGUREDOT cos etn sretvataar nue nn Ges bee citaan alsin 05
In this case the iron is almost precisely associated with the necessary oxygen to
form protoxide.
In all these experiments cyanogen has been employed in its uncombined state,
whereas in the blast-furnace this substance is almost entirely united with potas
sium or sodium. The difficulty, if not indeed the impossibility, of adjusting known
proportions of a vaporized cyanide and carbonic acid induced me to use the
cyanogen in the manner described. I did not hesitate to adopt this mode of proce-
dure, because I almost invariably found the quantity of cyanogen, when compared
with the potassium and sodium in the gases, indicated the decomposition of this
compound of carbon and nitrogen during their progress through the heated con-
tents of the blast-furnace.
Tn eight trials, at an aperture 8 feet above the leyel of the tuyeres, the average
quantities per cubic metre of gas were found to be—
EE OUBBBIUTO esi teceresciers aivcricie oa ecu aie arene San niet .. 24°73 grammes.
Sodiumy« Aievyi. vs Ge oy TE Cie pete Gia, PORTA iekilek ae 4:38 iF
Cyangeen .eeGees c's 2 Ratan ts angie oe SO At Rhea: 15:06 es
whereas at the point of exit of the gases, about 65 feet higher up in the furnace,
there was only found in an average of five trials :—
EOURPEIOCHMD sa wnin ny caece uae eis aja au Datitcte tats etelanete, aie, 7:04 grammes,
OURO. MERE oe cons wn six ued. saunas vera ts oa 2:03 on
As
MOGEMOR ETE Gaile shecrc sinc oy3)2; harass: r.4, 0,4 one Ogu ae N oY (/ (oan
In the first case 100 parts of the metals are accompanied by 51:7 per cent. of
cyanogen, whereas in the second this is reduced to 41°5 per cent. The diminution
in the potassium and sodium themselves is, of course, due to their condensation
among the cooler contents of the furnace; and it is in this way that the great
accumulation of these cyanides and other alkaline salts can be accounted for, and
which in one case amounted per cubic metre of gas to :—
POCASSTET Pec, oieis: 0 ciate asi. 9:6) 5 op 0 ate ee aI Pa 73°47 grammes.
Sodium ....... SSloci Re acaba Ran OLAS Rha ae veses 39°23 ys
Cymnozen.. coy. AE OE OTRO ALE PE. SUO GER, TUG 49:06 ',
It would of course be rash, in the absence of actual examination of the gases of
one of these Austrian furnaces, to ascribe their superior action to the use of char-
coal instead of coke. All, therefore, that this paper can pretend to is an indication
of the direction in which the cause of the difersnee may lie; for it seems clear
that oxygen may be present in much larger proportions in a mixture of cyanogen
and carbonic acid than in one of carbonic oxide and carbonic acid, and a strong
reducing and carbon-depositing tendency still retained. Possibly also the mere facts
as they are here described may not be considered devoid of scientific interest.
In conclusion, I would remark that it is only when white iron is the object
sought for, that this unusual economy of fuel is apparent in Austria. This, I haye
——
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 55
imagined, may be due either to the more rapid decomposition or more speedy
evaporation and expulsion of the cyanogen compound from the furnace at the
higher temperature which is known to prevail in the hearth when manufacturing
grey iron,
On the Dissociation of Nitric Acid by various means.
By P. Branam, F.C.S., and J. W. Gatenovse.
The first series of the following experiments was performed by passing the
vapour of nitric acid of sp. gr. 1°48 through tubes exposed to various temperatures,
it being found that the higher the temperature to which the vapour was exposed
the greater was the percentage of HNO, decomposed, and also that the dissociation
which occurred at high temperatures was more complete than that which took
place at lower temperatures.
By passing nitric-acid vapour through molten tin, 2°51 per cent. of the vapour
issuing from the retort was decomposed, and 0-7 per cent. of gasevolved. This gas
contained 95 per cent. of oxygen, the remainder, after explosion with hydrogen,
being nitrogen.
By passing the vapour through molten lead from 21:28 to 31:84 per cent. was
dissociated, and from 2°96 to 4:1 per cent. of gas evolved.
The vapour being heated by means of a Bunsen’s burner, 54:09 per cent. was
decomposed and 8:05 per cent. of gas evolved,
The heat from a charcoal fire, the vapour being conducted through a hard glass
tube, decomposed about 65 per cent, of acid* and yielded 10:44 per cent. of gas,
With a charcoal fire, the vapour being passed through a porcelain tube, 89:7 per
cent. was decomposed and 13:23 per cent. of gas evolved.
In the second series, conducted by passing nitric acid through a clay pipe exposed
to various temperatures, that of a T-shaped Bunsen decomposed 71:72 per cent.,
yielding 9°13 per cent. of gas.
Using a clay pipe heated with charcoal, 83:4 per cent. suffered decomposition,
yielding 11:5 per cent. of gas.
In these two series of experiments the percentage of oxygen contained in the gas
collected gradually decreased from 95 per cent. in the case of molten tin to 78:4 per
cent. in the case of the charcoal fire, the remainder consisting of nitrogen and
nitrous oxide. Nitrous acid or tetroxide of nitrogen was produced largely in every
case, but was absorbed and estimated separately.
The proportions of O, N, and N,O could not be determined with exactitude ; but
in the case of the T-shaped Bunsen the amount approximated to 79°6 per cent. of O,
10 of N,O, and 10:4 of N.
It thus appears that the whole of the oxides of nitrogen are produced during the
dissociation of nitric acid by heat; an approximation to the reactions occurring may
be expressed by the following formula :—
SHNO, =4H, 0+2NO,+N, 0,4+N, 0+N,+0,,.
Experiments were also undertaken by us to ascertain whether any decomposition
of nitric acid occurred during the act of boiling.
Pure nitric acid is not decomposed ; but if it contains nitrous acid, then decom-
position proceeds till the whole of the N, O, is expelled, when no further change
ensues.
‘The decomposing action of sunlight on nitric and nitrous acids was also studied.
Pure nitric acid placed in a full bulb, sealed, and exposed several days to sun-
light, remained colourless, and without evolution of gas ; but the same acid exposed
to sunlight in a sealed tube only partially full was powerfully decomposed, yielding
over 1 per cent. of nitrous acid and a considerable amount of gas.
This action in sealed tubes is not continuous; for when the nitrous acid formed
attains to about 2 per cent. of the quantity of nitric acid present, all decomposition
ceases.
* The amount could not be accurately determined, as the heat fused the glass tube, and
a little of the acid was lost,
56 REPORT—1874.
This dissociation by sunlight is due to the violet end of the spectrum, the red end
having no effect whatever.
Liquid nitrous acid, obtained by condensing the gas derived from the action of
arsenious acid on nitric acid and exposing it in a strong sealed tube, is not decom-
posed.
On a Mode of producing Spectra on a Screen with the Oxyhydrogen Flame.
By P. Branam, FCS.
On the Mode of writing Chemical Equations.
By Professor Crum Brown, F.R.S.LZ.
On Methyl-thetine*. By Prof. Crum Brown and Dr. E. A. Lerrs.
On. the Replacement of Organic Matter by Siliceous Deposits in the Process of
Fossiizution. By Dr. W. B. Carventer, PRS.
The Injurious Effects of Dew-rotting Flaw in certain cases.
By Wii11am Cuartry, J.P., of Seymour Hill, near Belfast.
The cultivation of the flax-plant in the field is not a matter of extraordinary
difficulty. It is the after-management that generally embarrasses the farmer, and
particularly in those districts where the crop is tried for the first time. The extension
of flax-cultivation in the British Isles would be very useful to the important
industry of the linen manufacture, and would add a remunerative crop to the
limited list of the British agriculturist. At present the land occupied by flax is
chiefly to be found in Ulster. The present year’s return gives 102,789 acres for this
province, the rest of Ireland showing only 4097 acres. The author is not aware
of any accurate statistics on the subject regarding England and Scotland, but a few
thousands would probably cover the quantity of acres cultivated.
The first difficulty that meets the inexperienced farmer after his flax is gathered
off the field is the steeping-process. The celebrated Louis Crommelin (appointed
overseer of the linen manufacture in Ireland by King William III.), writing in
1705 on the subject of preparing flax, quaintly says :—‘“ Flax may be prepared
without watering by grassing it until such time as the stem corrupts; yet it is
better to water it where it can possibly be done without great inconvenience.”
So far as the author can form an opinion, this plan of preparing without watering,
commonly called “dew-rotting,” is quite unsuited for any but the coarsest flax,
such as would not be spun into yarn used for making bleaching cloth. There is
something in the process of steeping flax (a process more accurately, perhaps,
described by the common expression of retting or rotting) which seems necessary
to ensure the attainment of high colour when the prepared fibre is manufactured
into cloth, and arrives at the bleaching department. The fermentation, which seems
to be of a putrefactive nature, acts on the juices and gummy matters which cement
the woody stem to the pure fibre of the plant, and also not only assists the after
separation of these, which is the object of the subsequent scutching-operation, but
has such a powerful effect on the colouring-matter of the fibre as to render the
change required in bleaching much more safe and successful. But though grassing
alone is not sufficient to make a proper preparation of good fibre, it is, after the
steaping is over, a most useful and necessary addition.
There is another point worth mentioning in connexion with the steeping of flax;
brackish water, such as may be met with in the low-lying districts near the sea, should
be carefully avoided. The practice of using it is now generally admitted to be
iajurious to the fibre intended for white linen; it also gives a leaden dull colour
* Published in ‘ Nature,’ vol. x. p. 389 (Sept. 10, 1874).
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 57
in many cases to the flax itself. With respect to improvements in the flax-steeping
process, there is really very little to report of late years. The ordinary open-air
system is carried on in much the same way as when Louis Crommelin wrote in 1705.
Various new plans have been suggested, and to some extent practised with more or
less success.
. The author described several of these new plans, and concluded by saying :—“ The
time may arrive when a regular and extensive business may be taken up in all flax-
growing districts by enterprising individuals with the object of buying the flax
from the farmers in the green state, and treating it in an improved way on a large
scale, combining probably the steeping of the flax and scutching-operations in the
same establishment. Meantime let farmers who wish to make a profit in growing
flax attend as carefully to the watering process as to the field cultivation, and avoid
as a general rule the imperfect dew-rotting system, or the use of brackish water in
any of the pools intended for steeping this valuable plant.”’
On the General Equations of Chemical Decomposition.
By Professor Crirrorp, /.R.S.
On the Composition of certain Kinds of Food. By W. J. Cooprr.
On Spontaneous Generation from a Chemical Point of View.
By Professor Drsus, F.R.S,
On an Aspirator. By Professor Detrrs.
On the Latent Heat of Liquefied Gases. By Dr. Dewar, F.R.S.E.
On Chlorine, Hypochlorous Acid, gc., and Peroxide of Hydrogen.
By Tuomas Farrtey, F.C.8.
It is shown that under certain circumstances chlorine and hydrogen peroxide
react so as to give hypochlorous acid: thus
Cl,+H, 0,=2HCIO.
A large excess of chlorine must be used, and the peroxide containing 2°45 per cent.
added gradually to the chlorine-water. The posroxide is acted on, and the chromic-
acid test does not show its presence in the mixture, On further addition of peroxide
much gas is given off, which is pure oxygen.
If we stop the addition of peroxide while there is still large excess of chlorine,
and cautiously add ferrous sulphate solution to remove the excess, a bleaching
liquid is obtained having the characteristic smell and properties of hypochlorous
- acid.
The evolution of oxygen arises from a secondary reaction of hypochlorous acid
and hydrogen peroxide.
HClO+H, 0,=HCl+H, 0+0,,.
The oxygen is given off equally from the hypochlorous acid and the peroxide.
Besides hypochlorous acid I have verified this equation with calcium, sodium, and
potassium hypochlorites. Brodie has shown that a similar reaction takes place
with barium peroxide and solution of bleaching-powder in acetic acid. The reaction
of hypochlorous acid and peroxide of hydrogen explains the evolution of oxygen in
continued addition of the peroxide to chlorine-water, or its immediate evolution on
addition of chlorine-water to peroxide,
1874, 5
a8 REPORT—187 4.
- Bromine and iodine give similar results, Their solutions in dilute alkali. also
evolve oxygen with the peroxide. BE syed? = ;
In the case of iodine and peroxide the hydriodic acid formed is also acted on by
the peroxide, so that the amount of iodine at the end of the reaction, when all the
peroxide is decomposed, is the same as at first. A small amount of free iodine can,
therefore, even in cold dilute solutions, decompose an unlimited quantity of peroxide.
If an alkaline iodide or free alkali be present, then the more stable iodide is not so.
readily decomposed by the peroxide.
The author reserves the discussion of hypotheses until he has completed experi-
ments with other oxygen acids of chlorine and sulphur.
On Perchloric Acid, By T. Farnizy, 7.0.8.
When ozone is passed into a solution of hypochlorous acid or hypochlorite, per-
chloric acid is formed, probably thus—
HC10+0,=HCI0,.
Ozonized air passed through a solution of sodium hypochlorite gives a liquid
which, in neutral solutions, precipitates potassium from its compounds as potas-
sium perchlorate. The author is continuing his experiments to prove that the
complete molecule of ozone is absorbed as such with a view to explaining the con-
stitution of perchloric acid.
The author has proved that hydrogen peroxide (2°45 per cent.) does not react on
chloric acid or chlorates to give perchloric acid, and that no action of any kind
takes place. The peroxide has no action on perchloric acid and its salts, which
in this respect differ from the permanganates. The above-mentioned experiment
is the first of its kind involving the formation of perchloric acid at ordinary tem-
peratures,
Electrolytic Experiments on some Metallic Chlorides.
By Professor Guapstone and ALFRep TRIBE,
During experiments on their air-battery the authors observed that if plates of
copper and platinum be immersed in a solution of chloride of copper and be metal-
lically connected, cuprous chloride is deposited on the platinum plate, while the
copper plate is also attacked, and a galvanic current passes through the liquid from
the metal of higher to that of lower potential. Weak external currents produce a
similar electrolysis of Cu Cl, into Cu Cl and Cl between platinum poles, Com-
binations of zinc or magnesium with platinum decompose cupric chloride still more
energetically, with the production of some metallic copper as well as cuprous
chloride on the negative plate. Precisely analogous experiments were obtained
with mercury and gold immersed in mercuric chloride, the insoluble mereurous
salt being deposited on the gold plate.
—
On the Petrified Wood of Lough Neagh. By Professor Hovers, M.D., F.C.S.
The oceurrence along the shores of Lough Neagh, in Ireland, of masses of
petrified wood has from very early times attracted attention, and many ancient
writers, and several modern authorities, have ascribed to the waters of this lake
remarkable petrifying qualities. f sit
Bischof, in his ‘ Chemical Geology,’ also refers to the property of the water of
petrifying wood placed in it, or rather causing its impregnation with iron, which
induced him, he says, to make a chemical analysis of it. He, however, merely
examined the insoluble portion of the matters left on evaporating the water, and’
found, contrary to what he had expected, that there was an extraordinary small:
quantity of earthy constituents. From the suspended matter, by means of hydro-
chloric acid, he extracted iron and alumina, but in too small a quantity to admit.
of estimation. The fact that peroxide of iron, he remarks, is the chief constituent
of the suspended matter, is in accordance with the statement, in the Philosophical
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 59
Transactions, that the lapidifying substance is iron, and that, when the petiitication
is only partial, upon burning such a wood only the petrified part comes'to a glow
heat, and the ash which is left is attracted by the magnet. Bischof also'madé a
partial examination of a specimen of the petrified wood, which, however, does not
sustain his views respecting the ferruginous nature of the lapidifying material, as
he found it to contain only 0°54 per cent. of oxide of iron and alumina’ o
The specimen of petrified wood examined by Bischof gave the following results :—=
Silica .... ey ae ee ee 97-71 i te
Oxide of iron and alumina ....... i arch ype eestete tS aki ha ates oh SaaS OR ROE eu sats
PR OURON oi wivins ho aie aa ek wag ng dare sattd Oevaeaaten DOF
Loss and organic matter ........+..4. said siacaiela Gills auiessiberlgebls oe
100-00
On ignition only a. feeble empyreumatic .odour .was perceptible and a slight
darkening in colour. suet a eens eS
Immense masses of the petrified wood have been found along the shores of the
lake. Some of the pieces of wood discovered are of large size ; and one mass, de-
examination, and also. made analyses of specimens of the. silicified wood. These
analyses show that in no .part of the.lake does the water. contain any considerable
amount of solid matter, and that neither in the water nor in the petrified wood is
to be found more than a very minute quantity of iron. A specimen of the water
which had been taken at Sandy Bay, 100 yards from the. shore and four miles from
Glenavy river, near a part ‘of the lake shore in which the petrified wood is fre-
quently discovered, when received was slightly turbid from. finely. divided floceulent
matter, and the colour, when viewed through a layer two feet in length, was pale
greyish yellow. Its taste was soft, and a considerable number of animalcules were
moving about in it. It had an alkaline reaction.
~ On evaporation it left a yellowish-coloured residue, which became black on igni-
tion. | :
An imperial gallon contained 12:950 grains, consisting of :—
Mineral and saline matters .......ssseegaeeenene 10:826 grains,
NON SANIC ANG VOLBOLE! «veo ejereiais vieun cuuraeal die I REE. 2124 >,
The mineral matters were found to consist of :—
ter grains.
Carbonate of lime .......0..0 eee Rn ie PA sd tiFBS
Parbonatelos MAapNEsi ae.) wjeisisies «asic cole wlolstors ale! siereie)» sine 0-496
Carbonate of soda ......... TE ot eR ee Ie as 1:088
Sulphate of soda... .....seeneesees eM Toe er te 1-715
Oxide Ghirontors yee Oe ee el eee canes s 0:727
Silicic acid. 0... eVivs towevdee sae ce uk Be RPE RE A ad sels 0:360
Chloride of sodium.............5- RAR REN Sree cate oopettet G4
10-826
The author also determined the amount of mineral matter contained in the water
at two other portions of the lake. A specimen taken at the mouth of the river
Bann, which, rising from springs in the granitic range of the mountains of Mourne,
5%
60 - -> -REPORT—1874, -
after a course of about thirty miles, falls into Lough Neagh, and, passing through
it, issues as the Lower Bann at the north end of the lake, was found to yield 13-4
grains of solids, of which 10°6 grains consisted of mineral matters ; while in another
ocality, about half a mile from the shore, the mineral matters were only 9°3 grains
er gallon.
‘ The water of the Upper Bann, except when it has been rendered impure by the
numerous bleaching and other works on its banks, contains a very smal cies of
mineral matters. A gallon on one occasion was found to contain only 4°614 grains
of mineral matters, consisting of :— Sah Se LS i
ee grains.
Carbonate of lime... eee eee ee eee EES NEU Bie yee 1:239
Sulphate of lime ........ SR Sov tga a aeehy enacts 1:354
Oathonate of magnesia. (5.66 ies le. Pec eeba reese 0°622
WVRIGG VOL ALO che eee ovccate sais, sole halos Gee 0:329
Silicie acid ......... DAS DEERE AE ole ae 08s COWAB
Chloride of sodium .,..... sip God ad bla lane eter nen eee 0-825
4-614
A specimen of the petrified wood weighing 26 ounces, in which the woody
structure was clearly visible, and which was white on the outer surface and of a
dark brown colour in the interior, when exposed to a strong heat in the crucible
became black, and evolved an odour somewhat resembling that of burning wood,
and by continuing the heat, left a pale buff-coloured residue. Contrary to what is
stated by some authorities, the wood was not affected by the magnet before or after
ignition. In no specimen has the author found the ash magnetic,
100 parts of the specimen yield as follows :—
Loss on ignition and organic matter ..........0e0eeeeeeeee 6°50
Alumina soluble in hydrochloric acid .............0000 ee 0°68
Oxide ofironkiyin) deurieen odd dec SEs ates eee are tie 0-04
Lime ........ oe tbfele: dal eleient StiiNa ita. clot atolls ilatitn diotalsid Same Scie 0:29
Magnesia ........cceeeeeee ahr crekeal ted ole REET. OBR 0:25
Phosphorics@eidi isi ise’ vu.s ti. sears dealt be etteemane trace
Alumina in state of silicate... cece cece eee e eens 1:95
Lime ...... SSMS OaIER. pitetoke ats ARES aitttacce kolo, Gh BROS ae 1:10
¢Mapnesiniys Yep aids loli a, xik. oseis lah Ot We AEE A SOE 0:25
Bi Gie Meld heaters hidatal, yiwlalbs £00. betel ey oka 89-01
100-07
In another specimen from a different locality the loss on ignition was 9:1 per
cent. It contained 84°5 per cent. of silica and only 1:5 per cent. of oxide of iron.
and alumina. j ;
The analyses, therefore, show that the water of Lough Neagh, in our time at least,
possesses no peculiar qualities, and that the lapidifying material of the petrified
wood is silicic acid and not oxide of iron.
The examination of the specimens also clearly shows that the hardening is not
roduced merely by superficial incrustation of the lapidifying silicic acid, but that
it has penetrated through almost every portion of the vegetable structure,
On the Composition of Tea and Tea-Soils from Cachar.
_. By Professor Hopexs, M.D., F.C.S.
Notwithstanding the important place occupied by the tea-plant in the dietary of
so large a portion of the world, its chemical examination has attracted comparatively
but little attention. We owe to Peligot and Mulder the most valuable investiga-
tions which have been made in connexion with it; and more recently we have been
supplied with some analyses of the ash of teas from the laboratory of Professor
Horsford, while Wanklyn and Allen have lately contributed many facts of great
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 61
value in reference to the examination of the tea of commerce and the detection of
adulteration.
Some time ago Professor Zéller read before the. Physico-Medical Society of Erlan-
gen a paper on the chemical investigation of. a Himalaya tea.(Repertorium fiir
Pharmacie, Band xx. Heft 8),. which. possessed. peculiar value, -from the cireum-
stance that the specimen examined might he. regarded as consisting of genuine tea
without any foreign admixture, having. been received from the growers by the late
Baron von Liebig. Professor, Zéller’s investigations confirmed the correctness of
observations which he had formerly. made respecting the influence which the age
of the leaves of plants exercised. on the. composition of the.ash—that while young
leaves are found to be rich in potash and phosphoric acid, and. poor in lime and
silica, the amount of lime and silica in. the ash increases.with the age of the plant.
As the best qualities of tea are known.to consist (as.will.be shown below) merely
of the very young shoots of the plant, the estimation of the amount of potash, phos-
phoric acid, lime, and silica may be usefully, as he suggested, employed in
enabling us to judge of the quality of a specimen of tea.
The richness of the tea-ash in potash and phosphoric acid, showing that the tea
had been prepared from young leaves, suggested that the amount of matters in the
leaves soluble in water, and of nitrogen, and also probably of theine, would be large.
These anticipations were confirmed by the investigations. The extract obtained by
treating the leaves with boiling water weighed 36°38 per cent., and the nitrogen 5°38
per cent., while the theine amounted to 4°95 per cent. of the air-dried leaves.
Some time ago the author had an opportunity of submitting to examination
specimens of tea grown in Cachar, under the superintendence of Samuel Davidson,
Ksq., and also a specimen of fine Cachar tea forwarded to him from the same district
by Dr. Joseph Nelson. . Mr. Davidson’s specimens were taken from the fields in
August, and were carefully enclosed in tinfoil, and may -therefore be regarded as
representing genuine, unmixed specimens of Indian tea. Mr. Davidson also kindly
supplied the following history of the crop from which the specimens were taken :—
“The leaves were taken from plants in their seventh season, and consisted of the
young shoots from which tea is manufactured, viz. the bud, and first, second, and
third leaves down the stem. In none of the samples were there old leaves or actual
wood. A shoot with this number of leaves is usually the growth of about twelve
days after the bud has got started to grow. The indigenous sample is from the
variety of the plant which was originally found growing wild in the jungles of these
districts, _ The author thinks that it is the true Thea viridis. It 1s a very large-
growing plant, almost.a tree, and its. leaves. when full-grown are very large and
succulent. It yields hy far the best quality of.tea. ..The other sample was from a
hybrid plant. This is supposed to bea. true hybrid -between the indigenous and
China varieties, and certainly partakes very much of. the peculiarities of both
varieties. The China plant is the variety, which is probably the correct Thea Bohca
originally imported direct from China... It is a. miserable, small-growing, stunted
plant compared to the indigenous, the full-grown leaves being only about 2 inches
long, and the tea is inferior. The hybrid gives a good strong tea, and is a hardier
plant than the indigenous, and so. is. very much liked, but the more closely it
approaches to the indigenous it is the more highly prized.” The specimens received
by the author had been merely dried in heated rooms. The produce of the crop
was estimated at 400 Ibs. of dried tea per English acre. It is so seldom that we
are able to oblain any precise account of the history of the specimens of tea and
. other foreign productions which have been submitted to chemical examination, that
Mr. Davidson’s report possesses especial importance.
100 parts of each variety of the tea gaye the following results :—
Indigenous. Hybrid.
MMOIBbULC.. Sects asin ination Ree a mia nee Ake 16:06 16:20
Oi fT Cosh LTD ETS) BRS IOI Ce re ete 7881 73:98
MAVPITIEAT INMUUCIAY. ate ote crease iain ete le’ sistas clout crannies 5:13 4°82
100-00 100-00
Nitrogen in the dried tea... . cc. cs eee eee 4:74 2°81
62 _.., . REPORT—1874,
The ash of each respectively consisted of x— a ;
nb oan: Indigenous. Hybrid.
Potashyes iwdielicnisws sees awted leawceles 185200 37010
Soda eeeeeene eer eee eeaeeeer eee eee eeereereene 4:328 14°435
Chloriniavst cusfaiats satin wa s Sasinwi Hs elbiatels Pisid 3513 2°620
Sulphuric-acidy..36ssswsscesscdsevsseses 7 5040 6:322
Phosphoric acid. ....seeeeeee condsgavand ereteb8080 9:180
Oxide of iron .......45 abinags Pay ee oHEy ‘ 2°493 2°463
Protoxide of manganese .......seee eens a 1-024 0-800
Lime ..... dum ads Qoameb awed seth Ua. : 8-986 5°5380
Magnesia: oss ates dee ece as dfs Sere tele : 4:396 5910
Sand.and silica fivsewnarrels daa cas ah oaees 0-500 1:300
Charedalicads ode ieran’s ialeeer slit Ha ss j 2-900 1-830
. Cathorie ncidisicaaidt beastie init.d ied pat 1690 12-600
100-000 100-000
_ The author was also enabled to submit to examination specimens of the soil and
subsoil from the fields on which the tea had been grown. Both soils were of a
reddish colour and in fine powder, the subsoil, which was taken 1 foot 6 inches
below the surface, being rather deeper in colour than the soil. A textural exami~-
nation of the specimens was made according to the method as described in the
author’s work on ‘Chemistry for Farmers,’ and gave the following result :—
100 parts of each respectively were found to consist of —
Soil. Subsoil.
Sand in fine powder). s+ <eauqee sess da varie if... .aonKS Apeee
Tair af opeeetharena hye wats ¢ dea sfbetan bats he iilsaw. sHad ee 2B 17°
Carbonate of lime, less than 5 per cent.
Both soils may therefore be described as sandy loams,
Chemical Composition.
100 parts of each respectively consisted of :—
Soil. Subsoil
Organic matters.........5 nfeanierh zd Hake es 400 Vo MOS
Chloride of sodium ....... Wi did ais a6 Fadts oats code 0°35
IB GtAAD iy «evar <wrnvers a-old td ereyalave’s awe «elke beds tee 6 . 0:03 0:03
Oxide of iron ........ svaverite b » ad charbtare Seorvl. S.k SORE 6-00 7:20
Oxide of manganese ......6...0005 oth id cleat w Baten trace _ trace
ATHENA ppyace « uhh le » opbiclbftfe eRe.» SENG Ries ae ker eane. DM 3°86
LAM). ase ale owlslaste Ad did Ch leey Cd OK ERS PERO Mawes 0:10
Magnesia..... a stelsleaastore omiee o hisioidialhah eh tees eae Ome 0:05
Sulphuric ackd, oi secerek eseoiadinl id serch 007 8 §=60°35
Phosphoric acid .,....... a wudica duped eee S , AUR . 005 0:03
Insoluble siliceous matters ...... Fete ame veceeese. 6480 56°50
Moisture......... oniea gia evi ede BSS aEVEs 22°20 24:44
Nitrogen per cent. ......0.cecceeeees eee aac ... 0158 0:22
‘The amount of nitrogen and alkalies in the subsoil, it will be perceived, exceeds
that which was found in the surface-soil. This may be owing to the circumstance ©
that heavy rains (40 inches within four months) had fallen for some time before
the specimens were taken.
Another sample of Cachar tea, kindly forwarded to the author by Dr. Joseph
Nelson, was also examined, chiefly for the purpose of ascertaining how far we could
rely upon the determination of the amount of matters which are removed by heating
tea with boiling water, as indicative of the presence in the tea of commerce of
exhausted tea or of foreign leaves. SOR
100 parts of the specimen were found to contain 4-963 parts of moisture, and the
ash amounted to 5 parts. By treating the leaves with boiling water until exhausted
of soluble matters, and evaporating the solution to dryness, an exact weighing (42:4
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 63
grains) was obtained. Determinations of the amount of nitrogen in the leaves as
received, and also in the insoluble residue, were made; and while the nitrogen of the
original sample amounted to 4425 per cent., the insoluble residue was found to
contain only 2°109 parts, the amount of mineral matters by treatment with water
being reduced to 1:56 part ; so that 68 per cent. of the total mineral matter of the
tea, and about 58 per cent. of the nitrogen, had been removed in the infusion.
On the Composition of the Fibre of the Jute-plant, and its use as a Teatile
Material. By Professor Hopexs, M.D., F.C.S.
At the Meeting of the Association held in Belfast twenty-two years ago, the
author read a report on the composition of the flax-plant, the fibre of which
supplies the raw material of the staple industry of this part of Ireland. In that
and subsequent reports he gave an account of a series of investigations which had
been undertaken at the request of the Association, and in which the composition
of the fibre and the changes which it undergoes in its technical preparation were
for the first time completely examined. The interest which these reports excited
in this great centre of the linen industry, has encouraged him to offer some
account of the history and chemical composition of another textile material,
which at the time of our former Meeting was scarcely known in this country, but
which has lately assumed a most important place among the vegetable substances
employed by manufacturers. Fifty years ago the fibre of the jute-plant was to be
found only in owr museums, now the quantity of it introduced into the United
Kingdom almost equals that of the flax which we import, and exceeds the annual
importation of hemp ; and owing to the improvements which have been effected in
the processes for its preparation, and especially in the methods of bleaching, it is,
the author believes, destined to occupy in future a far more important place among
the raw material of our textile manufactures. The plant which yields the fibre
known in commerce as jute (a name which is supposed to be derived from a corrup-
tion of the Bengali name of the plant) is a member of the family Tiliacex, tie
Linden or Lime-tree family, which from remote periods has been cultivated by
the natives of Southern Asia for textile purposes. Two species of it are used for
the production of fibre, Corchorus capsularis and Corchorus olitorius, and both
kinds are found in the jute brought to this country. The Corchorus is an annual,
the seeds of which are sown broad-cast in the months of March and April on
‘ploughed land along the sandy banks of rivers, usually neither irrigation nor
‘manure being required. In August, before the seeds which replace the small
‘yellow flowers of the plant have ripened, and when the stems have attained the
‘height of about 12 feet, the erop is cut: when the seed is allowed to become fully
‘ripe, as is also the case with flax, the fibre becomes stiff and hard, and the stem is
‘rendered of a reddish colour. The stalks when cut are tied in bundles and placed
in tanks, usually of dirty water, and allowed to ferment, or “ret,” for five or six
days, and then taken out and swung about repeatedly in the air, by which the long
fibres are separated from the brittle wood which constituted the bark of the stem ;
and thus prepared, the fibres are dried by exposure on the ground to the air, and,
when dry, packed in round bundles for the market. The treatment of the plant
for the separation of the fibre is therefore precisely like the ordinary methods
used by farmers in this country in the preparation of the flax-fibré. The produce
of jute far exceeds that of flax, being, it is stated, five times as great as that which
flax affords. Though India is the great seat of jute cultivation and supplies the
‘fibre used in this country, yet the jute-plants, especially Corchorus olitorius, have
been long cultivated in China and other eastern countries. Experiments have been
made to grow the plants for textile purposes in the Southern States of America,
on the banks of the Lower Mississippi, and also. in Algiers, and it is said the re-
sults are encouraging. ele: 2 ; i aca
For some time after the introduction of jute, the opinion prevailed that it could
not be bleached, and was therefore of little value as a textile material. Experi-
ments made at several times proved that this was a mistake; but until lately
scarcely any progress had been made in improving the qualities of the fibre, or
giving it the whiteness of linen fabrics, The difficulties, however, which retarded
64. , REPORT—1874.
the success of jute-bleaching have, during the present year, been completely removed,
by the i anecgeese of methods which have been invented by the son of the author,
and which are at present in operation. In the processes employed, the cloth or yarn,
by means of ingeniously arranged machinery, is made to pass in succession through
baths of alkaline solutions and hypochlorites of magnesia and soda, the magnesia
used being economically obtained from kieserite, which is found in large quantities
in Germany in the kainite deposits, and has hitherto been regarded as of but little
commercial value,
The length of the fibre of the jute of commerce is frequently no less than 12 fect ;
usually the lower end near the ground is dark-coloured and woody. At first the
fibre is colourless, or only slightly coloured; but some kinds after a time become
darker, just as wood darkens in colour by the action of the air. Many specimens
preserve a dull yellowish colour, and in appearance can with difficulty be distin-
guished from the finer qualities of hemp, The microscope, howeyer, shows us that
the structure of the jute is different from that of any of our common textile fibres ;
thus, while a fibre stripped from the flax-plant is shown to consist of bundles of
cells with thick walls and somewhat circular outline, and exhibiting a very minute
central space, the wall of the jute-cell is of very irregular thickness, and the cen-
tral space does not conform to the external outline, but at one part will be found
wide, while at another part it dwindles to a mere line, By this remarkable differ-
ence in the contour of the inner and outer cell-walls, jute-fibre is distinguished
from flax, hemp, cotton, and New-Zealand flax. The application of the sulphate of
aniline proposed as a reagent for woody matter by Runge, and recommended by
Professor Wiesner, of Vienna, also affords us assistance in distinguishing it from
both hemp- and flax-fibres. Thus, while hemp is scarcely at all affected by this
action of the reagent, and flax unchanged in colour, the jute-fibre shows that it
contains a large amount of woody matter by becoming of a deep golden-yellow
colour, The sulphate, however, does not enable us to distinguish jute from several
other Indian fibres.
In connexion with the technical preparation, bleaching, &c. of the jute-fibre,
the author lately commenced a series of investigations which, though not so far
advanced as he had hoped, may not be destitute of interest. The samples of fibre
submitted to examination were of the kind known as “Red Seraigunge.” The
tibre had a faint red colour, and measured in length 10 feet 9 inches. It had been
prepared in the ordinary manner, and of course contained only those constituents
of the plant which remained attached to the cellular structures after being sub-
jected to the process of retting. Portions of the fibre cut into small pieces, after
eing treated with distilled water and boiled for several hours, gave an acid solu-
tion of the colour of pale ale, which evolved an odour which suggested the aromatic
smell of moist flax-yarn. On evaporation over the water-bath, it left a brownish-
black extract, which in appearance resembled black-currant jelly ; it was translu-
cent at the edges, and was easily reduced to a light brown powder. This extract
amounted to only 0°726 per cent. of the fibre, and was found to contain sugar and
a tannic acid which gave an olive-green precipitate with persalts of iron, a fatty
substance, and a brown-red colouring-matter. The extract was in part soluble in
alcohol, and heated on platinum it carbonized without melting, leaving a white
ash. It contained no starch. ‘The fibre employed, dried at 212°, was found to con-
tain 15°5 per cent. of moisture, and when incinerated to leave 1:329 per cent. of
ash of a pale yellowish-white colour, treated by the successive action of solvents,
according to the methods described in the author's reports on flax *, and the amount
of nitrogen determined by Wills’s method, both in the original samples and in the
fibre after the action of the solvents. The results obtained were as follows :—
One hundred parts yield—
Moisture ........ PTY Sarath en re phan hata): 50]
Organi mation cos ces sev ake vance, OSSD
Mineral matters ,...cscsessseceeeces 1:329
100:000
* Reports of British Association, 1852 and 1852,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 65
One hundred parts of the fibre dried at 212° yield—
Wax and fatty matters soluble in ether.........:..00e005 0:235
Tannic acid and colouring-matters soluble in alcohol...... 1:135
Plates POCUING, GEC. - 2... .e 9» scree teeta Sooncatee Bye kes of avi 2°427
Soluble Nitrovenized Matters, occ. ees ceeadeee cise das F 0-512
Insoluble nitrogenized matters .............. Soe 2°433
Inorganic matters united with the fibre ...... Mts aieeeass 1010
Galivdar fibres! i os 'eole) lara, Peele. LUG Her Brie .. 92-248
100-000
Nitrogen in the original fibre .............. RIG. 0 4 : 0-291
Nitrogen in the fibre after treatment with solvents........ 0-210
The author had hoped to be able to give an analysis of the jute-plant in the
condition in which it is remoyed from the field; but unfortunately a specimen
which had been forwarded from Calcutta arrived only a few days ago, and he must
therefore defer its investigation until some other opportunity, With respect to
the magnitude of the jute manufacture, the author stated that in the present year
one hundred thousand tons of the fibre were imported into Dundee alone, by direct
shipment from Calcutta, while London, Liverpool, and Glasgow received probably
half as much more. The rapidity with a Fos by means of improved machinery,
it can be manufactured, may be judged from the fact, that since the opening of
the Suez Canal the fibre has been delivered in Dundee, spun and woven, and the
prods shipped back and paid for, within six months from the date of the bill of
ading. At the present time jute is used for the manufacture of a great variety of
fabrics. In fact it will serve for the production of every kind of coarse textile
material. It is even used as a substitute for hair, and can be formed into admirable
chignons. The dust from the mills is employed to make silk hats, and the waste
fibre yields an excellent pulp for the manufacture of paper. Stair-carpets of jute,
with bright colours, can be sold at three pence per yard; and woven into what are
known as carpet bed-covers, a fabric is produced at not more than one third the
price of wool.
On an Improved Vacuum Filter-pump*. By W. Jessr Loverr.
The advantages claimed for this pump are its practical efficiency and pertability,
. and also its non-liability to get out of order. .
Tt consists of a metallic cone provided with a convex metallic cover; to the apex
of the cone is fitted a tube for carrying away waste water; and in the middle of
the convex cover is fixed a tube which goes down nearly to the apex of the cone;
and at this end is fixed a jet formed by soldering a square pyramid of brass in the
end; the pyramid has a hole through its centre which points straight down the
exit-tube. The square pyramid being fixed in a round tube leaves four orifices for
the water to pass through, thus forming a rude rose-jet ; and the centre hole serves
as a jet to drive the air caught by these four orifices straight down the waste-pipe,
The upper tube being connected with a good force of water, the rose exhausts air
from the cone and drives it down the waste-pipe. One of Professor Thorpe’s
admirable valves is fitted to the convex cover, and a tube connected with this is
fixed to the filter as required.
The average results obtained with this as a filter-pump are :—"
The time of filtration is reduced to about one sixth on the average.
The pump supports, as a rule, 15 or 16 inches of mercury; this of course varies
with the fall of water obtainable ; with a good fall of water results as high as 20
inches have been attained. ;
The apparatus may be used as an aspirator for drawing a current of air through
the apparatus. It may also be used as a water-blowpipe, by attaching the waste-
pipe to one of the holes of a three-bored cork; into the other holes are fixed a tube
going to the blowpipe and a tube with adjustable orifice for carrying away waste
‘water. The extreme length of the pump described is 63 inches, * -
* Vide ‘Chemical News,’ May 15, 1874,
—_—
66 , REPORT—1874.
On the Estimation of Phosphoric Acid as Pyrophosphate of Magnesia.
- By T. R. Oetrvie.
On a Sesquisulphide of Iron. By Dr. T. L. Putrsoy, F.C.S.
This is a substance of a beautiful dark emerald-green colour, having the compo-
sition Fe? Cl?, which is. produced when ferric chloride is added to a solution of
ammonia sulphide containing a considerable amount of hypochlorite of soda, or
whenever a persalt of iron containing free chlorine or a hypochlorite is precipi-
tated by sulphide of ammonium.
It forms a dark green flocculent precipitate, appearing quite black when collected
and washed. Its fine green colour becomes apparent when, after drying, it is
ground up with a perfectly white powder such as chalk.
Its properties are rather remarkable. It is soluble to a notable extent in water
containing ammonia, and separates therefrom as the ammonia escapes; it is even
soluble in alcoholic ammonia, forming in each case a bright emerald-green solution.
It is only slightly soluble in a mixture of sulphide and hypochlorite rather diluted ;
neither is it more than slightly soluble in either of these alone. It is more easily
dissolved in hot water containing free ammonia.
In hydrochloric acid it dissolves with great effervescence, immediately producing
perchloride of iron, Fe? Cl’, in spite of the abundance of sulphuretted hydrogen
resent.
On analysis it is proved to be a hydrated sesquisulphide of iron, answering very
nearly to the formula 2Fe? S*+-3HO.
On the Presence of Cyanogen in Commercial Bromine, and a means of
detecting it. By Dr. T. L. Putrson, FCS.
- The author has lately discovered a notable amount of cyanogen in samples of
bromine supposed to be pure and issued as such for pharmaceutical purposes. It
has been long known that during the manufacture of iodine a certain quantity of
that beautiful but dangerous compound todide of cyanogen sometimes finds its way
into one of the glass condensers ; and from the fact just alluded to it would appear
that a similar compound with bromine may occasionally be produced during the ,
manufacture of this liquid element ; this is a more serious case than the other, since
the impurity is dissolved and hidden in the liquid.
The presence of cyanogen in bromine may be detected by taking an equal weight
of iron filings to that of the bromine to be examined, adding to them four or five
times their weight of water and mixing in the bromine gradually, stirring all the
time. The liquid must be filtered while warm from the reaction, and the filtrate
allowed to stand in a partially closed bottle; in the course of about twenty-four
hours a precipitate of ferricyanide of iron (Berlin blue) will have formed, and may
be collected on a filter.
If perfectly pure bromine were used this reaction would also enable us to detect
cyanogen in steel, and to decide whether or no it is ever present in that metal.
Notes on the Preparation of the Sulphur-wrea. By Prof. Emerson Rerynotps.
On the Action of the Sulphur-urea in Metallic Solutions.
By Professor Emerson Rrynoxps.
On a Self-registering Apparatus for Measuring the Chemical Action of Laght.
By Professor Roscoz, FAS.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 67
On certain Abnormal Chlorides. By Professor Roscoz, F.R.S.
On the Chlor-Bromides and Brom-Iodides of the Olefines.
By Professor Maxwaut Siurson, P28.
On the Specific Volumes of certain Liquids. By Professor THorrs.
On some Opium Derivatives. By Dr. C. R. Wrieur.
GEOLOGY.
Address by Professor Kowarp Hurt, WA., PBS., E.GAS., President of the
Section.
Foiiowine the example of several Presidents of the Geological Section of the
British Association, I purpose commencing our sprocersings by an address, selecting
for my subject the volcanic phenomena of the district in which we are assembled.
But before entering upon this subject, I am sure it will be equally in accordance
with your feelings and my own if I give expression to the general and deep regret
which is felt at the death (so little expected) of the late President of this Bachan
Professor John Phillips, of Oxford, on the 24th of April last, in the 74th year of
his age.
The late Professor Phillips—As the nephew and pupil of Mr. William Smith,
“the*Father of English Geology,” Professor Phillips was nurtured in an atmo-
sphere of geological science which accorded well with his own tastes; and in his
youth was the companion and assistant of his uncle in many a surveying-tour in
the east and north of England. His subsequent appointment as Keeper of the
Museum at York, and one of the Secretaries of the vordie Philosophical Society,
gave him opportunities and scope for pursuing his inquiries—ultimately resulting
in the publication of his laborious work on ‘The Geology of Yorkshire,’ a work
not only abounding in local details, but containing the germs of several generali-
zations on questions relating to physical geology.
Of his connexion with the Geological Survey of Great Britain, Professor
Phillips has left two enduring monuments in his work on ‘The Palzozoic Fossils
of Cornwall, Devon, and West Somerset, and that on ‘The Malvern Hills and
surrounding districts’*—one dealing with the organic structures, and the other
more especially with the physical conditions of the south and west of England.
To his future career as Professor of Geology in the University of Dublin, after-
wards, on the death of Dr. Buckland, in the University of Oxford, or as President
of the Geological Society of London in 1859 and of the British Association at Bir-
smingham in 1865, itis unnecessary for me in this brief notice to do more than allude.
‘Through these years and down to the time of his decease his fertile brain and
ready pen were ever at work. But the scope of his investigations was not limited
to purely geological subjects; he was a man of many parts, and astronomical
questions largely engaged his attention in his later years. In 1868 he visited
Italy and Vesuvius, and subsequently published a little work on the history and
structure of that mountain in a form very acceptable to that large portion of the
* «The Malvern Hills compared with the Palxozoic Districts of Abberley, Woolhope,
May Hill, Tortworth, and Usk,” Mem, Geol, Survey, 1849, ai ' .
68 -REPORT—1874,
travelling British public which at one time or another makes the delightful pilgri-
mage to the workshop of Vulcan and the Phlegrwan Fields. ;
The loss of Professor Phillips’s presence at the meetings of the British Associa-
tion, of which he was one of the founders, is irreparable. His genial face and
lucid words brought sunshine wherever he appeared, and threw light on every
topic he handled; to him might well be apphed the words—“ quidquid tetigit
ornavit.”” While lamenting his loss, let us endeavour to imitate the example of
his untiring industry, his patient pursuit of the beautiful and noble in Nature, his
honesty of character, his purity of life*. q
The Volcanic District of the North-east of Ireland.—I have now to direct your
attention to the district of County Antrim and its neighbourhood as one claiming
our special investigation, and presenting a multitude of interesting problems con-
nected with the volcanic phenomena of the Tertiary period. By the labours of
Berger, Weaver, Portlock, Griffith, Bryce, Tate, Holden, and other geologists
many of these problems have received a solution; others remain for further dis-
cussion. It shall be my endeavour to give you a brief summary of the facts and
inferences arrived at up to this time, and to present you with a connected history
of the operations carried on by terrestrial agents in this island, from the com-
mencement of the volcanic era to its close.
This era, though short as compared with the sum of geologic time, was in
reality vastly extended, and comprised within its limits several stages or divisions
characterized by special physical conditions. Speaking in geological terms, it pro-
bably included the latter part of the Eocene and the whole of the Miocene periods,
interrupted by long pauses in the outburst of volcanic products.
But before entering upon the narrative of events which occupied this space of
time, let us first endeavour to determine the physical limits of the theatre of these
operations; for it may well be asked, considering the great extent to which the
volcanic products have been cleared from off the surface of the country by denu-
dation, with what degree of precision can we define the original limits of the
volcanic area ?
Let us for a moment, when replying to this question, turn to a still more recent
volcanic district for an illustration. When we ascend the cone of Vesuvius, and
from that commanding station sweep with our eyes the surrounding region, we
find ourselves in the centre of a plain—the Campagna of Naples—formed of the
products of volcanic eruptions, but limited through three quarters of a circle by
‘calcareous hills of older date, and along the other portion by the sea.
I believe that similarly, but on a far more extended scale, we can trace out the
original limits of the volcanic district of the north-east of Ireland, and that from
some elevated stations rising from the central plateau of Antrim these limits may
‘be almost descried by the uprising of ridges of more ancient rocks in several
directions. Taking our stand on Tardree Hill, or Sleamish, we see to the south-
ward the granitic and schistose ridge of Slieve Croob, projected against a back-
ground of the mountains of Mourne, culminating in Slieve Donard. Westward
the eye rests on the rugged masses of Slieve Gullion and the Silurian hills of
Newtown Hamilton. Towards the north, after passing the depression of the
-southern shore of Lough Neagh and the valley of the river Blackwater, the
enclosing ridge of old rocks, forming from this distance an apparently unbroken
line, ranges northward into Donegal and the northern shores of Lough Foyle. The
ocean now intervenes; but acomparison of the physical characters of the Donegal
“mountains with those of Islay, Jura, Cantyre, and the Western Highlands leaves
the impression on my mind that the volcanic region of Antrim was limited north-
wards along the line of a submarine ridge, and that there is little reason for sup-
posing that the volcanic rocks of Mull were superficially connected with those of
this country,—on the contrary, the probability seems to be that the old crystalline
rocks of the Western Highlands were interposed between the two regions.
Turning to the eastward, the sea overflows an area at one time occupied by
voleanic products, but now only partially so, and we are unable strictly to define
* An interesting memoir of the late Professor Phillips will be found in the ‘Geological
Magazine,’ yol. yii. p. 801 (1870). - -
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 69
their easterly limits; but it is tolerably certain that the sheets of lava did not
reach the shores of Galloway or those of the Isle of Man. Basaltic dykes, how-
ever, as is well known, traverse the north of England and the south of Scotland ;
but if referable, as Professor Geikie concludes, to the Miocene period, they cannot
be included in the volcanic region as here described and understood.
Thus the volcanic plateau of Antrim, like the Campagna of Naples, is washed
on one side by the sea, and its limits become indefinable in consequence; but to
the south, the west, and to some extent to the north, the limits of the region are
marked out by mountains of considerable elevation. Within this region craters
poured forth lavas or other volcanic products, which extended in great sheets
until they were intercepted by the uprising of these natural barriers,
The floor of the area thus partially circumscribed was formed of various
materials, as the accidents of denudation admitted. Over the central portions it
was chiefly Cretaceous limestone (or Chalk), but to the southward it was New
Red Sandstone and Lower Silurian, and to the north, Chalk, Lias, Carboniferous,
and Lower Silurian beds in different directions. The whole region composed of
rocks thus distributed was probably converted into dry land towards the close of the
Eocene period—when, at various points, highly silicated felspathic lavas burst
forth, consolidating into sheets of trachyte porphyry, rhyolite, and more rarely
pitchstone, such as are found at Brown Dod Hill and Tardree, near Antrim, and
west of Hillsborough. These trachytic lavas were therefore the oldest of the
voleanic eruptions of the north of Ireland, and seem to have been represented by
the newer granitoid rocks recently described by Zirkel, Geikie, and Judd in the
Island of Mull on the one hand, and by the trachytes of Mont Dore in Central
France on the other, They have been described in this district by Berger and
Bryce; but it is only recently that their relations to the other lavas have been
clearly determined ; and as such rocks are exceedingly rare in the British Isles,
I trust the Members of the Association will take this opportunity of paying a visit
to the quarries near Antrim, where they are fully opened to view. In composition,
both at Hillsborough and at Antrim, they present a felspathic base, enclosing
erystals of sanidine (or glassy felspar) and grains of quartz. At Brown Dod Hill
they are disposed in sheets, showing lines of viscous flow and dipping beneath the
overlying beds of basalt.
As I have already stated, the outpouring of these trachytic lavas may, with
eyery probability, be referred back to the later Eocene period. At any rate, a
considerable interval probably elapsed before the eruption of the next series of
lavas of Miocene age, which are essentially augitic, and may be comprehended
under the heads of basalt and dolerite with their amygdaloidal varieties. Sheets
of these lavas were formed, from various vents, over the uneven surface of the
older rocks, and to a far greater extent, both as to area and thickness, than in the
case of the preceding eruptions of trachyte*. These beds, which are often vesi-
cular, attain in some places a thickness of 600 feet, and are surmounted by decom-
posed lava and volcanic ashes, which mark the close of the second period of
eruption.
he sheets of augitic lava which were poured forth during this stage are remark-
able for their vesicular character and the numerous thin bands of red ochre
(bole or laterite) which separate the different lava-flows, and which have been
recognized by Sir C. Lyell as probably ancient soils formed by the decomposition
of the beds of lava, similar to those in Madeira and the Canary Islands, resulting
from streams of subaerial origin. Microscopic examination bears out this view;
for a thin slice of one of the more compact beds of bole from the north coast
showed that the felspar-prisms retained their form, while the augite and magnetite
ingredients had passed into the state of an’ ochreous paste.
The vesicular and amygdaloidal character of these older beds of lava shows the
probability that they have been poured forth under no greater pressure than that
of the atmosphere, and together with the evidence derived from the bands of ochre
leads to the conclusion that they have been erupted over land-surfaces. Some of
* Tn this respect they resemble the corresponding rocks in Central France, where, as:
Mr. Scrope has shown, the trachytes have a more restricted range than the basalts
(* Volcanoes of Central France’),
70 REPORT—1874.
the vents of eruption are now visible, either in the form of amorphous masses of
trap protruded through the sheets, or of great funnels filled by bombs, broken
pieces of rock, and ashes, such as the rock on which is perched the venerable ruin
of Dunluce Castle (the ancient stronghold of the MacDonnells), or the neck erupted
through the Chalk in the coast-cliffs near Portrush*. One of these old funnels
was found by the late Mr. Du Noyer near this place: it forms a portion of the
crest of the ridge overlooking Belfast Lough, to the east of Cave Hill, and is
within easy reach of Members of the Association.
The period of the formation of the older sheets appears to have been brought to
a close by the discharge of volcanic ashes and the formation of an extensive lake,
or series of lakes, over the region extending at least from the shores of Belfast
Lough to the northern coast of Antrim, in which the remarkable beds of pisolitic
iron-ore were ultimately deposited. This is the only mode of origin of these ores
which seems to me at all probable; and I am consequently unable to accept the
views advanced by Messrs. Tate and Holden regarding their origin from basaltic
lava by a process of metamorphism. That water was present, and that the beds of
ash which underlie the pisolitic ore were stratified, at least in some instances, is
abundantly evident upon an examination of the sections at Ballypalidy, Ballymena,
and the northern coast. In some places they are seen to be perfectly laminated in
a manner that could only take place by the agency of watert. It would seem,
therefore, that by the combination of slight terrestrial movements a shallow basin
was formed over the area indicated, which received the streams charged with iron in
solution, draining the upland margins, from the waters of which were precipitated
the iron, possibly by the agency of confervoid aleve, as in the case of the Swedish
lakes of the present day (a view maintained by Mr. D. Forbes, F.R.S.), or by the
escape of carbonic acid, owing to which the iron became oxidized and was pre-
cipitated.
Upon these uplands grew the plants whose remains occur amongst the ash-beds
of Ballypalidy, the Causeway, and elsewhere, and which have enabled Mr. Baily
to refer the strata in which they occur to the Miocene period}. In some places
the vegetation crept over the surface of the former lake-bottom as it became
shallower or was drying up, and gave rise to beds of lignite similar to those
described by the Duke of Argyll as occurring at intervals amongst the basalts of
Mull§. The beds of ore, wherever they are found, belong to one and the same
geological horizon, and enable us to separate the basaltic series into two great
divisions—one below, and the other above the position of the pisolitic ore; and
which, on maps of the Geological Survey, will for the future be represented
by two different shades of colouring.
The ore itself is now laid open in numerous adits driven into the hill-sides, or in
open works at Island Magee, Shane’s Hill, Broughshane, Red Bay, Portfad, and
other places||, whence it is transported to the furnaces of Scotland, Cumber-
land, Lancashire, and Wales. A new source of industry and wealth is rapidly
springing up over the already prosperous county of Antrim, and ere many years
are over we may expect to see furnaces established at several points for smelting
the ores at the mines from which they are extracted.
The period of volcanic inaction just described was brought to a close by fresh
eruptions of augitic lavas, which spread in massive sheets over the beds of ore,
bole, and even lignite, without materially altering their constitution. Thus on the
* A sketch of this old rock is given by Professor Geikie in Jukes’s ‘Manual of Geology,’
ord edit. p. 271. : i
+ The authors referred to, while admitting the stratified character of the beds at
Ballypalidy and their formation in presence of water, consider that in all other cases the’
iron-ore has been formed on a terrestrial suriace; but sections seen at Ballymena and
the north coast have led me to conclude that these beds are all more or less stratified, and
due to aqueous deposition.
t Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. xxv. p. 357, pls. 14 & 15. The plants determined by
Mr. Baily, from Ballypalidy, belong to the genera Sequoia, Cupressites, Rhamnus, Quercus,
Pinus, ke. They were originally detected by the late Mr. Du Noyer.
§ Jukes’s ‘ Manual of Geology,’ 3rd edit. p. 690.
|| At Pleaskin Head it was originally observed by the Rey. Dr. Hamilton (1790).
~
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 71
north coast a band of lignite is interposed between the pisolitic ore below and a
massive bed of columnar basalt above, which can be followed and identified by the
size and regularity of its columns for several square miles over that district. That
this molten rock has not utterly reduced the lignite to ashes, or even entirely
obliterated the impressions of the plant-remains, has been doubtless due to the
rapidity with which a hard crust, of low conducting-power, consolidates on the
outside of a lava-stream, as has been frequently observed on Vesuvius and other
active volcanoes.
Above this peculiarly massive bed were piled fresh sheets of basalt and dolerite
to a total depth of at least 400 feet, each flow of lava being consolidated in a
somewhat different manner from those above and below it, and probably separated
from them by considerable intervals of time, as bands of ochre intervene in most
instances between successive beds indicating subaerial soils of decomposed lava.
The maximum thickness of the basaltic sheets of Antrim has been estimated by
Mr. Duffin and myself at 1100 feet, to which must be added perhaps 200 feet for
the subordinate trachytic beds, giving a total of 1300 feet for the whole volcanic:
series,. This is rather more than originally assigned by Dr. Berger, who places it
at 900 feet *, but it falls far short of the enormous accumulations of Mull, estimated.
by Professor Geikie at from 3000 to 4000 feet ; in neither district, however, have we
the data for determining the original thickness of volcanic ejecta, as in both large’
masses of material have been wasted away by denudation, and nota single volcanic
cone or crater remains behind out of all those which, probably in numbers corre-:
sponding to those of Central France, were planted over the entire volcanic region. .-
The basaltic dykes, which traverse not only the geological formations subordinate:
to the bedded traps, but also the latter themselves, are, in some districts, both
remarkable and exceedingly numerous. To the south of Belfast Lough we find at
Serabo Hill an outlying mass of bedded dolerite resting on New Red Sandstone,
and far beyond the limits of the main masses which rise in a fine escarpment to
the north of the Lough. There is every probability that Scrabo Hill is the site of
a distinct focus of eruption ; but it is also remarkable for the dykes of trap, as well
as intrusive sheets, which have been squeezed in between the beds of sandstone
themselves. Admirable and instructive sections are laid open in the freestone-
quarries of this hill, which will amply repay a visit. Another district remarkable
for such intrusions is that of Ballycastle, where dykes and sheets are seen traversing
the Carboniferous rocks, as described by Sir R. Griffith in his admirable Report on
the geology of that coal-field+; while the well-known Giants’ Causeway 1s itself
a tessellated pavement of columnar basalt, traversing in the form of a dyke the
horizontal sheets of older formation.
- The intrusion of the thousands of dykes of the north-east of Ireland is unaccom-
panied by crumplings or contortions of the strata; and if it were possible to place
the dykes side by side, their aggregate breadth would cover a space several
thousand feet in breadth. How, then, has this additional space amongst strata of
given horizontal dimensions been obtained? Has it been by lateral tension out-
wards owing to inflation by means of elastic gases or vapours, or by a general
bulging of the surface consequent on lateral pressure? The former view, I am
told by physicists, is untenable; the latter is one which will probably prove more
consonant with modern views of terrestrial dynamics.
The results of the microscopic examination of a considerable number of speci-
mens of augitic lavas from various parts of the volcanic district are of a generally
uniform character. Whether we take specimens from the largely crystalline gra-
‘nular dolerites of Portrush or Fair Head, or the very dense micro-crystalline
basalts of Shane’s Castle, the structure and composition is found to be nearly
uniform. ge
The lava is, with very few exceptions, an amorphous or subcrystalline paste of
augite, enclosing long prisms or plates of labradorite felspar, crystalline grains of
titano-ferrite, and often of olivine. Chlorite is also sometimes present as a
“secondary ” mineral, It will be observed that this diagnosis differs essentially
* Trans. Geol. Soc. Ist series, vol. iii.
t ‘Geological and Mining Survey of the Coal-districts of Tyrone and Antrim * (1829),
_ Some of the sheets in this district may be of older date than the Miocene age.
72 r REPORT—1874.
from that assigned by Dr. Zirkel as the normal structure of basalt, in which the
base is “a glass,” and the other minerals (the augite, felspar, and olivine) are
individually crystallized out*. This, indeed, is the case with the Carboniferous
melaphyres of the south of Irelandt, and probably with all the rocks in which
augite is deficient; but the basalts of Antrim contain augite so largely in excess
of the felspar that it has, in nearly every case, formed the base of the rock f.
The basalt itself is often so rich in iron as to become an impure iron-ore. This
is owing to the presence of the metal in the form of minute grains of titaniferous
iron-ore, which is the principal cause of the black appearance of the rock, and also
as one of the components of the augite.
From the above general review of the volcanic history of Tertiary times in the
north of Ireland it will be evident that it presents us with three distinct periods,
similar to those which Mr. Judd has recognized in the succession of events in the
Island of Mull :—
The earliest, possibly extending as far back as the later Eocene period, charac-
terized by the trachytic lavas.
The middle, referable to the Miocene period, characterized by vesicular augitic
lavas, tuffs, and plant-beds.
The latest, referable to a still later stage of the Miocene period, characterized by
more solid sheets of basalt and numerous vertical dykes.
These three stages were probably separated from each other by long intervals of
repose and the cessation of volcanic action. The succeeding Pliocene period seems to
have been characterized by considerable terrestrial movements, resulting in the
production of fractures in the earth’s crust, and (as my colleague, Mr. Hardman,
supposes) in the formation of that large depression which was filled with waters
having a greater area than the Lough Neagh of the present day. Some of the faults
which traverse the upper sheets of basalt, and are therefore of later date, have ver-
tical dislocation amounting to 500 or 600 feet, as, for instance, that which runs along
the valley under Shane’s Hill near Larne. Such great fractures must necessarily have
been accompanied by denudation, and it is probable that many of the present
physical features had their origin at this (Pliocene) period. The extent to which
the original plateau of volcanic rocks has been broken up and carried away within
such comparatively recent times is vaster than is generally supposed. As there is
evidence that the sheets of lava to the north of Belfast Lough were originally con-
nected with those of Scrabo Hill to the south, we must suppose that this arm of
the sea and the valley of the Lagan have been excavated since the Miocene period ;
while on the north-west the high elevation to which the escarpment of the basalt
reaches, leads to the supposition that the basaltic sheets spread over the ground
now occupied by Lough Foyle. Both along the west and along the eastern sea-
bord the sheets of lava are abruptly truncated, and must have extended far
beyond their present bounds; while many deep valleys, such as those of Glenarm,
Cushendall, and Red Bay, have been excavated.
But the most remarkable result of the denudation, as bearing upon the subject
before us, is the complete obliteration of the volcanic cones which we may well
suppose studded the plateau. Some of these cones, at least, were contemporaneous
with those now standing upon the granitic plateau of Central France, and which
are but little altered in elevation since the fires which once burst forth from them
became extinct. But since then the north of Ireland has been subjected to
vicissitudes from which Central France has been exempted. The surface of the
country has been overspread by the great ice-sheet of the earliest stage of the
Glacial period, which appears to have stretched across from the Argyleshire High--
lands, if we are to judge by the direction of the glacial strie at Fair Head §. i
a “a 4 ge iiber d. mikrosk, Zusammensetzung und Structur der Basaltgesteine’
70).
t E. Hall, ‘On the Microscopic Structure of the Limerick Carboniferous Melaphyres,”
Journ. Roy. Geol. Soc. Ireland, vol. iii. p. 112 (with plates).
{ Mr. Allport, F.G.8., states (Geol. Mag. 1873) that he has found the augite indiyi-
dually crystallized out in a specimen from near the Causeway. Such a case, however,
must be exceptional; but the rule as stated above certainly holds good. ‘
§ A view also held by Mr, James Geikie and Mr, Campbell of Islay,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 73
At a later stage the country was submerged beneath the waters of the Inter-
pone sea, which deposited the sands and gravels which overlie the Lower
oulder-clay ; and subsequent emergences during the stage of the Upper Boulder-
clay, together with atmospheric agencies constantly at work whenever land has
been exposed, have moulded the surface into the form we now behold.
It will thus be seen that the physical geologist, whether a Vulcanist or a
Neptunist, has in this region abundant materials on which to concentrate his
attention.
Voleanie Energy.—In connexion with this subject, it may not unnaturally be
expected that I should make some allusion to the views of Mr. Robert Mallet on -
“Volcanic Energy,” which he has recently unfolded in the ‘ Philosophical Trans-
actions of the Royal Society’*. My limits, however, forbid more than a cursory
glance at this subject. Stated in a few words, volcanic energy, according to Mr.
Mallet, has its origin primarily in the contraction of the earth’s crust, due to secular
cooling and the tendency of the interior molten matter to fall inwards and thus
leave the exterior solid shell unsupported. The lateral pressure arising therefrom
(which, as Mr. Mallet shows, is vastly greater than the vertical weight of the crust)
is expended in crushing portions of the solid crust together, along lines of fracture
which are supposed to correspond to those of the voleanic cones which are distri-
buted over the earth’s surface. Each successive crush produces an earthquake-
shock, and is converted into heat sufficient to melt the rocks which line the walls
of the fissure or lie beneath at high temperatures, and which, in presence of elastic
steam and gases, are erupted at intervals both of time and place.
in the words of the author of these views :—“ The secular cooling of the globe
is always going on, though in a very slowly descending ratio. Contraction is
therefore constantly providing a store of energy to be expended in crushing parts
of the crust, and through that providing for the volcanic heat. But the crushing
itself does not take place with uniformity ; it necessarily acts per saltum after
accumulated pressure has reached the necessary amount at a given point, where
some of the unequally pressed mass gives way, and is succeeded perhaps by a
time of repose or by the transfer of the crushing action elsewhere to some weaker
point.
It cannot be denied that Mr. Mallet’s theory seems to be consistent with many
observed facts connected with volcanic action. It has for its foundation an incon-
testable physical hypothesis, the secular cooling of the earth, and it seems to throw
considerable light upon several observed phenomena of voleanic action—such as the
distribution of cones and craters along great lines, the intermittent character of
eruptions, and the connexion of earthquake-shocks with voleanic outbursts. There
are some statements in Mr. Mallet’s paper which few physical geologists will be
inclined to accept, such as the non-existence of true volcanoes before the Secon-
dary or Mesozoic period. The Silurian volcanic districts of North Wales and of
the west of Ireland, and the Carboniferous volcanic districts of Limerick and
Scotland, bear witness against the soundness of such a view. ‘This statement,
however, does not necessarily invalidate the general views of the author; and I
cannot but think that the publication of Mr. Mallet’s paper has enabled us to take
a very long stride in the direction of a true theory of volcanic energy.
Further Researches on Eozoon Canadense. By W. B. Carrenter, 2.8,
On the Fossils of the Posttertiary Deposits of Ireland.
By the Rev. Joun Grater, D.D.
At the last Belfast Meeting in 1852 the author gave a list of the shells found in
the alluvial deposits of Belfast. To the ‘Natural-History Review,’ vol. vi., for
‘i * 1873, vol. clxiii. p. 147. .
1874. 6
TA : REPORT—1874,
1859, he contributed an account of all that had been obtained up to that date.
Mr. §. A. Stewart subsequently published a list of the fossils of the estuarme
clays of the counties of Down and Antrim, in which further progress was recorded
with great accuracy. At the Brighton Meeting in 1872 Professor Edward Hull
gave lists of shells found in the raised beaches of Balbriggan, Kilroot, and Larne,
in the identification of which he had heen assisted by Mr. W. H. Baily, F.G.S.
In the ‘Geological Magazine,’ October 1873, Mr. Alfred Bell, writing on the
Paleontology of the Postglacial Drifts of Ireland, brings into one memoir many
details scattered throughout various scientific journals bearing on Irish Postter-
tiary Geology. In the ‘Geological Magazine’ for May of this year (1874), the Rev.
M. Close contributed a paper on the elevated shell-bearing gravels near Dublin,
giving lists of shells found at elevations of 1000 feet and upwards. Mr, Kinahan
and Mr. Hardman have also written papers bearing on the subject—the former in
the ‘Geological Magazine,’ March and April of this year, and the latter in the
‘ Journal of the Royal Geological Society of Ireland.’
The author purposed on the present occasion to contribute the names of species
which had occurred in such localities as he had himself examined.
These localities are the following :— ;
(1) Dungiven, co. Derry; (2) Ballyrudder, co. Antrim; (8) Balbriggan, co.
Dublin ; (4) Howth, co. Dublin; (5) Ballybrack, co. Dublin; (6) Larne Curran,
co. Antrim ; and (7) Portrush, co. Antrim.
(1) At the Dungiven Quaternary bed, which rises to the height of 400 feet above
the level of the sea, he had got the following species :—
Cardium edule.
Cyprina Islandica.
Astarte sulcata.
Astarte borealis.
Corbula gibba.
Turritella terebra.
(2) From a bed of stratified gravel in the townland of Ballyrudder, on the west-
ward side of the road and halfway between Larne and Glenarm, Dr. Jeffreys ob-
tained a most interesting lot of Posttertiary fossils. They occurred at about 15
feet above high water. They were as follow :—
Rhynchonella psittacea.
Mytilus edulis ; fragments.
Leda pernula; indistinct layers.
Astarte sulcata, var. elliptica.
compressa.
Tellina balthica.
calcaria.
Mactra solida, var. elliptica.
subtruncata.
Pholas crispata ; fragments.
Turritella erosa.
Natica Montacuti.
affinis.
Buccinum undatum, var.
undulatum.
Trophon clathratus.
Pleurotoma turricula, var.
Woodiana.
Pingelii.
Balanus tulipa-alba.
To these the anthor had been enabled to add the following :—
Cardium, sp.
Cyprina Islandica.
Astarte borealis.
depressa, Brown.
Mya truncata.
Saxicava rugosa.
Puncturella noachina.
Trochus cinerarius.
Littorina obtusata,
rudis.
— litorea.
Purpura lapillus.
Trophon truncatus.
Cliona borings.
Annelid borings.
Mammoth-tooth, exhibited.
The last item is particularly interesting, inasmuch as it throws light on a disco-
very recorded by the ‘Clonmel Chronicle’ in the following terms :—“ Ertraordi-
nary Discovery.—A few days since, as Benjamin Fayle, Esq., of Merlin, was
walking with his sons on the bye-road leading from Glenhackett to the lower road
near Kilgany, one of the lads picked up what appeared to be a curious stone, but
what is in reality the tooth of a Siberian fossil elephant in an excellent state of
escalate Some weeks since there was a terrible mountain-flood produced by
eavy rain, and the supposition is the tooth may have been washed down from the
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 75
hills. The road on which it was lying was greatly cut up, and this relic of anti-
quity was lying among the débris.”
During the year 1869, when workmen were removing gravel for ballast from the
Curran at Larne, the upper part of the thigh-bone of a mammoth was found along
with some fragments of a whale about 20 feet below the surface of the Curran,
which is itself there about that height above high water.
(3) At Balbriggan, where the sea undermines and breaks away the land on the
Skerries side, the author found the following species disclosed between 10 and 40
feet above the sea-level :—
Nucula, sp. Corbula gibba.
Leda abyssicola. Saxicava Norvegica.
pernula. rugosa,
arctica. Dentalium entalis.
Pectunculus glycymeris. Patella vulgata.
Cardium echinatum. Littorina rudis.
Cyprina Islandica. Turritella terebra.
Astarte sulcata. Buccinum undatum.
borealis. Nassa incrassata.
Tsocardia cor. Pleurotoma turricula.
Tellina balthica. Balanus sulcatus.
calearia.
Solen siliqua.
(4) The following species were observed by him at Howth in the cutting for a
new road on the hill above the town, about 100 feet above the sea :—
Ostrea edulis. Mya truncata.
Pecten opercularis. Pholas crispata.
Leda pernula. Patella vulgata.
Cardium echinatum. ‘i, Littorina litorea.
edule. Turritella terebra.
Cyprina Islandica. Buccinum undatum.
Astarte sulcata. Fusus antiquus.
borealis. Islandicus.
depressa. Pleurotoma turricula.
Mactra solida, var. elliptica. Balanus sulcatus.
Tellina balthica. Annelid borings.
(5) The following were obtained by him at Ballybrack, near Killiney, imbedded
at heights between 10 and 20 feet above high water :—
Ostrea edulis. Mya arenaria.
Cardium edule. Trochus cinerarius.
Astarte borealis. Turritella terebra.
compressa. Fusus antiquus.
Venus verrucosa, Cyprza Europea.
exoleta. Balanus sulcatus.
Tellina balthica.
(6) From the railway-cutting through the Curran, Larne, the author obtained
the following at heights varying from 10 to 20 feet above high water :—
Anomia ephippium. Trochus cinerarius.
Ostrea edulis. —— zizyphinus.
Pecten varius. Littorina obtusata.
Cardium edule. rudis.
Kellia suborbicularis. litorea.
Lucina borealis. Turritella terebra.
Tapes pullastra. Cerithium reticulatum.
Tellina tenuis. Purpura lapillus.
Corbula gibba. Buccinum undatum.
Saxicava rugosa. Nassa reticulata.
| Heleyon pellucidum. pygmea.
Patella vulgata. Cliona. borings.
Trochus magus.
6*
76
REPORT— 1874.
Professor Hull’s list of the fossils of Kilroot corresponds with the author's list of
shells of the raised beach beyond Carrickfergus (the same district) given at the
close of the author's paper in the ‘ Natural-History Review’ for 1859.
(7) The following is a list of the species obtained by the author in the Portrush
bed discovered by Col. Portlock, height 10 feet above the sea :—
Anomia ephippium.
, var. aculeata.
pectiniformis.
Ostrea edulis.
Pecten pusio.
varius.
Mytilus edulis.
Arca tetragona.
Nucula nucleus, bored by
Natica.
Cyprina Islandica.
Venus casina.
fasciata.
ovata.
Tapes pullastra.
Mactra subtruncata.
Mya Binghami.
Saxicava rugosa.
Patella vulgata.
Helcyon pellucidum.
Fissurella Greca.
Trochus cinerarius.
zizy phinus.
Phasianella pulla; operculum.
Lacuna divaricata.
puteolus.
Littorina obtusata.
rudis.
Littorina litorea.
neritoides.
Rissoa parva.
striata.
semistriata.
cingillus.
cancellata.
——, sp.
Hydrobia ulve.
Odostomia unidentata.
Natica Montacuti.
Cerithium. reticulatum.
Cerithiopsis tubercularis.
Triforis perversa.
Purpura lapillus.
Buccinum undatum.
Murex erinaceus.
Nassa reticulata.
incrassata.
Defrancia linearis.
Pleurotoma costata.
Cyprza Europea.
Salicornaria farciminoides.
Cliona borings.
Echinus sphera.
Caryophyllia Smithii.
Cancer pagurus.
Specimens of nearly all the species enumerated in the paper are preserved in
the author's cabinet, and have been submitted to the kind scrutiny of Mr. Gwyn
Jeffreys.
On some new Localities for Upper Boulder-clay in Ireland. By Kowarp T.
Harpman, F.0.8., F.B.GAS.L., of the Geological Survey of Ireland.
In Mr. James Geikie’s valuable work on the ‘Great Ice-Age,’ as well as in a
former memoir by him on “Changes of Climate during the Glacial Epoch ”*, the
presence of an Upper Boulder-clay in this country is hardly admitted, save in the
north-eastern portion, where it is (Somewhat doubtfully) allowed to exist. The
author now proposed to mention some new localities where he had observed it.
In various parts of the counties Armagh, Derry, and Tyrone the three divisions
of the drift are met with, viz. 1. Upper Boulder-clay; 2. Stratified Sand and Gravel
(Middle Sands); 3. Lower Boulder-clay +; but the Upper Boulder-clay can rarely
be identified with certainty, except when it rests on the summits of very high drift
hills, or where sufficiently deep cuttings are found to expose the underlying sands.
In the neighbourhood of Dungannon, the drift being extremely hilly, the whole
three merit can be found in places; and a section was exhibited and explained,
showing the Upper Boulder-clay resting on the Middle Sands, at Castle Hill,
Dungannon, Killymeal Quarry, and Gortmerron. The Upper Boulder-clay was
also observed in the Ulster Railway-cuttings at Coolhill and Coolcush, at Windmill
Hill, south, and Mullaghdun, north of Dungannon, in the vicinity of Stewartstown,
and in the co. Derry in the low ground to the north of Slieve Gallion. |
* Geological Magazine, vols. viii. & ix.
t Following the classification of Prof. Hull and Prof. Harkness.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 77
In the more central parts of Ireland, especially in the Queen’s County, Carlow,
and Kilkenny, the drift also admits of a tripartite arrangement, and in general
character closely resembles that of the north; but the whole is often loosely
described as “limestone gravel”#. In many places the Upper Boulder-clay is
found reposing on a greatly denuded surface of stratified and sometimes current-
bedded sand and gravels, or even on the Lower Boulder-clay, as at Coonbeg,
Queen’s County, south-west of Athy, In the same stream (the river Tagine
one mile to the west, the whole three members are found superimposed.
At various places near the town of Carlow, as at the railway bridge and at
Erindale House, the Upper Boulder-clay is found resting on denuded and current-
bedded gravels.
At Archersgrove, near Kilkenny, thick Boulder-clay rests on coarse gravels,
wae a mile to the south the Upper Boulder-clay lies directly on the limestone
rock f.
Besides the places named, a great part of these counties is covered with a very
peculiar Boulder-clay which is inferred to be the upper, although the base is rarely
seen. It consists of a confused mass of round water-worn pebbles or paving-stones,
chiefly limestone, from 30-40 per cent., in some cases being well and deeply
scratched on the rounded surface. These are huddled together in an wnstratified
matrix of sandy clay. It cannot be a Lower Boulder-clay, for the pebbles are
rounded by water action. It could not be relegated to the Middle Sand or Esker
Series, for the pebbles are well scratched. It can therefore only be Upper Boulder-
clay. Where Upper Boulder-clay is found resting on the gravels, it contains at the
base quantities of these rounded and scratched pebbles.
All these characteristics agree perfectly with its being an Upper Boulder-clay.
The glaciers which gave rise to the upper clays must have passed in many places
over the already rounded and stratified gravels with which this part of the country
was covered, and would of course remove a great. deal of them. This detritus
becoming mingled together with clay and pieces of unrounded rock from places
uncovered by drift, would result in a confused mass of pebbles, clay, sand, and
boulders, and would naturally contain more pebbles than boulders. This is exactly
the kind of stuff that is visible all around Carlow and Kilkenny. A fine section 1s
seen in it in the railway-cuttings for more than three miles on each side of the
latter city f.
It would be difficult to explain these pebbly Boulder-clays on any. other
ei than the above, even were they never found lying actually on the
middle gravels, as they do in some places.
On the Geological Structure of the Tyrone Coal-fields. By Evwarp T.
Harvmay, F.0.8., F.R.GS.I., of the Geological Survey of Ireland.
The Carboniferous rocks of this district appear to resemble somewhat those of the
northern counties of England. The coal-bearing beds are true Coal-measures, but
the underlying limestone is split up by numerous sedimentary beds, the calcareous
members becoming more scarce towards the north, until finally the whole becomes
similar to the Lower Carboniferous rocks of Scotland, to which horizon Professor
Hull has referred the Coal-measures of Ballycastle, co. Antrim. They are ees
covered by newer formations, Permian, Trias, Chalk, &c., to which, as well as the
existence of some large boundary faults, is due the preservation of the two small
patches of Coal-measures which form these coal-fields.
aA succession of rocks in the neighbourhood of Coalisland and Dungannon is
as follows :—
* Jukes’s Manual of Geology, edited by Geikie, p. 707 e¢ seg.
+ Identified as the upper clay by its containing at the base quantities of water-worn
pebbles, all well scratched.
t It is noticed in more than one locality in the Queen’s County at a height of 1000 feet
above the sea on the Coal-measure hills.
78 REPORT—1874.
Cretaceous 23)... 58% Upper Chalk with Flints. feet.
Triassic ti... Ra alee iets Upper Bunter Sandstone.
( Middle Coal-measures.—Consisting of sandstones
with soft shales and very thick beds of fire-clay,
| ironstones, and many coal-seams, often thick.
] Lingula squamiformis and Anthracosia, also fish-
)
Coal-measures, probably remaips very abundant. Ferns, &c....... about 930
1930 feet. Lower Coal-measures.—Chiefly hard sandstones and
erits, sandstone slate, and hard shales, with but
few coal-seams orironstones. Plantsvery abundant.
Gontatites and Lingula occasionally. Fish-remains
| rather scarce. (? Gannister-beds.) .... probably 1000
Milistone-grit. ........ Coarse grits and sandstones ............ robably 200
Voredale Shales ...... Black calcareous and non-caleareous shales with
bands of limestone, sandstone, and clay-ironstone
fhodaless (eis. wT. oe Gh DOR eee 600
Upper Limestone .... Crystalline and marly limestones }
with sandstone bands.......... |
SEL Doorn rca tecture Impure limestones, shales, and sand- { In all perhaps
BONER PiU ih Rs API Bae ( about .
Lower Limestone .... Sandy limestones, shales, sand- |
stone, and dolomite .......... J
The author haying explained his reasons for adopting the above classification
and thicknesses, went on to describe the coal-fields in detail, commencing with the
Dungannon coal-field, which extends from near Dungannon to beyond Coal-
island; and which, though of small area, is extraordinarily rich in coal-seams, for
it contains from 22-24 coal-beds, at least 13 of which are workable, while 17,
containing about 42 feet of workable coal, lie in 300 yards of strata. They are all
highly bituminous coals, and two of them contain valuable bands of cannel. Ina
series of analyses of these coals the author found the amount of volatile matter
ranged from 37°5 to 47°8 per cent., so that all are highly adapted for gas manu-
facture. With all this, firedamp is almost unknown.
In the upper measures there are important deposits of fire-clay, which are
extensively used in brick- and tile-works. The ironstones are not sufficiently
abundant perhaps to work; but the author found the amount of metallic iron in
six specimens to range from 21°70 to 35°50 per cent. As to the resources, he
- considered that there must be from 30-40 millions of tons of coal yet untouched,
only counting the coals of a yard thick and upwards, and including the smaller
coals 9 millions more.
This coal-field is bounded on the north-west by a large fault, which brings down
the Coal-measures on the south against the Calp and Lower Limestone. It must
therefore have a downthrow of more than 2000 feet.
North of it the limestone is found covered with triassic strata, without any
intervening Coal-measures for 33 miles, when a small trough of the Middle Coal-
measures containing the four upper Coalisland coals is found, inlaid by means of
several faults on the north, south, and west, amongst the other rocks. This coal-
field* is but 23 miles long by } mile wide, yet must contain the whole series of
Middle and Lower Coal-measures, Millstone-grit, and Yoredale beds. However, the
upper beds are nearly worked out; and supposing all the others to exist, the supply
can hardly be more than about 800,000 tons. The coal-field may still stretch away
to the eastward under the newer strata.
A little to the north of this coal-field a little patch of Permian Limestone is found
resting immediately on the Carboniferous Limestone.
The author proceeded to explain when and how the two coal-fields became
isolated from each other, and why in the immediate vicinity of these thick Coal-
measures the Permian or Trias are found reposing directly on the Limestone. At
the close of the Carboniferous period those rocks were forced into a series of
flexures or folds ranging east and west, owing to the influence of forces acting from
* The Annaghone Coal-field.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 79
the northward, as Professor Hull has already shown occurred in England during
that time*, and it is interesting to find the results of the same forces traceable here.
Denudation following, resulted in a set of plains or edges of limestone, and troughs
or basins of Coal-measures, all of which were overlapped by the deposition of
Permian or Triassic beds. (A part of the country between the two coal-fields
represents one of these limestone plains.) On subsequent denudation, and post-
triassic faults occurring, some portions of the Coal-measures would be laid bare or
saved beneath the newer formation, while in other places close by there would be
an overlap of the newer rock on limestone, apparently as if the whole effect,
faulting and all, on the Carboniferous rocks had been produced before the Triassic
period. As the whole district is cut up by faults and rock exposures are few, the
evidence of those flexures is now obscure; yet on the whole there is enough to
justify this assumption, and in this way only can the phenomena observed be
accounted for.
In conclusion the author referred to the addition made to the paleontological
knowledge of these coal-fields since the Government Survey of them was under-
taken, he and his colleague, Mr. W. H. Baily, F.G.S., F.L.S., with Mr. E. Leeson,
having obtained many shells, bivalves, Gonvatites, &c., together with plants and
fish-remains, the discovery of the last being due to Mr. W. Molyneux, F.G.S., of
Burton-on-Trent, who first pointed them out to the author.
A Synopsis of these fossils, compiled from a list kindly furnished by Mr. Baily of
the specimens which he has been able up to the present to examine, is appended.
List of Fossils compiled from Mr. Baily’s Notes.
PLANT.
Sphenophyllum saxifragifolium. Lepidodendron selaginoides.
Stigmaria ficoides. Calamites cannzeformis,
Neeggerathia dichotoma. Lepidophyllum.
Sagenaria rimosa, and Sigillaria. Lepidostrobus.
Sphenopteris irregularis (latifolia). Pecopteris.
—— tridactylites.
Mo.uusca. CRUSTACEA.
Brachiopoda. Ostracoda,
Lingula squamiformis. Leperditia, sp.
Athyris, sp.
Lamellibranchiata,
Sanguinolites attenuatus. VERTEBRATA.
Modiola Macadami. Pisces.
Anthracosia. Helodus planus ?
Cephalopoda, Paleeoniscus.
Goniatites crenistria.
Orthoceras, sp.
~ On the Age and Mode of Formation of Lough Neagh, Ireland. By Eowarp
T. Harpay, F.C.S., F.R.GSL., of the Geological Survey of Ireland.
After describing the position of Lough Neagh, one of the largest lakes in
Europe, the author referred to the fact that its general direction agreed very
fairly with that of the principal ice-flow which had glaciated the district, and
might therefore be supposed to indicate a glacial origin. The object of the paper
was to show that this is not so, but that the lake was formed long before the.
Glacial period.
The geology of the district was briefly described. On three sides of the lake lies
the basalt, rising as it recedes into considerable altitudes; on the east and nevth-
~* “On the Physical Features of Lancashire and Yorkshire,” by E. Hull, F.R.S., Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soc. Lond. vol. xxiv.
T Scales, palates, and spines, &c. only obtained.
80 REPORT—1874.,
east Black Mountain, Divis, Slemish, and Slieve-na-nee (1782 ft.) ; on the north
the ground is comparatively low; on the north-west and west, Keady, Donald’s Hill,
Carntogher (1572 ft.), Craigs-na-shoke (1996 ft. ), and Slieve Gallion Carn (1625 ft.).
On the south of the lake, forming very low ground, overlying the basalt and extending
some miles inland, is a thick deposit of plastic clays and sands, with lignite and
clay-ironstone.
The basaltic ground terminates on the east and west in high escarpments, from
underneath which emerge the mesozoic strata, viz. Chalk, Greensand, Lias, and Trias
(Keuper and Bunter), all of which can be traced on the east from Carrickfergus
and Belfast, along the valley of the Lagan to Portadown, round by the south of
the clay deposit, and continuing on the west by Stewartstown, Moneymore, and
Magherafelt. Underlying these, following the same line, further back, are the
various members of the Paleozoic strata, Permian, Carboniferous, and Silurian,
with, on the west, the metamorphic rocks and red granite of Slieve Gallion.
In this circuit the ground rises more or less rapidly as it recedes, but the general
dip of the strata, especially the newer, is towards the Lough.
The principal inflowing rivers are the Upper Bann, Blackwater, Ballinderry
river, Maal and Mainwater—the outgoing one being the Lower Bann, flowing
from the north-west of the Lough, through Lough Beg, and falling into the sea
below Coleraine.
The most important, as well as most ancient, of these are the Upper Bann and
Blackwater, draining the country to the south, and passing through what was
formerly the delta of one or other of them—the great clay-deposit already men-
tioned.
These beds have been referred to before by previous writers, Sir Richard Griffith,
Portlock, and others, but have not been definitely placed with regard to the
basalt ‘and drift. They lie under a deposit of drift often more than 50 feet thick,
are very thick, and extend from Ballinderry river on the west, round by Coal-
island, Roxborough Castle, Portadown, &c., ending at Sandy Bay, co. Antrim, and
reaching a distance of six miles from the shore at one place. They consist of
stratified grey and blue clays, sand, and sandstone, occasionally with iron-pyrites,
irregular beds of lignite, and hard siliceous clay-ironstones. In these reed-like
oy and well-preserved dicotyledonous leaves are found, and in the clays
ragments of black wood, apparently pine and oak, but as yet no trace of a fauna,
They dip towards the lake at from 2°-3°, which would give a thickness of 1200
feet at the shore. This must be excessive, yet as they were bored (without being
fully penetrated) to a depth of over 260 feet* (allowing for drift) in Annaghmore,
more than two miles from the shore, the theoretical depth being 260 feet, it is
possible that in some places their thickness may be 500 feet.
The deepest part was therefore originally at the southern end, whereas it is now
at the northern, and only 105 feet at most. An ice-formed lake would be deepest
near where the ice first entered.
The various localities where the clays may be seen (in one place resting on the
basalt) having been described, the author noticed the plentiful occurrence of round
pebbles of basalt and chalk flints in them and some beds of lignite; but in no
imstance was any of the celebrated silicified wood obtained im situ, notwithstanding
the numerous excavations that have been made for the raising of the clay for
pottery manufacture. Nor does he consider that the celebrated specimens obtained
at Sandy Bay by Barton, and referred to by Scouler, Portlock, and others, were
true silicified wood at all; for they were black, capable of being cut by a spade, and
only more or less stony, a description that would apply better to pyritous wood.
The silicified wood is usually found in the drift, not only south, but also north of
the Lough; and its real locus may, with most probability, be assumed to be the
basaltic lignite beds.
The evidence for the order of superposition of the clay-beds was summed up as
follows :—(1) In at least one instance a similar clay has been observed resting on
the basalt. (2) That where the two have been found in juxtaposition, the form
of the ground, not being an escarpment, shows that the soft beds lie uppermost.
* Griffith, Second Report of Railway Commissioners, p. 22; also Twenty-second Report
Brit. Assoc. p. 48; and Portlock’s ‘Geological Report,” p. 167.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 81
(8) That pebbles of basalt are found in them. (4) That while numerous junc-
tions of the chalk and basalt are seen, these clays are never found between them.
(5) The recent aspect of the plant-remains prevents the supposition that the clays
belong to an older period than the Chalk. The only place left for them is therefore
between the basalt and the drift, which is seen resting on them.
Geologists have hitherto differed very seriously as to the age and position of these
beds. Portlock has classed a portion of them with the Nucula-clays of Derry *,
which belong to the drift; Griffith with the Bovey Tracey beds; Prof. King above
these t; Jukes has mapped them as Pleistocene, and Mr. G. H. Kinahan § suggests
that they are a Preglacial drift: the author proposes to class them as Pliocene, on
the following grounds :—
The basaltic outflow was followed by a period of great disturbances and disloca-
tions, accompanied by very extensive denudations, sufficient to remove in many
places as much as 1000 or 2000 feet of solid strata. Afterwards the Lough Neagh
clays were deposited. Thus we have unconformability together with an immense
> of time, which alone would justify us in placing the basalt (of acknowledged
locene age) and the clays in different systems. Besides, the plant-remains have
an exceedingly recent aspect, and the lignite is often not far removed from peat.
On the whole, the beds bear some resemblance to the Older Pliocene of the Val
d’ Arno as described by Lyell (‘Student’s Elements of Geology,’ p. 184). The author
was glad to say that the present classification has met with the sanction of Prof.
Ramsay and Prof. Hull. These clay-beds must occupy an area of not less than 180
square miles.
Around the mouth of the Moyola are clay-beds containing erect tree-stumps,
forming a small delta of Postglacial date.
Former level of the Lough.—The clays being found at a height of 120 feet above
the sea in many places, prove that the waters formerly rose to at least that level,
whereas they are now but 48 feet above sea-level. They were most probably
higher, as much of the ancient mud must have been denuded away since its
deposition; but if the shore be contoured at even 120 feet, the former area of the
lake must have been nearly double what it is now, or nearly 800 square miles.
The author considered the evidence to prove that the lake extended southward
towards Armagh, and but little more to the north than it now does, the deepest
part lying also to the south.
Time and Mode of Formation.—It is clear, therefore, that the lake was formed at
the close of the Miocene period (the Pliocene clays denoting the time of its
completion), and it is therefore unlikely that ice could have had any thing to do
with it, the slight trace of ice-action elsewhere during that time being most
probably due to a local glacier; but to produce any thing like the effects here to be
seen, such as the removal of thousands of feet of rock over hundreds of square miles,
would have necessitated a very intense degree of glaciation, and such as must have
left distinct traces behind it. Mr. J. F. Campbell, F.G.S.||, has indeed attributed
the shaping of this district to the ice of the last Glacial epoch. But this opinion is
hardly tenable; for the lake, and consequently the general physical geography of
the district, was formed previous to that time.
The author’s theory of the formation of the lake is this:—After the basaltic flow
had ceased, subsidences over a large area took place, corresponding with certain
lines of parallel and transyerse faults of considerable force, which can be proved to
extend across the ground comprising the plain and bed of Lough Neagh. Their
general effect would be to give to the face of the country a rudely depressed shape,
consisting of a series of steps to the north, north-west, and south, thus determining
the chief flow of water into the hollow centre, and. (denudation proceeding pare
passu) gradually shaping out something like a lake-basin. The egress of the water
was provided towards the east, along what is now the valley of the Lagan, which,
* Portlock’s ‘Geological Report.’
t Report to accompany Geological Map, 1838; also Report British Association, 1852,
. 48. 1 3
t Synoptical Table of Rock Groups.
§ Geological Magazine, vol. i. p. 173.
|| Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. London, May 1873.
82 REPORT— 1874.
no doubt, was commenced somewhere about this period. Eventually the depression
increasing towards the centre of the faults crossing the lake, caused a lateral
upheaval on each side, giving the finishing touch to the basin depression and
causing an inflow from all sides. The outflow may now possibly have begun to
take its way along the great valley of depression which it still occupies. In the
course of time large rivers carried down immense quantities of detritus into the
water-filled hollow, and spread it into a great lake-delta, silting up the greater
part of the lake. Finally, it is possible that some depression of the country to the
north ensued, draining the lake to some extent; for near Belfast a clay-deposit
containing Nucula oblonga, &c. has been found about 120 feet above the sea, which
is referred to Newer Pliocene age. It is unnecessary to trace the history of the
Lough past this point, because the physical geology has remained essentially the
same to the present day.
The basin could not have been of prebasaltic age, because the Chalk is every-
where of nearly uniform thickness, and must have formed a flat surface, probably a
plain of marine denudation, when the basalt was deposited on it, both together being
afterwards upheayved around the edges. Moreover, all the most important faults in
the district being of postbasaltic age (in part at least), the previous features of the
country ae have been quite distinct from the appearance they afterwards
resented.
‘ Details of the probable mode of Formation of the Lough.—The author proceeded to
describe the faults which crossed the Lough, premising that they left little or no
trace, either in the shape of the ground or of the lake margin; all that he
stipulated for being that they were the means of determining the flow of water
into, and the removal of detritus out of, the centre in the first instance.
The principal fault is that forming the north-west boundary of the Dungannon
coal-field (where it has a throw of at least 2000 feet) running N.W., no doubt
crossing the lake, and most probably joining the great Templepatrick fault, which
has a downthrow of some hundreds of feet to the same side (the south). It appears
to die out at either extremity.
North of the last, the southern boundary fault of the Annaghone coal-field has
been traced nearly parallel to it, with a downthrow also to south, proved in a trial
for coal to be at least 300 feet, but considered to be much more.
Further north are two large faults running towards the Lough, by Coagh; and
these throwing towards each other would form a trough, the direction of which
would coincide with the deep part of the lake.
Further on towards Slieve Gallion, and in the country around it, are numerous
faults, which have a considerable share in modifying the shape of the country.
On the east side besides the Templepatrick fault there are several which can be
observed in the high grounds about the valley of the Lagan, and whose general
downthrow is rather towards the Lough.
All the above are either partially or entirely in age postbasaltic. A large post-
triassic fault has been observed near Dungannon, which if continued, and that it
is also postbasaltic, would pass south of the lake and upheave the ground in the
same direction. ~
The effect of all these faults would be, therefore, to cause a great depression of the
ground now occupied by Lough Neagh; but before the final completion of that
basin, the valley of the Lagan was denuded. ;
The author concluded with evidence as to the enormous amount of denudation
which took place over the basaltic district during the latter part of the Miocene
period, and suggested that a great part, if not the whole, of Ireland may have also
es at the same time, finally summarizing the chief points dwelt on as
ollows.
Recapitulation.—(1) The Lough is of an age intermediate between the Lower
Miocene and the Glacial periods. (2) It is not a true rock-basin, and could not
have been formed by ice-action either of Miocene or subsequent age, but is part of
an area of depression, and is due to the existence of one or more series of faults,
assisted by subaerial denudation. (3) That the extensive deposit of clays and
sands, &c. found on the southern shore and for some miles inland is the delta of a
former large river, which flowed very much in the same course that either the
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 83
Upper Bann or the Blackwater does now. (5) That these clays are of considerably
later date than the basalt, and that the silicified woods may with all probability be
referred to the latter. (6) By the help of these clays we learn that the existing
physical geology, and the main features of the surrounding country, are due to a
period newer than the age of the basalt, but more ancient than the great Glacial
epoch, and that the great denudation which has affected the north of Ireland at
least belongs to the same time.
Sketch of the Geology of the N.E.of Ireland. By Professor Harness, ERS.
On the Progress of the Geological Survey of Ireland. By Prof. Hutt, F.R.S.
In exhibiting the new Index of Geological signs and colours, which had just been
prepared for the Geological Survey of Ireland, Professor Hull gave a short sketch
of the origin and progress of the Survey, observing that it had originated in 1832
with that of the late General Portlock and his assistants, who had published the
well-known ‘ Report on the Geology of Londonderry, Tyrone, and adjoining districts’
(1848). Along with this it had been intended to publish exhaustive reports on
the botany, zoology, and mineralogy of the districts; and Mr, Oldham, afterwards
the Director of the Survey, was appointed to undertake the last-named department.
Afterwards, however, the project of extending the Survey to other branches of
Natural History than that of Geology was abandoned ; and it was determined by the
Government of Sir Robert Peel to consolidate the Surveys of the United Kingdom
under one head, and Sir H. T. De la Beche was appointed the first Director-Ge-
neral (in 1844), while the Geological Survey of Great Britain was placed under the
immediate direction of Professor Ramsay, and that of Ireland under Captain (after-
wards Colonel) Sir H. James, who was succeeded by Professor Oldham, with a small
staff of assistants. These officers commenced operations in the vicinity of Dublin,
and southward through Wicklow into Wexford. On Professor Oldham being
appointed to the Geological Survey of India, he was succeeded in the Directorate by
the late Professor Jukes, who, with a slightly increased staft of surveyors, including
the late Mr. Du Noyer and Mr. Kinahan, the present District Surveyor, completed
the survey of a very large portion of the south, centre, and west of Ireland.
The districts recently completed are those of Connemara and West Mayo by Messrs.
Kinahan, Warren, and Symes, of the Mourne Mountains by Mr. Traill, of the vici-
nity of Antrim by Mr. Duffin, the Dungannon district by Mr. Hardman, and that
of Armagh by Mr. Egan, together with other portions of Westmeath, Longford, and
Mayo by Messrs. Wilkinson, Cruise, and Leonard.
hese maps are surveyed on the scale of 6 inches to a mile; and the field maps
are afterwards reduced and engraved on the Ordnance maps at a scale of one inch
to a mile, which are published through the agents both in Belfast and Dublin.
_ These maps are not generally hill-shaded ; but it is intended to publish all the geo-
logical details of the district, north of a line drawn from Clewe ay on the west to
Dundalk Bay on the east, on maps having the physical features shown by shading.
The survey of the Dungannon coal-tield has just been completed, and the results
are being prepared for publication. This is also true with regard to the Leitrim
and Roscommon coal-districts, while a fresh survey is being carried out of the
Leinster coal-field.
Great pains is also being taken to portray accurately the extent of the deposits
of iron-ore of co. Antrim, and considerable advance has been made in the survey
of that district.
Professor Hull then referred to the Geological Map of Sir R. Griffith, the first
ever constructed for Ireland, expressing his high appreciation of its beauty and
accuracy.
Note on the so-called Crag of Bridlington.
By J. Gwyn Jerrreys, LL.D., PRS.
In compliance with a request of the late Professor Phillips, made not long before
his lamented death, the author examined all the collections of fossil shells from the
84 REPORT—1874.
celebrated Crag-bed at Bridlington; and he furnished the Professor with a cata-
logue raisonnée of the species for the new and forthcoming edition of his work on
the Geology of Yorkshire. Dr. Jeffreys went lately, with Mr. Leckenby, to
Bridlington, when they ascertained that the Crag-bed lay under the boulder-clay,
and rested unconformably on a bed of Liassic shale of a purplish colour, which in
one place appeared to have been triturated and redeposited in the form ofclay. In
this purplish clay they found a specimen of Turritella ervsa (an Arctic and
North-American shell), besides several other species which are common to the
boulder-clay and Bridlington bed. All the species from the Bridlington bed are
high northern and are now living. They are sixty-seven in number; and a list is
subjoined. The author suggested that this deposit of shells might have originated
either in a deviation of the great Arctic current at a very remote period, or in glacial
conditions. It had clearly no relation to the Norwich Crag, as was once imagined
to be the case.
The present direction of the Arctic current has been toa certain extent shown by
the expeditions conducted by the author in H.MS. ‘ Poreupine,’ during the years
1869 and 1870, to traverse the North Atlantic along the west coast of Ireland as
well as the Bay of Biscay; and there is no doubt that it formerly reached that part
of the Mediterranean where Sicily is. One of the species (Nucuwla Cobboldie) has
been hitherto known from Japan only ; but it is probable that when the coralline
and deep-sea zones of the circumpolar ocean shall have been explored, this species
will be discovered in the highest latitudes.
The author is inclined to reject from the list of Bridlington fossils the following
species, viz. Mytilus edulis, Cardium edule, Littorina litorea, L. rudis, and Purpura
lapillus, because they are littoral, and therefore not likely to be associated with
species which belong to the coralline zone, such as Rhynchonella psittacea, Venus
fluctuosa, Dentalium striolatum, Admete viridula, and Columbella Holbolli. . These
littoral shells may have come from the boulder-clay, and been accidentally mixed
with the shells from the deposit under consideration.
Bridlington Fossil Shells.
B., British Museum; L., Leckenby in Cambridge University Museum and at Scarborough ;
P., Collection of Professor Phillips in Oxford University Museum; W., 8. V. Wood,
‘Monograph of Crag Mollusea;’ W. jr., 8. V. Wood, junr.’s list; Wd., 8. P. Wood-
ward’s list; Y., York Museum.
No. | Name of Species. | Where. seen | Synonyms and | Where living.
BraAcuHiopopa.
1. | Rhynchonella psittacea, | W., W. jr., |..seccccseees eeeeanen Arctic seas; Shetland ;
Chemnitz. Wad. N.E. America; N.
Pacific.
ConcnirEra.
2. | Anomia ephippium, Be Wox Watelesscaneee ecasb amas ..-| Iceland to Madeira ;
Linné. jr., Wa., Labrador to Cape
nv Cod.
3. | Pecten Islandicus, Miil/er, B.. L., W., | P. pusio, 8. V. | Arctic seas to Bergen ;
W. jr.,Wd.,, Wood. N.E. America ;
rE Japan.
4, | Mytilus edulis, Z. ...... We. Wo jr-y. |ocnsscsecacsecceevess| N. -Atlantictand ain,
Wd. Pacific, as well as
olar.
5. | —— modiolus, L.......... Wits AWWis Jay adlovcncswacettwacchass: N. Atlantic to Cork,
Wad. and N. Pacific; not
known as polar.
6. | Nucula Cobboldizx, B., L., W., | NV. insignis, Japan.
Leathes, W.jr.,Wd.,| Gould.
we
18.
19.
24.
25.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS,
85
é Where seen | Synonyms and Se
Name of Species. ee nokia y R aa 5. Where living.
Nucula tenuis, Montagu ; TH Wis, Wee Jitss |beasesseceveoascenoes Spitzbergen to the
and var. inflata. Wa. /Egean ; N.E. Ame-
rica; Behring’sStraits
to Japan.
Leda minuta, Miil/.; and| L.,W.,W.jr., | L. caudata, Arctic seas to Bay of
var. buccata. Wa. Donovan. Biscay; N.E. Ame-
rica; N.W. America
to Japan.
pernula, MiilZ. ......| W., W. jr., |.ceccossereeseeeeeeee| Spitzbergen to Danish
Wad. coasts.
—— limatula, Say ...... W., W. jr., | ZL. oblongoides, | Arctic seas; N.E. Ame-
Wa. 8S. V. Wood. rica.
Pectunculus glycymeris, | L., W., Wd., |-c.ssssseseeeseeeceee Loffoden Isles to the
iE: YY; Canaries ; Japan.
Montacuta bidentata, Coll. Bower-|......+00. seseeteesee| Norway to Madeira
Mont. bank ( fide and Sicily.
Forbes).
Cardium Islandicum, L. | L.,W.,W.jr., | C. decorticatwm,| Arctic seas in both he-
Wad., Y. 8. V. Wood. | mispheres; Japan;
N.E. America.
=——@aule: Fe lowicsceses P.,W., W. jr, |-eeseesescesseeeesees| Norway to the Caspian
Wad., Y. and Mediterranean.
Cardita borealis, Conrad.| B., L., P., C. analis, 8. V.| N.E. America; Japan.
W., W.jr.,| Wood.
Wa., Y.
Cyprina Islandica, ZL, ...| B., L., Pe, |ecsccccsseeeeeeeeeees Upper Norway to Arca-
W., W. ji. chon; N.E.America.
Wa., Y.
Astarte sulcata, Da Costa;| B., L., W., | The variety is | Spitzbergen to Scot-
and yar. elliptica. W. jr., Wa.) Venus com- land; N.B. America;
Ge pressa, L. N. Atlantic and Medi-
terranean ; N. Pacific.
—— depressa, Brown ...| L.,W.,W. jr.,| 4. crebricostata,) Arctic seas in both
: Forbes ; 4. hemispheres to north
Warhami, of Hebrides and Cape
Hancock. Cod; Behring’s
Straits.
horealis, Ch.; var.|B., L., P., |Crassina arctica,) Arctic Ocean to Kiel
Withami, and monstr.| W., W. jr.,| Gray, andmany| Bay; N.E. America;
mutabile. Wa., Y. othersynonyms.| Sea of Ochotsk.
compressa, Mont. ; | B., L., P.,W.,| Manysynonyms.| Spitzbergen to coast
and var. striata. W. jr.,.Wd.,| NotVenuscom-| of Portugal ; Baffin’s
ns pressa, L. Bay to Cape Cod;
N. Pacific.
Venus fluctuosa, Gould...| B., W., W.jr.,|-o0eccscssseeee «...| Arctic seas ; N.E. Ame-
da Ys rica; Japan.
Tellina balthica, Z. ...... B., L., P.,W..| 7. soliduda, Pul-| Circumpolar; N. At-
W. jr.,Wd.,) teney. lantic to Madeira and
: Cape Cod ; N. Pacific.
= —"caleania, Oe. 5) B11! |) Bes Wig Wiss), |\eeseesesses ADREROROCE Spitzbergen to the Bal-
var. obliqua. W. jr., Wd tic ; Greenland to
Cape Cod; Behring’s
. Straits to Japan.
Donax vittatus, Da C....| L. & J.G.J. |D. trunculus, L. | Upper Norway to Me-
(partim); D.| diterranean.
semistriatus,
Poli.
Mactra solida, Z.; var. | B., L., W. jr.,|........s008 seeseeee| Leeland to Bay of
elliptica. Wd. Biscay.
Thracia praetenuis, Pulé.| VY. .ec..ceseee|sccceecccneee natesens Treland to Sicily.
_———————————— eS eee
86
No. Name of Species.
27. | Corbula gibba, Olivi......
28. | Mya arenaria, UL. .........
29. truncata, D. ......+6+
30. | Saxicava Norvegica,
Spengler.
3l. rugosa, D,......6..00
32. | Pholas crispata, L. ......
SoLENOCONCHIA.
33. | Dentalium entalis, Z. ...
34. | —— striolatum, Stimp-
son.
GASTROPODA.
35. | Lepeta ceca, Mill. ......
36. | Puncturella noachina, L.
37. | Trochus varicosus,
Mighels and Adams.
88. | Littorina litorea, Z. ......
39. | ——rudis, Maton ......
40. | Turritella terebra, Z......
41. erosa, Couthouy ...
42. | Scalaria Groenlandica, Ch.
43. | Natica Islandica, Gmelin
44, Greenlandica, Beck
45. aflinis, Gm. ; and
var. occlusa.
46. | —— Montacuti, Forbes
REPORT—1874.
Where seen
or noticed.
Synonyms and
C. nucleus, La-
D. abyssorum,
Margarita ele-
.,|L'. communis,
.,| LV. helicoides,
N. clausa, Bro-
Remarks.
marck.
Where living.
Loffoden Isles to the
Canaries and Adgean.
....| Arctic seas to Adriatic ;
eee meee ee eeteeenee
Sars.
gantissimna,
Bean, and
other syno-
nyms.
Coe errr rit
Lam.
. polaris( Beck),
Moller ; T.cla-
thratula, 8. V.
Wood.
Ce ee ere
Johnston.
Cee teri
derip and
Sowerby.
se eeeeteceee be reeeeee
N.E. America; N.
Pacific.
Same range as that of
M. arenaria.
Iceland to Dogger
Bank ; N.E. America;
N. Pacific. |
Universally distributed.
Iceland to Bay of Bis-
cay ; N.E. America;
N. Pacific.
Iceland to Bay of Bis-
cay.
Arctic seas to Bay of
Biscay; N.E. Ame-
rica,
Arctic seas to He-
brides; N.E. and
N.W. America.
Arctic seas to Bay of
Biscay ; N.E. Ame-
rica; N. Pacific.
Spitzbergen to Nor-
way; Japan; N.E.
America.
Arctic seas to the
Adriatic; N.E. Ame-
rica.
Arctic seas to Azores
and Adriatic; N.E.
America ; Japan.
Loffoden Isles to the
Adriatic.
Arctic seas and N.E.
America.
Arctic seas to north
of Hebrides; N.E.
America.
Arctic seas to Cork ;
N.E. America.
Arctic seas to Straits
of Gibraltar; N.E.
America; N. Pacific.»
Arctic seas to Bay of
Biscay ; N.E. Ame-
rica ; N. Pacific.
Iceland to Bay of Bis-
cay.
Trichotropis borealis,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS,
Name of Species.
Broderip and Sowerby.
Admete viridula, Fabri-
cius,
Purpura lapillus, Z.......
Buccinum undatum, Z...
Trophon truncatus,
Strom.
—— clathratus, Z. ; and
var. Gunneri,
— Fabricii, Beck
latericeus, Mill. ...
Fusus despectus, Z.; and
monstr. contrarium.
— curtus, Jeffreys ; and
var. expansa.
—— Leckenbyi, S. V.
Wood.
—— Spitzbergensis,
Reeve.
—— propinquus, Alder
—— Sarsi, Jeffr. .........
Columbella rosacea,
Gould.
Pleurotoma pyramidalis,
Strém.
— violacea, Migh. and
Ad.
elegans, Moill.......
turricula, Mont. ;
and var. nobilis and
excavata.
harpularia, Couth.
Trevelyana, Turton
87
Where seen
or noticed.
B., L., W.,
W. jr. Wa.,
¥
Bo bie
W. jr., Wd.,
Y.
L., P., W. jr.,
Wa.
B., L., P., W.,
W. jr., Wad.,
Me
W., W. jr.,
Wa.
Late
Synonyms and
Remarks.
Penne eee ene tee newness
Cancellaria cos-
tellifera, J.
Sowerby.
eee eee eee!
T. scalarifor-
mis, Gould.
T. craticulatus,
Beene tee mera ew eares
Trophon gracile,
Sabini, and
ventricosus, S.
V. Wood.
F. turgidulus,
Jefir, MS.
pete ee eeee eet eeeeee
A doubtful
identification.
B.,W.,W. jr.,
Wa.
B.,W.,W. jr.,
Wa., Y.
B., L., W.,
W. jr, Wa?
L., W.,W. jr.,
Wa.
.,| P. Dowsoni, 8.
B., L., P., W.,
W. jr.,Wa.,
Y.
C. Holbsllit
(Beck), Moller.
Fusus pleuroto-
marius, Couth.
Defrancia cylin-
dracea (Beck),
Moller.
V. Wood, and
other syno-
nyms.
P. robusta, 8.V.
Wood.
DefranciaWood-
Where living.
Arctic seas to west of
Ireland ; N.E. Ame-
rica; N. Pacific.
Spitzbergen to Bay of
Biscay ; N.E. Ame-
rica; Japan. ‘
Arctic seas to Mogador
and Minorca; N.E.
and N.W. America.
Iceland and North
Cape to Bay of Bis-
cay ; N.E. America ;
N. Pacific.
Greenland to South of
Ireland; N.E. Ame-
rica.
Arctic seas to Norway ;
N.E. and N.W. Ame-
rica; Japan.
Arctic seas in both
hemispheres.
Arctic seas to north of
Hebrides.
Arctic seas to coasts of|
Portugal ; N. Pacific.
N.E. America.
Between Shetland and
the Faroe Isles.
Spitzbergen and Wel-
lington Channel.
Upper Norway to
Cork.
Norway and south of
Faroe Isles.
Spitzbergen to north
of Hebrides; N.E.
America.
Spitzbergen to Bergen,
Greenland to Cape
Cod.
Arctic seas in both
hemispheres ; Nor-
way.
Spitzbergen and Green-
land; Norway.
Arctic seas to Bay of
Biscay; N.E. Ame-
rica.
Norway and N.E. Ame-
rica.
Arctic seas in both
tana, Moll.
hemispheres to Dog-
ger Bank and Cape
Cod; N.W. America.
TTT ___!
88 REPORT—1874.
Notes on Cavern Evploration, by M. Emilion Frossard, in the Vallée de Cam-
pan, Hautes-Pyrénées, France. By Sir Witt0ovensy Jonzs, Bart.
On Geological Maps and Sections of West Galway and South-west Mayo.
By G. H., Kinanan, F.GS,
On the Occurrence of the Middle Lias at Ballycastle. By G. Lanerry.
The author stated that Mr. William Gray first directed attention to the occurrence
of the Middle Lias in the county of Antrim. It is his impression, however, that
the area in which it is likely to be found is very circumscribed ; indeed some have
gone so far as to affirm that its presence is only due to boulders having been trans-
ported thither, by glacial action, from some of the western islands of Scotland.
But if this be so, why are the boulders not much more widely distributed? The
author had not seen these blocks under such favourable circumstances as to
determine accurately whether they bear the marks of ice-action ; certainly none of
those which he saw were polished, and any striations might have resulted from
workmen’s tools, as all the blocks had been exhumed either in constructing wells,
flax-“ dubs,” or other excavations. One thing, however, is certain, that in the neigh-
bourhood of the ‘“ Workhouse,” Ballycastle, no cuttings to any considerable depth
have been made without disclosing some of these Lassie blocks. Unfortunately no
outcrop occurs affording facilities for a thorough examination. Another and very
powerful reason why it is likely to be found zn situ is that at Ballintoy, a few miles
off, we have a fine section of the Rhztic and Lower Lias beds.
Mr. Gray has stated that the following species had been identified and tabu-
lated :— Hybodus reticulatus, Ag.? ; Ammonites margaritatus, Bl.; Pitonillus turbi-
natus, Moore; Pecten liasinus, Nyst; Pecten acutiradiatus, Schloth.; Phcatula
spinosa, Sow.; Cypricardia cucullata, Goldf.; Isocardia cingulata, Goldf. ; Limea
acuticosta, Goldf.; Avicula novemcoste, Brown ; Rhynchonella acuta, Sow. ; Rhyn-
chonella variabilis, Schloth.; Waldheimia numismalis ; Pentacrinus, sp.
Since this list was made out the author has procured Unicardium cardioides,
Ammonites planorbis, and two other Ammonites not yet identified ; also three casts
of Pholadomya and two of Astarte; as these latter are merely impressions, it is
almost impossible to classify them.
Some of those fossils which have been mentioned are not confined to the Middie
Lias alone, but are distributed more or less sparingly in the lower beds of the same
formation ; others, again, are almost exclusively confined to the Middle Lias marls
in Ireland.
On a Remarkable Fragment of Silicified Wood from the Rocky Mountains.
By H. Auteyne Nicuorson, M.D., D.Sc., F.RS.E., and W. H. Ess, M.B.,
B.A.
The object of this communication was a singular fragment of silicified wood
which had been obtained from a fossil forest in Colorado. The forest is situated
near Colorado City, about 7000 feet above the level of the sea, near Pike’s Peak.
It covers an area of from 1000 to 2000 acres, and exhibits numerous erect silicified
stumps, which are placed all round a broad depression, at one time apparently
occupied by an ancient lake. The stumps are usually three or four feet in
height, and from ten to twenty feet in diameter, and the authors gave reasons for
believing that they belonged to the same group as the “giant trees” (Sequoia
gigantea) of California, if not specifically the same.
The specimen which formed the immediate object of this paper was a fragment
about six inches in greatest length by three in width. Thin sections, examined
under the microscope, exhibited woody fibres and medullary rays, but no disks could
be detected. Chemically, the wood is completely fossilized, and consists essentially
of silica. A chemical analysis yielded :—water and organic matter, 6:24; silica,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 89
85:26; alumina, 5:35; lime, 6:79; magnesiaand iron, traces. The most remarkable
point, however, was the very peculiar form of the specimen, which led the authors
to conclude that it was a chip cut artificially from the tree prior to silicification.
The chief reasons for this conclusion were summed up as follows :—1. The specimen
is a fragment of silicified wood, exhibiting clean and definite surfaces at each end,
cutting directly across the fibres of the wood. It is inconceivable that the silicified
wood of an erect or prostrate trunk, not buried in the earth, should have been sub-
jected to any influences which could have produced a “ jomted” structure such as
is seen in many rocks; and if the surfaces in question were not produced by any
edge-tool, the agency by which they were formed has yet to be pointed out. 2. The
general form of the fragment is, precisely and in the minutest details, that of an ordi-
nary chip cut by an axe. 3. The upper of the two supposed cut surfaces is curved in
the same way as is often seen in modern chips when the axe has been blunt or has
been loosely held in the hand. 4. The lower surface is an approximately clean-cut
plane, but exhibits numerous successive ledges or inequalities corresponding with the
concentric layers of the wood. Similar parallel ledges or steps can be observed in
any recent chip, when the axe used has been blunt; and they are due to the fact that
the edge of the axe has made a succession of slips in cutting through the successive
concentric layers of the wood, these layers differing from one another in hardness.
The authors concluded, therefore, that the specimen was a chip cut by one of the
prehistoric inhabitants of North America from one of the ancient Sequoias of Colo-
rado by means of a copper axe.
On Favistella stellata and Favistella calicina, with Notes on the Affinities of
Favistella and allied Genera. By H. Atteynn Nicnorson, W.D., D.Sc.,
F.R.S.E., Professor of Biology in the College of Physical Science, Newcastle.
In this communication the author fully discussed the validity of the genus Favis-
tella, Hall, and its relation to the older genus Columnaria of Goldfuss. It was
shown that the Favistella stellata of Hall was beyond reasonable doubt identical
with the form previously described by Goldfuss under the name of Columnaria
alveolata. Strict adherence to the law of priority would, therefore, demand the sup-
pression of the former. It was further shown, however, that the name of Columnaria
alveolata had by general consent become fixed upon a coral from the Trenton Lime-
stone of America, which differed essentially from the form so named by Goldfuss in
his original description. The author concluded that one of three courses should be
adopted :—1. Favistella and Columnaria may be considered identical. This would
be strict justice, but would be attended with the inconvenience that a new genus
would have to be founded for the reception of the forms which have usually been
regarded as typical Columnarie. 2. The genus Columnaria, as redefined by M‘Coy
and Hall, may be adopted, only those forms with rudimentary septa being in-
cluded in it, whilst the forms with complete septa are placed under Favistella, Hall.
3. We may consider the development of the septa as in itself not a character of
sufficient importance to justify generic separation. In this case it would simply be
necessary to expand the genus Colwmnaria of Goldfuss so as to receive the forms
assigned to the genus by subsequent writers. The genus would then include two
. groups of corals—one with marginal and rudimentary septa (Columnaria of M‘Coy,
all, &c.), the other with complete septa (Colwmnaria of Goldfuss and Favistella
eal. This course appeared to the author to be upon the whole the most advi-
sable one.
The author enumerated the characters of Favistella stellata, Hall, and described a
new species under the name of Favistella (Columnaria) calicina, as follows :—Co-
rallum aggregate, subhemispheric or pyriform, rarely exceeding three inches in dia-
meter and two in height. Corallites more or less cylindrical, rarely prismatic, from
less than one line to two lines in diameter, averaging one line anda half. The coral-
lites are never completely amalgamated by their walls, and are only rarely in direct
contact throughout their entire height. On the contrary, each corallite is enveloped
in a strong and completely separate epitheca, marked by vertical ridges and encircling
aie and they diverge from the base in such a manner that they are usually sepa~
1874. l
90 REPORT— 1874.
rated from one another by more or less conspicuous intervals near their calices.
Septa alternately large and small, twenty-eight or thirty in number altogether, the
primary ones nearly reaching the centre, the secondary ones marginal. Tabulze well
developed, complete, about three in the space of one line. Increase by calicular
gemmation, apparently in combination with parietal budding.
Description of Species of Alecto and Hippothoa from the Lower Silurian
Rocks of Ohio, with a Description of Aulopora arachnoidea. By H. At-
tEYNE Nicuoison, M.D., D.Sc., F.RS.E.
In this communication the author described the following fossils from the
Hudson-River Group of South-western Ohio :—
1. Hippothoa inflata, Hall, sp.—This is the Alecto inflata described by Hall from
the older formation of the Trenton Limestone. Though in certain respects re-
sembling some of the species of Alecto, the author expressed the opinion that this
beautiful little species was an undoubted Hippothoa. The cells are pyriform,
attenuated below, uniserial, and springing directly from one another, and the oval
cell-mouths are placed on the front faces of the swollen cells.
2. Alecto frondosa, James.—This species, named by Mr. U. P. James in his
‘Catalogue of the Silurian Fossils of Ohio,’ was now for the first time described by
the author. It forms anastomosing networks or thin expanded crusts parasitic upon
Strophomena alternata. The cells are generally dispersed in two, three, or more
rows, long and tubular, immersed below, but elevated towards the apertures, which
are circular, terminal, and of the same diameter as the tube itself.
3. Alecto auloporoides, Nicholson.—This is closely allied to the preceding, but is
distinguished by its much more slender habit and graceful form, and by having
its cells disposed in a double or single series. It presents a close superficial
resemblance to Aulopora arachnoidea, Hall, from which, however, it can be readily
distinguished.
4, Alecto confusa, Nicholson.—This species forms thin crusts enveloping the
columns of Crinoids. The cells are larger and more prominent than in the two
preceding species, and are more closely and irregularly arranged.
5. Aulopora arachnoidea, Hall.—The author gave a full description of this species
for the purpose of separating it from Alecto auloporoides, which it closely resembles
in external appearance. Though very similar to Alecto in many respects, it can be
referred with considerable confidence to the genus Awlopora.
Descriptions of New Species of Polyzoa from the Lower and Upper Silurian
Rocks of North Ameria. By H. Attzynr Nicuwotson, M.D., D.Se.,
FRS.E.
In this communication the author described the following new species of
Polyzoa :—
"2 Ptilodictya falciformis, Nich.—A large and beautiful form, allied on the one
hand to Escharopora recta, Hall, and on the other hand to Ptilodictya lanceolata,
Goldfuss, P. gladiola, Billings, and P. sulcata, Billings. oc. Cincinnati Group,
near Cincinnati, Ohio.
2. Ptilodictya emacerata, Nich.—A minute species allied to P. fragilis, Billings,
from strata of the same age in the island of Anticosti. Loc. Cincinnati Group,
Ohio. ;
3. Ptilodictya flagellum, Nich.—A species belonging to the same group as
P. gladiola, Billings, and P. falciformis, Nich., but distinguished by its much
eS size, less width, and flexuous form. oc. Cincinnati Group, Lebanon,
hio.
4. Ptilodictya? arctipora, Nich.—It is doubtful if this curious species is a true
Ptilodictya, but it presents some affinity with P. raripora, Hall, from the Clinton
Group. Loc. Cincinnati Group, Cincinnati, Ohio.
5. Ptilodictya fenestelliformis, Nich.—This in some external respects might readily
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 91
be taken for a Fenestella, and even approaches certain species of Chetetes (Monticu-
hora); but its internal structure proves it to be an indubitable Ptilodictya. Loc.
Cincinnati Group, Cincinnati, Ohio. 4
6. Fenestella nervata, Nich.—A form somewhat resembling F. tenwiceps, Hall, but
distinguished by having the frond supported by strong, rounded, slightly diverging
ribs, like the midribs of a multicostate leaf. Loc. Guelph formation, Cedarville, Ohio.
7. Ceramopora Ohioensis, Nich.—This very remarkable Polyzoon forms thin
crusts upon various Brachiopods and Corals, and in its best preserved condition is
very readily recognized by its diagonally intersecting cells, with thin and arched
upper walls and oblique semicircular mouths. Joc. Cincinnati Group, Ohio.
Descriptions of New Species of Cystiphyllum from the Devonian Rocks of
North America. By H. Atterne Nicnorson, M.D., D.Sc., FBS.
No less than seven species of Cystiphyllum have already been recorded as oc-
curring in the Devonian rocks of North America, viz. C. vesieulosum, Goldfuss,
C. Senecaense, Billings, C. grande, Billings, C. suleatum, Billings, C. Americanum,
Edw. & H., C. aggregatum, Billings, and C. mundulum, Hall. To these the author
now added the following three species, all of which were obtained by him from the
Corniferous Limestone of Canada and the State of Ohio.
1. Cystiphyllum Ohioense, Nich.—This is a very minute species, averaging not
more than six lines in length, with a remarkably deep, pointed, and not oblique
calice. It possesses very distinct septal striz, but is not furnished with any radici-
form prolongations of the epitheca. It is most nearly allied to C. mundulwm, Hall,
from the Devonian of Rockford, Iowa, but is distinguished by its smaller size, the
smaller number of its septa, and its much deeper and more pointed calice.
Loc. Common in the Corniterous Limestone of Columbus, Ohio.
2. Cystiphyllum squamosum, Nich.—This species is readily distinguished by its
extraordinarily flattened and scale-like form, due to the extreme obliquity and
shallowness of the calice, the flattening of the dorsal surface, and the total disap-
pearance of the lateral surfaces. No other species of the genus even approaches C.
sguamosum in these characters, and these are therefore of themselves sufficient to
characterize the species. Loc. Corniferous Limestone, Columbus, Ohio.
38. Cystiphyllum fruticosum, Nich.—This species is remarkable for being compound,
and for forming large colonies composed of numerous cylindrical, straight or slightly
flexuous corallites, which are about three lines in diameter, and are placed about two
lines apart. The internal structure is that of Cystiphyllum. Its composite character
sufficiently distinguishes C. fruticoswm from all previously recorded species of the
enus except C. aggregatum, Billings, and from this it is separated by its totally
Gifferent form and mode of growth. Joc. Corniferous Limestone, Wainfleet and
Walpole, Ontario.
On the Columnar Form of Basalt. By W. Cuanpier Roxerts, F.C.S.
The author briefly stated what were the views hitherto held by geologists as to
the method by which the jointed prismatic structure had been produced. He spe-
cially alluded to the experiments made in 1804 by Mr. Gregory Watt, who showed
that when basalt was melted and slowly cooled, globular structures appeared in the
solidifying mass, a fact which led Mr. Watt to believe that the mutual compression
of such spheres resulted in the formation of hexagonal prisms. The author pointed
out the objections to this theory, and described the results of experiments he had
made on the effect of heat on certain brick-like masses of fire-clay and sand. When
these masses are heated to redness (a point far below that at which they would fuse),
they contract from 3 to 4 per cent., and the unequal strain which attends the con-
traction produces a columnar structure closely resembling that of certain beds of
basalt which occur in the valley of the Ardéche.
This structure can be produced at will, but it is necessary that the fire-clay should
not be uniformly heated.
He concluded by comparing the columnar form of starch, which had assumed its
92 REPORT—1874.
form at the ordinary temperature, with that of these heated masses of fire-clay and
with columnar basalt which has undoubtedly cooled from a fluid state.
On the Permian Breccias of the Country near Whitehaven.
By R. Russert, C.H., F.GS., HM. Geological Survey.
The subject of this brief notice is the Permian breccia of the district near White-
haven.
Besides its exposure on the coast at Barrowmouth, many detached patches of this
breccia occur further inland, between Bigrigg Moor and Rowrah, being much more
largely developed over the latter area than itis at the former place. The section at
Barrowmouth is well known, but in the latter district it has not previously been
described in any published memoir.
The author considered :—Ist, its occurrence ; 2nd, its composition; 3rd, its forma-
tion.
Ist. From the coast it rises rapidly along the cliff to the top of the ridge, and
winding round by Preston Hows runs down into the St. Bees valley near Stanley
Engine; on the opposite side of the valley it shows itself in Parkhouse Beck,
whence it extends from Lund Moor by Pallaflat to Egremont. The line thus
roughly traced is the northern boundary of the main portion of the Permian rocks,
which, dipping to the south-west, extend southward into the Furness district.
Northwards the St. Bees sandstone is brought in from Scalegill Hall to north of
Summer Grove by the Crowgarth and Ingwell faults, and the breccia crops out
from under this sandstone in the valley near Keekle cottage. It also occupies a
narrow strip between two parallel faults, having a N.W. and a S.E. direction, ex-
tending from Frizington Hall across Weddiker to north of Walkmill Bridge. West
of Frizington Hall a fault puts in the St. Bees sandstone at Rheda, but on the
upcast side of the fault east of Rheda the breccia forms a well-marked ridge from
near Millyeat to Howgate.
Fastwards it again occurs on the downcast side of the Yeathouse fault, and is
seen in the Whitehaven, Cleator, and Egrement Railway near Yeathouse station
gradually to pass up into the Permian sandstone, the angle of dip being 15° at
N. 58° W. It extends to the north-east until it is cut off by the continuation of
the Croft’s fault through Kirkland How, but is once more brought in on the
north-east of the Arlecdon fault, forming a partial outlier from Rowrah Head by
Ashby Banks and St. Michael’s Church to Arlecdon.
It is also found near the top of Steel Brow, and between Blenkett Rigg and High
Tutehill, and near Gilgarran.
The section at Barrowmouth shows the unconformity of the breccia to the under- .
lying strata most distinctly, inasmuch as the surface of the Whitehaven sandstone
is water-worn, and the lower bed of the breccia lies in and fills up those eroded
hollows. This is still more marked between Barrowmouth and Egremont, where
it overlaps Coal-measures, Grits, Carboniferous Limestone, and finally rests on Lower
Silurians, east of the last-named place.
2nd, its composition—The material of which this breccia is composed consists
of small angular and subangular fragments of Carboniferous Limestone (in some in-
stances partially dolomitized), quartzose sandstone, altered ashes, greenstone, clay-
slate, vein quartz and syenite, imbedded in a limy and sandy matrix, and cemented
by peroxide of iron, sometimes so firm and hard that the imbedded fragments will
cut through along with the matrix in which they are enclosed when the rock is
broken, in other cases so loose and friable that each individual fragment can easily
be detached from the main mass. While it is generally made up of the rocks above
mentioned, it varies from a breccia consisting of large angular pieces of Carboni-
ferous Limestone, to that in which the contained rocks are clay-slate and altered
ashes.
5rd, its formation — Notwithstanding the angular and subangular character of the
pebbles, there is much regularity in the stratification, and the distinct bedding
shows that the materials must have been deposited in deep and still water; so that
we cannot ascribe their formation to the transporting power of running water or
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 93
tidal waves and currents, for the continued action of these causes would have de-
stroyed that distinctive characteristic, viz. the angular shape of the fragments, and
the pebbles would have been rounded.
It is evident that we must seek for some other cause; and it seems to the author
that the agency of ice will alone enable us to arrive at a probable solution of this
question.
He is inclined to think that icebergs, as they parted and floated away from the
glacier, would hardly deposit their burden of moraine matter in the quiet and
gradual manner in which the materials composing this breccia must have been
accumulated; besides, none of the fragments show any trace of ice-striz, which
might naturally have been expected to exist if this had been the means by which
they were deposited.
In the seas of the Arctic region, the freezing of the water forms a sheet of ice
along the shores. When thaw sets in, tons upon tons of rock débris, loosened by
the frost, tumble down and collect on the ice-foot. The combined effects of heat
and wind break up this floe-ice into immense sheets, which float away, and melting
in the open sea, gradually deposit their load over the bed of the ocean.
Considering this fact in relation to the question now before us, we may be able to
account not only for the angular fragments, but also for the stratified nature of this
breccia, as well as the absence of ice-markings on these fragments. Thus the frosts
of Permian times would freeze the water and waste the pre-existing rocks, and the
loosened materials would accumulate on similar floe-ice ; these floes, after breaking
up, would float away and deposit their burden in tranquil water, giving rise to that
regular bedding which is so characteristic of this breccia. Granting this to con-
tinue for a sufficient length of time, and we may easily account for the formation of
a breccia from 90 to 100 feet thick, as in the present instance.
On the Jointed Prismatic Structure of the Giant’s Causeway.
By Professor James Toomson, F.R.S.£.
— On Geological Sections in the co. Down. By Writ1aM A. Trattr, M.A.L.,
ELR.GASTL., of H.M. Geological Survey of Ireland.
The author exhibited three sheets of geological sections, lately completed by him
and published by the Geological Survey of Ireland, illustrating the geology of the
co. Down and a small portion of the'co. Antrim, accompanied by a geological map
of the entire county on the scale of one inch to the mile (as published), having the
different lines of sections laid down thereon. The sections themselves were drawn
to the natural scale, and six inches to the mile.
Section I. ran from Annalong, about 7 miles south of Newcastle, across the
Mourne Mountains, Slieve Donard (2796 feet high), to Slieve Croob (1755 feet high),
thence N.W. by Moira to Derrymore Point on Lough Neagh.
Section II. from Narrow-water near Warrenpoint, E.N.E., across the Mourne
Mountains and Slieve Donard to Newcastle.
Section III. from Soldier’s Point, at the entrance, to Carlingford Lough, N.N.E.,
across the Mourne Mountains to Newcastle.
Section IV. from Killinchy on the west side of Strangford Lough, N. by Castle
Espie and Scrabo Hill to near Holywood on Belfast Lough.
The author gave a brief sketch of the geology of the entire co. Down, with the
probable order of succession of the different rocks composing it, having representa-
tives of both the older and the newer formations, and igneous rocks of very different
es.
The county for the most part consisted of Lower Silurian rocks, extending from
the Copelands to Carlingford Lough, being part of the large Silurian tract stretching
into the south of Scotland, and belonging chiefly to the “Caradoc” or “ Bala ” beds,
while the Llandeilo beds occur in some places, though a line of demarcation be-
tween them had not been determined,
94 REPORT—187 4.
These beds have been thrown into a number of large flexures, minor contortions,
and crumplings, as represented in many places on the sections.
Contemporaneous with these beds are a number of felspathic ashes, interbedded
felstones, and intrusive felspathic and minette dykes; these, for the most part, occur
along the lines of bedding and are inclined and contorted with them. They are
mostly to be found in the Portaferry and Downpatrick districts *.
After these there seems to come the Granite of Slieve Croob, by some thought to
be of metamorphic origin, and being probably of Paleozoic aget.
Subsequent to this Granite, or at any rate after the great contorting up of the Silu-
rian beds, there occur a large number of dykes, melaphyres, dolerites, and diabase,
penetrating those contorted beds, mostly in vertical dykes, and which are of an age
anterior to the Mourne Granite. Of these, the chief source seems to have been towards
the south of the county; and many of the old pipes or vents are still to be found, as
on Slieve Moughanmore, Leckanmore, and Slieve Martin +.
The Carboniferous rocks seem to follow next; but the remains of them are only
to be found in three localities, viz. at Soldier’s Point, at Castle Espie, and at Holy-
wood. They probably extended over a large portion of the county, but have suffered
great denudation, and these isolated patches alone remain. Whether the Coal-
measures did exist over the Lower Limestone here, as most probably they did, we
have now no trace of them whatever remaining, they have been entirely swept away ;
and this denudation seems to have been carried on till the Silurian rock was laid
bare over most of this district.
Here may be mentioned the occurrence of the Permian beds in two localities, but
each of very small extent, viz. near Cultra on the shore of Belfast Lough, and iden-
tified by the presence of such fossils as Bakewellia antiqua, Schizodus Schlotheimi,
Productus horridus, and Turbo helicinus ; these beds rest directly and unconformably
upon the Lower Limestone*.
The other locality is about 23 miles S.K. of Moira, where asmall patch of breccia
and earthy magnesian limestone occurs, resting directly on Silurian beds*.
Next seems to occur the Granite of the Mourne Mountains, in its fullest and
widest sense an eruptive Granite, carrying up the Silurian beds with it, and cutting
off the older melaphyric dykes at the junction, as is so well seen in many places,
especially on Sheve Muck f.
Subsequent to this Granite, there are two distinct sets of igneous rocks penetrating
it and the Silurian beds adjacent, with their older dykes. These may be classed as
uartziferous porphyries and felstones (basic), as found on Slieve Meelmore and
Slieve Bearnagh. And last of all some basalt dykes, which are supposed to be of
Tertiary age.
The author then described in detail the several sections, pointing out the relation-
ships between the different formations and the different igneous dykes penetrating
them.
Referring more minutely to the Scrabo-Hill section, as having a special and more
local interest, on account of their recent search for coal in that neighbourhood, he
described the upward passage from the Silurian beds near Killinchy to the Carboni-
ferous or Lower Limestone and Limestone Shale at Castle Espie, where the lime-
stone is largely worked and burned in a Hoffman’s laln, at the works of Samuel Mur-
land, Esq., a thickness of 45 feet being attained by the limestone in the quarries. This
limestone extends for about 1} mile towards Comber, but is covered with a thick
head of Drift. It dips northward under the New Red Sandstone formation, which
in this part of the county comes in and forms the flanks of Scrabo Hill, filling up the
old valley of denudation extending from Strangford Lough to Belfast Lough. The
section showed the succession of beds through the Bunter Sandstones, Waterstones,
and Keuper Sandstones, to the cap of dolerite forming the top of the hill, with an
elevation of 540 feet. This dolerite or hypersthene rock may be associated with
the basaltic plateau of the co. Antrim, possibly as an outlier, or a separate pipe
may exist somewhere to the westward of the summit.
This trap penetrates the New Red Sandstone beds in horizontal sheets and in
* Detailed accounts to be found in the memoirs of the Geological Survey of Ireland.
+ Vide “ Granitic, Plutonic, and Volcanic Rocks of the Mourne Mountains and Slieve
Croob,’”’ Report Brit. Assoc. 1871, Trans. Sect. p. 101.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 95
vertical dykes ; some of which dykes lead up through the cap itself, possibly to higher
flows, which have since been denuded away. These are all well seen in a number of
quarries which have been opened along the sides of the hill; which show, however,
SN the Sandstone beds have not been displaced, except near the margin of the
dolerite.
Passing over the top of Scrabo Hill, the same succession of beds are met with,
down to the Silurian rocks, occupying the high ground between it and Belfast Lough ;
and at Cultra near Holywood the Lower Limestone, the Permian, and the Bunter
beds are again crossed over.
Tn conclusion, the author referred to the question whether coal will be found in the
neighbourhood of Newtownards or Scrabo Hill, where borings had been carried on
for some time past.
From the one-inch map it was shown that the New Red Sandstone, along almost
its entire margin, rested directly on the Silurian beds, at Castle Espie on the
Lower Limestone, and that at Cultra the Permian beds rested directly on the
Lower Limestone.
