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REPORT 


FORTY-FIFTH MEETING 


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BRITISH ASSOCIATION 


FOR THE 


ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE; 


HELD AT 


BRISTOL IN AUGUST 1875. 


LONDON: 
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 
1876. 


[Office of the Association: 22 Arpemarte Srreer, Lonpon, W.] 


PRINTED BY 


TAYLOR AND FRANCIS, RED LION COURT, FLEET STRERT, 


« 
ALERE 4 FLAMMAM, 


CONTENTS. 


NAR AARARARAY 


Oxzxcts and Rules of the Association ..............0 000 c eee 
Places of Meeting and Officers from commencement 


Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association from 
ame OMICHY, 52 te eet UL. PES RU nll, ees 


REG tO NT elias cats edb oA Gidea sh SHR vane TA 
Lectures to the Operative Classes .......... 0. ccc cece eens 
EMEC AEOOUIG "yie 0e .7a 0s (Rie ok Bgitay MRI AP hGra Shae, ebereunsyene 
Table showing the Attendance and Receipts at Annual Meetings .. 
Spiieers Of Sectional Committees oo. kk eee ees 
SS IT UG TLTRGT NS US 0 LO © a oho a> che oy ss over svar an eh co dean br ovcn'e WE Ol ands 
Report of the Council to the General Committee ................ 


Recommendations of the General Committee for Additional Reporis 
See edemrehes 1m, Seienee.. <2 hele ele eI 


Emm uoney Crantd |e). J SOM SS 
Place-of Meeting in 1877 .............:.. SCHR AS chy ewe, Inee area 


General Statement of Sums paid on account of Grants for Scientific 
RIE Metical 2 WL Ts 8 Maia Ah wohl el Vike Pele holy nes Ve elES 


Arrangement of the General Meetings .............. 0.0.00 ue 
_ Addzess by the President, Sir John Hawkshaw, C.E., F.R.S., F.G.8. 


REPORTS OF RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. 


xhii 
xliv 
xlvi 
xlvil 


xlviii 


lii 
lviii 
lix 
lx 


lxvii 


lxvili 


Eleventh Report of the Committee for Exploring Kent’s Cavern, Devon- 
shire—the Committee consisting of Sir Jonny Luszocx, Bart., F.R.S., 
Joun Evans, F.R.S., Epwarp Vivian, M.A., Georcr Busx, F.RB.S., 
Wirt1am Born Dawkins, F.R.S., Witt1am Aysurorp Sanrorp, F.G.S., 
Joun Epwarp Ler, F.G.S., and Wiitram Prenentry, F.R.S. (Reporter) 1 

a2 


iv CONTENTS. 


Seventh Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir W. Tuomson, F.R.S., 
Professor Evrrerr, Sir Cuartes Lynrt, Bart., F.R.S,, Professor J. 
- Orerx Maxwett, F.R.S., G. J. Syuwons, F.M.S., Professor Ramsay, 
F.R.S., Professor Gerxir, F.R.S., James Guatsaer, F.R.S., Rev. Dr. 
_Granam, G. Maw, F.G.S., W. Peneztty, F.R.S., 8. J. Mackie, F.G.S., 
Professor Hurt, F.R.S., Professor Ansrep, F.R.S., and Professor 
Prustwicn, F.R.S., appointed for the purpose of investigating the 
Rate of Increase of Underground Temperature downwards in various 
localities of Dry Land and under Water. By Professor Evrrerr, 
ID ECH Ins (seas shia) ee Be oss Parse dues 9 sles eie hits 9) oer 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Huxtey, F.R.S., P. L. 
Scrater, F.R.S., F. M. Baurour, J. Gwyn Jurrrnys, F.R.S., Dr. M. 
Foster, F.R.S., E. Ray Lanxester, F.R.S., and A. G. Dew-Suire 
(Secretary), on the Zoological Station at Naples.................. 


Report of a Committee, consisting of E. C. C. Sranrorp, James Dewar, 
Aurrep E. Frercaer, and Atrrep H. Atten (Secretary), appointed 
to inquire into the Methods employed in the estimation of Potash and 
Phosphoric Acid in Commercial Products and on the mode of stating 
the results. Drawn up by Atrrep H. ALLEN 


3.6 & 218 (01s wae te ee re ee ke ea a 


Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of the Crustacea.— 
Part I. On the Homologies of the Dermal Skeleton. By C. Spence 
IB AMIS PRN OEC.) ee dow ev ev ose ape wise wise « 0 ee ite te 


Second Report of a Committee, consisting of Prof. A. 8. Hurscuer, B.A., 
F.R.AS., and G, A. Lezovr, F.G.8., on Experiments to determine the 
Thermal Conductivities of certain Rocks, showing especially the Geo- 
logical Aspects of the Investigation 


Preliminary Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors Roscor, 
Barrour Srewart, and THorre, appointed for the purpose of extend- 
ing the observations on the Specific Volumes of Liquids. Drawn up 
ay (Ts BE REORPY 5.5 oto, 345.0 «01+ dcassis lie iosece boas dle al 


Sixth Report on Earthquakes in Scotland, drawn up by Dr. Brycz, 
F.G.S. The Committee consists of Dr. Brycr, F.R.S.E., Sir W. THom- 
son, F.R.S., J. Broveu, G. Forsss, F.R.S.E., D. Mirnz-Home, F.R.S.E., 
and J. THomson 


Seventh Report of the Committee on the Treatment and Utilization of 
Sewage, reappointed at Belfast, 1874, and consisting of Ricuarp B. 
GrantuaM, C.E.,-F.G.S. (Chairman), Professor A. W. Wiiu1aMson, 
F.R.S., Dr. Girsert, F,R.S., Professor Corrrenp, M.A., M.D., Wi- 
tam Hop, V.C., and F. J. Brawwenn, C.E., F.R.S...........-+08 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Major Wison, R.E., and Mr. 


RaAVENSTEIN, appointed for the purpose of furthering the Palestine 
Explorations 


Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Harkness, Pro- 
fessor Prestwicn, Professor Huenrs, Rev. H. W. Crossxey, Professor 
W. Boyp Dawxrs, Messrs. C. J. Woopwarpv, Grorce Maw, L. C. 
Mratt, G. H. Morron, and J. E. Lex, appointed for the purpose of 
recording the position, height above the sea, lithological characters, 
size, and origin of the more important of the Erratic Blocks of Eng- 
land and Wales, reporting other matters of interest connected with 
the same, and taking measures for their preservation. Drawn up 
by the Rev. H. W. Crossxzy, Secretary 


os ee 0 e 8 0 0 Fe eee clin & y ve WEenane 


Page 


14 


ilte\s 


24 


41 


o4 


64 


65 


81 


CONTENTS. 


Report of the Rainfall Committee for the year 1874-75. The Committee 
consists of C, Brooxn, F.R.S., Chairman, J. F. Bareman, C.E., F.R.S., 
Rocers Fiery, C.E., J. Guatsner, F.R.S., T. Hawxstey, C.E., The 
Earl of Rossz, F.R.S., J. Suyru, Jun., C.E., C. Tomirnson, F.R.S., 
Seneremasss Secketaty eos 20k haiiniad waned sore gellads . 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. H. E. Armstrrone and Dr. T. 
E. Txorre, appointed for the purpose of investigating Isomeric Cresols 
and their Derivatives. Drawn up by Dr. Anmsrrone ............ 


First Report of the Committee for investigating the Circulation of the 
Underground Waters in the New Red Sandstone and Permian Forma- 
tions of England, and the quantity and character of the Water supplied 
to various towns and districts from these formations. The Committee 
consisting of Professor Hurt, Mr. E. W. Brynny, Mr. F. J. Bran- 
weLL, Rey. H. W. Crossxny, Professor Green, Professor HARKNESS, 
Mr. Hower, Mr. W. Motynevux, Mr. C. Moorr, Mr. G. H. Morron, 
Mr. R. W. Myxnz, Mr. Penertiy, Professor Prestwicn, Mr. J. Puant, 
Mr. J. Metiarp Reap, Rev. W. 8. Symonps, Mr. Tyrpren Waricnrt, 
Mr. Wuiraker, and Mr. C. E. DeRancz (Reporter) .............. 


On the Steering of Screw-Steamers. By Professor Ossorne REYNOLDs. . 


Second Report of the Committee on Combinations of Capital and Labour, 
consisting of Lord Hovenron, D.C.L., F.R.S. (Chairman), Jacop Brx- 
rENS, THomAs Brassry, M.P., Franx P. Frertows, Arcnisatp Hamit- 
ton, Professor Lronr Lrvi, A. J. Munprria, M.P., Wu. Newmanrcn, 
F.R.S., Lord O’Hacan, R. J. Ines Paterave, Professor THoronp 
Rocrers. Drawn up by Professor Leone Luvi, F.8.A., F.S.8. ... 


Second Report of the Committee, consisting of W. CuanpLer Rozerts, 
Dr. Mitts, Dr. Boycorr, A. W. Gaprspen, and J. 8. Sznton, appointed 
for the purpose of inquiring into the Method of making Gold-assays, 
and of stating the Results thereof. Drawn up by W. Cranpzrr 
Menuabieyy Pik hs, Weerobary re Lee OS ad Pe eth oe eet 


Eighth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Everrit, Sir W. 
Tuomson, F.R.S., Professor J. Clerk Maxwe tt, F.R.S., G. J. Symons, 
F.M.S., Professor Ramsay, F.R.S., Professor A. Grixre, F.R.S., Jameus 
GuatsHER, F.R.S., Rev. Dr. GRanam, GrorcEr Maw, F.G.S., W. Prn- 
GELLy, F.R.S., 8. J. Mackin, F.G.S., Professor Hux, F.R.S., Professor 
Anstep, F.R.S., Professor Prestwicn, F.R.S., and C. Lz Nevz Fosirr, 
appointed for the purpose of investigating the Rate of Increase of 
Underground Temperature downwards in various Localities of Dry 
Land and under Water. Drawn up by Professor Eyererr, Secretary . 


‘Tides in the River Mersey. Half-tide Level at Liverpool. By Jamus 
/) SEPOYTTETETEOUIS COAL GIGI ae mm SER Pd ee 


Sixth Report of the Committee, consisting of the Rev. THomas Witr- 
sire, M.A., F.G.8., Professor Wittramson, F.2.8., and JamzsTHomson, 
F.G.8., Secretary, appointed to investigate the Structure of the Carbo- 
EE SEAS eae ce Goth a AB a. a di n'n, boar teat > Bache s) ys 


Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir Jonw Lunzocx, Bart., 
Professor Presiwicu, Professor T. M‘K. Hveurs, Professor W. Boyp 
Daweins, Rey. H. W. Crossrry, Messrs. L. C. Mrarz and R. H. Trppr- 
MAN, appointed for the purpose of assisting in the Exploration of the 
Settle Caves (Victoria Cave). Drawn up by R. H. Tipprman, Reporter 


Page 


91 


112 


114 
141 


156 


161 


165 


166° 


vi CONTENTS. 


On the River Avon (Bristol): its Drainage-Area, Tidal Phenomena, and 
Dock Works. By Tuomas Howarp, M.Inst.C.E. .........2.-0505 


Report of the Committee, consisting of the Rev. H. F. Barns, H. E. 
Dresser (Secretary), T. Hartann, J. E. Harrine, Professor Newton, 
and the Rey. Canon Tristram, appointed for the purpose of inquiring 
into the possibility of establishing a “ Close Time” for the protection 
of indigenous animals, and for watching Bills introduced into Parlia- 
mont allecting this SUpJech . 4... s\.<'o ons va wuld s oe 7 


Report of the Committee appointed to Superintend the Publication of the 
Monthly Reports of the Progress of Chemistry, the Committee consist- 
ing of Professor A. W. Wittramson, F.R.S., Professor Franxianp, 
HR b.5 and erotessor ROSCOE, sEAK.S. «2. acuke beers opacke ener 


Report on Dredging off the Coast of Durham and North Yorkshire in 
1874. By Gzorer Srewarpson Brapy, C.M.Z.8., and Davin Rozzrt- 
BOM BIRR hist cite ole rea eta ete hee a pata 


Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors during the year 1874-75, 
by a Committee, consisting of James Guatsuer, F.R.S., of the Royal 
Observatory, Greenwich, R. P. Gree, F.G.8., F.R.A.8., C. Brooxe, 
F.R.S., Professor G. Forsrs, F.R.S.E., Watrer Frieut, D.Sc., F.G.S., 
and. Professor -A./8., Humscmmn,) FP ReAeSi yon terse s oe te 


On the Analytical Forms called Trees, with Application to the Theory 
of Chemical Combinations. By Professor Carney, F.R.S. 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Caytey, F.R.S., Pro- 
fessor Sroxzs, F.R.S., Professor Sir W. Tuomson, F.R.S., Professor H. 
J. 8. Surrg, F.R.S., and J. W. L. Grarsumr, F.R.S., on Mathematical 
Tables, Professor Cavixy, Reporter:)..., 22, \c. 0s eae ee 


Report of the Committee, consisting of W. Srorriswoopn, F.R.S., Pro- 
fessor Sroxrs, F.R.S., Professor Caytey, F.R.S., Professor Crrrvorp, 
_ FLRS., and J. W. L. Guaisuer, F.R.S., appointed to report on Mathe- 
matical Notation and Printing, with the view of leading Mathemati- 
cians to prefer in optional cases such forms as are more easily put into 
type, and of promoting uniformity of notation .................. 


Second Report of the Committee appointed to investigate Intestinal Secre- 
tion. By Dr. Lauper Brunton and Dr. Pyz-Smiro.............. 


Third Report of the Sub-Wealden Exploration Committee, consisting of 
Hoeyry Witter, F.G.8., R. A. C. Gopwin-Avsten, F.RB.S., W. ToPLey, 
F.G.S., T. Davison, F.R.S., Professor J. Presrwrcn, F.R.S., Professor 
Borp Dawxins, F.R.S., and Henry Woopwarp, F.R.S. Drawn up by 
Henry Witterr, F.G.S. 


Page 


175 


184 


184 


185 


305 


339 


CONTENTS, yu 


NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS 
OF 


MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS. 


MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 


REE mILIEHIGIELEL AS-i op Se SEAR eh Heed A sone iniSN er ate ke Grea i Mlaldisels atdle ree etedss 


MatTHEMATICS. 


Professor R, 8. Bau on a Screw-complex of the Second Order............ 
Professor CayLEy on the Analytical Forms called Factions .............. 


Professor CirirFoRD on the Theory of Linear Transformations: I. The Gra- 
hical Representation of Invariants; Il, The Expansion of Unsymmetrical 
nections in Symmetrical Functions and Determinants; III. The Notation 

BeaMv lr COSMMCa fePetcfote lay ssi foi 8 aie sealsh Vela g ca waked Gop auc, eLeseaaa chs LoNGde asebobaetHd 


— on Theorems on the n* roots of Unity............ 


Mr. W. HaypEN on some Geometrical Theorems .............00cceeeeees 


Mr. Henry M. Jerrery’s two Memoirs :—I. On the Shadows of Plane Curves 
on Spheres; IH. On Cubic Spherical Curves with triple Cyclic Ares and 
NE EM ee Pa ris LN Sc ata eae he ital Hae ath Mince em Uae wlaN sient 

Professor Paut Mawnsron’s Elementary Solution of Huyghens’s Problem on 
ESC LSI CERT § 77 1 ee een ea nee ae 


———_————— on the singular Solutions of Differential Equations 
of the First Order which represent Lines at Infinity..................6- 


Professor Henry J. SterPHEN SuirH on Singular Solutions .............. 


— on the Effect of Quadric Transformation 
fee ottietiinr Points of a COrves). ici cieas ds sssage ican ntianees ences 


LEDER ido 8 Bie Yo Sic AEE ETRE Th Cs II eT ek Ye 


Sir W. THomson on Laplace’s Process for determining an Arbitrary Constant 
in the Integration of his Differential Equation for the Semidiurnal Tide . 


General Integration of Laplace’s Differential Equation of 
NR ee Nila eM EI gc coc ute a ATC AS ANG Seow whe opel o's, cs, ein a ba Foeye nye 


———_——— on the Integration of Linear Differential Equations with 
MerTUpBAN (OCKICLONES 0 i.)2 ss Waldo had vase rind sn sin cosh Sebo noo GEe 


Page 
Address by Professor BALFourR Strwart, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., President of 
1 


vili CONTENTS. 


ASTRONOMY. 


Dr. J: JANSSEN on the’Total Solar Eclipse of April 5,1875, observed at Bang- 
Chal: Star) 20 e. 9. ans scace  nfeve tetris» nssscrapens (2 is ae, sheet ee ee ee Se 


Rey. R. Many’s List of Meteors observed at Oxford 


ee ay 


Lieut, Hat, anp ELEec tricity. 


Captain W. pr W. Asney on the Ratio of the Actinic Power to the Muminating 
Power of the Magneto-Electric Light ........+..+.25+-+,sceesv eee ce 


Dr: J. JANSSEN on) Mirageiat Sea... cs. s «isle vets ee eitle etal piel ethene eae ee 


on the Photographic Revolver, and on the Observations of the 
Transitiof Venus made:in Japan. 6... «serie +,x/o)etoahetelel peta tee eee 


Mr. A. Matxtoc# on a Mode of producing a sharp Meridian Shadow........ 


Professor Sroxrs and Mr. J. Hopxrnson on the Optical Properties of a Titano- 
STICIG' GASS) Nis 5 Seal sie afele Salers operate: thede fotireteiers «iaedeberefep lie «Cina: ae aa 


Professor W. F. Barrett on the Effects of Heat on the Molecular Structure 
Olmsteel Wires anid, FROGS... 2\s cau ocular ces > v8 olsce baci CRIES ote en eee 


Mr. P. Branam’s Experiments on Magnetized Rings, Plates, and Disks of 
JePIG Gin Eee) Mie annie seats acon atiote Genre oto Gonos Sabi > oc ma. 


Mr. J. A. Fiemme on the Decomposition of an Electrolyte by Magneto- 
leciric Induction: . azpeitins) cha dtl melaepete st avesrete sc ialakeds 16th. tale Weal eee re 


Dr. J. JANssEN on the Position of the Magnetic Equator in 1 the Gulf of Siam 
andin-thesGulfiot Benpalexegy. p40 ea)-1-\0 tokio a a One. De a 


Mr. H. A. Rowxanp on the Magnetizing Function of Iron, Nickel, and Cobalt 
———_—— — on Magnetic Distribution ............... cues cere ees 
Sir W. THomson on the Effect of Stress on the Magnetism of Soft Iron .... 


Murtroroioey. 


Professor Henry Hennessy on the Influence of the Physical Properties of 
Water on Climate 


a sey ed Se ee PA Fe We be DD 6.6 Clergie © = 6016 6 be v6 StU e MuaeNneray 


—— on the possible Influence on Climate of the sub- 
stitution of Water for Land in Central and Northern Africa ............ 


Dr. J. Morrat on the apparent Connexion between Sun-spots, Atmospheric 
Ozone, Rain, ‘and:Horce’ af“Windstnc..necentse och so nee cre clk rele nae 


Mr. G. J. Symons on the Rainfall in Monmouthshire and the Severn Valley 
on July 14th, and on some subsequent Floods in England and Wales 


CHEMISTRY. 
Address by A. G. Vernon Harcourt, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., President of 
Phe SCctonl * 56 cteise dieters dete cbse Cccetete coal clei aa ashe ec 


Mr. A. H. ALLEN ona Method of effecting a Solution of difficultly Soluble Sub- 
BEATIGES "2,5 c'e1s aiete nile sie sietensi Were ote te hier ieteteie & ote slat ctato fete tee ere 


Dr. Henry E. Armstrone on the Nature of Berthelot’s Vinylic Alcohol . 


Mr. G. H. Beckett and Dr. C. R. AtpEr Wricur on the Alkaloids of the 
Aconites 


a ee 0 Ob ae Os vee oo ee 0 0 8 dre 0 4 age vile 10 0 0 iw 8 e one sv ehie® 0s eL0 ie) Sas Win WERUnl ls 


SuE eC oelellg te, s © ee bled (0 ee ye © o die Ble ble Oe b O1ele soe ye ae ie ee8 Ue Cnnene 


Page 


26 


ne 


CONTENTS. 


Page 
Mr. P. Bravam’s further Experiments on Crystallization of Metals by Elec- 


nr oes rece ccc cess teem tenenerus ce perse tats 


‘Mr. Henry T. Cxamperarn on the Manufacture and Réfining of Sugar in 


Bristol, 1875....... Pe rate eee Riera ape ersthss yes Perea siti a wsra a ile (01% (ol'ee atale Me 
Mr. F. Crowes on the Action of Ethyl-bromobutyrate upon Ethyl-sodaceto- 
SPEER ECHINT E TTT cia V Pia Rro Taha bar afdtet oi oiclel orlelevctat eller ailabetlolate! cvelenelatelis asa le/ste we svele ® 
Mr. Tuomas Davey on the Tobacco Trade of Bristol ..........++0+eee es 
Mr. A. 8. Davis on a simple Method of Determining the Proportion of Car- 
WPT NOTOEITN ANT) coi aictsre ciate oi site os 0 suspen ae ofefeynte wide a eg rip,auncean sie ihe. 
Dr. DeBus on the Chemical Theory of Gunpowder .....-..ees severe eens 
Mr. SparkE Evans on the Manufacture of Sole-leather in Bristol.......... 
Mr. T. Farrury on the Separation of Lead, Silver, and Mercury, with a pro- 
posed process for estimation of Lead .......... seeeeeer rere eee ernes 


— on anew Method of preparing Periodates, with Application 
as a Test for Iodine and Sodium .......... eee eeee cere tere renee eres 


on new Solvents for Gold, Silver, Platinum, &c., with an 
Explanation of the so-called Catalytic Action of these Metals and their 
Salts on Hydrogen Dionide ..........eeeeeseee sete ere ener sete sees 


—__—_. on the Use of Potassium Dichromate in Grove’s and Bunsen’s 
Batteries to ensure constancy 61... esse cee eee e ee teeter ees 


Mr. J. W. GateHouse on Nitrite of Silver 21... . cece cece eee eee eens 


Dr. J. H. Grapstonr on the Relation of the Arrangement of the Acids and 
Bases in a Mixture of Salts to the original manner of Combination ...... 


and Mr. Atrrep Trrsr on the Action of the Copper- 


—_————— on the Augmentation of the 
Chemical Activity of Aluminium by contact with a more Negative Metal. 


Mr. A. Vernon Harcourt on an Apparatus for estimating Carbon Bisul- 
phide in Coal-gas 2.00... seen eee e ete cere teen etter eee e ne en seen’ 


Messrs. L. Jackson and A. OppENHEIM on Derivates of Mercaptan........ 


Mr. Cuartes T. Kinezert on the Oxidation of the Essential Oils.—The 
Limited Oxidation of Terpenes and Cymene .......... see serene erneee 


Mr. J. C. Mexuiss on the Treatment of Sewage .....sesseete rere ene nees 
Mr, A. OPPENHEIM on Onynoitic Acid 6.1... eee eee cent eee ees 
Dr. T. L. Purpson on Noctilucine ...... ccc cece cece eee nee e ee cnees 


Mr. Wiirram THomson on Apparatus and Modes of Examination for the 
Source of Polluted Air ........ccceeee tener ect ernest tenner seerees 


Professor T. E. THORPE on a new Gaseous Compound of Fluorine and Phos- 
PCy aiele 21533 !- ithe Ua erie wala ha ge T+ sald «be ae)digeiel albpe yey ote oe 4 cdots 


Dr. Wit11am A. TivEN on the Crystalline Constituents of Aloes ........ 


Dr. Jonn Warts on Miintz and Ramspacher’s Apparatus for the Estimation 


PEP RTIT ECR ACIG ® ook ois, cn Bea ee on Ia Neha: wane RR UE Vetere leone ie Paar ew ae Welty 


GEOLOGY. 


Address by THomas Wricut, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., President of the 
SIECLLON) varapiteteteceiatateraterets Pets! ste" ctatarec io’ ghatohcietelo’otelels/oCotelele'els wines s reen sey s« 


D.¢ CONTENTS. 


Page 
My. Wituram Heimer Barry on a new Species of Labyrinthodont Amphiba 


from the Coal at Jarrow Colliery, near Castlecomer, co, Kilkenny 


Rey. James BrovieE on the Action of Ice in what is usually termed the Gla- 
Cla Period. sresrs.c 3 seeps Cos Heciely ls Wee e mere Spela o ete ser ee 


Rey. P. B. Bropr® on the further Extension of the Rheetic or Penarth Beds 
in Warwickshire, Leicestershire, Nottinghamshire, Yorkshire, and Cumber- 
land; and on the Occurrence of some supposed Remains of a new Labyrin- 
thodon and a new Radiate therein 


ee Oe ee a CO eet We Ora) ce 


Dr. W. B, CarPENTER on the Origin of the Red Clay found by the ‘ Chal- 
lengeriat/ereat Deptha in ‘the Ocean .)..% |. |. 1 ties «rye ee cose i eneieiel ene 


—_—_—_—__—_——_——— on the Condition of the Sea-bottom of the North 
Pacific, as shown by the Soundings recently taken by the U.S. Steamship 
‘Tuscarora’ 


Messrs. HanDEL CossHaM, Epwarpd WETHERED, and WaLTER SalIseE on the 
Northern End of the Bristol Coalfield... 6... canes eass geumensvogenas 


Dr. CLemEnT Lr Neve Foster on the Deposit of Tin-ore at Park of Mines, 
St. Columb, Cornwall 


Mr. Epwarp Fry on Moraines as the retaining Walls of Lakes............ 


Mr. A. H. Green on the Variations in Character and Thickness of the 
Millstone-grit of North Derbyshire and the adjoining parts of Yorkshire, 
and on the probable manner in which these Changes have been produced. . 


Mr. J. G. GRENFELL on Carboniferous Encrinites from Clifton and from 
Lancashire 


Ovi ete e 0.0 O06 (6.0) oR, 6s 0 }8 Mee’ p. © 6) e.6).0K0 mine oly nip o.8.8 8 ie leualednin lien 


Oe eee eh Oe a eer ewe ee a ee eT yy Tie hs at eee rt a wy oy 


Mr. JoHn Guwn on the Influx and Stranding of Icebergs during the so-called 
Glacial Epoch, and a suggestion of the possible cause of the Oscillation of 
the Level of Land and Water to which that Influx may be due.......... 


Mr. Wiixi1am J. Harrison on the Occurrence of Rheetic Beds near Leicester 


Professor E. H¥BERT on the Undulations of the Chalk in the North of France, 
and their probable existence under the Straits of Dover 


Dr. J. Hector on the Geology of New Zealand ............cs.eeeeeees 


Mr. Henry Hicxs on some Areas where the Cambrian and Silurian Rocks 
oeeur as Conformable Series 


Cone @lee ol elein © ee ble © wie 0 2 6,60 © nen 6 6 0 8) ¢ 6 6a elaine 8 


Mr. Joun Hopkinson on the Distribution of the Graptolites in the Lower 
Ludlow Rocks near Ludlow :.., .4m secdee pa ok pate © alk siete ile ae ae 


Prof. T. M*K. Huauss on the Classification of the Sedimentary Rocks 


Professor Epwarp Huu on the Discovery, by Count Abbot Castracane, of 
Diatomacez in Coal from Lancashire and other places 


Mr. G. Henry Kinanan on the Drifting-power of Tidal Currents and that of 
Wind-waves : 


ee 


Mr. G. A. Lesour on the Limits of the Yoredale Series in the North of 
England _... wed ds bu can eh Se Ree nt dae acaen ye A 
Mr."D. Macxrnrosu on the Geological meaning of the term “ River-basin,” 
and the desirability of substituting “‘ Drainage-area ” 


SS on the Origin of two polished and sharpened Stones from 
Cefn Cave 


—..-——— 0n existing Ice-action in Greenland and the Alps, com- 
pared with former Ice-action in the N.W. of England and Wales........ 


Mr. J. M*Murrrie on certain Isolated Areas of Mountain-Limestone at Luck- 
ington and Vobster 


Os (0 Vie oe vie G85 ed 8 ele ee Wk else 8 8 e Pee Se ale le nya (se) «Biel ®) Meee 


63 


64 


64 


G4 


64 


64 


64 


65 


G5 


CONTENTS. xi 


Mr. CuarLes Moore on the Age of the Durdham Down Deposit, yielding 
BR ECACORLOSCUTUS SUCs arn ich sinh t Aabolsinie 19) x aleys- MMMes> sa aes 05 of nus) uefel oie) > Slee ia jaye.s ae 


Mr. J. R. Mortm™er on the Distribution of Flint in the Chalk of Yorkshire. 7 
ProfessorH. ALLEYNE NICHOLSON on Azygograptus, anew Genus of Graptolites 


Ser ea SOKIAGAW SLALCSE tree ale larersi ne) qeveke ays) oiesticietel es eitic: shale aia) slcyels! vals 3. 78 
— and Mr. CuHartes Lapworts on the Cen- 
tral Group of the Silurian Series of the North of England .............. 78 
Dr. CHartes Ricketts on the Cause of the Glacial Period, with reference 
Pemmer EPICS NES OSe statis oy dretoeicslad.s Upitetdale mie eels Ueno ok. 8 79 
Mr. Witt1am SANDERS on certain large Bones in Rhetic Beds at Aust Cliff, 
onto LRUGL SS Rp Aas Sar Geert Bele Re RRS RE IOP I Oe 60 CRU OC ere a aan ea 80 
Mr. W. W. Sroppart on Auriferous Limestone at Walton .............. 81 
Rey. W.'S. Symonps on Changes of Climate during the Glacial Period .... 82 
My. E. B. Tawney on the Age of the Cannington-Park Limestone, and its 
Relation to Coal-measures South of the Mendips .,..............-.000- 82 
Mr, J. E. Tayvtor on the Discovery of a Submerged Forest in the Estuary of 
BtepOh Olle. s(), ci cic, aos. s ort haa dae 4 tok ot eae + SERRE ys ANGE CONG 82 
Professor J. TENNANT on the South-African Diamonds ..............0005 82 
Mr. James THoMSON on a new Genus of Rugous Corals from the Mountain- 
MBinmestone of Scotland”. >. dissect sae dd eatin ae DekayenA alone atekeune 83 
Mr. Wiiitam A. TratIxi on the Occurrence of a Lower Boulder-clay, or Till 
with Shells, in the Counties of Down and Mayo, Ireland ................ 83 
—_____—+__————_ on a Mass of Travertine or Calcareous Tuff, called 
“The Glen Rock,” near Ballycastle, County Mayo, Iveland.............. 84 
Dr. THomas Wricurt on the Reptilian Remains from the Dolomitic Conglo- 
MELESPH MOL OD UTC ANU SE) OWL? oh c.ins cheno: aeshensue ous oytfiaiins aval oo Uaxnel ody |n. eset eS obra vole 85 
BIOLOGY. 
Address by P. L. Scuater, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., President of the 
ETAL a acu! 7A Ge ORE Oe DOD DRE RE DDE Bb to open Cn UEeie ete f 85 
Botany 
EPR SCE AMOR SPACOICSS ta:5) cizieiojsrtgices Ne HOSES RG: bee cs Ov me Rade aelgne des 85 
Professor BALFouR on Rare Plants from Scotland ............. cece eens 156 
Mr. I. Baytey Baxrour on Turneracee from Rodriguez ..............6+ 156 © 
on the Geological Structure and Flora of the Mas- 
carene Islands ....,......... HES Bole AEOOS So OOo Pig eG e SOAR nae Ae 157 
Professor A. Dickson on an Abnormality of Primula vulgaris with Interpeta- 
eam CSM ae Teen Taare Vale ott sats. ctnerstenisiele cfs css Meta city wersceiss 157 
—————— on a Monstrosity in Saxifraga stellaris ...........445 157 
—____- on Abnormal Flowers of Trop@olum......... 00. ee 157 
Professor W. R. M°Nas on a Variety of Polypodium vulgare .........00005 158 
— ona Varibhy Of Pubes csi. ieee Hilal Viislt's ola we 158 


Mr. J. J. MonrEro on the Application of the Fibre of Adansonia digitata .. 158 
Dr. Daviy Moore on Spiranthes Romanzoviana..... ccc ccec ce ceen en eunes 158 


xi CONTENTS. 


Page 
Mr. Crcit H. Sp. PErcEVAL on a rare Species of Fungus found in Surrey .. 158 


Professor W. ©. WILLIAMSON on some Fossil Seeds from the Lower Carbo- 


niferous Beds of Laneashire: 3200.64.60 eee de vemt ee eee se sens wee 159 
ZooLoey. 

Dr; SOLATER’S Address) joys iis) sis eicevsQoass'ore 216 s\oys nels Vie» ayneae fokonaehe hes ee 85 
Dr. Purire P. CARPENTER on the Primary Divisions of the Chitonide...... 161 
Dr. W. B. CARPENTER on the Nervous and Generative Systems of the Crinoidea 161 
Dr. Hecror on the Occurrence of Moa-bones in New Zealand ............ 161 
Dr. C. T. Hupson on the Classification and Affinities of the Rotifera ...... 161 
Mr. ALFRED NEwTon on certain Neglected Subjects of Ornithological Inves- 

PLO AULOTI ean MPa a ase atccalevens ahs ts ates ete'a itavape,« ntitr ete ak cae aia ete itt 162 
Mr. 1); AV SpanpinG on Instinct and Acquisition 7.0.0.0... 100055005 geee 163 


ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 


Professor CLELaNnp’s Address to the Department of Anatomy and Physiology 154 


Mr. Henry B. Brapy on a new Method of taking Photographs of Microsco- 
pical Objects, devised by Mr. Hugh T. Bowman ...........+..+ssee0e 163 


Mr. W. J. Cooper on some Physiological Effects of various Drinking-Waters 163 
Professor Dewar and Dr. M‘Kenpricxk on the Physiological Action of the 


Whinodine and @Pyridine’ Bases 2". io. s+ «seve 6 5 cle Heiesrinegs ie aaa 165 
Drs. GrorGr and Frances EvizaBretTH Hoeean on the Origin of the Lym- 
(DRCIICS GAR thin SOmntinend & Racin nenOnMineinin Dumaibinericmcuninin ao doo nd 70 6 165 
Mr. D. J. GoopMan on Protoplasm and Adipocere ..........e+eeesserees 167 
Mr. F. GrEENwoop on the Preservation of the Bodies of the larger Animals 
FEO BUD SSGCULOM say fens yolcusretohets (liciomit- Gaps ligoausvenegey ocala’ aisle) caaleess (ares eee a 167 
Mr. C. O. Groom-Naprer on Vegetarianism..........-.esscesesesersens 169 
Mr. P. Hatiert on the Bearings of “the Conservation of Force” on Life .. 169 
Dr. Martyn on some new Researches on the Anatomy of the Skin ........ 169 
Messrs. L. C. Mratz and F. Grreenwoop on Vascular Plexuses in the Ele- 
phanbrand "other tAmimals'~.<.:.lev. eters oretetedaye tects) sacl tetetele skates et tice 170 
ANTHROPOLOSY. 
Professor RoLLEsTon’s Address to the Department of Anthropology........ 142 
Dr. Joun Beppor on the Ossuary at Rothwell, in Northamptonshire ...... 170 
Miss A. W. Buckianp on Rhabdomancy and Belomancy ................ 170 
Colonel Carrin@Ton on the Indians of the North-western United States.... 171 
Mr. Hypr Crarxe on Prehistoric Culture in India and Africa ............ 171 
on Prehistoric Names of Weapons ..........00+++se00- 172 


on the Himalayan Origin of the Magyar and Fin Languages 172 
Rev. J. Eartx on the Ethnography of Scotland ..........0..ee eee e eens 172 


Mr. R, Epwarps on Recent Discoveries of Flint Implements in Drift-gravels 
an Middlesex, Essex, sand) Barks) . 31. s:,.00. ss\shoels akon came op ae eee 173 


Sir Watter Exvrior on the Original Localities of the Races forming the pre- 
Boibek OPUIAMON OR URGIN, .. . Ce ccc sits to oa. «once ee cit 175 


CONTENTS. 


My. Joun Evans ona new Code of International Symbols for use on Prehistoric 


WITH): Qn Qk O UP OD SOE OOO E CPD OER EOUOEE: REC RnOnOOUE Chie mnna emda 
Colonel A. H, Lanz Fox on Recent Investigations in Cissbury Camp, Sussex 
Rey. W. W. Grtx on the Origin of the South-Sea Islanders 
on some Traditions of the Hervey Islanders 


Dr. J. H. Guapstone on the Recent Discovery of a Stone Implement in the 
Brick-earth of Erith, Kent 


Mr. Bertram F, TartrsHorRNE on the Weddas of Ceylon 


mite ofc) 8) cio) Ghutete sie are sl evel y sheets ale’ h oe) 6 0 es» 6 8) 6 ae 6 


Dr. Lerrner on an Ethnological and Linguistic Tour of Discovery in Dar- 
PURINA CS rerch Set os cvov ey sn crereve MRE Ae NRO tS ee Wa Re  ORRENS aare 


Mr. D, MacxrytosH on Anthropology, Sociology, and Nationality 


f 6 @0:an6i'p 


Mr. Ropert MricHet on the supposed lost Language and Antiquity of the 
Kirghiz, or Buruts 


Mr. CuarzeEs O. Groom Napier on the Localities from whence the Gold and 
Tin of the Ancients were derived 


Dr. T. Nrcizonas on a new Paragraph in Early English History .......... 
Mr. W. PENGELLY on the Archeological Discoveries in Kent’s Cavern, Tor- 

TTA? 5 cco Sap aig lo tet ree RO eee ei Lo Dee yee ie b aca als og 
on a recent Notice of Brixham Cavern................ 


Dr. J. S. Pené on the Works, Manners, and Customs of the Early Inhabi- 
tants of the Mendips 


Rey. Canon Rawuryson on the Ethnography of the Cimbri .......,...... 
Professor ROLLESTON on the Animal Remains found in Cissbury Camp 


on the Applicability of Historical Evidence to Ethno- 


em Ss (a) Oe «wv whe leo 6 a's eye) eh) MG bh eee ela 6 ee he) 0 ela sie) 8.8 8, m 


Dr. Sruums on the Physiopnomy of the Har......... 00. cece ccc eee e eee 
Mr. W. 8. W. Vavx on the Origin of the Maori Races in New Zealand .... 


Mr. C. Stantnanp WAKE on the Predatory Races of Asia and Europe; a 
Beep ereine MOLDS Me arse te ctpir is one un ee eos Sab ae ly ad saree aa ay akah als 


Mr. Hopprr M. Wesrropr on the Cycle of Development 


graphical Inquiries 


GEOGRAPHY. 


Address by Lieut.-General R. Stracury, R.E., 0.8.1, F.R.S., President of 


the Section 


EOC” DMO RCCRCHON ACRICIICNTOR eCIOONONCLS ge 1 Cate. Wr Oe Neer iC J NEM mC emcees nPe re res 


Dr. J. C. Brown on the Physical Geography of South Africa, and Products 
and Prospects of the Cape of Good Hope 


COC ee SWC ie Cat SNe May Set Yt ie Se eg ae: 


on the late Inundations in France viewed in connexion with 
Reboisement and Gazonnement on the Alps, Cevennes, and Pyrenees, em- 


ployed as a means of extinguishing and preventing the Formation of 
Torrents 


Mcer eS) e Peele els eo 8. v6 6b 6 os aq so. w aie) aml alai ets mile aide Bde aty Wee Cleon, a eh setae E's’ 6 


—————— on South-African Torrential Floods viewed in connexion 
with the late Inundations in the Valley of the Garonne and its Affluences, 
and Measures adopted in France to prevent such Floods ................ 


Dr. W. B. Carpenter on Bearings of recent Observations on the Doctrine of 
Oceanic Circulation 


Be 6b e) aiel Wim aie) aw oe k Welt eS an 6, bh 6 pe ee 6 0b wae 0 as a nel ee ae wig 


xu 


Page 


173 
175 


1738 


180 


189 


189 


XIV CONTENTS. 


Page 
Lieutenant CHIpPINDALE on a Journey towards the Outlet of the Nile from the 


Ilia) Vall eng CVI Be Sen 0 G0 Cte DOO SOIOOIN DIDS O25 0-8 0.00.6 0.o05.5 ¢ 190 
General Sir ARTHUR CoTTon on the North-west African Expedition ...... 190 
Mr. James Croxt on the ‘ Challenger’s’ Crucial Test of the Wind and Gravyi- 

tation’ Theories: of Oceanic’ Circulation...)..(. <i sj» © «saa «splines 191 
Colonel T. E. Gorpon on the Exploration of the Pamir Steppe............ 193 
Mr. Kerry JoHNsTON on Journeys in Paraguay in 1874-75 .............. 193 
Mr. C. R. Marxwam on the Progress of the Arctic Expedition and on the 

proceedings of EMS, © Valorousi2 9... <$iq...«+ > » aa.) Bie ote ee 193 
Colonel T. G. MonrcomMeErie on Himalayan Glaciers ................000 193 


Mr. E. DetMar Morean on Prejevalsky’s Travels in Mongolia and Northern 
PRD Etipcegsy Mouses cep ayciaisbs sit ievelet a Cieaeracs spivti cht stars alk pee a tsk 194 


Dr. G. Nacutieau’s Expedition from the Lake Tchad to the Upper Nile .. 195 
Captain the Hon. G. Napier on the Turcoman Frontier of Persia 
Lieut.-Colonel R. L. PLAyFarr’s Exploration of the Aurés Mountains .... 195 
Captain H. Toynsrx on the Physical Geography of that part of the Atlantic 


which lies between 20° N, and 10° S. and extends from 10° to 40° W. ,... 196 
Major Hersert Woop on Changes in the Course of the Oxus ............ 197 
Colonel Yuux on Trade-Routes to Western! Ching viens. 0s tac ty eee 197 

ECONOMIC SCIENCE anp STATISTICS. 
Address by Jamzs Hrywoop, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Pres. Statistical Society, 

Presidentiot the Section. ;y csese sacs cc cumecees ole ote 197 


Major-General Sir J. E. ALexanprER on the probable Cost and Propriety of 
removing to England the fallen Obelisk of Alexandria, presented to Great 


Bata by the Vache OF Hey yt, 0. cok a aciee 3 «ose». sey os be 204 
Dr, Joun Beppox on the Need of Systematic Observations on the Physical 
Udtarncters of Manin’ Beltaih oo50 i cwihs tis. «100. 0 esate a 204 
—_—_- on the Mortality of Adolescence .............s.ce0ecees 205 
——-——-—— on the Death-rates of some Health-Resorts, and specially 
ENO RERUOE Os 5 isin ede av aid intars els auld oa Ree ee el fee ee 205 
Mons. Bonnomr on Sericicultura . $22. c.u hese: «».os16 ose ee sacan ee 206 
Mr. Wit11aM Borty on Agricultural Statistics and Waste Lands........., 206 
<= on’ Workmen's Dwellinbs®.) sic jvc yet ee 206 


Mr. E. W. Brasroox on the Working of the Building Societies Act, 1874.. 206 


Mr. Lronarp Bruton on the Trade and Commerce of the City and Port of 
ASRESUOL, 9) 22 1S IE LY, Uae ure wets tates tae ct ciara one 207 


Rev. Joun T. Burr on the Principles of Penal Legislation.—Second Paper... 207 
Miss CarpENnTER on Industrial Schools 


OREO ER IE NOHO e Me os 1 209 
Mr. Henry CHAMBERLAIN on the Rise and Progress of the Sugar Trade in 
BustebA8VS -0, bivicager i hadley, 8h, 790 ee 209 
Mrs. R. M. Crawsway on Domestic Service for Gentlewomen ............ 209 
Mr, Sparke Evans on the Tanning of Sole-Leather in Bristol ..:......... 209 


o. CONTENTS. 
Bo” 


Mrs. Witt Grey on the Standard of National Education 
My. P. Hatyett on Income Fallacies and some of their Consequences 


Professor W. STANLEY JEVONS on the Progress of the Coal Question 


on the Influence of the Sun-spot Period upon 
Mr. D, MacxrnTosu on the prevailing Mode of Preparation for Competitive 
BME ONS UANS Cus Sara PORRS fis TMC KARA sh Gite MLE OTe. oka 


Dr. F. J. Movar on the Value of European Life in India in its Social, Poli- 
tical, and Economic Aspects 


Mr. C. O. Groom Napier on Legislative Protection to the Birds of Europe . 
Mrs. BuApEN NEIxu on the Acclimatization of the Silkworm.............. 


Mr. Toomas Francis PEAcocK on Building Societies and the Act of 1874... 


Miss A. M. PrrestMan on the Industrial Position of Women as affected by their 
exclusion from the Suffrage 


Mr. D. A. SpaLpineG on Free Trade in Labour 


O50) O01) O 8) Odea a) a) a ol meee 4/816) oa ee eS eMalciaMe naib, éha co 
a eee aie i668 uel a) ome ie ea eb 6 wie 


Mr. E. Vrv1An on the Comparative Mortality of Abstainers and Non-Abstainers 
from Alcoholic Liquors 


DE wher 6 she wid oel ale pas ers @) mrsy 60s) 60 0) si @te/ eye) Wi Gen! 68) 6. 0a 6) a ote onesie 


MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 


Address by Wiutu1am Frovpr, C.E., M.A., F.R.S., President of the 
Section 


2) OSG OS CLC ROC CASON UCC CHORE OSM ACRE MCHC MCE a ALR a RCM RCHE EP Ye eR 


Mr. FrepEerick AsuMEaD on the Drainage of the City and County of Bristol 
Mons, C. BERGERON on the Prevention of Sand Bars at the Mouth of Harbours 


Mr. Watter R. Browne on Roberts’s Patent Communicator for Railway 
Trains é 


Seana LS MEN gees Cage) S), 5) A'S Sele (ees mse) Wiailaie 0, Sel a raeailel @ Get uoata ‘aitaustas oFeveliel cra. t 


Mr. James Brunuexs on the Bristol Port and Channel Dock at 


: Avonmouth, 
near Bristol 


PE rit SAS OB UAUe Kp Sod 9 faye ch LAST ais ca) Te roman Mee espns TaN a) ayoy sixe Youl> Si aa awivaitn: at's) otal nn, Ooo. J 
SPD Oe Mn shat STS aa at (ei mi 8 ig. \6 for ola ehas ahistal's (S.-i bhe 


Pees ears nae t)'s) 4b es, ia 6/8) 0. a) Rte, 8! poe at pivele.@ aie 


Mr. J. D. Cogan on Toughened Glass 


Messrs. CRICHTON and CraiG ona System of Audible Signals for Railways... 2 


Mr. Witi1am Denny on the Trials of Screw Steam-Ships 
Mr. Francis Fox on the Bristol joint Station 


Mr. R. R. Harper on Block-signalling on Railways 


ae J. Hopxrnson on Improvements in the Clockwork of Revolving Light- 
ouses 


Professor Huru’s Scheme of Water-supply for the Villages and Country 
Parishes of the Central and Eastern Counties of England ............. x 


Mr, Henry Masters on a Sewer-Trap ..... 0.0.0... .0. ces cecsceccce, 
Mr. Cuarzes Ricwarpson on tho Severn Tunnel 


250 


Xvl CONTENTS. 


Mr. Jamus N. SHootprep on Tides in the Irish Sea ............. Seccektare 250 
Mr. W. Smrru on A. S. Hallidie’s Wire Rope Traction-Railway ......... , 252 
—~—— on a Means of Recording the Movements of Points and Signals 252 
—- on a Breech-loading Mountain Gun ............cseeeeeeee 252 
—_______. one Military Bidom.s cu... o. ct oe + «pial eihte emanate , 252 
Mr, BG, Srimmman on Portishead Dock: \.)..().. isin: » »ichswicope ses oeueiyeenatetlety 252 
Messrs. SrRouUDLFY and RusBRIDGE on Communication between Passengers 
TIA TIALS. cots 5 jcedeal « iohwiale Sng oem p Se sain p ious eae» ls gio eee as 252 
Mr. Joun I. Toornycrort on Vertical Motion of Vessels.............+4- 252 
Sir W. THomson on a Machine for the Calculation of Tides .............. 253 
—_—_____- and Mr. J. Hopxrnson on Methods of giving Distinctive 
@haracters porluschtbOuUses. ninja lalvisysle) sei lallets ee ielel eels eels elenelee ientanetentae 255, 
Nin Wellormmy.on the Channel Vummnel ac. co. eyeing cise elect eieetees 253 
Mr. Beaucname Tower on a Machine for obtaining Motive Power from the 
Motion’ of a Ship among’ Waves Sane s ies ee soles eleielelcie els <ts)aeeeaere trae 253 
on a Revolution-Indicator.............. 00 eee eee 254 
Dr JOsEPm WOOLLEY On Steering’... 2c <r. se sis teapots costs lets aierelimepemets bos 255 
APPENDIX. 
Prof. W. F. Barrett on the Effect of Heat in altering the Molecular Structure 
QEOSLCEN, Fis avaneici d's 0/eigig tie aca 6 4 aya-o sare! s opgGhetn loumbialivl akeicUnkateueadlo tlie Meio Ts eae 259 
Mr. N. Lowrenruat LonspaLe on Mechanical Self-Registering Apparatus 
for Barometer, Thermometer, Rain- and Wind-Gauges .............45. 260 


ERRATUM IN REPORT FOR 1874. 


In thr Rerorts. 
Page 245, line 16 from bottom, for Mr. Charles Law read Mr. Channell Law. 


OBJECTS AND RULES 


OF 


THE ASSOCIATION. 


OBJECTS. 


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RULES. 


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1875. b 


XViil RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. 


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RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. xix 


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The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The place 
of cach Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee two years in 
advance; and the Arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the Officers of 
the Association. 


General Committee. 


The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or 
longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the 
following persons :— 


Crass A. Permanent Mempers. 


1. Members of the Council, Presidents of the Association, and Presidents 
of Sections for the present and preceding years, with Authors of Reports in 
the Transactions of the Association. 

2. Members who by the publication of Works or Papers have furthered 
the advancement of those subjects which are taken into consideration at the 
Sectional Meetings of the Association. Wzth a view of submitting new claims 
under this Rule to the decision of the Council, they must be sent to the Assistant 
General Secretary at least one month before the Meeting of the Association. 
The decision of the Council on the claims of any Member of the Association to 
be placed on the list of the General Committee to be final. 


Crass B. Temporary Members. 


1. The President for the time being of any Scientific Society publishing Trans- 
actions or, in his absence, a delegate representing him. Claims under this Rule 
to be sent to the Assistant General Secretary before the opening of the Meeting. 

2. Office-bearers for the time being, or delegates, altogether not excecding 
three, from Scientific Institutions established in the place of Meeting. 
Claims under this Rule to be approved by the Local Secretaries before the 

opening of the Meeting. 

3. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and who 
are specially nominated in writing, for the Meeting of the year, by the Pre- 
sident and General Secretaries. 

4, Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections. 


Organizing Sectional Committees*. 


The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the several Sections 
are nominated by the Council, and have power to act until their names are 
submitted to the General Committee for election. 

From the time of their nomination they constitute Organizing Committees 
for the purpose of obtaining information upon the Memoirs and Reports 
likely to be submitted to the Sectionst, and of preparing Reports thereon, 


% Passed by the General Committee, Edinburgh, 1871. 
+ Notice to Contributors of Memoirs.— Authors are reminded that, under an arrange- 
ment dating from 1871, the acceptance of Memoirs, and the days on which they are to be 
h2 


xX RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. 


and on the order in which it is desirable that they should be read, to be pre- 
sented to the Committees of the Sections at their first Meeting. 

An Organizing Committee may also hold such preliminary Meetings as the 
President of the Committee thinks expedient, but shall, under any circum- 
stances, meet on the first Wednesday of the Annual Meeting, at 11 a.m., to 
settle the terms of their Report, after which their functions as an Organizing 
Committee shall cease. 


Constitution of the Sectional Committees*. 


On the first day of the Annual Meeting, the President, Vice-Presidents, 
and Secretaries of each Section having been appointed by the General Com- 
mittee, these Officers, and those previous Presidents and Vice-Presidents of 
the Section who may desire to attend, are to meet, at 2 P.m., in their Com- 
mittee Rooms, and enlarge the Sectional Committees by selecting individuals 
from among the Members (not Associates) present at the Meeting whose as- 
sistance they may particularly desire. The Sectional Committees thus con- 
stituted shall have power to add to their number from day to day. 

The List thus formed is to be entered daily in the Sectional Minute-Book, 
and a copy forwarded without delay to the Printer, who is charged with 
publishing the same before 8 a.m. on the next day, in the Journal of the 
Sectional Proceedings. 


Business of the Sectional Committees. 


Committee Meetings are to be held on the Wednesday at 2 p.m., on the 
following Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Monday, and Tuesday, from 10 to 
11 a.m., punctually, for the objects stated in the Rules of the Association, 
and specified below. 

The business is to be conducted in the following manner :— 

At the first meeting, one of the Secretaries will read the Minutes of last 
year’s proceedings, as recorded in the Minute-Book, and the Synopsis of 
Recommendations adopted at the last Meeting of the Association and printed 
in the last volume of the Transactions, He will next proceed to read the 
Report of the Organizing Committee +. The List of Communications to be 
read on Thursday shall be then arranged, and the general distribution of 
business throughout the week shall be provisionally appointed. At the close 
of the Committee Meeting the Secretaries shall forward to the Printer a List 
of the Papers appointed to be read. The Printer is charged with publishing 
the same before 8 a.m. on Thursday in the Journal. 

On the second day of the Annual Meeting, and the following days, the 


read, are now as far as possible determined by Organizing Committees for the several 
Sections before the beginning of the Meeting. It has therefore become necessary, in order 
to give an opportunity to the Committees of doing justice to the several Communications, 
that each Author should prepare an Abstract of his Memoir, of a length suitable for in- 
sertion in the published Transactions of the Association, and that he should send it, toge- 
ther with the original Memoir, by book-post, on or before .....s0-..sscseeesreenreee , addressed 
thus—“ General Secretaries, British Association, 22 Albemarle Street, London, W. For 
Section ......- ” Tf it should be inconvenient to the Author that his Paper should be read 


on any particular days, he is requested to send information thereof to the Secretaries in a 
separate note. 


* Passed by the General Committee, Edinburgh, 1871. 
tThis and the following sentence were added by the General Committee, 1871. 


VT 


a 


RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXi 


Secretaries are to correct, on a copy of the Journal, the list of papers which 
have been read on that day, to add to it a list of those appointed to be read 
on the next day, and to send this copy of the Journal as early in the day as 
possible to the Printers, who are charged with printing the same before 8 a.m. 
next morning in the Journal. It is necessary that one of the Secretaries of 
each Section should call at the Printing Office and revise the proof each 
evening. 

Minutes of the proceedings of every Committee are to be entered daily in 
the Minute-Book, which should be confirmed at the next meeting of the 
Committee. 

Lists of the Reports and Memoirs read in the Sections are to be entered 
in the Minute-Book daily, which, with all Memoirs and Copies or Abstracts 
of Memoirs furnished by Authors, are to be forwarded, at the close of the Sce- 
tional. Meetings, to the Assistant General Secretary. 

The Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections become ew officio temporary 
Members of the General Committee (vide p. xix)? and will receive, on ap- 
plication to the Treasurer in the Reception Room, Tickets entitling them to 
attend its Meetings. 

The Committees will take into consideration any suggestions which may 
be offered by their Members for the advancement of Science. They are 
specially requested to review the recommendations adopted at preceding 
Meetings, as published in the volumes of the Association and the communi- 
cations made to the Sections at this Meeting, for the purposes of selecting 
definite points of research to which individual or combined exertion may be 
usefully directed, and branches of knowledge on the state and progress of 
which Reports are wanted; to name individuals or Committees for the exe- 
eution of such Reports or researches ; and to state whether, and to what de- 
gree, these objects may be usefully advanced by the appropriation of the 
funds of the Association, by application to Government, Philosophical Insti- 
tutions, or Local Authorities. 

In case of appointment of Committees for special objects of Science, it is 
expedient that all Members of the Committee should be named, and one of 
them appointed to act as Secretary, for insuring attention to business. 

Committees have power to add to their number persons whose assistance 
they may require. 

The recommendations adopted by the Committees of Sections are to be 
registered in the Forms furnished to their Secretaries, and one Copy of each 
is to be forwarded, without delay, to the Assistant General Secretary for pre- 
sentation to the Committee of Recommendations. Unless this be done, the 
Recommendations cannot receive the sanction of the Association. 

V.B.— Recommendations which may originate in any one of the Sections 
must jirst be sanctioned by the Committee of that Section before they can be 
referred to the Committee of Recommendations or confirmed by the General 
Committee. 


Notices Regarding Grants of Money. 


Committees and individuals, to whom grants of money have been entrusted 
by the Association for the prosecution of particular researches in Science, 
are required to present to each following Meeting of the Association a Report 
of the progress which has been made ; and the Individual or the Member first 
named of a Committee to whom a money grant has been made must (pre- 
viously to the next meeting of the Association) forward to the General 


XXil RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. 


Secretaries or Treasurer a statement of the sums which have been expended, 
and the balance which remains disposable on each grant. 

Grants of money sanctioned at any one meeting of the Association expire 
a week before the opening of the ensuing Meeting; nor is the Treasurer 
authorized, after that date, to allow any claims on account of such grants, 
unless they be renewed in the original or a modified form by the General 
Committee. 

No Committee shall raise money in the name or under the auspices of the 
British Association without special permission from the General Committee 
to do so; and no money so raised shall be expended except in accordance 
with the rules of the Association. 

In each Committee, the Member first named is the only person entitled to 
call on the Treasurer, Professor A. W. Williamson, University College, London, 
W.C., for such portion of the sums granted as may from time to time be 
required. 

In grants of money to Committees, the Association does not contemplate 
the payment of personal expenses to the members. 

Tn all cases where additional grants of money are made for the continua- 
tion of Researches at the cost of the Association, the sum named is deemed 
to include, as a part of the amount, whatever balance may remain unpaid on 
the former grant for the same object. 

All Instruments, Papers, Drawings, and other property of the Association 
are to be deposited at the Office of the Association, 22 Albemarle Street, 
Piccadilly, London, W., when not employed in carrying on scientific inquiries 
for the Association. 


Business of the Sections. 


The Meeting Room of each Section is opened for conversation from 10 to 
11 daily. The Section Rooms and approaches thereto can be used for no notices, 
exhibitions, or other purposes than those of the Association. 

At 11 precisely the Chair will be taken, and the reading of communica- 
tions, in the order previously made public, be commenced. At 3 p.m. the 
Sections will close. 

Sections may, by the desire of the Committees, divide themselves into 
Departments, as often as the number and nature of the communications de- 
livered in may render such divisions desirable. 

A Report presented to the Association, and read to the Section which 
originally called for it, may be read in another Section, at the request of the 
Officers of that Section, with the consent of the Author. 


Duties of the Doorkeepers. 


1.—To remain constantly at the Doors of the Rooms to which they are ap- 
pointed during the whole time for which they are engaged. 

2.—To require of every person desirous of entering the Rooms the exhibi- 
tion of a Member’s, Associate’s or Lady’s Ticket, or Reporter’s Ticket, 
signed by the Treasurer, or a Special Ticket signed by the Assistant 
General Secretary. 

3.—Persons unproyvided with any of these Tickets can only be admitted to 
any particular Room by order of the Secretary in that Room. 


_No person is exempt from these Rules, except those Officers of the Asso- 
ciation whose names are printed, 


RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXili 


Duties of the Messengers. 3 


To remain constantly at the Rooms to which they are appointed, during 
the whole time for which they are engaged, except when employed on mes- 
sages by one of the Officers directing these Rooms. 


Committee of Recommendations. 


The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee, which 
shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional Committees, 
and report to the General Committee the measures which they would advise 
to be adopted for the advancement of Science. 

All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Researches, 
and Reports on Scientific Subjects shall be submitted to the Committee of 
Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the General Committee 
unless previously recommended by the Committee of Recommendations. 


Local Committees. 


Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association to 
assist in making arrangements for the Meetings. 

Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers those 
Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire. 


Officers. 


A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries, and a 
Treasurer shall be annually appointed by the General Committee. 


Council. 


Tn the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall be ma- 
naged by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The Council may 
also assemble for the despatch of business during the week of the Meeting. 


Papers and Communications. 


The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to reserve 
his right of property therein. 


Accounts. 


The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors 
appointed by the General Committee. 


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REPORT—1875. 


Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association. 


Date and Place. 


Presidents. 


Secretaries. 


MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. 


COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, 


Oxford 
Cambridge 
Edinburgh 


1832. 
1833. 
1834. 


1835. Dublin ...... 
1836. 
1837. 
1838. 
1839. 
1840. 


1841. 
1842. 


Bristol ...... 
Liverpool .. 

Newcastle... 
Birmingham 


Glasgow ... 


Plymouth... 

Manchester 
1843. Cork....:.... 
1844. 
1845. 


wee eeeeee 


Cambridge. . 


1846. Southampton) 


1847; |Oxford’...25- Rev. Prof. Powell, M.A., F.R.S. 

1848. Swansea ....|Lord Wrottesley, F.R.S. ......... 
1849. Birmingham|William Hopkins, F.R.S. ......... 
1850. Edinburgh..|Prof. J. D. Forbes, F.R.8., Sec. 
1851. Ipswich...... Rew W. Whewell D.D., ERS, 
1852. Belfast ...... Pret W. Thomson, M.A., F.R.8. 
1853, Hull.......... The Dean of Ely, FBS. ...... 

1854. Liverpool...|Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A., Sec. 
1855. Glasgow ... Rev’ Prof Kelland, M.A., F.R.S. 
1.856, Cheltenham Rev. Be Walker, M.A, RS. ... 


57. Dublin 


. Leeds 


Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S............. 
Rev. W. Whewell, F-.R.S.......... 


SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS 
Rey. Dr. Robinson 


Rey. William Whewell, F.B.5.... 
Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S............ 


Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart., 
ERS. 
Rey. Prof. Whewell, F.B.S. .... 


Prof. Worbes, E.R.S. ..::2:..2----- 


Rev. Prof. Lloyd, F.R.8 

Very Rev. G. Peacock, DD; 
ERS. 

Prof. M‘Culloch, M.R.1.A. ..... 

The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S.......... 

The Very Rev. the Dean of Ely 


Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart., 


Rev.T. R. Robinson, D.D.,F.B.S., 
M.R.I.A. 


Rev. W. Whewell, D.D., V.P.R.S. 


../B. Blaydes Haworth, J. 


I.— MATHEMATICS AND GENERAL PHYSICS. 
Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S.... 


Rey. H. Coddington. 
Prof. Forbes. 
Prof. Forbes, Prof. Lloyd. 


a 


AND PHYSICS. 


Prof. Sir W. R. Hamilton, Prof. 
‘Wheatstone. 

Prof. Forbes, W. 8. Harris, F. W. 
Jerrard. 

W.S. Harris, Rev. Prof. Powell, Prof. 

| Stevelly. 

Rev. Prof. Chevallier, Major Sabine, 

Prof. Stevelly. 


.. J. D. Chance, W. Snow Harris Prof. 


| Stevelly. 

Rey. Dr. Forbes, Prof. Stevelly, Arch. 
Smith. 

\Prof. Stevelly. 

‘Prof. M‘Culloch, Prof. Stevelly, Rev. 
W. Scoresby. 


J. Nott, Prof. Stevelly. 


(Rev. Wm. Hey, Prof. Stevelly. 


.,Rev. H. Goodwin, Prof. Stevelly, G. 


G. Stokes, 
John Drew, Dr. Stevelly, G. G. 
Stokes. 


Rev. H. Price, Prof. Stevelly, G. G. 


Stokes. 

Dr. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes. 

Prof. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes, W, 
Ridout Wills. 

W.J.Macquorn Rankine, Prof. Smyth, 
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes. 
8. Jackson, W. J. Macquorn Rankine, 
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes. 
Prof. Dixon, W. J. Macquorn Ran- 
kine, Prof. Stevelly, J. Tyndall. 


D. Sollitt,, 
Prof. Stevelly, J. Welsh. 
J. Hartnup, H. G. Puckle, Prof. 
Stevelly. J. Tyndall, J. Welsh. 
Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. D. Gray, Prof, 
Tyndall. 
C. Brooke, Rev. T. A. Southwood, 
Prof. Stevelly, Rev. J. C. Turnbull. 
Prof. Curtis, Prof. Hennessy, P. A. 
Ninnis, W. J. Macquorn Rankine, 
Prof. Stevelly . ; 
Rey. S. Earnshaw, J. P. Hennessy, 
Prof. Stevelly, H. J. S. Smith, Prof. 
Tyndall. 


PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. 


XXX1 


Date and Place. 


1859. 
1860. 
1861. 
1862. 


1863. 


1864. 
1865. 


1866. 
1867. 
1868. 
1869. 
1870. 


1871. 


1872. 


1873. 
1874. 


> 


1875. 


. Oxford 
. Cambridge.. 
. Edinburgh... 


. Dublin 
. Bristol 


Aberdeen ... 


Manchester . 
Cambridge.. 
Newcastle... 
TRENT ceeccgame 


Birmingham 


Nottingham 
Dundee...... 
Norwich ... 
Exeter 


Liverpool... 


Edinburgh . 


Brighton ... 
Bradford ... 
Belfast 


Bristol ..... 


. Liverpool... 
. Newcastle... 


. Birmingham 


Glasgow ... 


. Plymouth... 


. Manchester, 


Presidents. 


The Earl of Rosse, M.A., K.P., 
E.RS. : 

Rey. B. Price, M.A., F.R.S....... 

G. B. Airy, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S. 

Prof, G. G. Stokes, M.A., F.R.S. 

Prof. W. J. Macquorn Rankine, 
C.E., F.BS. 

Prof. Cayley, M.A., F.BS., 
F.R.AS. 


W. Spottiswoode, M.A., F.RB.S., 
E.R.A.S. 


Prof. Wheatstone, D.C.L., F.R.8. 

Prof. Sir W. Thomson, D.C.L., 
E.R.S. 

Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S... 

Prof. J. J. Sylvester, LL.D., 
E.R.S 


J. Clerk Maxwe!l, M.A., LL.D., 
Prot PSG. Tait, HRS B:. oocs. 


W. De La Rue, D.C.L., F.B.S... 
Prof. H. J. S. Smith, F.R.S...... 


Rev. Prof. J. H. Jellett, M.A., 
M.R.I.A. 


Prof. Balfour Stewart, 
LL.D., F.R.S. 


M.A., 


Secretaries. 


J.P. Hennessy, Prof. Maxwell, H. J.8. 
Smith, Prof. Stevelly. 

Rey. G. C. Bell, Rev. T. Rennison, 
Prof. Stevelly. 

Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. 8. 
Smith, Prof. Stevelly. 

Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. 8. 
Smith, Prof. Stevelly. 

Rey.N. Ferrers, Prof. Fuller, F. Jenkin, 
Prof. Steveliy, Rev. C. T. Whitley. 

Prof. Fuller, F. Jenkin, Rey. G. 
Buckle, Prof. Stevelly. 

Rey. T. N. Hutchinson, F. Jenkin, G. 
8. Mathews, Prof. H. J. 8. Smith, 
J. M. Wilson. 

Fleeming Jenkin, Prof, H. J.§. Smith, 
Rey. 8. N. Swann. 

Rey. G. Buckle, Prof. G. C. Foster, 
Prof. Fuller, Prof. Swan. 

Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. R. Harley, 
R. B. Hayward. 

Prof. G. C. Foster, R. B. Hayward, 

W. K. Clifford. 

Prof. W. G. Adams, W. K. Clifford, 
Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. W. Allen 
Whitworth. 

Prof. W. G. Adams, J. T. Bottomley, 
Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. J. D. 
Everett, Rev. R. Harley. 

Prof. W. K. Clifford, J.W.L. Glaisher, 
Prof. A. 8. Herschel, G. F. Rodwell. 

Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. Forbes, J. 
W. L. Glaisher, Prof. A.S.Herschel. 

J. W. L. Glaisher, Prof. Herschel, 
Randal Nixen, J. Perry, G. F. Rod- 
well. 

Prof.W. F. Barrett, J.W. L. Glaisher, 
C. T, Eudson, G. F. Rodwell. 


CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 


COMMITILE OF SCIENCES, II.— CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY. 


John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S....... 
John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S....... 
pe P ape oh) 2, ale cas aos 


‘Dr... Thomson, F.R.S.. ....0. 
Rey. Prof. Cumming 


Sete w eee eens 


Michael Faraday, F.B.S. ......... 
Rey. William Whewell, F.R.S.... 


Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S. ......... 
Dr. Thomas Thomson, F.R.S. ... 


Dr. Daubeny, EARS. ....-<0.c5s000% 


James F. W. Johnston. 
Prof. Miller. 
Mr. Johnston, Dr. Christison, 


SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY. 
..|Dr. Apjohn, Prof. Johnston. 


Dr. Apjohn, Dr. C. Henry, W. Hera- 
path. 

Prof. Johnston, Prof. Miller, Dr. 
Reynolds. 

Prof. Miller, R. L. Pattinson, Thomas 
Richardson. 

Golding Bird, M.D., Dr. J. B. Melson. 

Dr. R. D. Thomson, Dr. T. Clark, 
Dr. L. Playfair. 

J. Prideaux, Robert Hunt, W. M. 


John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.......| 


Tweedy. 


Dr. L. Playfair, R. Hunt, J. Graham. 


REPORT—1875. 


XXXI11 
Date and Place. Presidents. Secretaries. 
1843. Cork......... Prof. ‘Apjohn, M.R.LA. ........./R. Hunt, Dr. Sweeny. 
1844. York......... Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S. .........|/Dr. R. Playfair, E. Solly,T. H. Barker. 
1845. Cambridge..|Rev. Prof. Cumming..........+-.. Bae J. P. Joule, Prof. Miller, 
. Solly. 
1846.Southampton|Michael Faraday, D.C.L., F.R.S.|Dr. Miller, R. Hunt, W. Randall. 
1847. Oxford ...... Rev.W.V.Harcourt, M.A., F.R.S.|B. C. Brodie, R. Hunt, Prof. Solly. 
1848. Swansea .../Richard Phillips, F-R.S. ........./2. H. Henry, R. Hunt, T. Williams. 
1849. Birmingham|John Percy, M.D., F.RB.S.........- R. Hunt, G. Shaw. 
1850. Edinburgh .|Dr. Christison, V. P. R.S.E. ..|Dr. Anderson, R. Hunt, Dr. Wilson. 
1851. Ipswich .../Prof. Thomas Graham, F. R. bis ..|I. J. Pearsall, W. 8S. Ward. 
1852. Belfast ...... Thomas Andrews, M.D., FRS.. ese Gaerne, Prof. Hodges, Prof. 
onalds. 
18535 Hull ct... Prof. i F. W. Johnston, M.A.,/H. 8. Blundell, Prof. R. Hunt, T. J. 
B.RS Pearsall. 
1854, Liverpool... nae W. A. Miller, M.D., F.R.S.|Dr. Edwards, Dr. Gladstone, Dr. Price. 
1855. Glasgow ...|Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B., F.R.S. .|Prof. Frankland, Dr. H. E. Roscoe. 
1856. Cheltenham |Prof. B. C. Brodie, FERS. ree e J. aoe P. J. Worsley, Prof. 
oelcker. 
1857. Dublin ...... Prof. Apjohn, M.D., F.R.S.,|Dr. Davy, Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Sul- 
M.R.LA. livan. 
1858. Leeds ...... Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,)Dr. Gladstone, W. Odling, R. Rey- 
D.C.L. nolds. 
1859. Aberdeen ...|Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B., F.R.S..|J. 8. Brazier, Dr. Gladstone, G. D. 
Liveing, Dr. Odling. 
1860. Oxford ...... Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S. ...... A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing, 
A. B. Northcote. 
1861. Manchester .|Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D., F.R.S./A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing. 
1862, Cambridge .|/Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D., F.R.S./H. W. Elphinstone, W. Odling, Prof. 
Roscoe. 
1863. Newcastle.../Dr. Alex. W. Williamson, F.R.S./Prof. Liveing, H. L. Pattinson, J. C. 
Stevenson. 
1864. Bath......... W. Odling, M.B., F.R.S., F.C.S. |A.V. Harcourt, Prof. Liveing, R. Biggs. 
1865. Birmingham/Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D.,V.P.R.S.|A. V. Harcourt, H. Adkins, Prof. 
Wanklyn, A. Winkler Wills. 
1866. Nottingham/H. Bence Jones, M.D., F.R.S....|J. H. Atherton, Prof. Liveing, W. J. 
Russell, J. White. 
1867. Dundee ...|Prof.T. Anderson,M.D.,F.R.S.E./A. Crum Brown, Prof. G. D. Liveing, 
W. J. Russell. 
1868. Norwich ...|Prof.E. Frankland, F.R.S.,F.C.S./Dr. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J. Rus- 
sell, F. Sutton. 
1869. Exeter ...... Dr. H. Debus, F.R.S., F.C.S. ...|/Prof. A. Crum Brown, M.D., Dr. W. 
J. Russell, Dr. Atkinson. 
1870. Liverpool...|Prof. H. E. Roscoe, B.A., F.R.S.,|Prof. A. Crum Brown, M.D., A. E. 
F.C.S. Fletcher, Dr. W. J. Russell. 
1871. Edinburgh |Prof. T. Andrews, M.D., F.R.S. |J. T. Buchanan, W. N. Hartley, T. B. 
Thorpe. 
1872. Brighton ...|Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S....... Dr. Mils W. Chandler Roberts, Dr. 
; W. J. Russell, Dr. T. Wood. 
1873. Bradford .../Prof. W. J. Russell, F.R.S......./Dr. Armstrong, Dr. Mills, W. Chan- 
dler Roberts, Dr. Thorpe. 
1874, Belfast ....../Prof. A. Crum-Brown, M.D., Dr. T. Cranstoun Charles, W. Chand- 
F.R.S.E., F.C.8. ler Roberts, Prof. Thorpe. 
1875. Bristol ...... A, G. Vernon Harcourt, M.A.,‘Dr. H. E. Armstrong, W. Chandler 


E.R.S., F.C.S8. 


Roberts, W. A. Tilden. 


GEOLOGICAL (ann, unm 1851, GEOGRAPHICAL) SCIENCE. 


1832. Oxford .. 


1833. Cambridge . G. B. Greenough, F.R.S. 
1854, Edinburgh .|Prof. Jameson 


..|R. I. Murchison, F.R.S8. 


ere e rene ease et ennees 


COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, III.— GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY, 


John Taylor. 


..|W. Lonsdale, John Phillips. 


Prof. Phillips, T. Jameson Torrie, 
Rey. J. Yates. 


PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS, 


XXXili 


Date and Place. 


1835. Dublin 
1836. Bristol ...... 


1837. Liverpool... 
1838. Newcastle... 
1839. Birmingham 
1840. Glasgow ... 


1841. Plymouth .. 
1842. Manchester 
1844. York 
1845. Cambridge . 


eee tenes 


Secretaries. 


Captain Portlock, T. J. Torrie. 


Presidents. 
SECTION C.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY, 
is aia GUPIANUNY fecdecceess eteveves eoend | 
Rey. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.— Geo- 


graphy. R. 1. Murchison,F.R.S. 
Rey.Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.— Geo- 
graphy. G.B.Greenough,F-.R.S. 


graphy. Lord Prudhope. 
Rey. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.— Geo- 
graphy. G.B.Greenough,F.R.S. 
Charles Lyell, F.R.S.— Geogra- 
phy. G. B. Greenough, F.R.S. 


H. T. Dela Beche, F.R.S.......... 

R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......... 

Richard E. Griffith, F.R.S., 
M.R.I1.A. 

Henry Warburton, M.P., Pres. 


Geol. Soe. 
Rey. Prof. Sedgwick, M.A., F.R.S. 


1846. Southampton 


1847. Oxford 
1848. Swansea 
1849. Birmingham 
1850. Edinburgh * 


eeeeee 


1851. Ipswich 
1852. Belfast 


1853. Hull 
1854. Liverpool . . 


seeece 


Beeneenee 


1855. Glasgow ... 
1856. Cheltenham 
1857. Dublin 
1858, Leeds 


Leonard Horner, F.R.S.— Geogra- 
phy. G. B. Greenough, F.R.S8. 


Very Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S. 

Sir H. T. De la Beche, C.B., 
EBS. 

Sir Charles Lyell, F.R.S., F.G.S. 


William Sanders, 8. Stutchbury, T. J. 
Torrie. 

Captain Portlock, R. Hunter.—Geo- 

graphy. Captain H. M. Denham,R.N. 


\C. Lyell, F.R.S., V-P.G.8.—Geo-\W. C. Trevelyan, Capt. Portlock.— 


Geography. Capt. Washington. 

George Lloyd, M.D., H. E. Strickland, 
Charles Darwin. 

W. J. Hamilton, D. Milne, Hugh 
Murray, H. E. Strickland, John 
Scoular, M.D. 

W.J. Hamilton, Edward Moore,M.D., 
R. Hutton. 

E. W. Binney, R. Hutton, Dr. R. 
Lloyd, H. EH. Strickland. 

Francis M. Jennings, H. E, Strick- 


and. 
Prof. Ansted, E. H. Bunbury. 


Rey. J. C. Cumming, A. C. Ramsay, 
Rev. W. Thorp. 

Robert A. Austen, J. H. Norten, M.D., 
Prof. Oldham.— Geography. Dr. C. 


T. Beke. 

Prof. Ansted, Prof. Oldham, A. OC, 
Ramsay, J. Ruskin. 

Starling Benson, Prof. Oldham, Prof. 
Ramsay. 

J. Beete Jukes, Prof. Oldham, Prof. 
A. C. Ramsay. 


Sir Roderick I. Murchison, F.R.8. 


A. Keith Johnston, Hugh Miller, Pro- 
fessor Nicol. 


SECTION ¢ (continued).—GEOLOGY. 


.../ William Hopkins, M.A., F.R.S... 


Lieut.-Col. Portlock, R.E., F.R.S. 


Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S. ............ 
Prof. Edward Forbes, F.R.S. ... 


Sir R.I. Murchison, F.R.S. ...... 

Prof. A. C. Ramsay, F.R.S. ...... 

The Lord Talbot de Malahide ... 

William Hopkins, M.A., LL.D., 
E.B.S. 

Sir Charles Lyell, LL.D., D.C.L., 
FE.R.S 


Rey. Prof. Sedgwick, LL.D., 
FRS, F.GS. 


C. J. F. Bunbury, G. W. Ormerod, 
Searles Wood. 

James Bryce, James MacAdam, Prof. 
M‘Coy, Prof. Nicol. 

Prof. Harkness, William Lawton. 
John Cunningham, Prof. Harkness, 
G. W. Ormerod, J. W. Woodall, 
James Bryce, Prof. Harkness, Prof, 

Nicol. 
Rev. P. B. Brodie, Rey. R. Hepworth, 
Edward Hull, J. Scougall,T. Wright. 
Prof. Harkness, Gilbert Sanders, Ro- 
bert H. Scott. 
Prof. Nicol, H. C. Sorby, E. W. 
haw. 


Prof. Harkness, Rev. J. Longmuir, H. 


. Sorby. 
Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, Capt. 
Woodall. 


_ * At a Meeting of the General Committee held in 1850, it was resolved “That the, 
subject of Geography be separated from Geology and combined with Ethnology, to consti 
tute a separate Section, under the title of the ‘‘ Geographical and Ethnological Section,’- 
for Presidents and Secretaries of which see page xxxvii. 


¢ 


XXXIV 


rEPORT—1875. 


ee EEE 


Date and Place. 


1861 


1862. 
1863. 
1864. 
1865, 
1866. 
1867. 
1868. 
1869. 
1870. 


1871. 


1832. 


1833. 
1854. 


1835. 
1836. 


1837. 
1838. 


1839. 
1840. 


1841. 
1842. 


1845. 
1844, 


1845. 
1846, 


1847. 


. Manchester 


Cambridge 
Newcastle 
Birmingham 
Nottingham 
Dundee...... 
Norwich . 
Hixeter. ...... 


Liverpool.. 


Edinburgh ., 


. Brighton ... 
1873. 
1874. 
1875, 


Bradford . 
Belfast 


Bristol 


feneee 


.../Prof. Warington W. Smyth, 


Presidents. Secretaries. 


Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, T. Ru- 
pert Jones, G. W. Ormerod. 

Lucas Barrett, Prof. T. Rupert Jones, 
H. C. Sorby. 

E. F. Boyd, John Daglish, H. C. Sor- 


Sir R. I. Murchison, 
LL.D., F.B.8., &e. 
J. Beete Jukes, M.A., F.R.S....... 


D.C.L., 


E.R.S., F.G.8. by, Thomas Sopwith. 
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D., F.R.S.,/W. B. Dawkins, J. Johnston, H. C. 
E.G.S. Sorby, W. Pengelly. 


Sir R. I. Murchison, Bart.,K.C.B.|Rev. P. B. Brodie, J. Jones, Rey. E. 


Myers, H. C. Sorby, W. Pengelly. 


Prof.A.C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.8.[R. Etheridge, W. Pengelly, T. Wil- 
son, G. H. Wright. 

Archibald Geikie, F.R.S., F.G.S.|Edward Hull, W. Pengelly, Henry 
Woodward. 


../R. A. C. Godwin-Austen, F.R.S.,|Rev. O. Fisher, Rev. J. Gunn, W. 
EGS. Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood. 
Prof. R. Harkness, F.R.S., F.G.8./W. Pengelly, W. Boyd Dawkins, Rev. 

H. H. Winwood. 

.|Sir Philip de M. Grey Egerton,|W. A eneelly. Rev. H. H. Winwood, 
Bart., M.P., F.R.S. W. Boyd Dawkins, G. H. Morton. 
Prof. me Geikie, F.R.S., F.G.S...|R. Etheridge, J. Geikie, J. McKenny 

Hughes, L. C. Miall. 
R. A. C. Godwin-Austen, F.R.8./L. C. Miall, George Scott, William 
Topley, Henry Woodward. 


..(Prof. J. Phillips, D.C.L., F.R.S.,|L. C. Miall, R. H. Tiddeman, W. 


- HGS. Topley. 
Prof, Hull, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.8./F. Drew, L. C. Miall, R. G. Symes, 
R. H. Tiddeman. 


Dr. Thomas Wright, F.R.S.E.,|L. C. Miall, E. B. Tawney, W. Topley. 
F.G.S. 


BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES. 


COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, IV.—-ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, PHYSIOLOGY, ANATOMY, 


Oxford ...... 
Cambridge * 
Edinburgh 


Dublin 
Bristol 


Liverpool .. 
Neweastle. 


Brimingham 
Glasgow .. 


Plymouth.. 
Manchester 


etre ewes 


Cambridge 


Southampton) 


Oxford....... 


Rey. P. B. Duncan, F.G.S. .. 
Rey. W. L. P. Garnons, ELS... 
Prof, Grahattescesc..+h daageaesaccess 


..|Rey. Prof. J. 8. Henslow. 
.|C. C. Babington, D, Don. 
W. Yarrell, Prof, Burnett. 


Dr. Allaire, ses sage enter tedavants: J. Curtis, Dr. Litton. 
Rey. Prof. Henslow ...........04-: J. Curtis, Prof. Don, Dr. Riley, S. 
Rootsey. 
i\Wi8. Macleay .cicccssvanemadar case C. C. Babington, Rey. L. Jenyns, W. 
Swainson. 
..|Sir W. Jardine, Bart......... seee.-[J. EH. Gray, Prof. Jones, R. Owen, Dr. 
Richardson. 
Prof. Owen Ris. <5: asesyoars, E. Forbes, W. Ick, R. Patterson. 
Sir W. J. Hooker, LL.D.......... Prof. W. Couper, E. Forbes, R. Pat- 
terson. 


.|John Richardson, M.D., F.R.S.. 


./J. Couch, Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson, 
Hon. and Very Rev. W. ’ Herbert, 


Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson, J. A. 


LL.D., F.LS. Turner. 
William Thom pson, F.L.S. ......|\@. J. Allman, Dr. Lankester, R, Pat- 
terson. 


Very Rey, The Dean of Manches- 
ter. 
Rey. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S. .... 


Prof. Allman, H. Goodsir, Dr. King, 
Dr. Lankester. 
../Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston. 


Sir J. Richardson, M.D., F.R.S. |Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston, H. 
Wooldridge. 

H. E. Strickland, M.A., F\R.S..../Dr. Lankester, Dr. Melville, T. YV. 
Wollaston. 


* At this Meeting Physiology and Anatomy were made a separate Committee, for 
Presidents and Sgcretaries of which see xxxp. vi. 


PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. 


XXXV 


Date and Place. 


Presidents. 


Secretaries. 


SECTION D (continued).—zo0LOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY. 


[For the Presidents and Secretaries of the Anatomical and Physiological Subsections 
and the temporary Section E of Anatomy and Medicine, see p. xxxvi.] 


1848. Swansea ... 


1849. Birmingham 
1850. Edinburgh. . 


1851. Ipswich 
1852. Belfast 
1853. Hull ......... 
1854. Liverpool ... 
1855. Glasgow 
1856. Cheltenham. 
1857. Dublin 
1858. Leeds 
1859. Aberdeen ... 
1860. Oxford ...... 
1861. Manchester.. 


1862. Cambridge... 
1863. Newcastle ... 


1864. Bath 


waenee 


sent eenee 


1865, Birmingham 


...|Rev. Dr. Fleeming, F.R.S.E. . 


L. W. Dillwyn, F.R.S. ............ 


William Spence, F.R.S............. 
Prof. Goodsir, F.R.S. L. & E. ... 


Rey. Prof. Henslow, M.A., F.R.S. 
W. Ogilby 


C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S.... 
Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S....... 


beeen eee ener tere neeaeneeees 


Thomas Bell, F.R.S., Pres.L.S.... 
Prof. W.H. Harvey, M.D.,F.B.8. 
C. C. Babington, M.A., F-R.S.... 
Sir W. Jardine, Bart., F.R.S.E.. 
Rey. Prof. Henslow, F.LS. ...... 
Prof. C. C, Babington, F.R.S.... 


Prof. Huxley, F.R.S. 0 .....6...6.- 
Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S. ...... 


Dr. John E. Gray, F.R.S. 


T. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S. ...... 


Dr. R. Wilbraham Falconer, A. Hen- 
frey, Dr. Lankester. 

‘Dr. Lankester, Dr. Russell. 

Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D., Dr. Lan- 
kester, Dr. Douglas Maclagan. 

Prof. Allman, F. W. Johnston, Dr. E. 
Lankester. 

Dr. Dickie, George C. Hyndman, Dr. 
Edwin Lankester. 

Robert Harrison, Dr. E. Lankester. 

Tsaac Byerley, Dr. E. Lankester. 


..|William Keddie, Dr. Lankester. 


Dr. J. Abercrombie, Prof. Buckman 
Dr. Lankester. 

Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Dr. E. Lankester, 
Robert Patterson, Dr. W. E. Steele. 

Henry Denny, Dr. Heaton, Dr. H. 
Lankester, Dr. E. Perceval Wright. 

Prof. Dickie, M.D., Dr. E. Lankester, 
Dr. Ogilvy. ~ 

W.S. Church, Dr. E. Lankester, P. 
L. Sclater, Dr. E. Perceval Wright. 

Dr. T. Alcock, Dr. E. Lankester, Dr. 
P. L. Sclater, Dr. E. P. Wright. 

Alfred Newton, Dr. E. P. Wright. 

Dr. E. Charlton, A. Newton, Rev. H. 
B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright. 

H. B. Brady, C. E. Broom, H. T, 
Stainton, Dr. E. P. Wright. 

Dr. J. Anthony, Rev. C. Clarke, Rev. 
H. B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright. 


SECTION D (continued ).—BIOLOGY *. 


1866, Nottingham./Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S.—|Dr. J. Beddard, W. Felkin, Rev. H. 
Physiological Dep. Prof. Hum-| B. Tristram, W. Turner, E. B, 
phry, M.D., F.R.S.—Anthropo-| Tylor, Dr. EB. P. Wright. 
logical Dep. Alfred R. Wallace, 

FE.R.GS. 


1867. Dundee ...... Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec. R.S.—|C. Spence Bate, Dr. 8. Cobbold, Dr. 
Dep. of Zool. and Bot. George| M. Foster, H. T. Stainton, Rey. H. 
Busk, M.D., F.R.S. B. Tristram, Prof. W. Turner. 

1868. Norwich ...'Rev. M. J. Berkeley, F.L.S.—|Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, G. W. Firth, Dr. 
Dep. of Physiology. W.H.| M. Foster, Prof. Lawson, H. T. 
Flower, F.R.S8. Stainton, Rev. Dr. H. B. Tristram, 

Dr. E. P. Wright. 

1869. Exeter ...... George Busk, F.R.S., F.L.S.—|Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, Prof. M. Foster, 
Dep. of Bot. and Zool.C.Spence| M.D., E. Ray Lankester, Professor 
Bate, F.R.S.—Dep. of Ethno.| Lawson, H. T. Stainton, Rey. H. B. 


E, B. Tylor. Tristram. 

_ * At a Meeting of the General Committee in 1865, it was resolved:—‘“That the 
title of Section D be changed to Biology ;” and ‘That for the word ‘S 1bsection,’ in the 
rules for conducting the business of the Sections, the word ‘ Department’ be substituted. 

c2 


XXXVI REPORT—187 


5. 


Date and Place. Presidents. 


1870. Liverpool...|Prof. G. Rolleston, M.A., M.D., 


¥.R.S.,F.L.S.—Dep. Anat. and 


Physiol. Prof. M. Foster, M.D., 

F.L.S.—Dep. of Ethno. J. 

Evans, tea oy SHIR 

, Edinburgh |Prof.Allen Thomson,M.D.,F.R.S. 

“see 3 —Dep. of Bot.and Zool. Prof. 

Wyville Thomson, F.R.S.— 

Dep. of Anthropol. Prof. W. 
Turner, M.D. 

.|\Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.8. 
—Dep. of Anat. and Physiol. 
Dr. Burdon Sanderson, F.R.S8. 
—Dep of Anthropol. Col. A. 
Lane Fox, F.G.S. 

Prof. Allman, F.R.S.—Dep. of 
Anat. and Physiol. Prof. Ru- 
therford, M.D.—Dep. of An- 
thropol. Dr. Beddoe, F.R.S. 

Prof. Redfern, M.D.—Dep. of 
Zool. and Bot. Dy. Hooker, 
C.B., Pres. R.S..—Dep. of An- 
thropol. Sir W. R.Wilde,M.D. 

P.L.Sclater, F.R.S.—Dep. of Anat. 
and Physiol. Prof.Cleland,M.D., 

- F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol. Prof. 
Rolleston, M.D., F.R.S. 


1872. Brighton .. 


1873. Bradford ... 


1874. Belfast ...... 


seneee 


1875. , Bristol 


Secretaries. 


Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, Sebastian Evans, 
Prof. Lawson, Thos. J. Moore, H, 
T. Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tristram, 
C. Staniland Wake, EH. Ray Lan- 
kester. 

Dr. T. R. Fraser, Dr. Arthur Gamgee, 
E. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson, 
H. T. Stainton, C. Staniland Wake, 
Dr. W. Rutherford, Dr. Kelburne 
King. 

Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, H. T. Stainton, 
Prof. Lawson, I’. W. Rudler, J. H. 
Lamprey, Dr. Gamgee, H. Ray Lan- 
kester, Dr. Pye-Smith. 


Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, Prof. Lawson, 
R. M‘Lachlan, Dr. Pye-Smith, E. 
Ray Lankester, F. W. Rudler, J. 
H. Lamprey. 

W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, R. O. Cunning- 
ham, Dr. J. J. Charles, Dr. P. H. 
Pye-Smith, J. J. Murphy, F. W. 
Rudler. 

E. R. Alston, Dr. MeKendrick, Prof. 
W. R. M‘Nab, Dr. Martyn, F. W. 
Rudler, Dr. P. H. Pye-Smith, Dr. 
W. Spencer. 


ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCES. 
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, V.—ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 


1833. Cambridge...|Dr. Haviland ................eceee 2 
1834, Hdinburgh...|Dr. Abercrombie 


Dr. Bond, Mr. Paget. 
Dr. Roget, Dr. William Thomson. 


SECTION E. (UNTIL 1847.)—ANATOMY AND MEDICINE. 


1835. Dublin |Dr.\ Pritchard 00... sceseetseesescee 
1836. Bristol LD Roget, MBVRIS: Noseseedtseetens se 
1837. Liverpool ...!Prof. W. Clark, M.D. ............ 


1838. Newcastle ...|T. E. Headlam, M.D. ............ 
1839. Birmingham John Yelloly, M.D., F.R.S. ...... 
1840. Glasgow ...|James Watson, M.D 


1841. Plymouth ... 


P. M. Roget, M.D., Sec.R.S. 


1842. Manchester . 
1843. Cork 
1844. York 


‘Edward Holme, M.D., F.L.S. ... 
Sir James Pitcairn, M.D.......... 
J. C. Pritchard, M.D. ............ 


Cer ns 


1845. Cambridge .|Prof. J. Haviland, M.D, ......... 
1846.Southampton| Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.......... 
1847. Oxford* ...|Prof. Ogle, M.D., F.R.S........... 


PHYSIOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS 


1850. Edinburgh |{Prof. Bennett, M.D., F.R.S.E. 
1855. Glasgow ...|Prof. Allen Thomson, F.\R.S. .. 
1857. Dublin ...... Prof. R. Harrison, M.D. 


* * By direction of the General Committee at Oxford, 


under the name of “Section D—Zoology and Botany, including Physiology” 
‘Lhe Section being then yacant was assigned in 1851 to Geography, 


Dr. Harrison, Dr. Hart. 

Dr. Symonds. 

Dr. J. Carson, jun., James Long, Dr. 
J. R. W. Vose. 

T. M. Greenhow, Dr. J. R. W. Voso. 

Dr. G. O. Rees, F. Ryland. 

Dr. J. Brown, Prof.Couper, Prof. Reid. 


..|\Dr. J. Butter, J. Fuge, Dr. R. 8. 


Sargent. 
Dr. Chaytor, Dr. R. 8S. Sargent. 
Dr, John Popham, Dr. R. 8. Sargent. 
I. Erichsen, Dr. R. 8. Sargent. 


SECTION E.—PHYSIOLOGY. 


Dr. R. 8. Sargent, Dr. Webster. 

C. P. Keele, Dr. Laycock, Dr. Sargent. 

Dr. Thomas K. Chambers, W. P. 
Ormerod. 


OF SECTION D. 


.|Prof. J. H. Corbett, Dr. J. Struthers. 


Dr. R. D. Lyons, Prof. Redfern. 


Sections D and E were incorporated 
(see p. xxiv), 


PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS, 


XXXVI1 


- Date and Place. | 


. Oxford 
. Manchester. 
. Cambridge 
. Newcastle... 


weeeeeee 


1865. Birminghm*. 


1846. Southampton 


1847. 
1848. 
1849. 
1850. 


1851. 
1852. 
1853. 
1854. 
1855. 


1856. 
1857. 
1858. 
1859. 
1860. 
1861. 
1862. 
1863. 
1864. 


..|Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec.R.8. .. 


Presidents. 


Sir Benjamin Brodie, Bart.,F.R.S8. 


Prof. G. Rolleston, M.D., F.L.S. 
Dr. John Davy, F.R.S.L. & E 
NCe Ma bareb iM Dvrcc.scscet- son 
Prof. Rolleston, M.D., F. i Se% 

Dr. Edward Smith, LL.D., F.R. S. 
Prof, Acland, M.D., LL.D., F.B.S. 


Secretaries. 


—. ——_— —__.. 


C. G. Wheelhouse. 


— 


-|Prof. Bennett, Prof. Redfern. 


Dr. R. M‘Donnell, Dr. Edward Smith. 


..|Dr. W. Roberts, Dr. Edward Smith. 


G. F. Helm, Dr. Edward Smith. 

.|Dr. D. Embleton, Dr. W. Turner. 

J. 8S. Bartrum, Dr. W. Turner. 

Dr. A. Fleming, Dr. P. Heslop, Oliver 
Pembleton, Dr. W. Turner, 


GEOGRAPHICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL SCIENCES. 
[For Presidents and Secretaries for Geography previous to 1851, see Section C, p. xxxii.] 


Oxford 
Swansea .. 
Birmingham 
Edinburgh.. 


Ipswich 


.../Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S8., Pres. 
R.G.8 


ETHNOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS 


Vice-Admiral Sir A. Malcolm ... 


SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY AN 


Belfast 
Hull 


Liverpool.. 
Glasgow 
Cheltenham 


eevee 


.../Sir J, Richardson, M.D., F.R.S. 


Col. Chesney, R.A, D.C.L., 
E.R.S. 
R. G. Latham, M.D., F.R.S. 
as R. I. Murchison, D.C.L., 
FE.R.S. 


Col. Sir H. C. Rawlinson, K.C.B. 


Rev. Dr. J. Henthawn Todd, Pres. 
R.1.A. 


OF SECTION D. 
Dr. King. . 

Prof. Buckley. 

G. Grant Francis. 
Dr. R. G. Latham, 
Daniel Wilson, 


D ETHNOLOGY. 


R. Cull, Rev. J. W. Donaldson, Dr, 
Norton Shaw. 
R. Cull, R. MacAdam, Dr. Norton 


Shaw. 


...|R. Cull, Rev. H. W. Kemp, Dr. Nor- 


ton Shaw. 

Richard Cull, Rev. H. Higgins, Dr. 
Ihne, Dr. Norton Shaw. 

Dr. W. G. Blackie, R. Cull, Dr. Nor- 
ton Shaw. 

R. Cull, F. D. Hartland, W. H, Rum- 
sey, Dr. Norton Shaw. 

R. Cull, 8. Ferguson, Dr. R. R. Mad- 
den, Dr. Norton Shaw. 


Sir R. I. Murchison, G.C.St.8., 
E.R.S 

Ol Bear-Admiral Sir James Clerk 
Ross, D.C.L., F.B.S. 


Manchester. 
Cambridge 
Newcastle.. 


Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L., 
E.R.S. 
John Crawfurd, F.R.S8............. 


.|Francis Galton, F.R.S............. 


Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B., 
E.R. 

Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B., 
FE.RB.S. 


R.Cull, Francis Galton, P.O’Callaghan, 
Dr. Norton Shaw, Thomas Wright. 

Richard Cull, Professor Geddes, Dr. 
Norton Shaw. 

Capt. Burrows, Dr. J. Hunt, Dr. C. 
Lempriere, Dr. Norton Shaw. 

Dr. J. Hunt, J. Kingsley, Dr. Norton 
Shaw, W. Spottiswoode. 

J. W. Clarke, Rev. J. Glover, Dr. 
Hunt, Dr. Norton Shaw, T. Wright. 

C. Carter Blake, Hume Greenfield, 
C. R. Markham, R. 8. Watson. 

H, W. Bates, C. R. Markham, Capt. 
R. M. Murchison, T. Wright. 


1865. Birmingliam|Major-General Sir H. Rawlinson,/H. W. Bates, S. Evans, G. Jabet, C. 


M.P., K.C.B., F.R.S. 


R. Markham, Thomas Wright. 


1866. Nottingham |Sir Charles Nicholson, Bart.,|,H. W. Bates, Rev. E. T. Cusins, BR. 
LL.D. 


1867. 
1868. 


Dundee 


tenes 


Norwich 


..|Capt. G. H. Richards, R.N., F.R.S 


Sir Samuel Baker, F.R.G.S... 


H. Major, Clements R. Markham, 
D. W. Nash, T. Wright. 

..|H. W. Bates, Cyril Graham, C. R. 
Markham, S.J. Mackie, R. Sturrock. 


JT. Baines, H. W. Bates, C. R. Mark- 


ham, T. Wright. 


* Vide note on page xxxv, 


XXXViii REPORT—1875. 
Date and Place, Presidents, Secretaries. 
SECTION E (continued).—GEOGRAPHY, 
1869. Exeter ...... Sir Bartle Frere, K.C.B., LL.D.,{H. W. Bates, Clements R. Markham, 
F.R.G.S. J. H. Thomas, 
1870. Liverpool ...|Sir R. I. Murchison, Bt., K.C.B.,,H. W. Bates, David Buxton, Albert 


1871. 
1872. 


LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.8. 
Edinburgh. |Colonel Yule, C.B., F.R.G.S8. .., 


Brighton .../Francis Galton, F.R.S. ............ 


J. Mott, Clements R. Markham, 
Clements R. Markham, A. Buchan, 
J. H. Thomas, A. Keith Johnston, 
H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston, Rev. 
J. Newton, J. H. Thomas. 

H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston, Cle- 

ments R. Markham. 
H. G. Ravenstein, E. C. Rye, J. H. 


H. W, Bates, EH, C. Rye, F. F. Tuckett. 


J. E. Drinkwater. 
Dr. Cleland, C. Hope Maclean. 


..|W. Greg, Prof. Longfield. 


Rev. J. E. Bromby, C. B. Fripp, 
James Heywood, 
W.R. Greg, W. Langton, Dr. W. O. 


W. Cargill, J. Heywood, W. R. Wood. 
F. Clarke, R. W. Rawson, Dr. W. C. 


C. R. Baird, Prof, Ramsay, R. W. 


Rey. Dr. Byrth, Rev. R. Luney, RB. 
W. Rawson. 

Rey. R. Luney, G, W. Ormerod, Dr. 
W. C. Tayler. 

Dr. D. Bullen, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler. 

J. Fletcher, J. Heywood, Dr. Laycock. 


J. Fletcher, W. Cooke Tayler, LL.D. 
J. Fletcher, F. G. P. Neison, Dr. W. 
C. Tayler, Rev. T. L. Shapcott. 


1873. Bradford .../Sir Rutherford Alcock, K.C.B.... 
1874. Belfast ...... Major Wilson, R.E., F-.RS..,| 

E.R.G.S. Thomas. 
1875. Bristol ......{Lieut.-General Strachey, R.E., 

C.8.L.,F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.L.S., 

F.G.8, 

STATISTICAL SCIENCE. 
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, VI.—STATISTICS, 
1833. Cambridge .|Prof. Babbage, F.R.S. ............ 
1834. Edinburgh .|Sir Charles Lemon, Bart. ......... 
SECTION F.—STATISTICS 
1835. Dublin ...... |Charles Babbage, F.R.S. ....... 
1836. Bristol ...... Sir Charles Lemon, Bart., F.R.S. 
1837, Liverpool...{Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon ............ 
Tayler. 
1838. Newcastle...\Colonel Sykes, F.R.S. ........00- 
1839. Birmingham|Henry Hallam, F\R.S. ............ 
Tayler. 

1840. Glasgow .../Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon, M.P., 

E.R.S. Rawson. 
1841. Plymouth...|Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S. ......... 
1842. Manchester .|G. W. Wood, M.P., F.LS. ...... 
1843. Cork......... Sir C. Lemon, Bart., M.P. ...... 
1844. York......... Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S., F.L.S. 
1845. Cambridge ./Rt. Hon. The Earl Fitzwilliam... 
1846.Southampton|G. R. Porter, FVR.S. .........6006.. 
1847, Oxford ...... Travers Twiss, D.C.L., F.R.S. ... 


1848. Swansea 
1849. Birmingham 


1850. Edinburgh .. 


1851. Ipswich 
1852. Belfast 


feenee 


1853. Hull ......... 
1854. Liverpool ... 


1855. Glasgow ..... 


...(J. H. Vivian, M.P., F.R.S. ...... 


Rt. Hon. Lord Lyttelton 


Very Rev. Dr. John Lee, 
V.P.R.S.E. 
Sir John P. Boileau, Bart. 


His Grace the Archbishop of 


Dublin. 
James Heywood, M.P., F.R.S.... 
Thomas Tooke, F.R.S. 


R. Monckton Milnes, M.P. ...... 


Rev. W. H. Cox, J. J. Danson, F. G. 

P. Neison. 

J. Fletcher, Capt. R. Shortrede. 

Dr. Finch, Prof. Hancock, F. G. P. 
Neison. 

'Prof. Hancock, J. Fletcher, Dr. J. 
Stark. 

J. Fletcher, Prof. Hancock. 

Prof. Hancock, Prof. Ingram, James 
MacAdam, Jun. 

‘Edward Cheshire, William Newmarch. 

‘E. Cheshire, J. T. Danson, Dr. W. H. 

Duncan, W. Newmarch. 

'J. A. Campbell, EH. Cheshire, W. New- 

| march, Prof. R. H. Walsh. 


SECTION F (continued).—BCONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS, 


1856, Clieltenham 


a Hon, Lord Stanley, M.P. . 


..|Rey. C. H. Bromby,E, Cheshire, Dr. W. 


N, Hancock Newmarch, W, M. Tartt, 


PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. XXX1x 


rd 
=e 
a] a aia Rt 


ON —  —— = —————— 


Date and Place. Presidents, Secretaries. 
1857. Dublin ...... His Grace the Archbishop of|Prof. Cairns, Dr. H. D. Hutton, W. 
Dublin, M.R.1.A. Newmarch. 
1858, Leeds......... Eidward Baines) <t..cs..dsccsvecsseas T. B. Baines, Prof. Cairns, 8. Brown, 
Capt. Fishbourne, Dr. J. Strang. 
1859. Aberdeen ...|Col. Sykes, M.P., F.R.S. ..,.......Prof. Cairns, Edmund Macrory, A. M. 
Smith, Dr. John Strang. 
1860, Oxford ...... Nassau W. Senior, M.A. ......... Edmund Macrory, W. Newmarch, 
Rev. Prof. J. H. T. Rogers. 
1861. Manchester |William Newmarch, F.RB.S. ...... Dayid Chadwick, Prof. R. C. Christie, 
EH. Macrory, Rey. Prof. J. H. T. 
Rogers. 
1862. Cambridge. .|Edwin Chadwick, C.B. .........+.. H, D. Macleod, Edmund Macrory. 
1863. Newcastle ...| William Tite, M.P., F.R.S. ....../I.. Doubleday, Edmund Macrory, 
Frederick Purdy, James Potts. 
1864. Bath.......... was Farr, M.D., D.C.L.,|E. Macrory, EH. T. Payne, F. Purdy. 
E.R.S. 
1865. Birmingham/Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, LL.D.,.G. J. D. Goodman, G. J. Johnston, 
M.P. E. Macrory. 
1866. Nottingham /Prof. J. E. T. Rogers............++. R. Birkin, Jun., Prof. Leone Levi, E. 
Macrory. 
1867. Dundee...... M. E. Grant Duff, M.P. ......... Prof. Tae Levi, E, Macrory, A. J. 
Warden. 
1868. Norwich ...\Samuel Brown, Pres. Instit. aie W. C. Davie, Prof. Leone Levi. 
tuaries. 
1869. Exeter ...... Rt. Hon. Sir Stafford H. North-Edmund Macrory, Frederick Purdy, 
cote, Bart., C.B., M.P. Charles T. D. Acland. 
1870. Liverpool...|Prof. W. Stanley Jevons, M.A. ..\Chas. R. Dudley Baxter, B®. Macrory, 
J. Miles Moss. 
1871. Edinburgh |Rt. Hon. Lord Neaves............. J. G. Fitch, James Meikle. 
1872. Brighton ...|Prof. Henry Faweett, M.P. ......{J. G@. Fitch, Barclay Phillips. 
1873. Bradford .../Rt. Hon. W. E. Forster, M.P....|J. G. Fitch, Swire Smith. 
1874. Belfast ......\Lord O'Hagan. ....sccsessseseenees Prof. Donnell, Frank P. Fellows, 
Hans MacMordie. 
1875. Bristol ....../James Heywood, M.A., F.RB.S.,|F. P. Fellows, T, G. P, Hallett, E. 
Pres.S.S. Macrory. 
MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 
SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE, 
1836. Bristol ...... Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S....\T. G. Bunt, G. T. Clark, W. West. 


1837. Liverpool .../Rev. Dr. Robinson ...........:s++++ 


1838. Newcastle ... 


1839. Birmingham |Prof. Willis, F.R.S., and 


1840. Glasgow ... 


1841. Plymouth... 
1842. Manchester . 


eer eneeee 


1845. Cambridge ..|George Rennie, F.R.S. .... 


Charles Babbage, F.R.S. ....... 

Robert 
Stephenson. 

Sir John Robinson.......0.:e0e0e00 


John Taylor, F.R.S. ..-.sseceeeeee 
Rey. Prof. Willis, F.R.S. ......... 


Aree Prof. J. Macneill, M.R.I.A....... 


John Taylor, F.R.S. .......0:06..-- 


1846, Southampton|Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., FRS.. 
1847. Oxford ...... Rev. Prof. Walker, M.A., F.R.S. 
1848. Swansea ..... Rev. Prof. Walker, M.A., F.R.S. 


1849. Birmingham|Robert Stephenson, M.P., F.R.S. 


1850. Edinburgh... 
1851. Ipswich...... 
1852. Belfast 


1853. Hull 


Rey. Dr. Robinson 
William Cubitt, F.R.S............. 


srehs John Walker,C.E., LL.D., F.R.S. 
nee .».|William Fairbairn, C.E., F.R.S.. 


Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster. 


..|R. Hawthorn, C. Vignoles, T. Webster. 


W. Carpmael, William Hawkes, Tho- 
mas Webster. 

J. Scott Russell, J. Thomson, J. Tod, 
C. Vignoles. 

Henry Chatfield, Thomas Webster. 

J. F. Bateman, J. Scott Russell, J. 
Thomson, Charles Vignoles. 

James Thomson, Robert Mallet. 
Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster. 


..|Rey. W. 'T. Kingsley. 


William Betts, Jun., Charles Manby. 
J. Glynn, R. A. Le Mesurier. 

R. A. Le Mesurier, W. P. Struvé. 
Charles Manby, W. P. Marshall. 

Dr. Lees, David Stephenson. 

John Head, Charles Manby. 

John F. Bateman, C. B. Hancock. 
Charles Manby, James Thomson. 


James Oldham, J, Thomson, W. Sykes 
Ward, 


xl 


Date and Place. 


1854. 
1855. 
1856. 
1857. 


1858. 
1859. 


1860. 
1861. 


1862. 
1868. 


1864. 
1865. 


1866. 
1867. 
1868. 


1869. 
1870. 


1871. 
1872. 


Liverpool ... 
Glasgow 
Cheltenham 


Manchester . 


Cambridge 
Newcastle ... 


Bath 
Birmingham 


Nottingham 
Dundee 


Exeter ...... 
Liverpool.. 


Edinburgh 


Brighton ... 


..|G. P. Bidder, C.E., F.R.GS. 


REPORT—1875. 


Presidents. 


John Scott Russell, F.R.S. .. 


...|W. J. Maequorn Rankine, C.E., 
E.R.S 


George Rennie, TASES Serpeec oson 


Rosse, F.R.S8. 
William Fairbairn, F.R.S. ... 
..|Rey. Prof. Willis, M.A., ERS. 


Prof. W, J. Macquorn Rankine, 
LL.D., F.R.S. 
J. F. Bateman, C.E., F.R.S....... 


..| William Fairbairn, LL.D., F.R.S. 


Rey. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S. 


J. Hawkshaw, FURS. .......:.000.- 
Sir W. G. Armstrong, LL.D., 
E.RB.S. 


V.P. Inst. 


Prof. W. J. Macquorn Rankine, 
LL.D., E.R.8. 


Thomas Hawksley, 
G.S. 


C. W. Siemens, F.R.S. . 
.|Chas. B. Vignoles, C.E., FER. 8. 


Prof. Fleeming Jenkin, F.R.S.... 
F, J. Bramwell, C.E........ we 


|The Right Hon. The Earl of 


Secretaries. 


.../John Grantham, J. Oldham, J. Thom- 


son. 

L. Hill, Jun., 
Thomson. 

C. Atherton, B. Jones, Jun., H. M, 
Jeffery. 

Prof. Downing, W. T. Doyne, A. Tate 
James Thomson, Henry Wright. 


William Ramsay, J. 


....J. C. Dennis, J. Dixon, H. Wright. 


.|R. Abernethy, P. Le Neve Foster, H 
Wright. 

P. Le Neve sean Rey. F. Harrison, 
Henry Wrigh 

P. Le No eve Toe Jobn Robinson, H. 
Wright. 

W.M. Faweett, P. Le Neve Foster. 


.|P. Le Neve Foster, P. Westmacott, J. 


F. Spencer. 

P. Le Neve Foster, Robert Pitt. « 

P. Le Neve Foster, Henry Lea, W. >. 
Marshall, Walter Bae 

P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, M. 
A. Tarbottom. 

P. Le Neve Foster, Jchn P. Smith, 

W. W. Urquhart. 


...|P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, C. 


Manby, W. Smith. 


..|P. Le Neve Foster, H. Bauerman. 


-|H. Bauerman, P. Le Neve Foster, T. 
King, J. N. Shoolbred. 

H. Bauerman, Alexander Leslie, J. P, 
Smith. 


«...|H. M. Brunel, P. Le Neve Foster, 


J. G. Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred. 


1873. Bradford ...|W. H. Barlow, F.R.S. ............ Crawford Barlow, H. Bauerman, 8. 
H. Carbutt, J. C. Hawkshaw, J. N. 
. Shoolbred. 
1874. Belfast ...... Prof. James Thomson, LIL.D.,|A. T. Atchison, J. N. Shoolbred, John 
C.E., F.R.S.E. Smyth, jun. 
1875. Bristol ...... W. Froude, C.E,, M.A., F.R.S....|W. R. Browne, H. M. Brunel, J. G. 
Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred. 
List of Evening Lectures. 
Date and Place. Lecturer. Subject of Discourse. 
1842. Manchester .| Charles Vignoles, F.R.S..........| The Principles and Construction of 
lon coe Atmospheric Railways. 
Sire. Brunel 6.0cccec 5 eee oe The Thames Tunnel. 
Re Le Murchison, ',).0s3.¢stcssseess The Geology of Russia. 
1843, Cork......... Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. ......) The Dinornis of New Zealand. 
Prof. E. Forbes, F.R.S. ..... The Distribution of Animal Life in 
the AXgean Sea. 
Depts tp Dp MRObIMSONM A arccsscctsce eee The Earl of Rosse’s Telescope. 


Charles Lyell, F.R.S. 
Dr. Falconer, F.R.S. 


Geology of North America. 


...| The Gigantic Tortoise of the Siwalik 


Hills in India. 


— ————- = 


Date and Place. 


1845. Cambridge .. 
1846.Southampton 
1846. Southampton 


1847. Oxford 


weneer 


1848. Swansea 
1849. Birmingham 


1850. Edinburgh. 


1851. Ipswich...... 


1852. Belfast 


1853. Hull 


1854. Liverpool ... 
1855. Glasgow...... 


1856. Cheltenham 


1857. Dublin ...... 
1858. Leeds......... 
1859. Aberdeen .. 


1860. Oxford 
1861. Manchester . 
1862, Cambridge . 


1863. Newcastle- 
on-Tyne, 


eeeeee 


LIST OF EVENING LECTURES, 


Lecturer. 


G. B. Airy, F.R.8., Astron. Royal 
R. I. Murchison, F.R.S......... 
Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. ...... 
Charles Lyell, F.R.S. ............ 
W. R. Grove, F.R.S. ...,.....08. 


Rey. Prof. B. Powell, F.R.S. ... 
Prof. M. Faraday, F.R.S8. 


Hugh E. Strickland, F.G.S. 


W. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S. ... 
Dr. Faraday, F.R.S.............04. 
Rey. Prof, Willis, M.A., F.R.S. 


Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D., 
E.R.S.E. 


Dr. Mantell, F.R.S........e00000- 
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. 


G. B. Airy, F.R.8., Astron. Royal 
Prof. G.G. Stokes, D.C.L., F.R.S8. 


Colonel Portlock, R.E., F.R.S. 
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D., F.B.S., 
EGS. 


Robert Hunt, F.R.S. 
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.... 
Col. E. Sabine, V.P.R.S. ......... 


Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.RB.S. ... 
Lieut.-Col. H. Rawlinson 


Col. Sir H. Rawlinson ............ 


W. R. Grove, FBS. ...cccceeee 
Prof. W. Thomson, F.R.S. ...... 
Rey. Dr. Livingstone, D.C.L. ... 
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D., F.R.S. 
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.... 


.| Sir R.I. Murchison, D.C.L....... 


Rey. Dr. Robinson, F.R.S. ...... 


Rey. Prof. Walker, F.R.S. ...... 
Captain Sherard Osborn, R.N. . 
Prof. W. A. Miller, M.A., F.R.S. 
G. B. Airy, F.R.S., Astron. Roy. . 
Prof. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S. ... 
Prof. Odling, F.R.S......... nabbed 
Prof. Williamson, F.R.S. 


xli 


Subject of Discourse, 


Progress of Terrestrial Magnetism. 
Geology of Russia. 
Fossil Mammalia of the British Isles. 
Valley and Delta of the Mississippi. 
Properties of the Explosive substance 
discoyered by Dr. Schénbein ; also 
some Researches of his own on the 
Decomposition of Water by Heat. 
Shooting-stars. 
Magnetic and Diamagnetic Pheno- 
mena. 


...| The Dodo (Didus ineptus). 
.| John Percy, M.D., F.R.S. ...... 


Metallurgical operations of Swansea 
and its neighbourhood, ~ 

Recent Microscopical Discoveries. 

Mr. Gassiot’s Battery. 

Transit of different Weights with 
varying velocities on Railways. 

Passage of the Blood through the 
minute vessels of Animals in con- 
nexion with Nutrition. 


.| Extinct Birds of New Zealand. 


Distinction between Plants and Ani- 
mals, and their changes of Form. 

Total Solar Eclipse of J uly 28, 1851. 

Recent discoveries in the properties 
of Light. 

Recent discovery of Rock-salt at Car- 
vickfergus, and geological and prac- 
tical considerationsconnected with it. 

Some peculiar phenomena in the Geo- 
logy and Physical Geography of 
Yorkshire. 

The present state of Photography. 

Anthropomorphous Apes. 

Progress of researches in Terrestrial 
Magnetism. 

Characters of Species. 

Assyrian and Babylonian Antiquities 
and Ethnology. 


Recent discoveries in Assyria and 
Babylonia, with the results of Cunei- 
form research up to the present 
time. 

Correlation of Physical Forces, 

The Atlantic Telegraph. 

Recent discoveries in Africa. 

The Ironstones of Yorkshire. 

The Fossil Mammalia of Australia. 

Geology of the Northern Highlands. 

Electrical Discharges in highly rare- 
fied Media. 

Physical Constitution of the Sun. 

Arctic Discovery. 

Spectrum Analysis. 

The late Eclipse of the Sun. 

The Forms and Action of Water. 


Organic Chemistry. 

The Chemistry of the Galvanic Bat- 
tery considered in relation to Dy- 
namics. 


xlii 


REPORT—1875, 


Date and Place. 


Lecturer. 


Subject of Discourse. 


1863. 
1864. 
1865, Birmingham 


1866. 


1867. 


1868. 
1869. 
1870. 


1871. 


1872. 


1873. 
1874. 


1875. 


Newecastle- 
on-Tyne. 
ESBULY sober: vot 


Nottingham. 


Dundee 


Norwich .... 


Liverpool ... 


Edinburgh 


Brighton ... 


Bradford ,.. 


eeeees 


sennee 


. Liverpool ... 
. Brighton ... 


. Bradford ... 
. Belfast ...... 
5 Bristol reese: 


James Glaisher, F.R.S. 


Prof. Roscoe, HUR.S......0.c.csees 
Dr. Livingstone, F.R.S. ....... 
J. Beete Jukes, F.R.S. ............ 


William Huggins, F.R.S.......... 


Dr. J. D. Hooker, F.B.S.......... 
Archibald Geikie, F.R.S.......... 


Alexander Herschel, F.R.A.S. ... 
J. Fergusson, F.R.8. 


Dr. W. Odling, F.R.S. ........... 
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D., F.R.S. 
J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S....... 


Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S. 

Prof. W. J. Macquorn Rankine, 
LL.D., F.B.S. 

HG IAY ABU UHC RSsccetecacs seg estes 

HB Dylon Hy Riestesedcags » ens nee 

Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.D., 
E.R.S. 

Prot, WW. BW Oliford..:. .cc.o1ces 

Prof. W. C. Williamson, F.R.S. 

Prof. Clerk Maxwell, F.B.S...... 

Sir John Lubbock, Bart., M.P., 
E.RB.S. 

Prof. Huxley, F.R.S. ..... ee 

William Spottiswoode, LL.D., 
E.R.S 


F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S. . 


..,... The Balloon Ascents made for the 


British Association. 
The Chemical Action of Light. 


..| Recent Travels in Africa. 


Probabilities as to the position and 
extent of the Coal-measures beneath 
the red rocks of the Migland Coun- 


ties. 

The results of Spectrum Analysis 
applied to Heavenly Bodies. 

Insular Floras. 

The Geological origin of the present 
Scenery of Scotland. 
The present state of knowledge re- 
garding Meteors and Meteorites. 
Archeology of the early Buddhist 
Monuments. 

Reverse Chemical Actions. 

Vesuvius. 

The Physical Constitution of the 
Stars and Nebule. 

The Scientific Use of the Imagination, 

Stream-lines and Waves, in connexion 
with Naval Architecture. 

Some recent investigations and appli- 
cations of Explosive Agents. 

The Relation of Primitive to Modern 
Civilization. 

Insect Metamorphosis. 


The Aims and Instruments of Scien- 
tific Thought. 

Coal and Coal Plants. 

Molecules. 

Common Wild Flowers considered in 
relation to Insects. 

The Hypothesis that Animals are 
Automata, and its History. 

The Colours of Polarized Light. 


..| Railway Safety Appliances. 


Lectures to the Operative Classes. 


Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S. 


.| Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S. ... 


Prof. Miller, M.D., F.R.S. ...... 


Sir John Lubbock, Bart., M.P., 
E.R.S. 

Wilham Spottiswoode, LL.D., 
FE.R.S 


C. W. Siemens, D.C.L., F.B.S... 
Professor Odling, F.R.S... ...... 


Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F-.R.S. ... 


Matter and Force. 

A piece of Chalk. 

Experimental illustrations of — the 
modes of detecting the Composi- 
tion of the Sun and other Heavenly 
Bodies by the Spectrum. 

Savages. 


Sunshine, Sea, and Sky. 
Fuel. 


The Discovery of Oxygen, 
A piece of Limestone, 


—aaaanee “GBT ‘Gz ysndny <== 
iy siccr ‘NOSINVITTIIM “AA "¥ L % gieey 


8 I 69 “ 
0 0 Tt “es JOINSBIAT, [VAsMay JO Spuey UL a 
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xliv 


REPORT—1875. 


Table showing the Attendance and Recei; 


Date of Meeting. Where held. 

TS3T, Sopts27 ec: .| MORK j.noe <2 stirs cee ae 
L832, dune mo \~.|Oxtordy sc. .sescee nee 
1833, June 25 ...| Cambridge ......... 
1834, Sept. 8 ...| Edinburgh ......... 
KO35, Aut etO ©. .|\Dublina s,-:...sccceese 
MeGb, AueTe20..| Bristol ..5..cccuenuses 
1837, Sept. 11 ...| Liverpool ............ 
1838, Aug. 10 ...) Newcastle-on-Tyne.. 
1839, Aug. 26 ...) Birmingham ..;....... 
1840, Sept. 17 ...| Glasgow. ............ 
1841, July 20 .,./ Plymouth ............ 
1842, June 23 ...| Manchester ......... 
BAG PAUP Sai won| COLK ....c.ssesecescore 
ROMO INCD UTZ. «| VOLK \..0c0.0rosresn eee 
1845, June ig ...|Cambridge ......... 
1846, Sept. 10 .,.|Southampton ...... 
1847, June 23 ...| Oxford ............... 
1848, Aug. 9...... SWANSEA: cccsesees ecoss 
1849, Sept. 12 ...! Birmingham ......... 
1850, July 21 Edinburgh ......... 
1851, July 2 ...... IEPRWICH sence: scvasoees 
1852, Sept. 1 Belfast’ \.cseveessesees 
Mages sept. 4 — ...| Kull. oy. -sessen ec ce oe 
1854, Sept. 20 ...| Liverpool ............ 
1855, Sept.12 ...|Glasgow  ............ 
1856, Aug. 6...... Cheltenham ......... 
Les peAae 26 ...| Dublin .....csccce 
1858, Sept. 22 ...| Leeds ..............0008 
1859, Sept. 14...) Aberdeen ............ 
1860, June 27 ...! Oxford ............... 
1861, Sept.4 ...| Manchester ......... 
1862;\Oct. T ¢:...: Cambridge ......... 


1863, Aug. 26 ... 
1864, Sept. 13 ... 


1865, Sept. 6 
1866, Aug. 22 
1867, Sept. 4 


1868, Aug. 19 = 
1869, Aug. 18 ... 


1870, Sept. 14 
1871, Aug. 2... 
1872, Aug. 14 
1873, Sept. 17 
1874, Aug. 19 
1875, Aug. 25 


1876, Sept. 6 ses 


..-| Brighton 
...| Bradford 
...| Belfast .. 
-| Bristol 


.| Liverpool 


Newcastle-on-Tyne a 
1167) ee aE eo 


Se es 


Edinburgh 


Glasgow............2.. 


Presidents. 


The Earl Fitzwilliam, D.C.L.... 
The Rev. W. Buckland, F.R.8. .. 
The Rev. A. Sedgwick, F.R.S.... 
Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.C.L. ...... 
The Rey. Provost Lloyd, LL.D. 
The Marquis of Lansdowne 
The Earl of Burlington, F.R.S.. 
The Duke of Northumberland... 
The Rey. W. Vernon Harcourt . 
The Marquis of Breadalbane ... 
The Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S.... 
The Lord Francis Egerton ...... 
The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S. ...... 
The Rey. G. Peacock, D.D. ...... 
Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart. . 
Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Bart. 
Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart. ...... 
The Marquis of Northampton... 
The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D.. 
Sir David Brewster, K.H. ...... 
G. B. Airy, Esq., Astron. Royal. 
Lieut.-General Sabine, F.R.S. ... 
William Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S8.. 
The Earl of Harrowby, F.R.S. .. 
The Duke of Argyll, F.R.S. ...... 
Prof. C. G. B. Daubeny, M.D.... 
The Rey. Humphrey Lloyd, D.D. 
Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L. ... 
H.R.H. The Prince Consort 

The Lord Wrottesley, M.A....... 


William Fairbairn, LL.D.,F.B.8. 


The Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A. 


Sir William G. Armstrong, OB. 


Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., M.A.... 
Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., LL.D.... 
William R. Grove, Q.C., F.R.S. 
The Duke of Buccleuch, K.C.B. 
Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, F.R.S. . 
Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.O.L. ...... 
Prof. T. H. Huxley, LL.D....... 
Prof. Sir W. Thomson, LI.D.... 
Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. ... 
Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S. 
Prof. J. Tyndall, L.D., F.R.S. 
Sir John Hawkshaw, C.E.,F.B.S. 
Prof. T. Andrews, M.D., F.R.S. 


Old Life 
Members. 


ee ee 


ATTENDANCE AND RECEIPTS AT ANNUAL MEETINGS, xly 


ie We ~ 


Bit Meetings of the Association. 


Amount bare ag . 
received aoe © 
3 ; : during the rants for 
ual Annual | Associates.| Ladies. | Foreigners.) Total Scientific 


5 Attended by 


bers. | Members. pias Purposes. 
Py £ s. d. £ s. d. 
Es. ; BBS) a lee weveesers Bay RE a 
a GOOD ME ocosccesel lh raaewear ae 
ae c TAGS 4 Sled ee nyer. es 20 0 O 
vee ; ~ or well Lamborn 167 0 0 
aoe EQ5OR Ih eivaces cs 434.14 0 
sy Fi : a a 1840 cess 918 14 6 
tee ao re 1100% ae DAGOW FW ae taste c 956 12 2 
aes 34 WASS' A) cerecs.« 1595 Il oO 
BS Sa “as 40 E35She |) ccxeteecs 1546 16 4 
317 “oe 60* ace SOE Werrcade ance 1235 10 II 
376 33t 331* 28 EQUGRT | greece 1449 17 8 
185 Aan 160 Ace én sneer 1565 10 2 
Igo gt 260 Ser Goce Yb we wii O88. 981 12 8 
22 407 172 35 EOTOD Wil vetwseees 830 9 9 
39 270 196 36 Sell Redenea de 685 16 o 
40 495 203 53 T2BO 8 cedesess 208 5 4 
25 376 197 15 929 797 00} 275 1 8 
33 447 237 22 1071 963 00| 159 19 6 
42 510 273 44 1241 1085 0 O 345 18 o 
47 244 141 37 710 62000] 391 9 7 
| 60 510 292 9 1108 10og5 CO |] 304 6 7 
57 367 236 6 876 993 09] 205 0 o 
121 765 524 10 1802 1882 00] 33019 7 
101 1094. 543 26 2133 2311 00] 48016 4 
48 412 346 9 IIIS 1098 00 |] 734 13 9g 
120 g00 569 26 2022 20150 Of 507 15 3 
gI 710 509 13 1698 1931 00} 618 18 2 
: 179 1206 821 22 2564 278200] 684 11 1 
a 59 636 463 47 1689 16040 0} 1241 7 O 
125 1589 791 15 3139 394490] IIII 5 I0 
57 433 242 25 1161 1089 0 © | 1293 16 6 
209 1704 1004. 25 3335 3640 0 0 | 1608 3 10 
103 1119 1058 13 2802 2965 00 | 1289 15 8 
149 766 5c8 23 1997 222700] 1591 7 Io 
105 960 771 II 2303 2469 00] 1750 13 4 
118 1163 hgh 7 24.44 2613 00/1739 4 0 
117 720 682 4st 2004 2042 00] 1940 0 0 
107 678 600 17 1856 1931 00 | 1572 0 o 
195 1103 gio 14, 2878 3096 00 | 1472 2 6 
127 976 754 21 2463 2575 90/1285 0 o 
80 937 gi2 43 2533 2649 00 | 1685 0 o 
99 796 6or II 1983 2102 00] 1151 16 © 
85 817 630 12 1951 197990] 960 0 o 
93 884 672 17 2248 2397 00 


———_—_—________4 


* Ladies were not admitted by purchased Tickets until 1843. 
t Tickets for admission to Sections only, ¢ Including Ladies. 


xlvi - REPORT—1875. 


OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT THE 
BRISTOL MEETING. 


' ‘SECTION A.—-MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 
President.—Professor Balfour Stewart, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. 
Vice-Presidents.—Rey. J. W. Caldicott, D.D. ; Professor Cayley, F.R.S.; Rev. S. 
J. Perry, F.R.S.; Professor Price, F.R.S.; Professor H. J. 8. Smith, E.R.S. ; 
W. Spottiswoode, F.R.S.; Professor J. J. Sylvester, F.R.S.; Sir W. Thomson, 
F.R.S. ; Professor Tyndall, F.R.S. 

Secretaries,—Professor W. F. Barrett, F.R.S.E., M.R.LA., F.0.8.; J. W. L. 
Glaisher, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. ; C. T. Hudson, M.A., LL.D.; G. F. Rodwell, 
F.R.AS., F.C.S8. 


SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY, INCLUDING THEIR APPLICATIONS TO 
AGRICULTURE AND THE ARTS. 

President.—A. G. Vernon Harcourt, M.A., F.B.S., F.0.8. 

Vice-Presidents—Professor Atkinson, F.C.S.; Professor Debus, F.R.S.; Professor 
J. H, Gladstone, F.R.S.; Dr. Longstaff; Professor N. Story Maskelyne, F.RB.S. ; 
Alderman T. Proctor; Professor W. J. Russell, F.R.S. ; Professor Williamson, - 
F.R.S. 

Secretaries—H. E. Armstrong, Ph.D., F.C.S.; W. Chandler Roberts, F.R.S. ; 
William A. Tilden, D.Sc., F.C.S. 

SECTION C.— GEOLOGY. 

President.—Dr. Thomas Wright, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 

Vice-Presidents.—The Earl of Ducie, F.R.S.; Sir Philip de M. Grey Egerton, Bart., 
F.R.S.; The Earl of Enniskillen, F.R.S.; R. A. C. Godwin-Austin, F.R.S. ; 
Sir W. V. Guise, Bart., F.G.S.; Professor Harkness, F.R.S.; Professor Hull, 
F.R.S. ; W. W. Stoddart, F.G.S. 

Secretaries. —L, C. Miall, F.G.S. ; E. B. Tawney, F.G.S.; W. Topley, F.G.S. 


SECTION D.—BIOLOGY. 

President —P. L, Sclater, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.LS. 

Vice-Presidents.—Professor Cleland, M.D. , F.R.S.; Professor Rolleston, M.A., M.D., 
F.RS., F.LS.; Dr. Allman, F.R.S.; Osbert Salvin, F.R.S.; Professor W. C. 
Williamson, F.R.S.; Professor Balfour, F.R.S.; Colonel Lane Fox, F.G.S.; 
Dr. Allen Thomson, F.R.S. 

Secretaries.—E. R. Alston, F.Z.S8.; Dr. McKendrick ; Professor W. R. M‘Nab, 
M.D.; Dr. Martyn; F. W. Rudler, F.G.S.; Dr, P. H. Pye-Smith. 


SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY. 
Pe ottalant teamed Strachey, R.E., C.S.L, F.R.S., F.R.GS., F.LS., 


Vice-Presidents—Sir Rutherford Aleock, K.C.B.; Admiral Sir E. Belcher, K.C.B., 
E.R.S., F.R.G.S.; Francis Galton, F.R.S., F.R.G.S. ; Major-General Sir H. C. 
Rawlinson, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.8., Pres.R.G.S. ; Rey. Professor Rawlin- 
son, M.A.; Major Wilson, R.E., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. "Eo 

Rectdtarica-- 1. Bates, F.L.S., Assist. Sec. R.G.S. ; E. C. Rye, F.Z.8., Librarian 
R.G.S.; F. F. Tuckett, F.R.G.S8. 


SECTION F,—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 

President.—James Heywood, M.A., F.R.S., Pres. 8.8. 

Vice-Presidents.—Lord Aberdare; Dr. Beddoe, F.R.S. ; Right Hon. Stephen Caye, 
M.P.; M. E. Grant Duff, M.P.; W. Farr, M.D., F.R.S.; G. W. Hastings ; 
Jerom Murch ; Rey. J. Percival, M.A., LL.D. 

nee. P. Fellows, F.S.S., F.S.A.; T. G, P. Hallett, M.A.; E. Macrory, 

SECLION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 

President.—William Froude, M.A., C.E., F.R.S. 

Vice- Presidents —W. H. Barlow, C.E., F.R.S.; F. J. Bramwell, C.E., F.R.S. ; James 
Brunlees, C.E.; P. le Neve Foster, M.A.; Captain Douglas Galton, C.B., F.R.S. ; 
C. W. Merrifield, F.R.S.; Lord Rayleigh, F.R.S.; Sir William Thomson, LL.D., 
F.R.S. ; Edward Woods, 0.E, 

Secretaries.—W. R. Browne, M.A., 0,E.; H.M. Brunel; J. G. Gamble, B,A., CE, ; 
J. N. Shoolbred, C.E., F.G,S8, 


OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1875-76. 


PRESIDENT. 
SIR JOHN HAWKSHAW, C.E., F.R.8., F.G.8. 


VICE-PRESIDENTS. 
The ea Hon. the EARL oF Duciz, F.RS., Majors ee Sir mene C. RAWLINSON, K.C.B., 


F. E.B.S., 

The Right Hon. Sir SrAFFoRD H. Nor?THcore, a W. B. Ginieatne C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.8., 
Bart., C.B., M.P., F.R.S. F.G.S8. 

The MAyor OF BRISTOL (1874-75). W. SANDERS, Esq,, F.R.S., F.G.8. 


PRESIDENT DESIGNATE. 
4 PROFESSOR THOMAS ANDREWS, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Hon. F.R.S.E. 


VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT. 
His Grace the DuKE oF ARGYLL, K.T., LL.D., | Professor Sir W1LL1AM Tomson, M.A., LL.D., 


F.R.S.L. & E., F.G.8. D.C.L., F.R.S.L. & E. 
The LoRD Provost oF GLAsGow. Professor ALLEN THomson, M.D., LU.D., F.R.8.L, 
Sir WILLIAM STIRLING MAXWELL, Bart., M.A} & E 
M.P. Professor A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.8., F.G.S. 
LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT GLASGOW. 
Dr. W. G. BLACKIE, F.R.G.S. J. D. Marwick, Esq. 


JAMES GRAHAME, Esq. 


LOCAL TREASURERS FOR THE MEETING AT CLASCOW. 


Dr. FERGUS. 
A, 8. M‘CLELLAND, Esq. 


ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. 


ABEL, F. A., Esq., F.R.S. MAXWELL, Professor J. CLERK, F.R.S, 
BATEMAN, Z. F., Bsq. . E.R.S. MERRIFIELD, C. W., Esq., F.R.S. 
BRAMWELL, F. Ts Esq., C.E., F.R.S Newton, Professor A., F.R.S8. 