Now is it the least probable that if the Coal-measures did exist hereabouts that
we should have been unable to find any trace of their outcrop along this entire line
of junction of the New Red Sandstone and underlying rocks ? Though they probably
may have existed, they all disappeared with the great denudation which took place
before the deposition of the New Red Sandstone. Another evidence against the
presence of the Coal-measures is, that the Permian beds near Moira rest directly on
the Silurian rocks.
Additional evidence is to be found in the borings which were made towards the
end of the last century in this district ; and in every case where the New Red Sand-
stone was pierced through, the Silurian rocks were met with; some of these borings
were made to a depth of 240 feet.
Of the borings lately made in this district, none were carried sufficiently deep to
prove what existed underneath. It is to be regretted that one, sunk at Cherry valley,
north of Castle Espie, was stopped at a depth of about 120 feet, without penetrating
the New Red Sandstone, as the author considered that within 20 or 30 feet more the
underlying rock would have been entered, and proved whether the limestone ex-
tended even that far to the northward under the New Red Sandstone, to which
distance he hardly thought it did.
From these and numerous other considerations the author believed that now no
Coal-measures exist in this locality, and that he was justified in excluding them from
@ position on the geological section across Scrabo Hall, and that thus the co. Down
was deprived of the hope of obtaining coal.
Physics of the Internal Earth. By Dr. Vavewan.
On the Discovery of Microzoa in the Chalk-flints of the North of Ireland.
By Josupn Wrieut, F.GS.
In consequence of the extreme hardness of the Irish chalk (White Limestone)
geologists until quite recently had failed to find in these beds any of those Microzoa
which occur so abundantly in rocks of the same age in England. In 1872 the author
discovered that the soft powdery material frequently found inside the cavities that are
so often met with in flint, on being washed and cleaned, yielded Foraminifera, Ostra-
coda, and sponge-spicula in abundance, this powder being, in fact, a portion of the
old sea-hottom of the Cretaceous times. The flints when newly quarried are usually
hard and compact throughout, and it requires exposure to the action of the weather
to change the limestone frequently occurring into the powdery material.
Nearly all the Workiitneeea and Ostracoda examined chemically by the author
are siliceous; in a few instances the interior casts of the Foraminifera have alone
been changed, the shell having remained calcareous. He has since examined perso-
nally a large portion of the chalk-area of the north of Ireland, and has seen examples
of chalk powder from 35 different localities in the counties of Antrim, London-
96 REPORT—1874.
derry, and Down; and among the many specimens collected from these various
stations has recognized, besides corals and Polyzoa, 69 species of Foraminifera, 11
species of Ostracoda, and 33 forms of sponge-spicula ; many of these attain fine pro-
portions, being much larger than those usually obtained from the washings of English
chalk. Having found that the “ Paramoudras” as well as the ordinary flints usually
contain sponge-spicula in quantity, he has been led to consider that flints in most
instances have originated in a sponge or some other organism round which the silica
accumulated according to well-known chemical laws. The Foraminifera are very
numerous both in individuals and species; the following genera are well repre-
sented :—Zrochammina, Lituola, Lagena, Nodosaria, Dentalina, Frondicularia, Fla-
bellina, Pleurostomella, Lingulina, Marginulina, Vaginulina, Planularia, Cristellaria,
Polymorphina, Globigerina, Pullenia, Rhabdogonium, Textularia; Gaudryina, Vir-
gulina, Verneuilina, Bulimina, Bolovinia, Planorbulina, Truncatulina, Pulvinulina,
Rotaha.
BIOLOGY.
Address by Professor Petmr Reprrrn, M.D., President of the Section.
I consENTED to allow myself to be nominated President of this Section in compliance
with the kindly expressed wishes of scientific friends, notwithstanding that I felt
that the duties of the Chair would have been more fitly discharged by many who
have attended the Meetings of the Association more regularly and laboured to pro-
mote its objects more continuously than I have been able to do.
Fortunately the increasing importance and the vast extent of the subjects com-
ee under the head of Biology have led to a division of the business of this
ection into the separate departments of Anatomy and Physiology, Botany and
Zoology, and Anthropology ; and it is a great relief to me that the departments of
Botany and Zoology and of Anthropology, respectively, will be presided over by
gentlemen of the highest eminence in those subjects, and that Anatomy and Phy-
siology, in which I am more immediately interested, will alone come under my
direct supervision. It has occurred to me that, in attempting to give a stronger
impulse and a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry, the time ordinarily
devoted to an introductory address could not be more profitably oceupied than by
bringing into as great prominence as possible some of the great revolutions in our
Imowledge of Anatomy and Physiology which have taken place in my own time
and under my own immediate observation.
I remember, as if it were yesterday, the elucidation in the Museum of the Royal
College of Surgeons of Edinburgh of the newly discovered cell-theory by the late
distinguished Professor of Anatomy in Edinburgh, John Goodsir—his account of
the production of ulceration by cell-growth, of the characters of the corpuscles of
bone, of the structure of lymphatic glands, and of the germinal centres of base-
ment membranes as they were then understood. This was the time when the
teaching of Histology was first established in Great Britain. Two ‘students, of
whom I was one, formed the first class under the most enthusiastic of teachers, my
old friend Dr. Hughes Bennett. The University of Edinburgh had just passed
through what was probably the most brilliant period in its history. The race of
the last of the Munros was well nigh run; the great discoverer of the difference
in the motor and sensory nerves, Sir Charles Bell, was still living; the aristocracy
of Scotland had only just ceased to crowd the class-room and witness the brilliant
and successful experiments of Dr. Hope. The day of Cullen, of Home, and Duncan,
and Macintosh was over ; but there still remained in the University the most loved
and revered of teachers, the benevolent Dr. Alison, Sir Robert Christison, Sir George
Ballinghall, and Mr. Syme, Dr. Abercrombie still practising his profession in the
city.
At this period the great discoveries of Schleiden and Schwann seemed likely to
upset all that had previously constituted Physiology. The idea that all tissues
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 97
were either composed of cells or had been formed of cells—that nucleated cells
elaborated all the secretions and formed the excretions—that their energy lay at
the very root of the formation, the reproduction, and the function of every tissue
and organ, was a revelation of such astounding simplicity as might well upset men’s
minds and prevent their seeing beyond.
~ No one who did not live through that time will, I believe, ever realize the
eagerness and anxiety with which every new statement of the action of cells was
received and added to the previous knowledge of their amazing power—or, on the
the other hand, be able to judge of the feeling half akin to disappointment which
was experienced as each succeeding attack was made on this charming theory,
showing it to be really human, very human indeed.
Cells were then understood to constitute the mass of all organs (the liver, spleen,
kidney, and brain), and to be the main agents in the discharge of their functions—
to exist and grow upon the definite membranous walls of the glandular vesicles and
ducts—to be fed by blood brought to the attached surface of membranes which
seemed almost everywhere to form an absolute separation of the cellular part (the
potential ed from the non-essential blood- and lymph-vessels, the nerves, and
framework of the organ. It seemed almost a pity that these little microscopic
deities should be hampered by the necessities of their own existence, that they
should need such base things as blood-vessels, nerves, and packing materials. Now
how strangely are matters changed! What if it should turn out that these appa-
rently independent little beings are not independent at all—that they are only the
dilated endings of nerves. To this subject I shall refer again by-and-by.
This great cell-theory has now given place to what I think is certain knowledge,
that living matter may move, perform all the functions of assimilation and nutri-
tion, and reproduce its like without having any of the essential characters of a cell.
A living mass of protoplasm may change its shape, alter its position, feed and nourish
itself, and form other matter having the same properties as it has and yet be per-
fectly devoid of any structure recognizable by the highest powers of the microscope.
Mr. Lister showed that the contraction of pigment-cells in the skin changes the
position of the pigment-granules, driving them alternately into the processes and
the body of the cell. Kiihne, Golubew, and Stricker observed changes of form in
‘amcebze (whité blood-corpuscles and embryonal capillaries, respectively) after the
‘application of electrical stimuli; and Briicke observed contraction in the pigment-
cells of the skin of the chameleon after excitation of the sensory nerves; whilst
Kiihne noticed contraction in corneal cells after excitation of the corneal nerves,
Thus obvious movements in fixed cells or masses of protoplasm are proved to
‘result from the operation of various stimuli, including nervous stimuli.
But all cells are not fixed. The blood-cells, fixed, as cells of organs, at an early
period, become free in the blood-fluid and are moved along by the forces which cir-
culate it until a second time they enter into the composition of the solid tissues by
penetrating the walls of the blood-vessels and moving along the substance of the
tissues for purposes which are not yet wholly explicable.
What naturalist will not at once suggest how frequently this process of alternate
~fixation and movement of animal forms occurs low down in the scale? and yet how
“startling is it in man! how impossible to reconcile with our former ideas of
the existence of membranous coverings, of cells, surfaces, and of gland-ducts!
‘But, with or without explanation, the facts must be recognized; the floating
‘blood-cells are really the very cells which once formed the substance of the lym-
phatic glands, the spleen, and other organs; and they do, in fact, move through the
“walls of the blood-passages, and wander about freely in what we call solid tissues.
Our knowledge of this circulating fluid has marvellously increased. The dura-
tion of the life of any of its particles is but short; they die and their places are
occupied by others, as was the case with our forefathers, and will be the case with
ourselves. It is now a matter of observation, which commenced with Hirt of
‘Zittau, that after every meal an amazing number of white corpuscles are added to the
blood: breakfast doubles their proportion to the coloured corpuscles in half an hour ;
‘supper increases their proportion three times; and dinner makes it four times as great.
They come from such solid glands as the spleen. In the blood going to the spleen,
a proportion is one to two thousand two hundred and sixty; in be returning
98 REPORT—1874,
from the spleen it is one to sixty, Every organ and every tissue changes this fluid;
and, to my mind, perhaps the most stupendous miracle of organization is the
steady maintenance of but slightly variable characters in the living and moving
blood, which is every moment undergoing changes of different kinds as it circulates
through each tissue and organ in the body.
Yet with all this change there is an invariable transmission of the parental cha-
racters by continual descent from particle to particle as each takes the place of a
former one; and thus each organ continues to discharge the same function from
year to year. Animals of the same kind retain the old number of organs, the same
shape of body, and similar modes of life. There is no sign of commencing life, no
coining of new vital power, no production of living out of dead matter, The
original life extends its limits ; it operates in a more extended sphere ; but it is the
same life, it operates in the same way, it never fails to be recognizable in the in-
dividual by the same characters as it had when it was first Inown. Whatever
other functions it discharges, it acts continually in obedience to the first great law;
it increases and multiplies and replenishes the earth.
Let us now for a = moments compare our former views of the structure of
animal membranes with the present ones. The skin (covering the outer surface of
the body), the mucous membranes, the serous linings of the great internal cavities
and of the blood- and lymph-vessels, and the lining membranes of joints were all
alike viewed as if formed of a definite membrane covered on one side by cells, and
on the other supplied by blood- and lymph-yessels and by nerves—the membrane
covering in the latter parts and effecting an absolute separation of the cells from
the vessels and nerves, which were universally believed never to penetrate into the
cellular layer. The cells were regarded as the parts actively engaged in the per-
formance of the functions, the vessels and nerves aiding thereto supplying materials
to be acted on by the cells, and the nerves regulating the amount of action at par-
ticular times for special purposes. The diseased conditions, like the functions, were
kept perfectly distinct; and we had one set of diseases of the epithelial or cellular
arts, and another and a different set of diseases of the membranes and of the parts
elow.
I think the first occasion on which the public faith in these views was seriously
shaken was when the late distinguished Professor of Medicine in St, Andrews, Dr.
John Reid, died of what was called an epithelial cancer of the tongue. Microsco-
pical examinations showed that the disease existed in the cellular covering of the
tongue. <A sufficient cause for it was supposed to exist in the irritation caused b
sharp points of the teeth, to cover which a protecting silver plate was constructed.
The diseased parts were removed with the greatest skill and care by Sir William.
Fergusson, and subsequently by the late Dr. sor Duncan, assisted by Mr. Goodsir
and Mr. Spence, now Professor of Surgery in-the University of Edinburgh. Every
conceivable care was taken by these attached friends of the poor sufferer to remove
every trace of the disease; but it progressed steadily and destroyed this valuable
life.
At this period no one could understand the extension of an epithelial disease
through a basement membrane; and therefore the affection of the adjacent lym-
phatic glands was explained by supposing the diseased action to have been propa-
gated from cell to cell along the epithelial surface of the lymphatie vessels.
Not long afterwards the sternly truthful and accurate Sir James Paget declared,
in terms of terrible significance to the sufferers from this disease, that epithelial
cancer takes a little longer time than ordinary cancer to do its fatal work.
And it soon became thoroughly well known that the glands of the skin, the hair-
bulbs, and the teeth are produced by a local development of the deep cells of the cu-
ticle, extending far below the line of the basement membrane or cutis, and through
the position which it was supposed to occupy, as though no membrane were there to
hinder them.
Thus the basement membrane which was supposed so arbitrarily to separate the
cells on one surface of membranes from the vessels and nerves on the other, gives
way at once before an increased development of the cells, whether in the formation
of new organs or the extension of disease. And the membranous walls of capillary
blood-vessels allow the corpuscles of the blood to pass through them much in the
————
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 99
same way as solid particles enter into and traverse the substance of the protoplasm
of an ameeba or other mass of sarcode,
Whilst-physiologists were engaged in these observations, the late Master of the
Mint, Mr, Graham, was conducting a series of experiments of the most remarkable
-kind, and of the utmost importance to physiology, as well as to chemistry and
physics. He found it necessary to separate two sets of substances as crystalloids and
colloids,—the colloids being penetrable by the crystalloids as readily as water, the
erystalloids (such as hydrochloric acid and common salt) passing through organic
membranes with great freedom, whilst many of the colloids, such as albumen and
gum, will not penetrate them at all. This discovery has enabled the chemist to
separate erystalloids from colloids by dialysis, even when they occur in the most
minute proportions—for instance, to separate 80 or 90 per cent. of a ten-thousandth
part of arsenious acid in twenty-four hours from porter, milk, or infusions of viscera,
substances notoriously difficult to analyze. And it has enabled physiologists to ex-
plain how animal membranes are traversed by various substances which could not
pass through them without being changed from the colloidal into the crystalloidal
form. Thus the colloidal starch and albumen of our food scarcely admit of absorp-
tion until in the process of digestion the starch becomes sugar and the albumen
albuminose, cagetalloiiel bodies which pass through animal membranes with great
facility. And again, this crystalloidal albuminose, after having passed into the
tissues through the membranous walls of the vessels, may become a second time a
colloid, and be deposited and fixed as tissue-substance, ready in its turn to be per-
meated by ome lind, either for temporary or more durable purposes in the
economy, ;
The affect of this great discovery of Mr. Graham’s shows how impossible is the
advance of physiology without a corresponding advance in our knowledge of che-
mistry and physics.
If basement membranes, the walls of blood-vessels, and of cells are made up of col-
loidal matter, we can easily understand how they are penetrated by crystalloids ; and
in like manner it is perfectly possible that they may be traversed by other substances
in solid forms—as, for instance, the walls of blood-vessels by the corpuscles of the
blood, No wonder that there is a continual deposition and removal of the consti-
tuents of the tissues, if so slight a change as that from the crystalloidal to the col-
loidal form, and the reverse, makes such perfectly marvellous differences in the
relations of these substances to each other.
We must look upon the tissues of an animal body as we do upon the substance
of an amoeba, and recollect how penetrable the surfaces and tissues of animals are ;
then we shall cease to be startled when we see these parts become the seat
of entirely new deposits, or find them traversed by migrating blood-corpuscles as
freely as a colloid is penetrated by a crystalloid.
It is impossible to foresee what may be the result to physiology of this great
advance in our knowledge of the varying relations of substances to each other
according as they present themselves at different times in the opposite physical
conditions which were described by Mr. Graham as crystalloidal and colloidal.
But it is plain that we cannot continue to look upon animal membranes as forming
such decided barriers against the penetration of one tissue by another, or by foreign
matters, as was once supposed.
Let me now direct your attention to the present aspect of the question how far
basement membranes limit the distribution of vessels and nerves and separate them
from the cells of glands and membranes.
Mr. Bowman, in his admirable researches into the anatomy of the organs of sense,
discovered that the filaments of the nerves of smell have a remarkable structure—
that they are nucleated, finely granular, contain no white substance of Schwann,
and resemble the gelatinous nerye-fibres. The epithelial surface, too, of the
olfactory region Mr. Bowman described as differing greatly from that of the
adjacent parts of the nasal mucous membrane, and as being of a dark sepia tint.
Subsequent examinations by Hoyer, Max Schultze, and Lockhart Clarke confirmed
‘these statements; and those of Schultze demonstrated that the cells are of two
kinds :—one elongated and filled with yellowish granular protoplasm, exposed at the
outer end of each cell, and containing a clear oval nucleus in clear we in its
100 REPORT—1874.
deeper part, which is first attenuated and then expanded into a broad flattened
process, apparently connected with the connective tissue ; the other cell, the proper
olfactory cell, a thin, fibrous, rod-like body, is moniliform or varicose, connected
below with the out-runners of a nerve-cell, and in birds and amphibia furnished
with one or more hair-like processes, which at the free end come directly into contact -
with odorous particles. Exner in 1872 denied the distinctness of these two forms
of cells, stating that there are all intermediate forms, and that both forms are con-
nected with a deep network continuous with filaments of the olfactory nerve. But
Dr. Newell Martin, in a paper published in the November Number of the ‘ Journal
of Anatomy and Physiology,’ maintains that the two kinds of cell are distinct,
though their characters approximate very closely in the instance of the frog. He
inclines to the belief that, as both forms of cell are so distinct from ordinary epithe-
lium, they are all olfactory cells.
The only conclusion which can be drawn from these observations is that in this
situation the olfactory nerves divide into myriads of small finger-like processes,
which, exposed on the free surface of the membrane, are actually engaged 1n feeling
at the odorous particles to inform us of their characters,
This single instance, so thoroughly proved, would be sufficient to destroy our
former ideas that nerves are spread out under basement membranes and never pene-
trate an epithelial layer.
But this is not the only case of the kind. The general relations of the gustatory
nerves to the epithelial cells of the tongue have been described by Axel Key as
similar in the fungiform papillz of the frog, and by Schwalbe and Lovén in the
gustatory cells of the circumvallate and of some of the fungiform papille in men
and animals. On the protected sides of the circumvallate papille a peculiarity in
the shape and arrangement of the epithelial cells produces a series of taste-cones,
the central cells of which are furnished with hair-like prolongations similar to those
of the olfactory cells. 3
In the otolith-sacs and the ampulle of the semicircular canals of the ear, the
nerve-filaments, having lost their‘white substance, become connected with peculiar
auditory cells and end in hair-like processes between the epithelial cells. In the
cochlea, too, notwithstanding the complication of the examination produced by the
rods of Corti, there is reason to believe that the cells supporting hairs which pro-
ject beyond the epithelial surface are connected with the primitive nerye-fibrils of
the plexus below.
Of the recorded instances in which nerves pass through basement membranes to
get into direct contact or continuity with the superjacent epithelial cells, none is
so striking as that of the salivary and other glands, if there be the least ground for
the remarkably detailed observations and suggestions of Pfliiger. They are of so
much importance and interest in connexion with the whole process of secretion,
that I offer no excuse for directing your attention to them, even though it may be
proved that the act of secretion is not attended with such marvellous and extensive
changes of structure as Pfliiger supposes. Up to a certain point his observations
may he easily and abundantly contirmed ; beyond that there is much greater diffi-
culty; but this Meeting offers one of the most favourable opportunities for extending
our knowledge by bringing different observers into easy communication with each
other, and enabling each to help the rest by stating the means by which he had
overcome what seemed at first to be insuperable difficulties in the progress of an
investigation.
Pfliiger calls attention to the very variable characters of the alveoli, the secreting
cells, and the excretory ducts of the salivary glands. These parts, which were
believed to have very determinate sizes and characters, he declares to differ very
greatly in different parts of the same gland. The alveoli, occupied by what we
understand as secreting or glandular epithelial cells, and the excretory duets, lined
hy columnar epithelium, he thinks he can prove to be but different stages of deve-
lopment of the same structures, produced on the ends of the myriad nervous fila-
ments supplied to these glands.
On this view glandular epithelial cells must be regarded as special organs of
termination of nerve-fibrils, like the auditory cells, touch-corpuscles, olfactory cells,
muscular fibre-cells, and the like—the relation between such structures and the
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 101
nerves becoming so close that it may be difficult, perhaps impossible, to define their
respective limits. -Pfliiger has figured the nuclei of the cells of the alveoli of the
salivary glands, the salivary cells, connected with a delicate fibre, which often
pierces the surface of the cell in contact with the membrana propria, and gives
the cell the appearance of being stalked. This appearance has also been seen by
Schliiter, Otto Weber, Gianuzzi, Boll, and Kolliker; and, indeed, the appearance
which Pfliiger has figured may be seen by any one who will take the trouble to
examine the salivary glands of the common cockroach (Blatta orientalis). This
rocess was shown to me by my friend and’ pupil, Mr. Charles Workman; and I
ve several preparations which show a similar process to that which Pfliger has
observed and figured ; but that it is as clearly connected with the nucleus of the cell
as he describes it I am not prepared to affirm. Pfliiger says it is hollow, and often
ee a large quantity of tenacious material which clearly proceeds from the
nucleus.
In the interior of the gland there are ducts lined with a thick but single layer of
columnar epithelium, the cells of which are clear and uucleated near their free end,
but furnished with a large number of extremely fine varicose hairs at the end con-
nected with the membrana propria. This epithelium becomes thicker as the ducts
proceed towards their connexion with the alveoli; and as transparent drops can be
seen transuding from the ends of the cells when saliva has been made to flow by
invitation of the gland, Pfltiger concludes that they are important secretory organs.
Such ducts frequently form loops, or bend suddenly, or possess diverticula. The
epithelium of the ducts, which carry the secretion out of the gland, is of a different
and apparently less important lind.
Pfluger directs special attention to the great number of nerves connected with the
alveoli. He has identified them in fresh specimens by their investment here and
there by an ordinary double-contoured medulla, by their being blackened by perosmic
acid, by their varicosities, and by tracing them to larger and more easily recogni-
zable nerves. He finds them branching in great numbers amongst the cells of the
alyeoli, and traces their fibrils to the nuclei of the cells, sometimes after they have
been connected with multipolar ganglion-cells. Or nerves covered by medulla and
sheath, and containing numerous varicose axis cylinders, branch, enlarge, and
become covered with protoplasm set with nuclei, forming what Pfltiger calls a
protoplasmic foot, and supposes to be a structure intermediate in character between
neryous and glandular tissue. And on the surface of the ducts lined by columnar
epithelium a nerve divides into a pencil-like tuft of varicose fibrils, each of which
Pfliiger says is directly continuous with one of the processes of a columnar epithelial
cell. I have frequently seen the pencil-like tuft of varicose fibrils on the surface of
the ducts lined by columnar epithelium; but it is not so easy to be sure that the
fibrils are connected with the processes of the cells. However, the statement is
made in the most positive way by Pfliiger, who has made these glands the subjects
of very special and lengthened investigation; and his drawings afford very strong
- corroborative testimony of the value of his statements. Moreover, in independent
observations on the pancreas, he has also traced the nerves to endings in the secre-
ting cells.
But Pfliiger has gone greatly further than this. He has figured the hair-like
processes at the attached end of the columnar cells in all stages of transition into
salivary cells of new alveoli; and having previously found the nerves connected by
varicose fibrils with protoplasmic masses set with nuclei, he concludes that it is
ossible that the salivary cells are developed on the ends of the nerves without
interference of their own nuclei, and that, as a continual new formation of alveoli
and salivary cells implies the atrophy and disintegration of corresponding older
parts, the alveoli with pale offshoots of various forms which he has seen in moles
are evidences of such atrophy. :
With these numerous instances in which nerves are alleged to pass through
membranes to be connected with the cells on their surfaces, as if these were their
special modes of termination, we might well be content until there has been time
for further investigation by independent observers. But there are yet other in-
stances. Langerhans described, in 1868, a fine network of fibres in the skin, from
the superficial part of which fine non-medullated fibres pass out of the cutis and
102 REPORT—1874.
end in the Malpighian layer of the epidermis. He saw in the epidermis also well-
marked cells which gave off several processes towards the horny layer, and one long
slender process which passed through the Malpighian layer into the cutis. He
considers these cells to be nervous, and their peripheral processes to be the terminal
parts of the nerves of the skin. CO. J. Eberth agrees in the main with Langerhans,
and recognizes fine nerve-fibres passing from the nerves of the cutis into the deeper
layer of cuticular cells, and also star-and-spindle-shaped cells in the cuticle, which
he suggests may be nervous structures, though he has not traced them in connexion
with nerve-fibres.
On the surface of young fishes and Amphibia F. E. Schutze has described nerve-
hairs arranged in the form of tufts or brushes very much as is the case in the organ
of hearing; in this instance the brush-like endings of the nerves are probably con-
nected with touch.
Cohbnheim has described the corneal nerves as forming a superficial plexus under
the anterior elastic lamina; from this perforating branches pass perpendicularly
through the lamina, and then, under the epithelium, break up into brush-like or
star-shaped finer branches, which form a plexus giving off fine nerves at tolerably
regular intervals between the deep columnar cells and the more superficial sphe-
roidal ones, and dividing at length into their finest branches, which end by some-
what swollen extremities in the most superficial epithelial layers. Thus the exqui-
site sensibility of the front of the eye, like that of the olfactory or gustatory mucous
membranes, may be accounted for. ;
When I look upon the vast amount of research which has been applied to this
department of Biology for some years past, and think that the instrument which
has afforded the great means for 1t was only perfected so as to be capable of use for
such purposes about 1820, I cannot but congratulate the Section on the abundant
fruits we are reaping.
And when, in addition, I contemplate the amount of certainty which physical
science has imparted to physiology by furnishing the means of examining and
accurately measuring the rates of transmission of nerve-currents, of obtaining tra-
cings of the respiratory movements and of the arterial pulsations, of examining the
retina in the liying eye and the larynx of a living man almost as readily as if these
parts were exposed in a dissection, I cannot but conclude that this nineteenth cen-
tury has been already distinguished as a very notable one for Biology, and especially
for Physiology.
Considering that so much time is required for making a single careful obser-
vation, it is very fortunate that so large an array of inquirers and so much talent
are employed upon the subjects in which we are interested, and that once a year we
have this admirable opportunity of listening to the results of inquiries instituted by
the most eminent men in all parts of the world, and of hearing different views
advocated with the greatest earnestness and yet with perfect good humour, and a
rigorous determination to rest satisfied with nothing but the truth.
Botany anpD Zoonoey.
Address to the Department of Botany and Zoology.
By Dr. Hooxrr, 0.B., D.C.L,, Pres. B.S.
Thave chosen for the subject of my Address to you from the chair to which the
Council of the British Association has done me the honour of calling me, the
carnivorous habits of some of our brother organisms—plants. '
Various observers haye described with more or less accuracy the habits of such
vegetable sportsmen as the Sundew, the Venus’s fly-trap, and the Pitcher-plants, but
few have inquired into their motives; and the views of those who haye most
Pama appreciated them haye not met with that general acceptance which they
eserved.
Quite recently the subject has acquired a new interest, from the researches of
Mr. Darwin into the phenomena which accompany the placing of albuminous sub-
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 103
stances on the leaves of Drosera and Pinguicula, and which, as Dr. Burdon
Sanderson has remarked, prove in the case of Dionca that this plant digests exactly
the same substances, and in exactly the same way, that the human stomach does *.
With these researches Mr. Darwin is still actively engaged; and it has been with
the view of rendering him such aid as my position and opportunities at Kew
worn me, that 1 have, under his instructions, examined some other carnivorous
plants.
In the course of my inquiries I have been led to look into the early history of
the whole subject, which I find to be so little known and so interesting that I have
thought that a sketch of it, up to the date of Mr. Darwin’s investigations, might
ae acceptable to the members of this Association. In drawing it up, I have
een obliged to limit myself to the most important plants; and with regard to such
of these as Mr. Darwin has studied, I leave it to him to announce the discoveries
which, with his usual frankness, he has communicated to me and to other friends ;
whilst with regard to those which I have myself studied (Sarracenia and Nepenthes)
I shall briefly detail such of my observations and experiments as seem to be the
most suggestive.
Dionma.
‘About 1768 Ellis, a well-known English naturalist, sent to Linneous a drawing
of a plant, to which he gave the poetical name of Dionea., “In the year 1765,” he
writes, “our late worthy friend, Mr. Peter Collinson, sent me a dried specimen of
this curious plant, which he had received from Mr. John Bartram, of Philadelphia,
botanist to the late King”. Ellis flowered the plant in his chambers, having
obtained living specimens from America. I will read the account which he gave
of it to Linnwus, and which moved the great naturalist to declare that, though he
had seen and examined no small number of plants, he had never met with so
- wonderful a phenomenon f{ :—
“The plant, of which I now enclose you an exact figure with a specimen of its
leaves and blossoms, shows that Nature may have some views towards. its nourish-
ment, in forming the upper joint of its leaf like a machine to catch food: upon the
middle of this lies the bait for the unhappy insect that becomes its prey. Many
minute red glands that cover its surface, and which perhaps discharge sweet liquor,
tempt the poor animal to taste them ; and the instant these tender parts are irritated
by its feet, the two lobes rise up, grasp it fast, lock the rows of spines together, and
squeeze it to death. And further, lest the strong efforts for life in the creature just
taken should serve to disengage it, three small erect spines are fixed near the middle
of each lobe, among the glands, that effectually put an end to all its struggles. Nor
do the lobes ever open again, while the dead animal continues there. But it is
nevertheless certain, that the plant cannot distinguish an animal from a vegetable
or mineral substance; for if we introduce a straw or pin between the lobes, it will
grasp it full as fast as if it was an insect ’§.
This account, which in its way is searcely less horrible than the descriptions of
those medizval statues which opened to embrace and stab their victims, is sub-
stantially correct, but erroneous in some particulars. I prefer, however, to trace
out our knowledge of the facts in historical order, because it is extremely important
to realize in so doing how much our appreciation of tolerably simple matters may
be influenced by the prepossessions that occupy our mind.
We have a striking illustration of this in-the statement published by Linnzeus a
few years afterwards. All the facts which I have detailed to you were in his
ossession; yet he was evidently unable to bring himself to believe that Nature
intended the plant (to use Ellis’s words) “ to receive some nowrishment from the
animals it selzes;” and he accordingly declared that as soon as the insects ceased
to struggle, the leaf opened and let them go||. He only saw in these wonderful
actions an extreme case of sensitiveness in the leaves, which caused them to fold up
* ‘Nature,’ June 11, 1874, p. 107.
+ A Botanical Description of the Dionea muscipula,...,.in a letter to Sir Charles
Linneus, p. 38.
+ Smith’s ‘ Correspondence of Linnzus,’ vol. i. p. 235. § Ellis, 7. c. p. 37.
| “ Usque dum lassum quiescat, tumque dimittunt.”—Mantissa altera (1771), p. 238.
104. REPORT—1874.
when irritated, just as the sensitive plant does; and he consequently regarded the
capture of the aciewis insect as something merely accidental, and of no import-
ance to the plant. He was, however, too sagacious to accept Ellis’s sensational
account of the coup de grdce which the insects received from the three stiff hairs in
the centre of each lobe of the leaf. Linnzeus’s authority overbore criticism, if any
were offered; and his statements about the behaviour of the leaves were faithfully
copied from book to book. :
Broussonet (in 1784) attempted to explain the contraction of the leayes by
supposing that the captured insect pricked them, and so let out the fluid which
previously kept them turgid and expanded *. ‘
Dr. Darwin (1791) was contented to suppose that the Dionea surrounded itself
with insect-traps to prevent depredations upon its flowers f.
Sixty years after Linnzeus wrote, however, an able botanist, the Rey. Dr. Curtis
(dead but a few years since), resided at Wilmington, in North Carolina, the head-
quarters of this very local plant. In 1834 he published an account of it in the
‘Boston Journal of Natural History’ {, which is a model of accurate scientific
observation. This is what he said:—“ Each side of the leaf is a little concave on
the inner side, where are placed three delicate hair-like organs, in such an order
that an insect can hardly traverse it without interfering with one of them, when the
two sides suddenly collapse and enclose the prey, with a force surpassing an insect’s
efforts to escape. The fringe of hairs on the opposite sides of a leaf interlace, like
the fingers of two hands clasped together. The sensitiveness resides only in these
hair-like processes on the inside, as the leaf may be touched or pressed in any other
part without sensible effects. The little prisoner is not crushed and suddenly
destroyed, as is sometimes supposed, for I have often liberated captive flies and
spiders, which sped away as fast as fear or joy could carrythem. At other times I
have found them enveloped in a fluid of a mucilaginous consistence, which seems
to act as a solvent, the insects being more or less consumed in it.”
To Ellis belongs the credit of divining the purpose of the capture of insects by
the Dionea, But Curtis, besides making out the details of the mechanism, by
ascertaining the seat of the sensitiveness in the leaves, also pointed out that the
secretion was not a lure exuded before the capture, but a true digestive fluid poured
out, like our own gastric juice, after the ingestion of food §.
For another generation the history of this wonderful plant stood still; but in
1868 an American botanist, Mr. Canby, who is happily still engaged in botanical
research, while staying in the Dionea-district, studied the habits of the plant
pretty carefully, especially the points which Dr. Curtis had observed. His first
idea was that ‘‘the leaf had the power of dissolving animal matter, which was then
allowed to flow along the somewhat trough-like petiole to the root, thus furnishing
the plant with highly nitrogenous food.” By feeding the leaves with small pieces
of beef, he found, however, that this was not so, but that these were completely
dissolved and absorbed; the leaf opening again with a dry surface, and ready for
another meal, though with an appetite somewhat jaded. He found that cheese
disagreed horribly with the leaves, turning them black, and finally killing them.
Finally, he details the useless struggles of a Curculio to escape, as thoroughly
establishing the fact that the fluid already mentioned is actually secreted, and is
not the result of the decomposition of the substance which the leaf has seized.
* Mém. de I’Acad. des Se. 1784, p. 614. t Botanic Garden, pt. ii. p. 15.
+ Vol.i. pp. 128-125. }
§ I am indebted to Mr. Warner, of Winchester, for pointing out to me that the seat of
sensitiveness in the leayes of Dionea was discovered thirty years earlier than this by
Sydenham Edwards, the botanical draughtsman. The fact is stated (1804) in the de-
scription of plate 785 in the twentieth volume of the ‘ Botanical Magazine,’ then edited
by Dr. Curtis’s English namesake. I quote Curtis’s remarks:—'These small spines are
mentioned and figured by Ellis, and supposed by him to assist in destroying the entrapped
animal; but that they are the only irritable points, and that any other part of the leaf
may be touched with impunity, was discovered by our draughtsman, Mr. Edwards, several
ears ago, when taking a sketch of the plant flowering at Mr. Liptrap’s, Mile End, and
has since been repeatedly confirmed. ‘The same observation was made, without knowing
it had been previously noticed, by our friend Mr, Charles Konig.”
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 105
This Cureulio being of a resolute nature, attempted to eat his way out; ‘ when
discovered he was still alive, and had made a small hole through the side of the
leaf, but was evidently becoming very weak. On opening the leaf, the fluid was
found in considerable quantity around him, and was without doubt gradually over-
coming him. The leaf being again allowed to close upon him, he soon died ”*.
At the Meeting of this Association last year, Dr. Burdon Sanderson made a
communication, which, from its remarkable character, was well worthy of the
singular history of this plant ; one by no means closed yet, but in which his obser-
yations will head a most interesting chapter. It is a generalization (now almost a
household word) that all living things have a common bond of union in a sub-
stance (always present where life manifests itself) which underlies all their details
of structure. This is called protoplasm. One of its most distinctive properties is
its aptitude to contract ; and when in any given organism the particles of proto-
plasm are so arranged that they act as it were in concert, they produce a cumulative
effect which is very manifest in its results. Such a manifestation is found in the
contraction of muscle; and such a manifestation we possibly have also in the con-
traction of the leaf of Dionea.
_ The contraction of muscle is well known to be accompanied by certain electrical
phenomena. When we place a fragment of muscle in connexion with a delicate
alvanometer, we find that between the outside surface and a cut surface there is a
definite current, due to what is called the electromotive force of the muscle. Now
when the muscle is made to contract this electromotive force momentarily dis-
appears. The needle of the galvanometer, deflected before, swings back towards
the point of rest; there is what is called a negative variation. All students of the
vegetable side of organized nature were astonished to hear from Dr. Sanderson that
experiments which he had made proved to demonstration that when a leaf of
Dionea contracts, the effects produced are precisely similar to those which occur
when muscle contracts f.
Not merely, then, are the phenomena of digestion in this wonderful plant like
mace of animals, but the phenomena of contractility agree with those of animals
also.
DRoSsERA.
Not confined to a single district in the New World, but distributed over the
temperate parts of both hemispheres, in sandy and marshy Biorve are the curious
gee called Sundews—the species of the genus Drosera. ey are now known to
@ near congeners of Dionea, a fact which was little more than guessed at when
the curious habits which I am about to describe were first discovered.
Within a year of each other two persons (one an Englishman, the other a
German) observed that the curious hairs which everyone notices on the leaf of
Drosera were sensitive. ‘This is the account which Mr. Gardom, a Derbyshire
botanist, gives of what his friend Mr. Whateley, “an eminent London surgeon” f,
made out in 1780 :—“On inspecting some of the contracted leaves we observed a
small insect or fly very closely imprisoned therein, which occasioned some astonish-
ment as to how it happened to get into so confined a situation. Afterwards, on
Mr. Whateley’s centrically pressing with a pin other leaves yet in their natural and
expanded form, we olseived a remarkable sudden and elastic spring of the leaves,
so as to become inverted upwards and, as it were, encircling the pin, which evi-
dently showed the method by which the fly came into its embarrassing situation Ӥ.
This must have been an account given from memory, and represents the movement
of the hairs as much more rapid than it really is.
In July of the preceding year (though the account was not published till two
years afterwards) Roth, in Germany, had remarked in Drosera rotundifolia and
longifolia “that many leayes were folded together from the point towards the base,
and that all the hairs were bent like a bow, but that there was no apparent change
* Notes on Dionea muscipula, Ellis. Meehan’s ‘ Gardeners’ Monthly,’ 1868, pp. 229-31.
_ ‘+ See Brit. Assoc. Report, 1873, Trans. Sect. p. 183; Proc. Royal Soe. vol. xxi. p. 495 ;
Nature, June 11 & 18, 1874.
¢ Darwin, ‘Botanic Garden,’ pt. ii. p. 24.
§ Withering’s ‘ Arrangement of British Plants,’ 3rd ed. (1796) p. 825.
106 “Be REPORT—1874.
on the leaf-stalk.” Upon opening these leaves, he says :—“TI found in each a dead
insect; hence I imagined that this plant, which has some resemblance to the
Dionea muscipula, might also have a similar moving power.”
“ With a pair of pliers I placed an ant upon the middle of the leaf of D, rotundi-
folia, but not so as to disturb the plant. The ant endeavoured to escape, but was
held fast by the clammy juice at the points of the hairs, which was drawn out by
its feet into fine threads. In some minutes the short hairs on the disk of the leaf
began to bend, then the long hairs, and laid themselves upon the insect. After a
while the leaf began to bend, and in some hours the end of the leaf jwas so bent
inwards as to touch the base. The ant died in fifteen minutes, which was before
all the hairs had bent themselves” *, :
These facts, established nearly a century ago by the testimony of independent
observers, have up to the present time been almost ignored ; and Trécul f, writing
in 1855, even thought that the facts were not true.
More recently, however, they have been repeatedly verified :—in Germany by
Nitschke, in 1860}; in America by a lady, Mrs. Treat, of New Jersey, in 1871§;
in this country by Mr. Darwin, and also by Mr. A. W. Bennett ll.
To Mr. Darwin, who for some years past has had the subject under investigation,
we are indebted, not merely for the complete confirmation of the facts attested by
the earliest observers, but also for some additions to those facts, which are
extremely important. The whole investigation still awaits publication at his hands ;
but some of the points which were established have been announced by Professor
Asa Gray in America, to whom Mr. Darwin had communicated them§. He found
that the hairs on the leaf of Drosera responded to a piece of muscle or other animal
substance, while to any particle of inorganic matter they acted less efficiently, and
the periods of subsequent reexpansion were widely different. To minute fragments
of carbonate of ammonia they were more responsive.
The results of Mrs. Treat’s experiments I will give in her own words :—
“ Fifteen minutes past ten I placed bits of raw beef on some of the most vigorous
leaves of Drosera longifolia. Ten minutes past twelve two of the leaves had folded
around the beef, hiding it from sight. Half-past eleven on the same day, I placed
living flies on the leaves of D. longifolia. At twelve o’clock and forty-eight
minutes one of the leaves had folded entirely around its victim, and the other
leaves had partially folded, and the flies had ceased to struggle. By half-past two
four leaves had each folded around a fly. The leaf folds from the apex to the
petiole, after the manner of its vernation. I tried mineral substances, bits of dry
chalk, magnesia, and pebbles. In twenty-four hours neither the leayes nor the
bristles had made any move in clasping these articles. I wet a piece of chalk in
water, and in less than an hour the bristles were curving about it, but soon unfolded
again, leaving the chalk free on the blade of the leaf.”
Time will not allow me to enter into further details with respect to Dionea and
Drosera. The repeated testimony of various observers spread over a century,
though at no time warmly received, must, I think, go a long way towards satisfying
you that in this small family of the Droseracee we have plants which, in the first
place, capture animals for purposes of food ; and, in the second, digest and dissolve
them by means of a fluid which is poured out for the purpose ; and, thirdly, absorb
the solution of animal matter which is so produced.
Before the investigations of Mr, Darwin had led other persons to work at the
subject, the meaning of these phenomena was very little appreciated. Only a few
years ago, Duchartre, a French physiological botanist, after mentioning the views
of Ellis and Curtis with respect to Dionea, expressed his opinion that the idea
that its leaves absorbed dissolved animal substances was too evidently in disagree-
ment with our knowledge of the function of leaves, and of the whole course of
vegetable nutrition, to deserve being seriously discussed].
* Quoted by Withering, Z. c. i
t “Je pense que ces organes ne sont pas excitables; je crois qu’ils ne sont pas suscep-
tibles d’exécuter les mouyements qu’on leur attribue.’—Ann. des Sc. Nat. 4° sér. t. iti.
p. 303.
{ Bot. Zeit. 1860, p. 229. § American Naturalist, 1873, p. 705.
|| Brit. Assoc, Rep, 1878, Trans. Sect. p. 128. Eléments de Botanique, p. 308.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 107
Perhaps if the Droseracee were an isolated case of a group of plants exhibiting
propensities of this kind, there might be some reason for such a criticism. But I
think I shall be able to show you that this is by no means the case. We have
now reason to believe that there are many instances of these carnivorous habits in
different parts of the vegetable kingdom, and among plants which have nothing
else in common.
As another illustration I will take the very curious group of Pitcher-plants .
peculiar to the New World. And here also I think we shall find it most conve-
nient to follow the historical order in the facts.
SARRACENIA,
The genus Sarracenia consists of eight species, all similar in habit, and all natives
of the eastern States of North America, where they are found more especially in
bogs, and eyen in places covered with shallow water. Their leaves, which give
them a character entirely their own, are pitcher-shaped or trumpet-like, and are
collected in tufts springing immediately from the ground ; and they send up at the
flowering-season one or more slender stems bearing each a solitary flower. This
has a singular aspect, due to a great extent to the umbrella-like expansion in
which the style terminates; the shape of this, or perhaps of the whole flower,
| rain ele first English settlers to give to the plant the name of Side-saddle
ower *,
Sarracenia purpurea is the best Inown species. About ten years ago it enjoyed
an evanescent notoriety, from the fact that its rootstock was proposed as a remedy
for small-pox. It is found from Newfoundland southward to Florida, and is fairly
hardy under open air cultivation in the British Isles, Atthe commencement of the
seventeenth century, Clusius published a figure of it, from a sketch which found
its way to Lisbon and thence to Parist. Thirty years later Johnson copied this in
his edition of Gerard’s ‘ Herbal,’ hoping “ that some or other that travel into foreign
arts may find this elegant plant, and know it by this small expression, and bring
it home with them, so that we may come to a perfecter knowledge thereof” {. A
few years afterwards this wish was gratified. John Tradescant the younger found
the plant in Virginia, and succeeded in bringing it home alive to England§. It
was also sent to Paris from Quebec by Dr. Sarrazin, whose memory has been com-
memorated in the name of the genus by Tournefort'||.
The first fact which was observed about the pitchers was, that when they grew
they contained water. But the next fact which was recorded about them was
curiously mythical. Perhaps Morrison, who is responsible for it, had no favourable
opportunities of studying them, for he declares them to be, what is by no means
really the case, intolerant of cultivation (“respuere culturam videntur’’), He speaks
of the lid, which in all the species is tolerably rigidly fixed, as being furnished hy
providence with a hinge]. This idea was adopted by Linnzus**, and somewhat
amplified by succeeding writers, who declared that in dry weather the lid closed
over the mouth, and checked the loss of water by evaporation, Catesby, in his
fine work on the Natural History of Carolina, supposed that these water-receptacles
might “serve as an asylum or secure retreat for numerous insects, from frogs and
other animals which feed on them” +}; and others followed Linnzus in regarding
the pitchers as reservoirs for birds and other animals, more especially in times of
drought—“ preebet aquam sitientibus aviculis” tf.
The superficial teleology of the last century was easily satisfied, without looking
far for explanations ; but it is just worth while pausing for a moment to observe
* Miller, ‘Figures of Plants described in the Gardeners’ Dictionary,’ ii. p. 161.
+ Rariorum plantarum historia (1601), p. Lxxxii.
{ The ‘ Herbal,’ enlarged by Th. Johnson (1633), p. 412.
§ Parkinson’s ‘ Theatrum botanicum’ (1640), p. 1235,
|| Instiffitiones rei herbaria (1719), p. 657.
4 Plantarum Historia (1699), vol. iii, p. 533.
** Hortus Cliffortianus (1737), p. 497.
tt Vol. ii. p. 69 (1754).
tt Prelectiones in ordines naturales plantarum (1792), p. 316; see also Miller, ‘ Figures,
&e.,’ p. 161.
108 REPORT—1874.
that, although Linnzus had no materials for making any real investigation as to
the purpose of the pitchers of Sarracenias, he very sagaciously anticipated the
modern views as to their affinities. They are now regarded as very near allies of
Papaveracee—precisely the position which Linnzeus assigned to them in his frag-
mentary attempt at a true natural classification*. And, besides this, he also sug-
gested the analogy which, improbable as it may seem at first sight, has been worked
out in detail by Baillon between the leaves of Sarracenia and water-lilies. Lin-
nzeus seems to have supposed that Sarracenia was originally aquatic in its habits,
that it had Nymphea-like leaves, and that when it took to a terrestrial life its
leaves became hollowed out, to contain the water in which they could no longer
float t—in fact he showed himself to be an evolutionist of the true Darwinian type.
Catesby’s suggestion was a very infelicitous one. The insects which visit these
lants may find in them a retreat, but it is one from which they never return.
innzus’s correspondent Collinson remarked, in one of his letters, that “ many poor
insects lose their lives by being drowned in these cisterns of water” t ; but William
Bartram, the son of the botanist, seems to have been the first to have put on record,
at the end of the last century, the fact that Sarracenias catch insects and put them
to death in the wholesale way that they do§.
Before stopping to consider how this is actually achieved, I will carry the history
a little further.
In the two species in which the mouth is unprotected by the lid it could not be
doubted that a part, at any rate, of the contained fluid was supplied by rain; but
in Sarracenia variolaris, in which the lid closes over the mouth, so that rain cannot
readily enter it, there is no doubt that a fluid is secreted at the bottom of the
pitchers, which probably has a digestive function. William Bartram, in the pre-
fage to his ‘ Travels,’ described this fluid ; but he was mistaken in supposing that it
acted as a lure. There is a sugary secretion which attracts insects, but this is only
found at the upper part of the tube. Bartram, however, must be credited with the
suggestion, which he, however, only put forward doubtfully, that the insects were
dissolved in the fluid, and then became available for the®alimentation of the plants.
Sir J. E. Smith, who published a figure and description of Sarracenia vartolaris,
noticed that it secreted fluid, but was content to suppose that it was merely the
gaseous products of the decomposition of insects that subserved the processes of
vegetation ||. In 1829, however, thirty years after Bartram’s book, Burnett wrote
a paper containing a good many original ideas expressed in a somewhat quaint
fashion, in which he very strongly insisted on the existence of a true digestive
process in the case of Sarracenia, analogous to that which takes place in the
stomach of an animal ¥.
Our knowledge of the habits of Sarracenia variolaris is now pretty complete,
owing to the observations of two South Carolina physicians. One of them, Dr.
Macbride, made his observations half a century ago, but they had, till quite
recently, completely fallen into oblivion. He devoted himself to the task of
ascertaining why it was that Sarracenia variolaris was visited by flies, and how it
was that it captured them. This is what he ascertained :—-
“The cause which attracts flies is evidently a viscid substance, resembling honey,
secreted by or exuding from the internal surface of the tube. From the margin,
where it commences, it does not extend lower than one fourth of an inch. The
falling of the insect as soon as it enters the tube is wholly attributable to the
downward or inverted position of the hairs of the internal surface of the leaf. At
the bottom of the tube split open, the hairs are plainly discernible, pointing down-
wards; as the eye ranges upward they gradually become shorter and attenuated,
till at or just below the surface covered by the bait they are no longer perceptible
to the naked eye, nor to the most delicate touch. It is here that the fly cannot
take a hold sufficiently strong to support itself, but falls” **.
* Classes Plantarum (1738), p. 500. t Systema nature, ed. xiii. vol. ii. p,361 (1767).
{ Smith’s ‘ Correspondence of Linnzeus,’ yol. i. p. 69 (1765).
§ Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, Florida (1791).
|| Introduction to Physiological and Systematical Botany (1807), p. 196.
“| Quarterly Journal of Science and Art, vol. ii. p. 290 (1829).
** ‘Trans, Linn, Soe. vol. xii. pp. 48-52:(1815).
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 109
Dr. Mellichamp, who is now resident in the district in which Dr. Macbride
made his observations, has added a good many ap oes to our Imowledge. He
first investigated the fluid which is secreted at the bottom of the tubes. He satis-
fied himself that it was really ‘secreted, and describes it as mucilaginous, but
leaving in the mouth a peculiar astringency. He compared the action of this fluid
with that of distilled water on pieces of fresh venison, and found that after fifteen
hours the fluid had produced most change, and also most smell; he therefore con-
cluded that as the leaves; when stuffed with insects become most disgusting in
odour, we have to do, not with a true digestion, but with an accelerated decom-
position. Although he did not attribute any true digestive power to the fluid
secreted by the pitchers, he found that it had a remarkable anesthetic effect upon
flies immersed in it. He remarked that “a fly when thrown into water is very
oe to escape, as the fluid seems to run from its wings,” but it never escaped from
the Sarracemia-secretion. About half a minute after being thrown in, the fly
became to all appearance dead, though if removed it gradually recovered in from
half an hour to an hour. According to Dr. Mellickamp, the sugary lure discovered
by Dr. Macbride at the mouth of the pitchers is not found on either the young
ones of one season, nor the older ones of the previous year. He found, however,
that about May it could be detected without difficulty; and, more wonderful still,
that there is a honey-baited pathway leading directly from the ground to the
mouth, along the broad wing of the pitcher, up which insects are led to their
destruction *.
From these narratives it is evident that there are two very different types of
pitcher in Sarracenia, and an examination of the species shows that there must
probably be three. These may be primarily classified into those with the mouth
open and lid erect, and which consequently receive the rain-water in more or less
silane; and those with the mouth closed by the lid, into which rain can hardly,
if at all, find ingress.
To the first of these belongs the well-known S. purpurea, with inclined pitchers
and a lid so disposed as to direct all the rain that falls upon it into the pitcher ;
also S. flava, rubra, and Drummondii, all with erect pitchers and vertical lids. In
these three the lid in a young state arches over the mouth, and in an old state
stands nearly erect, and_has the sides so reflected that the rain which falls on its
upper surface is guided down the outside of the back of the pitcher, as if to prevent
the flooding of the latter.
To the second group belong S. psittacina and S. variolaris.
_ The tissues of the internal surfaces of the pitchers are singularly beautiful. They
have been described in one species only, S. purpurea, by August Vogl} ; but from
this all the other species which I have examined differ materially. Beginning
from the upper part of the pitcher, there are four surfaces, characterized by different
tissues, which 1 shall name and define as follows :—
1. An attractive surface, occupying the inner surface of the lid, which possesses
stomata, and (in common with the mouth of the pitcher) with minute honey-
secreting glands; it is further often more highly coloured than any other part of
the pitcher, in order to attract insects to the honey.
2. A conducting surface, which is opaque, formed of glassy cells, which are pro-
duced into deflexed, short, conical processes. These processes, overlapping like
the tiles of a house, form a surface down which an insect slips, and affords no foot-
hold to an insect attempting to crawl up again.
8. A glandular surface (seen in S. purpurea), which occupies a considerable
portion of the cavity of the pitcher below the conducting surface. It is formed of
-a layer of iden with sinuous cells, and is studded with glands; and being
smooth and polished, this too affords no foothold for escaping insects,
4. A detentive surface, which occupies the lower part of the pitcher, in some cases
for nearly its whole length. It possesses no cuticle, and is studded with detlexed,
rigid, glass-like, needle-formed hairs, which further converge towards the axis of
. * Dr. Mellichamp’s observations were communicated to Prof. Asa Gray, who gave an
account of them in the ‘New York Tribune,’ which was reprinted in the ‘ Gardeners’
Chronicle,’ June 27, 1874, p. 818.
t Wien. Sitzungsberichte der k, k, Akad. (1865) vol. 1. p. 281.
110 rnprort —1874.
the diminishing cavity; so that an insect, if once amongst them, is effectually de-
tained, and its struggles have no other result than to wedge it lower and more
firmly in the pitcher. :
Now it is a very curious thing that in S. purpurea, which has an open pitcher
so formed as to receive and retain a maximum of rain, no honey-secretion has
hitherto been found, nor has any water been seen to be secreted in the pitcher; it
is further the only species in which (as stated above) I haye found a special glan-
dular surface, and in which no glands occur on the detentive surface. This concur-
rence of circumstances suggests the possibility of this plant either having no proper
secretion of its own, or only giving it out after the pitcher has been filled with rain-
water.
In 8. flava, which has open-mouthed pitchers and no special glandular surface,
I find glands in the upper portion of the detentive surface, amongst the hairs, but
not in the middle or lower part of the same surface. It is known that 8. flava
secretes fluid, but under what precise conditions I am not aware. I have found
none but what may have been accidentally introduced in the few cultivated speci-
mens which I have examined, either in the full-grown state or in the half-grown,
when the lid arches over the pitcher. I find the honey in these as described by the
American observers, and honey-secreting glands on the edge of the wing of the
pitcher, together with similar glands on the outer surface of the pitcher, as seen by
Voul in S. purpurea,
Of the pitchers with closed mouths, I have examined those of S. variolaris only,
whose tissues closely resemble those of S. flava. Thatit secretes a fluid noxious to
insects there is no doubt, though in the specimens I examined I found none.
There is obviously thus much still to be learned with regard to Sarracenia, and
I hope that American botanists will apply themselves to this task. It is not pro-
bable that three pitchers so differently constructed as; those of S. flava, purpurea,
and variolaris, and presenting such differences in their tissues, should act simi-
larly. The fact that insects normally become decomposed in the fluid of all, would
suggest the probability that they all feed on the products of decomposition ; but as
yet we are absolutely ignorant whether the glands within the pitchers are secretive
or absorptive, or both—if secretive, whether they secrete water or a solvent; and
if absorptive, whether they absorb animal matter or the products of decomposition.
It is quite likely that just as the saccharine exudation only makes its appearance
during one particular period in the life of the pitcher, so the digestivé functions
may also be only of short duration. We should be prepared for this from the case
of the Dionea, the leaves of which cease after a time to be fit for absorption, and
become less sensitive. Itis quite certain that the insects which go on accumulating
in the pitchers of Sarracenias must be far in excess of its needs for any legitimate
rocess of digestion. They become decomposed; and various insects, too wary to
i entrapped themselves, seem habitually to drop their eggs into the open mouths
of the pitchers, to take advantage of the accumulation of food*. The old pitchers
are consequently found to contain living larvee and maggots, a sufficient proof that
the original properties of the fluid which they secreted must have become exhausted ;
and Barton tells us that various insectivorous birds slit open the pitchers with their
beaks to get at the contents}. This was probably the origin of Linnzeus’s state-
ment, that the pitchers supplied birds with water.
The pitchers finally decay, and part, at any rate, of their contents must supply
some nutriment to the plant by fertilizing the ground in which it grows.
DARLINGTONIA,
T cannot take leave of Sarracenia without a short notice of its near ally, Darling-
tonia, a still more wonderful plant, an outlier of Sarracenia in geographical distri-
bution, being found at an elevation of 5000 feet on the Sierra Nevada of California,
far west of any locality inhabited by Sarracenia. It has pitchers of two forms;
one, peculiar to the infant state of the plant, consists of narrow, somewhat twisted,
_ * Barton, Tilloch’s ‘Phil. Mag.’ (1812), vol. xxxix. p. 107; Smith, ‘Introd. to Botany,’
p. 196; Macbride, 7. c. p. 51.
t See Mellichamp’s observations, already quoted, ¢ Ze. p. 115,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 111
trumpet-shaped tubes, with yery oblique open mouths, the dorsal lip of which is
drawn out into a long, slender, arching, scarlet hood, that hardly closes the mouth.
The slight twist in the tube causes these mouths to point in various directions, and
they entrap very small insects only. Before arriving at a state of maturity the
plant bears -much larger, suberect pitchers, also twisted, with the lip produced into
a large inflated hood, that completely arches over a very small entrance to the
cavity of the pitcher. A singular orange-red, flabby, two-lobed organ hangs from
the end of the hood, right in front of the entrance, which, as I was informed last
week by letter from Professor Asa Gray, is smeared with honey on its inner surface,
These pitchers are crammed with large insects, especially moths, which decompcse
in them, and result in a putrid mass. I have no information of water being found
in its pitchers in its native country, but have myself found a slight acid secretion
in the young states of both forms of pitcher. :
The tissues of the inner surfaces of the pitchers of both the young and old plant
I find to be very similar to those of Sarracenia variolaris and S. flava.
Looking at a flowering specimen of Darlingtonia, I was struck with a remarkable
analogy between the arrangement and colouring of the parts of the leaf and of the
flower. The petals are as highly coloured as the flap of the pitcher, and between
each pair of petals is a hole (formed by a notch in the opposed margins of each)
leading to the stamens and stigma. Turning to the pitcher, the relation of its flap
to its entrance is somewhat similar. Now we know that coloured petals are spe-
cially attractive organs, and that the object of their colour is to bring insects to
feed on the pollen or nectar, and in this case, by means of the hole, to fertilize the
flower ; and that the object of the flap and its sugar is also to attract insects, but
with a very different result, cannot be doubted. It is hence conceivable that this
marvellous plant lures insects to its flowers for one object, and feeds them while it
uses them to fertilize itself, and that, this accomplished, some of its benefactors are
thereafter lured to its pitchers for the sake of feeding itself!
But to return from mere conjecture to scientific earnest, I cannot dismiss Dar-
lingtonia without pointing out to you what appears to me a most curious point in
its history; which is, that the change from the slender, tubular, open-mouthed, to
the inflated closed-mouthed pitchers is, in all the specimens which | haye examined,
absolutely sudden in the individual plant. I find no pitchers in an intermediate
stage of development. This, a matter of no little significance in itself, derives ad-
ditional interest from the fact that the young pitchers to a certain degree represent
those of the Sarracenias with open mouths and erect lids, and the old pitchers
those of the Sarracenias with closed mouths and globoselids, The combination of
representative characters in an outlying species of a small order cannot but be re-
garded as a marvellously significant fact in the view of those morphologists who
hold the doctrine of evolution,
NEPENTHES.
The genus Nepenthes consists of upwards of 30 species of climbing half shrubby
plants, natives of the hotter parts of the Asiatic Archipelago from Borneo to Cey-
lon, with a few outlying species in New Caledonia, in Tropical Australia, and in
the Seychelle Islands on the African coast. Its pitchers are abundantly produced,
especially during the younger state of the plants. They present very considerable
modifications of form and external structure, and vary greatly in size, from little
more than an inch to almost a foot in length; one species, indeed, which I have
here from the mountains of Borneo, has pitchers which, including the lid, measure
a foot and a half, and its capacious bowl is large enough to drown a small qua-
druped or bird.
e structure of the pitcher of Nepenthes is less complicated on the whole than
that of Sarracenia, though some of its tissues are — more highly specialized.
The pitcher itself is here not a transformed leaf, as in Sarracenia, nor is it a trans-
formed leaf-blade, like that of Dionea, but an appendage of the leaf developed at
-its tip, and answers to a water-secreting gland that may be seen terminating the
mid-rib of the leaf of certain plants. It is furnished with a stalk, often a very long
one, which, in the case of pitchers formed on leaves high up the stem, has (before
the full development of the pitcher) the power of twisting like a tendril round
112 REPORT—1874.
neighbouring objects, and thus aiding the plant in climbing, sometimes to a great
height, in the forest.
In most species the pitchers are of two forms, one appertaining to the young, the
other to the old state of the plant, the transition from one form to the other being
gradual, Those of the young state are shorter and more inflated ; they have broad
fringed longitudinal wings on the outside, which are probably guides to lead insects
to the mouth ; the lid is smaller and more open, and the whole interior surface is
covered with secreting-glands. Being formed near the root of the plant, these
pitchers often rest on the ground ; and in species which do not form leaves near the
root, they are sometimes suspended from stalks which may be fully a yard long,
and which bring them to the ground. In the older state of the plant the pitchers
are usually much longer, narrower, and less inflated, trumpet-shaped, or even coni-
cal; the wings also are narrower, less fringed, or almost absent. The lid is larger
and slants over the mouth, and only the lower part of the pitcher is covered with
secreting-glands, the upper part presenting a tissue analogous to the conducting-
tissue of Sarracenia, but very different anatomically. The difference in structure of
these two forms of pitcher, if considered in reference to their different positions on
the plant, forces the conclusion on the mind, that the one form is intended for
pround game, the other for winged game. In all cases the mouth of the pitcher
is furnished with a thickened corrugated rim, which serves three purposes—it
strengthens the mouth and keeps it distended, it secretes honey (at least in all
the species I haye examined under cultivation, for I do not find that any other
observer has noticed the secretion of honey by Nepenthes), and it is in various spe-
cies developed into afunnel-shaped tube that descends into the pitcher and prevents
the escape of insects, or into a row of incurved hooks that are in some cases strong
enough to retain a small bird, should it, when in search of water or insects, thrust
its body beyond a certain length into the pitcher.
In the interior of the pitcher of Nepenthes there are three principal surfaces—an —
attractive, conductive, and a secretive surface; the detentive surface of Sarracenia
being represented by the fluid secretion, which is here invariably present at all
stages of growth of the pitcher.
The attractive surfaces of Nepenthes are two, those, namely, of the rim of the
pitcher and of the under surface of the lid, which is provided in almost every
species with honey-secreting glands, often in great abundance. These glands
consist of masses of cells, each imbedded in a cavity of the tissue of the lid and
encircled by a guard-ring of glass-like cellular tissue. As in Sarracenia, the lid
and mouth of the pitcher are more highly coloured than any other part, with the
view of attracting insects to their honey. It is a singular fact that the only species
lmown to me that wants these honey-glands on the lid is the W. ampullaria, whose
lid, unlike that of the other species, is thrown back horizontally. The secretion of
honey on a lid so placed would tend to lure insects away from the pitcher instead
of into it.
From the mouth to a variable distance down the pitcher is an opaque glaucous
‘surface, resembling in colour and appearance the glandular surface of Sarracenia,
and like it affording no foothold to insects, but otherwise wholly different ; it is
formed of a fine network of cells, covered with a glass-like cuticle, and studded
with minute reniform transverse excrescences.
The rest of the pitcher is entirely occupied with the secretive surface, which
consists of a cellular floor crowded with circular glands in inconéeivable numbers.
Each gland precisely resembles a honey-gland of the lid, and is contained in a
pocket of the same nature, but semicircular, with the mouth downwards, so that
the secreted fluid all falls to the’ bottom of the pitcher. In Nepenthes Rafflesiana
three thousand such glands occur on a square inch of the inner surface of the
Bosch I have ascertained that, as was indeed to be expected, they secrete the
uid which is contained in the bottom of the pitcher before this opens, and that
the fluid is always acid.
The fluid, though invariably present, occupies a comparatively small portion of
the secretive surface of the pitcher. When the fluid is emptied out of a fully formed
pitcher that has not received animal matter, it collects again, but in comparatively
very small quantities; and the formation goes on for many days, and to some
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 113
extent, even after the pitcher has been removed from the plant. I do not find that
placing inorganic substances in the fluid causes an increased secretion, but I have
twice observed a considerable increase of fluid in pitchers after putting animal
matter in the fluid.
To test the digestive powers of Nepenthes I have closely followed Mr. Darwin’s
treatment of Dionea and Drosera, employing cubes of boiled white of egg, raw
meat, fibrine, and cartilage. In all cases the action is most evident, in some sur-
prising. After twenty-four hours’ immersion the edges of the cubes of white of egg
are eaten away and the surfaces gelatinized. Fragments of meat are rapidly re-
duced ; and pieces of fibrine weighing several grains dissolve and totally disappear
in two or three days. With cartilage the action is most remarkable of all; lumps
of this weighing eight and ten grains are half gelatinized in twenty-four hours, and
in three days the whole mass is greatly diminished, and reduced to a clear trans-
parent jelly. After drying some cartilage in the open air for a week, and placing
it in an unopened but fully formed pitcher of NV. Rafftesiana, it was acted upon
similarly and very little more slowly.
That this process, which is comparable to digestion, is not wholly due to the
fluid first secreted by the glands, appears to me most probable; for I find that very
little action takes place in any of the substances placed in the fluid drawn from
pitchers and put in glass tubes; nor has any followed after six days’ immersion of
cartilage or fibrine in pitchers of N. ampullaria placed in a cold room, whilst on
transferring the cartilage from the pitcher of N. ampullaria in the cold room to one
of V. Rafflesiana in the stove it was immediately acted upon. Comparing the
behaviour of fibrine, meat, and cartilage placed in tubes of MNepenthes-fluid, with
that in tubes of distilled water, I observed that their disintegration is three times
more rapid in the fluid; but this disintegration is wholly different from that
which follows the immersion of these substances in the fluid of the pitcher of a
living plant.
In the case of small portions of meat, 3-2 grains, all seems to be absorbed ; but
with 8-10 grains of cartilage it is not so—a certain portion disappears, the rest
remains as a transparent poly, and finally becomes putrid, but not till after many
days. Insects appear to be acted upon somewhat differently ; for after several days’
immersion of a large piece of cartilage I found that a good-sized cockroach, which
had followed the cartilage and was drowned for his temerity, in two days became
utrid. After removing the cockroach the cartilage remained inodorous for many
ays. In this case no doubt the antiseptic fluid had permeated the tissue of the
cartilage, whilst enough did not remain to penetrate the chitinous hard covering of
the insect, which consequently decomposed.
In the case of cartilage placed in fluid taken from the pitcher, it becomes putrid,
but not so soon as if placed in distilled water.
From the above observations it would appear probable that a substance acting as
pepsine does is given off from the inner wall of the pitcher, but chiefly after placing
animal matter in the acid fluid ; but whether this active agent flows from the glands,
or from the cellular tissue in which they are imbedded, I have no evidence to show.
I have here not alluded to the action of these animal matters in the cells of the
glands, which, as has been observed by Mr. Darwin in Drosera, produces remark-
able changes in their protoplasm, ending in their discoloration. Not only is
there aggregation of the protoplasm in the gland-cells, but the walls of the cells
themselves become discoloured, and the glandular surface of the pitcher that at
first was of a uniform green, becomes covered with innumerable brown specks
(which are the discoloured glands). After the function of the glands is exhausted,
the fluid evaporates and the pitcher slowly withers.
At this stage I am obliged to leave this interesting investigation. That Nepen-
thes possesses a true digestive process, such as has been proved in the case of Drosera,
Dionea, and Pinguicula, cannot be doubted. This process, however, takes place in
a fluid which deprives us of the power of following it further by direct observation.
We cannot here witness the pouring out of the digestive principle; we must, assume
its presence and nature from the behaviour of the animal matter placed in the fluid
in the pitcher. From certain characters of the cellular tissue of the interior walls
of the pitcher, I am disposed to think that it takes little part in the Ercan of
1874.
114 REPORT—1874.
either digestion or assimilation, and that these, as well as the pouring out of the
acid fluid, are all functions of the glands.
In what I have said, I have described the most striking instances of plants which
seem to invert the order of nature, and to draw their nutriment (in part at least)
from the animal kingdom, which it is often held to be the function of the vegetable
kingdom to sustain. Pe
I might have added some additional cases to those I have already dwelt upon.
Probably, too, there are others still unknown to science, or whose habits have not
yet been detected. Delpino, for example, has suggested that a plant first described
by myself from Tierra del Fuego—Caltha dioneefolia*—is so analogous in the
structure of its leaves to Dionea, that it is difficult to resist the conviction that its
structure also is adapted for the capture of small insects}.
But the problem that forces itself upon our attention is, how does it come to pass
that these singular aberrations from the otherwise uniform order of vegetable
nutrition make their appearance in remote parts of the vegetable kingdom? why are
they not more frequent ? and how were such extraordinary habits brought about or
contracted‘? At first sight the perplexity is not diminished by considering (as we
may do for a moment) the nature of ordinary vegetable nutrition. Vegetation, as
we see it everywhere, is distinguished by its green colour, which we know depends
on a peculiar substance called chlorophyl—a substance which has the singular
property of attracting to itself the carbonic acid gas which is present in minute
quantities in the atmosphere, of partly decomposing it so far as to set free a portion
of its oxygen, and of recombining it with the elements of water, to form those sub-
stances, such as starch, cellulose, and sugar, out of which the framework of the
lant is constructed. but, besides these processes, the roots take up certain matters
from the soil. Nitrogen forms nearly four fifths of the air we breathe, yet plants
can possess themselves of none of it in the free uncombined state. They withdraw
nitrates and salts of ammonia in minute quantities from the ground, and from these
they build up with starch, or some analogous material, albuminoids or protein
compounds, necessary for the sustentation and growth of protoplasm.
At first sight nothing can be more unlike this than a Dionea or a Nepenthes
capturing insects, pouring out a digestive fluid upon them, and absorbing the albu-
minoids of the animal, in aform probably directly capable of appropriation for its
own nutrition. Yet there is something not altogether wanting in analogy in the
case of the most regularly constituted plants. The seed of the castor-oil plant, for
example, contains, besides the embryo seedling, a mass of cellular tissue or endo-
sperm filled with highly nutritive substances. The seedling lies hetween masses of
this and is in contact with it; and as the warmth and moisture of germination set
up changes which bring about the liquefaction of the contents of the endosperm,
and the embryo absorbs them, it grows in so doing, and at last, having taken up all
it can from the exhausted endosperm, develops chlorophyl in its cotyledons under
the influence of light, and relies on its own resources.
A large mumber of plants, then, in their young condition borrow their nutritive
compounds ready prepared ; and this is, in effect, what carnivorous plants do, more
or less, later in life. That this is not merely a fanciful way of regarding the rela-
tion of the embryo to the endosperm, is proved by the ingenious experiments of Van
Tieghem, who has succeeded in substituting for the real, an artificial endosperm,
consisting of appropriate nutritive matters}. Except that the embryo has its food
given to it in a manner which needs no digestion (a proper concession to its in-
fantine state), the analogy here with the mature plants which feed on organic food
seems to be complete.
But we are beginning also to recognize the fact that there are a large number of
_ flowering plants that pass through their lives without ever doing a stroke of the
work that green plants do. These have been called saprophytes. Donotropa, the
curious bird’s-nest orchis (Neotita Nidus-avis), Epipogium, and Corallorhiza are
instances of British plants which nourish themselves by absorbing the partially
* Flora antaretica, vol. ii. p. 229, t. 84.
t Ulteriori osservazioni sulla Dicogamia, parte prima, p. 16.
t Ann. des Se. Nat. 5° sér, vol. xvii. pp. 205-224 (1873).
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 115
decomposed materials of other plants in the shady or marshy places which they
inhabit. They reconstitute these products of organic -decomposition, and build
them up once more into an organism. It is curious to notice, however, that the
tissues of Weottia still contain chlorophyl in a nascent though useless state, and
that if a plant of it be immersed in boiling water the characteristic green colour
reveals itself*. Zpipogium and Corallorhiza have lost their proper absorbent
organs; they are destitute of roots, and take in their food by the surfaces of their
underground stem-structurest.
The absolute difference between plants which absorb and nourish themselves by
the products of the decomposition of plant-structures, and those which make a
similar use of animal structures, is not very great. We may imagine that plants
accidentally permitted the accumulation of insects in some parts of their structure,
and the practice became developed because it was found to ie useful. It was long
ago suggested that the receptacle formed by the connate leaves of Dipsacus might
be an incipient organ of this kind {; and though no insectivorous habit has ever been
brought home to that plant, the suggestion is not improbable.
Linneus and, more lately, Baillon § have shown how a pitcher of Sarracenia may
be regarded as a modification of a leaf of the Nymphea type. We may imagine
such a leaf first becoming hollow, and allowing débris of different kinds to accu-
mulate ; these would decompose, and a solution would be produced, some of the
constituents of which would diffuse themselves into the subjacent plant-tissues.
This is in point of fact absorption; and we may suppose that in the first instance
(as perhaps still in Sarracenia purpurea) the matter absorbed was merely the saline
nutritive products of decomposition, such as ammoniacal salts. The act of di-
gestion (that process by which soluble food is reduced without decomposition to a
soluble form fitted for absorption) was doubtless subsequently acquired.
The secretion, however, of fluids by plants is not an unusual phenomenon. In
many Aroids a small gland at the apex of the leaves secretes fluid, often in consi-
derable quantities ||; and the pitcher of Nepenthes is, as I have shown elsewhere ¥,
only a gland of this kind enormously developed. May not, therefore, the wonderful
pitchers and carnivorous habit of Nepenthes have both originated by natural selec-
tion out of some such honey-secreting gland as we still find developed near that
part of the pitcher which represents the tip of the leaf? We may suppose insects
to have been entangled in the viscid secretion of such a gland, and to have perished
there. Delpino has recorded the fact that the spathe of Alocasia odora secretes an
acid fluid which destroys the slugs that visit it, and which he believes subserves
its fertilization**, Here any process of nutrition can only be secondary. But
the fluids of plants are in the great majority of cases acid, and when exuded would
be almost certain to bring about some solution in substances with which they came
in contact. Thus the acid secretions of roots were found by Sachstf to corrode
polished marble surfaces with which they came in contact, and thus to favour the
absorption of mineral matter. The subsequent differentiation of the secreting organs
of the pitcher into aqueous, saccharine, and acid would follow, part passu, with the
evolution of the pitcher itself, according to those mysterious laws which result in the
correlation of organs and functions throughout the kingdom of Nature, and which, in
my apprehension, transcend in wonder and interest those of the origin of species.
The solution of albuminoid substances requires, however, besides a suitable acid,
the presence of some other albuminoid substance analogous to pepsine. Such sub-
stances, however, are frequent in plants. Besides the well-known diastase, which
converts the starch of malt into sugar, there are other instances—in the synaptase
* Prillieux, Ann. des Sc. Nat. 5¢ sér. vol. xix. p. 108.
+ Sachs’s ‘ Lehrbuch der Bot.’ 3rd ed. p. 629.
+ Burnett, /.c. p. 287; Darwin, ‘Bot. Gard.’ pt.i. p.37; Kirby and Spence’s ‘Entomo-
logy,’ 7th ed. p. 167.
§ Adansonia, vol. ix. pp. 331 & 380.
|| See Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. 1848, vol. i. p. 188, where a species of Caladium is said to
have secreted half a pint of fluid from each leaf in the course of the night.
{| Trans. Linn. Soe. vol. xxii. pp. 415-424. Substantially the same view of their origin
appears to have been taken by Griffith, Posth. Papers, vol. ii. p. 77.
** Loc, cit. p. 237. tt Lebrbuch der Botanik, 3rd ars 2 611.
116 REPORT—1874.
which determines the formation of hydrocyanic acid from emulsine, and the myro-
sin which similarly induces the formation of oil of mustard. We need not wonder,
then, if the fluid secreted by a plant should prove to possess the ingredients neces-
sary for the digestion of insoluble animal matters.
These remarks will, I hope, lead you to see that though the processes of plant-
nutrition are in general extremely different from those of animal-nutrition, and
involve very simple compounds, yet that the protoplasm of plants is not absolutely
prohibited from availing itself of food such as that by which the protoplasm of
animals is nourished ; under which point of view these phenomena of carniyorous
plants will find their place as one more link in the continuity of nature.
ANTHROPOLOGY.
Address to the Department of Anthropology. By Sir Wittiam R. Witz,
M.D., M.R.IA., Chevalier of the Order of the Polar Star of Sweden.
I have to thank the Association for haying honoured me with the Directorship
of the Anthropological Department of the Biological Section. It will be in the
recollection of some of those I have the honour of addressing, that when this
Association last met in Dublin, in 1857, I had the pleasing duty of conducting a
large section of some of its most distinguished members to the Western Islands of
Aran off the coast of Galway—the last fortified resting-place of one of the earliest
races that occupied this island, and who, with their faces turned to the far West,
may have had some dim notion in their minds (even at the time of their expulsion
from the mainland) of that exodus which was carried out by other means than
man’s unaided hand in our own time.
I cannot refrain here from alluding to a personal as well as public loss which I
and the British Association have sustained in the death of one of its most ardent
original promoters and one of its most hard-working officers. Learned in a vast
variety of pursuits—unflageing in whatever he took in hand—exact in his know-
ledge—energetic in his investigations — not discursive, but rather chary in his
friendships, yee always courteous and willing to lend a helping hand to the
beginner (as I and others know)—lived and died Professor Phillips, of Oxford.
Anthropology :—“ the science of man,” so called ; his origin, age, and distribution
on our globe; his physical conformation and susceptibility of cultivation; his
various forms of speech; his laws, habits, manners, customs, weapons, and tools;
his archaic markings, as also his pictorial remains; his tombs; his ideographie and
phonetic or alphabetic writing, down to his present culture in different countries ;
and his manufactures, arts, and degrees of intelligence in his different phases of life
throughout the world,—are all presented for investigation by this Section of the
Association.
How am I to treat this vast subject during the short space allowed for the
delivery of an address? Suppose I were to confine myself to what has been done
during the past year, I might, by carefully culled accounts, present you with the
physical characters, customs, and arts of the Ashantees with whom we have so
lately come in contact; or, again, I might refer to those discoveries on the
Troad that so vividly bring before us some of the arts and sciences described by
Homer, and gis rel those ornaments and utensils that show cultivation of a
peculiar kind in pottery and metal work, especially of gold, belonging to a ve
remote era. I say peculiar, because 1 think we are too much in the habit of attri-
buting high cultivation in social life, morals, and domestic virtues to those peoples
whose remains present specimens of great metallurgic skill or a taste for the
ceramic art.
Concerning the investigations so admirably conducted by Dr. Schliemann, we must
all regret that Sir John Lubbock’s proposition to the Government—to expend a
few paltry thousands in allowing England to put its sickle into the harvest and
reap some of the golden grain illustrative of the time of Homer and his contem-
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 117
poraries, which others may carry off to enrich the art treasures of countries not
perhaps so wealthy in their exchequer as the British Empire—was not acceded to.
I cannot in passing refrain from alluding to two of these archeological researches
so graphically brought forward by Mr. Gladstone in his critical review of ‘ Homer’s
Place in History,’ which appeared in last June’s ‘Contemporary Review.’ In
one of these notices he alludes to the fact of a number of implements and utensils,
found by General Cesnola in Cyprus, “exhibiting so extensive a use of uncom-
bined copper, and so clear and wide an application of that metal to cutting pur-
poses, as at once to suggest a modification of the theories of those who, in
arranging what may be termed their metallic periods, assume that the age of
bronze invariably came in immediate succession to the age of stone.” And, again,
referring to the great Find on the Troad, he writes, “The excavations, according
to our present information, present to us copper as the staple material of the im-
pent, utensils, and of the weapons (so far as they were metallic) of the inha-
itants of Troy ;—so do the poems.” No better authority could be adduced on the
latter subject; but if the learned writer had inspected our great collection of
antique metal work in the National Museum of the Royal Irish Academy before it
was disarranged, and had he done the author of the ‘ Descriptive Catalogue’ of these
antiquities (written eighteen years ago) the honour of reading the dissertation on our
early metallic work, he would have seen that copper weapons, tools, and implements
were the “forerunners of the mixed metal—bronze or brass” in Ireland.
I am not going into the subject of the single or multiple origin of man; nor do
I intend discussing the question of the cave-man, or the race whose early imple-
ments, weapons, and tools are found in the drift.
Upon the subject of what is termed “ Prehistoric” I may possess peculiar opi-
nions. What is prehistoric? Does it mean pre-Adamite? or does it refer only to
the times when some scribe wrote down, from word of mouth, the bardie tale, the
genealogy or annal, no matter of what era? We do not know where nor by whom
these annals were first committed to writing, nor what means were taken to alter
them; but we possess what cannot be falsified by the scribe ; and although styled
pons, they are far more truthfully historic than the writing that no doubt was
argely interfered with, and which, if old, now requires a gloss to interpret it. The
grassy mound or circle, the stones erected into a cromleach, the great sepulchral
mound, the cinerary urn, the stone weapon or tool, the grain-rubber for triturating
cereal food, the harpoon for spearing fish, the copper and bronze tools and weapons,
and the gold ornaments of the most early tribes,—all now are, in their way, far more
truthful than any thing that could have been committed to writing, even if there
were letters in that day. They are litanies in stone, dogmata in metal, and ser-
mons preaching from the grassy mound.
But how are we to use or apply these early scriptures of history so as to advance
Anthropology and to educate the public mind? That is a serious question, well
worthy the attention of this Association. One means, at least, is by properly
arranged museums, to which, I am happy to say, the working man may now resort
for recreation and instruction upon almost every day of the week, when his business
ermits. I must here say a word upon the subject of museums. If you would not
ave museums like what we remember them to have been—incongruous collec-
tions of all manner of articles, including cracked china, painted or engraved
oyster-shells, heads of New-Zealanders tattooed, ostrich-eggs, and, as Romeo found
in the shop of the apothecary, “an alligator stuffed and other skins of ill-shaped
fishes,”—you must make some sort of archeological arrangement; and it ought to
be upon some definite scheme or plan, not fanciful or incongruous, but historic,
technical, or art-teaching. The educated man can pick out for himself articles that
ive him instruction, or that support or militate against his own special theory ;
ut he has come to the inquiry with a skilled eye. The public mind should be
educated by skilled artists, not merely amused by amateur decorators *.
* The compartment now used as a “ reading-room” at the Royal Irish Academy was
specially constructed by Government for a Museum from its foundation to its roof, and
was, as all such structures should be, well lighted from the top. It was I who proposed
the extension of the Museum into another room, and the influence of Lord Talbot de Ma-
lahide largely assisted to procure the funds for that object.
118 REPORT—1874.
I endeavoured, in arranging the antique articles in our Royal Irish Academy, to
exhibit progress from the simplest and rudest to the most complicate and ornate,
taking Material and Use as my basis. We have thus presented to us a wide field of
culture and investigation. Looking back upon my work [ do not regret that ar-
rangement, the more particularly as in but very few instances indeed can we identify
the special bronze celt, arrow-head, spear, sword, javelin, or battle-axe with the
names recorded in the MSS. referring to pre-Christian times. We must he cautious
in accepting the absolute words of documents transmitted from these times, such as
those giving descriptions of a memorable fight between two heroes, which state
that one of them wore among his defensive armour a mill-stone enveloped in a
silken fabric upon his stomach !
Now I do not desire to press any special theory of museum arrangement upon
this Meeting, but I do wish to impress upon it the necessity for haying some plan
adopted for educational purposes in Antiquarian Collections. I do not care what
that arrangement is, provided it is upon a definite plan ; but except for some special
purpose, or in accordance with the request of the donor, I certainly object to having
placed in immediate contiguity early bronze shields, antique celts and swords,
together with crosiers and crucifixes illustrative of the Christian period.
I care not whether a museum is to be arranged according to the system of my
old friend and instructor Thomsen, of Copenhagen, as by the stone, bronze, iron,
and other ‘‘ Ages,” provided such can be faithfully carried out—or whether my own
system of Material and Use may be adopted; but this I do assert, that in this pre-
sent age of enlightenment some system should be pursued by which the public
would be both interested and instructed. I do not think that any Government
should support a museum that was not properly arranged.
Instead of entering into the wide domain of Anthropology generally, I shall follow
the example of my predecessor, Dr. Beddoe, regarding Yorkshire, and confine my
remarks to the subject of the early races who peopled Ireland in consecutive order,
their remains still existing, and an inquiry as to what vestiges of those different
waves of population remain at the present hour.
To attempt a solution of this question, it is necessary to take a wider area than
that afforded by an island adjoining the north-west of Europe, but which presents
the remarkable peculiarity of having been in all probability the last resting-place of a
section of that great Aryan or Indo-European race which spread from the Euphrates
to the Polar regions.
In tracing the footprints of man we have, as I have already stated, to consider the
relics he left in the various countries which he trod, the vestiges of his language,
and the physical and psychological characteristics still attaching to his modern repre-
sentatives. In so doing we must consider the dim traditions, genealogies, heroic
and bardic tales, rhymes, legends, religions, popular superstitions, folk-lore,
romances, and all that description of knowledge which has been handed down from
times denominated Prehistoric to the present day.
These traditions were in process of time embalmed in annals when the art of
writing became known, along with the genealogy, the tale, or historic incident, in
either prose or rhyme, which had been recited by especially instructed and, let me
add, specially gifted orders of people from age to age. So the Assyrian characters
cut or embossed on stone or brick preserved the records of conquests. So the ‘Iliad’
and the ‘Odyssey’ were no doubt orally transmitted long before letter-words were
inscribed upon the bark, the palm-leaf, the papyrus, the waxen tablet, or the vellum.
They were thus kept alive in the minds of the people, and largely helped to pre-
serve the Greek language until it performed one of its greatest duties, nearly nine-
teen centuries ago, in the wide-spread diffusion of the records of Christianity.
There was a time when a large portion of the plains and non-mountainous parts
of Europe were tangled forests traversed by great rivers rupning generally towards
the south and west. According to Norwegian authorities, the Lapps were the
primeval race on our Continent, and were driven northward by each successive wave
of population that, creeping round the shores of the Caspian, the Black Sea, and the
Mediterranean, or passing out between the hills of Ceuta and Gibraltar (then called
the “ Pillars of Hercules ”), came along the shores of Spain, Gaul, and Belgium.
That the skin-clad man with his stone, bone, and wooden weapons and tools, his
TRANSAOTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 119
shell ornaments and rude unglazed pottery (the primitive nomadic hunter and
fisher) arrived in Ireland and occupied its plains, forests, and fastnesses in that same
state of life in which we find similar primitive races of mankind in the present day,
—here contending with the bear, the wolf, the fox, the osprey, the seal, and the
otter for his food, as his predecessors did with the auroch in mid-Europe,—I
have not the slightest doubt. I think the reindeer and the elephant, and pro-
bably the musk-ox, had become extinct before man’s arrival in Erinn, and I have
always inclined to the idea that he was not contemporaneous with that great
monarch of the cervine race, the Irish Elk; but in this opinion, however, I may be
mistaken.
Standing on the coast of Great Britain he could, with the practised eye of the
hunter, have discerned from the Welsh mountains the hills of Erinn; and he could
have clearly seen Donaghadee from Port Patrick.
But whether he came adrift upon a plank or raft, or in a singlestick canoe, is
more than [ caneven speculate upon. That there were inhabitants in Ireland at the
time of the arrival of these first recorded colonists I have but little doubt. Whether
these or subsequent races were the men who erected the Lacustrine habitations,
the Pfahlbouten of Switzerland, and their analogues the Cranogues of Ireland, or
banqueted in the Kitchen-middens of Jutland, requires a further investigation of
their remains.
With these rather lengthened preliminary remarks, which I thought necessary
for the information of strangers, or those not specially acquainted with the subject,
it is now my particular province to tell you something of the early races of the land
we live in, and their representatives still existing among its present population,
With respect to the authenticity of the early chronicles and legends that relate the
history of these immigrations—so much sneered at by one set of inquirers and so
faithfully believed in by another—let me make two observations, one chronological
and the other topographical. Our Irish Annals were first committed to writing by
Christian scribes in either Gaelic or Latin, and were not only intermixed with
classic story, but with scriptural incidents, particularly those relating to the dis-
persion of mankind after the deluge. Of a portion of their chronology there can,
however, be little doubt; for in recording cosmical phenomena, such as eclipses of
the sun or moon, the approach of comets and the like, they scarcely differ by a
year from that great astronomical and chronological work, ‘LZ’ Art de vérifier les
dates,’ computed by the French philosophers hundreds of years after those Annals
were last written or transcribed. ‘This synchronism, to say the least of it, is re-
' markably confirmative of those very early Irish Annals. It is just possible that
long before the age of alphabetic writing some means by tallies, runes, or
other devices may have been invented for fixing the ages of these cosmical
phenomena. =
Now the other incident is of equal authenticity in confirmation of the historical
statement of our early records. Long, long before the Christian era it is there
said that a battle took place on a certain plain in Mayo; and an incident con-
nected with the fight is thus told :—A king or chief was surprised in early morning,
while performing his ablutions at a deep well, by three warriors of the enemy, who
came upon him unawares. He was saved by the prowess of one of his attendants,
who killed his three assailants, and then died upon the spot. Hundreds of years
passed by, the locality around had been cultivated and grazed upon again and
again ; still the valley, the well, the subterranean watercourse with its fairy legends,
the hurling-field, the cairns, circles, pillar-stones, and other surrounding topogra-
phical features remained. The gallant soldier who laid down his life for his royal
master was buried where he fell; and as the army (stated to have been thousands
strong’) passed by, each man—as was the custom of the day—threw a pebble on his
graye, then called and still known as “The cairn of the one man.” Not long
ago, with the written legend in my hand, and_possessing a full knowledge of the
locality, and accompanied by a few stalwart Connaught men, I proceeded to the
spot, told my incredulous auditory the tale of their ancestors, dug and lifted stone
after stone until we came upon a small chamber under a large flag, wherein we
found deposited a beautiful cinerary urn containing some black earth and frag-
ments of burnt human bones. The sepulchre, with its surrounding stone circle,
120 REPORT—1874.
still exists on the battle-field of Moytura Conga, and the decorated urn is in the
Museum of the Royal Irish Academy.
It has been objected to our Irish manuscripts that, from the material on
which they were written, the form of their letters, their philological construction,
and their iluminations, none of them was written earlier than the ninth or tenth
century; some, indeed, go so far as to say that there is not an Irish MS. later
than the twelfth or thirteenth century. Now granting all that, what does it prove ?
Not that the historic instances recorded were concocted by the scribes of these
times, but that these vellum or paper manuscripts were copied from earlier writings
which were founded on anterior materials. That they were interpolated, glossed,
and changed in many instances from century to century in process of transcription
from the time they were first committed to writing, is but a repetition of what has
occurred in other countries. But, even in more modern and so-called civilized
times, has not history been falsified to please the pride of a ruler or to pander to
the prejudice of a party? Where, I would ask, are the early rolls of “The Law?”
Where are the original manuscripts relating to or after the first century of the
Christian era? Where, except in Egypt (that great land of embalmment) or at
Nineveh, do we find a bit of writing two thousand years old? Are not learned
artists and philologers even now disputing as to the dates of the Psalter of Utrecht
and the Codex of Upsala ?
To my surprise Mr. James Fergusson, in discussing the subject of our Irish
histories, at p. 197 of his valuable book on ‘Rude Stone Monuments,’ says,
when alluding to the battles of Moytura,—“ Before the introduction of writing
into a country, how long could so detailed a narrative as that which we possess,
and one so capable of being veritied by material evidences on the spot, be handed
down orally as a plain prose narrative?” Surely my friend does not deny the
vocal tradition of history by means of memory; and if he merely objects to the
accounts of the battle of Moytura and other Irish tales from their being in prose,
it is right for him to know that they are nof all in prose, but partly in the rhyth-
mical style of the period. The introduction of prose at the time of the use of letters
can be accounted for by the fact that when the Schannaghie or rhymer found
“a hole in the ballad,” he supplied the legend in a prose version to the scribe, or
that the scribe shortened the narrative by a prose version of his own.
Passing over, as probably apocryphal, the old tales related in the bardic legends
of the Lady Kaisar and her ships, we come to Parthalon, the great Grecian hero,
who landed in Dublin Bay, and whose cohorts conquered the aborigines, as related
by the annalists. I should not have introduced him, but that there is a remarkable
confirmation of the legend afforded by the topographic and antiquarian examina-
tion of the locality. This invader and his followers occupied, it is said, Ben-Kider,
now called the “ Hill of Howth,” and the “ old plain of the valley of the Flocks,”
along the shores of Dublin Bay, styled ‘“ the Strand of the Birds,” passing all round
from Belscadden to Bray Head; and who had, no doubt, a “ Pale” for themselves
as others had in later times.
A Thaum or pestilence attacked that people, and they are said to have all died.
Upon the age of this catastrophe, or the numbers who died of it, I cannot specu-
late ; but I believe that when flying from the seacoast and plains to the mountains
a large number perished and were buried on the slopes of Tallaght, so called
because it was the Thawm-Lacht where the plague-stricken people were interred, and
where occasionally Kistyaens are turned up containing decorated urns, having
within them incinerated bones. Several of these are still in existence; and when
Istand at the northern end of this great plain of Dublin, said to have been colonized
by Parthalon, my foot is on his reputed cromleach at Ben-Eider.
Of the Femorians, Nemedians, and other minor invaders we need take no notice,
as they have left nothing after them by which to track their footprints. The
annalists, or at least the transcribers, probably believed that these people all came
direct from the Ark, after resting for a while on Mount Ararat, or that they were
epee direct from Japhet, or from Gog and Magog. Cuthites were not known
ere then.
T will now tell you what has been the result of my own examination of the races
that migrated to, or are said to have conquered, Ireland,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 121
A pastoral people called Firbolgs, said to be of Greek or Eastern origin, and pro-
bably a branch of that race that, having passed through Europe or round its shores,
arrived in Ireland. We will call them Geits, as I do not know much of the Phe-
nicians or Carthaginians. They had laws and social institutions, and established
a monarchical government at the far-famed Hill of Tara, about which our early
centres of civilization sprung, and around which we have now most of those great
pasture-lands which, notwithstanding this island being described as “ a marsh satu-
rated with the vapours of the Atlantic ”’ and ‘“ surrounded by a melancholy ocean,”
on the shore of which the wretched inhabitant might sit and sigh for the time of
his exodus and the hour of his exile—these plains of Meath that can beat the world
for their fattening qualities, and supply neighbouring countries with their most
admired meats.
I cannot say that the Firbolg was a cultivated man, but I think he was a shep-
herd and an agriculturist. I doubt if he knew any thing, certainly not much, of
metallurgy ; but it does not follow that he was a mere savage, no more than the
Maories of New Zealand were when we first came in contact with them.
The Firbolgswere a small, straight-haired, swarthy race, who have left a portion
of their descendants with us to this very day. A genealogist (their own country-
man resident in Galway about two hundred years ago) described them as dark-
haired, talkative, guileful, strolling, unsteady, “ disturbers of every Council and
Assembly,” and “ promoters of discord.’ I believe they, together with the next
two races about to be described, formed the bulk of our so-called Celtic population—
combative, nomadic on opportunity, enduring, litigious, but feudal and faithful to
their chiefs ; hard-working for a spurt (as in their annual English emigration) ;
not thrifty, but, when their immediate wants are supplied, lazy, especially during
the winter.
To these physical and mental characters described by MacFirbis let me add
those of the unusual combination of blue or blue-grey eyes and dark eyelashes
with a swarthy complexion. This peculiarity I have only remarked elsewhere in
Greece ; the mouth and upper gum is not good, but the nose is usually straight. In
many of this and the next following race there was a peculiarity that has not been
alluded to by writers—the larynx, or, as it used to be called, the pomum Adami,
was remarkably prominent, and became more apparent from the uncovered state of
the neck. The sediment of this early people still exists in lreland, along with the
fair-complexioned Dannans, and forms the bulk of the farm-labourers, called in
popular phraseology Spalpeens, that yearly emigrate to England. In Connaught
they now chiefly occupy a circle which includes the junction of the counties of
Mayo, Galway, Roscommon, and Sligo. They, with their fair-faced brothers (at
present the most numerous), are also to be found in Kerry and Donegal; and they
nearly all speak Irish.
By statistics procured from our Great Midland Western Railway alone, I learn
that on an average 50,000 of these people, chiefly the descendants of the dark Fir-
bolgs and fair Dannans, emigrate annually to England for harvest work, to the great
advantage of the English farmer and the Ivishlandlord. The acreage of arable land
for these people runs from two to six acres.
Connecting this race with the remains of the past, I am of opinion that they
were the first rath or earthen-mound and enclosure makers; that they mostly buried
their dead without cremation, and, in cases of distinguished personages, beneath
the Cromleach or the Tumulus. Their heads were oval or long in the antero-
posterior diameter, and rather flattened at the sides: examples of these I have
given and descanted upon when I first published my Ethnological Researches,
which have been fully confirmed by the late Andreas Retzius. It is, however,
unnecessary, even if space or advisability permitted, for me to allude to such mat-
ters, as that great work the ‘Crania Britannica’ has lithographed typical speci-
mens of this long-headed race.
The next immigration we hear of in the ‘Annals’ is that of the Twatha-de-Dannans,
a large, fair-complexioned, and very remarkable race ; warlike, energetic, progressive,
skilled in metal work, musical, poetical, acquainted with the healing art, skilled in
Druidism, and believed to be adepts in necromancy and magic, no doubt the result
of the popular idea respecting their superior knowledge, especially in smelting and
122 REPORT—1874.
in the fabrication of tools, weapons, and ornaments. From these two races sprang
the Fairy Mythology of Ireland.
It is strange that, considering the amount of annals and legends transmitted to
us, we have so little knowledge of Druidism or Paganism in ancient Ireland. That,
however, may be accounted for in this wise:—That those who took down the
legends from the mouths of the bards and annalists, or those who subsequently
transcribed them, were Christian missionaries whose object was to obliterate every
vestige of the ancient forms of faith.
The Dannans spoke the same language as their predecessors, the Firbolgs.
They met and fought for the sovereignty. The “man of metal” conquered and
drove a great part of the others into the islands on the coast, where it is said the
Firbolg or Belgic race (so called) took their last stand. Eventually, however,
under the influence of a power hostile to them both, these two peoples coalesced,
and have to a large extent done so up to the present day. They are the true old
Trish peasant and small farming class.
The Firbolg was a bagman, so called, according to Irish authorities, because he
had to carry up clay in earthen bags to those terraces in Greece now vine-clad. As
regards the other race there is more difficulty in the name. Tuath or Tuatha
means a tribe or tribe-district in Irish. Dannan certainly sounds very Grecian ; and
if we consider their remains, we find the long, bronze, leafed-shaped sword, so
abundant in Ireland, identical with weapons of the same class found in Attica
and other parts of Greece.
Then, on the other hand, their physiognomy, their fair or reddish hair, their size,
and other circumstances incline one to believe that they came down from Scandi-
nayian regions after they had passed up as far as they thought advisable into North-
western Europe. If the word Dane was known at the time of their arrival here, it
would account for the designation of many of our Irish monuments as applied by
Molyneux and others. Undoubtedly the Dannan tribes presented Scandinavian
features, but did not bring any thing but Grecian art. After the ‘‘Stone period,”
so called, of which Denmark and the south of Sweden offer such rich remains, I look
upon the great bulk of the metal work of the North, especially in the swords in the
Copenhagen and Stockholm Museums, as Asiatic; while Ireland possesses not only
the largest native collection of metal weapon-tools, usually denominated “ celts,”
of any country in the world, but the second largest amount of swords and battle-
axes. And moreoyer these, and all our other metal articles, show a well-defined
rise and development from the simplest and rudest form in size and use to that of
the most elaborately constructed and the most beautifully adorned.
I believe that these Tuatha-de-Dannans, no matter from whence they came,
were, in addition to their other acquirements, great masons, although not ac-
quainted with the value of cementing materials. I think they were the builders
of the great stone Cahirs, Duns, Cashels, and Caves in Ireland; while their
predecessors constructed the earthen works, the raths, circles, and forts that
diversify the fields of Erinn. The Dannans anticipated Shakespeare’s grave-digger,
for they certainly made the most lasting sepulchral monuments that exist in Ireland,
such, for example, as New Grange, Douth, Knowth, and Slieve na Calleagh and
other great cemeteries, Within the interior and around these tombs were carved,
on unhewn stones, certain archaic markings, spires, volutes, convolutes, lozenge-
shaped devices, straight, zigzag, and curved lines, and incised indentations, and a
variety of other insignia, which, although not expressing language, were symbolical,
and had an occult meaning known only to the initiated. These markings, as well
as those upon the urns, were copied in the decorations of the gold and bronze
work of a somewhat subsequent period. The Dannans conquered the inferior tribes
in two celebrated pitched battles, those of the Northern and Southern Moytura.
On these fields we still find the caves, the stone circles, the monoliths, and dol-
mens or cromleachs that marked particular events, and the immense cairns that
were raised in honour of the fallen chieftains,
Although many of the warriors of the Firbolgs fled to their island fastnesses on
the coasts of Galway and Donegal, no doubt a large portion of them remained in
the inland parts of the country, and in that very locality to which I have adverted,
which is almost midway between the sites of the two battles, in a line stretching
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 123
between Mayo and Sligo, where in time the two races appear to have coalesced
by that natural law which brings the dark and the fair together.
Moreover it has been recorded that the conquering race sent their small dark
opponents into Connaught, while they themselves took possession of the rich lands
further east, and not only established themselves at Tara but spread into the
south. It is remarkable that in time large numbers of the Dannans themselves
were banished to the West, and likewise that the last forcible deportation of the
native Irish race (so late as the seventeenth century) was when the people of
this province got the choice of going “ to Connaught or Hell,” in the former of
which, possibly, they joined some of the original stock. The natural beauty of the
lakes and mountains of Connaught remains as it was thousands of years ago; but
no doubt if some of the legislators of the period to which I have already referred
ee now behold its fat pasture-plains, they might prefer them to the flax lands
of Ulster.
These Dannans had a globular form of head, of which I have already pub-
lished examples. For the most part I believe they burned their dead or sacri-
ficed to their manes, and placed an urn with its incinerated contents—human or
animal—in the grave, where the hero was either stretched at length or crouched in
an attitude similar to that adopted by the ancient Peruvians, as I have elsewhere
explained. These Irish urns, which are the earliest relics of our ceramic art that
have come down to the present time, are very graceful in form, and some of them
most beautifully decorated, as may be seen in our various museums.
Specimens of this Dannan race still exist, but have gradually mixed with their
forerunners to the present day. Here is what old MacFirbis wrote of them two
hundred years ago :—‘‘ Every one who is fair-haired, vengeful, large, and every
plunderer, professors of musical and entertaining performances, who are adepts of
druidical and magical arts, they are the descendants of the Tuatha-de-Dannans.”
They were not only fair but sandy in many instances, and consequently extensively
freckled.
It is affirmed that the Dannans ruled in Ireland for a long time, until another
inroad was made into the island by the Milesians—said to be brave, chivalrous,
skilled in war, good navigators, proud, boastful, and much superior in outward
adornment as well as mental culture, but probably not better armed than their
opponents. They deposed the three last Dannan kings and their wives, and rose
to be, it is said, the dominant race—assuming the sovereignty, becoming the aristo-
cracy and landed proprietors of the country, and giving origin to those chieftains
that afterwards rose to the title of petty kings, and from whom some of the best
families in the land with any thing like Irish names claim descent, and particularly
those with the prefix of the ‘““O” or the “ Mac.’’ When this race arrived in Ireland
I cannot tell, but it was some time prior to the Christian era. It is said they came
from the coast of Spain, where they had long remained after their eastern emigration.
Upon the site of what is believed to be the ancient Brigantium, now the entrance
to the united harbours of Corunna and Ferrol, stands the great lighthouse known
to all ships passing through the Bay of Biscay. Within this modern structure still
exists the celebrated ‘“ Pharos of Hercules,” which I investigated and described
many years ago. That tower, it was said in metaphorical language, commanded a
view of Ireland, and as such became the theme of Irish poems and legends. Cer-
tain it is that sailing north or north-westward from it the ships of the sons of
Milesius and their followers could have reached Ireland without much coasting. If
the story of Breogan’s Tower is true, then it must have been erected in the time
of lime-and-mortar building, and that is during the Roman occupation of Iberia
and Gaul. How many thousands, rank and file, of these Spanish Milesians came
here in their six or eight galleys and tried the fortunes of war from “the summit
of the ninth wave from the shore ” and conquered the entire Dannan, Firbolg, and
Femorian population, I am unable to give the slightest inkling of, no more than
I can of the so-called Phoenician intercourse with this country. Perhaps without
oing into the fanciful descriptions of the “Battle of Ventry Harbour,” or the
Pouthern conquest of Ireland by the Iberian Milesians, we may find some more
trustworthy illustrations of Spanish dwellings in the architecture of the town of
Galway, and some picturesque representatives in the lithe upright figures and raven-
124. REPORT—1874.
haired, but blue-eyed maidens of the City of the Tribes. Here is what old MacFirbis,
who, I suppose, claimed descent from the sons of Milesius, wrote about them:—
“Every one who is white of skin, brown of hair, bold, honourable, daring, pros-
perous, bountiful in the bestowal of property, and who is not afraid of battle or
combat, they are the descendants of the sons of Milesius in Erin.”
This high panegyric is only equalled by the prose and verse compositions of the
ancient bards and rhymers and the modern historians, who have recorded the deeds
of the great warriors, Ith, Heber, and Heremon, whose descendants boast to have
been the rulers of the land. Even Moore, although he wrote such beautiful lyrics
concerning this race in his early days, yet when he came to study history he felt
the same difficulty I do now. I do not dispute thew omgin or supremacy ; but I fail
to distinguish their early customs, their remains, or race from those of the Fil-
bolgs or Dannans whom they conquered, and who left undoubted monuments
peculiar to their time.
Now all these peoples—the piratical navigator along our coasts, the mid-Europe
primitive shepherd and cultivator, the Northern warrior, and the Iberian ruler—
were, according to my view, all derived from the one Celtic stock. They spoke the
same language, and their descendants do so still. When they acquired a knowledge
of letters they transmitted their history through the Irish language. No doubt they
fused ; but somehow a quick fusion of races has not been the general characteristic
of the people of this country. Unlike the Anglo-Norman in later times, the Mile-
sian was a long way from home; the rough sea of the Bay of Biscay rolled between
him and his previous habitat; and if he became an absentee he was not likely to
find much of his possessions on his return. It is to be regretted that while we
have here such a quantity of poetical and traditional material respecting the Mile-
sian invasion of Ireland, the Sais annals or traditions have given us but very
little information on that subject.
It would be most desirable if the Government or some Irish authority would
send a properly instructed commissioner to investigate the Spanish annals, and see
whether there is any thing relating to the Spanish migrations to Ireland remaining
in that country.
. Besides the sparse introduction of Latin by Christian missionaries in the fifth
century, some occasional Saxon words springing from peaceful settlers along our
coasts and in commercial emporiums, and whatever Das had crept into our
tongue around those centres where the Scandinavians chiefly located themselves,
and which were principally proper names of persons and places that became fixed
in our vernacular, we find but one language among the Ivish people until the arrival
of the Anglo-Normans at the end of the twelfth century.
The linguistic or philological evidence on this subject is clearly decisive. The
residue of the early races already described spoke one language, called Gaelic; so
did the Scotch, the Welsh, and probably, in early times, the Britons and the
Bretons. It was not only the popular conversational tongue used in the ordinary
intercourse of life, but 1t was also employed in genealogies, annals, and other
records in a special character, not quite peculiar to this country, but then common
in Europe. Much has been said about the necessity for a glossary of our ancient
MSS., such as those at Saint Gall, in Trinity College, in the Royal Irish Academy,
and in Belgian and English libraries; but there are very few ancient languages that
do not require to be glossed in the present day, even as the words of Chaucer do.
The Government are now, under the auspices of our Master of the Rolls, and the
special direction and supervision of Mr. J. T. Gilbert, giving coloured photographs
of some of our ancient writings, and have promised that some of our remaining
manuscripts will be translated. I see no occasion now for waiting for more ela-
borated philological dictionaries or glossaries while there are still some few
Irish scholars in the country capable of giving a free but tolerably literal transla-
tion of these records that do not require any great acumen in rendering them
into English, Is history to wait upon the final decision of philologists respect-
ing a word or two in a manuscript, and decide as to whether it may be of Sanserit
or any other origin ?
No doubt some of my hearers may ask,—What about the Oghams (or Ohams) ?
do they not show a very early knowledge of an alphabet? As yet this is a moot
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 125
question. A rude pillar-stone, having upon it a tolerably straight edge, was
in early times notched along its angle which served as a stem-line, by nicks formed
on it, and straight or oblique lines, singly or in clusters, proceeding from the
stem. The decipherers of these inscriptions have, one and all, agreed upon the
fact that these lines represented letters, syllables, or words, and that the language
is either Irish or Latin. Therefore the persons who made them must have been
aware of alphabetic writing and grammar. These carved monoliths are chiefl
found in Kerry and Cork. Upon some of them Christian emblems are figured.
The incising of the stone has evidently been performed by some rude instrument,
either a flint or metallic pick ; and it is remarkable that these pillars present scarcely
any amount of dressing.
In Connaught, in my youth, the exception in remote districts was where the
person spoke both English and Irish. In 1851, when we first took a Census of the
Srish-speaking population, after the country had lost three-quarters of a million of
people, chiefly of the Irish race, we had then (to speak in round numbers) one and
a half million of Irish-speaking lage In 1861 they had fallen off by nearly
half a million; and upon the taking of the last Census in 1871 the entire Irish-
speaking population was only 817,865. The percentages, according to the total
opulation in our different provinces, were these :—In Leinster 1:2, in Munster 27-7,
in Ulster 4°6, and in Connaught 39-0 ; for the total of Ireland 15:1. Kilkenny and
Louth are the counties of Leinster where the language is most spoken. In Munster
they are Kerry, Clare, and Waterford ; in Ulster, Donegal, where 28 per cent. of the
population speak Irish; but in Connaught, to which I have already alluded as con-
taining the remnant of the early Irish races, we have no less than 56 per cent. of
Irish-speaking population in the counties of Mayo and Galway respectively. Of
my own knowledge I can attest that a great many of these people cannot speak
English. We thus see that of the population of Ireland, which in the present day
might be computed at about five and a half millions, there were, at the time
of taking the census in April 1871, only 817,865; and I think I may prophecy that
that is the very largest number that in future we will ever have to record. On
the causes of this decadence it is not my province to descant. These Celts have
been the great pioneers of civilization, and are now a ine in the world. Are they
not now numerically the dominant race in America? and have they not largely
peopled Australia and New Zealand ?
We have now arrived at a period when you might naturally expect the native
annalist to make some allusion to conquest or colonization by the then mistress of
the world. Without offering any reason for it, I have here only to remark that
neither as warriors nor colonizers did the Romans ever set foot in Ireland ; and
hence the paucity of any admixture of Roman art amongst us.
To fill up a hiatus which might here occur in our migrations, I will mention a
remarkable circumstance. A Christian youth of Romano-Saxon parentage, and
probably of Patrician origin, was carried off in a raid of Irish marauders, and em-
ployed as a swine-herd in this very Ulster, the country of the Dalaradians, and
lived here for several years, learning our customs and speaking our language. He
escaped, however, to Munster, and thence to his native land of Britain or Nor-
mandy, from whence he returned in A.p. 432 with friends, allies, and missionaries,
and passing in his galley into the mouth of the Boyne, walked up the banks of that
famed stream, raised the paschal fire at Slane, and speedily introduced Christianity
throughout Iveland. :
In thus briefly alluding to the labours of St. Patrick, I wish to be understood to
say that about the time of his mission there was much Saxon intercourse with this
country, and the great missionary had not only many friends but several relatives
residing here, and some of them on the very banks of the Boyne; and I believe
that a considerable amount of civilization and some knowledge of Christianity had -
been introduced long previously ; so that, although old King Laoghaire or Loury
and his Druids did not bow the knee to the Most High God, nor accept the
teaching of the beautiful hymn that Patrick and his attendants chanted as they
assed up the grassy slopes of Tara, still there were many hundred people in
Freland ready to receive the glad tidings of the gospel of salvation.
Having finished with the Milesians, we now come to the Danes (so called), the
126 REPORT—1874.
Scandinavians or Norsemen—The Pagan Sea-Kings who made inroads on our
coasts, despoiled our churches and monasteries, but at the same time, it must be con-
fessed, helped to establish the commercial ‘we ethe of some of our cities and towns
from 795 to the time of the battle of Clontarf, a.p. 1014, when the belligerent
porticn of the Scandinavians were finally expelled the country. During the time I
havo specified, Dublin, Limerick, and Waterford belonged to these northern people.
Th. y not only coasted round the island and never lost an opportunity of pillage
ary] plunder, but they passed through the interior and carried their arms into the
very centre of the land. The Danes left us very little ornamental work beyond
what they lavished upon their swords and helmets ; but, on the other hand, it should
be borne in mind that there are no Irish antiquities, either social, warlike, or eccle-
siastical, in the Scandinavian Museums.
Concerning their ethnological characters I must again refer to the ‘ Crania Bri-
tannica.’ In the records they were designated strangers, foreigners, pagans, gentiles,
and also white and black foreigners ; so that there were undoubtedly two races—the
dark, and the fair or red, like as in the case of the Firbolgs or Dannans. They
were also styled “Azure Danes,” probably on account of the shining hue of their
armour.
I believe the fair section of that people to have been of Norwegian origin, while
the dark race came from Jutland and the coast of Sweden ; and both by the Orkneys,
the coasts of Scotland, and the Isle of Man. Their skulls were large and well-
formed ; they had a thorough knowledge of metal work, and especially iron ; and, as I
have shown elsewhere, their swords and spears were of great size and power, the
former wielded as a slashing-weapon, while those of their early opponents were of
bronze, weak, and intended for stabbing. In nowhere else in Europe (that I am
aware of) have these rounded, pointed, or bevelled heavy iron swords been found
except in Ireland and Norway.
Large quantities of Danish remains have been discovered in deep sinkings made
in Dublin ; and several weapons, tools, and ornaments, believed to be of Scandinavian
origin, have been found within a few inches of the surface on one of the battle-
fields on the south side of the Liffey, within the last few years. Upon most of
these I have already reported and given illustrations. I may mention one circum-
stance connected with this race. I never examined a battle-field of the Danes, nor
a collection of Danish weapons or implements, that I did not find the well-adjusted
scales and weights which the Viking had in his pocket for valuing the precious
metals he procured either by conquest or otherwise.
Although considered hostile, these Scandanavians Vikings must have frater-
nized with the Irish. We know that they intermarried ; for, among many other
instances that might be adduced, I may mention that during the battle of Clontarf,
when Sitric, the Danish king of Dublin, looked on the fight from the walls of the
city, he was accompanied by his wife, the daughter of the aged king, known as
“‘ Brian the Brave.”
When, however, the Irish chieftains were not fighting with one another, they
were often engaged in petty wars with the Scandinavians, who, in turn, were
attacked by their own countrymen, the “ Black Gentiles,” especially on the plain
of Fingall, stretching from Dublin to the Boyne, and which the white race chiefly
occupied. It must not be supposed that the battle of Clontarf ended the Danish
occupation of Ireland ; they still held the cities of Dublin, Limerick, and Waterford
at least, and largely promoted the commercial’ prosperity in these localities—a pros-
perity which has not yet quite departed. I should like to present you with some
remains of the Scandinavian language, but the materials are very scanty.
We are now coming to a later period. The Romans had occupied Britain,
the Saxons followed ; the Danes had partial possession for a time; the Heptarchy
prevailed, until Harold, the last of the Saxon kings, fell at Hastings, and
Hingland bowed beneath that mixture of Norman, Gaulish, Scandinavian, and
general Celtic blood that William brought with him from the shores of France.
The Saxon dynasty was at an end, but the Britons of the day accepted their fate ;
and not only the soldiers, but the Norman Barons fused with the people of that
kingdom, and largely contributed to make it what it now is. This fusion of races,
this assimilation of sentiments, this interchange of thought, this kindly culture,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 127
the higher elevating the lower, among whom they have permanently resided, must
always tend to great and good ends in raising mankind to that state into which I
hope it will yet please Providence to call him.
must hasten on. The Anglo-Normans came here in 1172, a very mixed race,
but their leaders were chiefly of French or Norman extraction. Why they came,
or what they did, it is not for me to expatiate upon. I wish, however, to correct
an assertion commonly made, to the effect that the Norman barons of Henry II.
then conquered Ireland. They occupied some towns, formed a “ Pale,” levied
taxes, sent. in soldiery, distributed lands, and introduced a new language; but the
“King’s writ did not run;” the subjugation of Ireland did not extend over the
country at large, and it remained till 1846 and the five or six following years to
complete the conquest of the Irish race, by the loss of a tuberous esculent and the
governmental alteration in the value of a grain of corn. Then there went tu the
workhouse or exile upwards of two millions of the Irish race, besides those who
died of pestilence. Having carefully investigated and reported upon this last great
European famine, I have come to the conclusion just stated, without taking into
consideration its political, religious, or national aspects, so far as this communica-
tion is concerned.
It appears to me that one of our great difficulties in Ireland has been the want
of fusion—not only of races, but of opinions and sentiments, in what may be called
a “oive and take” system. As regards the intermixture, I think there cannot be
a better one than the Saxon with the Celt. The Anglo-Normans, however, parti-
ally fused with the native Ivish ; for Strongbow married Eva the daughter of King
Dermod ; and from this marriage it has been clearly shown that Her Most Gracious
Majesty the present Queen of Ireland and Great Britain is lineally descended.
Several of the noble warriors who came over about that period have established
great and wide-spread names in Ireland, among whom (not to be tedious) I may
mention the Geraldines in Leinster, the De Burgos in Connaught, and the But-
lers in Munster, as is manifest from the name-rolls of the country ; and they and
their descendants became, according to the old Latin adage, “more Irish than the
Trish themselves.”
Look what the intermixture of races has done for us in Ireland; the Firbolg
brought us Agriculture; the Dannan the chemistry and mechanics of metal work ;
the Milesians beauty and governing power; the Danes commerce and navigation ;
the Anglo-Normans chivalry and organized government ; and, in later times, the
French emigrants taught us an improyed art of weaving.
It would be more political than ethnological were I to enter upon the discussion
of that subsequent period which would conduct us to the days of Cromwell or the
Boyne, or, perhaps, to later periods, involving questions not pertinent to the pre-
sent occasion.
I must here say a word or two respecting Irish art. In architecture, in decorative
tone-work, from archaic markings that gave a tone and character to all subsequent
art, in our beauteous crosses, in our early metal work, in gold and bronze, carried
on from the Pagan to the Christian period, and in our gorgeously illuminated
MS. books, we have got a style of art that is specially and peculiarly Irish, and
that has no exact parallel elsewhere, and was only slightly modified by Norman or
Frankish design.
Time passed, as it is passing now, and events accumulated ; olitical affairs inter-
mingle, but the anthropologist should try and keep clear of them. At the end of
the reign of Elizabeth a considerable immigration of English took place into the
south of Ireland. Subsequently the historic episode of the “ Flight of the Earls,”
O’Neill and O'Donnell, brought matters to a climax ; and the early part of the reign
of the first James is memorable for the “ Plantation of Ulster,” when a number of
Celtic Scots with some Saxons returned to their brethren across the water; and
about the same time the London companies occupied large portions of this fertile
province, and the early Irish race were transplanted by the Protector to the West,
as I have already stated. It must not be imagined that this was the first immigra-
tion. The Picts passed through Ireland and no doubt left a remnant behind them,
In consequence of contiguity, the Scottish people must early have settled upon our
northern coasts. When the adventurous Edward Bruce made that marvellous
128 REPORT—1874.
inroad into Ireland at the end of the fourteenth century and advanced into the
bowels of the land, he carried with him a Gaelic population cognate with our own
eople, and in all probability left a residue in Ulster, thus leavening the original
Fit olgs, Tuatha-de-Dannan, and Milesians, with the exception of the County
of Donegal, which still holds a large Celtic population speaking the old Irish
tongue, and retaining the special characters of that people as I have already de-
scribed them. This Scotic race, as it now exists in Ulster, and of which we have
specimens before us, I would sum up with three characteristics. That they were
courageous is proved by their shutting the gates and defending the walls of
Derry ; that they were independent and lovers of justice has been shown by their
establishment of tenant-right; and that they were industrious and energetic is
manifest by the manufactures of Belfast. Do not, I entreat my brethren of Ulster,
allow these manufactures to be jeopardized, either by masters or men, by any dis-
agreements, which must lead to the decay of the fairest and wealthiest province
and one of the most beautiful cities in this our native land.
Borany.
[For Dr. Hooker’s Address see page 102.]
Note on Variation of Leaf-Arrangement. By Husrrr Arny, M.D.
Approaching the problem of leaf-arrangement from a Darwinian point of view,
it is important to observe the variations which arise at the present day in the
disposition of leaves in different individuals of the same species ; for it is reasonable
to suppose that variations of the same kind have arisen also in former ages, and the
problem would be solved if we could see that the accumulative tendency of such
variations (starting from some simple form of leaf-arrangement) would naturally
result in the production of all the complex forms of leaf-arrangement which now
exist.
The chief general feature of leaf-arrangement being the disposition of leaves in
parallel ranks, vertical or spiral as the case may be, the variations which present
themselves at the present day are of two kinds :—
First, there are variations in the number of leaf-ranks.
Second, there are variations in the obliquity of ranks, their number remaining the
same,
The object of this paper is especially to put on record some observations which
illustrate the first of these two kinds of variation.
(1) Examples of variation of xwmber of leaf-ranks.
Number of speci- | Number of con- Character
ame of plantand mens with same | spicuous ranks ob tauke Phyllotactic
part examined. ENDS ETB! éGileaves (vertical fraction.
ik ; "lor spiral).
Knautia arvensis | 2 specimens had} 10 & 16 con-| Spiral. | This arrangement
(head). spicuous is that which
spiral ranks, would result
ten one way from condensa-
and sixteen tion of the eru-
the other. cial arrange-
ment of the
stem -leayes.—
Call it a.
1 specimen had | 8 & 13. . Near .
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.
Number of speci- | Number of con-
Character
129
Name of plant and : : of ranks Phyllotactic
port examined, | ™eus with same | spicuous ranks | ‘ertiogl | fraction
or spiral).
Scabiosa succisa | 20 specimens had) 6, 10, & 16. | Spiral. (See note to
(head). Knautia arvensis
above. )
8 " 5, 8, & 13. op Near 8,
2 ms 4,7, & 11. Near +55
1 specimen had| 9. cf Near =,
7 specimens irregular.
Mata, sere eT os! 38
Scabiosa colum-| 6 specimens had| 6, 10, & 16. Spiral. | a.
baria (head). 3 " 5, 8, & 13. % Near Sy.
6 - 8 & 12. re ? Condensed from
whorls of 4.
1 specimen had) 10. xy a.
1 is 4 & 7. r Near 53,.
1 sR irregular.
otal... i. cess 27
Leontodon taraxa-| 92 specimens had| 8, 13, a & 34.| Spiral. | Near 33
cum (head). 4 rp 16 & 2 3 a.
2 - 18 & 29, o Near 385
2 _ irregular.
Vertical.| 4-whorled.
— |— — ——
144 specimens had| 8.
in
Erica tetralix
(stem). 2 . ; Spiral. | Near 2.
9 :, 6. ertical.| 3-whorled.
4 10. " 5-whorled.
1 specimen had| 9. Spiral. | Near 2.
1G CS ae 160
Erica cinerea 75 specimens had| 6. Vertical.| 3-whorled.
(stem). 2 ne ie Spiral. | Near 2.
6. ertical.| 3-whorled.
2 i hs Spiral. | Near 2.
8. Vertical. pas
6. 3-whorled.
1 specimen had 7. Spiral. Near 3.
stalk e/a ohs 80
Verbena officinalis | 97 specimens had) 3 & 5. Spiral. | Near 2.
(spike). 11 s 4&7. 7 Near 2.
2 if 4&6. 9 a.
1 specimen had) 4, 5, & 9. F Near 3.
1 8. Vertical. 4-whorled.
hu 4,5, & 9. Spiral. | Near 3.
1874. 10
120 REPORT—1874,
: Character
Name of plant and soil abst php i. of ed Phyllotactic
part examined. arrangement. be leaves. (vertica fraction.
or spiral).
Plantago major | 55 specimens had| 3, 5, & 8. Spiral. | Near 55.
(spike). 1 specimen had! 6 & 10. s a.
AUS Es A SAaaAT 56
Carex stricta 1 specimen had) 5. Spiral. | Near 2.
(spikelet). 13 specimens had| 6. Vertical.) 3-whorled.
36 x Te Spiral. | Near 2.
58 - 8. Vertical.) 4-whorled, |
25 e 9. Spiral. | Near 2.
vad ns 10. Vertical.) 5-whorled.
2 S Ad. Spiral. | Near 53.
1 specimen had} 10
, Bsr a.
18 showed distinct change in number of ranks and arrangement.
1 was irregular.
MOP estefan sia a 155
Carex vesicuria | 4 specimens had| 5. Spiral. | Near 2.
(spikelet). 41 * 6. Vertical.) 3-whorled.
34 ” is Spiral. | Near 2.
if = 8. Vertical.| 4-whorled.
2 y 5&8. Spiral. | Near 3.
2 9. an Near 2.
20 showed distinct change.
4 were irregular.
Motel emateressharueks 114
Lycopodium clava-| 1 specimen had| 7. Spiral. | Near 2.
tum (stem and} 21 specimens had| 8. Vertical.| 4-whorled.
branches). 1 specimen had) 8. Spiral. | Near 2.
28 specimens had| 9. 9 Near 3.
16 ae 10. Vertical.| 5-whorled.
Spiral. | Near 2.
9,
Ispecimen had 10. Vertical.| 6-whavleds
68
Cactus ——,sp.?| 1, specimen had) 8. Vertical.) 4-whorled.
(stem). 6 specimens had} 10. + 5-whorled.
2 rf, 6 & 10. Spiral. | a.
19 as Te Near 2.
2 a 12. Vertical.| 6-whorled.
8 showed distinct change.
For similar facts, with respect to cones of Norway spruce, black spruce, European
larch, American larch, see a paper in ‘The American Naturalist, vol. vii. no. 8,
Aug. 1873, “On the Phyllotaxis of Cones,” by Prof. W. J. Beal.
To the above are to be added the many common instances of plants 2-whorled
(crucial) changing to a 3-whorled form, e. g. maple, sycamore, lilac, laurustinus,
horse-chestnut, ash, elder, stinging-nettle, &c.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 131
With these may be classed variations in the number of petals, stamens, or stigmas
of a flower, such as the following :—
Number of
specimens.
Papaver rheas (stigmas). 3 with 7 stigmatic rays,
” ”? 7 ” 8 ”
” ” ie ott ee ”
” ” Lee ke ”
” ” 16 ” 11 ”
” 9 4 ” 12 ”)
” ” 9 ” 13 ”?
” ” re ) 14 ”
Totes: 65
And if, as I suppose, the ranks of rootlets on the main root of a plant have
relation (historically) to the ranks of leaves on the stem, then the following instance
of variation of rootlet-order may be quoted here :—
Number of
specimens.
Rumex crispus? (root). 1 had 2 rows of rootlets on main or branch-root.
” ” 20 ” 3 ” ”
” ” i caus ” ”
” ” 1 ” 5 ” ”
” ” 1 ” 6 ” ”
DGGE he cnie a 30
(2) Examples of variation of obliquity of leaf-ranks.
Gasteria carinata has normally two vertical ranks in alternate order (4). As a
variation these two ranks are found decidedly twisted.
Plantago major shows marked variation in degree of condensation of leaf-
arrangement (involving variation of obliquity of ranks).
In a paper on leaf-arrangement, of which an abstract is published in the ‘ Pro-
ceedings of the Royal Society’ for 1874, vol. xxii. pp. 298-307, I have explained how,
by the accumulative action of the above two modes of variation combined, it is
possible that all the existing varieties of leaf-arrangement may have been produced.
Notes on Apothecia occurring in some Scytonematous and Sirosiphonaceous
Algal Species, in addition to those previously known. By WititaM ARCHER,
This paper is descriptive of the apothecia and spores (with figures) found by
the gathor in two species of Seytonema, two of Strosiphon, and one of Stigonema,
all of them specifically different from any of the few similar cases hitherto
recorded. According to the older view that these are the fruits of the species of
Scytonematous and Sirosiphonaceous Algz in question, the cases brought forward,
coupled with a similar fructification having been recorded in a very few other
related species, would go to indicate that these so-called i were not alge truly
but lichens. According to the newer view propounded by De Bary and Schwendener,
all such cases would only represent so many instances of the invasion of the alge
concerned by so many distinct fungal parasites, of which the apothecia were the
proper fructification.
here could be little doubt but that, wpon either view, the five plants (either as
regards the “alge” or the “ parasites”) herein referred to, as well as Bornet’s
Lichenospheria and Spilonema and Nylander’s Gonionema (not to speak of Ephebe),
are so many quite distinct species. If the apothecia are to be regarded as the
“fruit” of the several forms of the alge in question, even though some may
externally so very closely resemble, these (algze) must be quite distinct species inter
se; if, on the other hand, the apothecia must be looked upon as “aa uit of the
132 REPORT—1874.,
“parasite ” invading the various alge in question, in accordance with the new view,
then the parasites attacking each must be mutually quite distinct species, and, taken
on the whole, marvellously choice in their selection of ‘ host.”
Proceeding on the latter assumption, two of the forms now brought forward
would have to be regarded as two “new species,” falling either under the genus
Ephebella, Itzigsohn, or Gontonema, Nylander. The three other forms would pro-
bably have to be referred as ‘‘new species” to Spilonema, or one of them, wanting
paraphyses, to Lichenospheria, Bornet.
For the new view much that has been advanced by its supporters is very cogent
and striking, if not yet conclusive.
But in “lichens” like Ephebella, Gonionema, Ephebe, Spilonema, Lichenospheria,
in which it is the “alga” which builds up the outward configuration of the thallus,
and which simply harbours latent within it the parasite, the latter making itself
externally evident only by its exserted apothecia, does it not seem inconsistent to
describe the characters of the thallus of the alga as part and parcel of those of the
“lichen?” Thus Bornet, in giving the characters of Lichenospheria Lenormandi,
describes it generically thus :—“ Thallus tenellus, ramosus, fruticulosus, fere omnino
stigonematoideus, basi corticatus ;” and specifically he speaks of it as “ Thallus fusco-
niger, tomentoso-intricatus.” This, for so far going on the Schwendenerian view,
is nothing more nor less than describing the characters of “ Sirosiphon divaricatus,
Kiitz.” (the plant invaded by the “ parasite”); but when he goes on to describe the
apothecia, the paraphyses, the spermogonia, the spores, he is giving the characters
of the parasite and the real ‘‘ new species.”
There can be little doubt but that amongst these Seytonematous and Sirosiphona-
ceous Algz quite truly distinct forms occur, but that, on the other hand, there can
be almost as little doubt but that Kiitzing has very greatly overrated their number.
Now it is hard to conceive that one and the same parasite would care very much
which of forms so closely resembling it invaded in order to pursue its course of life.
Sirosiphon divaricatus seems not to differ much from S. alpinus (one of those now
brought forward with apothecia) : now what very perceptible barrier is there to the
supposition that the parasite which invades the former to form Lichenospheria
Lenormandi, Bornet, might not at another time invade the latter? Would it then
fructify in the same way, show spores alike, &c.? But the “ parasite” which does
really invade the latter (as shown by this paper) is not the same. Are these Scyto-
nemicolous and Sirosiphonicolous parasites, then, so extremely choice ?
Again, two very closely allied forms of Scytonema now brought forward likewise
showed very distinct parasites, as evinced by their spores, whilst those of one of
them much resembled that of Strosiphon pulvinatus, an alga in itself sufficiently
unlike the other.
In objection to the new theory, though it has much to say for itself, in the mean
time and whilst it is, as it were, on its trial, it might be asked at what period of the
life of the Scytonema or Strosiphon does it become invaded by the parasite? at
what part of the thallus does it make an entry? It must be near the base, or at all
events not very high up, for the hypha is found growing pretty nearly pari passu
with the growth of a branch of the alga and in the same general direction. But
why might not the hypha grow in the opposite direction? Might it not sometimes
enter near the apex and grow backward? Might we not sometimes expect to find
hyphe sticking out from broken-up or distorted examples of these alge, and thus
revealing themselves (without the whole mass being boiled in potash) whilst on
their way to other examples of quite the same alga? Or must the hypha apper-
taining to a particular plant have had its commencement from a spore which found
its way to, and alighted somewhere externally upon, the particular Scytonema or
Strosiphon ?
An experimental decision of the “gonidia-question,” so far as it relates to these
Se eer apie: and Sirosiphonaceous forms, is surrounded by not a few practical
difficulties. A “sowing” of spores upon the alge (as Reiss did for Nostoc) in a
natural condition could only be carried out by an observer residing in or close to
the subalpine situations where these plants dwell, as they could not be cultivated
elsewhere. In order to obtain the spores he would further have, most probably, a
troublesome preliminary search, and, on the other hand, there would hardly be a
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 133
certainty of the plants selected for inoculation being themselves previously destitute
of hyphe or apothecia. Of course, small portions from various places in a tuft of
any given alga could be previously well examined, which, though if, indeed, found
to represent the alga “ pure and simple,” would not render it absolutely conclusive
that some other portion of the tuft might not already have been invaded by the
“parasite.” However, having selected some plants for experiment they should be
well inoculated with spores, and portions removed from time to time for examina-
tion and experiment. If found satisfactory it would be interesting to try spores
from the same and from different species, in order to see the result, and whether the
seeming fixity of the forms and the apparently extreme choiceness of the parasites
be true or not, or ultimately whether the theory itself be true or not. Whether,
for the time being, the truth of the new theory be previously assumed, or its un-
tenability be presupposed, would matter very little, if only the suitable opportunity
and ready field of operation were at command of the observer. It woul seem as
if in this way only can either presupposition be justified or negatived.
On the Form of Pollen-grains in relation to the Fertilization of Flowers.
By Aurrep W. Bennett, F.L.S.
Although a common form of pollen-grain not unfrequently runs through a
whole group of plants, yet more often the form is found to be adapted to the par-
ticular requirements of the species in respect of its mode of fertilization, and varies
even within a small circle of affinity. In those plants which are fertilized by the
agency of insects, there are three general modes in which the form of the grain is
adapted for the purpose. We have, first (and this is by far the most common
form), an elliptical grain with three or more longitudinal furrows, as in Ranunculus
Ficaria, Aucuba japonica, and Bryonia dioica; secondly, spherical or elliptical,
and covered with spines, as in many Composite, Malvacez, and Cucurbitacee ;
and thirdly, where they are attached together by threads or a viscid excretion, as
in the Fuchsia, Evening Primrose, and Richardia ethiopica. In those plants, on
the contrary, which are fertilized by the agency of the wind, as most grasses, the
Hazel, and Populus balsamifera, the pollen is almost perfectly spherical when dry,
unfurnished with any furrows, and very light and powdery. The genus Viola
furnishes two very markedly different forms of pollen-grain: in one, the section to
which V. canina and odorata belong, they have the ordinary elliptical 3-furrowed
form, and every point of the structure of the style and stigma is favourable to fer-
tilization by bees; in the other, the section to which V. tricolor belongs, the grains
are very much larger, and either hexagonal or pentagonal, and the style and stigma
are adapted for fertilization by very minute insects, such as Thrips. In all species
of the order Cruciferze at present examined, the pollen has the most common form.
Pringlea antiscorbutica, the “ Kerguelen’s Land Cabbage,” has been shown by
Dr. Hooker to be in all probability wind-fertilized, from the following considera-
tions :—the absence of petals, the absence of honey-glands, the exserted style, the
stigma being covered with long Lg aly and the apparent entire absence of winged
insects in Kerguelen’s Land. The form of the pollen supports the same view, being
very minute and perfectly spherical, extremely different, therefore, from every other
known plant of the order. In the cowslip and primrose there is a uniform dif-
ference in size between the pollen-grains from flowers belonging to the two dimor-
phic forms, that of the short-styled being always considerably larger than that of
the long-styled form.
On the Embryogeny of certain Species of Tropeolum,
By Professor Drcxson.
On an Abnormality in Chrysanthemum leucanthemum.
By Professor Dickson.
134: REPORT—1874.
On Structural Peculiarities of the Ampelidee. By Professor Lawson, Jf.A.
On a Monstrous State of Megacarpea. By Dr. Moors,
On a Monstrous Flower of Sarracenia. By Dr. Moors.
On Grafted Roots of Mangold-Wurzl. By Dr. Moors.
On the Growth of the Stems of Tree Ferns. By Dr. Moors.
Mosses of the North-east of Ireland. By 8, A. Stewart.
Turner in 1804 enumerated as Irish 230 species of mosses, Dr. Taylor in 1836
mentions about the same number, and Dr. David Moore in 1872 gives a list of 385
Trish species, to which the author of the present paper adds four others, making
389, or more than two thirds of the British mosses. Thus, relatively to the
British flora, Ireland has quite as large a proportion of mosses as she has of flower-
ing plants, proving that Irish miscology has not been neglected. No separate lists
of the mosses occurring in the northern counties have been published; but after
consulting the records of Dr. Taylor in the ‘ Flora Hibernica,’ and the valuable list
of Irish mosses by Dr. Moore, also some detached papers on the subject and his
own unpublished notes, the author ascertains that the number of species occurring
in the district amounts to 225, or more than one half of the Irish mosses. The
district is defined to consist of the counties of Down and Antrim, with a small
portion of county Derry bordering on Antrim. The list includes a number of rare .
mosses. The following have not been previously recorded as Irish :—Fissedens
incurvis, Schw., var. Lyle’, found only on a greensand rock on the Black Mountain,
near Belfast; Tayloria serrata, in small quantity near the summit of Benbradagh
Mountain, county Derry ; Mnium subglobosum, in wet peat-bog on Cave Hill, near
Belfast, and in a similar habitat on Carrickfergus commons; Seligeria calcarea, on
Black Mountain, near Belfast, appearing like little black specks on small lumps of
chalk in the grass. Mr. C. P. Hobkirk, of Huddersfield, has been kind enough to
identify the specimens of the above-named mosses.
On the Potato-Disease. By Jamus Torpirt.
The author believes that the potato cannot be propagated for ever from the “set,”
that it dies of old age in about thirty years after it is grown from a seed, that to
eradicate the disease it must be grown from the seed, and it must be planted
beyond the range of infection emitted by old infected varieties. The author
believes that the range of infection does not extend beyond a few hundred yards.
On Specimens of Marine Alqe from Jersey.
By C. J. B. Witt1ams, M.D., F.RS.
These specimens were prepared by Miss E. Dyke Poore, who had found as many
as 230 species on the shores of Jersey. This remarkable abundance and variety
of seaweeds, as well as their luxuriant growth, Dr. Williams attributed partly to
the position of the Channel Islands, receiving tides and currents from the great
Atlantic as well as the channel ; and partly to the remarkable clearness and purity
of the sea-water as contrasted with that of the muddy shores of the southern and
eastern coasts, due to the chalk, marl, and sand of their shores, whereas those of
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 135
Jersey consist chiefly of clean primitive rocks, which form little débris and no mud.
Turbid water is unfavourable to growth, by intercepting the light as well as by its
mechanical effects on delicate organisms.