De La RvE, WARREN, Esq,., D.C. L., "E.R.S. OMMANNEY, Admiral E., 7 ee FE.R.8. 
Evans, J., Esq., F.R.S. PENGELLY, W., Se Te 

Farr, Dr. W.. E.R.S. PLAYFAIR, Rt.Hon. Dr. Ly a C.B.,M.P.,F.R.S. 
FLOWER, Professor W. H., F.RS. PRESTWICH, Professor J., F.R.S 
Foster, Professor G. C., ERS. ROLLESTON, Professor G., M.A., ERS. 
Gassiot, J. P., Esq., D. C. L., LL.D., F.R.S. ROScoE, Professor H. E., Ph. D. F.R.S. 
HeEywoop, J., "Esq., ERS. Russet, Dr. W. J., BR 

JEFFREYS, J. ‘Gwyn, Esq., F.R.S. SIEMENS, C. W., Esq., D. © L. .» E.R.S. 
Lockyer, J. N., Esq., F.R.S. SMITH, Professor H. J. 8. ., E.R.S. 


MASKELYNE, Prof, N. §., M.A., F.R.S. 


GENERAL SECRETARIES. 
Capt. DovGLas GALTON, C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G. 8., 12 Chester Street, Grosvenor Place, London, 8.W. 
_ Dr. MicHaEx Foster, E.R. s., F.C.8., Trinity College, Cambridge. 


ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY. 
GEORGE GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., F.C.8., Harrow-on-the-hill, Middlesex. 


GENERAL TREASURER. 
Professor A. W. WILLIAMSON, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., University College, London, W.C. 


EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. 
The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents and 
Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former years, 
the General Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurer and Secretaries for the 
ensuing Meeting. 
TRUSTEES (PERMANENT). 

General Sir EDWARD SABIneE, K.C.B., R.A., D.C.L., F.R.S. 

Sir PHitip DE M. Grey EGERTon, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.G.8. 

Sir Joun Lupzock, Bart., M.P., F.R.8., F.L.8. 


PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS. 


The Duke of Devonshire. The Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D. Professor Stokes, M.A., D.C.L, 
The Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D. Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L. Prof. Huxley, LL.D., See. R.S. 
Sir G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal. | Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B., LL.D. | Prof. Sir W. Tahoniien, D.C.L. 
General Sir E. Sabine, K.C.B. Sir William R. Grove, FERS. Dr. Carpenter, F.R.S. 

The Earl of Harrowby. The Duke of Buccleuch, K.B. Prof. Williamson, Ph.D., F.R.S 
The Duke of Argyll. Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, D.C.L. Prof. Tyndall, D.C.L., F.R.S, 


GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS. 


F. Galton, Esq., F.R.8. Gen. Sir E. Sabine, K.C.B., F.R.S. | Dr. T. Thomson, F.R.S. 
Dr. T. A. Hirst, F.R.S. W. Spottiswoode, Esq., F.R.8. 
AUDITORS. 


Professor J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S. W. Spottiswoode, Esq., F.R.S, | Major-General Strachey, F.R.8. 


xlviii REPORT—1875. 


Report of the Council for the Year 1874-75, presented to the General 
Committee at Bristol on Wednesday, August 25th, 1875. 


The Council have received Reports during the past year from the General 
Treasurer; and his Account for the year will be laid before the General 
Committee this day. 

The General Committee at Belfast referred the following four Resolutions 
to the Council for their consideration, and they beg to report their proceed- 
ings in each case :— 


First Resolution.—“ That the Council be requested to take such steps 
as they may deem expedient to urge upon the Government of India 
the desirableness of continuing Solar Observations in India.” 


The Council, having considered this Resolution, requested the President to 
embody their views in a Letter to the Government of India. The following 
is a copy of the letter to the Marquis of Salisbury :— 


“ British Association for the Advancement of Science, 
22 Albemarle Street, London, March 5, 1875. 

‘My Lorp,—By the desire of the General Committee and of the Council 
of the British Association, I beg to lay before your Lordship the accom- 
panying resolutions regarding the continuance of Sclar Observations in 
India. 

“Researches of the character here contemplated axe of comparatively 
recent date, and have been hitherto pursued with conspicuous ability by 
independent observers. They may be divided into three distinct groups :— 
namely, Sun-spot Periodicity; the relation of that Periodicity to Terrestrial 
and Planetary phenomena; and the Physical and Chemical changes of the 
sun’s visible surface. It is the opinion of the Council of the British Associa- 
tion that observations of the sun conducted under these three heads would 
furnish results of the highest scientific importance, and that India, presenting 
as it does every diversity of climate and of atmospheric condition, and every 
degree of elevation from the sea-level to the greatest mountain heights, is a 
field eminently suited to the successful prosecution of such observations. 

“The specific proposal which, on behalf of the British Association, I 
have the honour to submit for your Lordship’s consideration is, that the 
instruments recently supplied for the Observation of the Transit of Venus 
should, now that they have served that purpose, be made to contribute to 
the equipment of a Physical Observatory to be established in the Himalayas, 
the Nielgherries, or some other fit locality. These instruments are suitable 
for solar observations, and with the addition of a spectroscope and a few 
other minor adjuncts would suffice for the present. They would be ready to 
be brought into practical action the moment the necessary buildings, which 
might be of the simplest and most inexpensive character, are erected. 

“But to extract from solar observations their full value it is necessary 


REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. xlix 


that they should be continuous. No day ought to pass without observations 
of the solar surface. This can only be accomplished by establishing, in 
connexion with the principal observatory, stations in positions selected with 
the view of rendering it in the highest degree probable that at one or other 
of them favourable weather would always be found. When, therefore, the 
results obtained in the proposed observatory shall have justified the extension 
(and of such justification the Council entertain a confident hope), outlying 
stations may be added, provided with the moderate equipment needed to 
multiply the chances of that continuity of observation which it is so desirable 
to secure. 

“Tt is specially agreeable to me, personally, to have the privilege of 
bringing this important question under the notice of a nobleman whose 
scientific acquirements render unnecessary any lengthened argument to prove 
that the proposed observatory is likely to redound to the honour of England, 
and to materially assist in the advancement of Natural Knowledge. 

‘T have the honour to be, 
‘My Lord, 
* Your most obedient Servant, 
‘“ Joun TYNDALL, 
President.” 
* The Most Honourable 
The Marquis of Salisbury, 
Secretary of State for India.” 


A copy of this Letter was forwarded to the Governor-General of India. 


_” following reply has been received from the Secretary of State for 

dia :— 

India Office, Westminster, 8.W., 
April 2, 1875. 

“Srr,—I am directed by the Secretary of State for India in Council to 
acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 5th March, setting forth the 
desirability of instituting continuous Solar Observations in India, and, in 
reply, to transmit to you a copy of a Despatch which his Lordship has 
addressed to the Government of India on the subject. 

“Tam, Sir, 
‘Your obedient Servant, 
“ Louis Mater,” 


_ “ Professor Tyndall, F.RS.” 


‘«¢ Geographical (Observatories), 
No. 16. 


“©T0 His Excellency The Right Honourable the Governor-General of India 
in Council. 
“ «India Office, London, 
March 24, 1875. 
**¢My Lorp,—Para. 1. I have received and considered in Council your 
Excellency’s Despatch, dated 12th February (No. 2, Industry, Science, and 
Art), 1875, reporting your sanction of an arrangement by which Licutenant- 
Colonel Tennant, with a small establishment, will be employed, during the 
year 1875-76, to make observations, at Roorkee, of the sun and of Jupiter's 
1875, d 


1 REPORT—1875. 


satellites, and to reduce the transit-observations. The instruments* for use 
at Roorkee will be ordered in this country, and sent out with as little delay 
as possible. jie 

“¢¢9. T observe that your Government, in sanctioning these arrangements, 
have declined to engage themselves to any thing further at present; and 
that the suggested establishment of a solar observatory at Simla remains an 
open question for future consideration. 

«<¢3, T herewith transmit a copy of a letter, which I have received from the 
President of the British Association, on the importance of continuous Solar 
Observations in India; and I would suggest for your consideration whether 
an observatory on an inexpensive scale might not usefully be established at 
Simla after the ensuing year, with this object, for which spectroscopes only 
would be necessary, in addition to the instruments already at Roorkee. 


“«¢T have the honour to be, 
**<« My Lord, 
*©¢ Your Lordship’s most obedient humble Servant, 
(Signed) *¢ ¢ SaLISBURY.’ ” 


Second Resolution.—“ That the Council of the Association be requested 
to take such steps as they may think desirable with a view to promote 
the appointment of Naturalists to vessels engaged on the -coasts of 
little-known parts of the world.” 


The Council drew up the following Letter, which was signed by the 
President, and forwarded to the Admiralty :— 


“ British Association for the Advancement of Science, 
22 Albemarle Street, London, March 9, 1875. 

“ Srr,—The Council of the British Association have had recently referred 
to them by the General Committee of the Association a question which in 
various forms has been already under their consideration—the importance, 
namely, of attaching Naturalists (that is to say, persons specially trained in 
Natural-history observation) to Surveying-ships generally, and more especially 
to those engaged in the survey of unfrequented or little-known regions. 

“The Council have requested me to communicate to Her Majesty’s Govern- 
ment their conviction of the importance of making, wherever practicable, this 
addition to Surveying Expeditions, They believe that such action on the 
part of the Government would not only be of advantage to Science, but that 
it would be conducive to the commercial interests of the country to an extent 
far outbalancing the trifling outlay which such appointments would render 
necessary. 

“We are here in reality only asking for a further application of the en- 
lightened policy which enabled the Government to utilize the talents of such 
men as Banks and Solander in the last century, and which has more recently 
given scope to the abilities of such men as Darwin, Hooker, and Huxley. 
Even in a commercial point of view the advantages which have flowed from 
this policy have been quite out of proportion to its cost to the country. 


* ¢A parallel wire micrometer s..sscescsccsecsecteceecenanes £ 20 
Solar and stellar spectroscopes...c.csccsccccceseeeseenens 130 
Micrometer for measuring solar photographs ...... 50 


REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. li 


“The obvious desirability of associating trained observers with the Surveys 
of the future is thus strengthened by the experience of the past. The Council 
of the British Association beg therefore to urge upon the favourable con- 
sideration of Her Majesty's Government the question submitted to them by 
the General Committee. 

* T have the honour &ce.” 


“ Vernon Lushington, Esq., Q.C.” 


The following reply has been received from the Admiralty :— 


“ Admiralty, 
March 29, 1875, 
*‘Srr,—I am commanded by My Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty to 
thank you for your letter of the 9th instant, conveying the opinion expressed 
by the Committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science 
as to the desirability of trained Naturalists being attached to all Surveying- 
vessels, more especially to those engaged in the survey of unfrequented 
regions. 
clam sir, 
“ Your obedient Servant, 
* Ropert Hatt.” 
“ The President of the British Association 
for the Advancement of Science, 
22 Albemarle Street, S.W.” 


Third Resolution.—* That the Council be requested to take such steps 
as they may think desirable with the view of promoting any applica- 
tion that may be made to Her Majesty’s Government by the Royal 
Society for a systematic Physical and Biological exploration of the 
seas around the British Isles.” 


The Council deferred the consideration of this Resolution until action be 
taken by the Royal Society. 


Fourth Resolution,— That the Council should take such steps as they 
may think desirable for supporting the request to Her Majesty’s 
Government to undertake an Arctic Expedition on the basis proposed 
by the Council of the Royal Geographical Society at the beginning of 

~ the present year, which it is understood will be again made by that 
body.” 


The Council are glad to report that the efforts of the Learned Societies to 
obtain a renewal of the Exploration of the Polar Seas have been crowned 
with success ; the Expedition which has been despatched on this service has 
been furnished with the best-known appliances for the furtherance of the 
objects in view. 


The Council have added the following list of names of gentlemen present at 
the last Meeting of the Association to the list of Corresponding Members :— 


M. A. Niaudet Breguet. Dr. Knoblauch. 
M. Ch. d’ Almeida. Dr. G. Schweinfarth. 
Dr. W. Feddersen. Professor Wiedemann. 


d2 


li REPORT—1875. 


The Council have been informed that the invitation to hold the Annual 
Meeting of the Association in 1877 at Plymouth will be renewed, and that 
an invitation for a future Meeting will be presented from Leeds. 

In accordance with the regulations adopted at the Belfast Meeting for the 
selection of Ordinary Members of Council, the Council append a list of the 
Members of the present Council who are not proposed for re-election for the 
ensuing year :— 


Dr. Beddoe. Mr. Sclater. 
Dr. Debus. General Strachey. 
Mr. Fitch. 


The Council recommend the re-election of the other Members of the Council, 
with the addition of the following gentlemen :— 


Mr. F. A. Abel. 
Mr. John Evans. 
Mr. J. Heywood. 


Professor A. Newton. 
Professor Rolleston. 


RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL Comuirrer At tHE Berstot, 
Meetine rn Aveust 1875. 


[When Committees are appointed, the Member first named is regarded as the Secretary, 
except there is a specific nomination.] 


Involving Grants of Money. 


That the Committee, consisting of Professor Cayley, Professor G. G. Stokes, 
Professor H. J. 8. Smith, Professor Sir W. Thomson, and Mr. J. W. L. 
Glaisher (Secretary), be reappointed ; that the sum of £59 4s. 2d. be placed 
at their disposal as a final payment on account of expenses incurred in the 
calculation of the Elliptic Functions, and that.a further sum of £100 be 
placed at the disposal of the Committee for the purpose of continuing the 
printing of the tables of Elliptic Functions. ae 

That the Committee on the Rainfall of the British Isles, consisting of Mr. 
C. Brooke, Mr. J. Glaisher, Mr. J. F, Bateman,-Mr. T. Hawksley, Mr. G. J. 
Symons, Mr. C. Tomlinson, Mr. Rogers Field, the Earl of Rosse, and Mr. 
J. Smyth, Jun., be reappointed; that Mr. G. J. Symons be the Secretary, 
and that the sum of £100 be placed at their disposal for the purpose, with 
the understanding that £60 is for completing the observations in Great 
Britain, and that £40 be devoted to observations in Ireland. 

That the Committee, consisting of Mr. James Glaisher, Mr. R. P. Greg, 
Mr. Charles Brooke, Dr. Flight, Professor G. Forbes, and Professor A. 8. 
Herschel, on Luminous Meteors, be reappointed, and that a grant of £30 
be placed at their disposal. 

That the. Committee, consisting of Professor Clerk Maxwell, Professor J. 
D. Everett, and Mr.-A. Schuster, for testing experimentally the exactness 
of Ohm’s law, be reappointed, and that the grant of £50 which has lapsed 
be renewed. 


That the Committee, consisting of Professor Stokes, Dr. De La Rue, Pro- 


ben een 


RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. hin 


fessor Clerk Maxwell, Mr. W. F. Barrett, Mr. Howard Grubb, Mr. G, Johu- 
stone Stoney, and Professor R. 8. Ball, for examining and reporting upon 
the reflective powers of silver, gold, and platinum, whether in mass or 
chemically deposited on glass, and of speculum metal, be reappointed, and 
that the grant of £20 which has lapsed be renewed. 

That the Committee on Thermo-Electricity, consisting of Professor Tait, 
Professor Tyndall, and Professor Balfour Stewart, be reappointed, and that 
the grant of £50 which has lapsed be renewed. 

That Sir W. Thomson, Professor J. C. Adams, Rear-Admiral Richards, 
General Strachey, Mr. W. Parkes, Colonel Walker, Professor Guthrie, Mr. J. 
W. L. Glaisher, Mr. John Exley, Mr. J. N. Schoolbred, and Mr. J. R. Napier, 
be appointed a Committee on Tides, and that the sum of £200 be placed 
at their disposal for completing and setting up in a locality in London, where 
it may be available for use, Sir Wiliam Thomson’s Tide Calculating 
Machine. 

That Professors Roscoe, Balfour Stewart, and Thorpe be reappointed as a 
Committee for the purpose of determining the Specific Volumes of Liquids; 
that Dr. Thorpe be the Secretary, and that the sum of £25 be placed at their 
disposal for the purpose. 

That Dr. Armstrong, Professor Thorpe, and Mr. W. W. Fisher, be a Com- 
mittee for the purpose of investigating Isomeric Cresols, and the Law which 
governs Substitution in the Phenol Series; that Dr. Armstrong be the Se- 
cretary, and that the sum of £10 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 
_ That Mr. Frank Clowes, B.Sc. and Dr. W. A. Tilden be a Committee for 
the purpose of examining the Action of Ethylbromo-butyrate on Ethyl Sod- 
aceto-acetate ; that Mr. Clowes be the Secretary, and that the sum of £10 be 
placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Messrs. Allen, Dewar, Stanford, and Fletcher be a Committee for the 
purpose of examining and reporting upon the methods employed in the esti- 
mation of Potash and Phosphoric Acid in commercial products, and on the 
mode of stating the results; that Mr. Allen be the Secretary, and that the 
sum of £20 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Sir John Lubbock, Bart., Professor Prestwich, Professor Busk, Pro- 
fessor Hughes, Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, Rey. H. W. Crosskey, Messrs. 
L. C. Miall and R. H. Tiddeman be a Committee for the purpose of assist- 
ing in the exploration of the Victoria Cave ; that Mr. Tiddeman be the Se~- 
cretary, and that the sum of £100 be placed at their disposal for the pur- 
pose. 

That Messrs. J. Reis W. Carruthers, F. Drew, R. Etheridge, Jun., A. 
H. Green, G. A. Lebour, L. C. Miall, H. A. N icholson, W. Topley, and W. 
Whitaker be a Committee for the purpose of carrying on the Geological 
Record; that Mr. Whitaker be the ecw ity and that the sum of £100 ke 
placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Mr. J. Evans, Sir J. Lubbock, Bart., Mr. E. Vivian, Mr. W. Pen- 
gelly, Mr. G. Busk, Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, Mr. W. Ashford Sanford, 
and Mr, J. E. Lee be a Committee for the purpose of continuing the ex- 
ploration of Kent’s Cavern, Torquay ; that Mr. Pengelly be the Secretary, 
and that the sum of £100 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Professor A. S. Herschel and Mr. G. A. Lebour be reappointed a 
Committee for the purpose of making experiments on the Thermal Con- 
ductivities of certain.rocks ; that Professor Herschel be the Secretary, and 
that the sum of £10 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

_ That Professor Hull, Mr. E. W. Binney, Mr. H. Howell, Mr. M. Reade, 


liv REPORT—1875. 


Rey. H. W. Crosskey, Professor A. H. Green, Professor Harkness, Mr. W. 
Molyneux, Mr. G. H. Morton, Mr. Pengelly, Professor Prestwich, Mr. J. 
Plant, Mr. W. Whitaker, Captain D. Galton, and Mr. De Rance be reap- 
pointed a Committee for the purpose of investigating the circulation of the 
underground waters in the New Red Sandstone and Permian formations of 
England, and the quantity and character of the water supplied to various 
towns and districts from those formations ; that Mr. C. EK. De Rance be the 
Secretary, and that the sum of £10 be placed at their disposal for the pur- 
_pose. 

. That Dr. Bryce, Mr. J. Brough, Mr. G. Forbes, Mr. D. Milne-Home, Mr. 
J. Thomson, Professor Sir W. Thomson, and Mr. Peter Drummond be a 
Committee for the purpose of continuing the Observations and Records of 
Earthquakes in Scotland ; that Dr. Bryce be the Secretary, and that the sum 
of £20 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Mr. Sclater, Mr. Rye, and Mr. M*Lachlan be a Committee for the 
purpose of continuing the Zoological Record; that Mr. Rye be the Secretary, 
and that the sum of £100 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Mr. Dresser, Mr. Barnes, Mr. Harland, Mr. Harting, Professor 
Newton, and Canon Tristram be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of 
considering the desirability of establishing “a close time”’ for the protection 
of indigenous animals; that Mr. Dresser be the Secretary, and that the sum 
of £5 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Professor Balfour, Professor Dewar, and Dr. M°Kendrick be a Com- 
mittee for the purpose of investigating the Physiological Action of Sound ; 
that Dr. McKendrick be the Secretary, and that the sum of £25 be placed 
at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Professor Huxley, Mr. Sclater, Mr. F. M. Balfour, Dr. M. Foster, Mr. 
Ray Lankester, and Mr. Dew-Smith (Secretary) be a Committee for the pur- 
pose of arranging with Dr. Dohrn for the occupation of a Table at the Zoo- 
logical Station at Naples during the ensuing year, in accordance with their 
Report ; that Mr. Dew-Smith be the Secretary, and that the sum of £75 be 
placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Dr. Lauder Brunton and Dr. Pye-Smith be reappointed a Committee 
for the purpose of making physiological researches on the nature of Intes- 
tinal Secretions ; that Dr. Brunton be the Secretary, and that the sum of 
£20 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Colonel Lane Fox, Mr. John Evans, and Professor Rolleston be a 
Committee for the purpose of Prehistoric Explorations ; that Colonel Lane 
Fox be the Secretary, and that the sum of £25 be placed at their disposal for 
the purpose. 

That the Committee, consisting of Colonel Lane Fox, Dr. Beddoe, Mr. 
Franks, Mr. F. Galton, Mr."E. W. Brabrook, Sir J. Lubbock, Sir W. Elliot, 
Mr. C. R. Markham, Mr. E. B. Tylor, Mr. J. Evans, and Mr. F. W. Rudler, 
be reappointed for the purpose of preparing and publishing brief forms of 
instruction for travellers, ethnologists, and other anthropological observers ; 
that Colonel Lane Fox be the Secretary, and that the sum of £25 be placed 
at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Dr. Beddoe, Lord Aberdare, Dr. Farr, Mr. Francis Galton, Sir Henry 
Rawlinson, Colonel Lane Fox, Mr. Rawson Rawson, Mr. James Heywood, 
Dr. Mouat, Professor Rolleston, Mr. Hallett, Mr. Fellows, and Professor 
Leone Levi (with power to add to their number), be an Anthropometric 
Committee for the purpose of collecting observations on the Systematic Ex- 
amination of the Heights, Weights, and other physical characters of the 


RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. ly 


inhabitants of the British Isles; that Mr. Francis Galton be the Secretary, 
and that the sum of £100 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That the Committee on instruments for measuring the speed of ships be 
reappointed ; that it consist of the following Members :—-Mr. W. Froude, Mr. 
F. J. Bramwell, Mr. A. E. Fletcher, Rey. E. L. Berthon, Mr. James R. Napier, 
Mr. C. W. Merrifield, Dr. C. W. Siemens, Mr. H. M. Brunel, Mr. W. Smith, 
Sir William Thomson, Mr. J. N. Shoolbred, and Professor James Thomson ; 
that Mr. J. N. Shoolbred be the Secretary, and that the sum of £50 be placed 
at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Mr. James R. Napier, Sir William Thomson, Mr. William Froude, 
and Professor Osborne Reynolds be a Committee for the purpose of making 
experiments and of reporting on the effect of the propeller on the turning of 
Steam-vessels ; that Professor Osborne Reynolds be the Secretary, and that 
the sum of £50 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 


Applications for Reports and Researches not involving Grants of 
Money. 


That the Committee on Underground Temperature, consisting of Professor 
Everett (Secretary), Professor Sir W. Thomson, Professor J. Clerk Maxwell, 
Mr. G. J. Symons, Professor Ramsay, Professor Geikie, Mr. J. Glaisher, 
Mr. George Maw, Mr. Pengelly, Professor Edward Hull, Professor Ansted, 
Dr. Clement Le Neve Foster, Professor A. 8. Herschel, Mr. G. A. Lebour, 
Colonel Strange, and Mr. A. B. Wynne, be reappointed. 

That the Committee on the Magnetization of Iron, Nickel, and Cobalt, 
consisting of Professor Balfour Stewart, Professor Clerk Maxwell, Mr. H. A. 
Rowland, and Professor W. F. Barrett, be reappointed. 

That the Committee, consisting of Professor Sylvester, Professor Cayley, 
Professor Hirst, Rev. Professor Bartholomew Price, Professor H. J. 8. 
Smith, Dr. Spottiswoode, Mr. R. B. Hayward, Dr. Salmon, Rev. Professor R. 
Townsend, Professor Fuller, Professor Kelland, Mr. J. M. Wilson, Professor 
Henrici, Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher, and Professor Clifford, for considering the 
possibility of improving the methods of instruction in elementary geometry, 
be reappointed, and that they be requested to consider the Syllabus drawn 
up by the Association for the Improvement of Geometrical Teaching, and 
report thereon. 

That the Committee, consisting of Dr. Joule, Professor Sir W. Thomson, 
Professor Tait, Professor Balfour Stewart, and Professor J. Clerk Maxwell, 
for effecting the determination of the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat, be 
reappointed, 

That the Committee, consisting of Professor H. J. 8. Smith, Professor 
Clifford, Professor W. G. Adams, Professor Balfour Stewart, Mr. J. G. Fitch, 
Mr. George Griffith, Mr. Marshall Watts, Professor G. Carey Foster, Mr. W. 
F. Barrett, Professor Clerk Maxwell, and Mr. G. F. Rodwell, for considering 
and reporting on the extent and method of Teaching Physics in Schools, be 
reappointed, and that Professor G. C. Foster be the Secretary. 

That Mr. Spottiswoode, Professor Stokes, Professor Cayley, Professor H. J. 
§. Smith, Sir W. Thomson, Professor Henrici, Lord Rayleigh, and Mr. J. W. 
L. Glaisher be appointed a Committee to report on Mathematical Notation. 

That Mr. W. H. L. Russell be requested to continue his Report on Hyper- 
elliptic Functions. 

That Dr.-Atkinson, Professor Gladstone, and Mr. A, Vernon Harcourt, be 


lyi rnEPortT—1875. 


a Committee for the purpose of collecting and suggesting subjects for Che- 
mical Researches ; that Dr. Atkinson be the Secretary. 

That R. B. Grantham, C.E., F.G.S., Professor A. W. Williamson, F.R.S., 
Dr. Gilbert, F.R.S., Professor Corfield, M.D., F. J. Bramwell, C.E., F.R.S., 
W. Hope, V.C., and J. W. Barry, C.E., be a Committee for the purpose of con- 
tinuing the investigations on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage; that 
Dr. Corfield be the Secretary. 

That Professor Prestwich, Professor Harkness, Professor Hughes, Professor 
W. Boyd Dawkins, Rev. H. W. Crosskey, Messrs. L. C. Miall, G. H. Morton, 
D. Mackintosh, R. H. Tiddeman, J. E. Lee, T. Plant, W. Pengelly, and Dr. 
Deane be a Committee for the purpose of recording the position, height 
above the sea, lithological characters, size, and origin of the Erratic Blocks 
of England, Wales, and Ireland, reporting other matters of interest con- 
nected with the same, and taking measures for their preservation; that the 
Rev. H. W. Crosskey be the Secretary. 

That Mr. Spence Bate be requested to continue his Report on our present 
knowledge of the Crustacea. 

That Mr. J. J. Hubbard, M.P., Mr. Chadwick, M.P., Mr. Morley, M.P., 
Dr. Farr, Mr. Hallett, Professor Jevons, Mr. Newmarch, Professor Leone 
Levi, Mr. Heywood, Mr. Shaen (with power to add to their number) be a 
Committee for the purpose of considering and reporting on the practicability 
of adopting 2 Common Measure of Value in the Assessment of Direct Taxa- 
tion, Local and Imperial, and that Mr. Hallett be the Secretary. 

That the Committee, consisting of Lord Houghton, Professor Thorold 
Rogers, W. Newmarch, Professor Fawcett, M.P., Jacob Behrens, F. P. Fellows, 
R. H. Inglis Palgrave, Archibald Hamilton, Rev. Dr. Percival, Mr. F. 
Bennoch, Mr. T. Sopwith, F.R.S., Mr. Morley, M.P., and Mr. Chadwick, 
M.P., on Capital and Labour, be reappointed; that Professor Leone Levi 
be the Secretary. 

That the Metric Committee, consisting of James Heywood, M.A., F.R.S., 
Lord O’Hagan, Sir W. Armstrong, F.R.S., William Farr, M.D., D.C.L., 
F.R.S., John Beddoe, M.D., F.R.S., Dr. Mouat, P. Hallett, M.A., Professor 
Hennessy, F.R.S., W. P. Price, Rev. Dr. Percival, Frank P. Fellows, F.S8.8., 
C. W. Siemens, F.R.S., Professor A. W. Williamson, F.R.S., and Professor 
Leone Levi, be reappointed for the purpose of reporting upon the best means 
of providing uniformity of weights and measures with reference to the in- 
terests of science ; that Professor Leone Levi be the Secretary. 

That the Committee, consisting of Professor Cayley, Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher, 
Dr. W. Pole, Mr. C. W. Merrifield, Professor Fuller, Mr. H. M. Brunel, and 
Professor W. K. Clifford, be reappointed to estimate the cost of constructing 
Mr. Babbage’s Analytical Engine, and to consider the advisability of printing 
tables by its means. 

That the Committee for the purpose of considering the use of steel for 
structural purposes be reappointed, consisting of Mr. W. Barlow, Mr. H. 
Bessemer, Mr. F. J. Bramwell, Captain Douglas Galton, Sir John Hawk- 
shaw, Dr. C. W. Siemens, Professor Abel, and Mr. E. H. Carbutt; that Mr. 
E. H. Carbutt be the Secretary. 

That the Committee for considering and reporting upon British Measures, 
consisting of Mr. F. J. Bramwell, Mr. J. R. Napier, Mr. C. W. Merrifield, 
Sir John Hawkshaw, and Professor Osborne Reynolds, be reappointed. 

That Sir Wiliam Thomson, Major-General Strachey, Captain Douglas 
Galton, Mr. G. F. Deacon, Mr. Rogers Field, Mr. E. Roberts, and Mr. James 
N. Shoolbred be a Committee for the purpose of considering the Datum-level 


RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTED. lvii 


of the Ordnance Survey of Great Britain, with a view to its establishment on 
a surer foundation than hitherto, with power to communicate with the Go- 
yernment if necessary ; that Mr. James N. Shoolbred be the Secretary. 


Communications ordered to be printed in extenso in the Annual Report of 
the Association. 


That Professor Cayley’s paper “‘ On the analytical forms called Trees, with 
application to the Theory of Chemical Combinations,” be printed in extenso 
_in the Reports of the Association. 

That the paper of Professor Osborne Reynolds “ On the Steering of Screw- 
steamers ” be printed in eatenso in the Reports of the Association. 

That the paper of Mr. Thomas Howard “On the River Avon” be printed 
in extenso in the Proceedings of the Sections of the Association, together with 
the necessary Plates. 

That Mr. J. N. Shoolbred’s paper “On the Half-tide Level at Liverpool ” 
be printed in extenso in the Reports of the Association, together with the 
necessary Plates. 


Resolutions referred to the Council for consideration and action if it seem 
desirable. 


That the Council be requested to consider the recommendations of the 
Reports of the Royal Commission on Scientific Instruction and the Advance- 
ment of Science, and to take such action thereupon as may seem to them 
best calculated to advance the interests of Natural Science. 

That the Council be requested to take such steps as they think suitable 
for renewing their representations to the Secretary of State for India, as to 
the importance of establishing an Observatory for Solar Physics in India, 
in conformity with the recommendations of the Royal Commissioners on 
Scientific Instruction and the Advancement of Science. 

That the Council be requested to consider and report upon the manner in 
which the Members of Committees and other Officers of the Association shall 
be selected, and whether Ladies shall be admitted to such offices, and if so, 
to what offices, and under what conditions. 

‘That the Council be requested to take into consideration the expediency of 
appointing Representatives to attend the International Statistical Congress, 
to be held at Buda-Pesth, in 1876. 


lviii REPORT—1875. 


Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Purposes by 
the General Committee at the Bristol Meeting in August 1875. 
The names of the Members who would be entitled to call on the 


General Treasurer for the respective Grants are prefixed. 


Mathematics and Physics. 


*Cayley, Professor.—Printing Mathematical Tables ........ £159 
S brooke, Mir British aiNtall css. cc... sys ss ota 20,5 be & sie Pe 100 
*Glaisher, Mr. J—Luminous Meteors .............+ 200008 3 

*Maxwell, Professor C.—Testing the Exactness of Ohm’s Law 50 


*Stokes, Professor.—Reflective Power of Silver and other 


CUMAUMEIRER SRM NeIE ST Sc. eo ce se hee ee ene 8 5. oe 20 
*Tait, Professor.—Thermo-Electricity (renewed) .......... 50 
Thomson, Sir William.—Tide Calculating Machine ........ 200 
Chemistry. 
*Roscoe, Professor.—Specific Volumes of Liquids .......... 25 
*Armstrong, Dr.—Isomeric Cresols and their Derivatives .... 10 
Clowes, Mr.—Action of Ethylbromo-butyrate on Ethyl Sod- 
ALCELOSACOLALE nhs soe aie <istens SEN Bibl Gs Sule Meee Aiton 10 
*Allen, Mr.—Estimation of Potash and Phosphoric Acid .... 20 
Geology. 
*Lubbock, Sir J.—Exploration of Victoria Cave, Settle ...... 100 
Evans, Mr. J.—Geological Record ...........ce0ceeeeees 100 
Evans, Mr. J.—Kent’s Cavern Exploration ............., 100 


*Herschel, Professor.—Thermal Conducting-power of Rocks. . 10 
*Hull, Professor.—Underground Waters in New Red Sand- 


Dione ant Permian 2. 6 fs csv aisle ee eine sien CE 10 
*Bryce, Dr.—Earthquakes in Scotland............e0eeeee8 20 
Biology. 
Sclater, Mr.—Zoological Record...........-.esceeececes 100 
Dresser, Mr.—Indigenous Animals “Close Time” ........ 5 
Balfour, Professor.—Physiological Action of Sound ........ 25 
Huxley, Professor.—Table at the Zoological Station at Naples 75 
Warried Torward.. 2. : se. Us a ase ae eee £1219 


* Reappointed, 


o.oo: O'S 


S- 


ino O'S 1S 


oo o oO 


pO | (Seo Ss S 


SYNOPSIS OF GRANTS OF MONEY. 


Broneht forward... 2 «sas, d< sien Bite Siew Secwenh £1219 
*Brunton, Dr.—The Nature of Intestinal Secretion ........ 20 
Fox, Col. Lane.—Prehistoric Explorations ............., 25 
*Fox, Col. Lane.—Forms of Instructions for Travellers ...... 25 


Statistics and Economic Science. 


Beddoe, Dr.—Systematic Examination of Heights, Weights, 
of the Inhabitants of the British Isles ................ 100 


Mechanics. 
*Froude, Mr. W.—Instruments for Measuring the Speed of 
Ships and Currents (renewed). ......6...0 cece ee ee eeee 


Napier, Mr. J. R.—Effect of the Propeller on the turning of 
PAM - VOWS aya aod Mw EL Spo we ees a Davee ean 50 


* Reappointed. 


The Annual Meeting in 1876. 


ooo 


The Meeting at Glasgow will commence on Wednesday, September 6, 1876. 


Place of Meeting in 1877. 


The Annual Meeting of the Association in 1877 will be held at Plymouth. 


Ix 


REPORT—1875. 


General Statement of Sums which have been paid on Account of Grants 
for Scientific Purposes. 


£ 3. d. 
1834. 
Tide Discussions .....ccceeeseeee 20 0 0 
1835. 
Tide Discussions ....sceeeseseeees s oD 0 0 
British Fossil Ichthyology ...... 105 0 0 
£167 0 O 
1836. 
Tide Discussions ......... Wecsseecs? LOS 0) -'0 
British Fossil Ichthyology ...... 105 0 O 
Thermometric Observations, &c. 50 0 0O 
Experiments on long-continued 
LI aera Saealesa sake seeear ee HR Tt 
Rain- Gauges ..cscccsscesssscessecees 913 0 
Refraction Experiments ......... 15 0 0 
Lunar Nutation......... Seeder moves 100/80) 20 
GUHCKMOMELEKS werssocesscssesptac.. 19 6 0 
£434 14 0 
1837. 
Tide Discussions ....csccseovsseree 284 1 0 
Chemical Constants ......... coovee 2413 6 
Lunar Nutation..... abide sanclleebere 70 0 0 
Observations on Waves..........- 100 12 0 
SPMES AL UDTIStOlswesccecses:secsuuses 150 0 0 
Meteorology and ‘Subterranean 
Temperature ...... Seacsesecsveces (09 9 O 
Vitrification Experiments......... 150 0 0 
Heart Experiments ..........046 ate oe BIG, 
Barometric Observations ........ ee 
SALOIMELELS: casevessoccuvestesess cep a ss 9G 
£918 14 6 
1838. 
Tide Discussions .........00. Sie ee 
British Fossil Fishes ...... seereg 10077010 
Meteorological Observations and 
Anemometer (construction)... 100 0 0 
Cast Iron (Strength of) ......... 60 0 0 
Animal and Vegetable Substances 
(Preservation of) ........ 19 .1 10 
Railway Constants .......... coors 41 12 10 
IBPISEONPLIGES. cosvesvsceseuessss eseca, 0 0) 10 
Growth of Plants .....sc0.s00008. 75 0 0 
NENG MMVIVIVEIS Jassccevsspesesesetess, O00 U6 
Education Committee ........0. 50 0 0 
Heart Experiments ..,....... cae 5 3 0 
Land and Sea Level... eanme | 267 ents 
Subterranean Temperature .. waite 8 6 0 
Steam-vessels......... sscsscccsesenee 100 0 0 
Meteorological Committee ...... 31 9 5 
EENETIMOMELEIS! js cdancnsase seve sseesm lO LOMO 
£956 12 2 
1839. 
Fossil Ichthyology..... sessccsseseee 110 0 O 
Meteorological Observations at 
Bly mouth ceancsise coves eres vee 63 10 0 
Mechanism of Waves .........4.. 144 2 0 
Brxst0l Tidesiscensvesrecasectsvssrses S518) 1G 


£8. d, 

Meteorology and Subterranean 
Temperature ,...scscccccccseeseee 21 11 0 
Vitrification Experiments.......0. 9 4 7 
Cast-Iron Experiments............ 100 0 O 
Railway Constants ....c.oc.... 28 7 2 
Land and Sea Level.............. 274 1 4 
Steam-vessels’ Engines............ 100 0 0 
Stars in Histoire Céleste ......... 331 18 6 
Stars in Lacaille ....scccsssessoses LL 10) 0 
Stars in R.A.S. Catalogue. eee 616 6 
Animal Secretions......+0+...+ say 20 10 50 
Steam-engines in Cornwall...... 50 0 0 
Atmospheric Air ........s0cc0 16 1 0 
Cast and Wrought Iron........+... 40 0 0 
Heat on Organic Bodies ........+ 3.0 0 
Gases on Solar Spectrum......... 22 0 0 

Hourly Meteorological Observa- 
tions, Inverness and Kingussie 49 7 §& 
Fossil Reptiles .....serscssccessvenee 118 2 9 
Mining Statistics wie... 50 0 0 
£1595 11 0 

1840. 
Bristol Tides .........00s stesideewsinses LOO) LOO 
Subterranean Temperature ...... 13 13 6 
Heart Experiments ...secscseeeeee 18 19 0 
Lungs Experiments ......- Sse ss oS oe 
Tide Discussions .........+ cvdocese OO “0 0 
Land and Sea Level .........0.e00e 611 1 
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ......... 242 10 0 
Stars (Lacaille) ....... needeeuced wo. 415 0 
Stars (Catalogue) ........0000 264 0 0 
Atmospheric Air ......... dees scseen Moria ue 
Water on Iron ......066 socseseereee 10 0 0 
Heat on Organic Bodies ......... 7 0 0 
Meteorological Observations...... 5217 6 
Foreign Scientific Memoirs ...... 112 1 6 
Working Population......... were 100 0 9 
School Statistics.......ecseseeseee oo 00 0.0 
Forms of Vessels .,..esseseses0008 184 7 0 
Chemical and Electrical Pheno- : 

TMENA, vevvcvcccceess eescceaeee soccee 40 0 0 

Meteorological Observations at 
Plymouth ...cccsscoccsreesseerere S50 0 0 
Magnetical Observations ....,.... 185 13 9 
£1546 16 4 

1841. 

Observations on Waves...... score 30 0 0 

Meteorology and Subterranean 
NEMPErature <..sescecccosassveesye 10 
Actinometers..:...ceccscorscscevesses 10 0 0 
Earthquake Shocks ,.............. 17 7 0 
Acrid Poisons,....sccccosssssnsocseas 20.00) [0 
Veins and Absorbents ............ 38 0 0 
Mud in Rivers ...cccccccossssversee 9 O 0 
Marine Zoology...s.ccsssosse.sessee 19 12 
Skeleton Maps ....scsscsssssssereee 20 0 8 
Mountain Barometers ............ 618 6 
Stars (Histoire Céleste)..........5. 185 0 0 


GENERAL STATEMENT. 


£ s. d. 
Stars (Lacaille) ...cocsercccceee 79 5 0 
Stars (Nomenclature of) ......... 17 19 6 
Stars (Catalogue of) ....ss.e000ee 40 0 0 
Water on Iron .......cccsceeeseenee 50 0 0 
Meteorological Observations at 

Inverness .........08 seseudesadacn) x0. Oy) 0 
Meteorological Observations (re- 

Guction OF) ....ccccescorerssonee. 25 0 O 
Fossil Reptiles ......sssceceeeeeeee 50 0 0 
Foreign Memoirs ......+e+sseeseeee 0 0 
Railway Sections ...... 1 6 
Forms of Vessels ... 12 0 
Meteorological Observations at 

Plymouth .....ccccssorccrssrsoree 5D O O 
Magnetical Observations <peetiees 6118 8 
Fishes of the Old Red Sandstone 100 0 0 
Tides at Leith ....scccrcocccreore 50 0 0 
Anemometer at Edinburgh ...... 69 1 10 
Tabulating Observations ........ 9 6 38 
Races of Men .....ccocssoccrsreree 5 O O 
Radiate Animals ......s0..008 2 0 0 

11235 10 11 

1842, 

Dynamometric Instruments ...... 113 11 2 
Anoplura Britanniz .......e.000404.4 52 12 0 
Tides at Bristol...........seeeeeeeee 59 8 O 
Gases on Light...........s0sseeeeeee 30 14 7 
Chronometers .......secseceeseeree 26 17 6 
Marine Zoology..........000+ aaaxweenih ml ua O 
British Fossil Mammalia ......... 100 0 0 
Statistics of Education ....... dewey gine 0 
Marine Steam-vessels’ Engines... 28 0 0 
Stars (Histoire Céleste)............ 59 0 0 
Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. of) ...... 110 0 0 
Railway Sections ...,....se«00... 161 10 0 
British Belemnites........ . 50 0 0 
Fossil Reptiles (publication ‘of 

UGHOXE)/osccceceoscccsvesssccersene, 10 0. 0 
Forms of Vessels ........esseeee. 180 0 0 
Galvanic Experiments on Rocks 5 8 6 
Meteorological Experiments at 

Plymouth ............ suicavacsace OG O--0 
Constant Indicator and Dynamo- 

metric Instruments ........... 90 0 0 
Force of Wind ............ cosssseee 10 0 O 
Light on Growth of Seeds ...... 8 O O 
Vital Statistics ...........sc0000002 50 0 0 
Vegetative Power of Seeds ...... 8 1 11 
Questions on Human Race ,..... 7 9 0 

£1449 17 8 


1843, 
Revision of the Nomenclature of 
SUBEAMGs si chuiseneseacsavestssersna 
Reduction of Stars, British Asso- 
ciation Catalogue ....scsssceseee 
Anomalous Tides, Frith of Forth 
Hourly Meteorological Observa- 
tions at Kingussie andInverness 
Meteorological Observations at 
BEEVINOUEN, ssccceccsscoascadocsscne 
Whewell’s Meteorological Ane- 
mometer at Plymouth .yseessse 


2 0 
25 0 
120 0 
77 12 
55 0 
10 0 


coo 


> 


& 8. d. 
Meteorological Observations, Os- 
ler’s Anemometer at Plymouth 20 0 0 
Reduction of Meteorological Ob- 
SEFVAtiONS ..sccccesecerccsssscess 80 0 0 
Meteorological Instruments and 
Grainitiesy ccsecscessesrscstesss-+ G9: 6 0 
Construction of Anemometer at 
EMVCKUCSS sc .benaaeeicesechincaeas ous 56 12 2 
Magnetic Cooperation sessancsees 10 8 10 
Meteorological Recorder for Kew 
Observatory ssorssccesesseesees 50 0 0 
Action of Gases on Light ........ 18 16 1 
Establishment at Kew Observa- 
tory, Wages, Repairs, Furni- 
ture and Sundries..........+6... 183 4 7 
Experiments by Captive Balloons 81 8 0 
Oxidation of the Rails of Railways 20 0 0 
Publication of Report on Fossil 
Reptiles.....ccssesccssesscoseecee 40 0 O 
Coloured Drawings of Railway 
Sechlonsiigeseacescansasscresies-es 147 18 3 
Registration of Earthquake 
Shocks .....scccccssesssesssrsevee 80 0 O 
Report on Zoological Nomencla- 
CUTE covsecccescccecccesccccsscceee 10 0 O 
Uncovering Lower Red Sand- 
stone near Manchester ......... 4 4 6 
Vegetative Power of Seeds ...... 5 3 8 
Marine Testacea (Habits nos 10 0 0 
Marine Zoology.........+0. eseee 10 0 0 
Marine Zoology...cccssssesesceseeee 214 11 
Preparation of Report on British 
Fossil Mammalia ..........0005 - 100 0 0 
Physiological Operations of Me- 
dicinal Agents ....sesccccseseeee 20 0 0 
VitaltStatistica!"cccscusescssceensese - 86 5 8 
Additional Experiments on the 
Forms of Vessels ...ses.esseeeee 70 0 0 
Additional Experiments on the 
Forms of Vessels ... ........00- 100 0 0 
Reduction of Experiments on the 
Forms of Vessels .....sseeseeees 100 0 0 
Morin’s Instrument and Constant 
ENUICAtOL, ‘ecseccasccccserersaseere 69 14 10 
Experiments on the Strength “of 
Materials .,....ssssesseeersessese 60 0 O 
£1565 10 2 
1844, 
Meteorological Observations at 
Kingussie and Inverness ...... 12 0 0 
Completing Observations at Ply- 
MOUtN seerscccccarereseoes sosseee 3D 0 0 
Magnetic and Meteorological Co- 
Operation .+...sccccccecsees esooee 25 8 4 
Publication of the British Asso- 
ciation Catalogue of Stars...... 35 0 0 
Observations on Tides on the 
East coast of Scotland ......... 100 0 0 
Revision of the Nomenclature of 
Stars .sccccsevssccesscseereelS42 2 9 6 
Maintaining the Establishmentin 
Kew Observatory seceeseeeseeeee 117 17 3 
Instruments for Kew Observatory 56 7 $8 


xii 
Ey Shee Us 
Influence of Light on Plants...... 10 0 0 
Subterraneous Temperature in 
Treland, ..ccccscccccccccenssscncces iis AL 
Coloured Drawings of Railway 
BGLEONS soncwccccsnseeersccecesscsce 15 17 
Investigation of Fossil Fishes of 
the Lower Tertiary Strata ... 100 0 0 
Registering the Shocks of Earth- 
quakes ..... Vapesogssss +ose1842 23 11 10 
Structure of Fossil Shells ......... 20 0 0 
Radiata and Mollusca of the 
Egean and Red Seas...... 1842 100 0 0 
Geographical Distributions of 
Marine Zoology ........- 1842 10 0 0 
Marine Zoology of Devon and 
Cornwall  ....-seeceeesescerereee 10 0 0 
Marine Zoology of Cor FUL ...eeseee 10 0 0 
Experiments on the Vitality of 
DEEdS) evaccee Meceacasnrastcaccaseses 9 0 3 
Experiments on the Vitality of 
Needs ccvsceemie sessapenepenss isk oak ik p33 
Exotic Anoplura Ronecascnaswasas ah 15 0 0 
Strength of Materials .....+. seers 100 0 0 
Completing Experiments on the 
Forms of Ships .......sssseseeee . 100 0 0 
Inquiries into Asphyxia ........ 10 0 0 
Investigations on the Internal 
Constitution of Metals ..... Sens Meal 
Constant Indicator and Morin’s 
Instrument — ..ecccseccerees 1842 10 3 6 
£981 12 8 
1845. 
Publication of the British Associa- 
tion Catalogue of Stars .......06 351 14 6 
Meteorological Observations at 
Inverness sdasercocnsesssesgupaan 30 18 11 
Magnetic and Meteorological ‘Co- 
OPPFAtlON) Sascesscescessrcutavne ee GO 26s 
Meteorological Instruments at 
Edinburgh ........secescccessrres vals [1-9 
Reduction ‘of ‘Anemometrical Ob- 
servations at Plymouth ......... 25 0 0 
Electrical Experiments at Kew 
Observatory sreccssoccccserececes 43 17 8 
Maintaining the Establishment in 
Kew Observatory ...++++ Seneca 149-15 0 
For Kreil’s Barometrograph...... 25 0 0 
Gases from Iron Furnaces ....,. 50 0 0 
The Actinograph .....++e+8. Spexses) Al UO 
Microscopic Structure of Shells 20 0 0 
Exotic Anoplura .......ee.8- 1843 10 0 0 
Vitality of Seeds .......0.006 1843°- 2) 0°" 7 
Vitality of Seeds .........0+. 1844 7 0 0 
Marine Zoology of Cornwall ... 10 0 0 
Physiological Action of Medicines 20 0 0 


Statistics of Sickness and Mor- 


talitypin VOtke. a secsiseentcaseee 20 0 0 
Earthquake Shocks .,,......1843 15 14 8 
$830 9 9 
1846. 
British Association Catalogue of 
SIAIST ca cusyeseneaee sosevenee L844 211 15 0 


Fossil Fishes of the London Clay 160 0 0 


REPORT—1875. 


& 3s. da, 

Computation of the Gaussian 
Constants for 1829 ...,........ 50 0 0 

Maintaining the Establishment at 
Kew Observatory ......secsseree 146 16 7 
Strength of Materials ........... 7 00 OG 
Researches in Asphyxia ..... ase TO kG ae 
Examination of Fossil Shells...... 10 0 0 
Vitality of Seeds .....0...4.. 1844 2 15 10 
Vitality of Seeds .......... 1845 712 8 
Marine Zoology of Cornwall...,... 10 0 0 
Marine Zoology of Britain ...... 10 0 0 
Exotic Anoplura ..........66 1844 25 0 0 
Expenses attending Anemometers 11 7 6 
Anemometers’ Repairs ......... wos a. (oO 
Atmospheric Waves ......e++se0s oe Oe se 
Captive Balloons ......se+.06 1844 819 3 

Varieties of the Human Race 

1844 7 6 3 

Statistics of Sickness and Mor- 
tality.In YODKi?ccnssscanveeueseeeimnce mata 
£685 16 0 

1847. 

Computation of. the Gaussian 
Constants for 1829  .......00006 50 0 0 
Habits of Marine Animals ...... 10 0 0 
Physiological Actionof Medicines 20 0 0 
Marine Zoology of Cornwall...... 10 0 0 
Atmospheric Waves .....scccrree 6 9 8 
Vitality of Seeds ........604. sigaty ee Ne 

Maintaining the Establishment at 
Kew Observatory ....s..00000-. 107 8 6 
£208 5 4 


1848. 
Maintaining the Establishment at 


Kew Observatory ...ecsecceee ee 171 15 11 
Atmospheric Waves ...eccccceeee 8 10 9 
Vitality of Seeds” w0i2.0cccsecce «- 915 O 
Completion of Catalogues of Stars 70 0 0 
On Colouring Matters .......0..4. 5 0 O 
On Growth of Plants............... 15 0 0 

27a, V8 
1849. 
Electrical Observations at Kew 

Observatory ...ccccsscesssoee oneal one 
Maintaining Establishment at 

MICE OS Ganies se viea'e on bassseb can cesneate eeiGl cia 
Vitality of Seeds .........006 soscs 0! 8 OE 
On Growth of Plants............ ws Oo (OoN® 
Registration of Periodical Phe- 

NOMENA ....e000 Rndcneceasored 10 0 0 
Bill on- account oF Aniemoienaaat 

Observations .. csscoccensrcees alee SO 

£159 19 6 
1850. 


Maintaining the Establishment at 

Kew Observatory ......-s0...+. 255 18 0 

Transit of Earthquake Waves ... 0 

Periodical Phenomena .........6. 15 0 0 
Meteorological Instruments, 

IAZOLES) .venenescscuceceaeumsevssect econ arU 

0 


£345 18 


GENERAL STATEMENT, 


& s. ad. 
1851. 

Maintaining the Establishment at 

Kew Observatory (includes part 
Of grantin 1849) .......csceeeee 309 2 2 
Theory of Heat...... evaviasesyes a) 20) lo OL 

Periodical Phenomena of Animals 
BUUUNNENER cs Ssvsseseredsucssetieese!) 2100 0 
Vitality of Seeds w..cecrsescrreee 5 6 4 
Influence of Solar Radiation,..... 30 0 0 
Ethnological Inquiries ............ 12 0 0 
Researches on Annelida .......... 10 0 0 
SSI] 9" "7 


1852. 
Maintaining the Establishment at 
Kew Observatory (including 
balance of grant for 1850) ... 
Experiments on the Conduction 


iS] 
ix) 
oo 
_ 
~ 
io] 


TAEELCHUy vcentnec4yassen ae raxsactasnsHd - aDibet cise ta 
Influence of Solar Radiations ... 20 0 0 
Geological Map of Ireland ...... 15 0 0 
Researches on the British Anne- 

IIMB tra dscsesccarecastigigccbastacs? /LOw hntD 
Vitality of Seeds ......... wan skenuene sd Ord ania 
Strength of Boiler Plates ......... 10 0 0 

£304 6 7 
1853. 
Maintaining the Establishment at 
Kew Observatory Fechenendossnce 165 0 0 


Experiments on tne Influence of 
Solar Radiation............0.08. 15 0 0 
Researches on the British Anne- 


PB aedystetesccacs ess Raeeced 10 0 0 
Dredging on the East Coast ‘of 
Scotland....... Siesapdeaiensanees aoe UY ne 
Ethnological Queries ............ 5 0 0 
£205 0 0 
1854, 


Maintaining the Establishment at 
Kew Observatory (including 


balance of former grant) . 830 15 4 
Investigations on Flax............ 11 0 0 
Effects of Temperature on 

Wrought Iron ..........004 «- 10 0 0 
Registration of Periodical Phe- 

NOMENA w.cscecccreesecceeees fosene 20) SUDO 
British Annelida exsdtaerenceccasea, LO! 10 O 
Witality Of Seeds” 2c). ...c.cecsceeee, 52 8B 
Conduction of Heat .........0.. 4 2 0 

£380 19 7 
1855, 


Maintaining the Establishment at 


| Kew Observatory ......s000000.. 425 0 0 
Earthquake Movements .......... 10 0 0 
Physical Aspect of the Moon....... 11 8 5 
Vitality of Seeds ...,.....s0ce00008 10 7 11 
Map of the World............00.. 15 0 0 
Ethnological Queries,............ 5 0 0 
Dredging near Belfast ............ 4 0 0 

£480 16 4 

(ee re ee 


1856. 
Maintaining the Establishment at 
Kew Observatory :-— 
1854,,....8 75 0 0 » 
1355..4.4.£500 0 ot ore e 


Ss a. 
Strickland’s Ornithological Syno- 

NYS so ghabeorvescewaredeeds esooee 100 0 0 
Dredging and Dredging Forms... 913 9 
Chemical Action of Light ...... os 20°0 0 
Strength of Iron Plates ............ 10 0 0 
Registration of Periodical Pheno- 

MENA cecccecscsssevseccsssereees PS a 
Propagation of Salmon vacvoreenssere 1000s 0 

£734 13 9 
1857. 
Maintaining the Establishment at 

Kew Observatory «........ dciene 350 0 0 
Earthquake Wave Experiments.. 40 0 0 
Dredging near Belfast .......00.4. 10 0 0 
Dredging on the West Coast of 

Scotlands scccqsscscacdsuecuarses ose 10 0 0 
Investigations into the Mollusca 

Of California ..ccsccésssscvssvense 10° 0° 0 
Experiments on Flax ........0... 5 0 0 
Natural History of Madagascar.. 20 0 0 
Researches on British Annelida 25 0 0 


Report on Natural Products im- 


ported into Liverpool ........ 10 0 0 
Artificial Propagation of Salmon 10 0 O 
Temperature of Mines ............ 7 8 0 
Thermometers for Subterranean 

Observations) .cccscccsdetsesccee OH 4 
Life-Boats Cee eet F ere evececoeree® 5° 0 0 

£507 15 4 
1858. 
Maintaining the Establishment at 

Kew Observatory «........00+ «. 500 0 0 
Earthquake Wave Experiments... 25 0 0 
Dredging on the West Coast of 

Scotland ....... sccacoceecee 10 0.10 
Dredging near Dublin. ceree st wee 35 0 O 
Vitality of Seeds .......... anak 5 5 0 
Dredging near Belfast .....-...s0 18 13 2 
Report on the British Annelida... 25 0 0 
Experiments on the production 

of Heat by Motion in Fluids... 20 0 
Report on the Natural Products 

imported into Scotland......... 10 0 0 

£618 18 2 
1859. 
“Maintaining the Establishment at 

Kew Observatory .........0.... 500 0 0 
Dredging near Dublin ............ 15 0 0 
Osteology of Birds...... ep casennceey nid On nO 
Irish Tunicata ......... canvas eccone (9) 00 
Manure Experiments .........0. 20 0 0 
British Meduside ......... werccscee 5 0 0 
Dredging Committee............... 5 0 0 
Steam-vessels’ Performance ...... 5 0 0 
Marine Fauna of South and West 

Of Ireland). ce scesercscescsavacnassg? DO 0/0 
Photographic Chemistry ......... 10 0 0 
Lanarkshire Fossils ............2. 20 0 1 
Balloon Ascents,,.........- seaapeerase) dabete 

£684 11 1 
1860. 
Maintaining the Establishment 

of Kew Observatory..i..... score JOU © O> OU 
Dredging near Belfast...... aneseven plOny GenO 
Dredging in Dublin Bay..,.,,..... 15 0 0 


]xiv REPORT—1875, 
& 5. d. £ 
Inquiry into the Performance of Steaniships’ Performance......... 150 0 0 
Steam-vessels.....eeesreseeeseeeee 124 0 O | Thermo-Electric Currents ...... 520) 0G. 
Explorations in the Yellow Sand- £1293 16 6 
stone of Dura Den............... 20 0 0 
Chemico-mechanical Analysis of 1863. 
Rocks and Minerals..s...s.ssees 25 0 0 | Maintaining the Establishment 
Researches on the Geng of of Kew Observatory............ 600 0 0 
Plants.....cssseceessseeeesseseeeeee 10 0 0 | Balloon Committee deficiency... 70 0 0 
Researches on the Solubility of Balloon Ascents (other expenses) 25 0 0 
Alt csjaiueccosscssvesssesevesseese 30 0. (0 | Emtozodiiicsissses-s-s-avnereemeeeee 25 0 O 
Researches on the Constituents Conb-Bansile 5 /cé.5,<eienee ads 20 0 0 
Of Manures dvecceseoscccestesccesee, 20 0" O° |) HLCPnIN GS ittyes es <.casccecnaqeccerneee 20 0 O 
Balance of Captive Balloon Ac- Granites of Donegal............ are, Who, TOG) 
Counts terest tent a aise “APS Yee Prisen Diet’.caeete ee . 20 0 0 
£1241 7.0 | Vertical Atmospheric Movements 13 0 0 
—— Dredging Shetland ............... 50 0 0 
ee Re 1861. Dredging North-east coast of 
Maintaining the Establishment Scotland ......... Sescnascervneeny 25 0 0 
of Kew Observatory ..+..0.00006 500 0 0 Dredging Northumberland and 
Earthquake Experiments,........ 25 0 0 Durham. s2stictecsssresesaereeees 17 310 
Dredging North and East Coasts Dredging Committee superin- 
= sof; Scotland. .s.sccerrssesessneeee 23 0 0 tendence 2.00065. 0 6 
Dredging Committee — Steamship Performance ......... 100 0 0 
1860 we l£50 0 0) 49 9 | Balloon Committee oo... 200 0 0 
1861 ...... £22 0 0 Carbon under pressure............ 10 0 0 
Excavations at Dura Den... 20 0 0 | Volcanic Temperature ..........65 100 0 0 
Solubility of Salts .s+....ceceeeeeeee 20 0 O | Bromide of Ammonium ......... 8 0 0 
Steam-vessel Performance ...... 150 0 0 | Hlectrical Standards..........00++ 100 0 0 
Fossils of Lesmahago ......000046 15 0 0 | __ Construction and distribu- 
Explorations at Uriconium ...... 20 0 0 GOD 09s agp conde cteagk bare aa 40 0 0 
Chemical Alloys .....+... © 20 0 0 | Luminous Meteors .........++0++ 17 0 0 
Classified Index to the Transac- Kew Additional Buildings for 
TOMS siseeersseeeereessersseerrere 100 0 0 Photoheliograph ...... suena 100 0 0 
Dredging in the Mersey and Dee 5 0 0 Thermo-Electricity ......e0sse0e0 1 0 0 
Dip Circle vserss sserssseserersereeee 30 0 0 | Analysis of ROCKS ...secesseseeee 8 0 0 
Photoheliographic Observations 50 0 0 | Hydroida ....c.sccscsssseeceseeeeees 10 0 0 
Prison Dict vedscssvcsescvssccscs - 20° 010 £1608 3 10 
Gauging of Water,.......scee0s oe 10 0 0 
Alpine Ascents .....veseccsccsesense 6 5 1 1864. 
Constituents of Manures ......... 25 0 0 peor nu he Establishment 
of Kew Observatory............ 600 0 0 
ge Coal Fossils ............+008 wenecasle 20 0 0 
ete 1862. Vertical Atmospheric Move- 
Maintaining the Establishment MENUS sss0caves eaeonses soveseeses 1201, ONO 
of Kew Observatory .....+...... 500 0 0 Dredging Shetland ............ w 35> 0-0 
Patent Laws .......... trrssseeeeees 21 6 0 | Dredging Northumberland ,..... 25 0 0 
Mollusca of N.-W. America,..... 10 0 © | Balloon Committee .......+...... 200 0 0 
Natural History by Mercantile Carbon under pressure............ 10 0 0 
Marine seeeeeeeeeres sesssseeree 5 0 0 | Standards of Electric Resistance 100 0 0 
Tidal Observations .......0006- ve 25 0 O01! Analysis of RockS....-0..«+. woke h lOL oD 
Photoheliometer at Kew «ue. 40 0 0 | Hydroida csessccessseee vanseh oni a) ees 
Photographic Pictures of the Sun 150 0 0 | Asiham’s Gift wees. wees 50 0. 0 
Rocks of Donegal ...+.+++.+++++4 + 25 0 0 | Nitrite of Amyle ...........ccc0000 10 0 0 
Dredging Durham and North- Nomenclature Committee ...... 5 0 O 
umberland...... sesiscesscerseonce 25 0 0) RoinsGauges oss scovowerse-ssven semeto) 158 
Connexion of Storms. Reel tiae eee 20° 0 0} Cast-Iron Investigation areal 20 0 0 
Dredging North-east Coast of Tidal Observations in the Humber 50 0 0 
Scotland...... teeaeecsseseocecsace 6 9 6 SpéctralRaysinivpicesttessctem 45 0 0 
Ravages of Teredo ss..s.ee000. 311 0 | Fuminous Meteors .............. 20 0 0 
Standards of Electrical Resistance 50 0 O 77289 15. 8 
Railway Accidents ............00. TOPOL 0 ps 
Balloon Committee ............... 200 0 0 1865. 
Dredging Dublin Bay ............ 10 0 O | Maintaining the Establishment 
Dredging the Mersey ......... | es) of Kew Observatory............ 600 0 O 
Prison Diet ......., sessseencevennes 20 0 O | Balloon Committee .........1..00 100 0 96 
Gauging of Water..ccccssccssresnee 12 10 O | My ArOida) ivsssisseresacwrteae 13 0 0 


GENERAL STATEMENT, 


Sa. od. 
MBAUORCEASIZCS pacts nesessescscsceres 30 0 0 
Tidal Observationsinthe Humber 6 8 0 
Hexylic Compounds............... 20 0 0 
Amyl Compounds............066. «7 20) 09 0 
MEISOUIATD OT stswesisensoessss see viel 20" 0 0 
American Mollusca ...... Masters 3 3.9 0 
MEPIIGHACIONS 5 5..200: 000000. 00e00e 20 0 0 
Lingula Flags Excavation ...... 10 0 0 
Eurypterus ..........05. maawasscee 50 0 0 
Electrical Standards...... ........ 100 0 0 
Malta Caves Researches ......... 30 0 0 
Oyster Breeding ..............00+ 25 0 0 
Gibraltar Caves Researches...... 150 0 0 
Kent’s Hole Excavations...... +» 100 0 0 
Moon’s Surface Observations... 35 0 0 
Marine Fauna ............0s00ee00 25 0 0 
Dredging Aberdeenshire ......... 25 0 0 
Dredging Channel Islands ...... 50 0 0 
Zoological Nomenclature......... 5.60 «(0 
Resistance of Floating Bodies in 

Water ...... avalvauerrr acces stain 100 0 0 
Bath Waters Analysis ............ 810 0 
Luminous Meteors ..............5 40 0 0 

£1591 7 10 
1866. 
Maintaining the Establishment 

of Kew Observatory............ 600 0 0 
Lunar Committee.........000088 6413 4 
Balloon Committee ............... 50 0 0 
Metrical Committee............... 50 0 0 
British Rainfall..................008 50 0 0 
Kilkenny Coal Fields ............ 16 0 0 
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-Bed ...... 15 0 0 
Luminous Meteors ............... 50 0 0 
Lingula Flags Excavation ...... 20 0 0 
Chemical Constitution of Cast 

RTI ergy cise sass eos ae vossoa es 50 0 0 
Amy] Compounds.................. 25 0 0 
Electrical Standards............... 100 0 0 
Malta Caves Exploration......... 30 0 0 
Kent’s Hole Exploration ......... 200 0 0 
Marine Fauna, &c., Devon and 

BUPPANINVGALL — vas eeceness sensed aisiies 25 0 0 
Dredging Aberdeenshire Coast... 25 0 0 
Dredging Hebrides Coast........ . 50 0 0 
Dredging the Mersey ............ 5 0 0 
Resistance of Floating Bodies in 

ET ropes sei ans) se teicpiacteeh 50 0 0 
Polyeyanides of Organic Radi- 

BBRET Gace iecscssvies'sssee p08 Poerco, Auer) 
PAM OEY MUONS: | snsesesconsesccsss5nes 10 0 0 
Trish Annelida ...............00.008 15 0 0 
Catalogue of Crania............... 50 0 0 
Didine Birds of MascareneIslands 50 0 0 
Typical Crania Researches ...... 30 0 0 
Palestine Exploration Fund...... 100 0 0 

£1750 13 4 
1867. 
Maintaining the Establishment 

of Kew Gbservatory............ 600 0 0 
Meteorological Instruments, Pa- 

REGEIEN av adiccccessacscovts abecee, 200) 10h 0 
Lunar Commiittec.........s00cc008 120 0 0 


1875. 


— 


nw 
=< 


eo ist Ge 
Metrical Committee .............06 30 0 0 
Kent’s Hole Explorations ...... 100 0 0 
Palestine Explorations... .. corre 90 0 O 
Insect Fauna, Palestine ....... smed0) 0) 10 
Tits! Nainkall casdeck «sxe skauber 50 0 0 
Kilkenny Coal Fields ...... ase 25 0 0 
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-Bed ...... 25 0 0 
Luminous Meteors .............. 50 0 0 
Bournemouth, &c. Leaf-Beds » 30 0 0 
Dredging Shetland ............... 75 0 O 
Steamship Reports Condensation 100 0 O 
Electrical Standards............... 100 0 0 
Ethyle and Methyle series ...... 25 0 0 
Mossi) Crustacea | .<...s+senaeovte oe 25 0 0 
Sound under Water .............4+ 24 4 0 
North Greenland Fauna ......... 75 0 0 
Do. Plant Beds... 100 0 O 
Iron and Steel Manufacture 25 0 0 
Patent Laws ....... cia ele waa alesis tne 30 0 0 
£1739 4 O 
1868. 