The method by which Miss Dyke Poore prepares the specimens so as to preserve
their colour and minute structure so parisctly is not novel, but may be referred to
this principle—that as these delicate forms and organisms are developed and sup~
‘a in a medium of nearly the same specific gravity as their own, so they must
e kept disentangled and cleansed as much as possible in sea-water, and transferred
to fresh water for the purpose of washing away the salt and of laying them out
only immediately before the processes of drying and pressing. Thus prepared, and
fixed by a slight brushing of skim-milk or weak solution of isinglass, they may be
hep in a book, or sent by post between pasteboards without damage; but light
and damp may still injure them,
ZooLoey.
[For Dr. Hooker’s Address see page 102.]
On some Points in the Histology of Myriothela phrygia*.
By Prof. Atuman, 2S.
The endoderm of that portion of the body which lies at the distal side of the
gonosome, and which carries the Pe tentacles characteristic of the genus,
is composed of numerous layers of large polyhedral cells with clear contents and a
brilliant nucleus. Internally it forms thick conical processes which project into
the body-cavity, while externally it is continued in an altered condition into the
tentacles. At the free end of the internal processes there are abundantly developed
among the large clear cells smaller spherical cells filled with opaque brown granules.
These cells are easily detached and isolated, and may be then seen lying free in the
body-cavity. Where the endoderm passes into the cavity of the tentacles, it loses
its large clear-celled condition, and consists of small round cells loaded with opaque
brown granules.
External to the endoderm and interposed between this and the ectoderm
is the fibrillated layer. This is remarkably well developed. Its component-
fibrillz run circularly round the body, and form a continuous fibrillated mem-
brane so strong as to remain entire after the tissues on both sides of it have
been broken down. No obvious membrane distinct from this and forming a sepa-
rate “ Stiitzlamelle” could be detected. It is continued as a thinner membrane
into the tentacles, where it lies between the endoderm and ectoderm of these
processes.
The ectoderm is mainly composed of two or three layers of small round cells
filled with yellowish granules. Among these cells the thread-cells may be seen
lying at various depths from the surface. The ectoderm retains this structure over
the body and tentacles; but between the proper ectoderm and the fibrillated lamina
of the body a peculiar tissue may be demonstrated. This consists of a layer of cells,
from each of which there proceeds a fine process which can be distinctly traced
into the fibrillated membrane. In this membrane the cell-processes lose them-
selves ; and they could not be followed into direct continuation with the fibrille in
the way in which Kleinenberg traced the prolongations of cells apparently having
the same significance in the ectoderm of Hydra. These cells differ also from those
described by Kleinenberg in Hydra in their being nowhere superficial. In a trans-
verse section of the body in Myriothela the caudate cells form a distinct zone
immediately external to the fibrillated lamina and between this and the proper
ectoderm. They are strongly stained by magenta, while the fibrillated membrane
takes up scarcely a trace of the colour. It is impossible not to see in this tissue
elements referable to a very primitive type of the nervous system.
-* [Received after the close of the Belfast Meeting. Printed with the authority of the
Council.—G. G.]
136 REPORT—1874.
But perhaps the most remarkable point of structure is to be found in a peculiar tissue
which is developed between the endoderm and ectoderm of the tentacles. It occupies
the summit of the tentacle, where it is interposed between the continuation of the
fibrillated membrane of the body and the ectoderm, forming here a hemispherical
cap over the endodermal cavity of the tentacle. It is composed of colourless,
transparent, closely applied prisms, which extend at right angles to the walls of the
cayity. It strongly suggests the rod-like tissue of the retina.
On Chlamydomyxa labyrinthuloidea (n. g. et sp.), a new Sarcodic Freshwater
Organism. By WitLtam ARCHER.
This paper gives an account of a novel sarcodic organism from fresh water,
presenting a very considerable resemblance to those two congeneric marine forms
regarded as the type of a new family instituted by Cienkowski, and named by
him Labyrinthulea. In Schultze’s ‘ Archiv fiir mikr. Anatomie,’ in a memoir
entitled “Ueber den Bau und die Entwickelung der Labyrinthuleen ” (see
also Quart. Journ. Mier. Sci. vol. vii. p. 277), that author gives an account of the
new organisms so named, found by him amongst alg on piles in the harbour of
Odessa. These, as stated by him, are characterized by being composed of three
elements or constituents—the central mass, the spindles, and the filamentary tracks
(“ Fadenbahn,” Cienk.). In the organism now brought forward we have all these
elements—that is to say, the central sarcodic ‘‘ body-mass,” the ‘‘spindles,” and the
“filamentary tracks.” In all the filamentary tracks are minute, extremely slender
hyaline threads, emanating from the central mass, stretching far and wide into the
surrounding water, and forming an irregularly connected, much ramified, arbo-
rescent framework, along which the spindle-shaped bodies travel slowly in great
numbers, away from the central “ headquarters.” But the main distinction (apart,
of course, from minor differences of colour and the like) between the “ spindles ” in
Cienkowski’s forms and the present is that in the latter they are not nucleated,
whilst in the former they are. Another distinction is that in the present organism
the aggregate body-mass presents a remarkable tendency to become repeatedly
encysted or coated with a thick hyaline multilaminated covering, the densely arbo-
rescent body-mass being only now and again protruded through a torn-like opening
in the covering; this covering gives the saltnioes reaction on the application of
iodine and sulphuric acid. Another important distinction lies in the fact that the
body-mass possesses, immersed in its substance, numerous irregularly figured deep
crimson-coloured pigment-granules, giving to the organism, viewed under mode-
rate powers, a decidedly red colour. A further difference of importance in the
present form is its “ parasitic ” habit, or, at least, the fact that in a younger state of
existence it inhabits the cells of aquatic plants, such as Sphagnum, the immersed
leaves of Eriophorum, sedges, &c., or (in Connemara) the tissues of Eriocaulon ;
from these hosts it protrudes by-and-by, becomes re-encysted, and at last removed.
A minor distinction occurs in the fact that the spindles here are of a bluish hue,
not, as in Cienkowski’s forms, either orange-coloured or colourless.
This curious organism is manifestly one of which at present no record exists; its
true nature is somewhat probiemntic, its “ facies” is that of a “ Labyrinthulean,” but
the non-nucleated spindles are seemingly a bar to its admission as yet to a place
in that group; it does not resemble any of Hackel’s Monera, it has no seeming
immediate affinity to Rhizopoda, and, so far as we can see, must continue for the
present an isolated problematic production which Mr. Archer would mean time
suggest should remain in abeyance, standing under the designation Chlamydomyxa
labyrinthuloidea, A lengthened description and illustration will appear elsewhere
of this curious and puzzling organism.
Further Researches on Kozoon Canadense.
By Wii B. Carrenter, V.D., LL.D., F.RS.
_ The Foraminiferal character of the Serpentine Limestone of the Laurentian forma-
tion in Canada having been recently again called in question, the author has been
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. . 1387
led to make a careful reexamination of the matter—with the result of satisfying
every microscopist who has seen his preparations of the unmistakably Nwmmuline
character of the “proper wall” of the chambers as discovered and described by
Dr. Carpenter ten years ago.
_ On Atya spinipes, and on an undescribed Pontonia.
By Professor CuNNINGHAM.
On English Nomenclature in Systematic Biology.
By HE. Ray Lanxzsrer, M.A.
On the Genealogical Import of the Internal Shell of Mollusca.
By HK. Ray Lanxesrer, M.A.
On Spring Migratory Birds of the North of England. By T. Lisrmr.
The observations made by the author at Barnsley, Yorkshire, during the years
1853-74 are embodied in the following list :—
Approximate
Average date of date of
first notice. departure.
Redstart (Ruticilla phenicura) ............ April 15. September 20.
Whin-Chat (Sazicola rubetra)...........05. April 20. September 22.
Wheatear (S. @nanthe)... 00... ccs cee eens arch 28. September 30.
Grasshopper Warbler (Salicaria locustella).... April 26. September 5.
Sedge- Warbler (S. phragmitis) .........+.. April 22. August 31.
Reed-Warbler (S. strepera) ......... Haya:
Nightingale (Luscinia philomela)........++.+ April 25 July 27.
Blackcap (Sylvia atricapilla) ..........000s April 21. October 10.
Garden Warbler (S. hortensis)............45 May 6. September 10.
Whitethroat (S. cinerea) . 0.0... cece eee April 24. September 27.
Lesser Whitethroat (S. sylviella)............ April 28. September 15.
Wood-Wren (Phyllopneuste sibilatriz) ...... April 30. September 18.
Willow-Wren (P. trochilus)..........00000 April 10. September 26.
AUIS (@ 224277) eens OOO On eInannE March 29. October 4.
Ray’s Wagtail (Motacilla Rayi) ............ April 13. September 14.
Tree-Pipit (Anthus arboreus) .........0.055 April 15. September 22.
Swallow (Hirundo rustica) .......6...6005- April 10. October 15.
Upinb lal (CEPMUNDICE)| Narsitad selsisinie cs ivee > cele els April 13. October 12.
Sand-Martin (ZZ. riparia). ....... 0c eee April 10. September 20.
MS Wale ( Cyiprsererd, AINUR)) os a ih osa.« wlnie\s eps sieve ay 22. August 15.
Nightjar ( Caprimulgus ewrope@us) .....0++6. May 21. August 30.
Grey Flycatcher (Muscicapa grisola) ........ May 14 September 2.
Pied Flycatcher (M. atricapilla) ............
Cuckoo ( Cuculus canorus)... 60.00 eee cree April 14. August 25,
Land-Rail ( Crea pratensis) ........00eee es April 22 October 5.
Some rare migrants, the dates of which cannot be furnished, have occurred in
Yorkshire and the north of England, as the Hoopoe, Wryneck, Bee-eater, Roller,
Spotted Sandpiper, Spotted Crake, and Baillon’s Crake.
On two new Species of Pentastoma. By Professor MacaxisTErR.
Yotes on the Specimen of Selache maximus lately caught at Innisboffin.
By Professor Macarister.
138 REPORT—1874.
On the Distribution of the Species of Cassowaries.
By P. L. Scrater, M.A., P.RS., Secretary to the Zoological Society of London.
After some general observations on the systematic position of Casuarius and of
its allied form Dromeus, the author proceeded to remark on the great increase in
our knowledge of the species of the former genus that had recently taken place.
One species only (the Casuarius galeatus) had been until lately recognized, whereas
at the present time there was evidence of the existence of at least seven or eight
distinct species distributed over New Guinea and the adjoining islands.
The Zoological Society of London had received, on the 27th of May last, a living
Cassowary which appeared to belong to a species hitherto unrecognized. This bird
had been obtained at the southern extremity of New Guinea, in the early part of
1873, by Dr. Haines, the Medical Officer of H.M.S. ‘ Basilisk,’ and brought to
Sydney, where it remained until February of the present year in the Botanic
Gardens. Thence it had been brought to England in the ship ‘ Parramatta,’ under
the care of Mr. Broughton.
The species, which the author was intending to describe before the Zoological
Society as Casuarius picticollis, was closely allied to Bennett’s Cassowary (C. Ben-
netti) and Westerman’s Cassowary (C. Westermani*), and belonged to the same
section of the genus, distinguishable by the transverse ridge across the helmet and
the want of caruncles on the neck.
The author then pointed out the principal characters distinguishing the seven
species of Cassowary known to him, as shown in the subjoined Table, and made
remarks on their distribution, which were illustrated by reference to a map of New
Guinea and the adjoining islands :—
a, Casse lateraliter compressa’: appendicula cervicis duplici.
1. C. galeatus, ex Ceram.
2. C. bicarunculatus, ex inss. Aroensibus.
3. C. australis, ex Australia.
b. Casse transversim compressa: appendicula cervicis unica.
4. C. uniappendiculatus, ex Papua.
c. Casse transversim compress’: appendicula cervicis nulla.
5. C. Westermanni, ex Papua.
6. C. picticollis, ex Papua merid.
7. C. Bennetti, ex Noy. Britann.
ANATOMY AND PuystoLoey.
[For Professor Redfern’s Address see page 96.]
On the Development of the Elasmobranch Fishes, By F. M. Batrour, B.A.
The author described some of the more interesting features of the early stages
in the development of Elasmobranch Fishes, The paper is published in full in the
Quart. Journal of Micr. Science for October 1874.
On some Points in the Physiology of the Semicircular Canals of the Ear.
By Professor Crum Brown, M.D., F.R.S.L£.
On the Development of the Powers of Thought in Vertebrate Animals in con-
nexion with the Development of ther Braint. By Jamus Byrne, A.M,
Dean of Clonfert, and ex-Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin.
In this paper a minute analysis was applied to the constructive instinct of the
beaver, and it was shown that that instinct involved thought, but that the thought
* C. Kaupi, Scl. (olim) nee Rosenb. See Proc. Zool. Soc. 1874, p. 248.
t Published zm extenso in the ‘Journal of Anatomy and Physiology,’ November 1874.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 139
was limited to the resent act in which the animal was engaged, or, at most, took
in very little beyond it, the native impulse or desire seeking each step in succession
by itself, because the animal’s power of thought could not take in the end of the
series.
A typical case of intelligence in the dog was similarly analyzed ; and it was shown
that the dog had the power of thinking a particular act as a part of a series, combining
with the idea of that act a thought of the series of acts, each with its effect, and all
with their result. It was pointed out that this power of forming a plan to attain an
end, which was possessed by the dog, differed from man’s power of design in this
respect, that man can not only think an act as part of a series leading to a result,
but that he has the further power of believing, with more or less certainty, that
each step in the series of acts will be followed by the consequence connected with
it in thought. This implies inference from laa experience, and inference is the
process of imparting to the idea of a fact the degree of assurance which belongs to
it as a case of a general principle.
Characteristic instances of intelligence in the baboon and the orang-outang
were minutely analyzed; and it was shown that while these manifested an intel-
ligence to which the dog could not attain, the superiority consisted in the power
of combining in an assured sense of reality with the idea of an object some abstract
coexistence or succession which had been gathered from similar objects as a uni-
formity of experience; that is, in the power of thinking a case of a general principle
with the belief which belongs to it as such.
This step of mental development in the orang-outang compared with the dog
is similar in its essential nature to the previous step, which may be observed in the
dog compared with the lower vertebrate animal. Each is a new power of combining
thoughts which otherwise would have required a long course of repetition in con-
junction with each other before they could by association have grown together; and
each combines those thoughts in a closer and more vivid union through the medium
of anew element—namely, sense of progress towards an end in the one case, and
belief in the maintenance of a uniformity in the other.
It was shown by a general survey of the highest kinds of intelligence manifested
by the various classes and orders of vertebrate animals, coupled with a minute
analysis of apparently contrary instances, that vertebrate animals may be divided in
respect of their mental powers into three groups, of which the lowest can comprise
in one act of thought only what can be perceived by sense all at the same time;
the second can comprise in one act of thought a series of successions in time so as
to think a single object of sense as part of such a series; and the third can comprise
in one act of thought an entire class of coexistences or successions so as to combine
with a particular fact the common element of coexistence or succession belonging to
the class. To the first group belong the vertebrate animals below the Rodent order
of Mammalia. In the second group the Rodents may claim a place (though their
powers of purpose are small), along with the orders of Mamaia, above them up
to the Quadrumana. To the third group belong the monkeys, the Anthropoid apes,
and man.
With these facts of the development of intelligence, the facts of the development
of the brain are in striking correspondence. “Vor the cerebrum of the oviparous
vertebrata corresponds only with the anterior lobe of the human cerebrum. It is
among the Rodentia that we meet with the first distinct indication of a middle
lobe; while the posterior lobe makes its first appearance in monkeys, and is
distinctly present in the Anthropoid apes’ (Carpenter’s ‘Mental Physiology,’
p. 116). And the inference at once occurs, that the functions of the anterior lobe
belong to the act of thinking single objects of sense, those of the middle lobe to
the act of thinking such objects with a sense of a succession of them and as part
of that succession, and those of the posterior lobe to the act of thinking a coex-
istence or succession of them as a case of a general principle.
In confirmation of this inference, the other features of brain-development were
considered; and it was shown that the analogies of the nervous system seem to
indicate that the increased development of the fibres of the brain serves to make
the action of its different parts consentaneous, so as to give correspondence to the
muscular action of the two sides of the body and strength and steadiness to
140 REPORT—1874.
thought, this function being more needed as powers of thought are developed which
are less closely connected with sense; and accordingly the great transverse com-
missure appears first, in any degree of development worthy of notice, in the Rodents
along with the middle lobe. The increased size of the cortical layer and the number
and depth of its convolutions probably give an increase in the amount of thought
and in its analysis. And the cerebellum, connected as it is principally with the
spinal cord, seems to be a store of force which, having been set in action by the
contracted muscles through the posterior nerves, continues to maintain, through
the anterior nerves, the stimulus to muscular action, so as to keep up the action of
the muscles which have been set in action till it is altered or suspended by the action
of other nervous centres. Thus no other development of the brain seems to have
any tendency to give that extension to thought which was assigned to the three
lobes. The conyolutions and the fibres improve the action of the brain rather than
enlarge the range of its objects; but the development of each additional organ of
intelligence extends the range of the objects of thought. And it is as superadded
developments that the three lobes appear, both in the vertebrate series of animals
and in the development of the embryo of man./
Lastly, it was shown that the course of development of cerebral function which
had been inferred from facts was in accordance with the general analogies of deve-
lopment, as giving the powers which were needed in the struggle for life; for
the primary function of the cerebrum being to direct the actions of the body by
the thoughts of the mind to the attainment of desirable ends, the intelligence of
which it is necessary that it should be the instrument is knowledge of the ends
and knowledge of the means. And the development of that intelligence consists
of three steps—the power of thinking objects as desirable or undesirable, the power
of thinking actions as leading to ends, and the power of knowing objects to be
desirable and actions to be efficacious. Accordingly the first lobe of the cerebrum
should be developed to combine in thought qualities with things as their substance,
the second lobe shoal be developed to think acts in time with a view to their end,
and the third lobe should be developed to think a fact with the belief which
belongs to it as a case of a general principle.
Along with the power of thinking each of these classes of objects would come,
in a greater or less degree, in proportion to the other developments of the cerebrum
—the power of thinking their relations and comparative attributes, and that of com-
bining them with each other and with emotions, desires, and aversions.
And if it were objected to these inferences that considerable portions of the
cerebrum may be removed without any apparent mutilation of the powers of
thought, it might be observed that the acts of the mind become by association so
connected with each other, that in each thought there are many associated elements,
and that the corresponding seat of cerebral activity should be not in one but in many
localities throughout the brain. Even if some of these were removed, the action
of the others would still by association elicit and be elicited by the accustomed
impressions of the sensorium and stimulation of the centres of muscular action.
On a new Form of Microscope for Physiological Purposes.
By Ricwarp Caton, M.D.
This paper consisted of a description of a microscope modified with a view to
the easier examination of the tissues of warm-blooded animals. Hitherto the phe-
nomena of circulation &c. could only be studied in the mesentery and omentum;
this instrument is intended to render practicable the examination of other tissues,
as, for example, the subcutaneous cellular tissue and the brain-membranes. The
front half of the stage, as ordinarily constructed, is removed, so as to allow the
body of the animal to be brought into close contact with the object-glass. A small
glass trough, one third of an inch in diameter, containing salt-solution, is attached
to the centre of the stage immediately under the objective. The piece of tissue
to be examined is laid across the glass trough, and held in position by two pairs of
small stage-forceps. As the object cannot be moved about on the stage so as to
bring any part of it as required under the object-glass, a corresponding movement
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 141
is given to the body of the microscope by a simple mechanical arrangement. The
stage-trough containing salt-solution is warmed by a very simple hot-water
apparatus, the temperature being registered by a stage-thermometer in the usual
manner.
“
Preliminary Notice of an Inquiry into the Morphology of the Brain and the
Function of Hearing. By Professor Cretanp, Galway.
In this paper it was demonstrated that the flocculus is a lateral projection from
the third cerebral vesicle, and that the optic thalami are not developed in the first
cerebral vesicl® but in the constriction between it and the second. The author’s
hypothesis is, that the cerebral hemispheres are derived from the front of the first
cerebral vesicle by a process of longitudinal fission, similar to that which he had
formerly shown to take place in other cephalic structures (Phil. Trans. 1862),
that the primary optic vesicles have a closer connexion with the second than with
the first cerebral vesicle, and that the olfactory bulbs, optic vesicles, and floceuli
are serially homologous; and he judges that the flocculi are connected with the
sense of hearing.
Observations, with Graphic Illustrations, on a pair of Symmetrical Bones pre-
sent with the Fossil Remains of Iguanodon. By W. Warernousr Hawkins,
F.LS.
Note on the Development of the Columella Auris in the Amphibia.
By Professor T. H. Huxtey, F.B.S,
In his paper “On the Structure and Development of the Skull of the Common
Frog ”’ (Phil. Trans. 1871), Mr. Parker states that, in the fourth stage of the tad-
pole*, “the hyoid arch has made its second great morphological change; it has
coalesced with the mandibular pier in front and with the auditory capsule above
(plate v. figs, 1-4, and plate vi. fig. 8, s.h.m., i.h.m.). The upper part, or suprahyo-
mandibular (s.h.m.), is attached to the auditory sac much lower down and more
outward than the top of the arch in front. . . . . This upper distinct part is
small; it answers to only the upper part of the Teleostean hyomandibular; there
is a broad sub-bifid upper head answering to the two ichthyic condyles, then a
narrow neck, and then behind and below an ‘opercular process’ (op.p.). Below
this the two arches are fused together; but the hyoid part is demonstrated, just
above the commencement of the lower third, by the lunate fossa for the ‘styloid
condyle’ (plate v. figs. 2 & 4, st.h.).” (pp. 154, 155.)
In the sixth stage “the ‘suprahyomandibular ’ (fig. 3, s.hm.) has become a free
plate of cartilage of a trifoliate form” (p. 164).
In the seventh stage “the ‘suprahyomandibular,’ losing all relation to the
hyoid arch, becomes now part of the middle ear. . . . The essential element of the
middle ear, the stapes (s¢.), was seen in the fourth stage; the condyles and oper-
cular process of the hyomandibular are now being prepared to form an osseo-
cartilaginous chain from the ‘membrana tympani’ to the stapes. Under these
conditions a new nomenclature will be required; and this will be made to depend
upon the stapedial relationship of the chain, notwithstanding its different morpho-
logical origin.
“T shall now call the lobes of this trifoliate plate of cartilage as follows—namely,
the antero-superior .‘suprastapedial,’ the postero-superior ‘medio-stapedial,’ and
the freed opercular process ‘extrastapedial’ (s.st., m.st., e.st.).
“The ee (st.) sends no stalk forwards to meet the new elements, but they
grow towards it; this will be seen in the next stage.” (pp. 169, 170.)
As the question of the origin of the columella auris in the Vertebrata is one of
considerable morphological importance, I have devoted a good deal of time during
the past summer to the investigation of the development of this structure in the
frog; and it is perhaps some evidence of the difficulty of the inquiry, that my
* That is, when there is a branchial aperture only on the left side, and the hind limbs
are rudimentary or very small. ;
142 REPORT—1874,
conclusicas do not accord with those enunciated by Mr. Parker in the very excel-
lent and laborious memoir which I have cited.
I find, in the first place, that there is no coalescence of the mandibular with the
hyoidean arch, the latter merely becoming articulated with the former.
Secondly, Mr. Parker’s “suprahyomandibular” is simply an outgrowth of the
mandibular arch from that elbow or angle which it makes when the pedicle by
which it is attached to the trabecula passes into the downward and forward inclined
suspensorial portion of the arch. This outgrowth attaches itself to the periotic
capsule, and, coalescing with it, becomes the otic process, or “superior crus of the
suspensorium,” of the adult frog. a
he hyoid arch, seen in the fourth stage, elongates, and its proximal end attaches
itself to the periotic capsule in front of the fenestra ovalis, and close to the pedicle
of the suspensorium, which position it retains throughout life.
The columella auris arises as an outgrowth of a cartilaginous nodule, which
appears at the anterior and superior part of the fenestra ovalis, in front of and
above the stapes, but in immediate contact with it. It is to be found in frogs and
toads which have just lost their tails, in which the gape does not extend further
back than the posterior margin of the eye, and which have no tympanic cavity, as
a short and slender rod, which projects but very slightly beyond the level of the
stapes, its free end being continued into fibrous tissue, which runs towards the sus-
pensorium, beneath the portio dura, and represents the suspensorio-stapedial liga-
ment of the Urodela. ;
This rod elongates, and its anterior or free end is carried outwards as the tym-
pano-eustachian passage is developed. At the same time the free end becomes
elongated at right angles to the direction of the rod, and gives rise to the “ extra-
stapedial” portion, which is imbedded in the membrana tympani. Ossification
takes place around the periphery of the middle of the rod; thus the medio-stapedial
is produced. The inner portion becomes the rounded or pestle-shaped supra-
stapedial, but retains its primitive place and connexions; whence we find it in the
adult articulated in a fossa in that part of the periotic capsule which forms the
front boundary of the fenestra ovalis, but in close contact with the stapes.
The columella auris of the frog, therefore, is certainly not formed by the meta-
morphosis of any part of either the mandibular or the hyoidean arches, such as
they exist in the fourth stage of larval development.
It may be said further that the columella undoubtedly appears to be developed
from the side walls of the auditory capsule in the same way as the stapes; and
some appearances have led me to suspect that it is originally in continuity with
the stapes, but I am not quite sure that such is the case.
Are we to conclude, therefore, that the columella is a product of the periotic
capsule, such as the stapes has been assumed to be ?
Here, I think, there is considerable ground for hesitation. It appears to me
that the stapes is not so much “cut out” of the cartilaginous periotic capsule as
the result of the chondrification of a portion of that capsule which remains un-
chondrified longer than the rest.
Moreover the Urodela all possess a band of ligamentous fibres which extends
from the stapes to that part of the suspensorium with which the hyoid is connected
and to the hyoid itself. It is conceivable, and certainly not improbable, that this
stapedio-suspensorial ligament represents the dorsal extremity of the hyoidean
arch. But the columella auris in its early condition in the frog so nearly resembles
the ete aa ligament partially chondrified, that it is hard to suppose
that one is not the homologue of the other; in which case the columella, and even
the stapes itself, may, after all, represent the metamorphosed dorsal end of the
hyoidean arch or the hyomandibular of a fish. And it must be admitted that the
relation of the portio dura nerve to the hyomandibular of a ray speaks strongly in
favour of this view.
On the Development of the Eye of the Cephalopoda.
By EK. Ray Layxester, M.A.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 143
On the Tongue of the Great Anteater. By Professor Macauister, M.D.
On some Anomalous Forms of the Human Periorbital Bones.
By Professor Macatisrer, WD.
On the Influence of Food, and the Methods of supplying it to Plants and
Animals. By Professor Reprern, M.D.
On the Effects of Ozone on the Animal Economy.
By Protessor Reprery, M.D.
On the Decomposition of Eggs*. By Wii11am Tuomson, F.C.S.
Researches on this subject were commenced by the late Dr. F. Crace-Calvert and
myself about the beginning of October 1870, and continued during’ the following
18 months.
We made many series of experiments, among which I may mention first some
good whole eggs were set aside on a shelf and examined from time to time to
observe the action of ordinary atmospheric air. The shells of some set aside in
the same way were pierced by a fine needle. Some were exposed in this way to
dry and others to moist atmospheres, some to constant and others to constantly
varying temperatures. The effects were observed of placing some close to putrid
meat, and others, for the sake of comparison, in good air; the air in both cases was
kept heated to between 80° and 90° F. for many weeks. Experiments were made
by exposing them in different gases, moist and dry; some with their shells whole,
and some pierced. by a fine needle; and, lastly, the effects of placing on the shell
the dried germs of different agents of decomposition, and also of placing the eggs in
water and other solutions containing different animalcule &c. in active life, were
observed.
Besides these experiments, however, we examined rotten eggs obtained from dif-
ferent vendors at different times of the year, and the results from all may be summed
up generally as follows :—
That eggs with their shells pence are attacked and decomposed by one, two, or
all of three different agents of decomposition. The first we termed “ The Putrid
Cell,” the second “ The Vibrio” and the third “The Fungus Decompositions.”
“ The Putrid Cell” we have found to spring entirely from the yolk; and it
seems to be the morbid growth of the bioplasm, which, had the egg been hatched,
would have gone to form the blood, bone, and tissues of the chicken.
These cells gradually enlarge to several hundred times their original size, and at
the same time other cells develop in their interior, Ultimately the parent cell
bursts, and those in the interior take independent existence, and undergo the same
process of development. These cells convert oxygen into carbonic dioxide; and
in one case, where an egg, which we ultimately found to have been decomposed
solely by this agent, was enclosed in an atmosphere of oxygen contained in a
bottle of 18-ounces capacity for 118 days, only 0:2 per cent. of oxygen remained,
95:06 per cent. of carbonic dioxide and 4°74 per cent. of nitrogen, together with a
much smaller amount of other gases, were present. But oxygen is not necessary to
the growth of this peculiar ferment. In two eggs laid on the same day, which were
carefully and thoroughly varnished with shellac, and set aside on the same shelf,
exposed to the air for 1 year and 9 days, and then broken and examined, one was
found to be quite good, and free from smell or any germ of decomposition ; whilst
the other, on being struck with the point of a knife, burst open, and scattered part
of its contents in all directions. It was completely decomposed, and emitted a very
bad smell. The yolk was completely mixed up with the white; and on micro-
* Vide ‘Chemical News,’ vol. xxx. p. 159.
144 REPORT—1874.
scopical examination no other germ could be observed except multitudes of these
“putrid cells.” If this ferment be mixed with water and whole eggs immersed
therein, these cells will penetrate the shells of the eggs and develop in their con-
tents. Germs of different animalcule are generally found on the outside of the
shells of eggs; and when thus placed in water these animalculz develop and swim
about in the liquid.
In the above experiment it was remarkable to observe that four different kinds of
animalcule developed in the water in which the eggs were placed. One of these
we termed the “screw ;” it had exactly the appearance of from one and a half to
two and a half turns of a corkscrew ; its body remained rigid, and propelled itself
along by turning quickly round, on the same principle that a corkscrew penetrates
acork. The next two we termed respectively the unifilamented and bifilamented
fluke. Under the microscope they appeared like flukes, but their real appearance
resembled that of an egg. Some possessed one and some two filaments about three
times the length of themselves; and by aid of these, which they switch into a
quick peristaltic motion in front of them, they were enabled to swim quickly along.
The fourth kind was the ordinary vibrio, which, together with the putrid cell,
were the only agents of decomposition which we ever found to penetrate the shell
of a whole egg and develop in its interior. In several other experiments eggs
were left in fluids containing immense numbers of these animalcule, but in
no case did we ever find that they had been able to pass through the shell of a
whole egg.
The Vibrio-decomposition—The class of animalcule to which we give the name
of “ Vibrios” has been described in former papers by the late Dr. Crace-Calvert
before the Association. They resemble a worm in appearance. Their bodies
remain straight and rigid, and in most fluids which contain them some swim about
or move to and fro, and many are generally observed to be motionless and apparently
quite dead. The germs and dried bodies of these animalculz are wafted about in
the atmosphere, and seem to be natural to it. They are never found originally in
the contents of an egg, but are often found to be the cause of decomposition in
rotten eggs.
If the outside of the shells of eggs be kept dry from the time they are laid, this
decomposition cannot proceed, inasmuch as the dry bodies of the animalcules cannot
make their way through the shell. If, however, the shell be kept wet for some time,
the egg is certain to become putrid by the agency of the vibrio. A little of the albu-
menous contents dialyzes out, and thus gives the necessary food for the develop-
ment and growth of the vibrios or their germs, which are everywhere floating about ;
and it is only when they attain to a certain degree of vitality in the moisture on the
outside that they can make their way into the interior. These vibrios absorb oxy-
gen and give out carbonic dioxide. Eggs which are kept wet in oxygen very soon
become very putrid through this vibrio decomposition ; but in coal-gas and carbonic
dioxide the growth of the animalcule is prevented, and the egg generally remains
prod Vibrios were found in many eggs which had their shells pierced and were
ept dry ; but in some, where the shells were pierced, vibrios did not appear; the
albumen seemed to dry over the hole and close it, so that in two cases, when the
shells of the eggs were pierced, the contents dried up (no germ of pares ee
having entered) and appeared good and free from smell. The white could then
easily be cut out, and moulded between the fingers like putty.
The Fungus-decomposition—This agent of decomposition is very different to the
former two ; it is composed of fine filaments, which grow in immense numbers, and
with much rapidity, in albuminous solutions. The fungus found generally is the
Penicilium glaucum ; its spores are always found floating about in the atmosphere.
If dry eggs are placed in a constant current of air they will seldom, if ever, be
attacked by this agent of decomposition; the air-current seems to prevent them
from taking root on the shell; but if, on the other hand, they be protected from
air-currents, this fungus generally makes its appearance and penetrates the shell.
The filaments then begin to spread in all directions. In some cases all sides of the
shell are bound firmly together by these filaments, stretching from all sides; so that
the egg could not be opened by the usual modes of operation, and the shell had to
be completely torn to pieces, or the binding filaments cut with a lmife. In all cases
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 145
the filaments entwine into each other in the albuminous contents, forming themselves
into a semitransparent half-coagulated looking mass, and in many cases into a thick
coating of about the consistency of cheese. The greatest facility is afforded to this
fungus to pass through the shell when it is damp, as moisture enables the fungus to
take root; and it is remarkable that, when penetration of the shell has thus taken
lace, the calcareous matter of the shell is loosened, and when the outside is rubbed
it feels rough to the fingers. Its growth is entirely prevented by carbonic-acid gas
and coal-gas. Hydrogen and nitrogen do not permit it to grow, although they do
not seem to be actually poisonous to it. It absorbs oxygen and liberates carbonic
dioxide, so that it flourishes most luxuriantly in the former gas. Eggs decomposed
by the Penicilium-tilaments emit no smell, as the round spores do not develop under
liquids or at the parts to which the filaments penetrate; but the spores soon begin
to grow from the surface of any of the filaments exposed to the air, and the egg
then begins to exhale a mouldy smell.
The filaments decompose the albumen, and liberate, among other products, a large
roportion of nitrogen, which we have ascertained beyond doubt by enclosing eggs,
in specially fitted bottles, in atmospheres of pure oxygen. As an example, on ana-
lysis of the resulting gas in one experiment, we found :—
per cent,
OxcyHonininien val eisieialas nce Persil Fe 48:06
Nate penrdseyh ess. pleas 3) 8tiiats aside 10°15
@arbonicidioxide: 2... css ete cs ee « 41°79
100:00
Lastly, we found that eggs placed in water containing the spores of this ferment
mixed up with it were not attacked by them.
ANTHROPOLOGY.
[For Sir William Wilde’s Address see page 116.]
On Modern Ethnological Migrations in the British Isles.
By Dr. Buppor, F.R.S,
Various causes have led in our own times to an extensive amount of migration of
our people, executed peaceably, gradually, and by individuals or by families. In
Britain a constant stream of population sets towards the capital, to a great extent
from distant counties, and including a considerable proportion of the upper and
middle classes. Elsewhere in Britain, and in Europe generally, the migration, as
a rule, takes place from poor to rich districts, from ill-employed to busy, from hilly
to plain, from rural to oppidan, from healthy to unhealthy districts. The effect of
mere proximity is often overborne by other circumstances. In Scotland there are
two currents—one towards England and the other towards Glasgow. It is the
more Celtic of our people that form the masses which are attracted to our large
towns. Thus Glasgow receives a rapid influx of Irishmen and Highlanders. In
Edinburgh the case is different, although there the Celtic element is strong in the
lower classes. In Liverpool this element is strengthened by constant Irish, Welsh,
and Scotch immigration. Irish blood abounds in most of the colliery districts of
the north of England. London has not a large proportion of Irishmen. In Ireland
itself Dublin was formerly, but Belfast is now, the great focus of attraction; and
even many of the smaller towns have attracted to themselves the neighbouring
Celtic population.
On the Peoples between India and China.
By Sir Groner Camrsett, K.C.S..
1874. 11
146 REPORT—1874.
Note on the River-Names and Populations of Hibernia, and their Relation to
the Old World and America. By Hype Crarxe.
Having pointed out that a Celtic explanation for rivers in these islands is not
allsufficient, he called attention to the circumstance that the same names as in Ire-
land and Britain were found in Ancient India and elsewhere. Thus, Tamaros
and Tamarus, Tava and Tava, Tina and Tyna, Senus (Shannon) and Sonus, Tamesa
and Adamas, Tamion and Temala, Ausoba (Moy) and Sobanus, Ravius and Arabius,
Tobios and Attabas. Beyond this he referred to the conformity of these British and
Indian names with those of ancient civilized America, as Tamaros and Tamar, Senus
and Stnw, Ausoba and Sibu, Tamion and Tamoin, in compliance with the general
fact of the almost identity of Indian and Peruvian names. This was referable, not
to the Pheenicians, but to that much earlier period of civilization of the Sumir and
Accad in Babylonia, and to be called Sumirian, when the world was of one official
speech, and great monumental cities were raised by people speaking allied languages
in Southern Europe, Asia Minor, Babylonia, India, Indo-China, Peru, and Mexico.
To this epoch were to be referred the gold ornaments of Ireland and the fire-worship
of Baaltin, and perhaps the round towers in their origin. With regard to the very
yaried population of Ireland, beyond Celtic, English, and the Basque, or so-called
Iberian types, Mr. Clarke considered it should be compared for higher and lower
Caucasian types. He recommended a close inyestigation of the names of places.
Note on the Phenician Inscription of Brazil. By Hype Crarxe.
The author doubted its authenticity on internal evidence, as King Hiram would
not send an expedition from Eziongeber on the Red Sea to America. The Atlantic
and Pacific Oceans, Australia, North and South America were known in the earliest
stages of learning in Babylonia, and were distinctly taught in the doctrine of the
Four Worlds by the School of Pergamos, and which lingered till the discoveries of
Columbus. The Canaanites were of the same speech as those allied to Sumir and
Accad of Babylonia, who had spread civilization throughout the world, and had occu-
pied and founded Peru and Mexico. Although the knowledge only existed in a
misunderstood tradition among the Greeks and Romans, it was accessible to the
Pheenicians ; and Hiram would have despatched his expeditions from Tyre, or
from Spain, and not from Eziongeber.
The Agaw Race in Caucasia, Africa, and South America.
By Hypr Crarxe.
The author gave a copious account of this family of languages as one of those
which denoted a general migration throughout the world. He first examined the
Abkhass of Caucasia, which he identified with the Achaia Vetus. Of this branch
he gave a detailed account, suggesting that they were the Havilah of Genesis, the
Akaiusha of the Egyptians, and that they gave name to the people known in Greece
as Achivi, and in the west as Aquitani. Passing to the Nile region, he compared
the language and grammar of the Agaw and of the Falasha or Black Jews. In
India, he referred to the Kajunah and Gadaba as possibly allied. Tracing the
migration across the Pacific, he showed how widely spread the language is, under
the names of Guarani and Omagua, in Brazil and Paraguay, driven forward by the
Aymara and Inca empires of the after-Sumirian migration.
Mr. Clarke suggested that some of the earlier river-names of the Old World and
America were Agaw, referring to Iberus, Siberis, Tiberis, Liparis, Baris, Para,
Parana, Parahyba, Paraguay. The Agaw race had never constituted cities and
kingdoms ; such belonged to the later Sumirian epoch. In South America,
although covering such a vast extent, the people were in the same political con-
dition as in Abyssinia or Caucasia.
———— a |
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 147
A Note on Circassian and Etruscan. By Hyon Crake,
The author found that the Circassi 11 was closely related to the Otomi, Tarahu-
mara, Cora, and Huasteca of Mexico. This Circassian migration must have pre-
ceded that of the Sumirians across the Pacific, of the Aymaras and Incas in Peru,
of the Maya in Yucatan, and the Aztek in Mexico. At an historical period the
Otomis are found turning back and attacking the Mexican kingdoms. The relation-
ship of Otomi to the languages is distant, but yet showing the same affinities as
Circassian does to the Sumirian group in the Old World, and notably to Etruscan.
The Etruscan he regarded as distinctly Sumirian, on the evidence of its words, its
grammatical forms, its numerals, mythology, and topographical names. The par-
ticle td was found in Circassian and in Etruscan languages.
A Preliminary Note on the Classification of the Akka and Pygmy Languages
of Africa, By HypE Crarxe.
This was an inquiry undertaken at the request of the Italian Geographical Society
with regard to the dwarfs seen by Schweinfurth, Miani, and Professor Owen, and
now at Naples. The language is not related to the languages of the Bushmen,
Mincopies, Fuegians, Shoshons, and other short races... It conformed to that of the
Obongo, the discovery of which by Du Chaillu in West Africa had been discredited,
but was thus confirmed. Its other African relations were with the Moko, Rungo,
Gonga, Ankaras, and Wuni; for besides the Pygmies of the Nile, the ancients had
referred to Pygmies in India. Mr. Clarke had made a special examination and
found traces of Akka and Obongo where they would naturally be distributed among
the Garos, the Nagas, and the Gadaba, Savara, &e. The African types were di-
stinctly traceable in languages related to the Carib in South America, as Baniwa,
Ueanambeu, Tocantins, &c. It is evident, however, that the shorter races and
languages are mixed up with those of more powerful Dahomans and Caribs, which
will have to be divided, The Akka words for woman are of the most ancient type,
and preserved by us and other civilized races to this day. The whole formation is
rehistoric. Thus tooth, tusk, horn, and bone atford the names for elephant and
ull, and leg for fowl.
With regard to the neighbours of the Akka, the Niam-Niam, Mr. Clarke stated
that the course of the migration was that of the boomerang (of Col. Lane Fox) in
a line of legends of cannibals, filed teeth and tailed men from Africa, through the
Australasian archipelago to Australia.
On the Distribution of the Races of Men inhabiting the Jummoo and Kashmir
Territories. By Freprric Drew, £.G.S., P.R.GS.
From their position at the very north-west corner of India, at that part of its
mountain barrier which has been the seat probably of some of the earliest settle-
ments of the races which now form the chief part of the population of India, these
territories both present ethnological problems of the deepest interest, and afford a
rare store of facts available for their solution. In this paper the author desires to
contribute some facts from his own observation without attempting much in the
way of inference from them.
In the enumeration of the races the principle is adopted of taking them as they
exist now in communities having common characteristics (what may be called
nations, eventhough they may not in most cases possess political unity), and not
the principle of tracing out each caste in the various localities. For instance,
among the Dogris, Paharis, and Kashmiris, there are many of the Brahman caste,
and to the two former several other castes are common. ‘The tracing of each caste
through the various nations in the hope of throwing light on their origin would
be an interesting task, but the author has not been able to collect materials for
it. He has taken the broad distinctions of communities as they actually exist, and
mapped them village by village.
The distribution, as well as the characteristics, of the different es is much
148 REPORT—1874.
affected by the physical features of the country. Geographical, the first division
is to be drawn between those on the south-west side and those on the north-west
side of the snowy range which makes the watershed between the Chinab and
Jhelam rivers on the one hand and the Upper Indus on the other.
In the basins of the Chinab and Jhelam (in the latter of which is included the
country of Kashmir) are found the four races—Dogrdas, Pahdris, Kashmiris, and
Chibhdalis, All these are of Aryan origin, and, though differing among each other,
have all a countenance of distinct Aryan type.
The Dogras occupy certain portions of the outer ranges of the Himalayas, from
the foot of the hills at a level of 1000 feet above the sea to heights of 3000 and
yer 3s 4000 feet. They are a race of fair height, but slim; active, but not power-
ul. They have well-formed and rather delicate features. Their complexion is of
a brown colour, like that of the almond-husk, but rather darker. They are divided
up into castes, in great part corresponding with those found among the other Hindus.
The Paharis* occupy the higher mountains next beyond ; their dwellings are at
heights from 3000 or 4000 feet up to 9000 or 10,000 feet ; they are, moreover, in
some cases, situated between mountains of much greater altitude. The men of this
race are stronger, of a more powerful frame, than the Dogras, but still they are
active. They have good features, thoroughly Aryan, a good brow, and a decidedly
hooked nose. Both in appearance and disposition they are very different from the
Dogras; their habitat among the hills where snow falls has been the cause of many
differences both in their customs and their nature.
In the Kashmiris, whose race is the next to be mentioned, the differences which
existed between the Dogras and the Paharis (at all events as far as physique is con-
cerned) are carried further. The Kashmiris have a very powerful frame, broad
shoulders, muscular backs, and strong limbs. In feature they present probably the
best form of the Aryan type of countenance. They commonly have a high and wide
ei a square brow, and a well-shaped nose, which in the older people becomes
curved,
The Kashmiris occupy their own enclosed valley of Kashmir, and have spread
from it somewhat and formed isolated colonies, both in the neighbouring hills and
at a greater distance.
Inquiry has at different times been instituted about the Kashmiri language, and
a good deal of information has been given, both as to its vocabulary and its grammar,
notably by Mr. Bowring, Sir George Campbell, and Dr. Elmslie. The author is not
in a position to add to this; but he wishes to point out what has hitherto not been
observed, that the Kashmiri is one of a group of languages or dialects. The
Paharis before described speak not one but several dialects, and these are closely
connected with Kashmiri. One of these may be reckoned as about halfway between
Dogri and Kashmiri (Dogri itself being connected with Panjabi and Hindi), while
other of these dialects approach still more closely to Kashmiri. Some special cha-
racteristics of that language, such as the occurrence of ¢s and z, where in Hindi
dialects ch and j would occur, are found in all the Pahari languages.
We thus find that, in language as well as in physique, a passage more or less
gradual can be traced from the Dogras, through the Paharis, to the Kashmiris,
To understand our next division, we must first consider the religion of those races
that have been enumerated.
Of the Dogras, by far the larger portion are Hindus. The Paharis are almost
entirely Hindus. The Kashminis, originally Hindis, have been so far Muhamma-
danized that perhaps only one tenth remain of their old faith, and nine tenths
are followers of Muhammad.
Now the Chibhdalis, our next race, are all Muhammadans. They consist of people
of two, or possibly of three, of the former divisions who have ‘become Muhamma-
dan and have acquired, partly from that reason, and partly from geographical sepa-
ration, such characteristics as may now entitle them to be called a race. The
Chibhalis extend from the outermost hills between the Chinab and Jhelam rivers
northwards over mountains of 8000 and 10,000 feet in height. Those in the
* The word Pahari means in the Hindi dialects “mountaineer.” The Dogras, how-
ever, commonly restrict the use of it to denote the particular race in question, and I follow
the practice for want of another name,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 149
southern part of this area are distinctly Dogris who have been converted to Muham-
madanism. Further north they seem to have been originally more like the Paharis.
Yet further north, those called in this paper Chibhalis have possibly a greater
ethnological connexion with the Kashmiris.
We have now reached the high mountains. These are so lofty and inaccessible
that the inhabitants are restricted to the valleys which ramify among them.
Here to the north and north-east of the snowy range we find one race of
Aryan origin, the Dards. These Dards, as has been shown by an examination of
their languages (into which Dr. Leitner, if not the first, has been by far the most
complete and successful inquirer), and as can be inferred from their physiognomy,
are of Aryan origin. Into these territories they came from the north-west, gradually
migrating ; their furthest point in a southerly direction is four days’ march short of
the capital of Kashmir; in reaching this they spread over the watershed into the
basin of one of the tributaries of the Jhelam; to the south-east also spreading
they reached to within the boundary of Ladakh. Their villages are at levels from
4000 feet high (in the Indus valley near to Gilgit) wp to 10,000 feet.
The Dards are tall men, broad-shouldered, and well-proportioned ; they are bold
and active mountaineers. They have a good cast of countenance, though they
seldom reach to the degree of being handsome. Their hair is generally black, but
sometimes brown; in this they show a difference from all the other races we have
dealt with, among whom black hair is, the author believes, universal. Their eyes
are either brown or hazel; he does not think that he has seen any blue.
For religion, the Dards of these territories had formerly an idolatry of which we
know little, and which may or may not have resembled that of the Hindus. They
have now become for the most part Muhammadan; but a few villages, from their
contact with the Ladakhis (a contact probably that occurred before the introduction
of Muhammadanism), have adopted the Buddhist faith.
We now leave the Aryan and come to three subdivisions of the Tibetan race.
People of this race extend all along the Indus valley and into the various tri-
butary valleys from Chinese Tibet down to below Skardu. At one spot only within
the territories we are treating of are they found on the south side of the snowy
range. These Tibetans must have come from the south-east, where the main mass
of their race now live. They must have come, in search of a livelihood, across a
long stretch of uninhabitable country. As they reached parts of the Indus valley
fit for grazing and for dwelling in, they stayed with their flocks, herds, and tents.
Again, they found their way further down the valley to where cultivation was
practicable, and there they became agricultural.
Of our three subdivisions all speak dialects of the same Tibetan tongue, and all
have something of the Tibetan or Chinese cast of features. There are, first, the
Champas, those on the south-east; these are still nomadic tent-dwellers ; they
have sheep and goats and yaks; they occupy high-level valleys at altitudes of 14,000
and 15,000 feet, changing their camp according as the season of the year gives most
pasture in one place or another,
Next are the Ladakhis, settled Tibetans, dwellers in villages at heights of from
13,000 down to 10,000 feet.
The people of these two subdivisions, the Chimpas and the Ladakhis, are
Buddhists.
The third subdivision is the Balti race. The Baltis were formerly the same as
the Ladakhis, but now they so far differ from them that they have become Muham-
madan, and have acquired peculiarities that arise from the customs which that
religion brings with it.
Thus with these various races has been filled up the space, all or nearly all the
habitable ground, of the territories named.
Of the bearing of the facts of distribution on the general question of the mode of
peopling of these countries, little more can at present be said than that it seems
quite clear that the Tibetans came into the area we are dealing with from the
south-east, and that the Dards came into it from the north-west and north. Of the
four races enumerated on the south side of the snowy range, the comse of migra-
tion is not plain. But it is something to know the connexion that exists between
each of them—to know that, in spite of the differences, one can pass, not very gra-
150 REPORT—1874.
dually, perhaps, but still withont any great break, from the Kashmiris to the Dogras,
who themselves are related not distantly to the people of the plains of India. _
The races spoken of are those which make the great majority of the population
of the various districts mapped. In some parts these are mixed up with the small
numbers of the remnants of the pre-Aryan inhabitants. Among the Dogris and
Paharis, the tribes or castes called (in ascending order of social position) Dums,
Meghs, and Dhiyars are of this older blood. Among the Kashmiris, a low caste,
called “ Batal,” seem from their position and occupations to have a similar origin.
The Dards also, and the Tibetans as well, contain certain classes whose partial
social separation from the others may denote that they have sprung from such an
old source; but if so, they have become much more nearly allied, by mixing of
blood, to the Dards and Tibetans respectively, whom they live with, than is the
case with the low castes among the Dogras. :
Maps illustrating the subject of this paper have been prepared, one of which,
enlarged, was shown to the Section. The author desired it to be understood
that it was chiefly the information on geographical distribution of the races as
laid down on this map that was original ; the enumeration of most of the races had
been made by previous authors; especially was acknowledgment due to Sir G,
Campbell’s paper “On the Ethnology of India” in the Journal of the Asiatic
Society of Bengal.
The Degeneracy of Man. By the Rev. Josrrn Enxins, Peking, China.
This paper was divided into four sections. In the first the question was stated.
Races occupying a continent are more civilized than those which inhabit islands
at a great distance from continents. The intellect of nations sinks in power under
geographical conditions of an unfavourable nature.
The influences which tend to improve the human race and aid its progress
were enumerated, viz. genial climate, intercourse with civilized races, religious
training, the discovery of metals, &c.
The unfavourable influences were then detailed, viz. loss of knowledge, restricted
acquaintance with nature, &c.
Asia was probably the birthplace of the whole human family ; and the question
is, therefore, whether the inhabitants of Polynesia, America, and Africa are not
all degraded Asiatics, and the Europeans improved Asiatics.
To help in solving this question linguistic, moral, ‘social, and religious facts
must be collected and compared.
This paper simply drew together a few facts from China, Polynesia, and America.
Though the question of degeneracy chiefly affects savages, the paper stated that
there were some things in regard to China which deserved consideration.
The second section treated of China. China, though isolated by the Tartarian
desert and the mountains of Tibet, showed vestiges of communication with the
west, both recently and in extreme antiquity.
The old signs of connexion with Westérn Asia were the cycle of sixty, made by
the combinations of ten and twelve, a dual philosophy, a hebdomadal division
of time, a doctrine of five elements, which require us to assume ancient connexions
with Babylon, ‘I'o these should be addéd the arts of weaving, writing, astronomical
calculations, divination, agriculture, which seem to show that Chinese primeval
civilization was certainly not self-originated.
Subsequently the degeneracy of China was prevented by the opening up of
communication with the west and by other causes, such as the establishment of
education through the country.
The extension of the Chinese empire, so as to embrace Turkestan and Cochin
China, about 1900 years ago, and the introduction of Buddhism, which taught the
Chinese Hindoo science, and with it Greek science, powerfully tended to prevent
the decline of the Chinese intellect.
It was then pointed out that China has been a civilizing mother to all the neigh-
bouring nations. Corea was civilized, and J apan through Corea, The coins, paper
money, politics, and arts of Japan are all copies of Chinese types.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 151
The fruitfulness of Chinese civilization among all her neighbours should lead us
to expect that its influence has reached much further, viz. among the islands of the
Pacific and on the American continent.
The third section treated of Polynesia. Hindoo ideas of religion and cosmogony
penetrated beyond Java into some of the Polynesian islands. Chinese navigators
used to make voyages to Ceylon and still more distant points in the Indian Ocean.
A thousand years before Christ there was extensive commerce in the Indian Ocean
carried on by the various inhabitants of western nations.
The extension of the Malay and Polynesian languages from the Sandwich Islands
to Madagascar should be looked at in the light of this fact. The military enter-
prises, mercantile activity, and spread of the arts in the Indian and Pacific Oceans
of that time are lost to history; but the sculptured remains in Haster Island, the
striking indications of Semitic influence, and the existence anciently of a higher
knowledge of navigation than now indicate degeneracy in the Polynesians.
The knowledge of their own traditions is rapidly disappearing, as shown in the
experience of missionaries resident in t'1¢ islands. The Rey. W. Gill, of Mangaia, by
great effort obtained amounts of old cosmological and mythological beliefs, and he
is now the sole depository of them, the old people that supplied them having died
and left no disciples to transmit the knowledge of them. This is proof that the
knowledge of these islanders tends to become more and more circumscribed as the
ages roll on.
The Polynesians all count, or could once count, to a hundred, and did so when
their ancestors spoke a common language. This is proof of former high civilization ;
for decimal notation, though consistent with savage life when isolation has caused
degeneracy, always bespeaks civilization in the time of a nation’s early history.
If the Polynesians, as these facts show, were formerly civilized, it was because
of their connexion with Asia. That connexion is proved by identity of customs
and beliefs with those of Asia ; for example, the practice of circumcision in Tonga
with other Semitic customs, the belief in paradises and a pantheon, which remind
the inquirer of India. Their language has words arranged in a Semitic order,
agreeing also with the order of words in the Siamese and Annamite languages.
The Polynesians avoid the mention of the proper name of persons held in honour.
Their honorific phraseology is in this and other respects very like the Chinese.
Among the Chinese linguistic peculiarities found in the languages of Polynesia
may be mentioned the extensive use of numeratives between numbers and nouns,
asin the Ponapean. This is not Aryan, nor Semitic, nor Ural Altaic ; but is both
Chinese and Polynesian, and exists extensively in the Caroline Islands, Itisa
fact of the greatest importance in the linguistic part of the argument.
The logic may here be reversed. The connexion with Asia being proved, dege-
neracy is proved too. Among the races of Asia the northern were in one respect
inferior to the Polynesians, as shown by the want of identity in names of number.
The fourth section was on America. The geometrically constructed mounds in
North America prove deterioration. ;
In America the facts are mixed ; in Polynesia they are of one kind. In America
the facts point to North Asia and to South Asia; in Polynesia the facts point to
Southern Asia only.
In America the art of writing, belief in paradises and future punishment, the use
of idols in temples, &c. indicate connexion with Southern Asia; so also traditions
of the deluge and certain linguistic laws.
The best hypothesis for the origin of the Mexican and Peruvian civilization is
an immigration within the tropics and across the Pacific. The small islands of
the Pacific represent much larger tracts which have at some unknown epoch
become submerged. The ancient civilization of Polynesia points out the path by
which the higher products of the intellect in the form of civilized ideas and customs
could most conveniently find their way to America.
The Mexican idea of the deluge is of South-Asiatic origin. The Mexican pictures,
idols, and temples resemble those of Southern Asia rather than those of China.
The doctrine of future punishments, as believed by North-American tribes, is
more like the ideas of Southern Asia.
The Northern Asiatic languages have strongly marked peculiarities, which are
152 REPORT—1874.
found in some of the most widely-spread Indian languages. Professor Rochrig, in
his tract on the Dacota language, points out the intensitive in adjectives as a remark-
able instance of resemblance in that Indian tongue to the Mongol.
Dacota: sa-pa, black; sap-sa-pa, very black.
Mongol: hara, black; hab-hara, very black.
While the Dacota resembles in many respects a Tartar language, it places the ad-
jective after the substantive, in which respect it departs from the Northern Asiatic
type, and follows the Polynesian, the Siamese, and the Semitic.
It is this mixture of linguistic principles which forms the key to solve the problem
of the origin of the North-American languages. The Dacota language is now
accessible to ethnological inquiry in the exceptionally good dictionary and grammar
of the Rey. 8. R. Riggs, both included in the Smithsonian series. A predominant
Tartar structure is the basis of the language; a limited Polynesian element, with
certain features of home growth, form the remainder of the type. The facts of the
Dacota are fatal to the theory of some American philologists, who, on @ priori and
unscientific grounds, refuse to recognize the possibility of a common origin to the
Ural, Altaic, and Dacota languages.
The author proceeded to say that a remarkable instance of mixture occurs in the
case of the Algonquins, in recent times the most widely spread of the North-
American races. Their language is fundamentally of the northern Asiatic type, as
may be seen in Howse’s grammar of the Cree; and they have the adjective in its
right place, but they are more Indian and less Asiatic than the Dacota. In regard
to religion, however, they have mixed elements. The offerings to ancestors are
Northern Asiatic and Chinese, Their view of the future state isso much of the
Southern Asiatic type, that it embraces transmigration, which was unknown to
China and Tartary before the spread of Buddhism.
The Patagonian religion, as recently described by M. Glardon, is strikingly like
that of Siberian tribes, and he grounds upon their beliefs an eloquent defence of the
doctrine of the unity of the human race.
The paper concluded with the statement that whether the Mexicans be compared
with the Southern Asiatics or the existing Indian tribes with the Mongols and
Turks, the process alike gives proof of degeneracy.
Longevity at Five score eleven Years.
By Sir G. Duncan Grsz, Bart., M.D., LL.D.
The author had brought forward nine examplesat the previous meeting of the Asso-
ciation of persons who had overstepped the century by several years; and now his
tenth instance of a female still living at Tring, in Hertfordshire, who had attained
her hundred and eleventh birthday in April last, was given. He first gave some
tables, carefully compiled by Mr. Henry Rance, of Cambridge, containing 84 in-
stances of persons whose age extended from 107 to 175; 40 of these were under
130, and 44 above that age; and he considered that three fourths of the total
number might be taken as correct. The proof of that was the instance he brought
forward of Mrs. Elizabeth Leatherlund, now alive in her 111th year, the baptism
of whom was given from the register of the parish of Dover in Kent. This was
further confirmed by the drowning of her son and his family, and other persons, to
the number of thirty-seven, at Hadlow in Kent in 1853, in the hop country, by a
catastrophe mentioned and described in the papers of the time. Her son was
then 59, and if now alive would have been 80, his birth occurring when his
mother was 29 or 30, Other corroborative circumstances were stated, clearly
establishing the great age of the old dame, who was of gipsy descent. The author
then described her condition, the result of a careful personal examination at Tring in
October 1873. She walked with the aid of a stick, was short in stature, bent with
age, complexion brownish, countenance a series of thick folds, and she had several
sound teeth. She chatted away continually in a clear distinct voice, and was in
possession of all her faculties, though somewhat impaired. She is a little deaf,
takes snuff, her skin was as soft as velvet, and her hair quite grey. She was thin,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 153
and the muscles of her neck stood out in bold relief. All her internal organs were
in perfect health, lungs, heart, &c., and her pulse was as regular and soft as in a girl
of 18. In fact the changes of old age, as met with in persons from 70 to 80, had
not taken place in any of the tissues of the body, being thus similar to the nine
other cases examined by the author. She was, of course, feeble ; but,taking all things
together, that did not prevent her reaching to her present exceptionally great age.
Her age, the author said, taught us two lessons—one was the absence of senile
changes for the most part in centenarians, which was the chief reason of their
attaining to such a great age; the other the occurrence now and then of instances
wherein even six score years is reached, if not more. To ignore all past cases of
extreme ultra-centenarian longevity because we cannot get at their proofs at the
present day, he considered unphilosophical and unscientific ; for there existed as con-
scientious and painstaking inquirers after truth then as exist now, whose statements
= recorded facts must not be wholly ignored, as every honest investigator well
nows.
Notes on the rude Stone Monuments of the Khasi Hill Tribes.
By Major H. H. Gopwin-Avsten, F.R.G.S. Se.
In continuation of previous communications on these monuments, the author
gave some further details derived from another visit to the Khasi Hills. He
described the monoliths standing in the village of Nougshai, near Shillong. At-
tention was also directed to the cairns in the Khasi Hills. These cairns are to be
seen only on the north side of the Khasi plateau. Similar cairns were, however,
observed by the author near North Munipur.
On the Character and Distribution of rudely worked Flints in the Counties of
Antrim and Down. By W. Gray, MBIA.
Origin and Characteristics of the People in the Counties of Down and Antrim ;
an Ethnological Sketch. By the Rev. Canon Hume, D.C.L., LL.D.
Omitting all but a passing notice of the early inhabitants of the district, the
writer started from the beginning of the seventeenth century. The resident Irish
were then one assimilated, if not a homogeneous people; and the English and
Scotch immigrants formed two other great constituents. The former were traced
from the shore of the channel at Carrickfergus, past Lisburn, and along by the
Lagan and Bann and the shores of Lough Neagh; while the latter passed inland,
from the projecting points of Galloway and Cantyre, by Donaghadee and Carrick-
fergus. These were known respectively, until within the last few years, as the
English and Scotch districts, the native Irish occupying the mountains and bogs.
In illustration of the general subject, the writer referred in detail to numerous
topics, showing that the characteristics are preserved to this hour with more or less
distinctness. ‘Thus the names of townlands are often translated, and their English
equivalents used; but in a far greater number of instances a family surname is
affixed to Bally, Dun, Rath, Fort, or Lisna. And the surnames themselves are
curious, those of English, Irish, and Scotch origin occupying their respective
localities, though some, like Moore, Smith, Thomson, Hamilton, Johnson, and
Patterson, are widely diffused. In other instances, especially in the Irish districts,
articular names are confined within narrow local limits, like the names of the
Highland clans. In their case also epithets become surnames, especially those
indicative of complexion, so that new surnames, such as Roe and Bawn, arise like
Roy and Dhu in Scotland. Surnames are also translated, so that many persons
have two distinct names, an Irish one and an English one, as M°Gurnaghan,
Gordon ; Hamish, James; M*Elshender, Alexander; M¢Fetrich, Fitzpatrick. The
evidence from manners and customs is very marked. There are the three types of
houses and furniture, and even the food is different. The Englishman only is a
gardener, regularly plants trees, or cultivates the apple; he occasionally drinks
154 REPORT—1874..
cider and mead, while the Scotchman rejoices in brose, porridge, and oateake, and
the Irishman is confined to the use of the potato and some cheap condiment.
So lately as 1820 Ivish was spoken occasionally in the mountainous districts of
both counties, and broad Scotch near the coast and in a direct line inland ; while in
the English district Shakspeare was read without the help of a glossary, and the
expressions in ‘ L’Allegro’ and ‘Il Penseroso’ were those of daily life. Now much
of this has passed away, and there is a well-defined provincial dialect, but with very
marked local differences. There is a large amount of traditional ballad poetry, and
many of the pieces which were published by Percy and Scott are well known to
hundreds who never saw them in print. But the most permanent difference is
found in the creeds of the people, for time does not appear to effect any appreciable
change, In large and in small districts, not only here but in all Ireland, the rule
is for one of the three religious communities to amount to more than 50 per cent,
_ of the gross population; the exception is for the three to exist in approximately
equal number. The Irish as a whole are Roman Catholics, the Scotch are Presby-
terians, and the English’Protestant Episcopalians. Inthe county of Down one creed
preponderates in 81 per cent. of the places which were separately enumerated in 1861 ;
in the province of Ulster the percentage is 78, and in all Ireland 86. Though this
variety of population is sometimes attended with inconvenience, as in the case of
popular riots, it is on the whole beneficial, by the sustained rivalship, not of indi-
viduals merely, but of large associations of men. And the writer pointed with
confidence to the state of the district in corroboration of his sentiments,
P On the Anthropology of Prehistoric Peru.
By T. J. Hurcurson, F.R.GS., late H.B.M. Consul for Callao.
This memoir was illustrated by photographs, diagrams, and sketches of many
ruins of prehistoric Peru. With these were illustrations of several items of Mr.
Hutchinson’s collection of Peruvian antiquities, now being exhibited at the Bethnal
Green Museum in London. The paper commenced by recording how little is
known up to the present of the glorious days of Peru, long before the time of the
Incas ; and the author conveyed his agreement with Mr. Baldwin as to the original
South-Americans (notably those of Peru) being the oldest people on that continent.
It proceeded to show how little dependence was to be placed on the romantic
gasconading of the Spanish writers, with regard to the Incas, of whose fabulous
origin and mythological genealogy no account was traced by them to a period
further back than about seven centuries ago, or close to the time when William the
Conqueror came to England. It likewise discussed the writings of various authors
of whose works translations have been recently published by the Hakluyt Society,
showing them to be full of anomalies and contradictions, in the vain attempt to
make the Incas be considered the earliest civilized race of Peru. The grandeur
in extent of the ancient burial-mounds was a wonderful thing. It was shown by
the diagrams and illustrations, The colossal work of those done by human hands
(and some of them measuring from 20 to 24 millions of cubic feet) proved what
a superior race these early Peruvians must haye been. The difference in morale,
as in physique, of modern Peruvians and Chinese was commented upon to sug=
gest that there could not have been (though supposed by very high authority)
a homogeneity of origin. The paper further made a comparison of the burial-
mounds explored by ‘Messrs. Squier and Davis in the valleys of the Ohio and
Mississippi, with those examined by the author in Peru. This showed the greater
magnitude of the works in the latter country as regarded their size, although in
mathematical construction both presented a similarity. A curious feature in the
Peruvian mounds, as well as ruins of fortresses, consists in the fact that their
terraces, bastions, squares, and other architectural features have an almost invari-
able measurement in multiples of twelve. The prehistoric ruins of Peru, described
by Professor Raimondy in his recent work on the mineral riches of the department
of Ancachs, were mentioned as highly interesting. Extraordinary things are the
tombs cut out in the solid rock. But more wonderful still is the fact that these
are of a stony formation, entirely different to the geology of the neighbourhood in
which they are found, thus evidencing that these immense boulders, which are of
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 155
diorite, though invariably observed amongst sandstone strata, have been brought
over the mountains and through the valleys of these apparently impassable Andes,
The modus operandi of such transport is as yet an insoluble problem. One of the
rock graves is described as fashioned in the shape of an egg (cut crossways), the
upper part serving as a lid to cover the body when deposited within. The author
concludes that, until a better system shall be adopted of examining ruins of burial-
grounds, mounds, and fortresses than has hitherto prevailed, the most we can learn
of prehistoric Peru will be little better than guesswork, dreaming, and speculation.
The paper touched on the hyperbolical stories about Peruvian gold (rich though
the country is in minerals), on the ancient navigation by Aalsas, and the wonderful
works in art and manufacture of the early Peruvians :—“ One of these primary tribes
_of people who, leaving no chronicle or history behind them but their works, have
gradually disappeared from the face of the earth by some of those mysterious and
inscrutable laws which Divine Providence dispenses for the rise and fall of the
races of mankind.” The author added that in the ‘ Guide to Belfast’ compiled by
members of the Belfast Naturalists’ Field-Club for the use of members of the
British Association, the following statement was made at page 194, under the head
of “Sepulchral Monuments :”—‘ The popular idea is that all or nearly all the old
forts were constructed by the Danes; but this is quite erroneous. The greater
number of our ancient national monuments were erected hundreds of years before
the landing of the Danes in Ireland.” Just such a popular and erroneous idea as
this existed in Peru with reference to the great works there being accredited to the
Incas, whereas they were daily finding out that they were erected, like the Irish
forts and mounds, hundreds if not thousands of years before there was an Inca in
the land. He added that the process of inhumation used in prehistoric times in
Treland seemed to have been the same as in Peru.
A Glimpse of Prehistoric Times in the North of Ireland.
By Wr11aM James Know zs.
In many parts of the north of Ireland, especially along the sea-coast, quantities
of flint flakes are found, collected together or lying scattered about, supposed to be
the remains of flint-implement manufactories. Recently there have been found by
the author at Portstewart, co. Derry, mixed up with such flakes, between 500
and 600 manufactured articles, such as scrapers, arrowheads, &c., together with
fragments of broken pottery, numerous bones and teeth of horse, ox, dog, &c., and
shells mostly of the same species as are now found along the sea-shore in that
neighbourhood. The objects are found in pits excavated by the wind among sand-
hills about a mile from Portstewart, and near the mouth of the River Bann, and
have fallen to the bottom of those pits out of blackened layers seen on the sides.
These blackened layers represent the ancient surface at the time the place was
occupied by the prehistoric races, and are now covered over with sand from about
10 to 30 feet in thickness. The wind removes the sand as the sides of the pits
crumble down, leaving the flakes, manufactured articles, teeth, and bones in the
bottom. Scrapers amount to about 60 per cent. of the manufactured articles,
arrowheads only 2 per cent.; and the great preponderance of scrapers and paucity of
arrowheads was accounted for on the grounds that scrapers were easier of manu-
facture than arrowheads, and flakes suitable for the manufacture of the one were
more abundant than those that would do for the other. Besides, scrapers would
likely be employed in the preparation of skins for clothing; and that being a home
operation many of them would be found, while arrowheads would be used at a
distance, and therefore would not be so likely to be found near the place of manu-
facture. Several scrapers with concave scraping-edges were found, and are supposed.
to have been used in stripping bark off young branches for the purpose of curing
skins, or for touching up portions of the skin after being gone over by the scraper
by laying it over the finger. A number of hammer-stones of quartzite, two flat
circular stones with ‘holes in the centre, one whole but very pore stone celt, and a
portion of a broken one were found; but it is rather remarkable that no trace of
any thing resembling a flint axe was found in a place where flakes, cores, and manu-
156 REPORT— 1874.
factured flint implements are so abundant. The flint used appears to be rolled
flints gathered on the shore; but if the prehistoric races of the north of Ireland
were the flint-implement manufacturers for the whole of Ireland, as the author
believes was the case, he considers that the supply of rolled and drift flints would
be inadequate, and that we may look for evidence of mining having been carried on
to obtain flint.
A circular stone with a flat edge, that could have been used for grinding grain,
and several pieces of the tup of a quern were found, from which the author con-
cludes that the ancient ot cultivated grain of some kind. There were no shell
mounds found, like the “ Kitchen middens,” nor were there any fish-bones found,
which was considered strange owing to the sea and a good fish river like the Bann
being so near. Some of the bones were cut previous to breaking them to extract
the marrow; and two bones were found manufactured into articles of use, one of
which might have served as a whistle, and the other resembles a tool used by
thatchers, called a “spurtle.” From the fact of finding the spurtle, and there
being several heaps of large stones among the sand, it was concluded that the pre-
historic races resided permanently here and in thatched houses. No trace of
ornament of any kind was found, but from finding several rubbed ochreous stones
it was believed they painted the skin. The pottery was of two kinds, but that
most abundant was coarse and similar in shape and ornamentation to sepulchral
urns. One human bone was found ; but the author stated that he was unable to
decide whether they burned their dead before burial or whether they were cannibals,
Traces of fire were common. He was of opinion, from their so patiently cutting the
bone previous to breaking it to get the marrow, that they were not a ravenous
people, and that food was abundant. He hoped, in conclusion, that further search
would give us a clearer insight into the manners and customs of this ancient people.
The Methods of a Complete Anthropology. By the Rev. T. M‘Cann, D.D.
Anthropology is defined to be the study of all the phenomena of the individual
man. Man is a being who not only digests and assimilates, but also knows and
feels. The former phenomena are considered in the Department of Anatomy and
Physiology. The results of the faculties called mental alone are left for consideration
in the Anthropological Department: these are the most important to man as such.
This Department is only partially anthropological, while it confines its attention to
the manifestations of mind in life and social customs. At present subjective obser-
vation and experiment (psychology) are excluded, Practically this is best, though
theoretically it is wrong and unscientific. But it is not possible wholly to exclude
them; in point of fact psychological phenomena are very largely introduced. The
author then referred to the introduction of such subjects into the President’s
Address for this years and in order that such questions should be thoroughly dis-
cussed, he proposed that papers on psychology alone should be read on one of the days
appointed for sectional meetings, or to form a separate department for this subject,
or else to originate a Society where men of opposite schools could meet and debate
these disputed points as has never been done previously.
On M‘Lennan’s Theory of “ Primitive Marriage.”
By Josrrn Joun Murruy.
The author accepted Mr. M‘Lennan’s theory that in the earliest societies marriage
in one sense was unknown, and that marriage (and consequently paternal autho-
rity) began with the practice of bride-stealing; but he dissented from Mr. M‘Lennan’s
theory that the impulse to bride-stealing arose from the scarcity of women from the
practice of female infanticide. There seems to be no sufficient evidence of this ;
and such a practice would tend to the extinction of the tribe practising it. The
writer attributed the impulse to bride-stealing partly to the desire of each man to
have a wife of his own (which in the earliest times could be only as the result of
capture), partly to the instinctive impulse to mix the race. So soon as any tribe
adopted bride-stealing generally, and as a consequence marriage and paternal
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 157
authority, the social cohesion produced by paternal authority would give that tribe
an ascendency among its neighbours, and cause its customs to spread.
On “ An Age of Colossi,” with Examples, by Photographs and Drawings, of
the various Colossi extant in Britain and Ireland. ByJ.8. Puent, F.S.A.,
F.R.GS.
This was the continuation of a subject commenced by the author at Bradford.
Some instances of similar customs between the Egyptians, early people of America,
and Chinese (the latter being, in his opinion, the most modern) were referred to as
showing a similarity of treatment and worship of the Nile and the Mississippi rivers
by the vast similitudes found along the margins of each, indicating that the ancient
constructors of these similar designs on both rivers had a common origin; hence
that it was probable that America was peopled by Western-Asian emigration prior
to the central parts of Europe or even of Central Asia, as the facility for a coast-
line route would be much greater than an overland one to migratory people.
Subsequently a new feature presented itself in Egypt, of which he saw no
evidence in America, the absence of which was well accounted for. In Egypt the
River Nile became identified as the great beneficent serpent from the actual support
of the Egyptian nation, through the river casting its great annual slough of mud, as
the serpent casts its skin, giving a really tangible meaning to the adoption by the
Egyptians of the casting of the serpent’s skin as an emblem not only of revivification
but of immortality, the actual permanence of the nation depending upon it.
In China, which he considered peopled subsequently to America, the same feature
was found in a new phase. Instead of vast rivers being bordered with the great
Colossi found in Egypt and America, artificial winding ways or courses, of sinuous
and symmetrical arrangement, leading to tomb-temples, as in Egypt, were found,
bordered with huge representations of animals as various and as mysterious as
similitudes on the Mississippi rivers; and these courses or ways were, as far as he
had at present been able to learn, called serpents by the Chinese—a fact hy no means
improbable in a country where the serpent or dragon is a religious emblem even to
the present time. From these similar customs he concluded people of the same stock
had at some period introduced the same customs, modified by time and locality, and
that the periods of such introduction were of a very remote date. The evidence he
had obtained as to the Chinese custom was very kindly given him by Mr. William
Simpson, who had travelled extensively in Asia and America.
After giving these facts as to an age of Colossi, he again brought forward,
amongst some of the Colossi of Europe, those of the British Isles, natural as well as
artificial, showing in several cases that where huge natural similitudes of the human
form or countenance were apparent, there vast artificial figures (some in Britain
being larger than any other representations in the world) were to be found: the
giant in Sussex 240 feet high, that in Dorsetshire 180 feet—in the vicinity of the first
there being a great sphinx-like head on an isolated rock, which was a reputed Celtic
deity, and vast human and other animal semblances on Dartmoor in the direc-
tion of the second. The great countenances in the white rocks near the Giants’
Causeway appeared to have suggested similar simulation, as Pennant mentioned
such a figure in the Isle of Arran just opposite, and a great lithic representation of
the human form still exists in Sligo. |The Colossi of Easter Island and of
Elephanta, Ellora, and Bamian were then referred to. In the case of the Dorset-
shire giant, he considered it probable that Caesar had seen this as well as the figure
at Wilmington—the one being, ashe had before eee out, near the place of his
landing, the other on his way to Lidford, in the country of the West Britons,
where, according to tradition, he and his army had been hospitably entertained ;
and he considered Cesar’s statement that the people had many such yast images
thus sufficiently attested.
In consequence of the observations of Dr. Beddoe as to the interest attaching to
the question, and the importance of ascertaining if any evidences of cremation could
be found, he had been, he thought, successful in obtaining such evidences, though
he gave reasons why, if there had not been such evidences nor any trace of them
158 REPORT—1874.
in any particular figure, it should not affect the argument. The evidences he found
were direct and indirect. On the breast of the giant in Sussex, at about a foot
below the surface, he found a large number of small particles of burnt clay. On
subsequently opening a tumulus on the Clyde he found precisely similar pieces of
burnt earth ; and on carefully reading again the account given by Strabo, he found
the area was filled with hay and straw, in other words with vegetation hastily
gathered and dried; and as the sedgy margins of streams near this great figure
would afford such material most readily, and if (as it no doubt was) this was hastily
collected and torn up, portions of the clay-soil would adhere to the roots, and such
portions on being burnt would exactly resemble the burnt particles he had found.
The indirect evidence was, that for obvious reasons he expected to find the largest
amount of cremative matter at the feet of the figure, but on going to excavate it was
found that an extensive square area had been removed to a depth of two or three
feet; and he considered this could only have been done in consequence of the
soil so il being found to be particularly rich, and for that reason worth
removal.
On “Natural Mythology,” and some of the Incentives to its Adoption in Britain
and Ireland. By J. 8. Punnt, F.S.A., F.R.GS.
In this paper the author carefully abstained from any subject which might
approach to natural theology, but confined himself wholly to instances of a mytho-
logical impersonation of remarkable natural objects, giving as an instance of his
argument “ the image which fell down from Jupiter.”
A very large photograph of the Sphinx of Egypt was exhibited, for the purpose
of showing the weathering of the stone, the characteristics of which led the author
to think that the original and natural condition of the rock before being sculptured
into its present form was that of a human similitude, and that this very fact had
suggested the artistic labour displayed upon it. The diagrams showed a number of
curious appearances of rocks in yarlous parts of the world, some almost as like the
human countenance in their purely natural condition as the Sphinx is at present.
He thought that the localities of such objects had been sought as places of venera-
tion, and no doubt for the celebration of religious and even sacrificial rites, and
around them, as on Dartmoor, which abounded in such appearances, were tumuli
and barrows of the dead. In such barrows were often is objects now preserved
in museums; but these he considered, though generally looked on as the most im-
ortant relics of the past, were not nearly so important as the positions of the
rows themselves with their surroundings. In looking at matters in this way he
found in a number of instances, where the result of death in strife was not in
question, that the sites were of peculiar and most interesting selection, as the place
sacred to former worship by the deceased, his natural Gods (the sun, river, and rock-
idols), &c. were all studied in the selection of the place where he reposed. Hence
survivors and visitants to such tombs would soon identify (under the changes from
weather and various natural effects produced by mist and varieties of light) these
semblances with departed persons; and this once the case, every such similitude
would be identified as the place of abode of some mythological spirit, power, or
divinity, to which henceforth the place would be held as dedicated. at such
matters were noticed by the ancients was clear from Ptolemy’s description of the
Capo del Orso, in the Mediterranean. All would be struck with the peculiar
mythological personage Proteus as perhaps the strangest of the classic deities; but
those who have witnessed the wonders of mirage in the Grecian archipelago and the
Straits of Messina would comprehend how easily the superstitious and alarmed
mind would see a Proteus or a Cyclops. Dartmocr and other similar places had
the most surprising changes in appearance ; and the same feeling would see in them
deities of mist, mountain, and flocd that were so popular in the mythological legends
of different lands.
The Origin of the Moral Idea. By C. Stantanp Waxe.
Among even the lowest savages actions such as murder, adultery, and theft are
looked upon as crimes, although they are not thought to be “immoral,” as this term
ee
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 159
is understood by us, the idea of immorality being wholly absent from the minds of
such peoples. ‘This is proved by the fact that it is only under particular conditions
that those actions are disapproved of. The belief entertained by the person who
suffers that theft and cognate actions are “wrong,” is due to the idea of personal
right, arising from the activity of the instinct of self-preservation, Interference
with the “property” thus acquired would be resented as being wrong, and by
association the idea of right in connexion with such property would instinctively be
formulated, and would ultimately be transferred to others possessing similar pro«
perty. It is owing to the fear of retribution that actions originally viewed as indif-
ferent come to be treated as immoral. All primitive peoples recognize the “ rights
of the dead,” the neglect of which they believe will bring on them the wrath of the
denizens of the spirit-world. This belief gives rise to the idea that it is a duty to
do what the spirits are supposed to require ; and if by any means they are thought
to disapprove of murder, adultery, and theft, these actions will come to be viewed as
immoral. Butas the moral attributes ascribed to the Gods are merely the reflex of the
minds of their worshippers, the moral advance must first have been made by man};
and probably this would be by the influence of some priest or chief, superior to his
fellows, who sought to ameliorate their social condition. The negative virtues would
be developed the soonest, but the active virtues of benevolence would ultimately be
recognized. These are founded on the social affections, which can be traced back
to the maternal instinct, if not still further to the sexual instinct which accompanies
that of self-preservation with animals even of the lowest grade. The union of these
instincts forms the true basis of morality. The reference to the instinct of self-
preservation is requisite to supply the notion of “right,” which is wanting to Mr.
Darwin’s theory of morals, as well as to the phase of utilitarianism of which
Mr. Herbert Spencer is the exponent.
Oe
On Irish Crannogs and their Contents. By W. F. Waxeman.
The word “crannog,” derived from the Irish word crann, a tree, means a wooden
edifice. The Irish crannog was simply an island, altogether or partly artificial,
circular or oval in form, the margin strongly staked with piles of timber, and the
whole enclosed by rows of palisading. Within the enclosure were usually one or
more log-houses. The boats used by the crannog builders were generally of great
length, very narrow and shallow, and formed out of a single oak tree. The author
believes that in not a few instances the islands may be referred to the Neolithic
age, and in many cases to the bronze period. Nevertheless some of the crannogs
were occupied ap to recent times, and were frequently used by the makers of pot-
teen, or illicit whisky.
—
On a Leaf-wearing Tribe on the Western Coast of India.
J By M. J. Waxnovse.
The author described the Koragors from observations made when posted at
Mangalore. These Koragors are a remnant of an aboriginal slave-caste, now num-
bering only afew hundreds. One of their distinctive peculiarities is that the women
wear aprons or screens of woven twigs and green leaves. Formerly both sexes
wore these aprons for clothing; but the custom is now confined to the women, and
is useless, since itis worn over the clothes. It furnishes, however, a curious instance
of how what was once a badge of degradation may survive as a cherished observance;
for it is now considered that it would be unlucky to leave off these eprons. In spite,
however, of this belief, the custom appears to be dying out.
160 ‘ REPORT—1874.
GEOGRAPHY.
Address by Major Wusor, R.E., F.RS., F.R.GS., Director of the Topogra-
phical Department, Horse Guards, War Office, President of the Section.
Tue President of the Royal Geographical Society has so recently delivered his
Anniversary Address, that if I were to attempt to trace the progress of geographical
discovery during the period that has elapsed since the Meeting of the British As-
sociation at Bradford in September last, I could scarcely avoid repeating much that
has already been said in far abler terms than I have it within my power to com-
mand. Still there are, at the present moment, certain subjects of such very general
interest, and of so much importance, that they cannot well be passed over in any
address to the Geographical Section of the British Association.
It has, I believe, been usual in the addresses to this Section to select some special
subject for remark ; and I will therefore, if you will allow me, before alluding to
the geographical achievements of the year, draw your attention to the influence
which the physical features of the earth’s crust have on the course of military ope-
rations, to the consequent importance of the study of Physical Geography to all
those who have to plan or take part in a campaign, and to the contributions to geo-
graphical science that are due, directly or indirectly, to war and the necessity of
preparing for war. I do this the more readily from a feeling that sufficient
importance is not attached to the study of geography as a branch of military sci-
ence, and that of recent years officers in our foreign possessions and colonies have
not received that encouragement which they might have expected to engage in geo-
graphical research, as well as from a hope that new life may be given to that spirit
of enterprise and love of adventure in strange lands and amongst strange people
which have so long distinguished the officers of both services.
To show how varied are the conditions under which war has to be carried on,
and how much its successful issue may depend on a previous careful study of the
physical character of the country in which it is waged, it is only necessary to remind
- you of the recent operations on the Gold Coast, brought to a successful issue in an
unhealthy climate and in the heart of a dense tropical forest, where an impenetrable
undergrowth, pestilential swamps, and deep rivers obstructed the march of the
troops ; of the Abyssinian Expedition landing on the heated shores of the Red Sea,
and thence, after climbing to the lofty highlands of Abyssinia, working its way
over stupendous ravines to the all but inaccessible rock crowned by the fortress
of Magdala; of the march of the Russian columns across the ee and deserts of
Central Asia to the Khivan oasis—one month wearily plodding through deep snow,
the next sinking down in the burning sand, and saved from the most terrible of
disasters by the timely discovery of a well; and, lastly, of the great struggle nearer
home, the last echoes of which have hardly yet passed away, when the wave of
German conquest, rolling over the Vosges and the Moselle, swept over the fairest
provinces of France.
The influence of the earth’s crust on war may be regarded as twofold: first,
that which it exerts on the general conduct of a campaign; and second, that which
it exerts on the disposition and movement of troops on the field of battle. Military
Geography treats of the one, Military Topography of the other; and it is well to
keep this broad distinction in view, for, as with Strategy and Tactics, they stand
in such close relation to each other that it is not always easy to say where Geography
ends and Topography begins. Of special importance in the first case are great inequa-
lities or obstacles that confine or obstruct the movement of large bodies of troops, and
those features which retard or accelerate their march, whether they be mountain-
ranges, ravines, or defiles with inaccessible sides, deep crevasses (such as those
washed out in some steppe-countries by winter rains), extensive plains, dense forests,
rich cultivation (such as that of the valley of the Po, which confines all movements
to the roads), enclosed country like that of England and Ireland, great marshes
(such as that of the Beresina and Pripet), or running or standing water that cannot be
crossed without a bridge or boats. Of no less importance are those features which
do not allow of the employment of large masses of troops or of special arms, such
: TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 161
as Cavalry and Artillery, as well as those circumstances that render the subsistence
of large armies difficult or impossible. In the second case all inequalities of the
ground, however slight, the nature of the soil and the effect which rain has upon
it, the extent and character of the vegetation and cultivation, and all buildings,
whether isolated or collected into towns and villages, are of more or less
a peti
The climate of the theatre of war must always have an important influence on
military operations, and should be the subject of careful study. Our own experience
in the Crimea shows how much suffering may be caused by want of forethought in
this respect. General Verevkin’s remarkable march of more than a thousand miles,
from Orenburg to Khiva, with the thermometer ranging from —24° to 100°, without
the loss of a man, shows what may be accomplished with due preparation. Nor
should the geological structure of a country be overlooked in its influence on the
varied forms which the earth’s crust assumes, on the presence or otherwise of
“water, on the supply of metal for repairing roads, and (if we may trust somewhat
similar appearances on the Gold Coast, at Hong Kong, and in the Seychelles) on
the healthiness or unhealthiness of the climate.
In any campaign undertaken by England, the sea must always play an im-
portant part as the great base of operations and main line of communication with
the mother country. Special consideration must be given to the facilities which
the coast-line of the theatre of war offers for effecting a landing ; to the anchorages,
shoals, roads, inlets, harbours, and depth of water along the coast ; to the influence
of the winds, tides, and currents on the entrance to harbours; to the nature of the
mouths of rivers; and to the time, force, and duration of periodical storms, and
their effect on navigation.
A general knowledge of the geography and topography of a country is, however,
in itself insufficient for military purposes ; it is necessary, in addition, to know the
present state of roads and bridges, the depth and width of streams, the state of the
soil and of its cultivation &c., and especially the best means of turning the ground to
account for the object in view. This information is obtained by what are called
Military Reconnaissances.
It is scarcely necessary to remind you that though mountain-ranges and rivers
materially affect the operations of war, they are by no means insurmountable ~
obstacles. The Alps have been repeatedly crossed since the days of Hannibal;
Wellington crossed the Pyrenees in spite of the opposition of Soult, Diebitsch the
Balkan though defended by the Turks; and Pollock forced his way through the
dreaded Kyber ; whilst there is hardly a river in the length and breadth of Kurope
that has not been crossed even when the passage has been ably disputed. Soult
escaping from Wellington over the Sierra de Catalina by a smuggler’s path,
Ochterlony penetrating into the heart of the Goorkha country by a wild mountain
track, the rear divisions of Napoleon’s army at Leipsic sacrificed from a neglect to
reconnoitre the Elster, show how close the examination of a country should be.
This is, however, hardly the place, nor would there be time, to discuss the minuter
details of military geography and topography ; they will be found in the works
especially devoted to the subject.
Queen Elizabeth’s minister was right when he said that “ knowledge is power ;”
and a knowledge of the physical features of a country, combined with a just appre-
ciation of their influence on military operations, is a very great power in war. A
commander entering upon a campaign without such knowledge may be likened to
a man groping in the dark; with it he may act with a boldness and decision that
will often ensure success. It was this class of knowledge, possessed in the highest
degree by all great commanders, that enabled Jomini to foretell the collision of the
French and Prussian armies at Jena in 1807, and in later years enabled a Prussian
officer, when told that MacMahon had marched northwards from Chalons, to ie
unerringly to Sedan as the place where the decisive battle would be fought. Chief
Justice Daly, in his address to the American Geographical Society, drafvs attention
to the Franco-German War as “ a war fought as much by maps as by weapons,”
and attributes the result to “skilful military movements, performed by an army
thoroughly acquainted with all the geographical features of the country over which
it was moved ;” and, he adds, “ It teaches us thatif the fate of anation may depend
upon a battle, a battle may depend on a knowledge of geography.”
1874 12
162 REPORT—1874.
As, then, all military operations must be based on a knowledge of the country in
which they are to be carried on, it should never be forgotten that every country
contiguous to our own (and the ocean brings us into contact with almost every
country in the world) may be a possible theatre of war, and that it is equally the
duty and policy of a good government to obtain all possible information respecting
it. More especially is this the case with regard to the little-known districts,
inhabited by uncivilized or but partially civilized races, that lie beyond the fron-
tiers of many of our foreign possessions and colonies. Is it with much satisfaction
that we can turn to the efforts made by this country to acquire that geographical
knowledge which may be of so much importance in time of need? Though we
had for years had military establishments on the Gold Coast, and though we
had, more than once, been engaged in hostilities with the Ashantees, and might
reasonably have expected to be so again, no attempt appears to have been made
to obtain information about the country north of the Prah, or even of the
so-called protected territories. The result was, that when the recent expedition
was organized, the Government had to depend chiefly on the works of Bowdich,
Dupuis, and Hutton (written some fifty years ago), and on a rough itinerary of
the route afterwards followed by the troops, for their information relating to the
country and its inhabitants. Nor is the Gold Coast an exceptional case: with
settlements at Singapore and Penang we know absolutely nothing of the interior
of the Malay peninsula, and not much of the adjacent islands. How little have
the garrisons of Aden and Hong Kong contributed to our ae of Arabia and
China! What advantage has been taken of the presence of the officers who have
been in Persia during the last ten years to increase our knowledge of that country
—Iknowledge which would be very useful at present in the unsettled state of the
boundary questions on the northern and north-eastern frontiers? How little has
been added to our knowledge of Afghanistan since the war in 1842! and what
part did India take in Trans-Himalayan exploration before Messrs. Shaw and Hay-
ward led the way to Yarkand and Kashgar P
It was with feelings of no slight satisfaction that many of us heard last year
that the policy of isolation and seclusion which India appeared to have adopted, as
_ the last soldier of Pollock’s relieving force recrossed the Indus, was at last to be
broken, and that an expedition, well found in every respect, was to be sent to
Kashgar. It seemed an awakening from the long slumber of the last thirty years,
during which we were content to stay at home in inglorious ease, resting under the
shadow of the great mountain-ranges of Northern India, whilst we sent out Mirzas
and Pundits to gather the rich store of laurels that hung almost within our grasp.
Far be it from me to depreciate the valuable services of those gentlemen—services
frequently performed at great personal risk and discomfort; but who can compare
the results they obtained with those that would have been brought back by English
officers, or by travellers such as Mr. Shaw, Mr. Ney Elias, and others?
If it be true (and few will be disposed to doubt it) that arctic exploration is one
of the best schools for officers of the navy, it is equally true that exploration on
shore is one of the best schools for officers of the army. The officer who has had
for weeks or months to depend on his own resources, organizing his own commis-
sariat and transport, fighting his way amidst hardship and discomfort against all
difficulties, will be found to possess many of the most valuable qualifications for
active service in the field; and not the least of these will be that eye for ground,
or ready appreciation of relative height and distance, which often comes like a
second sense to the explorer. :
It has been said that if officers travelled in countries where Government could no
longer protect them, they might be killed by the natives, and that then, if the
murderers were not punished, England would suffer loss of prestige; but is this the
case P Did any loss of prestige follow the murder of Conolly and Stoddart in Bok-
hara or of Hayward in the mountains of Gilgit? It is hard, too, to believe that
the danger Of loss of life has not been somewhat exaggerated when we find mission-
aries living for several years in comparative security at Coomassie; Maltzan, Halevy,
and others exploring Southern Arabia; Ney Elias crossing China at a time when
political circumstances made travelling more than usually unsafe; Prjewalsky,
with six Kuzaks, wandering about China for nearly thtee years, and spending
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 163
several months on the northern borders of Thibet; Shaw and Hayward finding
their way independently to Kashgar; and, finally, the Kashgar mission hospitably
received not only by the Amir of Kashgar, but by the Kirghiz of the Pamir and.
the Mir of Wakhan. As a matter of fact, the number of travellers who lose their
lives at the hands of the natives of the countries in which they are travelling is
quite insignificant when compared with the number of those who return in safety.
Let us, then, hope that the Kashgar mission may date the commencement of a new
era during which geographical enterprise may be encouraged, or, at any rate, not
discouraged, amongst the officers of the army; and that if few will now deny that
a knowledge of Ashantee, of Yemen, of the northern and north-eastern frontiers of
Persia, of Merv, Andkhui, Maimana, Badakhshan, and Wakhan would have been
of importance in the year just passed, it may not be forgotten that a knowledge of
these countries may be of still more importance in a not far-distant future.
May we not take a hint in this respect from our now near neighbours in Central
Asia, the Russians? No one who has followed their movements can fail to have
been struck by the intense activity of their topographical staff, an activity that can
only be compared to that of England at the period when Burnes, Eldred Pottinger,
Wood, Abbott, Conolly, and others, whose names are ever fresh in our memories,
were penetrating into the wildest recesses of Central Asia. No sooner is Khulja
occupied, than parties start out to examine the mountain-passes beyond; the cap-
ture of Sarmarcand is followed by an exploration of the Zerevshan valley ; Khiva
has scarcely fallen before detachments are out in all directions surveying the Amu
and tracing the canais that give life to the oasis; rarely does a caravan start for
Manas, Urumtchi, or any place of which little is known without an accompanying
topographer. Persia has been traversed in various directions by members of the
staff, and, as there has already been occasion to notice, Captain Prjewalski has
found his way to the northern plateau of Thibet.
The records of the Royal Geographical Society and of the Geographical Section
of this Association show how much has been accomplished by individual officers
of the English army, too often without assistance; and that if encouragement were
given to them there would be numbers of men able and willing to compete with
the Russians in the great field of geographical exploration.
I pass now to a consideration of the contributions of war to geographical
science; and amongst these it is perhaps hardly necessary that I should mention
the yery obvious manner in which military- operations teach us geography by
directing our attention for the time being to the country in which they are being
carried on, or the direct geographical results that have followed many cam-
paigns from the days of Alexander to our own. I have no doubt that last
winter many persons whose previous knowledge of Ashantee was confined to a
vague feeling that it was somewhere on the west coast of Africa, were following
the course of the operations with intense interest on the maps issued by our geo-
graphical establishments : and if any one will take the trouble to compare the maps
of Asia published fifteen years ago with those of the present day, he will see at
once how much the cause of geography has gained by the Russian campaigns
against the Khanates. The Russians are indeed far in advance of us in all that
relates to those survey operations and that geographical exploration which should
always be carried on simultaneously with the advance of an expeditionary force
into an unknown or but partially known country; they have long since realized
the importance, almost necessity, of accurate geographical knowledge based on
sound systematic survey, and having learned, in time, the lesson that opportunities
once lost may never be recovered, make every effort to take advantage of those
that are offered to them. In the expedition against Khiva, each column had
attached to it an astronomer and small topographical staff, whose duty it was to,
fix the geographical positions of all camps and map the route and adjacent country,
whilst officers on detached duty were instructed to keep itineraries of their routes
which might be fitted into the more accurate survey. On the fall of Khiva an
examination of the Khanate was at once commenced; and it was even thought
necessary to send Col. Skobelof, disguised as a Turcoman, to survey the route by
which Col. Markosof should have reached the Oasis. It is much to be regretted
in the interests of geography that some such system was not adopted during the
12*
164 REPORT—1874.
recent operations on the Gold Coast, and that so little, comparatively speaking, has
been added to our knowledge of Ashantee and the Protectorate. The conclusion
of peace with King Coffee, and the effect that must have been produced on the
inland tribes by the destruction of Coomassie, appear to offer facilities for the exa-
mination of a new and interesting region, which it is to be hoped will not be neg-
lected by those who are able and willing to take part in the arduous task of
African exploration ; and I trust that before many years have passed we shall know
much more than we do at present about the Prah, the Volta, the great trade-routes
leading from the coast to Central Africa, and of the open grassy country abounding
in game which is said to lie between Coomassie and the lofty mountain-range
called on our maps the mountains of Kong.
The most important military contributions to geography have undoubtedly been
those great topographical surveys which are either completed or in progress in
every country in ‘Europe, except Spain, Turkey, and Greece. Frederick the Great
was, I believe, the first to recognize that in planning or conducting operations on a
large scale, as well as in directing many movements on the field of battle, a com-
mander should have before him a detailed delineation of the ground of a whole or
part of the theatre of war. To supply this want Frederick originated Military
Topography, which, in its narrower sense, may be defined as the art of representing
ground on a large scale in aid of military operations. It was found, however, that
during war there was rarely sufficient time to construct maps giving the requisite
information, and thus the necessity arose of collecting in peace such data as would
enable maps to be prepared that should show the extent, relative position, and
comparative height and steepness of mountain-ranges, as well as their connexion
with each other, the course of the rivers, the direction of the main lines of com-
munication, the position and importance of towns, the extent of morasses, forests,
and other obstacles to the free movement of troops, and which at the same time
should distinguish by different depths of shade those places over which troops
could or could not be manceuvred.
In this necessity may be seen the origin of all national topographical surveys,
including our own, which was commenced as a purely military survey in 1784 b
General Roy, and transferred in 1791 to the old Board of Ordnance. The gradual
development of these surveys, and the various stages through which they have
gr before reaching their present state of excellence, need not be noticed here ;
ut it may be remarked that, whilst in all foreign countries the topographical maps
have retained their essentially military character, the Ordnance Survey maps have for
many years past been constructed with the paramount view of their general
utility to all classes in the kingdom, and the military character of our topographical
map on the one-inch scale has had to give way to the civil requirements of the
State. We find also on the Continent that the Cadastral surveys are conducted by
a civil department of the State, the topographical surveys by the War department ;
whilst in our own country all operations connected with the Cadastral and topo-
graphical surveys are concentrated in one department, the Ordnance Survey, which
ee 1870 has formed part of a purely civil department of the State, the Office of
orks.
Side by side with the large establishments engaged in the production of the to-
pographical maps, there have grown up in most countries extensive departments,
sometimes employing from fifty to sixty officers, whose duty it is to supplement the
maps of their own and foreign countries by the collection of all information of
whatever nature that may be useful in time of war, to arrange and classify the
information thus collected, to prepare what may be called military-geographical- —
statistical descriptions of all possible theatres of war whether at home or abroad,
to study the science of marches, the influence of ground on the movement of troops,
the best and most rapid means of concentrating and moving large bodies of troops,
and to plan campaigns under varied circumstances. The brief interval that elapses
between the declaration of war and the commencement of hostilities, the rapid
movements of armies, and the short duration of campaigns at the present day have
shown more clearly than ever the imperative necessity of previous preparation for
war; and the publication of the great surveys of most European countries has given
an impetus heretofore unknown to the studies I have alluded to. In our own country
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 165
the Crimean war gave birth to a small topographical and statistical department ;
but only four years ago its staff consisted of but three officers, and even now it is
hardly as large as one of the sections of its continental brethren.
The progress of the European surveys, and especially of our own, has been marked
by many results which have indirectly influenced the advancement of geographical
science. Amongst these may be mentioned the improvements in instruments
made during the progress of the Triangulation, the invention of the Drummond
Light, of Colby’s compensation bars, &c., the connexion of the English and Con-
tinental systems of triangulation, the pendulum observations at various places,
the measurement of ares of the meridian, the comparison of the standards of
lengths of foreign countries, of India, Australia, and the Cape of Good Hope, with
our standard yard, which has recently been completed at the Ordnance Survey
Office, Southampton, &c. In the same category may be placed the improvements
in the art of map-engraving, in the application of chromo-lithography to the pro-
duction of maps, as exemplified in the Dutch process of Col. Bessier and in the
Belgian maps, and the employment of electrotyping to obtain duplicates of the
original plates. By the latter process copies are taken of the engraved plates in
different stages of their progress, and with different classes of information engraved
on the different copies, which if mixed together would have confused them. Thus
the one-inch map of England is published in outline with contours, with the hills com-
plete but without contours, with the geology, &c. The art of photography has been
largely employed in the production of maps, and its use is on the increase both in this
country and on the continent, and especially in the Government Departments in India.
The method of copying maps by photography without any error in scale or any distor-
tion that can be detected by the most rigid examination was first proved to be prac-
ticable and was adopted in the Ordnance Survey Department in 1854 by Major-
General Sir Henry James, for the purpose of facilitating the publication of the Govern-
ment maps of the United Kingdom on the various scales. Since that date the
necessity of rapidly producing, multiplying, enlarging, and reducing maps has
tended towards the development of the various photographic processes which have
been brought to a high state of perfection, such as photozincography, photo-
lithography, heliogravure, Col. Avet’s process used in Italy, papyrotype, &c. Some
idea of the extent to which these processes are carried may be gathered from the
fact that during the last five years photographic negatives on glass covering an area
of 10,071 square feet were produced at the Ordnance Survey Office for map-making
purposes alone, and from these negatives 21,760 square feet of silver prints were pre-
pared and used in the various stages of the survey. An area of 959 square feet of
the negatives was also used in producing 13,595 maps on various scales by the photo-
zincographic process, which was also introduced by Major-Gen. Sir Henry James.
It was by similar processes that the Germans were enabled to provide the enormous
number of copies of the various sheets of the map of France required during the
war of 1870-71.
The topographical maps of European countries vary considerably in scale, the
manner in which the ground is represented upon them, and the style of their execu-
tion. Proposals have at times been made for the adoption of a common scale, but
they have not hitherto met with much success; still, however, Sweden, Norway,
Denmark, Prussia, Saxony, Switzerland, Italy, and Western Russia have each a
map on a scale of oa and it is much to be regretted that Austria, when
commencing a new map of the entire monarchy, did not adopt this scale instead of
that of --559: On the flat surface of a sheet of paper all inequalities of the ground
must be represented conventionally, either by hachures, by contours, or by a com-
bination of both: each system has its advocates, and the maps of foreign countries
present examples of all; but it may be remarked that the use of contours is becom-
ing much more general than it was a few years ago. Any comparison of the maps
of the various countries would necessarily occupy much time, so I will only add that
as specimens of engraving the sheets of our one-inch map are unrivalled, and that no
foreign maps can compare for accuracy of detail and beauty of execution with the
sheets of our six-inch survey: Our great national survey is the most mathematically
accurate in Europe; and it speaks much for the ability of the officers who have
166 REPORT—1874.
brought it to its present state of perfection, that from the very first they recognized
the necessity of extreme scientific accuracy in their work, and that they have never
had to withdraw from the position they have taken up with regard to the many
questions of detail that have arisen from time to time.
Before concluding this portion of my address, I would draw your attention to the
appliances used in the minor schools of this country for teaching geography, as they
would seem to need some improvement. The subject is perhaps hardly one that
comes within the province of the Royal Geographical Society, which has done so
much to encourage the study of geography in our public schools; but it might well
be taken up by one of the numerous Committees of the School Boards of our large
towns. The appliances to which I allude are models or relief maps, wall-maps,
atlases, and globes.
The use of models as a means of conveying geographical instruction has been
too much neglected in our schools; if any one considers the difficulty a pupil has
in understanding the drawing of a steam-engine, and the ease with which he grasps
the meaning of the working model, and how from studying the model and com-
paring it with the drawing, he gradually learns to comprehend the latter, he will
see that a model of ground may be used in a similar manner to teach the reading
of a map of the same area. A teacher would probably find the same difficulty in
enabling a pupil who had lived all his life in a level country, such as the great
plains of Russia, to form from a map a mental picture of a great mountain-range,
asin teaching one who had never seen a steam-engine to realize what it was and
its mode of action from a simple drawing ; the model in each case would form a
connecting link.
Relief maps of large areas on a small scale have their uses, but they are unsuit-
able for educational purposes on account of the manner in which heights must be
exaggerated to make them appear at all; this objection, however, does not apply
to models of limited areas on a sufficient scale, which always give a truthful and
effective representation of the ground. The difficulties attending the construction
of accurate models, and their consequent cost, have proved serious obstacles to
their-common use in our schools; but models are readily built up from contoured
maps, and the means of forming in this manner an instructive series of models
of our own country, with ease, rapidity, and at slight expense, are quickly accu-
mulating as the six-inch contoured sheets of the Ordnance Survey are published.
Instruction in Geography should begin at home; and I would suggest that as
the six-inch survey progresses every good school throughout the country should
be provided with a model and map of the district in which it is situated. If
this were done the pupils would soon learn to read the model; and having once
succeeded in doing this, it would not be long before they were able to under-
stand the conventional manner in which topographical features are represented
on a plane surface, and acquire the power of reading, not only the map of
their own neighbourhood, but any map which was placed before them. With
these models topographical studies, which might be the same for all schools,
should be supplied, such as a representation of a coast region, a mountain-lake
with surrounding hills, a volcano, or an alpine district with glaciers; and it
would add much to their value if they were accompanied by bird’s-eye views
and landscape sketches. In Switzerland nearly every school has a model of the
country; in Austria, France, and Germany models are largely employed for
instructional purposes; they have long been in use in our military schools and
colleges; and models of the environs of Plymouth with corresponding portions of
the six-inch map are used somewhat in the manner I have suggested. The demand
for models on the Continent has naturally resulted in their extensive manufacture ;
and some good specimens have been produced by Delagrave of Paris, Wagner of
Berlin, and others; but they do not give all that is required, and are capable of
much improvement.
In our Wall-Maps I think we haye been too much inclined to pay attention to
the boundaries of countries, and to neglect the general features of the ground. It
is difficult to say whether the maps have followed the teachers or the teachers the
maps ; but I fear instruction in physical geography too often comes after that in
political geography, instead of a knowledge of the latter being based on a know-
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 167
ledge of the physical features of the earth. My meaning may perhaps be explained
by reference to a wall-map, probably well known to every one, that of Palestine,
which frequently disfigures rather than ornaments the walls of our school-rooms.
In this map there are usually deep shades of red, yellow, and green, to distinguish
the districts of Judea, Samaria, and Galilee, and perhaps another colour for the
Trans-Jordanic region, with a number of Bible names inserted on the surface,
whilst the natural features are quite subordinate and sometimes not even indicated.
There is, perhaps, no book that bears the impress of the country in which it was
written so strongly as the Bible; but it is quite impossible for a teacher to enable
his pupils to realize what that country is with the maps at present at his disposal.
How little distinction is made on the maps between the great corn-growing plains
of Philistia, the vine- and olive-clad hills that stand round about Jerusalem, the
deep depression of the Dead Sea, and the pasture-lands of the Moabite plateau !
and how little do they bring out those peculiar features which in a country the
size of Yorkshire enabled the Psalmist to be familiar at the same time with the
snows and alpine flora of the Lebanon and Mount Hermon, and with the intense
heat and tropical vegetation of the Jordan valley.
The first object of a wall-map should be to show the geographical features of
countries, not their boundaries ; and for this purpose details should be omitted, and
the grander features have special attention paid to them. Many attempts have been
made in this direction on the continent, by representing the ground by contours, or
by zones of altitude distinguished by tints, more or less deep, of the same or different
colours, by giving prominence to rivers, coasts, &c., by reducing the importance of
names by writing them small, and by inserting dotted lines instead of bright colours
to mark boundaries. None of these attempts have been quite successful ; but they
indicate progress in the right direction, and are deserving of attention in this
country.
In Sand atlases the same fault may be traced, physical features being too often
made subordinate to political divisions; and there is also in many cases a tendency
to overcrowd the maps with a multitude of names, which only serve to confuse the
papi and divert his attention from the main points.
he use of globes in our schools should be encouraged as much as possible, as
there are many physical phenomena which cannot well be explained without them;
and they offer far better means of conveying a knowledge of the relative positions
of the various countries, seas, &c. than any maps. If a pupil once learns from a
globe the places traversed by the principal parallels and four or eight equidistant
meridians, with the most important places near their points of intersection, he will
find more than half his difficulties overcome. The great expense of globes has
hitherto prevented their very general use, but some experiments are at present being
made with a view to lessening the cost of their construction, which it is hoped may
be successful. :
I cannot pass from this subject without alluding to that class of map which gives
life to the large volumes of statistics which are accumulating upon us with such
rapidity. On the continent these maps are employed to an extent unknown in this
country, both for purposes of reference and education, and they convey their informa-
tion in a simple and effective manner. Amongst them may be noticed maps showing
the administrative, historical, and statistical features of Germany, the distribution
of religious professions in Russia, the industrial maps of the same country, the
ricultural maps of Austro-Hungary, &e. Several interesting maps of this nature
were exhibited at Vienna last year, one of which may be noticed as illustrating the
statistics of the coal-trade in Germany, showing at a glance the districts supplied
by each separate coal-field and by imported coal, as well as the proportion of home
and foreign coal consumed in those places where there is competition.
I will only detain you to notice briefly a few of the most important geographical
events of the year; and foremost amongst these ranks the publication of Dr.
Schweinfurth’s work, which every one has recently been reading with so much
interest and pleasure. Dr. Schweinfurth, who received the Founder’s Medal of the
Royal Geographical Society this year, is, I am happy to say, amongst us at present,
and has contributed a valuable paper on the oases of the Libyan Desert. Dr.
Gerhard Rohlfs is preparing an account of the remarkable journey which he made
168 REPORT—1874.
last winter in the unknown parts of the Libyan Desert, one of the features of which
was a march of thirty-six days between Dakhleh and the oasis of Jupiter Ammon
without finding a single well. Sir Samuel Baker’s record of the expedition from
which he has recently returned will shortly be published ; and the journals of Dr.
Livingstone, which form a most important contribution to geographical lnow-
ledge, are being prepared for publication by his son. ‘
Africa.—Lieutenant,Cameron, R.N., has reached Ujiji, and extracts from a journal
which he has sent home will be read to you; the observations which he has made are of
high value, and the presence of a trained surveyor on the shores of Lake Tanganyika
cannot fail to be followed by great results. A short report of Dr. Nachtigal’s
travels has been prepared for this Section; and Dr. Rowe, who acted as Chief of the
Staff to Sir John Glover during his recent operations on the Gold Coast, will read
an interesting paper on the country passed through on the march to Coomassie, and
thence to the coast. Two engineer officers, Lieutenants Watson and Chippindall,
have recently left England to join Colonel Gordon at Gondokoro, with the special
object of surveying the territory over which Colonel Gordon has been appointed
Governor by the Khedive. As the officers are well supplied with instruments, &c.,
most important results, including, I hope, a survey of the Lake-district, may be
expected from their labours. Of Colonel Gordon’s progress a few notes will be
communicated to you. In Algeria the French have been actively engaged on the
survey of the country, and the exact level of the Chott Melghir has been deter-
mined. Mr. Stanley’s second expedition to the east coast of Africa, under the
auspices of an English and an American newspaper, should not remain unnoticed ;
and I cannot pass from Africa without expressing my deep regret at the death of Dr.
Beke, whose travels in Abyssinia were rewarded by the gold medal of the Society,
and whose observations in that country were, from their great accuracy, of so much
service during the Abyssinian war.
Asia.—The survey of Palestine (a work which has been said by a distinguished
German geographer to mark the commencement of a new era in geographical
research) is progressing favourably, and has led to the formation of an American
Society for the exploration of the country east of Jordan, which has already
done good service in the field, and of a German Society for the exploration of
Phenicia. The Rev. Dr. Porter, from whose labours in Palestine every one
who has visited or takes an interest in the country has derived so much profit
and pleasure, will read a paper on the lesser-known parts of Eastern Palestine,
which he has recently visited, and a paper on the progress of the survey has
been prepared by Lieut. Conder, R.E., the officer in charge. Our own survey
is, I regret to say, languishing for want of funds, whilst that of the Americans is
receiving that support from the people which it deserves; the serious loss which
the fund has experienced in the death of Mr. Drake, who recently succumbed to an
attack of fever at Jerusalem, and who had previously devoted his best energies to
the work, must be still fresh in your memories. Lieut. Gill, R.E., who accom-
panied Col, V. Biker last year on a tour to Meshed and the head waters of the
Atrek, has prepared an account of their journey, which will be found to contain
much information on the important questions connected with the north-eastern
frontier of Persia. Some most interesting particulars of the visit of a portion of
Mr. Forsyth’s mission to the Great Pamir and Wakhan have been kindly supplied
by Col. Biddulph, R.A., from letters received from his brother, Captain Biddulph.
The vast importance of this journey, both as regards the geography and topography
of the Pamir, and the light which it throws on the boundaries of Wakhan, cannot
be exaggerated. The success of the party has, however, been purchased by the loss
of Dr. Stoliczka, who died from the effects of fatigue and exposure within a few
marches of Leh. Mr. Delmar Morgan has prepared a very valuable paper on early
Russian exploration in Central Asia, which will be found to be of great interest ;
and Mr. MacGahan, the enterprising correspondent of the ‘New York Herald,’
whose adventurous journey across the Kyzil-kum desert obtained for him, from
the Russians, the title of molodyetz (a brave fellow), has forwarded some interesting
details relative to the geographical work of the Khivan Expedition.
The Russian scientific expeditions for the exploration of the delta of the Oxus,
the old bed of the Yany Darya, and of the Aral-Caspian steppe have been for some
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 169
time at work, and will doubtless collect sufficient data for the solution of the many
interesting questions connected with the former courses of the Amu and the Syr.
As an English officer (Major Wood, R.E.) is said to have accompanied one of the
expeditions, we may hope for early information respecting the results of the expe-
dition. Amongst the features of the year is the number of interesting works either
ee or about to be so: works by Mr. MacGahan on the Khivan Campaign,
y Sir F. Goldsmid on Persia and the Persian Telegraph have appeared; and we are
promised works on Central Asia by Mr. Dilke and Mr. Schuyler. Capt. Prjewalski
1s engaged on an account of his journey to Thibet, and the Russian Government are
preparing an official account of the Khivan campaign.
In Australia the great geographical event of the year has been Colonel Warburton’s
journey from Alice Springs, near Mount Stuart, on the line of overland telegraph, to
Rocbourne, in Nickol Bay, for which he was awarded the Patron’s Gold Medal of the
Royal Geographical Society. Such particulars of the journey as have been
forwarded to me through the courtesy of the Colonial Office and of Mr. Dutton, the
Agent-General for South Australia, will be communicated to you. By the latest
accounts Mr. Forrest, whose name is so well known in connexion with Australian
exploration, had left the hitherto explored parts of Western Australia for the
Central Telegraph line. Mr. Forrest’s route was to be from Champion Bay by
Mount Luke to Mount Gould on the Murchison River.
An account of the travels of Mr. Miklucho-Maclay, the Russian naturalist, in
New Guinea has recently been published at St. Petersburg, and will, I hope, appear
in an English form, as the importance of New Guinea, lying on what will be the
great trade-route from Australia to China, is daily becoming more apparent.
In America, whilst the coast and inland surveys have been progressing, Dr.
Haydon, who was the first to disclose to us the strange beauties of the Yellow-
stone region, has been engaged in exploring a country equally wild and picturesque,
the eastern half of Colorado, where a vast number of sandstone peaks, presenting
an extraordinary variety of form and colowr, rise up to heights of from 12,000 to
14,000 feet. Other expeditions have been doing good service in the Yellowstone
country, Arizona, Oregon, and the Aleutian Islands, amongst them one sent out by
Yale College, which, besides exploring new country, brought back five tons of speci-
mens from the great fossil beds of Oregon and other places for the College museum.
I cannot help thinking that in sending out these expeditions (for this is only one
of a series) for the examination of the geography, geology, botany, zoology, &e. of
some special district, Yale College has set an example which might well be fol-
lowed by our own universities, and that Dublin, Oxford, and Cambridge might
take more part than they have hitherto done in what may be called scientific
exploration in the field. In the north the survey of the interoceanic railway
through British territory has been completed, and my old friend and fellow traveller
Captain Anderson, R.E., has been engaged, as chief astronomer of the International
Boundary Commission, in running the forty-ninth parallel through the unknown
country between the Missouri and Puskedtahan at and a short account of the demarca-
tion of the parallel and the country through which it passes will be read to you.
In the south Commanders Lull and Selfridge have found practicable routes for
ship-canals, from Greytown by Lake Nicaragua to Brito on the Pacific, and by way
of the Atrato from the Gulf of Darien to a point near Cupica on the Pacific ; the
cost of the latter is estimated at twelve million pounds.
In South America Professor Orton has been extending our knowledge of the
Amazon country; and I may mention the activity which the Peruvian Govern-
ment are showing in promoting the exploration of the little-known districts of
Peru. Mr. Hutchinson, late Her Majesty’s Consul at Callao, will read a paper
“On the Commercial, Industrial, and Natural Resources of Peru,” which will be
found to contain much interesting information respecting that country.
Dr. Carpenter will, I hope, give us some account of the cruise of Her Majesty’s
ship ‘Challenger,’ which cannot fail to interest the people of this town from Pro-
fessor Wyville Thomson’s former connexion with it.
Captain Warren, R.E., whose name is so well known from his work at Jeru-
salem, has forwarded a valuable paper “On Reconnaissance in Unknown Countries ;”
and Captain Abney, R.E., will read one on a subject which he has made pecu-
1874.
170 REPORT—1874.,
liarly his own, the “Application of Photography to Military Purposes.” Monsieur
Maunoir, the Secretary of the French Geographical Society, has forwarded a paper
‘On the Objects to be obtained by the International Congress,” to be held at Paris
in the spring of next year, to which I would especially direct your attention ; and an
interesting communication “On the Ordnance Survey of Ireland” and the “ Uses
to which the Maps are applied ” has also been received.
I regret that I am not able to give any definite information on the probability of
Government assistance to Arctic exploration ; but I understand that the impression
produced on the members of the deputation which recently had an interview with
the Prime Minister on the subject was that he was not unfavourable to such
assistance.
Admiral Sherard Osborn has kindly forwarded a paper on “ Routes to the North
Pole ;” and Lieut. Chermside, R.E., who accompanied Mr. Leigh Smith last yearon a
very remarkable yoyage to Spitzbergen, will read an account of the discoveries
they were enabled to make.
The reports of the officers of the ‘ Polaris’ have been published, expressing con-
tradictory opinions as to the possibility of their having been able to reach a higher
latitude. As regards the general subject of Arctic exploration, there can, I think, be
no doubt that that by Smith’s Sound would yield the most important scientific re-
sults, and would at the same time offer great facilities for reaching the pole itself. It
should not be forgotten that all recent Polar expeditions sent out from this country
have been despatched with the special object of ascertaining the fate of Sir John
Franklin, and that discovery was not a principal object. When, too, we consider
that in these expeditions Arctic travel was reduced to a very perfect system, that
the distance from the point reached by the ‘Polaris’ to the Pole is less than has
already been performed in some of the sledge-journeys, and that no life has ever
been lost on a sledge-journey, it is impossible to doubt that a well-organized expe-
dition would be able to reach the polar area. In the words of a well known aretic
explorer, “ What remains to be done is a mere flea-bite to what has already been
accomplished.” Morton, the second mate of the ‘ Polaris,’ says, as the result of his
third voyage, that he is “more than ever convinced of the practicability and possi-
bility of reaching the Pole;” and if I may express my own opinion, it would be, in
the words attached to a picture at the last Exhibition of the Academy in London,
“Tt is to be done, and England ought to do it.”
The Routes to the North Polar Region.
By Rear-Admiral Surrarp Oszory, C.B., F.B.S., &e.
In this paper the additional 120 miles towards the North Pole reached by the
last American Expedition under the late Captain Hall of the ‘ Polaris,’ »@ Baffin’s
Strait and Smith’s Sound, were urged as anew and cogent argument in favour of the
sending out of another Arctic Expedition by the British Government in the same
direction. Pointing out that the Polar Sea comprised within the 70th parallel of
latitude leaves a space of 2400 miles wide (about equivalent to the distance from
England to Halifax), and that a line through the pole from Grinnell Land, in
America, to Cape Taimyr, in Asia, is only half the distance of the route from
Spitzbergen to Behring’s Straits, the author relied on the saving of 800 miles of
unknown land or sea as his chief reason for advocating the former way. As addi-
tional arguments for this selection of a passage through the American archipelago,
he remarked that the European Arctic islands may be fairly deemed to end 120
miles north of the Spitzbergen group, whilst the few Asiatic islands are not known
to occur nearer than 15° of the Pole; that the northern lands of the western hemi-
sphere have been traced up to the 84th parallel (or sighted to that supposed distance),
within 360 miles of the Pole, and with no symptom of termination; and that
Greenland itself, up to 83° on the western and 77° on the eastern side, has
been found to abound with animal and vegetable life. He also noticed the long
and deep channels, mostly north and south or east and west, dividing the Ame-
rican group—Smith’s Sound (1600 miles, so far as yet explored) being noted as
the longest strait known, and the continuous southerly motion of ice down the
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 171
latter pointing to the existence of a great polar ocean whence the drift of ice (and
of wood, as seen by the crew of the ‘ Polaris’) issues, there being no other adequate
outlet. To avoid this enormous outpour of ice, Admiral Osborn would follow the
Greenland coast on the western shore, trusting to find himself, during the brief
Arctic summer, in a comparatively navigable sea near the pole, across which Asia
might be reached. Other proposed routes were once more discussed and rejected, -
the earlier ill-starred German Expeditions being especially condemned, though great
praise was given to the crew of the ‘Hansa’ (whose commander, Koldewey, now
agrees with the author as to Smith’s Sound being the only practicable route).
The statement that Hall's crew sighted land in the 84th parallel was thought
likely to be correct, because arctic lands asserted to have been sighted on former
occasions have always been reached subsequently.
In reply to the question “ Cui bono?” on arctic routes generally, Admiral Osborn
relied on the peculiar scientific value attaching to observations made in the polar
area, whether mathematical, meteorological, hydrographical, or botanical (in the
latter case especially as regards paleontology); and he claimed the support of the
Royal Society and its learned President, Dr. Hooker, in these opinions.
On Mr. Leigh Smith’s Voyages to Spitzbergen.
By Horsertr Currusive, Lieut. RL.
This paper was divided into the following sections :—I. On the track and out-
line of Mr. Leigh Smith’s three voyages to the Spitzbergen seas; If. On the
hydrography of the Greenland Sea; II. A survey and physical sketch of Spitz-
bergen and the sea to the east. In the first voyage, in 1871, the most favourable
season was encountered. The north-eastern portion of Spitzbergen was found to
be of nearly double its supposed extent ; but, unluckily, want of preparation for an
Arctic winter and the lateness of the season put an end to further exploration.
In the second voyage, in 1872, attempts (unsuccessful for want of steam-power)
were made not so much along the land as to penetrate the polar pack. In the
third, a steamer was used for exploring and a sailing-ship as the reserve ; but the
unfavourable state of the ice prevented the former from penetrating beyond lat. 81°,
her most interesting work being the exploring of the unvisited portion of the north-
east land, and the relief of the Swedish Government Expedition, found frozen-in
in one of the bays on the northern coast. The author described the conditions of
air and water in the Greenland Sea, illustrating by temperature soundings the pro-
bability of finding in some seasons navigable water leading to very high latitudes.
He especially referred to three routes by which attempts at navigation might be
made, viz. along the west coast of Spitzbergen, the east coast of Greenland, and
the east coast of Spitzbergen; but was of opinion that the two latter are more
adapted for wintering and spring sledge-expeditions, owing, in the former case, to
the ice-encumbered state of the sea and the narrow and quickly closed channel
along the land, and in the latter to the shoal depth of the sea and the almost
certainty of land or an ice-harrier, the cessation in the summer of the southward
flow hardly encouraging the idea of a navigable channel in this direction. He
also made some observations on the glaciers of Spitzbergen, all of which he proved
to be more than sixty years old, and on the lowness of the snow-line, and its pro-
bable causes. Striking examples were adduced of the rapidity of upheaval now
going on, illustrated by the depths found around grounded bergs, the heights of
which were measured, and the immense distances inland and heights above the
water at which whale-bones and drift-wood (but little decayed) were discovered.
He was of opinion that the whole of the recent additions to the north-east land
were, at no more distant pericd than the sixteenth century, under the sea; and
this idea he. supported as well by these evidences of upheaval, as by the changes
to be found between the land as it now exists and as represented in the old Dutch
charts.
The author objected, from his own observations, to the theory that circulation is
due to difference of temperature alone, asserting that it is owing to difference of
salinity as well as of temperature. According to him, the water on thes west coasts
: 13
172 REPORT—1874.
of Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla is of a temperature far above the normal one of
the latitudes, and the isotherms below the surface are higher with increasing depth
in many places in the Arctic Ocean; but here, owing to the sea shoaling near the
land against which the currents are forced by the earth’s rotation, they rise rapidly
to the surface, producing its high temperature and the comparative mildness of the
climate found on those coasts. In the deep sea of the Arctic Ocean the warm water
is found below, being a northward flow of equatorial water of sufficient salinity to
outweigh the brackish polar water, even at a comparatively high temperature.
As evidence of such water being equatorial, he observed that where, as off Spitz-
bergen, it is found at the surface, it is heavier than that of the seas both to the
east and west, these results being the mean of daily observations with delicate
hydrometers. The northward set of the current from distant latitudes was illus-
trated by the fact of a bean of a pod-bearing plant of the Gulf of Florida having
been found on the coast of Nova Zembla, and numerous objects, evidently drifted
from Norway, on the Spitzbergen coast. The agreement of the deep-sea temperature
observations of Mr. Leigh Smith’s three cruises, during which the same route was
twice travelled over, was shown to be very close in many cases ; these, again, accord-
ing in a remarkable way with those of early explorers, the maxima in identical
localities being usually rather less in the recent soundings, as might be expected
from the use of protected thermometers. The possibility of a warm current plung-
ing under ice and reappearing is suggested by the open water found on the west
coast of Spitzbergen in the depth of winter, and separated from that of the Nor-
weeian coast by a barrier of ice often more than 250 miles wide. This current, as
Lieutenant Chermside presumed, may run in a submarine stratum to the north-
west corner of Spitzbergen; and he was of opinion that if any land exist to the
north-east, there must here again be a surging up of the warm waters against the
coast, and a consequent chance of navigation in summer.
On the Results of the ‘ Challenger’ Researches into the Physical Conditions
of the Deep Sea. By Wiit1am B. Carpenter, M.D., LL.D., F.RS.
The author referred to the Lecture delivered by him “On the Temperature of
the Atlantic” at the Royal Institution of Great Britain on 20th March last, and
to another delivered before the Royal Geographical Society (vide no. iv. of vol.
xviii. of the ‘Proceedings,’ ‘“ Further Inquiries on Oceanic Circulation”). The
subject was brought forward as being of special interest to the Belfast public, from
the circumstance that Professor Wyville Thomson, head of the scientific staff, was
long resident among them, and that it was in their city the subject was originally
started. The author publicly admitted the priority of Lenz in his theory of
oceanic circulation.
On the Demarcation of the International Boundary between Canada and the
United States (1872-73). By Captain 8. Anprrson, R.E., Chief Astronomer
NN. A. B. Commission.
A detachment of 44 Royal Engineers left Liverpool on 22nd August, 1872,
and reached the frontier at Pembina on 20th September. Here astronomical and
surveying parties were organized, and whilst the former determined the boundary-
line at points 20 to 80 miles apart by zenith-telescope observations, giving a result
with a probable error in latitude of 10 feet, the latter surveyed the country for a
distance of from 6 to 15 miles north of the boundary. During the winter the
parties were at work between Red River and the Lake of the Woods, for in that
swampy country (the nature of which is sufficiently well known from the surveys
of Dawson and other Canadians) that season is most favourable for such operations.
Besides the observations indicated, the longitude of Pembina was carefully deter-
mined by electric telegraph, a series of instrument-levels was carried along the
boundary, and magnetic and meteorological observations were taken.
In the summer of 1878 the survey to the westward of the Red River was
begun; and as the country had not previously been explored, it was deemed
advisable to organize a reconnaissance party, for the purpose of selecting camps,
A
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 173
establishing depéts, &c. Owing to the necessity of carrying supplies, including
even wood and water, the total strength of the Commission was raised to 275
par In the course of that season 437 miles of boundary were surveyed, the
titude and longitude of 38 points ascertained, 10 principal astronomical stations
determined by zenith observations, and meteorological, magnetic, and barometrical
* observations made. At Pembina, the Red River is 75 yards wide, 10 feet deep in
summer, and 752 feet above the sea. From this point westward the boundary
crosses 35 miles of fertile alluvial prairie land ; it then traverses for 12 miles the
rugged and wooded Pembina mountains and enters the Great Plains (1400 feet
above the sea). These plains have a poor soil, granite boulders are scattered about,
and patches of luxuriant grass are met with only in hollows. Supplies of wood
or water cannot here be depended upon for 68 miles. These plains are altogether
unfit for agricultural purposes, though available as pasture. By an ascent of 200
feet, the boundary then enters the Turtle Mountains, well wooded and full of
little lakes; and after 34 miles again emerges upon the open plain, which it
traverses for 138 miles further west, at an average elevation of 2000 feet. The
soil here is sandy, and the scanty bunch-grass only affords pasture for a few herds
of antelopes. At a distance of 280 miles from the Red River the plain ceases, and
by a gradual ascent of 250 feet enters upon the Great Coteau, a prairie extending
north and south, and leads to a remarkable plateau (2250 feet) composed of a
series of irregular ridges which extend for 33 miles, when the boundary traverses
for 15 miles a district of alkaline lakes, the white deposits from which contrast
strangely with a bright crimson plant growing on their margins. After this the
boundary enters the basin of the Missouri, the soil becomes clayey and very friable
and is cut up by rain into deep ravines. Leaving this rugged district after 30
miles it enters a more undulating country (2300 feet). Lignite coal, in seams
2-5 feet thick and available as fuel, was found here, but very little wood. The
character of the country continues the same for 70 miles, the extreme reached.
Buffaloes were rarely met with, as within the last fifteen years they have migrated
from the vicinity of the Red River to the country 600 miles west.
The surveying parties suffered much from mosquitoes and from violent thunder-
storms, which converted the plain into a vast lake in June and July, followed by
six weeks of drought, when prairie-fires frequently occurred. On 22nd September
the equinoctial snow-storms set in from the north-west, lasting for five days. In
spite, however, of these unfavourable climatic conditions, the health of the working
parties continued good.
It would appear from the Report (which was accompanied by maps and photo-
graphs) that, Berapting a small tract in the immediate vicinity of the Red River, the
country explored holds out no inducements to settlers.
On the Oases of the Lybian Desert. By Dr. G. ScHwEINFURTH.
After referring to the small knowledge hitherto possessed of the Lybian Desert,
and the recent additions to it by Nachtigall and Roklfs, the author described his
own exploration of the great oasis ]-Khargeh (the outer), distinguished from
Dakkel (the inner), the basis of Rohlfs’s expedition, three days’ journey further
westward. He reached the capital of this outer oasis (of the same name) in
January, after five and a half days’ march (190 kilometres, almost south) from
Sivot. At the end of April he returned to the shores of the Nile e7é Girgeh, the
result of his journey being a triangulation on a measured basis of 33 kilometres.
The oasis is 120 kilometres in length, and so formed as to resemble the bottom of
a gigantic valley, the width of which appears very much to exceed the Nile at its
broadest. On the north and east it is bounded by mountains detached from the
Lybian plateau, composed above of hard, brilliant, red nummulite chalk, and below
of, chalk of dazzling whiteness. As a whole, it is not uninterruptedly verdant,
being of the usual monotonous yellow, but with black and green spots, These
little islands, as it were, are the arable portions, the springs surrounded by acacias,
the fields, palm-groyes, brooks, and ponds, He dwells with animated language
upon the pleasure excited by the undulating plains, bubbling watercourses, and
174 REPORT—1 874.
terraces of vegetation of these enchanting spots. The ten inhabited portions are
stated to have 5700 inhabitants, dwelling in restricted and fortified situations,
owing to their continual dread of surprise by Tripolitanian hordes. In Khargeh
itself the houses are absolutely built over the streets, being, as it were, on piles
supported by rough beams, through which the inhabitants grope in a stooping
posture, Though using a language differing but little from that of the modern
eyptians, they betray no facial characteristics of the latter, being apparently the
remains of one of the numerous Lyhbian races of the hieroglyphical Berber nations,
of more northern extraction. They are of signally livid complexion, owing to
prevalence of fever from miasma. Vaccination is enforced. They are lax in
their observance of the rules of the Prophet, and do not possess a single trace of
Christian tradition. Five large temples (500 years B.c.), seven Roman castles,
hundreds of wells, the Necropolis of Hibe, and other remains testify to the great
former prosperity of the oasis. Close to Doosh is the dwelling of a commander in
the time of Trajan, in excellent preservation. The (Christian) Necropolis of Hibe
is in wandexsaily perfect condition. Its construction deviates entirely from Egyp-
tian models, and follows the Roman rather than the Greek style. Embalming was
certainly practised here by Christians of the first five centuries. The various in-
scriptions on rocks, dating through a series of epochs, afford a strange picture of
the slowness with which time effects transformations of surface. Seventy-five
springs, all of the earliest antiquity, are in use, and no new ones are ever opened.
They are periodically cleaned by divers, at the risk of their lives, for a few copper
piastres. An Egyptian engineer has, however, found water at 60 to 100 metres in
the Dakhel oasis; and there is no doubt that the district could be restored by
artesian wells to its former prosperity. The author thinks it least improbable that
the water has its source in the Nubian Nile, probably above the cataracts of Wady
Talfa ; but he seems to doubt all the explanations attempted for its origin, by
stating that all these springs are thermal, far exceeding the average temperature of
the year, and consequently of the upper strata of the Sahara. There are no traces
of a bed of a former current from the Egyptian Nile valley westward through
which the Nile ‘might have flowed, although an imaginary series of oasis valleys
figures in all maps. It is strange, nevertheless, that “ Bader-bela ma” (7%. e. river
without water) is a frequent local name for valleys and sandy wadys. The soil of
the oasis chain betrays no traces of the clay alluvial land of the Nile, there are
no fish in any of the waters, and the botanico-geographical facts recapitulated by
the author also negative the idea of the Nile having ever flowed here. After
entering upon the various geological features of the district at some length, he
thinks it safe to assume that the subterranean water of the oasis is equal to that
of a first-class river. The scheme of irrigation is primitive, neither draw-wells
nor wheels being known, and much is wasted, becoming impregnated with salts
from some of the strata; and these salts, and the encroachment of quicksands,
which usurp the finest parts of the oasis, are very prejudicial to cultivation. The
sand hills are continuously advancing from north to south, with a gentle inclination
westward, forming a crescent-like arch. The largest are in Dakhel, where they are
insurmountable by camels, and Spee Rohlfs’s advance. All Egyptian plants,
except the hog’s bean, are found in the oasis, many cereals being cultivated, and
rice and barley especially thriving. The date is naturally the staple of the agri-
culturist, and the sedrinie trees are estimated at 80,000, taxes being levied on the
number of trees and the area of the cultivated soil. One tree, sixty years old,
with sixfold ramifications of long shooting branches, is stated as probably not to
be matched in the whole world. The camel cannot be acclimatized, owing to the
damp summer miasma and plagues of midges; but donkeys, cows, buffaloes, and
sheep are easily reared. The indigenous mammalian fauna is extensive (including
five carnivora); stationary birds are few, but migatory birds abound, though,
singularly enough, neither ducks nor geese are found in the waters of the oasis.
All the oases on the east of the Lybian desert have the same flora, and the
explored part yielded 225 species, which would probably only be increased by one
fourth if more thoroughly worked. Nearly half of them are connected with the
vegetable germs,
culture of rice. “Eyen in its most torpid state, the soil appears nowhere wanting in :
ws
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 175
Dr. G. Nachtigall’s Explorations in Africa, 1869-74.
By E. G. Ravenstew, F.R.GS., PSS.
The German Emperor haying resolved to forward to the Sheikh of Borneo a
number of valuable presents, in recognition of the kindness shown by that poten-
tate to several German travellers who had visited his country, Dr. G. Nachtigall,
at that time body-physician to the Bey of Tunis, volunteered to accompany them.
A long residence in Northern Africa, and a thorough knowledge of the language
and the customs of the country, peculiarly qualified him for the duty he had under-
taken. Furnished with mercurial barometers, aneroids, a hypsometer, and ther-
mometers, he left Tripoli on the 18th February, 1869, and, following the usual
road vid Sokna, arrived at Murzuk on the 27th March. The caravan trafic between
Marzuk and Borneo having been interrupted in consequence of raids undertaken by
the Welad Sliman against Bilma, and there being no immediate prospect of its
being resumed within a reasonable period, Nachtigall determined to employ his
enforced leisure by paying a visit to Tibesti, an oasis of the Eastern Sahara
inhabited by the Tibbu Reshade, and never previously visited by a European. He
left Murzuk on the Gth June, and after thirty-six days’ journey reached Tao, the
first inhabited spot of that oasis. At the time of Nachtigall’s visit most of the
inhabitants had retired to the hills or to Bardai, a fertile valley beyond the lofty
mountain-range which intersects Tibesti from north to south. The traveller’s
reception was by no means favourable; but he nevertheless persevered, and passing
a remarkable extinct crater and a mountain pass 6700 feet in height (the highest
mountain of the district attaining an altitude of 7900 feet), succeeded in making
his way to Bardai. But there he nearly fell a victim to an infuriated mob, and
only owed his life to the kindness of one of the most influential chiefs of the
place. Kept a close prisoner and unable to explore the country, Nachtigall, after
a month’s detention, sought safety in flight, and, after undergoing indescribable
hardships, reached Marzuk in safety on the 8th October. On the 18th April
he was able to start for Borneo, the capital of which he reached on the 6th July,
1870. The Sheikh received him with the greatest kindness, and facilitated his
proposed geographical researches in every way. Nachtigall first directed his steps
to the N.E., to Borku, a district to the south of Tibesti, andalso not before
yisited. This journey resulted in the remarkable discovery that Lake Tsad at some
former period discharged a river in a north-easterly direction, which emptied itself
into a vast lake, at that time filling the depression of Bodele. Numerous ske-
letons of fishes, &c. testified to the existence of this ancient lake ; and even now,
after unusually heavy rains, Lake Tsad is stated to discharge a river in that direc-
tion. After his return to Kuka, Nachtigall started for Bagirmi, to the exploration
of which he devoted the time between the 27th February and 9th August, 1872.