Maintaining the Establishment 
of Kew Observatory.........06- 600 0 0 
Lunar Committee............0.... 120 0 0 
Metrical Committee... PeLactbecde 50 0 0 
Zoological Record ........ - 100 0 0 
Kent’s Hole Explorations seeeee 150 0 0 
Steamship Performances......... 100 0 0 
British Rainfall .........seeceseee 50 0 0 
Luminous Meteors ............... 50 0 0 
Organic Acids ........... er Meee 60 0 0 
Fossil Crustacea .....sseseeseeeeee 25 0 0 
Methyl series .......... Bp besnce 25 0 0 
Mercury and Bile............. sect ieo) Os .40 

Organic remains in Limestone 
REGCK Sig <icencacsen tenscendasat ess 25 0 0 
Scottish Earthquakes ............ 20 0 0 
Fauna, Devon and Cornwall . 30 0 O 
British Fossil Corals............... 50 0 0 
Bagshot Leaf-beds .......... ence gO OueO 
Greenland Explorations ..,...... 100 0 0 
Fossil Flora ......... Sxeaeaasiaeae'daies: 20) On O) 
Tidal Observations ...... Bveases sete hOOrn .Osti@ 
Underground Temperature . mcr FOUL Ole O 

Spectroscopic investigations of 
Animal Substances ....... secutnt OlE ONO 
Secondary Reptiles, &c. ........ 2, 90 Oy 10 

British Marine Invertebrate 
ARNO teresssuxacsvecetissncen cup 100 0 0 
£1940 0 0 

1869. 

Maintaining the Establishment 
of Kew Observatory............ 600 0 0 
Lunar Committee ........08...... 50 0 0 
Metrical Committee.............4. 25 0 0 
Zoological Record..............0068 100 0 0 

Committee on Gases in Deep- 
well Water’. .nat..<screesne as 2EMN Ciao 
British Rainfall..................... 50 9 O 

Thermal Conductivity of Iron, 
Clee. Mets. sada Reiter s siacteares 30 0 0 
Kent’s Hole Explorations ...... 150 0 0 
Steamship Performances......... 30 0 0 


é 


lxvi 


28 

Chemical Constitution of Cast 
Iron 
Iron and Steel Manufacture ... 100 


Aenean beeen amen ewenenee 


Methyl Series: cits. s2teec228000 30 
Organic remains in Limestone 
Reckse,... 3223 "EEE Coe eedictuectog 10 
Earthquakes in Scotland......... 19 
British Fossil Corals ............. 50 
Bagshot Leaf-Beds ........6..-+: 30 
Fossil Flora ........4. Sibdzesseess ce ee 
Tidal Observations ...... Siecrrste 100 
Underground Temperature ...... 30 
Spectroscopic Investigations of 
Animal Substances ......00... 5 
Organic Acids s.c.ccsecesss.+0.00 3 
Kiltorcan Fossils ..............066- 20 


Chemical Constitution and Phy- 
siological Action Relations ... 15 


Mountain Limestone Fossils ...... 25 
Utilization of Sewage ............ 10 
Products of Digestion ............ 10 
£1622 

1870. 


Maintaining the Establishment of 


Kew Observatory .......+0...6.. 600 
Metrical Committee............ iss Zo 
Zoological Record .....e.seeeeeee 100 
Committee on Marine Fauna ... 20 
Haren WISHES” stastsssasebeceste se. 10 
Chemical nature of Cast Iron... 80 
Luminous Meteors .....cceseseese 30 
Heat in the Blood ........csse08- 15 
British Rainfallis.sssscsceseocdstss 100 
Thermal Conductivity ofIron&e. 20 
British Fossil Corals..... range ze 50 
Kent’s Hole Explorations ...... 150 
Scottish Earthquakes ............ 4 
Bagshot Leaf-Beds ........e0008 15 
Fossil Flora ....... sareettice ce Se ety 
Tidal Observations ..........0... 100 
Underground Temperature ...... 50 


Kiltorcan Quarries Fossils ...... 20 
Mountain Limestone Fossils ... 25 


Utilization of Sewage .........++ 50 
Organic Chemical Compounds... 30 
Onny River Sediment ............ 3 


Mechanical Equivalent of Heat 50 


£1572 


1871. 
Maintaining the Establishment of 


Kew Observatory ........-s0006. 600 
Monthly Reports of Progress in 

CHemistry .se6csc2.cecns coceeeaea LOO 
Metrical Committee............. «) 25 
Zoological Record.........ccceeee « 100 
Thermal Equivalents of the 

Oxides of Chlorine ............ 10 
Tidal Observations ........ssseces 100 
Fossil Flora *..:...s00.s0 sedereasiee) 20. 


& 


ojoooo coco cococoeoo ooo 


cejocecoocoocooococoocoecoceocye( 


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REPORT—1875, 


£ 3. d. 
Luminous Meteors ...... soccsceee 30 O O 
British Fossil Corals............... 25 0 0 
Heat in the Blood ............ HAA Bie 
British Rainfall...... esseines awadaos 50 0 0 
Kent’s Hole. Explorations ...... 150 0 0 
Fossil Crustacea .........0000..0 25 0 0 
Methyl Compounds ............ «we 25.0 0 
Lunar Objects ..... AdswietGeossnens Ser OMue 

Fossil Corals Sections, for Pho- 
tographing: .:....s.issectuevebey 220 6-0 
Bagshot Leaf-Beds ...........0... 20 0 0 
Moab Explorations ......... eee 100) 0-9 
Gaussian Constants ...........006 40 0 0 
£1472 2 6 
eo rere eee 

1872. 

Maintaining the Establishment of 
Kew Observatory .......06...... 300 0 0 
Metrical Committee... Hive i) FRO 8 
Zoological Record....... sascsvscees 100 O O 
Tidal Committee ............ suse 200 0 0 
Carboniferous Corals ............ 25 0 0 
Organic Chemical Compounds 25 0 0 
Exploration of Moab ............ 100 0 0 
Terato-Embryological Inquiries 10 0 0 
Kent’s Cavern Exploration...... 100 0 0 
Luminous Meteors ............... 20 0 0 
Heat in the Blood .........0sisve 15 0 0 
Fossil Crustacea .....cscsscssesees 25 0 0 
Fossil Elephants of Malta ii 25° Or 6 
Hunar Objects 5, isssccearsscedeee 20 0 0 
Inverse Wave-Lengths ............ 20 0 0 
British Rainfall...............0cc000 100 0 0 

Poisonous Substances Antago- 
NES (ok. «ds cerszncdd eevee hiees ee 10 0 0 

Essential Oils, Chemical Consti- 
tUION FRC. secscsirrvevagasaevine 40 0 0 
Mathematical Tables seseateinees 50 0-0 
Thermal Conductivity of Metals 25 0 0 
£1285 C 0 

1873. 

Zoological Record.......s.sie00. 100 0 0 
Chemistry Record,........ rere) 200 0 0 
Tidal Committee ............... .. 400 0 0 
Sewage Committee ............... 100 0 0 
Kent’s Cavern Exploration ...... 150 0 0 
Carboniferous Corals ............ 25 0 0 
Fossil Elephants ....... disé..2 eo LO 
Wave—Lengths ......ceescseeeeessee 150 0 0 
British Rainfall............000000... 100° 0 0 
Essential Oils seccccscassseseecouss 30 0 0 
Mathematical Tables ......... ne 100° 0 @ 
Gaussian Constants ............005 10 0 0 
Sub-Wealden Explorations ...... 25 0 0 
Underground Temperature ...... 150 0 0 
Settle Cave Exploration ......... 50 0 0 
Fossil Flora, Ireland..............+ 20 0 0 
Timber Denudation and Rainfall 20 0 0 
Luminous Meteors .........05. 30 0 0 
£1685 0 0 


1874 
Zoological Record .......,....6- 
Chemistry Record ............... 
Mathematical Tables 
Hlliptic Functions ............... 
Lightning Conductors ......... 
Thermal Conductivity of Rocks 
een Instructions, 
Rout 8 Cavern Exploration 
Luminous Meteors ............... 
Intestinal Secretions 
British Rainfall 
PNSBGMAM OMS) s0.50..0s000.0cceses 
Sub-Wealden Explorations ... 
Settle Cave Exploration......... 
Mauritius Meteorological Re- 
BepnDN A Tacs ee cc' i cccaenavestoae 
Magnetization of Iron............ 
Marine Organisms 
Fossils, North-west of Scotland 
Physiological Action of Light. . 
Mrades Unions................00... 
Mountain-Limestone Corals ... 
Erratic Blocks.........6..::0000005 
Dredging, Durham and York- 
shire Coasts ...............000685 
High temperature of Bodies ,.. 


tener ences 


GENERAL MEETINGS. 


en Ss SEs. ae 
Siemens’s Pyrometer ............ 3 6 0 
100 0 O | Labyrinthodonts of Coal-Mea- 
100 0 0 BAEOD nese caer se perso eens iesiaies 715 0 
100 0 O 5 
“ie Mie £1151 16 0 
yt Oey @ 1875. 
10 0 0 Elliptic Functions ...........0... 100 0 O 
: Magnetization of Iron............ 20 0 0 
50 O 0 | British Rainfall .........0.000.., 120 0 0 
150 0 O | Tuminous Meteors ......000+0..., 30 0 0 
80 0 0 Chemistry Record ............4.. 100 0 0 
15 0 0 Specific Volume of Liquids ... 25 0 0 
100 0 0 | Xstimation of Potash and Phos- 
be .0 0 peoric Acid © ...2s.-4eccsssccoe% 10 0 O 
25 0 0 | Tsometric Cresols.........000..... 20 0 O 
50 0 © | sub-Wealden Explorations...... 100 0 O 
Kent’s Cavern Exploration...... 100 0 0 
100 0 0 | Settle Cave Exploration ......... 50 0 0 
20 0 0 Earthquakes in Seotland......... 15° 0: 10 
oa 0 0 Underground Waters ............ 10 0 O 
on 10 0 Development of Myxinoid 
SOU |g Bighes | «ssh aadscomae ils 20 0 0 
25 0 0 | Zoological Record .........s..++. 100 0 0 
25 0 0 | Instructions for Travellers... 20 0 O 
10 0 0 | Intestinal Secretion ......6.s-.00 20 0 0 
98 b O Palestine Exploration......,..... 100 0 0 
30 0 0 ered Da 
General Meetings. 


On Wednesday, August 25, at 8 p.m.,in the Colston Halli, Professor John 
Tyndall, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., President, resigned the office of President to 
Sir John Hawkshaw, C.E., F.R.S., F.G.S., who took the Chair, and delivered 


an Address, for which see page Lxviii. 


On Thursday, August 26, at 8 p.m., a Soirée took place in the Colston 


Hall. 


d On Friday, August 27, at 8.30 p.u., in the Colston Hall, W. Spottiswoode, 
Esq., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., delivered a Discourse on “The Colours of 


Polarized Light.” 
On Saturday, 


August 28, at 7 p.m., in the Colston Hall, Dr. W. B. Car- 


penter, LL.D., F.R.S., delivered a Lecture, on “A Piece of Limestone,”’ to the 


Working Classes of Bristol. 


On Monday, August 30, at 8.30 p.m., in the Colston Hall, F. J. Bramwell, 


Ksq., C.E., F.R.S., delivered a Discourse on “ Railway Safety Appliances.” 


_ On Tuesday, August 31, at 8 p.m., a Soirée took place in the Colston Hall. 
On Wednesday, September 1, at 2.30 p.m., the concluding General Meeting 
_ took place, when the Proceedings of the General Committee, and the Grants 
of Money for Scientific purposes, were explained to the Members. 
The Meeting was then adjourned to Glasgow*. 


* The Meeting is appointed to take place on Wednesday, September 6, 1876, 


e2 


ADDRESS 


OF 


SIR JOHN HAWKSHAW, GE, F.RS., F.G.S., 


PRESIDENT. 


GENTLEMEN,— 
To those on whom the British Association confers the honour of presiding 
over its meetings, the choice of a subject presents some difficulty. 

The Presidents of Sections, at each annual meeting, give an account of 
what is new in their respective departments; and essays on science in 
general, though desirable and interesting in the earlier years of the Associa- 
tion, would be less appropriate to-day. 

Past Presidents have already discoursed on many subjects, on things 
organic and inorganic, on the mind and on things perhaps beyond the reach 
of mind; and I have arrived at the conclusion that humbler themes will not 
be out of place on this occasion. 

I propose in this Address to say something of a profession to which my 
lifetime has been deyoted—a theme which cannot perhaps be expected to 
stand as high in your estimation as in my own, and I may have some 
difficulty in making it interesting ; but I have chosen it because it is a subject 
I ought to understand better than any other. I propose to say something on 
its origin, its work, and kindred topics. 

Rapid as has been the growth of knowledge and skill as applied to the art 
of the engineer during the last century, we must, if we would trace its origin, 
seek far back among the earliest evidences of civilization. 

In early times, when settled communities were few and isolated, the 
opportunities for the interchange of knowledge were scanty or wanting 
altogether. Often the slowly accumulated results of the experience of the 
wisest heads and the most skilful hands of a community were lost on its 
downfall. Inventions of one period were lost and found again. Many a 
patient investigator has puzzled his brain in trying to solve a problem which 


had yielded to a more fortunate labourer in the same field some centuries 
before. 


ADDRESS. lxix 


The ancient Egyptians had a knowledge of Metallurgy, much of which was 
lost during the years of decline which followed the golden age of their civi- 
lization. The art of casting bronze over iron was known to the Assyrians, 
though it has only lately been introduced into modern metallurgy; and 
patents were granted in 1609 for processes connected with the manufacture 
of glass which had been practised centuries before*. An inventor in the 
reign of Tiberius devised a method of producing flexible glass; but the 
manufactory of the artist was totally destroyed, we are told, in order to 
prevent the manufacture of copper, silver, and gold from becoming depre- 
ciated t. 

Again and again engineers as well as others have made mistakes from not 
knowing what had been done by those who have gone before them. In the 
long discussion which took place as to the practicability of making the 
Suez Canal, an early objection was brought against it that there was a 
difference of 324 feet between the level of the Red Sea and that of the 
Mediterrancan. Laplace at once declared that such could not be the case, 
for the mean level of the sea was the same on all parts of the globe. 
Centuries before the time of Laplace the same objection had been raised 
to a project for joining the waters of these two seas. According to the 
old Greek and Roman historians, it was a fear of flooding Egypt with the 
waters of the Red Sea that made Darius, and in later times again Ptolemy, 
hesitate to open the canal between Suez and the Nilet. Yet this canal 
was made, and was in use some centuries before the time of Darius. 

Strabo § tells us that the same objection, that the adjoining seas were of 
different levels, was made by his engineers to Demetrius ||, who wished to 
eut a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth some two thousand years ago, 
But Strabo] dismisses at once this idea of a difference of level, agreeing 
with Archimedes that the force of gravity spreads the sea equally over the 
earth. 

When knowledge in its higher branches was confined to a few, those who 
possessed it were often called upon to perform many and various services for 
the communities to which they belonged; and we find mathematicians and 
astronomers, painters and sculptors, and priests called upon to perform the 
duties which now pertain to the profession of the architect and the engineer. 
And as soon as civilization had advanced so far as to admit of the accumula- 
tion of wealth and power, then kings and rulers sought to add to their glory 
while living by the erection of magnificent dwelling-places, and to provide 
for their aggrandizement after death by the construction of costly tombs and 


* Layard’s ‘Nineveh and Babylon,’ p. 191; Beckman’s ‘History of Inventions,’ vol. ii. 


p. 85. 
+ Pliny, Nat. Hist. bk. xxxvi. cap. 66. t Ibid. bk. vi. cap. 83. 
§ Strabo, cap. iii. § 11. || Demetrius I., King of Macedonia, died 283 r.c. 


{| Strabo, cap. iii. § 12. 


[xx REPORT—1875. 


temples, Accordingly, we soon find men of ability and learning devoting a 
ereat part of their time to building and architecture, and the post of 
architect became one of honour and profit. In one of the most ancient 
quarries of Egypt a royal high architect of the dynasty of the Psammetici 
has left his pedigree sculptured on the rock, extending back for twenty-three 
generations, all of whom held the same post in succession in connexion with 
considerable sacerdotal offices *. 

As there were in these remote times officers whose duty it was to design 
and construct, so also there were those whose duty it was to maintain and 
repair the royal palaces and temples. In Assyria, 700 years before our era, 
as we know from a tablet found in the palace of Sennacherib by Mr, Smith, 
there was an officer whose title was the Master of Works. The tablet I 
allude to is inscribed with a petition to the king from an officer in charge of 
a palace, requesting that the Master of Works may be sent to attend to some 
repairs which were much needed at the time t. 

Under the Roman Empire there was almost as great a division of labour 
in connexion with building and design as now exists. The great works of 
that period were executed and maintained by an army of officers and work- 
men, to each of whom special duties were assigned. 

Passing by those early attempts at design and construction which supplied 
the mere wants of the individual and the household, it is to the East that we 
must turn if we would find the earliest works which display a knowledge of 
engineering. Whether the knowledge of engineering, if we may so call it, 
possessed by the people of Chaldsa and Babylonia was of native growth or 
was borrowed from Egypt is, perhaps, a question which cannot yet be 
answered. Both people were agricultural, dwelling on fertile plains inter- 
sected by great rivers, with a soil requiring water only to enable it to bring 
forth inexhaustible crops. Similar circumstances would create similar wants, 
and stimulate to action similar faculties to satisfy them. Apart from the 
question of priority of knowledge, we know that at a very early period, some 
four or five thousand years ago at least, there were men in Mesopotamia and 
Egypt who possessed considerable mechanical knowledge and no little skill 
in hydraulic engineering. Of the men themselves we know little: happily, 
works often remain when the names of those who conceived and executed 
them have long been forgotten. 

Tt has been said that architecture had its origin not only in nature, but in 
religion; and if we regard the earliest works which required mechanical 
knowledge and skill, the same may be said of engineering. The largest 
stones were chusen for sacred buildings, that they might be more enduring 
as well as more imposing, thereby calling for improvement and invention of 
mechanical contrivances to assist in transporting and elevating them to the 


* Discoveries in Hgypt, Ethiopia, &c., by Dr. Lepsius, 2nd edit. p. 318. 
+ Smith’s (G.) ‘Assyrian Discoveries, 2nd edit. p. 414, 


ADDRESS. xxi 


position they were to occupy; for the same reason the hardest and most 
costly materials were chosen, calling for further improvement in the metal 
forming the tools required. to work them, The working of metals was 
further perfected in making images of the gods, and in adorning their shrines 
with the more precious and ornamental sorts. 

The earliest buildings of stone to which we can assign a date, with any 
approach to accuracy, are the pyramids of Gizeh, To their builders they 
were sacred buildings, even more sacred than their temples or temple 
palaces. They were built to preserve the royal remains, until, after a lapse 
of 3000 years, which we have reason to believe was the period assigned, the 
spirit which had once animated the body should reenter it*. Although 
built 5000 years ago, the masonry of the Pyramids could not be surpassed in 
these days; all those who have seen and examined them, as I myself have 
done, agree in this; moreover, the design is perfect for the purpose for 
which they were intended, above all to endure. The building of pyramids 
in Egypt continued for some ten centuries, and from 60 to 70 still remain ; 
but none are so admirably constructed as those of Gizeh. Still many 
contain enormous blocks of granite from 30 to 40 feet long, weighing more 
than 300 tons, and display the greatest ingenuity in the way in which the 
sepulchral chambers are constructed and concealed f. 

The genius for dealing with large masses in building did not pass away 
with the pyramid-builders in Egypt; but their descendants continued to 
gain in mechanical knowledge, judging from the enormous blocks which they 
handled with precision. When the command of human labour was unlimited, 
the mere transport of such blocks as the statue of Rameses the Great, for 
instance, which weighed over 800 tons, need not so greatly excite our 
wonder ; and we know how such blocks were moved from place to place, for 
it is shown on the wall-paintings of tombs of the period which still remain. 

But as the weight of the mass to be moved is increased, it becomes no longer 
a mere question of providing force in the shape of human bone and muscle. 
In moving in the last century the block which now forms the base for the 
statue of Peter the Gréat at St. Petersburg, and which weighs 1200 tons, the 
necessary force could be applied, but great difficulty was experienced in sup- 
porting it, and the iron balls on which it was proposed to roll the block along 
were crushed, and a harder metal had to be substitutedt. To facilitate the 
transport of material, the Egyptians made solid causeways of granite from the 
Nile to the Pyramids; and in the opinion of Herodotus, who saw them, the 
causeways were more wonderful works than the Pyramids themselves §. 


* Fergusson’s ‘History of Architecture,’ vol. i. p. 83; Wilkinson's ‘Ancient Egyptians,’ 
2nd series, vol. ii. p. 444. 

+ Vyse’s ‘Pyramids of Gizeh,’ vol. iii. pp. 16, 41, 45, 57. 

t Rondelet’s ‘Traité de Art de Batir,’ vol. i. p. 73, 

§ Herodotus, bk. ii. cap. 124. 


{xxii REPORT—1875. 


The Egyptians haye left no record of how they accomplished a far more 
difficult operation than the mere transport of weight—that is, how they 
erected obelisks weighing upwards of 400 tons. Some of these obelisks must 
have been lifted vertically to place them in position, as they were by Fontana 
in Rome in later times, when the knowledge of mechanics, we know, was 
far advanced*. 

The practice of using large blocks of stonc either as monoliths or as forming 
paris of structures has existed from the earliest times in all parts of the 
world. 

The Peruvians used blocks weighing from 15 to 20 tons, and fitted them with 
the greatest nicety in their cleverly designed fortifications. 

In India large blocks were used in bridges when the repugnance of Indian 
builders to the use of the arch rendered them necessary, or in temples, where, 
as in the Temple of the Sun at Orissa, stones weighing from 20 to 30 tons 
form part of the pyramidal roof at a height of from 70 to 80 feet from the 
groundy. Even as late as the last century, Indians, without the aid of 
machinery, were using blocks of granite above 40 feet long for the door-posts 
of the gateway of Scringham, and roofing blocks of the same stone for a span 
of 21 feet§. 

At Persepolis, in the striking remains of the palaces of Xerxes and Darius, 
more than one traveller has noted the great size of the stones, some of which 
are stated to be 55 feet long and 6 to 10 feet broad. 

So in the Greek temples of Sicily, many of the blocks in the upper parts of 
the temples are from 10 to 20 tons weight. 

The Romans, though they did not commonly use such large stones in their 
own constructions, carried off the largest obelisks from Egypt and erected 
them at Rome, where more are now to be found than remain in Egypt. In 
the temples of Baalbek, erected under Roman rule, perhaps the largest 
stones are to be found which have been used for building since the time of 
the Pharaohs. The terrace wall of one of the temples is composed of three 
courses of stones, none of which are less than 30 feet long; and one stone 
still lies in the quarry squared and ready for transport, which is 70 feet long 
and 14 feet square, and weighs upwards of 1185 tons, or nearly as much as 
one of the tubes of the Britannia Bridge. 

I have not mentioned dolmens and menhirs, rude unhewn stones often 
weighing from 80 to 40 tons, which are found from Ireland to India, and 
from Scandinavia to the Atlas, in Africa. To transport and erect such rude 
masses required little mechanical knowledge or skill, and the operation has 

* For the obelisk erected at Arles in the year 1676, see Rondelet’s ‘L’Art de Batir,’ 


vol. i. p. 48. Its weight was nearly 200 tons, and it was suspended vertically by eight 
ships’ masts. 


t Fergusson’s ‘ History of Architecture,’ vol. ii. p. 779; Squier, Peru, p. 24. 
{ The temple of the Sun was built 1287-1282 a.p, (Hunter's ‘ Orissa,’ vol. i. pp. 288, 297). 
§ Fergusson’s ‘Rude Stone Monuments,’ p. 96. 


ADDRESS. Ixxili 


excited more wonder than it deserves. Moreover, Fergusson has gone far to 
show that the date assigned to many of them hitherto has been far too remote, — 
most, and possibly all, of those in northern and western Europe having been 
erected since the time of the Roman occupation. And to this day the same 
author shows that menhirs, single stones often weighing over 20 tons, are 
erected by hill-tribes of India in close proximity to stone buildings of 
elaborate design and finished execution, erected by another race of men *. 

For whatever purpose these vast stones were sclected (whether to enhance 
the value or to prolong the endurance of the buildings of which they formed 
a part), the tax on the ingenuity of those who moved and placed them must 
have tended to advance the knowledge of mechanical appliances. 

The ancient Assyrians and Egyptians had possibly more knowledge of 
mechanical appliances than they are generally credited with. In the wall 
paintings and sculptures which show their mode of transporting large blocks 
of stone, the lever is the only mechanical power represented, and which they 
appear to have used in such operations ; nor ought we to expect to find any 
other used, for, where the supply of human labour was unlimited, the most 
expeditious mode of dragging a heavy weight along would be by human power; 
to have applied pulleys and capstans, such as would now be employed in 
similar undertakings, would have been mere waste of time. In some countries, 
even now, where manual labour is more plentiful than mechanical appliances, 
large numbers of men are employed to transport heavy weights, and do the 
work in less time than it could be done with all our modern mechanical ap- 
pliances. In other operations, such as raising obelisks or the large stones 
used in their temple palaces, where human labour could not be applied to 
such advantage, it is quite possible that the Egyptians used mechanical aids. 
On one of the carved slabs’ which formed part of the wall-panelling of the 
palace of Sardanapalus, which was built about 930 years before our era, a 
single pulley is clearly shown, by which a man is in the act of raising a bucket 
—probably drawing water from a well?. 

It has sometimes been questioned whether the Egyptians had a knowledge 
of steel. It seems unreasonable to deny them this knowledge. Iron was 
known at the earliest times of which we have any record. It is often men- 
tioned in the Bible and in Homer; it is shown in the early paintings on the 
walls of the tombs at Thebes, where butchers are represented as sharpening 
their knives on pieces of metal coloured blue, which were most probably pieces 
of steelt. Iron has been found in quantity in the ruined palaces of Assyria ; 
and in the inscriptions of that country fetters are spoken of as having becn 
made of iron, which is also so mentioned in connexion with other metals as 
to lead to the supposition that it was regarded as a base and common metal. 


* Fergusson’s ‘Rude Stone Monuments,’ pp. 461-465. 
+ Layard’s ‘Nineveh and its Remains,’ vol. ii. p. 31. 
¢ Wilkinson’s ‘ Ancient Egyptians,’ vol. iii. p. 247. 


lxxiv REPORT—1875. 


Moreover, in the Great Pyramid a piece of iron was found in a place where 
it must have lain for 5000 years*. The tendency of iron to oxidize must 
render its preservation for any long period rare and exceptional, The quality 
of iron which is now made by the native races of Africa and India is that 
which is known as wrought iron; in ancient times, Dr. Perey says the iron 
which was made was always wrought iron, It is very nearly pure iron, and 
a very small addition of carbon would convert it into steel. Dr. Percy says 
the extraction of good malleable iron directly from the ore “‘ requires a degree 
of skill yery far inferior to that which is implied in the manufacture of 
bronze”t. And there is no great secret in making steel; the natives of India 
now make excellent steel in the most primitive way, which they have prac- 
tised from time immemorial. When steel is to be made, the proportion of 
charcoal used with a given quantity of ore is somewhat larger, and the blast, 
is applied more slowly than when wrought iron is the metal required ¢. 
Thus 2 vigorous native working the bellows of skin would make wrought iron 
where a lazy one would have made steel. The only apparatus required for 
the manufacture of the finest steel from iron ore is some clay for making a 
small furnace four feet high and from one to two broad, some charcoal for 
fuel, and a skin with a bamboo tuyere for creating the blast. 

The supply of iron in India as early as the fourth and fifth centuries seems 
to have been unlimited. The iron pillar of Delhi is a remarkable work for 
such an early period. It is a single piece of wrought iron 50 feet in length, 
and it weighs not less than 17 tons§. How the Indians forged this large 
mass of iron and other heavy pieces which their distrust of the arch led them 
to use in the construction of roofs, we do not know, ‘In the temples of Orissa 
iron was used in large masses as beams or girders in roof-work in the 
thirteenth century ||. 

The influence of the discovery of iron on the progress of art and science 
cannot be over-estimated. India well repaid any advantage which she may 
have derived from the early civilized communities of the West if she were the 
first to supply them with iron and steel. 

An interesting social problem is afforded by a comparison of the relative 
conditions of India and this country at the present time. India, from thirty 
to forty centuries ago, was skilled in the manufacture of iron and cotton goods, 
manufactures which in less than a century haye done so much for this country. 
It is true that in India coal is not so abundant or so universally distributed 
as in this country. Yet, if we look still further to the East, China had pro- 
bably knowledge of the use of metals as soon as India, and, moreover, had a 


* Vyse’s ‘Pyramids of Gizeh,’ vol. i. p. 275. 

t Percy’s ‘Tron and Steel,’ p. 873. t Ibid. p. 259. 

§ Fergusson’s ‘History of Architecture,’ vol. ii. p. 460; and ‘Rude Stone Monuments,’ 
pp. 481-3. Cunningham's ‘ Archzological Survey of India,’ vol. i. p- 169, 

|| Hunter's ‘ Orissa,’ yol. i. p. 298. 


Ee ll 


ADDRESS. lxxv 


boundless store of iron and coal. Baron Richthofen, who has visited and de- 
scribed some of the coal-fields of China, believes that one province alone, that 
of Southern Shansi, could supply the world at its present rate of consumption 
for several thousand years. The coal is near the surface, and iron abounds 
with it. Marco Polo tells us that coal was universally used as fuel in the 
parts of China which he visited towards the end of the fourteenth century, 
and from other sources we have reason to believe it was used there as fuel 
2000 years ago. But what progress has China made in the last ten centuries ? 
A great future is undoubtedly in store for that country ; but can the race who 
now dwell there develop its resources, or must they await the aid of an Aryan 
race? Or is any thing more necessary than a change of institutions, which 
might come unexpectedly, as in Japan ? 

The art of extracting metals from the ore was practised at a very early date 
in this country. The existence long ago of tin-mines in Cornwall, so often 
spoken of by classical writers, is well known to all, That iron was also ex- 
tracted from the ore by the ancient Britons is most probable, as it was largely 
used for many purposes by them before the Roman conquest. The Romans 
worked iron extensively in the Weald of Kent, as we assume from the large 
heaps of slag containing Roman coins which still remain there, The Romans 
always availed themselves of the mineral wealth of the countries which they 
conquered, and their mining-operations were often carried out on the largest 
scale, as in Spain, for instance, where as many as forty thousand miners were 
regularly employed in the mines at New Carthage*. 

Coal, which was used for ordinary purposes in England as early as the ninth 
century, does not appear to have been largely used for iron-smelting until the 
eighteenth century, though a patent was granted for smelting iron with coal 
in the year 16117. The use of charcoal for that purpose was not given up 
until the beginning of this century, since which period an enormous increase 
in the mining and metallurgical industries has taken place; the quantity of 
coal raised in the United Kingdom in 1873 having amounted to 127 million 
tons, and the quantity of pig iron to upwards of 6} million tons. 

The early building energy of the world was chiefly spent on the erection of 
tombs, temples, and palaces. 

While in Egypt, as we have ‘seen, the art of building in stone had 5000 
years ago reached the greatest perfection, so in Mesopotamia the art of build- 
ing with brick, the only available material in that country, was in an equally 
advanced state some ten centuries later. That buildings of such a material have 
lasted to this day shows how well the work was done; their ruinous condi- 
tion even now is owing to their having served as quarries for the last three 
or four thousand years, so that the name of Nebuchadnezzar, apparently one 
of the greatest builders of ancient times, is as common on the bricks of many 
modern towns in Persia as it was in old times in Babylon. The labour re- 


* Strabo, bk, iii, cap. ti. § 10, + Percy’s ‘Iron and Steel,’ p. 882, 


Ixxvi REPORT—1875. 


quired to construct the brick temples and palaces of Chaldwa and Assyria must 
have been enormous. The mound of Koyunjik alone contained 143 million 
tons, and represents the labour of 10,000 men for twelye years. The palace 
of Sennacherib, which stood on this mound, was probably the largest ever 
built by any one monarch, containing as it did more than two miles of walls, 
panelled with sculptured alabaster slabs, and twenty-seven portals, formed 
by colossal bulls and sphinxes*. 

The pyramidal temples of Chaldeea are not less remarkable for the labour 
bestowed on them, and far surpass the buildings of Assyria in the excellence 
of their brickwork. 

The practice of building great pyramidal temples seems to have passed east- 
wards to India and Burmah, where it appears in buildings of a later date, in 
Buddhist topes and pagodas—marvels of skill in masonry, and far surpassing 
the old brick mounds of Chaldeea in richness of design and in workmanship. 
Even so late as this century a king of Burmah began to build a brick temple 
of the old type, the largest building, according to Fergusson, which has been 
attempted since the Pyramidst. 

The mere magnitude of many of these works is not so wonderful when we 
take into account the abundance of labour which those rulers could com- 
mand. Countries were depopulated and their inhabitants carried off and 
made to labour for the conquerors. The inscriptions of Assyria describe 
minutely the spoils of war and the number of captives; and in Egypt we 
have frequent mention made of works being executed by the labour of captive 
peoples. Herodotus tells us that as many as 360,000 men were employed in 
building one palace for Sennacheribt. At the same time, it must not be 
forgotten that the very character of the multitude would demand from some 
one the skill and brain to organize and direct, to design and plan the work. 

It would be surprising if men who were capable of undertaking and suc- 
cessfully completing unproductive works of such magnitude did not also em- 
ploy their powers on works of a more useful class. Traces still remain of 
such works; enough to show, when compared with the scanty records of the 
times which have come down to us, that the prosperity of such countrics as 
Egypt and Mesopotamia was not wholly dependent on war and conquest, but 
that the reverse was more likely the case, and that the natural capabilities of 
those countries were greatly enlarged by the construction of useful works of 
such magnitude as to equal, if not in some cases surpass, those of modern 
times. 

Egypt was probably far better irrigated in the days of the Pharaohs than 
it is now. To those unacquainted with the difficulties which must be met 
with and overcome before a successful system of irrigation can be earricd 


* Layard’s ‘Nineveh and Babylon,’ p, 589. 
+ Fergusson’s ‘History of Architecture,’ vol. ii. p. 523, 
Rawlinson’s ‘Herodotus,’ vol. i. p. 889, 2nd edit. 


ADDRESS. Ixxvii 


out, even in countries in which the physical conditions are favourable, it 
may appear that nothing more is required than an adequate supply of un- 
skilled labour. Far more than this was required: the Egyptians had some 
knowledge of surveying, for Eustathius says they recorded their marches on 
maps*; but such knowledge was probably in those days very limited, and 
it required no ordinary grasp of mind to see the utility of such extensive 
works as were carried out in Egypt and Mesopotamia, and, having seen the 
utility, to successfully design and execute them. To cite one in Egypt— 
Lake Meeris, of which the remains have been explored by M. Linant, was 
a reservoir made by one of tho Pharaohs, and supplied by the flood-waters 
of the Nile. It was 150 square miles in extent, and was retained by a bank 
or dam 60 yards wide and 10 high, which can be traced for a distance of 
thirteen miles. This reservoir was capable of irrigating 1200 square miles 
of countryt.’ No work of this class has been undertaken on so vast a scale 
since, even in these days of great works. 

The prosperity of Egypt was in so great a measure dependent on its great 
river, that we should expect that the Egyptians, a people so advanced in art 
and science, would at an early period have made themselves acquainted with 
its régime. We know that they carefully registered tho height of the annual 
rise of its waters; such registers still remain inscribed on the rocks on tho 
banks of the Nile, with the name of the king in whose reign they were 
made}. The people of Mesopotamia were equally observant of the régime of 
their great rivers, and took advantage in designing their canals of the different 
periods in the rising of the waters of the Tigris and Euphrates. A special 
officer was appointed in Babylon, whose duty it was to measure the rise of the 
river; and he is mentioned in an inscription found in the ruins of that city, 
as recording the height of the water in the temple of Bel§. The Assyrians, 
who had a far more difficult country to deal with, owing to its rocky and 
uneyen surface, showed even greater skill than the Babylonians in forming 
their canals, tunnelling through rock, and building dams of masonry across 
the Euphrates. While the greater number of these canals in Egypt and 
Mesopotamia were mado for the purpose of irrigation, others seem to have 
been made to serve at the same time for navigation. Such was the canal 
which effected a junction between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, which 
was aremarkable work, having regard to the requirements of the age in which 
it was made. Its length was about 80 miles; its width admitted of two 
triremes passing one another||. At least one of the navigable canals of 
Babylonia, attributed to Nebuchadnezzar, can compare in extent with any 


* Rawlinson’s ‘Herodotus,’ vol. ii. p. 278, 2nd edit. 

+ M. Linant’s ‘Mémoire sur le lac Meeris.’ 

¢ Lepsius’s ‘ Discoveries in Egypt, &c.,’ p. 268. 

§ Smith’s ‘ Assyrian Discoveries,’ pp. 395-397, 2nd edit. 
| Herodotus, bk. ii, cay. elviii. 


Ixxvili REPORT—1875. 


work of latertimes. TI believe Sir H. Rawlinson has traced the canal to which 
I allude throughout the greater part of its course, from Hit on the Euphrates 
to the Persian Gulf, a distance of between four and five hundred miles*. It 
is a proof of the estimation in which such works were held in Babylonia and 
Assyria, that, among the titles of the god Vul were those of “* Lord of Canals” 
and * The Establisher of Irrigation Works” +. 

The springs of knowledge which had flowed so long in Babylonia and 
Assyria were dried up at an early period. With the fall of Babylon and 
destruction of Nineveh the settled population of the fertile plains around them 
disappeared ; and that which was desert before man led the waters over it 
became desert again, affording a wide field for, and one well worthy of, the 
labours of engineers to come. 

Such was not the case with Egypt. Long after the period of its greatest 
prosperity was reached, it remained the fountain head from whence know- 
ledge flowed to Greece and Rome. The philosophers of Greece and those 
who, like Archimedes, were possessed of the best mechanical knowledge of 
the time, repaired to Egypt to study and there obtained much of their 
knowledge. 

Greatly as Greece and Rome were indebted to Egypt, it will probably be 
found, as the inscribed tablets met with in the mounds of Assyria and Chaldea 
are deciphered, that the later civilizations owe, if not more, at least as much, 
to those countries as to Egypt. This is the opinion of Mr. Smith, who, in 
his work describing his recent interesting discoveries in the East, says that 
the classical nations “‘ borrowed far more from the valley of the Euphrates 
than that of the Nile ”t. 

In the science of astronomy, which in these days is making such marvel- 
lous discoveries, Chaldsea was undoubtedly preeminent. Among the many 
relics of these ancient peoples which Mr. Smith has recently brought to this 
country is a portion of a metal astrolabe from the palace of Sennacherib, and 
a tablet on which is recorded the division of the heavens according to the 
four seasons, and the rule for regulating the intercalary month of the year. 
Not only did the Chaldeans map out the heavens and arrange the stars, but 
they traced the motion of the planets, and observed the appearance of comets; 
they fixed the signs of the zodiac, and they studied the sun and moon and the 
periods of eclipses§. 

But to return to that branch of knowledge to which I wish more particu- 
larly to draw your attention, as it grew and spread from East to West, from 
Asia over Europe. Of all nations of Europe, the Greeks were most inti- 
mately connected with the civilization of the East. A maritime people by 
the nature of the land they lived in, colonization followed as a matter of 


* Rawlinson’s ‘ Herodotus,’ vol. i. p. 420, Ind edit. 
+ Ibid. p. 498, 
{ Smith’s (G.) ‘Assyrian Discoveries,’ p. 451, 2nd edit. § Ibid. 


ADDRESS. Ixxix 


course on the tracks of their trading-vessels; and thus, more than any other 
people, they helped to spread Eastern knowledge along the shores of the 
Mediterranean and throughout the south of Europe. 

The early constructive works of Greece, till about theseventh century B.c., 
form a strong contrast to those of its more prosperous days. Commonly 
ealled Pelasgian, they are more remarkable as engineering works than ad- 
mirable as those which followed them were for architectural beauty. Walls 
of huge unshapely stones (admirably fitted together, however), tunnels, and 
bridges characterize this period. In Greece, during the few and glorious 
centuries which followed, the one aim in all construction was to please the 
eye, to gratify the sense of beauty; and in no age was that aim more tho- 
roughly and satisfactorily attained. 

In these days, when sanitary questions attract each year more attention, 
we may call to mind that twenty-three centuries ago the city of Agrigentum 
possessed a system of sewers, which, on account of their large size, were 
thought worthy of mention by Diodorus*. This is not, however, the first 
record of towns being drained; the well-known Cloaca Maxima, which 
formed part of the drainage system of Rome, was built some two centuries 
earlier, and great vaulted drains passed beneath the palace mounds of unburnt 
brick at Nimroud and Babylon; and possibly we owe the preservation of 
many of the interesting remains found in the brick mounds of Chaldza to 
the very elaborate system of pipe drainage discovered in them and described 
by Loftusy. 

Whilst Pelasgian art was being superseded in Greece, the city of Rome 
was founded in the eighth century before our era; and Etruscan art in Italy, 
like the Pelasgian art in Greece, was slowly merged in that of an Aryan race. 
The Etruscans, like the Pelasgians and the old Egyptians, were Turanians, 
and remarkable for their purely constructive or engineering works. Their 
city walls far surpass those of any other ancient race, and their drainage 
works and tunnels are most remarkable. 

The only age which can compare with the present one in the rapid exten- 
sion of utilitarian works over the face of the civilized world is that during 
which the Romans, an Aryan race, as we are, were in power. As Fergusson 
has said, the mission of the Aryan races appears to be to pervade the world 
with useful and industrial arts. That the Romans adorned their bridges, 
their aqueducts, and their roads, that with a sound knowledge of construc- 
tion they frequently made it subservient to decoration, was partly owing to 
the mixture of Etruscan or Turanian blood in their veins, and partly to their 
great wealth, which made them disregard cost in their construction, and to 
their love of display. 


* Agrigentum was a celebrated Greek city, founded z.c. 582, population 200,000 
(Diodorus, 406 2.c.), drained by Phoax, who lived z.c. 480. 
- t Rawlinson’s ‘Five Ancient Monarchies,’ vol. i. pp. 89, 90, 2nd. edit. 


Ixxx REPORT—1875. 


It would be impossible for me to do justice to even a small part of the 
engineering works which have survived fourteen centuries of strife, and 
remain to this day as monuments of the skill, the energy, and ability of the 
great Roman people. Fortunately their works are more accessible than 
those of which I have hitherto spoken, and many of you are probably already 
familiar with them. 

Conquerors of tho greater part of the civilized world, the admirable orga- 
nization of the Romans enabled them to make good use of the unbounded 
resources which were at their disposal. Yet, while the capital was enriched, 
the development of the resources of the most distant provinces of the empire 
was never neglected. 

War, with all its attendant evils, has often indirectly benefited mankind. 
In the long sieges which took place during the old wars of Greece and Rome, 
the inventive power of man was taxed to the utmost to provide machines for 
attack and defence. The ablest mathematicians and philosophers were 
pressed into the service, and helped to turn the scale in favour of their 
employers. The world has to regret the loss of more than one, who, like 
Archimedes, fell slain by the soldiery while applying the best scientific know- 
ledge of the day to devising means of defence during the siege*. In these 
days, too, science owes much to the labours of engineers and able men, 
whose time is spent in making and improving guns, the materials composing 
them, and armour plates to resist them, or in studying the motion of ships 
of war in a seaway. 

The necessity for roads and bridges for military purposes has led to their 
being made where the necessary stimulus from other causes was wanting ; 
and so means of communication, and the interchange of commodities, so 
essential to the prosperity of any community, have thus been provided. Such 
was the case under the Roman Empire. So, too, in later times, the ambition 
of Napoleon covered France and the countries subject to her with an admi- 
rable system of military roads. At the same time, we must do Napoleon the 
justice of saying that his genius and foresight gave a great impetus to the 
construction of all works favourable to commercial progress. So, again, in 
this country it was the rebellion of 1745, and the want felt of roads for 
military purposes, which first led to the construction of a system of roads in 
it unequalled since the time of the Roman occupation. And lastly, in India, 
in Germany, and in Russia, more than one example could be pointed out 
where industry will benefit by railways which haye originated in military 
precautions rather than in commercial requirements. 

But to return to Rome. Roads followed the tracks of her legions into the 
most distant provinces of the empire. Three hundred and seventy-two great 
roads are enumerated, together more than 48,000 miles in length, according 
to the itinerary of Antoninus. 

The water supply of Rome during the first century of our era would 


* Archimedes, 8,¢. 287-212; killed at the siege of Syracuse by the Roman soldiers. 


ADDRESS. lxxxi 


suffice for a population of seven millions, supplied at the rate at which the 
present population of London is supplied. This water was conveyed to Rome 
by nine aqueducts ; and in later years the supply was increased by the con- 
struction of five more aqueducts. Three of the old aqueducts have sufficed 
to supply the wants of the city in modern times. These aqueducts of Rome 
are to be numbered among her grandest engineering works *. Time will not 
admit of my saying any thing about her harbour works and bridges, her basi- 
licas and baths, and numerous other works in Europe, in Asia, and in Africa. 
Not only were these works executed in a substantial and perfect manner, but 
they were maintained by an efficient staff of men divided into bodies, each 
having their special duties to perform. The highest officers of state superin- 
tended the construction of works, were proud to have their names associated 
with them, and constructed extensive works at their own expense. 

Progress in Europe stopped with the fall of the Roman Empire. In the 

fourth and succeeding centuries the barbarian hordes of Western Asia, people 
who felt no want of roads and bridges, swept over Europe to plunder and 
destroy. 
- With the seventh century began the rise of the Mohammedan power, and 
a partial return to conditions apparently more favourable to the progress of 
industrial art, when widespread lands were again united under the sway of 
powerful rulers}. Science owes much to Arab scholars, who kept and handed 
on to us the knowledge acquired so slowly in ancient times, and much of 
which would have been lost but for them. Still, few useful works remain to 
mark the supremacy of the Mohammedan power at all comparable to those 
of the age which preceded its rise. 

A great building age began in Europe in the tenth century, and lasted 
through the thirteenth. It was during this period that these great ecclesias- 
tical buildings were erected, which are not more remarkable for artistic ex- 
cellence than for boldness in design. 

While the building of cathedrals progressed on all sides in Europe, works 
of a utilitarian character, which concern the engineer, did not receive much 
encouragement, excepting perhaps in Italy. 

From the twelfth to the thirteenth centuries, with the revival of the arts 
and sciences in the Italian republics, many important works were undertaken 
for the improvement of the rivers and harbours of Italy. In 1481 canal-locks 
were first used; and some of the earliest of which we have record were 
erected by Leonardo da Vinci, who would be remembered as a skilful en- 
gineer had he not left other greater and more attractive works to claim the 
homage of posterity. 

* Total length 250 miles ; 50 on arches, 200 underground. 

t “Under the last of the house of Ommiyah (750 A.v.) one command was obeyed 
_ almost along the whole diameter of the known world, from the banks of the Sihon to the 


utmost promontory of Portugal.”—Hallam’s Middle Ages, vol. ii. p. 120, 2nd edit. 
1875. i 


lxxxn RePoRT—1875. 


The great use that has since been made of this simple means of transferring 
floating vessels from one water-level to another, in connexion not only with 
inland navigation, but in all the great ports and harbours of the world, renders 
it all the more deserving of remark. 

In India, under the Moguls, irrigation works, for which they had a natural 
aptitude, were carried on during these centuries with vigour, and more than 
one emperor is noted for the numerous great works of this nature which he 
carried out. If the native records can be trusted, the number of hydraulic 
works undertaken by some rulers is surprising. Tradition relates that one 
. king who reigned in Orissa in the twelfth century made one million tanks or 
reservoirs, besides building sixty temples and erecting numerous other 
works*, 

In India, the frequent overflow of the great rivers, and the periodical 
droughts, which rendered irrigation necessary, led to extensive protective 
works being undertaken at an early period; but as these works haye been 
maintained by successive rulers, Mogul and Mohammedan, until recent times, 
and have not been left for our inspection, deserted and useless for 3,000 years 
or more, as is often the case in Egypt and Mesopotamia, there is more diffi- 
culty in ascertaining the date of such works in India, 

Works of irrigation were among the earliest attempts at engineering under- 
taken by the least civilized inhabitants in all parts of the world, Evyen in 
Australia, where savages are found as low as any in the scale of civilization, 
traces of irrigation works have been found; these works, however, must be 
taken to show that the natives were once somewhat more civilized than we 
now find them. In Feejee, our new possession, the natives occasionally irri- 
gate their land7, and have executed a work of a higher class, a canal some 
two miles long and sixty feet wide, to shorten the distance passed over by 
their canoes {. The natives of New Caledonia irrigate their fields with great 
skill §. In Peru, the Incas excelled in irrigation as in other great and useful 
works, and constructed most admirable underground conduits of masonry for 
the purpose of increasing the fertility of the land |}. 

It is frequently easier to lead water where it is wanted than to check its 
irruption into places where its presence is an evil, often a disaster. For 
centuries the existence of a large part of Holland has been dependent on the 
skill of man. How soon he began in that country to contest with the sea 

the possession of the land we do not know; but early in the twelfth century 
dykes were constructed to keep back the ocean. As the prosperity of the 
country increased with the great extension of its commerce, and land became 


* King Bhim Deo, a.v. 1174, 60 temples, 10 bridges, 40 wells stone-cased, 152 landing- 
stairs, and one million tanks (Hunter’s ‘Orissa,’ vol. i. p. 100). 

t Erskine’s ‘Western Pacific,’ p. 171. 

+ Seeman, p. 82. § Erskine’s ‘Western Pacific,’ p. 355, 

|| Markham’s ‘ Oieza’ (note), p. 286. : 


ADDRESS. lxxxiii 


more valuable and necessary for an increasing population, very extensive 
works were undertaken. Land was reclaimed from the sea, canals were cut, 
and machines were designed for lifting water. To the practical knowledge 
acquired by the Dutch, whose method of carrying out hydraulie works is 
original and of native growth, much of the knowledge of the present day in 
embanking, and draining, and canal-making is due. The North-Holland 
Canal* was the largest navigable canal in existence until the Suez Canal was 
completed ; and the Dutch have just now nearly finished making a sea-canal 
from Amsterdam to the North Sea, which, though not equal to the Suez Canal 
in length, will be as great in width and depth, and involves perhaps larger 
and more important works of art. This country was for many years beholden 
to the Dutch for help in carrying out hydraulic works. In the seventeenth 
century much fen land in the eastern counties was drained by Dutch labour; 
directed by Dutch engineers, among whom Sir Cornelius Vermuyden, an old 
campaigner of the Thirty Years’ War and a colonel of horse under Cromwell, 
is the most noted. : 

While the Dutch were acquiring practical knowledge in dealing with 
water, and we in Britain among others were benefiting by their experience, 
the disastrous results which ensued from the inundations caused by the 
Italian rivers of the Alps gave a new importance to the science of hydraulics. 
Some of the greatest philosophers of the seventeenth century (among them 
Torricelli, a pupil of Galileo +) were called upon to advise and to superintend 
engineering works; nor did they confine themselves to the construction of 
preventive works, but thoroughly investigated the conditions pertaining to fluids 
at rest or in motion, and gave to the world a valuable series of works on 
hydraulics and hydraulic engineering, which form the basis of our knowledge 
of these subjects at the present day. 

Some of the best scientific works (prior to the nineteenth century) on 
engineering subjects we owe to Italian and French writers. The writings 
of Belidor, an officer of artillery in France in the seventeenth century, who 
_ did not, however, confine himself to military subjects, drew attention to 
engineering questions. Not long after their appearance, the Ponts et Chaus- 
sées t were established, which has maintained ever since a body of able men 
specially educated for and devoted to the prosecution of industrial works. 

The impulse given to road-making in the early part of the last century 
soon extended to canals and means for facilitating locomotion and transport 
generally. Tramways were used in connexion with mines at least as early 
as the middle of the seventeenth century ; but the rails were, in those days, 
of wood. ‘The first iron rails are said to have been laid in this country as 


* North-Holland Canal, finished in 1825, 
+ Galileo, b. 1564; Torricelli, b. 1608. 
¢ Ponts et Chaussées, established 1720, 


f2 


Ixxxiv REPORT—1875. 


early as 1738, after which time their use was gradually extended, until it 
became general in mining-districts. 

By the beginning of this century the great ports of England were connected 
by a system of canals; and new harbour works became necessary and were 
provided to accommodate the increase of commerce and trade, which improved 
means of internal transport had rendered possible. It was in the construction 
of these works that our Brindley and Smeaton, Telford and Rennie, and other 
engineers of their time did so much. 

But it was not until the steam-engine, improved and almost created by 
the illustrious Watt, became such a potent instrument, that engineering works 
to the extent they have since been carried out became possible or necessary. 
It gave mankind no new faculty; but it at once set his other faculties on an 
eminence, from which the extent of his future operations became almost 
unlimited. 

Water-mills, wind-mills, and horse-machines were in most cases super- 
seded. Deep mines, before only accessible by adits and water-levels, could at 
once be reached with ease and economy. Lakes and fens which, but for the 
steam-engine, would have been left untouched, were drained and culti- 
vated. 

The slow and laborious toil of hands and fingers, bone and sinew, was turned 
to other employments, where, aided by ingenious mechanical contrivances, 
the produce of one pair of hands was multiplied a thousandfold, and their 
cunning extended until results marvellous, if you consider them, were attained. 
Since the time of Watt the steam-engine has exerted a power, made conquests, 
and increased and multiplied the material interests of this globe to an extent 
which it is scarcely possible to realize. 

But while Watt has gained a world-wide, well-earned fame, the names of 
those men who have provided the machines to utilize the energies of the steam- 
engine are too often forgotten. Of their inventions the majority of mankind 
know little. They worked silently at home, in the mill, or in the factory, 
observed by few. Indeed, in most cases, these silent workers had no wish to 
expose their work to public gaze. Were it not so, the factory and the mill 
are not places where people go to take the air. How long in the silent night 
the inventors of these machines sat and pondered ; how often they had to cast 
aside some long-sought mechanical movement and seek another and a better 
arrangement of parts, none but themselves could ever know. They were un- 
seen workers, who succeeded by rare genius, long patience, and indomitable 
perseverance. 

More ingenuity and creative mechanical genius is perhaps displayed in 
machines used for the manufacture of textile fabrics than by those used in any 
other industry. It was not until late in historical times that the manufacture 
of such fabrics became established on a large scale in Europe. Although in 


ADDRESS. lxxxv 


China man was clothed in silk long ago, and although Confucius, in a work 
written 2,300 years ago, orders with the greatest minuteness the rules to be 
observed in the production and manufacture of silk, yet it was worth nearly 
its weight in gold in Europe in the time of Aurelian, whose empress had to 
forego the luxury of a silk gown on account of its cost*. Through Constan- 
tinople and Italy the manufacture passed slowly westwards, and was not 
established in France until the sixteenth century, and arrived at a still later 
period in this country. 

So cotton, of which the manufacture in India dates from before historical 
times, had scarcely by the Christian era reached Persia and Egypt. Spain 
in the tenth and Italy in the fourteenth century manufactured it, but Man- 
chester, which is now the great metropolis of the trade, not until the latter 
half of the seventeenth century. 

Linen was worn by the old Egyptians, and some of their linen mummy-~ 
cloths surpass in fineness any linen fabrics made in later dayst. The 
Babylonians wore linen also and wool, and obtained a widespread fame for 
skill in workmanship and beauty in design. 

In this country wool long formed the staple for clothing. Silk was the first 
rival, but its costliness placed it beyond the reach of the many. Tointroduce 
a new material or improved machine into this or other countries a century or 
more ago was no light undertaking. Inventors and would-be benefactors alike 
ran the risk of loss of life. Loud was the outcry made in the early part: of 
the eighteenth century against the introduction of Indian cottons and Dutch 
calicoes. 

Until 1738, in which year improvements in spinning-machinery were begun, 
each thread of worsted or cotton wool had been spun between the fingers in 
this and all other countries. Wyatt, in 1738, invented spinning-rollers 
instead of fingers, and his invention was further improved by Arkwright. In 
1770 Hargreaves patented the spinning-jenny, and Crompton the mule in 
1775, a machine which combined the advantages of the frames of both Har- 
greaves and Arkwright. In less than a century after the first invention by 
Wyatt, double mules were working in Manchester with over 2,000 spindles, 

Improvements in machines for weaving were begun at an earlier date. In 
1579 a ribbon-locm is said to have been invented at Dantzic, by which from 
four to six pieces could be woven at one time; but the machine was destroyed 
and the inventor lost his lifet. In 1800 Jacquard’s most ingenious invention 
was brought into use, which, by a simple mechanical operation, determines 
the movements of the threads which form the pattern in weaving. But the 
greatest discovery in the art of weaving was wrought by Cartwright’s discovery 

* Manufacture of silk brought from China to Constantinople A.p, 522. 
t Wilkinson’s ‘Ancient Egyptians ;’ Pliny, bk. xix. c. ii, 
¢ Peckman’s ‘ History of Inventions,’ vol. ii, p. 528. 


Ixxxvi REPORT—1875. 


of the power-loom, which led eventually to the substitution of steam for manual 
labour, and enabled a boy with a steam-loom to do fifteen times the work of 
a’man with a hand-loom. 

- For complex ingenuity few machines will compare with those used in the 
manufacture of lace and bobbin net. Hammond, in 1768, attempted to adapt 
the stocking-frame to this manufacture, which had hitherto been conducted 
by hand. It remained for John Heathcote to complete the adaptation in 1809, 
and to revolutionize this branch of industry, reducing the cost of its produce 
to one-fortieth of what the cost had been before Heathcote’s improvements 
were effected. 
~ Most of these ingenious machines were in use before Watt’s genius gave the 
world a new motive power in the steam-engine; and, had the steam-engine 
never been perfected, they would still have enormously increased the pro- 
ductive power of mankind. Water-power was applied to many of them; in 
the first silk-thread mill erected at Derby in 1738, 318 million yards of silk 
thread were spun daily with one water-wheel. 

These are happier times for inventors: keen competition among manufac- 
turers does not let .a good invention lie idle now. That which was rejected 
by old machines as waste is now worked up into useful fabrics by new ones. 
From all parts of the world new products come—jute from India, flax from 
New Zealand, andmany others which demand new adaptations of old machines, 
or new and untried mechanical arrangements to utilize them. Time would 
fail me if I were to attempt to enumerate one tithe of these rare combinations 
of mechanical skill ; and, indeed, no one will ever appreciate the labour and 
supreme mental effort required for their construction who has not himself seen 
them and their wondrous achievements. 

Steamboats, the electric telegraph, and railways are more within the cog- 
nizance of the world at large; and the progress that has been made in them in 
little more than one generation is better known and appreciated. 

. It is not more than forty years since one of our scientific men, and an able 
one too, declared at a meeting of this Association that no steamboat would 
ever cross the Atlantic, founding his statement on the impracticability, in his 
view, of a steamboat carrying sufficient coal (profitably, I presume) for the 
voyage. Yet soon after this statement was made, the ‘Sirius’ steamed to 
New York in seventeen days*, and was soon followed from Bristol by the 
‘Great Western,’ which made the homeward passage in thirteen days and a 
half; and with these voyages the era of steamboats may be said to have 
begun. Like most important inventions, that of the steamboat was a long 
time in assuming a form capable of being profitably utilized; and even when 
it had assumed such a form, the objections of commercial and scientific men 
had still to be overcome. 


* First steamer crossed the Atlantic by steam alone in 1838, 


ADDRESS. lxxxvil 


Among the many names connected with the early progress in the con~ 
struction of steamboats, perhaps none is more worthy of remembrance than 
that of Patrick Miller, who, with the assistance of Symington, an engineer, 
and Taylor, who was his children’s tutor, constructed a small steamboat. 
Shortly afterwards Lord Dundas, who saw the value of the application of 
steam for the propulsion of boats, had the first really practical steamboat 
constructed with a view to using it on the Forth and Clyde Canal. The pro- 
prietors, however, objected, and the boat lay idle. Again another attempt to 
make practical use of the steamboat failed through the death of the Duke of 
Bridgewater, who, with his characteristic foresight, had seen the value of 
steam as a motive power for boats, and had determined to introduce steamboats 
on the canal which bears his name. 

The increase in the number of steamboats since the time when the ‘Sirius’ 
first crossed the Atlantic has been very great. Whereas in 1814 the United 
Kingdom only possessed two steam-vessels, of together 456 tons burden, in 
1872 there were on the register of the United Kingdom 3,662 steam-vessels, 
of which the registered tonnage amounted to over a million and a half of tons*, 
or to nearly half the whole steam tonnage of the world, which did not at that 
time greatly exceed three million tons. 

As the number of steamboats has largely increased, so also gradually has 
their size increased until it culminated, in the hands of Brunel, in the ‘ Great 
Eastern.’ 

A triumph of engineering skill in ship-building, the ‘Great Eastern’ has 
not been commercially so successful. In this, as in many other engineering 
problems, the question is not how large a thing can be made, but how large, 
haying regard to other circumstances, it is proper at the time to make it. 

If, as regards the dimensions of steamboats, we haye at present somewhat 
overstepped the limits in the ‘Great Eastern,’ much still remains to be done 
in perfecting the form of vessels, whether propelled by steam or driven by the 
force of the wind. A distinguished member of this Association, Mr. Froude, has 
now for some years devoted himself to investigations carried on with the view 
to ascertain the form of vessel which will offer the least resistance to the water 
through which it must pass. So many of us in these days are called upon to 
make journeys by sea as well as by land, that we can well appreciate the value 
of Mr. Froude’s labours, so far as they tend to curtail the time which we must 
spend on our ocean journeys; and we should all feel grateful to him if from 
another branch of his investigations, which relates to the rolling of ships, it 
should result that the movement in passenger vessels could be reduced. A 
gallant attempt in this direction has lately been made by Mr. Bessemer ; 
whether a successful one yet remains to be proved. In any event, he and 
those who have acted with him deserve our praise for an experiment which 
must add to our knowledge. 

* Board of Trade Return, 15th July, 1874, Table 8, 


Ixxxviil REPORT—1875. 


_ It is a question of vital importance to the steamboat that the consumption 
of fuel should be reduced to the smallest possible amount, inasmuch as each 
ton of fuel excludes a ton of cargo. 

As improvements in the form of the hull are effected, less power (that is, 
less fuel) will be required to propel the vessel through the water for a given 
distance. Great as have been the improvements effected in marine engines to 
this end, much still remains to be done. Wolf’s compound engine, so long 
overlooked, is, with some improvements, being at last applied. Whereas the 
consumption of fuel in such vessels as the ‘ Himalaya’ used to be from 5 to 
6 Ibs. of fuel per effective horse-power, it has been reduced, by working steam 
more expansively in vessels of a later date, to 2 lbs. Yet, comparing this 
with the total amount of energy of 2 Ibs. of coal, it will be found that not a 
tenth part of the power is obtained which that amount of coal would theo- 
retically call into action*. 

We live in an age when great discoveries are made, and when they are 
speedily taken advantage of if likely to be of service to mankind. 

In former times, man’s inventions were frequently in advance of the age, 
and they were laid aside to await a happier era. There were in those earlier 
days too few persons who cared to, or who could, avail themselves of the prof- 
ferred boon, and there was no sufficient accumulation of wealth to justify its 
being appropriated to schemes which are always in their early stage more or 
less speculative. 

There is no more remarkable instance of the rapid utilization of what was 
in the first instance regarded by most men as a mere scientific idea, than the 
adoption and extension of the electric telegraph. 


* Theoretical energy of 1 lb. of coal:-— 
The proportions of heat expended in generating saturated steam at 212° Fahy., and 
at 14:7 lbs. pressure per square inch, from water at 212° are: 


Units Mechanical 
of equivalent 
heat. in foot lbs. 
I. In the formation of steam c..sisccscecseseeeees 892'8 689,242 
II. In resisting the incumbent pressure of 14°7 
Ths. per square INCH seseseseseeceseeereceeenens 72:3 55,815 
i 96571 745,057 


One pound of Welsh coal will theoretically evaporate 15 lbs. of water at 212° to 
steam at 212°. Therefore the full theoretical value of the combustion of 2 lbs. of 
Welsh coal is 

2 x 15 x 745,057 foot pounds, 
or 
eee horse-power, if consumed in | hour, 
= 11-2 horse-power. 


As the consumption of coal per effective horse-power in a marine engine is 2 lbs., 
the power obtained is to the whole theoretical power as 1 isto 11. 


_ ADDRESS, Ixxxix 


Those who read Odier’s letter written in 1773, in which he made known 
his idea of a telegraph which would “ enable the inhabitants of Europe to con- 
verse with the Emperor of Mogul,” little thought that in less than a century a 
conversation between persons at points so distant would be possible. Still 
less did those who saw in the following year messages sent from one room to 
another by Lesage, in the presence of Friedrich of Prussia, realize that they 
had before them the germ of one of the most extraordinary inventions among 
the many that will render this century famous. 

I should weary you were I to follow the slow steps by which the electric 
telegraph of to-day was brought to its present state of efficiency. In tho 
present century few years have passed without new workers appearing in the 
field ; some whose object was to utilize the new-found power for the benefit 
of mankind, others (and their work was not the least important in the end) 
whose object was to investigate magnetism and electrical phenomena as pre- 
senting scientific problems still unsolved. Galvani, Volta, Oersted, Arago, 
Sturgeon, and Faraday, by their labours, helped to make known the elements 
which rendered it possible to construct the electric telegraph. With the 
battery, the clectric coil, and the electro-magnet, the elements were complete, 
and it only remained for Sir Charles Wheatstone and others to combine them 
in a useful and practically valuable form. The inventions of Alexander, 
Steinheil, and those of similar nature to that of Sir Charles Wheatstone, were 
made known at a later date in the same year, which will ever be memorable 
in the annals of telegraphy*. 

The first useful telegraph was constructed upon the Blackwall Railway in 
1838, Messrs. Cooke & Wheatstone’s instruments being employed. From that 
time the progress of the electric telegraph has been so rapid, that at the pre- 
sent time, including land lines and submarine cables, there are in use in 
different parts of the world not less than 400,000 miles of telegraph. 

Among the numerous inventions of late years, the automatic telegraphs of 
Mr. Alexander Bain, of Dr. Werner Siemens, and of Sir Charles Wheatstone 
are especially worthy of notice. Mr. Bain’s machine is chiefly used in the 
United States, that of Dr. Werner Siemens in Germany. In this country tho 
machine invented by Sir Charles Wheatstone, to whom telegraphy owes so 
much, is chiefly employed. By his machine, after the message has been 
punched out in a paper ribbon by one machine, on a system analogous to the 
dot and dash of Morse, the sequence of the currents requisite to transmit the 
message along the wire is automatically determined in a second machine by 
this perforated ribbon. This second operation is analogous to that by which 
in Jacquard’s loom the motions of the threads requisite to produce the pattern 
is determined by perforated cards. By Whceatstone’s machine errors insepara- 
ble from manual labour are avoided; and, what is of even more importance in 


* Dates of patents: Wheatstone, March 1, 1837; Alexander, April 22, 1837 ; Steinheil, 
July 1, 1837 ; Morse, October 1837. 


xe REPORT—1875. 


a commercial point of view, the time during which the wire is occupied in the 
transmission of a message is considerably diminished. 

By the application of these automatic systems to telegraphy, the speed of 
transmission has been wonderfully accelerated, being equal to 200 words a 
minute—that is, faster than a shorthand writer can transcribe; and, in fact, 
words can now be passed along the wires of land lines witha velocity greater 
than can be dealt with by the human agency at either end. 

Owing partly to the retarding effects of induction and other causes, the speed 
of transmission by long submarine cables is much smaller. With the cable 
of 1858 only 24 words per minute were got through. The average with the 
Atlantic cable, Dr. C. W. Siemens informs me, is now 17 words ;. but 24 words 
per minute can be read. 

One of the most striking phenomena in telegraphy is that known as the 
duplex system, which enables messages to be sent from each end of the same 
wire at the same time. This simultaneous transmission from both ends of a 
wire was proposed in the early days of telegraphy, but, owing to imperfect 
insulation, was not then found to be practicable; but since then telegraphic 
wires have been better insulated, and the system is now becoming of great 
utility, as it nearly doubles the capacity for work of every wire. 

And yet within how short a period of time has all the wonderful progress 
in telegraphy been achieved! How incredulous the world a few years ago 
would have been if then told of the marvels which in so short a space of time 
were to be accomplished by its agency ! 