He unravelled the complicated hydrography of the Shari and its tributaries, and
added much to our knowledge of the heathen tribes dwelling in the far south, a
savage though industrious race, who are constantly exposed to the slave-hunting
raids of their Mohammedan neighbours. Nachtigall himself witnessed some of the
most horrid scenes of the traffic in human beings, and does not hesitate to charge
the Turkish authorities in Tripoli and Fezzan with conniving at it. In the begin-
ning of March, 1873, he finally left Kuka for the purpose of returning to Europe
by way of Wadai, Dar Fur, and Nubia, and this o ect he will in all probability
accomplish ; for when last heard of, on the 13th March, 1874, he was already at
the capital of Dar Fur, and money forwarded to him from Khartum had safely
reached him.
On Sir John Glover's Expedition from the Volta to Coomassie.
By Surgeon-Major 8. Rowz, G.M.G., Chief of the Staff to the Expedition.
The author gave a description of the position and political relations of the tribes
in the eastern division of the Gold Coast Territory intended to be raised and
trained by the Glover Expedition; also of the Trans-Volta tribes, and a short
attack of the Ashantees on Krepee in 1869, and the capture of the German mis-
sionaries. He referred to the treaties made in 1869 by British authorities with the
176 REPORT—1874.
Aquamoos, and to the successful attack on the piratical island of Duffo in 1870 ;
and then described the confidence of the Haussas and Yorubas in Sir J. Glover,
and their arrival from Lagos to join him; the assembly of the Beach tribes at the
mouth of the Volta at Addah Fort, and of the Aquapims, Crobboes, and Crepees at
Blappah under Major Sartorius, the crossing of the Volta (23rd to 25th December),
and the successful fights at Farah and Adidoomay. He then alluded to the causes
of Sir J. Glover’s return over the Volta, and described the incidents of the march
through Crobboe, Aquapim, and Akim to Ashanti, with the crossing the Prah on
the 15th January, and the taking of Abogoo, Bangsoo, Towassy, Connummo, and
Odsomassie, and the different attempts made to communicate with the main body
under Sir Garnet Wolseley—amongst them, the passage of the Anoon river by
Sartorius. The presence of Sir Garnet’s force in Coomassie was communicated by
two fugitive slaves from Boankra. After breaking all communication with their
rear, the column marched forward, arriving at Essidnimpon, where Major Sartorius
set off to open communication with the main body. The author then described the
arrival of the Glover column in Coomassie, the appearance of that town, and the
dissatisfaction of the native contingent at leaving it so hurriedly. He sketched
the return map to the coast, and summed up the assistance rendered, in his opinion,
to the main body by the operations of the contingent. The languages of the native
allies, the products of their country, their style of living, and the supply of gold
were briefly mentioned.
East-African Expedition. Extracts from Lieutenant CamEron’s Journal.
The portion read (which had then just come to this country) included the details
of Lieut, Cameron’s journey from Kwihara (Unyanyembe) on the 11th November,
18738, to his arrival at Kawele (Ujiji) at the end of March, 1874, the chief object
of his explorations being the recovery of the journal and map reported by Living-
stone’s men to have been left at the latter place. Various circumstances delayed
the regular prosecution of this journey until the 2nd January, 1874, when Lieut.
Cameron started on a line between the routes taken by Burton and Stanley, skirt-
ing the territory of Mirambo, a chief who is much more powerful than the Arabs
represent, and whose inroads have brought desolation to the whole district. West
of Shikurah, the country, though flat, was lovely ; trees grew as if planted by a
pretele gardener, and green turf reached to the banks of the Neombe, a tributary
of the Malagarazi, as wide as the Thames at Abingdon. Two days after leaving
Kwihara the country gradually became more elevated, outcrops of granite, almost
precipitous, and brawling torrents being met with. These unite to form the Mtumbo,
a tributary of the Sindé. On the 22nd January the road led over a country covered
with sheets and blocks of granite or gneiss, but well wooded and fertile ; and after
crossing some small rivers, the party encamped near the village of Ma’n Como, the
chief of Uvenda, 3573 feet above the sea, past which the march was through a moun-
tainous country affording splendid views. All this district is depopulated by the
slave trade. On the 2nd February they crossed the Sindé by a natural grass bridge,
half a mile long (the river itself thainie only 100 yards wide), beneath which hippo-
potami pass from end toend. The hill-country ends abruptly on the right bank of
this river, and on the other side is the well-cultivated plain inhabited by the
Wavinza.
Continuing the march to the banks of the Malagarazi, Lieut. Cameron reached
Ugaga on the 7th February, thus, for the first time, coming on the route traversed
by Burton and Speke in 1858. He crossed the river with his party on the 10th,
the operation taking five hours, owing to the primitive nature of the canoes,
although the stream was but 30 yards wide; and on the 13th entered the
Ukaranga country, the villages of which are principally supported by the manufac-
ture of the salt abounding in the black soil. After crossing the Rusugi and the
Ruguva, the land road to Ujiji was found to be impracticable on account of the
rains, and the party made for the shores of Lake Tanganyika, embarking on the
21st at Ukaranga in some fine large boats, and being hospitably received at Ujiji
by the Waswahili and Wamrima inhabitants, traders and settlers of Arab extrac-
tion from the coast. ;
oe
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 177
On the Commercial, Industrial, and Natural Resources of Peru. By T. J.
Horenrnson, /.2.G.S., P.RSL., MATL, late H.B.M. Consul for Callao.
The author commented on our earliest knowledge of the history of Peru, observ-
ing that the country, even in early times, was as famous for its commerce and in-
dustry as for its precious metals. He considered the modern Peruvians to be the
most industrious inhabitants of South America, as evidenced by their cultivation
of cotton and sugar-cane, and dated the establishment of their commercial status
from the Pacific Steam Navigation Company’s inauguration in 1840. The con-
dition of native manufactures, joined to that of agriculturists, seemed to point
unerringly to success, in a commercial point of view, for a nation as it were
instinctively industrious. The author then proceeded to a notice of the enor-
mous amount of mineral wealth in the Andes, now about to be opened to the world
by means of railways. Hitherto these rocky mountain-masses had rendered
intercommunication impracticable, from the difficulty of transport across their
almost impassable barriers. Foreign Office Reports were quoted, as furnished
through the Admiralty from Rear-Admiral Cochrane, the present Commander-in-
Chief in the Pacific. Recent findings of guano show an approximate amount of
9,294,500 tons, and exports of nitrates from Iquique have increased cent. per cent.
in less than three years. In the author’s opinion, Peru seems likely to reach the
position before many years of being one of the first South-American Republics, as
regards commercial prosperity. Drawings of various cuttings and tunnellings of
the railways (some of which are now finished by the contractor, Mr. Henry Meiges)
accompanied this paper.
Travels beyond three Seas, by Athanasius Nikitin, Merchant of Tver, 1466-
1472. Compiled from Russian documents by T. Sresnrrrsky, of the Im-
perial Academy of Arts and Sciences of St. Petersburg, and rendered into
English by E. Drtmar Morean, F.R.GS.
Much fresh explanatory matter is here added to Nikitin’s memoirs. They were
first discovered by Karansin, who paid a high tribute to their importance in his
‘ History of Russia,’ and have been critically reviewed in the Transactions of the
Imperial Academy of Arts and Sciences by M. Sresneffsky, and translated by Mr.
Major in one of the publications of the Hakluyt Society.
The 15th century, remarkable in the annals of Western Iurope for a special
desire to become acquainted and establish relations with the distant East, is not
without its reminiscences to Russians, whose ancestors took their part in the pro-
gress of the times and the march of events, as far as circumstances would allow.
The development of the kingdom of Muscovy, following the overthrow of the
Tartar power during the reign of Ivan III., opened out new countries to the enter-
prise of Russian merchants; and, towards the close of the 14th and beginning of
the 15th centuries, they traded with India, Persia, and Central Asia. Commercial
intercourse was succeeded by closer political relations, and we read of interchanges
of envoys between the Grand Dukes of Muscovy and the rulers of Transcaucasia
and Persia. It was on the occasion of the departure of one of these embassies from
Russia that Athanasius Nikitin, a merchant of Tver, started for the East. Taking
with him his merchandize in two sailing-ships, he descended the Volga to Astrakan,
where he was attacked by artars and lost all his goods; but, escaping in
another vessel, after experiencing a violent storm in the Caspian Sea, he landed
safely at Derbend. Here the travellers were in the dominions of the Shirvan
Shah of Shamakha, who received them kindly, but refused to accede to their
request to be sent home to Russia. After wandering about Daghestan for some
time, Nikitin at length set sail for Persia from Baku in 1466 or 1467, and landed
at Balfrush on the coast of Mazanderan. Thence he crossed Persia, visiting the
most important towns and commercial centres, and arrived at Ormuz on the Per-
sian Gulf. Three years later, on his return journey through Persia, he visited the
“horde” of Uzum Hassan, of the Turkoman tribe of Ak-koinlu (white sheep),
whose empire extended over the whole of Persia and a great part of Asia Minor,
178 REPORT—1874.
and at one time threatened to shake the power of the Turks. Nikitin described
the unsettled state of the country, owing to the ambitious designs of Uzum Hassan
and the revolts and rivalry of his sons and vassals; and his remarks are the more
valuable as they entirely confirm the records of the chroniclers. Sailing from
Ormuz the week after Easter 1469, Nikitin approached, for the first time, the
shores of India at the Peninsula of Gujerat ; he touched at Din and Cambay, con-
tinuing his voyage to Chewul, where he landed and crossed the Ghaut Mountains,
entering the Deccan and visiting the towns of Junir and Kulburga on his way to
Beder, where he stayed for some time. Seder has now lost all its importance,
but in those times it was the capital of a powerful Mahometan state and a great
emporium for trade.
Our traveller visited the fair at Aliand (Allund), instituted in memory of Shah
Alla ad Deen Hildji (1297-1347), who made himself notorious by his terrible
march through the peninsula with 300,000 cavalry and 2700 elephants, devasta-
ting the country. Nikitin also accompanied the Indians to their sacred city of
Parvat,—not Ellord, as Karansin and others believed, but most probably Parvattum
or Perevattum pagoda on the right bank of the Kistna (16° 12'), south of Hydera-
bad, described by Hamilton as the site of one of the Buddhist shrines, marked to
this day by some beautiful remains. In Nikitin’s time this shrine was visited by
pilgrims from all parts of India. It contained, among other objects of Hindoo
worship, twelve temples covered with sculptures, illustrating the miracles of
Buddha; a statue of that god, resembling that of the Emperor Justinian at Tsar-
grad or Byzantium; a black ox of stone covered with gilding, &e. Among the
other places of interest described were Bidjnaghur, the capital of the great Indian
kingdom; Rachiur, famed for its diamond mines; and Kulur (Culoor), a great
industrial centre.
After the personal narrative of his journey, Nikitin records his observations on
the country and its products; the people, their morals, customs, and religion ; the
government, the army, &c.: and some of these remarks are the more valuable as
they are not to be found in the writings of any of his contemporaries.
It may be observed that in his time there were two principal kingdoms in India,
the capitals of which were the Indian Chiumidar-Bidjnaghur and the Mahometan
Khorassan-Beder. Of the former he communicates little, except that its Prince
Kadam was very powerful and had a large army; but of the latter he notes that
the ruling classes were all Mahometans of Khorassan—a proud race of conquerors,
riding in armour, their Indian subjects poor, ill-fed, nearly naked, swift runners,
with shield in one hand, bow and arrows in the other. The Sultan’s army num-
bered 300,000 men, besides elephants and the contingents of his great lords or
feudatories. The description seems almost fabulous of the splendour of the Sultan’s
Court, of the grand ceremonial processions on the Mahometan festivals, and of the
wars and military exploits of the great Lord Meliktuchar attached to the suite of
the young Sultan. f
After three years’ stay in India, Nikitin departed from Dapul, then a prosperous
sea-port, on a “tava” or merchant vessel bound for the Persian Gulf. After being
wrecked and falling into the hands of robbers, he reached Muscat, whence a few
days’ sail landed him at Ormuz. He then travelled through Persia to Trebizonde;
and, after crossing the “ Stamboul daria” (or Black Sea) to Balaclava, he could offer
up his thanks with a grateful heart, exclaiming, “ Thank God, I have crossed three
seas.” :
By what route Nikitin returned to Holy Russia is uncertain; but, as he died at
Smolensk before reaching his native Tver, it may be inferred that his road lay
through the territory of the Khan of the Crimea and the Prince of Lithuania.
The record of his travels entitles him, in Mr, Morgan’s opinion, not only to
claim rank as a distinguished Russian of the 15th century, but as not unworthy to
be named after Di Conti and Vasco de Gama.
On the Survey of Palestine. By Lieut. R. Conprr, R.L.
This survey is confined to Western Palestine, containing about 6600 square
miles, which is bounded by the Jordan and the sea, and extends from Dan to Beer-
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 179
sheba. It is divided into five geographical districts—two on the south, comprising
the hill-country of Judza and the plain of Sharon; the third, containing the
plain of Esdraelon and its boundary chains; the fourth, the hill-country of
Galilee; the fifth, the Jordan valley. The country of the Beni S’ab or Shep-
halah, west of Nablus, was unknown until visited in this survey. The author
described the commencement of the work (one-inch scale) in October 1871, and
the share taken in it by Mr. C. I’. Tyrwhitt-Drake, who died on the 23rd June last.
The map was prepared on Sir H. James’s system of tangential projection, in sheets
containing 30' of longitude and 20' of latitude. Six of the proposed twelve are
complete, and three are in England. The first base was connected with the trigono-
metrical point at Jaffa, the second being established at TWsdraelon; this was 43
miles long, and the difference between its measured and calculated lengths gave
an error of only ‘03 per cent. The average length of the triangles side was about
fifteen miles, but never greater than ten in the Judean hills; and every possible
check appears to have been employed in all cases with an encouraginely minute
amount of error. The rate of work rose from 60 square miles per month to about
180 in October 1878, and then, with an extra man, gave a steady average of 280,
All is done on horseback, and the method is most fitted for military reconnaissance.
The heights are obtained by Abney’s clinometer, sketches of hill-tops, aneroid
observations, thermometrical readings, &c.; and astronomical bearings are con-
stantly obtained as rough checks. As to names of places, the author observes that
the original Hebrew names are still to be found under slightly modified forms of
the Arabic. The collection and correction of these, tending to elucidate geogra-
phical passages in Scripture, were carefully attended to. The number obtained
was very great (seven or eight times more than in any previous map), averaging
two per square mile. Seventy special plans of antiquities, not before satisfactorily
explored, are here mentioned; and seven churches and two sites of towns are stated
to have been before entirely unknown. The antiquity of ruins in Palestine has
been much exaggerated, many supposed to be Jewish or Phoenician turning out to
be Crusading or Saracenic. ‘he identifications of the altar ‘Ad, the site of Alnon,
Zaretan, Gilgal, Scopus, Oreb, Zeeb, Samson’s tomb, Archelais, Echatana, Sozuza,
and other places mentioned in Scripture were made during the survey, and various
other points and discoveries of archeological interest are discussed. As to climate,
there is an entire absence of ozone during the east wind; the mirage is not depen-
dent on heat only, but requires also moisture; and therise and fall of the barometer
has no reference to storms in the Jordan valley, though a safe guide in the hills,
The Forest of Sharon has been found extending for miles on the northern part of
the plain; and altogether the seasons, rainfall, and natural vegetation of modern
Palestine resemble very closely those of Biblical times. The vine, now unknown,
was once much cultivated. A volcanic centre has been discovered in the plain of
Esdraelon, and a tertiary volcanic lake south-west of Carmel.
Notes on a recent Journey East of the Jordan.
By the Rey. J. L. Porter, D.D., LL.D.
Eastern Palestine is divided from Western by the valley of the Jordan, which
extends from the base of Hermon to the borders of Edom, a distance of 150 miles,
For about 130 miles its surface is below the level of the sea, its depression at one
place being 1312 feet. This great chain gives the country eastward its most
striking physical feature. Viewed from the west, it appears an unbroken mountain-
chain; but when ascended a tableland is seen to stretch from its summit into
Arabia. The central erection rises into wooded heights, with an average elevation
above the plateau of 600 feet: this is Mount Gilead; while the southern table-
land is Moab, and the northern Bashan. The western side of the country is deeply
furrowed by ravines, three of which are historically important :—1, the Arnon,
which separated the Moabites from the Amorites; 2, the Jabbok, which was the
northern border of the Ammonites; and 3, the Hieromax or Jarmuk, the
boundary between Bashan and Gilead. The country was the scene of some of
the most remarkable events in early Bible history, such as the raid of the Eastern
180 REPORT—1874.
Kings upon Sodom and the conquests of Israel under Moses. Questions of im-
portance arise in connexion with those events, Are there any traces, monumental
or traditional, of the aboriginal races ? or can the line of conquest be followed ?
The ancient inhabitants had some very marked characteristics; they were to a
large extent migratory ; they were subject to wild outbursts of passion ; they were
celebrated for unbounded hospitality ; they had a peculiar costume and a peculiar
accent. It is therefore important to inquire whether there be any thing in the
physical features, natural resources, or geographical position of the country that
would account for these characteristics, or whether any of them still exist.
The author proposed to show the conclusions he had arrived at upon these and
other points, while giving a sketch of his recent journey. He left Jerusalem on
18th April, but was unable to cross the Jordan at Jericho, because, as stated by
Joshua, the river at that season “ overfloweth all his banks.” He travelled up the
plain to Damich, and crossed a ferry beside the ruins of the Roman bridge, over
which ran the ancient road from Neapolis to Geraxa and Philadelphia. He showed
that the dress of the people beyond the river is different from that of the Western
tribes, and of a more primeval type; their pronunciation of certain words is also
different. He ascended Jebel Osha, the highest peak of the Gilead range, and
identified it with Mizpah, where Jephthah assembled the Transjordanic tribes.
He also showed that Hs-Saet is the Ramoth Gilead of the Bible. He travelled
south to Arak-el-Emir, and described the remarkable excavations and classic ruins
of the palace of Hyrcanus. Thence he went to Heshbon, and pointed out how it
commanded the passes from the plateau of Moab to the Jordan valley, thus ren-
dering it necessary for Moses to ask permission of Sihon to pass through his
territory. The western brow of the plateau is deeply furrowed, and the projecting
peaks near Heshbon formed those “ heights of Pisgah” which looked “ towards
Jeshimon,” 7%. e. “the desert” beyond the Dead Sea. He described the ruins of
Nebo, showing that it was a town which gave its name in ancient, as it does in
modern, times to some peaks around it. One of these peaks bears a name which
is probably a corruption of Pisgah, and the view from it is similar to that described
in the account of Moses’s death. The author went to Rabbath Ammon over a table-
land rich in pastures and dotted with ruined towns. He urged the importance of
excavations at Rabbah as likely to be productive of interesting archeological
discoveries. He travelled thence to Gerasa, through the semicircular region of
mountains skirted by the ravine of the Jabbok, and illustrating the statements in
the Bible regarding the strength of the borders of the Ammonites. He suggested
Neby Had, a noted sanctuary between the ford of the Jabbok and Gerasa, as the
probable scene of Laban’s covenant with Jacob, and proposed to identify Gerasa
with the long lost Mahanaim. From Gerasa he made an adventurous journey
through an unknown region to the plain of Hauran, following the line of an ancient
road ; and he gave reasons for believing that this was the route by which Abraham
and Jacob entered Palestine, and by which Moses invaded Bashan. He denied the
identity of Dera with the Edrei of Og, maintaining it to be the Adraha of the
Peutinger Tables, and followed the Roman road there laid down to Bozra. Thence
he went north to Jebel Hauran, visiting its old cities, and describing their archi-
tecture. He argued that some of the private houses in those cities are much older
than the Greek temples beside them, giving measurements of a few of the massive
stone doors. Here were two colossal heads of Astarte, with the crescent on the
forehead which give that deity the name found in Genesis, Ashteroth-Karnaim.
The ruined temples and palaces of Siah contain inscriptions bearing the names of
Herod the Great and Agrippa; and there is one in Nabathean characters of a very
remarkable type, apparently recording the erection of a statue to a certain Malkath
about 30 B.c. From Kenath he crossed the plain of Bashan to Mezarib, and then,
turning southward, passed over the northern ridge of Jebel Ajlin, visiting several
cities of Decapolis, and finally crossing the Jordan valley to Bethshean. In con-
clusion, the author strongly urged the importance ofa regular survey of the whole
country, as calculated to illustrate Biblical geography and archeology.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 181
The Yarkund Mission. Communicated by Colonel Broputru.
The advanced party of the expedition, of which Colonel Biddulph’s brother,
Captain Biddulph, was one of the chiefs, started from the station of Murree
(Punjaub), on 15th July, 1873. It consisted of 80 men and 100 animals, and
included Dr. Stoliczka, the celebrated Indian naturalist (who eventually suc-
cumbed to the inclemency of the climate). They reached Leh vd Srinugeur on
27th August, much tried by heavy rain, at times washing the road away, and by
the temperature, which varied from 31° to 140° in a singleday. After afortnight’s
halt they again set out by the Changchenmo route, passing the last human habita~
tion at Tanksee (on 16th September), 13,000 feet above the sea, an elevation
continuing to Shahdula, a five weeks’ journey. The temperature continued
variable, and at times very low—at the Sakti Pass (15,000 feet) 118° at noon and
5° at night. After heavy snow, they reached the Pangkone Lake (142 feet
deep) on 20th September, and separated on the 26th, Captain Biddulph wishing to
find a short cut to Kiziljilga. After crossing very easily on foot a pass 19,200 feet
high, a grassless track of low and rounded hills, like Brighton Downs, was reached,
the gradient of descent from which was only 600 feet in ten miles. The Lingzi-
Thung plains (17,000 feet) took two days to cross, traversed by snow-storms and
most bitter winds, the thermometer being twice at zero within half an hour of
sunset. Here, in spite of the precautions taken in sending on supplies and esta-
blishing depots, twice they encamped without fuel and once without water.
Kiziljilga was reached on Ist October, and, although snow fell daily and ink
froze in the pen, was found comparatively warm. The party here again united ;
but the severe cold utterly demoralized the native servants and caused much illness,
a fierce cutting wind blowing daily from noon to dusk, so that little exploring
could be done. Starting on 7th October, they followed the River Karakash,
visiting jade-mines deserted by the Chinese, and joining the main body with
Mr. Forsyth, who had crossed the Kara Korum without difficulty at Shahdula;
leaving which place on the 21st, after crossing the Grim Pass (the most difficult
they passed, though but 16,500 feet high), they once more met with vegetation,
and, after crossing the desert of Gobi (four days) and camping in an oasis, arrived
at Yarkund on 8th November. Here horses (like big Welsh ponies), cattle,
sumptuous dinners, and fruit abounded, and daily marches of thirty miles were
easily made. The Yarkundees are quiet and go unarmed. They will doubtless
rise in the scale of nations, as they intermarry with the upper class Andijanees, a
much superior race, There are no antiquities in this very ancient but entirely
brick-built city. Its chief is the Dad Kwah, the second man in the kingdom,
Leaving Yarkund on 28th November, the mission reached Kashgar in five
marches of twenty-six miles average, and stopping two days at Yanga Shahr,
where there is a strong fort. At Kashgar new and most comfortable quarters
were provided, and the officers were allowed to go about the city at pleasure and
shoot game in the neighbourhood. A treaty of commerce with the Atalik Ghazi
(now Ameer) was negotiated by Mr. Forsyth, and finally returned ratified in charge
of Mr. Shaw as British envoy. Permission being given to travel, Colonel Gordon
and party went northwards (83° below zero in tents, 26° below zero outside), and
Captain Biddulph eastwards. Letters were sent regularly to India during the winter,
but were delayed by the comparatively low Zoji-la Pass (11,500 feet), sometimes
closed for weeks by snow, which always lies lightly on the higher Kara Korum.
On 17th March the mission left Kashgar and separated at Yangi Hissar,
Mr. Forsyth returning to India and Captain Biddulph starting with Colonel Gordon’s
party (42 men, 65 horses) for Sir-i-kol on the 21st. On the 30th, after crossing
three snow-passes, they reached the important strategic position of Tashkurgan
(11,000 feet) on the edge of the Pamir Steppe, commanding the high road to India
by Chitral, and where various important routes converge. It is the last place
on that side in the possession of the Atalik, whose rule appears most just and
equitable, and who has increased the welfare of the country in less than ten years
to a degree before unheard of in Central Asia.
After much snow, traversing a road 18,000 feet high, and crossing four passes,
they reached Kila Panja, on the Oxus, in Wakhan, on 13th April, vd Aktash and
182 REPORT—1874.
the little Pamir, by the lake Barkut Yassin. The Pamir was crossed by twenty-
five mile marches through deep snow-drifts, firewood having to be carried for seven
marches and grain the whole way. Its drainage is all to the west, the Kizzilyart plain
being the true watershed. There are tvco lakes called Kara-kull, one draining east,
the other west, the apparent discrepancies in the accounts of former travellers
being thereby explained. Wakhan itself is very poor and thinly inhabited.
The party, not receiving permission from Shere Ali to proceed vid Cabul, left
Kila Panja on 26th April, Colonel Gordon returning by the Great Pamir and
Captain Biddulph by the Little Pamir, diverging from the original route at Surhud
with the view of visiting the Buroghil and Darkot passes, never yet seen by a
European.
Notes on some Roads in Northern Persia and on the Russio-Persian Frontier.
By Lieut. Gru1, RL.
Lieut. Gill accompanied Colonel Baker in a tour through Northern Persia in
1873, during which he made a rough survey of the country seen, determined the
latitude of places and their altitude by aneroid or hypsometers. The mountains to
the south of Teheran rise to an altitude of 15,000 feet, and the roads through them
wind along fearful precipices and are practicable only during summer, after the
melting of the snows. Gulhek is one of the most charming villages at the foot of
these mountains. It absolutely belongs to the British Government, and its inhabi-
tants are exempt from paying taxes. All the valleys on the southern slope of the
great mountain-range which separates the tableland of Teheran from the plains of
the Caspian abound in water and vegetation; small villages occur at intervals of
two or three miles, and in their fields the streams, having their rise in the hills, are
absorbed by irrigation before they reach the desert plain. The upper portions of
the valleys afford pasturage to sheep and goats, and in the most inaccessible
recesses the mouflon and ibex are met with. Coal of fair quality is found at
Shunshak, but owing to the cost of transport it fetches as much as £3 a ton at
Teheran. Immediately on crossing the water-parting towards the Caspian the
nature of the country changes, and the valley of Lar contrasts by its dreariness
with the valleys to the south. Its stream abounds in excellent trout; and at
Ask, well known for its hot sulphur-springs, cultivation is carried on extensively.
The valley is hemmed in several times in succession by precipitous rocks, until it
enters a wooded park-like country, extending to within five miles of Amol. A
large portion of the Caspian plain consists of jungle, and cultivation isnot so exten-
sively carried on as might be expected. Amol, at the time of Lieut. Gill’s visit,
was almost deserted, the inhabitants having gone to the hills. The nature of the
country remains the same as far as Bartrush ; but thence, and as far as Ziaret, it
is covered with extensive forests of magnificent planes, beeches, oaks, walnuts, and
immense box trees, having trunks as thick as a man’s wrist. The teak likewise
grows in certain localities. Cultivation is carried on only at a few spots. Above
Ziaret the forest ceases, and beyond a pass 4500 feet above the sea a fertile valley,
thickly populated and affording pasture to sheep and cattle, is entered upon. The
trees here grow in clumps, and beyond Atula they disappear altogether, and a
barren plateau, seven or eight~miles across and 7000 feet above the sea, is entered
upon. This plateau forms the water-parting between the Caspian and the rivers
flowing inland towards the desert. Lieut. Gill proceeded by a well-known road to
Shahrud, Sebzawar, and Mushed, the latter, aside from its sanctity, offering no
features of interest. Kilat is one of the most remarkable places in the world. It
hes in a circular valley encompassed by precipitous hills, and accessible only
through five narrow gorges not more than two or three yards wide. Water abounds;
and as there is much space for cultivation, the inhabitants could hardly be starved
out. On the road from Kilat to Idalik the mountains rise to a height of 10,000 feet,
and from the top of the difficult pass the valley of Atrek may be seen. The Persian
frontier province of Déregez is described as one of the most prosperous of Persia ;
and, though situated in the immediate vicinity of the Turkmen, it suffers nothing
from their incursions. This prosperity is due entirely to the wise government of
Elia Khan, whose family has held the post of governor for many years past, and
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 183
whose honesty contrasts stikingly with the corruption pervading every class of
Persian society. Lieut, Gill reached the Atrek at Sison, and descended ‘its valley
Pishkala, below which it is in the hands of the Turkmen. The valley of the
Atrek is about ten miles wide, and is bounded by mountains of considerable height.
From Pishkala, Lieut. Gill crossed the wooded hills to the Samulkhan valley, and
thence to the plain of Shushan. Near the village of Saughoss he enjoyed a few
days sport, and then turned his footsteps to the East, passing Jajerm on the road to
Teheran,
. On the Russian Expedition to Khiva.
By J. A. MacGanan, late Correspondent of the ‘New York Herald.’
The Russian campaign against Khiva was remarkable for the admirable manner
in which the expeditionary force was supplied with every requisite for a march
across a waste of sands. The operations of the topographical corps merit special
attention. The Russians keep pace, in the survey of the country, with their
advance in Central Asia, and every reconnoitring force, every embassy, is accom-
anied by competent surveyors. Struve’s and Kaulbars’s visits to Khiva and
ee are instances of this kind. The roads to Khiva had been explored by
flying detachments long before the late expedition was undertaken, and the expe-
ditionary force never moved until the ground in front had been reconnoitred
by flying detachments and the capacity of the wells ascertained. The only
part of the route not explored in this manner, owing to the presence of Khivan
forces, was that between Adam Kurulgan and the Oxus, and this omission nearly
led to a disaster. General Kaufmann fully appreciated the value of these explo-
rations, though he does not seem to have treated the officers employed on this
arduous service with the consideration they deserved. The trigonometrical survey
of Russian Turkestan is proceeding rapidly, and the time when a map of the whole
of Central Asia, based upon accurate data, can be prepared is not far distant. The
extensive explorations of Russian travellers become but rarely known to the rest
of Europe, for they are published ina dry matter-of-fact style, and not in the shape
of readable books. The surveyors attached to the Khivan expeditions have
probably determined by this time the old bed of the Oxus. In conclusion, the
author describes the soil of Khiva as being exceedingly fertile, producing crops of
wheat, barley, and rice, not to be surpassed elsewhere.
Reproduction of Maps and Plans in the Field.
By Captain Asyey, R.E., F.R.AS., &e.
The author pointed out the immense advantage that must accrue to military
commanders by placing in every subordinate officer’s hands a plan of the ground
on which the campaign might take place. A large scale of map, at least 6 inches
to a mile, was recommended, as on it every feature of the country might be shown.
Two modes of securing this have been introduced into the service, reproducing
by lithography sketch maps made by officers and men when executing a recon-
naissance. A peculiar kind of ink is employed, invented by the author, which is
capable of being transferred to stone or zinc from any paper. The advantages
claimed for this are, that the ink is liquid like ordinary ink; that it is not greasy
in the ordinary acceptation of the word as applied to lithography, and consequently
there is no danger of finger-markings obliterating the drawing by their transfer
to the stone or zine; and finally that unprepared paper can be used for the drawings.
The next point touched upon was the method of reproducing plans by photography,
either to the same or larger scale. The process adopted for these was called
papyrotypy. This differs from ordinary photo-lithography in rolling up a print
from a negative in greasy ink direct on the paper, after immersing it in cold water.
Those parts acted She by light take the ink, as they do not absorb water, whilst
those parts unacted upon by light, and which do absorb water, remain intact.
The paper print thus obtained is really a transfer which will go down to stone or
zinc. From that point the work is that of ordinary lithography. It was then
pointed out that papyrotypy was capable of giving half-tone prints as in the
184 REPORT— 1874.
heliotype process, and was utilized for that purpose in the field. The field equip-
ment for these processes consisted of a photographic, a lithographic, and
printing waggon, all of which are attached to the telegraph troop of the Royal
Engineers, each waggon being horsed by four horses. Enough material is carried
for a four months’ campaign for every purpose for which the respective waggons are
adapted. A mountain equipment for each of these processes was described. It is
capable of being carried on the backs of mules, and is therefore adapted for such
campaigns as the Abyssinian and Bhootan.
On Reconnaissance of a new or partially known Country.
By Lieut. Warren, 2.2.
This paper is practically an exhaustive instruction-book for military surveyors,
consisting mostly of mechanical detail, and quite incapable of being abstracted
with utility.
On Surveys in Ireland. Communicated by the Ordnance Department.
The circumstances connected with the Government surveys of confiscated lands
in 1586, 1609, and 1652 are here succinctly narrated, the last (the “ Down”
survey) being given more in detail. After a sketch of the origin of the English
Ordnance Survey, its extension in 1825 to Ireland (when the triangulation com-
menced on Divis Mount near Belfast) and subsequent operations are described,
and the various uses to which the resulting maps may be put are recapitulated,
the older surveys being shown to have been but portions of various oppressive
plans, whilst the operations of the present scheme relieve all classes from unequal
taxation, simplify the conveyance of land, and in various ways act equitably for
the good both of individuals and the State.
Note on the International Congress of Geographical Sciences.
By Mons. Cuarres Mavnorr, Secretary of the French Geographical Society.
After a precise account of the origin and proceedings of the first meeting of the
Congress at Antwerp, from 14th to 22nd August, 1871, and of the successful steps
taken by the Organization Committee of that meeting to induce the French Geogra-
phical Society to undertake the management of a second gathering at Paris, the
author gave details of the composition and labours of the General Commission and
its Subcommittee, resulting in the appointment of an Honorary Committee and a
Committee of Congress, the latter divided into Scientific, Organizing, Exhibiting,
Publishing, and Account sections, and the Scientific Section being subdivided into
Mathematical, Hydrographical, Physical, Historical, Economical, and Instructional
branches, with another for explorations and travels.
The points settled by the Committee of Congress were :—1, the establishment of
a provisional Board of Inquiry, to which questions could be referred, each of the
scientific groups being required to prepare a series of these; 2, the constitution of
an Honorary Conanities of all Nations (a full list of the members hitherto elected
being given) ; 3, the procuring the countenance of the French Government and
of the Parisian municipal authorities.
Subscriptions were fixed at 15 francs for each member, and a separate class for
donors of 50 francs and upwards was instituted.
It was fixed that the Congress should open on 31st March, 1875, and last (at most)
for ten days. Separate morning meetings were to be held in the various groups,
and general afternoon sessions. The Exhibition will open simultaneously with the
Congress, and close on 30th April, when prizes awarded by an international jury to
exhibitors will be given. Transactions and Proceedings of the Congress will be
published, with lists of subscribers and donors, and a copy of such publications,
and a card of admission to the meetings and the Exhibition, will be given to each
subscriber or donor.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 185
ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
Address by the Right Hon. Lord O’Hacan, President of the Section.
Stnce I accepted the invitation of the Council of the British Association to meet
pou here, I have glanced through the Addresses of some of the gentlemen who
ave heretofore enjoyed a similar distinction, and I find, in most of them, an
authoritative statement, that brevity is held a virtue in the Presidents of its
Sections. I appreciate the reason of the rule: it has my full approval; and I
shall endeavour to act upon it, so as to avoid delay of your discussions, or antici-
ate of their details, or prejudgment of any questions which may probably come
efore you.
I ean to have the honour of presiding over such an assembly in a town to
which I am attached, not merely as the pice of my birth, but, far more, by life-
long associations of interest, duty, and affection. I rejoice that it is again distin-
guished by the presence of so many men illustrious in every walk of science, who
come to take counsel together, as to the conquests of human thought and the
extension of the bounds of knowledge; and I may be permitted to say that Belfast,
in its industrial eminence, its honourable traditions, and its intellectual progress, is
not unworthy to receive them.
As to its varied industries, they may more fitly be considered by other Sections
of the Association, in their connexion with those branches of science (such as
Chemistry, Natural Philosophy, or Mechanics) with which they have more direct
concern. But the Statistician and Economist, without trespassing on the province
of any of those branches, has relations with them all—aiming to test the value of
their results and make them practically conducive to the general well-being. Thus,
when you note the wonderful progress of this community—increasing in population
from 37,000 in 1851 to 174,000 in 1871, and possessing multitudes of palatial manu-
factories where, within my own memory, there was exactly one—you may be led, le-
eely, to consider its causes, its consequences, and the means of its extension.
ou may find food for profitable speculation in examining the industrial efforts
which continue that progress without pause or faltering; and, perhaps, amongst
them not the ‘least remarkable is that which has established great iron-foundries,
winning for their work the highest honours in the industrial competitions which
have occupied the capitals of Murope from time to time for a quarter of a century,
and commanding orders from the most distant regions of the globe. Or you may
examine, with equal interest, ship-building establishments which employ skilled
artisans in thousands, send out scores of great vessels to traverse the Mediterranean
and bridge over the Atlantic, and have cultivated the special manufacture of lon
iron-decked ocean-steamers, from the year 1861, when it was first begun, unti
they have produced the gigantic ‘ Britannic’ and ‘Germanic,’ measured at 5000
tons (not surpassed, if they have been equalled, in any country), and exhibiting
improvements which are largely imitated in all ocean-going ships throughout the
world. But apart from its general industries, Belfast has peculiar claims on the
good will of this branch of the Association.
It is nearly a quarter of a century since, at a former Meeting of this Associa-
tion in this town, the place which I now fill was more fitly occupied by the late
Archbishop Whately, whose services to Economic Science, as well in his own
masterly publications as in the liberal energy with which he encouraged the study
of it in Ireland, I need not eulogize before this assembly. On that occasion there
were not wanting able and instructed men to show that its principles had already
found acceptance here. Such men had been already active in the prosecution of
those special inquiries which in this section it will be our business to pursue.
In distant days, when Belfast was poor in material wealth and very limited in
population, they had formed a speculative and literary society which did excellent
work. They had, also, societies for the culture of natural science, and others
which were useful in training young people for the encounters of public and pro-
fessional life, And these, with great schools, which were the creation of the
spirit and enterprise of private persons, tended to the remarkable advancement of
individuals, and assisted in laying the foundations of that great hae the
1874.
186 REPORT—1874.
unaided growth of self-reliance and self-assertion, which has so distinguished this
community amongst the cities of the empire.
It was not strange that, with such antecedents, Belfast should haye early moved
in the new path of statistical inquiry; and accordingly, long before the meeting
to which I have alluded, it had established a Social Inquiry Society for the con-
sideration of “Statistics, Political Economy, and Jurisprudence,” which, in some
articulars, remarkably anticipated the Social Science Association, and was, whilst
it existed, very useful and efficient. And thus it came to pass that not the least
distinguished of those who, in 1852, discussed’ the subjects peculiar to this section,
in able papers, were inhabitants of Belfast, some still living and some departed,
who well maintained the intellectual reputation of their town. Subsequently, the
Social Inquiry Society merged in the larger combination represented by the Statis-
tical and Social Inquiry Society of Ireland, which has laboured, and continues to
labour, in the metropolis, with great and increasing success. It has dealt, in its
published transactions, with almost every important economic question of the time,
and has acted beneficially, by suggestion ad argument, on the Irish legislation of
later days.
It ti operated, also, in spreading economic knowledge through the organization
of the Barrington Lectureships on Political Economy, which were founded by the
munificence of a citizen of Dublin, and through which competent teachers afford
the opportunity of instruction in the principles of the Science to the various towns
of Ireland. But although the capital of the Ulster Province has thus allowed its
local society to be absorbed in one which is national, the spirit which originated
both continues to prevail in Belfast ; and it will gratify the members of this section
to learn that, in the month of January -ast, a committee was formed to establish
classes for the systematic teaching of Political Economy chiefly to young men
engaged in mercantile pursuits. That committee is composed of the Chief Magis-
trate of the town (to whose intelligence, energy, and affluent liberality, I am not
surprised to learn, the British Association is largely indebted), many of its leading
merchants and professional men, and several eminent professors of the Queen’s
College. They were fortunate in obtaining the services of a highly informed
economist ; and the experiment has, so far, proved very satisfactory. The number
of students on the roll has been 55,—3 of them alumni of the Queen’s College,
7 apprentices of solicitors, and 45 engaged in commercial business. The average
of attendance on the classes has been from 40 to 50, The committee may well Fa
congratulated on the result of their novel and excellent effort, and the probable
influence, in other communities, of the example they have given. Already it has
been imitated in Dublin; a class of young mercantile men has been formed in the
metropolis for a similar purpose; and there is no reason why others should not
compete with it there aot in the provincial towns.
In connexion with this matter, I may mention that very recently a consider-
able portion of the Barrington Fund has been devoted to the instruction in
Political Economy of schoolmasters, who are examined in its principles under the
direction of the Barrington Lecture Committee of the Statistical Society; and
at an examination held on the 12th of May last, 13 of them obtained di-
stinctions and certificates, The importance of such a movement I need not dwell
upon. It was anticipated by Archbishop Whately in the preparation of his
‘asy Lessons on Money Matters’ and other books; and I find that the Labour
and Capital Committee of the Social Science. Association have endeavoured to
induce the Educational Committee of the Privy Council in England to promote
the teaching of economics in schools under its inspection, and have urged the im-
portance of such teaching on the Lord President, for reasons which, in the painful
circumstances existing around us, may not unprofitably be repeated here. They
declared their strong conviction “that the hostility between Labour and Capital,
arising from an erroneous belief that the interests of workpeople and their em-
ployers, and of tenants and Jandlords, are opposed to each a aha belief leading,
in manufactures, to attempts to oppose harrowing restrictions regarding rates of
wages, hours of labour, piece work, number of apprentices, and the use of machinery ;
and, in agriculture, to attempts to dictate the amount of work to be exacted and
the selection of tenants; and leading, in its further stages, to strikes, lock-outs,
rattenings, and threats of personal violence, and ultimately, in many cases, to
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 187
murder itself—tmight have beeti mitigated, and in great measure prevented, had
the people of this country in their youth, and before the mind could be warped,
been instructed in the elements of Economic Science.” And on this, and on other
grounds, they urged that no more time should be lost in taking measures for gra-
dually introducing this knowledge, as a regular branch of education, into all schools
to which the State gives pecuniary aid. Their demand was not fully conceded ;
but a beginning has been made in England as in Ireland, and the study has been
introduced in some large schools under efficient inspectors. Individuals have made
the same experiment in London and Glasgow (eminently Mr. Ellis and Mr.
M‘Clelland), and with a success demonstrating the feasibility of imparting econo-
mic knowledge to young people, and making it full of attractive interest to them.
We must all sincerely trust that the same success may attend the effort which has
been so well begun in Ireland. _ :
I do not think I need apologize for these references to the connexion between
economic and statistical science and the intellectual traditions of Belfast ; for, whilst
they prove that I am not unwarranted in asserting its worthiness to receive this
great Association, they must gratify specially those whom I address, as indicating
a healthy interest in the prosecution of that science and a continuous effort to
assist its progress here.
It is impossible to exaggerate the importance of such progress to the highest
interests of every class of our society. The branch of knowledge with which we
have to deal must have had an existence coeval with all advanced civilization,
although its name is new. It could never have been ignored by the historian, who
properly marshalled facts and drew inferences as to the characters and actions of
individuals and the causes of the rise and fall of nations. It was necessarily
cultivated by investigators of thé working of commercial communities, and the
influences which affect their prosperity or decay. It was implicitly recognized by
all careful and conscientious statesmanship, in dwelling on the events and circum-
stances which might require the maintenance of institutions or warrant their aboli<
tion or reform. Those who fulfilled such functions were, consciously or uncon-
sciously, statisticians and economists, although the recognition of statistics and
economy, as distinct domains of human knowledge, and the cultivation of them,
with exclusive attention, are comparatively of recent origin in the world of thought.
It is not, perhaps, matter of surprise that such new-comers have not always met
a cordial reception—that the masters of exact science have sometimes looked
askance on their looser and more speculative methods, and disputed their right to
rank at all with the older scientific sisterhood. But the controversy was never of
much practical account ; and it has well-nigh ended.
The statistician and economist do not demonstrate; do not claim for their pro-
positions the certainty of mathematics; are too much engaged with the shifting
conditions of human existence and the infinitely varied shades of human thought
and feeling to pronounce, with rigid dogmatism, as to the course to be adopted in
all the varying circumstances which concern the wealth of nations and the social
interests of mankind.
But, nevertheless, they are entitled to call their labours scientific, if science be
needed to deal with subjects and educe results of the last importance to our race,
and to accomplish this by drawing, from facts rightly ascertained, lucidly classified,
and profoundly considered, conclusions of permanent truth and wide application
for the government of human conduct and the increase of human happiness.
_ The reign of Law is not bounded by the physical universe. Its vigilant power is
not exhausted when the planets have been kept in their courses and the earth is
made bountiful for the maintenance of man. As the material creation assuredly
did not owe its harmony and beauty to a fortuitous concourse of atoms, so ‘thé
humanity, to whose needs it has such a marvellous adaptation, has not been left'to
be the sport of chance, stumbling through the ages in blind disorder and hopeless
desertion by the Infinite Power which called it into being. There is a moral
government which “shapes our ends,” pervading the apparent chaos of motive
and action, and making the liberty which belongs to us, as individuals, subor-
dinate itself, with a felicity as admirable as it is incomprehensible, to the prome-
tion of the universal good, Three millions of free and responsible beings consti-
tute the population of London, each having his own idiosyncracy am power to
14
188 REPORT—1874.
act in independent isolation, but all overruled and subdued by an overmastering,
although an unacknowledged influence, to the working out of a common system
by which, whilst they prosecute, for their respective interests, their separate objects
and pursuits, they supply one another with all things useful for their exist-
ence and enjoyment. ; :
This is surely the greatest of marvels; and it is achieved, as no human power
could achieve it by any governmental force or police strategy, because there is a
Law which dominates the movements of society and moulds the earthly destinies
of men. And, surely, the inquiries which are bent to the comprehension of that
Law, and strive to ascertain the principles on which it acts, from earnest observa-
tion, laborious record, and just appreciation of the facts which, more or less clearly,
disclose its systematic operation in the various i hes of human effort, are
vital to our well-being and progress in the world. They are fruitful in precise and
enduring results. They have already, in many points, revolutionized the opinions
of communities and shaped the policy of cabinets, and they have furnished canons
of public conduct which have had an ever-widening acceptance wherever civiliza-
tion has made its way.
' Statistical inquiry is, therefore, scientific inquiry, and scientific inquiry of the
highest value ; and its successful prosecution is important to every class of men,
from the statesman and the legislator to the humblest operative. It has relations
with all matters of real human interest. It touches the reciprocal rights of classes,
the claims of capital and labour, the advancement of education, the repression of
crime, the relief of distress, the prevention of disease, the improvement of
agriculture, the extension of commerce, and all the various cognate questions
which affect our social and industrial state.
All men may profit by an acquaintance with a department of knowledge which
concerns all alike—the high and the low, the wealthy and the poor. If there be
ascertainable laws by which the relative rights and responsibilities of human beings
are regulated, and by the evasion or defiance of which they must suffer inevitable
injury, it is plainly important that some knowledge of such laws by all men should
promote the equitable and reasonable enforcement of those rights and responsibilities,
There is, at present, a sad encounter of classes in this great town, which has
paralyzed its most important industry. As to the origin of the dispute or the
conflicting views of the parties to it, [do not presume to offer an opinion. But
I may say for myself, and I am sure for those whose pleasant meeting here has
been clouded by that grievous calamity, that we lament its occurrence, and trust it
will find a speedy ending, for the avoidance not merely of privation on the one
side and embarrassment on the other, but of evil consequences which may bring
permanent mischief to every order of the community, and damage vitally the great
commercial position of Belfast. I refer to the sad subject only to indicate how
important it might have been if the educational effort on which I have already
spoken had so far advanced as to spread abroad a knowledge of the issue of like
encounters in other places and at other times, and of the teaching to be derived
in this, as in most things else, from that old experience which
© Doth attain
To something of prophetic strain! ”
But the statesman and the legislator need the knowledge which is accumulated
by statistics even more than the mass of men. To legislate aright, to guard a
nation safely through calm and stormy times, to take advantage of opportunities
_ of safe and wise reform, and avoid alike the evils of obstinate adherence to abuse
and reckless innovation, a member of Parliament or a minister holding’ political
power should qualify himself by familiarity with that science of which a most
eminent professor of it (Dr. Farr) has said:—“ Statistics underlies politics, It is in
fact, in its essence, the Science of Politics without party colouring.” And yet there
are many members and some ministers who, from time to time, undertake the dis-
charge of their high functions without any such preparation as is deemed essential
in the aspirants to any ordinary profession—of which, in their case, some little —
statistical and economic knowledge might well form a necessary part. Political
action should not be altogether empirical : and scientific instruction, specially aimed
to qualify for the undertaking of it, might be usefully supplied by our higher
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 189
schools and universities, in far larger proportion than they now afford it; for they
would so supply new faculties of perception and persuasion to the political aspirant,
whom they might train to marshal facts for the elucidation of economic questions,
and apply established principles in the novel emergencies which perpetually test
the quality of statesmanship; and so, promoting an attempt to found. legislation
on a scientific basis, or, at least, to have it conducted with informed and fore-
thoughtful intelligence, they might take away, in some degree, the reproach of the
famous Chancellor-—
“Quam parvula sapientid regitur mundus !”
There are, no doubt, subjects on which the law-maker may decide promptly and
on the first impression; but on most of those which are really important and
permanently affect the general interest, he should seek the help which the statisti-
cian can afford by casting light from the past on the dim pathways of the future,
if he would avoid perfunctory and haphazard legislation, issuing often in serious
mischief, and necessitating attempts at unsatisfactory amendment, which he need
never have essayed if he had allowed that light to lead him to an appreciation of
the difficulties in his way and the means to master them.
_ Still further, the statistical method may be employed beyond the bounds of mu-
nicipal arrangements, and made to operate for the benefit of that great community of
nations, ever more closely approximated to each other by the practical annihilation
of space and time which has been accomplished by the railroad and the steamship.
It may assist the jurist in dealing with the vexed questions of international law
and preparing the way for that progressive agreement as to the reciprocal claims
and duties of civilized states ; and this, though it cannot, perhaps, whilst man is man
subdue the turbulence of ambition or end the crimes and calamities of war, may
promote, at least, an approach to that “federation of the world,” which may be
delayed or forbidden by human pride and passion, but is dictated by the highest
interests of mankind.
But, further still, there are collateral advantages which statistical inquiry affords,
in bringing together, to such a meeting as this, men of science and men of the
world (the professor, the actuary, and the politician), who find the occasion of union
and mutual benefit in a pursuit which exercises at once the student’s capacities of
intelligent research and logical deduction, and aids, as I have shown, to a happy
issue the best efforts of those who move in the busiest and the noblest spheres of
active citizenship.
And, even more widely, it promotes the diffusion of intelligence and the
unity of intellectual effort throughout the earth, as in the case of the Interna-
tional Statistical Congress, which was originated at the London Exhibition of
1851, and has assembled successively in Brussels, in Paris, in Vienna, in London,
in Florence, at the Hague, and, lastly, in St. Petersburgh. At those meetings
various countries have been represented by delegates from their Governments and
by men of science, with the object of discovering the best modes of statistical
inquiry, of ascertaining the facts capable of numerical expression which can be
collected in all civilized communities, and of establishing a world-wide uniformity
of statement, tabulation, and publication of those facts, giving a more exact and
scientific character to results, and making them more available for universal useful-
ness. At the last Session, the eighth of the series, in St. Petersburgh (of which I
should be glad, if I had time, to give some account froma Report of Mr. Hammick,
one of the foremost of living statisticians, with which I have been favoured), not-
withstanding the distance from which they came, and the dangers they encoun-
tered from cholera and otherwise, 128 foreign members attended from almost every
country in Europe, from the United States of America, from Brazil, Egypt, and
Japan. There were 860 Russian members, including the first scientific men and
University professors from all parts of the empire. The Grand Duke Constantine
presided and opened the proceedings in a forcible address. The Emperor gave his
best assistance in every way, and the meeting was most harmonious and successful.
I cannot attempt even to indicate the nature and the fruits of its important labours;
and I refer to it only that I may illustrate, by a late and conspicuous example, the
mode in which the prosecution of statistical studies may tend to promote the good
understanding of Governments, to dissipate the evil prejudices which have so
often held nations in unnatural and absurd antagonism, to diffuse the highest
190 . | )). REPORT—1874, «
intelligence of its most instructed members amongst the whole family of states,
and bind them together by an identity of mental action and an equal participation
of discoveries and suggestions abounding in advantage to them all.
I fear I have already overpassed the limits which should haye been prescribed by my
undertaking to be brief, and I pursue no further the general considerations on whic
1 have partially and imperfectly entered. But it seems to me that those who are
charged with the duty which I have assumed may fairly be expected to make
some allusion to matters within the sphere of their own special division of scientific
knowledge, which may have peculiar relations with the localities in which they act.
The opportunity of concentrating attention upon such matters may be judiciously
and largely used by the authors of papers in the several sections; but a very
brief allusion to some of them should be allowed to make the opening addresses
“‘yacy of the soil,” I shall merely glance at two or three, which will be of interest
as belonging to Ireland.
I believe that in no other department of statistical inquiry has such progress been
made in these countries, within living memory, as in that which comprehends
“ Judicial Statistics ””—dealing with crime, its motives, its causes, and the means
of its repression, and with all the various questions of interest which arise in con-
nexion with the administration of civil and criminal justice. In this department,
men of high intelligence haye long been labouring throughout the world; and it
was the subject of sedulous attention at all the international congresses of which
Ihave spoken. The results haye been already satisfactory and full of practical
advantage, and they will become still more so when the inquiries which those
congresses have organized shall have submitted for comparison the judicial systems
of all lands, described by those who are best mite ti with them. In this good
work Ireland has done more than her part, under the supervision of Dr. Neilson
Hancock; and I owe it to that very eminent statistician to quote from a letter
addressed to me by Mr. Hammick, of whom I have spoken already, and whose
absence from our Meeting I sincerely lament, the remarkable statement, that “ the
Trish Judicial Statistics are unequalled in Europe for skilful arrangement and lucid
exposition.”
The changes in the social state of Ireland and the legislation of latter years
have fixed attention on our County Courts, and made some reforms in their pro-
cedure and some extension of their jurisdiction yery desirable. The Land Act
creates new exigencies in connexion with our agricultural and commercial life, and
they must be satisfied by a moderate and carefully considered reform of institutions
which have worked well and command the confidence of the people, This is one
of the most important matters which can receive the attention of the Legislature;
and I am glad to say that a beginning of improvement has been made in the last
session, by an act which gives the chairman power to adjudicate, in’small cases
and with certain limits, although bond fide questions of title may have arisen. The
want of this power has often produced a denial of justice to suitors whose poverty
has forbidden them to seek it in a superior Court, with the frequent consequences
of lawless contentions, violent assaults, and sometimes lamentable homicides. The
humble man who is wronged, in fact or fancy, and has found all available legal
tribunals closed against him, takes the law into his own hands and becomes his
own avenger. I hope this great mischief will now exist no more. But the exten-
sion of jurisdiction in title-cases and the further concession of a limited right to
deal with transactions of partnership are only, I trust, the heralds of a more com-
prehensive measure, giving to our local courts, with such modification as may be
ricpee the equitable jurisdiction already possessed by the county courts of
ngland.
You will, I am pleased to say, have the opportunity of hearing a paper on
Land-Tenure, prepared by Sir George Campbell, the late Lieutenant-Goyernor
of Bengal, who is eminently qualified to speak with authority on that mo-
mentous subject, and to whom the people of this country owe serious obligations
for the counsel and assistance which his great ability and large experience
enabled him to afford during the discussions which preceded the passing of
the Irish Land Act. Of that Act, generally, I have no purpose to speak here.
ft has been in operation for too brief a time, and its provisions haye yet
been too little interpreted by judicial exposition, to warrant a confident pronounce-
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 191
ment on many points connected with it. I believe that it has already been of signal
advantage, and will yield far greater benefits hereafter. But I refer to it now only
that I may say a word of its purchase clauses, which—and the best mode of giving
them vitality and effect—are worthy of the attention of all who care for the pros-
perity of Ireland. As to those clauses, there was no controversy in Parliament;
they passed with universal approval through both the Houses. They recognized,
with all the authority involved in so rare a unanimity of acceptance, the value of
diffused proprietorship of land amongst our agricultural classes. It is impossible
to overestimate their importance to the progress of this country in industry and
order, Yet they have a very inadequate operation, and remain almost a dead letter
onthe Statute Book. I learn, from a report of the Commissioners of Public Works,
that, since the passing of the Act, 338 tenant farmers have purehased their hold-
ings, comprising an acreage of 22,116 acres, of which the annual rent amounted to
£13,141, at a gross cost of £319,522, including advances from the Commissioners of
£192,066, The report informs us, further, that the applications of tenant farmers
for loans under the Statute have diminished indigon of increasing, and that the
urchases of one year have been 206, whilst only 106 were made in that which
ollowed, These facts are disappointing in a high degree ; and I call attention to
them in this place that, if possible, the causes of the disappointment may be
ascertained and done away, and free and fruitful action given to legislative provi-
sions amongst the very best which have ever been vouchsafed to us. Of course I
cannot here discuss so large a question; but I may indicate my own opinion that,
in order to the effective working of those provisions, it will be necessary to facili-
tate still further the transfer of land in small proportions, by cheapening con-
_.veyances'and validating titles at a small expense; and that for this purpose it will
be essential to extend the operations of ie Record of Title Office beyond the
narrow sphere within which Parliamentary opinion confined it when it was origi-
nally designed, and to make it effective—as it has never been, though years have
elapsed since it was opened—by the application of the principle of compulsion,
without the aid of which old habits, ignorant dislike of innovation, and powerful
class interests will continue to nullify its influence. The purpose of the Legis-
lature, to secure a complete and permanent register of all dealings with property
in the soil, is of high policy and plain necessity, and must not be baulked by the
supineness or the obstinacy of individuals whose own best interest will be pro-
moted when they are forced to aid in carrying out that purpose. In addition, it
will be necessary to reconsider the fiscal arrangements of the Office as well as of
the Landed Estates Court to which it is attached, and to localize their action by
the establishment of District Registries of easy access for small transactions and
with fees too moderate to bar approach to them. These seem to me the outlines
of a reform long desirable, but heretofore difficult from the vis mertie of some
and the active antagonism of others, which should promptly be undertaken by
Parliament, and has already in principle received its sanction by its general
approval of the Bills introduced by Lord Cairns during the past Session, It is
essential to Ireland, if we would have the action of a beneficial law no longer
‘paralyzed, and the passionate eagerness with which the [ish people covet the
possession of the soil indulged legitimately and within the limits of the law; so
that, instead of finding it often identified with agrarian crime, we shall see it
become subordinate and ancillary to the equitable settlement of the country and
the lasting contentment of its people, by prompting them to obtain, through
honourable industry and manly effort, that position of secure and independent
proprietorship, which, according to all our experience of human nature, will lead
them to identify their individual interests and objects with their duty to the State,
and make them loyal and law-abiding citizens.
There are other topics on which I could Neca address you, but must re-
member my promise and conclude—only observing that I should more strongly
feel the difficulty of adequately discharging the duties of a position which has been
held by Lord Derby, Lord Littleton, the late Archbishop Whately, the present
Chancellor of the Exchequer, and other very eminent persons, were I not sustained
by so many men of high capacity and established reputation, with whose aid I
trust that our meetings may be made agreeable, instructive, and of some public
utility. >
192 ; REPORT—1874.
On some Practical Difficulties in Working the Elementary Education Act, 1870.
By Lyvia E, Brcxer.
The Elementary Education Act of 1870 contains provisions whereby the com-
ulsory attendance at school of children between the ages of five and thirteen may
bs secured. In consequence of the action of school-boards under these provisions
many thousands ofchildren are now attending school who did not attend previously ;
but the effect of the compulsory action has not been altogether favourable. In Man-
chester, while the number of scholars in the district has been increased by 18,000,
the average attendance at some of the best elementary schools has been lowered
as a direct consequence of the compulsory action of the Board. The Manchester
Board practically limited the service of notices to cases where the children had made
50 per cent. of attendances. The people rapidly discovered that they were not inter-
fered with if the children had made half the possible attendances; thence arose an
impression that half-time satisfied the requirements of the Board and of the Act,
and this caused a lowering of the average attendance in the best schools. Ifa
minimum rate is fixed on as a concession to the weakness and needs of the very
poor, that becomes practically the maximum for the whole district, and the general
rate of attendance is lowered to it.
One of the greatest practical difficulties, especially with regard to girls, is the
domestic difficulty. Houses have to be kept in order, babies have to be nursed,
fathers’ dinners have to be taken, &c. Girls are kept from school to do these things ;
and when there are no girls, boys are frequently detained for these purposes. It
one open to grave doubt whether it is really necessary, in order to teach a
child reading, writing, and arithmetic, to require two school attendances per day.
It is suggested that, with properly organized schools, children who attdeilel once a
‘day regularly would be able to pass the Government standards as readily as they
do now. There is a large proportion of cases where the earnings of the children
stand between the parents and pauperism ; and the question suggested is, whether it
is most in accordance with sound economic science to require that the children shall
be sent to school at the cost of throwing the parents on the parish, or to allow the
schooling of the children to be sacrificed to the exigencies of the poverty of the
parents.
Reform in the Work of the Medical Profession. By Miss Brgvy.
Workmen’s Dwellings from a Commercial Standpoint. By W. Borty.
Principles of Penal Legislation. By the Rev. J. T. Burr.
16
The elementary principles on which penalties ought to be regulated are not
generally agreed upon.
Penalties are, at the present time, regulated upon three different principles.
i. The principle of retributive justice. This principle is now generally repudi-
ated in theory; but it is still largely acted upon in the administration of
punishment.
ii, The principle of reforming offenders by a course of moral training. This prin-
ciple is not allowed by practical politicians; but it has influenced modern eines
iil. The deterrent principle. This principle accords with the true theory of
punishment, subject to limitations,
The deterrent force of penalties is limited—
1, By defective mental capacity in a large portion of the population ;
2. By excessive pressure of external circumstances, especially by want.
The attempt to extend the deterrent force of penalties beyond those limits will
be, to a great extent, futile; and all useless punishment is both inhuman and
impolitie,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 193
The perfection of a penal code will be found in the deterring from crime to the
greatest extent practicable with the infliction of the least possible amount of
punishment upon those who incur the penalties.
Il.
A second principle is required for regulating the methods of punishment.
By the fact that crime is committed, the population is divided into two classes,
The criminal class is composed of persons m whom the deterrent force of penal
laws is overborne, either from defective mental capacity or from an excessive force
of positive incentives to crime. . .
he limitations to the deterrent force of penalties indicate that excessive severity
of punishment will not be employed with success in combating those causal influ-
ences in these persons.
The dealing with these persons is a distinct problem from the dealing with the
population generally.
his secondary object of penal legislation is to be arrived at by adapting the
methods of punishment to the causes in which the different forms of crimes
originate.
The solution of this problem requires :—
i. An analysis of the causes of crime.
These may be classed as
1. Internal and External.
2. Negative and Positive.
8. Proximate and Remote.
_ ii. An analysis of the moral and material influences of the available methods of
punishment.
The purely penal element of punishment is to be distinguished from its acces-
sories, whether they are inseparable from it or intentional additions to it.
The purely penal element ought to be addressed to the criminal passion. The
accessories of the penal element must supply the influences for correcting the
internal and for remedying the external causes of crime.
III.
Five kinds of punishment in use enumerated :—1, Capital punishment ; 2, cor-
poral punishment ; 3, imprisonment, of which penal servitude is one modification ;
4, restricted or conditional liberty ; 5, fines.
The extent to which these several kinds of punishment were used in the year
1872 was as follows :—Ist, thirty persons were sentenced to death, of whom fourteen
were executed ; 2nd, 837 persons were sentenced to be whipped; 3rd, the commit-
ments to prison were 158,141; 4th, 1514 persons were released under “tickets of
leave,” and others were sentenced to police supervision without penal servitude,
and 18,930 persons were released upon bail under sureties and upon their own
recognizances ; 5th, the number of fines inflicted was 281,934,
The results obtained from imprisonment considered. The recommitments not a
fair test of its effects. The rate of the recommitments is generally misapprehended.
The rate, correctly calculated, shows that of all persons committed to prison once
75 or 76 per cent. do not return. After ‘epented commitment the rate increases
‘rapidly.
The imposing of restrictions or conditions upon liberty is a method of treatment
which is now enforced every year upon about 2000 of the worst class of offenders,
and upon 18,000 or 19,000 persons accused of the lighter forms of crime. It is
proposed to extend this method of treatment to some of the 100,000 persons who
come between these extremes of criminality.
The Increase of Drunkenness among the Working Classes and the Causes of it.
By the Rev. W. Catnz, M.A,
A scientific writer in one of our periodicals, after describing the effect of the
electric telegraph in promoting civilization in our own country and over all the
194, oo REPORT—1874,
earth, makes a saddening remark :—“ But civilization,” he says, has two aspects,
and, side by side with the development of a wonderful scientific invention, we
must place the fact that in 1872 the quantity of spirits consumed in the United
Kingdom was 26,872,183 gallons, being 2,708,539 gallons more than in 1871.”
So said this writer in ‘Chambers’s Journal,’ in March 1873. Now we have
the shanie of confessing that, during the year 1873, there has been a very large
increase in the consumption of intoxicating drinks in the United Kingdom, We
used last year—
Home spirits........ ethan de soldi pha ci . 28,908,501 gallons,
Foreign spirits Sopessccsecssse sess nerve LUeeEy TOO ae
Wine eoeevee peewee reer tee ere eee eeeneeee 18,027,104 ”
57,159,311
In addition to this we used 1,076,844,942 gallons of beer, and about 18,500,000 gal-
lons of British wines, cider, &c, When we consider the enormous quantity of
intoxicating drink which has been consumed, we need not wonder at the increase
of crime, especially in our manufacturing districts, where wages have heen so high
and trade so prosperous.
The statistics of the county gaol, Manchester, in which the author was chaplain
during the years 1868 and 1869, are truly startling. This prison receives all the
criminals in the hundred of Salford, except those from the city of Manchester, for
whose accommodation a special gaol is provided.
For the year ending September 29, 1869, the committals for drunkenness to the
county gaol were 2003, viz. 1324 males and 679 females.
For the year ending September 29, 1870, there were 2322—males 1518 and
females 804,
IS71 wc. eeeeeeee 2832—males 1603, females 729
bert plattiaett a wma ite-girieite: f= able aiid Lo Re 884
Theyihe pekbetymeg een ies | akin Pi 53> PPM aa
We learn from these figures that in four years the committals for drunkenness
have increased 60 per cent.
In Manchester, during the twelve months ending the 31st of March last, 9150
persons were apprehended by the police and brought before the justices for being
drunk and drunk and disorderly in the streets. Large as this number is, it is less
by 903 than the number arrested in 1872. The diminution in 1873 was doubtless
owing to the operation of the Licensing Act and the earlier closing of drink-houses,
as comparatively few were arrested during the night, and there was a decrease of
467 in the number arrested on Sundays. But it appears from the monthly reports
of the chief constable that the number arrested br drunkenness is now again
increasing.
But the committals for drunkenness to our prisons do not show the full extent of
the evils which follow in the train of drunkenness. Very many of those committed
to gaol are drunkards, though convicted of other offences of which they would never
have been guilty if it were not for their drunkenness, The committals to the county
gaol, Manchester, for all offences were, in 1869, 6532—males 4900, females 1652.
In 1873 the total committals for all offences were 7210—males 5051, females 2159,
Here is a lamentable state of things! The committals of females have increased in
four years from 1632 to 2159. Female drunkenness is increasing to a frightful
extent (60 per cent. in four years), and their drinking leads to the commission of
other crimes. We are told by Plutarch, in his comparison of the lives of Numa
and Lycurgus, that in the early ages of Rome women were strictly prohibited from
tasting intoxicating wine; and other ancient writers tell us that they were punished
with death for their crime, just as if they had committed adultery, ‘“ because the
drinking of intoxicating liquor was regarded as the beginning of adultery.” When
will English legislators be as wise as Romulus and Numa so far as to prevent
females from using these poisonous drinks? A drunken woman was a very rare
sight in ancient Rome, but in one prison in England the author saw in two years
about 3000 drunken women. He Imows no greater reproach to Christianity than
this most horrible fact.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 195
In the Liverpool Borough Gaol during the year ending September 30, 1873, the
committals were 12,420; of these, 5747 were males and (dreadful to contemplate)
6673 were females, Of these 12,420 committals, 8322 were under the care of the
Roman Catholic chaplain, the Rey. Father Nugent; and it is sad to think there
were 4742 women under his care—in fact more females than males, as the males
~ were only 3580, Under the Protestant chaplain there were 1931 females and
2067 males. The author distinguished the sexes in this manner in order again to
draw attention to the absolute necessity there is of imposing some check on the
drinking of alcoholic liquors by females, if the comfort and happiness of the homes
of our people ought to be maintained. Napoleon the First said the great want of
France was “ good mothers,” If female drunkenness continues to increase as it
does now, the great want of our nation algo will be “good mothers.” Of these
committals, nine out of ten have been caused by indulgence in drink.
The author spoke of the drunkenness in the county of Lancaster. From the
Judicial Statistics he finds there has been a corresponding increase of drunkenness
throughout the whole of England. The apprehensions for drunkenness in Eng-
land and Wales, during the last eleven years, has been as follows :—
MSGSie ye jek o86.55 9.904 alt a. Oe} TSGS she hainelne alte bla aoe
1S babe earn IN »++y+ 100,067 TSOO catia vonledaiasulaes Moca
| Lhe pear Bere 105,310 1 Key OE GA RIE »++. 131,870
BISONS ashe sp aa 9 vere, 104,568 SrA LMR seteeeeee 142,248
SGT ai vy ed par Te »+.. 100,857 PS hia acs re erie (an ole!
As to the apprehensions for drunkenness in 1873, Mr. Cross, the Home Secre-
tary, in his speech in the House of Commons on April 27, when moving for leave
to bring in his Licensing Amendment Bill, said, “ When we look at the facts
which I am about to place before the Committee, we must acknowledge that in
. their broad outline they certainly do present a formidable state of things. I find
that in 1873, in England alone, no less than 182,000 persons were proceeded against
for drunkenness.” From this statement it appears that in 1873 there was an
increase in the apprehensions for drunkenness of not less than 30,000,
To what are we to attribute this increase of drunkenness ?
Ist, the author thinks, to the higher wages received by the working people ;
2nd, to the shorter hours of labour; and
Srd, to the increase of facilities for the procuring of the drink. The sale of
drink in grocers’ shops is, the author believes, the chief cause of the intemperance
amongst women ; and an earnest effort ought to be made to remove this source of
temptation out of their way,
On the Privileges over Land, wrongly called Property.
By Sir GroreE Campsert, D.C.L., K.C.S.L.
The author said he had adopted this title for his paper in order to distinguish be-
tween absolute property and those privileges which he would rather call limited
property. What he meant to express was, that land was not an absolute property,
but a limited property, a privilege conferred by the community for the benefit of
the community, and subject, to a certain extent, to the convenience of the com-
munity. For instance, he might do what he pleased with his handkerchief, and the
law recognized his absolute property in it. But, as regarded land, his contention
was that there was no absolute property of that kind; that the land, made not by
man but by God, was rather the property of the nation, and that certain limited
rivileges were conceded to individuals for the benefit of the nation, and must be
eld subject to the will and convenience of the nation.
It had been said that the man who first enclosed the common land was a robber ;
but he did not think that view was justified, for it was necessary that the land
should be in some degree enclosed in the first instance to protect it against the
beasts of the forest. He might quote experience of his own among aboriginal races
to show that this early property was in fact not continuous, and not injurious to a
community, for such land was never held in permanency; but as soon as the
196 REPORT—1874.
primeval fertility of the land was exhausted, the people moved to another portion
and repeated the process there.
The land which was originally held by tribes became subject to periodical re-
distribution ; but as its cultivation became more settled, and improvement more
common, the practice of redistribution gradually fell into desuetude, and the
shareholders retained their shares. That process the author had seen step by
step going on. Not only were the grazing lands and also wood, water, and
other things held in common, but the inchoate individual rights were in ve
many cases subject to the rights and convenience of the community in general.
‘A holder could not alienate his individual holding to a stranger, arable lands
were unenclosed, and there was a universal right of way so long as the growing
crops were not unfairly damaged ; also there was a right of common pasture when
the crops were off the ground. It was, indeed, one of the most painful features of
our modern civilization that the land was so far enclosed that the people who did
not own it were almost altogether confined to the highways.
The village community was the earliest tenure in Europe and Asia in which a
right in land could be traced. Sir Henry Mayne had well shown that traces of
that kind of tenure exist in our own and in neighbouring countries. There were
large traces in England and Scotland ; and Sir Henry Mayne had found one place
in Scotland in which the ancient tenure still existed in full perfection, where the
“infield” was permanently divided among the different members of the community,
the “ outfield” divided temporarily according to the circumstances and necessities
of the season, and grazing land quite undivided. In Ireland the tribal rights, which
undoubtedly had existed, were only superseded by conquest. In the Highlands of
Scotland, where the people and their institutions were cognate with those of Ive-
sand, the same rights prevailed, which were abolished partly by conquest after the
rebellion, partly by the lawyers, who applied the principles of feudal tenure to the
estates of the Highland chiefs; and thus, while the chiefs were constituted feudal
holders, their co-proprietors, the clansmen, were dispossessed and in a certain
degree expatriated. Under the feudal system the rights of the Celtic people were in
theory wholly ignored, and the villagers were treated as serfs bound to the soil. He
thought it very clear that the system under which the serfs became adscripti glebze
was adopted to prevent moving from one part of the country to another, which
might have given certain rights to the subject people. There were two rights which
mitigated despotism over a subject people: first, the right of rebellion; and
secondly, the right of running away. That of rebellion was very important. He
need not say more of that at present. The right of running away was not sufficiently
understood. He had seen a great deal of benefit obtained from that right. When
a man was much oppressed it was a very great right that he should be enabled
to run away, to desert his master, and enlist himself under the banner of a new
one. In days of anarchy, when lords were ready to turn their hands against each
other, it was necessary to establish a kind of trades’ union to prevent that emigra-
tion. One way of doing that was by passing a law to prevent serfs from running
away. But even the binding of the serfs to the soil gave them certain rights in
connexion with the soil, so that what was injurious in one way was beneficial in
another. The other day, in Russia, on the occasion of the emancipation of the serfs,
the view put forward by the latter was—“ True, we are yours; but the land is ours.”
Philologers believe that some of the modern languages are not corruptions of the
ancient ones, but revivals of popular languages of ancient days. So also with
regard to the inferior rights to land, the author was inclined to believe
that the lower classes of tenure which cropped up in altered forms under the
feudal system were not merely what the lawyers held them to be, the produce of
indulgence and prescription, but a revival, in another form, of the old right of the
subject people, long suppressed, but never wholly extinguished. Such he believed
to be the English copyhold tenure. In Ireland the ancient rights of the people had
been recently recognized in the Land Act. The numerous commons in England
were, no doubt, very substantial remains of the old rights of the communal holding.
The right of primogeniture he believed to have arisen simply because the title to
land was not an absolute right. It was evident that some one person must be respon-
sible for the duties of an office, which duties could not be divided amongst the
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 197
members of a family. Hence it was that, when the holding was of the nature of
an office, the succession went to the eldest male. We should be very careful how
we do away with office-tenure by abolishing the right of primogeniture. He much
suspected that such a change would be more in the interests of plutocracy than of
the people. He doubted whether it would bring us one step nearer to a wider dis-
tribution of the land among the people, properly so called. It would free the land-
lords from the burthens of special taxation, which were the legitimate successors of
the service burthens of former days. In India the establishment of an ordinary law
of property applied to land had produced mostruinous effects. Lord Cornwallis sought
to create an Indian aristocracy by turning the land-revenue collectors into landholders,
But the law of oo. not being carried out, the result was that in Bengal
there was scarcely an estate that was not held by a great many holders under every
variety of tenure, and the duties of the landlords were thrown back again on the
Government. After an experience of seventy or eighty years, that was a difficulty
which they had now begun most thoroughly to realize in India, and it had been
especially realized in connexion with the recent famine. When they tried there
to insist on the landholders doing their duty to the people and their tenants, the
particular responsible landlord could not be got hold of, so vast was the variety of
rights and interests, inferior and superior, on the estate. The Government had
therefore been obliged to step in, and do the duty which it was originally supposed
the landlord would do. If the division of property among all the children were
made compulsory in England, he doubted whether the effect would be, on the
whole, good. If by such means the land came to be divided generally among the
eople at large, he would be in favour of it ; but he suspected that the more such
and was brought into the market the more it would go to plutocrats, and as little
as ever to the people. Moreover, people holding a divided estate, treating their
portions as absolute property, would be far less liberal landlords than a single
owner, would be less restrained by social bonds, and would be more likely to seek
to make the most of their property. Under such a system, for instance, tenant-right
in Ulster and other parts of Ireland would never have assumed the shape it has, and
it would not have been possible or, at all events, so easy to establish it by statute
as it has been now established. It would also be injurious in inducing younger
sons to remain at home with less property than their fathers, as Frenchmen and
others did. In Scotland especially it would be a great misfortune if younger sons
had not gone out into the world to carve fortunes for themselves. There is stilla
great deal of the aristocratic spirit in this country. As soon as a man becomes rich
he seeks to rise into the aristocratic class. We have a great respect for lords, ladies,
and swells. So long as this lasted he doubted whether we ought to throw away
those duties to the public which the moral persuasion of public opinion imposes on
the holders of great estates under the law of primogeniture. A great landlord,
subject to the compulsion of public opinion, was likely to do more, for instance, in
the erection of workmen's dwellings, than a man who buys property as a specula-
tion; and he believed, as long as we treat those great landholders as office-holders,
we may, by moral compulsion, force them to do their duty to the public, which
they would not do if they were allowed to muddle away their estates. At the same
time he thought a divorce of the people from all rights in the land would be the
greatest of all evils, and would lead to revolution. He thought that, rather than
look to any petty measures to promote the subdivision of estates, we should rather
look to the growth of tenant-right as a legitimate mode of giving a large propor-
tion of the people a real interest in the land; and by tenant-right he meant such a
rivilege as would give the tenant some value in his holding, and some feeling that
fis might improve without fear of being unfairly turned out or risk the loss of his
property. With reference to the Irish Land Act, men in high position in Ireland
agree that it has immensely raised the Saher of the Irish tenant; and, on the
other hand, complaints were not heard of ruinous confiscation on the part of the
landholders. He believed there was no doubt that property in Ireland had actually
risen in value since the introduction of that Act; and that was a true test that the
landlords had not been injured. They had heard that the Land Act had, in the
_ main, been successful, and only wanted improvement in its working details. If
honestly made the best of, and improved in a true spirit of sound legislation, he
198 REPORT—1874.
had no doubt of its ultimate’success. In England and Scotland the question stood
on a different footing ; but it was becoming more and more evident that the far-
mers would insist on obtaining more security for their interests than at present
existed.
On the Teaching of Hygiene in Government Schools. .
By Rrewarp Caton, M.D.
Notwithstanding the effects of sanitary legislation, the death-rate among the
poorer classes in large towns, in the manufacturing districts especially, continues
to be very great. The duration of life among this class averages from twenty to
twenty-five years in many of the larger centres. As town population is rapidly
increasing, and that of the country districts yee pen te remaining at a stand-
still, the injurious influence of town residence on the health and vigour of the
people is likely to become a very serious question, and calls for great earnestness in
sanitary reform.
Hitherto sanitary legislation has been solely directed to the amendment of the
outward circumstances in which the people are placed—such, for example, as the
avoidance of overcrowding, the improved construction of dwellings, the establish-
ment of good systems of drainage and water-supply.
While such reforms as these are of the highest importance, there is yet another
direction which efforts at the improvement of the health of the people might take,
viz. that of reforming their habits of life. The absolute ignorance of the laws of
life and health which prevails among our lower-class town population is disastrous
in the extreme. Were all external sanitary conditions made as favourable as towns
tat of, the mistaken habits of life of the people would of themselves cause a
igh mortality.
The object of this paper is to suggest that the required knowledge might be
diffused among the people through the agency of our National Schools. <A brief,
simple catechism, explaining the rules of health, and pointing out how greatly the
comfort and length of life depends upon their observance, could be readily taught
to the elder scholars. Such points as the following, dealing with the affairs of
their every-day life, would, I think, be readily understood :—The importance of
fresh air and free ventilation in houses; the dangers of sleeping in close crowded
bedrooms; the danger of breathing sewage-gases ; the value of sunlight, of exer-
cise, of the free use of pure water; the main rules of diet, such as a statement of
the kinds of nutritive foods necessary for health, and the forms in which they can
best be obtained; the proper dieting and management of children; the disastrous
effects of intemperance; simple rules as to clothing; the dangers of unhealthy
occupations, the modes of escaping their injurious effects; the requirements to
be kept in view in selecting a healthy dwelling-hovse, &c, It is true that our
system of education is yet crude and undeveloped, but every year will increase its
efficiency, and render such teaching as this less difficult. If the object of education
be to prepare for life, I cannot conceive any thing more essentially a part of it than
this: to know how to live must surely be as important as how to read, write, and
count; from the want of such knowledge thousands of the people die needlessly
every year. Such teaching as the above would be a means of helping them
intelligently to improve their own condition, and, along with other sanitary
measures, it might reasonably be expected to lessen the excessive mortality at
present existing among the lower classes.
On the Compilation of Statistics, illustrated by the Irish Census Returns.
By Gzorce Rozerts Crown, Belfast.
The author suggested a system of compilation by which census returns, or any
other statistics which it would be necessary to produce from a large mass of data
periodically, could be prepared within one half the time and at one half the cost
at present expended, and show the results in a more exact, varied, and utilitarian
light, without causing any disturbance of existing formule or precluding comparison
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 199:
with previous returns, for which purpose he invented an instrument designed to
make four marks or cuts, viz. a straight line, a curve, a right angle, a point; and
with incisions or cuts made by it he proposes to have the data registered. These
cuts can be made to show thirteen aspects of a leading question ; and in illustration
of his method he suggested their applicability for recording the “religions” of the
people in connexion with their ages and occupations, thus—
A Protestant Episcopalian might be shown by what
Pree OMe le iiL.5 a sa.4, oalasie Huss seeveseeeseees Out perpendicular.
A Roman Catholic .......+. elicity Satanic thastua (ca 7 Tieht incline.
A Presbyterian «.....,.. thy. Aslaats-3s soli Suak eMaite sins 3, eft incline.
PAS MOEN GAISt be sss ecu S00 sande Te Uh psn er 32 orizontal.
An Independent ...........00% RR ar Re aes tortie + 9) Tight curve.
PMC POTERTUF, bis girdyathd * sygqyainrgne 0s 89 ua bua hs ui dees Selene.
112 13 2 rites autitcars iehacechar Osu tar te caces 9) Upper curve.
POEIIONL «5 ahiy eu) ¥ o'eve ait tithesucae tha dee Ore » lower curve.
The part of the instrument describing a right angle to be used in a similar way
for other denominations, those forms of faith of which there are but few to be
specially noted in the margin. Therefore, by making the incision indicating the
religion, three conditions of a person would be registered instead of two, as at
present, thereby saving one third of the time and giving the additional information
in anew and interesting connexion ; for the age would be shown with the form of
faith the person professed as well as with the occupation in which he was employed.
If the improvement were to extend no further, the tabulating forms at present
in use would answer for this purpose. But he proposes to include by the samé
operation the educational and matrimonial conditions of the people; for which
purpose he would have the tabulating sheets divided into groups of prismatic colours
(civic and rural sheets to be prepared differently), each group to be applicable for
one occupation, and each colour to have a special significancy (for those occupations
for which an elementary education is the first essential only two colours would be
required), thus— er
A red colour could show that the person ; tr Bi
cut in there-through was .......... Married, and could “read and
write,”
OANEG ccc ce varssaaencsstgcccnces.» Married, could-“xoad.”cicce old r
PMG GWwa, cashays Ks Leen ccdes ove cedar bared, “illiterate.” wie Wissd vee
PMP Lyi eee Ce tac tweedy eeewne vee Unmarried, “read and write”... ->
BUG get cevucceecscesees Geeecectaae Unmarried, “read,” teeny
MABUONS «o's si carawate te warp seeeeeee Unmarried, “illiterate.”
If only three colours were used, they might indicate either the educational ormatri-
monial state, viz. :— ie
Read and write Married Red.
Read or Unmarried by Orangé. °°
Tlliterate Widowed Fellows) bas
ue sd Tt
But if the first plan were approved there should be no difficulty in carrying it,out,
As the six subjects (N.B. all of great statistical affinity) appear on one line.gn
the census-paper, with the assistance of these statistical mnemonics he thinks they
could be easily retained in memory for a couple of seconds till fixed in their-chamber
on the sheet by the incision; however, he suggested that at this important. work @
superior class of clerks should be employed (some of the “ supernumeraries””_ of Go-
yernment offices might be drafted for this special duty), the subsequent work of totting
and extracting to be performed by less experienced persons, thus inverting the order
that at present obtains. To obviate any difficulty that might arise in the subse-
quent analysis from the concrete or synthetic nature of this method, and at the
same time to economize time and extend the efficiency of the compilation, he pro-
poses that the record should be made on six (or more) sheets simultaneously by
placing one over the other, and having the incision made through them, thereby
opening up a field fora valuable division of labour ; for the forms could be divided,
200 REPORT—1874.
after the enumeration had been completed, among six clerks, each clerk to get on
simple duty to attend to in connexion with his sheet. For instance, one clerk migh
condense in the place for totals, whether vertical or transverse, all the informatio)
respecting education, another that relating to matrimony, a third to religion, and %
forth; or one could count up all the “ perpendicular cuts ” in each column, whicl
would give the numbers of each age, of each trade, who were “ Protestant Episco
palians ;” while the transverse totals of the same cuts would give the numbers o
all ages of that religion and occupation, the coloured chambers in which thos
totals should appear affording an analysis of their connubial and educational condi
tions, showing how each was repressed or encouraged by the other. The nex
clerk would in like manner work on ‘the “right incline cuts,” which would giv
the same particulars regarding “ Roman Catholics,” and so on for “ Presbyterians,’
“ Methodists,” &c. In connexion ‘with the tabulation of these conditions of thi
people, viz. the “ occupation,” “ age and sex,” “religion,” “education,” and “ matri
monial state,” he suggested that the “house census ”’ might be shown to the left o
the form; the colours and cuts to show the “classes of houses,” “numbers of families,’
&c., from which would be seen how those conditions affect the domestic comfort
means of living, and position in society of our people, The author thinks that all the
data provided by the census-paper, “Form A.”’ (excepting that relating to disease anc
death), might be tabulated by two manipulations ; the second tabulation to show the
“ birthplaces” of the people, the “ relation” of the members of each household t
the head of it, the state of education of the “ married,” unmarried,” and “ widowed,’
the “ages and sex ;”’ the ages to be shown by,the cuts in school periods of ‘‘ unde
seven years,” “twelve years,” and upward—which plan, he thinks, would be most
suggestive, all showing, from an ethnological point of view, how the idiosyncracies
of race affect us and tend to make our populations more or less homogeneous ; how-
ever, the skilled statistician might group those conditions in a more useful manner
A great deal of the work could be done by “ task” by people at their own homes
Eyen the blind might do it; for the cuts would appear on the obverse of each
sheet slightly in relief, and the acute sense of touch which they possess would
enable them to distinguish the symbols. However he would not recommend the
experiment; he mentioned the matter parenthetically to show how the system
might be made available for the instruction of that afflicted class. For the com-
pilation of “ Vital Statistics,” the writer considered the method would be peculiarly
valuable, seeing that our occupations and social conditions have such an-effect upoi
our health and longevity. The circumstances calculated to repress or occasio1
certain forms of disease could be made: to converge into the column in which th
disease would be specified ; and the exceptional data required for some classes, sucl
as the “blind,” “deaf and dumb,” “ insane,”. “idiotic,” “decrepit,” &c., could be a
it were eliminated into the chamber. under the head of any of these afflictions
and as our diseased, though so many, are yet comparatively few to the genera
population, the work would be peculiarly eile regarding them. Criminals an
paupers are at present reported on in the status of disease; the causes and temp
tations that led to their degraded state could be ascertained with greater nicety
and measures founded thereon calculated to drive vice and misery from society
The author submitted that by this system the chief difficulty that statistica
scientists have to contend with could be removed; for as at present, owing ti
the great labour and delay in compilation, he is obliged to contract his desire
within the limits of what he considers practicable of attainment, that more subtl
and refined analysis of conditions necessary to show statistical truth in all it
bearings is too often not made, on account of which erroneous conclusions regard
ing some cases or localities are arrived at; but as by this method any twelve sub
sidiary conditions relating to any” one leading subject can be registered by tw
simple operations in a most intimate and truthful connexion, the field of inquir
can be enlarged, while at the same time the work would be diminished, therefor
many things that at present appear anomalous or strange, and which are now onl
accounted for by surmise, could be placed in a true statistical position. Also ney
features of much interest would be necessarily shown; for instance, in the Iris
census returns, the occupations of the married and unmarried are not given (hoy
requisite in preparing factory bills!) ; but this method would show them in connexio
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 201
with the age, sex, religion, and education, all ina concrete manner or in their several
relations. He also submitted that by it records could be kept at each dispensary
district of the diseases of the locality part passu with their occurrence, showing
how they were “begun, continued, and ended ;” one of the incised copies to be
forwarded periodically to'a central office to be tabulated for the advancement of
medical science and the consequent sanitary benefit of the community. Doctors
could, on a properly arranged table, register the leading particulars of each day’s
work in a few minutes.
In conclusion, he attributed the delays that occur in the publication of census
and other standard statistics to the apathy of the public regarding statistical
science ; for if it were more generally appreciated, the laws of demand and supply
would soon provide a remedy. By a proper arrangement of the statistics of his
business, both as regards “plant,” “materials,” and “money,” the merchant or
manufacturer could learn when, where, and how to repress expenditure and develop
income, and from an intelligent examination of our national statistics see new
fields for the investment of capital. Narrow and sectarian views too often restrict
the utility of a census, as is the case in that of Great Britain, which affords no
information respecting the religion or education of the people, which was so much
wanted in connexion with recent legislation. If statistics were better understood,
we would very soon have a department at Whitehall where al] our national facts
would be registered with mathematical precision and published with the regularity
of a gazette, so that merchants, manufacturers, and philanthropists, as well as
statesmen, could obtain standard information on all subjects of importance. It
could supply at a day’s notice the Parliamentary returns so frequently called for -
by the advocates of new measures and now provided with such delay and expense,
and, what would be perhaps of greater importance, it could afford correlative infor-
mation to the opponents of them fully and promptly.
The Economic Law of Strikes. By W.H. Dovv, A.M., Barrister at Law.
At the outset it is necessary to inquire if there be a “law.” Economic science
has been put on its defence recently by writers both in America and England.
The “law ” of abstract political economy on the subject is modified in actual fact
in two ways. It is modified by the nature of profits themselves. The first element
in SA is remuneration for saving, or interest; the second is remuneration for
risk, or assurance; the third is the wages of superintendence, including all
elements not included under the first two. The first two elements are equal or
nearly equal over all trades and manufactures in the same country at any given
time; the third varies from trade to trade, and from individual to individual. It
is this third element that a combination of labour attacks ; and on this very account
a strike is more difficult of settlement, since the amount of the profits is unknown
to those attacking them. But the economic law is also modified by historical or
local circumstances ; and here it may be well to inquire what s the law. The rate
of wages depends on the amount of the wage-fund divided by the number of
labourers. The first element in this (wage-fund) is made up of all capital other
than fixed capital, and all wealth not capital devoted to the employment of labour.
Again, profits depend solely on the cost of labour. If we assume A to be the
finished commodity, W+P=A, and therefore A~W=P. Lastly, as regards
exchange. Articles will exchange in accordance with the wages and profits
expended on them, or W+P=W'+P'+. This is briefly the law of political
economy; but it is modified locally and historically by a variety of considera-
tions. In a place, for example, where there is only one manufactory, such as
Bessbrook, the relations between employer and employed are open to modification
from the sagacity and wisdom of the employer in making more profits than usual
in the manufacture, from his being content with less, or from his deliberately
sharing his profits with his workmen. On the other hand, they may be modified
by the ignorance or selfishness of the employed, or by factious and evil-minded
agitators, Again, a particular manufacture may have exceptional advantages in
locality, and may for a series of years obtain a kind of monopoly. Capitalists in
1874.
902 REPORT—1874.
such a place get an advantage in the nature of rent. Now, whether they can
maintain the monopoly depends on whether the natural advantages are being well
managed, whether they are not overborne by corresponding disadvantages. Whether
the capitalists can grasp all those benefits or be compelled to share them with the
labourers depends on the degree of skill required for the work, and the length of
time requi se for the obtaining such skill. Whether, again, the monopoly be per-
manent or temporary must be considered. If it be temporary, and fresh hands not
immediately obtainable, the owners must share their profits with the workers. If
the manufacture be overcrowded, the remedy is not to lower wages, but for
the weakest or least competent employers to discontinue production.
Manchester has advantages for cotton manufacture in its coal and iron and
knowledge of machinery. When these are overtaken (if they be overtaken by
America) we will not perhaps see the anomaly of the raw material being brought
thousands of miles to be manufactured, and sent back thousands of miles to be
sold. Belfast has advantages in the flax-fields of Ulster and in the knowledge
and skill of its manufacturers, slowly acquired and carefully treasured, in banking
accommodation, facilities for locomotion, and otherwise. Whether the advantages
are abused or not, whether the manufacture has not been pressed to a point
beyond what the natural advantages would warrant, whether the employers can
keep all the extra gains arising from such advantages or must share them with the
workers, depends on the wisdom and sagacity of the manufacturers, on the con-
fidence placed in them by the workmen, on the general state of trade, and other
considerations which abstract political economy rejects. But though feudalism
_ has ceased to be sole arbiter in land-tenure, and though the relations between
capital and labour are supposed to be founded solely on contract, political economy
cannot disguise, and does not seek to disguise, the fact that friendliness and
sympathy and cooperation between employer and employed, as between landlord
and tenant, are not only the best security for social content, but are also the way
to utilize to the utmost the productive forces of nature.
On the Ulster Tenant-Right. By Professor Donnett, M.A.
The Ulster Tenant-Right, up to the introduction of the Irish Land Act, was
almost unknown in England, and but imperfectly understood outside the limits of
Ulster. Mr. Gladstone’s speech on introducing the Bill brought it under the notice
of theempire. This speech contains an admirable exposition of the Ulster Tenant-
Right. The Ulster Tenant-Right is the tenant’s right of continuous occupancy of
his lands, subject to a fair rent, which may be periodically revised, and the right of
selling this occupancy right at the best price to a solvent and unobjectionable
tenant. This right embraces a property valued by Dr. Hancock twenty years ago
at £20,000,000, but recent investigations in the Land Courts show that it would
not be overestimated at £35,000,000. This right was universally respected by the
large landowners in Ulster up to 1838, when the Irish Poor-law was introduced
and an impetus given to farm consolidation. Restrictions on the price of the
Tenant-Right haye in some cases been since introduced ; and in other cases the right
has been altogether abolished. This arose from the fact that the custom, though
as old as the Ulster Plantation and generally observed, had no legal protection.
The first section of the Irish Land Act first legalized it. The custom is economi-
cally beneficial; it gives security for improvements, and it is the cause of a great
saving in poor-rates and police charges. The legalization of the Ulster custom has
not diminished the value of the landlord's estate ; on the contrary, the sales in the
Landed Estates Court show, since 1870, an increase of two to three years’ purchase
in the value of estates.
The Act has not, as was intended, fully legalized the custom. The leaseholders’
tenant-right has not been sufficiently protected. The tenant-right in town-parks and
pasture-farms is still without legal protection. The restrictions on the prices of the
tenant-right have not been entirely removed. Disputes about the adjustment of
rent are not directly investigated. The Courts have been declared incapable of
making decrees of declaration of right and of specific performance. These are—
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 203
blots on the Act, but appear not to have been contemplated by it. Their removal
by a declaratory Act would do much to complete the great and beneficent measure
of justice to the Irish tenants—the Irish Land Act.
On a New Method for promoting the Sanificxtion of our Cities.
By Cuarxes Excock.
On Political Economy and the Laws affecting the Prices of Commodities and
Labour, and on Strikes and Lock-outs. By Frank P. Fetrows, F.S.S.
A better knowledge of the principles of political economy which regulate the
prices of commodities and labour, which cause trade to be good or bad, by both
employers and employed, would do much to prevent the unfortunate lock-outs and
strikes that waste so much of our national resources. In this paper the author
endeavoured to show clearly what are the causes which make wages rise and fall,
and which cause trade to increase and decrease.
It unfortunately happens that political economy is too often spoken of asa hard,
harsh, unfeeling science, and that it is considered to be inimical to the best interests
of the wage-receiving classes ; whereas, properly understood, it is a light anda
beacon to guide these and all other classes; by which individuals, communities, and
nations may discover that by which they may earn the most, and which will be
best for themselves and the world at large.
The author asked first, What is it that makes trade good or bad ? and this was
answered by an illustrative argument.
“TJ will suppose first that by the fiat of my will I could at once double the num-
ber of people living on this earth, doubling the houses, mills, &c., at the same time
keeping the proportional numbers occupied in each class of trade, agriculture (the in-
creased agriculturists cultivating new land), &c., the same. What would be the result
to the various trades and occupations of men, and to the amount of wages earned by
workmen, and to the profits of the employers? It will be at once seen from my ques-
tion that if I double the number of each class of iron-workers, weavers, carpenters,
food-producers, and of every other class of occupation, I double the number of each
article made, of each sort of food produced, and that I double at the same time
the number of consumers for the said articles or food, the wages of each class
would remain unaltered ; for if double the quantity of shoes are made, double the
quantity are wanted ; if double the quantity of food is produced, double the quantity
is wanted, &c. But suppose (instead of the above case) that I were to double the
goods’-producers and goods produced, but that at the same time the food-producers
and the food produced remained stationary—What then would be the result ?
“Simply this, that there would be a glut of goods’-producers and of goods pro-
duced, and a great scarcity of food-producers and of food produced. Consequently
the merchants and manufacturers would find great difficulty in selling their goods,
and the prices thereof would fall ; the wages of the goods’-producers would fall also,
At the same time the price of food would rise, there being a scarcity of it in pro-
en to the demand for it, and the wages of the food-producers would rise also,
f course this is on the assumption that there is no transfer of labour from the
goods’-producing class to the food-producing class,”
This latter process has in times past been going on with us; for the United
Kingdom, the author continued, is the workshop of the world, ¢.e. the goods’~
roducing country and people. We have increased in times past our popu-
ation and goods produced faster than the food-producing countries. is
has induced the emigration to America, Canada, and Australia to keep up the
equilibrium. Individual trades, he said, are affected in like manner. Limitation
of production is, he continued, an evil, and the wages of men must be considered
with reference to what those wages will purchase. He next referred to the boon
of machinery, of cheap production, ¢.e. of abundant production, ¢.e. of not limiting
production in order to raise prices. It does not necessarily follow that this means
the lowering of the money amount of wages; indeed facts show the fee to be
904. REPORT—1874.
the case; but it does mean increasing the amount of things those wages will
purchase, or, in other words, of raising those wages. Working men, so called, are
termed the bone, muscle, and sinew of the nation; but what would this bone,
muscle, and sinew be without the brain and the directing power? ‘The bone and
muscle and sinew of one man will do the manual work of one man; the brain and
directing power of one man may devise means by which one man may do the work
of a thousand. Skilled artisans have high wages because of brain-directing power,
machinery, and capital. It is the brain and directing power and the economizing
spirit that has created capital and increased wages, and not combinations or strikes ;
nor can lock-outs permanently lower wages.
The economizing spirit creating wealth and increasing wages was spoken of and
illustrated thus :—‘‘'‘Two persons, each haying £1000, expend the amount as
follows :—The first spends his £1000 entirely upon himself or family, in rent, food,
clothes, &c., for his or his family’s use. He has thus certainly distributed the
£1000 amongst the community—the bakers, grocers, &c.; but at the end of
the year, although he has thus spread it abroad, he himself has none of the £1000
left. The second expends his £1000, say, in building houses or in making goods.
The £1000 is distributed first amongst brickmakers, masons, carpenters, labourers,
&c. in wages for building, and in so far it tends to increase wages by creating more
employment; secondly, the £1000 is also distributed amongst the bakers, grocers,
&c. as in the first illustration, but by the masons, labourers, &c. instead of by —
the individual himself, with this result—that the second has expended his £1000,
and yet he has houses of the value of £1000 left. Thus he increases the goods or
houses produced, and in so far tends to lower their prices or rents, and increases
the demand for useful and profitable labour, and in so far tends to raise the rate of
wages.”
The author, quoting “Man doth not live by bread alone,” showed the necessity
(apart from mere pecuniary considerations, but still from a politico-economic point
of view) of our being civilized and refined, of having clean and healthy houses, of
having recreation and leisure, and even some of the refinements and luxuries of
civilized life, as tending to increase and strengthen our mental, moral, and physical
efficacy, and therefore our creative originating power and our power of work,
especially the higher kind of work. He went on, in conclusion, to show the evil
effects of strikes, and the tendency they have to drive away trade from particular —
districts. =r !
On Governmental Accounts, with further suggestions for establishing a Doomsday
Book, giving the Value of Governmental Property. By Franx P. Fettows.
On the Study of Education as a Science. By Mrs. W. Grey*.
The first question to be met is that which will be raised by the title of this
paper, ‘‘Is there or can there be a science of Education?” If the general or even
the educational public were polled upon it, the answer would almost certainly be —
in the negative. The College of Preceptors alone among our scholastic corpora-
tions has acknowledged the fact by appointing a Professor of the Science and Art
of Education, Mr. Joseph Payne, than whom no one was better qualified for the
post; yet the appointment excited some derision among even zealous advocates of
national education. It is, however, beginning to be admitted in theory that there
is an art of education, and that teachers ought to be taught to teach, although it
is not recognized in practice beyond the sphere of elementary school teachers. In —
every German and Swiss University there is a Professor of Pedagogy, or the art
and method of teaching ; but here all the secondary education of both sexes is in the
hands of those who have never even been taught that there is such an art. Whence
this disbelief and distrust in scientific principles and methods in education, while —
their superiority is admitted by every educated person in all other departments:
of human activity? The answer probably lies in this, that there is no adequate
or general conception of what education is, and therefore of the magnitude and
¥
* Published in the “ Series of the Women’s Education Union.” Ridgway, London,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 205
complexity of the facts on which a science of education, which can never be an
exact, but only a mixed and applied science, must be based. If we had such a
conception, giving us a standard by which to measure success or failure, we should
at once feel the necessity of scientific methods to realize it. Instead of it we start
with a confusion of terms, using education as synonymous with instruction; and
the confusion of thought indicated by this misnomer runs through our whole
treatment of the subject, theoretical and practical, as is shown in every parlia-
mentary debate and in every discussion of the subject, public or private, especially
where the education of the working classes and of women is concerned. It is
surely time that this confusion should be replaced by a scientific conception of the
rocess which should result in the most valuable of all products—human beings
eyeloped to the full extent of their natural capacity, trained to understand their
work in this world and to do it. The conditions of the problem are these :—We
have to consider the threefold nature of the human being to be dealt with, physical,
intellectual, and moral, together with his power of volition, which makes him a
responsible agent, and to distinguish what elements of his constitution are common
to him and his species, race, or family, and those peculiar to himself which con-
stitute his individuality. Next come the external conditions under which he lives,
| mental, and social (which also may be classed as those common to all
uman beings), those common to all of his time, country, and social position,
and those peculiar to himself and forming his individual lot. Throwing out that
which is purely individual, and does not therefore admit of generalization, though
forming a most important branch of study for the practical educator, there remains
the wide field of general facts and forces ; and the study of the combination of these
Forces, and their resultant influence on the formation of character, is the study of
education as a science. It is at once apparent how vast a field of knowledge is thus
covered. We must learn from physiology how to train the body not only to health
and strength, but to grace and beauty; from psychology, how to train the intellect
and moral nature, how to form habits, which is the master power of education ;
from observation of human life in the world around us, and from the records of
the history of human societies, of religion, art, literature, and science, how to reach
the springs of human action, and especially the idealistic or spiritual element,
which is the most powerful of all, and from these deduce the right order of educa-
tion, the right methods of teaching, and the right subjects to be taught, relatively
to the age and mental development of the pupil.
The study of education as a science includes the education of nations as well as
individuals. Nations have characters as well as individuals, on which their well
or ill being depends; and no questions are more worthy of scientific study than
how those characters are formed. The statesman is the most powerful of educa-
tors, for he helps to form the social atmosphere, which is the most active force in
the education of every individual. The educational influence of the poor-law,
which was the real Elementary Education Act of England, may be cited ag an
instance. Of the practical questions requiring solution by a scientific standard,
only a few of the most pressing importance can be mentioned. The first is class in
education. The impartial comparison of our own system, which preserves social
- distinctions in education, with that of Scotland, Germany, Switzerland, and the
United States, which disregards them, and makes the primary and secondary school
and the University parts of one whole, adapted to different ages and degrees of
mental development, not different classes of society—such a comparison, including
social as well as educational results, would greatly assist us in the gradual re-
modelling of our scholastic institutions, now going on under the influence of the
yast movement of transition which characterizes our epoch. The second problem
is that of sex in education; and as there is none that touches such burning ques-
tions, so there is none that more urgently requires to be considered in the scientific
spirit which seeks the truth only. Whether the difference between the sexes is
one of kind or degree, or only of proportion, between the various mental and moral
faculties, how this difference should be dealt with in education, whether women
suffer physically from regular and sustained mental effort during the transition from
girlhood to womanhood, or whether it does not rather steady the neryous system and
preserve the due balance between the emotional and intellectual nature essential to
206 REPORT—1874.
the sound mind in the sound body, what, in short, is the type of perfect woman-
hood and how it is to be developed, are questions waiting for impartial study, and
on the right solution of which the future welfare of the race will largely depend.
The last point to mention is the system of examinations, which practically governs
our whole scholastic procedure. We require some scientific principle to decide
what is the right system of examination, whether it shall test memory or intelli-
gence, the knowledge of words or of ideas, of rules or of principles underlying
those rules. Since an examination is now the inevitable portal to every professional
career, it is not too much to say that the results it tests and rewards will be the
only ones generally aimed at. It is not expected of schoolmasters and mistresses,
and mothers of families, that they should master this vast range of knowledge or
be ready with answers to all these questions. What is wanted is that they, like
our practical navigators, should be furnished with the principles of a science they
have not had to discover for themselves, and with charts to guide their general
course, leaving to their individual acumen the adaptations and modifications
required by special cirumstances.
The proofs of these charges against the present system, or want of system, in
education are to be found in the Reports of the Royal Commissioners on Public
Schools and Endowed Schools, of the Committee of Council on Education, of the
various medical examining bodies, in the evidence of schoolmasters and mistresses,
and in the facts of our social life. Great services have been rendered to the cause
of scientific education by many writers and practical educators at home and
abroad, in times past and present ; but these services have not had their due meed
of public recognition and acknowledgment, and the valuable materials supplied
have not been coordinated into a body of science admitted into the recognized
hierarchy of sciences, although education, as the application of all other sciences
to the production of the highest of all results, may be boldly proclaimed the crowning
science of all.
Sanitary Legislation and Organization : its Present State and Future Prospects.
: By Tuomas W. Griusnaw, 4.M., M.D.
Although the parliamentary session which has just terminated has not been so
eventful in sanitary legislation as many sanguine sanitarians anticipated, yet, with
the small time at its disposal, the extreme hurry of public business, and the
difficulties which a new Ministry had to deal with in a new House of Commons,
a considerable advance has been made in sanitary legislation during the past
session by the passing of the Public Health (Ireland) Act, the Public Health
(Scotland) Act, the Sanitary Laws Amendment Act, the Vaccination Amendment
Acts, and the Registration of Births and Deaths Amendment Act, besides the advan-
tage likely to accrue from the Report of the Select Committee on the Adulteration
Act of 1872, and the passing of the new standing orders with regard to the
destruction of dwellings of the working classes for the construction of works for
public companies.
The requirements of sanitary legislation appear to me to be as follows :—
I. A codification, consolidation, and amendment of existing laws.
II. Convenient areas for administration, with easily workable subdistricts,
III. Uniform authorities without clashing of jurisdiction.
IV. A complete executive organization.
V. Constant supervision by the central authority.
VI. Security for a certain amount of independence for the local officers from the —
local authorities.
I. Codification and amendment of sanitary law.
I believe sanitary law to be one of those subjects so technical, and the terms of —
which are susceptible of very considerable accuracy of definition, that it is emi- —
nently suited for codification. ,
Not only was sanitary legislation spasmodic, but generally undertaken under
the influence of panic, either from a recently past, present, or impending epidemic.
The first real attempt at systematic legislation was made in 1848, In 1866 was
passed the Sanitary Act of 1866, which may be considered the first attempt at
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 207
a general measure of public health legislation. This Act was got up in a hurry to’
meet the cholera epidemic of 1865-66. The Act was permissive and nearly useless. ’
It laid down useful principles, and must be looked upon as the backbone of future
sanitary legislation. All these Acts were useless until the Public Health Act of
1872 was passed, which made action under the sanitary Acts compulsory on local
authorities. This Act broke down almost completely. Now a similar Act has
been passed for Ireland, but is vastly superior to its English prototype. After the
foregoing statement it is scarcely necessary to prove that sanitary law requires
codification and amendment. Mr. Michael, an English, and Mr. Furlong, an Irish
barrister, agree in condemning the present state of sanitary law.
The Royal Sanitary Commission of 1867, in its Report, states that “ the present
fragmentary and confused sanitary legislation should be consolidated, and the
administration of sanitary law should be made uniform, universal, and emperative
throughout the kingdom.” The amendments of sanitary law which should be
introduced into any complete code are :—
1. General laws with regard to the construction of dwellings.—Houses at pre-:
sent may, in the majority of places, be built in any way the owner pleases, and the
law concerning houses unfit for human habitation does not come into force unless*
the owner of the houses purposes that they shall be inhabited.
' 2. Amendment of the laws respecting food and drink.
3. General laws regarding markets and slaughter-houses.
4, Laws with regard to the keeping of animals to be used as food or in the
production of food, such as would be specially applicable to dairy-yards, which are
a great evil in most large towns. I believe, with regard to other matters, there
is now law enough to remedy defects; and if the above additions were made, the
present law slightly amended, and the whole codified, scarcely any thing more
would be required.
IL. Convenient areas of administration, with easily workable subdistricts.
The areas which suggest themselves in the first instance as suitable sanitary dis-
tricts are those which are in use for other purposes, and this principle was at once
tl in all sanitary legislation. 1t is impossible to go into all the various
kinds of subdivision of the different parts of the kingdom; but it is sufficient to
state that for each important purpose a separate kind of division has been adopted, :
especially in England, less, however, in Scotland, and still less in Ireland. Two
classes of existing local districts were selected, namely, urban districts and rural
districts. In England the districts consist of the Metropolis-Boroughs, Improve-
ment-Act Districts, Local-Government Districts, and Poor-Law Unions, each with its
local governing body as its sanitary authority. In Scotland the districts are Towns
under Town Councils, places under Police Commissioners, and parishes with paro-
chial boards. In Ireland the districts are the city of Dublin, towns corporate,
towns with populations over 6000 having town commissioners under General Acts,
all towns under Local Acts and Poor-Law Unions, each with its local governing
body as its sanitary authority.
The difficulties which arise from want of uniformity are :—
1. Conflict in the jurisdiction of the authorities.
2. A want of uniformity in their areas and population, most of them being too
small for separate administration.
8. General irregularity in their form, many being long and narrow, and therefore
unmanageable, and often laid out without any reference to the natural drainage of
the country. How can all this be remedied? It seems to me that, by taking a
sufficient number of these divisions, uniting them into an administrative district for
all local de Seed and constituting the local authorities from the representatives of
these, the difficulty would be got over.
If the English and Scotch systems of poor-law medical relief were assimilated to
that of Ireland, the principle of the Irish Public Health Bill could be immediately
made applicable to those countries, and thus one great difficulty solved.
III. Uniform authorities without clashing of jurisdiction.
The views I have stated regarding districts must, if accepted, decide to a great’
extent all other questions, especially those with reference to authorities. In a few
instances large towns, say of over 30,000 inhabitants, should constitute separate -
208 , REPORT—1874., .
districts. The authorities of these should include, besides elected, a certain number
of ex officio members, or members recommended by the central authorities.
IV. Complete executive organization.
This should consist of—
. The Central Authority.
. The Medical Advisers of the Central Authority.
. Inspecting Medical Officers of Health.
The Superintendent Medical Officers of Health.
Local Medical Officers of Health.
. Engineering Staff.
. Inspectors of Nuisances.
Analysts.
1. The Central Authority is in England and Ireland at present, and should con-
tinue to be, the Local Government Board. In Scotland it is the Board of Super-
vision for the relief of the Poor and of Public Health, which might be better called
the Local Government Board of Scotland. In order to make these boards efficient
as central authorities for supervision of matters connected with public health, I
consider that certain duties now attached to other departments should be transferred
to these boards—namely, the supervision of lunatics and the inspection of factories,
and the registration of births, deaths, and marriages, and a new department for the
registration of disease. The Central Health Authority is the only department
which requires immediately to utilize the statistics collected by the Registrars-
General ; and I would suggest that the Registrars-General departments should be
amalgamated with the Local Government departments, and the Registrars-General
become Local Government Commissioners.
2. The Medical Adviser of the Central Authority.—I consider the position occupied
by this officer in Ireland is his proper position, and that the medical adviser in
such important matters should always occupy a seat on the Board.
3. Inspecting Medical Officers of Health.—This title was proposed by my friend
Mr. Furlong, and I consider it an extremely suitable one. It must be admitted
that an efficient special department of experts exists in connexion with the English
Local Government Board, namely, the medical department which is under the
direction of Mr. Simon; but the inspectors (all eminent men) only exercise their
functions under special circumstances, generally connected with outbreaks of disease.
The duties, therefore, of this department do not so much tend to the prevention
of disease (the object of sanitary legislation and organization) as to inquire into the
cause of some disease which has already been allowed to produce fatal results. I
would suggest that a staff of local government inspectors should be constantly
employed, each with a special district assigned to him, these inspectors to be called
Inspecting Medical Officers of Health. There would be considerable difficulty in
selecting suitable districts; but I think this may be accomplished by taking as a
basis the divisions adopted by the Registrars-General.
4, The Superintendent Medical Officers of Health.—These are the officers provided
for by the Irish Act of 1874, and are, I believe, intended to superintend only public
health operations in populous places, such as large towns, say towns of 80,000
inhabitants and upwards. Of such towns there are 180 in England, seven in
Scotland, and four in Ireland, but with suburban districts added there must be
several more in each country. I consider similar officers should be provided for
towns in England, and they would correspond to the medical officers of health of
urban sanitary districts. ;
5. Local Medical Officers of Health.—These should be, as provided in the Irish
Act, the poor-law medical officers, each for his own district ; but their employment
is at present optional in England, and this has resulted in great confusion. The
poor-law officers are manifestly the most suitable, as the very nature of their
occupation brings them in contact with the first outbreaks of epidemics.
6, The Engineering Staffi—Every sanitary authority must have a surveyor in
arge towns permanently employed, but in small places and rural districts employed
as consultants only when required, There should also be engineering inspectors cor-
responding with the medical inspectors, but their districts might be much wider,
CO WIS? OTR CO bo
:
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 209
7. Inspectors of Nuisances.—These should correspond respectively with the
superintendent medical officer of health and the local medical officer of health, and
should be under the control of these officers.
Now, how are these officers to be appointed and paid? All the inspecting
officers should be appointed and paid by the state. All the local officers should be
appointed by the local authorities, but with the consent of the central authority,
and should be paid partly by the local rates and partly by the state as at present,
or (what I should prefer) the whole service for the United Kingdom should be
made a public health Civ Service of the state.
8. Analysts.—The appointment of public analysts has rather fallen into disrepute
of late ; and no wonder, considering the curious nature of the appointments.
VY. Constant supervision by the central authority.
It is scarcely necessary to write more upon this point, as the inspecting medical
and engineering officers will secure this.
VI. Security for a certain amount of independence for the local officers from the
local authorities.
This will, I think, be amply secured by the constant supervision and the
arrangements for payment and appointment. If the service was made a State
Civil Service, the independence would be complete. This security for inde-
pendence is a matter of more importance than most people think. It may not
unfrequently happen that the offender against sanitary law will be a member of the
local authority.
On Postal Reform. By W. Hastrnes.
Reference made to the paper read at the Bradford Meeting proposing an imme-
diate adoption of one penny as a sufficient rate for a single letter between any two
post-offices, however distant which have a regular uninterrupted communication.
As one penny is sufficient where there is transit in addition to the service of
two post-offices, one eighth of a penny should suffice for mere stamping, sorting,
and delivery; and if this were combined with hourly deliveries from 8 a.m. till
eyening, a traffic which has now no existence, but which would be an immense
boon to the public, would soon arise, and the lowness of the postage would draw
into the post-office a host of printed matter, circulars, cards, and advertisements
which are now almost invariably sent out by special messengers.
The plan of hourly delivery was adopted in 1766 in Edinburgh by a Mr. Peter
Williamson, and was so successful that the post-office gave him a pension to give
up his venture.
The success of omnibus traffic, which depends on frequency and punctuality, is
a warrant, in the author’s opinion, that if his plans were adopted with letters it
would have a like success.
Reclamation and Sanification of the Pontine Marshes.
By Dr. Henry MacCormac.
A multitude of publications have appeared on this important matter, among the
rest Prony’s “ Marais Pontins” and Dr. Balestra’s “ Poche Parole sul Risanamento
dell’ Agro Romano” in the ‘ Archivio di Medicina,’ Rome, 1873. If things go on
as they are doing, observes Secchi in his ‘ Sulle Condizioni Igienice del Clima di
Roma,’ we need have little hesitation in prophecying that Rome must become an
oasis in the midst of a pestiferous desert, the prey of desolation (“ preda della
desolazione”’). The tracts variously termed Pontine Marshes (Maremma, Campagna,
Agro Romano) extend some few hundred miles along the Italian shores, occasion-
ally penetrating twenty miles into the interior, from Cecina in the north to Terra-
cina in the south. The alluvium from the Apennines, in the course of ages, has
formed apparently this low-lying, naturally fertile, but otherwise most insalubrious
tract—once, Pliny states, occupied by more than thirty cities, but now lying waste
and desolate. Even so recently as the fifteenth century it was comparatively popu-
lous; a few hired labourers and overseers, however, excepted, with the harvesters
who come down from the hills, the district at present is deserted. Various Pontitis, .
210 REPORT—1874.
preceded by more than one Roman Emperor, tried their hands at drainage ; but the
incessant civil and religious wars, with the absence of general simultaneous effort,
defeated every attempt. A permanent staff of engineers, such as we find in
Holland in connexion with the dykes, a well-digested plan of action, with unin-
termitted personal supervision, would all prove requisite. The antiquated Appian
Way and railways excepted, no properly constructed roads traverse this vast
region. There are no dwellings either; at least the poor labourers who reap the
sparse crops in the season, when their sweltering day’s toil is done, sleep absolutely
without a roof over them in the open, and with little sustenance beyond a slice of
water-melon and a crust. The Pontine Marshes are said to derive their name
from Pometia, one of the perished cities. Roads and even canals appear to have
been constructed so far back as the times of Appius Claudius, Julius Cesar,
Augustus Czesar, Trajan, and subsequently by Popes Boniface, Martin, Leo, Sixtus,
and Pius. The French also made some attempts; but, all these notwithstanding,
the Pontine Marshes are Pontine Marshes still. The reclamation of the Agro
Romano, as Dr. Balestra most justly insists, in point of canalization and subsequent
culture ought to extend simultaneously to the whole of the implicated surfaces
(“ all’ intera campagna, assolutamente a tutti t terreni”’). No operations, however, at
least in certain localities, ought to be conducted in July and August, as the paludal
poison or malaria at such periods is simply homicidal. Periodical overflows of the
Tiber should also be prevented. Such occurrences, as shown in the great recent
increase of intermittents from the bursting of the banks of the Po, are greatly
conducive to paludal disease. Raised tram- and causeways, in fact, ought to inter-
sect the whole region. Canals extending to the sea, aided at their outlets when
needful by the steam-engine, should carry off every particle of stagnant water.
Salt water and fresh ought nowhere to be permitted to mix. Labourers should be
safely housed in suitable localities, or, when season and position permitted and
required, conveyed nightly to their homes on the hills. Steam-ploughs, steam-
reapers, and steam-mowers, as far as possible, must be made to supersede human
toil. And, lastly, I would have serried masses of the Eucalyptus globulus, Helian-
thus or sunflower, Pistia stratiotes, and others, as the editor of the ‘Pabellon Medico’
in May last urges, to extend along highways and around dwellings, in short every
locality where human beings require protection from the baneful influence of marsh
miasma (‘‘ como preservador de las fies de acceso”). The pine-trees generally
and the various individuals of the natural order Myrtacez, indeed, seem highly
antagonistic to malaria, qualities more or less appreciated in .ancient as well as
modern times. It is, in truth, almost incredible that nations should, at a vast
outlay, keep playing at soldiers and sailors when, as in the case of the Italian
Maremma and the watery expanses of Ireland, highly removable blights are
permitted to eat into the very vitals of the community.
Reformatory and Industrial School System, its Evils and Dangers.
By Hans M‘Morpm, M.A. (Belfast).
The author directed attention to the evils and dangers of the Reformatory and
Industrial School system. The governing committee is a private and self-elected
body and practically irresponsible. The tax-payers have no voice in the selection
of the persons who control and distribute the funds. The Reformatory and Indus-
trial Schools are prisons, for the inmates are deprived of personal liberty. The
supervision exercised over them is inadequate. Our jails are subjected to the most
regular and careful supervision. Voluntary associations should not be entrusted
with the punishment of crime. The committees, moreover, are not bound to
receive all whom the magistrate or judge may send. The cost of the system is
enormously great, and in addition to its revenue from the public funds, it intrudes
on the supplies intended for truly charitable institutions. Though the condition
of destitution is that most prolific of physical imperfection, the schools will not
receive the deformed child. The schools must pay, and therefore a selection is
necessary. The system is competing unfairly with the artisan and trader. Some
committees tender for orders; they being subsidized by the public funds can—
ee
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 211
undersell, and thus they tend to drive the legitimate trader and artisan from the
market. The institutions are sectarian; they thus intensify religious bigotry—a
fruitful source of great evils in our social system. The number of juvenile criminals
is not decreasing. The system has failed to repress juvenile crime and to reform
criminals. Its indirect moral effects are bad. It tempts the children of the poor
to abandon honest labour and become inmates. It tends to destroy the feeling of
parental responsibility. It induces parents to neglect their duties to their children
so as to qualify them for the Industrial School or Reformatory. He suggested
that the workhouse system (reformed in its present working) could by an easy
extension take the place of the Reformatory and Industrial School. The tax-payer
is represented on its board. ‘The proceedings and accounts are subject to public
control. It has buildings and a staff of officials in every union. It was devised
to meet the claims of destitution, and is non-sectarian. It is much less costly, and
the rights of the state are protected by the Local Government Board.
On the Future of the United States. By G. W. Norman, F.S.S.
On the Cause of Insolvency in Life-Insurance Companies, and the best Means
of detecting, exposing, and preventing it. By T. B. Spracun, M.A., FSS.
A Scheme for the Technical Education of those interested in Land.
By the Rev. Witt1am Watson Woon, Wickham Market, Suffolk.
The writer of this paper drew the attention of the Section to the want of
technical knowledge displayed by those most interested in the cultivation of land,
whether as landlords or tenants, and proposed a plan by which this necessary know-
ledge might be obtained. After remarking upon the unintelligent cultivation of
land which was made to produce only two and a half quarters per acre, whilst
land of the same description, in soil and subsoil, produced five or six quarters of
the same cereals, and on grass Jands showed even a greater disparity of production,
he cited instances within his own experience of improvements actually made on
farms of different soils and situations.
Ist. A light-land park in 1848 produced scarcely grass enough for two cows and
twenty sheep, and was let at 12s. Gd. per acre. By a very small outlay the amount
of stock fed was trebled, and the land has been let since for £2 5s. per acre.
2nd. On poor heavy-land pasture, almost valueless and growing the worst kinds
of grasses only, by drainage, manuring, and sowing tlie better kinds of grass seeds,
the produce in 1872 was estimated at £100 on nine acres. The purchase of manure,
he remarked, would be needless if the right artificial manures were used on the
arable lands at the right time in fair quantity, and suitable to the wants of the
different cereals for which it was applied, three and a half loads of straw per acre,
which might easily be grown on such lands, allowing a good margin for the
manuring of pastures, if mixed with artificial food, and thus made into manure
of a certain strength.
The third instance he adduced was that of a park that would scarcely keep a herd
of deer, and which, by the use of underground irrigation, returned £40 per acre in
1870. He then proceeded to remark that whilst England justly claimed pre-
eminence for her lieads of horses and cattle, yet the great majority of these were
bred regardless of those points which would add to their utility and beauty,
“ Drive,” he writes, “a few miles in any direction from visiting the most famous
breeds, and how many flocks or herds do you find possessing any thing approaching
their qualities? It is no exaggeration to say that many era might suppose,
from observation of the stud or stock-yard, that those who send stock to them
were intent upon perpetuating their imperfections. There is no reason, except
unintelligent management and cultivation, why we should not have horses and
meat both better and cheaper.” The attention of the Section was next invited to
the number of unintelligent farmers intermixed with others who farmed unin-
212 REPORT—1874.
telligently and injured the farms, the community, and themselves. ‘A close
observation of many years,” said the writer, “ during which it has been my custom
to drive long distances for the express purpose of investigting this matter, convinces
me that the proportion of ill-cultivated land in England is seriously large, and the
loss to the nation and to individuals isimmense. Men will take farms, and land-
lords will accept them as tenants, who scarcely understand the systems in vogue,
nor the modern discoveries and inventions which would increase the fertility of
their land and enhance its value : the consequences are obvious, the land, improperly
cultivated, deteriorates in value, a double blow is death at the pocket of the occu-
pier and at the condition of the farm, and too often it takes years to recoup’the
one and to restore the other.”
The scheme “ for the technical education of those interested in land ” was then
introduced. The main points were the combination of ordinary education with
the gradual acquisition of agricultural knowledge, the slow process of vegetable
growth admitting of gradual instruction in the raising and treatment of plants
and cereals, especial stress being laid upon the fact that “life at a public school or
at a university unfits young men, more or less, for the acquirement of such know-
ledge, their tastes and inclinations interfering in many cases with the necessary
work to be done and the necessary observation to be given ere a man can really
understand the requirements of plants and animals and the manipulation (which
on heavy land is extremely delicate and important) of varying soils.
Assuming that the desirability of acquirmg this knowledge was conceded, the
writer then proposed that it should be imparted to students, from time to time, in
such a manner as not to interfere with ordinary scholastic teaching, the only
objection appearing to be the expense of an extra teacher, whose whole time should
be given to this branch of education. In this manner, it was the writer’s opinion,
that it was possible to make young men “ brilliant scholars and intelligent practical
farmers at the same time,” conferring upon them information most useful to members
of Parliament, magistrates, and country gentlemen, and “ enabling them to compre-
hend the wants and feelings of their tenants and neighbours, and thus investing
them with a certain moral power which without this knowledge they could not
possess in so high a degree.”
MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
-
Address by Prof. James Tuomson, C.E., F.R.S.E., President of the Section.
For a number of years past it has been customary, in this and other sections of the
British Association for the Advancement of Science, that the President should give
an introductory address at the opening of each new session. In compliance with _
that usage, 1 propose now to offer to you a few brief remarks on various subjects of
Mechanical Science and Practice. These subjects have not been chosen on any
systematic plan. I have not aimed at bringing under review the whole or any large
number of the most important subjects at present worthy of special notice in En-
gineering or in Mechanics generally. I intend merely to speak of a few matters
which have happened to come under my notice, or have engaged my attention, and
which appear to me to be interesting through their novelty or through their im-
portant progress in recent times, or to merit attention as subjects in which amend-
ment and future progress are to be desired.
In Railway Engineering, one of the most important topics for consideration, as
it appears to me, is that which relates to the abatement of dangers in the conduct-
ing of the traffic. The traffic of many of our old railways has become enormously
increased in recent years. With the construction of new lines the numbers of
junctions, stations, and sidings have been greatly increased; and each of these en--
tails some attendant dangers. As a natural consequence of the increased traffic on
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 213
old railways, the additional traffic on new lines, and the increased complexity of
the railway system asa whole, there have been during recent years more numerous
accidents than in the earlier times of railways. It is to be recollected, however,
that with a greater number of people travelling daily, more numerous accidents
might be expected, and that their increased frequency, on the whole, does not
necessarily indicate increased danger to the individual traveller, Referring to the
Statistics of Railway Accidents published by the Board of Trade in Captain Tyler’s
Report for the year 1873, I find, for various periods during the last 27 years,
throughout the United Kingdom, the proportion of passengers killed from all causes
beyond their own control, to the number of passengers carried, to have been, in
round numbers :—
Proportion of number killed to number carried in the
three years, 1847, 1848, and 1849................ lin 4,782,000
In the four years, 1856, 1857, 1858, and 1859.......... lin 8,708,000
In the four years, 1866, 1867, 1868, and 1869.......... 1 in 12,941,000
In the three years, 1870, 1871, and 1872 ............... 1 in 11,124,000
Anoin the singlo:year LS7Se Se re ee ee 1 in 11,381,000
Tt is thus gratifying to observe that, in spite of the increased risks naturally
tending to arise through the increased and more crowded traffic, and the more com-
plicated connexions of lines, the danger to the individual traveller is now less than
half what it was 26 years ago; at least this result is indicated, in so far as we can
judge, from the statistics of deaths of passengers from causes beyond their own con-
trol. That the conducting of the tratiic of railways still involves hazards far from
inconsiderable, and that we have much to wish for towards abatement of dangers
of numerous kinds, is proved by the fact that, during the single year 1873, there
-haye been killed of the officers and servants of the railway companies in the United
Kingdom 1 out of every 323; so that, at this rate, extended through a period of,
for example, 20 years’ service, there would be 1 out of every 16 of the officers and
servants killed.
These deaths of officers and servants are not to be supposed to be caused in any
large proportion by collisions and by other accidents to trains in rapid motion.
The great majority of them arise in shunting and other operations at stations and
along the lines, and occur in numerous ways not beyond the control of the indi-
viduals themselves. In respect to the passengers, too, it ought to be known and
distinctly recollected, that although collisions and other violent accidents to trains
in rapid motion, together with other accidents beyond the control of the individuals,
usually cause by far the deepest impression on the public mind, yet the numbers
of these fatal accidents are small in comparison to others arising to passengers from
causes more or less within their own control. For instance, it may be noticed
that in last year, the year 1873, while the deaths of passengers arising from all
causes beyond their own control, in the United Kingdom, were only 40 in number,
there were four times as many killed, namely 160, in other ways; and of these there
were so many as 62 killed in the simple way of their falling between carriages and
latforms.
In respect to the conducting of the traffic of the trains in motion, it appears to
me, on the whole, that when we consider the vast complexity of the operations in-
volved in working many of our ramified and crowded railways, and when we con-
sider the indefinitely numerous things which must individually be in proper order
for their duty, and must be properly worked in due harmony by men far away from
one another, some stationed on the land, and others rushing along on the engines
or trains, the wonder is, not that we should have numerous accidents, but that
accidents should not be of far more frequent occurrence. There can be no doubt,
however, but that of the accidents which do occur many arise from causes of kinds
more or less preventible according to the greater or less degree in which due pre-
cautions may be adopted.
Gradually, during a period of twenty or thirty years past, a very fine system of
watching, signalling, and otherwise arranging for the safety of trains has been con-
trived and very generally introduced along our principal lines of railway. In
saying this, I allude chiefly to the block system of working railways, with the aid
214 REPORT—1874.
of telegraphic signals and interlocking mechanisms for the working of the points
and signals.
In former times it was customary to allow a certain number of minutes to elapse
after a train passed any station, or junction, or level crossing, or other point where
a servant of the company was stationed, before the succeeding train was allowed to
pass the same place. Thus at numerous points along the line a time interval was
preserved between successive trains. It was quite possible, however, that the fore-
most of the two trains, after passing any of these places where signals were given,
might become disabled, or might otherwise be made to go slowly, and that the fol-
lowing train might overtake it, and come into violent collision with it from behind.
In order to provide against the occurrence of such accidents, a system was intro-
duced called the Block System; and its main principle consists in dividing the line
into suitable lengths, each of which is called a block section, and allowing no engine
or train to enter a block section until the previous engine or train has quitted that
portion of the line. In this way a space interval of at least the length of a block
section is preserved between the two trains at the moment of the later train’s passing
each place for signalling; and the risk of this space interval becoming dangerously
small by negligence or other accidental circumstances, as the later train approaches
the next place for signalling, is almost entirely avoided.
Further, at each signalling-station, the various levers or handles for working the
points, and those for working the semaphore signals for guiding the engine-drivers,
instead of being, as was formerly the case, scattered about in various situations
adjacent to the signalling-station, and worked often some by one man and some by
another, without sufficient mutual understanding and without due harmony of action,
are now usually all brought together into one apartment called the signal-cabin. This
cabin, like a watch-tower, is usually elevated considerably above the ground, and is
formed with ample windows or glass sides, so as to afford good views of the railway
to the man who works the levers for the semaphores and points, and who transmits
by electricity signals to the next cabins on both sides of his own, and, when neces-
sary, to other stations along the line of railway.
The interlocking of the mechanisms for working the points and for working the
semaphores, which, by the signals they show, control the engine-drivers, consists in
having the levers by which the pointsman works these points and signals so con-
nected that the man in charge cannot, or scarcely can, put one into a position which
would endanger a train without his having previously the necessary danger-signal
or signals standing so as to warn the engine-driver against approaching too near to
the place of danger.
The latest important step in the development and application of the block system
is one which has just now been made in Scotland, on the Caledonian Railway.
Before explaining its principle, I have first to mention that a semaphore arm raised
to the horizontal position is the established danger-signal, or signal for debarring an
engine-driver from going past the place where the signal is given. Now the ordi-
nary practice has been, and still is, to keep the semaphore arm down from that level
position, and so to leave the line open for trains to pass, except when the line is blocked
by a train or other source of danger on the block section in front of that semaphore,
and only to raise the semaphore arm exceptionally as a signal of danger in front.
The new change, or improvement, now made on the Caledonian Railway consists
mainly in arranging that along a line of railway the semaphore arms are to be
regularly and ordinarily kept up in the horizontal position for prohibiting the
passage of any train, and that each is only to be put down when an approaching
train is, by an electric signal from the cabin behind, announced to the man in charge
of that semaphore as having entered on the block section behind, and when, further,
that man has, by an electric signal sent forward to the next cabin in advance,
inquired whether the section in advance of his own cabin is clear, and has received
in return an electrical signal meaning “ The line is clear; you may put down your
debarring signal, and let the train pass your cabin.” The main ettect of this is
that along a line of railway the signals are to be regularly and ordinarily stand-
ing up in the debarring position against allowing any train to pass; but that just
as each train approaches, and usually before it has come in sight, they go down
almost as if by magic, and so open the way in front of the train, if the line is ascer-
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 4) N39
tained to be duly safe in front; and that immediately on the passage of the train
they go upagain, and, by remaining up, keep the road closed against any engine or
train whose approach has not been duly announced in advance so as to be known
at the first and second cabins in front of it and kept closed, unless the entire block
section between those two cabins is known to have been left clear by the last pre-
ceding engine or train having quitted it, and is sufficiently presumed not to have
met with any other obstruction, by shunting of carriages or waggons, or by accident,
or in any other way.
This new arrangement *, which appears to be a very important improvement, has
already been brought into action with suecess on several sections of the Caledonian
Railway ; and it is being extended as rapidly as possible.on the lines of the Cale-
donian Company, where the ordinary mode of working the block system has hitherto
been adopted.
The mechanisms and arrangements I have now briefly mentioned are only a por-
tion of the numerous contrivances in use for abatement of danger in railway-trafiic.
Itis to be understood that by no mechanisms whatever can perfect immunity from
accidents be expected. The mechanisms are liable to break or to go wrong. They
must be worked by men, and the men are liable to make mistakes or failures. We
shall continue to have accidents ; but if we cannot do away with every danger, that
is no reason why we should not abate as many dangers as we can.
Within the past twenty years very remarkable progress has been made in steam-
navigation generally, and more especially, I would say, in oceanic steam-navigation.
In this we meet with the realization of great practical results from the combination
of improved mechanical appliances and of physical processes depending on a more
advanced knowledge of thermodynamic science.
The progress in oceanic steam-navigation is due mainly to the introduction jointly
of the screw propeller, the compound engine, steam-jacketing of the cylinders, super-
heated steam, and the surface-condenser.
The screw propeller, in its original struggle for existence, when it came into
competition with its more fully developed rival, the paddle-wheel, met with favour-
ing circumstances in the want then strongly felt of means suitable for giving a
smal] auxiliary steam-power to ships arranged for being chiefly propelled by sails.
For the accomplishment of this end the paddle-wheel was ill suited ; and so the
screw propeller got a good beginning for use on long oceanic voyages. Afterwards,
in the course of years, there followed a long series of new inventions and improved
designs in the adaptation of the steam-engine for working advantageously with the
new propeller ; and it has resulted that now, instead of the screw being used as an
auxiliary to the sails, the sails are more commonly provided as auxiliaries to the
screw. For long oceanic voyages it became very important or essential to get
better economy in the consumption of fuel. In order to economize fuel, high-pres-
* [Since the delivery of this address, a remark by the editor of ‘Engineering,’ in the
issue of that Journal for August 28, 1874, has come under my notice, in which he denies
the supposed novelty of the system of signalling here described as newly introduced on
the Caledonian Railway. He states that the system described has been in use for many
years past on several railways, and that, amongst others, the Metropolitan Railway has
never been worked upon any other system. Also he says that on a portion of the Great
Eastern (then the Eastern Counties Railway) the system was in use upwards of twenty
years ago. On the other hand, I learn from officers of the Caledonian Railway engaged
in carrying out the alteration of system on the lines of the Caledonian Company, that
they think the system as introduced on their railway has still much of novelty in com-
parison with any thing previously done on any line extending over long distances in the
country, and that though the Metropolitan Railway be worked on a system similar in
some respects to that which they are introducing, yet the whole circumstances of that
urban railway are so different from those of railways extending through the country, as
to leave the introduction of the system here described on an ordinary railway, such es
the Caledonian, still to be regarded as a change presenting important features of novelty
in a practical point of view.
Having now mentioned these statements, I prefer to leave any further discussion of
the distinctions of different systems which have been or are in use, and of exact points of
novelty in their introduction, to those who may be in possession of fuller evidence on the
subject than what has hitherto been obtained by me.—JamEs Tomson, November 1874.]
*
216 REPORT—1874,
sure steam, with a high degree of expansion and with condensation, was necessary.