It is not long ago(1823) that Mr. (afterwards Sir Francis) Ronald, one of the 
early pioneers in this field of science, published a description of an electric 
telegraph. He communicated his views to Lord Melville, and that nobleman 
was obliging enough to reply that the subject should be inquired into; but 
before thenature of Sir Francis Ronald’s suggestions could be known, except toa 
few, that gentleman received a reply from Mr. Barrow “that telegraphs of any 
kind were then wholly unnecessary, and that no other than the one then in use 
would be adopted,” the one then in use being the old semaphore, which, 
crowning the tops of hills between London and Portsmouth, seemed perfec 
tion to the Admiralty of that day. 

I am acquainted with some who, when the first Transatlantic cable was 
proposed, contributed towards that undertaking with the consciousness that 
it was only an experiment, and that subscribing to it was much the same 
thing as throwing their money into the sea. Much of this cable was lost in 
the first attempt to lay it; but, its promoters, nothing daunted, made 900 
miles more cable, and finally laid it successfully in the following year, 1858. - 

The telegraphic system of the world comprises almost a complete girdle 
round the earth ; and it is probable that the missing link will be supplied by 
a cable between San Francisco in California and Yokohama in Japan. 

How resolute and courageous those who engaged in submarine telegraphy 


ADDRESS. x¢i 


have been will appear from the fact that, though we have now 50,000 miles 
of cable in use, to get at this result nearly 70,000 miles were constructed 
and laid. This large percentage of failure, in the opinion of Dr. C. W. 
Siemens (to whom I am much indebted for information on this subject), was 
partly due to the late introduction of testing a cable under water before it is 
laid, and to the use of too light iron sheathing. 

Of immense importance in connexion with the subsequent extension of 

submarine cables have been the discoveries of Ohm and Sir William Thom- 
son, and the knowledge obtained that the resistance of wire in homogeneous 
metal is directly proportional to the length, so that the place of a fault in a 
cable of many thousand miles in length can be ascertained withso much pre~ 
cision as to enable you to go at once to repair it, although the damaged cable 
may lie in some thousands of fathoms of water. 
- Of railways the progress has been enormous; but I do not know that in 
a scientific point of view a railway is so marvellous in its character as the 
electric telegraph. The results, however, of the construction and use of rail- 
ways are more extensive and widespread, and their utility and convenience 
brought home to a larger portion of mankind. It has come to pass, there- 
fore, that the name of George Stephenson has been placed second only to that 
of James Watt; and as men are and will be estimated by the advantages 
which their labours confer on mankind, he will remain in that niche, unless 
indeed some greater luminary should arise to outshine him. The merit of 
George Stephenson consisted, among other things, in this, that he saw more 
clearly than any other engineer of his time the sort of thing that the world 
wanted; and that he persevered, in despite of learned objectors, with the 
firm conviction that he was right and they were wrong, and that there was 
within himself the power to demonstrate the accuracy of his convictions. 

Railways are a subject on which I may (I hope without tiring you) speak 
somewhat more at length. The British Association is peripatetic, and with- 
out railways its meetings, if held at all, would, I fear, be greatly reduced in 
numbers. Moreover, you have all an interestin them: you all demand to be 
carried safely, and you insist on being carried fast. Besides, everybody 
understands, or thinks he understands, a railway; and therefore I shall be 
speaking on a subject common to all of us, and shall possibly only put before 
you ideas which others as well as myself have already entertained. 

We who live in these days of roads and railways, and can move with a 
fair degree of comfort, speed, and safety, almost where we will, can scarcely 
realize the state of England two centuries ago, when the years of opposition 
which preceded the era of coaches began; when, as in 1662, there were but 
six stages in all England, and John Crossdell, of the Charterhouse, thought 
there were six too many; when Sir Henry Herbert, a member of the House 
of Commons, could say, ‘‘ If a man were to propose to carry us regularly to 


Xcll : REPORT—1875. 


Edinburgh in coaches in seven days, and bring us back in seyen more, should 
we not vote him to Bedlam?” 

In spite of short-sighted opposition, coaches made their way ; butit was not 
until a century later, in 1784 (and then, I believe, it was in this city of Bristol), 
that coaches were first established for the conveyance of mails. Those here who 
have experienced, as I have, what the discomforts were of long journeys in- 
side the old coaches, will agree with me that they were very great; and I 
believe, if returns could be obtained of the accidents which happened to 
coaches, it would be found that many more people were injured and killed 
in proportion to the number that travelled by that mode, than by the rail- 
ways of to-day. 

No sooner had our ancestors settled down with what comfort was possible 
in their coaches, well satisfied that twelve miles an hour was the maximum 
speed to be obtained, or was desirable, than they were told that steam con- 
yeyance on iron railways would supersede their “ present pitiful” methods 
of conveyance. Such was the opinion of Thomas Gray, the first promoter of 
railways, who published his work on a general iron railway in 1819. Gray 
was looked on as little better than a madman. ‘‘ When Gray first proposed 
his great scheme to the public,” said Chevalier Wilson, in a letter to Sir 
Robert Peel in 1845, ‘‘ people were disposed to treat it as an effusion of in- 
sanity.” I shall not enter on a history of the struggles which preceded the 
opening of the first railway. They were brought to a successful issue by the 
determination of a few able and far-seeing men. The names of Thomas 
Gray and Joseph Sandars, of William James and Edward Pease, should 
always be remembered in connexion with the early history of railways, for 
it was they who first made the nation familiar with the idea. There is no 
fear that the name of Stephenson will be forgotten, whose practical genius 
made the realization of the idea possible. 

The Stockton and Darlington Railway was opened in 1825, the Liverpool 
and Manchester Railway in 1830; and in the short time which has since 
elapsed, railways have been extended to every quarter of the globe. No 
nation possessing wealth and population can afford to be without them; and 
though at present in different countries there is in the aggregate about 
160,000 miles of railway, it is certain that in the course of a very few years 
this quantity, large as it is, will be very greatly exceeded. 

Railways add enormously to the national wealth. More than twenty-five 
years ago it was proved to the satisfaction of a committee of the House of 
Commons, from facts and figures which I then adduced, that the Lancashire 
and Yorkshire Railway, of which I was the engineer, and which then formed 
the principal railway connexion between the populous towns of Lancashire 
and Yorkshire, effected a saying to the public using the railway of more than 
the whole amount of the dividend which was received by the proprietors. 
These calculations were based solely on the amount of traffic carried by the 


ADDRESS. xciil 


railway, and on the difference between the railway rate of charge and the 
charges by the modes of conveyance anterior to railways. No credit what- 
ever was taken for the saving of time, though in England preeminently time 
is money. 

Considering that railway charges on many items have been considerably re- 
duced since that day, it may be safely assumed that the railways in tho 
British Islands now produce, or rather save the nation, a much larger sum 
annually than the gross amount of all the dividends payable to the proprietors, 
without at all taking into account the benefit arising from the saying in 
time. The benefits under that head defy calculation, and cannot, with any 
accuracy, be put into money; but it would not be at all over-estimating this 
question to say that in time and money the nation gains at least what is 
equivalent to 10 per cent. on all the capital expended on railways. I do 
not urge this on the part of railway proprietors, for they did not embark in 
these undertakings with a view to the national gain, but for the expected 
profit to themselves. Yet it is as well it should be noted; for railway pro- 
prictors appear sometimes by some people to be regarded in the light of 
public enemies. 

Tt follows from these facts that whenever a railway can be made at a cost 
to yield the ordinary interest of money, it is in the national interest that it 
should be made. Further, that though its cost might be such as to leave a 
smaller dividend than that to its proprietors, the loss of wealth to so small a 
section of the community will be more than supplemented by the national 
gain, and therefore there may be cases where a government may wisely con- 
tribute in some form to undertakings which, without such aid, would fail to 
obtain the necessary support. 

And so some countries, Russia for instance, to which improved means of 
transport are of vital importance, have wisely, in my opinion, caused lines to 
be made which, having regard to their own expenditure and receipts, would 
be unprofitable works, but in a national point of view are or speedily will be 
highly advantageous. 

The empire of Brazil also, which I have lately visited, is arriving at the 
conclusion, which I think not an unwise one, that the State can afford and 
will be benefited in the end by guaranteeing 7 per cent. upon any railway that 
can of itself be shown to produce a net income of 4 per cent., on the assump- 
tion that the nation will be benefited at least to the extent of the difference. 

A question more important probably in the eyes of many—safety of railway 
travelling—may not be inappropriate. At all events, it is well that the 
elements on which it depends should be clearly understood. It will be thought 
that longer experience in the management of railways should go to ensure 
greater safety; but there are other elements of the question which go to 
counteract this in some degree. 

The safety of railway travelling depends on the perfection of the machine 


xC1V REPORT—1875. 


in all its parts, including the whole railway, with its movable plant, in that 
term ; it depends also on the nature and quantity of traffic, and, lastly, on 
human care and attention. 

With regard to what is human, it may be said that so many of these acci- 
dents as arise from the fallibility of men will never be eliminated until the race 
be improved. 

The liability to accident will also increase with the speed, and might be 
reduced by slackening that speed. It increases with the extent and variety 
of the traffic on the same line. The public, I fear, will rather run the risk 
than consent to be carried at a slower rate. The increase in extent and 
variety of traffic is not likely to receive any diminution ; on the contrary, it 
is certain to augment, 

T should be sorry to say that human care may not do something; and Iam 
not among those who object to appeals through the press, and otherwise, to 
railway companies, though sometimes perhaps they may appear in an un- 
reasonable form. J see no harm in men being urged in every way to do their 
utmost in a matter so vital to many. 

A question may arise whether, if the railways were in the hands of the 
Government, they could not be worked with greater safety. Government would 
not pay their officers better, or perhaps so well as the companies do, and it is 
doubtful whether they would succeed in attracting to the service abler men. 
They might do the work with a smaller number of chief officers ; for much of 
the time of the companies’ managers is occupied in internecine disputes. They 
might handle the traffic more despotically, diminishing the number of trains, 
or the accommodation afforded by them, or in other ways, to insure more safety ; 
but would the public bear any curtailment of convenience? 

One thing they could, and perhaps would do. In cases where the traffic 
is varied, and could more safely be conducted with the aid of relief lines, which 
hold out no sufficient inducement to the companies to make, the Government, 
being content with a lower rate of interest, might undertake to make them, 
though then comes the question whether, when the whole of this vast machine 
eame to depend for supplies on annual yotes of Parliament, money would be 
forthcoming in greater abundance than it is under the present system. 

But the consideration of this subject involves other and more difficult 
questions. 

Where are the labours of Government to stop? The cares of State which 
cannot be avoided are already heavy, and will grow heavier every year. Dock- 
yard establishments are trifling to what the railway establishments, which 
already employ 250,000 men, would be. The assumption of all the railways 
would bring Government into conflict with every passenger, every trader, every 
merchant, and every manufacturer. With the railway companies there would 
be no difficulty ; they would sell their undertakings to any one proyided the 
price was ample. 


ADDRESS, xcVv 


Looking at the vast growth of railway traffic, one measure occurs to me as 
conducive to the safety of railway passengers, and likely to be demanded 
some day: it is to construct between important places railways which should 
carry passengers only or coals only, or be set apart for some special separation 
of traffic; though there will be some difficulty in accomplishing this, Land- 
owners, through whose property such lines would pass, would probably wish 
to use such lines for general purposes, Nevertheless it may have to be tried 
some day. 

It would be instructive, were it practicable, to compare the relative propor- 
tion of accidents by railway and by the old stage-coaches; but no records that 
I am aware of exist of the latter that would enable such a comparison to be 
made. It is practicable to make some sort of comparison between the acci- 
dents in the earlier days of our own railways and the accidents occurring at a 
later date. 

The Board of Trade have unfortunately abandoned the custom, which they 
adopted from 1852 to 1859, of returning the passenger mileage, which is given 
in the German returns, and is the proper basis upon which to found the pro- 
portion of accidents, and not.on the number of passengers without any regard 
to distance travelled, which has altered very much, the average journey per 
passenger being nearly half in 1873 what it was in 1846. 

It would be erroneous to compare the proportions of accidents to passengers 
carried in various years, even if the correct number of passengers trayelling 
were given. But a figure is always omitted from the Board of Trade return, 
which makes the proportion of accidents to passengers appear larger than it is ; 
this is the number of journeys performed by season-ticket holders, Some 
estimate could be made of the journeys of season-ticket holders by dividing 
the receipts by an estimated average fare, or the companies could make an 
approximate estimate, and the passenger mileage could be readily obtained 
by the railway companies from the tickets. These additions would greatly 
add to the value of the railway returns as statistical documents, and render 
the deductions made from them correct. 

Though it has been a work of labour, I have endeavoured to supply these 
deficiencies, and I believe the results arrived at may be taken as fairly accurate*, 

From the figures so arrived at, it appears the passenger mileage has doubled 
between 1861 and 1873; and at the rate of increase between 1870 and 1873 
it would become double what it was in 1873 in twelve years from that time, 
namely in 1885. 

The number of passengers has doubled between 1864 and 1873, and atthe 
rate of increase between 1870 and 1873 it would become double what it was 
in 1873 in eleven years and a half, or in 1885. 

It must, however, be remembered that the rate of increase since 1870, though 
very regular for 1871, 1872, and 1873, is greater than in previous years, 


* See Table in Appendix, 


Xevi REPORT—1875. 


being probably due to the rise of wages and the great development of third- 
class traffic, and it would not be safe to assume this rate of increase will 
continue. 

Supposing no improvement had been effected in the working of railway 
traffic by the interlocking of points, the block system, &c., the increase of 
accidents should have borne some proportion to the passenger mileage, multi- 
plied by the proportion between the train mileage and the length of line open, 
as the number of trains passing over the same line of rails would tend to 
multiply accidents in an increasing proportion, especially where the trains run 
at different speeds. 

The number of accidents varies considerably from year to year; but taking 
two averages of ten years each, it appears that the proportion of deaths of 
passengers from causes beyond their control to passenger miles travelled in 
the ten years ending December 31, 1873, was only two thirds of the same 
proportion in the ten years ending December 31, 1861 ; the proportion of all 
accidents to passengers from causes beyond their own control was one ninth 
more in the last ten years than in the earlier, whereas the frequency of trains 
had increased on the average one fourth. 

The limit, however, of considerable improvements in signalling, increased 
brake-power, &c. may be reached before long; and if so, the increase of 
accidents will then depend on the increase of traffic, together with the in- 
creased frequency of trains. 

The large growth of railway traffic, which we may assume will double in 
twenty years, will evidently greatly tax the resources of the railway com- 
panies ; and unless the present companies increase the number of the lines of 
Way, aS some have commenced to do, or new railways are made, the system 
of expeditious and safe railway travelling will be imperilled. Up to the 
present time, however, the improvements in regulating the traffic appear to 
have kept pace with the increase of traffic and of speed, as the slight increase 
in the proportion of railway accidents to passenger miles is probably chiefly 
due to a larger number of trifling bruises being reported now than formerly. 

I believe it was a former President of the Board of Trade who said to an 
alarmed deputation, who waited upon him on the subject of railway travelling, 
that he thought he was safer'in a railway carriage than anywhere else. 

If he gave any such opinion, he was not far wrong, as is sufficiently evident 
when it can be said that there is only one passenger injured in every four 
million miles travelled, or that, on an average, a person may travel 100,000 
miles each year for forty years, and the chances be slightly in his favour of 
his not receiving the slightest injury. 

A pressing subject of the present time is the economy of fuel. Members of 
the British Association have not neglected this momentous question. 

At the meeting held at Newcastle-on-Tyne in 1863, Sir William 
Armstrong sounded an alarm as to the proximate exhaustion of our coal-fields. 


ADDRESS. xevii 


Mr, Bramwell, when ‘presiding over the Mechanical Section at Brighton, 
drew attention to the waste of fuel. 

Dr. Siemens, in an able lecture he delivered by request of the Association 
to the operative classes at the meeting at Bradford, pointed out the waste of 
fuel in special branches of the iron trade, to which he has devoted so much 
attention. 

He showed on that occasion that, in the ordinary reheating furnace, the 
coal consumed did not produce the twentieth part of its theoretical effect, and 
in melting steel in pots in the ordinary way not more than one-seventieth 
part, in melting one ton of steel in pots about 23 tons of coke being con- 
sumed. Dr. Siemens further stated that, in his regenerative gas-furnace, one 
ton of steel was melted with 12 cwt. of small coal. 

Mr. Lowthian Bell, who combines chemical knowledge with the practical 
experience of an ‘ironmaster, in his Presidential address to the Members of 
the Iron and Steel Institute in 1873, stated that, with the perfect mode of 
withdrawing and utilizing the gases and the improvement in the furnaces 
adopted in the Cleveland district, the present make of pig iron in Cleveland 
is produced with 33 million tons of coal less than would have been needed 
fifteen years ago, this being equivalent to a saving of 45 per cent. of the 
quantity formerly used. He shows by figures, with which he has favoured 
me, that the calorific power of the waste gases from the furnaces is sufficient 
for raising all the steam and heating ail the air the furnaces require. 

It has already been stated that by working steam more expansively, either 
in double or single engines, the consumption of fuel in improved modern 
engines compared with the older forms may be reduced to one third. 

All these reductions still fall far short of the theoretical effect of fuel, 
which may be never reached. Mr. Lowthian Bell’s figures go to show that 
in the interior of the blast-furnace, as improved in Cleveland, there is not 
much more to be done in reducing the consumption of fuel; but much has 
already been done; and could the reductions now attainable and all the 
information already acquired be universally applied, the saving in fuel would 
be enormous. 

How many open blast-furnaces still belch forth flame and gas and smoke 
as uselessly, and with nearly as much mischief to the surrounding neighbour- 
hood, as the fires of Etna or Vesuvius! 

How many of the older and more extravagant forms of steam-engine still 
exist! 

What is to be done with the intractable householder, with the domestic 
hearth, where, without going to German stoves, but by using Galton’s grates 
and other improvements, every thing necessary both for comfort and con- 
venience could be as well attained with a much smaller consumption of 
coal ? 

If I have pointed out that we do not avail ourselves of more than a frac- 

1875. g 


XCVill REPORT—1875. 


tional part of the useful effects of fuel, it is not that I expect we shall all at 
once mend our ways in this respect. 

Many cases of waste arise from the existence of old and obsolete machines, 
of bad forms of furnaces, of wasteful grates, existing in most dwelling- 
houses ; and these are not to be remedied at once; for not every one can 
afford, however desirable it might be, to cast away the old and adopt the 
new. 

In looking uneasily to the future supply and cost of fuel, it is, however, 
something to know what may be done even with the application of our 
present knowledge; and could we apply it universally to-day, all that is 
necessary for trade and comfort could probably be as well provided for by 
one half the present consumption of fuel; and it behoyes those who are 
beginning to build new mills, new furnaces, new steamboats, or new houses 
to act. as though the price of coal which obtained two years ago had been 
the normal and not the abnormal price, 

There was in early years a battle of the gauges, and there is now a contest 
about guns; but your time will not permit me to say much on their manu- 
facture, . 

Here, again, the progress made in a few years has been enormous; and in 
contributing to it, two men, Sir William Armstrong and Sir Joseph Whit~ 
worth, both civil engineers, in this country at all events, deservedly stand 
foremost, The iron coil construction of Sir William Armstrong has already 
produced remarkable and satisfactory results ; in discussing further possible 
improvements, the question is embarrassed by attempting to draw sharp lines 
between what is called steel and iron. 

There is nothing that I can see to limit the size of guns, except the 
tenacity and endurance of the metal, whatever we may choose to call it, of 
which they are to be made, 

Sir Joseph Whitworth, who has already done more than any other man in 
his department to secure good workmanship, and whose ideal of perfection is 
eyer expanding, has long been seeking, and not without success, by enormous 
compression, to increase those qualities in what he calls homogeneous metal. 
Make the metal good enough, and call it iron if you will, and the size of a 
gun may be any thing: the mere construction and handling of a gun of 100 
tons, or of greater weight, with suitable mechanical appliances, presents no 
difficulty, 

Relying on the qualities of his compressed metal, Sir Joseph is now 
seeking by a singular experiment to limit the travel of the recoil, as far as 
practicable, to the elasticity of the metal. By attaching the muzzle of the 
gun to an outer casing, through which the force of the recoil is carried back 
to the trunnions, he proposes to avail himself of this elasticity to the extent 
of once and a half the length of the gun; whether its elasticity alone 
in so short a space will suffice without other aid is, perhaps, doubtful; but 


ADDRESS. XCIX 


other aid may be applied, and the experiment, whether successful or not, 
will be interesting. 

Docks and harbours I have no time to mention; for it is time this long and, 
I fear, tedious address should close. 

« Whence and whither,” is an aphorism which leads us away from present 
and plainer objects to those which are more distant and obscure ; whether 
we look backwards or forwards, our vision is speedily arrested by an impene- 
trable veil. 

On the subjects I have chosen you will probably think I have travelled 
backwards far enough. I have dealt to some extent with the present. 

The retrospect, however, may be useful to show what great works were 
done in former ages. 

Some things have been better done than in those earlier times, but not all. 

In what we choose to call the ideal we do not surpass the ancients. Poets 
and painters and sculptors were as great in former times as now; 80, pro- 
bably, were the mathematicians. 

In what depends on the accumulation of experience, we ought to excel 
our forerunners. Engineering depends largely on experience; nevertheless, 
in future times, whenever difficulties shall arise or works have to be accom- 
plished for which there is no precedent, he who has to perform the duty 
may step forth from any of the walks of life, as engineers have not unfre- 
quently hitherto done. 

The marvellous progress of the last two generations should make every one 
cautious of predicting the future. Of engineering works, however, it may 
be said that their practicability or impracticability is often determined by 
other elements than the inherent difficulty in the works themselves. 
Greater works than any yet achieved remain to be accomplished—not, 
perhaps, yet awhile. Society may not yet require them; the world could 
not at present afford to pay for them. 

The progress of engineering works, if we consider it, and the expenditure 
upon them, has already in our time been prodigious. One hundred and sixty 
thousand miles of railway alone, put into figures at £20,000 a mile, amounts 
to 3200 million pounds sterling ; add 400,000 miles of telegraph at £100 a 
mile, and 100 millions more for sea canals, docks, harbours, water and sani- 
tary works constructed in the same period, and we get the enormous sum of 
3340 millions sterling expended in one generation and a half on what may 
undoubtedly be called useful works. 

The wealth of nations may be impaired by expenditure on luxuries and 
war; it cannot be diminished by expenditure on works like these. 

As to the future, we know we cannot create a force; we can, and no 
doubt shall, greatly improve the application of those with which we are ac- 
quainted. What are called inventions can do no more than this; yet how 
much eyery day is being done by new machines and instruments. 


c REPORT—1875. 


The telescope extended our vision to distant worlds, The spectroscope has 
far outstripped that instrument, by extending our powers of analysis to re- 
gions as remote. 

Postal deliveries were and are great and able organizations; but what are 
they to the telegraph? 

Need we try to extend our vision into futurity further? Our present 
knowledge, compared to what is unknown even in physics, is infinitesimal. 
We may never discover a new force—yet, who can tell? 


APPENDIX. 


RAILWAY ACCIDENTS.—Great Britain and Ireland. 


Proportion of Average journey| Number of accidents to | Number of miles Proportion of Proportion of pas-| Proportion of Proportion of 

_ mileage | Number of | of passengers | passengers from causes travelled b passengers killed | sengers injured or} passengers killed _| passengers injured 
or year to accidents to | of all classes, beyond their control. | passengers of all | from causes beyond | killed from causes |from causes beyond| or killed from 
Year. | total length of | “nassenger exclusive of classes, including | their control to | beyond their con-| their control causes beyond 
single line of trains, eriodical periodical passenger miles trol to passenger to passenger their control to 

bid ame ticket-holders. | Killed. |Injured.} Total. | ticket-holders. travelled. miles travelled. journeys. passenger journeys. 

Me sn Eth III. Iv. IVs VI. Vil. VIII. IX. x. XI. XII. 
(a) Sete tuiles. ee No. No. | (6) miles. (ec) miles. (d) miles. (e) No. (f) No. 
1846. pacete 51 18°80 5 146 | 151 894,573,000 | 1 in 178,915,000 |1 in 5,924,000}1 in 9,514,000} 1 in 315,000 
1849. ares 33 18:21 5 84 89 | 1,162,806,000 | 1 in 232,561,000 | 1 in 13,065,000 | 1 in 12,768,000 | 1 in 717,000 
1852. aesas 60 16:19 10 372 | 382 | 1,473,255,000 | 1 in 147,326,000 |1 in 3,857,000|1 in 8,910,000] 1 in 241,000 
1855. 5134 75 15°34 10 311 | 321 | 1,864,175,000 | 1 in 186,418,000 |1in 5,807,000 | 1 in 12,316,000} 1 in 384,000 
1858. 5418 48 14-54 25 419 | 444 | 2,084,353,000 | 1 in 83,374,000 |1 in 4,694,000 |1in 5,809,000} 1 in 327,000 
1861. 5921 55 14:21 46 780 } 826 | 2,547,653,000 | 1 in 55,384,000 |1 in 3,084,000|1in 38,947,000] 1 in 220,000 
1864. 6395 75 12:47 14 697 | 711 | 2,966,592,000 | 1 in 211,899,000 |1 in 4,172,000 | 1 in 17,141,000} 1 in 338,000 
1867. 6724 94 11-56 19 689 | 708 | 3,478,262,000 | 1 in 183,066,000 |1 in 4,913,000 | 1 in 15,947,000 | 1 in 428,000 
1870. 7253 123 10°74 65 | 1084 | 1149 | 3,801,734,000 | 1 in 58,488,000 |1in 3,309,000/}1in 5,465,000} 1 in 309,000 
1873. 7894 serous 10°53 38 | 1504 | 1542 | 5,060,329,000 | 1 in 133,167,000 | 1 in 3,282,000 | 1 in 12,683,000 | 1 in 813,000 
Average} 1852-61 | (inclusive) aeeaen 20 425 | 445 | 2,018,485,000 | 1 in 100,924,000 |1 in 4,536,000 |1 in 6,850,000} 1 in 308,000 
Average| 1864-73 | (inclusive) Betuse 26 920 | 946 | 3,826,729,000 | 1 in 147,182,000 |1 in 4,045,000 | 1 in 13,165,000} 1 in 862,000 
> ae figures in this column are obtained by dividing the total train mileage by the aggregate length of single line of way, excluding sidings, and not by the actual length 
of the railway. 


(5) The passenger mileage has been calculated, as it is not given in the Board of Trade returns, 


under this head has been made. 
(c) The figures in column No. IX. are obtained by dividing those in column VIII. by those in column V. 
(d) The figures in column X. are obtained by dividing those in column VIII. by those in column VII. 


(e) The figures in column XI. are obtained b 
the figures in column V. 
e figures in column X 
-B.—The passenger mileage includes the miles estimated to have been trave 


holders) b: 
(f) Th 


mile for each class of passenger, and dividing the receipts from the season-ticket holders by the average fare. 


II. are obtained by dividing the total number of passengers carried in each year by the figures in column VII. 
Tea by season-ticket holders. This estimate was obtained by calculating an average fare per 


except partially between 1852 and 1859 (inclusive), and since 1859 no return 


y dividing the total number of passengers carried in each year (including a calculated number of journeys made by sesson-ticket 


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LIST OF PLATES, 


PLATES L., IL, 
Illustrative of a Report on the present State of our Knowledge of the Crustacea, 


PLATE III. 
Illustrative of the Report of the Rainfall Committee. 


PLATE IY. 
Illustrative of a Paper on Tides in the River Mersey, by J. N. Shoolbred, C.E, 


PLATES V., VI. 
Illustrative of the Third Report on the Exploration of the Settle Caves. 


PLATE VII. 
Illustrative of a Paper on the River Avon (Bristol), by Thomas Howard. 


PLATE VIII. 
Illustrative of a Paper on the Analytical Forms called Trees, by Professor 
Cayley. 
PLATES IX., X., XI., XII. 
Illustrative of the Address of W. Froude, Esq., to the Mechanical Section. 


PLATE XIII. 


Illustrative of Papers on the Speed &e. of Ships by Messrs, W. Denny, J. 
I. Thornycroft, and J. Woolley. 


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REPORTS 


ON 


THE STATE OF SCIENCE. 


Eleventh Report of the Committee for Exploring Kent’s Cavera, Devon- 
shire—the Committee consisting of Sir Joun Lussock, Bart., F.R.S., 
Joun Evans, F.R.S., Epwarp Vivian, M.A., Guorcr Busx, 
F.R.S., Witutam Boyp Dawsrys, F.R.S., Winttam AysHrorp 
Sanrorp, F.G.S., Joan Epwarp Lex, F.G.S., and Wititam Pen- 
GELLY, F.R.S. (Reporter). 


Tue Committee have again the melancholy duty of reporting that death has 
deprived them of one of their members. As long ago as 1859, as soon as he 
became aware of the importance of the discoveries made in the Windmill- 
Hill Cavern at Brixham, Sir Charles Lyell expressed a strong desire that 
Kent’s Cavern should also be systematically and thoroughly explored; and 
it was with his full concurrence that the proposal to do so was laid before 
the Committee of the Geological Section of the British Association at Bath 
in 1864, the day after he delivered his Presidential Address ; whilst his 
ardent advocacy, together with that of the late Professor Phillips, secured its 
ready acceptance by the Committee of Recommendations and the General 
Committee. At the first meeting of the Cavern Committee, appointed in the 
year just mentioned, he was unanimously elected Chairman, and he con- 
tinued to occupy that post until his lamented decease on 27th February, 
1875. Though the state of his health prevented him from taking any active 
part in the exploration, his interest in the work never abated; he always 
carefully studied the Monthly Reports of Progress sent him by the Super- 
intendents, and he made careful arrangements for their preservation. 

The Tenth Report, read to the Geological Section of the Association at the 
Belfast Meeting, and printed in the annual volume for last year, brought up 
the work to the end of July 1874. The exploration has been carried on 
without interruption from that date to the present time, the mode of 
excavation adopted at the beginning has been uniformly followed, the 
Superintendents have visited the Cavern daily, the progress of the work 
has been carefully recorded in the Cavern diary, the workmen have, as 
heretofore, given complete satisfaction, and Monthly Reports have been 

B 


1875, 


2 REPORT—1875. 


regularly sent to Sir Charles Lyell until his decease, and subsequently to 
Mr. John Evans. 

The Committee have the satisfaction of stating that they still retain the 
services of George Smerdon, foreman of the work, who has been engaged on 
it from the beginning. As John Clinnick, the second workman, believing 
the employment prejudicial to his health, has sought more congenial labour, 
they have engaged Nicholas Luscombe in his stead, and hope that he may 
prove an equally satisfactory workman. 

The Cavern continues to be much visited by persons desirous of studying 
on the spot its characters and phenomena; and during the last twelve 
months the Superintendents have had the pleasure of taking the following 
gentlemen through those branches which have been explored, and of 
explaining to them the mode of operation :—Sir C. Wheatstone, General D. 
Lysons, Colonel Brine, Major J. Virtue (Madras), the Revs. Dr. Stebbing, 
J. L. Ball, W. E. Buckley, G. Henslow, J. Parker, T. R. R. Stebbing, 
T. Talbot, J. H. Tooke, and R. H. J. Turrell, Dr. T. Oldham (Calcutta), Dr. 
FE. B. Tylor, and Messrs, E. W. Alexander (New Zealand), W. F. Alexander, 
A. R. Baker, J. R. Baker, H. 8. Ball, W. Beer, C. A. Bleckly, H. F. Bleckly, 
Gellings Blow, A. Brine, N. Brown, M. de Bunsen, W. Carruthers, Moncure 
D. Conway, J. D. Crossfield, P. L. Davidson, W. J. Dobie, F. Elder, E. C. 
Elliott, W. Francis, G. 8. Gibson, J. Giles, H. Gurney, T. Gurney, T. Har- 
rison, T. N. Hart-Smith, E. 8. Hastings, F. J. Hext, C. Holdsworth, J. Holds- 
worth, J. A. Holdsworth, J. H. Holdsworth, J. S. Holdsworth, R. Holds- 
worth, A. R. Hunt, T. Hunton, H. J. J. Lavis, J. Norman Lockyer, D.C. W. 
Lysons, J. I. Mackenzie, D. Pidgeon, A. D. Powell, H. Reuter, A. Richard-. 
son, A. F. Robinson, H. Segar, J. Sollas, E. B. Stott, J.S. Stott, F. R. Thom— 
son, J. R. Terry, H. Tozer, J. H. Tuke, 8. Tuke, W. 8. Tuke, W. A. E. 
Ussher, C. Staniland Wake, E. G. Wake, J. C. Wheat, J. N. White, B. H. 
Williams, F. Williams, F. R. Wolfe, B. B. Woodward, H. B. Woodward, and 
F. L. Woodward. 

Numerous visitors have also been conducted by the “ Guide,” who, though 
under the control of the Committee, is not permitted to take parties to those 
branches of the Cavern in which the exploration is in progress or has not 
been begun. 

As in former years, rats have frequently been seen running about in 
various parts of the Cavern, including those in which the men have been at 
work, though hundreds of feet from any glimmering of daylight ; and they 
have displayed their usual boldness as well as their skill in carrying off 
candles. In other branches, almost as far from the entrances, where all 
researches have ceased for some years, their footprints are to be seen in very 
great numbers, especially on, the silt left, here and there, where the drip is 
copious in wet weather. It is difficult to understand what draws them 
thither, unless it be the small amount of tallow which drops from the candles 
of visitors. 

On 29th January, 1875, a ‘* buzzing fly” was heard by one of the Super- 
intendents in ‘‘ The Cave of Inscriptions,” about 300 feet from daylight, and 
was subsequently seen by the workmen in the same Cave. 


Clinnick’s Gallery.—The Tenth Report (1874) stated that the Committee 
had discovered that the “ Long Arcade,” about 225 feet from its entrance, 
threw off a narrow branch, which had been named “ Clinnick’s Gallery ” 
after the workman who first entered it—that its exploration was in progress 
and had been completed for about 34 feet—that below the least ancient, or 


ON KEN1’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 3 


the “ Granular, Stalagmitic Floor,” for a distance of 18 feet from the entrance, 
a small quantity of “ Cave-earth” uniformly presented itself, beneath which 
lay the “ Breccia,’ occasionally separated from it by remnants of the more 
ancient, or the “ Crystalline, Stalagmitic Floor” in situ—but that from the 
point just named, up to that reached when the Tenth Report was drawn, 
there was no Cave-earth; so that the two Stalagmites lay the one imme- 
diately on the other, with the Breccia (that is, as far as is known), the 
oldest of the Cavern deposits, beneath the whole. 

At the commencement of the exploration of this Gallery, the deposits so 
very nearly reached the roof as to induce the belief that a very few fect at 
most was all that the workmen had before them. In short, no one suspected 
the existence of this branch of the Cavern. As the work advanced, how- 
ever, the unoccupied interspace between the roof and floor became gradually 
larger, until on the 6th of August, 1875, John Clinnick, the workman 
already mentioned, forced himself through, and, after proceeding about 
50 feet, as he estimated, entered a large chamber, of which he brought back 
such a glowing description as to induce one of the Superintendents to follow 
him, when he found the workman’s description by no means too highly 
coloured. The Chamber, probably one of the largest in the Cavern, is beau- 
tifully hung with stalactites, and has numerous stalagmitic “ paps,” some of 
them four feet high and of almost cylindrical form, rising from a floor of 
the same material. 

The work in Clinnick’s Gallery was very difficult, as the two stalagmites 
were not only extremely hard and tough, but had an aggregate thickness 
amounting frequently to fully four feet; and the very contracted height 
and breadth of the Gallery prevented the men from working to the best 
advantage. 

The state of the Floor was a puzzling study. The older, or lower, or 
Crystalline-Stalagmite was broken in places near the left wall along a line 
parallel with it, and the fragments, occasionally considerable sheets, were 
raised some inches above their original level at their margin most remote 
from the wall and depressed at that nearest to it, whilst every thing remained 
intact at and adjacent to the opposite wall of the narrow Gallery. The dis- 
turbance occurred obviously before the commencement of the formation of 
the upper or Granular Stalagmite ; for not only was this less ancient floor 
undisturbed, but the fragmentary and tilted sheets of the older floor just 
mentioned passed in some instances obliquely through it, rising above its 
upper surface on one side and projecting below its base on the other. 
Adjacent to the left wall, at a point where the Floor was unbroken, a pap 
(which had evidently lost its top) reached the height of 16 inches and was 
still standing erect. Though varying somewhat in diameter, it may be said 
to be cylindrical in form, and at the top it measured 10 inches in cireum- 
ference. Almost in contact with it, but lying horizontally at its base, and 
completely enveloped in the Granular Stalagmite, was a fragment of, no 
doubt, the same pap, 10 inches long; whilst on the opposite side of the 
standing portion was a third fragment, 5 inches long, terminating in a cone, 
and firmly held to the spot by stalagmitic matter. There can be no doubt 
that the three pieces are portions of one and the same pap, of which the 
shorter piece was the conical apex, the unbroken column having been at least 
31 inches long. Phenomena such as these are calculated to induce specu- 

lations respecting the causes which produced them and the time they repre- 

sent. In the case just mentioned, we have, first, the deposition of the 

Breccia, or oldest of the Cavern-deposits, so far as is certainly known; this 
B2 


4. REPORT—1875. 


was followed by the formation of the Crystalline Stalagmite as a continuous 
sheet of somewhat variable thickness, which sometimes reached fully 3 feet 
in this Gallery; next came that very slow drip and precipitation of car- 
bonate of lime which alone seems compatible with the formation of paps, 
and this continued until the pap just described had reached a height ex- 
ceeding 30 inches anda girth of 10; this was succeeded by some cause of 
disturbance, which broke the thick floor of Crystalline Stalagmite, depressed, 
as if by subsidence, the deposit adjacent to one wall, but left every thing 
intact on the opposite side of the narrow passage, broke the pap into three 
pieces, leaving the lowest of them still erect, causing the middle segment to 
fall at its foot on the outside, and that which formed the apex on the inside ; 
finally, this was followed by another sheet-like floor of Stalagmite, of less 
thickness than the former, granular in texture, and capable of preventing 
the results of the disturbance from being themselves disturbed. A faint 
earthquake-tremor would, no doubt, suffice to break some of the long com- 
paratively slender paps ; for some of those which have been found detached 
have been known to resolve themselves into fragments, even at a touch, the 
planes of division being at right angles to the longest axis, whilst others of 
even less thickness will stand a considerable blow. Most of those standing 
intact emit a musical note when gently struck ; and the notes are such as to 
show that the rates of vibration, and hence probably the molecular arrange- 
ment, must differ considerably even in masses differing but little in di- 
mensions. 

Clinnick’s Gallery on being excavated was found to be a somewhat tortuous 
passage, varying from 4 to 8 feet in width, and from 7 to 10 feet in height *. 
That it was once a watercourse there can be little or no doubt, as the roof 
bears the marks of the long-continued action of a running stream. The 
walls vary considerably —being in some places smooth, in others much fretted 
or corroded, and in others more or less angular. 

The objects of interest found in this branch of the Cavern during the 
last twelve months have been by no means numerous; nevertheless they 
are not without interest, as a few of them throw a new light on the pale- 
ontology of the Cavern. ; 

Attached to the upper surface of the Granular Stalagmitic Floor, the least 
ancient of the two deposits of that material, portions of three land-shells 
(No. 6477) were found, 23rd October, 1874; and on the 31st of the same 
month about 20 bones of Mammals (No. 6481) were met with, lying toge- 
ther loose on the Floor, beneath a few small fragments of Stalagmite. Their 
characters are such as to imply a recent introduction into the Cavern. 

Incorporated in the Granular Stalagmite itself were a few bones, including 
a humerus (No. 6475), a tibia and ulna (No. 6476), all nearly entire, and 
a portion of a large humerus (No. 6491), each of which had been gnawed. 

Though no Cave-earth was met with beyond the point already specified, 
there seems no doubt that to the era of that deposit may be referred a con- 
siderable portion of a radius (No. 6484) and of an ulna (No. 6489), both 
gnawed and found under loose pieces of stalagmite. 

The Breccia in this Gallery was not much more productive. The total 
remains of animals it has yielded since the last Report was presented are 
4 teeth of Bear, a few bones and fragments of bone, and 3 teeth of Lion in 
three portions of, no doubt, one and the same lower jaw. The latter “ find” 
(No. 6482) is of considerable interest, as being the first known instance of 


* All heights mentioned in this Report have been measured from the bottom of the 
excavations mace by the Committee, 


ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 5 


remains of any animal besides Bear met with in the Breccia. It was found 
with three bits of bone on the 2nd November, 1874, in the third foot-level ; and 
vertically beneath it, in the next foot-level, were 1 tooth of Bear, a fragment 
of bone, and a flint chip (No. 6483). Though the Superintendents had no 
doubt of the feline character of the teeth, they forwarded one of them (that 
least surrounded with Breccia) to Mr. George Busk, F.R.S. &c., amember of 
the Committee, on 30th November, 1874, remarking that they believed it to 
be the last lower left molar of Felis spclwa, and requesting his opinion on it. 
In his reply, dated ‘‘ 32 Harley Street, December 8, 1874,” he remarks :— 
“There is no doubt that the tooth is the left lower carnassial of Felis leo, 
but it is of very unusual size, being, I should estimate, =, bigger than the 
average dimensions of that tooth in the Lion. It is usually longer, but not 
so thick, in the Tiger than in the Lion; but the thickness of the present one 
is proportionate to its length, viz. 1-20 x°65 inch. Another peculiarity, as 
it seems to me, is the great wear that the tooth has undergone. I fancy 
existing Lions are not allowed to live long enough to wear their teeth so 
‘much. At any rate, the Kent’s Hole tooth appears to be more worn than 
any other I have as yet met with. Can it belong to Machairodus? 


(Signed) “‘GrorcE Busx.” 


Having succeeded in removing some part of the matrix incrusting the 
other portions of the jaw, they were also forwarded to Mr. Busk, with the 
observation that the Superintendents had carefully considered the question 
before submitting the first tooth, and had come to the conclusion that the 
jaw was not that of Machairodus ; for, waiving the fact that none of the 
tecth were serrated, the fang of the canine still remaining in the jaw was 
much too large for a lower canine of any known species of Machairodus; and 
it was suggested that it might be worth considering whether the specimen 
belonged to any of the species of Felis found in the Forest-bed of Cromer. 
Mr. Busk says in his reply, dated August 11, 1875:—*‘* The jaw does not 
appear to present any thing unusual. It is, however, a good example to 
show that the Caye-Lion lived to a good old age. 


(Signed) “ GrorcE Busx.” 


Clinnick’s Gallery also yielded 7 specimens of flint and chert belonging to 
the Breccia (Nos. 6466, 6467a, 6470, 6474, 6478, 6483, and 6485), of “ 
which the first and fourth alone require further notice. 

No. 6466 is an irregular tongue-shaped tool, of gamboge-colour exter- 
nally, about 3 inches long, 1°7 inch in greatest breadth, and -7 inch in 
greatest thickness. It has been reduced to an edge all round the circum- 
ference except at the but-end, is slightly concave on the inner face, on 
which the “ bulb of percussion ” is well developed near the but-end, and very 
convex on the outer face, whence several flakes and chips have been dis- 
lodged. It was broken into three pieces by the workmen in extracting it, 
and was found, without any other object of interest near it, on 8th August, 
1874, in the third foot-level of Breccia, over which the two Stalagmitic 
Floors, without any Cave-earth between them, had an aggregate thickness of 
48 inches. 

No. 6474, a flint pebble, pretty well rolled, and 2-1 inches long, was 
found alone, in the second foot-level of Breccia, on 24th September, 1874. 

The comparative paucity of specimens in Clinnick’s Gallery induced the 
Superintendents, cn Ist December, 1874, to suspend operations in that 
direction for at least a time. The labour of seven months had been ex- 


6 REPORT—1875. 


pended on it, during which the exploration had reached 75 feet from the 
entrance, where the Great Chamber discovered by John Clinnick may be said 
to begin. 

The following is a list of the objects of interest found in Clinnick’s Gallery 
from first to last :— 

Lying on the surface, and apparently recent: 3 shells of Heliw and about 
20 bones of Mammals. 

Incorporated in the Granular Stalagmite: a few gnawed bones. 

In the Cave-earth: 8 teeth of Hyzena, 2 of Fox, a tolerable number of 
bones and fragments of bone, 1 large Chert implement (No. 6401), and 1 
small flint flake (No. 6426). 

In the Breccia: 90 teeth of Bear, 3 of Lion in portions of a-left lower jaw 
(No. 6482), numerous bones and portions of bone, including a large part of 
a skull, a flint pebble, and 11 specimens of flint and chert implements, flakes, 
and chips, including the very fine tool No. -7,+-. 

The Cave of Inscriptions—The chamber in which “ The Long Arcade” ~ 
terminates was called by Mr. MacKEnery “ The Cave of Inscriptions,” on 
account of the number of names, initials, and dates graved on the Stalagmite 
in various parts of it. Besides those on the ‘“‘ The Inscribed Boss of Stalag- 
mite,” at the entrance of the ‘“ Cave,” described in the Tenth Report (1874), 
inscriptions occur on what is known as “The Hedges Boss ” and on the walls 
of the Chamber. There are also numerous names &c. smoked on various 
parts of the Roof, as there are, indeed, in almost every branch of the Cavern, 
some of which appear to be of considerable antiquity. 

The left wall, about 35 feet from the entrance, is covered with Stalagmitic 
matter, having usually a rough surface, and to which there does not seem to 
have been recently any addition. On this surface the following inscriptions 
have been noticed :— 


Wily ae aoe 2. W 3, AE 
1609 1792 


4, 1769 


No. 1 is in large badly cut characters. 

No. 2 is in characters about 3 inches high, well ent, bold, and very legible. 
The letters are, of course, an economical form of NW. 

No. 3 is badly cut, and immediately under No, 2. 

No. 4is in small characters. 

There are several other inscriptions, but not sufficiently legible to be 
copied with certainty. 

At the south-western corner of the Chamber the following inscriptions 
occur on the wall :— ; 


1. MR. 2 Ge Br Sh lay Gaal Ps PS 
BY lly Li 64 1731 
6. William Mather ; tf IM 
Teignmouth PALE. DA Bot 
IOhN MARTY 
& ee 9. 1653 10. Downall. 


No. 1 is badly cut. 
No. 4 is within a square 5°5 inches in the side and looped at each angle. 


* The numerals prefixed to the inscriptions do not belong to the originals, 


ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. ra 


Nos. 6 and 10 are in ordinary written characters. 

No. 7 is within arectilineal figure which has not been completed, or has 
been obliterated, towards the right. There has been a considerable recent 
accretion of stalagmite, which has probably obliterated a portion of the 
enclosing figure and some of the letters there; thus MARTY has perhaps 
lost a terminal N. 

Not far from the centre of the Chamber a considerable boss of stalagmite 
rises from the floor of the same material, having on its sides several badly 
scratched letters, and the following very well cut inscription in characters 
about an inch high :— 
ROBERT HEDGES 

OF ITRELAND 

FEB, 20. 1688. 


On account of the attention which this inscription has attracted and the 
name in it, the mass of Stalagmite has been named ‘“‘ The Hedges Boss.” 
It can scarcely be necessary to say that the Committee have left it so far 
intact as they found it. The earlier explorers had broken the Stalagmitic 
Floor all around it, and they, or probably some earlier visitors, seem to have 
contemplated its removal or destruction ; for its apex is broken off, and a hole 
7 inches deep has been bored into it, no doubt with the intention of blasting 

-it. In basal circumference it measures about 30 feet; its present mutilated 
top is about 4 feet high, and the Floor of Granular Stalagmite from which 
it rises is about afoot thick. Itis not possible to believe that Mr. MacEnery 
countenanced the attempt to destroy the Boss, as he attached much import- 
ance to the inscription on it, mentioning it at least four times in his ‘ Cavern 
Researches.’ The effort may, no doubt, be ascribed to an earlier period, 
when it is stated by a writer in the ‘Monthly Magazine’ for June 1805, 
twenty years prior to Mr. MacEnery’s first visit, when the Cavern was open 
to all comers without let or hindrance, that ‘“ attempts have been made to 
work the stones and spars [in Kent’s Hole], but they do not prove orna- 
mental” *, 

It is not a little strange that though the name “ Robert Hedges” is per- 
fectly legible, Mr. MacEnery not only never so renders it, but actually gives 
it in three distinct forms; twice he speaks of it as ‘“‘ Robert Hodges” +, 
once as John Hodgson +, and once as “J. Hodges”§. Nevertheless, his 
description of it is of great value. “The letters,” he says, “ are glazed 
over and partly effaced”’||. Again, ‘ The letters in the inscription are over- 
laid”’§]. In short, the terms he applied to it are still perfectly apposite, and 
justify the belief that the inscription is as old as it professes to be. The drip 
on it at present is somewhat plentiful in wet weather, and there is no doubt 
that calcareous matter is still in course of deposition. Of all the cha- 
racters, the terminal 8 in the date is probably most in danger of obliteration. 

It was stated in the Tenth Report (1874) that the exploration of the Cave 
of Inscriptions had been completed up to 16 feet from its entrance, when, the 
mouth of Clinnick’s Gallery being completely exposed, the investigation of 
the deposits in the latter branch of the Cavern was undertaken. This, as 
already mentioned, was carried on until December Ist, 1874, when the work 
in the Cave of Inscriptions was resumed. 

In that portion of this Cave explored in 1874, the Committee found that there 


* Monthly Magazine, London, vol. xix. p. 435. 
t See ‘Trans. Devon. Assoc.’ vol. iti. (1869) pp. 275 and 459. { Ibid. p. 314, 
§ Ibid. p. 459. || Ibid. p. 275. | Thid. p. 459. 


8 REPORT—1875. 


were no traces of the presence of their predecessors ; that the Granular, or less 
ancient, Stalagmitic Floor was everywhere intact and continuous, and the Crys- 
talline, or more ancient, Stalagmite lay beneath it; that the latter had been 
broken by some natural agency, and though in some cases the severed portions 
remained zn situ, in others they had been removed and were not always 
traceable; and that adjacent to the left wall of the Cave a wedge-like layer of 
Cayve-earth Jay in its proper place between the Stalagmites, and was 6 inches 
thick at the wall, but thinned out at about a yard from it, beyond which the 
one Floor lay immediately on the other. This continued to be the case to a 
large extent for the next 18 feet (that is, up to 34 feet from the entrance), the 
only exception being that the broken blocks of Crystalline Stalagmite were 
never dislodged beyond being occasionally ‘“ faulted” to the extent of 2 or 
3 inches. At and beyond 34 feet from the entrance, traces of the earlier 
explorers were again met with in almost every part of the Cave, but 
were found to be limited to the breaking up of the Stalagmites and of the 
subjacent deposit to the depth of 12inches at most. A thin layer of typical 
Cave-earth extended throughout the entire Chamber ; and it was obvious that 
at the time when its deposition commenced the Crystalline Stalagmite did 
not exist as a continuous sheet, for in considerable spaces the Cave-earth 
lay immediately on the Breccia without any Stalagmite between them. 
Though it was not always easy in these cases to determine the exact junction 
of the two deposits, there was no doubt that the upper surface of the Breccia 
was very uneven when the Cave-earth began to be lodged on it. On the 
discovery of objects of interest at or near this doubtful junction, care was 
taken to record them as belonging to the “ Cave-earth and Breccia,” even 
though, from their own characters, it was usually easy to refer them to their 
proper deposits and eras respectively. Large blocks of limestone, some of 
them requiring to be blasted, were numerous in this Cave, both in the Stalag- 
mites and below them. 

On its excavation being completed, the Cave of Inscriptions was found to 
extend upwards of 60 feet from north-east to south-west, 45 feet from south- 
east to north-west, and to be upwards of 20 feet high. In the right wall, 
immediately before reaching the Hedges Boss, there is a recess to which the 
name of ‘The Alcove ” has been given ; another, in the north-western corner, 
probably leads to an external entrance to the Cavern: in the south-west 
corner is the mouth of tie long tunnel known as the “Great Oven;” and 
adjacent to it isa Gully about 3 feet wide at the entrance, and extending 
to an unknown distance but too narrow for exploration beyond a length of 
7 feet. 

Two “ finds” only were met with in the Granular Stalagmitic Floor: one 
(No. 6491) consisted of a few ‘bones, including a portion of a large humerus ; 
the other (No. 6495) was a very small bone, probably of Bat, with bits of 
charcoal and of coprolite, all lodged in the same hand specimen of Stalagmite, 
and found 3rd December, 1875. 

The Cave-earth yielded 4 teeth of Hyzna, a few gnawed bones, coprolites 
on several occasions, and 1 flint flake (No. 6520). 

At and near the junction of the Cave-earth and Breccia, where they were 
not separated by Stalagmite, 2 right lower jaws and 4 loose teeth of Hyzna, 
38 teeth of Bear, part of a jaw of Fox, 1 incisor tooth of a small rodent, 
numerous bones and fragments of bone, a somewhat large number of copro- 
lites, and 1 flint flake were met with. At least, most of the ursine remains 
may be safely referred to the Breccia, whilst all those of the Hyena un- 
doubtedly belong to the Cave-earth. One of the Hyzena-jaws just mentioned 


ON KEN'’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 9 


(No. 6570) contains all its teeth except the inner incisor; but, as is com- 
monly the case with lower jaws of the era of the Cave-earth, it has lost its 
lower border and condyles, and is much gnawed. It was found 14th May, 
1875, with 1 loose canine ‘tooth of the same species, 4 teeth of Bear, and a 
few fragments of bone. The other jaw of Hyena (No. 6577) has lost the 
tivo inner incisor teeth and the condyles, and is slightly gnawed, but is 
otherwise entire. It was found on 24th of the same month, with 1 loose 
tooth of Hyena, 1 of Bear, and a fragment of bone. The flint flake (No. 
6582), found Ist June, 1875, probably ‘belonged to the Breccia, but was of 
but little importance. 

There were found in the Breccia 82 teeth of Bear, some of them in jaws 
or parts of jaws ; 2 of Lion, in a portion of right upper jaw ; numerous bones 
and pieces of bone, including part of a skull and several other good specimens ; 
and 13 implements, flakes, and aluns of flint and chert (Nos. 6525, 6532, 
6540, 6547, 6550, 6552, "6561, » eso oesz, 6565, 6573, 6581, and 6590). 
The Lion’s teeth (No. 6518) are the last two molars. The sockets of the 
canine tooth and of the small tooth immediately behind it still exist, and 
every thing betokens an animal of great size. The specimen, to which a 
considerable quantity of the Breccia adheres, is peculiarly interesting as being 
found in a deposit in which careful methodical research, continued for years, 
had failed to detect any other osseous remains than those of Bear, with but one 
exception—that, as already stated, being also the lower jaw of a Lion, 
found less than two months before. This interesting relic was met with on 
31st December, 1874, with 2 teeth of Bear, bones and fragments of bone, in 
the second foot-level of Breccia. No feline remains have been detected 
since that date. 

A few only of the Flint and Chert specimens require detailed description. 

No. 6550 ,is an implement made out of a well-rolled chert nodule. It is 
somewhat semilunar in form, but broader at one end than the other, and 
measures about 4:4 inches in length, 2°3 inches in greatest width, and 
2-5 inches in greatest thickness, which it attains near the broader or but-end. 
It has undergone a considerable amount of chipping, has been reduced to an 
irregular edge along the greater part of its perimeter, and is comparatively 
thin at the more pointed end. It is very, but unequally, convex on both 
faces, each of which has a central ridge, and retains the original surface of the 
nodule over the whole of the but-end, whence a trace of it extends along the 
central ridge of the less convex face to about an inch from the point. The 
portion of the surface which has been chipped is of a yellowish hue, derived, 
no doubt, from the matrix in which the specimen lay. This, however, is 
but a superficial stain, as there are indications of an almost white colour 
within. This fine implement was found 15th February, 1875, between the 
Hedges Boss and the left wall of the Cave, 36 feet from its entrance, in 
the second foot-level below the surface (that is, in the uppermost foot-level 
of the Breccia), having no other object of interest near it. 

No. 6565 is a chert implement 3-7 inches long, 2-7 
breadth, and 1-7 inch in greatest thickness, which it et not far from 
its centre. It has unfortunately lost one of its extremities, apparently 
broken off whilst the tool was being made. It is very, perhaps equally, 
convex on each face, but the centres of convexity are not opposite one 
another; and though obviously made from a nodule, not a flake, no part of 
the original surface remains. A considerable amount of work has been 
expended on it, and it has been reduced to an edge all round the perimeter 
except at the broken end. The marginal edge is neither keen, nor regular, 


inches in greatest “>.” 


10 REPORT—1875. 


nor in the same continuous plane. There can be little doubt that it was 
intended to be a somewhat pointed ovoid tool, and that had it been perfected it 
would have been more symmetrical in form than the Breccia tools are usually. 
Its colour is whiter than that of most of the implements found in the same 
deposit, in which respect, as well as in its shape and the absence of any trace 
of the original surface, it closcly resembles the implement No. 6103, found 
in the “Long Arcade,” 7th May, 1873, and described in the Ninth Report 
(1873). This specimen was met with on 13th April, 1875, in the second 
foot-level of the Breccia, without any other object of interest near it, 47 feet 
from the entrance of the Cave of Inscriptions. 

No. 6581 is a flint flake, struck from a rolled nodule, round at one end, 
abruptly truncated at the other, and reduced to an edge along both lateral 
margins. It is 2:2 inches in greatest length, 1°6 inch in greatest width, and 
‘6 inch in greatest thickness. The inner surface is very irregular; the outer 
has three longitudinal facets; the lateral margins are somewhat sharp but 
slightly jagged as if from use ; both ends are blunt, and the ‘‘ but” retains the 
original surface of the nodule. Its colour is the warm yellow so characteristic 
of most of the specimens found in the Breccia; but there are indications 
that the interior is white. It was met with on 29th May, 1875, in the 
second foot-level of the Breccia, 57 feet from the entrance of the Chamber. 

The Gully in the south-west corner of the Cave of Inscriptions, already 
mentioned, was so narrow as to render it impossible to excavate the deposits 
occupying it in “parallels,” “levels,” or “ yards.” The specimens found 
in it, however, were only 2 teeth of Bear, a few pieces of bone, and a 
coprolite. 

The earlier explorers had, as usual with them, imperfectly examined the 
material they dug up in this branch of the Cavern, and then thrown it on one 
side. On taking it to the daylight the Committee found in it 19 teeth of Bear, 
12 of Fox (of which 10 occupied portions of three lower jaws), 9 of Hyzna 
(two of them being in part of a lower jaw), 2 of Horse, and lof Rhinoceros, and 
a large number of bones (some entire but most of them fragmentary), numerous 
coprolites, a fragment of a marine shell, and 6 flakes and chips of flint. 

The exploration of the Cave of Inscriptions was completed on 14th June, 
1875, having occupied the labour of between 8 and 9 months. 

The following is a list of the specimens found init in undisturbed ground, 
inclusive of those mentioned in the Tenth Report (1874) :—- 

In the Granular, or least ancient, Stalagmitic Floor: 1 bone of Bat (?), a 
few bones, a few patches of coprolite, and a bit of charcoal. 

In the Cave-earth : 27 teeth of Hyzna, several of them in jaws or parts of 
jaws; 11 of Bear; 1 of a small rodent; 1 jaw of Fox; numerous bones and 
fragments of bones, of which 6 had been charred and still more had been 
gnawed ; a large number of “finds” of coprolites; and 7 tools, flakes, and 
chips of flint and chert. 

In the Breccia: 321 teeth of Bear, some of them in jaws and parts of 
jaws ; 2 of Lion, in parts of an upper jaw; and 20 implements and flakes of 
flint and chert. 


The Recess—On completing the exploration of the Cave of Inscriptions, 
operations were at once commenced in the Recess occupying its north- 
western corner, which, as already stated, was expected to lead to a new 
external entrance to the Cavern. The following are the grounds on which 
this expectation was founded :—At the entrances at present known, on the 
eastern face of the Cavern hill, and termed the “Triangular” and the 


ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE, if! 


* Arched” entrances, the Cave-earth, or least ancient of the two great 
mechanical accumulations, is at a high level and of great depth. Thence it 
slopes rapidly downwards in all directions open to it, and at the same time 
decreases in depth, until reaching the remote end of the ‘“ Lecture Hall” 
towards the south and the bottom of the “‘ Sloping Chamber ” towards the 
west. From these facts it has been concluded that the Cave-earth entered 
the Cavern through the existing and known entrances. Beyond the foot of 
the slopes just mentioned, the levels are found to be no longer governed by 
the Cave-earth but by the Breccia (that is, the underlying or more ancient 
deposit) ; and there is in each case an acclivity, instead of a declivity, on pro- 
ceeding further and further into the Cavern—comparatively short and abrupt 
from the Lecture Hall to the Water Gallery on the east, but long and gentle 
from the Sloping Chamber to the Recess, now under notice, on the west. 
These acclivities apparently indicate that the Breccia entered the Cavern 
not, like the Cave-earth, through the apertures on the eastern side of the 
hill, but through an opening or openings on the western side; and the same 
line of argument points out the Recess in the north-western corner of tke 
Cave of Inscriptions as more likely than any other part of the Cavern to 
lead to such an external entrance. So far as they can be studied, moreover, 
its own characters support this hypothesis. The Recess extends in a north- 
westerly direction for fully 60 feet, and is of sufficient width for a man to pass 
easily ; beyond this its extent is considerable, but at present is too narrow 
for any one to examine it. Its Floor, a thick sheet of the Crystalline, or 
more ancient, Stalagmite, is abruptly truncated at the junction of the Recess 
with the Cave of Inscriptions. Finally, this Floor covered and rested on a 
thick mechanical accumulation, which is unmistakable Breccia and reached 
a higher level than elsewhere in the Cavern, so far as is known at present. 

The exploration of the Recess was begun on 15th June, 1875; and as it 
was decided to leave intact the Stalagmite Floor just mentioned, in fact to 
burrow under it, it was necessary to cut the successive “ parallels’? 5 feet 
deep instead of the usual 4, in order to give the men height enough for 
working. During the progress of the work a hole was bored through the 
Floor overhead, when it was found to be pure Stalagmite, 18 inches thick. 
When the excavation had reached a distance of 10 feet, the two walls were 
found to be so very nearly together as to render it necessary to abandon the 
work, or to break up the Floor and proceed at a higher level. The former 
course being, though reluctantly, decided on, the work was suspended on 
6th July, 1875. 

The only objects of interest found here were 2 teeth of Bear, 3 “ finds” of 
bones, and 1 piece of flint (No. 6590) of no importance. 


The Alcove-—The exploration of the Alcove or recess near the Hedges 
Boss, already mentioned, was begun on 7th July, 1875, and finished on 26th 
of the same month, or at the end of about 3 weeks. When emptied, it proved 
to be scarcely lofty enough, from limestone floor to limestone roof, for an 
ordinary man to stand erect, to measure about 10 feet both from north to 
south and from east to west, to be divided into two compartments, a northern 
and a southern, by a limestone partition extending almost completely across 
it, and to have two entrances from the Cave of Inscriptions. The earlier 
explorers had partially ransacked the northern compartment, but had not 
entered the southern, in which a Floor of Stalagmite almost reached the roof. 
Beneath this Floor, and without any trace of Cave-earth, lay the Breccia, 
never exceeding 3 feet in depth, and resting on the limestone floor, 


12 REPORT—1875. 


39 “ finds ” of remains of Mammals were met with in the Alcove, including 
59 tecth of Bear (several of the min portions of jaws), 16 of Fox (all of them 
in portions of three lower jaws), 4 of Hyzna, numerous bones (including 
several good specimens, though all of them were more or less fragmentary), 
and lcoprolite. ‘The teeth of Hyzna, 2 of the jaws of Fox, and the coprolite 
were met with at the junction of the northern compartment and the Cave of 
Inscriptions, amongst fallen masses of limestone, where neither the character 
of the deposits nor the exact position of the specmiens could be determined. 
The remaining jaw of Fox, however (No. 6619), was found in the Breccia ; 
it was broken into two pieces, which lay together and contained 5 teeth. 
‘This specimen, the only known relic of the genus in this old deposit, was 
found at the inner or castern end of the southern compartment, in the 
second foot-level of Breccia, with remains of Bear, 17th July, 1875. It may 
not be out of place to remark that remains of the Common Fox (Canis vulpes) 
have been identified among the Mammalian relics from the Forest-bed under- 
lying the Boulder-clay on the coasts of Norfolk and Suffolk *. 

In proportion to the volume of the deposit it contained, the Alcove was far 
richer in osseous remains than any part of the Cave of Inscriptions, of which 
it is an adjunct. It is worthy of mention, perhaps, that it contained no 
trace of flint or chert. 


The Great Oven.—The passage or tunnel opening out of the south-west 
corner of the Cave of Inscriptions is very long and narrow, and so low that 
a considerable portion of it can only be traversed on all-fours or in a crouching 
posture. It connects the Cave of Inscriptions with the ‘‘ Bear’s Den,” which 
the Committee have not yet explored, and has been termed the ‘* Oven,” 
partly from its very contracted breadth and height, but mainly because a 
vertical section of a considerable part of it at right angles to its length 
closely resembles the small earthenware ovens much used formerly in the 
two south-western counties. It has received the epithet Great to distinguish 
it from a similar but still more contracted tunnel in another part of the 
Cavern, and known as the “ Little Oven.” 

The excavation of the Great Oven was begun 27th July, 1875, and at the- 
end of that month, beyond which this Report does not extend, it had been 
completed to 4 fect from the entrance. Like the Cave of Inscriptions, it 
contains a thin layer of Cave-earth, with Breccia beneath it of unknown 
depth. Two “ finds’ have been met with in the former, containing 1 tooth 
of Hyzna and a few bones; and 9 in the latter, including 6 teeth of Bear 
and several pieces of bone. 


On studying the osseous remains found by the Committee in the Breccia 
in the various branches of the Cavern they have explored during the last 
twelve months, the following prominent facts arrest attention :—Some of the 
teeth of Bear are those of very old animals, and worn almost to the fang, 
such as No. 6597 from the second foot-level, No. 6608 from the second foot- 
level, No. 6611 from the feurth foot-level, and No. 6618 from the second 
foot-level, all found in the southern compartment of the Alcove during July 
1875. The jaws, though frequently broken, have never lost their lower 
borders, a8 is almost uniformly the case with the Cave-earth specimens ; 
and none of the bones appear to have been gnawed. In no instance were 
the bones found lying in their anatomical relations, but different parts of 


pee ‘Cave Hunting.’ By W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A. 1874, 
p. 418. 


ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 13 


the skeleton were often huddled confusedly together; thus in No. 6613, 
found in the second foot-level in the southern compartment of the Alcove, 
15th July, 1875, a canine tooth adheres to one side of the proximal end of a 
tibia, and a piece of jaw to another side. Some of the specimens have 
fretted surfaces, and appear to have been rolled by running water; this is 
notably the case with Nos. 6608 and 6615, found in the second and first foot- 
levels, in the southern compartment of the Alcove, on 12th and 16th July, 
1875, respectively. Many of the bones were broken where they were finally 
lodged, and the parts, with little or no displacement, reunited with Stalag- 
mitic infiltration; as, for example, Nos. 77>; and ;,2;<, found in the first 
foot-level in the branch of the Cavern just named, 17th July, 1875. Others 
appear to have been flattened and more or less crushed where they lay, of 
which there is a striking example in the distal end of a left femur, No. 6530, 
found in the first foot-level in the Uave of Inscriptions, 34 feet from its 
entrance, 12th January, 1875. Occasionally the same rock-like mass of 
Breccia contains bones of very different colours; thus No. 6603 is such a 
mass, containing portions of two bones not half an inch apart, each acci- 
dentally broken across; and whilst one is of a creamy whiteness throughout, 
the other is a very dark brown, approaching to black. It was found in the 
second foot-level in the Alcove, 9th July, 1875. This specimen, by no means 
unique, shows that contemporary bones lying side by side may be of very 
different colours. 