This led to the practical adaptation for the propulsion of vessels of the compound
engine, an old invention which originated with Hornblower in the latter part of
last century, and was afterwards further developed by Wolff. The high degrees
of expansion could not be advantageously used in cylinders heated only by the
ordinary supply of steam admitted to them for driving the piston; and more espe-
cially when that steam was boiled off directly from water without the introduction
of additional heat to it after its evaporation. The knowledge of this, which was
derived through important advances made in thermodynamic science, led to the
introduction into ordinary use in steam-navigation of steam-jacketed cylinders,
and to the ordinary use also of superheated steam. With increased efforts towards
economy of space in the hold of the ship, which became the more essential when
very long voyages were to be undertaken, and with the new requirement of greatly
increased pressure in the steam, the old marine boilers, with their flues of riveted
plates, were superseded by tubular boilers more compact in their dimensions and
better adapted for resisting the high pressure of the steam. In connexion with
these various changes the old difficulty of the growth of stony incrustations in the
boilers became aggravated rather than in any way diminished. As the only avail-
able remedy for this, there ensued the practical development and the very general
introduction of the previously known, hat scarcely at all used, principle of surface-
condensation instead of condensation by injection. A supply of distilled water from
the condenser is thus maintained for feeding the boilers, and incrustations are
avoided. The consumption of coal is often found now to be reduced to about 2 Ibs.
per indicated horse~power per hour, from having been 4 or 5 lbs. in good engines
in times previous to about twenty years ago.
Before the times of ocean telegraph-cables very little had been done in deep-
sea sounding ; but when the laying of ocean cables came first to be contemplated,
and when it came afterwards to be realized, the obtaining of numerous soundings
became a matter of essential practical importance. In the ordinary practice of
deep-sea sounding, as carried on both before and since the times of ocean telegraph-
cables, until a year or two ago, a hempen rope or cord was used as the sounding-
line, and a very heavy sinker, usually weighing from two to four hundredweight,
was required to draw down the hempen line with sufficient speed, because the
frictional resistance of the water to that large and rough line moving at any suit-
able speed was very great. The sinker could not be brought up again from great
depths ; and arrangements were provided, by means of a kind of trigger-apparatus,
so that when the bottom was reached the sinker was detached from the line, and
was left lying lost on the bottom, the line being drawn up without the sinker, but
with only a tube of no great weight, adapted for receiving and carrying away a
specimen of the bottom. For the operation of drawing up the hempen line with
this tube attached, steam-power has been ordinarily used, and practically must be
regarded as necessary.
A great improvement has, within the last two or three years, been devised and
practically developed by Sir William Thomson. Instead of using a hempen sound-
ing-line, or a cord of any kind, he uses a single steel wire of the kind manufactured
as pianoforte wire. He has devised a new machine for letting down into the sea
the wire with its sinker, and for bringing both the wire and the sinker up again
when the bottom has been reached. With his apparatus, in its earliest arrange-
ment, and before it had arrived at its present advanced condition of improvement,
he sounded, in June 1872, in the Bay of Biscay, in a depth of 2700 fathoms, or a
little more than three miles, and brought up again his sinker of 301bs. weight
after it had touched the bottom, and brought up also an abundant specimen of
pe from the bottom, in a suitably arranged tube attached at the lower end of the
sinker.
An important feature in his machine consists in a friction-brake arrangement, b
which an exactly adjusted resistance can be applied to the drum or pulley which
holds the wire coiled round its circumference, and which, on being allowed to
revolve, lets the wire run off it down into the sea. The resistance is adjusted so
as to be always less than enough to bear up the weight of the lead or iron
sinker, together with the weight of the suspending wire, and more than enough to
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 217
bear up the weight of the wirealone. Thus it results that the arrival of the sinker
at the bottom is indicated very exactly on board the ship by the sudden cessation
of the revolving motion of the drum from which the wire was unrolling.
Another novel feature of great importance consists in the introduction of an addi-
tional hauling-up drum or pulley, arranged to act as an auxiliary to the main drum
during the hauling-up process. The auxiliary drum has the wire passed once or
twice round its circumference at the time of hauling up, and is turned by men so
as to give to the wire extending from it into the sea most of the pull requisite for
drawing it up out of the sea, and it passes the wire forward to the main drum, there
to be rolled in coils relieved from the severe pull of the wire and sinker hanging in
the water. Thus the main drum is saved from being crushed or crumpled by the
excessive inward pressure which would result from two or three thousand coils of
very tight wire, if that drum unaided were required to do the whole work of haul-
ing up the wire and sinker.
he wire, though exposed to the sea-water, is preserved against rust by being
kept constantly, when out of use, either immersed in or moistened with caustic
nae The fact that steel and iron may be preserved from rust by alkali is well
known to chemists, and is considered to result from the effect of the alkali in
neutralizing the carbonic acid contained in the water, as the carbonic acid appears
to be the chief cause of the rusting of steel and iron.
This new method of sounding, depending on the use.of pianoforte wire, was first
publicly explained by Sir Wm. Thomson im the Mechanical Section of the British
Association at the Brighton Meeting two years ago; and in the interval which
has since elapsed it has come rapidly into important practical use.
I have to-day already brought under your notice a system of elaborately contrived
and extensively practised methods of signalling and otherwise arranging for the
safety of trains in motion on railways. These methods, in the aggregate, as we
have them at present, may be looked on as the result of a gradual development,
which, through design and intelligent selection, has been taking place during the
last twenty or thirty years or more. In contrast with this I have now to mention
a reform towards abatement of dangers at sea, which at present is only in an
incipient stage of its practical application, but which, I am sure, must soon grow
into one of the important reforms of the future. I refer to the provision of means
whereby every important lighthouse shall, as soon as it is descried, not only make
known to the navigator that a light is visible, but also that it shall give him the
much more important information of what light it is,—that, in fact, it shall distin-
guish itself to fien from all other lights either stationed on land or carried by ships
out at sea. The rendering of lighthouses each readily distinguishable from every
other light by rapid timed occultations was urged on public attention by Charles
Babbage about twenty or twenty-three ago, in connexion with a like proposal of
his for telegraphic signalling by occulting lights. His admirable idea, however, so
far as it related to the distinguishing of lighthouses, has unhappily been left almost
entirely neglected until quite recently. Although I say it was almost entirely
neglected, yet very important steps in the direction of the object proposed were
taken many years ago by Messrs. Stevenson, Engineers to the Commissioners of
Northern Lights; and the flashing and intermittent lights introduced by them, and
now used, although too sparingly, in various parts of the world, constituted a very
great improvement in respect to distinctiveness. The first practical introduction of
an intermittent extinction of a gas-light, which is a method now likely to hecome
fruitful in important applications with further developments, was made many years
ago by Mr. Wilson at Troon ; and an admirable application of this plan by the Messrs.
Stevenson to carry out the principle of rapid signalling is to be seen in the Ardrossan
Harbour light, which is alternately visible for two seconds, and then for two seconds
is so nearly extinguished as to be invisible. The whole period—four seconds—is,
I suppose, the shortest of any lighthouse in the world. This light fulfils the con-
dition of being known to be the light which it is within five or ten seconds of its
being first perceived ; and thus, in respect to distinctiveness, I trust that I may,
without mistake, say it is the best light in the world. Mr. John Wigham has suc-
ceeded in constructing large burners for the combustion of gas in lighthouses in
general, including those of the first order, and embracing both i aa and
1874
218 REPORT—1874.
revolving lights. He has also, in both these cases, applied with the most striking
success the principle of occultation. Dr. Tyndall, in his Reports to the Board of
Trade, has dwelt frequently and emphatically on the ease with which gas lends
itself to the individualization of lights. By its application he affirms that, hy simple
arrangements, it would be possible to make every lighthouse declare its own name.
Within about the last two or three years, the subject has been taken up energeti-
cally by Sir William Thomson. He has become strongly impressed with the
enormous importance of the object in question. He has perseveringly laboured in -
making trials in various ways, both by the method of partially extinguishing gas-
flames and by the method of revolving screens; and I have pleasure in stating that,
as a result of his efforts, a self-sigralling apparatus is now constructed for the Bel-
fast Harbour Commissioners, who are preparing to bring it into immediate use at
the screw-pile lighthouse, at the entrance of the harbour of Belfast. I shall not
now enter on any description of this arrangement, as I understand that the appa-
ratus, which has already been temporarily erected for trial in the lighthouse, and
has shown good results, is to be exhibited and explained to this section by Mr.
Bottomley, who, as a member of the Board of Harbour Commissioners, has taken
an active part in the promotion of the undertaking.
I wish next to make mention of the very remarkable works at present in progress
in the Harbour of Dublin, under the designs and under the charge of Mr. Bindon
Stoney. In order to form quay walls with their foundations necessarily deep under
water, he constructs on land gigantic blocks of artificial stone, or, as we may say,
of concrete masonry, each of which is about 350 tons in weight, and which are
accurately formed to a required shape. After the solidification of the concrete, he
carries them away, and deposits them on an accurately levelled bottom of the sea, so
that they fit closely together, and form so much of the quay wall in height as to
reach aboye the low-tide level, and so as to allow of the completion of the wall
above by building in the usual manner by tidal work, and to allow of the whole
structure being carried out without the use of ecoffer-dams. These operations are
on a scale of magnitude far surpassing any thing done before in the construction
and moving of artificial stone blocks. They are carried out with machinery and
other appliances for the removal and the placing of the blocks, and for other
id papa of the undertaking, which are remarkable for boldness of conception
and ingenuity of contrivance. The new methods of construction devised and
applied in these works by Mr. Stoney are recognized as being admirably suited for
the local cireumstances of the site of the works in the Harbour of Dublin, and their
various arrangements form a very important extension of the methods of construc-
tion available to engineers for river- and harbour-works,
While progress has been made with gigantic strides in many directions in
engineering and in mechanics generally, while railways, steamboats, and electric
telegraphs have extended their wonders to the most distant parts of the world,
and while trade, with these aids, is bringing to our shores the produce even of the
most distant places to add to our comforts and our luxuries, yet, when we come
to look to our homes, to the places where most of our population have to spend
nearly the whole of their lives, I think we must find with regret that, in matters
pertaining to the salubrity and general amenities of our towns and houses as
places for residence, due progress in improvement has not been made, Our house-
drainage arrangements are habitually disgracefully bad; and this I proclaim
emphatically, alike in reference to the houses of the rich and the poor. e haye
got, since the early part of the present century, the benefits of the light of gas inour
apartments; but we allow the pernicious products of combustion to gather in
large quantities in the air we have to breathe; and in winter eyenings we liye
with our heads in heated and vitiated air, while our feet are yentilated with a
eurrent of fresh, cold air, gliding along the floor towards the fireplace to be drawn
uselessly up the chimney. A very few people have commenced to provide chimneys
or flues to carry away the fumes of their more important gas-lights, in like manner
as we have chimneys for our ordinary fires. In mentioning this, however, as a
suggestion of the course in which improvement ought to advance, I feel bound to
offer a few words of caution against the introduction of flue-pipes for the gas-
flames rashly, in such ways as to bring danger of their setting fire to the house.
TRANSACTIONS: OF THE SECTIONS. 219
People have a strong tendency to require that such things as these should be con-
cealed from view. In this case, however, special care should be taken against
rashly placing them among the woodwork between the ceiling of the apartment
and the floor of the room aboye, or otherwise placing them in unsafe proximity
to combustible materials. In many cases it would be better to place the flue
exposed to view underneath the ceiling, and, by introducing some accompanying
cpnamentation, to let the flue be regarded as a beneficent object not unpleasing to
the eye.
The atmosphere of our large towns, where people live by hundreds of thousands
all the year round, is not yet guarded against needless pollution by smoke,
jealously, as it ought to be. Many of the wealthier inhabitants take refuge in
living in the country or in the suburbs of the town, as far away as they can from
the most densely built and most smoky districts; but the great masses of the people,
including many of all ranks, must live near their work, and for them, at least, greater
exertions are due than have yet been made towards maintaining and improying the
salubrity and the amenities of our towns. As to the abatement or prevention of
smoke from the furnaces of steam-engines, the main requisites have long been very
well known; but sufficient energy and determination have not yet been manifested.
towards securing their due application in practice. In too many cases futile plans
have been tried, and on being soon abandoned have left a strong impression against
the trying of more experiments ; and this may account in part for the introduction
of real Hamre veRents haying been so slow. Smoke occurs when fresh coal is
thrown suddenly, in too large quantity at once, on a hot fire. By extreme
care a fireman may throw coal into his furnace so gradually as to make very little
smoke; but mechanical arrangements for introducing constantly and uniformly the
new supply of fresh coal have been devised, and several of these have been such as
to reduce the smoke emitted to almost nothing. I have seen in the neighbourhood of
Glasgow, at a large manufacturing establishment at Thornliebank, one method which
is applied to about thirty ordinary 40 horse-power boilers, in which upwards of 100 tons
of coal are daily burned, and from the chimneys of which not more smoke is emitted
than from many a kitchen fixe. This method is under the patent of Messrs. Vicars, of
Liverpool, and it seems to work very well. It has been about two years in work there.
It was introduced at a time when coal was exceedingly high in price, as much to effect
economy in fuel as to prevent smoke; and although the first cost was somewhere about
£130 per boiler, the proprietor considers himself to be already more than recouped for his
outlay, as a saying of fully 12 per cent. in the fuel consumed was effected. At the same
works I have also seen in operation the method of Messrs. Haworth and Horsfall, of
Todmorden, which has, I am told, in certain circumstances, some advantages over
the other. In this, as in the other, the coal is fed in uniformly by mechanical
arrangements. The mechanism is different in the two cases, but the result in the
motion communicated to the coals is very much alike in both. The bed of coal,
which is gradually supplied in front, is caused to travel along the bars towards the
inner end of the furnace, and the combustion Pepesede in a yery uniform manner in
conditions highly fayourable to economy of fuel, and without the emission of
almost any visible smoke.
These two methods I haye mentioned because they appent both to work very
successfully in practice, while they both bring into effect the principle of action of
the fuel which has long appeared to me to be the best that can be adopted for
ordinary cases of steam-engine boilers.
Having now occupied, I think, enough of your time, I will conclude. I have
endeayoured to select out of the wide range of subjects which fall within the
scope of the Mechanical Section of the British Association a few which have come
more particularly under my own notice, and on which I thought it was in my
power to give intelligence that might be interesting as to past progress, and sug-
gestions that might be useful towards extension of improvements in the future.
16*
220 REPORT—1874.
Compensating Apparatus for Distant Signal-wires of Railways. .
By G. W. Bryon.
Hitherto the old methods of the screw connexion or the ratchet-wheel have
generally been employed as the only means of adjusting the wires of distant signals.
At the commencement of this year the author invented this apparatus, which
self-regulates and adjusts automatically the wires of signals, and which combines
extreme simplicity and non-liability to get out of order with cheapness in manu-
facture. It consists in the use of a flat iron bar (the proportion of its depth to thick-
ness being about 3 to 1) running upon its edge between grooved rollers contained
in cast-iron brackets. ‘To the front end is fastened the wire to the signal, and to
the other is attached a chain, having a weight at the end sufficient to keep the wire
in a state of tension. Upon this bar slides a frame containing two clutch-blocks.
So long as this frame remains at 90° Fahr., the bar is free to move backwards or for-
wards between its rollers, as expansion or contraction may require ; but when pulled
so as to decrease the angle, the blocks seize the bar and draw it through its rollers
a sufficient distance to efliciently work the signal. This machine has been at work
for nearly eight months upon a signal distant five eighths of a mile, situated at the
West Junction box, Reading, Great Western Railway. Ever since it has thoroughly
fulfilled its object, and given the greatest satisfaction. Two machines have also
been applied and have been at work for some time on two signals (semaphore and
disk ea cross-bar signals) five eighths of a mile distant each at East box, Reading
Station, and have also given every satisfaction. The apparatus is unaffected by the
weather, and can be relied on thoroughly ; it is so contrived that no mischievous
interference with the wire can take place whilst the signal is pulled over in either
position.
On the Eclipsing-Apparatus constructed for the Lighthouse on the Holywood
Bank, in Belfast Lough. By Wiir1am Borromury.
The main purposes for which lighthouses are erected are to mark the presence of
dangers, either of rocks or sandbanks, which are to be avoided by ships, and to serve
as guides for navigation. To attain these objects it is absolutely necessary that the
light exhibited shall be easily and certainly recognized as being that of a particular
lighthouse in a certain position, and no other. ‘The mode at present in use for di-
stinguishing lighthouses from each other is to have some variety in the lights exhi-
bited ; and the Admiralty charts mark the different lighthouses according to one or
other of six different descriptions :—1. Fixed or steady ; 2. Revolving; 3. Flashing ;
4, Fixed and flashing; 5. Intermittent; 6. Alternate. A large majority of fe
lights on the coast are fixed, a considerable number are revolving, and out of 514 in
the list corrected to January 1871, only 29 belong to the other four descriptions.
It must be evident that such a mode of distinguishing lighthouses is extremely
imperfect. Fixed lights, though usually brilliant, are at a distance, and in fogey
weather undistinguishable from shore- or ship-lights near at hand; and, notwith-
standing the greatest care, one lighthouse may be mistaken for another. Revolving
or flashing lights might possibly be distinguished by their periods, if those periods
were aiiati kept; but observations of such periods require an accuracy difficult
to be attained at all times, and impossible in the trying circumstances in which
vessels often approach a coast.
n order, under present arrangements, to make out with certainty what any
observed light is, it is necessary that the master of the vessel shall first ascertain
the position of his own ship. In many cases this cannot be done even in short
voyages; but after a long voyage, and with few opportunities of making correct
observations, errors of many miles may occur on a ship’s reckoning. Every year
the accounts of shipwrecks show the fatal results arising from the mistake of one
light for another light many miles away. The signal which, properly interpreted,
should have preserved the mariner from danger, becomes the false guide which
lures him to destruction.
Tf, however, we had the means of causing each lighthouse to exhibit constantly
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 221
a light of such a character as could not possibly be mistaken for any other light-
house, for any ship’s light, or for an ordinary shore-light, the master of the vessel
would not only at once recognize it as being a particular lighthouse, but would be
able at the same time to correct any error he had made in regard to his own posi-
tion, and be able to proceed with confidence on his voyage.
Such a plan was proposed by Charles Babbage, and actually exhibited in the
Exhibition of 1851. It was officially communicated by him to all the great mari-
time governments, and was elaborately described by him in a letter to the ‘ Times’
of the 16th July, 1855.
For many years the suggested individualization of lighthouses remained unheeded
by the public and neglected by the lighthouse authorities ; but during the last few
years the matter has attracted the attention of some men of scientific eminence, who,
thoroughly convinced of the important benefits which would result from its uni-
versal adoption, are able to carry out the practical details required for putting it
into operation, and whose character and position entitle them to press their convic-
tions on the Government. The author referred especially to Mr. Stevenson, the en-
gineer to the Northern Lights Commission, and to Dr. Tyndall, the scientific adviser
of the Board of Trade and the distinguished President of the British Association.
A modification and improvement of Babbage’s plan has been lately published by
Sir William Thomson, who proposes that each lighthouse shall exhibit from sun-
set to sunrise a certain definite series of eclipses, representing one of the letters of
what is known in telegraphy as the Morse alphabet. The Harbour Commis-
sioners of Belfast, impressed with the great velus and importance of the: plan,
adopted it for an improvement of the light on the Holywood Bank, which at present
is a fixed red light liable to be mistaken for the red (or port) light of a vessel ;
and the apparatus exhibited to the Section was designed for the purpose by Sir
William Thomson, and constructed by Mr. James White, of Glasgow, for the Com-
missioners. It consists of a horizontal ring of brass revolving on three vertical
wheels or rollers, and it is kept in its place by three light horizontal wheels. One
of the wheels on which the horizontal ring rests is kept in motion by a descending
weight and a train of wheels, and the motion is regulated by a centrifugal friction-
governor, which gives ample steadiness and regularity of speed. The horizontal
ring carries three eclipsing-screens, the weight of which is counterbalanced by a
piece of iron on the opposite side of the ring. The screens are at present arranged
to give two short eclipses and one longer eclipse, corresponding to the letter U of
the Morse alphabet. A complete revolution occupies eleven seconds, of which six
seconds is the period of uninterrupted white light, and five seconds of eclipses with
the intervening intervals oflight. An alteration of the number and position of the
screws enables us to form any letter of the alphabet that may be desired.
An experimental trial has been made of the apparatus on the lighthouse with
very satisfactory results. In the course of a few weeks it will be in permanent
operation ; and the author ventured to express the belief that the success of the plan
will keep public attention directed to the simple means of rectifying the defects of our
present lighthouse system, and, in connexion with what is doing elsewhere, cause the
adoption of it, or similar means of distinguishing lighthouses, along the coasts of the
United Kingdom.
On the Differentiating Waste-water Meter.
By Gxorct F. Deacon, M.Inst.C. 8.
The author explained that this instrument had been designed for the purpose of
ascertaining the locality of waste of water due to leakages Bolt pipes and fittings.
It consists essentially in a vertical hollow truncated cone of brass, to the upper and
smaller end of which the water from any service main is led, and from the lower
end of which it passes to the district supplied by that main. Within the hollow
cone, and equal in diameter to its upper end, is a horizontal metal disk, having on
its upper side a ns central stem by which it is hung from a German-silver wire
passing through a lignum-vite bush to a dry chamber above, where itis connected
with guide-wheels and with a gut-band passing over a pulley, on the other side of
229, REPORT—1874.
which the gut-band is attached to a weight of fixed amount, which, when no water
is passing, maintains the disk at the top of the cone. i
ater being catised to How through the cone, the disk will obviously move to a
level at which the counterbalance weight is exactly balanced by the excess of pres-
sure of the water on the upper surface of the disk, added to the weight of the disk
in water and of the guide-wheels and wire in air.
There is therefore for every particular velocity of water a particular position of
the disk from which it will not move until that velocity is changed. The particular
rate in gallons per hour for each particular position of the disk had been deter-
mined, and a scale had been constructed on which a pencil, attached to the cross-
head carrying the guide-wheels, shows at any instant the rate of flow in gallons per
hour, In practice this scale is printed on a sheet of paper, which is mounted on a
drum and caused to revolve once in 24hours. By this means the rate of consunip-
tion in the district for every instant during the day and night is determined ; and the
waste of water is distinguished from the use of water by the comparatively steady
nature of the line due to the latter. By placing a turning key on the plug of the
stopcock outside any private premises during the night, and by applying the ear
to the top of the key, any flow of water may be detected. If waste is thus found
to be talatig place the stopcock is closed.
The waste of a district is thus traced to a few premises, and on the followin
morning the diagram is found to have recorded the change of rate in the flow causec
by the closing of each stopeock, and the degree in which the subsequent repairs
should redtice the consumption.
The author concluded by stating that waste-water meters had been for somé time
in successful operationin Liverpool, where, until their application, the town was on
intermittent supply at the rate of about twenty-five gall ons pet head per day for
domestic purposes, which was found to rise above thirty-three gallons per head
during an experimental constant supply.
Waste-water meters had, however, been applied in thirty-six districts, containing
in the aggregate 89,502 persons, and the domestic consumption had been thereby
reduced to 16-9 gallons per head per day, at a trifling cost and with but little
annoyance to the people.
The systeni was being qiiickly extended to the whole district of supply.
On a new Method of Isometrical Drawing*. By Guorek Faweus.
On Coal Mining in Italy. By P. tz Nuvez Foster, jun.
On a New Form of Screw-Lowering Apparatus.
By EH. J. Harwanp.
The author, with the aid of models, gave a detailed description vivd voce of a
screw-lowering apparatus for ships which he had lately invented. He said that in
some voyages, and especially during those across the Atlantic, the wave-line on the
side of the ship was very often such as to leave the ordinary screw half exposed.
Under these circumstances the engines had only half the work to do, and conse-
quently were apt to run off at such speed as to injure the machinery. The conse-
quence was that the engineer had to throttle or cut off a considerable portion of the
steam, and the speed of the vessel was much reduced. To obviate that, a plan for
lowering the screw was being introduced, which enabled the engineer in heav
weather to keep the vessel going much steadier, with practically very little reduced
speed. A large amount of useful power was thus utilized, with the advantage of
uniform motion.
Instead of the engineer being obliged at different parts of the day to slow the
engines, he was independent of the weather, which became merely a matter for the
* Printed ¢ extenso in‘ The Engineer,’ vol. xxxviii. p. 192.
Tt Printed im extenso in,‘ Engineering,’ vol. xviii. p. 311.
ie = Oe
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 223
consideration of the captain. In crossing a bar, or when in shallow water, the tips
of the screw must not be lowered beneath the keel. The normal position of the
screw was that the tip should be in a line with the keel; but when the vessel was
in more water than she really required, the captain gave directions to the engineer
to lower the screw, in performing which operation no change was necessary in the
speed of the engines, and in that position the vessel crossed the ocean, On arriv-
ing near port the captain gave a counter order to raise the screw. In Liverpool the
demand for admission into the graving-docks by vessels which had broken or
injured their screws was often so great that it was found impossible to accommodate
them all, and the consequence was that many vessels had to enter on another voyage
with their screws in an injured condition. To meet this difficulty it was proposed
to elevate the screw to such a position, as when the vessel was half discharged the
screw could be repaired and then lowered to its normal position, without its being
necessary to take the vessel into the dock.
Not more than two minutes are occupied in raising or lowering the screw,
which was accomplished by means of a small steam-engine located on the deck.
In performing the opetation there was, of course, a theoretical loss of power,
although practically no loss could be discovered.
The Harland screw has been fitted to the White Star liner_‘ Britannic, which
has recently made one of the shortest runs on record to New York. The ship is
472 feet long, 45 feet beam, with a total paying capacity of 5000 tons. She has
compound engines 760 H.P, nominal and eight boilers, and developed great speed,
making the passage in 7 days 19 hours and 35 minutes, which is wit. in half an hour
of the shortest time recorded. shins *
The S.S. ‘ Camel,’ asmaller steamer, has also been fitted with this lowering-screw,
and in constant use during the last four years has given the utmost satisfaction.
On a Higher Education for Engineers*.
By Jenemian Heap, of Middlesbrough.
The author first showed that the industrial prosperity of Great Britain, depend-
ing as it does so largely upon the economical utilization of its minerals, would in
future increase or dwindle away according to the skill and intelligence brought
to bear by British engineers.
He then investigated the meaning of the term “Engineer,” calling attention to
its ambiguity, and defining it as properly denoting “him who is able, as various
necessities arise, to utilize, in the best and most economic manner, the materials of
the earth for the benefit of its inhabitants.”
In order to enable engineers really to come up to this high standard, he thought
they should have a much wider and higher education than is now commonly met
with among them. He argued at considerable length in favour of increased atten-
tion being paid to the studies of chemistry, physics, geology, physical geography,
economics, mathematics, accounts, law, inductive and deductive reasoning, rhetoric,
hysiology, and professional morals. The nature of each of these branches of
Binwiedze, and their bearing upon the engineering profession, were successively
discussed.
He endorsed the present practice of sending students at the age of sixteen to work
as ordinary mechanics in an engineering establishment of repute, and where there
is a good system of progressive advancement through the several departments. But
instead of remaining simply as improvers after the age of twenty-one, he advocated
a three years’ course at a good College of Science, where systematic attention could
be paid to the above higher branches of professional education. He thought a
longer time than has hitherto been customary should be devoted to the training of
an engineer, and did not consider the responsibility of laying out large sums of
money in constructive works should be entrusted to men of less than thirty years
of age.
ih conclusion, he called attention to the danger of specializing the energies too
much, or before the elements in every department of knowledge have been
* Printed in extenso in ‘ Engineering,’ vol. xviii, pp. 255, 280.
224 REPORT—1874.
thoroughly mastered. Specialists are of two kinds, exciting respectively our aver-
sion and our admiration. The first kind were like sellers of omnipotent medicines ;
they may possibly have an intimate acquaintance with the special articles they sell,
but would be utterly helpless if called upon to deal with new conditions. The
second kind he typified by Smeaton’s Eddystone Lighthouse, which has with-
stood the fierce attacks of Atlantic storms for more than a century. Two
previous ones failed because imperfectly constructed; but this one endures,
because the lower one searches among the courses of masonry of which it is com-
posed, the more solid one finds them, and the more extended in area, until they
finally terminate in the granite blocks which are dovetailed into the solid rock.
Luke’s Patent Safety Facing-point Lock for Securing Railway Facing-points.
By KR. Luxe, of the Great Western Railway.
{Communicated by W. Smith, C.E., London.]
This invention consists in forming the extreme points of the switch-rails with a
bevel projection thereon, which bevel projection may either be forged on or it may
be fixed thereto by bolting, riveting, or otherwise. This projection is bevelled to
an angle of 45 degrees, and the inner face of each switch-point is similarly provided,
but the bevel on the one is right-handed and that on the other is left-handed. The
points are connected together by a rod or rods, and they move in the are of a circle
in the usual way. The bevelled pieces on the points each project to an extent suffi-
ciently wide to receive a correspondingly bevelled projection or the bevelled end of
a longitudinally sliding-bar, which may be of sufficient length to receive at least two
pairs of carriage-wheels; and these bars may work or slide longitudinally by the side
of the inner faces of each permanent rail, or partly by the side of and partly under
each rail, as will be further described. There are two such bars, each so formed or
fitted with a bevelled end to correspond with and overlap the bevel projection on
each point or movable tongue of the switch-rail.
These two longitudinal bars are connected together and moved simultaneously in
opposite directions by the interposition of either bell-cranks and connecting-rods, or
a vibrating lever mounted centrally upon a bearing between the rails for simulta-
neously moving the two bars. This vibrating lever may, in turn, be connnected
with the points through bell-cranks and rods.
Knowing by practical experience that a single bar, when placed before facing-
points, and upon which the flange of the wheel would have to run (or over which
it would roll), would be subject to the kicking action of the driving-wheel of the
engine, and such action would tend to withdraw the bevelled end of the bars from
contact with the bevelled piece on the switch, the author accordingly provided a
very simple means of overcoming that difficulty, which, though more ideal than real,
presented itself as one of the objections which was likely to be raised by those over-
refined and hypercritical critics who are far more ready at discovering objections
to any plan proposed by others than in suggesting remedies. The author there-
fore provides two bars and connects them together; and it will be seen that, as
they work in opposite directions, being connected together, whatever kicking is
done to the one bar is counter-kicked and counteracted by the action on the other
bar, so that the kicking, being self-neutralized, has no unlocking effect, and so leaves
the locking of the points as effective as is provided and arranged for mechanically
by the arrangement and disposition of the moving parts. But this kicking or creep-
ing action only applies in the case where the rotating surface of the wheel (whether
it be of the tread or the flange of the wheel) comes in contact with or rolls upon
the longitudinal bar or longitudinally moving portion of the permanent rail; but it
does not a¢ all apply to those arrangements wherein the weight of the train is sup-
ported on the ordinary rail which has no longitudinal motion, and the rail in turn
acts by pressure upon, and holds securely, a longitudinally sliding-piece or portion
of the longitudinally sliding-bar that is beneath the foot or bottom of the rail, and
which is only free to be moved or slid when there is no load or pressure on the
permanent rail,
ee
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 225
The movements of the points, or their vibration in the arc of a circle, and the
longitudinal movements of the two sliding-bars, are effected simultaneously and ~
correspondingly, and in proper relation to one another, either through the connexions
that are provided or any other suitable arrangement, and the whole is worked or
set in motion by means of one lever-handle or by the movement of one connecting-
rod from the pointsman’s box; and when, by the forward motion of one of the
sliding-bars, the bevelled end thereof is pressed against the bevel on the point corre-
sponding thereto, and forces the extreme point of the switch against the permanent
rail, it holds it there until the whole of the train has passed over the points. As even
the pointsman himself cannot move the lever or the bars or the points during the
passage of an engine or train over or along the longitudinal bar, or over the rail under
which or partly under and partly by the side of which the longitudinal sliding-bar is
applied or fitted, by reason of the load or weight of the engine or carriage upon it,
thus the pointsman or any other person would be prevented from moving this
handle or the connecting-rod therefrom, or the sliding-bar itself, and so the position
of the points cannot be changed ; and they cannot be opened to the slightest extent
whilst the train is approaching the points or until after the engine or train has
entirely passed over them.
If the angles of the inclined surfaces of the projections from the longitudinally
sliding-bar and from the points be other than 45°, the relation of the movements
and the proportionate motions of the longitudinal bars and the vibrations of the
points must be changed to correspond therewith, so that they pass the one incline
surface over the face of the other when the bars, acting on the points, cause them
to be alternately moved from or to the permanent rail.
The outside rod and mechanism of this point-locking apparatus are connected with
the signals by means of rods in the usual way; and the protecting signals should
first be moved over into the right position to protect the road before the points are
moved ; and the points should also be connected with a point-indicator, so as to show
their true position by night as well as by day.
On the Gieat Western Railway, at the Portobello Junction, a combined broad-
gauge and narrow-gauge line is fitted with facing-points according tothis invention,
and they have been in constant use for fourteen months; and, besides the sidings
proper for the general tratlic,, the heaviest goods traffic into the goods yard has
passed over the broad- as well as the narrow-gauge points at this Junction with
entire satisfaction to the engineer and all concerned, and the pointsman speaks of
the invention in the highest terms.
At Hammersmith Junction this apparatus has been applied to the narrow-
gauge line where the Great Western and Metropolitan Railway systems join; and
there, too, after about fourteen months’ heavy work, although the apparatus was
only roughly made up and put together, it has stood the severest tests to which it
could be subjected, and has given every possible satisfaction.
The plan view of a narrow-gauge line, with a guard-rail on the inner side of
each permanent rail, shows a longitudinally sliding-bar working between the
inner face of each permanent rail and the guard-rail. It shows the movements of
the two bars in opposite direction as being there produced by a lever-arm
mounted on a sleeper between the rails, and the bevel end of each bar resting
on a bed-piece or chair common (as a bearing) to it and the bevel projection
on the end of the corresponding point, against the bevelled face of which the
end of the sliding-bar is constantly in contact and ready to act or perform its
function of moving the point over to, and firmly ras it against, the permanent rail,
either alone or conjointly, through or by the aid of the bell-crank or other connexions
which may be introduced whenever thought to be desirable or advisable; but the
use of bell-cranks for moving the points over in the are of a circle is not really ne-
cessary, though many engineers may consider it a proper adjunct and precaution.
To suit the various forms of railway bars in use, and also the views of railway
engineers, the inventor has proposed various modifications in the form and arrange-
ment of the longitudinally sliding-bars, as far as possible to suit the various condi-
tions of things.
226 REPORT— 1874,
The Fiver Shannon Drainage and Navigation*. By James Lynam, C.Z.
The flood-waters of navigable rivers, such as the Shannon, may be far more
easily, quickly, and economically regulated, and the crops on the adjacent lowlands
preserved from inundations, by using wholly movable weirs, such as the French
“ barrages mobiles,” than by wholly solid stone weir-mounds, such as those built by
the Board of Works, and now existing in the Shannon, or by the dmmovable iron
walls with submerged sluices recently designed for the Shannon by an eminent
civil engineer.
Works on a very large scale for the improvement of the river Shannon for both
drainage and navigation were designed under the Act 5 & 6 William IV. chapter 6,
and were carried on under the Act 2 & 3 Victoria, c, 61. The expenditure was
about £586,000, of which one half was a free grant, and one half was levied on
and paid up with interest by the riparian counties,
In 1850 the Commissioners reported the works complete and effective, but that
was a double mistake. It is now ascertained by measurements and admitted that
large portions of the works are still unexecuted, and that 24,000 acres of land are
periodically damaged by the inundations. In August 1861 an inundation destroyed
the whole of the crops, and nearly every year great damage is done. During the
last thirteen years the subject has been much discussed. A Select Committee of
the Lords and another of the Commons have sat on the subject, heard much
evidence, and reported. Two engineering surveys of the river have been made and
lodged in Parliament, together with designs and estimates for the improvement of
the drainage. The cost of all these amounts to about £12,000, but no work has
yet been done. The landowners have asked from the Board of Works permission
to construct sluices in the solid stone weir-mounds, but the Board refused. At
length, last session of Parliament, the present magnanimous Government got an
Act passed appropriating £300,000 of public money for the improvement of the
river, of ‘which, as before, one half is to be a free grant, and one half is to be levied
on and paid by the landowners with interest in thirty-five years. This half, viz.
£150,000, is to be levied on an area of 18,000 acres, being at the rate of £8 6s. the
English acre. Most of the owners of the flooded lands think this sum is more than
the value of the benefit that would result to the lands from the drainage, and thus
it remains very uncertain whether these landowners will give the formal legal
asseuts to the project which the Act requires before works can be commenced. If
works can be designed sufficient to improve the river to the extent necessary and
desired for the sum of £200,000, one half of which, £100,000, levied on the lands
would be but £5 11s. an acre, the landowners would freely give their assents, and
a ae of £100,000 would be saved. That this can be done is what I here propose
to show.
Under the recent Act of Parliament it is not proposed to improve the whole of
the river Shannon, but only three out of the eight divisions or reaches, leaving
one level or reach at Limerick below and four reaches above unimproved, and
their lands still subject to injurious flooding.
The design for the improvement of those three levels at a cost of £300,000 to
improve 19,000 acres comprises two principles, viz. increasing the water-way by
excavation, and keeping up a depth of 6 feet to 7 feet of water on all the shoals
and locksills in driest summer for steamboat navigation by regulating-weirs,
The existing regulating-weirs, as built across the Shannon by the Commissioners,
are wholly solid stone mounds of a half-horseshoe form, with the leg lying very
obliquely to the stream. There is no sluice or flood-gate in any of them. In wet
weather and in floods they act as an artificial barrier to the passage of the surplus
water. From Carrick on Shannon to Killaloe Bridge in mid flood is 35 feet 9 inches
in the surface. Of this fall 20 feet is wasted in useless cataracts at six weir-
mounds, and 15 feet 9 inches only in the intermediate reaches to propel the stream.
The regulating-weir proposed and designed recently by the Government in lieu
of the existing weir~mounds is an immovable iron wall with submerged opes for
sluices. Each ope is 6 feet broad and 4 feet deep, and surrounded on the top,
sides, and bottom by the edges of the iron plates of the wall. The weir is 8 feet
* Printed in extenso in ‘The Engineer,’ vol. xxxviii. p, 273,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 227
deep, and therefore the upperside of each sluice when fully open is 4 feet sub-
merged under water. When all the sluices are open to the fullest possible extent,
the aggregate water-way is but one third of the sectional area of the river. Two
thirds of the water-way is permanently shut: T'o meet this great contraction the
Government engineer has designed very large excavations; and he provides for a
head or difference of level between the water at the upper and lower sides of the
river of about 2 feet.
At Killaloe the existing fall in the surface of the flood-water is 63 feet in a
distance of 4400 feet, being at the rate of 7} feet per mile. Out of this fall of 63
feet, the head which the engineer provides for propelling the flood-water through
his sluice-opes is 2 feet 2 inches. Thus a third of the whole available fall is
appropriated to the weir, and two thirds merely to the river.
y using a regulating-weir wholly movable, such as the “barrages mobiles,” of
which forty have been in action in the rivers Seine and Yonne for several years,
no head is required, none of the natural fall of the river is wasted, the whole is
disposed along the surface of the river to actuate the current. Of course far less
excavation is then required to carry off the flood-waters.
At Killaloe on the Shannon the Government engineer has been obliged to
estimate for the following excavation :—
177,785 cube yards of rock at 2s... £17,778
59,515 cube yards of clay at 9d... 2,231
Amount .iiieesias isases £20,009
With present prices that would cost £25,000.
- The existing channel, with the surface of the river above at a level that will
injure no crop, affords a fall at the rate of 64 feet per mile, and a cross sectional
water-way 430 feet broad and 6 feet deep. This will carry 1,230,000 cube feet of
water per minute, The greatest quantity of flood-water he proposes to provide for
the discharge of there is 1,200,000 cube feet per minute. There, with a wholly
movable weir, the existing channel is sufficient, and the proposed excavation is not
necessary. Therefore works for the improvement of the Shannon at Killaloe,
sufficient to improve the drainage of the division of the river above it without
injuring the division below it, may be designed at a cost certainly £20,000 less
than the estimate recently made by the Government engineer, by using a wholly
movable regulating-weir.
Proportionate savings may be effected on the same principle in the other divisions
of the river.
It has been stated that a wholly movable weir at Killaloe would injure the
navigation there by causing a violent current. An inspection of the map of the
river there will convince all unprejudiced minds that no such evil could result.
The Canal protection embankment shown by the yellow shade, which the Com-
missioners partly cut away, must be restored at a cost of £1000, both for the iron
wall weir and for a movable weir, and then the navigation channel will not be at
all affected by any current in the river.
Ido not state that the French “ barrages mobiles,” with their mechanical details,
are the most suitable pattern of regulating-weir for the Shannon. All I advocate
is, a regulating-weir either wholly movable or so far movable that when fully open
it will occupy a head of water in high floods of no more than 3 inches. Such a
weir may easily be designed and constructed in lieu of the existing stone wetr-
mounds in the Shannon without any injury to the navigation, and by their use so
much more fall will be effective in propelling the stream along the different reaches
of the river that very little excavation to increase the water-way will be required ;
and the drainage and the navigation of the Shannon may be improved to the
fullest extent necessary or desired at a cost of £100,000 less than the estimate on
which the recent Act of Parliament is founded.
Determination of the Form of the Dome of Uniform Stress.
By C. W. Merrirrerp, PRS.
The author had observed that there was a consideralle simplification in’ the
998 REPORT—1874.
analysis of this problem, when it was considered as subjected to the two condi-
tions which were necessary to the most economical use of a homogeneous material,
namely,—
(1) That the thrust along a meridian shall equal the thrust along the parallel
er unit of area at every point.
(2) That the normal thickness shall vary in such a manner that the area under
compression shall be proportional to the thrust.
The paper contains the investigation of the differential equate of the profile of
the dome subject to these conditions, and the discussion of that equation, as well
as of the law of variation of thickness under the same conditions. The theorems
are also extended to the case of stratified stone, in which the thrusts in condition
(1) are proportional instead of equal.
The investigation is printed im extenso in the ‘ Proceedings of the London Mathe-
matical Society’ for 1874, vol. v. pp. 113-119.
On an Improved Tuyere for Smiths’ Forges. By W. Morean.
This is a simple but important ras pote gla in smiths’ forges, by which the forge
is much more fully under the control of the workman, and by which the life of the
tuyere is greatly prolonged, the work of heating the metal more uniformly and unin-
terruptedly carried on, and a great economy of fuel effected. A cast-iron trunk or
box is made which is placed horizontally from the back and the front of the forge.
The front end is closed by means of a slide or door; the back end has a hollow
tower, which rises above to a suitable height, and upon which is fitted a cast-iron
tuyere-block with, by preference, two long slot-holes for the blast. Within the
trunk is a long lever working in an axle or spindle, which at its longer end has
two punches, which rise vertically, and are from time to time projected through the
slots to displace the slag, and keep the tuyere-openings clear. This the workman
does by moving a lever upon the outer end of the spindle or fulcrum of the levers.
The iron trunk or box becomes heated by the surrounding fuel, and utilizes the
heat which would otherwise be wasted, and effects a considerable economy of fuel
by heating the air of the blast, and the inventor employs air in a peculiar manner
for keeping the tuyere-block cold,
On the means adopted for the Improvement of the Outer Navigable Channel of
Dundalk Harbour. By Joun Neviite, C.H., M.R.LA.
The harbour of Dundalk is entered by a channel 4 miles long from and in the
bay, beginning at the bar and terminating at Soldiers Point. This channel, called
the “Outer Channel,” discharges the waters of the Castletown River at low water.
In 1867 it had shifted so much that it became necessary to alter its course and fix
it. A plan for this purpose was selected by the Harbour Commissioners, and
approved of by the Board of Trade. This consisted of directing the ebb and flow
currents into a more direct course, and fixing this course by means of jetties and
side walls constructed of loose rubble boulder-stones, varying in weight from a few
pounds to a few cwts., dropped in from punts, and raised about 2 feet over low
water neap-tides. The stones were not quarried, but picked from off the lands on
the mountain side near the shore, carted to the shipping-places by the farmers, and
sent out in punts. About 60,000 tons have been deposited up to the present time ;
about 2 miles of jetties and walls have been constructed, and about £8000 expended
out of an estimate of £40,000. As the income of the Commissioners is limited,
the works are carried on from time to time as the funds are available. It was at
first thought by many that at a distance of a mile or two from the shore, the loose
stones in these jetties and walls would be washed away. This has not been so.
Not a single stone has been removed ; but when subsidence takes place new materials
are supplied, and the walls raised up from time to time as before. The jetties, or
grains, were used to force back the channel gradually, in some cases to an extent
of about 700 feet without any interruption of the navigation. This communication
;
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 229
was laid before the Section for the purpose of showing that guide-walls, if not too
high, can be constructed with small stones in a cheap and effective way to direct
the currents, and maintain a channel at a considerable distance from the shore in
bays and estuaries,
A new Construction for finding the Vertical Shearing-stress and the point of
greatest Bending-moment in a Beam loaded in any way. By JouNn
Nevittet, C.2., M.R.I.A.
The vertical shearing-stress of a beam at any point is known to be equal to the
weight on the next pier less the weight lying between this pier and the point. It
is generally represented, graphically, by ordinates to the beam of one side only.
Now as the sum of these stresses must be zero, those on one side being positive
and those on the other negative, the proper graphical representation is to show
them according to their signs above and below the beam, positive and negative as
they exist. This leads to a simple geometrical construction for finding the shearing-
stress on a beam loaded in any way with a number of weights. Find the line of
shearing-stress for the beam itself; then using ¢hzs line plot on it the line of shearing-
stress for the first weight, distributed or single, but making the ordinates vertical
to the beam itself. Plot from this second shearing-line a third shearing-line for
the third weight, and so on. The shearing-line last found gives the shearing-stress
of the beam arising from all the weights, including that of the beam. The con-
struction gives the lines of shearing-stress for each point of the beam at each step
also.
~ Where the shearing-stress is a maximum, the bending-moment is zero; and
where the shearing-stress is zero, the bending-moment is a maximum. Conse-
quently where the line of shearing-stress, as here constructed, cuts the beam, the
point of intersection is that of the greatest bending-moment.
The areas formed between the line of beam and the lines of shearing-stress,
above and below, are always equal.
Improved Patent Saddle-rail and Railway Permanent-way Construction.
By W. Seaton.
The author first explained his original saddle-rail, which had been in satisfactory
use upon various railways throughout the country, including the Great Western
Railway, where for fifteen years uninterruptedly it had continued in use. On the
aia Railway it had been laid and maintained with great economy.
he improvements now made consisted of rolling the saddle-rail with flanches
and introducing transverse sleepers under the longitudinals, and bolting the rails
by the flanches vertically through the longitudinal bearers’ and the transverse
sleepers, thus combining the whole together in a firm framework-like structure
without any understrain upon or injury to the bolts or fastenings—the intro-
duction of transverse sleepers under the longitudinals giving a much wider base to
the road and a much stronger vertical and lateral resistance to rolling loads worked
at high speeds, with a great reduction and cost of materials and economy of first
cost for construction and maintenance of the permanent way.
On the Prevention of Railway Accidents and Automatically Recording the
Movements of the Points and Signals and other Apparatus of Railways.
By W. Suita, C.Z. 7 :
The author prepared this paper as supplementing that portion of the President's
address read before the Section at its opening in which he gave a brief sketch of
the improvements that had recently been effected in the working of railway-traffic,
and wherein he shortly described the “ block system,” the signalling arrangements,
and the “interlocking of the points and signals by mechanical means,” so that a
mechanical check was set upon the signalman, who could not pull over certain of
the point- and signal-levers until certain others were first put right, and whereby
every thing was moved and worked according to a prearranged system.
230 REPORT—1874.
For the ‘invention of this interlocking of the points and signals of railways, and
the arrangement of mechanism designed to prevent the confliction of the signals
with one another and of the signals with the points, we are indebted to Mr. John
Saxby, a very ingenious inventor, formerly in the employ of the London, Brighton,
and South Coast Railway Company, and now the proprietor jointly with his
partner, Mr, J. S. Farmer, of one of the most extensive and well-arranged manu-
facturing establishments in the country, employing between 3000 and 4000 hands
and a large capital mainly, if not entirely, created during the last twelve or
thirteen years.
The great originality and ingenuity of the Saxby and Farmer interlocking appa-
ratus, and its capabilities for adaptation to the most complicated and labyrinthic
arrangements of railway-lines and traffic-working at the junctions, stations, and
termini of railways, has been the means of so systematizing the working that
perfect safety may be relied on, so long as the signals can be seen and the engine-
driver promptly and thoroughly respects them; but, unfortunately, these condi-
tions are not at all times observed, and serious accidents frequently occur, as will
be found on reference to the Board of Trade reports by Captain Tyler and other
Government inspectors from time to time.
Whenever accidents do occur from the disregard of the signals by the engine-
driver, or from his inability to see them, a conflict in the eyidence given at a
coroner’s inquest, or at a Government or other inquiry, is invariably the result; and
whilst the signalman states that the signals were “against the driver,” or at
‘“‘danger,” the driver and his mate (and sometimes others in the train) assert
the direct contrary.
In many other ways in connexion with the direction of the traffic and traffic-
working, that which has been done or that which should have been done, but has
not been done (but whichever it is or may haye been), has produced directly, or
has been more or less immediately the cause of, serious accidents, and loss of life
and property has remained untraced or imperfectly accounted for or explained.
Such oceurrences, when they take place, are unsatisfactory, and frequently inyolye
serious injustice to some guiltless or innocent persons.
The author has, during his experience and practice as a scientific expert, whilst
engaged investigating the causes of railway accidents, had his attention called to
the great importance of providing some thoroughly reliable apparatus and arrange-
ment by the use of, and reference to, which all doubts would be set at rest as to the
actual condition of the “‘ home ” and “ distant ”’ signals, and the points and switches,
the level-crossing gates, and other movable portions of the machinery of railways
and of the trains thereon, at any given period of time, at and near to every signal-
box, junction, or station.
To effect these objects, and to do so automatically, and preserve a perfectly
intelligible and reliable record of every telegraphic direction or signalled instruction
sent and received for the movement or working of the train-signals, “day” and
“night,” “home” and “ distant,” semaphore or other, and for the movements of
the “points” and other portions of the rails or permanent way connected with the
regulation of the movements or translation of the traffic over the main or branch
roads and other portions of the system, the author was requested to design and
provide some reliable and inexpensiye apparatus. Accordingly he undertook the
task some two years ago, and after an extensive series of experiments and trials,
under every variety of circumstances connected with the working of railway trafiic,
he succeeded in arranging a most complete and comprehensive apparatus which
automatically records :—
Ist. The directions given and received for regulating the movements of trains ;
2nd. The movement of every signal of every kind or description ;
8rd. The movement of the ‘ points” and other portions of the road and way
affecting or regulating the movements of trains or engines ;
4th, The passing of trains in each direction ; and
5th. The time in relation to such moyements &c, All upon the same roll or
sirip of paper and in a succinct form.
hese results are obtained by connecting to the reciprocating parts of the point-
and signal-working apparatus, or to the interlocking gear, a peculiar arrangement
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 231
of electric contact-making and breaking apparatus, acting through a simple electro-
magnetic contrivance which in turn operates upon and deflects a pen, style, or
marker, which records upon the strip of accurately divided paper the whole of the
moyements in question. In lile manner, the directions sent and received for regu-
lating the traffic are recorded, ag also is the passing of trains, which are distin-
guished the one from the other; and the whole of these movements are timed, and
the time is recorded uniformly on one edge of each of the strips of paper,
Between the time-records on the one edge of the roll or strip and the passage of
trains recorded, say, on the opposite edge, the directions sent and received and
the movements of the various signal- and point-levers, or the movements of the
parts of the interlocking gear, are recorded between the records on the two edges of
the strip, and in a clear and intelligible manner ; and on reference to these rolls all
questions connected with the traflic-working can be solved with perfect certainty ;
and upon the rolls or strips of record-rolls being removed and sent to the manager's
office, he can, at a glance, by comparing the various records, see the work done
upon the various parts of the line during a given time; and they can be referred to
at any time, and could be produced and could be received as reliable evidence in
any legal or other tribunal.
The apparatus costs only a small sum, and the annual cost of maintaining and
working it is very small.
On Improvements in the Mariner’s Compass.
By Sir W, Tuomsoy, LL.D, FBS.
On Power-Couplings for Rolling-Mills and other Machinery.
By F. H, Varusy and Epw. Furnzss,
In arresting a heavy body in motion it is necessary to exert a force equal to the
dynamic effect of the weight of the body, multiplied by the square of its velocity.
Should this be effected instantaneously, a great concussion is the result—such being
the effect experienced when a piece of machinery in rapid rotation is suddenly
arrested by clogging, causing the teeth of the wheels to be stripped off or the
shafts broken or distorted, which frequently occurs with iron rolling-mills, sugar-
cane crushing-mills, and not unfrequently causing the breaking of the screw-shafts
of steam-vessels and all classes of machinery subject to rapidly varying strains.
To reduce these enormous strains to within the working strength of the material
of which the machinery is constructed, it is necessary to spread the force of the
concussion over a portion of a revolution or revolutions, or period of times, and so
destroy its intensity, Contrivances for effecting this purpose have hitherto taken
the shape of friction-breaks or clutches. They, however, are open to the objection
that they consume a large amount of useful power by generating heat and destroying
the surface by abrasion. The authors describe a means of obtaining a better result
by an hydraulic pressure, rendered elastic by placing in the fluid a number of
elastic bodies, such pressure acting against the face of a ram working in a cylinder.
To convert the longitudinal motion of the ram into the rotatory motion of the
shaft they employ the following arrangement :—The wheel which communicates
the power to the machinery is bored to fit freely on a shaft, and has a boss with
its face on the inner side shaped of a spiral incline of screw form, and which is
made to bear against an annular plunger, the outer end of which is shaped to the
contrary screw form. The hole in the plunger is bored to the same size as the
wheel, and works in a cylinder fitted concentrically on the shaft which passes
through the hole of the ram and wheel, the ram being made watertight by suitable
packing or leather. The outer end or mouth of the cylinder has slots or recesses
cut into it longitudinally in which lugs or projections on the ram work, so that
the ram can slide in and out the cylinder, but cannot turn unless the cylinder
turns with it, proper inlets for charging the cylinder with fluid and elastic balls
being provided. If the shaft be revolving, and the wheel driving the machinery is
stopped, the ram is immediately pressed into the cylinder and compresses the
232 REPORT—1874,
elastic material placed in the fluid by the spirally inclined faces rising upon one
another; the wheel at the same time is prevented from moving laterally along
the shaft by a fixed collar. On the outer side of the wheel this motion of the ram
allows the shaft to continue its rotation, while the wheel is held by a sudden
shock or stoppage ; so that the machinery in such emergencies is gradually pulled
up without being smashed to pieces. In crushing-mills, through too heavy a feed,
ies rolls only require to be allowed to slacken in speed to admit of the cane yielding
under the pressure. When the obstacle to rapid rotation has passed the rolls, the
pressure stored up in the cylinder reacts on the ram, and by the spirally inclined
end acting on the counter-form boss of the wheel, quickly brings the rolls to the
speed of the driving-shaft, and thus utilizes the force of the strain.
On Recent Improvements in Breech-loading Firearms.
By AxpRew WYLeEY.
In continuation of a paper read at Brighton in 1872, giving an outline of the
history of breech-loading firearms, some account was given of improvements since
that date, including four different systems by the author, examples of which were
exhibited and described. The very serious defects of the “ Martini-Henry ” rifle,
as adopted by the British Government, were pointed out and illustrated by a
* sectional ” model of that arm.
On the Breech-loading Firearms exhibited at Vienna in 1873.
By AxnpRew WYLEY.
A short account was given of these, attention being specially directed to the
very excellent collection of modern breech-loaders contributed by the associated
gunmakers of Liége, in which were represented some fifty systems, many of them
an unknown in this country. It was remarked that, although at present we
ave no such collection, the want is likely to be shortly supplied in the Museum
of Arms about to be established in Birmingham by the “ Wardens of the Proof
House,” who have secured, as a foundation for the same, an admirable collection
made in Italy by Cavaliere Callandra, illustrating the manufacture of firearms
from the earliest period up to the introduction of the percussion lock, and contain-
ing many examples of the highest artistic excellence*.
Some account was also given of the great factory of the Austrian Government
at Steyer and Letten, on the Ems, which can turn out 150,000 “ Wernal”’ rifles
and 100 “mitrailleuses ” yearly, of Herr Dreyse’s establishment at Sommerda, in
Saxony (Prussian), famous for the production of the Prussian “ Ziindnadel,” and
of a curious cooperative factory at Ferlaeh, in Carinthia, where low-priced sporting
guns and pistols are made on a large scale for the markets of Eastern Europe.
* The Museum was opened on the 24th September, 1874.
INDEX I.
TO
REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,
QpsEcTS and rules of the Association,
Xvii.
Places and times of meeting, with names
of officers, from commencement, xxiv.
List of former Presidents and Secretaries
of the Sections, xxx.
List of evening lectures, xl.
Lectures to the Operative Classes, xii.
Treasurer’s account, xliii.
Table showing the attendance and re-
ceipts at the Annual Meetings, xliy.
Officers of Sectional Committees, xlvi.
Officers and Council for 1874-75, xlvii.
Report of Council to the General Com-
mnittee at Belfast, xlviii.
Recommendations adopted by the Ge-
neral Committee at Belfast :—invol-
ving ah of money, li; applica-
tions for reports and researches, liii;
communications to be*printed 7m ex-
tenso, lv; resolutions referred to the
Council by the General Committee, ly.
Synopsis of grants of money appropriated
to scientific purposes, lvi.
General statement of sums which have
been paid on account of grants for
scientific purposes, lyiii.
Arrangement of General Meetings, Ixy.
Address by the President, Prof. John
Tyndall, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Ixvi.
Abel (F. A.) on Mr. Siemens’s pyro-
meter, 242.
Adams (Prof. W. G.) on the teaching
of physics in schools, 71; on the se-
lection and nomenclature of dynami-
cal and electrical units, 255.
Adderley (Rt. Hon. Sir C. B.) on the
best means of providing for a uni-
formity of weights and measures, with
reference to the interests of science,
359,
1874,
Anthropological notes and queries for
the use of travellers published by the
committee, report on the, 214.
Armstrong (Dr.) on isomeric cresols and
their derivatives, 73.
(Sir W.) on the best means of
providing for a uniformity of weights
and measures, with reference to the
interests of science, 559.
Barnes (Rev. H. F.) on the possibility
of establishing a ‘close time” for
_ the protection of indigenous animals,
264.
Barrett (Prof, W. F.) on the teaching of
physics in schools, 71.
Bateman (J. F.) on the rainfall of the
British Isles for the years 1873-74,
75
Beddoe (Dr.) on anthropological notes
and queries for the use of travellers,
2
Behrens (J.) on the economic effects of
combinations of labourers and capi-
talists, 266.
Belfast Harbour, T. R. Salmond on the,
118.
Bentham (G.) on the recent progress
and present state of systematic botany,
Berthon (Rey. E. L.) on instruments
for measuring the speed of ships, 255.
Botany, systematic, G. Bentham on the
recent progress and present state of,
27
Boycott (Dr.) on the method of making
gold-assays, and of stating the results
thereof, 127.
Brabrook (E. W.) on anthropological
notes and queries for the use of tra-
vellers, 214.
Brady (G. 8.) on dredging on the coasts
Eis.
234
of Durham and North Yorkshire,
268.
—— (H. B.) on dredging on the coasts of
Durham and North Yorkshire, 268.
Bramwell (F. J.) on the treatment and
utilization of sewage, 200; on the
selection and nomenclature of dyna-
mical and electrical units, 255; on
instruments for measuring the speed
of ships, 255. $
Brigg Gh. .) on the structure and classifi-
cation of the Labyrinthodonts, 149.
British Isles, rainfall of the, for the
’ years 1873-74, 75.
Brooke (C.) on the rainfall of the British
Isles for the years 1873-74, 75; on
observations of luminous meteors du-
ring the year 1873-74, 269.
Brough (J.) on earthquakes in Scotland,
241,
Brown (S.) on the economic effects of
combinations of labourers and capi-
talists, 266; on the best means of pro-
viding for a uniformity of weights and
measures, with reference to the in-
terests of science, 359.
Brunel (H. M.) on instruments for mea-
suring the speed of ships, 255,
Brunton (Dr.) on the nature of intes-
tinal secretion, 54.
Bryce (Dr.) on fossils from North-
western Scotland, 74; on earthquakes
in Scotland, 241,
Busk (G.) on the exploration of Kent’s
Cayern, 1; on bones found therein, 7,
Capitalists, report on the economic ef-
ects of combinations of labourers and,
266.
Chemical constitution and optical pro-
perties of essential oils, report on the,
(f
Clifford (Prof.) on the teaching of
hysics in schools, 71.
Clifton (Prof. R. B.) on the teaching of
physics in schools, 71.
“ Close time” for the protection of indi-
genous animals, report on the possi-
bility of establishing a, 264.
Corfield (Prof. W. H.) on the treatment
and utilization of sewage, 200,
Crosskey (Rey. H. W.) on the erratic
blocks of England and Wales, 192.
Cyclone and rainfall periodicities in con-
nexion with the sun-spot periodicity,
©, Meldrum on, 218.
Davidson (T.) on the Sub-Wealden ex-
ploration, 21,
Dawkins (Prof, W. Boyd) on the explo-
REPORT—1874.
ration of Kent’s Cavern, 1; on the
Sub-Wealden exploration, 21; on the
exploration of the Settle Caves, 133;
on the erratic blocks of England and
Wales, 192.
De La Rue (Dr.) on preparing and
printing tables of waye-numbers, 241.
Dredging on the coasts of Durham and
North Yorkshire, preliminary report
on, 268,
Dresser (H. EH.) on the possibility of
establishing a “close time” for the
protection of indigenous animals, 264,
Earthquakes in Scotland, fifth report on,
Economic effects of combinations of
labourers and capitalists, report of the
committee appointed to inquire into
the, and into the laws of economic
science bearing on the principles on
which they are founded, 266,
Elliot (Sir W.) on anthropological notes
and queries for the use of travellers,
214,
Erratic blocks of England and Wales,
second report on the, 192,
Essential Oils, report on the chemical con-
stitution and optical properties of, 17.
Evans (J.) on the exploration of Kent’s
Cavern, 1.
Everett (Prof.) on the teaching of
physics in schools, 71; on the selec-
tion and nomenclature of dynamical
and electrical units, 255,
Farr (Dr.) on the best means of providing
for a uniformity of weights and mea-
sures, with reference to the interests
of science, 359,
Fawcett (Prof.) on the economic effects
of combinations of labourers and capi-
talists, 266,
Fellows (I*. P.) on the economic effects
of combinations of labourers and capi-
talists, 266.
Field (R.) on the rainfall of the British
Isles for the years 1873-74, 75.
Fitch (J. G.) on the teaching of physics
in schools, 71.
Fletcher (A. E.) on instruments for
measuring the speed of ships, 255.
Forbes (Prof. G.) on earthquakes in
Scotland, 241; on observations of
luminous meteors during the year
1873-74, 269.
Fossils from North-western Scotland,
third report of the committee ap-
pointed to collect, 74.
INDEX I,
Foster (Prof. G. ©.) on the teaching of
physics in schools, 71; on Mr, Sie-
mens’s pyrometer, 242; on the selec-
tion and nomenclature of dynamical
and electrical units, 255.
Fox (Col. Lane) on anthropological notes
a queries for the use of travellers,
4
Frankland (Prof.) on the best means of
providing for a uniformity of weights
and measures, with reference to the
interests of science, 359,
Franks (Mr.) on anthropological notes
Bo queries for the use of travellers,
4,
Frictional resistance of water on a sur-
face, report by W. Froude on the,
249,
Froude (W.), report to the Lords Com-
missioners of the Admiralty on ex-
periments for the determination of the
frictional resistance of water on a sur-
face, under various conditions, 249;
on instruments for measuring the speed
of ships, 255 ; memorandum of experi-
ments in relation to the pressure-log,
‘with a description of the apparatus
employed, 255, ;
Gadesden (A. W.) on the method of
making gold-assays, and of stating the
results thereof, 127,
Galton (F.) on anthropological notes
and queries for the use of travellers,
214.
Gilbert (Dr. J. H.) on the treatment and
utilization of sewage, 200.
Gladstone (Dr.) on the chemical consti-
tution and optical properties of essen-
tial oils, 17.
Glaisher (J.) on the rainfall of the
British Isles for the years 1873-74,
75; on observations of luminous me-
teors during the year 1873-74, 269.
Godwin-Austen (R. A. C.) on the Sub-
Wealden exploration, 21.
Gold-assays, report on the method of
making, and of stating the results
thereof, 127.
Grantham (R. B.) on the treatment and
utilization of sewage, 200,
Greg (R. P.) on observations of luminous
meteors during the year 1873-74,
269.
Griffith (G.) on the teaching of physics
in schools, 71.
Hamilton (A.) on the economic effects of
combinations of labourers and capi-
235
providing for a uniformity of weights
and measures, with reference to the
interests of science, 359.
Harlmess (Prof.) on the structure and
classification of the Labyrinthodonts,
149; on the erratic blocks of England
and Wales, 192.
Harland (T.) on the possibility of esta-
blishing a “close time” for the pro-
tection of indigenous animals, 264.
Harting (J. E.) on the possibility of
establishing a “close time” for the
protection of indigenous animals, 264.
Hawksley (T.) on the rainfall of the
British Isles for the years 1873-74,
75.
Hennessey (Prof.) of the best means of
providing for a uniformity of weights
and measures, with reference to the
interests of science, 359.
Herschel (Prof. A. 8.), description and
results of the experiments to deter-
mine the thermal conductivities of
certain rocks, 128; on observations of
luminous meteors during the year
1873-74, 269.
Hope (W.) on the treatment and utili-
zation of sewage, 200.
Houghton (Lord) on the economic effects
of combinations of labourers and capi-
talists, 266.
Huggins (Dr.) on preparing and printing
tables of wave-numbers, 241.
Hughes (Prof.) on the exploration of the
Settle Caves, 133; on the erratic
blocks of England and Wales, 192.
Huxley (Prof.) on the structure and
classification of the Labyrinthodonts,
149,
Industrial uses of the Upper Bann river,
J. Smyth, jun., on the, 139,
Instruments for measuring the speed of
ships, report on, 255.
aah secretion, report on the nature
of, 54,
Isomeric cresols and their derivatives,
preliminary report on, 73,
Jeffreys (J. Gwyn) on dredging on the
coasts of Durham and North York-
shire, 268.
Jenkin (Prof. F.) on Mr. Siemens’s pyro-
meter, 242; on the selection and no-
menclature of dynamical and electrical
units, 255,
Jolly (W.) on fossils from North-western
Scotland, 74.
talists, 266; on the best means of | Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire, tenth report
Li*
236
of the committee for exploring, 1;
G. Busk on bones found therein, 7,
Labourers and capitalists, report on the
economic effects of combinations of,
266.
Labyrinthodonts, report on the structure
and classification of the, 149.
Lebour (G. A.) on the geological aspects
of the results of experiments to deter-
mine the thermal conductivities of
certain rocks, 131.
Lee (J. E.) on the exploration of Kent’s
Cavern, 1; on the erratic blocks of
England and Wales, 192.
Levi (Prof. L.) on the economic effects
of combinations of labourers and capi-
talists, 266; on the best means of
providing for a uniformity of weights
and measures, with reference to the
interests of science, 359,
Lockyer (J. N.) on the teaching of
physics in schools, 71; on preparing
and printing tables of waye-numbers,
Lubbock (Sir J., Bart.) on the explora-
tion of Kent’s Cavern, 1; on the ex-
ploration of the Settle Caves, 133; on
anthropological notes and queries for
the use of travellers, 214.
Luminous meteors, report on observa-
tions of, during the year 1873-74,
269.
Lyell (Sir C., Bart.) on the exploration
of Kent’s Cavern, 1
Markham (C.) on anthropological notes
and queries for the use of travellers,
214,
Maw (G.) on the erratic blocks of Eng-
land and Wales, 192.
Maxwell (Prof. J. C.) on Mr, Siemens’s
pyrometer, 242; on the selection and
nomenclature of dynamical and elec-
trical units, 255,
Meldrum (C.) on cyclone and rainfall
periodicities in connexion with the
sun-spot periodicity, 218.
Merrifield (C. W.) on instruments for
measuring the speed of ships, 255.
Meteors, luminous, report on observa-
tions of, during the year 1878-74,
269 ; doubly observed, 270 ; aérolites,
289; large meteors and meteor-
showers, 289; periodical meteor-
showers, 340; papers on meteoric
astronomy, 344,
Miall (, C.) on the exploration of the
Settle Caves, 133; on the structure
and classification of the Labyrintho-
REPORT—1874.
donts, 149; on the erratic blocks of
England and Wales, 192.
Mills (Dr.) on the method of making
gold-assays, and of stating the results
thereof, 127.
Milne-Holme (D.) on earthquakes in
Scotland, 241.
Morton (G. H.) on the erratic blocks of
England and Wales, 192.
Napier (J. R.) on instruments for mea-
suring the speed of ships, 255.
Newmarch (W.) on the economic effects
of combinations of labourers and capi-
talists, 266.
Newton (Prof.) on the possibility of esta-
blishing a “close time” for the pro-
tection of indigenous animals, 264.
Northcote (Rt. Hon. Sir 8. H., Bart.) on
the best means of providing for a uni-
formity of weights and measures, with
reference to the interests of science,
359,
Optical properties of essential oils, report
on the chemical constitution and, 17.
Palgrave (R. H. I.) on the economic
effects of combinations of labourérs
and capitalists, 266.
Pengelly (W.) on the exploration of
Kent’s Cavern, 1.
Physics in schools, report on the teach-
ing of, 71.
Pressure - log, memorandum of Mr.
Froude’s experiments in relation to
the, with a description of the appa-
ratus employed, 255,
Prestwich (Prof. J.) on the Sub- Wealden
exploration, 21; on the erratic blocks
of England and Wales, 192.
Pye-Smith (Dr.) on the nature of intes-
tinal secretion, 54.
Pyrometer, Mx. Siemens’s, report of the
committee appointed to test, 242,
Rainfall of the British Isles for the years
1873-74, report on the, 75.
—— periodicities, C. Meldrum on
cyclone and, in connexion with the
sun-spot periodicity, 218,
Reynolds (Dr.) on preparing and print-
ing tables of wave-numbers, 241.
Roberts (Dr.) on the best means of pro-
viding for a uniformity of weights and
measures, with reference to the in-
terests of science, 359.
Roberts (W.C.)onthechemical constitu-
tion and opitcal properties of essential
oils, 17; on the method of making
INDEX I.
gold-assays, and of stating the results
thereof, 127.
Robertson (D.) on dredging on the coasts
i : Durham and North Yorkshire,
Rogers (Prof. T.) on the economic effects
of combinations of labourers and capi-
talists, 266.
Sabine (R.) on Mr, Siemens’s pyrometer,
242,
Salmond (T. R.) on the Belfast Harbour,
118
Sanford (W. A.) on the exploration of
Kent’s Cavern, 1.
— fifth report on earthquakes in,
hs
Sellon (J. 8.) on the method of making
gold-assays, and of stating the results
thereof, 127.
Settle Caves (Victoria Cave), second re-
port on the exploration of the, 133.
Sewage, sixth report on the treatment
and utilization of, 200.
Ships, instruments for measuring the
speed of, report on, 255.
Shoolbred (J. N.) on instruments for
measuring the speed of ships, 255.
Siemens (Dr. C. W.) on Mr. Siemens’s
pyrometer, 242; on the selection and
nomenclature of dynamical and elec-
trical units, 255; on instruments for
measuring the speed of ships, 255; on
the best means of providing for a uni-
formity of weights and measures,
with reference to the interests of
science, 359.
3 (Mr.) pyrometer, report of the
committee appointed to test, 242.
Smith (Prof. H. J. 8.) on the teaching
of physics in schools, 71.
(W.) on instruments for measuring
the speed of ships, 255.
Smyth (J., jun.) on the industrial uses of
the Upper Bann river, 139.
Spottiswoode (W.) on preparing and
printing tables of wave-numbers, 241.
Stewart (Prof. Balfour) on the teaching
of physics in schools, 71; on the se-
lection and nomenclature of dynami-
cal and electrical units, 255.
Stoney (G. J.) on preparing and printing
tables of wave-numbers, 241; on the
selection and nomenclature of dyna-
mical and electrical units, 255.
Strachey (Major-Gen.) on the best
means of providing for a uniformity of
weights and measures, with reference
to the interests of science, 559.
Sub- Wealden exploration, second report
237
on the, 21; geological report thereon,
by W. Topley, 22; list of fossils ob-
served, 25.
Sun-spot periodicity, C. Meldrum on
cyclone and rainfall periodicities in
connexion with the, 218.
Symons (G. J.) on the rainfall of the
British Isles for the years 1873-74,
75.
Systematic botany, G. Bentham on the
ate progress and present state of,
9
ale
Teaching of physics in schools, report on
the, 71.
Thermal conductivities of certain rocks,
report on experiments to determine
the, showing especially the geological
aspects of the investigation, 128; de-
scription and results of the experi-
ments, by Prof. A. S. Herschel, 128 ;
geological aspects of the results of the
experiments, by G. A. Lebour, 131.
Thomson (J.) on the structure and classi-
fication of the Labyrinthodonts, 149 ;
on earthquakes in Scotland, 241.
(Prof. Sir W.) on earthquakes
in Scotland, 241; on Mr. Siemens’s
pyrometer, 242; on the selection and
nomenclature of dynamical and elec-
trical units, 255; on instruments for
measuring the speed of ships, 255,
Thorpe (Prof.) on isomeric cresols and
their derivatives, 73.
Tiddeman (R. H.) on the exploration
of the Settle Caves, 153.
Tomlinson (C.) on the rainfall of the
British Isles for the years 1873-74,
75
Topley (W.) on the Sub-Wealden ex-
ploration, 21; geological report on
the Sub- Wealden exploration, 22.
Treatment and utilization of sewage,
sixth report on the, 200.
Tristram (Rev. Canon) on the possibility
of establishing a ‘close time” for the
protection of indigenous animals, 264.
Tylor (E. B.) on anthropological notes
and queries for the use of travellers,
214,
Uniformity of weights and measures,
with reference to the interests of
science, report on the best means of
providing for a, 359.
Units, dynamical and electrical, second
report on the selection and nomen-
clature of, 255.
Upper Bann river, J. Smyth, jun., on
the industrial uses of the, 159,
238
Utilization of sewage, sixth report on the
treatment and, 200.
Vivian (E.) on the exploration of Kent’s
Cavern, 1.
Watts (Dr. W. M.) on the teaching of
physics in schools, 71; on preparing
and printing tables of waye-numbers,
241,
Wave-numbers, report of the committee
appointed to prepare and print tables
of, 241,
Weights and measures, report on the
best means of providing for a uni-
formity of, with reference to the in-
terests of science, 359,
West (Mz.) on the nature of intestinal
secretion, 54,
REPORT—1874.
Willett (H.) on the Sub-Wealden ex-
ploration, 21.
Williamson (Prof. A. W.) on the treat-
ment and utilization of sewage, 200 ;
on Mr. Siemens’s pyrometer, 242; on
the best means of providing for a uni-
formity of weights and measures, with
yeference to the interests of science,
359.
Wilson (J. M.) on the teaching of
physics in schools, 71.
Woodward (C. J.) on the erratic blocks
of England and Wales, 192.
—— (H.) on the Sub- Wealden explora-
tion, 21; on the structure and classi-
fication of the Labyrinthodonts, 149.
Wright (Dr.) on the chemical constitu-
tion and optical properties of essential
oils, 17,
ee
INDEX I.
TO
MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE
SECTIONS.
[An asterisk (*) signifies that no abstract of the communication is given. ]
Abney (Capt.) on photographic opera-
tions connected with the transit of
Venus, 19; on the reproduction of
maps and plans in the field, 183,
Absorption of the sun’s heat-rays by the
vapour of the atmosphere, Rey, F’, W.
Stow on the, 39.
Acids, Prof. G. Wiedemann on the pro-
portions in which bases and, present
in a solution combine with each other,
32
Africa, Dr. G. Nachtigall’s explorations
in (1869-74), E, G, Rayenstein on,
175.
Agaw race in Caucasia, Africa,and South
America, Hyde Clarke on the, 146,
Airy (Dr. H.), note on variation of leaf-
arrangement, 128.
Akka and Pygmy languages of Africa,
Hyde Clarke on the classification of
the, 147.
Alecto and Hippothoa from the Lower
Silurian rocks of Ohio, description of
species of, with a description of Awlo-
pora arachnoidea, by Dy. H.A. Nichol-
son, 90.
Allman (Prof.) on some points in the
histology of Myriothela phrygia, 135,
* Ampelidee, Prof. Lawson on structural
peculiarities of the, 134,
Anderson (Capt. S.) onthe demarcation
of the international boundary between
a
INDEX II.
Canada and the United States (1872-
73), 172.
*Andrews (Prof. T.) on experiments at
high pressures, 22; on the composi-
tion of an inflammable gas issuing
from below the silt-bed in Belfast, 50;
*on an aspirator, 51.
Anemometer, an, designed by Mr. W.
De La Rue, F.R.S., to furnish tele-
graphic information of the occur-
rence of strong winds, notice of, by
R. H. Scott, 37.
*Anteater, the Great, Prof. Macalister
on the tongue of, 143,
Anthropology, Address by Sir W. R.
Wilde to the Department of, 116,
of prehistoric Peru, T, J. Hutchin-
son on the, 154,
— , Rey. Dr. M‘Cann on the methods
of a complete, 156.
Apothecia occurring in some Scytone-
matous and Sirosiphonaceous algal
species, in addition to those previously
known, notes on, by W. Archer, 131,
* Approximate parallel motion, W. Hay-
den on, 18,
Archer (W.), notes on apothecia occur-
ring in some Scytonematous and Siro-
siphonaceous algal species, in addition
to those previously known, 131; on
Chlamydomyxa labyrinthuloides (n. g.
et sp.), a new sarcodic freshwater or-
anism, 136.
Ashe (1.) on the cause of the progressive
motion of cyclones, and of the sea-
sonal variations in their paths, 34,
*Aspirator, an, Dr. Andrews on, 51.
¥ , Prof. Delffs on an, 57.
Astronomy, Col. 8. Wortley on photo-
graphy in connexion with, 20.
Atmospheric ozone, T. Moffat on the
apparent connexion between sun-spots
and, 37.
*Atya spinipes, Prof. Cunningham on,
and on an undescribed Pontonia, 137.
Aulopora arachnoidea, description of, by
Dr. H, A. Nicholson, 90.
Balfour (F. M.) on the development of
the Elasmobranch fishes, 138,
Banbridge, the meteorology at, for ten
years, J. Smyth, jun., on, 39.
*Barrett (Prof. W. F.) on the teaching
of practical physics, 22 ; *on an appa-
ratus for showing the interference of
sound, 41,
Basalt, W, CO. Roberts on the columnar
form of, 91.
Bases and acids present in a solution,
Prof. G. Wiedemann on the propor-
239
tions in which they combine with
each other, 32,
Becker (Miss L, E.) on some practical
difficulties in working the Elementary
Education Act (1870), 192,
Beddoe (Dr.) on modern ethnological
migrations in the British Isles, 145,
*Beedy (Miss) on reform in the work of
the medical profession, 192.
Belcher (R, B.) on disturbance of the
weather by artificial influences, espe-
cially battles, military manceuvres,
great explosions, and conflagrations,
Belfast, Dr. Andrews on the composition
of an inflammable gas issuing from
below the silt-bed in, 50.
Bell (1. L.) on the joint action of car-
bonic acid and cyanogen on oxide of
iron and on metallic iron, 51.
Bennett (A, W.) on the form of pollen-
grains in relation to the fertilization
of flowers, 133.
Beynon (G. W.) on compensating appa-
ratus for distant signal-wires of rail-
ways, 220,
Biddulph (Col.) on the Yarkund mission,
181.
Biological Section, Address by Prof. Red-
fern to the, 96.
*Biology, systematic, E, Ray Lankester
on English nomenclature in, 137,
"Eliade, Prof, F, Guthrie on the flight of,
2,
——, spring migratory, of the north of
England, T. Lister on, 137.
Blanford (H. F.) on certain protracted
irregularities of atmospheric pressure
in the Indian monsoon region, and
their relation to variations of the local
rainfall, 36.
Botany and Zoology, Address by Dr.
Hooker to the Department of, 102.
*Botly (W.) on workmen’s dwellings,
from a commercial standpoint, 192.
Bottomley (W.) on the eclipsing-appa-
ratus constructed for the lighthouse on
the Holywood Bank, in Belfast Lough,
220.
*Braham (P.), further experiments on
light with circularly ruled plates of
glass, 25; *ona mode of producing
spectra on a screen with the oxyhy-
drogen flame, 56; and J. W. Gate-
house on the dissociation of nitric
acid by various means, 55.
Brain, the morphology of, and the func-
tion of hearing, preliminary notice
= an inquiry into, by Prof, Cleland,
240
Breeuet (A. N.), notes of experiments
on the electric currents produced by
the gramme magneto-electric ma-
chine, 33.
Bridlington, note by J. Gwyn Jeffreys
on the so-called crag of, 83.
Bromine, commercial, Dr. T, L. Phipson
on the presence of cyanogen in, and a
means of detecting it, 66.
Brown (Prof. A. Crum), Address by, to
the Chemical Section, 45; *on the
mode of writing chemical equations,
56; *on some points in the physiology
of the semicircular canals of the ear,
138; *and Dr. E. A. Letts on methyl-
thetine, 56,
Burt (Rey. J. T.) on the principles of
penal legislation, 192.
Byrne (Very Rev. J.) on the develop-
ment of the powers of thought in
vertebrate animals in connexion with
the development of their brain, 138.
Caine (Rey. W.) on the increase of
drunkenness among the working-
classes, and the causes of it, 193.
Calculation of exponential functions,
Prof. F. W. Newman on the, 19.
Cameron’s (Lieut.) journal of the East-
African expedition, extracts from, 176.
*Campbell (Sir G.) on the peoples be-
tween India and China, 145; on the
privileges over land, wrongly called
property, 195.
Canada and the United States, the de-
marcation of the international boun-
dary between (1872-73), Capt. S.
Anderson on, 172.
Carbon-cells and plates for galvanic bat-
teries, W. Symons on a new method
of constructing, 31.
Carbonic acid and cyanogen, I. L. Bell
on the joint action of, on oxide of iron
and on metallic iron, 51.
*Carpenter (Dr. W. B.) on the physical
theory of undercurrents, 22; *on the
replacement of organic matter by sili-
ceous deposits in the process of fossili-
zation, 56; *further researches by, on
Eozoon Canadense, 73, 136; on the
results of the ‘ Challenger’ researches
into the physical conditions of the
deep sea, 172.
Cassowaries, P. L. Sclater on the distri-
bution of the species of, 138.
Caton (Dr. R.) on a new form of micro-
scope for physiological purposes, 140 ;
on the teaching of hygiene in Govyern-
ment schools, 198.
*Cavern exploration, by M. Emilion
REPORT—1874.
Frossard, in the Vallée de Campan,
Hautes-Pyrénées, France, notes on, by
Sir W. Jones, Bart., 88.
*Cephalopoda, E. Ray Lankester on the
development of the eye of the, 142.
‘Challenger’ researches into the phy-
sical conditions of the deep sea, Dr.
aps B, Carpenter on the results of the,
2.
Charley (W.) on the injurious effects of
dew-rotting flax in certain cases, 56.
Charts on gnomonic projection, G. J.
Morrison on the adoption (for the
general purposes of navigation) of,
instead of on Mercator’s projection, 42.
*Chemical decomposition, Prof. Clifford
on the general equations of, 10, 57.
—— equations, Prof. Crum Brown on
the mode of writing, 56.
—— Section, Address by Prof. A. Crum
Brown to the, 45.
Chermside (Lieut. H.) on Mr. Leigh
Smith’s voyages to Spitzbergen,
171.
Chlamydomyxa labyrinthuloides (un. g. et
sp-), @ new sarcodic freshwater or-
ganism, W. Archer on, 136.
*Chlorides, certain abnormal, Prof. Ros-
coe on, 67.
Chlorine, hypochlorous acid, &c., and
oom of hydrogen, T. Fairley on,
57.
*
*Chrysanthemum leucanthemum, Prof.
Dickson on an abnormality in, 133.
Circassian and Etruscan, Hyde Clarke
on, 147.
Clarke (Hyde) on the river-names and
populations of Hibernia, and their
relation to the Old World and Ame-
rica, 146; on the Phcenician inscrip-
tion of Brazil, 146; on the Agaw race
in Caucasia, Africa, and South Ame-
rica, 146; on Circassian and Etruscan,
147 ; on the classification of the Akka
ay Pygmy languages of Africa,
Cleland (Prof.), preliminary notice of
an inquiry into the morphology of
4 brain and the function of hearing,
*Clifford (Prof.) on the general equa-
tions of chemical decomposition, 10,
57; *on a message from Prof. Syl-
vester, 10,
*Coal-mining in Italy, P. le Neve Foster,
jun., on, 222,
*Coggia’s comet, W. Huggins on the
spectrum of, 20.
, preliminary note on, by J. N.
aes aeh 20, 4 "52
INDEX II,
Colossi, J. S. Phené on an age of, 157.
Columella auris in the Amphibia, Prof.
- vremed on the development of the,
41.
*Compass, Sir W. Thomson on the effect
of the rolling of ships on the, 32.
——,, the mariner’s, Sir W. Thomson on
improvements in, 231.
Compensating apparatus for distant
signal-wires of railways, G. W. Bey-
non on, 220.
Conder (Lieut. R.) on the survey of
Palestine, 178.
*Confirmation of the nebular origin of
the earth, by G. J. Stoney, 22.
Contributions to the report on mathe-
matical tables, by Prof. B. de Haan,
16.
Conversions of motion, H. Hart on some,
17.
Coomassie, Surgeon-Major 8. Rowe on
Sir John Glover's expedition from the
Volta to, 175.
*Cooper (W. J.) on the composition of
certain kinds of food, 57.
Crowe (G. R.) on the compilation of
statistics, illustrated by the Irish
census returns, 198.
*Cunningham (Prof.) on Atya spinipes,
and on an undescribed Pontonia,
137.
Curtis (Prof.) on certain applications of
Newton’s construction for the dis-
turbing force exerted by a distant
body, 10; on extraordinary reflection,
5
Cyanogen, carbonic acid and, I. L. Bell
on the joint action of, on oxide of iron
and on metallic iron, 51.
——,, Dr. T. L. Phipson on the presence
of, in commercial bromine, and ameans
of detecting it, 66.
Cyclones, I. Ashe on the cause of the pro-
gressive motion of, and of the seasonal
variations in their paths, 34.
Cystiphyllum from the Devonian rocks
of North America, descriptions of new
species of, by Dr. H. A. Nicholson, 91.
Deacon (G. F.) on the differentiating
waste-water meter, 221.
*Debus (Prof.) on spontaneous genera-
tion from a chemical point of view, 57.
Degeneracy of man, Rey. J. Edkins on
the, 150.
De La Rue (Mr. W., F.R.S8.), notice, by
R. H. Scott, of an anemometer de-
signed by, to furnish information of
the occurrence of strong winds, 37,
*Delffs (Prof.) on an aspirator, 57,
241
Demarcation of the international boun-
dary between Canada and the United
States (1872-73), Capt. S. Anderson
on the, 172.
Derivations, J. W. L. Glaisher on par-
titions and, 11.
Determination of the form of the dome
of uniform stress, C. W. Merrifield on
the, 227.
*Dewar (Dr. J.) on the latent heat of
gases, 22; *on the latent heat of
liquefied gases, 57.
"Dickson (Prof.) on the embryogeny of
certain species of Tropeolum, 133;
*on anabnormality in Chrysanthemum
leucanthemum, 133.
Differentiating waste-water meter, G.
F.. Deacon on the, 221,
Distant signal-wires of railways, G. W.
Beynon on compensating apparatus
for, 220.
Distribution of the races of men inhabit-
ing the Jummoo and Kashmir terri-
tories, F. Drew on the, 147,
Dodd (W. H.) on the economic law of
strikes, 201.
Dome of uniform stress, C. W. Merrifield
on the determination of the form of
the, 227.
Donnell (Prof.) on the Ulster tenant-
right, 202.
*Doomsday Book, giving the value of
governmental property, further sug-
gestions, by F. P. Fellows, for esta-
blishing a, 204,
Drew (F.) on the distribution of the
races of men inhabiting the Jummoo
and Kashmir territories, 147.
Drunkenness among the working classes,
Rey. W. Caine on the increase of, and
the causes of it, 193.
Dundalk Harbour, J. Neville on the
means adopted for the improvement of
the outer navigable channel of, 228,
*Ear, Prof. Crum Brown on some points
in the physiology of the semicircular
canals of the, 138.
*Earth, the, confirmation of the nebular
origin of, by G. J. Stoney, 22.
* , the internal, Dr. Vaughan on the
physics of, 22, 95,
East-African expedition, extracts from
Lieut. Cameron’s journal, 176,
Eclipsing-apparatus constructed for the
lighthouse on the Holywood Bank, in
penta Lough, W. Bottomley on the,
Economic law of strikes, W. H. Dodd
on the, 201.
242
Economic Science and Statistics, Address
by the Rt. Hon, Lord O’Hagan to the
Section of, 185,
Edkins (Rey. J.) on the degeneracy of
man, 150,
Education as ascience, Mrs, W. Grey on
the study of, 204,
Eggs, W. Thomson on the decomposition
of, 143.
Elasmobranch fishes, F, M. Balfour on
the development of the, 138.
*Eleock (C.) on a new method for pro-
moting the sanification of our cities,
203.
Electric currents produced by the
gramme magneto-electric machine,
notes of experiments on the, by A.
N. Breguet, 33.
—— discharge from a Leyden jar, Dr.
W. Feddersen on some peculiarities in
the, 27.
Electrochemical decomposition of oils
and other non-conducting liquids, W.
Symons on a new method for the, 31.
Electrolytic experiments on some me-
tallic chlorides, by Prof. Gladstone
and A. Tribe, 58.
*Electromagnetic units of resistance and
of electromotive force, suggestions for
a redetermination of the absolute, by
Prof. G. C. Foster, 30.
Elementary Education Act, 1870, Miss
L. E. Becker on some practical diffi-
culties in working the, 192.
Elliptic-transcendent relations, J. W. L.
Glaisher on some, 15.
Ellis (W. H.) and Dr, H. A. Nicholson
on a remarkable fragment of silicified
wood from the Rocky Mountains, 88.
Engineers, J. Head on a higher educa-
tion for, 223.
*English nomenclature in systematic
biology, E. Ray Lankester on, 137.
* Eozoon Canadense, further researches on,
by Dr. W. B. Carpenter, 73, 136.
*Equatorial clocks, H. Grubb on im-
__ provements in, 41.
Ethnological migrations, modern, in the
British Isles, Dr. Beddoe on, 145.
Etruscan, Hyde Clarke on Circassian
and, 147,
Everett (Prof.) on statical and kinema-
tical analogues, 11 ; on a new applica-
tion of quaternions, 11,
*Experiments at high pressures, Prof. T,
Andrews on, 22,
Heponential functions, Prof. F. W.
ewman on the calculation of, 19,
Facing-point lock, Luke’s patent safety,
REPOR?T—1874.
for securing railway facing-points, R.
Luke on, 224.
Fairley (T.) on chlorine, hypochlorous
acid, &c., and peroxide of hydrogen,
57 ; on perchloric acid, 58.
Favistella stellata and Favistella calicina,
Dr. H. A. Nicholson on, with notes on
the affinities of Fuvistella and allied
genera, 89.
*Fawcus (G.) on a new method of iso-
metrical drawing, 222.
Feddersen (Dr. W.) on some peculiari-
ties in the electric discharge from a
Leyden jar, 27,
Fellows (I. P.) on political economy
and the laws affecting the prices of
commodities and labour, and on strikes
and lock-outs, 205; on governmental
accounts, with further suggestions for
establishing a Doomsday Book, giving
the value of governmental property,
204.
Filter-pump, an improved vacuum, W.
J. Lovett on, 65.
Firearms, breech-loading, A. Wyley on
recent improvements in, 232,
; , exhibited at Vienna in 1873,
A. Wyley on the, 232.
Flax, W. Charley on the injurious ef-
fects of dew-rotting, in certain cases,
56.
*Flints, rudely worked, in the counties
of Antrim and Down, W. Gray on
the character and distribution of,
153.
Flowers, the fertilization of, A. W. Ben-
nett on the form of pollen-grains in
relation to, 133.
*Food, Prof. Redfern on the influence
of, and the methods of supplying it to
plants and animals, 143.
, W.J. Cooper on the composition
of certain kinds of, 57.
*Fossilization, Dr. W. B, Carpenter on
the replacement of organic matter by
siliceous deposits in the process of,
56
*
Fossils of the posttertiary deposits of
Tveland, Rey. Dr. Grainger on‘the, 73.
Foster (Prof. G. C.), geometrical illus-
trations of Ohm’s law, 28; *sugges-
tions for a redetermination of the
absolute electromagnetic units of re-
sistance and of electromotive force,
30.
*Foster (P. le Neve, jun.) on coal-
mining in Italy, 222.
Four-pendulum apparatus, 8. C, Tisley
on a, 44,
*Frossard (M, Emilion), Sir. W. Jones,
INDEX II,
Bart., on cavern explorations by, in
the Vallée de Campan, Hautes-Pyré-
nées, France, 88.
Furness (H.) and I’, H. Varley on power-
couplings for rolling-mills and other
machinery, 231,
Galvanic batteries, W. Symons on anew
method of constructing carbon-cells
and plates for, 31.
battery, a cheap and convenient,
adapted for weak, but continuous cur-
rents, W. Symons on, 32,
Gas, an inflammable, issuing from below
the silt-bed in Belfast, Dr, Andrews
on the composition of, 50.
*Gases, J. Dewar on the latent heat of,
2
ale
3 , liquefied, Dr. Dewar on the latent
heat of, 57.
Gatehouse (J. W.) and P, Braham on
the dissociation of nitric acid by
various means, 55,
*Genealogical import of the internal
shell of Mollusca, E. Ray Lankester
on the, 137.
ee pic Sciences, C. Maunoir on
the International Congress of, 184,
Section, Address by Major Wilson
to the, 160.
*Geological maps and sections of West
Galway and South-west Mayo, G. H.
Kinahan on, 88.
— Section, Address by Prof. E, Hull
to the, 67.
— sections in the co. Down, W. A.
Traill on, 93.
survey of Ireland, Prof. Hull on
the progress of the, 83,
*Geology of the N.H. of Ireland, sketch
of the, by Prof. Harkness, 83.
Geometrical illustrations of Ohm’s law,
by Prof. G. C. Foster, 28,
*Giant’s Causeway, Prof. J. Thomson
on the jointed prismatic structure of
the, 93.
Gibb (Sir G. Duncan, Bart.) on lon-
gevity at five score eleven years, 152.
Gill (Lieut.) on some roads in Northern
Persia and on the Russio-Persian
frontier, 182.
Gladstone (Prof.) and A. Tribe, elec-
trolytic experiments on some metallic
chlorides, 58.
Glaisher (J. W. L.) on partitions and
derivations, 11; on some elliptic-
transcendent relations, 15.
Glover's (Sir John) expedition from the
Volta to, Coomassie, Surgeon-Major
S. Rowe on, 175,
243
| Godwin-Austen (Major H. H.) on the
rude stone monuments of the Khasi
Hill tribes, 153.
*Goyernmental accounts, F. P. Fellows
on, with further suggestions for es-
tablishing a Doomsday Book, giving
ihe value of governmental property,
204,
Grainger (Rey. Dr.) on the fossils of the
posttertiary deposits of Ireland, 73.
Gramme magneto-electrice machine,
notes of experiments on the electric
currents produced by the, by A. N,
Breguet, 85.
*Gray (W.) on the character and dis-
tribution of rudely worked flints in
the counties of Antrim and Down,
153.
Grey (Mrs. W.) on the study of educa-
tion as a science, 204,
Grimshaw (Dr. T. W.) on sanitary legis-
lation and organization: its present
state and future prospects, 206,
*Grubb (H.) on improyements in equa-
torial clocks, 41.
*Guthrie (Prof. F.) on the flight of
birds, 22; *on a new class of hy-
drates, 22.
Haan (Prof. B."de), contributions to the
report on mathematical tables by,
16.
Hardman (E. T.) on some new localities
for upper boulder-clay in Ireland, 76 ;
on the geological structure of the
Tyrone coal-fields, 77 ; on the age and
ue of Lough Neagh, Ireland,
9.
*Harlkmess (Prof. ), sketch of the geolo
of the hl of meee 83. rg
Harland (E, J.) on a new form of screw-
lowering apparatus, 222.
Hart (H.) on some conversions of mo-
tion, 17.
Hastings (W.) on postal reform, 209,
*Hawkins (W. W.) on a pair of sym-
metrical bones present with the fossil
remains of Iguanodon, 141.
*Hayden (W.) on approximate parallel
motion, 18,
Head (J.) on a higher education for en-
gineers, 223,
Heat in the movement of the tides, Prof.
J. Purser on the source from which
the kinetic energy is drawn that
passes into, 22,
Hodges (Prof.) on the petrified wood of
Lough Neagh, 58; on the composition
of tea and tea-soils from Cachar, 60 ;
on the composition of the fibre of the
244.
jute-plant, and its use as a textile
material, 63.
Hooker (Dr.),!Address by, to the Depart-
ment of Botany and Zoology, 102.
*Hugeins (W.) on the spectrum of Cog-
gia’s comet, 20.
Hull (Prof. E.), Address by, to the Geo-
logical Section, 67 ; on the progress of
the geological survey of Ireland, 85.
*Human periorbital bones, Prof. Mac-
alister on some anomalous forms of
the, 143.
Hume (Rey. Canon) on the origin and
characteristics of the people in the
counties of Down and Antrim, 153.
Hutchinson (T. J.) on the anthropology
of prehistoric Peru, 154 ; on the com-
mercial, industrial, and natural re-
sources of Peru, 177.
Huxley (Prof.) on the development of
the columella auris in the Amphibia,
141.
', *Hydrates, a new class of, Prof. F,
Guthrie on, 22.
Hygiene, Dr. R. Caton on the teaching
of, in Government schools, 198.
Hypochlorous acid, chlorine, &c., and
peroxide of hydrogen, T. Fairley on,
57.
*Iguanodon, W. W. Hawkins on a pair
of symmetrical bones present with the
fossil remains of, 141.
*Insolvency in life-insurance companies,
T. B. Sprague on the causes of, and
the best means of detecting, exposing,
and preventing it, 211.
International Congress of Geographical
Sciences, C. Maunoir on the, 184.
Ireland, Rev. Dr. Grainger on the fossils
of the posttertiary deposits of, 73.
, E. T. Hardman on some new lo-
calities for the upper boulder-clay in,
76.
*—, sketch of the geology of the N.E.
of, by Prof. Harkness, 83.
, Prof. Hull on the progress of the
geological survey of, 83.
, 5. A. Stewart on the mosses of
the north-east of, 184.
, a2 glimpse of prehistoric times in
the north of, by W. J. Knowles,
155.
, surveys in, a communication from
the Ordnance Department, 184.
Trish crannogs and their contents, W.
F. Wakeman on, 159.
Trregularities, certain protracted, of at-
mospheric pressure in the Indian mon-
soon region, and their relation to.
REPORT—1874.,
variations of the local’ rainfall, H. F.
Blanford on, 36.
*Isometrical drawing, G. Fawcus on a
new method of, 222.
Jeffreys (J. Gwyn) on the so-called crag
of Bridlington, 83.
Jellett (Rev. Prof.), Address by, to the
Mathematical and Physical Section, 1.
*Jones (Sir W., Bart.) on cavern ex-
ploration, by M. Emilion Frossard, in
the Vallée de Campan, Hautes-Py-
rénées, France, 88.
Jordan, the, Rev. J. L. Porter on a
recent journey east of, 179.
Jute-plant, Prof. Hodges on the compo-
sition of the fibre of the, and its use
as a textile material, 63.
Khasi Hill tribes, Major H. H. Godwin-
Austen on the rude stone monuments
of the, 153.
Khiva, J. A. MacGahan on the Russian
expedition to, 183.
*Kinahan (G. H.) on geological maps
and sections of West Galway and
South-west Mayo, 88.
Kinematical analogues, Prof. Everett on
statical and, 11. “
Karchhoff’s rules for electric circuits,
Prof. J. C. Maxwell on the application
of, to the solution of a geometrical
problem, 18.
Knowles (W.J.), a glimpse of prehistorie
times in the north of lreland, 155,
*Ladd (W.) on the construction of large
Nicol’s prisms, 26.
Land, wrongly called property, Sir G.
Campbell on the privileges over, 195.
Langtry (G.) on the occurrence of the
Middle Lias at Ballycastle, 88.
*Lankester (E. Ray) on English nomen-~
clature in systematic biology, 137 ;
*on the genealogical import of the
internal shell of Mollusca, 137; *on
the development of the eye of the
Cephalopoda, 142.
*Latent heat of gases, J. Dewar on the,
22.
*——.—— of liquefied gases, Dr. Dewar
on the, 57.
*Lawson (Prof.) on structural peculiari-
ties of the Ampelidee, 134.
Leaf-arrangement, note by Dr. H. Airy
on variation of, 128.
Leaf-wearing tribe on the western coast
of India, M. J. Walhouse on a, 159.
*Letts (Dr. EE. A.)
Brown on methyl-thetine, 56.
and Prof. Crum
~ ae
INDEX II.
*Life annuities, explanations of Mr.
M‘Clintock’s method of finding the
value of, by means of the gamma
function, by T. B. Sprague, 19.
*Life-insurance companies, T’. B. Sprague
on the causes of insolvency in, and the
best means of detecting, exposing, and
preventing it, 211.
*Light, further experiments on, with
circularly ruled ites of glass, by P.
Braham, 25.
—, the chemical action of, Prof.
Roscoe on a self-registering apparatus
for measuring, 66.
*Liquefied gases, Dr. Dewaron the latent
heat of, 57.
Lister (T.) on spring migratory birds
of the north of England, 137.
*Lockyer (J. N.) on Coggia’s comet,
20; *on a new map of the solar spec-
trum, 20.
Longevity at five score eleven years,
Sir G. Duncan Gibb, Bart., on, 152.
Lough Neagh, Prof. Hodges on the
petrified wood of, 58.
——, , Ireland, E. T. Hardman on
the age and formation of, 79.
Lovett (W. J.) onan improved vacuum
filter-pump, 65.
Luke (R.) on Luke’s patent safety facing-
point lock, for securing railway facing-
oints, 224,
Te bien Desert, Dr. G. Schweinfurth on
the oases of the, 173.
Lynam (J.) on the river Shannon
drainage and navigation, 226.
*
*Macalister (Prof.) on two new species
of Pentastoma, 137 ; *on the specimen
of Selache maximus lately caught at
Innisboflin, 137; *on the tongue of
the Great Anteater, 143; *on some
anomalous forms of the human peri-
orbital bones, 143.
M‘Cann (Rev. Dr.) on the methods of a
complete anthropology, 156.
*M‘Clintock’s method of finding the
value of life annuities by means of
the gamma function, explanations of,
by T. B. Sprague, 19.
MacCormac (Dr. H.) on the reclama-
tion and sanification of the Pontine
Marshes, 209.
MacGahan (J. A.) on the Russian expe-
dition to Khivya, 185.
M‘Lennan’s theory of “ Primitive Mar-
riage,” J. J. Murphy on, 156.
M‘Mordie (H.) on the reformatory and
industrial school system, its evils and
dangers, 210,
245
Man, Rey. J, Edkins on the degeneracy
of, 150.
*Mangold-wurzel, Dr. Moore on grafted
roots of, 134,
Maps and plans, Capt. Abney on the re-
production of, in the field, 183.
Marine alge from Jersey,:!Dr. C. J. B,
Wiliams on specimens of, 134,
*Mariner’s compass, Sir W. Thomson on
improvements in the, 231.
Marshall (F. H.), description of a trompe
or blowing-engine for giving a supply
of coal-gas under pressure for sensitive
flames, 42.
Mathematical and Physical Section, Ad-
dress by Rey. Prof. Jellett to the, 1.
—— tables, contributions to the report
on, by Prof. B. de Haan, 16.
Maunoir (C.) on the International Con-
gress of Geographical Sciences, 184.
Maxwell (Prof. J. C.) on the application
of Kirchhoff’s rules for electric circuits
to the solution of a geometrical pro-
blem, 18.
Mechanical Section, Address by Prof, J.
Thomson to the, 212. ;
*Medical profession, Miss Beedy on re-
form in the work of the, 192.
* Megacarpea, Dr. Moore on a monstrous
state of, 154.
Merrifield (C. W.) on the determination
of the form of the dome of uniform
stress, 227.
Metallic chlorides, electrolytic experi-
ments on some, by Prof. Gladstone
and A. Tribe, 58.
Meteorology at Banbridge for ten years,
J. Smyth, jun., on the, 39,
—-, physical, Lieut.-Col. A. Strange
on the necessity for placing on a ra-
tional basis, 40.
*Methyl-thetine, Prof. Crum Brown
= and Dr. E. A. Letts on, 56.
ficroscope for physiological purposes
Dr. Ro Guten are new fuiadnhe 140,’
Microzou in the chalk-flints of the north
of Ireland, J. Wright on the discovery
of, 95.
Middle Lias at Ballycastle, G. Langtry
on the occurrence of the, 88.
Moffat (T.) on the apparent connexion
between sun-spots and atmospheric
ozone, 37.
*Mollusca, E. Ray Lankester on the
genealogical import of the internal
shell of, 137.
Monuments, rude stone, of the Khasi
hill tribes, Major H. H. Godwin-
Austen on the, 153.
*Moore (Dr.) on @ monstrous state of
246
Megacarpea, 134; *on a monstrous
flower of Sarracenia, 134; *on grafted
roots of mangold-wurzel, 134; *on
the growth of the stems of tree-ferns,
134,
Moral idea, C, 8. Wake on the origin of
the, 158.
Morgan (HE. D.) on “ Travels beyond
three Seas, by Athanasius Nikitin,
Merchant of Tver, 1466-1472,” 177.
(W.) on an improved tuyere for
smiths’ forges, 228,
Morrison (G. J.) on the adoption (for
the general purposes of navigation) of
charts on gnomonic projection instead
of on Mercator’s projection, 42.
Mosses of the north-east of Ireland, S.
_ A. Stewart on the, 134.
Motion, H, Hart on some conversions of,
17.
*—, W. Hayden on approximate
parallel, 18.
Murphy (J. J.) on M‘Lennan’s theory of
“ Primitive Marriage,” 156.
Myriothela phrygia, Prof. Allman on
some points in the histology of, 135.
Nachtigall’s (Dr. G.) explorations in
Africa (1869-74), HE. G. Ravenstein
on, 175.
“ Natural Mythology,” and some of the
incentives to its adoption in Britain
and Ireland, J. 8. Phené on, 158.
Negretti (H.) on Negretti and Zambra’s
patent recording and deep-sea ther- |}
mometer, 45,
Neyille (J.) on the means adopted for
the improvement of the outer navi-
gable channel of Dundalk Harbour,
228; on anew construction for finding
the vertical shearing-stress and the
point of greatest bending-moment in
a beam loaded in any way, 229.
Newman (Prof. F. W.) on the calcula-
tion of exponential functions, 19.
Newton’s construction for the disturb-
ing force exerted by a distant body,
Prof. Curtis on certain applications of,
10.
Nicholson (Dr. H. A.) on Favistella stel-
lata and Fuvistella calicina, with notes
on the affinities of Favistella and allied
genera, 89; description of species of
Alecto and Hippothoa from the Lower
Silurian rocks of Ohio, with a de-
scription of Azlopora arachnoidea,
90; descriptions of new species of
Polyzoa from the Lower and Upper
Silurian rocks of North America, 90 ;
descriptions of new species of Cysti-
REPORT—1874.
phyllum from the Devonian rocks of
North America, 91; and W. H. Ellis
on a remarkable fragment of silicified
wood from the Rocky Mountains,
88,
*Nicol’s prisms, W. Ladd on the con-
struction of large, 26,
Nitric acid, P. Braham and J. W. Gate-
house on the dissociation of, by various
means, 55.
*Norman (G. W.) on the future of the
United States, 211.
North Polar region, Rear-Admiral §.
Osborn on the routes to the, 170.
Oases of the Lybian Desert, Dr. G.
Schweinfurth on the, 173.
*Ogilvie (T. R.) on the estimation of
phosphoric acid as pyrophosphate of
magnesia, 66.
O'Hagan (Rt. Hon. Lord), Address by, to
the Section of Economic Science and
Statistics, 185.
Ohm’s law, Dr. A. Schuster on, 30.
—, geometrical illustrations of, by
Prof. G. C. Foster, 28.
*Olefines, Prof. M. Simpson on the
chlor-bromides and brom-iodides of
the, 67,
*Opium derivatives, Dr. C. R. Wright
on some, 67.
Ordnance Department, a communication
from the, on surveys in Ireland, 184,
Origin and characteristics of the people
in the counties of Down and Antrim,
Rey. Canon Hume on the, 153.
Osborn (Rear-Admiral S.) on the routes
to the North Polar region, 170.
*Ozone, Prof. Redfern on the effects of,
on the animal economy, 143,
Palestine, Lieut. R. Conder on the sur-
vey of, 178
Partitions and derivations, J. W. L.
Glaisher on, 11.
Pastorelli (I’.) on a gymbal-swung rain-
gauge, 37.
Penal legislation, Rev. J. T. Burt on the
principles of, 192.
*Pentastoma, Prof. Macalister on two
new species of, 137.
*Peoples between India and China, Sir
G. Campbell on the, 145.
Perchloric acid, T. Fairley on, 58.
Permian breccias of the country near
Whitehaven, R, Russell on the, 92.
Peroxide of hydrogen, T, Fairley on
jog hypochlorous acid, &c., and,
| Peru, T, J. Hutchinson on the commer-
INDEX II.
_ cial, industrial, and natural resources
of, 177.
Peru, prehistoric, T. J. Hutchinson on
the anthropology of, 154,
Petrified wood of Lough Neagh, Prof.
Hodges on the, 58,
Phené (J. 8.) on “ An Age of Colossi,”
157; on “Natural Mythology,” and
some of the incentives to its adoption
in Britain and Ireland, 158.
Phipson (Dr. T. L.) on asesquisulphide
of iron, 66; on the presence of cyano-
gen in commercial bromine, and a
means of detecting it, 66.
Pheenician inscription of Brazil, Hyde
Clarke on the, 146,
*Phosphoric acid, T. R. Ogilvie on the
estimation of, as pyrophosphate of
magnesia, 66,
Photographic operations connected with
the transit of Venus, Capt. Abney on,
19.
Photography in connexion with astro-
nomy, Col. 8. Wortley on, 20.
Physical conditions of the deep sea, Dr.
. B. Carpenter on the results of
the ‘ Challenger’ researches into the,
172.
*
theory of undercurrents, Dr. W.
B. Carpenter on the, 22.
units of nature, G. J, Stoney on
the; 22.
*Physics of the internal earth, Dr.
Vaughan on the, 22, 95.
*—_., practical, Prof. W. F. Barrett on
the teaching of, 22.
*Physiology of the semicircular canals
of the ear, Prof. Crum Brown on some
_ points in the, 158.
Political economy and the laws affecting
the prices of commodities and labour,
F, P. Fellows on, and on strikes and
lock-outs, 203.
Pollen-grains, A. W. Bennett on the
form of, in relation to the fertilization
of flowers, 133.
Polyzoa from the Lower and Bere
Silurian rocks of North America, de-
scriptions of new species of, by Dr. H.
A. Nicholson, 90.
Pontine Marshes, Dr. H. MacCormac on
the reclamation and sanification of
the, 209.
* Pontonia, an undescribed, Prof. Cun-
ningham on, 157.
Porter (Rev. J. L.) on a recent journey
east of the Jordan, 179,
Postal reform, W. Hastings on, 209.
Potato-disease, J. Torbitt on the, 134.
Power-couplings for rolling-mills and |
247
other machinery, F. H. Varley and E.
Furness on, 231.
Prehistoric times in the north of Ire-
oy a glimpse of, by W. J. Knowles,
Prices of commodities and labour, F. P.
Fellows on political economy and the
laws affecting the, 203.
“Primitive Marriage,” J. J. Murphy on
M‘Lennan’s theory of, 156,
a of penal legislation, Rey. J.
T. Burt on the, 192.
*Prisms, Nicol’s, W. Ladd on the con-
struction of large, 26,
Privileges over land, wrongly called
propa, Sir G. Campbell on the,
5
*Purser (Prof. F.) on bitangents to the
surface of centres of a quadrie, 19.
(Prof. J.) on the source from which
the kinetic energy is drawn that
passes into heat in the movement of
the tides, 22.
Pygmy languages of Africa, Hyde Clarke
a classification of the Akka and,
*Quadric, Prof. F, Purser on bitangents
to the surface of centres of a, 19,
*Quadrics and other surfaces, W. Spot-
tiswoode on multiple contact of, 19.
Quaternions, Prof. Everett on a new
application of, 11.
Railway accidents, the prevention of,
and automatically recording the move-
ments of the points and signals and
other apparatus of railways, W. Smith
on, 229.
Rainfall of Ulster, J. Smyth, jun.,; on
the, 39. fc ris
Rain-gauge, a gymbal-swung, F, Pas-
torelli on, 37.
cae G. J. Symons on a new form of,
Ravenstein (H. G.) on Dr. G. Nachti-
gall’s explorations in Africa (1869-
74), 175.
Reclamation and sanification of the
Pontine Marshes, Dr. H. MacCormac
on the, 209.
*Reconnaissance of a new or partially
rt country, Lieut. Warren on,
Redfern (Prof.), Address by, to the Bio-
logical Section, 96 ; *on the influence
of food, and the methods of supplying
it to plants and animals, 143; *on
the effects of ozone on the animal
economy, 143,
248
Reflection, extraordinary, Prof. Curtis
on, 25,
*Reform in the work of the medical
profession, Miss Beedy on, 192,
Reformatory and industrial school sys-
tem, its evils and dangers, H.M‘Mordie
on the, 210.
Registration of wind on the coast, R.
H. Scott on the importance of im-
proved methods of, 37.
*Replacement of organic matter by sili-
ceous deposits in the process of fos-
silization, Dr, W. B. Carpenter on the,
56.
Reproduction of maps and plans in the
field, Capt. Abney on the, 183.
*Reynolds (Prof. H.), notes on the pre-
paration of the sulphur-urea, 66; *on
the action of the suiphur-urea in
metallic solutions, 66.
River-names and populations of Hi-
bernia, and their relation to the Old
World and America, Hyde Clarke on
the, 146.
Roads in Northern Persia and on the
Russio-Persian frontier, Lieut. Gill on
some, 182,
Roberts (W. C.) on the columnar form
of basalt, 91.
*Roscoe (Prof.) on a self-registering
apparatus for measuring the chemical
action of light, 66; *on certain ab-
normal chlorides, 67,
Rowe (Surgeon-Major 8.) on Sir John
Glover’s expedition from the Volta to
Coomassie, 175.
Russell (R.) on the Permian breccias of
the country near Whitehaven, 92.
Russian expedition to Khiva, J. A. Mac-
Gahan on the, 183.
Saddle-rail, an improved patent, and
railway permanent-way construction,
W. Seaton on, 229,
*Sanification of our cities, E. Eleock on
a new method for promoting the, 203.
Sanitary legislation and organization:
its present state and future prospects,
Dr, T. W. Grimshaw on, 206.
*Sarracenia, Dr. Moore on a monstrous
flower of, 134.
Scheme for the technical education of
those interested in land, a, by the
Rey. W. W. Wood, 211.
Schuster (Dr. A.) on Ohm’s law, 30; on
unilateral conductivity, 31.
Schweinfurth (Dr. G.) ‘on the oases of
the Lybian Desert, 173.
Sclater (P. L.) on the distribution -of
the species of Cassowaries, 138,
REPORT—1874.
Scott (R. H.) on the importance of im-
proved methods of registration of wind
on the coast, with a notice of an ane-
mometer designed by Mr. W. De La
Rue, F.R.S., to furnish telegraphic
information of the occurrence of strong
winds, 37.
Screw-lowering apparatus, E, J. Har-
land on a new form of, 222.
Seaton (W.) on an improved patent
saddle-rail and railway permanent-
way construction, 229.
*Selache maximus, Prof. Macalister on
the specimen of, lately caught at Innis-
boffin, 137.
Sesquisulphide of iron, Dr. T, L. Phip-
son on a, 66,
Shannon, the river, drainage and nayi-
gation, J. Lynam on, 226.
Silicified wood from the Rocky Moun-
tains, Dr. H. A. Nicholson and W. H.
Ellis on a remarkable fragment of, 88.
*Simpson (Prof. M.) on the chlor-bro-
mides and brom-iodides of the ole-
fines, 67.
Smith (W.) on the prevention of railway
accidents and automatically recording
the movements of the points and sig-
nals and other apparatus of railways,
229,
Smith’s (Mr. Leigh) voyages to Spitz-
bergen, Lieut. H. Chermside on, 171.
Smyth (J., jun.) on the meteorology at
Banbridge for ten years, and rainfall
of Ulster, 39.
*Solar spectrum, preliminary note by J.
N. Lockyer on a new map of the, 20.
Solution of a geometrical problem, Prof.
J.C. Maxwell on the application of
Kirchhoft’s rules for electric circuits
to the, 18.
*Sound, Prof. W. F. Barrett on an ap-
paratus for showing the interference
of, 41.
*Specific volumes of certain liquids,
rof. Thorpe on the, 67.
*Spectra on a screen, P. Braham on a
mode of producing, with the oxyhy-
. drogen flame, 56
Spectroscope, 8. C. Tisley on a new and
simple form of adjustable slit for the,
27.
Spitzbergen, Mr. Leigh Smith’s voyages
to, Lieut. H. Chermside on, 171.
*Spontaneous generation from a che-
mical point of view, Prof. Debus on,
7.
*Spottiswoode (W.) on multiple con-
tact of quadrics and other surfaces,
19,
INDEX II.
ttiswoode’s triple combination of
double-image prisms and quartz plates,
a form of, a plied to the table polari-
scope, S. C. Ticley on, 26.
*Sprague (T. B.), explanations of Mr.
‘Clintock’s method of finding the
value of life annuities by means of
the gamma function, 19; *on the
causes of insolvency in life-insurance
companies, and the best means of
detecting, exposing, and preventing
it, 211.
Spring migratory birds of the north of
England, T. Lister on, 137.
Statical and kinematical analogues, Prof.
Everett on, 11.
Statistics, G. R. Crowe on the compila-
tion of, illustrated by the Irish census
returns, 198.
Stewart (S. A.) on the mosses of the
north-east of Ireland, 134.
Stokes (Prof.) on the construction of a
erfectly achromatic telescope, 26.
sSioney (G. J.), confirmation of the
nebular origin of the earth, 22; *on
the physical units of nature, 22.
Stow fre. F. W.) on the absorption of
the sun’s heat-rays by the vapour of
the atmosphere, 39.
Strange (Lieut.-Col. A.) on the neces-
sity for placing physical meteorology
on a rational basis, 40.
Strikes, W. H. Dodd on the economic
law of, 201.
and lock-outs, F. P. Fellows on
203.
*Sulphur-urea, notes on the preparation
of, by Prof. E. Reynolds, 66.
‘ , Prof. E. Reynolds on the action
of.the, in metallic solutions, 66.
Sun-spots and atmospheric ozone, T.
Moffat on the apparent connexion be-
tween, 37,
Survey of Palestine, Lieut. R. Conder
on the, 178.
Surveys in Ireland, a communication
te the Ordnance Department on,
84,
*Sylvester (Prof.), Prof. Clifford on a
message from, 10.
Symons (G. J.) on the relative sensi-
tiveness of thermometers differing in
size, shape, or materials, 41; on a
new foim of rain-gauge, 41.
—— (W.) on a new method of con-
structing carbon-cells and plates for
galvanic batteries, 31; on a new me-
thod for the electrochemical decom-
ieee of oils and other non-con-
ucting liquids, 31; on a cheap and
249
convenient galvanic battery adaptid
for weak but continuous curents,
Table polariscope, 8. C. Tisley on a
form of Spottiswoode’s triple com-
bination of double-image prisms and
quartz plates applied to the, 26.
Tea and tea-soils from Cachar, Prof.
Hodges on the composition of, 60.
Technical education of those interested
in land, a scheme for the, by the Rey.
W. W. Wood, 211.
Telescope, Prof. Stokes on the con-
struction of a perfectly achromatic,
26,
Thermometer, Negretti and Zambra’s
atent recording and deep-sea, H.
egretti on, 43.
Thermometers differing in size, shape,
or material, G. J. Symons on the re-
lative sensitiveness of, 41.
*Thomson (Prof. J.) on the jointed
prismatic structure of the Giant’s
Causeway, 93; Address by, to the
Mechanical Section, 212.
~ (Sir W.) on the effect on the
compass of the rolling of ships, 32 ;
*on improvements in the mariner’s
compass, 231,
- (W.) on the decomposition of eggs,
43,
*Thorpe (Prof.) on the specific volumes
of certain liquids, 67.
Tisley (S. C.) 01 a form of Spottis-
woode’s triple combination of double-
image prisms and quartz plates ap-
plied to the table polariscope, 26; on
a new and simple form of adjustable
slit for the spectroscope, 27; on a
four-pendulum apparatus, 44.
ss (J.) on the potato-disease,
34,
Traill (W. A.) on geological sections in
the co. Down, 93.
Transit of Venus, Capt. Abney on pho-
tographic operations connected with
the, 19.
“Travels beyond three Seas, by Athana-
sius Nitikin, Merchant of Tver, 14€6-
1472,” E. D. Morgan on, 177.
*Tree-ferns, Dr. Moore on the growth of
the stems of, 134. :
Tribe (A.) and Prof. Gladstone, electro-
lytic experiments on some metallic
chlorides, 58.
Trompe or blowing-engine for giving a
supply of coal-gas under pressure for
sensitive flames, description of a, by
F, H. Marshall, 42,
18
250
*Trope@vlum, Prof. Dickson on the em-
bryogeny of certain species of, 133.
Tuyere, an improved, for smiths’ forges,
W. Morgan on, 228.
Tyrone coal-fields, E. T. Hardman on
the geological structure of the, 77.
Ulster, J. Smyth, jun., on the rainfall
of, 39.
tenant-right, Prof. Donnell on the,
202.
*Undercurrents, Dr. W. B. Carpenter on
the physical theory of, 22.
Unilateral conductivity, Dr. A. Schuster
on, 31.
*United States, G. W. Norman on the
future of the, 211.
Upper boulder-clay in Ireland, E. T.
Hardman on some new localities for,
76.
Variation of leaf-arrangement, note on,
by Dr. H. Airy, 128,
Varley (F. H.) and E. Furness on
power-couplings for rolling-mills and
other machinery, 231.
*Vaughan (Dr.) on the physics of the
internal earth, 22, 95.
Venus, the transit of, Capt. Abney on
photographic operations connected
with, 19.
Veriebrate animals, Very Rev. J. Byrne
on the development of the powers of
thought in, in connexion with the
development of their brain, 138.
Vertical shearing-stress and the point
of ereatest beading-moment ina beam
loaded in any way, J. Neville on a
new construction for finding the, 229.
Volta, the, to Coomassie, Surgeon-Major
S. Rowe on Sir John Glover’s expe-
dition from, 175.
Wake (C.S.) on the origin of the moral
idea, 158.
REPORT—1874.
Wakeman (W. F.) on Irish crannogs
and their contents, 159.
Walhouse (M. J.) on a leaf-wearing
ae on the western coast of India,
*Warren (Lieut.) on reconnaissance
of a new or partially known country,
184.
Weather, R. B. Belcher on disturbance
of the, by artificial influences, espe-
cially battles, military manoeuvres,
great explosions, and conflagrations,
Wiedemann (Prof. G.) on the propor-
tions in which bases and acids present
in a solution combine with each other,
32.
Wilde (Sir W. R.), Address by, to the
Department of Anthropology, 116.
Williams (Dr. C. J. B.) on specimens of
marine alee from Jersey, 134.
Wilson (Major), Address by, to the Geo-
graphical Section, 169.
Wood (Rev. W. W.), a scheme for the
technical education of those interested
in land, 211.
*W orkmen’s dwellings, from a commer-
cial standpoint, W. Botly on, 192.
Wortley (Col. S.) on photography in
connexion with astronomy,
*Wright (Dr. C. R.) on some opium
derivatives, 67.
Wright (J.) on the discovery of Micro-
zoa in the chalk-flints of the north of
Treland, 95. s
Wyley (A.) on recent improvements in
breech-loading firearms, 232; on the
breeck-loading firearms exhibited at
Vienna in 1873, 232.
Yarkund mission, Col. Biddulph on the,
181.
Zoology, Address by Dr. Hooker to the
Department of Botany and, 102.
LIST OF PLATES,’
PLATES I., IL, III.
Illustrative of a Paper on Belfast Harbour, by T. R. Salmond.
PLATES: £V.;, Y.,;. Vie,, VEL.
Illustrative of the Report of the Committee on the Structure and Classifi-
cation of the Labyrinthodonts.
PLATES VIII, IX., X., XI., XII.
Illustrative of a Report on Experiments for the Determination of the Fric-
tional Resistance of Water on a Surface.
PLATES XIII., XIV.
Illustrative of a Report on Instruments for Measuring the Speed of Ships.
PLATES XY., XVI.
Illustrative of a Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors.
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A * ‘a
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Researches in Electro-Chemistry ;—R. Mallet, Second Report upon the Action of Air and
Water, whether fresh or salt, clear or foul, and at various temperatures, upon Cast Iron,
Wrought Iron and Steel ;—R. W. Fox, Report on some Observations on Subterranean Tem-
perature ;—A.F. Osler, Report on the Observations recorded during the years 1837, 1838, 1839,
and 1840, by the Self-registering Anemometer erected at the Philosophical Institution, Bir-
mingham ;—Sir D. Brewster, Report respecting the two Series of Hourly Meteorological Ob-
servations kept at Inverness and Kingussie, from Nov. Ist, 1838 to Nov. Ist, 1839 ;—W.
Thompson, Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Div. Vertebrata ;—C. J. B. Williams, M.D.,
Report of Experiments on the Physiology of the Lungs and Air-'ubes ;—Rev. J. S. Henslow,
Report of the Committee on the Preservation of Animal and Vegetable Substances.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Murchison and Major E. Sabine’s
Address, and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tur ELEVENTH MEETING, at Plymouth,
1841, Published at 13s. 6d.
ConTENTsS:—Rev. P. Kelland, on the Present state of our Theoretical and Experimental
Knowledge of the Laws of Conduction of Heat ;—G. L. Roupell, M.D., Report on Poisons ;—
T. G. Bunt, Report on Discussions of Bristol Tides, under the direction of the Rev. W. Whewell;
—D. Ross, Report on the Discussions of Leith Tide Observations, under the direction of the
Rev. W. Whewell ;—W. S. Harris, upon the working of Whewell’s Anemometer at Plymouth
during the past year;—Report of a Committee appointed for the purpose of superintend-
ing the scientific cooperation of the British Association in the System of Simultaneous Obser-
vations in Terrestrial Magnetism and Meteorology ;—Reports of Committees appointed to pro-
vide Meteorological Instruments for the use of M, Agassiz and Mr. M‘Cord ;—Report of a Com-
19*
254
mittee to superintend the reduction of Meteorological Observations;—Report of a Com-
mittee for revising the Nomenclature of the Stars ;—Report of a Committee for obtaining In-
struments and Registers to record Shocks and Earthquakes in Scotland and Ireland ;—Report of
a Committee on the Preservation of Vegetative Powers in Seeds ;—Dr. Hodgkin, on Inquiries
into the Races of Man ;—Report of the Committee appointed to report how far the Desiderata
in our knowledge of the Condition of the Upper Strata of the Atmosphere may be supplied by
means of Ascents in Balloons or otherwise, to ascertain the probable expense of such Experi-
ments, and to draw up Directions for Observers in such circumstances ;—R. Owen, Report
on British Fossil Reptiles ;—Reports on the Determination of the Mean Value of Railway
Constants ;—-D. Lardner, LL.D., Second and concluding Report on the Determination of the
Mean Value of Railway Constants; -E. Woods, Report on Railway Constants ;—Report of a
Committee on the Construction of a Constant Indicator for Steam-Engines.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Whewell’s Address, and Recommen-
dations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tuzE TWELFTH MEETING, at Mancrester,
1842, Published at 10s. 6d.
ConTENTs :—Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the cooperation of the British
Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;—
J. Richardson, M.D., Report on the present State of the Ichthyology of New Zealand ;—
W.S. Harris, Report on the Progress of Meteorological Observations at Plymouth ;—Second
Report of a Committee appointed to make Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds;
—C. Vignoles, Report of the Committee on Railway Sections ;—Report of the Committee
for the Preservation of Animal and Vegetable Substances ;—Lyon Playfair, M.D., Abstract
of Prof. Licbig’s Report on Organic Chemistry applied to Physiology and Pathology ;—
R. Owen, Report on the British Fossil Mammalia, Part I.;—R. Hunt, Researches on the
Influence of Light on the Germination of Seeds and the Growth of Plants ;—L. Agassiz, Report
on the Fossil Fishes of the Devonian System or Old Red Sandstone ;—W. Fairbairn, Ap-
pendix to a Report on the Strength and other Properties of Cast Iron obtained from the Hot
and Cold Blast ;—D. Milne, Report of the Committee for Registering Shocks of Earthquakes
in Great Britain ;—Report of a Committee on the construction of a Constant Indicator for
Steam-Engines, and for the determination of the Velocity of the Piston of the Self-acting En-
gine at different periods of the Stroke ;—J. S. Russell, Report of a Committee on the Form of
Ships ;—Report of a Committee appointed “to consider of the Rules by which the Nomencla-
ture of Zoology may be established on a uniform and permanent basis ;’’—Report of a Com-
‘mittee on the Vital Statistics of large Towns in Scotland;—Provisional Reports, and Notices
of Progress in special Researches entrusted to Committees and Individuals.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Lord Francis Egerton’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tHe THIRTEENTH MEETING, at Cork,
1843, Published at 12s.
CoNnTENTS:—Robert Mallet, Third Report upon the Action of Air and Water, whether
fresh or salt, clear or foul, and at Various Temperatures, upon Cast Iron, Wrought Iron, and
Steel ;—Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the cooperation of the British As-
sociation in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;—Sir
J. F. W. Herschel, Bart., Report of the Committee appointed for the Reduction of Meteoro-
logical Observations ;—Report of the Committee appointed for Experiments on Steam-
Engines ;—Report of the Committee appointed to continue their Experiments on the Vitality
of Seeds ;—J. S. Russell, Report of a Series of Observations on the Tides of the Frith of
Forth and the East Coast of Scotland ;—J. S. Russell, Notice of a Report of the Committee
on the Form of Ships;—J. Blake, Report on the Physiological Action of Medicines; —Report
of the Committee on Zoological Nomenclature ;—Report of the Committee for Registering
the Shocks of Earthquakes, and making such Meteorological Observations as may appear to
them desirable ;—Report of the Committee for conducting Experiments with Captive Balloons;
—Prof. Wheatstone, Appendix to the Report ;—Report of the Committee for the Translation
and Publication of Foreign Scientific Memoirs ;—C. W. Peach, on the Habits of the Marine
Testacea ;—E, Forbes, Report on the Mollusca and Radiata of the /Egean Sea, and on their
distribution, considered as bearing on Geology ;—L. Agassiz, Synoptical Table of British
Fossil Fishes, arranged in the order of the Geological Formations ;—R. Owen, Report on the
British Fossil Mammalia, Part II.;—E. W. Binney, Report on the excavation made at the
junction of the Lower New Red Sandstone with the Coal Measures at Collyhurst ;—W.
255
Thompson, Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Div. Invertebrata ;—Provisional Reports, and
Notices of Progress in Special Researches entrusted to Committees and Individuals.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Earl of Rosse’s Address, and Recommen =
dations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tute FOURTEENTH MEETING, at York, 1844,
Published at £1.
ConTENTS :—W. B. Carpenter, on the Microscopic Structure of Shells ;—J. Alder and A.
Hancock, Report on the British Nudibranchiate Mollusca;—R. Hunt, Researches on the
Influence of Light on the Germination of Seeds and the Growth of Plants;—Report of a
Committee appointed by the British Association in 1840, for revising the Nomenclature of the
Stars ;—Lt.-Col. Sabine, on the Meteorology of Toronto in Canada ;—J. Blackwall, Report
on some recent researches into the Structure, Functions, and Economy of the Araneidea
made in Great Britain ;—Earl of Rosse, on the Construction of large Reflecting Telescopes ;
—Rev. W. V. Harcourt, Report on a Gas-furnace for Experiments on Vitrifaction and other
Applications of High Heat in the Laboratory ;—Report of the Committee for Registering
Earthquake Shocks in Scotland ;—Report of a Committee for Experiments on Steam-Engines;
—Report of the Committee to investigate the Varieties of the Human Race ;—Fourth Report
of a Committee appointed to continue their Experiments on the Vitality of Seeds ;—W. Fair
bairn, on the Consumption of Fuel and the Prevention of Smoke ;—F. Ronalds, Report con-
cerning the Observatory of the British Association at Kew ;—Sixth Report of the Committee
appointed to conduct the Cooperation of the British Association in the System of Simulta-
neous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;—Prof. Forchhammer on the influence
of Fucoidal Plants upon the Formations of the Earth, on Metamorphism in general, and par-
ticularly the Metamorphosis of the Scandinavian Alum Slate ;—H. E. Strickland, Report on
the recent Progress and Present State of Ornithology ;—T. Oldham, Report of Committee
appointed to conduct Observations on Subterranean Temperature in Ireland ;—Prof. Owen,
Report on the Extinct Mammals of Australia, with descriptions of certain Fossils indicative
of the former existence in that continent of large Marsupial Representatives of the Order
Pachydermata ;—W. S. Harris, Report on the working of Whewell and Osler’s Anemometers
at Plymouth, for the years 1841, 1842, 1843 ;—W. R. Birt, Report on Atmospheric Waves;
—L. Agassiz, Rapport’sur les Poissons Fossiles de l’Argile de Londres, with translation ;—J.
S. Russell, Report on Waves ;—Provisional Reports, and Notices of Progressin Special Re-
searches entrusted to Committees and Individuals.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dean of Ely’s Address, and Recommenda-
tions of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tue FIFTEENTH MEETING, at Cambridge,
1845, Published at 12s.
ConTENTs :—Seventh Report of a Committee appointed to conduct the Cooperation of the
British Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observa-
tions ;—Lt.-Col. Sabine, on some points in the Meteorology of Bombay ;—J. Blake, Report
on the Physiological Actions of! Medicines ;—Dr. Von Boguslawski, on the Comet of 1843;
—R. Hunt, Report on the Actinograph ;—Prof. Schénbein, on Ozone ;—Prof. Erman, on
the Influence of Friction upon Thermo-Electricity;—Baron Senftenberg, on the Seif-
Registering Meteorological Instruments employed in the Observatory at Senftenberg;—
W. R. Birt, Second Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—G. R. Porter, on the Progress and Pre«
sent Extent of Savings’ Banks in the United Kingdom ;—Prof. Bunsen and Dr, Playfair,
Report on the Gases evolved from Iron Furnaces, with reference to the Theory of Smelting
of Iron ;—Dr. Richardson, Report on the Ichthyology of the Seas of China and Japan ;—
Report of the Committee on the Registration of Periodical Phenomena of Animals and Vege-
tables ;—Fifth Report of the Commiitee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—Appendix, &c.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir J. F. W. Herschel’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS orf THE oo MEETING, at Southampton,
1846, Published at 15s.
ConTENTS:—G. G. Stokes, Report on Recent Researches in Hydrodynamics ;—Sixth
Report of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—Dr. Schunck; on the Colouring Matters of
Madder ;—J. Blake, on the Physiological Action of Medicines; —R. Hunt, Report on the Ac-
tinograph ;—R. Hunt, Notices on the Influence of Light on the Growth of Plants ;—R. L.
Ellis, on the Recent Progress of Analysis ;—Prof. Forchhammer, on Comparative Analytical
256
Researches on Sea Water ;—A. Erman, on the Calculation of the Gaussian Constants for
1829;—G. R. Porter, on the Progress, present Amount, and probable future Condition of the
Iron Manufacture in Great Britain ;—W. R. Birt, Third Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—
Prof. Owen, Report on the Archetype and Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton ;—
J. Phillips, on Anemometry ;—J. Percy, M.D., Report on the Crystalline Flags;—Addenda
to Mr. Birt’s Report on Atmospheric Waves.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir R. I. Murchison’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tHE SEVENTEENTH MEETING, at Oxford,
1847, Published at 18s.
ConTENTS :—Prof, Langberg, on the Specific Gravity of Sulphuric Acid at different de-
grees of dilution, and on the relation which exists between the Development of Heat and the
coincident contraction of Volume in Sulphuric Acid when mixed with Water ;—R. Hunt,
Researches on the Influence of the Solar Rays on the Growth of Plants ;—R. Mallet, on
the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Prof. Nilsson, on the Primitive Inhabitants of Scan-
dinavia;—W. Hopkins, Report on the Geological Theories of Elevation and Earthquakes;
—Dr. W. B. Carpenter, Report on the Microscopic Structure of Shells ;—Rev, W. Whewell and
Sir James C. Ross, Report upon the Recommendation of an Expedition for the purpose of
completing our knowledge of the Tides ;—Dr. Schunck, on Colouring Matters ;—Seventh Re-
port of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—J. Glynn, on the Turbine or Horizontal
Water- Wheel of France and Germany ;—Dr. R. G. Latham, on the present state and recent
progress of Ethnographical Philology ;—Dr. J. C. Prichard, on the various methods of Research
which contribute to the Advancement of Ethnology, and of the relations of that Science to
other branches of Knowledge ;—Dr. C. C. J. Bunsen, on the results of the recent Egyptian
researches in reference to Asiatic and African Ethnology, and the Classification of Languages ;
—Dr. C. Meyer, on the Importance of the Study of the Celtic Language as exhibited by the
Modern Celtic Dialects still extant;—Dr. Max Miller, on the Relation of the Bengali to the
Arian and Aboriginal Languages of India;—W. R. Birt, Fourth Report on Atmospheric
Waves ;—Prof. W. H. Dove, Temperature Tables, with Introductory Remarks by Lieut.-Col.
E. Sabine ;—A. Erman and H. Petersen, Third Report on the Calculation of the Gaussian Con-
stants for 1829.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir Robert Harry Inglis’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tue EIGHTEENTH MEETING, at Swansea,
1848, Published at 9s.
ConTENTs :—Rev. Prof. Powell, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—
J. Glynn on Water-pressure Engines ;—R. A. Smith, on the Air and Water of Towns ;—Eighth
Report of Committee on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds;—W. R. Birt, Fifth Report on At-
mospheric Waves ;—E. Schunck, on Colouring Matters ;—J. P. Budd, on the advantageous use
made of the gaseous escape from the Blast Furnaces at the Ystalyfera Iron Works;—R. Hunt,
Report of progress in the investigation of the Action of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of
Plants allied to those of the Coal Formations ;—Prof. H. W. Dove, Supplement to the Tem-
perature Tables printed in the Report of the British Association for 1847 ;—Remarks by Prof.
Dove on his recently constructed Maps of the Monthly Isothermal Lines of the Globe, and on
some of the principal Conclusions in regard to Climatology deducible from them; with an in-
troductory Notice by Lt.-Col. E. Sabine ;—Dr. Daubeny, on the progress of the investigation
on the Influence of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of Ferns ;—J. Phillips, Notice of further
progress in Anemometrical Researches ;—Mr. Mallet’s Letter to the Assistant-General Secre-
tary;—A. Erman, Second Report on the Gaussian Constants ;—Report of a Committee
relative to the expediency of recommending the continuance of the Toronto Magnetical and
Meteorological Observatory until December 1850.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Marquis of Northampton’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or rut NINETEENTH MEETING, at Birmingham,
1849, Published at 10s. : ’
ConTENTS :—Rev. Prof. Powell, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Earl
of Rosse, Notice of Nebule lately observed in the Six-feet Reflector ;—Prof. Daubeny, on the
Influence of Carbonic Acid Gas on the health of Plants, especially of those allied to the Fossil
Remains found in the Coal Formation ;—Dr. Andrews, Report on the Heat of Combination ;
—Report of the Committee on the Registration of the Periodic Phenomena of Plants and
257
Animals ;—Ninth Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;
—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Observatory of the British Association at Kew, from
Aug. 9, 1848 to Sept. 12, 1849 ;—R. Mallet, Report on the Experimental Inquiry on Railway
Bar Corrosion ;—W. R. Birt, Report on the Discussion of the Electrical Observations at Kew.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Rev. T. R. Robinson’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tue TWENTIETH MEETING, at Edinburgh,
1850, Published at 15s. (Out of Print.)