Nor are the remains met with in the Cave-earth void of instruction. Up to 
the present time, wherever the Cave-earth has been met with, there also have 
traces of the Hyzna been found, either in the form of parts of his skeleton, 
or his coprolites, or bones scored with his teeth-marks, or jaws divested of 
their lower borders, or long bones broken after his well-known and recog- 
nizable fashion. But though everywhere present in greater or lesser 
numbers, these traces became less and less plentiful with increased distance 
from the external entrances to the Cavern, and were very “ few and far 
between ” in the Cave of Inscriptions—the Chamber most remote from the 
entrances. Whilst the remains of the Hyena were thus met with wherever 
the Caye-earth occurred, they were in the interior accompanied by those of 
very few of his contemporaries. Thus, whilst the Chambers adjacent to the 
entrances contained tecth and bones of Horse, Rhinoceros, Deer (several 
species), Bear, Fox, Elephant, Ox, Lion, Wolf, and Hare, as well as Hyena 
(the latter being far the most prevalent), there have been found during the 
last twelve months in the Cave-earth remains of the Hyena alone. Nor is 
it without interest to note the branches of the Cavern in which remains of 
the different forms just enumerated were last detected, so far as is at present 
known, on the way to the Cave of Inscriptions. The Hare has not been 
found anywhere in the Western Division of the Cavern—that of which the 
Cave of Inscriptions is the innermost Chamber; the Badger, Wolf, and Ox 
were represented in the “ Charcoal Cave,” but not beyond it; and relics of 
Horse, Rhinoceros, Deer, Bear, Fox, Elephant, and Lion have not appeared 
beyond the Long Arcade. 


Finally, no traces of Machairodus have been met with since the incisor 
tooth found 29th July, 1872, and described in the Eighth Report (1872), 
presented at Brighton. 


14 REPORT—1875. 


Seventh Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir W. Tuomson, F.R.S., 
Professor Everett, Sir Cuartes Lyset, Bart., F.R.S., Professor 
J. Crerk Maxwett, F.R.S., G. J. Symons, F.M.S., Professor 
Ramsay, F.R.S., Professor Grixiz, /.R.S., James Guaisner, 
F.R.S., Rev. Dr. Granam, G: Maw, F.G.S., W: Prncetty, 
F.R.S., 8. J. Macks, F.G.S., Professor Hutz, F.R.S., Professor 
Anstep, F.R.S., and Professor Prustwicu, F.R.S., appointed for 
the purpose of investigating the Rate of Increase of Underground 
Temperature downwards in various localities of Dry Land and 
under Water*, By Professor Evnrutt, D.C.L., Secretary. 


A rew weeks after the reading of last year’s Report, another set of observa- 
tions was received from Messrs. Mauget and Lippmann, the engineers of the 
great artesian well now sinking at La Chapelle, Paris. The water had been 
undisturbed for a year, this time having been occupied in preparations for 
tubing the well through its entire depth. 

The exceptionally rapid increase of temperature in the lower part of the 
well, as indicated in the previous observations, had given reason to suspect 
that the heat generated by the action of the boring-tool was an important 
disturbing element. It is now manifest that this suspicion was correct; for 
the bottom temperature (660 metres deep), which was 83°:25 Fahr. in the 
observations of June 1862, is only 76° Fahr. in the observations of October 
1868, or 77° colder than before. At the depth of 600 metres the tem- 
perature was 75°°8 and 75°4 in the two observations of June 1862, and 
75° in the observation of October 1863, or about half a degree colder than 
before. 

At the depths of 500 metres and 400 metres there was no change; and 
at the depths of 300 metres, 200 metres, and 100 metres there was an 
increase amounting to 0°5 at 300 metres, 0°-8 at 200 metres, and 1°5 at 
100 metres. 

- In explanation of the increase at these smaller depths, Messrs. Mauget and 
Lippmann remark :—‘‘ When last year’s observations were made the well 
had been tubed to the depth of 139-15 metres, but had not been cemented. 
Consequently the springs which were met with in the tertiary strata com- 
municated at the base of the tubes with the water of the well. Cement has 
this year been poured in between all the tubes some days before taking the 
temperature of the water. This operation has excluded the tertiary springs 
and permitted the water of the well to resume its normal temperature.” 

The new temperature 59°°5 at 100 metres, combined with the new 
temperature 76° at 660 metres, gives 1° Fahr. for 34 metres, or for 111 feet. 

The old temperature, 58 at 100 metres, combined with the new temperature 
76° at 660 metres, gives 1° Fahr. for 31 metres, or for 102 feet. 

The temperature 53°-1 in the caves of the Paris Observatory, at the 
depth of 28 metres, combined with the temperature 76° at 660 metres, gives 
1° Fahr. in 27-6 metres, or in 90°5 feet. ~ 

All these results differ largely from previous determinations of the rate of 
increase in the neighbourhood of Paris, which were very harmonious among 
themselves, and gave a rate of 1° Fahr. in 56 feet (see 1871 Report). 

The only source of error that appears possible in the La Chapelle observa- 
tions is convection by vertical currents in the well. Such action is certainly 


* Read at the Belfast Meeting, 1874. 


ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 15 


favoured by the large diameter of the well (1:35 metre at the smallest), and 
may have been further promoted by the same cause which stopped the works 
and rendered tubing necessary—namely, caving in. 

Herr Johann Grimm, Director of the School of Mines at Przibram in 
Bohemia, has furnished some valuable results from observations made by 
himself in the year 1830, and again in 1854-55, in the deepest mines of 
that district. 

The observations in 1830 showed a temperature 11°9 R. at a depth of 
1127-4 Austrian feet, as against a temperature 7°-34 at 66 feet. The dif- 
ference here is 4°56 R. in 1061-4 Austrian feet, or 10°-26 Fahr. in 1100 
English feet, which is at the rate of 1° Fahr. in 107 English feet. 

The observations in 1854-55 showed a temperature of 13°08 R. at a 
depth of 1832°3 Austrian feet, as against 7°-05 R. at 66 feet. The dif- 
ference here is 6°-03 R. in 1766-3 Austrian feet—that is, 13°57 Fahr. in 
1832 English feet, which is at the rate of 1° Fahr. in 135 English feet. 

The following is a tabular statement of the results obtained at different 
depths in the observations of 1854-55 :— 


Depth below 


Temp. in Depth in Temp. in 

Name of Gallery. Paes, ig Aste English ft. deg. Far. 
Joseph Maria ...... 66-0 7:05 68 47-9 
OTC) MEE. Vie 's+a «0. 288-6 7-45 299 48°8 
7th Adalbert ...... 599°3 8-30 621 50-7 
9th stains hch ere a6 904-8 11-45 939 57°8 
13th , ee ee 1244-4 11-70 1209 58°3 
17th es ear 1362°8 12°20 1414 59-4 
ES SMRUES beret isl) ene Fee, hos 1591°9 12-98 1652 61:2 
21st cog Reade Rae 1832°3 13°08 1900 61:4 


Taking the differences of successive numbers in the last two columns, we 
deduce the following rates of increase :— 


In the first 68 feet ...... Unknown. 

Om the rest 2k ee, 1° per 260 feet 
7 Sy ee Are: per hin. 
PA CS IRN wat are per 46 ,, 
pa SM Soll ae cons ater Peeper "700, ,: 
FY} gs ad ot ane Eo per  T10™,. 
a PEE og ty Pao ea aay I per’ “182. *;, 
re aL O tent ate Sots 1° per 1400 ,, 

1900 


If we had omitted the last 248 feet from the reckoning, the ayerage rate 
of increase would have been 1° for 120 feet. 

The following explanatory remarks are extracted nearly verbatim from 
Herr Grimm’s letters :— 

“The depths of the shafts in these mines, and specially of the Adalbert 
and Maria shafts, you can see from the annexed Table [Section annexed, 
showing fifteen shafts]. The Adalbert shaft is sunk perpendicularly to the 
depth of 470 Vienna fathoms=891-5 metres from the shaft-brace to the 
bottom of the shaft. 


“TJ have to remark that, for the observations of the temperatures, such 


16 REPORT—1875. 


levels and places were selected as were far from the workings and from all 
circumstances which could cause a change of the temperature of the rock. 
The temperature was observed on thermometers put in bore-holes of 2 fect 
depth, which were bored in idle rock free of any particles of iron pyrites 
and far from all lodes. Through the whole time of the experiment, in 
summer and winter, the temperature of the rock on each level remained, 
excepting only some very small variations, nearly without change. 

“From the Table it will be seen that the increment of heat by descending 
in the mines is much smaller than in the mines of other localities. The 
reason of it may be looked for in the quality of the rock, which, belonging 
to the beds of the Lower Silurian formation, is very quartzose and free of 
any particles of iron pyrites. 

«‘The temperature in the bore-hole remained, by the observations made 
throughout the whole year 1830, without a change, as the bore-hole (which 
was closed up with a piece of clay) kept always the equal temperature of the 
rock. Even in the year 1854-55, when the observations in the higher levels 
were repeated and the same bore-holes used, the temperature remained the 
same. 

‘“‘ The shaft-braces of the different shafts differ very little in height, as you 
have seen from the sketch sent to you, and all of them are situated on lofty 
hills. My observations of the increase of heat have all been made near the 
Adalbert shaft, on the different levels; and the difference from the tempera- 
ture on the same levels in the other mines can only be trifling.” 

These observations appear to be thoroughly reliable, and to prove con- 
clusively that the rate of increase in this locality is remarkably slow. Even 
after applying a large conjectural correction for the convexity of the ground, 
as connected with the fact above stated that all the shaft-braces “are situated 
on lofty hills,” the rate of increase will still remain slower than any that we 
have hitherto discussed. From the description of this rock, considered in 
connexion with the description given of the rocks in the Mont-Cenis Tunnel 
(1871 Report), it would appear that highly quartzose rock is characterized 
by a slow rate of increase—an index probably of high conductivity *. 

Further observations will be taken by Herr Grimm with two thermometers 
which have been supplied to him by the Committee. One of them is a 
maximum protected Negretti, the other a simple mercurial thermometer 
with a large bulb. 

Several instruments of this latter kind have been constructed for the Com- 
mittee during the past year, with a view to observations similar to those 
above described by Herr Grimm. The objects aimed at in the construction 
are, slowness of action, combined with facility for reading with quickness 
and certainty in a bad light. 

It was stated in last year’s Report that M. E. Sadoine, Director-General of 
the mines of the Société Cocqueril at Seraing, near Liége, had consented to 
have observations taken in the mines of that company. A Negretti maximum 
thermometer was accordingly sent in September 1873, and at a later date 
(March 1874) a non-registering unprotected thermometer. The following 
results, obtained with the meximum thermometer, have been communicated 
by the chief engineer of the collieries. The observations were made in 
December 1873. 


_* Added September 1875. This inference as to the high conductivity of quartz, pub- 
lished a year ago, is verified by the direct experiments of Professor Herschel (see Report 
on Conductivity of Rocks in the present volume). Quartz was found to be the best 
conductor of all the rocks experimented on, 


ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 17 


Temperatures Fahrenheit. 
A 


Depthin ¢ ,  Airin Rocki 

. e in rin OcK 1n 

Name of Colliery. ae es, Surface. gallery. — hole. 

EREIG os oo 5, aie nC NeBOe 232 59° (hee ca 
_ ee he errr 310 56 77 78 

Henri Guillaume ...... 505 45 774 87 


The site of the two collieries in question is on the banks of the Meuse. The 
observations were made at the bottom of holes 5 centimetres in diameter and 
5 metres deep, bored at the ends of galleries 6 feet high and 6 feet wide, 
the material of the rock being coal-schist (des schistes houillers). The ther- 
mometer remained in each hole twenty hours. The holes at the depths of 
232 metres and 310 metres are almost vertically beneath the bed of the 
river. The hole at the depth of 505 metres is about 900 metres from the 
river. The coal-bearing strata are covered with 8 or 10 metres of gravel, in 
which the bed of the river is contained. 

Comparing the first and last of the above observations, we have an 
increase of 10° Fahr. in 273 metres, which is at the rate of 1° Fahr. in 
27-3 metres, or in 90 feet. 

The temperature of the ground near the surface can be approximately 
inferred from Quetelet’s observations at Brussels, which is about 50 miles 
distant from Seraing, and about 10 miles further north. Quetelet found the 
ground, both at the depth of 12 feet and of 24 feet, to have a mean annual 
temperature of 12° Cent., or 53°6 Fahr. If we accordingly assume at 
Seraing a temperature 54° Fahr. at the depth of 5 metres, we have, by com- 
parison with the temperature 87° at 505 metres,'an increase of 33° in 500 
metres, which is at the rate of 1° Fahr. in 15:2 metres, or in 50 feet. 

It was mentioned in the 1872 Report that four thermometers had been 
sent to the School of Mines at Ballarat, Australia. A communication has 
recently been received from the Vice-President (his Honour Judge Rogers), 
enclosing a report of observations taken at Clunes, in the mine of the New 
North Clunes Company, by Mr. John Lewis (the Company’s general manager), 
and promising a report of observations from the Stawell Mine by an early 
mail. Both mines are about 1000 feet deep. 

Mr. Lewis’s observations were taken in twelve bore-holes, each 3 feet 
deep, which were filled with water four or five hours previously, and the 
thermometer (a large non-registering mercury thermometer) was allowed to 
remain in the hole for thirty minutes before reading. The depths from the 
surface of the ground vary from 160 feet to 1015 feet. It appears that 
sufficient precautions were not taken to exclude atmospheric influences, by 
plugging the holes and avoiding places where the currents of ventilation were 
strong. The temperatures recorded in all the bores, except one, appear to 
be thus vitiated, and are very variable from time to time. 

The one bore to which these remarks do not apply is designated “bore 
No. 10,” is at a depth of 790 feet from the surface, and is described as 
“being in a cross cut without any circulation of air.’ The temperatures 
observed in it, in the four observations recorded, were 72°6, 72°:5, 72°'5, 
and 72°-5, the temperature of the air in its vicinity being 73°-6, 73°, 73°, 
and 73°. 

Mr. Symons has furnished additional observations made at the depth of 
1000 feet in the Kentish-Town well, but recommends that their publication 
be deferred for the present, as better observations are expected during the 
ensuing year. The hut which covers the well has been repaired, and the 
1875, c 


18 REPORT—1875. 


apparatus employed in the observations has been thoroughly cleaned and put 
in order. 

In answer to an application addressed to the director of the School of 
Mines at Schemnitz, in Hungary, a letter was received, under date Novem- 
ber 1873, from Herr E. Poschl, Counsellor of Mines, and Professor of 
Mining Mechanics and Drawings (the director being absent), requesting 
that thermometers might be sent. A second letter was received from the 
same gentleman, dated December 26, 1873, acknowledging the safe arrival 
of the thermometers (one a Negretti maximum protected, the other non- 
registering and unprotected), and stating that the observations would at 
once be commenced, under the direction of a joint committee of professors of 
the Mining Academy and members of the Directory of Mines, 

Professor Henry, of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, wrote, 
under date February 3, 1874:—* You will oblige us by sending us three 
sets of guarded registering thermometers, suitable for observations of tem- 
perature of artesian wells of a diameter of 3 inches, We learn that there 
are in the vicinity of Chicago sixty wells varying from 500 feet to 1500 
feet in depth, included within an area of six miles square. Their elevation 
above the level of Lake Michigan, as well as the quality of the water they 
furnish, are very nearly alike. We shall send a set of these instruments to 
a trustworthy engineer of Chicago.” ... 

In accordance with this request, three protected maximum thermometers 
have been sent. 

No successful observation has yet been made in the Sub-Wealden bore 
nor in the well at Witham. No report has been received from Harwich, 
from Anzin, from the Hoosac Tunnel, nor from the Mont-Cenis Tunnel. 

As regards the St.-Gothard Tunnel, the absence of Professor Ansted has 
hitherto delayed the carrying out of the resolution adopted by the General 
Committee last year (see Report for 1873, p. lviii, last paragraph); but 
action will probably be taken very speedily. 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Hux.ey, F.R.S., 
P. L. Scrarer, F.R.S., F. M. Batrour, J. Gwyn Jerrreys, F.R.S., 
Dr. M. Foster, F.R.S., E. Ray Lanxesrer, F.R.S., and A. G. 
Derw-Smiru (Secretary), on the Zoological Station at Naples. 


Av the Bradford Meeting of the Association the Committee on Zoological 

Stations was able to report (see Association Reports, 1873, page 408) that 

the building of the Zoological Station at Naples had been completed; but it was 

naturally obliged rather to describe the arrangements made for carrying out 

= objects of the Station than to dwell on the work which had been actually 
one. 

The present Committee, however, can now congratulate the Association 
that, during the two years which have elapsed since the Bradford Meeting, a 
scientific undertaking of cosmopolitan character, in which the Association 
has taken a lively interest, and which it has in so many ways assisted, has 
proved an undeniable, indeed it might be said a brilliant success. The actual 


ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 19 


difficulties and obstacles have, no less through the great energy of Dr. Dohrn 
than through the help afforded him from time to time, been overcome; and 
the future of the Station seems in every way bright and promising. 

The facts which form the subject of the present Report will best be con- 
sidered under distinct heads :— 


1. The Nature and Extent of the working accommodation at the Station. 


At the present time there are in the Station twenty-one working-tables, 
the number of which will by the end of the year be increased to twenty-four ; 
of these no less than seventeen are already occupied or bespoken. 

Each table is in itself a condensed laboratory ; and the nature of the ac- 
commodation offered by the Station to any investigator will perhaps best be 
shown by the following extract from the form of contract between Dr. Dohrn 
and the hirer of the table. 


a. The working-table, fully equipped, will be placed at the disposal of the 
inquirer nominated to occupy it after the interval of a week from the an- 
nouncement of his coming. 

The equipment consists of :— 


1. The necessary chemical reagents. 
2. The ordinary anatomical and microscopical tools and apparatus. 
3. Drawing-apparatus. 


In detail these are as follows :— 


Reagents. 

Alcohol, 70 per cent. Olive-oil. 

» 90 per cent. Pure fat. 

» absolute. Turpentine. 
Distilled water. Oil of cloves, 
Miiller’s fluid. Creosote. 
Potassic bichromate, 5 per cent. Chloroform. 
Calcic chloride. Ether. 
Potassic acetate. Glycerine. 
Alum. Tincture of iodine. 
Gold chloride, 1 per cent. Berlin blue solution. 
Silver nitrate, 1 per cent. Canada balsam. 
Chromic acid. Gum-arabic. 
Perosmic acid, Beale’s carmine solution. 
Hydrochloric acid, pure. Hematoxylin solution. 
Acetic acid (concentrated). a. », alcoholic. 
Picric acid, Magenta. 
Oxalic acid. Picrocarmine. 
Nitrie acid (concentrated). Cement. 
Sulphuric acid (concentrated). Wax. 
Caustic soda. Paraffin. 
Caustic potash. Spermaceti. 
Caustic. ammonia. 

Instruments, 

Section-entting knife. 3 scalpels. 
2 pairs forceps. 2 preparation-needles. 
3 pairs scissors. 2 dozen needles. 


c2 


20 REPORT—1875. 


Drawing-Apparatus. 
1 Drawing-tablet. Rule. 
6 Drawing-pins. Drawing-instruments. 
4 Drawing-pencils. 3 gold pens. 
Blotting-paper. | Ink eraser. 
Colour-box and brushes. 


Glass Instruments. 


1 dozen simple glass slides. 
1 large hollowed glass slide. 6 stoppered bottles. 
1 small oval hollowed glass slide. 1 wash-bottle. 

1 trough object-holder. | 1 tray with reagents. 


3 glass rods. 


50 thin cover-glasses. 3 beakers. 

1 lamp. 5 glass plates. 

1 measure-glass. 1 microscope-shade. 
1 pipette. 1 instrument-shade. 
3 glass tubes. 


Miscellaneous. 
2 porcelain capsules. 2 towels. 
3 paint-saucers, 1 slate. 
1 dozen filter-papers. India-rubber tubes. 
1 preparation-trough. 2 portable tanks for holding 
1 can. smaller animals. 


1 washing-basin. 


The Station also possesses :— 

a. A number of special instruments and pieces of apparatus which are not 
in general use, but only required occasionally. These accordingly are not 
supplied to each table, but are regarded as belonging to all the tables in 
common. ; 

Microscopes are noé provided, it being supposed that each investigator 
will possess an instrument of his own, to the use of which he is accustomed. 

6. Hach working-table is provided with a number of working experi- 
mental aquaria, and with a constant stream of sea-water; these are entirely 
at the disposal of the occupant of the table for his investigations. 

c. The animals serving as materials for study are provided by the Station, 
and as constant a supply as circumstances will admit is kept up during the 
investigation. Not only so, but the occupant of the table can, if he pleases, 
take home with him, on his departure from Naples, a number of scientifically 
preserved specimens, to enable him to complete or continue his research. 

The extent of this supply of animals is of course dependent on the variety 
(or abundance) of the specimens and the concurrent demands of other 
inyestigators. 

d. The large aquarium of the Station can be used freely by the occupants 
of eeties for suitable purposes; for instance, for the study of the habits of 
animals. 

e. The Library * (the catalogue of which has been. sent to all academies 
and universities), placed close to the Laboratory, is accessible to all occupants 


_* The Library has already, even in so short a time, become a fairly extensive one, 
being especially rich in embryological works. A copy of the Catalogue may be seen in 
Siebold and Kolliker's ‘Zeitschrift,’ Bd. xxv. Dr. Dohrn will thankfully receive additions, 


ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES, 6 pA | 


of tables. There is also a separate room for making extracts and pre- 
paring MSS. 

f. The laboratory is open at 7 A.M. in summer and 8 a.m. in winter. 
In particular cases special arrangements can be made for access at unusual 
hours; but the staff cannot undertake to have the Laboratory cleaned before 
the above-mentioned times. 

g- Any occupant of a table is free to accompany and take part in the 
fishing- and dredging-expeditions of the Station. He may thus learn the use 
of the dredge and the towing-net and the other means employed for pro- 
curing specimens. 

h. The cost of the ordinary wear and tear of the instruments and appa- 
ratus is borne by the Station to the extent of 20 francs. Damages to a greater 
extent than this must be paid for by the occupant of the table. 

The working-tables thus equipped and disposed in several rooms constitute 
the Laboratory of the Station; and of these, of course, the interest and im- 
portance are purely and exclusively scientific. 

The large aquarium on the ground-floor has, on the other hand, a double 
function. Itis partly a popular exhibition, and the payments of visitors consti- 
tute a not inconsiderable and, it is to be hoped, an increasing item in the in- 
come of the Station. It serves also asa large field of observation for scientific 
investigators desirous of learning something about the habits of animals. 

When our great ignorance on this subject is considered, in relation to the 
morphological importance with which the theory of natural selection and 
descent has invested even apparently small details of the working of animal 
economies, the large aquarium may, after all, seem no less a laboratory than 
the working-table. 

It will of course be understood that the general public, who are admitted 
on payment to view the large aquarium, are carefully excluded from the 
laboratories proper, though the occupants of tables in the latter have free 
access to the former. 

The staff of the Station consists of :— 

a. Dr. Dohrn, the general director. 

6. Dr. Eisig, who has direct command of the laboratory, and whose duty 
it is to superintend all the arrangements of the tables, to arrange for the 
providing of the material, and to preside over the distribution of instruments 
and reagents. In Dr. Dohrn’s absence Dr. Eisig acts as his substitute. 

There are also two other scientific assistants, one to superintend the large 
aquarium and the fishing, the other to arrange for the collection and pre- 
servation of animals for the use of the Station or for distribution abroad. 

c. Three engineers, four house servants, and four fishermen. 

Such are the general arrangements of the Station for scientific work ; and 
your Committee can report (from the personal experience of two of their 
number during the past winter) that these arrangements are carried out in 
a thoroughly satisfactory manner. 


2. The nature of the work for the carrying on of which the Station offers 
; facilities. 

a. Investigations into the morphology and embryology of Marine Animals.— 
It is needless to say much on this point. The advantages, first, of an 
organization to secure the animals which it is desired to study, and, secondly, 
of a laboratory in which to work on the animals thus obtained, are too 
obyious to require pointing out. 


22 REPORT—1875, 


We might, however, remark, as a caution, that the Station cannot provide 
marine animals which do not visit the neighbourhood of Naples; and more- 
over, seeing the strange coming and going of particular forms at various 
times, cannot undertake to provide certain animals at all times. 

For instance, the investigator who desires to study Pyrosoma must visit 
Naples at the same time as does the object of his study, otherwise it will be 
impossible for the Station to procure him living examples. 

b. Physiological investigation of Marine Animals—This branch of stndy, 
little worked at present, will probably afford rich results in the future. 

c. Study of the habits of Marine Animals.—Of the importance of this we 
have already spoken. 

d. Systematic investigation of the Marine Fauna and Flora of the Medi- 
terranecan in the vicinity of Naples.—In spite of all that has been done in 
this direction much yet remains to be done. Possibly few tasks seem more 
promising than a thorough systematic and long-continued dredging of the 
Bay of Naples and the sea around. ‘The results of such an inquiry would be 
valuable not only to the systematic zoologist and to the student of the 
distribution of animal life, but also indirectly to the morphologist and to the 
Station, as affording certain information as to where and when particular 
animals may be obtained, and an exact knowledge of the generic and specific 
nomenclature of the forms studied. 

On this head we might call attention to the interesting problems connected 
with the periodic appearance and disappearance of certain animals in shoals 
or large numbers—problems which have already attracted the notice of the 
residents at the Station, and which can only be successfully attempted by 
long-continued observations at the same place. 

Animal forms naturally occupy the chief attention at the Station, but no less 
facilities are offered for the study of marine vegetable forms. This is suffi- 
ciently indicated by the fact that Prof. Cohn, of Breslau, and Dr. Reineke are 
about to visit the Station next session to carry on algological researches. 

e. The Station offers also no mean opportunities for the physical inves- 
tigation of the sea in the neighbourhood of Naples. 

f. Experiments on breeding and preserving delicate Marine Organisms 
in a healthy vigorous condition.—This subject has already, since the Brad- 
ford meeting, especially engaged the attention of Dr. Dohrn; his results, 
however, are not as yet sufficiently definite to enable him to draw up his 
promised report, though we hope that it will be ready at the next Meeting of 
the Association, 

g. Transmission of specimens to investigators at home.—Already this work 
has been carried on, though at present on a small scale. Various inyes- 
tigators have received supplies of animals carefully preserved for the purposes 
of research. It is proposed, as soon as the fishing arrangements have become 
more complete, to develop largely this special activity of the Station, so that 
investigators at home and the authorities of museums may be able to obtain 
such animals as they may desire in a perfect condition with great ease and at 
a low price; in fact, at what is to the Station cost price. 


3. The Scientific results of the Station. 


Since the opening of the Station in the early part of 1874 no less than 
33 investigators have made use of the Station, the stay of each varying from 
a few weeks to several months, and some of them haying visited the Station 
during both years. 


ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 23 


The following is a list of the names in an approximately correct chrono- 
logical order :— 


1. Prof. Kleinenberg. 18. Prof. Claus. 

2. Prof Waldeyer. 19. Prof. Selenka, 

3. Mr. F. M. Balfour (2 years). 20. Prof. Langerhans. 

4, Mr. A. G. Dew-Smith. 21. Prof. Bobretzky. 

5. Prof. Wilhelm Miller. 22. Prof. Rosenberg. 

6. Prof. Salensky. 23. Prof. von Ankum. 

7. Dr. Rajewsky. 24. Dr. Gotte. 

8. Dr. Steiner. 25. Dr. Laurent. 

9. Prof. Henlohe. 26. Dr. Zincone. 
10. Prof. Kollman. 27. Dr. Horst. 
i. Dr. Greef. 28. Dr. Ulianin. 
12. Prof. Ranke. 29. Dr. Fanzago (2 years). 
13. Dr. Hubrecht. 30. Mr. A. M. Marshall. 
14. Prof. Ray Lankester. 31. Dr. Cavanna (2 years). 
15. Dr. Kossmann. 32. Dr. Fetter. 
16. Prof. Hoffmann. 33. H. Isnokoff. 
17. Prof. Oscar Schmidt. 


Naturally many of the researches undertaken by these gentlemen, espe- 
cially those made during the past winter, have not yet been published ; it is 
therefore impossible to give any thing like a fair statement of the scientific 
results of the Station. It would be useless to give a list of those memoirs 
which have up to the present moment been published, and it would be 
invidious to pick out any for special comment ; but we may say that among 
the researches, both published and unpublished, are some of very high bio- 
logical importance, such as would alone justify the application of the word 
success to the Station. 

Next winter Dr. Dohrn proposes to begin a series of annual accounts of 
the work done at the Station; in fact a sort of scientific almanack of the 
place, so that the actual research achieved may be made known to all. 


4. The present wants of the Station. 


The large aquarium pays fairly well as a popular exhibition. Since the 
guide-books have admitted it into their list of things worth seeing at Naples, 
the number of foreign visitors, English, German, and Russian, has been 
steadily increasing. Nevertheless the receipts from this source can never be 
looked upon as a main or astable source of income. A European war or 
an epidemic of cholera would in such a case at once put the Station in 
_ jeopardy. j 

It is the money paid by Governments, Universities, and other institutions 
for the command of the laboratory tables which is to be regarded as the 
real income. 

Of the total 24 tables, 17 are already let; and Dr. Dohrn calculates that 
when the whole 24 are let \ the Station will be able, with strict economy, 
to pay its way. 

We had intended to make this Report entirely a statement of facts, without 
adding any suggestions for action; but if we have shown (and we venture 
to think we have) that the Zoological Station at Naples is doing sound 
scientific work, and is offering unusual advantages for research to British no 
less than to German investigators, we may perhaps conclude our Report by 


24 REPORT—1875. 


suggesting to the consideration of the Association whether it would not be 
fairly within the scope of its action to undertake the hire of one of these 
tables. 1t must be remembered that in this country the University of Cam- 
bridge is the only body which is in direct relation with the Station. That 
University occupies two tables, which it has placed, and naturally will continue 
to place, at the disposal ofits own alumni. Hence any British naturalist not 
belonging to the University of Cambridge, and not able to bear of himself the 
expense of a tabie, cannot enjoy the opportunities offered by the Station. 
An equivalent to a grant of £75 per annum would remove the great dis- 
advantage; and ye venture to suggest the funds of the Association could not 
be more profitably spent as far as biological research is concerned. 


Report of a Committee, consisting of E. C. C. Stranrorp, James Dewar, 
AurrepD E. Furrcrer, and Aurrup H. Auien (Secretary) , appointed 
to inquire into the Methods employed in the estimation of Potash and 
Phosphoric Acid in Commercial Products and on the mode of stating 
the results. Drawn up by Aurrup H. ALLEN. 


Tar Committee was of opinion that the objects for which it was appointed 
would be best attained by ascertaining as fully as possible the details of the 
methods of examining phosphates and potash salts in general use, and 
learning the opinions of the chemists employing them as to their special 
advantages and limits of error, at the same time collecting information on 
other closely related matters. 

With the view of carrying out these intentions to the fullest possible 
extent, the Committee issued a circular letter setting forth its aims and 
objects, and sent it to every member of the Chemical Society, to all gentlemen 
known to be interested in the subject, and to such chemists as your Com- 
mittee learnt would be likely to afford assistance. 

The following is the letter referred to :— 

' “No. 1 Surrey Street, 
Sheffield. 
May 10, 1875. 


“‘Srr,—aAt the last Meeting of the British Association, a Committee, con- 
sisting of Messrs. J. Dewar, A. Fletcher, E. C. Stanford, and myself as 
Secretary, was appointed, ‘for the purpose of examining and reporting upon 
the Methods employed in the estimation of Potash and Phosphoric Acid in 
commercial products, and on the mode of stating the results.’ 

“The Committee proposes to ascertain, by inquiry, what methods are in 
general use, and to learn the opinions of the Chemists employing them as to 
their special advantages and limits of error, and also to collect information 
on other closely related matters. 

‘* The Committee hopes to be enabled to recommend one or two accurate and 
practical processes for the estimation of Phosphoric Acid and Potash in 
commercial products which would meet with very general adoption by 
Chemists, and would be welcomed by both buyers and sellers as a perfectly 
neutral standard of reference. Such a plan, we believe, would do much to 
secure uniformity in such estimations and in the methods of stating the results. 

“If you have experience in this description of analysis, you will much aid 


ON THE ESTIMATION OF POTASH AND PHOSPHORIC ACID. 25 


the Committee by filling up the accompanying paper, and returning it to me 
at your earliest convenience. 

“A similar paper has been sent to all the Fellows of the Chemical Society ; 
but if you know any other Chemists, whose advice and opinion would be of 
service to the Committee, we shall esteem it a favour if you will kindly 
send me their names. 

«T have the honour to be, 
“ Your obedient Servant, 
« Arrrep H, ALLEN, 
Hon. Secretary of the Committee.” 


Together with the above circular letter, the Committee forwarded the 
following series of very carefully arranged questions, with the view of indi- 
cating the exact nature of the information they were in need of. 


of the process you habitually employ 
for the estimation of the Phosphoric 
Acid in Commercial Phosphates ? 


2. What length of time does the above 
process require ? 


1, Will you give the Committee the details | 


3. Are you of opinion that the method 
gives strictly accurate results? If not, 
will you state the direction in which 
the error occurs, and the maximum 


extent of it? 


4. Would it be possible to eliminate the 
error by taking certain well-defined 
precautions ? 


is in your opinion the most accurate ? 
and how long does it require ? 


6. Which is the most rapid and con- 
venient ? 


7. Which gives the most constant results 


} 
5. Which process of analyzing Phosphates | 
in the hands of different manipulators? } 


8. Do you know of any reliable process 
for the estimation of the so-called ‘‘Re- 
duced Phosphates?” If so, will you 
give details of the method? | 


9. Do you think it desirable that Chemists | 


should be called on to state the com- 
mercial value of a manure ? 


10. What in your opinion are the relative \ 
yalues which should be attached to 
Phosphoric Acid existing in the fol- 
lowing forms, taking free anhydrous 
Phosphoric Acid as 100? 

A.—As Acid (soluble) {Phosphate of 


——$ + ---. 


Calcium. 

B.—As insoluble Phosphate of Cal- 
cium. 

C.—As “ Reduced” Phosphate of Cal- 
cium. 


D.—As Phosphate of Aluminium. i 
E.—As Phosphate of Iron. y) 


26 REPORT—1875. 


of Iron, Aluminium, and Calerum, and 
Phosphoric Acid has been acted on by 
Sulphuric Acid, in what forms do you | 


11. If a native Phosphate containing oxides 


suppose the Phosphoric Acid exists? 
and how would you state the analysis ? 


12. What means should be adopted to in- 
sure the samples submitted to Chemists 
for analysis fairly representing the com- 
position of the bulk ? 


13. Will you give the Committee the details | 
of the process which you consider the 
best for the estimation of Potassium in 
commercial Potash Salts? What are 
the limits of error in the process? 
Are accurate results obtainable by it 
in the hands of unpractised manipula- 
tors? ) 


14. Which, in your opinion, is the correct \ 
mode of stating the analyses of Com- 
mercial Potash Salts, containing Soda 
and more than one Acid—e. g. com- 
mercial ‘“ Muriates,” Sulphates, Ni- 
trates, Carbonates, Potashes, and Pearl- 
ashes ? 


r 
15. Can you give the Committee the name 


and address of any Chemist not a 
Fellow of the Chemical Society of 
London whose advice and opinion 
would be likely to be of service ? 


16. Write here your name and address, and ~ 
please state qualifications or nature ot} 
any appointment. 


No effort has been spared to make the objects of the Committee widely 
known, and nearly a thousand circulars have been distributed. 

In the case of chemists known to have special knowledge of the subjects 
on which information was desired, the circulars were accompanied by 
manuscript letters from the Secretary requesting careful consideration of 
and full replies to the queries. 

In answer to their request for information, the Committee has received 
contributions from a considerable number of chemists, both in England and 
on the Continent, the answers in many cases containing much original 
information, and being generally of the utmost value in enabling the Com- 
mittee to form an opinion on the present state of the questions which it was 
appointed to consider and report on. 

On receipt of the replies, a further correspondence was in many cases 
entered into by the Secretary, with the view of obtaining explanation of or 
further information upon doubtful points, and every means has been taken 
to elicit the views of correspondents. 

The following is an alphabetically arranged list of chemists to whom the 
Committee is indebted for information :— 


G. Brerranp, Ph.D. Manager of United Chemical Works of Leopoldshall. 
Cuas. Broxam. Professor of Chemistry, King’s College, London. 
T. P. Brunt, M.A. Chemist to Shropshire Chamber of Agriculture. 


ON THE ESTIMATION OF POTASH AND PHOSPHORIC ACID. 27 


J. Campsett Brown, D.Sc. Professor at Infirmary School of Medicine, 
Liverpool, Public Analyst for Liverpool, &c. 

Cuas. F. Burnarp, of Messrs. Burnard, Slack, & Alger. 

Cas, A. Cameron, M.D. Analyst to Royal Agricultural Society of Ireland, 
Public Analyst for Dublin, &c. 

Jn. Cammack. Analyst to Bridgewater Chemical Works, St. Helens. 

A. H. Cuurcu, M.A. Professor at Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester. 

W. M. Cowan. Public Analyst for Greenock. 

Joun Cox. Chemist to Nottingham Mills Manure Company. 

VY. Crusr. Chemist to Messrs. E. Packard & Co., Ipswich. 

Tuomas Farrier. Analyst to the Yorkshire Agricultural Society, Public 
Analyst for Leeds. 

W. Fuieur, D.Sc. Assistant Examiner in Chemistry, London University. 

— Franz, Ph.D. Chief Manager, United Chemical Works, Leopoldshall. 

C. R. Fresuntus, Ph.D. &c. Wiesbaden. 

W. Gatsraira. Late Chemist to the Phospho-Guano Company, Liverpool. 

W.A. Hamter. Analyst to the Peruvian Government Guano Company Agency. 

J. Huenes. Analyst to Lawes’s Chemical Manure Company, London. 

H. Jovriz. Paris. 

Aurrep Kircuen. Whitehaven. 

M. J. Lanspert, of Messrs. J. C. Nesbit, Lansdell, & Co., Analytical Chemists, 
London. 

Sypnrey Lupron. The Harehills, near Leeds. 

Leister, Bock, & Co. Glasgow. 

M. Licurenstery. London. 

Newton, Knares, & Co. St. Helens. 

T. R. Oatrvie. Late Public Analyst for Greenock. 

E. W. Parynett. Chemist at Desoto Alkali Works, Widnes. 

J. Parrinson. Public Analyst for Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

Mannine Prenticz, Jun. Stowmarket. 

T. Reppror. Chemist at L. & N. W. R. Co.’s Works, Crewe. 

G. Rosunrmat, Ph.D. Chemist to Messrs. Holloway Bros. 

J. Rurriz. Late assistant to Dr. Voelcker, &c. 

Axrrep Srsson. Analytical Chemist, London. 

G. L. Urex, Ph.D. Hamburg. 

Wattacz, Tartock, & Crarx. Joint Public Analysts for City of Glasgow. 

Ropert Warrneton. Formerly chemist to J. B. Lawes & Co. 

W.J. Witttams. Chemist in charge of Phosphate Sewage Company’s Works, 
Hertford. 


It will be observed that in almost every case the replies have been from 
chemists having special experience in the analysis of commercial phosphates or 
potash salts; and their communications contain, in the aggregate, an amount 
of information on the subject probably far in excess of any previously collected. 

With a few notable exceptions the Committee has received assistance from 
all the best known authorities on the subject ; a few of the leading chemists 
known to have special experience of the kind required have not responded 
to the Committee’s request for information, though their assistance was most 
courteously sought by a special letter in each case. 

The cause of the silence observed in the above mentioned cases is probably 
similar to that which prompted the following reply from a well-known firm 
of chemists, whose results were in some degree the cause of the appointment 
of the Committee. 


28 REPORT—1875. 


“Mr. Alfred H. Allen. ; “ June 19, 1875. 


“Dear Sir,—We are in receipt of your favour relating to the examination of 
phosphates and potash salts; but we must decline to give you the information 
required, as we do not think ourselves called upon to publish our methods of 
analysis, which we have perfected after long and careful investigation, for 
the benefit of those who have not taken this trouble. 


‘We are, dear Sir, 
“Yours obediently, &c.” 


A French chemist of very high standing says he belongs to that class of 
chemists who cannot afford to work“ pour la gloire,” but must keep their 
methods, their only capital, secret. 

It is evident that the interests of science would materially suffer if a 
similar system were adopted by many chemists; but happily the above 
answers stand in striking contrast to the generous and elaborate replies that 
have in very many instances been sent to the Committee. 

The answers received to the various specific questions put have shown in 
a very striking manner how very various and even irreconcilable are the 
opinions held by chemists on many of the points submitted for their con- 
sideration. On this account the Committee refrains for the present from 
expressing any definite opinions on the points in question; but feeling that 
the communications received contain much information which should be at 
once in the possession of those interested, it begs here to submit to the 
Association the following digest of the replies received up to the present 
time. 

The Committee has avoided as far as possible any specific mention of the 
sources of the various items of information, but has departed from this rule 
in cases in which the value of the information would have been seriously 
diminished if the authority on which it was quoted had not been given. 


PuHosrHoric Acrp. 


Solution of the Manure and separation of Silica, 


In the case of soluble phosphates treatment with cold water, with (in 
some cases) subsequent washing with hot water, seems universal. Most 
chemists prefer to take a considerable quantity of the manure, and grind it 
with small successive quantities of cold water in a mortar. An aliquot part 
of the filtered solution is taken for analysis. 

With but one or two exceptions, hydrochloric acid is universally employed 
for effecting the solution of insoluble phosphates *. 

In the great majority of cases they then recommend evaporation to com- 
plete dryness. Some operators omit this step as a rule, but classify it among 
the precautions necessary when great accuracy is required. The effect of 
evaporation to dryness is considered to be twofold; silica is rendered 
insoluble and fluorides are decomposed with volatilization of hydrofluoric 
acid or of fluoride of silicon. The residue is next treated with hydrochloric 
acid in the ordinary manner, and the insoluble silica filtered off +. 


* Tt is evident that the addition of a few drops of nitric acid is desirable here to insure 
the complete peroxidation of any ferrous compounds which may be present. 

t It is evident that in presence of fluorides the silica here found will not strictly 
represent the quantity originally present in the sample. 


ON THE ESTIMATION OF POTASH AND PHOSPHORIC ACID. 29 


Oxalic-Acid Method. 


Of the chemists whose processes of analyzing phosphates have been com- 
municated to the Committee, a decided majority precipitate the phosphoric 
acid as the double phosphate of magnesium and ammonium, after previously 
separating the calcium as oxalate. 

Although there is no great difference in the general outline of the method 
followed, the most extraordinary variations occur in the details of the 
instructions, and in the precautions recommended to insure accuracy. 

By far the greater number of chemists precipitate the calcium as oxalate 
after neutralization of the excess of acid. Some add citric acid previously to 
employing oxalate of ammonium. According to Mr. R. Warington this 
modification “‘ occasions a deficiency of lime, oxalate of calcium being soluble 
in citrate of ammonium.” Those chemists who add citric acid before pre- 
cipitating the calcium usually employ an acetate to get rid of free mineral 
acid. Of course, the addition of citric acid then becomes a necessity when 
iron and aluminium are present, unless the precipitated phosphates of these 
metals are filtered off and estimated separately. This plan appears to have 
several advantages, and is recommended by some chemists of wide experience. 
By employing it, the phosphates of iron and aluminium (by most chemists 
believed to have a very limited manurial value) are separately estimated, and 
the subsequent addition of citric acid is rendered unnecessary and the iron 
introduced by its use avoided, 

If the phosphates of iron and aluminium are not previously separated, the 
general plan is to neutralize the solution with ammonia till a slight turbidity 
ensues, to clarify the liquid by the addition of a few drops of oxalic acid, to 
add a moderate excess of ammonium oxalate, to heat the liquid nearly to 
boiling, and to filter off the precipitated oxalate of calcium. Some chemists 
filter again after cooling. 

After careful washing of the precipitate, the filtrate is usually concentrated, 
a moderate quantity of citric acid added and then excess of ammonia. A 
precipitate may here occur of silica, fluoride of calcium, or oxalate of calcium. 
The more careful analysts leave the solution for a time to make sure that 
the liquid remains clear, or to filter from any precipitate. 


Precipitation by Magnesia. 


The clear solution is next precipitated by ‘‘magnesia mixture,’ which is 
universally admitted to be better made with chloride than with sulphate of 
magnesium. It is also clearly proved and generally recognized that a large 
excess of the precipitant should be avoided, some chemists recommending a 
preliminary analysis of the sample with the view of adding the approximately 
theoretical quantity of solution. On the other hand, it has been proved that 
- complete precipitation is very slow except in presence of a considerable excess 
of ‘‘ magnesia mixture.” 

Very great variation occurs with respect to the concentration and tem- 
perature of the solution at the time of precipitation. A few chemists recom- 
mend precipitation in a hot solution, but the majority direct precipitation in 
the cold; one or two recommend the use of a dilute solution, while others 
concentrate, if necessary, to a certain bulk; and some make a correction for 
the solubility of the double phosphate in the liquid. 

The amount of free ammonia present during the precipitation varies 
from a moderate excess to one fifth of its bulk of the strongest ammonia 
(880). 


30 REPORT—1875. 


The time allowed for precipitation varies from ten minutes (with vigorous 
stirring) to twenty-four hours; but most chemists are of opinion that six or 
eight hours are sufficient. 

Very few chemists recommend re-solution and re-precipitation of the 
double phosphate. 

But few precautions appear to be taken in the ignition of the precipitate. 
The more careful analysts thoroughly dry the precipitate and remove it from 
the filter, igniting it first gently, then intensely. 

Very different opinions are held as to the accuracy of the results obtained 

“by precipitation with magnesia. In many cases the observers are merely 
able to say that the process gives fairly constant results on repetition; in 
other cases they state that very concordant results have been obtained when 
the same sample has also been analyzed by some chemist of repute. 

In some cases the observers consider that the process is liable to give 
results somewhat below the truth, owing to the slight solubility of the 
double phosphate in the mother-liquid and the loss of phosphate in the 
oxalate-of-calcium precipitate. In other cases the process is said to give 
results in excess of the real amount, owing to the presence of other magne- 
sium salts or of iron or aluminium in the double phosphate precipitate. 

A most elaborate series of experiments has been made by Mr, T. R. 
Ogilvie on the magnesia process and the variations to which it is liable *. 
His results have been to a great extent confirmed by the researches of Mr. 
E. M. Dixon, On the other hand, Professor Church writes, ‘* My confidence 
in this plan when carried out successfully, giving time for any oxalate to 
fall after addition of citric acid and excess of ammonia, is not shaken by 
Ogilvie’s results reported recently in the ‘ Chemical News.’ His experiments 
seem to me to exaggerate the errors of the method greatly. Several times 
have I got nearly identical results by the use of the molybdic method for 
separating the P,O, from the soluble part of a superphosphate, and by the 
use of the oxalic method. I always use a measured quantity of the am- 
moniacal magnesium chloride ; but considerable excess of this reagent often 
produces but little influence on the result—sometimes none.” 


Direct Citric-Acid Method. 

The method of Joulie is employed by some chemists of wide experience. 
In this process the iron, aluminium, and calcium are all retained in solution 
by citrate of ammonium, and no attempt is made to separate the calcium as 
oxalate; but the phosphate is at once precipitated from the ammoniacal 
solution by “magnesia mixture,” the precipitate being either ignited and 
weighed or dissolved in acetic or nitric acid and the solution titrated with 
uranium. This method is in‘many respects similar to that recommended by 
Fresenius, Neubauer, and Luck f. 


Iron-Acetate Method. 


A few chemists employ a process of which the following is an outline ;— 

The neutralized hydrochloric solution of an insoluble phosphate (frecd 
from silica), or the aqueous solution of a soluble phosphate, is treated with 
acetate of ammonium (filtered from the precipitated phosphates of iron and 
aluminium if their separate estimation is required) and sufficient ferric 


* Chemical News, May 6, 1870; Proceedings of the Philosophical Society (Chemical 
Section) of Glasgow, 1874 and 1875, &e. 


t Zeit. f. anal. Chem, ix. 16, and Sutton’s ‘Volumetric Analysis,’ second edition, p- 241. 


ON THE ESTIMATION OF POTASH AND PHOSPHORIC ACID. 31 


chloride added to cause the precipitate to appear distinctly reddish. The 
liquid is boiled, well filtered, and the precipitate washed slightly. It is 
redissolved on the filter in hydrochloric acid, tartaric or citric acid added 
judiciously to the solution, and then a tolerable excess of ammonia. The 
alkaline soluftion should be greenish, not reddish. ‘Magnesia mixture” is 
then added in moderate excess, the liquid stirred and left over night. The 
precipitated double phosphate is then filtered off and treated in the ordinary 
manner. The method gives results agreeing well with the average of 
chemists of repute. On repetition, the results of the two estimations agrec 
within -1 to *2 per cent. 


Phosphates of Iron and Aluminium. 


The precipitate of iron and aluminium phosphates, produced by treating 
the cold solution of a sample containing the above metals with an alkaline 
acetate (or with ammonia and excess of acetic acid), can be very con- 
yeniently analyzed by the following method, contributed by Mr. R. Waring- 
ton :—‘‘ The precipitated phosphates of iron and aluminium are washed, 
ignited, and weighed, redissolved in strong hydrochloric acid, and the iron 
determined volumetrically with stannous chloride and iodine (see Fresenius). 
From the iron the quantity of ferric phosphate in the precipitate is cal- 
culated, the phosphate of aluminium found by difference, and thus the iron, 
aluminium, and phosphoric acid in the precipitate are obtained, A little 
phosphoric acid is liable to be removed from the precipitate during washing, 
and basic salts are thus reckoned in the calculation as of normal composi- 
tion.” 


Estimation by Uranium. 


The removal of iron and aluminium by addition of an alkaline acetate in 
the cold, with determination of the phosphoric acid in the filtrate by means 
of uranium *, is a method which appears to deserve more extended employ- 
ment. The use of an acetate in a slightly acid solution brings the liquid 
into just the condition required for the use of the uranium process. The 
volumetric estimation by uranium is very highly spoken of by some chemists 
as convenient and fairly accurate, while others consider it very unsatisfactory. 
The conflict of opinion is very great, and special experiments on this process 
appear desirable ; but the following seem to be the precautions necessary for 
successful working. 

The proportions of acetic acid and alkaline acetate employed and the 
volume of the solutiou should be approximately constant. The uranium 
nitrate should be standardized with an acetic-acid solution of pure precipi- 

tated ammonio-magnesium phosphate or tricalcic phosphate, instead of with 
phosphate of sodium as is commonly done. 

The titration should be converse, the solution of the phosphate being added 
to that of the uranium. The latter should be mixed with a constant 
proportion of acetic acid and heated on a bath of boiling water. The 
indicator should be powdered potassium ferrocyanide on a white plate. 
Owing to the reversal of the usual process, the brown colour of the ferro- 
cyanide of uranium becomes gradually fainter till the end of the titration. 

This method, which is recommended and employed by some authorities of 


great experience, is said to be capable of giving results of every desirable 
accuracy. 


* It is universally admitted that the estimation by uranium is untrustworthy unless 
any iron or aluminium present in the original solution is first removed. 


382 REPORT—1875. 


The gravimetric method of precipitation by nitrate of uranium is employed 
by a few chemists, and is very well spoken of. 


Molybdic-Acid Method. 


Of all methods, Sonnenschein’s process of precipitation with molybdic acid 
appears to be regarded as the most accurate. All the chemists who refer to 
it speak of it as extremely accurate, and consider that it is preferable to any 
other in presence of much iron or aluminium; but comparatively few use it 
habitually. The causes of this unpopularity are the time required and the 
expensive nature of the reagent. 

As a very large excess of molybdic acid is required above that which is 
actually precipitated as ‘“ phospho-molybdate of ammonium,” it becomes 
an important matter to recover the molybdic acid from the solution. Unfor- 
tunately no very simple process of effecting this appears to have been 
devised. 

The yellow precipitate obtained, containing as it does less than four per 
cent. of anhydrous phosphoric acid, becomes very bulky and unmanageable 
when the weight of phosphoric acid present exceeds -1 or -2 gramme. This 
fact necessitates the employment of very small quantities of the phosphate ; 
and as the yellow precipitate has to be subsequently redissolved and 
precipitated with magnesia mixture in the ordinary way, the error liable to 
occur from the use of an unusually small weight of the sample, together 
with the loss of time and expense incident to the use of the process, seem to 
have combined to render the method unpopular for every-day work *, while 
its value is generally admitted when the above considerations are of secondary 
importance, 

J. Macagno has very recently proposed to reduce the yellow precipitate 
with zinc and acid, and titrate the solution so obtained with standard 
permanganate. The test experiments show a maximum error of ‘5 per cent. 
of the phosphoric acid present. 


Eggertz’s Molybdic-Acid Method. 


Metallurgial chemists are well aware that M. Eggertz has proposed to 
weigh the yellow precipitate of phospho-molybdate of ammonium instead of 
redissolving it and converting it into ammonio-phosphate of magnesium in 
the ordinary manner. 

The modified plan has the advantage of speed; and the fact that the 
precipitate contains less than four per cent. of phosphoric anhydride would 
render the results extremely accurate. 

Unfortunately it seems improbable that the precipitate has a constant 
composition ; and any sensible yariation in the proportion of phosphoric acid 
contained in it would render it worthless as a method of estimation, at least 
as far as manures are concerned. 

M. Eggertz estimates the anhydrous phosphoric acid contained in the yel- 
low precipitate, obtained under the conditions prescribed by him, at 3-72 per 
cent. 


* Mr. A. Sibson writes:—“The molybdic-acid process is, in my opinion, not suitable 
for phosphatic minerals, although invaluable for soils, limestones, &e. containing small 
proportions only of phosphoric acid. The large excess of molybdic acid necessarily 
employed in the former case is itself a source of error with no adequate advantage, 
inasmuch as the magnesia precipitate has still to be employed ; and it is in the manipula- 
tion of this precipitate that the ees in analyses chiefly arise.” 


ON THE ESTIMATION OF POTASH AND PHOSPHORIC ACID. 33 


Other Methods. 


Besides the above-described processes, and trifling modifications of them, 
descriptions have been received of no other method. The lead, bismuth, and 
tin processes appear to have fallen into complete disuse. No chemist has 
reported that he precipitates phosphoric acid as tricalcic phosphate by direct 
addition of ammonia to the original solution. 


“ Reduced” Phosphates. 


Of all the chemists who have communicated with the Committee, only two 
consider that the so-called “reduced” phosphates can be estimated even 
approximately by any known method. 

One of these writes as follows :— 

“J employ a process based on the ready decomposition of gelatinous phos- 
phate of lime by oxalate of ammonia*, and the almost complete inaction on 
the mineral phosphate by the same salt. Although not an exact process, it 
gives good approximate results within 4 per cent.; and seeing the urgent 
need for some such means of estimation, more especially in the case of bone- 
manures, in which a large proportion of decomposed phosphate may exist 
unrecognizable by the ordinary soluble phosphate determination, I think it 
better to employ even an imperfect process than to classify such decomposed 
phosphate with undecomposed mineral phosphate.” 

Professor A. H. Church, referring to the bicarbonate-of-sodium method 
described in his ‘ Laboratory Guide’+, writes, “It is the only method giving 
approximate results.” 

A series of highly instructive experiments on the estimation of “ reduced” 

phosphates has been contributed by Mr. M. J. Lansdell. 
' With the oxalate-of-ammonium method of Mr. Alfred Sibson +, and with 
the bicarbonate method (which was first described by Mr. Chesshire $), Mr. 
Lansdell obtained the following results, the samples being all passed 
through the same sieve and the proportions employed being the same as 
those recommended by the authors. 


Dissolved 
(equal to Ca, P, O,). 

Sample contained By Sibson’s By Chesshire’s 

(equal to Ca, P, O,). method. method. 
Cambridge coprolite .... 56-07 per cent. 8°32, 2-23 per cent. 
100 (OX Lp aa 76:87 a 10-68, 3:07 Ms 
Navassa phosphate ...... 65°62 i, 7:48, Bae Nas 
German phosphate ...... 60°74 Ps 8-04, 2-09 ti 
Redonda phosphate (dried) 87-42 ,, 19-72, 5GO7" | 
Redonda phosphate (lump) 86°58 Fr 19°10, 64:65 —_,, 


By employing a solution of bicarbonate of twice the above strength, the 
Redonda phosphate gave equal to 84:3 of Ca, P, 0, in solution. 

Using a smaller quantity of the sample in the oxalate method, 47-76 per 
cent. passed into solution. 


' * See Chem. News, Sept. 10, 1869, p, 123. : 

+ 3rd Edition, p. 146. This process consists in boiling the insoluble portion of 5 
grammes of the sample for one hour with a solution of 10 grammes of sodium bicarbonate 
in 800 cub. centims. of water; filtering hot, acidifying, concentrating, precipitating with 
magnesia, Xe. 

¢ Chem. News, Sept. 10, 1869, § Ibid. Sept. 3, 1869, p. 111. 
1875, D 


od REPORT—1875. 


The above results show that neither method is at all satisfactory ; and Mr. 
John Hughes * has made experiments leading to the same conclusion. 

Another correspondent writes, “There is no reliable process known for the 
estimation of ‘reduced phosphates’ under all circumstances. Even the 
citrate-of-ammonium method (which seems to be the one generally preferred) 
utterly fails to distinguish between ‘reduced phosphate’ and the native 
phosphate of aluminium known as ‘Redonda phosphate,’ the latter being 
largely soluble in the citrate-of-ammonium solution ; so that the latter, which is 
a comparatively cheap material, if introduced into a superphosphate, would, 
according to the results obtained by the methods usually employed for esti- 
mating reduced phosphates, be quoted as the latter.” 

Mr. T. L. Patterson has criticised the citrate-of-ammonium method in a 
paper contributed to the ‘Chemical News’ f. 

Mr. W. Galbraith makes the following remarks on the estimation of 
“reduced phosphate ” :— 

«Tt seems to me that an arbitrary method of determining these phosphates 
would serve every purpose—that is, provided there is a necessity for deter- 
mining them (from a commercial point of view), which I am inclined to 
dispute; because any other phosphate in as fine a state of division as these 
‘reduced phosphates’ is of equal value; and if (as some chemists maintain) 
these ‘reduced phosphates’ consist principally of phosphates of iron and 
aluminium, they cannot and should not be reported as, or assumed to be, 
phosphate of calcium. 

“Tt is well known that the presence of oxide of iron and aluminium is 
the cause of the manure ‘ going back.’ Superphosphates containing no iron 
and aluminium do not ‘go back ;’ so that the manufacturer has the remedy 
in his own hands—to avoid using mineral phosphate containing iron and 
aluminium. 

“At present a manufacturer who makes his manure from a phosphate 
containing iron and aluminium, and who sells it immediately after manufac- 
ture, has a decided advantage over another manufacturer who has made his 
manure from a phosphate containing no iron and aluminium, because a 
mineral phosphate containing iron and aluminium is much cheaper than 
one free from those substances. Besides, the iron and aluminium are 
almost invariably stated in the analysis of a mineral phosphate, while 
those substances are seldom if ever mentioned in the analysis of a super- 
phosphate. 

“JT do not think it advisable (even if possible) to determine the actual 
amount of ‘reduced phosphates ;’ but an arbitrary method, or a method of 
determining phosphates of a given fineness, which would include ‘ precipi- 
tated phosphates,’ would, I think, be very serviceable; and such a process 
could be easily devised.” 


Statement of the Commercial and Agricultural Value of Manures. 


Without exception, all the chemists who reply to this question are of 
opinion that it is highly undesirable that analysts should express any opinion 
on the commercial value of a manure. Many of them believe that tricalcic 
phosphate (for instance) has a very different value according to its origin 
and state of division, and that any valuation of a manure not taking this 
and similar facts into account must be worse than useless. Most of the 
chemists who have replied consider that phosphates of iron and aluminium 


* Chem, News, June 4, 1869, p. 266, + May 31 and June 7, 1872, 


> 


ON THE ESTIMATION OF POTASH AND PHOSPHORIC ACID. 35 


have an exceedingly limited manurial value. The relative manurial values 
attributed to phosphoric acid existent in various states is very differently 
regarded ; and as many of the opinions expressed appear to be based on very 
insufficient evidence, the Committee thinks it unnecessary to quote the 
different replies received. 


Mode of occurrence of the Constituents of Manufactured Manures, and 
statement of the Results of Analysis. 


On this subject the Committee has received a large amount of valuable but 
somewhat discordant evidence. 

Very strong opinions are expressed to the effect that the quantity of iron 
and aluminium present in a manufactured manure (superphosphate) should 
always be stated. Such a plan would enable the manufacturer or purchaser 
to judge of the probability of a newly made manure “going back” on 
keeping, and would enable a more accurate opinion to be formed of its true 
value than is possible while the presence of iron and aluminium is ignored. 
At the same time the estimation of the “ reduced phosphates” would often 
be rendered superfluous. 

With respect to the mode of occurrence of the constituents of manufac- 
tured manures, the Committee considers the evidence before it too vague and 
conflicting to justify any expression of opinion at present. 


PorasH Sats. 


Estimation of Potash. 


The Committee has received comparatively few replies on the estimation of 
potash in commercial salts containing it, on account of the limited number 
of chemists having special experience in its determination. The answers 
received are, however, from chemists of the first rank as authorities on the 
subject, and appear to be almost exhaustive of the question. 

The method of estimation by platinic chloride is employed by all the chemists 
who have communicated their processes to the Committee, the only differences 
being in the manipulation and details of the method. 

Some chemists recommend the removal of any sulphates by addition of a 
slight excess of chloride of barium, and some also remove any calcium or mag- 
nesium which may be present. 

The Committee is in possession of some correspondence respecting a sample 
of “muriate” which was analyzed independently by Professor Fresenius and 
Mr. R. R. Tatlock ; and as it throws much light on the origin of the discrepancies 
often observed in the estimation of potassium, the Committee quotes it almost 
in ewtenso, together with a description of the methods employed by the two 
authorities above referred to. 


Messrs. Wallace, Tatlock, and Clark write :-— 


“We employ the platinic-chloride method as described by Fresenius in the 
sixth edition of his ‘ Quantitative Analysis,’ with a slight modification which 
renders it more applicable to all the numerous varieties as well as strengths 
of commercial potash salts. After pounding and mixing in the usual way, 
a quantity of the salt (500 grains) is weighed out, dissolved in hot water 
and filtered. The filtrate and washings being cooled to normal temperature 
are mixed well, made up with cold water to a fixed bulk (5000 grains) and 
again mixed ; a portion of this solution (100 grains), equal to 10 grains of the 

D2 


36 REPORT——1875. 


original sample, is delivered into a small basin, diluted with 400 grms. or 
so of water, and acidified slightly with hydrochloric acid. 

“About 500 grains of platinic-chloride solution (containing at least 25 
grains of platinum) are added, and the fluid evaporated nearly to dryness on 
the water-bath. A few drops of water are then added to the residue, and 
the evaporation repeated to expel the excess of hydrochloric acid. About 
50 grains more of the;strong platinic solution are mixed with the precipitate, 
and the whole stirred well and set aside in a cold place for at least an hour 
with occasional stirring. The precipitate is then thrown on a very small 
filter (unweighed), the basin rinsed out with about 10 drops more of the 
platinic solutiori, and the precipitate on the filter washed with 10 or 15 drops 
more. The basin with the filter and contents are then washed with the small- 
est possible quantity of alcohol of 95 per cent. strength, and dried at 100° C. 
The dried precipitate is transferred as completely as possible to a small cap- 
sule, in which it is further dried until it assumes a distinct orange-colour, and 
weighed. The filter and trace of adhering precipitate is ignited on a cruci- 
ble lid, and the residual metal with its corresponding chloride of potassium 
calculated to potassio-platinic chloride, and the weight added to that of the 
precipitate. The following factors are employed :—To bring the precipitate to 
potassium °1603, to potash -1930, and to chloride of potassium 3056. The 
figures are based on Stas’s numbers for potassium and chlorine, and Berzelius’s 
equivalent for potassium.” 


Professor Fresenius writes :— 


“T am quite ready to go once more closely into the question regarding the 
estimation of potassium in commercial potash salts. However, I can only do 
so occasionally when I am at leisure, for there are a great many experiments 
still to be made before being able to give a satisfactory answer. As far as Tam 
concerned myself, as well as the analyses in my laboratory, these questions are 
of no great importance. The great object I have in view is to be accurate ; 
saving time is only a secondary consideration. I begin by entirely separating 
from the solution the sulphuric acid, lime, and magnesia; then I weigh the 
pure chloride of the alkali-metals, estimate the potassium as platino-chloride 
of potassium according to the method given in my manual of quantitative 
analysis, make sure that it is quite pure, and generally also estimate the 
chloride of sodium in the washings by evaporating and heating the residue in 
a current of hydrogen*, partly to have a check, principally, however, to make 
sure that it contains no more potassium. This method, however, is not practi- 
cable in works because it is too elaborate.” 


In reference to the estimation of potash, Messrs. Wallace, Tatlock, and 
Clark also write :— 


‘Tt is a notorious fact that while the results obtained by the process we 
follow, as compared with those got by what we may term the alcohol method, 
agree very closely in the case of potassium compounds free from sodium, wide 
differences have been observed when the potassium salts were of low strength 

-from the presence of sodium compounds. To this fact it would not be diffi- 
cult to get manufacturers and merchants to testify. This remark applies 
specially to the case of potassium products from kelp, of which many thousand 
tons are made in Glasgow every year, some of which contain a large propor- 


_ * How the proportion ef chloride of sodium present is deduced from the weight of the 
ignited residue is not stated. Probably by washing with water and subtracting the weight 
ot the residual metallic platinum. 


ON THE ESTIMATION OF POTASH AND PHOSPHORIC ACID. 37 


tion of sodium sulphate, which is not readily convertible into sodio-platinic 
chloride, but must be converted into chloride by double decomposition with 
barium chloride—a tedious and unnecessary process, and one liable to lead to 
error in any than very skilled hands. 

“Sulphate of potash made from kelp is an excellent example of the kind 
of salt, as it usually contains about 20 per cent. of sodium sulphate in the 
form of the double salt 3K, 50,+ Na, SO,,. 

“Tt was with the view of obtaining a process for the estimation of potas- 
sium by platinic chloride, directly, in these compounds, that the process we 
employ was originated, and it hasstood the test of practice for 15 years. It 
has been objected to our process that the fotassio-platinic chloride is soluble 
to an appreciable extent in platinic-chloride solution; but our experience goes 
to show that in the circumstances of a potassium determination, as above 
described, the results obtained are accurate. As an instance of this, we may 
mention that a German firm, supposing that we must necessarily get too high 
results, handed to us for analysis, in the usual commercial way, a sample of 
muriate of potash. We found and reported, as the result of the only trial made, 
99-95 per cent. of chloride of potassium, and were afterwards informed that 
the sample consisted of pure chloride of potassium, prepared and sent in order 
to test our process. A further instance will suffice to show the exactness of 
this mode of estimating potassium in presence of sodium compounds in quan- 
tity. A portion of a carefully mixed and pounded sample of muriate of potash, 
of which we had made previously a complete analysis as usual by this method, 
was forwarded by our client to Dr. Fresenius, unknown to us, with the request 
that he would spare no pains to arrive at the truth regarding the relative 
proportion of potassium and sodium salts which it contained. The following 
are the results of the respective analyses :— 

W.T.&C. Fresenius. 


per cent. per cent. 
Parride df potassium 2, Pe 5 SEO 88°50 88°86 
Paipeidie Of potas sf. ete PO et 13 He 
RrmorImorcn Spmtinne oa) 8 LO 2 aed We Se 8°46 8:39 
ROR ANS OMNI te ree neat oe skiers as 18 22 
Wmloride of MasnesiuM ..... 062. es ese ae 50 “47 
MEREETENOM Tee en Nts tee cw tite ns 23 23 
(oo arto gies Orion tigi tat A pridl Bs 1:80 1:83 


bol "ES oe aa eee eee ee 55°97 56°10 


With reference to Mr. Tatlock’s method and the above analyses, Dr. 
Fresenius writes :— 

“T must object to his washing the precipitate with chloride of platinum. 
He dissolves by doing so a small quantity of chloride of platinum and potassium ; 
and you see that he makes the chloride of potassium 0°2i per cent. lower than I. 
This discrepancy, however, will scarcely ever be greater. To make sure 
not to keep any chloride of sodium along with the chloride of platinum 
and potassium, I first extract the chloride of platinum and sodium with 
spirits of wine of 80 degrees, and then wash the chloride of platinum and 
potassium with a few cubic centimetres of water drop by drop; then I evapo- 
rate this solution, adding a little chloride of platinum, treat the small preci- 


38 ‘REPORT—1875. 


pitate again with spirits of wine, and add the small quantity of chloride of 
platinum and potassium to the bulk.” 

In reply to the above criticism the Glasgow chemists say :—“ In his analy- 
sis of this sample Dr. Fresenius followed the method described in the sixth 
edition of his ‘Quantitative Analysis ;’ but, evidently fearing that the digestion 
of the precipitate with alcohol of even 80 per cent. might not free it from 
sodium compounds, he used a little water, wherewith to ensure the separa- 
tion of the latter, and afterwards estimated the potassium in the washings 
obtained, adding this to the main result—a plan which of course can be 
equally adopted with our process if considered necessary ”*. 


Messrs. Wallace, Tatlock, and Clark further write:— 


‘“‘Our method obviates the necessity of converting sulphates into chlorides 
before applying the platinum process. All that is necessary in the case of 
these salts, or where they are present, is to add an equivalent quantity or 
rather more of pure sodium chloride, which takes up the liberated sulphuric 
acid. We believe that the general tendency is to report potassium results too 
high, not only on account of incomplete removal of sodium compounds from 
the potassium precipitate, but by reason of impure platinic solutions, which, 
however pure when originally made from the metal, are liable to contamina- 
tion through the spent liquors and precipitates being recovered by question- 
able means. 

‘There is almost no limit to the accuracy of this process ; with care and in 
good hands, the potash may be estimated easily to within ‘05 per cent.” 


Mr. W. Galbraith, who has had great experience in the analysis of potash 
salts by Mr. Tatlock’s method, writes of it as follows:— 


“The method requires a few precautions, the principal of which are that 
the pipette be accurate and that the platinic chloride be pure. Care also 
should be taken that the evaporation should not go to dryness, especially in 
presence of a large quantity of soda salts, or the result will be too high. By 
diluting the solution previous to the evaporation, the precipitate comes down 
in larger crystals, is more easily filtered and taken off the filter, and is also 
more likely to be pure. 

“With these precautions, which are easily attended to, the method gives 
rigidly accurate results even in the hands of inexperienced manipulators.” 


Dr. G. L. Ulex, of Hamburg, separates any sulphates by very cautious ad- 
dition of chloride of barium. He washes the chloroplatinate of potassium 
with alcohol of 80 per cent. He obtains results reliable within -2 per cent. 
The process, “although simple, requires to be worked carefully, otherwise 
serious mistakes will be made.” 

Mr. M. J. Lansdell says, “I consider the great secret is to use plenty of 
platinum, which facilitates the washing out of the sodium salts, and renders 
the indication by colour (as to when to arrest washing) distinct.” 

M. Joulie separates sulphates, and then the barium introduced, together 
with any calcium or magnesium present. He washes the chloroplatinate 
with a mixture of alcohol and ether. Absolutely exact results are obtained 
in 5 or 6 hours, whatever the nature of the original sample. 

Dr. G. Berrand uses a large excess of platinic chloride, and washes the 
. * As the quantity of platinic-chloride solution employed by Mr. Tatlock for washing 
the precipitate does not exceed 70 fluid grains, the solution of any sensible quantity of the 


latter seems improbable, and if occurring might be altogether prevented by previously satu- 
rating the platinic chloride used for washing with the potassium salt, 


ON THE ESTIMATION OF POTASH AND PHOSPHORIC ACID. 39 


precipitate with alcohol of 98 per cent. He removes any sulphates with a 
slight excess of chloride of barium. He remarks that “‘the most essential 
point of the whole method is the purity of the chloride of platinum, which 
can be well proved by testing it with chemically pure muriate of potash. 
This, of course, must yield 100 per cent. If more or less, the platinum solu-- 
tion has not been pure. If the platinum solution is correct, even less practised 
hands will obtain exact results by the above method, which is now universally 
applied in the manufactories of our place.” 

The above replies and correspondence show conclusively the necessity for 
independent experiments on miwtures containing known amounts of real 
potash. 


Statement of Results of Analyses of Potash Salts. 


The information the Committee has received on this subject is limited to 
the opinions of a few chemists. | Without endorsing the whole of the fol- 
lowing observations, the Committee believe that the subjoined remarks will 
be read with interest and advantage. 

“Tt is quite likely that the sulphuric acid exists in these (kelp) muriates 
not as sulphate of potash, but as the double salt 3K,80,+Na,SO0, 
(discovered in kelp potash salts by Penny of Glasgow) ; and if so, the large 
proportion of sulphates present in kelp muriates (usually from 4 to 6 per 
cent.) would involve a slight alteration in the mode of stating the results, and 
would introduce sodium sulphates to a small extent. This view, however, 
even if proceeded upon in practice, would not interfere practically with the 
commercial value of the sulphates. 

“There cannot be a doubt that the alkali present is carbonate of soda, both 
from the fact of these muriates not being deliquescent, and the impossibility of 
the existence of carbonate of potash and chloride of sodium together without 
mutual decomposition ; otherwise carbonate of potash could be made by the 
simple process of mixing solutions of carbonate of soda and chloride of 
potassium.” 


Dr. Ulex, of Hamburg, writes:— 

“Potash, carbonate of potash, and pearlash generally contain sulphates 
(which require to be removed carefully by a chloride-of-barium solution be- 
fore estimating the potassium). The whole of the potassium is estimated as 
chloride of platinum and potassium, and calculated to oxide of potassium. 
The sulphuric acid present is precipitated with chloride of barium as sulphate 
of baryta, the chlorine with a solution of silver as chloride of silver; the former 
is calculated to sulphate of potash, the chlorine to chloride of potassium. 
The oxide of potassium equivalent to these two salts is subtracted from the 
total oxide of potassium, and the remainder calculated to carbonate of potash. 
Part of the sample is titrated with sulphuric acid and noted as carbonate of 
potassium. Subtract from this the carbonate of potash previously found and 
calculate the difference to carbonate of soda.” 


Mr. W. Galbraith writes as follows :— 

“‘ Muriates, which may be alkaline and contain sodium carbonate, and there- 
fore will not contain calcium or magnesium soluble in water, I should state 
thus, putting the stronger bases and salt-radicals first :— 


Potassium. Sulphate. 
Chloride. 


Sodium, Carbonate. 


40 REPORT—-1875. 


“When they contain calcium and magnesium soluble in water, they should 
be stated thus :— 


Calcium. Sulphate. 
Potassium. 

Magnesium. Chloride. 
Sodium. 


“In the case of ‘artificial sulphates,’ which contain iron, calcium, and 
magnesium, in addition to potassium and sodium, and are usually acid, the 
results may be stated thus :— 


Hydrogen. 

Calcium. Sulphate. 
Potassium. 

Iron. Chloride. 
Magnesium, 

Sodium. 


“The free acid I should state as sulphuric acid, as I cannot believe that it 
exists as hydrochloric acid, considering the heat of the furnace during the 
manufacture. 

“Of course it is evident that the acidity will not be really due to free sul- 
phuric acid, but to an acid sulphate, probably acid sulphate of potassium 
(KHSO,). Lumps of chlorides are often to be found in salt cakes and potas- 
sium sulphates of decided acid reaction. 

‘Of course carbonates should follow the same rules as the above.” 


Mr. M. J. Lansdell holds the following opinions :— 


“T think in this, as in all other instances, it is a mistake to give detailed 
analyses showing any particular arrangement of acids and bases combined. 
I advocate a simple statement of the elements (or acids and bases) separately, | 
and any combining of them I am inclined to look upon as padding only 
(to use an expressive word), and as having weight only with the uninitiated. 
I do not object to a statement of any one substance (say a base) as being 
equal to a salt, not in the sense that that amount of that salt is present in 
that sample, but as a trade valuation of the base (present) according to a well- 
known or usual standard for its valuation. I find the practice of latter years 
among our clients is to ask only for certain determinations (in potash salts, 
generally of potash only, or for potash and its equivalent amount of sulphate of 
potash or chloride of potassium), and not for detailed analyses, so getting them 
done at a less fec. However, I should see no objection if the Committee 
thought fit to prescribe a mode of statement for detailed analyses which they 
found suited to the requirements of the trade, it being understood that such 
analysis, quoted perhaps as the ‘B. A. statement’ or ‘B. A. analysis,’ was 
only a statement in a conventional form. Yet a statement of the elements 
(or acids and bases) determined—with at most their amounts in equivalent pro- 
portions (each equivalent proportion =1 of hydrogen)—would give to each 
manufacturer an easy means of making all calculations useful to him as to 
value or the capabilities of the articles for separation or manufacture thereof 
of any compound, and would not parade a lot of fictitious or supposititious in- 
formation to impose upon or awe the ignorant. I incline to the belief that 
every analyst should have respect to the ends sought and need not go beyond 
them. A trader, only finding some constituent or constituents of value for 
his purnose, should be accommodated with estimations of such on paying pro- 


ON OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE OF THE CRUSTACEA, 41 


perly for them, and should not be led to require as ‘the thing’ a lot of other 
information involving greater trouble and higher fees to the limitation of 
general reference to the chemist. The sooner the public learns that chemists 
do not want to take advantage of them, but only to do what is of use to them, 
and that fees are not to be regulated by the number of items given (any more 
than an amount of money by the number of coins of various values it may be 
paid in, but also by the intrinsic value of each), the better I think it will be.” 


In the foregoing Report the Committee has attempted to give an epitome of 
the very voluminous replies which have been received. 

It will be perceived that there are many points on which the evidence is 
very conflicting ; and the Committee feels it impossible to recommend with 
confidence any particular process or processes unless the special conditions of 
accuracy are very clearly defined. 

The large amount of information amassed during the past year has indi- 
cated very distinctly the directions in which further research is desirable ; and 
the Committee, if reappointed, will be able to complete the proposed experi- 
ments and inquiries before the next Meeting of the Association, and make a 
full report on the whole subject it was appointed to investigate, 


Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of the Crustacea.— 
Part I. On the Homologies of the Dermal Skeleton. By C. Spence 


Barz, F.R.S. &c. 
[Puatzs I. & IT.] 


In presenting a Report on the present state of our knowledge of the Crustacea, 
I do not think that I should fulfil the object in view without drawing atten- 
tion to what must be one of the greatest hindrances to the progress of any 
study in an exact or scientific manner. I allude to the want of a uniformity 
in scientific nomenclature. 

The names of the several groups and families, as well as those of the struc- 
ture of the animals, given by the earliest carcinologists, having been based on 
a limited knowledge both of the forms and the variation to which this great 
subkingdom is liable, make them inapplicable to the knowledge of the period. 
Leach named one great group of Crustacea Decapoda, from the number of 
legs that it possesses; and Dana more recently named another group Tetra- 
decapoda, from the fourteen legs that belongs to its most normal forms. 

Observation has demonstrated that in this latter group some genera, as 
Anceus, have but eight legs ; while in the Decapoda it is only a conventional 
rule that prevents the genus Palwmon and its allies from having the appendages 
of the pereion anterior to the last five pairs counted as legs. 

But a greater difficulty still exists where the names given to any parts of 
the animal carry any significance with them that precludes their being ac- 
cepted in their universally correct sense. Thus the third pair of maxillipedes 
in the Brachyurous Crustacea are identical with the first pair of walking-legs 
in the Stomapoda, Amphipoda, and most of the Isopoda. 

It is now exactly twenty years (1855) since I presented to the Association a 
Report on the British Edriophthalmia, in which the same difficulty was pointed 


42 : REPORT—1875. 


out and a nomenclature suggested which, it was hoped, would to a large extent 
overcome the great difficulty in the study of this branch of natural history. 

But although many of the terms there given have become very general in 
use, yet the custom of some writers of applying different ones at separate 
times for the same parts is significant of a confusion of ideas that precludes 
the student from a just appreciation of the labours of others. 

I do not think that this difficulty will be overcome for some long period 
unless a committee is appointed by this Association, consisting of all the best 
known authors of carcinological works, who shall determine upon a syste- 
matic nomenclature for the structure and classification of the Crustacea to 
which all future writers shall conform. 

In this Report I purpose provisionally, except when quoting from others, to 
make use of the same terminology as that adopted in the previous Report, and 
confine each term to that which has homologically the same signification. 

In the classification of Crustacea in his great work*, Dana states 
that “in the crustacean type there are normally twenty-one segments, 
and correspondingly twenty-one pairs of members, as laid down by Milne- 
Edwards, the last seven of which pertain to the abdomen (pleon) and the first 
fourteen to the cephalothorax (cephalon and pereion). Now we may gather 
from an examination of the crab, or macrural decapod, acknowledged to bo 
first in rank, what condition of the system is connected with the highest 
centralization in Crustacea. 

“In these highest species, nine segments and nine pairs of appendages out 
of the fourteen cephalothoracic belong to the senses and mouth, and five pairs 
are for locomotion. Of these nine, three are organs of senses, six are mandibles 
and maxille.” 

M. Milne-Edwards, in his standard work ‘ Histoire Naturelle des Crustacés,’ 
says, “‘ We can generally distinguish among these animals a head, a thorax, 
and an abdomen; but the limit of these regions is not always naturally well 
defined ; and it is not well to attach too much importance to these distinctions, 
for they do not correspond with the same parts among mammals, birds, &c. 
....” And in a note to the above he says, ‘‘ Guided by the principal viscera 
some authors have given the name of abdomen to the thorax, and that of 
postabdomen to that which we call abdomen; but after this principle we 
must consider the head to be a preabdomen, because it contains the same 
viscera as the thorax and abdomen.” 

The twenty-one somites of the typical Crustacea M. Milne-Edwards has 
thus divided—the anterior seven to the head, the next seven to the thorax, 
and the posterior seven to the abdomen. But in his nomenclature of the 
appendages the terms used are suggestive of the anterior two pairs of the 
thorax being attached to the head. In his “ Observations sur le Squelette 
tégumentaire des Crustacés décapodes,” Ann. des Sciences, 1854, the same 
author statesthat ‘he has often been convinced thatin many branchesof zoology 
the difficulties of the study are considerably augmented by the imperfection 
of the language by which we attempt to formulate the results of our observa- 
tions. The employment of expressions that are vague in the determination of 
zoological characters and the description of the parts that constitute an 
organism convey naturally the superficial observation with which the observer 
was content, leaving in the mind of the reader an amount of doubt which 
retards his: desire for distinct information ....... The terms,” he con- 
tinues, “of zoology are far, at present, from that degree of precision. .... 
These considerations have determined me to make a general revision of the 


* United States’ Exploring Expedition, p. 1897, 


ON OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE OF THE CRUSTACEA. 43 


‘ earcinological terminology’ before presenting to zoologists the work that has 
engaged me for some time on the natural distribution of Crustacea from the 
collection in the natural-history museum.” 

Even after this M. Milne-Fdwards uses the terms head, thorax, and 
abdomen, which he had previously stated to be “regions not naturally defined,” 
and gives the appellation of pemptognathe and hectognathe to the first and 
second pair of appendages attached to the thorax (or pereion). Dana made 
his researches on the highest form in crustacean life ; so also has M. Milne- 
Edwards in his later observations. But the two appendages which this latter. 
author determines as the seventh and eighth pairs of gnathes are invariably, 
according to his own showing, the anterior two pairs of the thorax. It is 
only in the highest and most consolidated form of crustacean life that we 
find them variated from their typical character so as to make them appear 
organs attached to the mouth ; whereas in a very considerable proportion of 
the various forms of Crustacea they never act as attendants on the mouth, 
but are simply prehensile in their character or locomotive in their power : 
but almost universally throughout Crustacea they are connected with a pair 
of branchial appendages ; and in this they fulfil most efficient work, so that in 
the highest types their connexion with the mouth is one of secondary impor- 
tance only. 

The first two pairs of appendages belonging to the pereion (or thorax), 
through nearly all the orders, of the typical crustacean exhibit a variation 
that distinguishes them from those posterior to them ; and it may be convenient 
to define them, but certainly not by a term that confuses them with appen- 
dages that are only connected with secondary duties. 

Taking into consideration the many and various forms of Crustacea, the 
great and numerous changes they undergo, it is desirable not only to be sure 
that the nomenclature shall be scientifically correct in its determination and 
homological signification, but that it is convenient and applicable to a very 
considerable proportion of the animals it has to define. 

A typical crustacean in any of the well-defined orders can readily be 
divided into three parts, each part to consist of seven somites. 

The first division we call the crpHaton*. It consists of the anterior seven 
somites, and supports the organs of sense and appendages adapted to be 
attendants on the mouth. 

The second division we call the prrnton. The seven somites that form 
this division support appendages that are more or less adapted for walking in 
their most normal condition. 

The third division we name the pron. This consists of the posterior 
seven somites; these support the appendages which, when developed, are always 
more or less perfectly adapted for swimming. 

The last somite of the pleon is almost universally variated from the others, 
and is developed much to resemble an appendage itself. It is, however, the 
posterior somite, and as such we designate it by the name of the telson. 

The appendages that are attached to these several divisions are known by 
their relation to them. Those that are connected with the senses are deter- 
mined by their character—such as the eyes, antenne, and oral appendages. 

The antenne may be distinguished as the anterior and posterior pair, or as 
the auditory or olfactory respectively, in preference to that of the inner and 
outer or upper and lower, which is liable to vary. So the fourth pair of 
appendages, or the first belonging to the oral group, may be known (from their 
mandibular power) as the mandibles, while the three following may be deter- 


* For the derivation of these terms see Report of the British Edriophthalmia, 1855, 


4A, REPORT—1875. 


mined by their relationship as the first, second, and third pair of maville, or, 
as Professor Westwood has suggested, stagnopoda. 

The appendages of the second division, or seven pairs of legs attached to 
the pereion, may be readily denominated the pereiopoda; but the anterior 
two pairs are commonly variated for different purposes. In Brachyura they 
fulfil the purposes of opercula to the mouth; in the Squillide and Edrioph- 
thalmic Crustacea they are adapted for prehensile and ambulatory purposes; so 
that it may be found convenient to recognize them by a distinctive name, as 
gnathopoda. 

The appendages of the third division, or pleon, are never developed for 
walking or prehension, but almost universally are formed for swimming ; and 
even in the Isopoda, where these are utilized as branchial organs, they oc- 
casionally fulfil the office of swimming-appendages. Not unfrequently the 
last two, as in the Macrura, and the last three, as in Amphipoda, are variated 
in form so as to enable the animal to spring when on land or dart a con- 
siderable distance in the water; and the term wropoda has been applied to 
them; but their variation is so inconstant that the advantage of defining 
them by any special name will be less than the convenience arising from 
the distinction. 

The integumentary structure is one of the most important in the Crustacea, 
and a knowledge of the variations of its several parts is of much assistance, 
not only to the student of the history of these animals, but also for elucidating 
the knowledge of those forms that have passed away and can be studied only 
through the impressions left imbedded in the rocks. 

The external skeleton of a crustaceous animal consists of series of rings, 
that appear to repeat each other, differing only in modification according to 
the necessity of the various portions of the animal. These rings represent 
and protect externally various segments of the body, each division supporting 
one pair of appendages only and the internal structure that relates to them. 
Each of these several divisions we call a ‘‘somite,” a term suggested, I 
believe, by Professor Huxley in his lectures at the Royal College of Surgeons. 
Of these there are never more than twenty-one; and this may be considered 
as being the normal number in all Crustacea above those known as the Ento- 
mostraca, in some few of which, as in the genera Apus and Stegocephalus, the 
number of somites appear to be much more numerous ; but there the somites 
appear to be repeated without having any function to fulfil or appendage to 
support—a numerical repetition only, the result of an enfeebled force. 

The first somite supports and carries the organs of vision. In some of 
the most condensed forms the eyes are implanted on the outer side of the two 
pairs of antenuz; but the internal structure invariably shows that the most 
anterior pair of nerves are those that are connected with these organs. The 
progress of development which we purpose alluding to in its proper place 
clearly demonstrates the eyes to be the most anterior of all the organs. 

The second somite bears the first pair of antennz, which, from its position 
in the higher Crustacea, is generally called the inner pair, and from its posi- 
tion in the lower forms is called the upper pair of antenne. 

The third somite supports the second or posterior pair of antenne; this, 
from its relative position to the other antenne in the higher and lower forms 
of Crustacea, has been called respectively the outer andlower antenne. This 
somite is so closely associated with the fourth that it is not certain that they 
exist distinct in any species of Crustacea. 

The three anterior somites are generally closely blended together. In the 
earlier forms of development they are invariably so; but in Squilla and its 


~ 


ON OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE OF THE CRUSTACEA. 45 


congeners the two anterior somites are distinctly separated from each other and 
the third. In Palinurus the first is distinct from the second; but in the 
greater portion of Brachyurous and Macrurous Crustacea the three first 
somites, and perhaps the fourth, are strongly soldered into one piece. 

This piece in most Crustacea, but more conspicuously so in the more con- 
densed forms, is developed to a greater or less extent, and is recognized under 
the name of the carapace or shield. 

In the lower forms, such as the Amphipoda and Isopoda, it is developed 
sufficiently to cover only the four succeeding somites; while in the higher 
forms, such as the Brachyura, it is developed so as to protect the whole of the 
animal. 

The carapace varies very much in shape, both in width and length, and 
generally covers the whole of the somites of the pereion ; but not universally 
so. In the Anomura several genera have the posterior somite of the pereion 
exposed; in the Diastylide there are three or four somites not covered, and 
in the Edriophthalmic Crustacea all seven are unprotected and developed into 
perfect somites. 

It is one of the earliest features present in the development of the embryo, 
and is distinctly defined in the Nauplius form. Even in this early stage 
of development, as in later existence, the form of the carapace varies 
considerably, and is an easy mark of distinction between genera. It is 
desirable as well as important, in an anatomical point of view, that a clear 
idea should be obtained of the homological relation of this large and con- 
spicuous portion of the highly developed crustacean. This can be done only 
after an examination and comparison of a large number of various forms 
and types of animals, as well as a close investigation and study of the parts 
during their progressive development. 

Milne-Edwards, as far back as 1834, arrived at the conclusion that the 
carapace in the higher types of Crustacea is “the result of an excessive 
development of the superior arch of the cephalic antenno-maxillary seg- 
ment. ... But (Hist. des Crust. vol. i. p. 26) among certain Stomapods, 
such as Squilla, the head is divided into many distinct segments; the first 
two, the ophthalmic and antennular rings, are movable and little developed. 
The third and fourth rings are, on the contrary, very large and compose 
between them a single segment that we call the antenno-maxillary. The 
carapace occupies the dorsal portion of the trongon formed by this union, 
and is prolonged above the six following rings.” 

“In studying (/.c. p. 28) the carapace as a whole as well as in its parts, 
we must examine into the rules of the normal organization of Crustacea, not 
only in the later, more or less, remarkable modification, but also the very 
curious structure of certain Entomostraca, where all the animal is enclosed in 
a kind of bivalve shell.” 

These views receive general support from Mr. Dana, who, however, takes 
exception to the assertion that the ventral piece of the carapace is formed 
out of what M. Milne-Edwards calls the epimera (J. c. p. 32), but contends 
that they “are in fact the posterior extension of the mandibular segment ;” 
and he continues, ‘“ excepting that we consider what is here called epimeral, 
the mandibular segment, we agree with Milne-Edwards, for the most part, in 
the above-mentioned deduction; so that while the mandibular segment is 
confined to the ventral pieces of the Brachyural carapax, it constitutes its 
posterior half in Macrura.” 

In 1855 the author of this Report communicated to the ‘ Annals of Natural 
History’ a memoir on this subject, supporting the opinion of Milne-Edwards 


46 REPORT—1875. 


as to the homology of the carapace, but denying the existence of epimera in the 
theory of the somite, and corroborating the assertion of Dana that the antennal 
segment constitutes the anterior and upper portion, and the mandibular seg- 
ment the posterior and lower portion of the carapace in the Macrura and Bra- 
chyura; and affirmed that the suture which traverses the lower surface forms 
a line of demarcation between the third and fourth somites; it homologizes 
with the cervical suture in the Macrura, as also with that which traverses the 
dorsal surface of the cephalon in several genera of Trilobites (Pl. I. fig. 5). 

If we wish to judge of the relation of these parts in the several forms of 
Crustacea, we must make a careful investigation during the immature stages 
of the animal. 

In the Megalopa stage the inferior antenne are attached to the anterior _ 
external horns of the carapace; these horns are folded beneath the animal, 
and it is this inflection that forms the orbit in which the eye is lodged. 
Through this inversion, consequent upon the monstrous development of the 
hepatic region, this suture lies upon the inferior surface of the carapace in 
Brachyurous Crustacea, extending posteriorly to the extreme limits of the 
carapace. 

The author concluded his paper by saying, “ But we have seen in the de- 
scending scale of nervous force the rings which carry the organs of conscious- 
ness degenerate in importance, and yield to a corresponding development of 
the mandibular ring: this law appears to be in force in the Amphipoda, the 
lowest type of the Macrura form, in which I am inclined to believe that the 
mandibular ring represents the whole of the upper portion of the cephalic ar- 
ticulation—the anterior three being so diminished in importance, that they are 
to be found only in the perpendicular wall of the head, or perhaps represented 
by their appendages only” (Ann. Nat. Hist., July 1855). 

It would scarcely perhaps be necessary to enter further into the evidence 
that supports the homological relations of the carapace, had not Professor 
Huxley, in his Hunterian Lectures at the Royal College of Surgeons, expressed 
an opinion opposed to the above statements. 

In his twelfth lecture Prof. Huxley says:—“ In all the Brachyura and 
ordinary Macrura it appears to me to be obvious that the carapace is con- 
tinuous with, and part of, all the somites of the cephalothorax—that it is 
composed, in fact, of their connate terga, the branchiostegite being nothing 
more than their connate and highly developed pleura; the cervical suture, 
placed immediately behind the attachment of the mandibular muscles and in 
front of the heart, corresponds in these respects precisely with the posterior 
boundary of the head of a Squilla and of a Branchiopod, or of an Edrioph- 
thalmian. The cephalic are roofs over the stomach, as does the tergal region 
of the head in these last-named Crustacea. Anatomically, then, it seems to 
be demonstrable that the scapular are of the carapace in the ordinary Podoph- 
thalmia is the equivalent of the terga of the thorax, that the cephalic are 
is the homologue of the terga of the head, and that the carapace is formed 
by all the cephalothoracic somites.” 

Before the Reporter can proceed with any fresh evidence to support the 
argument demonstrative of the homological character of the carapace, it is 
desirable that a clear idea should be given of the theory of a somite or 
segment as it exists in Crustacea. 

Prof. Milne-Edwards, in his ‘ Histoire des Crustacés,’ vol. 1. p. 16, says :— 
“Each of the rings of the skeleton appears to be composed of two lateral 
moieties, resembling each other. We can distinguish moreover two arcs, 
the one superior, the other inferior, as shown in the accompanying diagram 


ON OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE OF THE CRUSTACEA. 47 


[pl. 1. fig. 3 of his work]. The former results from the assemblage of four 
pieces more or less intimately connected together, and arranged in pairs on 
each side of the median line. The central pieces are called by the name of 
the tergum, and the lateral are called the flancs or epimeral pieces. The 
inferior are is composed of the same number of pieces. The two median 
pieces unite to form the sternum; and the latter are known by the name of 
the episternum, by reason of their analogy with those that M. Audouin has 
designated by the same name among insects. They are united always at the 
sternum ; but there generally exists, between the inferior are and the epimera 
situated above, a wide space destined for the articulation of the corresponding 
member.” 

“We know of no example,” he continues, “of a ring where we are able 
to distinguish at the same time all the pieces that we desire to enumerate. 
Sometimes there is an absence of some of the pieces from the place they 
should occupy, and sometimes they are very intimately soldered together, so 
that we cannot see even a trace of separation; but in studying each of them 
separately, where it is most distinct, we shall be able to form a clear idea, and 
recognize its character in spite of its union with its neighbouring pieces. 
Moreover, although this analysis of the ring may not be always practicable, 
it is not the least true that it facilitates much the study of the exterior ske- 
leton of articulated animals, and that it will permit us often to establish 
analogies where there would first appear to exist the greatest difference.” 

“To terminate the enumeration of the constituent parts of the tegumentary 
rings of the Crustacea, there only remains for us to speak of the plates that 
we often see elevated from the internal surface and arrange themselves into 
cells and canals. These processes are always developed at the points of union 
of two rings or of two neighbouring pieces of the same segment; and this 
disposition has obtained for them the name of apodemes (from M. Audouin). 
They are the result of a fold of the integumentary membrane which penetrates 
more or less deeply between the organs, and which is strengthened with cal- 
careous matter like the rest of the structure, and ‘ure always formed of two 
thin plates soldered together.” 

These views haye long been accepted as the acknowledged theory. Nor 
am I aware that any one (except the authors above quoted) has attempted 
upon original investigation to analyze the evidence upon which M. Milne- 
Edwards has formed his theory. 

That the author of this Report has long held views not consistent with 
M. Milne-Edwards’s theory, is known to those carcinologists who have read 
his Report on the British Edriophthalmia, which was communicated to this 
Association and published in its Transactions for 1855, wherein he trusts 
that he clearly demonstrated that the pieces to which M. Milne-Edwards 
gave the name of epimera, and selected by him as typical of his theory, 
were parts attached to the legs, and not pieces of the dorsal arc of the 
crustacean somite. 

He is moreover desirous in this Report to show :—that the epimera, as sec- 
tional pieces in a theoretical construction of a somite, cannot exist; that 
the so-called epimera are portions only of the integumentary structure of 
the appendages of the animal, and that the apodema are formed out of 
this structure, more or less thinned out by lateral pressure and internal 
arrangement ; and that the head of the lower types and carapace of the 
higher are homologically the same, the carapace being a monstrous deve- 
lopment intended for the covering and protection of the more complicated 
branchial appendages of the higher types. 


48 REPORT—1875. 


But this portion will be discussed more fully when the structure of the 
appendages is treated of. 

The earliest stage in the life of a crustaceous animal, in which the dorsal 
shield known as the carapace is observable, is that of the young as it exists 
fresh from the ovum of a cirriped(PLAI. fig. 1). This, which has been named the 
Nauplius form of the Crustacea by Fritz Miller, exists as a small animal with 
three pairs of appendages only. ‘The eyes are not developed, the ocular spot 
not being homologous with the permanent organs ; but since we see that mate- 
rial does enter into the stomach, we can have no great effort in accepting the 
proposition that this incipient animal has a mouth; and such being the case, 
we must assume that the anterior four somites are present in the construc- 
tion of the head of the Nauwplius stage of Crustacea. The oral apparatus is 
still in an embryonic condition. 

The next stage of living types in which we can observe the carapace to exist 
in the progressive condition is in that known as the Zoéa form of Crustacea 
(Pl. I. fig. 2). This is the early life of the young of the higher Podophthalmous 
Crustacea. That of the Brachyura is most known and most instructive. Some 
of the appendages are beginning to assume a permanent form. ‘The eyes are 
developed, the antenne (though in an immature condition) are in existence, 
and so are all the appendages of the head except the last. The first two 
pairs of appendages connected with the pereion are present in an immature 
condition, and the posterior pairs are represented by small bud-like appen- 
dages. Dissection readily demonstrates that the carapace in this stage only 
covers, but has no associated connexion with, the appendages of the pereion ; 
and a closer study shows that the heart is connected with and partly exists 
in the great dorsal spine. The relative position of this process, therefore, 
enables us to determine that the future growth of the carapace takes place 
and is connected with the anterior portion of this structure, and not with the 
posterior. In the young of Palinurus, as well as in the larger forms known 
as Phyllosoma, which appears to be the young of Palinurus older in age and 
larger in size, the carapace is developed largely in advance of the oral ap- 
paratus ; it is produced posteriorly so far as to project over the anterior two 
somites of the pereion, but is not attached to any portion beyond the posterior 
oral appendages. An examination of the Zoéa of the various types of Podoph- 
thalmous Crustacea supports this observation; and we can trace the same 
facts from the Zoéa, through the Megalopa, to the adult Brachyurous Crustacea 
(PI. I. fig. 3). It is therefore desirable that we should see how far the study 
of an adult crustacean will assist us in demonstrating the true relation of the 
carapace to the general structure of the animal. 

In Squilla and allied forms of the same type the two anterior somites (the 
first of which supports the eyes, the second the anterior pair of antenne) exist 
as distinct and perfect, though small somites; whereas the two succeeding are 
closely associated together, and appear as a large dorsal plate supporting the 
posterior pair of antenne and mandibles. The posterior three somites belong- 
ing to the cephalon and the first two belonging to the pereion are represented 
by the sternal plates only. In the young forms the anterior two somites be- 
longing to the pereion are in a membranous condition dorsally complete. 

According to the theory of Professor Huxley, the carapace represents the 
dorsal are of all the somites that it protects and have not a distinct roof of 
their own. 

It is therefore desirable that we should learn what may be the distinct 
useful value of the carapace, and why each somite would not serve the same 
purpose by being perfect in its own are. 


ON OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE OF THE CRUSTACEA, 49 


The branchial organs, that are so essential to the aeration of the blood in 
all aquatic animals, are in the Crustacea appendages attached to the members 
belonging either to the pereion or pleon or both. In the lower and terrestrial 
types, such as the Isopoda, they are connected with the pleon only. In some 
Stomapods, as Squilla and its allies, we find them attached to the pleopoda 
as well as the pereiopoda; but in the higher groups they are invariably 
attached to the pereiopoda only. In the most simple form the branchis 
exist as mere saccular attachments, whereas in the higher types they become 
more complicated and voluminous. In the saccular condition they are held 
by a small neck pendent from the joint, and are exposed in the water without 
protection; but in the higher Podophthalmous types they are formed of 
very numerous plates folded close together upon a central stalk, and would 
be very liable to injury if not protected by some means. 

The branchie, therefore, being in their very nature external organs, and 
attached to the first joints of the several appendages of the pereion, it is 
self-evident that they could not be covered or protected by their own somite, 
inasmuch as if it had passed over them the branchial appendages would be- 
come internal. Their character and constitution would therefore be changed ; 
' they would cease to be external; in fact they would cease to be branchie. 

But since the appendages exist as branchie and are covered and protected, 
it must follow that if the protection cannot be evolved from the somites to 
which they are secondarily attached, the covering must be the result of the 
development of some other somite. 

The somites in their simple conditions have a tendency to overlap one 
another to an extent that precludes them from permitting any portion of the 
intermediate structure being exposed. 

That the somites have a tendency to extend in every direction, is very evi- 
dent from the different proportions and forms they severally undergo in various 
genera, and those which compose the carapace exist in all proportions. 

In the Isopoda the cephalon is reduced to the smallest extent in a typical 
form of Crustacea. In the Amphipoda the cephalon is much larger than 
in the Isopoda ; but in neither of these is the integumentary covering pro- 
duced to cover or protect any somite that is not included within its ana- 
tomical bounds. In the Diastylide, one of the lowest forms of the Schizopod 
type (where the branchie consist of but one or two pairs of a multicellular 
form), the tergal projection of the cephalon extends posteriorly over half the 
pereion; whereas the lateral walls are anteriorly produced, so as to protect 
and cover the anterior cephalic appendages. These animals burrow and 
live in the mud and sand; and no doubt this development of the carapace 
forms a good protection to the eyes and antennal organs. Thus we can 
readily interpret the origin and homologue of the shell-covering in Limnadia, 
Cypris, &c., by supposing a monstrous development of the carapace in every 
direction, induced as a protection to a feeble animal that but for this pro- 
tection must perish in its destructive habitat. 

In Squwilla and its allies (the typical form on which Milne-Edwards has 
based his researches) the carapace does not extend posteriorly beyond its 
anatomical bounds; laterally it projects interiorly more so; but the great 
size of this plate arises from the large amount of space that exists between 
the mandibles and the antenne ; and as a carapace it is scarcely more impor- 
tant than the tergal surface of the cephalon in the Amphipoda. The 
branchial organs in this type of animals are saccular, or more rudimentary in 
their condition than the same organs attached to the pleon. The carapace 
as a covering is not required to protect these branchial organs, which are 

- 1875. E 


50 REFORT—1875. 


not more important than the same in the Amphipoda. Gradually, as the 
branchiz assume a more complicated or multicellular condition, the carapace 
increases in dimensions both laterally and dorsally, until we perceive it 
reaches the important feature we find in the Brachyurous Crustacea. 

In Squilla the eyes are borne on a distinct somite ; in Palinurus the same 
is distinctly visible ; in Cancer the ophthalmic somite is likewise distinct and 
separated from the next succeeding, but it is wrapt over and enclosed by the 
next or anterior antennal somite. In Squilla also the first pair of antenne 
are borne on a somite distinct from the succeeding. In the Macrura and 

' Brachyura this and the succeeding somites are closely blended together ; but 
in Squilla the fifth, sixth, and seventh somites are capable of being deter- 
mined by their sternal pieces only. As we perceive the tergal pieces of the 
somites of the pereion are wanting in the Brachyura, so we may assume that 
they are not developed in the posterior somites of the head in Squilla under 
similar conditions. There therefore is every reason to believe in the theory, 
that the monstrous development of the mandibular and posterior antennal 
somites, incorporated together, unite to form the perfect carapace that is so 
characteristic of the typical Crustacea. 

But whatever may be correct in a theoretical or transcendental point of 
view, for all anatomical and practical requirements the carapace represents 
the tergal surface of the cephalon, so largely developed as to cover and pro- 
tect not only the pereion, but, as in Cryptolithodes, the entire animal, 

In the development of the Crustacea the gradual progress of the carapace 
may be traced through all its stages. 

In the ovum the members are first represented by small gemmiparous 
sacs, and precede the formation of the dorsal or ventral arcs in the small 
Nauplius. The carapace covers and protects all the animal except the pleon ; 
but this represents only the four anterior somites and their appendages. In 
the Zoéa stage the carapace is perfect and folded downwards laterally, and is 
capable of covering and protecting all the appendages of the cephalon and 
the anterior two of the pereion. At this period no branchial organs exist, 
but saccular appendages in an embryonic condition are budding in their places : 
in a short time the pereiopoda are seen to form, and the branchial organs 
assume a definite character; and with their appearance a change takes place 
in the form of the carapace. 

In a large number of Brachyural Zoée a more or less conspicuous spine or 
tooth-like process may be seen to occupy a position on the lateral walls. This 
spine, from observation during the progressive growth of the animal, is seen 
to correspond with the angle in the adult that defines the demarcation 
between the branchial and hepatic regions. The deflection of the carapace 
anteriorly bends over the hepatic lobes, the line of the greatest curvature 
being frequently surmounted by a series of well-defined tooth-like cusps; and 
posteriorly bends over the branchial organs, the curvature here being less 
abrupt and seldom surmounted by any cusp or process. 

Externally the carapace covers and protects both the hepatic and branchial 
organs; but internally a calcareous wall of demarcation exists. 

This wall, which Milne-Edwards terms the apodema, is continued into a 
thin membranous tissue that makes a distinct and well-defined separation be- 
tween the branchial appendages and the internal system ; so that the aqueous 
element, so necessary for the aeration of the blood as it passes through the 
branchiz, may have full power to play upon the gills without having any 
passage that would admit it to the internal viscera and derange the general 
economy of the animal. 


Not only does the carapace vary in external form, but also in the configu- 


ON OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE OF THE CRUSTACEA. 51 


ration of its surface. The relation that it holds to the internal viscera is to 
afford protection and means of support. 

When the former only is required, the structure is generally smooth and 
even; where the tissues are internally thicker and irregular, it gives to the 
external surface an indented and irregular aspect, which is common, parti- 
cularly in the flat and short-tailed Crustacea, where the markings are so per- 
sistent as to afford a very valuable assistance for the determination of species. 

These markings are generally induced by the attachments of the tissues 
that secure certain viscera in their positions; these form generally points of 
depression ; but where any organ (such as the liver, stomach, or branchial 
appendages) is protected, the corresponding points in the carapace are ele- 
vations, sometimes crowned with a pointed spine or process. The branchial 
appendages are external in relation to the body of the animal, but covered 
over and protected by the lateral walls of the carapace. To complete this 
so as effectually to protect those organs without pressing on or interfering with 
their functions, a very considerable amount of lateral development has taken 
place, and a peculiar reflection so as to bring the margin of the carapace 
below the branchial appendages and to protect them from rude contact with 
the limbs. The angle which is induced by this inflection of the carapace 
over the hepatic lobes and enclosing the branchie is generally well defined 
and ornamented with points or processes more or less numerous. These 
processes define the dorsal limits of the carapace. 

Desmarest, half a century since, mapped out the dorsal surface of the 
carapace into regions coinciding with the limits of the internal viscera. 

Milne-Edwards, in his ‘ Histoire des Crustacés,’ published in 1839, adopted 
the same views, supporting it by illustrations from several genera. 

Professor Dana more recently, in his great work on Crustacea, has divided 
the dorsal surface into many more regions, taking the numerous areolites that 
are present in some genera (as Zozymus). 

He divides the carapace by a transverse line that extends from just ante- 
rior to the last of the normal lateral teeth to the same on the opposite side, 
and separates it into anterior and posterior portions. 

The anterior he again divides into three parts, defined by lines of depres- 
sion, and names them the median region and two antero-lateral regions. 

The median region covers the stomach, and includes the gastric and genital 
regions of Desmarest. 

The space anterior to the median region he calls the frontal, and on either 
side the orbits form another, which may be called the orbital region. 

The posterior portion of the carapace he likewise divides into a posterior 
and two postero-lateral regions. 

Professor Milne-Edwards in 1854 readdressed himself to this subject and 
further elaborated it. In the ‘Annales des Sciences Naturelles’ he communi- 
cated his researches with illustrations from several genera, and divided tho 
dorsal surface of the carapace into regions corresponding with the names of 
the internal viscera. But it appears to me that the correspondence in many 
parts exists in the name only; as, for instance, in the gastric region, which he 
subdivides into epigastric or anterior lobes of the gastric region, protogastric 
or latero-anterior lobes, mesogastric or median lobe, metagastric or latero- 
posterior lobes, and urogastric or medio-posterior lobe of the gastric region. 

It is quite within the power of demonstration to prove that it is more in 
accordance with the correct anatomical details of the animal’s structure if 
the lobes that he named metagastric, or latero-posterior lobes, were called, 
according to Desmarest, the genital regions after the viscera they protect. 


And no adyantage appears to me to be derived from dividing a region 
EQ 


52 REPORT—1875. 


into parts that are not constant, and when present do not represent any in- 
ternal organization, as he has done in dividing the branchial region into :— 
epibranchial, or anterior division of the branchial region; the mesobranchial 
and metabranchial divisions, which consist of lobes variable in form, but 
represented in most genera by a smooth surface. 

The cardiac region he divides into an anterior and posterior portion. The 
anterior alone represents the position of the heart; the posterior represents the 
part that lies between the heart and the posterior margin of the carapace. 

The hepatic regions he does not subdivide, but circumscribes their limits 
within the extent of the internal organ—an object of consideration, as it 
appears that the extent of this organ is one of the most important features 
in the moulding of generic forms. The other regions are those situated on 
the ventral surface, and which will be considered in a future Report. 

The value of a clearly defined knowledge of the various markings that are 
represented on the dorsal surface of the carapace of Crustacea is best appre- 
ciated in the study of fossil specimens, where the remains of animals, how- 
ever well preserved, can be read by their external features only. 

It is therefore with a view to accelerate this that I have in this Report 
endeavoured to lay down the several regions that are represented by the 
markings exhibited on the surface of the carapace. 

Taking advantage of. the information conveyed by studying the labours of 
the previously mentioned eminent carcinologists, I have laid it down as a rule 
for guidance, that the external markings must define the internal structure ; 
and where this is not the case the lobe or projection exists as an excrescence. 

The most important and constant divisions are :— 

The anterior, which lies immediately above the antero-cesophageal gan- 
glion. This may readily be subdivided into the orbital and antennal portions. 
The entire region, from its relation to those organs from which alone intelli- 
gence is derived, may be termed the cephalic region. 

Directly posterior to the cephalic region is the gastric; this is generally 
very conspicuous, the intensity of the postero-lateral markings being rendered 
more distinguishable by the inner surface of the carapace being adapted for 
the attachment of the anterior tendon of the mandibles. 

The stomach consists, in the more perfectly developed types, of a large 
central chamber, the form of which not only varies in genera, but is capable 
of extension and of being collapsed in the same individual. It has also 
antero-lateral cavities and a posterior or pyloric extension; but these are 
produced at a lower line, and therefore liable to be less conspicuously repre- 
sented on the dorsal surface. 

The lobe which M. Milne-Edwards has termed the mesogastric, corresponds 
with that portion of the stomach that is projected above the gizzard-like 
plates that stand at the entrance of the pyloric chamber. 

On each side of the pyloric or mesogastric lobe are two generally well- 
defined lobes that correspond, and are probably induced by the presence 
beneath of the genital apparatus in the male and the commencement of the 
ovaries in the female.” I think, therefore, that it is desirable to retain 
for these lobes the name that was first bestowed upon them by Desmarest, 
and cail them the genital régions. t 

Posterior to these comes the cardiac region, which corresponds yery closely 
with that of the heart, which’lies immediately beneath it. 

Posterior to the heart the carapace protects no distinct viscera; but the 
posterior margin covers the anterior half of the first somite of the pleon. 
The muscular system which moves the pleon is attached to the apodema that 
divides the cardiac from the branchial cavities, which also affords attachment 


———- - 


ae 


Plate 1. 


; 45% Report Brit. Assoc. 18 75: 


) 


—— 


434 Report Brit. Assoc.1875. Plate Ul. 


ani 
ye 


2 


ON OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGHE OF THE CRUSTACEA, 5 


to the extensive membrane that protects the internal viscera from the intro- 
duction of the water. This membrane is continuous with and attached to 
the inner surface of the posterior margin, and is represented generally by a lobe 
that runs parallel with the posterior margin. This portion may conveniently 
be known as the postcardiac region. 

The hepatic regions extend on either side from the orbital region anteriorly 
to the posterior tooth of the hepatic crest, and are bounded by the gastric and 
branchial regions. This is a larger portion than is admitted by Milne-Kd- 
wards, but it is one that corresponds with the extent of the hepatic viscera. 

The branchial region reaches from the posterior tooth of the hepatic crest 
to the posterior margin, along which it traverses nearly to the median line 
on either side, and is bounded on the inner side by the cardiac and genital 
regions, and anteriorly by the hepatic regions, from which internally it is 
separated by a thin membranous partition. 

These several divisions appear to me to be based upon strictly anatomical 
grounds, and as such may be regarded as natural divisions, the variation 
of which must depend upon that of structure, and therefore may be relied 
upon as affording characteristic distinctions. 

The great consolidation of the anterior somites of the skeleton has led Prof. 
Dana to pronounce the centralization to amount to a cephalization of the forces ; 
but this opens a subject of considerable extent and interest, which, if permitted, 
I hope to present in a continuation of this Report at the next Meeting of the 


Association, 


EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 


References in each Plate the same:—C, Cephalic region; O O, Orbital region ; SS, Sto- 
“machic region; P, Pyloricregion; HH, Hepatic region; Gt Gd/, Genital region ; Car, Car- 
diac region; Post-Car, Post-Cardiac region; M, Muscles connecting the pereion with the 
pleon. 
Prats I. 


. Carapace of Nawplius, or earliest larval form of Crustacea. 

. Carapace of Zoéa, or second larval form. 

. Carapace of Megalopa, or third larval form. 

. Carapace of Diastylis. 

. Carapace of Trilobita, with that of Megalopa displayed on it, to demonstrate the 
homological relation of the fissure on the ventral surface of the latter with that 
on the dorsal surface of the former. 

6. Carapace of Cancer pagurus. 

7, First or ophthalmic somite of Cancer, with ophthalmic appendages and eyes 

attached. 

Second or anterior antennal somite, showing external or anterior surface: aaa, 

ophthalmic cavity and foramen; 00, anterior antenna, cavity, and foramen. 

. Same, showing internal or posterior surface: @, ophthalmic foramen; 0, anterior 
antenna and foramen. 

10, Posterior antennal somite, dorsal aspect; carapace removed to show the internal 

surface of the ventral portion of the somite: ce, posterior antenne ; o/ o/, olfac- 

tory foramen. 


Fig. 


Ou Cobo 


so mM 


Puarte IT. 
Fig. 11. Diagram showing the connexion of the branchiwe with the legs and the external 
, character of the branchial chamber in relation to the internal viscera: BB, 


branchial chambers; Ap Ap, apodema. 
12. Dorsal surface of carapace, showing the natural portions into which it is divided, 
13, The carapace removed to show the internal structure and the relation of the 
viscera to the external marking in fig. 12. 


54 REPORT—1875. 


Second Report of a Committee, consisting of Prof. A. S. Herscuun, 
B.A., F.R.A.S., and G. A. Lesour, F.G.S., on Eaperiments to 
determine the Thermal Conductivities of certain Rocks, showing 
especially the Geological Aspects of the Investigation: 


Tun original object proposed to be effected by the Committee of devising a 
simple and direct method of determining approximately the absolute thermal 
conductivities of solid bodies, and especially of the rocks of most common 
occurrence in geological strata, has not yet been entirely carried out. But 
the experiments described in the last Report were repeated under new con- 
ditions, which enable the Committee to present, with more confidence than 
in their last Report, a list of absolute conductivities of the rocks there spe- 
cified, and to add to the list examples of some further important determina- 
tions. Many uncertainties remained to be removed from the values given in 
the former list, the most notable of which proceeded from the looseness of 
the contact obtained between the points of the thermopile and the two faces 
of the tested plate of rock. The real difference of temperature between the 
two faces was not measured, but that between the air-currents round the 
points of the thermopile in the two sheets of velvet which pressed them 
against the surface of the plate. Thus difference of temperature two or three 
times as great as those intended to be measured (and as those which were 
actually observed when in a few cases the points of the thermopile were 
solidly cemented to the rocks) were constantly recorded. Assuming that the 
indications were always too great in a certain fixed proportion (determined 
approximately by the direct experiments made in a few certain cases), the 
former list of estimated absolute conductivities was compiled from the use of. 
the velvet-covered apparatus. India-rubber faces about two millimetres (or 
one twelfth of an inch) in thickness are now stretched tightly over the flat 
faces of the cylindrical cooler and steam-boiler, and are bound down with 
wire, air being carefully excluded from these junctions by displacing it with 
a little oil. While the top of the boiler is formed of a thick, circular, brass 
plate a little convex (about one millimetre high in the centre) on the upper 
side, a tripod wooden stand, with straight legs passing through the lid of the 
cooler, rests upon the inner side of its base in the sockets of a flat, circular, 
perforated brass plate with wide lattice openings, and somewhat less in 
diameter than the cooler-base, between which and the base of the cooler, 
again, two thicknesses of coarse wire gauze are introduced, to permit free 
access of the water in the cooler to the inner surface of its tinned-iron base, 
when the central rod of the agitator, which contains the indicating thermo- 
meter, is raised and lowered frequently enough to keep the Water in a con- 

stant state of motion. Two twenty-eight-pound weights, suspended from an 
iron link or cross bar carried by the tripod stand, communicated in this 

series of experiments a pressure of about 3 lbs. per square inch to the rock- 

plate placed for examination between the india-rubber-covered faces of the 

boiler and the cooler; and it was expected that the exclusion of air from 

round the points of the thermopile and from the junctions between the faces 

might be assumed under these conditions: but as india-rubber offers great 

resistance to the passage of heat, it was found inconvenient to use it of suffi- 

cient thickness to accomplish this directly by its elasticity*; and recourse 

* Although thickly jacketed with a close covering of felt and fur, the cooler, containing 
22 lbs. of water, was found to lose heat to the atmosphere at the rate of 0°-0025 F. per 


minute for each degree of excess of its temperature above that of the surrounding air; 
and for an excess of 20° F., which was sometimes reached, the loss being 0°-05 F., the 


mae 


ON THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF CERTAIN ROCKS, 55 


was had, in consequence, to soft cements, to make the junctions between the 
surfaces air-tight. An experiment was also made with slate, by plastering 
the thermopile solidly to it with thin sheets of india-rubber moistened with a 
mixture of red-lead and oil, and testing the conductivity of the plate when, 
after remaining for two weeks under pressure, the cement appeared to have 
solidified to perfect hardness. The result in this case (391) * scarcely dif- 
fered either from the estimated number for the same rock-plate (392) given 
in our former list, or from two other determinations (414 and 425), when, 
instead of the solid junction, a thin paste of boiled starch and another of red- 
lead and oil were used in succession to effect the junction. Two new 


' specimens of slate, cut from one piece, and tested by the same process, with 


moist lutings of starch and linseed-meal to secure the junctions, gave as 
values of their conductivities in different experiments the rather lower num- 
bers, apparently belonging to this different sample of the stone, 340, 346, 
349. The plate of white Sicilian marble described in the last Report as pre- 
senting when tested, by attaching the thermopile to it solidly with plaster, a 
resulting conductivity 559, now afforded, with moist linseed luting, the 
number 497. Whinstone, which formerly exhibited in the same manner an 
absolute conductivity 312, now afforded, with linseed luting, the conduc- 
tivity 333. The results obtained with moist lutings are sometimes in excess 
and sometimes in defect of those observed with solid junctions, and nothing 
necessary to be preferred in solid over liquid attachments of the surfaces to 
each other was found to be indicated by these preliminary trials. 

The inconstaney of some determinations now attempted of new rock- 
specimens with the iron and palladium’ thermopile led to the discovery that 
its rolled branches produce thermoelectric currents by alteration of the con- 
dition of the pressed metal; and no annealing by heat was able to remove 
this serious objection. While unequally pressed parts of the wire along its 
branches were subjected to unknown temperatures, it was obvious that small 
differences of temperature could not be measured satisfactorily with the 
thermopile, and no reliance in respect of ultimate accuracy could be placed on 
the values found up to this time with the instrument in its first constructed 
form. German-silyer wire was, however, substituted successfully for palla- 
dium in the thermopile, with which the present series of experiments were 
made. It consists of three rolled wires of German silver and two of iron in 
series, between two rolled iron-wire terminals of a Thomson’s reflecting 
galvanometer, three junctions of the flattened helix into which they are 
wound upon two bracing-bars of wood being above, and three below the 
rock-section, which slips easily between them. A stout india-rubber collar 
(half an inch in thickness} surrounds the rock-section before it is placed be- 
tween the wire grating of the thermopile ; and similar collars round the con- 
fronting ends of the boiler and cooler make a continuous non-conducting 
easing of the rock-plate and of adjoining parts of the apparatus, protecting 
them entirely, when the pressure acts upon them and upon the lutings that 
connect them, from heat-communication to the outer air. Although German- 
silver wire (even if unflattened) produced, when slightly heated af certain 


effects of undetected external influences might become sensible were the rate of heat- 
transmission to be measured less than 0°-2 F. per minute. The rate actually observed 
with the apparatus above described was between 0°-194 with cannel-coal and 0°-400 with 
quartz; and in the following list of absolute conductivities the proper correction for the 
external air-temperature round the cooler has in every instance been applied. 

* The significant figures only of the decimals representing the absolute conductivities: 
in the following Table are here used, for brevity, to denote them. 


56 nEPoRT—1875. 


points of its length, sensible thermoelectrical effects of local disturbing cur- 
rents, which (as was also observed in the palladium wire and in some other 
metals which were tried) did not appear to be removed, like those of strained 
iron wire, by annealing at a considerable heat, yet the high electromotive 
force of the German-silver iron couple and the neutralizing effect of the 
several loops of German-silver wire, all exposed to the same temperature 
variations, were found, in seme suitable experiments made in the process of 
determining the scale of the instrument’s indications, to have almost entirely 
eliminated the influence of these small disturbing actions; and the smallest 
differences of. temperature, of only two or three degrees, occurring in the 
rock-conductivity experiments could be accurately measured. Resistances of 
two, five, and ten ohms were included in the thermoelectric circuit succes- 
sively in each experiment; and the proportionality of the galvanometer read- 
ings in these several conditions being constant, showed the constancy of the 
resistance, and accordingly the unvarying scale-value of the indications of 
the instrument for every observation; while the zero of the scale-readings 
could also be conveniently determined at any moment by unplugging, in the 
rheostat connected in the circuit, a very large resistance of 1000 ohms. 
Twelve, seven, and four divisions of the scale represented respectively 1°F., 
when the several resistances above named were used* ; and three readings 
being taken for every temperature-difference observation, the results reduced 
in this proportion were accordant to one or two tenths of a degree, as long 
as the total resistance of the circuit had undergone no variations from acci- 
dental injuries of the connexions, and as long as the thermometric value of the 
scale-divisions had accordingly been preserved. The electromotive force of 
a German-silver iron thermopile is shown, by Prof. Tait’s representation of 
the specific curves of these metals in his ‘ First approximation to a Thermo- 
electric Diagram, to be at ordinary temperatures very exactly proportional 
to the difference of temperature between the junctions; and the temperature- 
differences noted in these experiments may, it is presumed, be accordingly 
regarded as affected by only very small errors of uncertainty. The thickness 
of the flattened wire (about 0-5 millim.) of the thermopile occasioned, 
however, even with the considerable pressure used, a certain thickness of the 
lutings; and it is probable that, from this cause as well as from the partial 
fluidity, instead of perfectly solid nature, of the cement, the temperature-differ- 
ences observed somewhat exceeded those which actually existed between the 
faces of the tested plates. Besides the small corrections for escape of heat 
from the cooler to the outer air, an addition of one tenth to all the observed 
conductivities is made in the present list for the cooler’s thermal capacity and 
for that of the brass foot, wire gauze, and agitator, which it enclosed, the cor- 
rection for which was not included in the conductivities assigned last year. The 
final results in the present list are, notwithstanding this correction, somewhat 
inferior to those formerly observed with the thin palladium-iron thermopile, 
whether its attachments were solid or effected by moist cements; but in re- 
peated experiments with that instrument on quartz and other rock-sections 
offering only small resistances, the results arrived at were in general so high, 
and at the same time so irregular, from the predominance, in measuring their 
small temperature-differences, of the local currents, that for this reason only 
a partial dependence on its generally higher indications can be placed. The 


* An accidental injury which happened to one of the solderings was thus immediately 
detected ; and the fault having been found and repaired, when the instrument was re- 
graduated, it was found to afford, with the above resistances in its circuit, exactly the 
same proportional values of the scale-indications as before. 


ON THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF CERTAIN ROCKS. 57 


presence of the thin layer of moist luting of linseed-meal (mixed with between 
three and four times its weight of water) in the new series of experiments 
makes it probable, on the other hand, that the absolute conductivities pre- 
sented in the following list are under rather than above, and may occasionally 
be five, ten, or, in the better-conducting rock-specimens, possibly even twenty 
per cent. below their real values; but the present arrangement of the serics 
in a progressive scale of the observed values of the conductivities may be 
more certainly regarded as in the main correct. 

Some experiments to compare the resistances of different rock-sections 
with that of the luting and india-rubber faces between which they were 
placed, with a view of obtaining relative conducting-powers more expe~ 
ditiously without the use of a thermopile, were also made; but although this 


Absolute Conductivities and Resistances of Rock-Sections. 


Absolute conductivities in 
C.G.8. units. 
ae Absolute 
Thermopile |Compensated | resistances Resistances in 
Section of rock. with local. | Thermopile, | (or 1 + con- an ascending 
currents. |moistly luted| ductivity). symbolic scale. 
Rocksbetween} to the rocks (1875.) ia ; 
velvet faces. |with pressure. oy 
(1874.) (1875.) (1874*.) | (1875t.) 
: 0-00882 
Opaque white quartz ...........[ 0 sees { 0-00876 } ’ 114 A 
Slate (eut across the cleavage. | +++. 000660 152 A 
Specimen A, Festiniog). 
Calcite (white vein-stuff in Bere 000596 168 as A 
mountain-limestone). 
Kenton sandstone (thoroughly | wee 000594 168 A 
wet). 
Do. (ey) Mere ccaecsiscctrenvedss case: 000489 000549 182 (B) A 
Grey Aberdeen granite............ 0-00600 0:00514 195 A A 
Trish fossil marble ...........-++- 000559 0-00488 205 Reon) eels 
Devonshire red do. .........00006+ 000525 0:00469 213 B B 
Sicilian white do...........0+++00. 0:00559§ 0-00462 216 B B 
Red Cornish serpentine ......... 0:00483 0-00599 251 C B 
Whinstone .........eeeseeereveee 0:00312§ 0-00366 278 D B 
Slate (cut parallel to the cleay- 000892 0:00363 275 D B 
age. Specimen A). 
Do. (do. Specimen A, Fes- | «+ 0:00825 308 C 
tiniog). 
Calton Hill trap-rock (from foot}  0°00520 0:00332 301 (B) © 
of the Observatory garden, 
Edinburgh). 
| Red brick (thoroughly wet) ....| «++. 0:00247 405 tt Cc 
English alabaster ..........+.s000+ 000412 0-00234 427 (C) Cc 
Plaster of Paris (plate, tho- eee 0:00160 25 ei ste D 
roughly wet). 
Red brick (dry) ...ssecesseceensee| te eene 0:00147 680 abs D 
Plaster of Paris (plate, dry) ..., 0:00163 0:00120 833 K E 
Cannel-coal .......+.0 Tougae tenance 0:00161§ | 0-00065 1538 K K 
a et 
* See Report, 1874, p. 132. t+ See Diagram, page 59. 


{ Average of two equally good determinations 0:00879. 

§ The conductivities marked thus were obtained by solid junctions of the thermopile 
to the rock-faces with plaster of Paris; the remaining numbers of the column were de- 
rived (in a constant proportion obtained from these) from conductivities observed with 
the thermopile pressed against the rock-surfaces by velvet faces. 


58 REPORT—1875. 


method of comparison appears to be the best adapted, by its directness and sim- 
plicity, for determining relative resistances, the conditions of contact and of 
communication of heat across the junctions appear to be subject to so much 
variation that results of great discordance only have hitherto been obtained. 
Before abandoning a process which recommends itself by its ease and sim- 
plicity, further experiments, however, will be tried to remove if possible, 
from a method which promises in the sequel to become so much more expe- 
ditious, all the most influential sources of disturbance. 

The unit in which the absolute conductivities are expressed is the same as 
that adopted (employing the centimetre, gramme, and second as its basis) in 
the Table of the last Report; and the absolute resistances in the fourth column 
of the Table are the simple reciprocals of these, or the quotient of unity 
divided by the absolute conductivities. As it is in the form of this quotient 
or of the absolute resistances that the capacities of rock-strata for conducting 
heat are most conveniently employed in calculation, a graphical construction, 
and at the same time a convenient symbolic scale of the various grades or 
degrees of absolute resistance presented by different species of rocks, is 
here annexed (p. 59), with a view of exhibiting to the eye the general extent 
and character of their specific variations. 

Among the rock-sections re-examined, three only (Kenton sandstone, 
Calton trap, and English alabaster) are displaced, in the present list, from 
their previous order of succession. The rough and porous surface of the 
Kenton sandstone placing it more effectually in contact with the moist 
cement than the smooth surfaces of other rocks, may be accepted as an 
explanation of the high conductivity which it now presents; but the rough 
surface of the Calton trap and the smooth faces of the alabaster (although 
these rocks are not, like the specimen of sandstone, extremely porous) would 
give rise to the same or to an opposite variation; while both are lower in 
the list than the smooth-faced red serpentine, which has not altered its 
position. The defective indications of the first constructed thermopile may 
have introduced errors of the determinations in these latter cases, while it 
may probably be to its porosity alone that the Kenton sandstone now owes 
its somewhat superior position. 

The question of the effect of porosity and of the saturation of rocks with 
water in increasing their conducting-power was suggested by the late 
Mr. W. J. Henwood as one deserving of the Committee’s accurate investi- 
gation ; and several observations for this purpose were made, of which the 
results are included in the Table. It was found that of three porous rocks 
examined, Kenton sandstone absorbed (when freed from air in vacuo) 5-7 per 
cent. of its weight of water, while its conductivity rose in consequence from 
549 to 594, or 8 percent. A plate of fine red building-brick, whose absorp- 
tion of water was 15:6 per cent. of its weight, received by this treatment an 
increase of conductivity from 147 to 247, or 68 per cent.; while a plate of 
plaster of Paris which absorbed 26 per cent. of its weight of water, rose in its 
conductivity by the saturation from 120 to 160, or not more than about 
33 per cent. There is no appearance of regularity in these increases, but to 
-a more copious saturation with water it is evident that a higher proportion 
of increase of the conductivity is connected ; and again, comparing the highly 
conducting sandstone and the badly conducting brick or plaster, it is also 
evident that to every percentage weight or measure of water absorbed by 
the badly conducting substances, there corresponds a considerably greater 
percentage increase of the conductivity than for the absorption of the same 
percentage quantity of water by the better conductor. That this may arise 


Rock-plates (dry or wet), and the Directions of their Planes of Section. 


rn lies ee A RSS Ee ae ea a ee 
F E A B c D E F G H 
i 
oa 
1, Opaque white quartz............ caivedt LLAG amesset| © 
2. Slate (across cleavage) ....00....0e-| 152] wi... | * 
38. Calcite (vein-stuff).........006..-000--| 168] ...... * 
4, Kenton sandstone (wet) .......-----| 168] ...... * 
5, Kenton sandstone (dry)...... pesduee dl) MOA meateos * 
6. Grey Aberdeen granite..,.........+.| 195] ...... * 
7. Irish fossil marble ...........+se00e0| 205 5 abe | ue ses * 
8. Devonshire red marble .......ce00-+04| 213] csseee | sever | 
9. Sicilian white marble ............... AGN ieanas cillineasecs (fH 
10. Red Cornish serpentine..........0....| 251 oe ieee atte uh et 
11. Basalt (Whinstone). ...............02-| 273]... saates * 
12, Slate (with cleavage), @..........cc006] 275| ...000 | «- * 
1S; 4Walton MUMtrap —.cc...c0.ccvcceteses| OUL| soveee Sees teles e us 
14. Slate (with cleavage), 0............++ SOG lncesse qlee - So fraresee * 
15. Red brick (thoroughly wet) ...... Pe= | AUDA detec gh ewes = rep Soseacntie 
16. English alabaster ...... PS oe Teneacl AED Up epee o.| eb keey || febsn. ct eee * 
17. Plaster of Paris (thoroughly wet)...| 625] ... ee | mac pant eros || ree % 
PBs Bodh orrcke liye) .o5..-e--ie--02+-200-»02|) OBO! caver. ||) evoeee”|) cover |) -nseee 6 Ooc * 
19. Plaster of Paris (dry) ............0- DOES odinck- | naveepee lhaews occllivee peel eee siceeiaalll Bictints sone pes ali ee 
20: Pannel-comlis. 2. cb.ub.-cs-vatoean oes Be ifs 2!) | SSE meal [eed so Perr al ocean acer cel Pc SPM KCC RO CS || coronas saad etek sve i eaaeomerllih Stoo te Ae ee 


a 


60 REPORT—] 875. 

from appreciably good conductivity of water itself may be inferred with 
some degree of probability from the observations of Prof. Guthrie*, that 
films of water offer from four to fifteen times Jess resistance to the passage of 
heat through them than those of any other liquid (mercury excepted) of 
whose relative thermal resistances he obtained determinations. From Dr. 
Sterry Hunt’s recent publicationt the following Table of porosities and 
densities of various rocks is extracted, showing to what extent the presence 
of water among such strata may be expected, according to the general 
conclusions, to affect their thermal conductivities and to diminish their 
resistances. 


Table of Densities and Porosities of certain Rocks. 


. Absorption . Absorption 
gene of Gates: at Serre by tee ne of Gea ;.| of ies by 
rock. : volumes rock. ft. . | 100 volumes 
fic gravity). ef robk, fic gravity). Bhoek! 
1. Sandstone (Pots- 20. Limestone, Tren- 
dam) (hard and average ton (black com- average 
white) 2:644 1:39 PBC) ieee cee senses! 2714 
2. Do. do 6 2°72 2-9] 
UDO ECO: s.Avenssscce 2:26 [~~~ |/21. Do. (grey com- 2°715 0°32 
4, Do. do, ...... 247 pact). 
5. Do. (with Scoli- 22. Do. (crystalline).} 2:673 1:16 | 
BUS) stab ces des 2°636 6-94 23. Do. do.........+0.- 2:708 1:34 11-40 
Bie di... 2641 | 7908-06 || 24. Do. do............. 2684 | 1:70] 
7. Do. (with Lin- | 2°611 9°35 | 
guia). 25. Dolomite (Nia- | 2-679 27 
eee ooo — gara). 
8. Do. Sillery (green ———— —|——_—_—_ —|—_. 
argillaceous). ... “795 368 | 9-79 || 26. Do.(Calciferous)} 2°83, 2°15 
WO ALO, ».ccenculy. 2-719 Deaf Wee. 1b, donnie 2-838 2°53 | 4. 

ak Sas ae 28 Mardin. sce 2892 | 661/48 

10. Do. Medina (red DO DOK GO. hevececes 2832 7-22 
argillacedus) ...| 2°767 8:37 } 9-21 pitas 

LED ONAOGshalevassser| 2000 4 OMG). a Do. (Guelph)... 