ConTeEnTs :—R. Mallet, First Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Rev. Prof.
Powell, on Observations of Luminous Meteors;—Dr. T. Williams, on the Structure and
History of the British Annelida;—T. C. Hunt, Results of Meteorological Observations taken
at St. Michael’s from the Ist of January, 1840 to the 31st of December, 1849;—R. Hunt, on
the present State of our Knowledge of the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;—Tenth
Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Major-Gen.
Briggs, Report on the Aboriginal Tribes of India;—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Ob-
servatory of the British Association at Kew ;—E. Forbes, Report on the Investigation of Britis.
Marine Zoology by means of the Dredge ;—R. MacAndrew, Notes on the Distribution and
Range in depth of Mollusca and other Marine Animals, observed on the coasts of Spain, Por-
tugal, Barbary, Malta, and Southern Italy in 1849 ;—Prof. Allman, on the Present State of
our Knowledge of the Freshwater Polyzoa ;—Registration of the Periodical Phenomena of
Plants and Animals ;—Suggestions to Astronomers for the Observation of the Total Eclipse
of the Sun on July 28, 1851.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir David Brewster’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tHe TWENTY-FIRST MEETING, at Ipswich,
1851, Published at 16s. 6d.
ContTENTS :—Rev. Prof. Powell, on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Eleventh Re-
port of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Dr. J. Drew, on
the Climate of Southampton ;—Dr. R. A. Smith, on the Air and Water of Towns: Action of
Porous Strata, Water and Organic Matter ;—Report of the Committee appointed to consider
the probable Effects in an Economical and Physical Point of View of the Destruction of Tro-
pical Forests ;—A. Henfrey, on the Reproduction and supposed Existence of Sexual Organs
in the Higher Cryptogamous Plants;—Dr. Daubeny, on the Nomenclature of Organic Com-
pounds ;—Rev. Dr. Donaldson, on two unsolved Problems in Indo-German Philology ;—
Dr. T. Williams, Report on the British Annelida;—R. Mallet, Second Report on the Facts of
Earthquake Phenomena ;—Letter from Prof. Henry to Col. Sabine, on the System of Meteoro-
logical Observations proposed to be established in the United States ;—Col. Sabine, Report
on the Kew Magnetographs ;—J. Welsh, Report on the Performance of his three Magneto-
graphs during the Experimental Trial at the Kew Observatory ;—F. Ronalds, Report concern-
ing the Observatory of the British Association at Kew, from September 12, 1850 to July 31,
1851 ;—Ordnance Survey of Scotland.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Airy’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tut TWENTY-SECOND MEETING, at Belfast,
1852, Published at 15s.
ContTENTs :—R. Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—T welfth
Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Rev. Prof,
Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1851-52 ;—Dr. Gladstone, on the In-
fluence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers of Plants ;—A Manual of Ethnological
Inquiry ;—Col. Sykes, Mean Temperature of the Day, and Monthly Fall of Rain at 127 Sta-
tions under the Bengal Presidency ;—Prof. J. D. Forbes, on Experiments on the Laws of the
Conduction of Heat;—R. Hunt, on the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;—Dr. Hodges,
on the Composition and Economy of the Flax Plant;—W. Thompson, on the Freshwater
Fishes of Ulster; —W. Thompson, Supplementary Report on the Fauna of Ireland;—W. Wills,
onthe Meteorology of Birmingham;—J. Thomson, on the Vortex- Water- Wheel ;—J. B. Lawes
and Dr. Gilbert, on the Composition of Foods in relation to Respiration and the Feeding of
Animals.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Colonel Sabine’s Address, and Recom-~
mendations of the Association and its Committees,
258
PROCEEDINGS or tHe TWENTY-THIRD MEETING, at Hull,
1853, Published at 10s. 6d.
Contents :—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1852-53;
—James Oldham, on the Physical Features of the Humber;—James Oldham, on the Rise,
Progress, and Present Position of Steam Navigation in Hull;—William Fairbairn, Experi-
mental Researches to determine the Strength of Locomotive Boilers, and the causes which
lead to Explosion ;—J. J. Sylvester, Provisional Report on the Theory of Determinants ;—
Professor Hodges, M.D., Report on the Gases evolved in Steeping Flax, and on the Composition
and Economy of the Flax Plant ;—Thirteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on the
Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Robert Hunt, on the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations;
—John P. Bell, M.D., Observations on the Character and Measurements of Degradation of the
Yorkshire Coast; First Report of Committee on the Physical Character of the Moon’s Sur-
face, as compared with that of the Earth;—R. Mallet, Provisional Report on Earthquake
Wave-Transits; and on Seismometrical Instruments ;—William Fairbairn, on the Mechanical
Properties of Metals as derived from repeated Meltings, exhibiting the maximum point of
strength and the causes of deterioration ;—Robert Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earth-
quake Phenomena (continued). ;
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Hopkins’s Address, and Recommenda-
tions of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tHE TWENTY-FOURTH MEETING, at Liver-
pool, 1854, Published at 18s.
ConTENTS:—R. Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena (continued) ;
—Major-General Chesney, on the Construction and General Use of Efficient Life-Boats;—Rev.
Prof. Powell, Third Report on the present State of our Knowledge of Radiant Heat ;—Colonel
Sabine, on some of the results obtained at the British Colonial Magnetic Observatories ;—
Colonel Portlock, Report of the Committee on Earthquakes, with their proceedings respecting
Seismometers ;—Dr. Gladstone, on the influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers
of Plants, Part 2;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1853-54;
—Second Report of the Committee on the Physical Character of the Moon’s Surface ;—W. G.
Armstrong, on the Application of Water-Pressure Machinery ;—J. B. Lawes and Dr. Gilbert,
on the Equivalency of Starch and Sugar in Food ;—Archibald Smith, on the Deviations of the
Compass in Wooden and Iron Ships ;—Fourteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on
the Growth and Vitality of Seeds.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Earl of Harrowby’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or ruzE TWENTY-FIFTH MEETING, at Glasgow,
1855, Published at 15s.
ConTENTS :—T. Dobson, Report on the Relation between Explosions in Coal- Mines and-
Revolving Storms;—Dr. Gladstone, on the Influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers
of Plants growing under different Atmospheric Conditions, Part 3;—C. Spence Bate, on the
British Edriophthalma ;—J. F. Bateman, on the present state of our knowledge on the Supply
of Water to Towns ;—Fifteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and
Vitality of Seeds ;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1854-55 ;
—Report of Committee appointed to inquire into the best means of ascertaining those pro-
perties of Metals and effects of various modes of treating them which are of importance to the
durability and efficiency of Artillery ;—Rev. Prof. Henslow, Report on Typical Objects in
Natural History ;—A. Follett Osler, Account of the Self-Registering Anemometer and Rain-
Gauge at the Liverpool Observatory ;—Provisional Reports.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Duke of Argyll’s Address, and Recom=
mendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tut TWENTY-SIXTH MEETING, at Chel-
tenham, 1856, Published at 18s.
ConTENTs :—Report from the Committee appointed to investigate and report upon the
effects produced upon the Channels of the Mersey by the alterations which within the last
fifty years have been made in its Banks;—J. Thomson, Interim Report on progress in Re-
searches on the Measurement of Water by Weir Boards ;—Dredging Report, Frith of Clyde,
1856 ;—Rev. B. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1855-1856 ;—Prof.
Bunsen and Dr. H. E. Roscoe, Photochemical Researches ;—Rev. James Booth, on the Trigo-
nometry of the Parabola, and the Geometrical Origin of Logarithms ;—R. MacAndrew, Report
259
on the Marine Testaceous Mollusca of the North-east Atlantic and Neighbouring Seas, and
the physical conditions affecting their development ;—P. P. Carpenter, Report on the present
state of our knowledge with regard to the Mollusca of the West Coast of North America ;—
T. C. Eyton, Abstract of First Report on the Oyster Beds and Oysters of the British Shores;
—Prof. Phillips, Report on Cleavage and Foliation in Rocks, and on the Theoretical Expla-
nations of these Phenomena: Part I. ;—-Dr. T. Wright on the Stratigraphical Distribution of
the Oolitic Echinodermata ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Tensile Strength of Wrought Iron at various
Temperatures ;—C, Atherton, on Mercantile Steam Transport Economy ;—J. S. Bowerbank, on
the Vital Powers of the Spongiade;—Report of a Committee upon the Experiments conducted
at Stormontfield, near Perth, for the artificial propagation of Salmon ;—Provisional Report on
the Measurement of Ships for Tonnage ;—On Typical Forms of Minerals, Plants and Animals
for Museums ;—J. Thomson, Interim Report on Progress in Researches on the Measure-
ment of Water by Weir Boards;—-R. Mallet, on Observations with the Seismometer ;—A.
Cayley, on the Progress of Theoretical Dynamics ;—Report of a Committee appointed to con~
sider the formation of a Catalogue of Philosophical Memoirs.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. Daubeny’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tuz TWENTY-SEVENTH MEETING, at
Dublin, 1857, Published at 15s.
ConTEnTs :—A. Cayley, Report on the Recent Progress of Theoretical Dynamics ;—Six-
teenth and final Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;
—James Oldham, C.E., continuation of Report on Steam Navigation at Hull;—Report of a
Committee on the Defects of the present methods of Measuring and Registering the Tonnage
of Shipping, as also of Marine Engine-Power, and to frame more perfect rules, in order that
a correct and uniform principle may be adopted to estimate the Actual Carrying Capabilities
and Working-Power of Steam Ships;—Robert Were Fox, Report on the Temperature of
some Deep Mines in Cornwall;—Dr. G. Plarr, De quelques Transformations de la Somme
—% qt|+1gt|+1gél+1
0 Wetl yet ft?
est exprimable par une combinaison de factorielles, la notation atl+1 désignant le produit des
t facteurs a (a+1) (a+2) &c....(a+¢—1);—G. Dickie, M.D., Report on the Marine Zoology
of Strangford Lough, County Down, and corresponding part of the Irish Channel ;—Charles
Atherton, Suggestions for Statistical Inquiry into the extent to which Mercantile Steam Trans-
port Economy is affected by the Constructive Type of Shipping, as respects the Proportions of
Length, Breadth, and Depth ;—J. S. Bowerbank, Further Report on the Vitality of the Spon-
giadz ;—John P. Hodges, M.D., on Flax ;—Major-General Sabine, Report of the Committee
on the Magnetic Survey of Great Britain;—Rev. Baden Powell, Report on Observations of
Luminous Meteors, 1856-57 ;—C. Vignoles, C.E., on the Adaptation of Suspension Bridges to
sustain the passage of Railway Trains ;—Professor W, A. Miller, M.D., on Electro-Chemistry ;
—John Simpson, R.N., Results of Thermometrical Observations made at the ‘ Plover’s’
Wintering-place, Point Barrow, latitude 71° 21’ N., long. 156° 17’ W., in 1852-54 ;—Charles
James Hargreave, LL.D., on the Algebraic Couple; and on the Equivalents of Indeterminate
Expressions;—Thomas Grubb, Report on the Improvement of Telescope and Equatorial
Mountings ;—Professor James Buckman, Report on the Experimental Plots in the Botanical
Garden of the Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester ;—William Fairbairn,on the Resistance
of Tubes to Collapse ;—George C. Hyndman, Report of the Proceedings of the Belfast Dredging
Committee ;—Peter W. Barlow, on the Mechanical Effect of combining Girders and Suspen-
sion Chains, and a Comparison of the Weight of Metal in Ordinary and Suspension Girders,
to produce equal deflections with a given load ;—J. Park Harrison, M.A., Evidences of Lunar
Influence on Temperature ;—Report on the Animal and Vegetable Products imported into
Liverpool from the year 1851 to 1855 (inclusive) ;—Andrew Henderson, Report on the Sta~
tistics of Life-boats and Fishing-boats on the Coasts*of the United Kingdom.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Rev. H. Lloyd’s Address, and Recommen-
dations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tut TWENTY-EIGHTH MEETING, at Leeds,
September 1858, Published at 20s.
ConTENTs:—R. Mallet, Fourth Report upon the Facts and Theory of Earthquake Phe-
nomena ;— Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1857-58 ;—R. H.
Meade, on some Points in the Anatomy of the Araneidea or true Spiders, especially on the
internal structure of their Spinning Organs ;—W. Fairbairn, Report of the Committee on the
Patent Laws ;—S. Eddy, on the lead Mining Districts of Yorkshire ;—W. Fairbairn, on the
a étant entier négatif, et de quelques cas dans lesquels cette somme
260
Collapse of Glass Globes and Cylinders ;—Dr. E. Perceval Wright and Prof. J. Reay Greene,
Report on the Marine Fauna of the South and West Coasts of Ireland ;—Prof. J. Thomson, on
Experiments on the Measurement of Water by Triangular Notches in Weir Boards ;—Major-
General Sabine, Report of the Committee on the Magnetic Survey of Great Britain ;—Michael
Connal and William Keddie, Report on Animal, Vegetable, and Mineral Substances imported
from Foreign Countries into the Clyde (including the Ports of Glasgow, Greenock, and Port
Glasgow) in the years 1853, 1854, 1855, 1856, and 1857 ;—Report of the Committee on Ship-
ping Statistics ;—Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D., Notice of the Instruments employed in the Mag-
netic Survey of Ireland, with some of the Results;—Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin
Dredging Committee, appointed 1857-58 ;—Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Report on Crustacea of Dub-
lin District; —Andrew Henderson, on River Steamers, their Form, Construction, and Fittings,
with reference to the necessity for improving the present means of Shallow- Water Navigation
on the Rivers of British India;—George C. Hyndman, Report of the Belfast Dredging Com-
mittee ;—Appendix to Mr. Vignoles’s paper ‘On the Adaptation of Suspension Bridges to sus-
tain the passage of Railway Trains ;”"—Report of the Joint Committee of the Royal Society and
the British Association, for procuring a continuance of the Magnetic and Meteorological Ob-
servatories;—R. Beckley, Description of a Self-recording Anemometer.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Owen’s Address, and Recommenda-
tions of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or true TWENTY-NINTH MEETING, at Aberdeen,
September 1859, Published at 15s.
ConTENTS :—George C. Foster, Preliminary Report on the Recent Progress and Present
State of Organic Chemistry ;—Professor Buckman, Report on the Growth of Plants in the
Garden of the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester;—Dr, A. Voelcker, Report on Field
Experiments and Laboratory Researches on the Constituents of Manures essential to cultivated
Crops ;—A. Thomson, Esq., of Banchory, Report on the Aberdeen Industrial Feeding Schools;
—On the Upper Silurians of Lesmahago, Lanarkshire ;—Alphonse Gages, Report on the Re-
sults obtained by the Mechanico-Chemical Examination of Rocks and Minerals ;—William
Fairbairn, Experiments to determine the Efficiency of Continuous and Self-acting Breaks for
Railway Trains ;—Professor J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin Bay Dredging Committee for
1858-59 ;—Rev. Baden Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors for 1858-59;
—Professor Owen, Report on a Series of Skulls of various Tribes of Mankind inhabiting
Nepal, collected, and presented to the British Museum, by Bryan H. Hodgson, Esq., late Re-
sident in Nepal, &c. &c. ;—Messrs. Maskelyne, Hadow, Hardwich, and Llewelyn, Report on
the Present State of our Knowledge regarding the Photographic Image ;—G. C. Hyndman,
Report of the Belfast Dredging Committee for 1859 ;—James Oldham, Continuation of Report
of the Progress of Steam Navigation at Hull;—Charles Atherton, Mercantile Steam Trans-
port Economy as affected by the Consumption of Coals;—Warren de la Rue, Report on the
present state of Celestial Photography in England ;—Professor Owen, on the Orders of Fossil
and Recent Reptilia, and their Distribution in Time ;—Balfour Stewart, on some Results of the
Magnetic Survey of Scotland in the years 1857 and 1858, undertaken, at the request of the
British Association, by the late John Welsh, Esq., F.R.S.;—W. Fairbairn, The Patent Laws:
Report of Committee on the Patent Laws;—J. Park Harrison, Lunar Influence on the Tem-
perature of the Air;—Balfour Stewart, an Account of the Construction of the Self-recording
Magnetographs at present in operation at the Kew Observatory of the British Association ;—
Prof. H. J. Stephen Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part I.;—Report of the
Committee on Steamship performance ;—Report of the Proceedings of the Balloon Committee
of the British Association appointed at the Meeting at Leeds ;—Prof. William K. Sullivan,
Preliminary Report on the Solubility of Salts at Temperatures above 100° Cent., and on the
Mutual Action of Salts in Solution.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prince Albert’s Address, and Recommenda«
tions of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tue THIRTIETH MEETING, at Oxford, June
and July 1860, Published at 15s.
CONTENTS :—James Glaisher, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1859-60 ;—
J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin Bay Dredging Committee ;—Rev. J. Anderson, Report on
the Excavations in Dura Den ;—Professor Buckman, Report on the Experimental Plots in the
Botanical Garden of the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester ;—Rev. R. Walker, Report of
the Committee on Balloon Ascents;—Prof. W. Thomson, Report of Committee appointed to
prepare a Self-recording Atmospheric Electrometer for Kew, and Portable Apparatus for ob-
serving Atmospheric Electricity ;—William Fairbairn, Experiments to determine the Effect of
261
Vibratory Action and long-continued Changes of Load upon Wrought-iron Girders ;—R. P.
Greg, Catalogue of Meteorites and Fireballs, from A.D. 2 to A.D. 1860 ;—Prof. H. J. S. Smith,
Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part II. ;—Vice-Admiral Moorsom, on the Performance of
Steam-vessels, the Functions of the Screw, and the Relations of its Diameter and Pitch to the
Form of the Vessel;—Rev. W. V. Harcourt, Report on the Effects of long-continued Heat,
illustrative of Geological Phenomena ;—Second Report of the Committee on Steamship Per-
formance ;—Interim Report on the Gauging of Water by Triangular Notches ;—List of the
British Marine Invertebrate Fauna.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Lord Wrottesley’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tut THIRTY-FIRST MEETING, at Manches-
ter, September 1861, Published at £1.
ConTENTS :—James Glaisher, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Dr. E.
Smith, Report on the Action of Prison Diet and Discipline on the Bodily Functions of Pri-
soners, Part I.;—-Charles Atherton, on Freight as affected by Differences in the Dynamic
Properties of Steamships ;—Warren De la Rue, Report on the Progress of Celestial Photo-
graphy since the Aberdeen Meeting ;—B. Stewart, on the Theory of Exchanges, and its re-
cent extension ;—Drs. E. Schunck, R. Angus Smith, and H. &, Roscoe, on the Recent Pro-
gress and Present Condition of Manufacturing Chemistry in the South Lancashire District ;—
Dr. J. Hunt, on Ethno-Climatology; or, the Acclimatization of Man ;—Prof. J. Thomson, on
Experiments on the Gauging of Water by Triangular Notches ;—Dr, A. Voelcker, Report on
Field Experiments and Laboratory Researches on the Constituents of Manures essential to
cultivated Crops ;—Prof. H. Hennessy, Provisional Report on the Present State of our Know-
ledge respecting the Transmission of Sound-signals during Fogs at Sea;—Dr. P. L. Sclater
and F. von Hochstetter, Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of the Birds of the
Genus Apteryx living in New Zealand ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Report of the Results of Deep-sea
Dredging in Zetland, with a Notice of several Species of Mollusca new to Science or to the
British Isles;—Prof. J. Phillips, Contributions to a Report on the Physical Aspect of the
Moon ;—W. R. Birt, Contribution to a Report on the Physical Aspect of the Moon;—Dr,
Collingwood and Mr. Byerley, Preliminary Report of the Dredging Committee of the Mersey
and Dee ;—Third Report of the Committee on Steamship Performance ;—J. G. Jeffreys,
Preliminary Report on the Best Mode of preventing the Ravages of Teredo and other Animals
in our Ships and Harbours ;—R. Mallet, Report on the Experiments made at Holyhead to
ascertain the Transit-Velocity of Waves, analogous to Earthquake Waves, through the local
Rock Formations ;—T. Dobson, on the Explosions in British Coal-Mines during the year 1859;
—4J. Oldham, Continuation of Report on Steam Navigation at Hull ;—Professor G. Dickie,
Brief Summary of a Report on the Flora of the North of Ireland ;—Professor Owen, on the
Psychical and Physical Characters of tlle Mincopies, or Natives of the Andaman Islands, and
on the Relations thereby indicated to other Races of Mankind ;—Colonel Sykes, Report of the
Balloon Committee ;—Major-General Sabine, Report on the Repetition of the Magnetic Sur-
vey of England;—Interim Report of the Committee for Dredging on the North and East
Coasts of Scotland ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Resistance of Iron Plates to Statical Pressure and
the Force of Impact by Projectiles at High Velocities ;—W. Fairbairn, Continuation of Report
to determine the effect of Vibratory Action and long-continued Changes of Load upon
Wrought-Iron Girders ;—Report of the Committee on the Law of Patents ;—Prof. H. J. 8.
Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part III.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Fairbairn’s Address, and Recommen-
dations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tue THIRTY-SECOND MEETING, at Cam-
bridge, October 1862, Published at £1.
ConTEnNTs :—James Glaisher, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1861-62 ;——
G. B. Airy, on the Strains in the Interior of Beams ;—Archibald Smith and F. J. Evans,
Report on the three Reports of the Liverpool Compass Committee ;—Report on Tidal Ob-
servations on the Number ;—T. Aston, on Rifled Guns and Projectiles adapted for Attacking
Armour-plate Defences ;—Extracts, relating to the Observatory at Kew, from a Report
presented to the Portuguese Government, by Dr. J. A. de Souza ;—H. T. Mennell, Report
on the Dredging of the Northumberland Coast and Dogger Bank ;—Dr. Cuthbert Colling-
wood, Report upon the best means of advancing Science through the agency of the Mercan-
tile Marine;—Messrs. Williamson, Wheatstone, Thomson, Miller, Matthiessen, and Jenkin,
Provisional Report on Standards of Electrical Resistance ;—Preliminary Report of the Com-
mittee for investigating the Chemical and Mineralogical Composition of the Granites of Do-
262
negal ;—Prof. H. Hennessy, on the Vertical Movements of the Atmosphere considered in
connexion with Storms and Changes of Weather ;—Report of Committee on the application
of Gauss’s General Theory of Terrestrial Magnetism to the Magnetic Variations ;—Fleeming
Jenkin, on Thermo-electric Currents in Circuits of one Metal;—W. Fairbairn, on the Me-
chanical Properties of Iron Projectiles at High Velocities ;—A. Cayley, Report on the Pro-
gress of the Solution of certain Special Problems of Dynamics ;—Prof. G. G. Stokes, Report
on Double Refraction ;—Fourth Report of the Committee on Steamship Performance ;—
G. J. Symons, on the Fall of Rain in the British Isles in 1860 and 1861 ;—J. Ball, on Ther-
mometric Observations in the Alps ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Report of the Committee for Dredging
on the N.and E. Coasts of Scotland ;—Report of the Committee on Technical and Scientific
Evidence in Courts of Law ;—James Glaisher, Account of Eight Balloon Ascents in 1862 ;—
Prof. H. J. S. Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part IV.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Rev. Prof. R. Willis’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tHe THIRTY-THIRD MEETING, at New-
castle-upon-Tyne, August and September 1863, Published at £1 5s.
Contents :—Report of the Committee on the Application of Gun-cotton to Warlike Pur-
poses;—A. Matthiessen, Report on the Chemical Nature of Alloys ;—Report of the Com-
mittee on the Chemical and Mineralogical Constitution of the Granites of Donegal, and of
the Rocks associated with them ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Report of the Commiitee appointed for
Exploring the Coasts of Shetland by means of the Dredge;—G. D. Gibb, Report on the
Physiological Effects of the Bromide of Ammonium ;—C. K. Aken, on the Transmutation of
Spectral Rays, Part I. ;—Dr. Robinson, Report of the Committee on Fog Signals ;—Report
of the Committee on Standards of Electrical Resistance ;—E. Smith, Abstract of Report by
the Indian Government on the Foods used by the Free and Jail Populations in India ;—A.
Gages, Synthetical Researches ou the Formation of Minerals, &c.;—R. Mallet, Preliminary
Report on the Experimental Determination of the Temperatures of Volcanic Foci, and of the
Temperature, State of Saturation, and Velocity of the issuing Gases and Vapours ;—Report
of the Committee on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Fifth Report of the Committee
on Steamship Performance ;—G. J. Allman, Report on the Present State of our Knowledge
of the Reproductive System in the Hydroida ;—J. Glaisher, Account of Five Balloon Ascents
made in 1863;—P. P. Carpenter, Supplementary Report on the Present State of our Know-
ledge with regard to the Mollusca of the West Coast of North America ;—Professor Airy,
Report on Steam-boiler Explosions;—C. W. Siemens, Observations on the Electrical Resist-
ance and Electrification of some Insulating Materials under Pressures up to 300 Atmo-
spheres ;—C. M. Palmer, on the Construction of Iron Ships and the Progress of Iren Ship-
building on the Tyne, Wear, and Tees ;—Messrs. Richardson, Stevenson, and Clapham, on
the Chemical Manufactures of the Northern Districts ;—Messrs. Sopwith and Richardson,
on the Local Manufacture of Lead, Copper, Zinc, Antimony, &c.;—Messrs. Daglish and
Forster, on the Magnesian Limestone of Durham ;—I. L. Bell, on the Manufacture of Iron
in connexion with the Northumberland and Durham Coal-field ;—T..Spencer, on the Manu-
facture of Steel in the Northern District ;—H. J. 8S. Smith, Report on the Theory of Num-
bers, Part V.
Together with ‘the Transactions of the Sections, Sir William Armstrong’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tHe THIRTY-FOURTH MEETING, at Bath,
September 1864, Published at 18s.
ConTENTS :—Report of the Committee for Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Report
of the Committee on the best means of providing for a Uniformity of Weights and Mea-
sures ;—T. S. Cobbold, Report of Experiments respecting the Development and Migration
of the Entozoa ;—B. W. Richardson, Report on the Physiological Action of Nitrite of Amy];
—J. Oldham, Report of the Committee on Tidal Observations ;—G. S. Brady, Report on
deep-sea Dredging on the Coasts of Northumberland and Durham in 1864 ;—J. Glaisher,
Account of Nine Balloon Ascents made in 1863 and 1864 ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Further Report
on Shetland Dredgings ;—Report of the Committee on the Distribution of the Organic
Remains of the North Staffordshire Coal-field;—Report of the Committee on Standards of
Electrical Resistance ;—G. J. Symons, on the Fall of Rain in the British Isles in 1862 and
1863 ;—W. Fairbairn, Preliminary Investigation of the Mechanical Properties of the pro-
posed Atlantic Cable.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir Charles Lyell’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.
.
|
263
PROCEEDINGS or rue THIRTY-FIFTH MEETING, at Birming-
ham, September 1865, Published at £1 5s.
Contents :—J. G. Jeffreys, Report on Dredging among the Channel Isles ;—F. Buckland,
Report on the Cultivation of Oysters by Natural and Artificial Methods ;—Report of the
Committee for exploring Kent’s Cavern ;—Report of the Committee on Zoological Nomen-
clature ;—Report on the Distribution of the Organic Remains of the North Staffordshire
Coal-field ;—Report on the Marine Fauna and Flora of the South Coast of Devon and Corn-
wall ;—Interim Report on the Resistance of Water to Floating and Immersed Bodies ;—Re-
port on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Report on Dredging on the Coast of Aberdeen-
shire ;—J. Glaisher, Account of Three Bailoon Ascents ;—Interim Report on the Transmis-
sion of Sound under Water ;—G. J. Symons, on the Rainfall of the British Isles ;—W. Fair-
bairn, on the Strength of Materials considered in relation to the Construction of Iron Ships ;
—Report of the Gun-Cotton Committee ;—A. F. Osler, on the Horary and Diurnal Variations
in the Direction and Motion of the Air at Wrottesley, Liverpool, and Birmmgham ;—B. W.
Richardson, Second Report on the Physiological Action of certain of the Amyl Compounds ;
—Report on further Researches in the Lingula-flags of South Wales ;—Report of the Lunar
Committee for Mapping the Surface of the Moon ;—Report on Standards of Electrical Re-
sistance ;—Report of the Committee appointed to communicate with the Russian Govern-
ment respecting Magnetical Observations at Tiflis ;—Appendix to Report on the Distribution
of the Vertebrate Remains from the North Staffordshire Coal-field;—H. Woodward, First
Report on the Structure and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea ;—H. J. S. Smith, Report
on the Theory of Numbers, Part VI.;—Report on the best means of providing for a Unifor-
mity of Weights and Measures, with reference to the interests of Science ;—A. G. Findlay,
on the Bed of the Ocean;—Professor A. W. Williamson, on the Composition of Gases
evolved by the Bath Spring called King’s Bath,
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Professor Phillips’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or rue THIRTY-SIXTH MEETING, at Notting-
ham, August 1866, Published at £1 4s.
Contents :—Second Report on Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire ;—A. Matthiessen, Preliminary
Report on the Chemical Nature of Cast Iron ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;
—W. S. Mitchell, Report on the Alum Bay Leaf-bed;—Report on the Resistance of Water
to Floating and Immersed Bodies ;—Dr. Norris, Report on Muscular Irritability ;—Dr.
Richardson, Report on the Physiological Action of certain compounds of Amy] and Ethyl;—
H. Woodward, Second Report on the Structure and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea ;—
Second Report on the “ Menevian Group,” and the other Formations at St. David’s, Pem-
brokeshire ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Report on Dredging among the Hebrides ;—Rey. A. M. Norman,
Report on the Coasts of the Hebrides, Part II. ;—J. Alder, Notices of some Invertebrata, in
connexion with Mr. Jeffreys’s Report ;—G. S. Brady, Report on the Ostracoda dredged
amongst the Hebrides ;—Report on Dredging in the Moray Firth ;—Report on the Transmis-
sion of Sound-Signals under Water ;—Report of the Lunar Committee ;—Report of the
Rainfall Committee ;—Report on the best means of providing for a Uniformity of Weights
and Measures, with reference to the Interests of Science ;—J. Glaisher, Account of Three Bal-
loon Ascents ;—Report on the Extinct Birds of the Mascarene Islands ;— Report on the pene-
tration of Iron-clad Ships by Steel Shot ;—J. A. Wanklyn, Report on Isomerism among the
Alcohols ;—Report on Scientific Evidence in Courts of Law ;—A. L. Adams, Second Report
on Maltese Fossiliferous Caves, &c.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Groye’s Address, and Recommendations
of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tue THIRTY-SEVENTH MEETING, at
Dundee, September 1867, Published at £1 6s.
Contents :—Report of the Committee for Mapping the Surface of the Moon ;—Third
Report on Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire ;—On the present State of the Manufacture of Iron
in Great Britain ;—Third Report on the Structure and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea;
—Report on the Physiological Action of the Methyl Compounds ;—Preliminary Report on
the Exploration of the Plant-Beds of North Greenland ;—Report of the Steamship Perform-
ance Committee ;—On the Meteorology of Port Louis in the Island of Mauritius ;—On the
Construction and Works of the Highland Railway ;—Experimental Researches on the Me-
264
chanical Properties of Steel ;—Report on the Marine Fauna and Flora of the South Coast of
Devon and Cornwall ;—Supplement to a Report on the Extinct Didine Birds of the Masca-
rene Islands ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Fourth Report on Dredging
among the Shetland Isles;—Preliminary Report on the Crustacea, &c., procured by the
Shetland Dredging Committee in 1867 ;—Report on the Foraminifera obtained in the Shet-
land Seas;—Second Report of the Rainfall Committee ;--Report on the best means of
providing for a Uniformity of Weights and Measures, with reference to the Interests of
Science ;—Report on Standards of Electrical Resistance.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, and Recommendations of the Association
and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tue THIRTY-EIGHTH MEETING, at Nor-
wich, August 1868, Published at £1 5s.
ConTENts :—Report of the Lunar Committee ;—Fourth Report on Kent’s Cavern, Devon-
shire ;—On Puddling Iron ;—Fourth Report on the Structure and Classification of the
Fossil Crustacea ;—Report on British Fossil Corals;—Report on Spectroscopic Investigations
of Animal Substances;— Report of Steamship Performance Committee ;—Spectrum Analysis
of the Heavenly Bodies ;—On Stellar Spectrometry ;—Report on the Physiological Action of
the Methyl and allied Compounds ;—Report on the Action of Mercury on the Biliary
Secretion ;—Last Report on Dredging among the Shetland Isles;—Reports on the Crustacea,
&c., and on the Annelida and Foraminifera from the Shetland Dredgings ;— Report on the
Chemical Nature of Cast Iron, Part I.;—Interim Report on the Safety of Merchant Ships
and their Passengers ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Preliminary Report
on Mineral Veins containing Organic Remains ;—Report on the. desirability of Explorations
between India and China;—Report of Rainfall Committee ;—Report on Synthetical Re-
searches on Organic Acids ;—Report on Uniformity of Weights and Measures ;—Report of the
Committee on Tidal Observations ;—Report of the Committee on Underground Temperature;
—Changes of the Moon’s Surface ;—Report on Polyatomic Cyanides.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. Hooker’s Address, and Recommenda-
tions of the Association and its Committees. j
PROCEEDINGS or raz THIRTY-NINTH MEETING, at Exeter, Au-
gust 1869, Published at £1 2s.
Contents :—Report on the Plant-beds of North Greenland ;—Report on the existing
knowledge on the Stability, Propulsion, and Sea-going Qualities of Ships;—Report on
Steam-boiler Explosions ;—Preliminary Report on the Determination of the Gases existing
in Solution in Well-waters;—The Pressure of Taxation on Real Property ;—On the Che-
mical Reactions of Light discovered by Prof. Tyndall ;—On Fossils obtained at Kiltorkan
Quarry, co. Kilkenny ;—Report of the Lunar Committee ;—Report on the Chemical Na-
ture of Cast Iron;—Report on the Marine Fauna and Flora of the south coast of Devon
and Cornwall;—Report on the Practicability of establishing ‘a Close Time” for the Protec-
tion of Indigenous Animals ;—Experimental Researches on the Mechanical Properties of
Steel;—Second Report on British Fossil Corals ;—Report of the Committee appointed to
get cut and prepared Sections of Mountain-limestone Corals for Photographing ;— Report on
the rate of Increase of Underground Temperature ;—Fifth Report on Kent’s Cavern, De-
vonshire ;—Report on the Connexion between Chemical Constitution and Physiological
Action ;—On Emission, Absorption, and Reflection of Obscure Heat ;—Report on Obser-
vations of Luminous Meteors ;—Report on Uniformity of Weights and Measures ;—Report on
the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Supplement to Second Report of the Steam-
ship-Performance Committee ;—Report on Recent Progress in Elliptic and Hyperelliptic
Functions ;—Report on Mineral Veins in Carboniferous Limestone and their Organic Con-
tents ;—Notes on the Foraminifera of Mineral Veins and the Adjacent Strata ;—Report of
the Rainfall Committee ;—Interim Report on the Laws of the Flow and Action of Water
containing Solid Matter in Suspension ;—Interim Report on Agricultural Machinery ;—
Report on the Physiological Action of Methyl and Allied Series ;—On the Influence of
Form considered in Relation to the Strength of Railway-axles and other portions of Machi-
nery subjected to Rapid Alterations of Strain ;—On the Penetration of Armour-plates with
Long Shells of Large Capacity fired obliquely ;—Report on Standardsof Electrical Resistance,
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Stokes’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.
265
PROCEEDINGS or tar FORTIETH MEETING, at Liverpool, Septem-
ber 1870, Published at 18s.
Conrents :—Report on Steam-boiler Explosions ;—Report of the Committee on the
Hematite Iron-ores of Great Britain and Ireland ;—Report on the Sedimentary Deposits of
the River Onny ;—Report on the Chemical Nature of Cast Iron ;—Report on the practica-
bility of establishing ‘‘ A Close Time” for the protection of Indigenous Animals ;—Report
on Standards of Electrical Resistance ;—Sixth Report on Kent’s Cavern ;—Third Report on
Underground Temperature ;—Second Report of the Committee appointed to get cut and
prepared Sections of Mountain-Limestone Corals ;—Second Report on the Stability, Pro-
pulsion, and Sea-going Qualities of Ships ;—Report on Earthquakes in Scotland ;—Report
on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Me-
teors, 1869-70 ;—Report on Recent Progress in Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Functions ;—
Report on Tidal Observations ;—On a new Steam-power Meter ;—Report on the Action of
the Methyl and Allied Series ;—Report of the Rainfall Committee ;—Report on the Heat
generated in the Blood in the process of Arterialization ;—Report on the best means of
providing for Uniformity of Weights and Measures.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Huxley’s Address, and Recommen-
dations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or rue FORTY-FIRST MEETING, at Edinburgh,
August 1871, Published at 16s.
ConTENTs :—Seventh Report on Kent’s Cayern ;—Fourth Report on Underground Tem-
perature ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1870-71 ;—Fifth Report on the
Structure and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea ;—Report for the purpose of urging on
Iler Majesty’s Government the expediency of arranging and tabulating the results of the
approaching Census in the three several parts of the United Kingdom in such a manner as
to admit of ready and effective comparison ;—Report for the purpose of Superintending the
publication of Abstracts of Chemical papers ;—Report of the Committee for discussing
Observations of Lunar Objects suspected of change ;—Second Provisional Report on the
Thermal Conductivity of Metals;—Report on the Rainfall of the British Isles ;—Third
Report on the British Fossil Corals ;—Report on the Heat generated in the Blood during the
process of Arterialization ;—Report of the Committee appointed to consider the subject of
. physiological Experimentation ;— Report on the Physiological Action of Organic Chemical
Compounds ;—Report of the Committee appointed to get cut and prepared Sections of
Mountain-Limestone Corals ;—Second Report on Steam-Boiler Explosions ;—Report on the
Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Report on promoting the Foundation of Zoological
Stations in different parts of the World ;—Preliminary Report on the Thermal Equivalents of
the Oxides of Chlorine ;—Report on the practicability of establishing a ‘Close Time” for
the protection of Indigenous Animals ;—Report on Earthquakes in Scotland; Report on
the best means of providing for a Uniformity of Weights and Measures ;—Report on Tidal
Observations.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir William Thomson’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or rae FORTY-SECOND MEETING, at
Brighton, August 1872, Published at £1 4s.
Contents :—Report on the Gaussian Constants for the Year 1829 ;—Second Supplemen-
tary Report on the Extinct Birds of the Mascarene Islands ;—Report of the Committee for
Superintending the Monthly Reports of the Progress of Chemistry ;—Report of the Com-
mittee on the best means of providing for a Uniformity of Weights and Measures ;—Eighth
Report on Kent’s Cavern ;—Report on promoting the Foundation of Zoological Stations in
different parts of the World ;—Fourth Report on the Fauna of South Devon ;—Preliminary
Report of the Committee appointed to Construct.and Print Catalogues of Spectral Rays
arranged upon a Scale of Wave-numbers ;—Third Report on Steam-Boiler Explosions ;—
Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1871-72 ;—Experiments on the Surface-
friction experienced by a Plane moving through water;—Report of the Committee on the
Antagonism between the Action of Active Substances ;—Fifth Report on Underground
Temperature ;—Preliminary Report of the Committee on Siemens’s Electrical-Resistance
Pyrometer ;—Fourth Report on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Interim Report
of the Committee on Instruments for Measuring the Speed of Ships and Currents ;—Report
on the Rainfall of the British Isles ;—Report of the Committee on a Geographical Explora.
tion of the Country of Moab ;—Sur l’élimination des Fonctions Arbitraires ;— Report on the
266
Discovery of Fossils in certain remote parts of the North-western Highlands ;—Report of the
Committee on Earthquakes in Scotland ;—Fourth Report on Carboniferous-Limestone Corals;
—Report of the Committee to consider the mode in which new Inventions and Claims for
Reward in respect of adopted Inventions are examined and dealt with by the different
Departments of Government ;—Report of the Committee for discussing Observations of
Lunar Objects suspected of change ;—Report on the Mollusca of Europe;—Report of the
Committee for investigating the Chemical Constitution and Optical Properties of Essential
Oils ;—Report on the practicability of establishing a “ Close Time” for the preservation
of indigenous animals ;—Sixth Report on the Structure and Classification of Fossil Crustacea ;
—Report of the Committee to organize an Expedition for observing the Solar Eclipse of Dec.
12, 1871; Preliminary Report of a Committee on Terato-embryological Inquiries ;—Report
on Recent Progressin Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Functions ;—Report on Tidal Observations ;
—On the Brighton Waterworks ;—On Amsler’s Planimeter.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. Carpenter's Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or rae FORTY-THIRD MEETING, at Bradford,
September, 1873, Published at £1 5s.
CoxTENTs :—Report of the Committee on Mathematical Tables ;—Observations on the
Application of Machinery to the cutting of Coal in Mines ;—Concluding Report on the
Maltese Fossil Elephants ;—Report of the Committee for ascertaining the existence in diffe-
rent parts of the United Kingdom of any Erratic Blocks or Boulders ;—Fourth Report on
Earthquakes in Scotland ;—Ninth Report on Kent’s Cavern;—On the Flint and Chert
Implements found in Keni’s Cavern ;—Report for investigating the Chemical Consti-
tution and Optical Properties of Essential Oils ;—Report of inquiry into the Method of
making Gold-assays ;—Fifth Report for the Selection and Nomenclature of Dynamical
and Electrical Units ;—Report of the Committee on the Labyrinthodonts of the Coal-
measures ;—Report of the Committee to construct and print Catalogues of Spectral Rays ;
—Report for the purpose of exploring the Settle Caves ;—Sixth Report on Underground
Temperature ;—Report on the Rainfall of the British Isles ;—Seventh Report on Researches
in Fossil Crustacea ;—Report on Recent Progress in Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Functions ;—
Report on the desirability of establishing a ‘‘ Close time”’ for the preservation of indigenous
animals ;—Report on Luminous Meteors ;—On the visibility of the dark side of Venus ;—
Report of the Committee for the foundation of Zoological Stations in different parts of the
world ;—Second Report of the Committee for collecting Fossils from North-western Scot-
land ;—Fifth Report on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage;—Report of the Com-
mittee on Monthly Reports of the Progress of Chemistry ;—On the Bradford Waterworks ;—
Report on the possibility of Improving the Methods of Instruction in Elementary Geometry ;
—Interim Report of the Committee on Instruments for Measuring the Speed of Ships, &c.;
—Report of the Committee for Determinating High Temperatures by means of the Refran-
gibility of Light, evolved by Fluid or Solid Substances ;—On a periodicity of Cyclones and
Rainfall in connexion with Sun-spot periodicity ;—Fifth Report on the Structure of Carbo-
niferous-Limestone Corals;—Report of the Committee on preparing and publishing brief
forms of Instructions for Travellers, Ethnologists, &c.;—Preliminary Note from the Com-
mittee on the Influence of Forests on the Rainfall ;—Report of Sub-Wealden Exploration ;—
Report of the Committee on Machinery for obtaining a Record of the Roughness of the Sea
and Measurement of Waves near shore ;—Report on Science-Lectures and Organization ;—
Second Report on Science-Lectures and Organization.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Professor H. J. S. Smith’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
Printed by Taylor and Francis, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street,
BRITISH ASSOCIATION
FOR
THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.
RSL
OF
OFFICERS, COUNCIL, AND MEMBERS,
CORRECTED TO APRIL 1875.
a tes heel “4
i
7 i
-
Lee ;
ase CTU MEAP aI POGTOS
avy Re Ket Pp fs TAL eRS ; ,
MORELIA 9 TAO
ORTH Mie 0 A) PLO POO aa
OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1874-75.
PRESIDENT.
PROFESSOR J. TYNDALL, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.
VICE-PRESIDENTS.
The 3 Hon. the EARL OF ENNISKILLEN, D.C.L., {The Rey. P. SHuLpAM Henry, D.D., M.R.1LA.
F.R.S., F.G.S. President, Queen’s College, Belfast.
The Right Hon. the EARL oF Rosse, D.C.L., | Dr. T. ANDREWS, F.R.S., Hon. F.R.S.E., F.C.S.
FE.R.S., F.R.A.S. Rey. Dr. Roprinson, F.R.S8., F.R.A.S.
Sir R1icHARD WALLACE, Bart., M.P. Professor StoKEs, M.A., D.C.L., Sec.R.8.
PRESIDENT ELECT.
SIR JOHN HAWKSHAW, C.E., F.R.S., F.G.8.
VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.
The Right Hon. the EArt oF Ducre, F.R.S., | Major-General Sir Henry C. RAWLINSON, K.C.B.,
F.G.8. LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
The Right Hon. Sir SrArrorp H. Norrucore, | Dr. W. B. CARPENTER, LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.8.
Bart., C.B., M.P., F.R.S. W. SANDERS, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S.
The MAyor oF BRISTOL (1874-75).
LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT BRISTOL.
W. LAnt CARPENTER, Esq., B.A., B.Sc., F.C.8.
JOHN H. CLARKE, Esq.
LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT BRISTOL.
PROCTOR BAKER, Esq.
ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
BATEMAN, J. F., Esq., F.R.S. MAXWELL, Professor J. CLERK, F.R.S.
BeEppok, Dr. Joun, F.R.S. MERRIFIELD, C. W., Esq., F.R.S.
BRAMWELL, F. J., Esq., C.E., F.R.S. OmMMANNEY, Admiral E., C.B., F.R.S.
Desvs, Dr. H., F.R.S. PENGELLY, W., Esq., F.R.S.
DE La RuE, WARREN, Esq., D.C.L., F.R.S. PLAYFAIR, Rt.Hon. Dr.Lyon, C.B.,M.P.,F.R.8.
Farr, Dr. W., F.R.S. PRESTWICH, J., Esq., F.R.S.
Firon, J. G., Esq., M.A. Roscok, Prof. H. E., Ph.D., F.R.8.
FLOWER, Professor W. H., F.R.S. RUSSELL, Dr. W. J., F.R.S. zi
Foster, Prof. G. C., F.R.8. ScxiaTer, Dr. P. L., F.R.S.
GassiotT, J. P., Esq., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S. SIEMENS, C. W., Esq., D.C.L., F.R.S.
JEFFREYS, J. Gwyn, Esq., F.R.S. Smiru, Professor H. J. 8., F.R.S.
LocxyER, J. N., Esq., EARS. STRACHEY, Major-General, F.R.S.
MASKELYNE, Prof. N. 8., M.A., F.R.S.
CENERAL SECRETARIES.
Capt. DovGLAs GALTon, C.B., R.E., F.R.S., F.G.S., 12 Chester Street, Grosvenor Place, London, §.W.
Dr, MICHAEL Foster, F.R.S8., F.C.8., Trinity College, Cambridge.
ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.
GEORGE GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., F.C.S., Harrow-on-the-hill, Middlesex.
GENERAL TREASURER.
Professor A. W. WILLIAMSON, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., University College, London, W.C.
EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents and
Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former years,
the General Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurer and Secretaries for the
ensuing Meeting.
TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).
General Sir Epwarp SABINE, K.C.B., R.A., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Sir PHILIP DE M. GREY-EGERTON, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.G.8.
Sir Joun Lusgocx, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.L.S.
PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS.
The Duke of Devonshire. The Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D. Professor Stokes, M.A., D.C.L.
The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D. Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L. Prof. Huxley, LL.D., Sec. R.S.
Sir G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal. | Sir W. G. Armstrong, O.B., LL.D. | Prof. Sir W. Thomson, D.C.L.
General Sir E. Sabine, K.C.B. Sir William R. Grove, F.R.S8. Dr. Carpenter, F.R.S.
The Earl of Harrowby. The Duke of Buccleuch, K.B. Prof. Williamson, Ph.D., F.R.S.
The Duke of Argyll. Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, D.C.L.
GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS.
F. Galton, Esq., F.R.S. Gen. Sir E. Sabine, K.C.B., F.R.8. | Dr. T. Thomson, F.R.S.
Dr. T. A. Hirst, F.R.8. W. Spottiswoode, Esq., F.R.S.
A\VDITORS,
Professor Sylvester, F.R.S. J. Evans, Esq., F.R.S. Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S.
- WA etme
Tine ear
LIST OF MEMBERS
OF THE
BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT
OF SCIENCE.
1875.
* indicates Life Members entitled to the Annual Report.
§ indicates Annual Subscribers entitled to the Annual Report.
} indicates Subscribers not entitled to the Annual Report.
Names without any mark before them are Life Members not
entitled to the Annual Report.
Names of Members of the GeNERAL COMMITTEE are printed in
SMALL CAPITALS.
Names of Members whose addresses are incomplete or not known
are in ztalics.
Notice of changes of Residence should be sent to the Assistant General Secretary,
22 Albemarle Street, London, W.
Year of
Election.
1866.
1863.
1856.
1873.
1863.
1873.
1860.
1873.
1854.
1873.
1869.
1860,
1872.
Abbatt, Richard, F.R.A.S. Marlborough-house, Woodberry Down,
Stoke Newington, London, N.
tAbbott, George J., United States Consul, Sheffield and Nottingham.
*ABEL, Freprrick Augustus, F.R.S., F.C.S., Director of the
Chemical Establishment of the War Department. Royal Arsenal,
Woolwich, 8.1.
fAbercrombie, John, M.D. 13 Suffolk-square, Cheltenham.
tAbercrombie, William. 5 Fairmount, Bradford, Yorkshire.
*Abernethy, James. 4 Delahay-street, Westminster, London, S.W.
tAbernethy, James. Ferry-hill, Aberdeen.
tAbermethy, Robert. Ferry-hill, Aberdeen.
*Abney, Captain, R.E., F.R.A.S., F.C.S. St. Margaret’s, Rochester.
tAbraham, John. 87 Bold-street, Liverpool. ;
§Ackroyd, Samuel. Greayes-street, Little Horton, Bradford, York-
shire.
tAcland, Charles T. D. Sprydoncote, Exeter.
*AcLAND, Henny W. D., M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., Re-
gius Professor of Medicine in the University of Oxford. Broad-
street, Oxford.
fActanp, Sir THomas Dyke, Bart., M.A., D.C.L., M-P. Sprydon-
cote, Exeter; and Atheneum Club, London, 8.W.
Adair, John. 15 Merrion-square North, Dublin.
fApams, A. Lrrru, M.A., M.B., F.R.S., F.G.S., Staff Surgeon-
Major. 80 Bloomfield-street, Westbourme-terrace, W.; and
Junior United Service Club, Charles-street, St. James’s, S.W.
*ApaAms, JoHN Coucn, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Director of.
the Observatory and Lowndsean Professor of Astronomy and
Geometry in the University of Cambridge, The Observatory,
Cambridge,
B
2
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1871.
1869.
1873,
1860.
1865.
1845.
1864,
1871.
1842,
1871,
1859,
1871.
1862.
1861.
1872.
1857,
1859,
1873.
1858.
1850.
1867,
1863,
1859,
1871.
- 1871.
1861.
1852.
1863,
1844,
1873,
§Adams, John R. 15 Old Jewry Chambers, London, E.C.
*A DAMS, WILLIAM Grvyiis, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.8., Professor of Natural
Philosophy and Astronomy in King’sCollege, London. 9 Notting-
hill-square, London, W.
§Adams-Acton, John. Margutta House, 103 Marylebone-road, N.W.
ADDERLEY, The Right Hon. Sir CHArtes Bowyzr, M.P. Hams-
hall Coleshill, Warwickshire.
Adelaide, Augustus Short, D.D,, Bishop of. South Australia.
*Adie, Patrick. Grove Cottage, Barnes, London, S.W.
*Adkins, Henry. The Firs, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tAinslie, Rev. G., D.D., Master of Pembroke College. Pembroke
Lodge, Cambridge.
*Ainsworth, David. The Flosh, Cleator, Whitehaven.
*Ainsworth, John Stirling. The Flosh, Cleator, Whitehaven,
Ainsworth, Peter. Smithills Hall, Bolton.
*Ainsworth, Thomas. The Flosh, Cleator, Whitehaven.
tAinsworth, William M. The Flosh, Cleator, Whitehaven.
jArrum, The Right Hon, the Earl of, K.T, Holly Lodge, Campden
Hill, London, W. ; and Airlie Castle, Forfarshire.
Airy, Sir Grorcr Bropetnt, K.C.B., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S., Astronomer Royal. The Royal Observatory, Green-
wich, 8.H.
§Aitken, John. Darroch, Falkirk, N.B.
Algoyd, Edward. Banlkfield, Halifax,
fAucock, Sir Rurwerrorp, K.C.B. The Atheneum Club, Pall
Mall, London, S.W.
tAlcock, Thomas, M.D. Side Brook, Salemoor, Manchester.
*Alcock, Thomas, M.D. Oaltfield, Ashton-on-Mersey, Manchester,
*Aldam, William. Frickley Hall, near Doncaster.
ALDERSON, Sir Jamus, M.A., M.D., D.C.L., F.R.8., Consulting Phy-
sician to St. Mary’s Hospital. 17 Berkeley-square, London,
Wi
fAldridge, John, M.D. 20 Ranelagh-road, Dublin.
JALEXANDER, Major-General Sir James Epwarp, C.B., K.C.LS.,
F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.S.E. Westerton, Bridge of Allan, N.B.
tAlexander, Reginald, M.D, 13 Hallfield-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.
tALEXANDER, Witi1AM, M.D. Halifax.
fAlexander, Rey. William Lindsay, D.D., F.R.S.E. Pinkieburn, Mus-
selburgh, by Edinburgh.
tAlison, George L, C. Dundee.
tAllan, Miss.
tAllan, Alexander, Scottish Central Railway, Perth.
fAllan, G., C.E. 17 Leadenhall-street, London, E.C.
Allan, William.
§Allen, Alfred H., F.C.S. 1 Surrey-street, Sheffield,
fAllen, Richard. Didsbury, near Manchester.
Allen, William. -50 Henry-street, Dublin.
*ALLEN, Witi1AM J, C., Secretary to the Royal Belfast Academical
Institution. Ulster Bank, Belfast.
tAllhusen, C. Elswick Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*Allis, Thomas, F.L.S. Osbaldwick Hall, near York,
*ALLMAN, Grorae J., M.D.,F.R.S.L,&E.,M.R.LA., F.L.S., Emeritus
Professor of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh.
21 Marlborough-road, London, N.W.; and Athenzeum Club,
London, S.W.
*Ambler, Henry, Watkinson Hall, near Halifax.
§Ambler, John, North-park-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 3
Year of
Election.
1850, {Anderson, Charles William. Cleadon, South Shields.
1871. *Anderson, James. Battlefield House, Langside, Glasgow.
1852. {Anderson, Sir James.
1850,
1874,
1859,
1870,
1853,
1857.
1859,
1868.
1870.
1855.
1874,
1851.
1865.
1861.
1867.
1875.
1874.
1857.
1868,
1871.
1870.
1853.
1870.
1874,
1873.
1842,
1866.
1861.
1861.
1861.
1872.
tAnderson, John, 31 St. Bernard’s-crescent, Edinburgh.
§Anderson, John, J.P. Holywood, Belfast.
tAnvDERSON, Parrick. 15 King-street, Dundee.
tAnderson, Thomas Darnley. West Dingle, Liverpool.
*Anderson, William (Yr.). 2 Lennox-street, Edinburgh.
*AnDREWS, THomas, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Hon. F.R.S.E., M.R.LA,,
Vice-President and Professor of Chemistry, Queen’s College,
Belfast. Queen’s College, Belfast.
tAndrews, William. The Hill, Monkstown, Co. Dublin,
tAngus, John. Town House, Aberdeen.
*ANSTED, Davin Tuomas, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S8., F.R.G.S. 4 West-
minster Chambers, Westminster, S.W.; and Melton, Suffolk,
Anthony, John, M.D. Caius College, Cambridge.
APpJOHN, Jamus, M.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA., Professor of Mineralogy
at Dublin University. South Hill, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.
TAppleby, C. J. Emerson-street, Bankside, Southwark, London,
Hh.
tArcher, Francis, jun. 38 Brunswick-street, Liverpool.
*ARCHER, Professor THomas C., F.R.S.E., Director of the Museum
of Science and Art. West Newington House, Edinburgh.
§Archer, William, St. Brendau’s, Grosvenor-road East, Rathmines,
Dublin.
ARGYLL, His Grace the Duke of, K.T., LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E., F.G.S.
Argyll Lodge, Kensington, London, W.; and Inyerary, Argyle-
shire.
tArmitage, J. W., M.D. 9 Huntriss-row, Scarborough.
§Armitage, William. 7 Meal-street, Mosley-street, Manchester.
*Armitstead, George. Errol Park, Errol, N.B.
§Armstrong, Henry E., Ph.D., F.C.S, London Institution, Finsbury-.
circus, H.C.
§Armstrong, James T., F.C.S. 17 The Willows, Breck-road, Liver-
ool,
eisteong, Thomas. Higher Broughton, Manchester.
*ArmsTRONG, Sir Witi1am Grorer, C.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S,
8 Great George-street, London, 8.W.; and Elswick Works,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tArnold, Edward, F.C.S. Prince of Wales-road, Norwich.
tArnot, William, F.C.S. St. Margaret’s, Kirkintilloch, N.B.
§Arnott, Thomas Reid. Bramshill, Harlesden Green, N.W.
*Arthur, Rey. William, M.A. Clapham Common, London, 8. W.
*Ash, Dr. T. Linnington. Holsworthy, North Devon.
§Ashe, Isaac, M.B. District Asylum, Londonderry.
§Ashton, John. Gorse Bank House, Windsor-road, Oldham.
*Ashton, Thomas, M.D. 8 Royal Wells-terrace, Cheltenham,
Ashton, Thomas. Ford Bank, Didsbury, Manchester.
tAshwell, Henry. Mount-street, New Basford, Nottingham.
*Ashworth, Edmund. Egerton Hall, Bolton-le-Moors.
Ashworth, Henry. Turton, near Bolton.
tAspland, Alfred. Dukinfield, Ashton-under-Lyne.
Ae Algernon Sydney. Glamorgan House, Durdham Down,
ristol.
§Asquith, J. R. Infirmary-street, Leeds,
{Aston, Thomas. 4 Elm-court, Temple, London, E.C,
§Atchison, Arthur T, Rose-hill, Dorking,
B2
4
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1873.
1858.
1866.
1865.
1861.
1865.
1863.
1858.
1342,
1861.
1858.
1863.
1860.
1865.
1867,
1853.
1863.
1870,
1865.
1855,
1866,
1866.
1857,
1873.
1865,
1858.
1865,
1858.
1866.
1858.
1865.
L861.
1865.
1849,
1863.
1860.
1851.
1871,
1871.
{Atchison, D. G. Tyersall Hall, Yorkshire.
tAtherton, Charles. Sandover, Isle of Wight.
tAtherton, J. H., F.C.S. Long-row, Nottingham.
tAtkin, Alfred. Griffin’s-hill, Birmingham.
tAtkin, Eli. Newton Heath, Manchester.
*ATKINSON, HpmunND, I’.C.S. 8 The Terrace, York Town, Surrey.
*Atkinson, G. Clayton. 2 Windsor-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*Atkinson, John Hastings, 14 Hast Parade, Leeds.
*Atkinson, Joseph Beavington. Stratford House, 115 Abingdon-road,
Kensington, London, W.
tAtkinson, Rey. J. A. Longsight Rectory, near Manchester.
Atkinson, William. Claremont, Southport.
*ATTFIELD, Professor J., Ph.D., F.C.S. 17 Bloomsbury-square,
London, W.C.
*Austin-Gourlay, Rev. William EK. C., M.A. Stoke Abbott Rectory,
Beaminster, Dorset.
*Avery, Thomas. Church-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tAvison, Thomas, F.S.A, Fulwood Park, Liverpool.
*Ayrton, W.5., F.S.A. Cliffden, Saltburn-by-the-Sea.
*BABINGTON, CHARLES CarDALy, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.8., Pro-
fessor of Botany in the University of Cambridge. 5 Brookside,
Cambridge.
Bache, Rey. Samuel. 74 Beaufort-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
Backhouse, Edmund. Darlington.
Backhouse, Thomas James. Sunderland.
{Backhouse, T, W. West Hendon House, Sunderland.
§Bailey, Dr. F. J. 51 Grove-street, Liverpool.
{Bailey, Samuel, F.G.8. The Peck, Walsall.
{Bailey, William. MHorseley Fields Chemical Works, Wolver-
hampton.
{Baillon, Andrew. St. Mary’s Gate, Nottingham.
{Baillon, L. St. Mary’s Gate, Nottingham.
{Barry, Wiwi1Am Heviimr, }.L.8., ¥.G.8., Acting Paleontologist to
the Geological Survey of Ireland. 14 Hume-street ; and Apsley
Lodge, 92 Rathgar-road, Dublin.
§Bain, James. 3 Park-terrace, Glasgow.
{Baiy, Rey. W. J. Glenlark Villa, Leamington.
*Bainbridge, Robert Walton. Middleton House, Middleton-in-Tees-
dale, by Darlingtun.
*Barnes, Kpwarp. elgraye-imausions, Grosvenor-gardens, London
S.W.; and St. Ann’s-hill, Burley, Leeds.
{Baines, Frederick. Burley, near Leeds.
{Barnes, THomas, F.R.G.S. 35 Austen-street, King’s Lynn,
Norfolk.
{Baines, T. Blackburn. ‘Mercury’ Office, Leeds.
§Baker, Francis B. Sherwood-street, Nottingham.
*Baker, Henry Granville. Bellevue, Horsforth, near Leeds,
{Baker. James P. Wolverhampton.
*Baker, John. Gatley-hill, Cheadle, Manchester.
{Baker, Robert LL. barham House, Leamington.
*Baker, William. 63 Gloucester-place, Hyde Park, London, W.
§Baker, William. 6 Taptonville, Sheffield.
{Balding, James, M.R.C.S. Barkway, Royston, Hertfordshire
*Baldwin, The Hon. Robert.
{Balfour, Francis Maitland, Trinity College, Cambridge.
*Balfour, G.W. Whittinghame, Prestonkirk, Scotland,
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Cr
Year of
Election.
1859.
*Batrour, Joun Hutton, M.D., M.A., F.R.S. L. & E., F.L.S., Pro-
fessor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh. 27 Inverleith-
row, Edinburgh.
*Baxx, Joun, M.A., F.RS., F.LS., M.R.LA. 10 Southwell-gardens,
South Kensington, London, W.
. *Barn, Rosert Stawert, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Andrews Professor
of Astronomy in the University of Dublin, and Royal Astro-
nomer. The Observatory, Dunsink, Co. Dublin.
. {Ball, Thomas. Bramcote, Nottingham.
*Ball, William. Bruce-groye, Tottenham, London, N.; and Glen
, oA eae! , ’ ?
Rothay, near Ambleside, Westmoreland.
. {Balmain, William H., F.C.S. Spring Cottage, Great St. Helens,
Lancashire.
. {Bamber, Henry K.,F.C.S. 5 Westminster-chambers, Victoria-street,
Westminster, 8. W.
. *Bangay, Frederick Arthur. Cheadle, Cheshire.
. [Bangor, Viscount. Castleward, Co. Down, Ireland.
. {Banister, Rev. Wrii1am, B.A. St. James’s Mount, Liverpool.
. {Bannerman, James Alexander. Limefield Tiouse, Higher Broughton,
near Manchester.
. Barber, John. Long-row, Nottingham.
. *Barbour, George. Kingslee, Farndon, Chester.
. tBarbour, George F. 11 George-square, Edinburgh.
*Barbour, Robert. Bolesworth Castle, Tattenhall, Chester.
. tBarclay, Andrew. Kilmarnock, Scotland.
Barclay, Charles, F.S.A., M-R.A.S. Bury-hill, Dorking.
. {Barclay, George. 17 Coates-crescent, Edinburgh.
Barclay, James. Catrine, Ayrshire.
. *Barclay, J. Gurney. 54 Lombard-street, London, E.C.
. *Barclay, Robert.
. *Barclay, W. L. 54 Lombard-street, London, E.C.
. *Barford, James Gale, F.C.S. Wellington College, Wokingham,
Berkshire.
. *Barker, Rey. Arthur Alcock, B.D. East Bridgford Rectory,
Notts.
. {Barker, John, M.D., Curator of the Royal College of Surgeons of
Treland. Waterloo-road, Dublin.
{Barker, Stephen. 30 Frederick-street, Edgbaston, Birmingham,
. {Barkuy, Sir Henry, K.C.B., F.R.S. Governor of Cape Colony
and Dependencies. Cape of Good Hope.
. {Barlow, Crawford, B.A. 2 Old Palace-yard, Westminster, S.W.
- Barlow, Lieut.-Col. Maurice (14th Regt. of Foot). 5 Great George-
street, Dublin.
Barlow, Peter. 5 Great George-street, Dublin.
. {Bartow, Prrer Witiiam, F.R.S., F.G.8. 8 Eliott-place, Black-
heath, London, 8.E.
. {Bartow, W. H., C.E., F.R.S, 2 Old Palace-yard, Westminster,
S.W
Q *Barnard, Major R. Cary, F.L.S. Bartlow, Leckhampton, Chelten-
ham.
. §Barnes, Richard H. (Care of Messrs. Collyer, 4 Bedford-row, London,
W.C.)
Barnes, Thomas Addison. 40 Chester-street, Wrexham.
* Barnett, Richard, M.R.C.S.
{Barr, Major-General, Bombay Army. Culter House, near Aber-
ge Ronee Forbes, Forbes & Co., 9 King William-street,
ondon.
6
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1861.
1860.
1872.
1852.
1874,
1874,
1866.
1858.
1862.
1858,
1855.
1858.
1873.
1868.
1857.
1852.
1864.
1870.
1861.
1866.
1866.
1869,
1871.
1848.
1875.
1868.
1842.
1864,
1852.
1851.
1863.
1869.
1863.
1861.
1867.
1867.
1870.
1867.
1868.
1851.
1866,
1854,
*Barr, William R.,F.G.8. Fernside, Cheadle Hulme, Cheshire.
{Barrett, T. B. High-street, Welshpool, Montgomery. ;
*BaRRETT, Professor W. F., F.C.S. Royal College of Science,
Dublin.
{Barrington, Edward. Fassaroe Bray, Co. Wicklow.
§Barrington, R. M. Fassaroe, Bray, Co. Wicklow.
§Barrington- Ward, Mark J., B.A., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. Kenwood, Shef-
field.
{Barron, William. Elvaston Nurseries, Borrowash, Derby.
{Barry, Rey. A., D.D., D.C.L., Principal of King’s College,
London, W.C.
*Barry, Charles. 15 Pembridge-square, Bayswater, London, W.
Barstow, Thomas. Garrow-hill, near York.
*Bartholomew, Charles. Castle-hill House, Ealing, Middlesex, W.
tBartholomew, Hugh. New Gas-works, Glasgow.
snag William Hamond. Albion Villa, Spencer-place,
eeds.
§Bartley, George C. T. Ealing, Middlesex.
*Barton, Edward (27th Inniskillens), Clonelly, Ireland.
{Barton, Folloit W. Clonelly, Co. Fermanagh.
{Barton, James. Farndreg, Dundalk.
{Bartrum, John 8. 41 Gay-street, Bath.
§BarucHson, ARNOLD. Blundell Sands, near Liverpool.
*Bashforth, Rey. Francis, B.D. Minting Vicarage, near Horncastle.
{Bass, John H., F.G.S. 287 Camden-road, London, N.
*BasseTT, Henry. 215 Hampstead-road, London, N.W.
{Bassett, Richard. Pelham-street, Nottingham.
{Bastard, S.S. Summerland-place, Exeter.
{Bastran, H. Cuariron, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.8., Professor of
Pathological Anatomy at University College Hospital. 20
Queen Anne-street, London, W.
{Bare, C. Spence, F.R.S., F.L.8. 8 Mulgrave-place, Plymouth.
*Bateman, Daniel. Low Moor, near Bradford, Yorkshire.
{Bateman, Frederick, M.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
Bateman, James, M.A., F.R.S., F.LS., F.H.S, 9 Hyde Park
Gate South, London, W.
*BATEMAN, JOHN FREpERIC, C.E., F.R.S., F.G.S. 16 Great George-
street, London, 8. W.
{Bares, Henry Watrter, Assist.-Sec. R.G.S., F.L.S, 1 Savile-row,
London, W.
{Bateson, Sir Robert, Bart. Belvoir Park, Belfast.
{Baru anp WE Ls, Lord AnrHuR Hervey, Lord Bishop of. The
Palace, Wells, Somerset.
*Bathurst, Rev. W. H. Lydney Park, Gloucestershire.
{Batten, John Winterbotham. 385 Palace-gardens-terrace, Kensing-
ton, London, 8.W.
§BavErMAN, H., F.G.S. 22 Acre-lane, Brixton, London, 8. W.
{Baxendell, Joseph, F.R.A.S. 108 Stock-street, Manchester.
{ Baxter, Edward, Hazel Hall, Dundee.
{Baxter, John B. Craig Tay House, Dundee.
{Baxrmr, R. Dupiny, M.A. 6 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W.
{Baxter, William Edward, M.P. Ashcliffe, Dundee.
{Bayes, William, M.D. 58 Brook-street, London, W.
*Bayley, George. 2 Cowper’s-court, Cornhill, London, E.C.
{Bayley, Thomas. Lenton, Nottingham.
{Baylis, C.O., M.D. 22 Devonshire-road, Claughton, Birkenhead,
Bayly, John, 1 Brunswick-terrace, Plymouth,
LIST OF MEMBERS, 7
Year of
Election,
1860
1861.
1872.
1870,
1855,
1861.
1871.
1859.
1864.
1860.
1866.
1370.
1873.
1865.
*Bratu, Lronut 8., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Pathological Anatomy
in King’s College. 61 Grosvenor-street, London, W.
§Bean, William. Alfreton, Derbyshire,
a nig F.C.S. Avon House, Dulwich Common, Surrey,
S.E.
{Beard, Rev. Charles, 18 South-hill-road, Toxteth Park, Liver-
pool.
*Beatson, William. Chemical Works, Rotherham,
*Beaufort, W. Morris, F.R.G.S. Atheneum Club, Pall Mall, Lon-
don, 8.W.
*Beaumont, Rev. Thomas George. Chelmondiston Rectory, Ips-
wich.
*Beazley, Captain George G. Army and Navy Club, Pall Mall,
London, 8. W.
*Beck, Joseph, F.R.A.S, 31 Cornhill, London, E.C,
§Becker, Miss Lydia E. Whalley Range, Manchester.
{Brcxxes, Saunt H., F.R.S., F:G.S. 9 Grand-parade, St. Leonard’s-
on-Sea,
{Beddard, James. Derby-road, Nottingham.
§Brppor, Jouy, M.D., F.R.S.__ Clifton, Bristol.
§Behrens, Jacob. Springfield House, North-parade, Bradford.
*BeLAveneTz, I., Captain of the Russian Imperial Navy, F.R.LG.S.,
M.S.C.M.A., Superintendent of the Compass Observatory,
Cronstadt. (Care of Messrs. Baring Brothers, Bishopsgate-
street, London, H.C.)
. *Betcuer, Admiral Sir Epwarp, K.0.B., F.RAS., F.R.GS,
13 Dorset-street, Portman-square, London, W.
74. §Belcher, Richard Boswell. Blockley, Worcestershire.
{Bell, A. P. Vicarage, Sowerby Bridge, Yorkshire,
. {Bell, Archibald. Cleator, Carnforth.
. §Bell, Charles B. 6 Spring-bank, Hull.
Bell, Frederick John. Woodlands, near Maldon, Essex.
. {Bell, George. Windsor-buildings, Dumbarton.
. tBell, Rev. George Charles, M.A. Christ’s Hospital, London, E.C.
. {Bell, Capt. Henry. Chalfont Lodge, Cheltenham,
. *Betu, Isaac Lowry, F.R.S.,F.C.8., M.LC.E. The Hall, Wash-
ington, Co, Durham.
. *Bell, J. Carter, F.C.S. Kersal Clough, Higher Broughton, Man-
chester.
. {Bell, John Pearson, M.D. Waverley House, Hull.
. {Bell, R. Queen’s College, Kingston, Canada.
Bett, Tomas, F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.8. The Wakes, Selborne, near
Alton, Hants.
. *Bell, Thomas. The Minories, Jesmond, Neweastle-on-Tyne,
. {Bell, Thomas. Belmont, Dundee.
Bellhouse, Edward Taylor. Eagle Foundry, Manchester.
. {Bellhouse, William Dawson. 1 Park-street, Leeds.
Bellingham, Sir Alan. Castle Bellingham, Iveland.
. *Betper, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A., D.C.L., E.R.S., F.G.8S. 76
Eaton-square, London, 8.W. ; and Kingston Hall, Derby.
. *Bendyshe, T. 13 Buckingham-street, Strand, London, W.C.
. {Bennert, Atrrep W., MLA., B.Sc, F.L.S, 6 Park Village East,
Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
. {Bennett, F. J. 12 Hillmarten-road, Camden-road, London, N.
. *Bennett, William. 109 Shaw-street, Liverpool.
. *Bennett, William, jun. Oak Hill Park, Old Swan, near Liverpool,
. *Bennoch, Francis, S.A, 19 Tayistock-square, London, W.C.
8
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1857.
1848,
1870.
1863.
1848.
1842.
1863,
1875.
1868.
1865.
1848.
1866.
1870.
1862.
1865,
1858.
1859.
1874,
1863,
1870.
1868.
1863.
1864,
1855,
1842,
1873.
1866.
1841.
1871.
1868.
1866.
1869,
1859.
1855.
1870.
1863.
{Benson, Charles. 11 Fitzwilliam-square West, Dublin.
Benson, Robert, jun. Fairfield, Manchester.
{Benson, Starling, F.G.S. Gloucester-place, Swansea.
tBenson, W. Alresford, Hants.
tBenson, William. TF ourstones Court, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
{BentHam, Groree, F.RS., F.L.S. 25 Wilton-place, Knights-
bridge, London, 8.W.
Bentley, John, 9 Portland-place, London, W.
§BentLey, Rozert, F.L.S., Professor of Botany in King’s College.
91 Alexandra-road, St. John’s-wood, London, N.W.
§Beor, Henry R. 3 Harcourt-buildings, Temple, London, E.C.
{BerKe ey, Rev. M. J., M.A., F.L.S. Sibbertoft, Market Harborough.
tBerkley, C. Marley Hill, Gateshead, Durham.
tBerrington, Arthur V. D. Woodlands Castle, near Swansea.
{Berry, Rey. ArthurGeorge. Monyash Parsonage, Bakewell, Derbyshire.
tBerwick, George, M.D. 36 Fawcett-street, Sunderland.
{Besant, William Henry, M.A., F.R.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
*BrssEMER, HENRY. Denmark-hill, Camberwell, London, S.E.
{Best, William. lLeydon-terrace, Leeds.
Bethune, Admiral, C.B., F.R.G.S. Balfour, Fifeshire.
tBeveridge, Robert, M.B. 36 King-street, Aberdeen.
*Bevington, James B. Merle Wood, Sevenoaks.
{Bewick, Thomas John, F.G.S. Haydon Bridge, Northumberland.
*Bickerdike, Rev. John, M.A. St. Mary’s Vicarage, Leeds.
{Bickerton, A. W., F.C.S. Hartley Institution, Southampton.
}Brpper, GrorGe Parker, C.E., F.R.G.S. 24 Great George-street,
Westminster, 5S. W.
{Bigger, Benjamin. Gateshead, Durham.
TBiggs, Robert. 17 Charles-street, Bath.
}Billings, Robert William. 45t. Mary’s-road, Canonbury, London, N.
Bilton, Rey. William, M.A., F.G.S. United University Club, Suffolk-
street, London, 8.W.; and Chislehurst, Kent.
Binney, Epwarp Wri, F.R.S8., F.G.8. 40 Cross-street, Man-
chester.
{Binns, J. Arthur. Manningham, Bradford, Yorkshire.
Brrcwat1, Epwin. Airedale Cliff, Newley, Leeds.
Birchall, Henry. College House, Bradford.
*Birkin, Richard. Aspley Hall, near Nottingham. _
*Birks, Rey. Professor Thomas Rawson. 7 Brookside, Cambridge.
*Brat, Witi1am Raper, F.R.A.S. Cynthia-villa, Clarendon-road,
Walthamstow, London, N.E.
*BiscHor, Gustav., Professor of Technical Chemistry in the Ander-
sonian University, Glasgow. 234 George-street, Glasgow.
{Bishop, John. Thorpe Hamlet, Norwich.
{Bishop, Thomas. Bramcote, Nottingham.
{Blackall, Thomas. 13 Southernhay, Exeter.
Blackburne, Rey. John, M.A. Yarmouth, Isle of Wight.
Blgeh bene Rey. John, jun., M.A. Rectory, Horton, near Chip-
penham.
{Blackie, John Stewart, M.A., Professor of Greek in the University
of Edinburgh.
*Brackig, W. G., Ph.D., F.R.G.S. 17 Stanhope-terrace, Glasgow.
tBlackmore, W. Founder’s-court, Lothbury, London, E.C,
*BLACKWALL, Rey. Joun, F.L.S. Hendre House, near Llanrwst, Den-
bighshire.
}Blake, C. Carter, Ph.D., F.G.S. St. Michael’s-buildings, 9 Grace-
church-street, London, E.C,
LIST OF MEMBERS. 9
Year of
Election.
1849,
1846.
1845,
1861,
1868.
1869.
1870.
1859.
1859.
1858.
1870.
1845.
1866.
1859.
1871.
1859,
1866.
1865.
1871.
1866.
1861.
1835.
1861.
1861,
1849,
1863.
1867
1858.
1872.
1868.
1871.
1850,
1870.
1868,
1866,
*BLAKE, Henry Wo w.aston, M.A., F.R.S. 8 Devonshire-place,
Portland-place, London, W.
*Blake, William. Bridge House, South Petherton, Somerset.
{Blakesley, Rey. J. W., B.D. Ware Vicarage, Hertfordshire.
§Blakiston, Matthew. 18 Wilton-crescent, 8.W.
*Blakiston, Peyton, M.D., F.R.S. 55 Victoria-street, London, S.W.
{Branc, Henry, M.D. 9 Bedford-street, Bedford-square, London, W.C.
}Blanford, W. T., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Geological Survey of India,
Calcutta. (12 Keppel-street, Russell-square, London, W.C.)
*BLOMEFIELD, Rey. Leonarp, M.A., F.LS., F.G.S. 19 Belmont,
Bath.
Blore, Edward, LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A. 4 Manchester-square, Lon-
don, W.
{Blundell, Thomas Weld. Ince Blundell Hall, Great Crosby, Lan-
cashire.
tBlunt, Sir Charles, Bart. Heathfield Park, Sussex.
{Blunt, Capt. Richard. Bretlands, Chertsey, Surrey.
Blyth, B. Hall. 155 George-street, Edinburgh.
*Blythe, William. Church, near Accrington.
tBoardman, Edward. Queen-street, Norwich.
{ Bodmer, Rodolphe.
§Bogg, Thomas Wemyss. Louth, Lincolnshire.
*Boun, Henry G., F.L.S., F.R.AAS., F.R.G.S., F.S.S. North End
House, Twickenham, 8. W.
§Bohn, Mrs. North End House, Twickenham, 8. W.
tBolster, Rev. Prebendary John A. Cork.
Bolton, R. L. Laurel Mount, Aigburth-road, Liverpool.
{Bond, Banks. Low Pavement, Nottingham.
{ Bond, Francis T., M.D.
Bond, Henry John Hayes, M.D. Cambridge.
§Bonney, Rev. Thomas George, M.A., F.S.A., F.G.S. St. John’s Col-
lege, Cambridge.
Bonomi, Ignatius. 36 Blandford-square, London, N.W.
Bonomt, JoserH. Soane’s Museum, 15 Lincoln’s-Inn-fields, Lon-
don, W.C.
{Booker, W. H. Cromwell-terrace, Nottingham.
§Booth, James. Elmfield, Rochdale.
{Booth, Rey. James, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. The Vicar-
age, Stone, near Aylesbury.
*Booth, William. Hollybank, Cornbrook, Manchester.
*Borchardt, Louis, M.D. Oxford Chambers, Oxford-street, Manchester.
tBoreham, William W., F.R.A.S. The Mount, Haverhill, Newmarket,
tBorries, Theodore. Loyaine-crescent, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*Bossey, Francis, M.D. Mayfield, Oxford-road, Redhill, Surrey.
Boswortn, Rey. Josepn, D.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A., M.R.LA.,
Professor of Anglo-Saxon in the University of Oxford. Oxford.
§Botly, William, F.S.A. Salisbury House, Hamlet-road, Upper Nor-
wood, London, 8.E.
{Botterill, John. Burley, near Leeds.
tBottle, Alexander. Dover.
{Botile, J.T. 28 Nelson-road, Great Yarmouth.
}Borromiey, Jamus Tomson, M.A., F.C.S. The College, Glasgow.
Bottomley, William. Forbreda, Belfast.
tBouch, Thomas, C.E. Oxford-terrace, Edinburgh.
{Boult, Swinton. 1 Dale-street, Liverpool.
{Boulton, W. 8. Norwich.
§Bourne, Stephen. Abberley Lodge, Hudstone-drive, Harrow.
10 LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
lection.
1872. tBovill, William Edward. 29 James-street, Buckingham-gate,
London, §
1870. {Bower, Anthony. Bowerdale, Seaforth, Liverpool.
1867. {Bower, Dr. John. Perth.
1846.
1856.
1863.
1869.
1869.
1863.
1865.
1871.
1865.
1872.
1869.
*BoWERBANK, JAmus Scort, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.8., F.L.S,, FR.AS.
2 East-ascent, St. Leonard’s-on-Sea.
*Bowlby, Miss F. E. 27 Lansdown-crescent, Cheltenham.
{Bowman, R. Benson. Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Bowman, William, F.R.S., F.R.C.S. 5 Clifford-street, London, W.
{tBowring, Charles T. Elmsleigh, Princes Park, Liverpool.
tBowrtine, J.C. Larkbeare, Hxeter.
{Bowron, James. South Stockton-on-Tees.
§Boyd, Edward Fenwick. Moor House, near Durham.
{Boyd, Thomas J. 41 Moray-place, Edinburgh.
{tBoyts, Rey. G. D. Soho House, Handsworth, Birmingham.
§BraBroox, E. W., F.S.A., Dir. A.I. 28 Abingdon-street, West-
minster, 8.W.
*Braby, Frederick, F.G.S., F.C.S. Mount Henley, Sydenham Hill,
London, 8.E.
. §Brace, Edmund. 17 Water-street, Liverpool.
Bracebridge, Charles Holt, F.R.G.S. The Hall, Atherstone, War-
wickshire.
. *Bradshaw, William. Slade House, Levenshulme, Manchester.
. *Brapy, Sir Anronto, F.G.S. Maryland Point, Stratford, Essex, E.
. *Brady, Cheyne, M.R.LA. Four Courts, Co. Dublin.
Brady, Daniel F., M.D. 5 Gardiner’s-row, Dublin.
. {Brapy, Grorer 8. 22 Fawcett-street, Sunderland.
. §Brapy, Henry Bowmay, F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.8. 40 Mosley-street,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.
. [Brae, Andrew Edmund.
. §Braham, Philip, F.C.S. 6 George-street, Bath.
. §Braidwood, Dr. Delemere-terrace, Birkenhead.
. §Braikenridge, Rey. George Weare, M.A.,F.L.S. Clevedon, Somerset.
. §BRAMWELL, FreprericK J., M.LC.H., F.R.S. 37 Great George-
street, London, S.W.
. §Bramwell, William J. 17 Prince Albert-street, Brighton.
Brancker, Rey. Thomas, M.A. Limington, Somerset.
. {Brand, William. Milnefield, Dundee.
. *Brandreth, Rey. Henry. Dickleburgh Rectory, Scole, Norfolk.
. {Brazmr, Jamas §., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in Marischal Col-
lege and University of Aberdeen.
. {Brazill, Thomas. 12 Holles-street, Dublin.
. *BREADALBANE, The Right Hon. the Earl of. Taymouth Castle,
N.B.; and Carlton Club, Pall Mall, London, 8. W.
. {Brecury, The Right Rev. ArexanpER PENROSE ForBEs, Lord
Bishop of, D.C.. Castlehill, Dundee.
. §Breffit, Edgar. Castleford, near Normanton.
. {Bremridge, Elias. 17 Bloomsbury-square, London, W.C
. {Brent, Colonel Robert. Woodbury, Exeter.
. {Brett,G. Salford.
. {Brettell, Thomas (Mine Agent). Dudley.
. §Brewin, William. Cirencester.
. [Brmeman, WitiiAM Kencetzy. 69 St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
. *Bridson, Joseph R. Belle Isle, Windermere.
. {Brierley, Joseph, C.E. New Market-street, Blackburn.
. “Brigg, John. Broomfield, Keighley, Yorkshire.
. *Briggs, Arthur. Orage Royd, Rawdon, near Leeds.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 11
Year of
Election.
1866,
1863.
1870.
1868.
1842.
1859,
1847,
1834.
1865.
1853,
1855.
1864,
1855.
1863.
1846.
1874,
1847.
1863.
1864.
1863.
1867.
1855.
1871.
1863.
1865.
1858.
1870.
1870,
1859.
1863.
1874.
1863.
1871.
1868.
1855,
*Bricas, General Joun, F.R.S., M.R.AS., F.G.S, 2Tenterden-street,
Hanover-square, London, W.
§Briges, Joseph. Barrow-in-Furness.
*Bricgut, Sir Cuartes TisTon, C.E., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.A.S.
69 Lancaster-gate, W.; and 26 Duke-street, London, 8.W.
TBright, H. A., M.A., F.R.G.S. Ashfield, Knotty Ash.
Bricut, The Right Hon. Joun, M.P. Rochdale, Lancashire.
{Brine, Commander LinpEesay. Army and Navy Club, Pall Mall,
London, 8. W.
Broadbent, Thomas. Marsden-square, Manchester.
*BropuuRST, BerNARD Epwarp. 20 Grosyenor-street, Grosvenor-
square, London, W.
tBroprm, Sir Bensamrn C., Bart., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S. Brockham
Warren, Reigate.
{Bropr, Rev. James, F.G.S. Monimail, Fifeshire.
{Bropre, Rey. PETER BettencER, M.A., F.G.8. Rowington Vicar-
age, near Warwick.
{Bromby, J. H., M.A. The Charter House, Hull.
Bromilow, Henry G. Merton Bank, Southport, Lancashire.
*Brooxe, CHaruzs, M.A., F.R.S., Pres. R.M.S. 16 Fitzroy-square,
London, W.
tBrooke, Edward. Marsden House, Stockport, Cheshire.
*Brooke, Rey. J. Ingham. Thornhill Rectory, Drewsbury.
{Brooke, Peter William. Marsden House, Stockport, Cheshire.
§Brooks, John Crosse. Wallsend, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*Brooks, Thomas. Cranshaw Hall, Rawstenstall, Manchester.
Brooks, William. Ordfall Hill, East Retford, Nottinghamshire.
§Broom, William. 20 Woodlands-terrace, Glasgow.
tBroome, C. Edward, F.L.8. Elmhurst, Batheaston, near Bath.
*Brough, Lionel H., F.G.S., one of Her Majesty’s Inspectors of Coal-
fines. 11 West-mall, Clifton, Bristol.
*Brown, JoHN ALLAN, F.R.S., late Astronomer to His Highness the
Rajah of Travancore. 54 Reinsburg Strasse, Stuttgart.
{Brown, Mrs. 1 Stratton-street, Piccadilly, London, W.
*Brown, ALEXANDER Crum, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Edinbugh. 8 Belgrave-crescent,
Edinburgh.
{Brown, Charles Gage, M.D. 88 Sloane-street, London, 8. W.
{Brown, Colin. 3 Mansfield-place, Glasgow.
§Brown, David. 95 Abbey-hill, Edinburgh.
*Brown, Rey. Dixon. Unthank Hall, Haltwhistle, Carlisle.
§Brown, Edwin, F.G.S._ Burton-upon-Trent.
§Brown, Henry, J.P., LL.D. Daisy Hill, Rawdon, Leeds,
§Brown, Horace T. The Bank, Burton-on-Trent.
Brown, Hugh. Broadstone, Ayrshire.
§Brown, J. Campseiy, D.Sc, F.C.S. Royal Infirmary School of
Medicine, Liverpool.
tBrown, Rey. John Crombie, LL.D., F.L.S. Berwick-on-T'weed.
{ Brown, John .
§Brown, John 8. Edenderry, Shaw's Bridge, Belfast.
{Brown, Ralph. Lambton’s Bank, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
tBrown, Rosert, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.G.S. 4 Gladstone-terrace,
Edinburgh.
{Brown, Samuel. Grafton House, Swindon, Wilts.
*Brown, Thomas. Gwentland, Chepstow.
*Brown, William. 11 Maiden-terrace, Dartmouth Park, London, N,
tBrown, William. 11 Albany-place, Glasgow.
12
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election. .
1850.
1865.
1866.
1862.
{Brown, William, F.R.S.E. 25 Dublin-street, Edinburgh.
{Brown, William. 414 New-street, Birmingham.
*Browne, Rey. J. H. Lowdham Vicarage, Nottingham.
bse ee ove Clayton, jun., B.A. Browne’s Hill, Carlow, Ive-
and.
. {Browne, R. Mackley, F.G.S. Northside, St.. John’s, Sevenoaks,
Kent.
. *Browne, William, M.D, The Friary, Lichfield.
. §Browning, John, F.R.A.S. 11] Minories, London, E.
. §Brownlee, James, jun. 30 Burnbank-gardens, Glasgow.
. {Brownlow, William B. Villa-place, Hull.
. *Brunel, H. M. 23 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W.
. {Brunel, J. 23 Delahay-street, Westminster, 8.W.
. [Brunnow, F.
. {Brunton, T. Lauder, M.D., F.R.S. 23 Somerset-street, Portman-
square, London, W.
. {Bryce, James. York Place, Higher Broughton, Manchester.
Brycr, James, M.A., LL.D.,F.R.S.E., F.G.8. High School, Glasgow,
and Bowes Hill, Blantyre, by Glasgow.
Bryce, Rev. R. J., LL.D., Principal of Belfast Academy. Belfast.
. {Bryson, William Gillespie. Cullen, Aberdeen.
. {BuccrEucn and QUEENSBERRY, His Grace the Duke of, K.G., D.C.L.,
F.RS.L.& E.,F.L.S. Whitehall-gardens, London, 8S.W.; and
Dalkeith Palace, Edinburgh.
. §Bucwan, ALEXANDER. 72 Northumberland-street, Edinburgh.
. {Buchan, Thomas. Strawberry Bank, Dundee.
BucHanan, ANDREW, M.D. Professor of the Institutes of Medicine
in the University of Glasgow. 4 Ethol-place, Glasgow.
Buchanan, Archibald. Catrine, Ayrshire.
Buchanan, D. C. Poulton cum Seacombe, Cheshire.
. {Buchanan, John Y. 10 Moray-place, Edinburgh.
. §Buckie, Rev. Grorer, M.A. Twerton Vicarage, Bath.
. *Buckley, Henry. 27 Wheeley’s-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
. *Buckman, Professor Jamas, F.L.S., F.G.8. Bradford Abbas, Sher-
bourne, Dorsetshire.
. {Bucknill, J.. M.D., F.R.S. Hillmorton Hall, near Rugby.
. *Bucxron, GrorGE Bowne, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.C.8. Weycombe,
Haslemere, Surrey.
. *Bupp, James Parmer. Ystalyfera Iron Works, Swansea.
. §Bulloch, Matthew. 11 Park-circus, Glasgow.
. *Bunsury, Sir Cuartes James Fox, Bart., F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S.,
F.R.G.S. Barton Hall, Bury St. Edmunds.
. tBunce, John Mackray. ‘Journal Office,’ New-street, Birmingham.
{Bunning, T. Wood. 34 Grey-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
. *Burd, John.
. {Burdett-Coutts, Baroness. Stratton-street, Piccadilly, London, W.
. §Burdon, Henry, M.D. Clandeboye, Belfast.
. *Burgess, Herbert. 62 High-street, Battle, Sussex.
. {Burk, J. Lardner, LL.D.
. tBurke, Luke. 5 Albert-terrace, Acton, London, W.
. *Burnell, Arthur Coke.
. {Burnett, Newell. Belmont-street, Aberdeen.
. §Burrows, Sir John Cordy. 62 Old Steine, Brighton.
. {Burrows, Montague, M.A., Professor of Modern History, Oxford.
. §Burt, Rey. J. T. Broadmoor, Berks.
. *Burton, Freperick M., F.G.S. Highfield, Gainsborough.
. {Bush, W. 7 Circus, Bath
LIST OF MEMBERS, 138
Year of
Election.
1855.
1857.
1855,
1872.
1870.
1868,
1872.
1854,
"1852.
1858.
1863,
1854,
1858,
1863.
1861.
1855,
1857.
1868,
1868,
1857.
1853.
1857.
1870.
1859.
1857.
1874,
1872.
1859.
1871.
1862.
1868,
1873,
Bushell, Christopher. Royal Assurance-buildings, Liverpool.
*Busk, GrorGe, F.R.S., V.P.L.S., F.G.S., Examiner in Comparative
Anatomy in the University of London. 32 Harley-street, Cayen-
dish-square, London, W.
{Butt, Isaac, Q.C., M.P. 64 Eccles-street, Dublin.
*Buttery, Alexander W. Monkland Iron and Steel Company, Cardar-
roch, near Airdrie.
tBuxton, Charles Louis. Cromer, Norfoll.
{Buxton, David, Principal of the Liverpool Deaf and Dumb Institution,
Oxford-street, Liverpool.
{Buxton, 8. Gurney. Catton Hall, Norwich.
{Buxton, Sir T. Fowell. Warlies, Waltham Abbey, Essex.
{Byrrtry, Isaac, F.L.8. Seacombe, Liverpool.
Byng, William Bateman, Orwell Works House, Ipswich.
{Byrne, Very Rey. James. Ergenagh Rectory, Omagh.
§Cail, John. Stokesley, Yorkshire.
tCail, Richard. Beaconsfield, Gateshead.
{Caine, Nathaniel. 38 Belvedere-road, Princes Park, Liverpool.
*Caine, Rey. William, M.A, Christ Church Rectory, Denton, near
Manchester.
{Caird, Edward. Finnart, Dumbartonshire.
*Caird, James Key. 8 Magdalene-road, Dundee.
*Caird, James Tennant. Shipyard, Greenock.
{Cairnes, Professor. University College, London, W.C.
{Caley, A. J. Norwich.
tCaley, W. Norwich.
eae ie N. J., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Maynooth
ollege.
Larne bain EH. K., R.N., F.R.S. 21 Norfolk-street, Sunder-
and.
tCameron, Charles A., M.D. 15 Pembroke-road, Dublin.
{Cameron, John, M.D. 17 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
tCampbell, Rey. C. P., Principal of King’s College, Aberdeen.
aoe Dugald, F.C.S. 7 Quality-court, Chancery-lane, London,
W.C.
*Campbell, Sir George, K.C.S.L, D.C.L., M.P., F.R.G.S. 13 Cornwall-
gardens, South Kensington, London, S.W.; and Edenwood,
Cupar, Fife.
Campbell, Sir Hugh P. H., Bart. _10 Hill-street, Berkeley-square,
London, W. ; and Marchmont House, near Dunse, Berwickshire,
*Campbell, Sir James. 129 Bath-street, Glasgow.
Campbell, John Archibald, M.D., F.R.S.E. Albyn-place, Edinburgh,
§CampBELL, Rey. J. R., D.D. 5 Eldon-place, Manningham-lane,
Bradford, Yorkshire.
tCampbell, William. Dunmore, Argyllshire.
tCampbell, William Hunter, LL.D, Georgetown, Demerara, British
. we (Messrs. Ridgway & Sons, 2 Waterloo-placé, London,
CaMPBELL-J OHNSTON, ALEXANDER RoBeErt, F.R.S. 84S8t.Georce’s-
square, London, 8. W.
*Campion, Rey. Dr. Wirnttam M. Queen’s College, Cambridge.
*Cann, William. 9 Southernhay, Exeter. ‘
Be Edward Hamer, C.i. 5 Kingston-terrace, Leeds, York-
shire.
*Carew, William Henry Pole. Antony, Torpoint, Devonport.
CaruisLr, Harvey Goopwi, D.D., Lord Bishop of. Carlisle,
14 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1861. {Carlton, James. Mosley-street, Manchester.
1867. {Carmichael, David (Engineer). Dundee.
1867, {Carmichael, George. 11 Dudhope-terrace, Dundee.
Carmichael, H.
Carmichael, John T. C. Messrs. Todd & Co., Cork.
1871. §CaRPENTER, CHarxtys. Brunswick-square, Brighton.
1871. §Carpenter, Herbert P. 56 Regent’s Park-road, London, N.W.
*CARPENTER, Puitip PEarsaLL, B.A., Ph.D. Montreal, Canada.
or Dr. W. B, Carpenter, 56 Regent’s Park-road, London,
1854, {Carpenter, Rey. R. Lant, B.A. Bridport.
1845, {CARPENTER, WituiaM B., M.D., LL.D., F.RS., F.LS., F.GS.,
Registrar of the University of London. 56 Regent’s Park-
road, London, N.W.
1872. §CARPENTER, WitLiAM Lant, B.A., B.Sc., F.C.S. Winifred House,
Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.
1842, *Carr, William, M.D., F.L.8., F.R.C.S. Lee Grove, Blackheath,
S.E.
1861. *Carrick, Thomas. 5 Clarence-street, Manchester.
1867, §CarrutTuers, WiniiAM, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.8. British Museum,
London, W.C.
1861. *Carson, Rey. Joseph, D.D., M.R.I.A. 18 Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin.
1857. {Carte, ALEXANDER, M.D. Royal Dublin Society, Dublin.
1868. §Carteighe, Michael, F.C.S. 172 New Bond-street, London, W.
1866. {Carter, H. H. The Park, Nottingham.
1855. {Carter, Richard, C.E, Long Carr, Barnsley. Yorkshire.
1870. {Carter, Dr. William. 69 Elizabeth-street, Liverpool.
*CarTMELL, Rey. Jamus, D.D., F.G.S., Master of Christ’s College,
Christ College Lodge, Cambridge.
Cartmell, Joseph, M.D. Carlisle,
1870. §Cartwright, Joshua. 70 King-street, Dukinfield.
1862, {Carulla, Facundo, F.A.8.L. Care of Messrs. Daglish and Co., 8 Har-
rington-street, Liverpool.
1868. {Cary, Joseph Henry. Newmarket-road, Norwich.
1866. {Casella, L. P., F.R.A.S. South-grove, Highgate, London, N.
1871. §Cash, Joseph. Bird Grove, Coventry.
1873. §Cash, William, Elmfield-terrace, Saville Park, Halifax.
1842. * Cassels, Rev. Andrew, M.A.
1874. §Caton, Richard, M.D,, Lecturer on Physiology at the Liverpool
Medical School. 184 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.
1853. {Cator, John B., Commander R.N. 1 Adelaide-street, Hull.
1859. ¢Catto, Robert. 44 King-street, Aberdeen,
1866. { Catton, Alfred, R., M.A., F.RSL.
*Cayendish, Lord Frederick, M.P. 21 Carlton House-terrace, London,
S.W
{Cawley, Charles Edward. The Heath, Kirsall, Manchester.
§Cayiry, Artuur, LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.R.A.S., Sadlerian Professor of
Mathematics in the University of Cambridge. Garden House,
Cambridge.
Cayley, Digby. Brompton, near Scarborough.
Cayley, Edward Stillingfleet. Wydale, Malton, Yorkshire,
*Cecil, Lord Sackville. Hayes Common, Beckenham, Kent.
tChadburn, C. H. Lord-street, Liverpool.
*Chadwick, Charles, M.D. 35 Park-square, Leeds.
t{Cuapwick, Davin, M.P. 27 Belsize-park, London, N.W.
Cuapwick, Epwiy, C.B. Richmond, Surrey.
Chadwick, Elias, M.A. Pudleston Court, near Leominster.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 15
Year of
Election.
1842, Chadwick, John. Broadfield, Rochdale.
1859. {Chadwick, Robert. Haighbank, Manchester.
1861. {Chadwick, Thomas. Wilmslow Grange, Cheshire.
1870.
1860.
1857.
1868.
1863.
1863.
1855.
1869,
1857,
*CHALLIS, Rey. Jamus, M.A,, F.R.S., FR.A.S., Plumian Professor of |
Astronomy in the University of Cambridge. 2 Trumpington-
street, Cambridge,
. {Chalmers, John Inglis, Aldbar, Aberdeen.
. {CHamBervain, J. H, Christ Church-buildings, Birmingham.
{Chamberlin, Robert. Catton, Norwich.
Chambers, George. High Green, Sheffield.
Chambers, John.
{Chambers, W. O. Lowestoft, Suffolk.
*Champney, Henry Nelson. Mount, York.
tChance, A. M. Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Chance, James T. Four Oaks Park, Sutton Coldfield, Birmingham.
. §Chance, Robert Lucas. Chad Hill, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
. *Chapman, Edward, M.A., F.L.8., F.C.S. Frewen Hall, Oxford.
. *Chapman, John, M.P, Hill Hnd, Mottram, Manchester.
tChapman, William. The Park, Nottingham.
§Chappell, William, F.S.A. Strafford Lodge, Oatlands Park, Wey-
bridge Station.
. §Charles, John James, M.A., M.D. 11 Fisherwick-place, Belfast.
. {Charles, T. C., M.D. Queen’s College, Belfast.
CHARLESWORTH, Epwarb, F.G.S._ 1134 Strand, London, W.C.
§Charley, William. Seymour Hill, Dunmurry, Ireland.
. {Charlton, Edward, M.D. 7 Eldon-square, Neweastle-on-Tyne.
{Cuarnock, Ricuarp STEPHEN, Ph.D., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. 8 Gray’s-
Inn-square, London, W.C.
Chatto, W. J. P. Union Club, Trafalgar-square, London, 8. W.
. *Chatwood, Samuel. 6 Wentworth-place, Bolton.
. }Cueavre, W. B., M.A., M.D., F.R.G.S. 2 Hyde Park-place, Cum-
berland-gate, London, W.
. *Chermside, Lieutenant H.C., R.E. Care of Messrs. Cox & Co.,
Craig’s-court, Charing Cross, London, 8.W.
§CuicHESTER, The Right Hon, the Earl of. Stanmer House, Lewes.
CHICHESTER, RicHarD DurnFoRD, Lord Bishop of. Chichester.
. *Child, Gilbert W., M.A., M_D., ELS.
- *Chiswell, Thomas. 17 Lincoln-grove, Plymouth-grove, Manchester.
. [Cholmeley, Rey. C. H. Dinton Rectory, Salisbury. é
. {Christie, John, M.D. 46 School-hill, Aberdeen.
. {Christie, Professor R.C., M.A. 7 St. James’s-square, Manchester,
CurisTison, Sir Ropert, Bart., M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.E., Professor
of Dietetics, Materia Medica, and Pharmacy in the University
of Edinburgh. Edinburgh.
§Cuurcn, A. H., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Agri-
cultural College, Cirencester.
{Church, William Selby, M.A.
tChurchill, F., M.D. 15 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
{Clabburn, W. H. Thorpe, Norwich.
{Clapham, A. 8 Oxford-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne,
{Clapham, Henry. 5 Summerhill-grove, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
gi Rosert Catvert. Garsdon House, Garsdon, Newcastle-
on-Tyne.
§Clapp, Frederick. 44 Magdalen-street, Exeter.
Clarendon, Frederick Villiers. 1 Belyidere-place, Mountjoy-square
Dublin. .
Clark, Courtney EK.
16
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1859.
1846.
_ 1861.
1855.
1865.
1872.
1861.
1842,
1851.
1861.
1856.
1866.
1850.
1859.
1861.
1857.
1852.
1873.
1869,
1865,
1861.
1854.
1866.
1873.
1859.
1861.
1863.
1868.
1855.
1855.
1851.
1864,
1864.
1854,
1861.
1865.
1853.
1868,
tClark, David. Coupar Angus, Fifeshire.
Clark, G. T. Bombay; and Athenszeum Club, London, 8.W.
*Crarx, Henry, M.D. 2 Arundel-gardens, Kensington, London, W.
tClark, Latimer. 5 Westminster-chambers, Victoria-street, London,
Ty
{Clark, Rey. William, M.A. Barrhead, near Glasgow.
{Clarke, Rey. Charles. Charlotte-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
Clarke, George. Mosley-street, Manchester.
*CLARKE, Hyp. 32 St. George’s-square, Pimlico, London, 8.W.
*Clarke, J. H. Lark Hill House, Edgeley, Stockport.
Clarke, Joseph.
tCrarxKe, JosHua, F.L.S. Fairycroft, Saffron Walden.
Clarke, Thomas, M.A. Knedlineton Manor, Howden, Yorkshire.
tClay, Charles, M.D. 101 Piccadilly, Manchester,
*Clay, Joseph Travis, F.G.S, Rastrick, near Brighouse, Yorkshire.
*Clay, Colonel William. The Slopes, Wallasea, Cheshire. ~
tClayden, P. W. 15 Tavistock-square, London, W.C
{CLeGHorN, Hueu, M.D., F.L.S., late Conservator of Forests, Madras.
Stravithy, St. Andrews, Scotland.
tCleghorn, John. Wick.
§CLELAND, JOHN, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy and Physiology
in Queen’s College, Galway. Vicarscroft, Galway.
t{Clements, Henry. Dromin, Listowel, Ireland.
{Clerk, Rev. D. M. Deverill, Warminster, Wiltshire.
CuLERRKE, Rey.C.C., D.D., Archdeacon of Oxford and Canon of Christ
Church, Oxford. Milton Rectory, Abingdon, Berkshire.
tClibborn, Edward. Royal Irish Academy, Dublin.
§Cliff, John. Halton, Runcorn.
§Ciirrorp, WinL1AM Kinepon, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Applied
Mathematics and Mechanics in University College. 14 Mary-
land-road, Harrow-road, London, W.
{Clift, John E., C.E. Redditch, Bromsgrove, near Birmingham.
*Currron, R. Beviamy, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Experi-
mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. Portland
Lodge, Park Town, Oxford.
Clonvbrock, Lord Robert. Clonbrock, Galway.
tClose, The Very Rey. Francis, M.A. Carlisle.
§Crose, THomas, F.S.A. St. James’s-street, Nottingham.
{Clough, John. Bracken Bank, Keighley, Yorkshire.
{Clouston, Rey. Charles. Sandwick, Orkney.
*Clouston, Peter. 1 Park-terrace, Glasgow.
*Clutterbuck, Thomas. Warkworth, Acklington.
t{Coaks, J. B. Thorpe, Norwich.
*Coats, Sir Peter. Woodside, Paisley.
*Coats, Thomas. Fergeslie House, Paisley.
Cobb, Edward. 20 Park-street, Bath.
*CoBBOLD, JoHN CHEvVALLiER. Holywells, Ipswich ; and Athenzeum
Club, London, 8.W.
tCoxnsorp, T. Spencer, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Lecturer on Zoolory
and Comparative Anatomy at the Middlesex Hospital. 42 Har-
ley-street, London, W.
*Cochrane, James Henry. 129 Lower Baggot-street, Dublin.
{Cockey, William.
*Coe, Rey. Charles C., F.R.G.S. Highfield, Manchester-road, Bolton,
tCoghill, H. Newcastle-under-Lyme.
{Colchester, William, F'.G.S. Grundesburgh Hall, Ipswich.
{Colchester, W, P. Bassingbourn, Royston.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 17
Year of
Election.
1859.
1860.
1854.
1857.
1861.
1869.
1854,
1861,
1865.
1868.
1870.
1874.
1846.
1852.
1871.
1864.
1863.
1868.
1868.
*Cole, Henry Warwick, Q.C. 23 High-street, Warwick.
tColeman, J. J., F.C.S. 69 St. George’s-place, Glasgow.
*Colfox, William, B.A. Westmead, Bridport, Dorsetshire.
tColles, William, M.D. _21 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
*Collie, Alexander. 12 Kensington Palace-gardens, London, W.
{Collier, W. F. Woodtown, Horrabridge, South Devon.
t{Cotuinewoon, Curupert, M.A., M.B., F.L.S. 4 Grove-terrace,
Belyedere-road, Upper Norwood, Surrey, S.E.
*Collingwood, J. Frederick, F.G.S. Anthropological Institute, 4 St.
Martin’s-place, London, W.C.
*Collins. James Tertius. 12 Church-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
Collis, Stephen Edward. Listowel, Ireland.
*Corman, J. J., M.P. Carrow House, Norwich; and 108 Cannon-
street, London, E.C.
§Coltart, Robert. The Hollies, Aigburth-road, Liverpool.
Colthurst, John. Clifton, Bristol.
§Combe, James. Ormiston House, Belfast.
*Compron, The Rev. Lord Atwyn. Castle “Ashby, Northampton-
shire; and 145 Piccadilly, London, W.
*Compton, Lord William. 145 Piccadilly, London, W.
tConnal, Michael. 16 Lynedock-terrace, Glasgow.
*Connor, Charles C. Hope House, College Park East, Belfast.
*Conwell, Eugene Alfred, M.R.I.A. The Model Schools, Cork.
{Cooxer, Epwarp Witu1ay, R.A, F.R.S., F.R.GS., F.LS., F.GS.
Glen Andred, Groombridge, Sussex ; and Athenzeum Club, Pall
Mall, London, 8. W.
t{Cooke, Rev. George H. The Parsonage, Thorpe, Norwich.
Cooke, James R., M.A. 73 Blessington-street, Dublin.
Cooke, J. B. Cavendish-road, Birkenhead.
§Cooxr, M. C., M.A. 2 Grosvenor-villas, Upper Holloway, London, N.
Cooke, Rey. T. L., M.A. Magdalen College, Oxford.
Cooke, Sir William Fothergill. Telegraph Office, Lothbury, London,
E.C.
. *Cooke, William Henry, M.A., Q.C., F.S.A. 42 Wimpole-street,
London, W.; and Rainthorpe Hall, Long Stratton.
{Cooksey, Joseph. West Bromwich, Birmingham.
*Cookson, Rev. H. W., D.D. St. Peter’s College Lodge, Cambridge.
t{Cookson, N.C. Benwell Tower, Neweastle-on-Tyne.
§Cooling, Edwin. Mile Ash, Derby. ;
{Cooprr, Sir Henry, M.D. 7 Charlotte-street, Hull. |
Cooper, James. 58 Pembridge-villas, Bayswater, London, W.
. {Cooper, W. J. The Old Palace, Richmond, Surrey.
. {Cooper, William White. 19 Berkeley-square, London, W.
. {Copeland, Ralph, Ph.D. Parsonstown, Ireland.
. {Copeman, Edward, M.D. Upper King-street, Norwich.
. {Coppin, John. North Shields,
. *Corbet, Richard. Bayshill Lawn, Cheltenham.
Corbett, Edward. Ravenoak, Cheadle-hulme, Cheshire.
. Corbett, Joseph Henry, M.D., Professor of Anatomy and Physiology,
Queen’s College, Cork.
. *Corrretp, W. H., M.A., M.B., F.G.S., Professor of Hygiéne and
Public Health in University College. 10 Bolton-row, Mayfair,
London, W.
Cormack, John Rose, M.D., F.R.SE.
Cory, Rev. Robert, B.D., F.C.P.S. Stanground, Peterborough.
Cottam, George. 2 Winsley-street, London, W.
. {Cottam, Samuel, Brazennose-street, Manchester.
18
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1855.
1874.
1864,
1869,
1874,
1865.
1834,
1863.
1863.
1872.
1873.
1871.
1860,
1867,
1867.
1867,
1870.
1867,
1867,
1866,
1871,
1859,
1857.
1858,
1871.
1871.
1870,
1865.
1858.
1859,
1857.
1855.
1866.
1870.
1865.
1855.
1870.
1870,
1870.
1861,
1868,
{Cotterill, Rey. Henry, Bishop of Edinburgh. Edinburgh.
*Cotterill, J. H., M.A., Professor of Applied Mechanics. Royal Naval
College, Greenwich, S.E.
§Corton, General Freprrick C, Atheneum Club, Pall Mall,
London, 8. W.
tCorron, Wixt1amM. Pennsylvania, Exeter, ’
*Cotton, Rev. William Charles, M.A. Vicarage, Frodsham, Cheshire,
§Courtald, John. Bocking Bridge, Essex.
tCourtald, Samuel, F.R.A.S. 76 Lancaster-gate, London, W.; and
Gosfield Hall, Essex.
tCowan, Charles. 38 West Register-street, Edinburgh.
Cowan, John. Valleyfield, Pennycuick, Edinburgh.
tCowan, John A, Blaydon Burn, Durham.
tCowan, Joseph, jun. Blaydon, Durham.
*Cowan, Thomas William. Hawthorn House, Horsham.
*Cowans, John. Cranford, Middlesex.
Cowie, Rey. Benjamin Morgan, M.A, 42 Upper Harley-street,
Cavendish-square, London, W.
tCowper, C. E. 3 Great George-street, Westminster, S.W.
tCowper, Edward Alfred, M.I.C.E. 6 Great George-street, West-
minster, 8, W.
*Cox, Edward. Clement Park, Dundee.
*Cox, George Addison. Beechwood, Dundee.
t{Cox, James, Clement Park, Lochee, Dundee.
*Cox, James. 8 Falkner-square, Liverpool.
Cox, Robert. 25 Rutland-street, Edinburgh.
*Cox, Thomas Hunter. Duncarse, Dundee.
tCox, William, Foggley, Lochee, by Dundee,
*Cox, William H. 60 Newhall-street, Birmingham.
tCox, William J. 2 Vanburgh-place, Leith.
Craig, J. T. Gibson, F.R.S.E, 24 York-place, Edinburgh.
tCraig, S. The Wallands, Lewes, Sussex.
ae Rey. Josiah., M.R.I.A. The Rectory, Florence-court, Co.
ermanagh, Ireland.
tCranage, Edward, Ph.D. The Old Hall, Wellington, Shropshire.
“Crawford, William Caldwell. Eagle Foundry, Port Dundas, Glasgow.
t{Crawshaw, Edward. Burnley, Lancashire.
*Crawshay, Mrs. Robert. Cyfarthfa Castle, Merthyr Tydvil.
Creyke, The Venerable Archdeacon, Bolton Perey Rectory, Tad-
caster.
{Crocker, Edwin, F.C.S. 76 Hungerford-road, Holloway, London, N.
tCrofts, John, Hillary-place, Leeds.
{Croll, A.A. 10 Coleman-street, London, E.C,
tCrolly, Rey. George. Maynooth College, Ireland.
tCrompton, Charles, M.A.
*Crompton, Rey. Josepu, M.A. Bracondale, Norwich.
fCronin, William. 4 Brunel-terrace, Nottingham.
§Crookes, Joseph. Marlborough House, Brook Green, Hammersmith,
London, W.
§Crookes, Witt1aM, F.R.S., F.C.S. 20 Mornington-road, Regent’s
Park, London, N. W.
tCropper, Rey. John. Wareham, Dorsetshire.
{Crosfield, C. J. 5 Alexandra-drive, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.
*Crosfield, William, jun. 5 Alexandra-drive, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.
{Crosfield, William, sen. Annesley, Aigburth, Liverpool.
{Cross, Rey. John Edward, M.A. © Appleby Vicarage, near Brigg.
{Crosse, Thomas William. St. Giles’s-street, Norwich,
LIST OF MEMBERS, 19
Year of
Election.
1867,
1853,
1870.
1871.
1866,
1861.
1863.
1860.
1859.
1873,
1859,
1874,
1861,
1861.
1852.
1869,
1855.
1850.
1866.
1867,
1857.
1866.
1834,
1863,
1854,
1863.
1853.
1865,
1867.
1870.
1859.
1859.
1862.
1859.
1873.
1849.
1859.
1861.
1848.
1872.
1870.
1859.
1871.
§Crossxey, Rey. H. W., F.G.S. 28 George-street, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham,
tCrosskill, William, C.E. Beverley, Yorkshire.
*Crossley, Edward, F.R.A.S. Bermerside, Halifax.
{Crossley, Herbert. Broomfield, Halifax.
*Crossley, Louis J., F.M.S. Moorside Observatory, near Halifax.
§Crowley, Henry. Smedley New Hall, Cheetham, Manchester.
{Cruddas, George. Elswick Engine Works, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
tCruickshank, John. City of Glasgow Bank, Aberdeen.
{Cruickshank, Provost. Macduff, Aberdeen.
§Crust, Walter. Hall-street, Spalding.
Culley, Robert. Bank of Ireland, Dublin.
{Cumming, Sir A, P. Gordon, Bart. Altyre.
§Cumming, Professor. 35 Wellington-place, Belfast.
*Cunliffe, Edward Thomas. The Elms, Handforth, Manchester.
*Cunliffe, Peter Gibson. The Elms, Handforth, Manchester.
{Cunningham, John. Macedon, near Belfast.
{CunniweHaM, Professor Ropert O., M.D., F.L.S. Queen’s College,
Belfast.
{Cunningham, William A, Manchester and Liverpool District Bank,
Manchester.
tCunningham, Rev. William Bruce. Prestonpans, Scotland.
tCunnington, John, 68 Oakley-square, Bedford New Town, London,
N.W
*Cursetjee, Manockjee, F.R.S,A., Judge of Bombay. Villa-Byculla,
Bombay.
tCurtis, Professor Arthur Hill, LL.D. Queen’s College, Galway.
tCusins, Rev. F. L.
*Cuthbert, John Richmond. 40 Chapel-street, Liverpool.
tDaglish, John. Hetton, Durham.
pupetish, Robert, C.E. Orrell Cottage, near Wigan.
{Dale, J. B. South Shields. ;
tDale, Rey. P. Steele, M.A. Hollingfare, Warrington.
{Dale, Rey. R. W, 12 Calthorpe-street, Birmingham.
}Dalgleish, W Dundee.
{Dalkinger, Rev. W. H.
Dalmahoy, James, F.R.S.E, 9 Forres-street, Edinburgh,
{Dalrymple, Charles Elphinstone. West Hall, Aberdeenshire,
{Dalrymple, Colonel. a Scotland.
Dalton, Edward, LL.D., F.S8.A. Dunkirk House, Nailsworth.
Dalziel, John, M.D. Holm of Drumlanrig, Thornhill, Dumfriesshire,
f{Danby, T. W. Downing College, Cambridge.
tDancer, J. B., F.R.A.S. Old Manor House, Ardwick, Manchester.
TDanchill, F. H. Vale Hall, Horwich, Bolton, Lancashire.
*Danson, Joseph, F.CS.
tDarbishire, Charles James. Rivington, near Chorley, Lancashire,
*DarBISHIRE, ROBERT DUKINFIELD, B.A., F.G.8. 26 George-street,
Manchester.
Darwin, Cuartes R., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.8., F.G.S., Hon. F.R.S.E,,
and M.R.I.A. Down, near Bromley, Kent.
{DaSilva, Johnson. Burntwood, Wandsworth Common, London, 8.W.
§Davenport, John T. 64 Marine Parade, Brighton.
Davey, Richard, F.G.S. Redruth, Cornwall.
{Davidson, Alexander, M.D. _8 Peel-street, Toxteth Park, Liverpool.
{Dayidson, Charles. Grove House, Auchmull, Aberdeen.
§Davidson, James. Newhattle, Dalkeith, N.B,
02
20
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1859.
1872.
1868.
1870.
1863,
1842.
1873.
1870.
1864,
1873.
1856.
1859,
1859.
1873.
1864.
1857.
1869.
1869,
1854,
1860.
1864.
1865.
1855,
1859.
1871.
1870,
1861.
1870.
1859.
1861.
1870.
1854,
1866.
1854.
1870,
1870,
1874,
1856,
{Davidson, Patrick. Inchmarlo, near Aberdeen.
{Davipson, THomas, F.R.S., F.G.S. 8 Denmark-terrace, Brighton.
{Davie, Rev. W. C.
{Davies, Edward, F.C.S. Royal Institution, Liverpool.
tDavies, Griffith. 17 Cloudesley-street, Islington, London, N.
Davies, John Birt, M.D. The Laurels, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
Davies-Colley, Dr. Thomas. 40 Whitefriars, Chester.
*Davis, Alfred. Sun Foundry, Leeds.
*Davis, A. 8. 37 Montpellier-villas, Cheltenham.
fDavis, Coarues E., F.S.A. 55 Pulteney-street, Bath.
Davis, Rey. David, B.A. Lancaster.
*Davis, James W. Albert House, Greetland, near Halifax.
*Davis, Sir Joun Francis, Bart., K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Holly-
wood, Westbury by Bristol.
fDavis, J. Barnarp, M.D., F.R.S., F.S.A. Shelton, Hanley, Staf-
fordshire.
*Davis, Richard, F.L.S. 9 St. Helen’s-place, London, E.C.
tDavis, William Samuel. 1 Cambridge-villas, Derby.
{Davison, Richard. Beverley-road, Great Driffield, Yorkshire.
t{Davy, Edmund W., M.D. Kimmage Lodge, Roundtown, near
Dublin.
tDaw, John. Mount Radford, Exeter.
tDaw, R. M. Bedford-circus, Exeter.
*Dawbarn, William. Elmswood, Aigburth, Liverpool.
Dawes, John Samuel, F.G.S. Lappel Lodge, Quinton, near Bir-
mingham.
*Dawes, John T., jun. Perry Hill House, Quinton, near Birmingham.
{Dawxtrns, W. Boyn, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.8., F.S.A. Birchview, Nor-
man-road, Rusholme, Manchester.
{Dawson, George, M.A. Shenstone, Lichfield.
*Dawson, Henry. Shu-le-Crow House, Keswick, Cumberland.
Dawson, John. Barley House, Exeter.
{Dawson, Joun W., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Principal of M‘Gill Col-
lege, Montreal, Canada.
Retete anes William G, Plumstead Common-road, Kent,
{Day, St. John Vincent. 166 Buchanan-street, Glasgow. -
§Deacon, G. F., M.1.C.E. Liverpool.
{Deacon, Henry. Appleton House, near Warrington.
t{ Deacon, Henry Wade.
{Dean, David. Banchory, Aberdeen.
{Dean, Henry. Colne, Lancashire.
*Deane, Rey. George, D.Sc., B.A., F.G.S. Moseley, Birmingham.
{Drang, Henry, F.L.S. Clapham Common, Lendon, 8. W.
{Dexsvus, Heryricu, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Lecturer on Chemistry
at Guy’s Hospital, London, 8.E.
*Dre La Rur, Warren, D.C.L., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., F.R.A.S.
73 Portland-place, London, W.
{De Meschin, Thomas, M.A., LL.D. 38 Middle Temple-lane, Tem-
ple, London, H.C,
Denchar, John. Morningside, Edinburgh.
Dent, Wilham Yerbury. Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, S.E.
*Denton, J. Bailey. 22 Whitehall-place, London, S.W.
§De Rance, C.E., F.G.8. 28 Jermyn-street, London, S.W.
*Dersy, The Right Hon. the Earl of, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 23 St.
J weal London, 8.W.; and Knowsley, near Liver-
pool.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 21
Year of
Election.
1874.
1870.
1868.
1869,
1868.
1872.
1873.
1858.
1870.
1852.
1864,
1863.
1861.
1867,
1868.
1863.
1862.
1848,
1872.
1869.
1859.
1837.
1868.
1874.
1853.
1865.
1861.
1851,
1860.
1864,
1870.
1874.
1857,
§Derham, W. Henley House, Westbury-on-Trym, Bristol.
De Saumarez, Rey. Havilland, M.A. St. Peter’s Rectory, North-
ampton.
{Desmond, Dr, 44 Irvine-street, Edge Hill, Liverpool.
TDessé, Etheldred, M.B., F.R.C.S, 43 Kensington Gardens-square,
Bayswater, London, W.
De Tasiey, Grorer, Lord, F.Z.8. Tabley House, Knutsford,
Cheshire.
Devon, The Right Hon. the Earl of, D.C.L. Powderham Castle,
near Exeter,
*DEVONSHIRE, WILLIAM, Duke of, K.G., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.,
F.R.G.S., Chancellor of the University of Cambridge. Devon-
shire House, Piccadilly, London, W.; and Chatsworth, Derby-
shire.
§Dewar, James, F.R.S.E. Chemical Laboratory, The University,
Edinburgh.
{Dewick, Rey. E.8. The College, Eastbourne, Sussex.
*Dew-Smith, A. G. Rushett House, Thames Ditton.
{Dibb, Thomas Townend. Little Woodhouse, Leeds.
t Dickens, Colonel C. H.
{Dickim, Greorer, M.A., M.D., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the
University of Aberdeen.
*Dickinson, F. H., F.G.8. Kingweston, Somerton, Taunton ; and 121
St. George’s-square, London, 8. W.
{Dickinson, G. T. Claremont-place, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*Dickinson, William Leeson 1 St. James’s-street, Manchester.
§Dickson, ALEXANDER, M.D., Professor of Botany in the University of
Glasgow. 11 Royal-circus, Edinburgh.
{Dickson, J. Thompson. 33 Harley-street, London, W.
*Dickson, William, F.S.A., Clerk of the Peace for Northumberland.
Alnwick, Northumberland.
*Dirxe, Sir Cuartes WeEntTwortTH, Bart., M.P., F.R.G.S. 76
Sloane-street, London, 8. W.
jDitiwyn, Lewis Lueweryn, M.P., F.L.S.,F.G.8. Parkwern, near
Swansea.
§Dines, George. Grosvenor-road, London, 8.W.
{Dingle, Edward. 19 King-street, Tavistock.
*Dingle, Rey. J. Lanchester Vicarage, Durham. :
Dircxs, Henry, C.E., LL.D., F.C.8. 48 Charing-cross,London, 8. W.
Dittmar, W.
*Dixon, A. E. Dunowen, Cliftonville, Belfast. :
{Dixon, Edward, M.I.C.E. Wilton House, Southampton.
{tDizon, L.
{Drxon, W. Hepworth, F.S.A., F.R.G.S. 6 St. James’s-terrace,
Regent’s-park, London, N.W.
*Dobbin, Leonard, M.R.I.A. 27 Gardiner’s-place, Dublin.
tDobbin, Orlando T., LL.D., M.R.I.A. Ballivor, Kells, Co, Meath,
*Dobbs, Archibald Edward, M.A. Richmond-road, Ealing, W.
*Dobson, William. Oakwood, Bathwick Hill, Bath.
Dockray, Benjamin.
*Dodd, John. 6 Thomas-street, Liverpool.
§Dodd, W. H., M.A., Barrington Lecturer on Political Economy.
Mountjoy-street, Dublin.
{Dodds, Thomas W., C.E. Rotherham.
*Dodsworth, Benjamin. Westwood, Scarborough.
*Dodsworth, George. The Mount, York.
Dolphin, John, Delyes House, Berry Edge, near Gateshead.
22
LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
Election.
1851.
1867.
1867.
1873.
1869.
1871.
1874.
1861.
1857.
1857.
1867.
1871.
1863.
1855.
1870.
- {Duncan, James Matthew,
{Domvile, William C., F.Z.S. Thorn Hill, Bray, Dublin.
{Don, John. The Lodge, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee.
{Don, William G. St. Margaret’s, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee.
{Donham, Thomas. Huddersfield.
{Donisthorpe, G. T. St. David’s Hill, Exeter.
{Donxry, ArrHuR Scorr, M.D., Lecturer on Forensic Medicine at
Durham University. Sunderland.
§Donnell, Professor, M.A. 28 Upper Sackville-street, Dublin.
tDonnelly, Captain, R.E. South Kehsthatbl Museum, London, W.
*DonNELLY, WILLIAM, C.B., Registrar-General for Ireland. Charle-
mont House, Dublin.
t{Donovan, M., M.R.I.A. Clare-street, Dublin.
{Dougall, Andrew Maitland, R.N. Scotscraig, Tayport, Fifeshire.
{Dougall, John, M.D. 2 Cecil-place, Paisley-road, Glasgow.
* Doughty, C. Montagu.
}Dove, Hector. Rose Cottage, Trinity, near Edinburgh.
{Dowie, J. M. Walstones, West Kirby, Liverpool.
Downall, Rev. John. Okehampton, Devon.
. {Downre, S., LL.D., Professor of Civil Engineering in the University
of Dublin. Dublin.
*Dowson, Edward, M.D. 117 Park-street, London, W.
*Dowson, E. Theodore. Geldeston, near Beccles, Suffolk.
§DresseR, Henry E., F.Z.8. 6 Tenterden-street, Hanover-square,
London, W.
§Drew, Frederick, LL.D., F.G.S. Claremont-road, Surbiton.
§Drew, Joseph, LL.D., F.G.S., F.R.S.C., F.R.S.L. Weymouth.
t{Drew, Robert A. 6 Stanley-place, Duke-street, Broughton, Man-
chester.
*Druce, Frederick. 27 Oriental-place, Brighton.
§Druitt, Charles. Hampden-terrace, Rugby-road, Belfast.
Drummond, H. Home, PR S.E. Blair Drummond, Stirling.
{Drummond, Robert. 17 Stratton-street, London, W.
. *Dry, Thomas. 23 Gloucester-road, Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
{Dryden, James. South Benwell, Northumberland.
. §Drysdale, J. J., M.D. 36a Rodney-street, Liverpool.
. *Ducrs, Henry JoHN Reynouips Moreton, Ear! of, F.R.S., F.G.S.
16 Portman-square, London, W.; and Tortworth Court, Wot-
ton-under-Edge,
. tDuckworth, Henry, F.L.S., F.G.S. 5 Cook-street, Liverpool.
. *Durr, Mounrsruart EpurinsTone Grant-, LL.B., M.P. 4 Queen’s
Gate-gardens, South Kensington, London, W.; and Eden, near
Banff, Scotland.
{Dufferin, The Right Hon, Lord. Highgate, London, N.; and Clande-
boye, Belfast.
*Duncan, Alexander. 7 Prince’s-gate, London, S.W.
{Duncan, Charles. 52 Union-place, Aberdeen.
*Duncan, James. 71 Cromwell-road, South Kensington, London, W.
Duncan, J. F., M.D. 8 pape Merrion-street, Dublin.
{.D. 30 Charlotte-square, Edinburgh.
{Duncan, Prrer Martin, M.D.,F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology
in King’s College, London. 40 Blessington-road, Lee, S.E.
Dunlop, Alexander. Clober, Milngavie, near Glasgow.
*Dunlop, William Henry. Annanhill, Kilmarnock, Ayrshire.
§Dunn, David. Annet House, Skelmorlie, by Greenock, N.B.
§Dunn, Ropert, F.R.C.S. 31 Norfolk-street, Strand, London, W.C.
Punpingions efferson, Rey. Joseph, M.A., F.C.P.S, Thicket Hall,
ork,
LIST OF MEMBERS. 23
Year of
Election.
1859,
1866.
1869,
1860.
1869,
1868,
1861
1864.
1874,
1871.
1863.
1870.
1867.
1861.
1858.
1870.
1855.
1859.
1870.
1867.
1867.
1867,
1855.
1867.
1859:
1873.
1855.
1858.
1868.
1863.
1855.
1861.
1864,
1872.
1864.
1859.
1864.
1864,
tDuns, Rey. John, D.D., F.R.S.E. New College, Edinburgh.
orabee Perry. Woodbury Down, Stoke Newington, London, N.
tD’ psy. W. S. M., F.L.S. 4 Queen-terrace, Mount Radford,
xeter.
{DurHam, Arruur Epwarp, F.R.C.S., F.L.S., Demonstrator of
Anatomy, Guy’s Hospital. 82 Brook-street, Grosvenor-square,
London, W.
Dykes, Robert. Kilmorie, Torquay, Devon.
§Dymond, Edward E. Oaklands, Aspley Guise, Woburn.
tEade, Peter, M.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich,
fEadson, Richard. 13 Hyde-road, Manchester.
{Larle, Rev. A.
*EarnsHAw, Rey. Samuet, M.A. 14 Broomfield, Sheffield.
§Eason, Charles. 30 Kenilworth-square, Rathgar, Dublin.
*Easton, Edward. 7 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W.
§Easton, James. Nest House, near Gateshead, Durham.
Eaton, Rev. George, M.A. The Pole, Northwich.
§Eaton, Richard. Basford, Nottingham.
Ebden, Rev. James Collett, M.A.,F.R.A.S. Great Stukeley Vicarage,
Huntingdonshire.
{£ckersley, James.
{Ecroyd, William Farrer. Spring Cottage, near Burnley.
*Fiddison, Francis. Blandford, Dorset.
*Eddison, Dr. John Edwin. 29 Park-square, Leeds.
*Eddy, James Ray, F.G.S. Carleton Grange, Skipton.
Eden, Thomas. Talbot-road, Oxton.
*EpcEwortn, Micuart P., F.LS., F.R.A.S. Mastrim House,
Anerley, London, 8.E.
tEdmiston, Robert. Elmbank-crescent, Glasgow.
{Edmond, James. Cardens Haugh, Aberdeen.
*Edmonds, F. B, 8 York-place, Northam, Southampton.
*Edward, Allan. Farington Hall, Dundee.
§Edward, Charles. Chambers, 8 Bank-street, Dundee.
tEdward, James. Balruddery, Dundee.
Edwards, John.
*Epwarps, Professor J. Baker, Ph.D., D.C.L. Montreal, Canada.
tEdwards, William. 70 Princes-street, Dundee.
*EGERTON, Sir Purr pe Mapas Grey, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S8.
Oulton Park, Tarporley, Cheshire,
*Risdale, David A., M.A. 38 Dublin-street, Edinburgh.
§Elcock, Charles, 71 Market-street, Manchester.
{ Elder, David.
{Elder, John. Elm Park, Goyan-road, Glasgow.
tElger, Thomas Gwyn Empy, F.R.A.S. St. Mary, Bedford.
Ellacombe, Rev. H. T., FSA. Clyst, St. George, Topsham, Devon,
tEllenberger, J. L. Worksop.
§Elliot, Robert, F.B.S.E. Wolfelee, Hawick, N.B.
*Exxiot, Sir Water, K.C.8.L, F.L.S. Wolfelee, Hawick, N.B.
Elliott, E. B. Washington, United States.
tElliott, Rev. E. B. 11 Sussex-square, Kemp Town, Brighton.
Elliott, Juhn Fogg. Elvet Hill, Durham.
*ELuis, ALEXANDER Jonny, B.A., F.R.S., F.S.A. 26 Argyll-road,
Kensington, London, W.
tExuis, Henry §., F.R.A.S. Fair Park, Exeter.
*Ellis, Joseph. Hampton Lodge, Brighton.
fEllis, J. Walter. High House, Thornwaite, Ripley, Yorkshire.
24
LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
Election.
1874.
1869.
1862.
1863.
1863.
1858.
1866.
1866.
1871.
1858.
1869.
1869,
1869.
1844.
1864,
1862.
1869,
1855.
1870.
1865.
1872.
1869,
1861.
1865.
1866.
1865.
1871.
1868,
1863.
1874.
1874.
1859.
1871.
1846.
1866,
*Ellis, Rev. Robert, A.M. The Institute, St. Saviour’s Gate, York.
§Ellis, Sydney. The Newarke, Leicester.
tEllis, William Horton. Pennsylvania, Exeter.
Ellman, Rey. E. B. Berwick Rectory, near Lewes, Sussex.
{Elphinstone, H. W., M.A., F.L.S. Cadogan-place, London, 8. W.
Eltoft, William.
t{Embleton, Dennis, M.D. Northumberland-street, Newcastle-on-
Tyne.
+ Haseier Rev. W., B.D. Corpus Christi College, Cambridge.
tEmpson, Christopher. Bramhope Hall, Leeds.
tEnfeld, Richard. Low Pavement, Nottingham.
tEnfield, William. Low Pavement, Nottingham.
tEngelson, T. 11 Portland-terrace, Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
aes a Edgar Wilkins. Yorkshire Banking Company, Lowgate,
ull.
tEnglish, J.T. Stratton, Cornwall.
ENNISKILLEN, Witi1am WitLoueHBy, Earl of, D.C.L., F.R.S.,
M.R.LA., F.G.8, 26 EHaton-place, London, 8. W.; and Florence
Court, Fermanagh, Ireland.
tEnsor, Thomas. St. Leonards, Exeter.
*Enys, John Davis. Canterbury, New Zealand. (Care of F. G. Enys,
Esq., Enys, Penryn, Cornwall.)
tErichsen, John Eric, Professor of Clinical Surgery in University
College, London. 9 Cavendish-place, London, W.
*Eskrigge, R. A., F.G.S. 18 Hackins-hey, Liverpool.
*Esson, Witi1AM, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., FLR.A.S. Merton College ;
and | Bradmore-road, Oxford.
Estcourt, Rev. W. J. B. Long Newton, Tetbury.
tEruermer, Ropert, F.R.S.L. & E., F.G.S., Paleeontologist to the
Geological Survey of Great Britain. Museum of Practical
Geology, Jermyn-street; and 19 Halsey-street, Cadogan-place,
London, 8.W.
*Euing, William. 209 West George-street, Glasgow.
*Eyans, Arthur John. Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead.
*Evans, Rev. Coarzes, M.A. The Rectory, Solihull, Birmingham,
*Evans, Frederick J., C.E. Clayponds, Brentford, Middlesex, W.
ree a Sayville W. Wimbledon Park House, Wimbledon,
*Evans, JOHN, F.R.S., F.S.A., Pres. GS. 65 Old Bailey, London,
E.C.; and Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead.
tEvans, Sepastran, M.A., LL.D. Highgate, near Birmingham.
{Evans, Thomas, F.G.S. Belper, Derbyshire.
*Evans, William. Ellerslie, Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
§Eve, H.W. Wellington College, Wokingham, Berkshire.
*Everett, J. D., D.C.L., F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy in
Queen’s College, Belfast. Rushmere, Malone-road, Belfast.
*Everitt, George Allen, K.L., K.H., F.R.G.S. Knowle Hall, War-
wickshire.
§Ewart, William. Glenmachan, Belfast.
§Ewart, W. Quartus. Glenmachan, Belfast.
sere Archibald Orr, M.P. Ballikinyrain Castle, Killearn, Stirling-
shire.
*Exley, John T., M.A. 1 Cotham-road, Bristol.
*Eyre, George Edward, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 59 Lowndes-square,
London, 8.W. ; and Warren’s, near Lyndhurst, Hants.
fEyre, Major-General Sir Vincent, F.R.G.S. Atheneum Club,
Pall Mall, London, 8.W.
Year
LIST OF MEMBERS, 25
of
Election.
ton, Charles. Hendred House, Abingdon.
Ey
1849, {Eyton, T. C. Eyton, near Wellington, Salop.
1842.
1865.
1870.
1864.
1873,
1859.
1861.
1866.
1857.
Fairbairn, Thomas. Manchester.
{Fairley, Thomas. Chapel Allerton, Leeds.
{Fairlie, Robert, C.E. Woadtande. Clapham Common, London, 8. W.
{Fallmer, F. H. Lyncombe, Bath.
§Farakerley, Miss. The Castle, Denbigh.
{Farquharson, Robert O. Houghton, Aberdeen,
§Farr, Wi11AM, M.D., D.C.L., F.R.8., Superintendent of the Statis-
tical Department, General Registry Office. Southlands, Bickley,
Kent.
*Farrar, Rey. Freperick Wi11AM, M.A., D.D., F.R.S. Marl-
borough College, Wilts.
{Farrelly, Rey. Thomas. Royal College, Maynooth.
1869. *Faulconer, R.S. Fairlawn, Clarence-road, Clapham Park, London,
1869.
1869.
1859.
1863.
1845.
S.W.
*Faulding, Joseph. The Grange, Greenhill Park, New Barnet,
Herts.
tFaulding, W. F. Didsbury College, Manchester.
*Fawcert, Henry, M.P., Professor of Political Economy in the Uni-
versity of Cambridge. 51 The Lawn, South Lambeth-road,
London, 8.W.; and 8 Trumpington-street, Cambridge.
{Fawcus, George. Alma-place, North Shields.
tFelkin, William, F.L.S. The Park, Nottingham.
Fell, John B. Spark’s Bridge, Ulverston, Lancashire.
1864, §FrLLows, Frank P., F.S.A., F.S.S. 8 The Green, Hampstead,
1852.
1855.
1859.
1871.
1867.
1857.
1854,
1867.
1863.
1862.
1873.
1868.
1869.
1864,
1863.
1868.
1863.
1851
1858
London, N.W
{Fenton, S.Greame. 9 College-square; and Keswick, near Belfast.
tr erguson, : ees one Pos or Lesmahago, Glasgow.
erguson, John. Cove, Nigg, Inverness.
§Ferguson, John. The College, Glasgow.
{Ferguson, Robert M., Ph.D., F.R.S.E. 8 Queen-street, Edinburgh.
fFerguson, Samuel. 20 North Great George-street, Dublin.
{Ferguson, William, F.L.S., F.G.S. Kinmundy, near Mintlaw,
Aberdeenshire.
*Fergusson, H. B. 18 Airlie-place, Dundee.
*FERNIE, JOHN. Bonchurch, Isle of Wight.
{Ferrers, Rey. N. M.,M.A. Caius College, Cambridge. i
aia David, M.D. 23 Somerset-street, Portman-square, London,
}Field, Edward. Norwich. 5
*Freip, Roerrs. 5 Cannon-row, Westminster, S.W.
Fielding, G. H., M.D.
ach Eolenick George, B.A., F.G.8, 21 Crooms-hill, Greenwich,
Finch, John. Bridge Work, Chepstow.
Finch, John, jun, Bridge Work, Chepstow.
{Finney, Samuel.
{Firth, G. W. W. St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
Firth, Thomas. Northwick.
*Firth, William. Burley Wood, near Leeds.
. *Fiscuer, Wiwiiam L, F., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Mathe-
mau in the University of St. Andrews. St. Andrews, Scot-
and.
. [Fishbourne, Captain E. G., R.N. 6 Welamere-terrace, Padding-
ton, London, W,
26
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1869,
1873.
1858.
1871.
1871.
1868.
1857.
1857.
1865,
1850,
1867.
1870.
1853.
1869,
1862.
1867.
1854.
1873.
1855.
1855.
1866.
1867.
1858.
1871.
1854,
1870.
1865.
1865,
1857.
1845.
1859,
{Fisuer, Rev. Osmonp, M.A,, F.G.8. Harlston Rectory, near Cam-
bridge.
§Fisher, William. Maes Fron, near Welshpool, Montgomeryshire,
{Fishwick, Henry. Carr-hill, Rochdale.
*Fison, Frederick W., F.C.S. Crossbeck, Ilkley, Yorkshire.
§Frrcu, J. G., M.A. 5 Lancaster-terrace, Regent’s Park, London,
N.W.
{Fitch, Robert, F.G.S., F.S.A. Norwich. ;
{Fitzgerald, The Right Hon. Lord Otho. 13 Dominick-street, Dublin,
{Fitzpatrick, Thomas, M.D. 81 Lower Bagot-street, Dublin.
Fitzwilliam, Hon. George Wentworth, F.R.G.S. 19 Grosvenor-
square, London, 8.W.; and Wentworth House, Rotherham.
fFleetwood, D. J. 45 George-street, St. Paul’s, Birmingham.
Fleetwood, Sir Peter Hesketh, Bart. Rossall Hall, Fleetwood,
Lancashire.
{Fleming, Professor Alexander, M.D. 121 Hagley-road, Birmingham.
Fleming, Christopher, M.D. Merrion-square North, Dublin,
Fleming, John G., M.D. 155 Bath-street, Glasgow.
*Fremine, Wiit1aM, M.D. Rowton Grange, near Chester,
§FLETCHER, ALFRED E. 21 Overton-street, Liverpool.
tFletcher, B. Edgington. Norwich.
{Fietcuer, Isaac, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Tarn Bank, Work-
ington.
pEuaraaes, Lavineton E., C.E. 41 Corporation-street, Manchester.
Fletcher, T. B. E., M.D. 7 Waterloo-street, Birmingham.
tFLower, Witi1am Henry, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.C.S., Hun-
terian Professor of Comparative Anatomy, and Conservator of the
Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. Royal College of
Surgeons, Lincoln’s-Inn-fields, London, W.C.
tFoggie, William. Woodville, Maryfield, Dundee.
*Forses, Davin, F.R.S., F.G.8., F.C.S. 11 York-place, Portman-
square, London, W.
*Forbes, Professor George, B,A., F.R.S.E. Anderson’s University,
Glasgow.
tForbes, Rev. John. Symington Manse, Bigear, Scotland.
tForbes, Rey. John, D.D. 150 West Regent-street, Glasgow.
Ford, H. R. Morecombe Lodge, Yealand Conyers, Lancashire.
{Ford, William. Hartsdown Villa, Kensington Park-gardens East,
London, W.
*Forrest, William Hutton. The Terrace, Stirling.
{Forster, Anthony. Finlay House, St. Leonard’s-on-Sea,
*Forster, The Right Hon. Witit1am Epwarp, M.P. Wharfeside,
Burley-in- Wharfedale, Leeds.
{Porsyth, William F.
*Fort, Richard. 24 Queen’s-cate-gardens, London, W.; and Read
Hall, Whalley, Lancashire.
{Forwood, William B. Hopeton House, Seaforth, Liverpool,
{Foster, Balthazar W., M.D. 4 Old-square, pres ee
*Fostrr, CLement Lr Nerve, B.A., D.Sc., F.G.S. Truro, Cornwall.
*Fostrr, Grorce C., B.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Experimental
Physics in University College, London, W.C. 12 Hilldrop-road,
London, N,
*Foster, Rey. John, M.A. The Oaks Vicarage, Loughborough.
{Foster, John N. Sandy Place, Sandy, Bedfordshire.
"Foster, Micwazt, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.C.8. (Gznerau
pe oe Trinity College, and Great Shelford, near Cam-
ridge,
LIST OF MEMBERS. 27.
Year of
Election,
1859,
1873.
1863.
1859.
1873.
1842,
1870.
1866.
1868.
1856.
1870.
1868.
1842,
1860,
1866.
1846.
1859.
1865.
1871.
1859.
1871.
1860.
1847.
1871.
1865.
1869,
1869.
1857.
1869,
1847.
1860.
§Foster, Peter Le Neve, M.A. Society of Arts, Adelphi, London,
W.C
{Foster, Peter Le Neve, jun. Mortara, Italy.
{Foster, Robert. 30 Rye-hill, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Foster, 8. Lloyd. Old Park Hall, Walsall, Staffordshire.
*Foster, William. Harrowins House, Queensbury, Yorkshire.
Fothergill, Benjamin. 10 The Grove, Boltons, West Brompton,
London, 8. W.
{Foulger, Edward. 55 Kirkdale-road, Liverpool.
§Fowler, George. Basford Hall, near Nottingham,
{Fowler, G.G. Gunton Hall, Lowestoft, Suffolk.
tFowler, Rev. Hugh, M.A. College-gardens, Gloucester.
*Fowler, Robert Nicholas, M.A., F.R.G.S. 50 Cornhill, London,
E.C
tFox, Colonel A. H. Lanz, F.G.S., F.S.A. 10 Upper Phillimore-
ardens, Kensington, London, 8. W.
*Fox, Charles. Trebah, Falmouth.
*Fox, Rev. Edward, M.A. The Vicarage, Romford, Essex.
*Fox, Joseph Hayland. The Cleve, Wellington, Som€rset.
{Fox, Joseph John. Church-row, Stoke Newington, London, N.
Fox, Roprert WeR®, F.R.S. Falmouth.
*Francis, G. B. 48 Stoke Newington-green, London, N.
Francis, WILLIAM, Ph.D., F.LS., F.G.8., F.R.A.S. Red Lion-court,
Fleet-street, London, E.C.; and Manor House, Richmond,
Surrey.
pRasriaek Epwarp, D.C.L., Ph.D., F.R.8., F.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry in the Royal School of Mines. 14 Lancaster-gate,
London, W.
*Frankland, Rev. Marmaduke Charles. Chowbent, near Manchester.
{Fraser, George B. 35 Airlie-place, Dundee.
Fraser, James. 25 Westland-row, Dublin.
Fraser, James William. 8A Kensington Palace-gardens, London,
Ww
*F RASER, Joun, M.A., M.D. Chapel Ash, Wolverhampton.
ees ee By AD. ; sie eats ae aetolt fiat Edinburgh,
razer, Daniel. 113 Buchanan-stree asgow.
{Frazer, Evan L, R. Brunswick-terrace, Spring Bank, Hull.
{Freeborn, Richard Fernandez. 38 Broad-street, Oxford.
ae Humphrey William, F.G.S. West-street, Chichester,
uSseX,
{ Freeman.
tFreeman, James. 15 Francis-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
Frere, George Edward, F.R.S. Roydon Hall, Diss, Norfolk.
{Frerr, The Right Hon. Sir H. Bantix E., G.C.S.L, K.CB,,
F.R.G.S8. Wressil Lodge, Wimbledon, 8.W.
{Brere, Rev. William 1 Edward. "The Rectory, Bilton, near Bristol.
Fripp, George, D., M.D.
“Frith, Richard Hastings, C.E., MR.LA., F.R.G.S.I. 48 Summer-
hill, Dublin.
{Frodsham, Charles. 26 Upper Bedford-place, Russell-square, Lon-
on, W.C.
ea William. Wentworth Lodge, Upper Tulse-hill, London,
*Froupr, Wi11AM, C.E., F.R.S. Chelston Cross, Torquay.
Fry, Francis, Cotham, Bristol.
Fry, Richard. Cotham Lawn, Bristol.
Fry, Robert. Tockington, Gloucestershire.
28
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1872.
1873.
1859.
1869,
1864,
1857.
1863.
1850.
1861,
1867.
1863.
1861.
1861.
1860.
1860.
1869,
1870.
1870.
1868.
1862
1865.
1842.
1873.
1874.
1870.
1870.
1847,
1842.
1846.
1862.
1875.
1871.
1859.
1854,
1867,
1871.
1855.
1854.
1870.
1870.
1856,
*Fuller, Rey. A. Ichenor, Chichester.
§Fuller, Claude 8., R.N. 44 Holland-road, Kensington, W.
{Futter, Frepericx, M.A., Professor of Mathematics in University
and King’s College, Aberdeen.
{Futier, Grorer, C.E., Professor of Engineering in Queen’s College,
Belfast. 6 College-gardens, Belfast.
*Furneaux, Rey, Alan. St. German’s Parsonage, Cornwall.
*Gadesden, Augustus William, F.S.A. Ewell Castle, Surrey.
t{Gages, Alphonse, M.R.I.A. Museum of Irish Industry, Dublin.
*Gainsford, W. D. Richmond Hill, Sheffield.
{Gairdner, Professor W. F., M.D. 225 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
{Galbraith, Andrew. Glasgow.
GALBRAITH, Rey. J. A.. M.R.LA. Trinity College, Dublin.
tGale, James M. 33 Miller-street, Glasgow.
tGale, Samuel, F.C.S. 338 Oxford-street, London, W. ;
{Galloway, Charles John. Knott Mill Iron Works, Manchester.
{Galloway, John, jun. Knott Mill Iron Works, Manchester.
*Gatton, Captain Dovetas, C.B., R.E., F.R.S., F.LS., F.GS.,
F.R.G.S. (GENERAL SECRETARY.) 12 Chester-street,Grosvenor-
place, London, 8.W.
*GaLTon, Francis, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 42 Rutland-gate,
Knightsbridge, London, S.W.
t{GatTon, Joun C., M.A., F.L.S. 18 Margaret-street, Cavendish-
square, London, W.
§Gamble, Lieut.-Col. D. St. Helen’s, Lancashire.
*Gamble, John G. Savile Club, 15 Savile-row, London, W.
epee ae: Arruur, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. Owens College, Man-
chester.
§GaRNER, Ropert, F.L.S. Stoke-upon-Trent.
§Garner, Mrs. Robert. _Stoke-upon-Trent.
Garnett, Jeremiah. Warren-street, Manchester.
§Garnham, John. 123 Bunhill-row, London, E.C.
*Garstin, John Ribton, M.R.LA., F.S.A. Greenhill, Killiney, Co.
Dublin.
{Gaskell, Holbrook. Woolton Wood, Liverpool.
*Gaskell, Holbrook, ee Mayfield-road, Aigburth, Liverpool.
*Gaskell, Samuel. indham Club, St. James’s-square, London, 8. W.
Gaskell, Rev. William, M.A. Plymouth-grove, Manchester.
§GassioT, JoHN Peter, D.C.L., LL.D., F.RS., F.C.S. Clapham
Common, London, 8.W.
*Gatty, Charles Henry, M.A., F.L.8., F.G.8. Felbridge Park, East
Grinstead, Sussex.
{Geach, R.G. Cragg Wood, Rawdon, Yorkshire.
tGeddes, John. 9 Melville-crescent, Edinburgh.
{Geddes, William D., M.A., Professor of Greek, King’s College, Old
Aberdeen.
{Gee, Robert, M.D. 5 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.
§Grrkre, ArcurpaLp, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.8., Director of the Geo-
logical Survey of Scotland. Geological Survey Office, Victoria-
street, Edinburgh; and Ramsay Lodge, Edinburgh.
§Geikie, James, F.R.S.E. 16 Duncan-terrace, Newington, Edinburgh.
{Gemmell, Andrew. 38 Queen-street, Glasgow.
§Gerard, Henry. 84 Rumford-place, Liverpool.
tGerstl, R. University College, London, W.C.
*Gervis, Walter S., M.D. Ashburton, Devonshire.
*Gething, George Barkley. Springfield, Newport, Monmouthshire.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 29
Year ef
Election.
1863.
1865.
1871.
1868.
1874,
1852,
1870.
1870.
1870.
1867.
1842.
1857.
1859,
1871.
1868,
1864.
1861.
1867.
1867.
1869,
1874.
1850.
1849,
1861.
1861.
1871.
1853.
1870.
1859.
1867.
1874,
1874.
1870.
1872.
1852.
1846,
1875.
1852.
1870.
1842.
1865.
1869,
*Grps, Sir George Duncan, Bart., M.D., M.A., LL.D., F.G.S.
1 Bryanston-street, London, W.; and Falkland, Fife.
{Gibbins, William. Battery Works, Digbeth, Birmingham.
tGibson, Alexander, 19 Albany-street, Edinburgh.
tGibson, C. M. Bethel-street, Norwich.
§Gibson, Edward, Q.C. 23 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin.
*Gibson, George Stacey. Saffron Walden, Hssex.
tGibson, James. 35 Mountjoy-square, Dublin.
{Gibson, R. E.
{Gibson, Thomas. 51 Oxford-street, Liverpool.
tGibson, Thomas, jun. 19 Parkfield-road, Princes Park, Liverpool.
{Gibson, W. L., MD. Tay-street, Dundee.
GitBERT, JosepH Henry, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S, Harpenden, near
St. Albans.
tGilbert, J. T., M.R.LL.A. Blackrock, Dublin.
*Gilchrist, James, M.D. Crichton House, Dumfries.
Gilderdale, Rev. John, M.A. Walthamstow, Essex, E.
Giles, Rev. William. Netherleigh House, near Chester.
*Gill, David, jun. The Observatory, Aberdeen.
fGill, Joseph. Palermo, Sicily. (Care of W. H. Gill, Esq., General
Post Office, St. Martin’s-le-Grand, E.C.)
tGitt, THomas. 4 Sydney-place, Bath.
*Gilroy, George. Hindley Hall, Wigan.
tGilroy, Robert. Craigie, by Dundee.
§GinsBuRG, Rey. C, D., D.C.L., LL.D. Binfield, Bracknell, Berkshire.
}Girdlestone, Rev. Canon E., M.A. Halberton Vicarage, Tiverton.
*Girdwood, James Kennedy. Old Park, Belfast.
Boe ee George, F.C.S., F.R.G.S. 31 Ventnor-villas, Cliftonville,
Brighton.
Stic: Joun Hatt, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Fullerian Professor
of Chemistry in the Royal Institution. 17 Pembridge-square,
Hyde Park, London, W.
*Gladstone, Murray. 36 Wilton-crescent, London, S.W.
*GLAISHER, James, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 1 Dartmouth-place, Black-
heath, London, 8.E.
*GuaIsHER, J. W. L., M.A., F.R.A.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.
tGleadon, Thomas Ward. Moira-buildings, Hull.
§Glen, David Corse. 14 Annfield-place, Glasgow.
{Glennie, J. S. Stuart. 6 Stone-buildings, Lincoln’s-Inn, London, W.C.
tGloag, John A. L. 10 Inverleith-place, Edinburgh.
Glover, George. Ranelagh-road, Pimlico, London, S.W.
§Glover, George T. 30 Donegall-place, Belfast.
Glover, Thomas. Becley Old Hall, Rowsley, Bakewell.
§Glover, Thomas. 77 Claverton-street, London, 8.W.
f{Glynn, Thomas R. 1 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
§Gopparp, Ricwarp. 16 Booth-street, Bradford, Yorkshire.
tGodwin, John. Wood House, Rostreyor, Belfast.
tGopwin-AustTEN, Ronerr A. C., B.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. Chilworth
Manor, Guildford.
Goxpsmip, Sir Francis Henry, Bart., M.P. St. John’s Lodge,
Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
§Goldthorp, Miss R. I’. C. Cleckheaton, Bradford, Yorkshire.
tGoodbody, Jonathan. Clare, King’s County, Ireland.
tGoodison, George William, C.E. Gateacre, Liverpool.
*GoopMAN, Joun, M.D. 8 Leicester-street, Southport.
tGoodman, J. D. Minories, Birmingham.
tGoodman, Neville, Peterhouse, Cambridge.
30
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1870.
1871.
1840.
1857.
1865.
1870,
1873.
1849,
1857.
1868,
1854.
1873.
1867,
1873.
1861.
1867.
1852,
1871.
1870.
1859.
1855.
1854.
1864.
1874,
1864.
1865.
1870.
1857.
1864.
1859,
1870.
1873.
1861,
1854,
1866.
1873.
*Goodwin, Rey. Henry Albert, M.A., F.R.A.S. Westhall Vicarage,
Wangford.
§Gordon, Joseph. Poynter’s-row, Totteridge, Whetstone, London, N,
tGordon, Lewis D. B. Totteridge, Whetstone, London, N.
t¢Gordon, Samuel, M.D. 11 Hume-street, Dublin.
tGore, George, F.R.S. 50 Islington-row, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tGossage, William. Winwood, Woolton, Liverpool,
*Gotch, Rev. Frederick William, LL.D. Stokes Croft, Bristol.
*Gotch, Thomas Henry. Kettering.
§Gott, Charles, M.I.C.E, Parkfield-road, Manningham, Bradford.
tGough, The Hon. Frederick. Perry Hall, Birmingham.
tGough, George 8., Viscount. Rathronan House, Clonmel.
§Gould, Rey. George. Unthank-road, Norwich.
Govutp, Joun, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.R.G.S., F.Z.8. 26 Charlotte-street,
Bedford-square, London, W.C.
tGowrlay, Daniel De la C., M.D.
{Gourlay, J. McMillan. 21 St. Andrew’s-place, Bradford, Yorkshire.
{tGourley, Henry (Engineer). Dundee.
Gowland, James. London-wall, London, E.C,
§Goyder, Dr. D. Manyille-crescent, Bradford, Yorkshire.
{Grafton, Frederick W. Park-road, Whalley Range, Manchester.
*GRAHAM, CyRriL, F.L.S., F.R.G.S. 9 Cleveland-row, St. James's,
London, 8. W.
Graham, Lieutenant David. Mecklewood, Stirlingshire.
*Grainger, Rey. John, D.D. Skerry and Rathcayan Rectory, Brough-
shane, near Ballymena, Co, Antrim.
{Granv, Sir ALEXANDER, Bart., M.A., Principal of the University of
Edinburgh, 21 Lansdowne-crescent, Edinburgh.
§Grant, Colonel J. A., C.B.,C.S.L, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.R.G.S, 7 Park-
square West, London, N.W.
tGrant, Hon. James. Cluny Cottage, Forres.
*GranT, Ropert, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Regius Professor of
Agmanguy in the University of Glasgow. The Observatory,
lasgow. ;
iGnantay, Ricuarp B.,C.E., F.G.S. 22 Whitehall-place, London,
W.
tGrantham, Richard F, 22 Whitehall-place, London, 8S. W.
§Graves, Rev. James, B.A., M.R.LA, Inisnag Glebe, Stoneyford,
Co. Kilkenny.
*Graves, Rey. Richard Hastings, D,D, 28a Leeson Park, Dublin.
*Gray, Rev. Charles. The Vicarage, Blyth, Worksop.
tGray, Charles. Swan-bank, Bilston.
Gray, C. B. 65 Rumford-place, Liverpool.
{Gray, Sir John, M.D. Rathgar, Dublin.
{Gray, Jonathan. Summerhill House, Bath.
tGray, Rey. J. H. Bolsover Castle, Derbyshire.
spcare : Mageriaze. 10 York-groye, Queen’s-road, Peckham, Lon-
on, 9.4.
SGray, William, Hon. Sec. Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club. Bel-
ast.
*Gray, Wiiu1aM, F.G.S. Gray’s-court, Minster Yard, York.
*Gray, Colonel William. Farley Hall, near Reading.
*GranebTplt Henry. Clent Grove, near Stourbridge, Worcester-
shire.
§Greaves, Charles Augustus, M.B., LL.B. 32 Friar-gate, Derby.
§Greaves, James H., C.E, Albert-buildings, Queen Victoria-street,
London, E.C,
LIST OF MEMBERS. 81
Year of
Election,
1869.
1872.
1872.
1858.
1863.
1862.
1849.
1861.
1833.
1860.
1868,
1861.
1869,
1866.
1863.
1871.
1859.
1870.
1859,
1868.
1870,
1870.
1847.
1875.
1870,
1842.
1864.
1869,
1863.
1869.
1857.
1872,
§Greaves, William. Wellington-cireus, Nottingham.
§Greaves, William. 2 Raymond-buildings, Gray’s Inn, London,
W.c
*Grece, Clair J., LL.D. Redhill, Surrey.
*Greenhalgh, Thomas. Sharples, near Bolton-le-Moors.
tGreenwell, G. E. Poynton, Cheshire.
“Greenwood, Henry. 82 Castle-street, and The Woodlands, Liverpool.
{Greenwood, William. Stones, Todmorden.
"Gree, Roperr Pumps, F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Coles Park, Bunting-
ford, Herts.
Gregg, T. H. 22 Ironmonger-lane, Cheapside, London, E.C.
{Greeor, Rey. Water, M.A. Pitsligo, Rosehearty, Aberdeen-
shire. 1
{Gregory, Charles Hutton, C.E. 1 Delahay-street, Westminster
S.W.
§Gregson, Samuel Leigh. Aigburth-road, Liverpool. ;
*GrEsWELL, Rev. Ricuarp, B.D., F.RB.S., F.R.G.8. 39 St. Giles’s-
street, Oxford.
t{Grey, Sir Grorer, F.R.GS. Belgraye-mansions, Grosyenor-
gardens, London, 8.W.
{Grey, Rev. William Hewett C. North Sherwood, Nottingham.
tGrey, W.S. Norton, Stockton-on-Tees.
*Grierson, Samuel. Medical Superintendent of the District Asylum,
Melrose, N.B.
{Grimrson, THomas Boytz, M.D. Thornhill, Dumfriesshire,
{Grieve, John, M.D, 21 Lynedock-street, Glasgow.
*Griffin, John Joseph, F.C.S. 22 Garrick-street, London, W.C.
Griffith, Rey. C. T., D.D. Elm, near Frome, Somerset.
*GrirritH, Grorer, M.A., F.C.S. (Assistant GEnprat SECRE-
TARY.) Harrow.
Griffith, George R. Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin.
ees, Rey. Joun; M.A., D.C.L. Findon Rectory, Worthing,
ussex.
{Griffith,N. R. The Coppa, Mold, North Wales.
tGriffith, Rev. Professor. Bowden, Cheshire.
*GrirrirH, Sir Ricuarp Joun, Bart., LL.D., F.R.S.E., M.R.LA.,
F.G.S. 2 Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin.
{Griffith, Thomas, Bradford-street, Birmingham.
GrirrirHs, Rey, Joun, M.A. Wadham College, Oxford.
§Grignon, James, H.M. Consul at Riga. Riga.
{Grimsdale, T, F., M.D, 29 Rodney-street, iverpool,
Grimshaw, Samuel, M.A, Errwod, Buxton.
{Groom-Napmr, Cuaries Ortiey, F.G.S. 20 Maryland-road,
Harrow-road, London, N.W. 7
ase rs FB.L.S., F.G.8, The Atheneum Club, Pall Mall, Lon-
on,
Grove, The Hon. Sir Wiri1am Roper, Knt., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S.
115 Harley-street, London, W.
*Groves, Tuomas B., F.C.S. 80 St. Mary-street, Weymouth.
‘GREE, A aA Ay F.R.A.S. 40 Leinster-square, Rathmines,
ublin.
{Grusp, Tuomas, F.R.S.,M.R.LA. 141 Leinster-road, Dublin.
sean eng Lewis, F.R.G.S. 16 Surrey-street, Strand, Lon-
on, W.C.
Guest, Edwin, LL.D., M.A., F.R.S., F.LS., F.R.A.S., Master of
Caius College, Cambridge. Caius Lodge, Cambridge; and Sand-
ford Park, Oxfordshire,
32
Year
LIST OF MEMBERS.
of
Election.
1867
1842,
1856.
1862.
1866.
1868,
1860.
1859,
1864,
1870.
1857.
1865.
1866.
1866.
1865.
1842,
1870.
1848.
1870.
1369,
1870.
1872,
1854.
1859.
1872,
. tGuild, John. Bayfield, West Ferry, Dundee.
Guinness, Henry. 17 College-green, Dublin.
Guinness, Richard Seymour. 17 College-green, Dublin.
*GuIsE, Sir Witt1aM VERNON, Bart., F.G.8., F.L.8. Elmore Court,
near Gloucester.
tGunn, Rey. John, M.A., F.G.S._ Irstedd Rectory, Norwich.
TGinruer, ALBERT C, L.G., M.D.,F.R.S. British Museum, London,
W.C
*Gumey, John. Sprouston Hall, Norwich.
*GuURNEY, SAMUEL, F.L.S., F.R.G.S, 20 Hanover-terrace, Regent’s
Park, London, N.W.
*Gutch, John James. Holgate Lodge, York.
¢GurHrm, Frepericx, B.A., F.R.S.L. & E., F.C.S., Professor of
Physics in the Royal School of Mines. 24 Stanley-crescent,
Notting Hill, London, W.
§Guyon, George. South Cliff Cottage, Ventnor, Isle of Wight.
tGuyton, Joseph.
TtGwynne, Rey. John. Tullyagnish, Letterkenny, Strabane, Ireland.
Hackett, Michael. Brooklawn, Chapelizod, Dublin.
§Hackney, William. Walter’s-road, Swansea.
*Hadden, Frederick J. 3 Park-terrace, Nottingham.
tHaddon, Henry. Lenton Field, Nottingham.
Haden, G.N. Trowbridge, Wiltshire.
} Haden, W. H.
Hadfield, George. Victoria-park, Manchester.
{Hadivan, Isaac. 3 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.
{Hadland, William Jenkins. Banbury, Oxfordshire.
tHaigh, George. Waterloo, Liverpool.
*Hailstone, Edward, F.S.A. Walton Hall, Wakefield, Yorkshire.
tHake, R. C. Grasmere Lodge, Addison-road, Kensington, Lon-
don, W.
tHalhead, W. B. 7 Parkfield-road, Liverpool.
Hauirax, The Right Hon. Viscount. 10 Belgrave-square, London,
.W.; and Hickleston Hall, Doncaster.
tHall, Dr. Alfred. 30 Old Steine, Brighton.
*Hati, Huew Ferret, F.G.S. Greenheys, Wallasey, Birkenhead.
tHall, John Frederic. Ellerker House, Richmond, Surrey.
*Hall, es ae Marshall. New University Club, St. James’s, London,
S.W ‘
*Hall, Thomas B. Australia. (Care of J. P. Hall, Esq., Crane House,
Great Yarmouth.)
1866, *Hati, Townsuenp M., F.G.S._Pilton, Barnstaple.
1860. §Hall, Walter. 10 Pier-road, Erith.
1873
. §Hallett, T. G. P., M.A. Bristol.
1868, *Hatierr, Wii1am Henry, F.L.S, The Manor House, Kemp Town,
Brighton.
1861..tHalliday, James. Whalley Cottage, Whalley Range, Manchester.
1858.
1866
1865,
1869
1869
Halsall, Edward. 4 Somerset-street, Kingsdown, Bristol.
*Hambly, Charles Hambly Burbridge, F.G.S. The Leys, Barrow-on-
Soar, near Loughborough.
» §Hamittron, Ancuiparp, F.G.S. South Barrow, Bromley, Kent.
» §Hamilton, Gilbert. Leicester House, Kenilworth-road, Leamington.
Hamitton, The Very Rey. Henry Parr, Dean of Salisbury, M.A,,
IRS.L. & E., F.G.S., FR.A.S. Salisbury.
- {Hamilton, John, F.G.S. Fyne Court, Bridgewater.
- §Hamilton, Roland. Oriental Club, Hanover-square, London, W.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 33
Year of
Election.
1851.
1871.
1863.
1863.
1850.
1861.
1857,
1847,
1865,
1867.
1859.
1853.
1865.
1869.
1869.
1874.
1872.
1858.
1853.
1871.
1862.
1863.
1873.
1860.
1864.
1875.
1874.
1858.
1870.
1853,
{Hammond, C. C. Lower Brook-street, Ipswich.
§Hanbury, Daniel, F.R.S. Clapham Common, London, S8.W.
tHancock, AuBany, F.L.S. 4 St. Mary’s-terrace, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
tHancock, John. 4 St. Mary’s-terrace, Neweastle-on-Tyne.
{Hancock, John, J.P. The Manor House, Lurgan, Co. Armagh.
panel, Walker. 10 Upper Chadwell-street, Pentonville, London,
tHancock, William J. 74 Lower Gardiner-street, Dublin.
tHancock, W. Netson, LL.D. 74 Lower Gardiner-street, Dublin.
JHands, M. Coventry.
Handyside, P. D., M.D., F.R.S.E. Portobello, near Edinburgh.
{Hannah, Rey. John, D.C.L. The Vicarage, Brighton.
tHannay, John. Montcoffer House, Aberdeen.
{Hansell, Thomas T. 2 Charlotte-street, Sculcoates, Hull.
*Harcourt, A. G. Vernon, M.A., F.RS., F.C.S. 3 Norham-
gardens, Oxford.
Harcourt, Rey. C. G. Vernon, M.A. Rothbury, Northumberland.
Harcourt, EgertonV.Vernon,M.A.,F.G.S. Whitwell Hall, Yorkshire,
{Harding, Charles. Harborne Heath, Birmingham.
tHarding, Joseph. Hill’s Court, Exeter.
{Harding, William D, Islington Lodge, Kings Lynn, Norfolk.
§Hardman, E. T., F.C.S. 14 Hume-street, Dublin.
§$Hardwicke, Mrs, 192 Piccadilly, London, W.
*Hare, Cuartes Joun, M.D., Professor of Clinical Medicine in Uni-
versity College, London. 57 Brook-street, Grosyenor-square,
London, W.
Harford, Summers. Haverfordwest.
tHargrave, James. Burley, near Leeds.
§Harxyess, Roprrt, I.RS.L, & E., F.GS., Professor of Geology
in Queen’s College, Cork.
§Harkness, William. Laboratory, Somerset House, London, W.C.
*Harvey, Groras, M.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Medical Juris-
prudence in University College, London. 25 Harley-street,
London, W.
*Harley, John. Ross Hall, near Shrewsbury.
. *Haniey, Rey. Rosert, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Mill Hill School, Middle-
sex; and The Hawthorns, Church End, Finchley, N.
. {Harman, H. W., C.E. 16 Booth-street, Manchester.
. “Harner, F. W., F.G.S. Heigham Grove, Norwich.
§Harpley, Rev. William, M.A., F.C.P.S. Clayhange Rectory,
Tiverton.
*Harris, Alfred. Oxton Hall, Tadcaster.
*Harris, Alfred, jun. Lunefield, Kirkby-Lonsdale, Westmoreland.
. Harris, Guorex, S.A. Iselipps Manor, Northolt, Southall, Mid-
dlesex.
tHarris, T. W. Grange, Middlesborough-on-Tees.
§Harris, W. W. Oak-villas, Bradford, Yorkshire.
tHarrison, Rey. Francis, M.A. Oriel College, Oxford.
§Harrison, George. Barnsley, Yorkshire.
§ Harrison, George, Ph.D., F.L.S., ¥.C.8. 265 Glossop-road, Sheffield,
§Harrison, G. D. B. Stoke Bishop, Bristol.
*Harrrson, James Park, M.A. Cintra Park Villa, Upper Norwood,
S.E.
tHarrison, Reatnatp. 51 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
tHarrison, Robert. 36 George-street, Hull.
os
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1863.
> Pyne:
. *Harrison, William, F.S.A., F.G.S. Samlesbury Hall, near Preston,
1849,
1859,
1842,
1856.
1871.
1854,
1850.
1870,
1874.
tHarrison, T. E, Engineers’ Office, Central Station, Neweastle-on-
Lancashire.
{Harrowsy, Dupiey Rypmr, Earl of, K.G., D.C.L., F.B.S., F.R.G.S.
39 Grosyenor-square, London, $.W.; and Sandon Hall, Lichfield.
*Hart, Charles. Harbourne Hall, Birmingham.
*Harter, William. Hope Hall, Manchester.
tHartland, F. Dixon, I.S.A., F.R.G.S. The Oaklands, near Chel-°
tenham. ;
Hartley, James. Sunderland.
tHartley, Walter Noel. King’s College, London, W.0.
§Hartnvp, Joun, I’. R.A.S, Liverpool Observatory, Bidston, Birken-
head.
tHarvey, Alexander. 4 South Weillington-place, Glasgow.
tHarvey, Enoch. Riversdale-road, Aigburth, Liverpool.
*Harvey, Joseph Charles. Knockrea, Douglas-road, Cork.
Harvey, J. R., M.D. St. Patrick’s-place, Cork.
. *Harwood, John, jun. Woodside Mills, Boiton-le-Moors.
Hastings, Rev. H.S. Martley Rectory, Worcester.
. {Hastings, W. Hudderstield.
. *Hatton, James. Richmond House, Higher Broughton, Manchester.
. {Havenron, Rey. Samurt,.M.D., M.A., F.RS., M.B.LA., F.G.S.,
Professor of Geology in the University of Dublin. Trinity Col-
lege, Dublin.
*Haughton, William. 28 City Quay, Dublin.
§Hawkins, B. Waterhouse, F.L.8., F.G.S. Allison Tower, Dulwich,
London, $.E.
Hawkins, John Heywood, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. Bignor Park, Pet-
worth, Sussex.
. “Hawkshaw, Henry Paul. 20 King-street, St. James’s, London, W.
*HAWKSHAW, Sir JOHN, F.R.S., F.G.S, (Presipent Exner.) Holly-
combe, Liphook, Petersfield; and 33 Great George-street,
London, 8. W.
. *Hawkshaw, John Clarke, M.A., I.G.S. 25 Cormiyall seatens,
South Kensington, 8.W.; and 33 Great George-street, London,
: SHAWKSLEY, Tuomas, C.E.,F.G.S. 30 Great George-street, London,
S.W.
: {Hawthorn, William. The Cottage, Benwell, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
59, {Hay, Sir Andrew Leith, Bart. Rannes, Aberdeenshire.
. *Hay, Vice-Admiral the Right Hon. Sir Jonn C. D., Bart., C.B.,
M.P., F.R.S. 108 St. George’s-square, London, 8.W,
. t{Hay, Samuel. Albion-place, Leeds.
. tHay, William, 21 Maedalen-yard-road, Dundee.
57. {Hayden, Thomas, M.D. 80 Harcourt-street, Dublin.
3. “Hayes, Rey. William A., B.A. 61 George-street, Leeds.
. {Hayward, J. High-street, Exeter.
. *Haywarp, Ropert Barpwiy, M.A. The Park, Harrow.
. §Heap, Jeremian, C.E., F.S.8. Middlesbrough, Yorkshire.
. {Head, R. T. The Briars, Alphington, Exeter.
. {Head, W. R. Bedford-circus, Exeter.
. {Heald, Joseph. 22 Leazes-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
. }Healey, C. E. H. Chadwyck. 8 Albert-mansions, Victoria-street,
London, S.W.
. §Healey, George. Matson’s, Windermere.
*Heape, Benjamin. Northwood, Prestwich, near Manchester.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 85
Year of
Election.
1865.
1866.
1863.
1861.
1865.
1858,
1865,
1833.
1855.
1867.
1869,
1863.
1862,
1857.
1867.
1845,
1873.
1866.
1874.
1873.
1856.
1857,
1873.
1874.
1870.
1855.
1855.
1871.
1856,
1852.
1866.
1871,
1874.
1865,
1865,
tHearder, William. Victoria Parade, Torquay.
tHeath, Rey. D. J. Esher, Surrey.
tHeath, G. Y., M.D. Westgate-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
§Heaturime tp, W. E., ECS, F.R.G.S., F.R.S.E. 20 King-street,
St. James’s, London, §.W.
tHeaton, Harry. Warstone, Birmingham.
*Hnaton, Joun Deaxin, M.D., F.R.C.P. Claremont, Leeds.
tHeaton, Ralph. Harborne Lodge, near Birmingham.
{tHeavising, Rev. Canon J. W. L., M.A. The Close, Norwich.
{Hecror, James, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Geological Survey
of New Zealand. Wellington, New Zealand.
tHeppre, M. Fosrrr, M.D., Professor of Chemistry in the University
of St. Andrews, N.B.
tHedgeland, Rey. W. J. 21 Mount Radford, Exeter.
tHedley, Thomas. Cox Lodge, near Newcastle-on-Tyne.
{ Helm, George F.
*Hemans, George William, C.E., M.R.LA., F.G.S. 1 Westminster-
chambers, Victoria-street, London, 8. W.
{Henderson, Alexander. Dundee.
tHenderson, Andrew. 120 Gloucester-place, Portman-square, Lon-
don, W.
*Henderson, A. L. 49 King William-street, London, E.C.
tHenverson, James, jun. Dundee.
§Henderson, James Alexander. Norwood Tower, Belfast.
*frnpErson, W. D. 12 Victoria-street, Belfast.
tHennessy, Henry, F.R.S., M.R.I.A, Mount Eagle, Sandyford,
Co. Dublin.
tHennessy, John Pope, Governor of the Bahamas. Government
House, Nassau.
§Henrici, Olaus M. F. E., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics
in University College, London. 22 Torriano-avenue, Camden
Town, London, N.W.
Henry, Franklin. Portland-street, Manchester.
Henry, J. Snowdon. Hast Dene, Bonchurch, Isle of Wight.
Henry, Mitchell, M.P. Stratheden House, Hyde Park, London, W.
§Henry, Rey. P. Sautpam, D.D., M.R.LA. President, Queen’s
College, Belfast.
*Henry, Witi1am Cuarzes, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Has
field, near Ledbury, Herefordshire.
tHenty, William. Norfolk-terrace, Brighton.
Henwoop, Witi1aM Jory, F.R.S., F.G.S. 3 Clarence-place, Pens
zence.
*Hepburn, J. Gotch, LL.B., F.C.S. Sideup-place, Sideup, Kent.
tHepburn, Robert. 9 Portland-place, London, W.
Hepburn, Thomas. Clapham, London, S.W.
tHepburn, Thomas H. St. Mary’s Cray, Kent.
Hepworth, John Mason. Ackworth, Yorkshire,
tHepworth, Rey. Robert. 2 St. James’s-square, Cheltenham.
*Herbert, Thomas. The Park, Nottingham.
t Herdman, John.
§Herrick, Perry. Bean Manor Park, Loughborough.
*Herscuer, Professor ALExanpDER S., B.A, FLR.AS, College of
Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
SHorebel Captain John, R.E., F.R.S, Collingwood, Hawkhurst,
<ent.
tHeslop, Dr. Birmingham,
{ Heslop, Joseph,
D2
36
LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
Election,
1873.
1852.
1866.
1866.
1861.
1861
1864,
1854.
1861. *
1866.
1871.
1861.
1854,
1861.
1870,
1872.
1857,
1871,
1864.
1863
1871.
1871.
1858.
1870.
$852.
1865.
1863.
1861.
1858.
1861.
1856,
1870.
1864,
1864,
tHeugh, John. Holmwood, Tunbridge Wells.
{Hewitson, William C. Oatlands, Surrey.
Hey, Rev. William, M.A., F.C.P.S. Clifton, York.
“Heymann, Albert. West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire.
tHeymann, L. West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire.
*Heywood, Arthur Henry. Elleray, Windermere. .
*Heywoop, Jamus, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. 26 Kensington
Palace-gardens, London, W.
*Heywood, Uliver. Claremont, Manchester.
Heywood, Thomas Percival. Claremont, Manchester.
*Hinrn, W. P., M.A. 1 Foxton-villas, Richmond, Surrey.
*Miggin, Edward.
Higgin, James. Lancaster-avenue, Fennel-street, Manchester.
Higginbotham, Samuel. 4 Sprinefield-court, Queen-street, Glasgow.
tHigeinbottom, John, F.R.S. Gill-street,Nottingham.
{Hiecws, Clement, B.A., F.C.S. 27 St. John’s-park, Upper Hol-
loway, London, N. ’
{Higgins, George.
tHicerms, Rey. Henry H., M.A. The Asylum, Rainhili, Liver-
pool.
+Eigaing James. Stocks House, Cheetham, Manchester.
tHigeginson, Alfred. 44 Upper Parliament-street, Liverpool.
Hildyard, Rev. James, B.D., F.C.P.S. Ingoldsby, near Grantham,
Lincolnshire.
Hill, Arthur. Bruce Castle, Tottenham, London, N.
§Hill, Charles. Rockhurst, West Hoathley, East Grinstead.
*Hill, Rey. Edward, M.A., F.G.S. Sheering Rectory, Harlow.
§Mill, John, M.LC.E., M.R.LA., F.R.G.S.L County Surveyor’s
Office, Ennis, Iveland.
{Hiil, Lawrence. The Knowe, Greenock.
*Hiu1, Sir Rowxanp, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Hampstead,
London, N.W.
tHill, William. Combe Hay, Bristol.
{Hills, F.C. Chemical Works, Deptford, Kent, 8.E.
§Hills, Graham H., Staff-Commander R.N, 4 Bentley-road, Princes
Park, Liverpool.
*Hills, Thomas Hyde. 338 Oxford-street, London, W.
tHixcxs, Rey. Tromas, B.A., F.R.S, Charlemont, Taunton.
tHinde, G. J. Buenos Ayres.
Hindley, Rey. H. J. Edlington, Lincolnshire,
*HinpMARSH, Frepericx, F.G.S., F.R.G.8. 4 New Inn, Strand,
London, W.C.
*Hindmarsh, Luke. Alnbank House, Alnwick.
{Hinds, James, M.D, Queen’s College, Birmingham.
{Hinds, William, M,D. Parade, Birmingham.
*Hinmers, William. Cleveland House, Birkdale, Southport.
§Hirst, John, jun. Dobcross, near Manchester.
*Hirsr, 7. ArcHer, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Royal Naval College,
Greenwich, 8.E.; and Atheneum Club, Pall Mall, London,
5S.W.
{Hitch, Samuel, M.D. Sandywell Park, Gloucestershire.
{Hitchman, William, M.D., LL.D., F.L.S., &e. 29 Erskine-street,
Liverpool.
*Hoare, Rev. George Tooker. Godstone Rectory, Redhill.
Hoare, J. Gurney. Hampstead, London, N.W.
{Hobhouse, Arthur Fane. 24 Cadogan-place, London, S8.W.
tHobhouse, Charles Parry, 24 Cadogan-place, London, 8,W.
Lis? OF MEMBERS, 37
Year of
Election.
1864.
1863.
1866,
.. fHodges, John F., M.D., F.C.S., Professor of Agriculture in Queen’s
{Hobhouse, Henry William. 24 Cadogan-place, London, 8. W.
§Hobson, A.8., F.C.S. 8 Upper Heathfield-terrace, Tummham Green,
London, W.
tHockin, Cuartes, M.D. 8 Avenue-road, St. John’s Wood, Lon-
don, N.W.
College, Belfast.
- “Hope, THomas. Benwell Dene, Neweastle-on-Tyne,
» “Hodgson, George. Thornton-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.
» {Hodgson, James. Oakfield, Manningham, Bradford, Yorkshire,
- {Hodgson, Robert. Whitburn, Sunderland.
. {Modgson, R. W. North Dene, Gateshead.
. THodgson, W. B., LL.D., F.R.A.S. 41 Grove-end-road, St. John’s
Wood, London, N.W.
. *“Hormann, Aucustus Witi1am, LL.D., Ph.D., F.B.S., F.C.8. 10
Dorotheen Strasse, Berlin.
» tHogan, Rev. A. R., M.A. Watlington Vicarage, Oxfordshire.
» “Holcroft, George. Byron’s-court, St. Mary’s-gate, Manchester.
- “Holden, Isaac, Oakworth House, near Keighley, Yorkshire,
» {Holland, Henry. Dumbleton, Evesham.
- §Holland, Loton, F.R.G.S. The Gables, Osborne-road, Windsor.
*Holland, Philip H. 41 Parliament-street, Westminster, S.W.
’ } }
» tHolliday, William. ‘New-street, Birmingham.
*Hollingsworth, John,,.M.R.C.S. | Maidenstone House, Maidenstone-
hill, Greenwich, S.E.
» *Holmes, Charles. 59 London-road, Derby.
. {Holmes, J. R. Southbrook Lodge, Bradford, Yorkshire.
. {Holt, William D, 23 Edge-lane, Liverpool.
“Hone, Nathaniel, M.R.I.A. Bank of Ireland, Dublin.
. {Hoox, The Very Rev. W. F., D.D., F.R.S., Dean of Chichester,
Chichester,
» {Hooxer, Josepu Darron, C.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., Pres, RSs,
V.P.LS., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Royal Gardens, Kew, W,
» “Hooper, John P. The Hut, Mitcham Common, Suwrey.
- §Hooper, William. 7 Pall Mall East, London, 8.W.
» {Hooton, Jonathan. 80 Great Ducie-street, Manchester.
Hope, Thomas Arthur. Stanton, Bebington, Cheshire.
. {Hopr, Wittram, V.C. Parsloes, Barking, Essex.
» [Hopkins, J. 8. Jesmond Grove, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
. *Hopkinson, John. Woodlea, Beech-lanes, Birmingham.
» §SHopxison, Joun, F.G.8.,F.R.M.S. Holly Bank, Watford.
» {Hopkinson, Joseph, jun. Britannia Works, Huddersfield.
Hornby, Hugh. Sandown, Liverpool.
. “Horsfall, Abraham. Manor House, Whitkirks, near Leeds.
» {Horsfall, Thomas Berry. Bellamour Park, Rugeley.
. {Horsley, John H. 389 High-street, Cheltenham.
Hotham, Rey, Charles, M.A., F.L.S. Roos, Patrington, York-
shire.
. {Hotson, W. C. Upper King-street, Norwich.
. | Hough, Joseph.
Hovcuton, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
16 Upper Brook-street, London, W.
Houghton, James. 41 Rodney-street, Liverpool,
. t{Hounsfield, James. Hemsworth, Pontefract,
Hovenden, W. F., M.A. Bath.
. {Howard, Captain John Henry, R.N. The Deanery, Lichfield,
» tHoward, Philip Henry. Corby Castle, Carlisle,
&8
LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
Election
1857.
1868,
1865.
1863.
1854.
1870.
1835.
1842;
1867.
1858.
1857,
tHowell, Henry H., F.G.S, Museum of Practical Geology, Jermyn-
street, London, 8. W. ry
tHowe tt, Rey. Canon Hrnps. Drayton Rectory, near Norwich.
*How ert, Rey. Freprericx,F.R.A.S, East Tisted Rectory, Alton,
Hants.
{Howorrn, H. H. Derby House, Eccles, Manchester.
tHowson, The Very Rev. J. S.,D.D., Dean of Chester, Chester.
tHubback, Joseph. 1 Brunswick-street, Liverpool.
*Hupson, Henry, M.D.,M.R.LA. Glenville, Fermoy, Co. Cork.
§Hudson, Robert, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.L.S. Clapham Common, London,
S.W,
{Hudson, William H. H.,M.A. 19 Bennett’s-hill, Doctors’ Commons,
London, E.C.; and St. John’s College, Cambridge.
*HAveains, Witi1am, D.C.L. Oxon., LL.D. Camb., F.R.S., F-R.A.S,
Upper Tulse-hill, Brixton, London, 8. W.
tHuggon, William. 380 Park-row, Leeds.
Hughes, D. Abraham.
» *Hughes, George Pringle, J. P. Middleton Hall, Wooler, Northum-
berland.
. *Hughes, Lewis. Fenwick-court, Liverpool.
. §Hucuns, T. MK., M.A., F.G.S8., Woodwardian Professor of Geology
in the University of Cambridge.
. {Hughes, T, W. 4 Hawthorn-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
. {Hughes, W. R., F.L.S., Treasurer of the Borough of Birmingham,
Birmingham.
to}
Hull, Arthur H. 18 Norfolk-road, Brighton.
. §Huxt, Epwarp, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. Director of the Geological
Survey of Ireland, and Professor of Geclogy in the Royal College
of Science. 14 Hume-street, Dublin.
*Hull, William Darley. Stenton Lodge, Tunbridge Wells.
. *Hulse, Sir Edward, Bart., D.C.L. 47 Portland-place, London, W.;
1868,
1863,
and Breamore House, Salisbury.
. {Humn, Rey. Apranam, D.C.L., LL.D., F.S.A. All Souls’ Vicarage,
Rupert-lane, Liverpool.
. {Humphries, David James. 1 Keynsham-parade, Cheltenham.
2. *Humpury, Grorer Murray, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy
in the University of Cambridge. The Leys, Cambridge.
. *Hunt, Aveustus H., M.A., Ph.D. Birtley House, near Chester-le-
Street.
5. {Hunt, J. P. Gospel Oak Works, Tipton.
. Hunt, Roper, F.R.S., Keeper of the Mining Records, Museum
of Practical Geology, Jermyn-street, London, S.W.
. {Hunt, W. 72 Pulteney-street, Bath.
Hunter, Andrew Galloway. Denholm, Hawick, N.B.
3. {Hunter, Christopher. Alliance Insurance Office, North Shields.
. {Hunter, David. Blackness, Dundee.
. “Hunter, Rev. Robert, F.G.58. 9 Mecklenburgh-street, London, W.C,
. “Hunter, Thomas O. 13 William-street, Greenock.
33, {Huntsman, Benjamin. West Retford Hall, Retford.
tHurst, George, Bedford.
. “Hurst, William John. Drumaness Mills, Ballynahinch, Lisburn, Ireland,
. {Ifurter, Dr. Ferdinand. Appleton, Widnes, near Warrington.
Husband, William Dalla. Coney-street, York.
. §Hutchinson, Thomas J., F.R.G.S. Chimoo Cottage, Mill Hill,
London, N.W.
*Hutchison, Robert, F.R.S.E. Carlowrie, Kirkliston, N.B.
tHurr, The Right Hon. Sir W., K.C.B. ‘ Gibside, Gateshead,
LIST OF MEMBERS, 30
Year of
Election,
1864,
1857.
1861.
1882,
1871.
1873.
1861.
1358.
E371,
1558.
1852.°
1854.
1870.
- 1857.
1862.
1863.
1865.
1870.
1859,
~ 1866,
1869,
1863.
1852.
1874,
1865,
1872,
1859.
1860.
1863,
1858.
1863.
1859.
1850,
1870.
1853,
Hutton, Crompton. Putney-park, Surrey, 8. W.
*Hutton, Darnton. (Care of Arthur Lupton, Esq., Headingley, near
Leeds.
Hutton, Tey. Edenfield, Dundrum, Co. Dublin.
tHutton, Henry D. 10 Lower Mountjoy-street, Dublin.
*Hutton, T, Maxwell. Summerhill, Dublin.
t{Huxtry, Tuomas Henry, Ph.D., LL.D., See. B.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.,
Professor of Natural History in the Royal School of Mines.
4 Marlborough-place, London, N.W.
Hyde, Edward. Dukinfield, near Manchester.
*Hyett, Francis A. 13 Hereford-square, Old Brompton, London, 8. W.
Hyett, William Henry, F.R.S. Painswick, near Stroud, Gloucester-
shire.
Thne, William, Ph.D. Heideiberg.
§Ikin, T. J. 19 Park-place, Leeds.
{Iles, Rey. J. H. Rectory, Wolverhampton.
tIngham, Henry. Wortley, near Leeds.
fines, The Right Hon. Joun, D.C.L., LL.D., Lord Justice General
of Scotland. Edinburgh.
*Ingram, Hugo Francis Meynell. Temple Newsam, Leeds.
tIveram, J. K. , LL.D., M.R.LA., Regius Professor of Greek. Trinity
College, Dublin.
*InmaAn, THomas, M.D. 8 Vyvyan-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.
*Inman, William. Upton Manor, Liverpool.
Treland, R. 8., M.D. 121 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
fIrvine, Hans, M.A., M.B. 1 Rutland-square, Dublin.
fIsery, J. F., M.A., F.G.S. 52 Stockwell Park-road, London, 8.W.
*Ivory, Thomas. 23 Walker-street, Edinburgh.
{Jabet, George. Wellington-road, Handsworth, Birmingham.
tJack, James. 26 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.
§Jack, John, M.A. Belhelvie-by-Whitecairns, Aberdeenshire.
§Jackson, H. W., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. 15 The Terrace, High-road,
Lewisham, 8.#.
§Jackson, Moses. ‘The Vale, Ramsgate.
Jackson, Professor Thomas, LL.D. St. Andrew’s, Scotland. .
*Jackson-Gwilt, Mrs.-H. 24 Hereford-square, Gloucester-road,
Brompton, London, 8.W.
t{Jacoss, Berner. 40 George-street, Hull.
*Jatte, John. Messrs. Jaffe Brothers, Belfast.
*Jafiray, John. Park-grove, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
§James, Christopher. 8 Laurence Pountney Hill, London, E.C.
t{James, Edward. 9 Gascoyne-terrace, Plymouth.
t{James, Edward H. 9 Gascoyne-terrace, Plymouth.
James, Major-General Sir Henry, R.E., F.R.S., F.G.8., MRA,
Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton.
*James, Sir WALTER, Bart., F.G.S. 6 Whitehall-gardens, London,
fs
tJames, William C. 9 Gascoyne-terrace, Plymouth.
t{Jameson, John Henry. 10 Catherine-terrace, Gateshead.
*Jamieson, Thomas F., F.G.S. Ellon, Aberdeenshire.
tJardine, Alexander. Jardine Hall, Lockerby, Dumfriesshire,
{Jardine, Edward. Beach Lawn, Waterlvo, Liverpool. ;
*Jarratt, Rev. Canon J., M.A. North Cave, near Brough, Yorkshire,
JARRETT, Rev, Toomas, M.A., Professor of Arabic in the University
of Cambridge. Trunch, Norfolk, : AGS
40
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1870.
1862.
1868.
1870,
1856,
1855.
1867,
1861.
1842,
1862.
1864.
18738.
1852.
1872,
1870.
1870.
1872.
1871.
1865,
1866,
1866,
1868.
1872.
1868,
1861.
1870,
1863.
1864,
1861.
1871.
1864,
1864,
1859,
1864,
1864.
§Jarrold, John James. London-street, Norwich.
tJeakes, Rey. James, M.A. 54 Argyll-road, Kensington, W.
Jebb, Rey. John. Peterstow Rectory, Ross, Herefordshire.
tJecks, Charles. Dilling-road, Northampton.
tJegery, F. J. Liverpool.
{Jettery, Henry, M.A. 438 High-street, Cheltenham.
*Jeftray, John. Cardowan House, Millerston, Glasgow.
tJeffreys, Howel, M.A., F.R.A.S. 5 Brick-court, Temple, E.C.; and
25 Devonshire-place, Portland-place, London, W.
*JnFrreys, J. Gwyn, LL.D., F.R.S., F.LS., Treas. G.S., F.R.G.S.
Ware Priory, Herts.
. {JeLuert, Rey. Joun H., M.A., M.R.I.A., Professor of Natural Philo-
sophy in Trinity College, Dublin. 64 Upper Leeson-street, Dublin.
Jellicorse, John. Chaseley, near Rugeley, Staffordshire.
§Jenxin, H. C. Freemine, F.R.S., M.LC.E., Professor of Civil
Engineering in the University of Edinburgh. 5 Fettes-row,
idinbureh.
§ Jenkins, Captain Grirriry, C.B., F.R.G.S. Derwin, Welshpool.
§Jenkins, Major General J. J. 14 St. James’s-square, London, 8. W.
*Jenkyns, Rey. Henry, D.D. The College, Durham.
Jennette, Matthew. 106 Conway-street, Birkenhead.
tJennings, Francis M., F.G.S., M.R.L.A. Brown-street, Cork.
{Jennings, W. Grand Hotel, Brighton.
{Jerdon, T,C. (Care of Ma. H. 8. King, 45 Pall Mall, London, 8.W.)
*J re Rey. 8. John, M.A. Chobham Vicarage, near Bagshot,
urrey.
§Jesson, barnes (Care of Messrs. G. White & Co., 23 Rood-lane,
London, E.C.)
Jessop, William, jun. Butterley Hall, Derbyshire.
*Jnvons, W. STANLEY, M.A., I’.R.S., Professor of Logic and Political
Economy in Owens College, Manchester. 86 Parsonage-road,
Withington, Manchestey.
*Joad, George C. Patching, Arundel, Sussex.
*Johnson, David, F.C.S., F.G.8. Irvon Villa, Grosvenor-road,
Wrexham.
*Johnson, G. J. 34 Waterloo-street, Birmingham.
§Johnson, John. Knighton Fields, Leicester.
{Johnson, John G, 18a Basinghall-street, London, E.C.
{Johnson, J. Godwin. St. Giles’s-street, Norwich. +
{Johnson, J.T. 27 Dale-street, Manchester.
{Johnson, Randall J.
{Johnson, Richard. 27 Dale-street, Manchester.
§Johnson, Richard C. Warren Side, Blundell Sands, Liverpool.
tJohnson, R. 8. Hanwell, Fence Houses, Durham.
*Johnson, Thomas. The Hermitage, Frodsham, Cheshire.
tJohnson, Thomas.
J jr William. The Wynds Point, Colwall, Malvern, Worcester=
shire.
{Johnson, William Beckett. Woodlands Bank, near Altrincham,
{Johnston, A. Keith, F.R.G.S. 1 Savile-row, London, W.
{Johnston, Dayid. 13 Marlborough-buildings, Bath,
{Johnston, Edward.
{Johnston, James. Newmill, Elgin, N.B.
{Johnston, James, Manor House, Northend, Hampstead, Lon-
don, N.W.
*Johnstone, James. Alva House, by Stirling, N.B.
{Johnstone, John, 1 Barnard-yillas, Bath,
LIST OF MEMBERS. 41
Year of
Election.
1864.
1871.
1849,
1856.
1854,
1854.
1864.
1865.
1854.
1873.
1860.
1847,
1864,
1842.
1847.
1858.
1872.
1848.
1870.
1863.
1868.
1857.
1859.
1847.
1856.
1855.
1872.
1855.
1866.
1850.
1864.
1853.
1857,
tJolly, Thomas. Park View-villas, Bath.
§Jolly, William (H.M. Inspector of Schools). Inverness, N.B.
tJones, Baynham. Selkirk Villa, Cheltenham.
{Jones, C. W. 7 Grosyenor-place, Cheltenham.
tJones, Rev. Henry H.
{Jones, John.
§Jonzs, Jonny, F.G.S. Saltburn-by-the-Sea, Yorkshire.
tJones, John. 49 Union-passage, Birmingham.
*Jones, Robert. 2 Castle-street, Liverpool.
*Jones, R. L. 6 Sunnyside, Princes Park, Liverpool.
tJones, Theodore b. 1 Finsbury-circus, London, E.C.
jJones, Tuomas Rupert, F.R.S., F.G.8., Professor of Geology
and Mineralogy, Royal Military and Staff Colleges, Sandhurst.
5 College-terrace, York Town, Surrey.
tJones, THomas Rymer,F.R.8., Professor of Comparative Anatomy in
King’s College. 52 Cornwall-road, Westhourne Park, London, W.
§Jones, Sir WILLOUGHBY, Bart.,F.R.G.S, Cranmer Hall, Fakenham,
Norfolk,
*Joule, Benjamin St. John B. Southcliffe, Southport, Lancashire.
*JouLE, James Prescott, LL.D., F.R.S.,F.C.S, 343 Lower Brough-
ton-road, Manchester. ;
jJowert, Rey. B., M.A., Regius Professor of Greek in the University
of Oxford. Ballicl College, Oxford.
{Jowett, John. Leeds.
jJoy, Algernon. 17 Parliament-street, Westminster, S.W.
*Joy, Rey. Charles Ashfield. Grove Parsonage, Wantage, Berlshire.
Joy, Henry Holmes, LL.D., Q.C., M-R.LA. Torquay.
Joy, Rev. John Holmes, M.A. 38 Coloney-terrace, Tunbridge
Wells.
*Jubb, Abraham. Talifax.
tJudd, John Wesley, F.G.S. 6 Manor-view, Brixton, London, 8.W.
tJukes, Rey. Andrew. Spring Bank, Hull.
*Kaines, Joseph, M.A., D.Sc, F.A.S.L. 8 Osborne-road, Stroud
Green-lane, Hornsey, London, N.
Kanu, Sir Ropert, M.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA., Principal of the Royal
College of Cork. 51 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
{Kavanagh, James W. Grenville, Rathgar, Ireland.
{Kay, David, F.R.G.S. 19 Upper Phillimore-place, Kensington,
London, W.
Kay, John Cunliff. Fairfield Hall, near Skipton.
*Kay, John Robinson. Walmersley House, Bury, Lancashire,
Kay, Robert. Haugh Bank, Bolton-le-Moors.
*Kay, Rey. William, D.D. Great Leghs Rectory, Chelmsford.
{Kay-Shuttleworth, Sir James, Bart. Gawthorpe, Burnley.
tKaye, Robert. Mill Brae, Moodies Burn, by Glasgow.
{Keames, William M. 5 Lower-rock-gardens, Brighton,
{ Keddie, William.
{Keene, Alfred. astnoor House, Leamington.
{KeLianp, Rey. Pump, M.A., F.R.S. L. & E., Professor of Mathe-
matics in the University of Edinburgh. 20 Clarendon-crescent,
Edinburgh.
*Kelly, W. M., M.D. 11 The Crescent, Taunton, Somerset.
{Kemp, Rey. Henry William, B.A. The Charter House, Hull.
{Kennedy, Lieut-Colonel John Pitt. 20 Torrington-square, Blooms-
bury, London, W.C.
Kenny, Matthias, 38 Clifton-terrace, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.
“49
‘LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
£lection,
1865.
1857.
1857.
1857.
1855,
1865.
1868.
1869.
1869,
1861.
1865.
1860.
1358.
1872.
1871,
1855,
1870.
1864,
1860.
1842.
1870.
{Kenrick, William. Norfolk-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham,
~ Kent, J.C. Levant Lodge, Earl’s Croome, Worcester.
{Kent, William T., M.R.D.S. 51 Rutland-square, Dublin.
{Kenworth, James Ryley. 7 Pembroke-place, Liverpool.
*Ker, André Allen Murray. Newbliss House, Newbliss, Ireland.
*Ker, Robert. Auchinraith, near Hamilton, Scotland.
*Kerr, William D., M.D., R.N. 3 Duncan-street, Drummond-place,
Edinburgh.
{Kerrison, Roger. Crown Bank, Norwich.
*Kesselmeyer, Charles A. 1 Peter-street, Manchester.
*Kesselmeyer, William Johannes. 1 Peter-street, Manchester.
*Keymer, John. Parker-street, Manchester.
*Kinahan, Edward Hudson. 11 Merrion-square North, Dublin.
{Kryanan, G. Henny, M.R.LA., Geological Survey of Ireland, 14
Hume-street, Dublin. * +
{Kincaid, Henry Ellis, M.A. 8 Lyddon-terrace, Leeds.
*King, Mrs. E.M. 34 Cornwall-road, Westbourne-park, London, W.
*King,-Herbert Poole. Theological College, Salisbury.
{King, James. Levernholme, Hurlet, Glasgow.
}King, John Thomson, C.E. 4 Clayton-square, Liverpool.
King, Joseph. Blundell Sands, Liverpool.
§Kine, Kurpurne, M.D. 27 George-street, and Royal Institution,
Hull.
*King, Mervyn Kersteman. 16 Vyvyan-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.
Kiye, Rrewarp, M.D. 12 Bulstrode-street, London, W.
Kine, Rey. Samuel, M.A., F.R.A.S. St. Aubins, Jersey.
{King, William. 13 Adelaide-terrace, Waterloo, Liverpool.
King, William Poole, I.G.S. Avonside, Clifton, Bristol.
{Kinedon, K. Taddiford, Exeter.
{Kinesley, John. Ashfield, Victoria Park, Manchester.
Kingstone, A. John, M.A. Mosstown, Longford, Ireland.
tIGinloch, Colonel. Kirriemuir, Logie, Scotland.
*Knnarrd, The Hon. AnrHurR Firzepraup, M.P. 1 Pall Mall East,
London, 8.W.; and Rossie Priory, Inchture, Perthshire.
{Kannarrp, The Right Hon. Lord., K.T., F.G.8. Rossie Priory, Inch-
ture, Perthshire.
Kinnear, J. G., BRS E.
t¢Kinsman, William R. Branch Bank of England, Liverpool.
{Kirkaldy, David. 28 Bartholemew-road North, London, N.W.
t{Kirxman, Rev. Tuomas P., M.A., F.R.S. Croft Rectory, near
Warrington.
‘Kirkpatrick, Rev. W. B., D.D. 48 North Great George-street,
wblin.
‘{Witchener, Frank E. Rugby.
{Knapman, Edward. The Vineyard, Castle-street, Exeter.
§Kneeshaw, Henry. 2 Gambier-terrace, Liverpool.
Knipe, J. A. Botcherby, Carlisle.
ee George, LL.B, F.R.A.S. Cuckfield, Hayward’s Heath,
Sussex.
*Knowles, George. Moorhead, Shipley, Yorkshire.
2. {Knowles, James. The Hollies, Clapham Common, 8.W.
Knowles, John. Old Trattord Bank House, Old Trafford, Manchester.
. Knowles, Rev. J. L.
§Knowles, William James. Cullybackey, Ballymena, Ireland.
eae George James. 2 Portland-terrace, Regent’s Park, London,
W
5. Knox, Thomas B. Union Club, Trafalgar-square, London, W.C.
‘LIST OF MEMBERS, 43
Year of
Election,
1870.
1865.
1858.
1862,
1859,
1850,
1870,
1870.
“1859,
“1846,
1870.
1871.
1859,
1864,
1870.
{Kynaston, Josiah W. St. Helens, Lancashire,
{Kynneisley, J.C. 58. The Leveretts, Handsworth, Birmingham.
§Lace, Francis John. Stone Gapp, Cross-hill, Leeds,
tLackerstein, Dr. ‘
§Ladd, William, F.R.A.S. 11 & 15 Beak-street, Regent-street, Lon-
don, W.
fLaing, David, F.S.A. Scotl. Signet Library, Edinburgh.
tLaird, H.H. Birkenhead.
Laird, John, M.P. Hamilton-square, Birkenhead. ane
§Laird, John,jun. Grosyenor-road, Claughton, Birkenhead.
tLalor, John Joseph, M.R.L.A. 2 Longford-terrace, Monkstown, Co.
Dublin.
*Laming, Richard. Flansham, near Bognor, Sussex.
{Lamport, Charles. Upper Norwood, Surrey, 8.E.
§Lancaster, Ndward. JXaresforth Hall, Barnsley, Yorkshire.
tang, Rey. John Marshall. Bank House, Morningside, Edinburgh.
§Lang, Robert. Mancombe, Henbury, Bristol.
tLangton, Charles. Barkhill, Aigburth, Liverpool.
*Langton, William. Manchester and Salford Bank, Manchester.
§LanxesTeR, EK. Ray, M.A. Exeter College, Oxford.
Lanyon, Sir Charles. The Abbey, White Abbey, Belfast.
*Larcom, Major-General Sir THomas Atskew, Bart., K.C.B., R.E.,
E.R.S., LRA. Heathfield House, Fareham, Hants.
LasseLi, WiiiiAM, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Ray Lodge, Maidenhead.
*Latham, Arthur G. Lower King-street, Manchester.
. *Latham, Baldwin. 7 Westminster-chambers, Westminster, 8.W.
tLatham, RobertG.,M.A., M.D., F.R.S. 96 Disraeli-road, Putney, S. W.
fLaughton, John Knox, M.A., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. Royal Naval
College, Portsmouth.
. *Law, Channell. 5 Champion-park, Camberwell, London, S.E.
tLaw, Hugh, Q.C. 4 Great Denmark-street, Dublin.
{Law, Rey. James Edmund, M.A. Little Shelford, Cambridgeshire.
Lawley, The Hon. Francis Charles, Escrick Park, near York.
Lawley, The Hon. Stephen Willoughby. Wscrick Park, near York,
{Lawrence, Edward. Aigburth, Liverpool.
{Lawson, Henry. 8 Nottingham-place, London, W.
{Lawson, The Right Hon. James A., LL.D., M.R.LA. 27 Fitzwilliam-
street, Dublin.
*Lawson, M. ALEXANDER, M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the
University of Oxford. Botanic Gardens, Oxford.
fLawton, Benjamin C. Neville Chambers, 44 Westgate-street,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tLawton, William. 5 Victoria-terrace, Derringham, Hull.
Laycock, Tuomas, M.D., Professor of the Practice of Physic in the
University of Edinburgh. 4 Rutland-street, Edinburgh,
tLea, Henry. 35 Paradise-street, Birmingham.
{Leach, Capt. R. KE. Mountjoy, Phoenix Park, Dublin.
*Leaf, Charles John, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.\S.A. Old Change, London,
H.C. ; and Painshill, Cobham.
*LEATHAM, Epwarp Autpam, M.P. Whitley Hall, Huddersfield ;
and 46 Eaton-square, London, 8. W.
*Leather, John Towlerton, F.S.A. Leventhorpe Hall, near Leeds.
tLeather, John W. Newton Green, Leeds.
tLeayers, J. W. The Park, Nottingham.
PaO - A., F.G.S. Weedpark House, Dipton,-Lintz Green, Co,
urham;
44
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1858.
1858,
1842,
1861.
1853.
1859.
1872,
1869.
1868,
1856.
1861,
1870.
1867.
1870.
1859,
1860.
1863.
1867,
1861.
1871.
1874.
1861.
1872.
1871.
1856.
1852.
1866.
1870.
1853.
1860.
1855.
1874.
1889.
1864.
1862,
*Le Cappelain, John. Wood-lane, Highgate, London, N,
{Ledgard, William. Potter Newton, near Leeds.
Lee, Daniel. Springfield House, Pendlebury, Manchester.
tLee, Henry. Irwell House, Lower Broughton, Manchester.
*Lux, Joun Epwanp, F.G.S., F.S.A._ Villa Syracusa, Torquay.
tLees, William. Link Vale Lodge, Viewforth, Edinburgh.
*Leese, Joseph. Glenfield, Altrincham, Manchester.
*Leeson, Henry B., M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.C.S | The Maples, Bon-
church, Isle of Wight.
{Lerrverr, G, Suaw, M.P., F.R.G.S. 18 Spring-gardens, London,
S.W.
*Lerroy, Major-General J. Henry, R.A.,F.R.S., F.R.G.S., Governor
of Bermuda. Bermuda.
*Legh, Lieut.-Colonel George Cornwall, M.P. High Legh Hall, Che-
shire ; and 43 Curzon-street, Mayfair, London, W.
tLe Grice, A. J. Trereife, Penzance.
{LercrsTrr, The Right Hon. the Earl cf. Holkham, Norfolk.
{Lereu, The Right Hon, Lord, D.C.L. 37 Portman-square, London,
W.; and Stoneleigh Abbey, Kenilworth.
*Leigh, Henry. Moorfield, Swinton, near Manchester.
{Leighton, Andrew. 35 High-park-street, Liverpool.
§Leishman, James. Gateacre Hall, Liverpool.
{Leister, G. F. Gresbourn House, Liverpool.
{Leith, Alexander, Glenkindie, Inverkindie, N.B.
{Lempriere, Charles, D.C.L. St. John’s College, Oxford.
*Lenpy, Capt. AucustE Freperic, F.LS., F.G.S. Sunbury House,
Sunbury, Middlesex.
tLeng, John. ‘Advertiser’ Office, Dundee.
tLennox, A. C. W. 7 Beaufort-gardens, Brompton, London, S.W.
Lentaigne, John, M.D. Tallaght House, Co. Dublin; and 14 Great
Dominick-street, Dublin.
Lentaigne, Joseph. 12 Great Denmark-street, Dublin.
§Lronarp, Hueu, M.R.LA., Geological Survey of Ireland. 14
Hume-street, Dublin.
§Lepper, Charles W. Laurel Lodge, Belfast.
{Leppoc, Henry Julius. Kersal Crag, near Manchester.
§Lermit, Rev. Dr. School House, Dedham.
tLeslie, Alexander, C.E. 72 George-street, Edinburgh.
{Leslie, Colonel J. Forbes. Rothienorman, Aberdeenshire.
{Lesuir, T. E. Cuivre, LL.B., Professor of Jurisprudence and Political
Economy, Queen’s College, Belfast.
§Levi, Dr. Leong, F.S.A., F.S.5., F.R.G.S., Professor of Commercial
Law in King’s College, London. 10 Farrar’s-building, Temple,
London, E.C.
{Lewis, Alfred Lionel. 151 Church-road, De Beauvoir Town,
London, N.
tLiddell, George William Moore. Sutton House, near Hull.
{Lippr1, The Very Rev. H. G., D.D., Dean of Christ Church, Oxford,
{ Liddell, John.
§Lidden, W. A. Clifton College, Bristol.
{Ligertwood, George.
{Lrenrsopy, Ropert, F.G.S8. Ludlow, Salop.
{Litrorp, The Right Hon. Lord, F.L.S. Lilford Hall, Oundle, North-
amptonshire,
*Loverick, Cuar.es Graves, D.D., M.R.1.A., Lord Bishop of. The
Palace, Henry-street, Limerick. =,
*Lindsay, Charles. Ridge Park, Lanark, N.B,
LIST OF MEMBERS, 45
Year of
Election.
1855, *Lindsay, John H.
1871, *Linpsay, The Right Hon. Lord, M.P. 47 Brook-street, London, W.
1871. {Lindsay, Rey. T. M. 7 Great Stuart-street, Edinburgh,
1870. {Lindsay, Thomas. 288 Renfrew-street, Glasgow.
1842 *Lingard, John R., F.G.S. Mayfield, Shortlands, Bromley, Kent.
1873.
1870.
1861,
1864,
1860,
1842,
1865.
1870,
1870.
1865,
1865.
1854,
1853.
1867.
1872,
1863.
1875,
1868,
1862,
1872.
1871.
1851.
1866,
1857.
1861.
_ 1859.
1871.
1872.
1861.
1863.
1867,
Lingwood, Robert M., M.A., F.LS., F.G.S. 1 Derby-villas, Chel-
tenham.
Lister, James. Liverpool Union Bank, Liverpool,
*Lister, Samuel Cunliffe. Farfield Hall, Addingham, Leeds.
§Lister, Thomas. Victoria-crescent, Barnsley.
Littledale, Harold. Liscard Hall, Cheshire.
*Liveine, G. D., M.A., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Uni-
versity of Cambridge. Newnham, Cambridge.
§Livesay, J. G. Cromarty House, Ventnor, Isle of Wight.
tLivingstone, Rev. Thomas Gott, Minor Canon of Carlisle Cathedral.
Lloyd, Rey. A. R. Hengold, near Oswestry.
Lloyd, Rey. C., M.A. Whittington, Oswestry.
Lloyd, Edward. King-street, Manchester.
{Lloyd, G. B. Wellington-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Lloyd, George, M.D., F.G.S._ Park Glass Works, Birmingham.
*Lioyp, Rev. Humeurey, D.D., LL.D., F.B.S. L. & K., M.R.LA.,
Provost of Trinity College, Dublin.
{tLloyd, James. 16 Welfield-place, Liverpool.
{Lloyd, J. H., M.D. Anglesey, North Wales.
{Lloyd, John. Queen’s College, Birmingham.
Lloyd, Rey. Rees Lewis. Belper, Derbyshire.
*Lloyd, Wilson. Myrod House, Wednesbury.
*Losiry, James Loean, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 59 Clarendon-road, Ken-
sington, London, W,
*Locke, y ohn, (Care of J. Robertson, Esq., 3 Grafton-street,
Dublin.)
*Locke, John. 83 Addison-road, Kensington, London, W,
tLocks, Jonny, M.P. 63 Eaton-place, London, 8. W.
tLocxyer, J. Norman, F.R.S., FRAS. 5 Alexandra-road,
Finchley-road, London, N.W.
*Lodge, Oliver J. Hanley, Staffordshire.
“Logan, Sir Witu1AM Epmonp, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., E.R.GS.,
Director of the Geological Survey of Canada. Montreal, Canada,
tLogin, Thomas, C.E., F.R.S.E. India. ;
{Long, Andrew, M.A. King’s College, Cambridge.
{Long, Jeremiah, 50 Marine Parade, Brighton,
{tLong, John Jex. 12 Whitevale, Glasgow.
{Long, William, F.G.S._ Hurts Hall, Saxmundham, Suffolk,
§Longdon, Frederick. Luamdur, near Derby.
{Longfield, Rev. George, D.D. Trinity College, Dublin.
Lonerieitp, Mountirort, LL.D., M.R.LA., Regius Professor of
Feudal and English Law in the University of Dublin. 47 Fitz-
william-square, Dublin.
*Longman, William, I.G.S, 36 Hyde-park-square, London, W,
tLongmuir, Rev. John, M.A., LL.D, 14 Silver-street, Aberdeen.
Longridge, William 8. Oakhurst, Ambergate, Derbyshire.
§Longstatl, George Dixon, M.D., 1.0.8. Southfields, Wandsworth,
S.W.; and 9 Upper Thames-street, London, E.C,
*Longstaff, Llewellyn Wood, F.R.G.S, Summergangs, Hull,
*Lord, Edward. Adamroyd, Todmorden,
tLosh, W, 8. _Wreay Syke, Carlisle.
*Low, James F, Monifieth, by Dundee,
46
LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
Election.
1865.
1861.
1870.
1868,
1850.
:
Sze
*Lowe, Lieut.-Colonel Arthur 8. H., F.R.AS, . 78 Laneaster-gate,
London, ‘W.
*Lown, EpwarpD thee E.R.S., F.R.AS., F.LS., F.G.S., F.M.S.
Highfield House Observatory, near Nottingham.
tLowe, G.C. 67 Cecil-street, Greenheys, Manchester.
tLowe, John, M.D. King’s Ly mn.
tLowe, Wilham Henry, M. D., F.R.S.E. Balgreen, Slateford, Edin-
burgh.
. *Luppock, Sir JouN, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. High Elms,
Farnborough, Kent.
. {Lubbock, Montague. High Elms, Farnborough, Kent.
. *Luckcock, Howard. Oak- hill, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
. *Luis, John Henry. Cidhmore, Dundee.
3. {Lumley, J. Hope Villa, Thornbury, near Bradford, Yorkshire. ,
. *Lund, Charles. 1 Blenheim- road, Bradford, Yorkshire,
. tLund, Joseph. St. George’s- place, Bradford, Yorkshire.
. tLund, Joseph. St. George’s-place, Bradford, Yorkshire,
. *Lundie, Cornelius. Tweed Lodge, Charles- street, Cardiff.
. {Lunn, Willam Joseph, M.D. 23 Charlotte-street, Hull.
. *Lupton, Arthur. Headingley, near Leeds.
. *Lupton, Darnton, jun. The Harehills, near Leeds,
. *Lupton, Sydney. The Harehills, near Leeds.
. *Lutley, John. “ Brockhampton Park, Worcester.
3. {Lycert, Sir Francis. 18 Hichbury-grov e, London, N.
. {Lyell, Leonard. 42 Regent’s Park-road, London, N. Ww,
. §Lynam, James, C.E. SBallinasloe, Tratantty
. t{Lyons, Robert D., F.R.C.P.I. 8 Merrion- square West, Dublin.
2, *Lyte, F. Maxwell, F.C.8. 6 Cité de Retiro, Faubourg St. Honoré,
"Paris,
. {Lyrrriron, The Right Hon. Lord, D.C.L., F.R.S. 12 Stratton-
street, London, W.
2. t{MacAdam, Robert. 18 College-square East, Belfast.
. *Macapam, Srrvenson, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., F.C.S., Lecturer on
Chemistry. Surgeons’ Hall, Edinburgh ; and Brighton House,
Portobello, by Edinburgh,
. [MACALISTER, ALBXANDE R, M.D., Professor of Zoology in the Uni-
versity of Dublin. 13 "Adelaide- road,, Dublin.
. t{M‘Allan, W. A. Norwich.
. *M‘Arthur, A., M.P. Raleigh Hall, Brixton Rise, London, §, w.
Macaulay, James A. M.,M.D, 22 Cambridge-road, Kalburn, London,
N.W.
. {M‘Bain, James, M.D., R.N. Logie Villa, York-road, Trinity, Edin-
burgh.
MacBrayne, Robert. Househill Hamlet, Glasgow.
M‘Caan, Rey. J. F., M.A. Basford, near Nottingham.
M ‘Calmont, Robert. Gatton Park, Reigate,
M‘Cann, Rev, James, D.D., F.R.S.L., F 'G.S, 18 Shaftesbury-terrace,
Glasgow.
M‘Clelland, James, F.S.8. 32 Pembridge-square, London, W.
*
t a
. tM Callum, "Archibald K., M.A,
t
}
{MCuinrock, Rear-Admiral Sir Francis L, ,RN., E.RS., F.R.G.S,
United Service Club, Pall Mall, London, S.W.
2. *M:Clure, diele i Strutt-street, Manchester.
M’Clure, Sir Thomas, Bart. Belmont, Belfast.
M‘Connel, James. “Moore- lace, Esher, Surrey.
. *M‘Connell, David C., F.G.S, 44 Mepenekae Edinburgh,
LIST OF MEMBERS, 47
Year of
Biection.
1858.
1871.
1859.
1871.
1855.
1854,
1867.
1855.
1872.
1873.
1855.
1855.
1859,
1859.
1874.
1867.
1854,
1871.
1873.
1855.
1865.
1872.
1867.
1865.
1850.
1867.
1872.
1873.
1860.
1864.
1873.
1859,
1862.
1868.
1861.
1862.
1874.
1871.
1870.
1867.
tM‘Connell, J; E, Woodlands, Great Missenden.
{M‘Donald, William. Yokohama, Japan, (Care of R. K. Knevitt,
Esq., Sun-court, Cornhill, H.C.)
MacDonnell, Hercules H. G. 2 Kildare-place, Dublin.
*M‘Ewan, John. 9 Melville-terrace, Stirling, N.B.
tMacfarlane, Alexander. 73 Bon Accord-street, Aberdeen,
§M‘Farlane, Donald. The College Laboratory, Glasgow.
*M‘Farlane, Walter. 231 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
*Macrig, Roprrr Anprew. 15 Victoria-street, Westminster, S. W.
*M‘Gavin, Robert. Ballumbie, Dundee.
f{MacGeorge, Andrew, jun. 21 St. Vincent-place, Glasgow.
tMGeorge, Mungo. Nithodale, Laurie-park, Sydenham, 8.E.
tMcGowen, William Thomas, Oak-avenue, Oak Mount, Bradford,
Yorkshire.
{M‘Gregor, Alexander Bennett. 19 Woodside-crescent, Glasgow.
tMacGregor, James Watt. Wallace-grove, Glascow.
{M‘Hardy, David. 54 Netherkinkgate, Aberdeen.
{Macintosh, John. Middlefield House, Woodside, Aberdeen.
§Macllwaine, Rey. William, D.D. Ulsterville, Belfast.
*M‘Intosu, W. C., M.D., F.L.S. Murthly, Perthshire,
*Maclver, Charles. 8 Water-street, Liverpool.
tMackay, Rey, A., LL.D., F.R.G.S. 1 Hatton-place, Grange, Edin-
burgh.
{McKendrick, John G., M.D. 29 Castle-terrace, Edinburgh.
{M‘Kenzie, Alexander. 89 Buchanan-street, Glasgow.
*Mackenzie, James. Glentore, by Glasgow.
tMackeson, Henry B., F.G.S. Hgde: Kent.
*Mackey, J. A. 24 Buckingham-place, Brighton.
oe Saran JosEpH, I'.G.S. 84 Kensington Park-road, Lon-
on, W.
*Mackinlay, David. Great Western-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
{Mackintosh, Daniel, F.G.S. Chichester.
tMacknight, Alexander. 12 London-street, Edinburgh.
§Mackson, H. G. 25 Clifi-road, Woodhouse, Leeds.
*MacLacutay, Ropert, F.L.S, 39 Limes-grove, Lewisham, 8.E.
{McLandsborough, John, C.E., F.R.A.S., F.G.8S, Shipley, near Brad-
ford, Yorkshire.
tMaclaren, Archibald, Summertown, Oxfordshire.
§MacLaren, Duncan, M.P. Newington House, Edinburgh.
tMacLaren, Walter S. B. Newington House, Edinburgh.
tMacuxar, Sir Tuomas, F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.A.S., late Astronomer’
Royal at the Cape of Good Hope. Cape Town, South Africa.
tMacleod, Henry Dunning. 17 Gloucester-terrace, Campden-hill-road,
London, W.
§M‘Lrop, Hersert, F.C.S. Indian Civil Engineering College,
Cooper’s Hill, Egham.
*Maclure, John William. 2 Bond-street, Manchester.
tMacmillan, Alexander. Streatham-lane, Upper Tooting, Surrey.
§MacMordie, Hans, M.A. 8 Donegall-street, Belfast. :
{M‘Nab, William Ramsay, M.D. Royal Agricultural College, Ciren-
cester,
t{Macnaught, John, M.D, 74 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.
§M‘Neill, John. Balhousie House, Perth.
MacNer11, The Right Hon. Sir Joun, G.C.B., F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S,
Granton House, Edinburgh,
MacNe11, Sir Jonn, LL.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA, 17 The Grove, South
Kensington, London, 8, W, ;
48
LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
Election.
1859.
1852.
1855.
1855.
1868.
1869,
1869.
1866,
1870,
1874,
1863.
1857.
1846,
1870.
1866,
1866.
1864,
1865,
1870.
1864.
1863.
1871.
1857,
1842,
1870.
1856.
1864.
1852.
1858.
1849.
1865,
1848.
1871.
1870.
1836.
1867,
tMacpherson, Rey. W. Kilmuir Easter, Scotland,
*Macrory, Adam John. Duncairn, Belfast.
*Macrory, Epmunp, M.A. 40 Leinster-square, Bayswater, Lon-
don, W.
t{M‘Tyre, William, M.D. Maybole, Ayrshire.
tMacvican, Rev. Joun Gipson, D.D., LL.D. Moffat, N.B.
tMagnay, F. A. Drayton, near Norwich.
Magor, J. B. Redruth, Cornwall.
§Marn, Rey. R., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Director of the Radcliffe Observa-
tory, Oxford.
tMain, Robert. Admiralty, Somerset House, W.C.
§Masor, Ricuarp Henry, F.S.A., F.R.G.S. British Museum, Lon-
don, W.C.
*MALAHIDE, The Right Hon. Lord Tatzor px, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S.,
F.S.A. Malahide Castle, Co. Dublin.
*Malcolm, Frederick. Mordon College, Blackheath, London, S.E.
*Malcolm, Sir James, Bart. The Priory, St. Michael’s Hamlet,
Aigburth, Liverpool.
§Malcolmson, A. B. Friends’ Institute, 12 Bishopsgate-street With-
out, London, E.C.
{Maling, C. T. Lovaine-crescent, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
{Mallet, Dr. John William, F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the
University of Virginia, U.S.
*Mauuet, Rosert, Ph.D.,F.R.S., F.G.S., M.R.LA. The Grove, Clap-
ham-road, Clapham ; and 7 Westminster-chambers, Victoria-
street, London, S.W.
tManpy, Cuarves, F.RS., F.G.S, 60 Westbourne-terrace, Hyde
Park, London, W.
{Manifold, W.H. 45 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
§Mann, Rosert James, M.D., F.R.A.S, 5 Kingsdown-yillas, Wands-
worth Common, 8. W.
Manning, The Right Rev. H.
tManning, John. Waverley-street, Nottingham.
tMansel, J. C. Long Thorns, Blandford.
tMarch, J. F. Fairtield House, Warrington.
{Marcoartu, Senor Don Arturo de. Madrid.
{Markuan, Ciements R., C.B., F.R.S., F.LS., F.R.G.S., F.S.A,
21 Kecleston-square, Pimlico, London, 8. W.
{Marley, John. Mining Office, Darlington.
*Marling, Samuel 8.,M.P. Stanley Park, Stroud, Gloucestershire,
Tae A. Frmnr-. College of Physical Science, Neweastle-on-
Tyne.
Maritoes, John.
§Marriott, William, F.C.S. Grafton-street, Huddersfield.
Marsden, Richard. Norfolk-street, Manchester.
{Marsh, John. Rann Lea, Rainhill, Liverpool.
{ Marsh, M. H.
{Marsh, Thomas Edward Miller. 37 Grosyenor-place, Bath.
{Marshall, James D. Holywood, Belfast.
tMarshall, Reginald Dykes. Adel, near Leeds.
*Marshall, William P. 6 Portland-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
§Marten, Epwarp Brnpon. Pedmore, near Stourbridge.
{Martin, Henry D. 4 Imperial-circus, Cheltenham.
{Martin, Rev. Hugh, M.A. Greenhill-cottage, Lasswade by Edinburgh,
{Martin, Robert, M.D. 120 Upper Brook-street, Manchester.
Martin, Studley. 177 Bedford-street South, I averpool.
*Martin, William, jun. 3 Airlie-place, Dundee,
LIST OF MEMBERS. 49
Year of
Election.
1865.
1865,
1847,
1861,
1868.
1870,
1870.
1865,
1861,
1859.
1865.
1858.
1860.
1863.
1855.
1865.
1864,
1865.
1868.
1863,
1863.
1871.
1867.
1866.
1854,
1847,
1863.
1862.
1868.
1872.
1871.
1872.
1863,
*Martindale, Nicholas. Berryarbor, Ilfracombe.
eaeneen, Rey. James. 5 Gordon-street, Gordon-square, London,
V.C
tMartineau, R. F. Highfield-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tMartineau, Thomas. 7 Cannon-street, Birmingham.
tMasxetynr, Nevis. Srory, M.A,, F.R.S., F.G.S., Keeper of the
Mineralogical Department, British Museum; and Professor of
Mineralogy in the University of Oxford, 112 Gloucester-terrace,
Hyde-park-gardens, London, W.
*Mason, Hugh. Groby Lodge, Ashton-under-Lyne,
tMason, James Wood, F.G.S. | The Indian Museum, Calcutta.
ow of Messrs. Henry 8, King & Co., 65 Cornhill, London,
C.)
Massey, Hugh, Lord. Hermitage, Castleconnel, Co. Limerick,
{Massey, Thomas. 5 Gray’s-Inn-square, London, W.C.
tMassy, Frederick. 50 Grove-street, Liverpool.
*Mathews, G. S. Portland-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
eos Wittr1am, M.A., F.G.S. 49 Harborne-road, Birming-
am,
tMatthew, Alexander C. 3 Canal-terrace, Aberdeen.
tMatthews, C. E. Waterloo-street, Birmingham.
t{Matthews, F.C. Mandre Works, Driffield, Yorkshire.
ag Rey. Richard Brown. Shalford Vicarage, near Guild-
ord,
t{Maughan, Rev. W. Benwell Parsonage, Newcastle-on-Tyne,
tMaule, Rey. Thomas, M.A. Partick, near Glasgow.
*Maw, Grorer, F.LS., F.G.S., F.S.A. Benthall Hall, Broseley,
Shropshire.
*Maxwell, Francis. Dunragit, Wigtownshire.
*MAaxweEcL, James Cierk, M.A., LL.D., F.RS.L. & E., Professor of
Experimental Physics in the University of Cambridge. Glenlair,
Dalbeattie, N.B.; and 11 Scroope-terrace, Cambridge.
*Maxwell, Robert Perceval. Groomsport House, Belfast.
*May, Walter. Elmley Lodge, Harborne, Birmingham.
§Mayall, J. E., F.C.S. Stork’s-nest, Lancing, Sussex.
§Mease, George D. Bylton Villa, South Shields.
{Mease, Solomon. Cleveland House, North Shields.
sag oes Butcher, D.D., Lord Bishop of. Ardbraccan, Co,
eath.
{Meikie, James, F.S.S. 6 St. Andrew’s-square, Edinburgh.
{Metprum, Cuartes. Mauritius.
{Mello, Rev. J. M. St. Thomas’s Rectory, Brampton, Chesterfield.
{Melly, Charles Pierre. 11 Rumford-street, Liverpool.
{Melvyille, Professor Alexander Gordon, M.D. Queen’s College,
Galway.
{Melyin, Alexander. 42 Buccleuch-place, Edinburgh.
§MENNELL, Henry J. St. Dunstan’s-buildings, Great Tower-street,
London, E.C.
§Murririrecp, Cuares W., F.R.S., Principal of the Royal School of
Naval Architecture, Superintendent of the Naval Museum at
South Kensington, Hon. Sec. ILN.A. 20 Pembroke-gardens,
Kensington, London, W.
{Merryweather, Richard M. Clapham House, Clapham Common,
London, 8. W.
tMerson, John, Northumberland County Asylum, Morpeth.
*Messent, John, 429 Strand, London, W.C. .
{Messent, P. T, 4 Northumberland-terrace, Tynemouth.
E
50
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1869.
1847.
1865.
1865,
1866.
1867.
1859,
1863.
1865.
1861.
1868.
1842,
1868,
1867.
1867.
1854.
1864,
1865.
1855.
1859.
1863.
1873,
1870.
1868,
1862,
1855.
1854,
1864,
1866.
1855.
1861,
1852,
1865,
1860,
1853.
1872.
1872,
§Mratt, Louis ©. Philosophical Hall, Leeds
*Michell, Rev. Richard, D.D. , Principal of Magdalen Hall, Oxford,
{Michie, Alexander. 36 ES Friars, London, EC, : td
{Middlemore, William. Edgbaston, Bimmingham,
{Midgley, John. Colne, Lancashire.
{Midgley, Robert, Colne, Lancashire.
{ Millar, ‘John, Lisburn, Ireland.
§Millar, John, M.D., F.LS., F.G.S. Bethnal House, Cambridge-r oad,
London, E. A
Millar, Thomas, M.A., LL, D., F.R.S.E. Perth.
{Miller, Rey. Canon iy i, DD. The Vicarage, Greenwich, London;
S.E.
*Miller, Robert. Broomfield House, Reddish, near Manchester.
: Miter, Wiiiiam Harrows, M.A., Lid, F.R.S., F.G8., Pro-
fessor of Mineralogy in the Univer rsity of Gambridge. 7 Screope-
terrace, Cambridge.
*Millican, Joseph, F. Tid S., F.G.S., F.RAS.,.F.R.GS. 6 ah ag)
street, Strand, London, W.C,
Milligan, Robert. Acacia in Rawdon, Leeds.
§MixLs, EpMunp J.. D.Sc. F.RS, E.CS., Assistant Chemical Ex-
aminer in the Univer sity of London. oP) Pemberton-terrace, St.
John’s-park, London, N. ,
*Mills, John obert, 11 Bootham, York. — .
Milne, Admiral Sir Alexander, G. c .B., F.RS.E. 65 Rutland- -gate
; London, 8.W.
{Milne, J ames, Murie House, Errol, by Dundee.
*MitnE-Home, Davin, M.A., ERS. ‘E.. F.G.8. 10 York-place,
Edinburgh.
*Milner, William. 50 Bentley-road, Liverpool. :
*Mitton, The Right Hon. Lord, F.R.G.S. 17 Grosvenor-street,
. London, W.; and Wentworth, Yorkshire.
{Minton, Samuel, F.G.8. Oakham House, near Dudley.
tMurlees, James "Buchanan, 45 Scotland-street, Glasgow.
tMitchell, Alexander, M.D. Old Rain, Aberdeen,
{Mitchell, C. Walker. Newcastle-on- Tyne.
{Mitchell, Henry. Parkfield House, Bradford, Yorkshire,
§Mitchell, John. York House, Clitheroe, Lancashire.
§Mitchell, John, jun. Pole Park House, Dundee.
*Mrrcnext, Wir STEPHEN, LLB., E.LS., F.G.S. Caius
College, Cambridge. i
*Moffat, John, C.E. pees Scotland. :
§Morrar, Tuomas, M.D., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., F.M.S. Hawarden,
Chester.
tMoge, John Rees, High Littleton House, near Bristol.
§MoGGRrinGE, Marruew, F.G.8. Woodfield, Monmouthshire.
§Moir, James, 174 Gallogate, Glasgow.
Molesworth, Rey. W.N., M.A. Spotland, Rochdale.
Mollan, John, M.D. 8 Fitzwilliam-square ) North, Dublin.
tMolony, William, LL.D. Carrickfergus,
se ics ip Wiuiam, F.G.S, Branston Cottage, Burton-upon-
Tre
tMonk, Rey. William, M.A. Es R.A.S. Wymington Rectory, Higham
Ferrers, N' orthamptonshire. : :
{Monroe, Henry, M.D. 10 North-street, Sculcoates, Hull.
ig R. Mortimer. 38 Porchester-place, Edgeware-road,
ondon
t{Moon, W.,, LL.D, 104 Queen’s-road, Brighton,
LIST OF MEMBERS, 61
Year of
Election.
1859.
1874.
1857,
t
1866,
1854,
1857.
1871.
1873.
1868,
1853,
1867.
1863.
1865.
1861.
1871.
1874.
1863.
1865,
1869.
1857.
1858.
1871.
1868,
1857.
1870.
1873.
1864.
1873.
1869.
1865.
1866.
1872.
1862.
1856.
1863.
1861.
1850.
1874.
1871.
{Moorr, Cuanrirs, F.G.8. 6 Cambridge-terrace, Bath.
§Moore, David, F.L.S. Glasnevin, Dublin.
{tMoore, Rey. John, D.D. Clontarf, Dublin.
Moore, John. 2 Meridian-place, Clifton, Bristol,
*Moorn, Jonn Carrick, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. 115 Eaton-square,
London, S.W.; and Corswall, Wigtonshire,
*Moorr, Tuomas, F.L.S. Botanic Gardens, Chelsea, London,
tMoors, Tuomas J oN, Cor. M.Z.S8. Free Public Museum, Liver-
ool.
Akins, Rey. William Prior. The Royal School, Cavan, Ireland.
tMorz, ArmxanpERr, F.L.S., M.R.LA. 38 Botanie View, Glasnevin,
Dublin.
§Morgan, Edward Delmar. 19 Queen’s-gardens, London, W,
{tMorgan, Thomas H. Oakhurst, Hastings.
Morgan, William, D.C.L. Oxon. Uckfield, Sussex,
tMorison, William R. Dundee.
tMortey, Samurt, M.P. 18 Wood-street, Cheapside, London, E.C.
*Morrieson, Colonel Robert. Oriental Club, Hanovyer-square, London,
WwW
*Morris, Rev. Francis Orpen, B.A. Nunburnholme Rectory, Hayton,
York.
Morris, Samuel, M.R.D.S. Fortview, Clontarf, near Dublin.
tMorris, Wiliam.
*Morrison, James Darsie. 27 Grange-road, Edinburgh,
§Morrison, J. G., C.E. 5 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W.
tMorrow, R. J. Bentick-villas, Newcastle-on-Tyne,
§Mortimer, J. R. St. John’s-villas, Driffield.
tMortimer, William. Bedford-circus, Exeter.
§Morron, Groree H., F.G.8. 21 West Derby-street, Liverpool.
*Morton, Henry Josepu. Garforth House, West Garforth, near
Leeds.
tMorton, Hugh. Belvedere House, Trinity, Edinburgh.
{Moseley, H.-N. Olveston, Bristol.
tMoses, Marcus. 4 Westmoreland-street, Dublin.
Mosley, Sir Oswald, Bart., D.C.L, Rolleston Hall, Burton-upon-
Trent, Staffordshire.
Moss, John. Otterspool, near Liverpool,
tMoss, John Miles, MA. 2 Esplanade, Waterloo, Liverpool.
*Mosse, George 8. 12 Eldon-road, Kensington, London, W.
*Mosse, J. R. Public Works’ Department, Ceylon. (Care of Messrs.
H. 8. King & Co., 65 Cornhill, London, E.C.)
§Mossman, William, Woodhall, Calverley, Leeds.
§Mort, Atsert J. Claremont House, Seaforth, Liverpool.
§Mott, Charles Grey.. The Park, Birkenhead.
§Mott, Frederick T., F.R.G.S. 1 De Montfort-street, Leicester,
§Mott, Miss Minnie. 1 De Montfort-street, Leicester.
*Movart, Freprerick Joun, M.D., late Inspector-General of Prisons,
Bengal. 12 Durham-villas, Campden-hill, London, W.
t{Mould, Rev. J. G., B.D. Fulmodeston Rectory, Dereham, Norfolk,
{Mounsey, Edward. Sunderland,
Mounsey, John. Sunderland.
*Mountcastle, William Robert. Ellenbrook, near Manchester,
Mowbray, James. Combus, Clackmannan, Scotland.
{Mowbray, John T. 15 Albany-street, Edinburgh.
§Muir, M. M. Pattison. Anderson’s University, Glasgow.
tMuir, W. Hamilton,
EQ
52
LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
Election.
1872.
1871.
1857,
1366.
1864,
1872,
1872,
1864,
1864,
1855.
1852,
1852,
1869,
1850.
1871.
1871.
1871,
1859,
1872.
1863,
1859,
1874.
1861.
1870.
1865.
1859,
1850.
1842.
1855,
1839,
1855.
1872.
1866.
1850.
1864,
1860.
1867.
1873.
1873.
1853,
{Muirhead, Alexander, D.Se., F.C.S. 159 Camden-road, London, N.
*Muirhead, Henry, M.D. Bushy-hill, Cambuslang, Lanarkshire.
{Mullins, M. Bernard, M.A., CL.
Munby, Arthur Joseph. 6 Fig-tree-court, Temple, London, E.C,
{Munpetxa, A. J., M.P., F.R.G.S. The Park, Nottingham.
*Munnro, Major-General Wit11AM,0.B., F.L.S. United Service Club,
Pall Mall, London, 8.W.; and Mapperton Lodge, Farnborough,
Hants. :
*Munster, H. Selwood Lodge, Brighton.
*Munster, William Felix. Selwood Lodge, Brighton.
§Murcu, Jzrom. Cranwells, Bath. ;
*Murchison, John Henry. Surbiton-hill, Kingston, S.W.
*Murchison, K. R. Ashurst Lodge, East Grinstead.
tMurdock, James B. Hamilton-place, Langside, Glasgow,
{Murney, Henry, M.D. 10 Chichester-street, Belfast.
§Murphy, Joseph John. Old Forge, Dunmurry, Co. Antrim.
§Murray, Adam. 4 Westbourne-crescent, Hyde Park, London, W.
tMurray, Anprew, F.L.S. 67 Bedford-gardens, Kensington, Lon-
don, W.
tMurray, ‘Captain, R.N. Murrathwaite, Ecclefachan, Scotland.
§Murray, Dr. Ivor, F.R.S.E. The Knowle, Brenchley, Staplehurst,
Kent.
Murray, John, F.G.8., F.R.G.S. 50 Albemarle-street, London, W. ;
and Newsted, Wimbledon, Surrey.
§Mwray, John. 35 Clarendon-crescent, Edinburgh.
{Muwray, John, M.D. Forres, Scotland.
*Murray, John, C.N. Downlands, Sutton, Surrey.
{Murray, Rey. John. Morton, near Thornhill, Dumfriesshire,
{tMutray, J. Jardine. 99 Montpellier-road, Brighton:
{Murray, William, 34 Clayton-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*Murton, James. Highfield, Silverdale, Carnforth, Lancaster.
‘Musgrave, The Venerable Charles, D.D., Archdeacon of Craven.
Halifax.
§Muserave, James, J.P. Drumelass House, Belfast.
{Muserove, John, jun. Bolton.
*Muspratt, Edward Knowles. Seaforth Hall, near Liverpool.
tMyers, Rev. E., F.G.S. 3 Waterloo-road, Wolverhampton.
§Mytnr, Robert W111, E.RS., F.G.S., F.S.A. 21 Whitehall-
place, London, 8. W.
{Nachot, H. W., Ph.D. 73 Queen-street, Edinburgh.
Nadin, Joseph. Manchester.
*Naprer, JAmus R., F.R.S. 22 Blythwood-square, Glasgow.
*Napier, Captain Johnstone, C.E. Tavistock House, Salisbury.
ee , ae Right Hon. Sir JosEru, Bart. 4 Merrion-square South,
whlin.
tNapier, Robert. West Chandon, Gareloch, Glasgow.
Napper, James William L. Loughcrew, Oldcastle., Co. Meath.
§Nares, Capt. G.S., R.N., F.R.G.S, Messrs. Grant’s Bank, Portsmouth.
{Nash, Davyd W., F.S.A., F.L.S. 10 Imperial-square, Cheltenham.
*NasMytH, James. Penshurst, Tunbridge.
{Natal, William Colenso, Lord Bishop of. Natal.
{Neate, Charles, M.A. Oriel College, Oxford.
§Nraves, The Right Hon. Lord. 7 Charlotte-square, Edinburgh.
tNeill, Alexander Renton. Fieldhead House, Bradford, Yorkshire,
tNeill, Archibald. Fieldhead House, Bradford, Yorkshire.
[Nedll, Wilkam, Governor of Hull Jail.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 53
Year of
Election,
1855.
1865.
- 1868.
1866,
1857.
1852.
1869.
1842,
1866,
1842,
1863,
1866.
1860.
1872.
1865,
1867.
1874.
1866.
1838,
1861,
1871.
1867.
1850.
1867.
1864,
1863.
1870.
1860.
1859.
1868.
1863,
1865.
1872.
1866,
tNeilson, Walter. 172 West George-street, Glasgow.
tNeilson, W. Montgomerie. Glasgow.
Ness, John. Helmsley, near York.
tNevill, Rev. H. R. The Close, Norwich.
*Nevill, Rev. Samuel Tarratt, D.D., F.L.S., Bishop of Dunedin, New
Zealand.
{Neville, John, C.E., M.R.LA. Roden-place, Dundalk, Ireland,
tNeville, Parke, C.E. Town Hall, Dubhn.
tNevins, John Birkbeck, M.D. 3 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.
New, Herbert. Evesham, Worcestershire.
Newall, Henry. Hare-hill, Littleborough, Lancashire.
*Newall, Robert Stirling, Ferndene, Gateshead-upon-Tyne.
*N ere Albert L. 2 The Pavement, Clapham Common, London,
*NEwMAN, Professor Francis Wituram. 13 Arundel-crescent,
‘Weston-super-Mare.
*Newmarcu, Witu1AM, F.R.S. Beech Holme, Clapham Common,
London, S.W.
*Newmarch, William Thomas.
*Newron, Atrrep, M.A., F.R.S., F.LS., Professor of Zoology and
Comparative Anatomy in the University of Cambridge. Mag-
dalen College, Cambridge.
t{Newton, Rev. J. 125 Eastern-road, Brighton.
tNewton, Thomas Henry Goodwin. Clopton House, near Stratford-
on-Avon.
tNicholl, Dean of Guild. Dundee.
§Nicholls, N. F. King’s-square, Bridgewater, Somerset.
§NicHorson, Sir Cuanrtzs, Bart., D.C.L., LL.D., M.D., F.GS.,
F.R.G.S. 26 Devonshire-place, Portland-place, London, W.
*Nicholson, Cornelius, F.G.S., F.S.A. Wellfield, Muswell-hill, Lon-
don, N.
*Nicholson, Edward. 88 Mosley-street, Manchester.
§Nicholson, E. Chambers. Herne-hill, London, 8.E.
tNicuorson, Henry AtiEeyne, M.D., D.Sc., ¥.G.S., Professor of
Natural History in the University of St. Andrews, N.B.
{Nrcor, James, F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Professor of Natural History in
Marischal College, Aberdeen.
{Nimmo, Dr. Matthew, L.R.C.S.E._ Nethergate, Dundee,
Niven, Ninian. Clonturk Lodge, Drumcondra, Dublin.
{Nixon, Randal, C. J., M.A. Green Island, Belfast.
t{Noap, Henry M., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 72 Hereford-road, Bays-
water, London, W.
*Nosie, Captain, F.R.S. Elswick Works, Neweastle-on-Tyne.
tNolan, Joseph. 14 Hume-street, Dublin.
*Nolloth, Rear-Admiral Matthew 8., R.N., F.R.G.S. United Service
Club, 8.W.; and 13 North-terrace, Camberwell, London, 8.E.
{Norfolk, Richard, Messrs. W. Rutherford and Co., 14 Canada Dock,
Liverpool.
{Norgate, William. Newmarket-road, Norwich.
§NorMAN, Rey. ALFRED Mrrir, M.A. Burnmoor Rectory, Fence
House, Co. Durham.
Norreys, Sir Denham Jephson, Bart. Mallow Castle, Co. Cork.
tNorris, Ricuarp, M.D, 2 Walsall-road, Birchfield, Birmingham,
§Norris, Thomas George. Gorphwysfa, Llanrwst, North Wales,
tNorth, Thomas, Cinder-hill, Nottingham.
NorrHampton, The Right Hon. Cuartes Doveras, Marquis of.
145 Piccadilly, London, W.; and Castle Ashby, Northamptonshire.
54 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election,
1869. {Norrucors, The Right Hon. Sir Starrorp H., Bart., C.B., M.P.,
F.R.S. Pynes, Exeter; and 86 Harley-street, London, W.
*NortTuwick, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A. 7 Park-street, Grosvenor-
square, London AW.
1868. {Norwich, The Hon. and Right Rev. J. T. Pelham, D.D., Lord Bishop
of. Norwich.
1861, {Noton, Thomas. Priory House, Oldham.
Nowell, John. Farnley Wood, near Huddersfield.
O’Brien, Baron Lucius, Dromoland, Newmarket-on-Fergus, Ireland.
O'Callaghan, George. Tallas, Co. Clare.
Odgers, Rey. William James. Savile House, Weston-road, Bath.
1858, *Opitine, Witiiam, M.B., F.R.S., F.C.S., Wayntlete Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Oxford. The Museum, Oxford.
1857. {O’Donnavan, William John. Portarlington, Ireland.
1870. {O’Donnell, J.O., M.D. 34 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
1866. {Ogden, James. Woodhouse, Loughborough.
. {Ogilvie, C. W. Norman. Baldovan House, Dundee.
*Ocinvin, Grorer, M.D., Professor of the Institutes of Medicine in
Marischal College, Aberdeen. 29 Union-place, Aberdeen.
. §Ogilvie, Thomas Robertson. 19 Brisbane-street, Greenock, N.B.
. {Ogilvy,G. R. Inverquharity, N.B.
. {Oaritvy, Sir Jonn, Bart. Inverquharity, N.B.
*Ogle, William, M.D., M.A. 98 Friar-gate, Derby.
. {Ogston, Francis, M.D. 18 Adelphi-court, Aberdeen.
. {O’Hagan, John. 22 Upper Fitzwilliam-street, Dublin.
. §O0’Haaan, The Right Hon. Lord. Dublin.
. {O’Keiuy, Josrru, M.A. 51 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
. {O’Kelly, Matthias J. Dalkey, Ireland.
. §OLrpHAM, Jamus, C.E. Cottingham, near Hull.
..*OtpHAM, THomas, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.8S., M.R.LA., Director
of the Geological Survey of India. 1 Hastings-street, Calcutta.
. tO’Leary, Professor Purcell, M.A. Queenstown.
« fOliver, Daniel, F.R.S., Professor of Botany in University College,
London, Royal Gardens, Kew, W.
. §O’Meara, Rev. Kugene. Newcastle Rectory, Hazlehatch, Ireland. .
*OmMMANNEY, Vice-Admiral Erasmus, C.B.,F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,F.R.G.S.
6 Talbot-square, Hyde Park, London, W.; and United Service
Club, Pall Mall, London, 8. W.
: {Ontlome? D. Roberts New University Club, St. James's, London, —
5 tOrchar, James G. 9 William-street, Forebank, Dundee.
OrmMpROD, Groner WarErNeG, M.A., F.G.8. Brookbank, Teign-
mouth.
. }Ormerod, Henry Mere, Clarence-street, Manchester; and 11 Wood-
land-terrace, Cheetham-hill, Manchester.
. tOrmerod, T. T. Brighouse, near Halifax,
OrpEN, Joun H., LL.D., M.R.LA. 58 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
. {Osborn, George. 47 Kingcross-street, Halifax.
» [Osborne, E. C. Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*OsteR, A. Fotiert, F.R.S. South Bank, Edgbaston, Birmingham,
. *Osler, Henry F. 50 Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
. *Osler, Sidney F. South Bank, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
. }Outram, Thomas, Greetland, near Halifax.
Ovrerstonr, Samurt Jones Luoyp, Lord, F.G.S. 2 Carlton-
gardens, London, 8.W.; and Wickham Park, Bromley.
» {Owen, Harold. The Brook Villa, Liverpool.
LIST OF MEMBERS. £213)
Year of
Election.
1857,
1883.
1859,
1863.
1872.
1870,
1873.
1866.
1866.
1872.
1857.
1853.
1863.
1874.
1865.
1853.
1865.
1854
1859,
1862.
1865.
1855.
1861.
1871.
1863.
1867.
1871.
1874.
1865.
1863.
1867.
1864.
. 1863.
{
\
1863,
1864.
1851.
1866.
1847.
1863.
{Owen, James H. Park House, Sandymount, Co, Dublin
Owen, Ricwarp, O.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.LS,, F.GS.,
Hon. M.R.S.E., Director of the Natural-History Deer anne
British Museum. Sheen Lodge, Mortlake, Surrey, 5.W.
*Ower, Charles, C.E, 11 Craigie-terrace, Dundee.
{Paen, Davin, LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.G.8. College of Physical Science,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tPaget, Charles. Ruddington Grange, near Nottingham.
*Paget, Joseph. Stuffynwood Hall, Mansfield, Nottingham.
*Palorave, R. H. Inglis. 11 Britannia-terrace, Great Yarmouth.
{Palmer, George. ‘The Acacias, Reading, Berks.
§Palmer, H. 76 Goldsmith-street, Nottingham.
§Palmer, William. Iron Foundry, Canal-street, Nottingham.
*Palmer, W. R. Phoenix Lodge, Brixton, London, 8.W.
fice Rey. William Lindsay, M.A. The Vicarage, Hornsea,
ull.
*Parker, Alexander, M.R.LA. 59 William-street, Dublin,
tParker, Henry. Low Elswick, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
{Parker, Rev. Henry. Idlerton Rectory, Low Elswick, Newcastle-on-
T
e.
(Panked, Hote R., LL.D.. Methodist College, Belfast.
Parker, Joseph, F.G.S, Upton:Chaney, Bitton, near Bristol.
Parker, Richard. Dunscombe, Cork.
*Parker, Walter Mantel. High-street, Alton, Hants.
Parker, Rey. William. Saham, Norfolk. .
{Parker, William. Thornton-le-Moor, Lincolnshire.
*Parkes, Samuel Hickling. King’s Norton, near Birmingham, ,
§Parkes, WILLIAM. 23 Abingdon-street; Westminster, S.W.
{Parkinson, Robert, Ph.D. - West View, Toller-lane, Bradford, York-
shire.
*Parnell, John, M.A. Hadham House, Upper Clapton, London, E,
Parnell, Richard, M.D., F.R.S.E. Gattonside Villa, Melrose, N.B.
*Parsons, Charles Thomas. 8 Portland-road, Hdgbaston, Birmingham.
{Paterson, William. 100 Brunswick-street, Glasgow.
{Patterson, Andrew. Deaf and Dumb School, Old Trafford, Manchester.
*Patterson, A. H. Craigdarragh, Belfast.
tPatterson, H. L. Scott’s House, near Newcastle-on-Tyne.
{Patterson, James. Kinnettles, Dundee.
{ Patterson, John.
§Patterson, W. H., M.RL.A. 26 High-street, Belfast,
{Pattinson, John. 75 The Side, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
{Pattinson, William. Felling, near Newcastle-on-Tyne. —
§Pattison, Samuel R., F.G.S. 50 Lombard-street, London, B.C,
{Pattison, Dr. T. H. London-street, Edinburgh.
{Paun, Benzamin H., Ph.D. 1 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W.
{Pavy, Frepertck Wit11aM, M.D., F.R.8., Lecturer on Physiology
and Comparative Anatomy and Zoology at Guy’s Hospital, 39
: Grosvenor-street, London, W.
{Payne, Edward Turner. 8 Sydney-place, Bath. ;
{Payne, Joseph. 4 Kildare-gardens, Bayswater, London, W.
{Payne, Dr. Joseph F. 4 Kildare-gardens, Bayswater, London, W,
{Pracu, Cuaries W., Pres. R.P.S. Edin., A.L.S, 80 Haddington-
place, Leith-walk, Edinburgh.
§Peacock, Richard Atkinson, C.1.. F.G.8, 12 Queen’s-road, Jersey.
* Pearsall, Thomas John, F.C.S. Birkbeck Literary and Scientitic Insti-
tution, Southampton-buildings, Chancery-lane, London, W.C,,
56
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1872,
1870.
1863.
1863.
1863.
1858.
1855,
1873.
1861.
1861.
1865,
1861.
1868,
1856.
1845,
1868.
1861,
1864.
1867.
1861.
1874.
1870.
1861.
1871.
1867,
1863.
1870,
1853.
1853,
1863.
1859.
1862,
1870,
*Pearson, Joseph. 54 Welbeck-terrace, Mansfield-road, Nottingham.
tPearson, Rey. Samuel. 3 Greenheys-road, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.
§Pease, H. F. Brinkburn, Darlington.
*Pease, Joseph W., M.P. Hutton Hall, near Guisborough.
tPease, J. W. Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*Pease, Thomas, F.G.S. Cote Bank, Westbury-on-Trym, near Bristol.
Peckitt, Henry. Carlton Husthwaite, Thirsk, Yorkshire.
*Peckover, Alexander, F.L.S., F.R.G.S. Harecroft House, Wisbeach,
Cambridgeshire.
*Peckover, Algernon, F.L.S. Sibaldsholme, Wisbeach, Cambridge-
shire.
*Peckover, William, F.S.A. Wisbeach, Cambridgeshire.
*Peel, George. Soho Iron Works, Manchester.
§Peel, Thomas. Hampton-place, Horton, Yorkshire.
*Peile, George, jun. Shotley Bridge, Co. Durham.
*Peiser, John. Barnfield House, 491 Oxford-street, Manchester.
{Pemberton, Oliver. 18 Temple-row, Birmingham.
*Pender, John, M.P. 18 Arlington-street, London, 8.W.
{Pendergast, Thomas. Lancefield, Cheltenham.
§PENGELLY, W1LL1AM, F.R.S., F.G.S. Lamorna, Torquay.
{Percy, Jouy, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Metallurgy in the
Government School of Mines. Museum of Practical Geology,
Jermyn-street, S.W.; and 1 Gloucester-crescent, Hyde Park,
London, W.
*Perigal, Frederick. Chatcots, Belsize Park, London, N.W.
*Perkin, WILLIAM Henry, F.R.S., F.C.S, The Chestnuts, Sudbury,
Harrow.
{Perkins, Rev. George. St. James’s View, Dickenson-road, Rusholme,
near Manchester.
Perkins, Rev. R. B., D.C.L. Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire.
*Perkins, V. R. The Brands, Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire.
{Perkins, William.
tPerring, John Shae. 104 King-street, Manchester.
Perry, a Right Rey, Charles, M.A., Bishop of Melbourne, Aus-
tralia.
§Perry, John. 5 Falls-road, Belfast.
*Perry, Rev. 8. G. F., M.A. Tottington Vicarage, near Bury.
*Prerry, Rey. S. J., F.R.S., F.R.AS., F.M.S. Stonyhurst College
Observatory, Whalley, Blackburn.
*Petrie, John. outh-sbrect, Rochdale.
Peyton, Abel. Oakhurst, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
bikie John E, H.,F.R.A.S., F.G.S, 108 Marina, St. Leonard’s-on-
ea.
{PHayre, Major-General Sir Antuur, K.C.8.I. East India United
Service Club, St. James’s-square, London, 8. W.
*PHENE, JOHN SAMUEL, F.S.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 5 Carlton-terrace,
Oakley-street, London, 8.W.
§Philip, T. D. 51 South Castle-street, Liverpool.
*Philips, Rev. Edward. Hollington, Uttoxeter, Staffordshire.
*Philips, Herbert. 85 Church-street, Manchester.
*Philips, Mark. Welcombe, Stratford-on-Avon.
Philips, Robert N. The Park, Manchester.
{Philipson, Dr. 1 Saville-row, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*Purtirps, Major-General Sir B, Travety. United Service Club,
Pall Mall, London, 8.W.
}Phillips, Rev. George, D.D. Queen’s College, Cambridge.
}Puruirs, J. ARTHUR, Cressington Park, Aigburth, Liverpool.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 57
Year of
Election.
1868.
1868.
1864.
1861.
1870.
1870.
1871,
1865.
1873..
1857.
1863,
{Phipson, R. M., F.S.A. Surrey-street, Norwich.
{Purpson, T. L., Ph.D. 4 The Cedars, Putney, Surrey, 8. W.
{Pickering, William. Oak View, Clevedon.
{Pickstone, William. Radcliff Bridge, near Manchester.
§Picton, J. Allanson, F.S.A. Sandyknowe, Wavertree, Liverpool.
tPigot, Rev. E. V. Malpas, Cheshire.
{Pigot, Thomas F, Royal College of Science, Dublin.
*Pike, Ebenezer. Besborough, Cork.
{Prxe, L. OwEn. 25 Carlton-villas, Maida-vale, London, W.
§Pike, W.H. 4 The Grove, Highgate, London, N.
{Pilkington, Henry M., M.A.,Q.C. 45 Upper Mount-street, Dublin.
*Prm, Captain Beprorp C. T., R.N., M.P., F.R.G.S, Leaside, Kings-
wood-road, Upper Norwood, London, 8.E.
Pim, George, M.R.L.A. Brennan’s Town, Cabinteely, Dublin.
Pim, Jonathan. Harold’s Cross, Dublin.
Pim, William H. Monkstown, Dublin.
. {Pincoffs, Simon.
. {Pinder, T. R. St. Andrews, Norwich.
{Pirrie, William, M.D. 238 Union-street West, Aberdeen.
{Pitcaim, David. Dudhope House, Dundee.
{Pitt, R. 5 Widcomb-terrace, Bath.
§Piant, James, F.G.S. 40 West-terrace, West-street, Leicester.
. {Plant, Thomas L, Camp-hill, and 33 Union-street, Birmingham.
. {Prayratr, Lieut.-Colonel, H.M. Consul, Algeria.
Puiayratr, The Right Hon. Lyon, C.B., Ph.D., LL.D., M.P.,
F.RS.L. & E., F.0.8. 4 Queensherry-place, South Kensington,
London, 8.W.
. {Plunkett, Thomas. Ballybrophy House, Borris-in-Ossory, Ireland.
. *Pocut, Henry Davis, F.C.S. Broughton Old Hall, Manchester.
{Porx, Witi1aM, Mus. Doc., F.R.S. Atheneum Club, Pall Mall,
London, 8. W.
*Pollexfen, Rev. John Hutton, M.A. East Witton Vicarage, Bedale,
Yorkshire.
Pollock, A. 52 Upper Sackville-street, Dublin.
coyynest aaa Roxburgh, M.A., F.G.S8. Polwhele, Truro,
ornwall,
. {Poole, Braithwaite. Birkenhead.
{Pooley,Thomas A.,B.Sc. South Side,Clapham Common,London,8.W.
tPortal, Wyndham 8. Malsanger, Basingstoke.
*Porter, Henry J. Ker, M.R.I.A. New Travellers’ Club, 15 George-
street, Hanover-square, London, W.
§Porter, Rev. J. Leslie, D.D., LL.D. College Park, Belfast.
§Porter, Robert. Beeston, Nottingham.
Porter, Rev. T. H., D.D. Desertcreat, Co. Armagh.
tPotter, D. M.. Cramlington, near Neweastle-on-Tyne.
-*Porren, Epmunp, F.R.S. Camfield-place, Hatfield, Herts.
Potter, Thomas. George-street, Manchester.
tPotts, James. 26 Sandhill, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*PouNDEN, Captain Lonspaxx, F.R.G.S. Junior United Service Club,
St. James’s-square, London, 8.W.; and Brownswood House,
Enniscorthy, Co. Wexford.
. *Powell, FrancisS8. Horton Old Hall, Yorkshire; and 1 Cambridge-
square, London, W.
tPower, Sir James, Bart. Edermine, Enniscorthy, Ireland.
{Powrie, James. Reswallie, Forfar.
*Poynter, John E, Clyde Neuck, Uddingstone, Hamilton, Scotland.
tPrangley, Arthur.
58
Year of
*Blection. os
1869.
1864.
1871.
1856.
1872,
1870.
1865.
1865.
1864.
1835,
1846,
1872,
1871.
1863,
1858,
1865.
1863.
1865,
(1872.
1871.
1864.
1873.
1867.
1867.
1842,
-1869.
1852.
1860.
1874.
1866,
1860,
1868.
LIST OF MEMBERS,
*Preece, William Henry. Gothic Lodge, .Wimbledon Common,
. . ~ London, 8. W.
*Prentice, Manning. Violet-hill, Stowmarket, Suffolk.
Prest, The Venerable Archdeacon Edward. The College, Durham.
*Prestwicu, JosepH, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.8., Professor of Geology in
the University of Oxford. 34 Broad-street, Oxford; and Shore-
ham, near Sevenoaks.
tPrice, Astley Paston. 47 Lincoln’s-Inn-Fields, London, W.C.
*Pricr, Rey. BarrHotomuw, M.A., F.RS., F.R.AS., Sedleian
Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Oxford.
11 St. Giles’s-street, Oxford.
tPrice, David S., Ph.D. 26 Great George-street, Westminster, 8.W.
Price, J.T. Neath Abbey, Glamorganshire.
ԤPrice, Captain W. E., M.P., F.G.S. Tibberton Court, Gloucester.
*Prichard, Thomas, M.D. Abington Abbey, Northampton.
tPrideaux, J. Symes. » 209 Piccadilly, London, W.
*Prior, R. C. A., M.D. 48 York-terrace, Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
*Pritchard, Andrew, F.R.S.E. 87 St. Paul’s-road, Canonbury, Lon-
don, N.
*Prircnarp, Rev.Cuarnes, M.A, F.RS., F.GS., F.R.AS., Professor
of Astronomy in the University of Oxford. 8 Keble-terrace,
Oxford.
{Pritchard, Rev.W. Gee. Brienal Rectory, Barnard Castle, Co. Durham.
{Procter, James. Morton House, Clifton, Bristol.
{Procter, R.S. Summerhill-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Proctor, Thomas. Elmsdale House, Clifton Down, Bristol.
Proctor, William. Elmhurst, Higher Erith-road, Torquay.
§Proctor, William, M.D., F.C.S. 24 Petergate, York.
*Prosser, Thomas. West Boldon, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
tProud, Joseph. South Hetton, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
{Prowse, Albert P. Whitchurch Villa, Mannamead, Plymouth.
*Pryor, M. Robert. High Elms, Watford.
*Puckle, Thomas John. Woodcote-grove, Carshalton, Surrey.
{Puch, John. Aberdovey, Shrewsbury.
{Pullan, Lawrence. Bridge of Allan, N.B.
{Pullar, John. 4 Leonard Bank, Perth.
§Pullar, Robert. 6 Leonard Bank, Perth.
*Pumphrey, Charles. 33 Frederick-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
Punnett, Rev. John, M.A., F.C.P.S. St, Earth, Cornwall. — .
tPurchas, Rev.. W. H.
{Purdon, Thomas Henry, M.D. Belfast.
{Purpy, Frepuricx, F.S.S., Principal of the Statistical Department of
the Poor Law Board, Whitehall, London. Victoria-road, Ken-
sington, London, W.
§Purser, Frederick, M.A. Rathmines, Dublin. :
t{Purser, Professor John, M.A., M.R.IA. Queen’s College, Belfast.
*Pusey, S. EH. B. Bouverie-. 56 Lowndes-street, S.W.; and Pusey
House, Faringdon.
§Pyr-Smiru, P. H., M.D. 31 Finsbury-square, E.C.; and Guy’s
Hospital, London, §.E.
. *Pyne, Joseph John. St. German’s Villa, St. Lawrence-road, Not-
ting-hill, W.
{Rabbits, W.T. Forest-hill, London, 8.E.
tRavcrirre, CHarLes Brann, M.D. 25 Cavyendish-square, Lon-
don, W. Bie
. Radcliffe, D. R. Phoenix Safe Works, Windsor, Liverpool. ..- -
LIST OF MEMBERS. 59
Year of
Election.
1861.
1854,
1870,
1855.
1864.
1863.
1845,
1863.
1867.
1861,
1867.
1873.
1835.
1869,
1860.
1865.
1855.
1860,
1868.
1863.
1861.
1872.
1868.
1864.
1870.
1870.
1870.
1863.
1874.
1870.
1866.
1855.
1868.
1865.
1870.
*Radford, William, M.D. Sidmount, Sidmouth.
{Rafferty, Thomas.
tRatHles, Thomas Stamford. 13 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.
{Raffles, William Winter. Sunnyside, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.
tRainey, Harry, M.D. 10 Moore-place, Glasgow.
tRainey, James T. 8 Widcomb-crescent, Bath.
Rake, Joseph. Charlotte-street, Bristol.
f{Ramsay, ALPXANDER, jun., F.G.S. 45 Norland-square, Notting-
hill, London, W.
tRamsay, Anprew Cromsir, LL.D. F.RS., F.G.S., Director-
General of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom and
of the Museum of Economic Geology, Professor of Geology in
the Royal School of Mines. Geological Survey Office, Jermyn-
street, London, 8. W.
tRamsay, D. R.
t{Ramsay, James, jun. Dundee.
tRamsay, John. Kildalton, Argyleshire.
*Ramsay, W. F., M.D, 15 Somerset-street, Portman-square, Lon-
: don, W.
*Ramsden, William. Bracken Hall, Great Horton, Bradford, Yorkshire,
*Rance, Henry (Solicitor). Cambridge.
*Rance, H. W. Henniker, LL.M. 62 St, Andrew’s-street, Cambridge.
{Randall, Thomas. Grandepoint House, Oxford.
tRandel, J. 50 Vittoria-street, Birmingham,
tRandolph, Charles. Pollockshiels, Glasgow,
*Randolph, Rev. Herbert, M.A. Marcham, near Abingdon. p
Ranelagh, The Right Hon. Lord. 7 New Burlington-street, Regent-
street, London, W.
*Ransom, Edwin, F.R.G.S. Kempstone Mill, Bedford.
§Ransom, William Henry, M:D.,F.R.S. The Pavement, Nottingham,
t{Ransome, Arthur, M.A. Bowdon, Manchester.
Ransome, Thomas. 34 Princess-street, Manchester,
*Ranyard, Arthur Cowper, F'.R.A.S. 25 Old-square, Lincoln’s-Inn,
London, W.C.
Rashleigh, Jonathan. 38 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park,
London, N. W. -
{Rassam, Hormuzed. :
*Rarciier, Colonel Cuarzess, F.LS., F.G.S., F.S.A., F.R.G.8. Wyd-
drington, Edgbaston, Birmingham..
§Rate, Rev. John, M.A. Lapley Vicarage, Penkridge, Staffordshire.
{Rathbone, Benson. Hxchange-buildings, Liverpool.
{Rathbone, Philip H. Greenbank Cottage, Wavertree, Liverpool.
§Rathbone, R. R. 11 Rumford-street, Liverpool.
{Rattray, W. St. Clement’s Chemical Works, Aberdeen.
§Ravenstein, E. G., F.R.G.S. 10 Lorn-road, Brixton, London, 8.W.
Rawdon, William Frederick M.D. Bootham, York.
{Rawlins, G.W. The Hollies, Rainhill, Liverpool.
*Rawlins, John. Shrawley Wood House, near Stourport.
*Rawiinson, Rey. Canon Goran, M.A.,'!Camden Professor of An-
cient History in the University of Oxford. The Oaks, Precincts,
Canterbury.
*Rawinson, Major-General Sir Henry C., K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S,
F.R.G.S. 21 Charles-street, Berkeley-square, London, W. d
*Rayeren, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A., F.R.S. 4 Carlton-gardens
Pall Mall, London, 8.W. ; and Terling Place, Witham, Essex, ‘
{Rayner, Henry. West View, Liverpool-road, Chester.
{Rayner, Joseph (Town Clerk), Liverpool.
60
LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
Election.
1852,
1865,
1870.
1862,
1852.
1865.
1863.
1861.
1861.
1869.
1874.
1850.
1863.
1863.
1867.
1869.
1870.
1858.
1871.
1858.
1868.
1863,
1861.
1869,
1863.
1868,
1870.
1868.
1863.
1870,
1861.
1861.
1863.
1870,
1868,
1861.
1859,
1861.
1872.
1862.
1861.
1863
1873.
{Read, Thomas, M.D. Donegal-square West, Belfast.
tRead, William. Albion House, pworth, Bawtry.
*Read, W. H. Rudston, M.A., F.L.8. 12 Blake-street, York,
§Reade, Thomas M., C.E., F.G.S. _Blundellsands, Liverpool.
*Readwin, Thomas Allison, M.R.LA., F.G.S. 387 Osborne-road,
Tuebrook, Liverpool.
*RepFERN, Professor PETER, M.D. 4 Lower-crescent, Belfast.
tRedmayne, Giles. 20 New Bond-street, London, W.
tRedmayne, R. R. 12 Victoria-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne. ‘
Redwood, Isaac. Cae Wern, near Neath, South Wales.
*Reé, H. P. Villa Ditton, Torquay.
{Rxep, Epwarp J., Vice-President of the Institute of Naval Archi-
tects. Cherlton-street, Manchester.
{ Reid, J. Wyatt.
§Reid, Robert, M.A. Ceylon.
{Reid, William, M.D. Cruivie, Cupar, Fife.
§Renals, E. ‘Nottingham Express’ Office, Nottingham.
{Rendel, G. Benwell, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
tRenny, W. W. 8 Douglas-terrace, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.
{Révy, J.J. 16 Great George-street, Westminster, S.W.
*REyNOLDS, OsBorneE, M.A., Professor of Engineering in Owens
Cullege, Manchester. Fallowfield, Manchester.
§Reynolds, Richard, F.C.S. 18 Briggate, Leeds.
}Reynowps, Professor JAMES Emerson, M.A., F.C.8. Royal Dublin
Society, Kildare-street, Dublin.
Reynolds, William, M.D.
*Rhodes, John. 18 Albion-street, Leeds.
§Ricwarps, Rear-Admiral Groner H., C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., Hy-
drographer to the Admiralty, The Admiralty, Whitehall,
London, 8.W
§RicHARDSON, BENJAMIN Warp, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. 12 Hinde-
street, Manchester-square, London, W.
§Richardson, Charles. 10 Berkeley-square, Bristol.
*Richardson, Charles. Albert Park, Abingdon, Berks.
*Richardson, Edward, jun. 3 Lovaine-place, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*Richardson, George. 4 Edward-street, Werneth, Oldham,
{Richardson, J. H. 3 Arundel-terrace, Cork.
{ Richardson, James C.
{ Richardson, John. W.
{Richardson, Ralph. 16 Coates-crescent, Edinburgh,
Richardson, Thomas. Montpelier-hill, Dublin.
Richardson, William. Micklegate, York.
§Richardson, William. 4 Edward-street, Werneth, Oldham.
{Richson, Rev.Canon, M.A. Shakespeare-street, Ardwick, Manchester,
tRichter, Otto, Ph.D. 7 India-street, Edinburgh.
{Rickards, Dr. 86 Upper Parliament-street, Liverpool.
§Ricketts, Charles, M.D., F.G.S8. 22 Argyle-street, Birkenhead.
*RpveELL, Major-General Cuarius J, Bucuanay, C.B., R.A. F.RS
Oaklands, Chudleigh, Devon.
*Riddell, Henry B. Whitefield House, Rothbury, Morpeth.
tRiddell, Rev. John. Moffat by Beatlock, N.B.
*Rideout, William J. 51 Charles-street, Berkeley-square, London, W.
§Ridge, James. 98 Queen’s-road, Brighton.
tRidgway, Henry Akroyd, B.A. Bank Field, Halifax.
tRidley, John. 19 Belsize-park, Hampstead, London, N.W.
*Rigby, Samuel. Bruche Hall, Warrington.
tRipley, Edward. Acacia, Apperley, near Leeds,
LIST OF MEMBERS, 61
Year of
Election.
1873,
1860,
1867,
1855.
1867,
1869,
1854.
1869,
1859,
1859,
1870.
1857.
1868.
1866,
1859.
1867.
1871.
1870,
1866,
1861.
1852.
1859,
1873.
1866,
1861,
1863.
1855.
1860.
1863,
1870.
1870,
1855.
1872.
1872.
1866.
1861.
1860.
1867.
1869,
1870.
1859,
1866,
§Ripley, H. W. Acacia, eppaless near Leeds.
*Ripon, The Marquis of, K.G., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.L.S. 1 Carlton-
gardens, London, 8.W.
tRitchie, George Robert. 4 Watkyn-terrace, Coldharbour-lane,
Camberwell, London, 8.E.
tRitchie, John. Fleuchar Craig, Dundee.
tRitchie, Robert, C.E. 14 Hill-street, Edinburgh.
tRitchie, William. Emslea, Dundee.
*Rivington, John. Great Milton, Tetsworth, Oxon.
tRobberds, Rev. John, B.A. Battledown Tower, Cheltenham.
*Ropsins, J. 104 Portsdown-road, Maida-vale, London, N.W.
Roberton, John. Oxford-road, Manchester.
{Roberts, George Christopher. Hull.
tRoberts, Henry, F.S.A. Athenzeum Club, London, 8.W.
*Roberts, Isaac, F.G.S. 26 Rock-park, Rock-ferry, Cheshire.
{Roberts, Michael, M.A. Trinity College, Dublin.
os hi CuanvieER, F.G.8., F.C.8. Royal Mint, London, E.
oberts, William P.
ap are Alister Stuart, M.D., F.R.G.S. Horwich, Bolton, Lan-
cashire.
tRobertson, Dr. Andrew. Indego, Aberdeen.
§Robertson, David. Union Grove, Dundee.
tRobertson, George, C.E., F.R.S.E. 47 Albany-street, Edinburgh.
*Robertson, John. Bank, Hich-street, Manchester.
}Rosertson, Witi1AM Trypat, M.D. Nottingham.
{Robinson, Enoch. Dukinfield, Ashton-under-Lyne.
{Robinson, Rey. George. Tartaragham Glebe, Loughgall, Ireland,
tRobinson, Hardy. 156 Union-street, Aberdeen.
*Robinson, H. Oliver. 34 Bishopsgate-street, London, E.C.
Seobineon ce 3 Donegal-street, Belfast.
obinson, John.
{Robinson, John. Atlas Works, Manchester.
tRobinson, J. H. Cumberland-row, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
tRobinson, M. K. 116 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
}Robinson, Admiral Robert Spencer. 61 Eaton-place, London, 8.W,
Rosinson, Rey. THomas Romney, D.D., F.RS., F.RAS.,
M.R.L.A., Director of the Armagh Observatory. Armagh.
tRobinson, T. W.U. Houghton-le-Spring, Durham.
tRobinson, William. 40 Smithdown-road, Liverpool.
*Robson, KH. R. 20 Great George-street, Westminster, S.W.
*Robson, Rey. John, M.A., D.D Ajmére Lodge, Cathkin-road,
Langside, Glasgow. i
tRobson, Neil, C.K. 127 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
*Robson, William. 3 Palmerston-road, Grange, Edinburgh.
“pega ee F, F.RAS., F.C.S, Marlborough College,
iltshire.
{Roe, Thomas. Grove-villas, Sitchurch.
§Rors, JoHN, F.G.S. 9 Crosbie-terrace, Leamington.
fRocrrs, James EK. THororp, Professor of Economic Science and
Statistics in King’s College, London. Beaumont-street, Oxford.
tRogers, James 8. Rosemill, by Dundee.
*Rogers, Nathaniel, M.D. 34 Paul-street, Exeter,
tRogers, T.L.,M.D. Rainhill, Liverpool.
{RotieEsToN, Grorer, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Ana-
tomy Lay Physiology in the University of Oxford, The Park,
Oxford.
baa Bei Frederick, War Office, Horse Guards, London,
62
LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
Election.
1863.
1846,
1869.
1872.
i 865.
tRomilly, Edward. 14 Hyde Park-terrace, London, W,
‘t{Ronalds, Edmund, Ph.D. Stewartfield, Bonnington, Edinburgh.
tRoper, C. H. Magdalen-street, Exeter. 3
*Roper, Freeman Clark Samuel, F.LS., F.G.S. Palgrave House,
Eastbourne.
*Roper, R. 8., F.G.8., F.C.8., ALOE. 14 Clytha-square, N: fab bet
Monmouthshire.
. *Roscorn, Henry Enriexp, B.A., Ph.D., FER. 8., F.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry in Owens College, Manchester,
. {Rosn, C. B., F.G.S. 25 Kine-street, Great Yarmouth, Norfolk. -
. {Roseby, J ohn, Havyerholme “House, Brige, Lincolnshire.
00)
. §Ross, Alex. Milton, M.A., M.D., F.G.S. Toronto, Canada.
. {Ross, David, LL.D. Drumbrain. Cottage, Newbliss, Ireland.
2. §Ross, James, M.D. Tenterfield House, Waterfoot, near Manchester,
. *Ross, Rey. James Coulman. Baldon Vicarage, Oxford. :
. *Ross, Thomas. 7 Wigmore-street, Cavendish-square, London, Ww.
Ross, William.
. §Ross, Rey. William. Chapelhill Manse, Rothesay, Scotland, ‘
| *Rossz, The Right Hon. The Earl of, D. C. L:, F.R.S., F.R.A.8, Birr:
Castle, Parsonstown, Treland ; and 32 Lowndes- -square, Denon,
S.W.
5. *Rothera, George Bell. 17 Wav erley-street, Nottingham.
, {Routh, Edward J., M.A. St. Peter’s ee Cambridge.
2. *Row, A. V. Nursing Observatory, Daba-gardens, Vizagapatam,
India, (Care of Messrs. King & Co., 45 Pall Mall, London, 4 W.)
. {Rowan, David. Llliot-street, Glasgow.
. {Rowand, Alexander,
5. §Rowe, Rey. John. Load Vicarage, Langport, Somerset.
. *Rowney, Tuomas H., Ph.D., F.C.8., Professor of Chemistry in
Queen’ s College, Galway. ” Palmyta-crescent, Galway.
*Rowntree, Joseph. Leeds.
. tRowsell, Rey. Evan Hdward,M.A. Hambledon Rectory, Godalming.
1. *Royle, Peter, M.D., LR. C, P., M.R.C.S. 27 Lever-street, Man-
chester,
§Rudler, F, W., F.G.8. The Museum, Jermyn-street, London, 8.W.
. tRumsey, Henry Wyldbore, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.8. Priory House,
Cheltenham. 7
. tRushforth, Joseph. 43 Ash-grove, Horton-lane, Bradford, Yorkshire,
. {Ruskiy, Joun, M.A,, F.G.S., Slade Professor of Fine Arts in the
University of Oxford. Corpus Christi College, Oxford,
. tRussell, Rey, C. W., D.D. Maynooth College.
5. {Russell, James, M.D. 91 Newhall- street, Birmingham. ,
. {Russevy, The Right Hon, Jonny, Eazl, K. G., FR. S., FR.GS, 37
Chesham-place, Belgraye-square, London, S.W.
Russell, John.
RussE11, Joun Scorr, M.A., FERS. L. & E. Sydenham; and —
5 Westminster Chambers, London, 'S.W.
2. *Russell, Norman Scott. 5 Westminster-chambers, London, 8.W.
. tRussell, Robert. Gosforth Colliery, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
2, §Russent, W, H. L., AB, F.R.S. 5 The Grove, Highgate, Lon-
don, N
*RussELL, WILLIAM J., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry,
St. Bartholomew’s Medical College.’ 34 Upper ee pars
terrace, St. John’s Wood, London, N.W.
. Rust, Rey. James, M.A. Manse of Slains, Ellon, N.B.
. §RUTHERFORD, Witt, M.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of the Insti-
tutes of Medicine in the University of Edinburgh, MOE
LIST OF MEMBERS, 63
Year of
Election.
Rutson; William, “Newby Wiske; Ni orthallerton, Yorkshire.
. {Rutiledge, T, £.
‘ acid ig EZ8.,, Librarian, R.G.8. _ Parkfield, Putney, London,
*Ryland, Arthur, ._ The Linthurst Hiily Broomsarove, Worcestershire;
5. Ryland, Thomas. The Redlands, Exdington, jirmingham.
53. AF apie Joseph.
*RyLanps, THOMAS GLAzEBROOK, F.L. a E.G.S, Mightelds, Thel-
wall, near Warrington.
Ss sae General Sir Epwarp, K.C B.jR.A;, LL.D. .D. C.L., F. Rs
1873,
1858,
1872.
1842,
1861.
1867.
1870.
1861.
1857.
1872.
1871.
1872.
1864.
1854.
1873.
1865.
1868,
1846.
1864.
1860.
1871.
1863.
1872.
1868.
1857.
1850.
1868.
1872.
1842,
z BAB By. PLS). FRG, 13 Ashley-place, Westminster,
. {Sabine, Robert. . Auckland House, Willesden-lane, ‘London, N.W,
Ll. §Sadler, Samuel Camperdowne. Purton Court, Wiltshire,
ate Albans, His Grace the Duke of, Bestwood Lodge, Armold, near
; Nottingham,
Salkeld, J: oseph, Penrith, Cumberland. .
; {SaLmon, Rey. Groran, D. D., D.C.L., F.RS., Regius Professor of
Divinity in the University of Dublin. Trinity College, Dublin.
*Salomons, Sir David, Bart. Broom-hill, Tunbridge Wells. di
*Saxt, Sir Trrvs, Bart. Crow-Nest, Lighteliff near Halifax,
t{Saxyzy, Oszert, M.A., F.RB.S., FLS 32 The Grove, Boltons,
London, 8. W,
Sambrooke, TG. 32 Haton-place, London, S.W.
*Samson, Henry. 6 St. Peter’s-square, Manchester.
{Samuelson, Edward. Roby, near Liverpool.
tSaMvELsoN, JAMES. St. Domingo-grove, Everton, Liverpool,
*Sandeman, Archibald, M.A. Tulloch, Perth,
tSanders, Gilbert. The Hill, Monkstown, Co. Dublin,
{Sanders, Mrs, 8 Powis-square; Brighton.
*SanDERs, WILLIAM, F.R.S., F.G.S. Hanbury Lodge, The Avenue,
Clifton, Bristol.
tSanders, William R., M.D, 11 Walker-street, Edinburgh. T
§SANDERSON, Ji Ds Burpoy, M.D., F.R.S. 49 Queen Anne-street,
_ _ London,
Sandes, Thomas, A. B, Sallow Glin, Tarbert, Co, Kerry.
{Sandford, William. 9 Springfield-place, Bath.
{Sandon, The Right Hon. Lord, M.P. 89Gloucester-square, SHR
§Sands, T. C. 24 Spring-gardens, Bradford, Yorkshire.
{Sargant, W.L. Edmund-street, Birmingham.
Satterfield, Joshua. Alderley Edge,
{Saunders, i, C.E, King’s Lynn.
tSaunders, Trelawney W. India Office, London, 8
{Saunders, T. W., Recorder of Bath. 1 Priory iesecd Bath,
*Saunders, William. 3 Gladstone-terrace, Brighton.
§Savage, W.D. LEllerslie House, Brighton,
tSavory, Valentine. Cleckheaton, near Leeds,
§Sawyer, George David, 55 Buckingham-place, Brighton,
tSawyer, J ohn Robert. Grove-terrace, Thorpe Hamlet, Norwich.
{Scallan, J. Joseph.
{Scarth, Pillans, 2 James’s-place, Leith.
§Schacht, G. F. 7 Regent’s-place, Clifton, Bristol.
Sommycx, Rosert, Ph.D, 3898 Manor-terrace, Brixton, London,
*Schlick, Count Benj. Quai Voltaire, Paris,
Schofield, Joseph, Stubley Hall, Littleborough, Lancashire,
64
LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
Election.
1874.
1873.
1861.
1847,
1867.
1871.
1865.
1859,
1872.
1872.
lis (ile
1857.
1861.
1874,
1864.
1858.
1869.
1864,
1869.
1859.
1870,
1861,
1855.
1873.
1858.
1870.
1873.
1868.
1861,
1853.
1871.
1867.
1869.
1861.
1858.
1854,
§Scholefield, Henry. Windsor-crescent, Newcastle-on-Tyne,
*Scholes, T. Seddon, 10 Warwick-place, Leamington.
Scuuncx, Epwarp, F.R.S., F.C.8. Oaklands, Kersall Moor, Man-
chester.
*Schuster, Arthur, Ph.D. Sunnyside, Upper Avenue-road, Regent's
Park, London, N.W.
*Schwabe, Edmund Salis. Rhodes House, near Manchester.
{Scraren, Pure Luriey, M.A, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Sec. Zool,
Soc. 11 Hanover-square, London, W.
{Scorr, ALEXANDER. Clydesdale Bank, Dundee.
{Scott, Rev. C.G. 12 Pilrig-street, Edinburgh.
§Scorr, Major-General E. W. S., Royal Bengal Artillery. Treledan
Hall, Welshpool, Montgomeryshire. :
{Scott, Captain Fitzmaurice. Forfar Artillery.
tScott, George, Curator of the Free Library and Museum, Brighton.
6 Western-cottages, Brighton.
§Scott, Major-General H. Y. D., C.B. Sunnyside, Ealing, W.
{Scott, James 8. T. Monkvigg, Haddingtonshire,
§Scorr, Roprrt H., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.M.S., Director of the
Meteorological Office. 116 Victoria-street, London, 8. W.
Jee Rev. Robert Selkirk, D.D. 16 Victoria-crescent, Dowanhill,
lasgow.
§Scott, Rey. Robinson, D.D. Methodist College, Belfast.
tScott, Wentworth Lascelles, Wolverhampton.
tScott, William. Holbeck, near Leeds.
§Scott, William Bower. Chudleigh, Devon.
tScott, William Robson, Ph.D. St. Leonards, Exeter,
{Searle, Francis Furlong. 5 Cathedral-yard, Exeter.
tSeaton, John Love. Hull,
j Seaton, Joseph, M.D. .
*Seetny, Harry Govinr, F.L.S., F.G.8., Professor of Physical
Geography, Bedford College, London, 31 Soho-square, London,
W.; and St. John’s College, Cambridge.
tSeligman, H. L. 135 Buchanan-street, Glasgow.
{Semple, Rk. H., M.D. 8 Torrington-square, London, W.C.
*Senior, George, F.S.8. Rose-hill, Dodworth, near Barnsley.
*Sephton, Rey. J. 92 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.
§Sewell, E., M.A., F.R.G.S. Ilkley College, near Leeds,
tSewell, Philip E. Catton, Norwich.
*Seymour, Henry D. 209 Piccadilly, London, W.
Seymour, John, 21 Bootham, York.
{Shackles, G. L. 6 Albion-street, Hull.
*Shaen, a 15 Upper Phillimore-gardens, Kensington, Lon-
don, W.
*Shand, James. Fullbrooks, Worcester Park, Surrey.
§Shanks, James. Den Iron Works, Arbroath, N.B.
*Shapter, Dr. Lewis. The Barnfield, Exeter.
Sharp, Rev. John, B.A. Horbury, Wakefield.
§Suarp, Samuet, F.G.S., F.S.A. Dallington Hall, near North-
ampton.
*Sharp, William, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. Horton House, Rugby.
Sharp, Rev. William, B.A. Mareham Rectory, near Boston, Lincoln-
shire,
Suarpey, WrittaM, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. 50 Torrington-
square, London, W.C.
*Shaw, Bentley. Woodfield House, Huddersfield.
*Shaw, Charles Wright. 3 Windsor-terrace, Douglas, Isle of Man,
LIST OF MEMBERS. 65
Year of
Election.
1870. {Shaw, Duncan. Cordova, Spain.
1865. {Shaw, George. Cannon-street, Birmingham.
1870, {Shaw, John. 24 Great George-place, Liverpool.
1845.
1853.
1839,
1863.
1870.
1869.
1866.
1867,
1870.
1842.
1866.
1861.
1872.
1873.
1857.
1873.
1856,
1859.
1871.
1865.
1862.
1852.
1874.
1847,
1866.
1871.
1867,
1859.
1863.
1857.
1859,
1874,
1834,
1870,
1864,
{Shaw, John, M.D., F.L.S., F.G.S. Hop House, Boston, Lincolnshire.
{Shaw, Norton, M.D. St. Croix, West Indies.
Shepard, John. 41 Drewton-street, Manningham-road, Bradford,
Yorkshire.
{Shepherd, A. B. 49 Seymour-street, Portman-square, London, W.
§Shepherd, Joseph. 29 Everton-crescent, Liverpool.
peor, Rey. Henry W., B.A. The Parsonage, Emsworth,
ants.
tSherard, Rev. S. H.
{Shilton, Samuel Richard Parr. Sneinton House, Nottingham.
§Shinn, William C, Her Majesty’s Printing Office, near Fetter-lane,
London, E.C.
*Shoolbred, James N., C.E., F.G.S. 12 Delahay-street, West-
minster, S. W.
Shuttleworth, John. Wilton Polygon, Cheetham-hill, Manchester.
{Srsson, Francis, M.D., F.R.S. 59 Brook-street, London, W.
*Sidebotham, Joseph. 19 George-street, Manchester.
*Sidebottom, Robert. Mersey Bank, Heaton Mersey, Manchester.
§Sidgwick, R. H. The Raikes, Skipton.
{Sidney, Frederick John, LL.D., MRA. 19 Herbert-street,
Dublin.
Sidney, M. J. F. Cowpen, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Siemens, Alexander. 12 Queen Anne’s-gate, Westminster, S.W.
*Sremens, C. WittraM, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.C.S., MALC.E. 12 Queen
Anne’s-gate, Westminster, 8.W.
*Sillar, Zechariah, M.D.“ Bath House, Laurie Park, Sydenham, Lon-
don, 8.E.
tSim, John. Hardgate, Aberdeen.
{Sime, James. Craigmount House, Grange, Edinburgh.
§Simkiss, T. M. Wolverhampton.
{Simms, James. 1388 Fleet-street, London, H.C.
{Simms, William. Albion-place, Belfast.
§Simms, William. The Linen Hall, Belfast.
{Simon, John, D.C.L., F.R.S. 40 Kensington-square, London, W.
{Simons, George. The Park, Nottingham.
*Simpson, ALEXANDER R., M.D., Professor of Midwifery in the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh. 52 Queen-street, Edinburgh.
{Simpson, G. B. Seafield, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee.
{Simpson, John. Marykirk, Kincardineshire.
{Simpson, J. B., F.G.S. Hedgefield House, Blaydon-on-Tyne.
jSnorpson, Maxwe tt, M.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in
Queen’s College, Cork.
*Simpson, Rey. Samuel. Greaves House, near Lancaster,
Simpson, Thomas. Blake-street, York.
Simpson, William, Bradmore House, Hammersmith, London, W.
{Sinclair, Alexander. 133 George-street, Edinburgh.
§Sinclair, Thomas. Dunedin, Belfast.
{Sinclair, Vetch, M.D. 48 Albany-street, Edinburgh.
*Sinclair, W. P. 32 Devonshire-road, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.
*Sircar, Baboo Mohendro Lall, M.D, 1344 San Kany, Tollah-street,
Calcutta, per Messrs. Harrenden & Co., 3 Chanel pines, Poultry,
London, H.C.
1865. §Sissons, William. 92 Park-street, Hull.
1870, §Sladen, Walter Perey, F.G.S, Exley House, near Halifax.
F
66
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1873.
1870.
1842.
1853.
1849,
1849,
1860.
1872.
1867.
1858.
1867.
1867.
1868.
1857,
1872.
1873.
1865.
1865.
1866,
1855.
1855.
1860.
1865.
1870.
1875.
1871.
1874,
1867.
1852,
1860.
1837.
1847,
1870.
1866,
1873.
1867,
1867.
1859,
1852,
1857,
§Slater, Clayton. Barnoldswick, near Leeds.
§Slater, W.B. 28 Hamilton-square, Birkenhead.
*Slater, William. Park-lane, Higher Broughton, Manchester,
{Sleddon, Francis. 2 Kingston-terrace, Hull.
§Sloper, George Edgar. Devizes.
{Sloper, Samuel W. Devizes.
§Sloper, 8S. Elgar. Winterton, near Hythe, Southampton.
tSmale, The Hon. Sir John, Chief Justice of Hong Kong.
{Small, David. Gray House, Dundee.
{Smeeton, G.H. Commercial-street, Leeds.
tSmeiton, John G. Panmure Villa, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.
{Smeiton, Thomas A. 55 Cowgate, Dundee.
{Smith, Augustus. Northwood House, Church-road, Upper Norwood,
Surrey, 8.E.
{Smith, Aquila, M.D., M.R.LA. 121 Lower Bagot-street, Dublin.
*Smith, Basil Woodd, F.R.A.S. Branch Hill Lodge, Hampstead-
heath, London, N.W.
{Smith, C. Sidney College, Cambridge.
§Smiru, Davin, F.R.A.S. 4 Cherry-street, Birmingham.
tSmith, Frederick. The Priory, Dudley.
*Smith, F. C., M.P. Bank, Nottingham.
{Smith, George. Port Dundas, Glasgow.
{Smith, George Cruickshank. 19 St. Vincent-place, Glasgow.
*Smitru, Rey. Groner Srpney, D.D., M.R.LA., Professor of Biblical
a. in the University of Dublin. Riverland Glebe, Omagh,
eland.
*SmirH, Henry Joun Stepuen, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.8., Savilian Pro-
fessor of Geometry in the University of Oxford, and Keeper of
the University Museum. The Museum, Oxford.
*Smith, Heywood, M.A., M.D. 2 Portugal-street, Grosyenor-square,
London, W.
tSmith, Isaac.
jSmith, James. 146 Bedford-street South, Liverpool.
tSmith, James.
meee John Alexander, M.D., F.R.S.E. 10 Palmerston-place, Edin-
ureh,
§Smith, John Haigh. Beech Hill, Halifax, Yorkshire.
*Smith, John P., O.E. 67 Renfield-street, Glasgow.
Smith, John Peter George.
*Smith, Rev. Joseph Denham.
ie Piet B.A. 26 South-hill-park, Hampstead, London,
*Smith, Protheroe, M.D, 42 Park-street, Grosvenor-square, London,
Smith, Richard Bryan. Villa Nova, Shrewsbury.
§SmirH, Ropert Anevs, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S, 22 Devonshire-street,
Manchester;
*Smith, Robert Mackay, 4 Bellevue-crescent, Edinburgh.
{Smith, Samuel, Bank of Liverpool, Liverpool.
§Smith, Samuel. 33 Compton-street, Goswell-road, London, E.C,
{Smith, Swire. Lowfield, Keighley, Yorkshire.
{Smith, Thomas (Sheriff). Dundee.
}Smith, Thomas. Pole Park Works, Dundee.
{Smith, Thomas James, F.G.S., F.C.S. Hessle, near Hull.
{Smith, William. Eglinton Engine Works, Glasgow. 4
§Sarrx, Witi1AM,C.E.,F.G.S.,F.R.G.S, 18 Salishury-street, Adelphi,
London, W.C,
LIST OF MEMBERS. 67
Year of
Election.
1871. some , Professor J, William Robertson, Free Church College, Aber-
een.
1874. §Smoothy, Frederick. Bocking, Essex.
1850. *Smyru, Cuartes Prazzi, F.RS.E., F.R.A.S., Astronomer Royal for
Scotland, Professor of Astronomy in the University of Edin-
burgh. 15 Royal-terrace, Edinburgh.
1870. {Smyth, Colonel H. A., R.A. Barrackpore, near Calcutta.
1874. §Smyth, Henry, C.E. Downpatrick, Ireland.
1870. {Smyth, H.L. Crabwall Hall, Cheshire. :
1857. laa SN, jun., M.A., M.LC.E.L, FMS. Milltown, Banbridge,
Ireland.
1868. tSmyth, Rey. J. D. Hurst. 13 Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
1864. [Smyru, Warrineton W., M.A, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Lecturer
on Mining and Mineralogy at the Royal School of Mines, and
Inspector of the Mineral Property of the Crown. 92 Inyerness-
terrace, Bayswater, Tiinion,- Ws
1854, {Smythe, Major-General W. J., R.A.. F.R.S. Atheneum Club,
Pall Mall, London, S.W.
Soden, John, Atheneum Club, Pall Mall, London, 8.W.
*Sotiy, Epwarp, F.RS., F.LS., F.G.S., F.S.A. Park House,
Sutton, Surrey.
*Sopwirn, Tuomas, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 103 Victoria-
street, Westminster, S. W.
Sorbey, Alfred. The Rookery, Ashford, Bakewell.
1859. *Sorsy, H. Cuirron, F.R.S., F.G.S. Broomfield, Sheffield.
1865. *Southall, John Tertius. Leominster.
1859. {Southall, Norman. 44 Cannon-street West, London, E.C,
1856. {Southwood, Rey. T. A. Cheltenham College.
1863. {Sowerby, John. Shipcote House, Gateshead, Durham.
1863. *Spark, H. King. Skersgill Park, Penrith.
1859. {Spence, Rey. James, D.D. 6 Clapton-square, London, N.E.
*Spence, Joseph. 60 Holgate Hill, York.
1869. *Spence, J. Berger. Erlington House, Manchester.
1854. §Spence, Peter. Pendleton Alum Works, Newton Heath; and Smedley
Hall, near Manchester.
1861. {Spencer, John Frederick. 28 Great George-street, London, 8.W.
1861. *Spencer, Joseph. Bute House, Old Trafford, Manchester.
1863. *Spencer, Thomas. The Grove, Ryton, Blaydon-on-Tyne, Co,
Durham.
1875. §Spencer, W. H. Richmond-hill, Clifton, Bristol.
1855. {Spens, William. 78 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
1871. {Spicer, George. Broomfield, Halifax,
1864, *Spicer, Henry, jun., B.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. 14 Aberdeen Park, High-
bury, London, N.
1864. §Spicer, A a R. 19 New Bridge-street, Blackfriars, London,
E.C.
1847. *Spiers, Richard James, F.S.A. Huntercombe, Oxford.
1868. *Spiller, Edmund Pim. 38 Furnival’s Inn, London, E.C.
1864, *SprntEeR, Jony, F.0.8. 35 Grosvenor-road, Highbury-new-park,
London, N.
1846, *Sporriswoopr, Wii1aM, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.AS., F.R.G.S,
50 Grosvenor-place, London, 8. W.
1864. *Spottiswoode, W. Hugh. 50 Grosyenor-place, London, 8. W.
1854. *SpraauE, THomas Bonp. 26 Buckingham-terrace, Edinburgh.
1853. {Spratt, Joseph James. West-parade, Hull.
Square, Joseph Elliot, F.G.S. 24 Portland-place, Plymouth,
*Squire, Lovell, The Observatory, Falmouth.
FQ
68
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1858.
1851,
1865,
1837.
1866.
1873.
1857.
1870.
1863.
1873.
1861,
1872.
1861,
1863.
1872.
1870.
1861,
1863,
1850,
1868.
1865,
1855.
1864.
1856,
1847,
1867.
1868.
1867,
1865.
1864,
1854,
1862.
1874.
1859,
1857.
1861,
1854,
1873,
*StainTon, Henry T., F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S. Mountsfield, Lewis-
ham, 8.E.
*Stainton, James Joseph, I*.L.S. Horsell, near Ripley, Surrey.
§SranrorD, Epwarp C, C. Edinbarnet, Dumbartonshire, N.B.
Staniforth, Rev. Thos. Storrs, Windermere.
Sranutey, The Very Rey. AnTHUR PEnruyn, D.D., F.R.S., Dean of
Westminster. The Deanery, Westminster, London, 8.W.
Stapleton, H. M. 1 Mountjoy-place, Dublin.
{Starey, Thomas R. Daybrook House, Nottingham.
Staveley, T. K. Ripon, Yorkshire.
*Stead, Charles, The Knoll, Baildon, near Leeds.
tSteale, William Edward, M.D. 15 Hatch-street, Dublin.
{Stearn, C.H. 35 Hlden-terrace, Rock Ferry, Liverpool.
§Steele, Rev. Dr. 2 Bathwick-terrace, Bath.
§Steinthal, G.A. 15 Hallfield-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.
{Steinthal, H. M. Hollywood, Fallowfield, near Manchester.
StenHovsE, JoHN, LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 17 Rodney-street, Pen-
tonville, London, N.
{Stennett, Mrs. Eliza. 2 Clarendon-terrace, Brighton.
*Stern, 8. J. Littleerove, Kast Barnet, Herts.
§Sterriker, John. Driffield.
§Sterry, William. Union Club, Pall Mall, London, S.W.
*Stevens, Miss Anna Maria. Belmont, Devizes-road, Salisbury.
*Stevens, Henry, F.S.A., F.R.G.S. 4 Trafalgar-square, London,
W.C
*Stevenson, Archibald. 2 Wellington-crescent, South Shields.
{ Stevenson, David.
{Stevenson, Henry, F.L.8. Newmarket-road, Norwich.
*STEVENSON, JAMES C.,M.P. Westoe, South Shields.
{Srrwart, Batrour, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Natural
Philosophy in Owens College, Manchester.
{STewart, Cuarres, F.L.S. 19 Princess-square, Plymouth,
eg Henry Hutchinson, M.D., M.R.LA. 75 Eccles-street,
Dublin.
tStewart, Robert, M.D. The Asylum, Belfast.
{Stirling, Dr. D. Perth.
{Stirling, Edward. 84 Queen’s-gardens, Hyde Park, London, W.
*Stirrup, Mark. 14 Atkinson-street, Deangate, Manchester.
*Stock, Joseph 8. Showell Green, Spark Hill, near Birmingham,
Stoddart, George.
§SToppART, WILLIAM WALTER, F.G.S., F.C.S. 7 King-square, Bristol.
{Stoess, Le Chevalier, Ch. de W. (Bavarian Consul). Liverpool.
*Sroxes, GrorcE Gasrint, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Sec. R.S., Lucasian
Professor of Mathematics in the University of Cambrdge. Lens-
field Cottage, Lensfield-road, Cambridge.
{Srone, Epwarp James, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Astronomer Royal
at the Cape of Good Hope. Cape Town.
§Stone, J. F. M., F.L.S. St. Peter’s College, Cambridge.
{Stone, Dr. William H. 18 Vigo-street, London, W.
{Stoney, Brnpon B., M.R.I.A., Engineer of the Port of Dublin. 42
Wellington-road, Dublin.
*Sronzy, Gore Jonnstonn, M.A., F.R.S., M.R.LA., Secretary to
the Queen’s University, Ireland. Weston House, Dundrum, Co,
Dublin.
{Store, George. Prospect House, Fairfield, Liverpool.
a Moyes The ‘Times’ Office, Printing-house-square, Lon-
on, ’ '
LIST OF MEMBERS. 69
Year of
Election.
1867.
1859,
1874.
1871.
1863.
1868,
1859,
1867.
1866.
1872.
1864.
1873.
1857,
1873.
1873.
1863.
1862.
1855.
1863,
1861,
1862,
1862.
1870.
1863,
1873.
1863.
1873.
1847.
1862.
1847,
1870.
1856.
1859,
1860.
1859.
1855.
1872.
1865,
tStorrar, Joun, M.D. Heathview, Hampstead, London, N.W.
§Story, James. 17 Bryanston-square, London, W.
§Stott, William. Greetland, near Halifax, Yorkshire. Poe
*Srracuey, Major-General Ricuarp, R.E., 0.5.1, F.2.5., F.R.GS.,
F.LS., F.G.8. Stowey House, Clapham Common, London,
S.W
{Straker, John. Wellington House, Durham.
{Srraner, Lieut.-Colonel A., F.R.S., F.R.AS., F.R.GS, India
Stores, Belvedere-road, Lambeth, London, 8.E.
*Strickland, Charles. Loughglyn House, Castlerea, Ireland.
Strickland, William. French-park, Roscommon, Ireland.
{Stronach, William, R.E. Ardmellie, Banff.
{Stronner, D. 14 Princess-street, Dundee.
*Srrutt, The Hon. Arruur, F.G.S. Milford House, Derby.
*Stuart, Edward A. Sudbury-hill, Harrow.
{Style, Sir Charles, Bart. 102 New Sydney-place, Bath.
§Style, George, M.A. Giggleswick School, Yorkshire.
{Suniivan, Wioi1aM K., Ph.D., M.R.LA. Royal College of Science
for Ireland; and 53 Upper Leeson-road, Dublin.
{Sutclifie, J. W. Sprink Bank, Bradford, Yorkshire.
{Sutcliffe, Robert. Tide, near Leeds.
{Sutherland, Benjamin John. 10 Oxford-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*SUTHERLAND, GrorRGE GRANVILLE WittiAM, Duke of, K.G.,
E.R.S., F.R.G.S. Stafford House, London, S.W.
{Sutton, Edwin.
§Surron, Francis, F.C.S. Bank Plain, Norwich,
*Swan, Patrick Don 8S. Kirkcaldy, N.B.
*Swan, Wrt11am, LL.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy
in the University of St. Andrews. 2 Hope-street, St. Andrews,
N.B.
*Swann, Rey. S. Kirke. Gedling, near Nottingham.
Sweetman, Walter, M.A.,M.R.LA. 4Mountjoy-square North, Dublin,
*Swinburne, Sir John. Capheaton, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
tSwindell, J. 8. E. Summerhill, Kingswinford, Dudley.
*Swinglehurst, Henry. Hincaster House, near Milnthorpe.
{SwinHor, Roserr, F.R.G.S., Her Majesty’s Consul at Taiwan,
33 Carlyle-square, S.W.; and Oriental Club, London, W.
§Sykes, Benjamin Clifford, M.D. Cleckheaton.
{Sykes, H. P. 47 Albion-street, Hyde Park, London, W.
{Sykes, Thomas. Cleckheaton, near Leeds.
{Sykes, Captain W. H. F. 47 Albion-street, Hyde Park, London, W.
Sytvester, Jamus Josepu, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. 60 Maddox-street,
W.; and Atheneum Club, London, 8.W.
§Symzs, RicHarp GLAscorTT, ae F.G.8., Geological Survey of Ire-
land. 14 Hume-street, Dublin.
*Symonds, Frederick, F.R.C.S. 35 Beaumont-street, Oxford.
{Symonds, Captain Thomas Edward, R.N. 10 Adam-street, Adelphi,
London, W.C.
{Symonps, Rey. W.S., M.A., F.G.S. Pendock Rectory, Worcester-
shire.
§Symons, G.J., Sec. M.S. 62 Camden-square, London, N.W.
*Symons, WILLIAM, F.C.8S. 26 Joy-street, Barnstaple.
Synge, Francis. Glanmore, Ashford, Co, Wicklow.
tSynge, Major-General Millington, R.E., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. United
Service Club, Pall Mall, London, 8. W.
tTailyour, Colonel Renny, R.E. Newmanswalls, Montrose, N. B,
70
LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
Election,
1871.
1867,
1874.
1866,
1861.
1856.
1857.
1863.
1870.
1865,
1858.
1864.
1871,
1874.
1867,
1874.
1861.
1873.
1865.
1870,
1858.
1869.
1863.
1857.
1866.
1859.
1848,
1871.
1871.
1835.
1870.
1871.
{Tarr, Peter GuTurim, F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy in
the University of Edinburgh. 17 Drummond-place, Edinburgh.
tTait, P. M., F.R.G.S. Oriental Club, Hanover-square, London, W.
§Talbot, William Hawkshead. Hartwood Hall, Chorley, Lancashire.
TauBot, WitL1am Henry Fox, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S, La-
cock Abbey, near ete ae
§Talmage, C. G. Leyton Observatory, Essex, E.
Taprell, William. 7 Westbourne-crescent, Hyde Park, London, W.
tTarbottom, Marrott Ogle, M.LC.E., F.G.8. Newstead-grove, Not-
tingham.
*Tarratt, Henry W. Bushbury Lodge, Ree es
tTartt, William Macdonald, F.S.S. Sandford-place, Cheltenham.
*Tate, Alexander. 2 Queen’s-elms, Belfast.
tTate, John. Alnmouth, near Alnwick, Northumberland.
{Tate, Norman A. 7 Nivell-chambers, Fazackerley-street, Liver-
ool.
t Tate, Thomas.
*Tatham, George. Springfield Mount, Leeds.
*Tawney, Epwarp B., F.G.S. 16 Royal York-crescent, Clifton,
Bristol.
tTayler, William, F.S.A., F.S,S. 28 Park-street, Grosyenor-square,
London, W.
§Taylor, Alexander O’Driscoll. 8 Upper-crescent, Belfast.
{Taylor, Rev. Andrew. Dundee.
Taylor, Frederick. Laurel-cottage, Rainhill, near Prescot, Lan-
cashire.
§Taylor, G. P. Students’ Chambers, Belfast.
*Taylor, James. Culverlands, near Reading.
*Taytor, JoHn, F.G.S. 6 Queen-street-place, Upper Thames-street,
London, E.C.
*Taylor, John, ae 6 Queen-street-place, Upper Thames-street,
London, E.C.
§Taytor, Jon Evtor, F.L.S., F.G.S. The Mount, Ipswich.
{Taylor, Joseph. 99 Constitution-hill, Birmingham.
Taylor, Captain P. Meadows, in the Service of His Highness the
Nizam. Harold Cross, Dublin.
*Taytor, RicHarp, F.G.S. 6 Queen-street-place, Upper Thames-
street, London, E.C.
§Taylor, Thomas. Aston Rowant, Tetsworth, Oxon.
*Taylor, William Edward. Millfield House, Enfield, near Accrington.
tTeale, Thomas Pridgin, jun. 20 Park-row, Leeds.
{Teesdale, C.S. M. Pennsylvannia, Exeter.
tTennant, Henry. Saltwell, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*TENNANT, JAMES, F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Professor of Mineralogy in
King’s College. 149 Strand, London, W.C.
tTennison, Edward King. Kildare-street Club House, Dublin.
{Thackeray, J. L. Arno Vale, Nottingham.
{Thain, Rey. Alexander. New Machar, Aberdeen.
{Tumtwatt, The Right Rey. Connop, D.D., F.G.S. 59 Pulteney-
street, Bath.
{Thin, James. 7 Rillbank-terrace, Edinburgh.
§Tutseiton-Dyzr, W. T., M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S, 10 Gloucester-road,
Kew, W.
Thom, John. Lark-hill, Chorley, Lancashire.
{Thom, Robert Wilson. Lark-hill, Chorley, Lancashire.
§Thomas, Ascanius William Nevill. Chudleigh, Devon.
Thomas, George. Brislington, Bristol,
LIST OF MEMBERS. 71
Year of
Election.
1869.
1869.
1863.
1858.
1859,
1870,
1861.
1864.
1875.
1874.
1863.
1867.
1855,
1852.
1855.
1850,
1868.
1874.
1871.
1863.
1872.
1871.
1865.
1850,
1874,
1847.
1871.
1870.
1850.
1871.
1852.
1866,
1867.
1845.
1871.
1864.
1871.
{Thomas, H. D. Fore-street, Exeter.
§Thomas, J. Henwood, F.R.G.S. Custom House, London, E.C.
*Thompson, Corden, M.D. 84 Norfolk-street, Sheffield,
tThompson, Rev. Francis. St. Giles’s, Durham.
*Thompson, Frederick. South-parade, Wakefield.
§Thompson, George, jun. Pidsmedden, Aberdeen.
Thompson, Harry Stephen. Kirby Hall, Great Ouseburn, York-
shire.
{Tuompson, Sir Hrnry. 35 Wimpole-street, London, W.
Thompson, Henry Stafford. Fairfield, near York.
*Thompson, Joseph. Woodlands, Fulshaw, near Manchester.
tTuompson, Rev. JosnpH Hessererave, B.A, Cradley, near
Brierley-hill.
Thompson, Leonard. Sheriff-Hutton Park, Yorkshire.
tThompson, M. W. Guiseley, Yorkshire.
§Thompson, Robert. Royal-terrace, Belfast.
t{Thompson, William. 11 North-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
tThoms, William. Magdalen-yard-road, Dundee.
{THomson, ALLEN, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.L. & E. , Professor of Anatomy
in the University of Glasgow.
tThomson, Gordon A. Bedeque House, Belfast.
Thomson, Guy, Oxford.
{Thomson, James. 82 West Nile-street, Glasgow.
*THomson, Professor Jamms, M.A., LL.D., C.E., F.R.S.E. The Uni-
versity, Glasgow.
§Txomson, Jans, F.G.S. 276 Eglington-street, Glasgow.
*Thomson, James Gibson. 14 York-place, Edinburgh.
§Thomson, John. St. Helen’s, Mount Pottinger, Belfast.
*Thomson, John Millar, F.C.S. King’s College, London, W.C.
tThomson, M. 8 Meadow-place, Edinburgh.
§Thomson, Peter. 84 Granville-street, Glasgow.
{Thomson, Robert, LL.B. 12 Rutland-square, Edinburgh,
tThomson, R. W., C.E., F.RS.E. 38 Moray-place, Edinburgh.
{THomson, Tuomas, M.D., F.R.S8., F.LS. The Cottage, West Far-
leigh, Maidstone.
§Thomson, William, F.C.S. Royal Institution, Manchester.
*THomson, Sir Wrir1am, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., FE.RS.L. & E.,
Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Glasgow,
The College, Glasgow.
§Thomson, William Burnes. 11 St. John’s-street, Edinburgh.
t{ Thomson, W. C., M.D.
{Txomson, Wrvitie T.C., LL.D., F.RBS., F.G.S., Regius Professor
of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh. 20 Pal-
merston-place, Edinburgh.
tThorburn, Rev. David, M.A. 1 John’s-place, Leith.
tThorburn, Rev. William Reid, M.A. Starkies, Bury, Lancashire.
tThornton, James. Edwalton, Nottingham.
*Thornton, Samuel. Oakfield, Moseley, near Birmingham.
t{Thornton, Thomas. Dundee.
{Thorp, Dr. Disney. Suffolk Laun, Cheltenham.
{Thorp, Henry. Briarleigh, Sale, near Manchester.
*Tuorp, The Venerable Tuomas, B.D., F.G.5., Archdeacon of
Bristol. Kemerton, near Tewkesbury.
*THorp, WILLIAM, jun., B.Sc., F.C.8. 39 Sandringham-road, Kings-
land, E.
§Tuorrr, T. E., Ph.D., F.R.S.E., F.C.8., Professor of Chemistry
in the Yorkshire College of Science, Leeds.
72
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1868.
1870.
1873.
1873.
1865,
1861.
1857.
1856.
1864,
1863,
1865.
1865.
1873.
1861,
1872.
1863.
1859.
1878,
1860.
1857.
1861.
1854.
1859.
1870.
1868.
1865.
1868.
1869.
1870.
1871.
1871,
tThuilher, Colonel.
Thurnam, John, M.D. Devizes.
tTichborne, Charles R. 8., F.C.S. Apothecaries’ Hall of Ireland,
Dublin.
*Tiddeman, R. H., M.A., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London, S.W.
{Tilghman, B.C. Philadelphia, United States.
§Timmins, Samuel. Elvetham-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
Tinker, Ebenezer. Mealhill, near Huddersfield.
*Tinné, Joun A., F.R.G.S. _Briarly, Aigburth, Liverpool.
*TopHUNTER, Isaac, M.A., F.R.S., Principal Mathematical Lecturer
at St. John’s College, Cambridge. Bourne House, Cambridge.
Todhunter, J. 3 College-green, Dublin.
t{Tombe, Rey. H. J. Ballyfree, Ashford, Co. Wicklow.
{tTomes, Robert Fisher. Welford, Stratford-on-Avon.
*ToMLINSON, CHARLES, F.R.S.,F.C.8. 3 Ridgmount-terrace, High-
gate, London, N.
tTone, John F. Jesmond-yillas, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
§Tonks, Edmund, B.C.L. Packwood Grange, Knowle, Warwick-
shire,
§Tonks, William Henry. The Rookery, Sutton Coldfield.
*Tookey, Charles, F.C.S. Royal School of Mines, Jermyn-street,
London, 8. W.
*Topham, John, A.L.C.E. High Elms, 265 Mare-street, Hackney,
London, E.
*Toptey, WILLIAM, F'.G.S. Geological Survey Office, Jermyn-street,
London, 8.W.
Torrens, Colonel Sir R. R., K.C.M.G. 2 Gloucester-place, Hyde
Park, London, W.
tTorry, es Rey. John, Dean of St. Andrews. Coupar Angus,
N.B.
Towgood, Edward. St. Neot’s, Huntingdonshire.
tTownend, W. H. Heaton Hall, Bradford, Yorkshire.
{ Townsend, John.
}TownsEnD, Rey. RtcHarp,M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Natural Philo-
sophy in the University of Dublin. Trinity College, Dublin,
{Townsend, William. Attleborough Hall, near Nuneaton.
{Towson, Joun Tuomas, F.R.G.S. 47 Upper Parliament-street,
Liverpool; and Local Marine Board, Liverpool.
tTrail, Samuel, D.D., LL.D.
a A A. Geological Survey of Ireland, 14 Hume-street,
Dublin.
{Traquarr, Ramsay H., M.D., Professor of Zoology, Royal College
of Science, Dublin.
Travers, William, F.R.C.S. 1 Bath-place, Kensington, London, W,
Tregelles, Nathaniel. Neath Abbey, Glamorganshire.
{Trehane, John. Exe View Lawn, Exeter.
{Trehane, John, jun. Bedford-circus, Exeter.
{Trench, Dr. Municipal Offices, Dale-street, Liverpool.
Trench, F. A. Newlands House, Clondalkin, Ireland.
*TREVELYAN, ARTHUR, J.P. Tyneholme, Pencaitland, N.B.
TREVELYAN, Sir WatTer CaLvERLEY, Bart., M.A., F.R.S.E. F.GS.,
BS.A., F.R.G.S. Athenzeum Club, London, S. W. ; Wallington,
Northumberland; and Nettlecombe, Somerset.
Taras ALFRED, I'.C.S. 73 Artesian-road, Bayswater, London,
{Trmmn, Roranp, F.L.S., F.Z.8. Colonial Secretary’s Office, Cape
Town, Cape of Good Hope.
LIST OF MEMBERS; 73
Year of
Election.
1860.
1869.
1864.
1869.
1847.
1871,
1867.
1865.
1854,
1855.
1856.
1871.
1873.
1863.
1842,
1847.
1865.
1858.
1861.
1872.
1855.
1859.
1859.
1866.
1873.
1870.
1863.
1854.
1868.
1865.
1870.
1869.
1865.
1849.
1878.
1866.
§TristRAM, Rey. Henry Barer, M.A., LL.D., F.RS., F.LS., Canon
of Durham. The College, Durham.
{Troyte, C. A. W. Huntsham Court, Bampton, Devon.
{Truell, Robert. Ballyhenry, Ashford, Co. Wicklow.
tTucker, Charles. Marlands, Exeter.
*Tuckett, Francis Fox. 10 Baldwin-street, Bristol.
{Tuckett, Frederick. 4 Mortimer-street, Cavendish-square, London,
A
Tuke, James H. Bank, Hitchen.
tTuke, J. Batty, M.D. Cupar, Fifeshire.
{Tulloch, The Very Rey. Principal, D.D. St. Andrews, Fifeshire.
§Turberville, H. Pilton, Barnstaple.
{TurNBULL, James, M.D. 86 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
§Turnbull, John. 37 West George-street, Glasgow.
tTurnbull, Rey. J.C. 8 Bays-hill-villas, Cheltenham.
*TURNBULL, Rey. THomas Situ, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.
Blofield, Norfolk.
§Turnbull, William. 14 Lansdowne-crescent, Edinburgh.
*Turner, George. Horton Grange, Bradford, Yorkshire.
Turner, Thomas, M.D. 31 Curzon-street, Mayfair, London, W.
*TurnEeR, WitLiAM, M.B., F.R.S.E., Professor of Anatomy in the
University of Edinbugh. 6 Eton-terrace, Edinburgh.
Twamley, Charles, F.G.S. 11 Regent’s Park-road, London, N.W.
{Twiss, Sir Travers, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.G.S, 3 Paper-buildings,
Temple, London, E.C.
§TyLor, Epwarp Burnett, F.R.S. Linden, Wellington, Somerset.
*TyNnDALL, Joun, LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Natural
Philosophy in the Royal Institution. (Presipent.) Royal
Institution, Albemarle-street, London, W.
*Tysoe, John. Seedley-road, Pendleton, near Manchester.
award Alfred. 11 Great Queen-street, Westminster, London,
S.W.
t{Ure, John.
t Urquhart, Rev. Alexander.
peed oe Bs Pollard. Craigston Castle, N.B.; and Castlepollard,
eland.
§Urquhart, William W. Rosebay, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee.
§Uttley, Hiram. Burnley.
fVale, H. H. 42 Prospect-vale, Fairfield, Liverpool.
*Vance, Rev. Robert. 24 Blackhall-street, Dublin.
{Vandoni, le Commandeur Comte de, Chargé d’Affaires de S, M.
Tunisienne, Geneva.
{Varley, Cromwell F., F.R.S. Fleetwood House, Beckenham,’ Kent.
§Varley, Frederick H., F.R.A.S. Mildmay Park Works, Mildmay
Ayenue, Stoke Newington, London, N.
*VaRLEY, S. ALFRED. Hatfield, Herts.
tVarley, Mrs.S. A. Hatfield, Herts.
tVarwell, P. Alphington-street, Exeter.
{Vauvert, de Mean A., Vice-Consul for France. Tynemouth.
*Vaux, acorns Central Telegraph Office, Adelaide, South Aus-
tralia.
*Verney, Captain Edmund H.,R.N. Rhianya, Bangor, North Wales.
Verney, Sir Harry, Bart. Lower Claydon, Buckinghamshire.
LY Rey. E. H. Harcourt. Cotgraye Rectory, near Notting-
am.
74
LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
Election.
1854.
1864,
1854,
1868.
1856,
1856.
1860.
1859.
1870.
1855.
1873.
1869.
1849,
1866.
1859.
1855.
1842.
1866,
1867,
1866.
1869,
1869,
1863.
1859.
1857.
1862,
1862.
1857.
1863,
1863.
1872.
1874.
1874.
Vernon, George John, Lord. 82 Curzon-street, London, W.; and
Sudbury Hall, Derbyshire.
*Vurnon, Grorce V., F.R.A.S. 1 Osborne-place, Old Trafford,
Manchester.
*Vicary, Wri11aM, F.G.8. The Priory, Colleton-cresent, Exeter.
*ViaNnoLEs, Lieut.-Colonel Cuartes B., C.E., F.R.S., M.R.LA,,
F.R.AS., V.P.LC.E. 15 & 17 Delahay-street, Westminster,
S.W.
{Vincent, Rey. William. Postwick Rectory, near Norwich.
{Vrvian, Epwarp, B.A, Woodfield, Torquay.
*Vivian, H. Hussey, M.P., F.G.S. Park Wern, Swansea; and 27
Belgraye-square, London, 8,W.
§VortcKer, J. Cu. Aveustus, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry to the Royal Agricultural Society of England. 39
Argyll-road, Kensington, London, W.
{Vose, Dr. James. Gambier-terrace, Liverpool.
§Waddingham, John. Guiting Grange, Winchcombe, Gloucester-
shire.
{Waddington, John. New Dock Works, Leeds.
§Waker, Coartes Sranttanp. 10 Story-street, Hull.
*Waldegrave, The Hon, Granville. 26 Portland-place, London, W.
{Wales, James. 4 Mount Royd, Manningham, Bradford, Yorkshire,
*Walford, Cornelius, 86 eerie rk-gardens, London, N. W.
§WaLker, Cuaruzs V,, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Fernside Villa, Redhill,
near Reigate.
Walker, Sir Edward 8. Berry Hill, Mansfield.
Walker, Frederick John. The Priory, Bathwick, Bath.
t{Walker, H. Westwood, Newport, by Dundee.
{ Walker, James.
{Walker, John. 1 Exchange-court, Glasgow.
*Walker, John. Thorncliffe, New Kenilworth-road, Leamington.
*Watrer, J. F., MA. F.C.PS., FCS. F.GS., FLS. 16 Gilly-
gate, York.
*Walker, Peter G. 2 Airlie-place, Dundee.
t{Walker, 8. D. 88 Hampden-street, Nottingham.
*Walker, Thomas F, W., M.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S, 3 Circus, Bath.
Walker, William. 47 Northumberland-street, Edinburgh.
t{Walkey, J. E.C. High-street, Exeter.
t{Watxacr, AtrreD R., F.R.G.S. The Dell, Grays, Essex.
{Waxxiacer, WiLL1AM, Ph.D., F.C.S. Chemical Laboratory, 38 Bath-
street, Glasgow.
{Waller, Edward. Lisenderry, Aughnacloy, Ireland.
{Wattiicu, Grorce Caries, M.D., I.L.8. 60 Holland-road,
Kensington, London, W.
Wallinger, Rev. William.
{Waxpore, The Right Hon. Spencer Horatio, M.A.,D.C.L.,M.P.,
F.R.S. Ealing, London, W.
{Walsh, Albert Jasper, F.R.C.S.I. 89 Harcourt-street, Dublin.
Walsh, John (Prussian Consul). 1 Sir John’s Quay, Dublin.
{Walters, Robert. Eldon-square, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Walton, Thomas Todd. Mortimer House, Clifton, Bristol.
t Wanklyn, James Alfred, F.R.S.L., FCS.
tWarburton, Benjamin. Leicester.
§Ward, F. D. 6 University-square, Belfast.
vay Nee Royal Ulster Works, Chlorine-place, Botanic-road,
elfast.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 75
Year of
Election,
1857.
1863.
1867.
1858.
1865,
1864.
1872.
1856.
1865.
1869,
1856.
1854,
1870.
1867.
1855.
1867,
1873.
1859,
1863.
1863.
1867.
1869.
1861.
1846,
1870,
1873.
1858.
1862.
1859,
1869.
1871.
1866,
1859,
1864,
{Ward, John 8. Prospect-hill, Lisburn, Ireland.
Ward, Rev. Richard, M.A. 12 Eaton-place, London, 8,W.
tWard, Robert. Dean-street, Neweastle-on-Tyne.
*Ward, William Sykes, F.C.8, 12 Bank-street, and Denison Hall,
Leeds.
f{Warden, Alexander J. Dundee.
{Wardle, Thomas. Leek Brook, Leek, Staffordshire.
{Waring, Edward John, M.D., F.L.S. 49 Clifton-gardens, Maida-vale,
London, W.
*Warner, Edward. 49 Grosvenor-place, London, 8.W.
*Warner, Thomas. 47 Sussex-square, Brighton.
tWarner, Thomas H. Lee. Tiberton Court, Hereford.
*Warren, Edward P., L.D.S. 18 Old-square, Birmingham.
{ Warren, James L.
Warwick, William Atkinson. Wyddrington House, Cheltenham.
}Washbourne, Buchanan, M.D. Gloucester.
*WATERHOUSE, JOHN, F.R.S., F.G.8., F.R.A.S. Wellhead, Halifax,
Yorkshire.
{Waterhouse Nicholas. 5 Rake-lane, Liverpool.
{Waters, A. T. H.,M.D. 29 Hope-street, Liverpool.
tWatson, Rey. Archibald, D.D. The Manse, Dundee.
t{ Watson, Ebenezer. 16 Abercromby-place, Glasgow.
{ Watson, Frederick Edwin. Thickthorn House, Cringleford, Norwich.
*Watson, Henry Hove, F.C.8. 227 The Folds, Bolton-le-Moors.
Watson, Hewett Corrrery. Thames Ditton, Surrey.
§ Watson, Sir James (Lord Provost). Glasgow.
tWarTson, Z oHN Forbes, M.A., M.D., ELS. India Museum, Lon-
don, S.W.
{Watson, Joseph. Bensham-grove, near Gateshead-on-Tyne.
{Watson, R.S. 101 Pilgrim-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
{Watson, Thomas Donald. 41 Oross-street, Finsbury, London, E.C.
{Watt, Robert B. E., C. E., F.R.G.S. Ashley-avenue, Belfast.
{ Watts, Sir James. Abney Hall, Cheadle, near Manchester.
§Watts, John King, F.R.G.S. Market-place, St. Ives, Hunts.
§ Watts, William. Oldham Corporation Waterworks, Piethorn, near
Rochdale.
Tea, ‘'W. Marshall, D.Sc. Giggleswick Grammar School, near
ettle.
{Waud, Major E. Manston Hall, near Leeds.
Waud, Rey. 8. W., M.A., F.R.A.S., F.C.P.S. Rettenden, near
Wickford, Essex.
§Wavuau, Major-General Sir ANDREw Scort, R.E., F.R.S., F.R.A;S.,
F.R.G.S., late Surveyor-General of India, and Superintendent
of the Great Trigonometrical Survey. 7 Petersham-terrace,
Queen’s-gate-gardens, London, W.
t{Waugh; Edwin. Sager-street, Manchester.
*Wavenry, Lord, F.R.S. 7 Audley-square, London, W.
sNTARS 2: Tuomas, F.C.S. 9 Russell-road, Kensington, London,
tWay, Samuel James. Adelaide, South Australia.
tWebb, Richard M. 72 Grand-parade, Brighton.
*Wess, Rev. THomas Wriu14M, M.A., F.R.A.S. Hardwick Vicar-
age, Hay, South Wales.
*Wess, Witt1AM Freperick, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Newstead Abbey,
near Nottingham.
tWebster, John. 42 King-street, Aberdeen.
§ Webster, John. Belvoir-terrace, Sneinton, Nottingham.
76
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1862.
1834,
1845.
1854.
1865.
1867,
1874.
1850.
1864.
1865.
1853.
1870.
1853.
1873.
1853.
1851.
1870.
1842.
1842,
1857.
1863.
1860.
1864,
1860.
18538.
1866,
1847,
1873.
1853.
1874.
1859.
1864.
1837.
1873.
1859,
1865.
1869.
1859,
1861.
1858,
tWebster, John Henry, M.D. Northampton.
{Webster, Richard, F.R.A.S. 6 Queen Victoria-street, London, E.C.
Wesster, THomas, M.A., Q.C., F.R.S. 2 Pump-court, Temple,
London, E.C.
tWedgewood, Hensleigh. 17 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park,
London, N.W. ‘
{ Weightman, William Henry. Farn Lea, Seaforth, Liverpool.
deer = a i M.A. University Club, Pall Mall Kast, London,
§Weldon, Walter. Abbey Lodge, Merton, Surrey.
§ Wells, Thomas. Royal Naval College, Greenwich, 8.E.
{Wemyss, Alexander Watson, M.D. St. Andrews, N.B.
Wentworth, Frederick W. T. Vernon. Wentworth Castle, near
Barnsley, Yorkshire.
*Were, Anthony Berwick. Whitehaven, Cumberland.
t Wesley, William Henry.
{West, Alfred. Holderness-road, Hull.
{ West, Captain E.W. Bombay.
tWest, Leonard. Summergangs Cottage, Hull.
{West, Samuel H. 6 College-terrace West, London, N.W.
tWest, Stephen. Hessle Grange, near Hull.
*WESTERN, Sir T. B., Bart. Felix Hall, Kelvedon, Essex.
§Westgarth, William. 38 Brunswick-gardens, Campden-hill, Lon-
on, W.
Westhead, Edward. Chorlton-on-Medlock, near Manchester.
Westhead, John. Manchester.
*Westhead, Joshua Proctor Brown. Lea Castle, near Kidderminster.
*Westley, William. 24 Regent-street, London, S.W.
tWestmacott, Percy. Whickham, Gateshead, Durham.
§ Weston, James es Belmont House, Pendleton, Manchester.
§Westropp, W. H.8., M.R.LA. Lisdoonyarna, Co. Clare.
{Westwoop, Joun O., M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology in the
University of Oxford. Oxford.
f}Wheatley, E. B. ‘ Cote Wall, Mirfield, Yorkshire.
WHEATSTONE, Sir CHartes, D.C.L., F.R.S., Hon. M.R.1.A., Professor
of Experimental Philosophy in King’s College, London. 19 Park-
crescent, Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
PE ee Charles C, 19 Park-crescent, Regent’s Park, London,
{Wheeler, Edmund, F.R.A.S. 48 Tollington-road, Holloway,
London, N.
tWhipple, George Matthew, B.Sc., F.R.A.S. The Observatory,
Kew
{Whitaker, Charles. Milton Hill, near Hull.
§Whitaker, H., M.D. 11 Clarence-place, Belfast.
*WHITAKER, WiLL1AM, B.A., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, 28
Jermyn-street, London, 8. W.
{White, Edmund. Victoria Villa, Batheaston, Bath.
}Wuirt, James, F.G.S, 14 Chichester-terrace, Kemp Town, Brighton,
§White, John. Medina Docks, Cowes, Isle of Wight.
White, John. 80 Wilson-street, Glasgow.
tWurrs, Joun Forses. 16 Bon Accord-square, Aberdeen.
White, Joseph. Regent’s-street, Nottingham.
{tWhite, Laban. Blandford, Dorset.
tWhite, Thomas Henry. Tandragee, Ireland.
{ Whitehead, James, MD. 87 Mosley-street, Manchester,
Whitehead, J. H. Southsyde, Saddleworth.
LIST OF MEMBERS. a
Year of
Election.
1861,
1861.
1855.
1871.
1866.
1874,
1852.
1870.
1857.
1874.
1863,
1870.
1865.
1860.
1852.
1855.
1857.
1861.
1859.
1873.
1872.
1869,
1873.
1859,
1872.
1870,
1861.
1864,
1861.
1857.
1871.
1870.
1869,
1850.
1857,
1863,
*Whitehead, John B. Ashday Lea, Rawtenstall, Manchester.
*Whitehead, Peter Ormerod. Belmont, Rawtenstall, Manchester.
*Whitehouse, Wildeman W. O. 12 Thurlow-road, Hampstead,
London, N.W.
Whitehouse, William. 10 Queen-street, Rhyl.
Whitelaw, Alexander. 1 Oakley-terrace, Glasgow.
*WHITESIDE, JAMES, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., Lord Chief Justice of Ire-
land. 2 Mountjoy-square, Dublin.
§ Whitfield, Samuel. Golden Hillock, Small Heath, Birmingham.
§ Whitford, William. 5 Claremont-street, Belfast.
tWhitla, Valentine. Beneden, Belfast.
Whitley, Rev. Charles Thomas, M.A., F.R.A.S. Bedlington, Morpeth.
§Whittem, James Sibley. Walgrave, near Coventry.
*Wuirty, Rey. Joun Inwine, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D, 94 Baggot- .
street, Dublin.
*Whitwell, Mark. Redland House, Bristol.
*Whitwell, Thomas. Thornaby Iron Works, Stockton-on-Tees.
*WuiTwortH, Sir Josepu, Bart., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. The Firs,
Manchester; and Stancliffe Hall, Derbyshire.
{Wuirwortu, Rey. W. ALLEN, M.A, 185 Islington, Liverpool.
tWiggin, Henry. Metchley Grange, Harbourne, Birmingham.
{Wilde, Henry. 2 St. Ann’s-place, Manchester.
{Wixpe, Sir Wit1i1am Ropert, M.D., M.R.LA, 1 Merrion-square
North, Dublin.
f{Wilkie, John. 24 Blythwood-square, Glasgow.
{ Wilkinson, George. ‘Temple Hill, Killiney, Co. Dublin.
*Wilkinson, M. A. Eason-, M.D. Greenheys, Manchester.
§ Wilkinson, Robert. Lincoln Lodge, Totteridge, Hertfordshire.
§ Wilkinson, Mrs. Robert Young. Lincoln Lodge, Totteridge, Hert-
fordshire.
§ Wilkinson, William. 168 North-street, Brighton.
§Wilks, George Augustus Frederick, M.D. Stanbury, Torquay.
§Willcock, J. W., Q.C. Clievion, Dinas Mawddwy, Moerioneth.
*Willert, Alderman Paul Ferdinand. Town Hall, Manchester.
fWillet, John, C.E. 35 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.
§WitteTT, Henry. Arnold House, Brighton.
{William, G.F. Copley Mount, Springfield, Liverpool. .
Witi1aMs, Cuartes James B., M.D., F.R.S, 49 Upper Brook-
street, Grosyenor-square, London, W.
* Williams, Charles Theodore, M.A.,M.B. 78 Park-street, London, W.
*“Wittrams, Sir Frepertck M., Bart., M.P., F.G.S. Goonyrea,
Perranarworthal, Cornwall.
*Williams, Harry Samuel, M.A. 37 Bedford-row, London, W.C.
tWilliams, Rey. James. Llanfairinghornwy, Holyhead.
t Williams, James, M.D.
§WitiiaMs, Jonny, 14 Buckingham-street, London, W.C.
Williams, Robert, M.A. Bridehead, Dorset.
ile acd Rey. SrepHen, Stonyhurst College, Whalley, Black-
urn.
*WILLIaMson, ALEXANDER Wix1tAM, Ph.D., For. Sec. R.S., F.C.S.,
Corresponding Member of the French Academy, Professor of
Chemistry, and of Practical Chemistry, University College,
ae (GENERAL TREASURER.) University College, London,
{ Williamson, Benjamin, M.A. Trinity College, Dublin,
fWilliamson, John, South Shields,
78
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of é
Election.
*Williamson, Rev. William, B.D, Datchworth Rectory, Welwyn,
Hertfordshire.
WiuiaMson, Wrt11aM C., F.R.S., Professor of Natural History in
Owens College, Manchester. 4 Egerton-road, Fallowfield,
Manchester.
*Willmott, Henry. Hatherley Lawn, Cheltenham.
{Willock, Rev. W. N., D.D. Cleenish, Enniskillen, Ireland.
*Wills, Alfred. 43 Queen’s-gardens, Bayswater, London, W.
{Wills, Arthur W. Edgbaston, Birmingham.
Wits, W. R. Edgbaston, Birmingham.
§ Wilson, Alexander Stephen, C.E. ~ North Kinmundy, Summerhill
by Aberdeen.
. §Wrson, Major C. W., R.E., F.B.S., F.R.G.S., Director of the Topo-
eraphical Department of the Army. Adair House, St. James’s-
square, London, 8. W.
. {Wilson, Dr. Daniel. Toronto, Upper Canada.
{Wilson, Frederic R. Alnwick, Northumberland.
* Wilson, Frederick. 73 Newman-street, Oxford-street, London, W.
Wilson, George. 40 Ardwick-green, Manchester.
tWilson, George Daniel. 24 Ardwick-green, Manchester.
. *Wilson, George Orr. Dunardagh, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.
. {Wilson, George W. Heron-hill, Hawick, N.B.
{ Wilson, Hugh. 75 Glassford-street, Glasgow.
{ Wilson, James Moncrieff. Queen Insurance Company, Liverpool.
{Wrtson, James M., M.A. Hillmorton-road, Rugby.
*Wilson, John. Seacroft Hall, near Leeds.
Wieeny Professor Jonn, F.G.S., F.R.S.E. The University, Edin-
ureh,
*Wilson, ‘Rey. Sumner. Preston Candover Vicarage, Basingstoke.
*Wilson, Thomas, M.A. 3 Hilary-place, Leeds.
*Wilson, Thomas. Shotley Hall, Shotley Bridge, Northumberland,
{Wilson, Thomas Bright. 24 Ardwick-green, Manchester.
t Wilson, Rey. William. Free St. Paul’s, Dundee.
*Wilson, William E. Daramona House, Rathowen, Ireland.
. { Wilson, William Henry. 381 Grove-park, Liverpool.
*Wilson, William Parkinson, M.A., Professor of Pure and Applied
Mathematics in the University of Melbourne.
*Witsuire, Rey. Tuomas, M.A.,, F.G.S., F.L.8.,F.R.A.S. 25 Gran-
ville-park, Lewisham, London, 8.E.
. *Windley, W. Mabry Plains, Nottingham.
*Winsor, F. A. 60 Lincoln’s-Inn-fields, London, W.C.
. {Winter, C. J. W. 22 Bethel-street, Norwich.
. [ Winter, Gi. K.
. *Winwoop, Rev. H. H., M.A., F.G.8, 11 Cavendish-crescent,
Bath.
*Wo.taston, THomas VERNON, M.A., F.L.S. 1 Barnepark-terrace,
Teignmouth,
e eee Collingwood L. Freeland, Bridge of Earn, N.B.
. { Wood, C. A.
: {Woon, Epwarb, J.P., F.G.S. Richmond, Yorkshire.
. *Wood, Edward T. Blackhurst, Brinscall, Chorley, Lancashire.
. *Wood, George B., M.D. 1117 Arch-street, Philadelphia, United
States,
. “Wood, George 8. 20 Lord-street, Liverpool.
*Woop, Rey. H. H., M.A., F.G.S. Holwell Rectory, Sherborne,
Dorset.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 79
Year of
Election.
1864,
1861.
1871.
1850.
1865.
1872.
1861,
1863.
1870.
1850.
1865.
1866.
1871.
1872,
1869,
*Wood, John. The Mount, York.
{Wood, Richard, M.D. Driffield, Yorkshire.
§Wood, Samuel, F.S.A. St. Mary’s Court, Shrewsbury.
{Wood, Proyost T. Barleyfield, Portobello, Edinburgh.
ft Wood, Rey. Walter. Elie, Fife.
Wood, William. Edge-lane, Liverpool.
*Wood, William, M.D. 99 Harley-street, London, W.
§Wood, W. R. Carlisle House, Brighton.
t{Wood, William Rayner. Singleton Lodge, near Manchester.
*Wood, Rey. William Spicer, M.A., D.D. Oakham, Rutlandshire.
*WoopaLt, Major Joun Woopatt, M.A., F.G.S8. St. Nicholas House,
Scarborough.
tWoodburn, Thomas. Rock Ferry, Liverpool.
*Woodd, Charles H. L., F.G.S. Roslyn, Hampstead, London, N.W.
tWoodhill, J. C. Pakenham House, Charlotte-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
*Woodhouse, John Thomas, C.E., F.G.8. Midland-road, Derby.
t{Woodiwis, James. 51 Back George-street, Manchester.
§Woodman, James. 26 Albany-villas, Hove, Sussex.
§ Woodman, William Robert, M.D. Ford House, Exeter.
Bee Epwarp. 3 Great George-street, Westminster, London,
Woops, Samorn. 5 Austin Friars, Old Broad-street, London, E.C,
. *Woodward, C. J. 4 Warwick-place, Francis-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
. §WoopwarD, Henry, F.R.S., F.G.S. British Museum, London,
WC.
. tWoodward, Horace B., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,
London, 8S. W.
Woolgar, J. W., F.R.A.S. Lewes, Sussex.'
Woolley, John. Staleybridge, Manchester.
. TWoolley, Thomas Smith, jun. South Collingham, Newark.
. {Woolmer, Shirley. 6 Park-crescent, Brighton.
Worcester, The Right Rey. Henry Philpott, D.D., Lord Bishop of.
Worcester.
. §Workman, Charles. Ceara, Windsor, Belfast.
. *Worsley, pee . 1 Codrington-place, Clifton, Bristol.
. *Worthington,
ey. Alfred William, B.A. Old Meeting Parsonage,
Mansfield.
Worthington, Archibald. Whitchurch, Salop.
Worthington, James. Sale Hall, Ashton-on-Mersey.
Worthington, William. Brockhurst Hall, Northwich, Cheshire.
. {Worthy, George S. 2 Arlington-terrace, Mornington-crescent, Hamp-
stead-road, London, N.W.
. §Wricut, C. R. A., D.Se., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry in St.
Mary’s Hospital Medical School, Paddington, London, W.
. {Wright, Edward, LL.D. 23 The Boltons, West Brompton, London,
S.W
: *Wright, E. Abbot. Castle Park, Frodsham, Cheshire.
. {Wrieut, E. Percevar, A.M., M.D., F.L.S., M.R.LA., Professor
of Botany, and Director of the Museum; Dublin University.
5 Trinity College, Dublin.
. [Wricht, G. H. Heanor Hall, near Derby.
§Wright, Joseph. Cliftonville, Belfast.
. TWright, J. 8. 168 Brearley-street West, Birmingham.
*Wright, Robert Francis. Hinton Blewett, Temple-Cloud, near
Bristol,
80
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1855.
1865.
1871.
1867.
1866.
1863.
1867.
1871.
1862,
1865.
1867.
1855.
1870.
1868.
1871
tWrieur, THomas, F.S.A. 14 Sydney-street, Brompton, London,
S.W.
Wright, T. G., M.D. Milnes House, Wakefield.
tWrightson, Francis, Ph.D. Ivy House, Kingsnorton.
§Wrightson, Thomas. Norton Hall, Stockton-on-Tees.
f{Wiunsch, Edward Alfred. 3 Haton-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
§Wyart, JAmEs, F.G.S. St. Peter’s Green, Bedford.
Wyld, James, F.R.G.S. Charing Cross, London, W.C.
*Wyley, Andrew. 21 Barker-street, Handsworth, Birmingham.
tWylie, Andrew. Prinlaws, Fifeshire.
§ Wynn, Mrs. Williams. Cefn, St. Asaph.
tWynne, ArTHur BEEvor, F.G.S., of the Geological Survey of
India. Bombay.
*Yarborough, George Cook. Camp’s Mount, Doncaster.
{Yates, Edwin. Stonebury, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
Yates, James. Carr House, Rotherham, Yorkshire.
tYeaman, James. Dundee.
tYeats, John, LL.D.,F.R.G.S, Clayton-place, Peckham, London, S.E,
*Youne, Jamss, F.R.S, F.C.S. Kelly, Wemyss Bay, by Greenock.
Young, John. Taunton, Somersetshire.
Young, John. Hope Villa, Woodhouse-lane, Leeds.
Younge, Robert, F.L.S. Greystones, near Sheffield.
*Younge, Robert, M.D. Greystones, near Sheffield.
tYoungs, John. Richmond Hill, Norwich.
tYutx, Colonel Henry, C.B. East India United Service Club, St.
James’s-square, London, 8. W.
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS,
Year of
Election.
1871.
1857.
1868.
1866.
1870.
1872.
1861.
1857.
1846.
1874.
1868,
1864,
1861.
1864.
1871.
1873.
1870.
1855.
1872.
1874.
1866.
1862,
1872.
1870.
1845.
1846.
1842.
1848.
1861.
1874.
1872.
1856.
1842.
1866.
1861.
1872.
1870.
1852.
1866.
1871.
1862.
1872.
HIS IMPERIAL MAJESTY ros EMPEROR or true BRAZILS.
M. Antoine d’Abbadie.
M. D’Avesac, Mem de l'Institut de France. 42 Rue du Bac, Paris.
Captain I. Belavenetz, R.LN., F.R.LG.S., M.S.C.M.A., Superin-
tendent of the Compass Observatory, Cronstadt, Russia.
Professor Van Beneden, LL.D. Louvain, Belgium.
Ch. Bergeron, C.K. 26 Rue des Penthievre, Paris.
Dr. Bergsma, Director of the Magnetic Survey of the Indian Archi-
pelago. Utrecht, Holland.
Professor Dr. T. Bolzani. Kasan, Russia.
M. Boutigny (d’Evreux). Paris.
M, A. Niaudet Breguet. Paris.
Professor Broca. Paris.
Dr. H. D. Buys-Ballot, Superintendent of the Royal Meteorological
Institute of the Netherlands. Utrecht, Holland.
Dr. Carus. Leipzig.
M. Des Cloizeaux. Paris.
Professor Dr. Colding. Copenhagen.
Signor Guido Cora.
J. M. Crafts, M.D.
Dr. Ferdinand Cohn. Breslau, Prussia.
Professor M. Croullebois. 18 Rue Sorbonne, Paris.
M. Ch. D’Almeida. 31 Rue Bonaparte, Paris.
Geheimrath von Dechen. Bonn.
Wilhelm Delffs, Professorof Chemistry in the University of Heidelberg.
Professor G. Devalque. Liége, Belgium.
Dr. Anton Dohrn. Naples. { Berlin.
Heinrich Dove, Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of
Professor Dumas. Paris.
Professor Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg, M.D., Secretary of the Royal
Academy, Berlin.
Dr. Eisenlohr. Carlsruhe, Baden.
Prof. A. Erman. 122 Friedrichstrasse, Berlin.
Professor Esmark. Christiania.
Professor A. Favre. Geneva.
Dr. W. Feddersen. Leipzig.
W. de Fonvyielle. Rue des Abbesse, Paris.
Professor E. Frémy. Paris.
M. Frisiani.
Dr. Gaudry, Pres. Geol. Soc. of France. Paris.
Dr. Geinitz, Professor of Mineralogy and Geology. Dresden.
Professor Paul Gervais. Museum de Paris.
Govenor Gilpin. Colorado, United States.
Professor Asa Gray. Cambridge, U.S.
Professor Edward Grube, Ph.D.
Dr. Paul Giissfeldt of the University of Bonn. 38 Meckenheimer-
street, Bonn, Prussia.
Dr. D. Bierens de Haan, Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences,
Amsterdam. Leiden, Holland.
Professor James Hall. Albany, State of New York.
82
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1864.
1868.
1872.
1861.
1842,
1867.
1862.
1862.
1866.
1861.
1873.
1874.
1868.
1856.
1856,
1872.
1846,
1857.
1871.
1871.
1869.
1867.
1867.
1862.
1846.
1848.
1855,
1864,
1856.
1866,
1864.
1869.
1848,
1856,
1861.
1857.
1870.
1868.
1872.
1873.
1866.
1850.
1857.
1857.
1874.
1868,
M. Hébert, Professor of Geology in the Sorbonne, Paris.
Professor Henry. Washington, U.S.
A. Heynsius. Leyden. ;
J. E. Hilgard, Assist.-Supt. U.S. Coast Survey. Washington.
Dr. Hochstetter. Vienna.
M. Jacobi, Member of the Imperial Academy of St. Petersburg.
Janssen, Dr. 21 Rue Labat (18° Arrondissement), Paris.
Charles Jessen, Med. et Phil. Dr., Professor of Botany in the Univer-
sity of Greifswald, and Lecturer of Natural History and Librarian
at the Royal Agricultural Academy, Eldena, Prussia.
Aug. Kekulé, Professor of Chemistry. Ghent, Belgium.
Dr. Henry Kiepert, Professor of Geography. Berlin.
M. Khanikof. 11 Rue de Condé, Paris.
Dr. Felix Klein. Erlangen, Bavaria.
Dr. Knoblauch. Halle, Germany.
Professor Karl Koch, Berlin.
Professor A. Kolliker. Wurzburg, Bavaria.
Laurent-Guillaume De Koninck, M.D., Professor of Chemistry and
Paleeontology in the University of Liége, Belgium.
Dr. Lamont. Munich.
Georges Lemoine. 19 Rue du Sommerard, Paris.
Baron de Selys-Longchamps. Liége, Belgium.
Professor Elias Loomis. Yale College, New Haven, United States.
Professor Jacob Liiroth. Carlsruhe, Baden.
Dr. Liitken. Copenhagen.
Professor C. 8. Lyinan. Yale College, New Haven, United States.
Professor Mannheim. Paris.
Professor Ch. Martins, Director of the Jardin des Plantes. Montpellier,
France.
Professor P. Merian, Baile, Switzerland.
Professor von Middendorff.
Professor J. Milne-Edwards. Paris.
M. V’Abbé Moigno. Paris.
Dr. Arnold Moritz. Tiflis, Russia.
Edouard Morren, Professeur de Botanique l'Université de Liége, Bel-
um.
Grover C. Negri, President of the Italian Geographical Society,
Florence, Italy.
Herr Neumayer. The Adniralty, Leipzirger Platz, 12, Berlin.
Professor H. A. Newton. Yale College, New Haven, United States.
Professor Nilsson. Lund, Sweden.
M. EK. Peligot, Memb. de l'Institut, Paris.
Professor Benjamin Pierce. Washington, U.S.
Gustav Plarr. Strasburg. :
Professor Felix Plateau. Place du Casino, 15, Gand, Belgium.
Professor L. Radlkofer. Professor of Botany in the University of Munich.
Professor Victor von Richter.
Baron von Richthofen. Berlin.
M. De la Rive. Geneva.
F. Roemer, Ph.D., Professor of Geology and Paleontology in the -
University of Breslau. Breslau, Prussia.
Professor W. B. Rogers. Boston, U.S.
Baron Herman de Schlagintweit-Sakiinliinski. Jaegersburg Castle,
near Forchheim, Bavaria.
Professor Robert Schlagintweit. Giessen.
Dr. G. Schweinfurth. Berlin.
Padre Secchi, Director of the Observatory at Rome.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 83
Year of
Election.
1872. Professor Carl Semper. Wurtemburg, Bavaria.
1875. Dr. A. Shafarik. Prague.
1861. M. Werner Siemens. Berlin.
1849. Dr. Siljestrom. Stockholm.
1873. Professor J. Lawrence Smith. Louisville, U.S.
1862. J. A. de Souza, Professor of Physics in the University of Coimbra,
Portugal.
1864. Adolph Steen, Professor of Mathematics, Copenhagen.
1866, Professor Steenstrup. Copenhagen.
1845, Dr. Svanbere. Stockholm,
1871. Dr. Joseph Szabo. Pesth, Hungary.
1870. Professor Tchebichef. Membre de l’Academie de St. Petersburg.
1852. M. Pierre de Tchihatchef, Corresponding Member of the Institut de
France. 1 Piazza degli Zuaai, Florence.
1864. Dr. Otto Torell. Prof. of Geology in theUniversity of Lund, Sweden.
1864, Arminius Vambéry, Professor of Oriental Languages in the University
of Pesth, Hungary.
1848. M. Le Verrier. Paris.
1868. Professor Voot. Geneva.
: Baron Sartorius von Waltershausen. Gottingen, Hanover.
1842. Professor Wartmann. Geneva.
1868.
1864.
1874.
1872
Dr. H. A. Weddell. Poitiers, France.
Dr. Frederick Welwitsch.
Professor Wiedemann. Leipzig.
. Professor A. Wurtz. Paris.
84 LIST OF SOCIETIES AND INSTITUTIONS
LIST OF SOCIETIES AND PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS
TO WHICH A COPY OF THE REPORT IS PRESENTED.
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
Admiralty, Library of.
Arts, Society of.
Asiatic Society (Royal).
Astronomical Society (Royal).
Belfast, Queen’s College.
Birmingham, Institute of Mechanical
Engineers.
Midland Institute.
Bristol Philosophical Institution.
Cambridge Philosophical Society.
Cornwall, Royal Geological Society of.
Dublin Geological Society.
, Royal Irish Academy.
——,, Royal Society of.
East India Library.
Edinburgh, Royal Society of.
Royal Medical Society of.
, Scottish Society of Arts.
Enniskillen, Public Library.
Engineers, Institute of Civil.
Anthropological Institute.
Exeter, nae Memorial ot
Geographical Society (Royal).
Geotoecal epee Si
Geology, Museum of Practical.
Greenwich, Royal Observatory.
Kew Observatory.
Leeds, Literary and Philosophical So-
ciety of.
Leeds, Mechanics’ Institute.
Linnean Society. ~
Liverpool, Free Public Library and
Museum.
, Royal Institution.
London Institution.
Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society.
, Mechanics’ Institute.
Neweastle-upon-Tyne Literary and
Philosophical Society.
Nottingham, The Free Library.
Oxford, Ashmolean Society.
, Radcliffe Observatory.
Plymouth Institution.
Physicians, Royal College of.
Royal Institution.
—— Society.
Salford Royal Museum and Library.
Statistical Society.
Stonyhurst College Observatory.
Surgeons, Royal College of.
Trade, Board of (Meteorological De-
partment).
United Service Institution.
War Office, Library of the.
Wales (South) Royal Institution of.
Yorkshire Philosophical Society.
Zoological Society.
EUROPE.
Alten, Lapland. Literary and Philoso-
phical Society.
Bern i675. ai oie Der Kaiserlichen Ake-
demie der Wissen-
chaften.
Sa wn o eetenetee Royal Academy of
ciences,
Breslau eye Silesian Patriotic So-
ciety.
IBDN pr acyeitais University Library.
Brussels ...... Royal Academy of
Sciences.
Charkow...... University Library.
Copenhagen ..Royal Society of
Sciences.
Dorpat, Russia. Caves
Frankfort ....Natural History So-
ciety.
Geneva ...... Natural History So-
ciety.
Gottingen ....University Library.
Heidelberg .... University Library.
Helsingfors.... University Library.
Harlem: ves. Société Hollandaise
des Sciences.
Kasan, Russia . University Library.
TO WHICH A COPY OF THE REPORT IS PRESENTED. = 85
Ln! ees Royal Observatory. | Paris ........ Geographical Society.
BIGVEN,) << «0's University Library, | —— ........ Geological Society.
Lausanne ....The Academy. Vogal Sih arate obi Royal Academy of
Leyden ...... University Library. | Sciences.
WHEOS! 26... University Library. | ». a9.+-School of Mines.
Lisbon ......Academia Real des | Pulkova . .,. Imperial Observatory.
Sciences. | Rome ........Academia dei Lyncei.
EUAN, aac = os The Institute. en are batt Collegio Romano.
Modena ...... The Italian Society of | St. Petersburg. University Library.
Sciences. | ——— venues Imperial Observatory.
Moscow ...... Society of Naturalists. | Stockholm ....Royal Academy.
—=— oe University Library. | Turin ........ Royal Academy of
Wich ss... . University Library. | Sciences.
ANAS)... sie Royal Academy of | Utrecht ...... University Library.
Sciences. fy WONT, 525 ie oi The Tnperial Library.
Nicolaieff ....University Library. | Zurich........ General Swiss Society.
ASIA.
PRA G ts ss. The College. | Calcutta ...... Hindoo College.
Bombay ...... Elphinstone Institu- | —— ........ Tloogly College.
tion. ANH ose cross Medical College.
= oer Grant Medical Col- | Madras ...... The Observatory.
lege. Pee sits ae University Library.
Calcutia ......4 Asiatic Society.
AFRICA,
Cape of Good Hope ....The Observatory.
Dtsticlenarrasey sonar The Obseryatory.
AMERICA,
SUIS Chth, Seneca The Institute. | Philadelphia ..American Philosophi-
(BOSHON) | ees ns American Academy of cal Society.
Arts and Sciences. Toronto ...... The Observatory.
Cambridge ....Harvard University | Washington ..Smithsonian Institu-
Library. tion.
New York ....Lyceum of Natural |
History.
AUSTRALIA.
Adelaide...... The Colonial Government.
Victorian tas « - The Colonial Government.
Printed by TAYLOR and Francis, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street.
ALBEMARLE STREET,
April, 1875.
MR. MURRAY'S
HOARPEREY LISP
NEW WORKS NOW READY.
MEMOIR OF SIR RODERICK MURCHISON.
IncLUDING EXTRACTS FROM HIS JOURNALS AND LETTERS.
Wirs Notices oF HIS SCIENTIFIC CONTEMPORARIES, AND A SKETCH OF THE RISE AND
ProcreEss, FOR HALF A CENTURY, OF PAL#OzoIC GEOLOGY IN BRITAIN.
BY ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, LL.D., F.R.S.
Murchison-Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the University of Edinburgh, and
Director of the Geological Survey of Scotland.
With Portraits, &e. 2vols. 8vo. 30s.
THE LAND OF THE NORTH WIND,
OR,TRAVELS AMONG THE LAPLANDERS AND SAMOYEDES, AND ALONG
THE SHORES OF THE WHITE SEA.
BY EDWARD RAE.
With Map and Woodcuts. Post 8vo. 10s. 6d.
ENGLAND AND RUSSIA IN THE EAST,
A SERIES OF PAPERS ON THE POLITICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL
CONDITION OF CENTRAL ASIA.
BY MAJOR-GEN. SIR HENRY RAWLINSON, K.C.B., F.RS.,
President of the Royal Geographical Society, and Member of the Council of India,
With Map. 8yo. 12s.
2 MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF NEW WORKS.
TROY AND ITS REMAINS,
A NARRATIVE OF RESEARCHES AND DISCOVERIES ON THE SITE
OF ILIUM, AND IN THE TROJAN PLAIN.
BY DR. HENRY SCHLIEMANN.
Translated with the sanction and co-operation of the Author.
EDITED By PHILIP SMITH, B.A.,
Author of ‘‘ Ancient History from the Earliest Records to a.p, 455,”
With Maps, Plans, Views, and 500 Illustrations. Royal 8yo. 42s.
‘* The editor and the publisher have wisely considered this,volume to be one of abiding interest,
and they have produced it in a form worthy of preservation. The narrative is not one to be
merely read and laid aside. It marks an epoch of discovery, and will be a work of reference.
The editor's introduction and appendix, are learned and most suggestive. The alustrations
are clear, artistic, and indispensable to the full understanding of the text. The get-up of the
volume is excellent. It is evident that all concerned have spared neither pains nor expense.
The result is a worthy presentation of what we think an important book.’—LivERARY
CHURCHMAN.
—__+
OLD TIMES AND DISTANT PLACES.
A SERIES OF SKETCHES.
BY ARCHDEACON SINCLAIR, M.A.,
Vicar of Kensington.
Crown 8vo. 9s.
“ This is a most refreshing little volume. Away from the strife of tongues which rages
everywhere, the Archdeacon leads his readers back.to days when the. century was very young.
Of many well-known characters we have a fund of excellent anecdotes, told with brevity and
point. Many most interesting crises in our history, especially ecclesiastical, are glanced at,
and the biographical sketches are pleasantly relieved by a most interesting description of «
visit by the Archdeacon to Orkney in early life.
LAST JOURNALS OF DAVID LIVINGSTONE
IN CENTRAL AFRICA,
FROM 1865 TO WITHIN A FEW DAYS OF HIS DEATH.
Continued by a Narrative of his last moments and sufferings, obtained from
his faithful servants CHUMAH and SUSI.
BY HORACE WALLER, F.R.G.S.,
Rector of Twywell, Northampton.
With Portrait, Maps, and Ilustrations. 2 Vols. 8vo. 28s.
“ The last journals of David Livingstone have come before us like a voice from the dead.
The fidelity of a small portion of his people has enabled us to bury his withered remains in
Westminster Abbey, and has saved to the world the record of his labours. There is no British
name more widely known, or more universally respected, than that of Livingstone. The
greatest among African travellers, he has shown a persistence and devotion to his work which
has not only wpheld the reputation of his country throughout the world, but has infused a new
spirit into African exploration, and by his high example he has stimulated others to follow
upon the same course, which will eventually result in the opening of that hitherto mysterious:
region.’ —Sir SAMUEL BAKER.
+
MR. MURRAY'S LIST OF NEW WORKS. 3
THE EARLY HISTORY OF INSTITUTIONS.
IN CONTINUATION OF “THE HISTORY OF ANCIENT LAW.”
BY SIR H. SUMNER MAINE, K.S.C.1., LL.D.,
Corpus Professor of Jurisprudence at Oxford, and Member of the Indian Council,
Second Edition. S8vo. 19s.
“ These Lectures carry an the good work begun by Sir Henry Maine in his volumes on
* Ancient Law’ and ‘Village Communities in the East and West’ The present edition
throws fresh light on that branch of historical study which deals with the origin of hwnan
laws, and their earlier developments in different countries. It is needless to say that every
page gives evidence of the authors se ah reading, his skill in detecting the true points of
analogy, and the unerring judgment wherewith he draws his conclusions; while the value
of the book is not a little enhanced by a pure and lucid style which carries the reader pleasantly
over the roughest ground.” —INDIAN MAIL. ;
METALLURGY :
THE ART OF EXTRACTING METALS FROM THEIR ORES.
BY JOHN PERCY, MD., F.BS.,
Lecturer on Metallurgy at the Government School of Mines, Honorary Member of the Institution ef
Civil Engineers, &c-
Revised and Enlarged Edition. With Lithographs and 112 Illustrations. 8vo. 30s.
CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION, Fire Bricks, Coat,
Rerractory Mrrars, FUEL, CHARCOAL,
Fire Ciays, Woop, COKE,
CRUCIBLEs, PEAT, GAs FurNACES, &c.
“ This volume is complete in itself; it is not merely a new edition of what has beer
previously published, but is in great measure a new work, containing more than three hundred
additional pages of fresh matter, and several articles on fresh subjects.
“ The article Coal contains much additional matter, and more than one hundred and Sifty
analyses of Coal, British and foreign, which have been made inthe Metallurgical Laboratory of
the Royal School of Mines.
“As the question of the utilization of peat, and the possibility of substituting it Sor coal
in metallurgical and other manufacturing processes, have of late engaged publie attention,
such evidence is presented as may enable the reader to arrive at a satisfactory judgment on
that question.’ —PREFACE.
THE HAWAIIAN ARCHIPELAGO,
SIX MONTHS AMONG THE PALM GROVES, CORAL REEFS, AND
VOLCANOES OF THE SANDWICH ISLANDS.
BY ISABELLA BIRD,
Author of the ‘* Englishwoman in America.”
- With Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 12s. ks
“A country where the scenery is lovely beyond description, where the climate is perfect,
where there are the biggest voleanoes in the world, where earthquakes are matters of ordinary
occurrence, where men and women ride about crowned with garlands of flowers, where the
natives are so gentle and so trustworthy that a lady can make expeditions for days together in
perfect safety, is a country which is worth describing, and certainly worth reading about
when described so brightly, so vividly, and so picturesquely as Miss Bird describes it. We
do not know when we have read a book of travels which has so fascinated us.’?—STANDARD.
4 MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF NEW. WORKS.
THE COMMUNISTIC SOCIETIES OF THE
UNITED STATES,
From Personal Visits and Observations ; including Detailed Accounts of the SHAKERS,
the AMANA, ONEIDA, BETHELL, AURORA, ICARIAN, and other Societies ; their Religious
©reeds, Social Practices, Industries, and Present Condition.
BY CHARLES NORDHOFF,
With 40 Illustrations, 8vo. 15s.
“ The author has set himself the task of personally examining into these Societies with a
anew of ascertaining the grounds of their prosperity and the proportion of good over evil. He
has done his work well; and the volume he has written is both bountiful in detail and enter-
twining in spirit and style, fit equally for the drawing-room and the library. We recommend
“ on account both of the interest of the subject and of the able way in which it is handled.’ —
'ABLET.
THE GNOSTIC HERESIES OF THE FIRST
AND SECOND CENTURIES.
BY DEAN MANSEL, D.D,,
Late Professor of Ecclesiastical History at Oxford.
WITH A SKETCH OF HIS LIFE AND CHARACTER, By LORD CARNARVON.
Epirep sy CANON LIGHTFOOT.
8vo. 10s. 6d.
“A book of solid value, and not only solid in its value, but of such clearness and fresh-
ness of style that it makes a subject which is usually considered obscure and confused at
once clear and intelligible. The subject is rendered interesting ; the book is not merely readable,
but it is thoroughly attractive ; and, though dealing with speculations so remote, it handles
them in such a way as to be replete with lessons of caution and of guidance for the present
day.’ —LITERARY CHURCHMAN.
LIVES OF THE ENGINEERS,
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE DEATH OF THE STEPHENSONS.
WITH AN ACCOUNT OF THEIR PRINCIPAL WORKS:
@omprising a History of Inland Communication in Britain, and the Invention and.
Introduction of the Steam Engine and Locomotive ;
BY SAMUEL SMILES,
Author of ‘‘Self Help’? and ‘ Character.’’
Revised Edition. With Portraits and 340 Woodcuts. 5 vols. Crown 8vo. 7s. 6d. each.
“ There was only one drawback to the splendid series of the ‘ Lives of the Engineers,’ which
Mr. Smiles has given to the world within the last dozen years. It was ona subject absolutely
new ; it was well written, full of interest, enriched with an abundance of beautiful illustrations ;
but it was very costly. It could not well be otherwise. But it was unfortunate, because the
book was essentially popular in its nature, and one which would be a most welcome possession
to many a struggling worker who could ill afford to buy it. It is, therefore, with great satis-
Suction that we announce a ‘New and Revised Edition, ix a much smaller and cheaper
form.’ —GuARDIAN.
*,* Each volume is complete in itself, and can be obtained separately.
—
MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF NEW WORKS. 6
AN ATLAS OF ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
BIBLICAL AND CLASSICAL.
Intended to illustrate Smith’s Classical Dictionaries, and especially the ‘‘ Dictionary
of the Bible.” Compiled under the superintendence of
DR. WM. SMITH and MR. GEORGE GROVE.
With Descriptive Text, giving the Sources and Authorities, Indices, &e.
43 Maps. Folio, half-bound. £6 6s. [Ready.
“The students of Dr. Wm. Smith's admirable Dictionaries must have felt themselves
again andagain brought up short for want of an Atlas constructed on the same scale of precise
and minute information with the article they were reading. This want has been supplied by
the superb work before us. The indices are full, the engraving is exquisite, and the delineation
of the natural features very minute and beautiful.» It may safely be pronounced—and higher
praise can scarcely be bestowed—to be a worthy companion of the series of familiar volumes
which it is intended to illustrate.’ —THE GUARDIAN.
THE NICENE AND APOSTLES’ CREEDS,
THEIR LITERARY HISTORY; TOGETHER WITH SOME ACCOUNT OF THE
GROWTH AND RECEPTION OF THE SERMON ON THE FAITH,
COMMONLY CALLED “‘7HE CREED OF ST. ATHANASIUS.”
BY C. A. SWAINSON, D.D.,
Canon of Chichester and Norrisian Professor of Divinity at Cambridge.
8yo. 16s.
eee
WORSHIP IN THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND.
BY A. J. B. BERESFORD HOPE, M_.P.,
Author of “ The English Cathedral of the Nineteenth Century.”
Second Edition. S8vo. 9s.
“Wr. Beresford Hope's book is calm, temperate, and to any fair mind, convineing ; and bt
is excellently well arranged. The chapters have, each of them, a completeness of their own,
and having very accurate tables of contents prefixed, you can find what you want in a moment.
Thus it is not only a book to read, but also one to refer to; and will be as useable as it is
useful. In fact, vt is hard to say too much in its commendation, look at it in what way you
will,’ —LITERARY CHURCHMAN.
DIARY OF THE SHAH OF PERSIA,
DURING HIS TOUR THROUGH EUROPE ww _ 1873.
TRANSLATED BY J. W. REDHOUSE, F.R.A.S,
With Portrait and Coloured Title. Crown 8vo. 12s.
“The Diary describes the impressions made upon an Eastern potentate by” Western
civilization. It proves the Shah to be an intelligent and observant man, with no tendency to
condemn that which, being strange, he does not understand. His book is simply written; he
describes what he saw in plain, wtelligible language, and again and again gives evidence of
singular shrewdness. Nobody can read the book withaut finding in it a great amount of
shrewd observation and of good information. It is curious in many respects ; it is interesting
in all.” —SCOTSMAN-
6 MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF NEW WORKS.
ARCHAOLOGY, ART AND RAVEL:
BEING SKETCHES AND STUDIES HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE.
BY RICHARD J. KING, B.A.,
Exeter College, Oxford.
8vo, 12s.
“ Mr. King, already well known to readers imbued with antiquarian tastes as the author of
mony of Mr, Murray's handbooks for the English counties, has reprinted the articles which he
has contributed during the last eighteen years to the periodical Press. He is a master in Eng-
lish topography. Few of the antiquaries of our day surpass him in acquaintance either with
English scenery or with the associations abundantly connected with every county throughout
the land. While the essays in this volume travel over many entertaining fields af literature, a
similarity of treatment connects the whole of them, and the most scrutinizing reader will fail
to find a subject which the author's researches have not aided in elucidating”’—Tux Trmzs.
>
SCHOOL BOARD ARCHITECTURE:
BEING PRACTICAL INFORMATION on tHe PLANNING, DESIGNING,
BUILDING, AND FURNISHING OF SCHOOLHOUSES.
BY E. R. ROBSON, F.B.I.B.A.,
ARCHITECT TO THE SCHOOL BOARD FOR LONDON.
With 300 Illustrations. Medium S8vo. 31s. 6d.
“* Mr. Robson's book contains the results of the experience and observation of several years,
both here and abroad, and it is copiously illustrated with drawings that represent school
buildings and apparatus, down to the smallest details, as they exist in the principal countrics
of the Continent, in America, and here. The book is an admirably complete manual of its
subject, which, were we concerned in any way with school-building, we should make a point of
consulting, or rather studying. Nor is it only in building schools that the advice and infor-
mation of the volume may be utilised with the greatest advantage. The chapters on
‘ Warming and Ventilation,’ and on ‘School Furniture and Apparatus’ will be profitably
studied. *Warminy’ is a most difficult problem,—one very seldom so solved as to combine
comfort and health.” SPECTATOR.
LIFE AND DEATH OF JOHN BARNEVELD.
INCLUDING THE HISTORY OF THE PRIMARY CAUSES AND
MOVEMENTS OF “THE THIRTY YEARS’ WAR.”
BY JOHN LOTHROP MOTLEY, D.C.L.,
Author of the “ Rise of the Dutch Republic,” &c.
With Illustrations. 2 vols. 28s.
“ Mr. Motley is a historian in the true sense of the term. For abundance of matter, variety
¥ ingredients, compression of details, and eloquence of style the work is a masterpiece of art.
tis also a history of all Ewrope in one of its most interesting eras. The Soreground is Dutch,
and the central figure is Barneveld, but the groups comprise all the leading statesmen of the
period. While abounding with all the graces of style and a lively eloquence, it has been prepared
with the precision of a legal record.’’—MoRNING Post.
: MR. MURRAYS LIST OF NEW WORKS. 7
ANCIENT AND MEDIAVAL ARCHITECTURE,
BY JAMES FERGUSSON, F.R.S.,
A New and Revised Edition. With 1000 Illustrations. 2 Vols. 8vo. 63s.
Uniform with Fergusson’s ‘‘ History of Modern Architecture.”
Mr. Fergusson has classed the styles in historical order, and has deduced their genealogy
step by step, and told us not only what was, but how it came to be, and his work in sts present
stage is the most comprehensive and original that has ever appeared on the subject.” —QUARTERLY
REvIEW.
“ The new edition of ‘Mr. Fergusson’s History of Architecture’ is @ monument of erudition,
taste, and ingenious reasoning.’ —EDINBURGH REVIEW.
ETCHINGS FROM THE LOIRE.
BY ERNEST GEORGE.
TweENty PLAtres. With Descriptive Text. Folio. 42s.
“ Mr. Ernest George is so well known by his former work— Etchings on the Mosel’—
that special commendation of his new book is perhaps scarcely necessary. In his previous
volume he illustrated the German ‘Schloss ;’ in the present he gives us twenty very graceful
pictures of the French Chateau, as seen in the various towns of the Loire. These etchings are
eminently graceful and artistic. The points of view are chosen in every case with the instinct
of the painter.’ —STANDARD.
———--+
THE SONNET;
ITS ORIGIN, STRUCTURE, AND PLACE IN POETRY.
Wirn OricinaAL TRANSLATIONS FROM THE SONNETS OF Danrr, PerrarcH, &c.
With Remarks on the Art of Translating.
BY CHARLES TOMLINSON, F.RB.S.
Post 8vo. 9s.
“ 4 valuable and interesting addition to the literature of the Sonnet. Mr. Tomlinson’s
- igg tee Petrarch, Dante, Michael Angelo, and others of the great Italian singers, are
excellent. He has gone invariably to the fountain-head for inspiration, and has transfused
into his own rendering of some of the choicest sonnets of the renowned Italian group much of
the exquisite aroma and ideal beauty of the originals.” —GRAPHIC.
THE TRAVELS of MARCO POLO.
CONCERNING THE KINGDOMS AND MARVELS OF THE EAST.
Newly Translated and Illustrated by the Light of Oriental Writers and Modern Travels.
BY COL. HENRY YULE, C.B.
Second Edition, revised and inlarged. With 19 Maps and 130 Ilustrations,
Medium 8vo. 63s.
“ T regret the augmented bulk of the volumes. There has been some excision, but the additions
visibly and palpably preponderate. The truth is that, since the completion of the first edition
four years ago, large additions have been made te the stock of our knowledge bearing on the
subject of this book, and how these additions have continued to come up to the last moment may
be seen in Appendia L., which has had to undergo repeated interpolation after being put into
type. Having always attached great importance to the matter of illustrations, I feel greatly
indebted to my publisher in enabling me largely to increase their number in this edition.’ —
AUTHOR’S PREFACE.
2 vols.
8 MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF NEW WORKS.
THE MOON:
CONSIDERED AS A PLANET, A WORLD, AND A SATELLITE.
BY JAMES NASMYTH; C.E., ann JAMES CARPENTER, F.R.A.S.,,
Late of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich.
With 24 Illustrations of Lunar Objects, Phenomena, and Scenery, produced from
Drawings made with the aid of powerful Telescopes.
Second Edition. 4to. 30s.
“ The illustrations to this book are so admirable, so far beyond those one generally gets of any
celestial phenomenon that one is tempted to refer to them jirst of all. No more truthful or
striking representations have ever been laid before his readers by any student of science.
“ But though I have given the first place to the illustrations, I by no means intend thereby to
imply that the text is of secondary importance. In fact, the more carefully the text is read, the
more obvious does it become that Mr. Nasmyth has used his drawings as a means to an end, and
that he and Mr. Carpenter between them have produced a work which is not only avery beautiful
and a very readable one, but one of some importance. It is altogether an admirable production.”
—J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S.
PERSONAL RECOLLECTIONS FROM EARLY
LIFE TO OLD AGE,
BY MARY SOMERVILLE.
WITH SELECTIONS FROM HER CORRESPONDENCE.
Fourth Thousand. Portrait. Crown 8vo. 12s.
“4 eharming book ; the story of the life of a remarkable and beautiful character, told,
for the most part, in the tranquil evening of her well-spent days, by herself, with short
additions here and there by her daughter, to complete the narrative. Few readers will put this
volume aside after, what must always be, a pleasant perusal of its pages. without feeling that it
has imparted, by a mysterious sympathy, much of the goodness which is diffused throughout it.
Yet it is nothing more than the simple and honest examination of a career passed—with a few
interruptions—even to its very end in the acqurement of knowledge.’ —ATHENEUM.
———
THE SHADOWS OF A SICK ROOM.
Second Edition. With a Preface by CANON LIDDON.
Post 8vo. 2s. 6d.
“A thoughtful and well-weighted essay. The subject, though necessarily trite, and one
which would encourage a commonplace writer to make obvious remarks, is treated with the fresh-
ness that arises from personal experience. The author states what he has learned, not what he
imagines sick people ought to learn. Many thoughts from the works of illustrious authors—
divines, essayists, and poets—are interspersed. The author has caught the spirit of the men
whom he honours, and there are occasionally passages of true eloquence in this unpretending
volume.’—PaLL MALL GazeTTE.
ee
ESSAYS CONTRIBUTED TO THE “QUARTERLY
REVIEW.”
BY SAMUEL WILBERFORCE, D.D.,
Late Lord Bishop of Winchester.
2vols, 8vo. 2Is.
MR. MURRAYS LIST OF NEW WORKS. $
SIGNS AND WONDERS in THE LAND OF HAM.
Wirth ANCIENT AND MopERN PARALLELS AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
BY REV. THOMAS S. MILLINGTON,
Vicar of Woodhouse Eaves, Loughborough.
Woodeuts. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.
“ This book is one of great utility ; it will be highly interesting to the ordinary and reverent
student of the Bible. Mr. Millington writes with the simplicity of a scholar and the marked
moderation of a man perfectly sure of his ownground. The history is most carefully developed ;
the nature and effect of each plague is described, and the weight of external testimony brought
Sorward to corroborate the Mosaic history is simply irresistible.’ —CuurcH HERALD.
HORTENSIUS.-
AN HISTORICAL ESSAY ON THE OFFICE AND DUTIES OF AN ADVOCATE.
BY WILLIAM FORSYTH, Q.C,, LL.D., MP,
Late Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.
Second Edition. With Illustrations. 8vo. 12s.
“ Mr. Forsyth, in his ‘ Hortensius, of which a second and improved edition has now been
published, has given, with much learning and literary ability, an historical sketch of the
Advocate’s office and functions, and described the origin and career of the profession in Greece
and Rome, France and England. Hortensius, the famous Roman Advocate, has been selected by
the author as The Advocate par excellence, and his name has therefore been taken as the title of
this interesting work.”’—QUARTERLY REyIEW.
FORTY YEARS’ SERVICE IN INDIA.
IncLUDING DIsASTERS AND CAPTIVITIES IN CABUL, AFFGHANISTAN, AND THE PUNJAUB.
With A NARRATIVE oF MurTInies In RAJPUTANA.
BY LIEUT..GEN. SIR GEORGE LAWRENCE, K.C.S.I, C.B.
Crown 8vo. 10s. 6d.
** Sir George Lawrence has had more than a common share in the events which make up the
Indian history of the last half century, and he appears during the whole period of his service-to
have kept adiary. This has now been compressed into readable shape, and the result is a book
which bears the impress of that accuracy as to dates and facts which can only be obtained by
recording them at the time, and which ts so interesting from first to last that few persons whe
take it up will be able to lay it aside till they have read on to the end.” —SatuRDAY REYIEW-
THE GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE OF ITALY.—
CHIEFLY IN BRICK AND MARBLE,
WITH NOTES OF RECENT VISITS TO AQUILEIA, UDINE, VICENZA,
FERRARA, BOLOGNA, MODENA, AND VERCELLI.
BY GEORGE EDMUND STRERT, R.A,
¢ Second and Revised Edition. With 130 Illustrations. Royal 8vo. 26s.
“ Mr. Street has opened a new vein of architectural interest. Every part of the work
presents evidence of the labour and deep interest with which Mr. Street pursued his investigations,
and the result is one of the most curious and valuable architectural works which we have received
Sor some time.” —GUARDIAN.
Uniform with Street’s ‘‘ Gothic Architecture of Spain.”
10 MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF NEW WORKS.
THE STUDENT'S EDITION OF AUSTIN'S
LECTURES ON JURISPRUDENCE; or, THE PHILOSOPHY
OF POSITIVE LAW.
COMPILED FROM THE LARGER WORK.
BY ROBERT CAMPBELL,
of Lincoln’s Inn, Barrister-at-Law.
Post 8vo. 12s.
‘“ Austin’s Lectures have long since been accepted as a classic work on the subjects handled
therein ; but many students will be thankful for an abridgment which produces the whole of
the arguments, while it adds later illustrations gathered by the editor, besides a number of
passages and notes in which the author's meaning is modified or explained.’—INDIAN Matt.
THE ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE
GRENADIER GUARDS.
From Original Documents in the State Paper Office, Rolls’ Records, War Office, Horse
Guards, Contemporary Histories, and Regimental Records.
BY LIEUT.-GEN. SIR FREDERICK W. HAMILTON, K.C.B.
With Portraits and Illustrations. 3vols. S8vo. 63s.
“ The industry of the author, in what has been an assiduous task for many years, has been
extraordinary ; and his diligent examination of our own archives, and even those of foreign
countries, has enabled him to put together a narrative rich in most curious details, and singularly
complete, and, for the most part, accurate. Occasionally, too, he shows power beyond those of
the most studious compiler; and some of his estimates of military events give proof of no
ordinary reading and insight. On the whole, this book is an admirable specimen of facts
collected with exemplary care and of thorough, earnest, and fruitful research.” —THE TimEs.
THE LITERARY REMAINS OF THE LATE
EMANUEL DEUTSCH.
PRECEDED BY A BRIEF MEMOIR.
8vo. 12s.
————_o———_
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL ARTILLERY.
COMPILED FROM THE ORIGINAL RECORDS.
BY MAJOR FRANCIS DUNCAN, RA,
Superintendent of the Regimental Records,
Second Edition. ‘With Portraits. 2vols. 8vo. 30s.
“The Royal Artillery have been fortunate in their chronicler. Captain Duncan not only
occupies a position which gives him access to much valuable information, but has sufficient
literary skill and ability to make the best of the information which he has acquired. The
history of the Royal Regiment is, indeed, a narrative of England's campaigns since its first
formation. Readers to whom their country’s glory is dear will find much to interest them in
this narrative of the doings of so famous a corps in every quarter of the globe.’ —JouN BuLt,
MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF NEW WORKS. Wd
A METHODICAL, ANALYTICAL, & HISTORICAL
GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE.
BY PROFESSOR MAETZNER, of Berlin.
Transtatep By CLAIR J. GRECE, LL.B.
8 vols. 8vo. 36s.
“A stupendously elaborate work, which only the patience of a German professor could have
brought to completion. It is an exhaustive treatise, from every conceivable point of view, on
the grammar of our language. We cannot but appreciate it as a high national compliment ;
at the same time we must confess to some astonishment that an English grammar should be
carried to a far greater length than any Greek grammar with which we are acquainted. One
would suppose that our tongue was not so complex and intricate as to require for its discussion
three closely-printed octavo-volumes averaging each 500 pages.”’—SPECTATOR.
THE LAND OF MOAB,
BY CANON TRISTRAM, M.A.; LLD., F.RBS.,
Author of ‘‘ The Land of Israel,” ‘* Natural History of the Bible.”
Second Edition. With Map and Plates. Post 8vo. 15s.
“ Canon Tristram carries a pen, and a very deft and ready pen, and when there is anything
to tell he knows how to tell it ; and so Moab has been reft from the domain of the unknown and
unknowable, and lies all mapped out and photographed and described. Altogether the book is
a@ very interesting one, and we can only hope future explorers will imitate Mr. Tristram’s
part in the zeal and thoroughness of his research.”’—SatuRDAY REVIEW.
“Mr. Tristram’s volume is a very pleasant and readable story of travel told by one who is
an old hand at the work, who keeps las ears and eyes open, and has the art of skilfully
describing what he observes.’’—SPECTATOR.
THE NATURALIST IN NICARAGUA.
A NARRATIVE OF A RESIDENCE AT THE GOLD MINES OF CHONTALES
AND OF JOURNEYS IN THE SAVANNAHS AND FORESTS ;
WITH OBSERVATIONS ON ANIMALS AND PLANTS.
BY THOMAS BELT, F.GS.
With Illustrations. Post 8vo. 12s,
“ An excellent attempt to deal with the natural history of one of the finest and most Mgt lion
countries of the globe. Mr. Belt has taken for his model Mr. Bates’s * Naturalist on the River
Amazon,’ and to that gentleman he dedicates his work. We may say, in the first place, that
the present book is well worthy of that on which it was formed, and, in the second, that we can
bear personal testimony to the fidelity of the first four chapters, and we can therefore trust
the remainder, which we have also read with deep wnterest.”’—STANDARD.
PERILS OF THE POLAR SEAS:
‘TRUE STORIES OF ARCTIC ADVENTURE AND DISCOVERY. :
BY MRS. CHISHOLM,
Author of “ Rana, or the Story of a Little Frog,” ‘‘ Little Plays for Little People,” &c.
With 2 Maps and 18 Illustrations. Post 8vo. 6s.
“ Those who desire to read tales of adventures in the Polar Seas, while at the same time they
obtain a connected account of geographical discovery in the Arctic regions, should procure Mrs.
Chisholm’s charming volume. The authoress has consulted all the best authorities, and culled
from them facts which she has weaved into one harmonious narrative of sustained interest,
while the leading events are admirably ilustrated.”’—JoHN BuLL-
12 MR. MURRAYS LIST OF NEW WORKS.
THE VATICAN DECREES IN THEIR BEARING
ON CIVIL ALLEGIANCE ;
A POLITICAL EXPOSTULATION.
BY THE RIGHT HON. W. E. GLADSTONE, M.P.
8vo. 2s. 6d.; or, Cheap Edition, 6d.
VATICANISM:
AN ANSWER TO REPROOFS AND REPLIES.
BY THE RIGHT HON. W. E. GLADSTONE, M.P.
8yo, 2s. 6d.; or, Cheap Edition, 6d.
THE SPEAKER'S COMMENTARY on the BIBLE;
AN EXPLANATORY AND CRITICAL COMMENTARY.
By BISHOPS anp CLERGY or tar ANGLICAN CHURCH.
Epitep py F. C. COOK, M.A.,
Canon of Exeter, and Preacher at Lincoln’s Inn,
Vol. I.—30s. JupGES, RutH, SAMUEL—Bishop of Bath
GrnEsIs—Bishop of Ely. and Wells.
Exopus—Canon Cook and Rev. Samuel | KiNcs, CHronicLes, Ezra, NEHEMIAH,
Clark. EsTHER—Canon Rawlinson.
LeEviticus—Rey. Samuel Clark. Vol. IV.—25s.
NumsBers—Canon Espin and Rey. J. F. | PsAtms—Dean of Wells and Rey. C. J.
Thrupp. Elliott.
DevTrRoNomy—Canon Espin. Jos—Canon Cook.
ProversBs —Rey. E. H. Plumptre.
Vols. II. and III.—26s. EccLestastEs—Rey. W. T. Bullock.
JosHua—Canon Espin. Sone or SoLomon—Rey. T. Kingsbury.
Medium 8vo.
HANDBOOK TO THE HISTORY OF PAINTING.
THE ITALIAN, GERMAN, FLEMISH, AND DUTCH SCHOOLS.
BASED ON THE WoRK OF KUGLER.
New and Revised Edition, With 200 Illustrations. 4 vols. Crown 8vo. 54s.
I. ITALIAN SCHOOLS. Enivep sy LADY EASTLAKE.
With 140 Illustrations. 2vols. 30s.
Il. GERMAN, FLEMISH, & DUTCH SCHOOLS.
Epitep py J. A. CROWE.
With 60 Illustrations. 2vols, 24s.
MURRAY'S STUDENT'S MANUALS.
A Series of Class-books for Advanced Scholars,
Forming a Complete Chain of History from the Earliest Ages down to Modern Times.
Each Work is complete in One Volume, Post 8vo, price 7s. 6d.
“This series of STUDENT'S MANUALS, ANCIENT and MODERN, edited for the most part by
DR. WILLIAM SMITH, possess several distinctive features which render them singularly valuable
as educational works. They incorporate, with judicious comments, the researches of the most
recent historical investigators, not only into the more modern, but into the most remote periods
of the history of the countries to which they refer. The latest lights which comparative philology
has cast upon the migrations and interminglings of races are reflected in the histories of England
and France. We know no better or more trustworthy summary, even for the general reader, of
the early history of Britain and Gaul than is contained in these volumes respectively.
“‘ While each volume is thus, for ordinary purposes, a complete history of the country to which
it refers, it also contains a guide to such further and more detailed information as the advanced
student may desire on particular events or periods by copious lists of the ‘ Authorities.” This
most useful feature seems to us to complete the great value of the works, giving to them the
character of historical cyclopxdias, as well as of impartial histories.”—The Museum.
“‘ Before the publication of these Student’s Manuals there had been established, by the claims
of middle-class and competitive examiners on young men’s brains, a large annual demand for
text-books that should rise above the level of mere schoolboy’s epitomes, and give to those who
would master them some shadow of a scholarly knowledge of their subjects. Such books were
very hard to find. Mr. Murray now brings out his seven-and-sixpenny manuals. They are most
fit for use in the higher classes of good schools, where they may be deliberately studied through
with the help of a teacher competent to expand their range of argument, to diversify their views
by the strength of his own reading and reflection, and to elicit thought from the boys themselves
upon events and the political changes to which they have led. Even the mature scholar may be
glad to have on his shelves these elegant manuals, from which he can ata glance refresh his
memory as to a name or date, and he will not use them for reference alone. He will assuredly be
tempted to read them for the clearness of statement and the just proportion with which there is
traced in each of them the story of a nation.” —Ezaminer.
SCRIPTURE HISTORY.
THE STUDENT’S OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY.
From the Creation of the World to the Return of the Jews from Captivity. With an Intro-
een to the Books of the Old Testament. By PHILIP SMITH, B.A. With 50 Mapsand
oodcuts.
“Of our own land, as well as of Greece and Rome, we have histories of a scholar-like
character ; but Old Testament history has not been so carefully or so fully treated before.
It is not a little surprising that a subject of such universal importance and interest should
have so long been disregarded. This volume is a very able and scholarly work. As a book
ad Sunday reading, we feel assured it will be very welcome and widely serviceable.” — Wes-
eyan Times.
THE STUDENT’S NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY.
With an Introduction, containing the connection of the Old and New Testaments. By
PHILIP SMITH, B.A. With 40 Maps and Woodcuts.
“‘This is another of those useful manuals of history which will no doubt obtain a wider
circulation than the similar volumes on the History of Greece or Rome, as the subject-
matter is of wider interest ; at the same time, it will be more closely scrutinized. We are
glad to say that it will endure this scrutiny, and will satisfy the more it is examined, Its
tone is eminently reverential.” —Churchman.
ANCIENT HISTORY.
THE STUDENT’S ANCIENT HISTORY of the EAST.
From the Earliest Times to the Conquests of Alexander the Great, including Egypt, Assyria,
een pg Media, Persia, Asia Minor, and Phenicia. By PHILIP SMITH, B.A. With 70
oodcuts,
“«¢ Ancient History’ used to mean Greece and Rome and ‘sacred history’ only. These are
all separately provided for in this Student’s Series, and there still remains matter enough in
the domain of ancient history to fill this closely printed and tersely written volume. Our
admiration of the mode in which a difficult task, involving great research, has been per-
formed is cordial, aud we may be permitted to express surprise that a history of this nature,
crammed full of unfamiliar names, and of necessity abounding in names rather than in facts,
can prove such attractive reading.” —Saturday Review.
[continued.
14 MURRAY'S STUDENTS MANUALS.
GREECE.
THE STUDENT’S HISTORY OF GREECE. From the
Earliest Times to the Roman Conquest. With Chapters on the History of Literature and
Art. By WM. SMITH, D.C.L. With 100 Woodcuts.
““We have much satisfaction in bearing testimony to the excellence of the plan on which
Dr. Wm. Smith has proceeded, and the careful, scholarlike manner in which he has carried
it out. The great distinctive feature, however, is the chapters on literature and art. This
gives it a decided advantage over all previous works of the kind.”—Atheneum.
ROME.
THE STUDENT’S HISTORY OF ROME. From the
Earliest Times to the Establishment of the Empire. With Chapters on the History of
Literature and Art. By Dean LIDDELL. With 80 Woodcuts.
“© A lucid, well-marked, and comprehensive view of the progress and revolutions of the
Roman State and people. The course of the history is distinctly mapped out by broad and
natural divisions ; and the order in which it is arranged and presented is the work of a
strong and clearmind. There is great skill as well as diligence shown in the amount of
facts which are collected and eompressed into the narrative ; and the story is told, not
merely with full intelligence, but with an earnestness and strength of feeling which cannot
be mistaken.”—G@uardian.
THE STUDENT’S HISTORY of the DECLINE AND
FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. By EDWARD GIBBON. Correcting his Errors,
and incorporating the researches of recent historians. With 200 Woodcuts.
“The best popular edition of Gibbon extant. Itis pervaded by all the warmth, life, and
power of the celebrated original ; and is just such a volume as Gibbon himself would have
issued had he deemed it proper to send forth a digest of his own immortal performance.”—
Christian Witness.
EUROPE.
THE STUDENT’S HISTORY OF EUROPE DURING
THE MIDDLE AGES. By HENRY HALLAM, LL.D.
“Tn this edition the principal notes have been incorporated in the text, and some fresh
ones added, the most important being the statutes of William the Conqueror, the Constitu-
tions of Clarendon, Magna Charta, and some other originaldocuments. In its present shape
it will be very welcome; and the publisher confers a great boon on the public by issuing
such books.” — Examiner.
ENGLAND.
THE STUDENT’S HUME; A History of England. From
the Earliest Times to the Revolution in 1688. By DAVID HUME. Incorporating the cor-
rections and researches of recent historians, and continued to 1868. With 70 Woodcuts,
“« The Student’s Hume is certainly well done. The separate additional matter in the form
of Notes and Illustrations is the most remarkable feature. Many important-subjects—con-
stitutional, legal, or social—are thus treated ; and—a very useful plan—the whole autho-
rities of the period are mentioned at its close.”—Spectator.
THE STUDENT’S CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY
OF ENGLAND. From the Accession of Henry VII. to the Death of George IJ. By
HENRY HALLAM, LL.D.
“The Editor has aimed at giving, as far as possible, the form which its author would him-
self have desired had he been preparing a student's edition. We have looked through the
book pretty carefully, testing it here and there somewhat minutely, and we can only say
that it adds another to the many claims of the same character which both editor and
publisher have established upon our gratitude.” —Lilerary Churchman.
FRANCE.
THE STUDENT’S HISTORY OF FRANCE. From the
Earliest Times to the Establishment of the Second Empire, 1852. With Notes and Illus-
trations on the Institutions of the Country. By Rev. W. H. JERVIS, M.A. With 60
Woodcuts.
“ “This History of France is the digested work of a thorough French scholar, who, having
entered into the spirit of the nation and its history, knows how to generalize and knit into
one pertinent whole the sequence of events. Itis the best work of its kind accessible to
readers of all classes.”"—Examiner, _.
[continued.
MURRAY'S STUDENT’S MANUALS. 15
LANGUAGE, LITERATURE, &c.
THE STUDENT’S ENGLISH LANGUAGE. By Guorce
P. MARSH. . f
“This work is one of real and acknowledged merit, and likely to meet with a wider recep-
tion from Dr. Smith’s hands than in its originalform. Much curious and useful information
is given at the end of different lectures, including interesting philological remarks culled
from various sources, portions of Anglo-Saxon grammar, and explanations of prefixes and
affixes, besides illustrative passages from old writers.”’— Atheneum.
THE STUDENTS ENGLISH LITERATURE. By
T. B. SHAW, M.A.
«This work is calculated to be specially useful to candidates for Civil Service Examina-
tions. Its merits, however, entitle it to a far better fate than that of being a mere cram-
book for competitive examinations. It is as comprehensive, as fair in tone and spirit, and
as agreeable in style as such a volume can well be ; and it is impossible to dip into its pages
without forming a very favourable opinion of it in illustration of the English language.” —
Educational Tines.
THE STUDENT’S SPECIMENS of ENGLISH LITE-
RATURE. Selected from the Best Authors, and arranged Chronologically. By THOS.
B. SHAW, M.A.
“Two objects have heen kept in view in making these selections ; first, the illustration
of the style of each writer by some of the most striking or characteristic specimens of his
works ; and, secondly, the choice of such passages as are suitable, either from their language
or their matter, to be read in schools or committed to memory. No Jess than one hundred
and fifty-nine authors have been laid under contribution. The whole collection seems to
have been compiled with much taste.”—Educational Tunes.
GEOGRAPHY.
THE STUDENT’S ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. By Rey.
W. L. BEVAN, M.A. With 150 Woodcuts.
“A valuable addition to our geographical works. It contains the newest and most relia-
ble information derived from the researches of modern travellers, No better text-book can
be placed in the hands of scholars.”—Journal of Education.
THE STUDENT’S MODERN GEOGRAPHY. Mathema-
tical, Physical, and Descriptive. By Rev. W. L. BEVAN, M.A. With 120 Woodcuts.
«An epitome of mathematical and physical geography is given, introducing a sketch of
the whole science. We can decidedly state that the book is the best we have seen upon the
subject. It will entirely supersede the text-books at present in use, and we cordially
recommend it.”—Journal of Assistant Masters.
PHILOSOPHY AND LAW.
THE STUDENTS MORAL PHILOSOPHY. With
Quotations and References. By WILLIAM FLEMING, D.D.
“This work, from its orderly method, its clear style, its logical definition, its wide com-
prehensiveness, its copious fertility of illustration—in a word, that characteristic combina-
tion of fitness, fulness, and exactness which reveals at once the scholar and the master—
cannot fail to secure for it the high appreciation which it deserves.” —Record,
THE STUDENT’S COMMENTARIES OF BLACK-
STONE. Adapted to the State of the Law down to 1872. By R. MALCOLM KERR, LL.D,
“Tt is impossible to speak too highly of the way in which Dr. Kerr has accomplished his
Jelicate and difficult task, for the performance of which no one could be better fitted by his
extensive legal knowledge and experience. Whether as a text book fov the higher classes
or for the professional student, this abridgment will prove invaluable.” —Zducational Times.
SCIENCE.
THE STUDENT’S ELEMENTS OF GEOLOGY. By
Sir CHARLES LYELL. With 600 Woodcuts. 9s.
“This book is compendious in size and moderate in price, so that students beginning the
study of this fascinating science will now have the advantage of receiving their elementary
lessons from its greatest master ; while even the most advanced will find advantage in a
work which states first principles and indisputable facts in the light of the most advanced
and accurate knowledge.”—English Independent.
“««“Murray’s StupENT’s Manvats.’— While there is an utter absence of flippancy
in them, there is thought in every page, which cannot fail to excite thought in
those who study them, and we are glad of en opportunity of directing the atten-
tion of such teachers as are not familiar with them To THESE ADMIRABLE SCHOOL-
BooKS.”—The Museum. [continued.
DR. WM. SMITH’S
SMALLER SERIES OF HISTORIES FOR SCHOOLS.
These Works have been drawn up under the superintendence of Dr. Wm. Smith,
chiefly for the lower forms, at the request of several teachers, who require for
their pupils more elementary books than the StupENtT’s HistortcaAL MANUALS.
Each Work is complete in One Volume, 16mo, price 3s. 6d.
A SMALLER SCRIPTURE HISTORY OF THE OLD
AND NEW TESTAMENTS. With 40 Woodcuts.
**Students well know the value of Dr. Wm. Smith’s larger Scripture History. This
abridgment omits nothing of vital importance, and is presented in such a handy form that
it cannot fail to become a valuable aid to the less learned Bible Student. It is the best
modern book on the best book of all days and all time.”—People’s Magazine.
SMALLER ANCIENT HISTORY OF THE EAST.
From the Earliest Times to the Conquest of Alexander the Great. With 70 Woodcuts.
SMALLER HISTORY OF GREECE. From the
Earliest Times to the Roman Conquest. With 74 Woodcuts.
SMALLER HISTORY of ROME. From the Earliest
Times to the Establishment of the Empire. With 70 Woodcuts.
SMALLER CLASSICAL MYTHOLOGY. With
Translations from the Ancient Poets, and Questions on the Work. With 90 Woodcuts.
A
A
A
A
A SMALLER MANUAL of ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
A
A
A
With 36 Woodcuts,
SMALLER MANUAL of MODERN GEOGRAPHY.
1é6mo, Un the press.
SMALLER HISTORY OF ENGLAND. From the
Earliest Times to the year 1868. With 68 Woodcuts.
SMALLER HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERA-
TURE. Giving a Sketch of the Lives of our Chief Writers.
SPECIMENS OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. Selected
from the Chief Authors, and arranged Chronologically. With Notes.
DR. WM. SMITH’S ENGLISH COURSE.
A PRIMARY HISTORY OF BRITAIN. For Elemen-
tary Schools. Edited by WM. SMITH, D.C.L. 12mo. 2s. 6d.
*‘The modest title of this history scarcely indicates its real value. While the style is
very plain and simple, it does not attempt to write down to the comprehension of children.
It is an admirable work, one of the best short school histories of England we have seen,
and is throughout remarkably free from bias.”—Educational Times.
A SCHOOL MANUAL OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
With Copious Exercises. By WM. SMITH, D.C.L., and T. D. HALL, M.A. Post 8vo.
3s. 6d.
‘“‘This Grammar is a good introduction toa larger treatment of the subject. For the
information of teachers, the use.of this book will render unnecessary that of many others,
since it contains the grammar, analysis, and exercises, It is really a serviceable school-
book.” —Nonconformist.
A PRIMARY ENGLISH GRAMMAR. For Elementary
Schools. With Exercises and Questions. By T. D. HALL, M.A. 16mo. 1s.
“This little book is very carefully done. We doubt whether any grammar of equal size
could give an introduction to the English language more clear, concise, and full than this
does,” — Watchman.
ALBEMARLE STREET,
April, 1875.
MR. MURRAY’S
Jaist of Announcements.
~~
THE LIFE OF JONATHAN SWIFT.
By JOHN FORSTER.
With Portraits. S8vo.
BIBLE CUSTOMS IN BIBLE LANDS.
WITH NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
By HENRY VAN LENNEP, D.D.
With Illustrations. 8vo.
INSECTIVOROUS PLANTS.
ON THE SENSITIVENESS OF THE LEAVES OF Drosera, Dioncea, Pinguicula, &c., to certain
stimulants ; and on their power of DIGESTING and ABSORBING ANIMAL MATTER.
BY CHARLES DARWIN, F.B.S.
With Illustrations. Post 8vo.
THE PROPHETS ISAIAH & JEREMIAH,
EDITED AND EXPLAINED
By Rev. W. KAY, D.D., Rector of Great Leighs, and R. PAYNE seers
D. D., Dean of Canterbury.
ForMING
THE FIFTH VOLUME of THE SPEAKER'S COMMENTARY.
Medium 8vo.
18 MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF ANNOUNCEMENTS.
PILGRIMAGES
TO ST. MARY OF WALSINGHAM AND ST, THOMAS
OF CANTERBURY.
By DESIDERIUS ERASMUS.
New ty TRANSLATED, AND ILLUSTRATED WiTH NOTES.
By JOHN GOUGH NICHOLS, F.S.A.
New Edition Revised. With Illustrations. Post Svo.
THE PAPERS OF A_ CRITIC.
By THE LATE CHARLES WENTWORTH DILKE.
Wirt A BroGRAPHICAL SKETCH BY HIS GRANDSON,
SIR CHARLES DILKHE, Barr., M.P.
2Vols. 8vo.
THE VAUX-DE-VIRE OF MAISTRE JEAN
LE HOUX, Advocate of Vire.
EDITED AND TRANSLATED BY JAMES PATRICK MUIRHEAD, M.A.
With Portrait and Illustrations.
Small 4to.
DICTIONAR Yor CHRI STIAW ANTIQUITIES.
CoMPRISING THE History, INSTITUTIONS, AND ANTIQUITIES OF
THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH.
By Various WRITERS.
Epirep By DR. WM. SMITH anp REY. PROF. CHEETHAM, M.A.
2 Vols. Medium 8vyo.
DICTIONARY of CHRISTIAN BIOGRAPHY
AND DOCTRINES.
FROM THE TIMES OF THE APOSTLES TO THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGNE.
By Various WRITERS.
EDITED BY WM. SMITH, D.C.L.,
Medium 8vyo.
MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF ANNOUNCEMENTS. 19
COMPANIONS FOR THE DEVOUT LIFE;
LECTURES DELIVERED IN ST. JAMES’S CHURCH, PICCADILLY.
CONTENTS.
Tue IMITATION oF Curist. Rev. Dr. Farrar.
Pascas’ PENséEs. Dean of St. Paul’s.
S. Francois DE SALES. Dean of Norwich.
BAXTER AND THE Sarnts’ Rest. Archbishop of Dublin.
S. Aucustine’s Conressions. Bishop of Derry.
Jeremy Taytor’s Hony Livine anp Dyine. Rey. Prebendary Humphry.
8vo.
TRAVELS IN THE CAUCASUS, PERSIA |
AND TURKEY IN ASIA.
BEING A JOURNEY DOWN THE TIGRIS AND EUPHRATES TO NINEVEH
AND BABYLON, AND ACROSS THE DESERT TO PALMYRA.
BY BARON MAX VON THIELMANN.
TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN BY CHAS. HENEAGE, F.R.G.S.,
With Illustrations. 2 Vols. Post 8vo.
PASTORAL COLLOQUIES ON THE SOUTH
DOWNS—PROPHECY & MIRACLES.
By Wm. SELWYN, D.D., Margaret Professor at Cambridge.
Crown 8yo.
ON THE HABITS AND MOVEMENTS
OF CLIMBING PLANTS.
By CHARLES DARWIN, M.A., F.RB.S.
With Illustrations. Post Svo.
INDIAN AND EASTERN ARCHITECTURE.
BY JAMES FERGUSSON, F.B.S.
Forming the Third Volume of the New Edition of the ‘‘ History of Architecture.”
With 300 Illustrations, Medium 8yo,
20 MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF ANNOUNCEMENTS.
THE STUDENT'S
MANUAL of ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY.
A HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH FROM ITS FOUNDATION TO
THE EVE OF THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION.
BY PHILIP SMITH, B.A.,
Author of ‘‘ The Student’s Old and New Testament Histories.”
Post 8yvo.
MONOGRAPHS SOCIAL AND LITERARY.
VOL. II. conrarninc A MEMOIR OF THE HON. MRS. CREWE.
BY LORD HOUGHTON.
Post 8yo,
A HISTORY OF ROME.
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE EMPIRE.
On the Plan of Mrs. Markham’s Histories of England and France.
With Woodeuts. Post Syo.
HISTORY OF ANCIENT EGYPT.
DERIVED FROM MONUMENTS AND INSCRIPTIONS.
BY PROFESSOR BRUGSCH, OF GOTTINGEN.
An entirely New Edition, in great part rewritten.
TRANSLATED BY H. DANBY SEYMOUR, F.R.G.S.
8yo.
ALPINE FLOWERS FOR ENGLISH
GARDENS.
AN EXPLANATION OF THE PRINCIPLES ON WHICH THEY MAY BE
GROWN TO PERFECTION IN ALL PARTS OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS.
BY W. ROBINSON, F.L.S.
New and Revised Edition. Many additional Woodcuts. Crown 8yo. 12s.
MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF ANNOUNCEMENTS. 21
HISTORY of THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH.
FROM THE APOSTOLIC AGE TO THE REFORMATION, 1517.
BY REV. JAMES C. ROBERTSON, M.A.,
Canon of Canterbury.
(Cabinet Edition.) 8 Vols. Post 8vo. 6s. each.
BOSWELL’S LIFE OF DR. JOHNSON.
EDITED BY THE LATE RIGHT HON. J. W. CROKER.
Wirs Norers py Lorp Srowry. Str Watrer Scott, Sir JAmMEs MACKINTOSH,
DISRAELI, MARKLAND, LockHARi, &c.
A New, Revised, Library Edition. With Portraits. 4 vols. 8vo.
THE ECCLESIASTICAL AND SECULAR
ARCHITECTURE OF SCOTLAND:
THE ABBEYS, CHURCHES, CASTLES, AND MANSIONS.
BY THOMAS ARNOLD, M.R.1.B.A.
With Illustrations, Plans, Views, &c. Medium 8vo.
POETICAL WORKS of ALEXANDER POPE,
THE SATIRES, &c.
EDITED BY REV. WHITWELL ELWIN, B.A.
8yvo.
HISTORY OF HERODOTUS ;
A NEW ENGLISH VERSION.
Edited with copious Notes and Essays, from the most recent sources of information,
historical and ethnographical, which have been obtained in the progress of Cuneiform
and Hieroglyphical Discovery.
BY REV. GEORGE RAWLINSON, M.A.,
Canon of Canterbury, and Camden Professor of Ancient History at Oxford.
Assisted by Srk Henry Raw.inson and Sir J. GARDNER WILKINSON.
Third Edition, Revised. With Maps and 350 Woodcuts. 4 vols. 8vo.
22 MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF ANNOUNCEMENTS.
A SCHOOL MANUAL OF MODERN
GEOGRAPHY.
EDITED BY WM. SMITH, D.C.L.
Forming a New Volume of ‘‘Dr. Wm. Smith’s English Course.” 12mo.
A POPULAR ACCOUNT OF DR. LIVING-
STONES TRAVELS TO THE ZAMBEST;
AND THE DISCOVERY OF LAKES SHIRWA AND NYASSA, 1858-64.
ABRIDGED FROM THE LARGER WorK.
With Illustrations. Post Svo.
PRINCIPLES OF GREEK ETYMOLOGY.
BY PROFESSOR GEORG CURTIUS.
Vou. I. InrtRopuction ; ReGunAR SUBSTITUTION OF SOUNDS.
TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN By A. 8. WILKINS, M.A.,
Professor of Latin and Comparative Philology, and
E. B. ENGLAND, M.A,
Assistant Lecturer in Classics, Owens College, Manchester.
8vo.
LITTLE ARTHUR'S HISTORY OF ROME,
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE EMPIRE.
Woodeuts. 16mo.
FOUNDATIONS OF RELIGION
IN THE MIND AND HEART OF MAN.
BY THE RIGHT HON. SIR JOHN BARNARD BYLES,
Late one of the Judges of Her Majesty’s Court of Common Pleas at Westminster.
Post 8yvo.
THE GHOLOGY OF YORKSHIRE.
By JOHN PHILLIPS.
A New and Revised Edition. With Ilustrations. 4to.
MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF ANNOUNCEMENTS. 23
HUMES HISTORY OF ENGLAND TO THE
REVOLUTION OF 1688.
A NEW LIBRARY EDITION. Annotated and Revised. 7 vols. 8vo.
A POPULAR DICTIONARY of INVENTIONS,
ORIGINS Ane a SCOVERIES.
A CONCISE DI (TIONARY of the ENGLISH
LANGUAGE.
FOR aaa REFERENCE METHODICALLY ARRANGED, AND BASED
UPON THE BEST PHILOLOGIC AUTHORITIES.
One Volume. Medium 8yo.
*.* Atso, A STUDENT'S AND SCHOOL-ROOM ENGLISH DICTIONARY.
12mo.
A MEDIAVAL LATIN DICTIONARY.
Based on the Work of DUCANGE.
Translated into English and Edited, with many Additions and Corrections
BY HE. A. DAYMAN, B.D.,
Prebendary of Sarum, formerly Fellow and Tutor of Exeter College, Oxford.
Small 4to.
DICTIONARY OF BRITISH HISTORY.
One Volume, Mediu
THE FRENCH PRINCIPIA, Part IL.
A READING BOOK, WITH NOTES, AND A DICTIONARY.
12mo.
THE GERMAN PRINCIPIA, Part I.
Uniform with the *‘ French Principia” and ‘‘ Principia Latina.” 12mo,
~ 24 MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF ANNOUNCEMENTS.
In the belief that the recent advinces of Science render tt desirable to collect and
incorporate modern discoveries, and to present in a systematic form the existing
state of our knowledge of the Organic World, Mr. MurRAy is preparing to
publish a series of Scientific Works on
BIOLOGY;
oR, THE
NATURAL HISTORY OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS.
Each Work is intended to be complete in itself ; and while so plain and simple as to
address itself to any reader of ordinary education, yet to embody the latest discoveries,
the scientific literature of its subject being, in all cases, fully referred to. Each Work
isalsoto _ copiously illustrated with careful and exact Woodeuts in the text.
THE FIRST WORK WILL CONTAIN
A Natural History of Mammals, including Man.
By ST. GEORGE MIVART, F.R.S.
2Vols, 8vo.
The object of this first Work is to present to ordinary readers and to medical and
other students who, have no special acquaintance with Zoology, a general view of the
structure, physiology, habits, geographical and geological distribution, affinities and
classification of the groups (of the rank of families and sub-families) which compose the
highest class of animals, Man included.
It is also intended to serve as an introduction to Zoology and to Biology generally,
and will therefore explain in simple language the various ways in which organisms may
be considered, giving the elementary facts and principles of Histology, Physiology, and
the other sciences subordinate to Biology, while sufficient detail will be given to entitle
the Work to serve as a guide to Teachers and Students who may desire to follow up the
subject practically with the Scalpel and the Microscope.
The First VoLuME will comprise Man and the higher Animals furnished with nails,
hoofs, or claws, that is to say, the Apes, Bats, Beasts of Prey, and Gnawing Quadrupeds.
The Srconp VoLUME will contain descriptions of the Hoofed and other Animals not
previously described, such as Horses, Cattle, Swine, Elephants, Whales, Porpoises,
Sloths, Ant-Eaters, Armadillos, and pouched Beasts. It will also treat of the Classi-
fication and Distribution of Mammals, and will review the facts of their structure in
Anatomical instead of in Zoological order.
MURRAY’S EUROPEAN HANDBOOK.
BEING A CONDENSED GUIDE FOR TRAVELLERS TO THE CHIEF ROUTES
AND MOST IMPORTANT PLACES ON THE CONTINENT.
With Map. One Volume. Post 8vo.
BRADBURY, AGNEW, & CO., PRINTERS, WHITEFRIARS.
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