——EE— — 2 DomdOses.cccaercss 

12. Do. Devonian (fine ee 
BTOY) sssccesseeee 2646 =| 20:24 32. Do. (Onondaga) 

MSs WOnGO. cecccrss0s- 2645 =| 20°64 + 20°71 | _—_________——__ 

14. Do. do. ......0000- 2649 | 21-27 33. Do. Chazy (ar- 

——_—_—_——_ ——— gillaceous) ...... 

15. Shale, Sillery (red) 2-784 3°96 Os DO sO. cssccev cess 
argillaceous). OD WO, WOivsscesss-cae 

= SG. DONAO.s. esceess: 

16. Do. Hudson’s 2°747 0:30 ee 
River (black ar- 37. Caen limestone 2°637 29°49 
gillaceous). SIO OOays suvcncssck 2-644 26°93 | 28°65 

—— 30. D0. dO... .00.s0000- 2611 | 29:54 


* Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 
t Chemical and Geological Essays, by 
reprinted from the Report of the Geological Survey of 


‘By an oversight in this Table the Caen limestone is described as Tertiary b : 
Hunt instead of Secondary. lcd 


1869, part 1, p. 659 (Table). 
Prof. T. Sterry Hunt, p. 166 (1875). ‘ This is 
Canada for 1863-66, pp. 281-283. 


ON THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF CERTAIN ROCKS, 61 


Another subject of important applications in questions relating to under- 
ground temperature which has engaged the attention of the Committee, 
is the different degrees of facility with which some rocks conduct heat in 
different directions, recent researches by M. E. Jannettaz having shown 
that this property is possessed not only (as was long since shown by De 
Sénarmont) by certain crystals, but also by other mineral substances, and in a 
very high degree by rocks having schistose and laminated structures. To verify 
this important fact, specimens of Welsh slate were prepared by cutting 
plates from the same piece across and parallel to the plane of cleavage; and 
the rate of conduction of heat through the plates cut in the former manner 
was found to be nearly twice as rapid as that through plates cut parallel to 
the cleavage-plane. Thus the resistance of slate (shown in the Table) to 
transmission of heat along the cleavage-planes is only half as great as that 
offered to its passage across them. The example of this slate is not an 
exceptional one among laminated or schistose rocks; and the extreme ratios 
of the resistances in the parallel and transverse directions to the planes of 
cleavage or foliation, which have been studied and measured by M. Jan- 
nettaz * in a variety of cases, exhibit some much more remarkable pro- 
portions. 


Ratio of axes of the | Extreme ratio of the 
Description of rock. observed ellipses. conductivities. 
Paral. diam.: transv. do.| Parallel: transverse. 


1. Steaschist, U. 8. A. (light green, in 


powder very unctuous to the touch). | 2:007 : 1 4-028 : 1 
2. Phyllade (slate), Deville, Ardennes, 

France ...... Peet istectadcaesedccbecs sere) « 1988 : 1 3952: 1 
3. Fine-grained mica-schist, Aurillac, 

Mantals Hrance < sce cesecssecccecseveosases Lice! 3312: 1 
4, Talcose schist, French Guyana......... 178 :1 3168 : 1 
5. Phyliade (slate), Angers, France ...... 16 1 2560: Sul 
6. Gneiss, with fine crystals irregularly 

PUCOON Gs des saaag cds Seaseedaeeegecsnseteses I Zieh sls 144 :1 
7. Gneiss, the crystals giving a veined 

appearance, Lyons, France ............ 1:00 :1 (circular). 1:00 : 1 
8 Serpentine, with curved veins ......... 1:15 :1 (the longer 1323: 1 


diameter always in the 
direction of the veins). 


The method of experiment adopted by M. Jannettaz is that originally 
employed by De Sénarmont, of coating thin sections of crystals with grease or 
wax, and observing the ratio of the diameters of the oval figures formed on 
their surfaces by the melted grease round a point which is heated at the 
centre of the plate. In a series of earlier experiments + on thin plates of 
erystals, M. Jannettaz had determined the ratios of the diameters for forty 
or fifty mineralogical species; and the values of these ratios are included t, 


* Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France, tome ii. p. 264 (April-June 1874). 

+ Annales de Chimie et de Physique, série 4, tome xxix. (1873). 

t The cases of ratios excepted from the above limitation are those of the following 
metals or mincrals having either two or three principal axes of conduction :—Quartz, 
1:312:1; amphibole hornblende and tremolite, 1-42 and 1:67:1; selenite, 1:54:1; 
metallic antimony (rhombohedral), 1:59: 1; antimonite, 1836: 1-451: 1; mica, 2°5 or 
24:24or2:3:1. The extreme ratio of good to bad conductivity in mica is 5°76 or 
6:25 : 1; and, as in selenite and in some other crystals possessing very distinct cleavages, 
a direction of good conduction is along and that of bad conduction is across the cleavage- 
planes. 


62 revort—1875. 


with only rare exceptions, between 1 and 1:3:1. The ratios of the con- 
ductivities in the directions of these diameters, being the squares of the ratios 
of the measured axes, range in value, for the majority of crystals, between 
1 and 1:7: 1, and rarely approach the values above given for some of the 
talcose and schistose rocks. It is shown in his researches that the principal 
axes of conductivity in crystals are more closely related to the planes of 
cleavage than to either the optic or the crystallographic axes, and that in 
rocks of schistose structure it is to the internal texture arising from pressure 
in metamorphic actions rather than to crystalline admixtures, giving to some 
rocks a regularly streaked or veined appearance, that the principal develop- 
ment of the property of unequal thermal conductivity in different directions 
presented by this numerous class of rocks should be ascribed. These new 
considerations, and the further recognition of the important part which the 
saturation of certain rocks with water must exercise in determining the 
distribution of underground temperature in certain cases, together with the 
observation, recorded in the Table of this Report, of the extremely high con- 
ductivity of quartz forming compact masses in the neighbourhood of under- 
ground workings, in some situations of considerable extent, are points of 
special interest connected with the progress of this inquiry, the applications 
and extensions of which, should the Committee pursue this inquiry further, 
will form the chief object of their immediate investigations. 


Preliminary Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors Roscon, 
Batrour Srewart, and Tuoren, appointed for the purpose of ex- 
tending the observations on the Specific Volumes of Liquids. Drawn 
up by 'T. EK, THorrr. 


WE are indebted to the experimental and critical labours of Hermann Kopp 
for the greater part of what we know concerning the relations between the 
specific gravities of liquids and their chemical composition. Kopp has pointed 
out that when the specific volumes of liquids are compared at temperatures 
at which their vapour-tensions are equal, as at their boiling-points, several 
remarkable relations manifest themselves. In the first place, it is found that 
the specific volume of a liquid formed by the union of two other liquids is 
equal to the sum of the specific yolumes of its components, Secondly, Kopp 
finds that isomeric liquids of the same chemical type have identical specific 
volumes. Thirdly, that in a series of homologues each increment of CH, is 
attended with a constant increment in specific volume. Hence Kopp was 
able to assign certain fundamental values to a number of elementary bodies, 
and thus to calculate with a considerable degree of accuracy the specific 
volume, and hence the specific gravity, of many liquid substances. It also 
appeared probable that members of the same family of elements have identi- 
cal specific volumes, or, to use Schréder’s expression, are “ isosterous.” Thus 
the analogously constituted terchlorides of arsenic and phosphorus appear to 
possess the same specific volume; whence it follows, since no change is ob- 
servable in the volume occupied by chlorine in different compounds, that the 
specific volumes of arsenic and phosphorus are equal. A similar conclusion 
was drawn with respect to tin and titaniym, members of the tetratomic group, 
from an examination of their tetrachlorides. 


ON THE SPECIFIC VOLUMES OF LIQUIDS. 63 


It must be admitted, however, that certain of these deductions are drawn 
from experimental evidence, which, in the light of our present knowledge, can 
hardly be deemed sufficiently comprehensive to permit of such broad genera- 
lizations. For example, the examination of only four liquids can scarcely 
_ afford adequate proof of the universality of the statement that members of 
the same chemical family have identical specific volumes. The conclusion 
with regard to isomerides was necessarily based on limited proof, for the 
reason that the number of cases admitting of examination was limited. The 
number of isomerides has now increased a hundredfold, and we haye become 
more precise in defining their character. The validity of the law should be 
tested by an examination of well-chosen and typical isomerides, especially 
among the hydrocarbons. Such an examination would not only afford mate- 
rial for solving the primary question, but would incidentally serve to show 
whether the specific volumes of the component elements, carbon and hydrogen, 
are respectively invariable, as stated by Kopp, no matter how these elements 
may be arranged in a compound with respect to each other. 

It has been shown by Professor Roscoe that vanadium is a member of the 
phosphorus group of elements, and that the vanadium trichloride of Berzelius 
is in reality an oxychloride of the composition VOCI,, corresponding to the 
phosphoryl trichloride (POCI,). As both these analogously constituted liquids 
are readily obtained in a state of purity and boil at moderately high tempe- 
ratures, it seemed desirable to determine their specific volumes with a view 
of obtaining further evidence on the isosterism of members of the same che- 
mical family. As the result of a series of carefully conducted observations 
made on preparations of a high degree of purity, we find that the specific 
volumes of phosphoryl trichloride and vanadyl trichloride are distinctly 
different, the chloride with the higher molecular weight having the greater 
specific volume. We have thus been led to reopen the whole subject. Start- 
ing with the observations on the question of the specific volumes of members 
of the same chemical family, we find that the result foreshadowed in the case 
of phosphorus and vanadium is a general one, viz. that in a series of analo- 
gously constituted compounds belonging to the same chemical family, as, for 
example, the trichlorides of phosphorus, arsenic, and antimony, and the tetra- 
chloride of silicon, titanium, and tin, the specific volume increases with the 
molecular weight. 

We have completed the experimental work connected with the determina- 
tion of the rates of expansion, boiling-points, and specific gravities, which 
data (together with the molecular weights) are required to fix the specific 
volume, of the following liquids :— 


Br CCl, PCI, 

ICl CBrCl, PC1,C,H,O 
C,H, Br, PBr, 
C,H,ICl SiCl, POCI, 
C.H,Cl, TiCl, POBrCl, 
CH,CHCI, SnCl, PSCl, 
CH,Cl, “EAE voc! 

CH. Br, AsF 
CHCl, gpa \ C,H, AsCi, 
CHBr, Seed 6et SbCl 


The labour of reducing the observations, and more particularly of caleu- 
lating the empirical formule for so large a number of liquids, is necessarily 
somewhat heavy and tedious; its completion has been unayoidably delayed 


64 REPORT—1875. 


by the pressure of other duties. The Committee, if reappointed, propose not 
only to complete the reduction of the present observations (which work is 
already in progress), but to extend the investigation so as to include a well- 
defined series of sulphur compounds (a number of which have been already 
prepared and some partially investigated), with the view of repeating the 
observations on the relation of the specific volume of sulphur to the manner 
in which it is held in union. These results will also afford material for 
discussing Buff’s hypothesis, that the specific volume of an element varies 
with its atom-fixing power. The only hydrocarbons we have hitherto in- 
vestigated are ethyl amyl and heptane, both C, H,,, concerning which there 
is proof that, contrary to Kopp’s law, their specific volumes are not iden- 
tical. Should this result be confirmed by the examination of similarly 
related hydrocarbons, the statement concerning the invariability of the 
specific volumes of carbon and hydrogen will need modification. 


Siath Report on Earthquakes in Scotland, drawn up by Dr. Brycz, 
F.G.S. The Committee consists of Dr. Brycr, F.R.S.E., Sir W. 
Tuomson, F.R.S., J. Broven, G. Fores, .R.S.L., D. Minnn- 
Hore, F.R.S.#., and J. THomson. 


Dounrine the year that has elapsed since the last Meeting of the Association 
the Comrie district has been in a state of entire quiescence, and no earth- 
quake has been reported from any other part of Scotland. Your Committee 
has thus nothing of general interest to lay before the Meeting this year. 

The plea put forward at the last Meeting for an increase of the grant was 
founded on the necessity felt by the Committee of haying additional appa- 
ratus set up at Comrie. They desired to have a check of some kind on the 
indications of the seismometer belonging to the Association, which is placed 
in the tower of the parish church, as well as additional means of testing both 
the direction and intensity of the shocks. For this purpose it seemed neces- 
sary to have apparatus of a different kind, and to find a locality somewhat 
distant from the spot where the seismometer now stands. After experimental 
trial had been made of contrivances of various kinds, the method of upright 
cylinders (one of those recommended by Mr. Mallet in his paper in the 
‘Admiralty Manual’) was adopted. The difficulty of finding a suitable site 
and a competent observer, to whom it should be a matter of perfect conyeni- 
ence to visit that site, next presented itself. No suitable apartment in which 
to set up the cylinders could be found in the village; and the Committee 
therefore resolved to erect a small building for the special purpose. Their 
wish being made known to Peter Drummond, Esq., who resides on his own 
property of Dunearn, about half a mile direct distance from the parish church, 
and nearer to the supposed earthquake-focus, he most kindly offered a site 
on the grounds surrounding his house. Here, accordingly, on a spot care- 
fully selected, the building has been erected. It is founded upon a rock, 
the same slate-rock of which the valley westwards to Loch Earn and the 
enclosing hills are composed, and in continuity with it; while it is completely 
sheltered from the agitating influences of all winds; so strongly built, indeed, 
is it, that, even if the situation were exposed, only a storm of extreme violence 
could produce any disturbing effect. No one can haye access to the building 


ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 65 


but by Mr. Drummond’s permission ; and he has most kindly promised that 
the cylinders shall be his constant care. Your Committee is greatly indebted 
to Mr. Drummond, not only for this promise (which is all-important for their 
purpose) and for his so readily offering a site, but also for his liberality in 
making all the necessary preparations for erecting the building, so that the 
cost to the Committee has been considerably diminished. 

The building is of stone and lime, very substantial, about 10 feet square, 
and 11 feet high to the top of the roof, ceiled and floored. On the perfectly 
level floor two narrow smooth planks are placed, one directed N. & S. and 
the other E. & W. On each of these are placed six cylinders of boxwood, 
carefully turned on the lathe, at such distances apart on the planks that one 
cannot strike against another in falling. The floor is levelled up to the 
planks with dry fine sand, on which the cylinders must rest, without rolling, 
if they fall. ‘The cylinders are all of the same height, but of different dia~ 
meters, so that they are of very various degrees of stability. In this way 
the exact direction of a shock is indicated, and a rough scale of intensity is 
had. The narrowest cylinder is of so small diameter that it is hoped a very 
feeble shock will be marked by its fall. 

The perfect accessibility of the building for frequent and regular observa- 
tion, the certain and ready response of the cylinders to any movement of the 
ground, and the impossibility of the existence of any disturbing cause, 
will, itis the hope of the Committee, render the results highly satisfactory as 
regards the intensity and horizontal direction of any earthquake-shocks which 
may occur in future years. The comparison of these with the indications of 
the seismometer may lead to more important conclusions than have as yet 
been obtained from this inquiry. 


Seventh Report of the Committee on the Treatment and Utilization of 
Sewage, reappointed at Belfast, 1874, and consisting of Ricuarp 
B. Grantuam (Chairman), C.L., F.G.S., Professor A. W. Wiz- 
LiaMsoN, F.R.S., Dr. Giupert, F.R.S., Professor Corrietp, M.A., 
M.D., Witt1am Hors, V.C., F. J. Bramwett, C.H., F.R.S. 


Durixe the past year, from March 25th, 1874 to March 24th, 1875, the ob- 
servations at Breton’s Farm, near Romford, were carried on by the Com- 
mittee, though, owing partly to the want of funds at the beginning of the 
year, and partly to the fact that the notched board by means of which the 
flow of sewage was gauged had been removed from the trough by order of 
the Surveyor to the Local Board, the experiments could not be made as com- 
plete as they would otherwise have been. 

Instead of gauging the sewage applied to the land, as heretofore, by direct 
observations in the distributing-trough, the quantities used on the farm have 
been estimated solely by the method hitherto employed to verify the trough 
gaugings—i. ¢., the sewage entering the farm during the working hours of the 
engine is calculated by ordinary gaugings in the main sewer, and may be 
considered as the “day” sewage; the remainder, or the “ night” sewage, is 
ascertained by the different heights of liquid in the tanks at the time when 
the engine stops at night and starts next morning. The quantities thus cal- 
culated are given in Table I., from which we see that the amount of sewage 

1875. P 


66 REPORT—1875. 


received on the farm from the town during the year was 482,335 tons, a con- 
siderably larger amount than in previous years; this is partly owing to the 
fact that more houses have been connected with the sewers. 

The amount of effluent water added to the sewage and repumped on to the 

land was 27,295 tons, making 509,630 tons as the amount of diluted sewage 
received into the tanks; 491 tons of this were run into the river during ex~ 
cessive flows, &c., and thus the total amount applied to the land was 509,139 
tons. 
Tables IV., V., VI. and VII. correspond with similar tables in previous 
Reports; but especial attention is directed to the note at the foot of Table VI., 
or a wrong idea may be given of the amount of crop produced per acre, espe- 
cially in the case of the Italian rye-grass. 

The total produce of the farm for the year was less (by about 200 tons) 
than that of the previous one, and less also than the average of the three 
preceding years, and this notwithstanding that the crops of Italian rye-grass 
were really better and those of Mangold much better than those of the pre- 
vious year: thus in 1873-74, 18-69 acres produced 1084-94 tons of Italian 
rye-grass, or 58 tons per acre; while in 1874-75, 18-95 acres produced 869 
tons, or 62°83 tons per acre; while as to Mangold, the crops in 1873-74 were 
18-3 tons per acre, while in 1874-75 they were no less than 42°8 tons per 
acre. 

The principal reasons for the decrease in the total weight of the crops 
are :— 

I. The increase in the acreage of the cereal crops. 

II. The large quantity of land allowed to lie fallow during the winter, and 
consequently the small quantity of winter greens grown as compared with 
previous years. 

III. The fact that five crops (four of Rape and one of Turnips) were not 
carried off the land but ploughed in, and that two others (of wheat) partially 
failed. 

From the autumn of 1874 to the end of the cropping year (March 1875), 
there were 38} acres of land entirely fallow. In addition, four crops (= 102 
acres) of Rape and one crop (=63 acres) of Turnips were ploughed in, and 
the land, 174 acres in all, treated as fallow. Finally, 14 acres of grass were 
ploughed in during March and April, haying thus, so far as produce was 
concerned, been practically fallow land ; making a total of 70 acres, or nearly 
two thirds of the cultivated area of the farm, unproductive during the winter 
months. 

On reference to Table VI. it will be seen that the aggregate acreage of all 
the crops was 130-42 as against 170-66 of the previous year, which further 
illustrates the above statement; and this quantity is also less than that of 
the two other years recorded by the Committee. This is owing to the fact 
that the system of cropping has been changed, since the census of the town 
given in the Committee’s Report for 1872-73 (Fifth Report) showed that 
many of the houses in the town were not connected and many only partially 
connected with the town sewer, so that it became necessary to manure a 
much smaller area with the sewage. 

But an examination of the Tables given in the present and two previous - 
Reports, whilst establishing the above facts, also shows that the weight per 
acre of crops produced, and the amount of nitrogen estimated to be recovered 
in them, was more in the year under review than in either of the two pre- 
ceding years; and the improvement in these respects has been progressive 
during the three years, thus ;— 


ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE, 67 


Total Ni 
: itrogen 
Year, Aggregate} Total | Produce | Nitrogen er ‘| 
area. | produce. | per acre. | estimated to | por acre 
be recovered. | ? ; 
acres. tons. tons. lbs lbs. 


1872-73. | 156 | 1704 | 10-9 15,704 | 101 
1873-74. | 171 | 2353 | 138 | 22,766 | 183 
1874-75, | 180 | 2157 |. 165 | 20,166 | 153 


This result is no doubt partly due to the concentration of the sewage on a 
smaller area, and partly to the increased richness of the soil, which was de- 
monstrated by the analytical results given in the Committee’s Fifth Report. 

It is necessary to state that the year 1871~—72 would, if added, show 
an apparent exception to this progress, inasmuch as the total amount of pro- 
duce that year was 2714 tons, an amount that has not been equalled since ; 
but this exception is only an apparent one, and is caused by the fact that 
there were then no cereals grown on the farm (whereas in the following 
years they have formed an important part of the produce), and that a much 
larger area was under cabbages. : 

And notwithstanding the large total weight of crops that year, the rate per 
acre of produce was less than in 1874-75; whilst the amount of nitrogen 
reckoned as recovered in the crops was less than in either 1873-74 or 
1874-75, as appears from the figures :— 


Nitrogen 
estimated to Nitrogen 
Aggregate Total Produce be recovered recovered 
area. produce, peracre. in crops. per acre. 


res. tons. tons. Ibs. Ibs. 


ac 
1871-72.... 168 2714 16:2 19,667 117 


The areas given in each case are the total areas of all the crops, of course 
including sometimes the same land twice. 

The Committee were unable to have samples of sewage and effluent water 
analyzed regularly every month; but samples were taken three times a week 
(equal quantities in the case of the sewage, quantities in proportion to the 
flow in that of the effluent water) and mixed, and a sample of each mixture 
taken at the end of the month; thus twelve samples of sewage and twelve 
of effluent water were obtained. 

As the samples had been kept so long and had not (in the case of the 
sewage) been taken in proportion to the flow, it was thought sufficient to mix 
quantities of the samples of sewage proportionate to the monthly quantities 
of sewage pumped, and to have a sample of this mixture (for the whole 
period) analyzed: in the case of the effluent waters it was thought better to 
mix equal quantities (as the monthly total quantities could not be ascer- 
tained), so as to make four samples, one for each three months, and to have 
them analyzed. 

The results of these analyses are given in the following. Tables :— 


r2 


68 REPORT—1875. 


Breton’s Farm. 
Srewacr.—From April 1874 to March 1875 (both inclusive). 
In 100,000 parts. 


PATEDACOUUAEY. /¢S0i 5 ahs. 's: 0! Sean I teed fees Se onde 3°32 
Total Nitrogen (in solution and suspension) .. 5°56 
SSLOTUNG: 25’: ain bn oeennee Memmi RveLteiole eet 13-00 
Nitrogen as Nitrates........... Maisbstevare: Oe sie none. 


Errivrnt water.—In 100,000 parts, 


April, July, October, January, 
ay, August, November, February, 
June. September. December. March. 
AUNTS, 05 felis nig se site ae OG 0-112 0-004 0-004 
Nitrogen as Nitrates .... 0°78 0-27 0:26 0-56 
Nitrogen not as Nitrates .. 0:13 0°15 0:04 0:06 
ROMLGTUDG store «felevs eye. vases oi! 10°35 11-45 11:00 9:80 - 
Total Nitrogen... «..). ++ 0-91 0:42 0:30 0°62 


It is to be remarked, in the first place, that the result thus obtained for the 
total nitrogen of the sewage is very near to the average results already ob- 
tained ; thus in the year 1871-72 the average was 5:529, and in 1872-73 it 
was 5:151 per 100,000. And as regards the effluent waters, the total nitro- 
gen is below the average in all cases, and the purification, as shown by the 
smaller amount of nitrogen not as nitrates,is more perfect during the last two 
quarters; this may be due to the consolidation of the earth around the drain- 
age pipes; but the Committee would not now express a decided opinion on 
this point, as they intend to institute a series of experiments to investigate 
the changes which go on in sewage and effluent water when kept for some 
time. 

As 509,139 tons of sewage were utilized on the farm, the total amount 
of nitrogen supplied was (according to the analysis of the mixed sample) 
28°38 tons. Last year, from the data obtained from the two previous years, 
the total amount was taken at 27 tons; but this year an increase was ex- 
pected from the fact that more houses have been connected with the sewers. 

The total amount of nitrogen recovered in the crops is estimated at 20,166 
pounds, or 31°8 per cent. of the nitrogen supplied; in former years the per- 
centages estimated were as follows :— 


1871-72 Ccereotiisned ans. 2L°70 per cent, 
1872-73) wee cetera reerciehere 26:00 ,, 
1873-74 ..... TE Dees 37°60 


% 


The amount this year is exactly the mean of the amounts for the last two 
years. 

It should be understood that in these calculations no deduction is made 
for the amount of nitrogen that there would be in the normal unsewaged 
produce; in other words, the figures show the relation of the nitrogen in 
the total produce (not in the increase only) to that estimated to be supplied 
in the sewage. 

The Committee will be able to continue their investigations, owing to the 
generous liberality of a Member of the Association, and more complete 
observations are now going on again systematically at Breton’s Farm. 


Taste I.—Breton’s Sewage Farm. 


Statement of Weekly quantities of Sewage received on the Farm from the 
Town of Romford, from March 25, 1874, to March 24, 1875. 


Average : Average 
No. of Rainfall Sewage 
weekly Dates (inclusive). pe any during ausced sie ie 
return. ag Bas : week, on farm. | ther =e 
oF in. gallons. on 
198. | 1874. March 25 to March 29...... 5 Gleam laies=cct 1,321,000 54 
199. = SSO sy PEL, iercen 51 Osi 2,045,000 53 
200. eee ADIL Wy oObsst o sy) b T2Ascnns eter 0°63 2,129,000 
201. % Bie EXGae yy) Sei casces| ese. 7 O15 1,780,000 
202. s PEON; en sO) secess |r cabreny) ||) eeeost 1,934,000 
203. Pe seat 274 a E eOD000C Hmm GCOD o0'02 1,901,000 
204. » May AG wee PE LOL sesiasth ers. 0°07 1,691,000 
205. 3 hy MERU AR ey Shape er] | le osaee oz 1,927,000 
206, 5 BAL WER Sy dvdona et. DACs esac 0°38 1,847,000 
207. EP 7 25 3 oy ZI cvcces|  sereee 9°09 1,799,c00 
208. Het DUNO oT; ta chUNA gy. Zee, sales se 0°64. 1,986,000 
209. ry + Sm Ns PETA Ree DRak ce Pl sacs 1,699,000 
210. - +. EAU SR ee | eee 0°43 2,085,000 
211, - on 8 BREE Lies och || ROCRORS 0°78 1,882,000 
212, :, eZ Oss rel Uy eiieinte ney |Gnees. 0°07 1,794,000 
213. » duly Soha. WANrCMED SSecealia this cas 1°84 2,130,000 
214, 5 ore MS Repeat ecnencel | feccoeeim 4 le seceaee 2,066,000 
215. SNIZORG) ga DOM. toes o18 2,437,000 
216. “4 S27 eye AUG emen2ravenve eosese 0°42 2,148,000 
217. ae AUB: BPs Mas Qesedes Sndbse 0°08 2,109,000 
218, ‘5 PRMEATOvGsp tay) LADO) igeastl. were 0°67 2,094,000 
219. 5 LIST? oyh syelek 23 cocatcc sods O’'or 1,992,000 
220. as “ 245, cr BOlaanse eevcee O13 2,013,000 
221. . eng E as Nepte dO veces: teens 0°37 2,066,000 
222. SeRCD RA Fe as, 4 TS Sescmaat actos O31 2,088,000 
223. ‘s aoed REVAL Mrot,.” | ZO leveavallaberssae ye (pop vests 2,063,000 
224. a =, 21 y, 3 a7 ECCI eres 0°27 2,232,000 
225. A See 2 Sere OCiame ns Auseccas tone 1°65 2,136,000 
226. fo OS a OG capers seeees 0°61 1,977,000 
227. 5 rises VLC Py teal ab SIRE aneas 1°06 2,034,000 
228. - oe ORR Chie Sacbic o'04, 1,767,000 
229. 9 re 20M Nove itr seneee 1'09 1,991,000 
230. Me COVA 125.55 Sae=. aeasasiey ibn cteaee 1,740,000 
231. P. 4 2) fetal he te 975 AiR ha serene | 0°16 1,860,000 
232. ff ay 16 2 OF ra Se 2 eeeeee 0735 2,022,000 
233- es ” 23 » + ZY vores eeseee | sence . 2,232,000 
234. , a iC eg cole a ce Pe 1°48 | 2,466,000 
235. » Dee. Tees) | FIQhevesnafs  osaces 0°87 2,328,000 
236, ” 99-14 gy 47 ZO cvceee| oe eeee o'lg 2,198,000 
237- 73 PRE yokes. | 2i7iesarcel|) lence Sndos 1,826,000 
238. ” » 28 ,, dan. 31875) coves 082 1,598,000 
239. 1875. Jan. Brae BeOS anges waders 2,040,000 
eae ” Fak, LR carne eer AceeRe stots 0°32 2,213,000 
241. DAP tP ogg GMO voy "gph NDA ccres| cedens O75 2,522,000 
242. . re Me. ED RUS Ocoee 0°96 2,752,000 
243. » Feb. Biv MODs op sacee | ced ess or2 2,512,000 
244. ” ” 8 ,, ” Th veeeee hie al 254.94,000 
245. Pn 55 ni + CS Rr aeeeee o'21 2,255,000 
246, 5 sid, | 22; 5, HURL A Oia evecee o'16 2,323,000 
247. » March 1 ,, March 7...... Pea 0°38 2,243,000 
248. 5. ts 8) yy:r sh gptee oTAte cote [Otle's se +e 0704. 2,153,c00 
249- 2 BY LS. peu. gare ce fee eeeeee 0°09 2,132,000 
250. 33 Fesd22) 5, sy ae oinwees Mesbiee Bente 971,000 
19°79 


Total ...|108,043,000 


| Tons ... 482,335 


70 REPORT—1875. 


Taste [Y.—Breton’s 


Statement showing Crops grown from 


No. of beds Date when sown or 


Plot. (inclusive). Acreage. Crop. planted. 
A 1 to 29 9°8 Ttalian rye-grass ........- JUNE 1873 0c: eseews tee 
B 1t06&g &10 3°85 CATTOIS:. \eck<-s2e00520 sadaees April 1874.0.00.0c0000e- 
Gy MRE” (Pen Hate ioe.) IR be teens IBLGCCOlL:Ka2. i Gasesscs dete July 1874 ....... Wivedeas 
FPN: idomar tates. TONNE Simagere Oabbage.sc..-.ce-esesecvds Fy, 53 tt sae ee eee 
Pee hl ecosstane Chen adces owe ARON SAD 25 Mase. dye tees 5 93° Wn ogtasseeN ete es 
i 7, 8 "95 Hardy green plants ,.....) April 1874............ ace 
5 rr to 16 2°78 POAH . cs svddeasawecasedeusaiae March 1874 5..scse.c.0s 
oy 17 5, 26 4°54. Cabbage :.2%-.0a.--caceeues Oot. 187.3) c.caseneteeveven 
4 7&8 & 11 to 16 3°73 Hardy greens ...... acaba Aug. and Sept. 1874... 
17, 18 "93 Brussels sprouts ......... dtily ¥874.1..chs-ctbeveese 
af 19 to 26 3°61 Cabbage-plants ...........- July and Aug. 1874... 
+ Be3,.420 12°12 Fallow. 

Total B eer oe M202, Mel eae cs cafes. soe are Gaees deaepe ee 
Cc All 1°97 Cabbage’ s.....0¢tsen+ceeesss OCb 1874) oeceerseg co aaee 
a ” 1°97 HPO Pateercerss Ieee ta ves Sept. 137 Atecsu ease eens es 
” ” 1°97 Oats ate taectereeeee papeeteape March187/'5 Giccanesse! 

Total C ae 1'97 aehcteeonene vee mie ceieeics opens ~) 
D All. 6°93 MAR EON So scs. aecescesenes April 1374 9 -yeueess 
. 3 6°93 (Cabbage ts ce-seeetesncoesees Oct. and Nov. 1874 ... 

Totaly | a cestese 6°93 aeaepeos "asa ten ill  cieeaccn aes Ae 
E 1 to 22 B76.) WHERE ress <ces aehphs soa < vee] March 1874 ....c.ese0ss 
” ” 5°76 Italian rye-grass ......... Sept, 187405 p-c<aues te oe 

Total HT We a csevercgs. 2 TR RT givvwease Wet Saeetranee dente 
BF 1 to 14 2°97 WGA. 0005s... -00---cpectse| GD: STAM cenrenenee 
” 15, 16 42 | Hardy green plants...... May 1874 ijeerscassceee soe 
» 17,18 "42 Savoy plants .......... ave] EPMA, Ge acres Sorte 
” 15,16 "42 BRVOYS . scp J.stecpgee sree GTly 0,5) ctocegeee eset eres 
a 1t014.&17&18 3°39 Cabbage ..........006 ade Oat. 45. te..evcemteees 
9 15, 16 43 Fallow. 

| Total F | 28 ee. eee 


SS SS SS 


ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. Aly 


Sewage-Farm. 
March 25, 1874, to March 24, 1875. 


Produce 
Date when cut or , 
gathered. Bomarke. 
Total. Per acre. 
tons. tons, 
May to Nov. 1874...... 640'24. 65°3 Hight cuttings. Grass ploughed in 
April 4, 1875. 
P 
LU TAy a <sopssapt55%e> 66°61 
Sept. to Dec. 1874... ae 21°5 Planted where the Carrots were scarce. 
0°75 
RUDE EG 7A vcccss-ccceresss 5°93 62 
SPO TRA... vezencacones = 8°45 3°0 Straw 6°33 tons. 
Juneand July 1874 ...| 82°90 182 
Dee. 1874. to Feb. 1875] 20°81 5°6 
Noy. 1874 to Feb. 1875 5°10 5°5 
Oct. and Nov. 1874...) 24°60 6°8 One fourth of crop ploughed in, 
aanNine'deang top 230°57 19'0 Plot fallow at end of year. Sown 
with Barley and Italian rye-grass, 
March 27, 1875. 
June to Aug. 1874 ...| 32°97 16°7 
cosneepagococng Saeeee Senta The Rape-seed failed. 
Spot Oa 32°97 16°7 Plot in seed (Oats) at end of 
year. 
“his 2 lmeerereneeeeeertr 341°0 49°2 
seveseceesepens | | seeee A Creere Crop remains March 25, 1875. 
Peaeehstecnoitsa a 341° ai 49°2 Plot under crop (Cabbage) at end of 
year. 
PALS LOA scvatuascscet.s 14°39 2°5 Including 8°53 tons straw. 
NG Wie. WOSER Ea one II*52 2°0 One cutting ; grass remains, 
ACeOEES aes 25°91 4°5 Plot under crop (Grass) at end of 
year. 
PATI. TS 74. ..ccnscavessess 6°59 22 Indi ng 4°34 tons straw. 
MTLY 5, wecveseesserees 2°42 57 
WE ss bree «cence a= 3°03 72 
Noy. and Dec. 1874... 5°46 13'0 
Seaeises Pecenes MBecck esceee Crop remains. 
ravsevaesdaesas 17°50 4°6 Part of plot in crop at end of year 
(Cabbage). 


a 


ww 
No. of beds 
Plot. (inclusive). 
G 1to8&11to12 
r 13 to 16 
” 9 
“3 10 & 17 
9 18 ,, 19 
” 21 4, 22 
20 
25 I to 22 
Nota Cranllwe agence. ees 
H 3to 5 
” 8 ” 24 
” I ,, 24 
Motaleest Ae tet 
I 1 to 16 
= 17 & 18 
a 1 to 18 
ER OGAEL ec acaict vie 
K All. 

” ” 
otal ied) coca sesivews 
L I 
” 2, 3 

os 4 to 20 

i All 
Mota NW. vas.saes 

M All. 

Ay 1 to 12 

” 13 
Total M 

N All. 


ee ee ee 


REPORT—1875. 


Tasre LY. 


Date when sown or 
planted. 


Cabbage.......c0...00+ wees] Nov. 1873 
Carnotsasnc-vesectacareeces 

Savoy-plants ........s00000. 

Broccoli-plants ............ 
Cabbage-plants............ 

Brussels sprouts .......-.. 

Kohl rabi plants ..... ... 

Italian rye-grass ......++. 

WPINACM AR. ce-ec ep deb oeenes April’t874; Wicrcs.teenes 
Cabbage vo.sesasce-econete Oct. and Nov. 1873 ... 
Italian rye-grass ......... JUNO NS 7A eee eeeene eee 
NWWLiGaGimeccenesscostecrcerse Feb. 1874.5) pactendecaee 
TRDDASOM ws dvcccerseceee ras NOV.) 1874 )iccuncatenhiane 
PRUETT Hie sass sloniec nwa sehee Sept. 18°74)..s.ehessssanae 
Mangold .........ssseseeee April 1874. ...... veomite 
Spinachinnesssncccssasesteoe March 1875. 

Cabbage’ cass -sceuesenen- JUNC TS74. weavaemecnnn ess 
SAVOVS!sosersduasdcerscest ess 3)” ab ecledeeeceyes 
Cabbage ..dvcccnsnesdatees 3 3). veepeuteeteee eee 
IBEANS bresentnadeenavcteneree March 1875. 

Mangold cesvessceee-| April 1874 siseee Brees 
SEAS Meetecensecvacscwessevet March 1875 ...... Senees 
Fallow. 


Serene eeseneees fF = ee eeneeee 


Italian rye-grass 


eoseeeses| CULO LOTS cocsssseeeernes 


ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 73 


(continued). 


Date when cut or 
gathered. 


June to Aug. i ae ee 


Aug.and Sept. ,, 


June 1874 


May and June 1874... 


Sept. to Noy. 


Aug. 1874 
June & July 1874 


Apr. 1874 to Mar.1875 


Produce. 
Remarks. 


Per acre. 


tons, 


Grass remains, 


Plot all in grass at end of year. 


One cutting; grass remains. 


Plot all in grass at end of year. 


a 


Straw 11°28 tons, 


This crop failed. 


Plot fallow at end of year. 


ee EE 


36°3 Part of plot fallow at end of year, re- 
mainder sown with Spinach. 


Plot all sown with Beans at end of 
year. 


Crop remains. 


Part of plot sown with Peas at end 


229°35 : Grass ploughed in at end of year. 


74 


REPORT—1875. 


-Tastn IV, 


No. of beds 
Plot. | (inclusive). 
fe) All. 
(Maye Oe ea epson 
P All. 
- ” 
Total P : 
Q All. 


Acreage. 


Crop. 


COO eee eee t eet ereeenes 


Wheat tts. cd o.sceretaccs se 
TREO neta devasseaestecads 
GUS cencas on dessscan ea eae ce 
Wheat © 5 cfivdstoctescseeeest 
Beans ov. iccdecscse wewseees 


eee e new eeeetee 


Beene enw eee ewenes 


See meee eee eeneseees 


COR tet ee eeeene 


CeCe eee eee err 


Date when sown or 
planted. 


June ,, 


eee ene cteweeee 


Heb: 1874 ceaccspectsecss 
March 1875. 


See eee e ee eenees 


Sept. 1874 — caspecsnesss 


encanta eeeeees 


March 0S7a\gecsseres core 
Rept srenpersarsn eee 
March 1875. 


Pee erent eseee 


ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 75 


(continued). 
Date when cut or er Remarks. 
gathered. RMIT Oy ae 


Per acre. 


Aug. and Sept. 1874... 


” ” ” 


Planted where Onions were scarce. 


Plot fallow at end of year. 


teweserseterses 


3°47 tons straw. 
The Rape-seed. failed. 


Feet eeeeeeeetee 


Plot in seed at end of year. 


eee teeeeeeeeree 


404 tons straw. 


Plot sown with Beans at end of year, 


Peewee ereeeae 


Straw 4°33 tons. 


Aug. 1874. ere...scc0r00 
Dec. a One cutting; Oziers remain. 


92 PAR e ee eee eeeee 


Plot nearly all sown with Beans at 
end of year. 


April 1874......... “ieee Rhubarb remains, 


4°05 tons straw. 


INDIETISTA: secscesecses CC 
| The Rape-seed failed. 


Peet eeeeeterees 


Plot fallow till end of year, then sown 
with Oats. 


1'15 ton straw. Only one acre of crop 
ripened. 


t 


Plot all sown with Beans at end of 
year. 


4°33 tons straw. 
The Rape-seed failed. 


. 

b 
i=] 
aR 
- 

oo 
su 
> 


Plot fallow at end of year, then sown 
with Peas. 


76 REPORT—1875. 


Taste LY. 


Date when sown or 
planted. 


No. of beds 


Plot. (inclusive). 


Acreage. Crop. 


—_— | 


x All. 3°36 Wheat. ccccssssovccscoersoes| March 18749 iscsessseths 
» FP 3°86 (BEATS. casas taasavaaseovans 990 ASISe 


Total X sivuesene 3°86 eeenarossseatine casenasveatae 


ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 77 


(continued). 
Produce 
Date when cut or ft 
gathored. Remarks. 
Total. Per acre. 
tons. tons. 
MIGUPIS 7A, cin sycoccess sss 1°79 0°5 1'r5 ton straw. Only one acre of crop 
ripened, 
“Sucdaaooe Bee ‘ 1'79 o's Plot all sown with Beans at end of 
year. 
June 1874 ...... wewceetes - 17°00 3°0 One cutting. Plot used for grazing 


October and November. Quantity 
grazed computed. 


78 


Season 1874-75.—Summary of Cropping Return. 


REPORT—1875. 


Taste V.—Breton’s Sewage-Farm. 


Plot, | Acreage. 


A | x 980 
B 12°12 
Cc 197 
D 6°93 
E 5°76 
F 3°82 
G 5°17 
El 6°40 
E 6°67 
K 4°44 
L 2°87 
M 3°17 
N * 41S 
O 5°92 
P 3°50 
Q 2°34. 
R 2°52 
8 0'22 
U 2°53 
W, 5°93 
WSs 278 
x 3°86 
Y 5°60 

10844 


Produce. 
Crops. 
Total. Per acre. 
Tat tons tons. 

Italian rye-grass ........ssseeeee Peeervessear= 64.0°24. 65°3 
Carrots, broccoli, cabbage, kohl rabi,| 230°57 I9'0 

hardy greens, peas, and Brussels 

sprouts, 
Cabbage SAS SCBA To hoe CEOPE RE ER ETT CEEDE ES Pee 32°97 16°7 
IMBMOOLC gras st; scueracsses ove Puccgens voce Geeen 34.1°00 49°2 
Wheat and Italian rye-grass ......060..00+ 25°91 4°5 
Wheat, hardy greens, and savyoys ...... Seats FL 7259 4°6 
Cabbage, carrots, savoys, broccoli, Brus- 64°80 12'5 

sels sprouts, and kohl rabi. 
Spinach, cabbage, and Italian rye-grass,..! 113°74 17°8 
Wheat and cabbage ............sscccrceeseeees 29°68 4°5 
Wan toldl Msssenecsesseees easesseor eeeyensr sesess| 1OL'GO 3673 
Cabbage and savoya ......sssesseesecseesvesees 21°95 77 
MDMA retarted scecdephsaccn terres ete 121'00 382 
RtaigguEVE-OTARS <sveysiaalsresceecsivs ncganel 229°35 55°3 
Onions and broccoli .2iiscccccccwasveceteoe> 62°06 10°5 
Wheat sracoacectrcisec bass cos covastorcatocsins 5°57 1'6 
INN RAR” Secerron SS Sei0is, <cetceieredebee stowed 5°16 22 
Wiheatiand overs’. -..cccseccs-neeccceesscssees 6°27 an 
Rhubarb seseannaeeeeaneescessseceseseceeeseeees 0°45 2° 
ME SIS SOLO SA BR | SRE Sn 6°75 27 
WWiHeatin cseserss.+0: setavADsDasnnenexeesendsesteps 1°79 o°3 
IW Wiktent Speececetense sess sess cohsiseeesvancsaece 6°58 24. 
Wheat Sececnnaseses Rabieisewaenacesens<seossusene 1°79 O°5 
Hay and meadow-grass ...c.....ccsseseeceee 31°00 5°5 


2157'15 


* See Note at foot of Table VI, 


19°9 


ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE, 


Taste V1.—Breton’s Sewage-Farm. 


Summary of Crops gathered from March 25, 1874, to March 24, 1875, 
showing the quantity of each kind of Produce and Nitrogen contained therein. 


Total 
acreage 
of each 

Crop. descrip- 
tion of 
crop. 
Italian rye-grass ............ *26°11 
Grass (meadow) .........-+ 
5°60 
EIGAaN rar acecssecesdecss ss c0s> => 
WVAIEYR oescasesessccesncecccons o'12 
Cabbage .........064 “ECO 21°46 
Hardy greens......scsseerevves 5°10 
BAVOYS,« sessscsess 0 ees ot 1°36 
Brussels sprouts ........065 1°40 
PEOIBOOLIG ocsctesssctesersvevves 2°00 
Spinach ...2.....secsseccsesseee 0°66 
HOGHISIADN recs ctevercteess eters 0°23 
EERE ed cbyscacarscescevevecaset 2°78 
DAPPER 5525.6. ..ce8secneeconses 4°79 
EMO scccscosccccosscnsrenss 14°54 
BPETOTIS Nececcccesssewase noneand 5°92 
Wheat .......ccscscosesensseee 38°13 
FAWORTD, ....0.0sso0cqcsacessnes o'22 
130°42 


Produce of each crop. 


Total Nitrogen estimated 
to be in crops. 


Total. Per acre. Per cent. Total. Pet acre. 
tons by Fe : lbs. Th: 
916731 35°1 0°54. |11,084| 424 
14°00 2°5 0°54. 169 30 
| 17°00 30 2°00 761| 136 | 
or71 59 
3011 14°0 0'25 | 1,686 78 
29°16 5°8 O'25 163 32 
14°42 10°6 0°25 81 60 
8°40 60 0725 47| 34 
13°69 68 0°25 77 38 
I'50 2°2, O25 8 12 
aos | 176 | 0375] 34] 148 
eee 2°12 o°8 3°40 161 } 98 
straw 6°33 23 0°80 113 
76°57 16'0 0'20 343 72 
623°00 42°8 0'25 | 3,489 240 
55°63 | 94 | 022 | 274] 46 
{Sew a6; | 12.|. ovop| 2675) 48 
0°45 2'0 
2157°13 16°5 vesee [20,166) 155 


Ce 


* This acreage of Italian rye-grass includes not only the 13°95 acres of plots A and N 


(marked x in Table V.), on which the regular cro 
the 12°16 acres of plots E and H (see Table V.), 
practice for the following year's use, and from w 


ps for the year’s use were grown, but also 
which were sown according to the usual 
hich only a first light cutting was taken. 


80 REPORT—1875. $ 


Taste VII.—Breton’s Sewage-Farm. 


Statement of Land in crop and Land lying fallow on March 24, 1875, 


Plot. | Acreage. ae Pathe Comparison. 
acres. 
A 9°80 9°80 
B er) heli In crop. Fallow. Total. 
bi jc ; acres, acres. acres. 
re i arch 24,1872... 40°49 63°39 ©=103'88 
97 1, » aa oan So 19°93 ro7'55 
D 6° 6" ” 99 1074... O9'09X 19°35 T0044 
5 “i » ~—99,—«1875 4. 79°40% 29°04 108°44 
E 576) hen s76 
F 3°82 | 3°39 
G Oe ee 
, * As pointed out last year, the area de- 
4 oe 3 scribed as “in crop” comprises most of the 
TI 667 | ee spring sowings, 
On March 24th, 1873, about 224 acres. 
K 4°44 82 ” ” ” 1 ” 38 ” 
L 2°87 5 87 ” ” ” 1675 ” 32 ” 
Moreover, on the last date there were 
M 3°17 2°89 14 acres of grass which was immediately 
after ploughed in. Practically, therefore, 
N 415 4°15 in considering the above comparison, 46 
acres should be deducted from the area “in 
O ga aabee crop” March 24, 1875. 
P 350 | 3°59 
Q 2°34 | 2°34. 
R 2°52 2°52 
8 22 “22. 
U 2°53 | 2°53 
x 593 | 5°93 
WwW 2°75 | 2°75 
x 3°86 3°86 
Y 5°60 5°60 


10844 | 79°40 | 29°04 


ON PALESTINE EXPLORATIONS. 81 


Fifth Note on the Dry Earth System. 


Dr. Gilbert has, in continuation of the series of results recorded in former 
Reports, furnished the Committee with the determination of the nitrogen 
(by the soda-lime process) in soil which has now passed through a Moule’s 
earth-closet six times. The results of the series are as follows :— 


After | After | After | After 
using | using | using | using 
three four five six 

times. | times. | times. | times. 


After | After 
using | using 
once, | twice. 


gen in soil dried 0-240} 0-383] 0-446} 0-540] 0°614| 0-716 


Percentage of nitro- 
0-073 
at 100° C. 


The increase in the percentage of nitrogen (determinable by the soda-lime 
method) was therefore, by each use, as follows :— 


After | After | After | After 
using | using | using | using 
three four five six 

times. | times. | times. | times. 


After | After 
using | using 
once. | twice. 


———$—$<$<$<$—$, 


Increase in the rs ae | 


of nitrogen in soil dried }| 0-167] 0-143} 0-063} 0-094} 0-074| 0-102 


Sw al Oe 


The gain of nitrogen so indicated was therefore greater by the ixth than 
by any previous use of the soil since the first and second. The average gain 
was, however, only 0-11 per cent. by each use. 

As last year, so again this, Dr. Russell has determined the amount of 
nitrogen existing as nitrates in the soil. Last year, after the soil had been 
passed through the closet five times, the amount of nitrogen as nitrates was 
found to be 0-20 per cent. on the soil calculated as fully dried; and now, 
after passing through six times, it is found to be 0-254. 

The additional results now recorded do not in any way disturb the con- 
clusions previously arrived at by the Committee as to the value of the 
manure obtained from an earth-closet. For this, and for their opinion of 
the system in its other aspects, they would refer to their former Neports 
(IIL. pp. 187 & 188, LY. p. 143, V. pp. 413 & 439, VI. pp. 213 & 214). 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Major Witson, R.E., and Mr. 
RavensteIn, appointed for the purpose of furthering the Palestine 
Explorations. 


Tur sum of £100, granted at the last Meeting of the British Association for 

the purpose of furthering the Palestine Explorations, was paid over by Major 

Wilson to the Palestine Exploration Fund, with a request that the wishes of 
1875. G 


82 REPORT—1875. 


the General Committee of the Association, as expressed in their Resolution, 
might be carried out. 

No complete account of the work of the last twelye months has yet been 
received from Lieut. Conder, R.E., the officer in charge of the Survey; but 
from his monthly reports to the Committee of the Fund, it would appear that, 
since the grant of £100 was made, the triangulation of Palestine has been 
carried southwards as far as Beersheba, and that a large tract of interest- 
ing country, including the plain of Philistia and the southern slopes of the 
mountains of Judah, has been surveyed and plotted on a scale of one inch to 
a mile. : 

Amongst other results have been the recovery of several ancient sites, and 
the corrections of many errors in the topography of Southern Palestine. 

Lieuts. Conder and Kitchener, R.E., were recently engaged in running a 
line of levels from the Mediterranean to the Sea of Galilee; but this work 
was unfortunately stopped by the attack made upon Lieut. Conder and his 
party by the people of Safed. 

_ Lieut. Conder, who was badly wounded, has been unable to send a full 
report on the levelling; but in a letter written shortly before the affray he 
mentioned that more than ten miles, or about one third of the levelling, had 
been completed, and gave some details of the manner in which the work was 
being carried out. The line of levels was being run by two independent 
observers (non-commissioned officers from the Ordnance Survey); bench- 
marks were being cut at frequent intervals, and their position fixed by a line 
of traverse survey from the Mediterranean to the Sea of Galilee, which will 
be laid down on the one-inch survey. 

Lieut.-Gen. Sir Henry James, the Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, 
was kind enough to lend instruments for the work, and he has taken much 
interest in its progress. 

In consequence of the attack on the Survey party and the spread of cholera, 
it has been decided to withdraw Lieut. Conder and his staff from Palestine for 


the present ; but as soon as the Survey is recommenced the levelling will be 
completed. 


Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Harxnuss, 
Prof. Presrwicu, Prof. Hucuns, Rev. H. W. Crossxey, Prof. W. 
Boyp Dawkins, Messrs. C. J. Woopwarp, Grorcr Maw, L. C. 
Mutt, G. H. Morton,.and J. E. Lex, appointed for the purpose of 
recording the position, height above the sea, lithological characters, 
size, and origin of the more important of the Erratic Blocks of 
England and Wales, reporting other matters of interest connected 


with the same, and taking measures for their preservation. Drawn 
up by the Rev. H. W. Crossxey, Secretary. 


‘nn Committee have received many valuable contributions regarding the 
occurrence and distribution of Erratic Boulders. The inquiry is not yet 
sufficiently exhaustive in its details to permit of any generalization; and the 
Committee find it necessary to continue their record without attempting as 
yet = connect the facts they report with theories of the history of the glacial 
epoch. 


It will be observed, however, (1) that our knowledge of the extent of 


ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 83 


country over which erratic blocks are distributed is considerably increased ; 
(2) that the erratic blocks are connected together more clearly in definite 
groups, distinctly pointing to special centres of distribution; (3) that the 
grouping and distribution of the blocks are throwing light upon the periods 
into which the glacial epoch must be divided. 


DrvonsHIRE. 


Mr. W. Pengelly, F.R.S., F.G.S., reports the following particulars regard- 
ing boulders and scratched stones in South Devonshire. 


1. The New Red Sandstone boulders of Waddeton. 


These occur on the left bank of the river Dart, from 3 to 4 miles north 
of Dartmouth, on the estate of Mr. Studdy. Between the Dart and Wad- 
deton Court, and within sight of the latter, three subangular masses are 
imbedded in the soil. So far as it is visible, the largest measures 6 feet 
by 3 feet, and the others are not much smaller. 

They occupy the angular points of an isosceles triangle, of which the base, 
haying the direction N. 78° W. to 8S. 78° E. magnetic, is 30 paces long, 
whilst the sides are about 50 paces each. In an orchard are numerous pits 
whence boulders have been dug up from time to time, and one specimen in 
situ measures 3 feet long and 2 broad. In the front garden of a neighbour- 
ing farmhouse is an undisturbed boulder. That portion of it which is visible 
is considerably rounded, and measures 9 feet in mean diameter ; its base is 
also well rounded, and it lodges on undisturbed Devonian slate. This spe- 
cimen has the appearance of a transported block. Adjacent to the same 
farmhouse is the site of a boulder which has been broken up and removed 
by Mr. Studdy, and, from his description, must have been fully 10 feet in 
mean diameter. On the surface of a boulder projecting from the base of a 
hedge there are several parallel grooves, crossed by a second set also parallel 
to one another, This is the only fact suggestive of glacial scratches; but it 
is not sufficiently pronounced to justify the opinion that the lines were due 
to such an agency. 

These boulders consist of very hard, more or less micaceous red sandstone. 
All that have been found were imbedded in the soil, and, when dislodged, 
all that portion of their surfaces which had been protected from the air was 
yery soft and friable, but soon: hardened on exposure. So far as has been 
noted, they all occupy areas having a slate subsoil. 

Their heights aboye mean tide are estimated to be generally from about | 
70 to nearly 200 feet; but a large specimen has been found not more than 
from 15 to 20 feet above low water, which appears undisturbed by man. 

The boulders being in much request by architects, on aecount of the hard- 
ness and durability of the stone, are sent off to Dartmouth and elsewhere 
throughout a considerable district. 

Besides the sandstone boulders there are two of dolomitized limestone: one 
of them, between the Dart and Waddeton Court, is rudely globular, and 
about 2°5 feet in mean diameter; the other is in a field adjacent to that in 
which there is an old well covered with a red sandstone boulder. 

The following questions present themselves respecting the red boulders 
just described :—Ist. Are they travelled masses? 2nd. If so, whence did 
they come? 38rd. When were they lodged where they now lie? 4th. What 
was the agent of transportation ? 

Ist. The New Red Sandstone system, as a continuous formation, reached 

@2 


84 REPORT—1875. 


its southern termination in the fine cliff forming the northern boundary of 
Goodrington Sands, Torbay, about 2 miles in a straight line north-east 
from Waddeton; but several “ outliers” exist to the south and west of that 
point, and some of them far removed from it—namely, between Goodrington 
Sands and Saltern Cove, between Saltern Cove and Broad Sands, two very 
small masses near the top of the cliff between Berry Head and Mudstone 
Bay, at the village of Slapton on the shore of Start Bay, at Thurlestone in 
Bigbury Bay, and near Cawsand in Plymouth Sound. If these numerous 
outliers on all sides of Waddeton be taken as evidence of the denudation of 
a great volume of New Red rocks in the south and west of Devon (and on this 
there will probably be little hesitation), it is possible that the blocks under 
notice may be, not travelled masses, but remnants in situ of New Red beds 
which once covered the older formations now exclusively occupying the 
district. It is no doubt true that the form they now bear is not inconsistent 
with transportation ; and it is equally true that the waves, which possibly 
did the work of denudation, may have left them in situ and would have 
reduced them to the shape they now have. 

2nd. Neither in the New Red Sandstone cliffs forming almost the entire 
coast of South-eastern Devon from Torbay to the confines of Dorsetshire, nor 
in any of the outliers already mentioned, with the exception of the two small 
masses near Berry Head, is there any sandstone having a hardness at all 
approaching that of the Waddeton boulders. The blocks, therefore, if they 
have travelled, and if their parent beds must be pointed out, certainly connect 
themselves with the Berry-Head outliers, upwards of 4 miles off as the crow 
flies, to the exclusion of all other sources, unless, indeed, they are fragments 
of certain well-known dykes to be briefly described immediately. Boulders 
similar to those at Waddeton are by no means rare on the Berry-Head 
plateau ; and a large subangular mass of the same material lies at the base of 
the raised beach between Berry Head and Berry-Head House. 

The Devonian Limestone, forming the southern shore of Torbay, is tra- 
versed by almost vertical dykes of New Red Sandstone, which form two 
systems, one having a direction which may be conveniently termed east and 
west, whilst the other runs from north to south. The east and west system 
is well exposed at intervals from Berry Head to the railway-cutting at the 
southern end of the viaduct crossing Broad Sands, about 1:5 mile east of 
Waddeton. This body of limestone extends to Waddeton, where it termi- 
nates. It is extensively quarried at Galmpton Creek, on the right bank of 
the Dart; but there are no traces there of such Red Sandstone dykes as have 
been already described. 

3rd. The fact that the boulders at the Churston station, on the tableland 
known as Galmpton Common, were completely buried in the soil, may be 
taken as evidence that a considerable time has elapsed since they were lodged 
there; and this is borne out by the more or less corresponding condition of 
most of those at Waddeton. Nevertheless, if man has neither disturbed the 
specimen mentioned as occupying the very low position in the meadow nor 
those at higher levels, the general contour of the district can have undergone 
very little change since they were deposited where they now are, and the 
date of that event cannot be very remote geologically. 

4th. Assuming the boulder formerly adjacent to the farmhouse, and 
broken up by Mr. Studdy, to have been 10 feet in mean diameter, that its 
form was spherical or nearly so, and that its specific gravity was 2-5, or not 
above that of common stone, it must have measured upwards of 500 cubic 
feet and weighed fully 36 tons, It is no doubt possible for such waves as 


ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND AND WALES, 85 


occasionally break on the British coast to move a mass having this volume 
and weight; but it may be safely concluded that they could never have 
transported it across a submarine valley having a depth at all approaching 
that of the valleys which now separate Waddeton from any area at present 
occupied by the New Red Sandstone formation. The very soft and friable 
character of their surfaces when first dug out of the soil renders it eminently 
improbable that if they had ever borne glacial scratches they could haye 
retained them, and forbids the attempt to come to any conclusions from the 
mere absence of such marks. 

_ The different levels at which they are found, the present configuration of 
the surface of the district, and the great weight of some of them, gives pro- 
bability to the opinion that the boulders have reached Waddeton from some 
part of the district lying between Berry Head and Galmpton Common, and 
that they were transported by ice, although no certain decision can as yet be 
reached. 


2. The Scratched Stones of Englebourne. 


Mr. Pengelly reports that, under the guidance of Mr. Paige-Brown, he 
examined these scratched stones. 

The stones in situ were eight in number, all in that part of Mr. Paige- 
Brown’s property known as ‘“* Wise’s Englebourne.” ‘The first was in ‘The 
Meadow,” and all the others in a field called “Great Yackland.” They are 
all of fine-grained trap, of close texture, and extremely tough; one of them, 
which has been broken, displays a schistose fracture, and may be a trap ash. 
Their heights above mean tide do not differ very much, and are estimated at 
about 100 feet. The lowest specimen is about 6 feet above the bottom of 
the valley. 

No. 1, near the lower gateway of “The Meadow,” measures 2°5 feet in 
length, 1-5 in greatest breadth, and at least 1 foot in depth. No attempt 
was made to ascertain to what depth it penetrated the soil. It is angular, 
the upper surface smooth, with the edges and ridges rounded off, which is 
not the, case with the lateral faces. There are numerous grooves on it, quite 
distinct but not sharp; and whilst most of them are sensibly parallel, and 
have the direction 8. 40° E. and N. 40° W. magnetic, a few cross them in 
different directions. 

No. 2 (the first we inspected in “Great Yackland”) has had a portion 
broken off recently, but its further destruction was stayed by the proprietor. 
The remnant is larger than No. 1, and it is much more rounded than that 
mass. It has on it two sets of parallel grooves, one having the direction of 
E. 10° N. and W. 10° 8. magnetic, whilst those of the second or less nu- 
merous set cross them in the direction of the magnetic meridian. 

No. 3, not far from No. 2, is subangular, and has numerous grooves, all in 
the direction N. 20° W. to 8. 20° KE. magnetic. 

No. 4, a short distance from Nos. 2 and 3, has probably been disturbed by 
man. It has two systems of parallel grooves. 

_ No. 5, near No. 4, has also two systems of parallel grooves. 

No. 6, also near No. 4, does not appear to bear any grooves. 

No. 7 is some distance south of the group 4, 5, and 6. Its length and 
breadth are nearly equal; some of its edges are partially rounded, and it has 
two systems of parallel grooves. 

No. 8, near No. 7, has an almost square upper face, and does not appear 
to be scratched. 

Of all the specimens No. 2 is the largest and, undoubtedly, the most in- 


86 REPORT—1875. 


teresting; and No.1 is probably the next in interest. They all rest on a 
slate subsoil, which crops up in certain places. 

That the stones have travelled some distance there cannot be a doubt; for 
whilst they are detached and trappean, they occupy an area having slate as 
its subsoil. 

That they have not travelled far is highly probable, from the fact that trap 
occurs in situ on almost every side of Englebourne, at distances varying from 
3 miles to 2:2 miles, to say nothing of numerous remoter masses. Of those 
in the immediate neighbourhood, one of the largest, about 1°6 mile north, 
measures 1‘7 mile in length by 3 miles in greatest breadth, and is separated 
by the little river Harber from a much smaller mass on the west side of that 
stream. 

Their sizo is so inconsiderable as to leave no room for doubt as to their 
mobility under the action of waves or violent floods; but to this mode of 
transport there is the grave objection that, with the exception of No. 2, they 
are not sufficiently rounded, even though due allowance is made for their 
hard and tough character. 

It appears impossible to account for the grooves otherwise than by sup- 
posing them to have been produced by ice-transportation. That the famous 
granite boulder of Barnstaple Bay was ice-borne was shown in a previous 
Report. That Bovey Heathfield was, during a very recent geological period, 
cold enough to be the habitat of the arctic and alpine Betula nana is a well- 
established fact, and the thick accumulation known as the “‘ Head” on Bovey 
Heathfield is explicable on the glacial rather than on any other hypothesis; 
and were it not that glacial scratches have never been detected on the lofty 
tors of Dartmoor, where, if anywhere in Devonshire, they might have been 
expected, rather than on the low grounds about Englebourne, more certainty 
would attach to the opinion that these scratched stones are proofs of glacial 
conditions in South Devon, and that, as such, they contribute largely to the 
solution of the problem of the New Red Sandstone boulders of Waddeton, 
from 5 to 6 miles further east. 


HERTFORDSHIRE, 


Mr, R. P. Greg, F.G.8., reports a group of small boulders in the parish of 
Westmill, near Buntingford, in the N.E. of Hertfordshire, and 30 miles due 
north of Greenwich. 

About 1 foot and 23 feet. Several found in same field, some 50 yards or 
8o apart. ‘ 

Much rounded to subangular, angular, and slightly oblong in general form. 

No groovings or striations visible. 

Nearest point certainly Derbyshire. 

90 to 100 miles distant exactly N.E. 

The boulders are composed of ordinary Mountain-limestone, 

320 feet above sea; about 70 feet above river Rib. 

No others have been noticed in Hertfordshire, except three or four in this 
one field, which lies ina slope, with east aspect, about 70 feet above the 
river Rib, which runs here to the south. 

Tke boulders in question were not exposed on the surface, but turned up 
in draining. Drains 3 feet deep. Soil a clayey loam overlying the chalk, 


which in these parts is more or less covered with clay and gravel to depths 
of 6 inches to 30 feet or more. 


ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND AND WALES, 87 


NortrnGHAMSHIRE, 


The Committee has been favoured with the following report from the Rey. 
A. Irving, F.G.8., of the High School, Nottingham. ° 

1. The boulder and clay deposits herein referred to are scattered over higher 
parts of the undulating country of the parishes of Plumtree, Stanton-on-the- 
Wolds, Kegworth, and Widmerpool, in South Notts. The new line of rail- 
way, along which they are exposed at present, may be traced on the map 
running to the west of Plumtree, then converging towards the turnpike-road 
from Plumtree to Over Broughton. The line runs for several miles near 
and almost parallel to this road. 

2. The dimensions of the largest boulder measured are 4} x 2x1 feet. It 
is of Lias limestone, and near the surface of the ground at the top of the hill 
through which passes the cutting between Stanton and Plumtree. 

The smallest boulders are not bigger than a man’s fist. 

Quartzite pebbles of all sizes (as if from the Bunter) also abound in the 
boulder-deposits. 

3. Those of the Lias limestone are generally angular or only slightly sub- 
angular. 

Those of Millstone-grit or Carboniferous limestone are generally rounded 
very much. 

4, The direction of the longest axis of the largest boulder mentioned, 
and of several others observed in the same section, was very nearly due N. 
and §. 

5. (a) The stris are numerous on certain boulders, but noé on any very 
great proportion of them. They are generally several inches in length, and 
seldom exceed a line in depth. 

(6) The strive are very variable with respect to the parts of the boulders 
striated. 

(c) The strise are generally in the direction of the longest axes. 

6. (1) The boulders of Lias limestone, which greatly preponderate, are 
derived, in all probability, from the Liassic strata of the immediate neighbour- 
hood, upon which (as shown in the works of the tunnel at Stanton) the 
boulders partly lie. (2) The nearest Millstone-grit is found at Castle Don- 
nington and Stanton-by-Dale, in Derbyshire, on opposite sides of the Trent 
valley; the former place 12 miles south of west, the latter 12 miles north 
of west from the deposits in which they now occur. (3) The nearest Car- 
boniferous limestone which corresponds precisely with that of the boulders 
is at Ticknall, in Derbyshire, about 18 miles distant south of west. 

8. The height of the group above the sea is about 200 feet. 

9. The extent of boulder and clay deposits is at least several square miles, 
if we include the vast accumulation of drift which caps the tops of all the hills 
about the district, and is exposed in the road-cuttings as well as on the rail- 
way. In the cutting between Plumtree and Stanton the boulders are largest 
and most numerous, and are mingled with an immense number of quartzite 
pebbles, the whole being in some places so completely bound together as to 
be almost conglomeratic. In the tunnel (near Stanton) 70 feet of a true 
boulder-clay are passed through; but in this the large (Lias) boulders occur 
less frequently, and the pebbles are more thinly scattered. This tunnel 
penetrates the hill between Stanton and Bank House (Ord. map). The same 
kind of clay-deposit (or drift) is cut through by the cutting close to Rowhac 
Cover and by that near Widmerpool New Inn. This clay is extremely 
tenacious. 


88 REPORT—1875. 


10. Very few of the boulders are found at the surface. 

In that which is most characteristically a boulder-deposit (between Plum- 
tree and Stanton) the boulders are covered entirely by a later drift-deposit, 
composed mainly of red marl, as if from the Keuper, mingled with a smaller 
proportion of Lias clay, and containing a few specimens of rolled Gryphea. 
Here the boulder-deposit fills up a hollow in the Rheetic beds, the erosion of 
the strata having gone entirely through the Avicula-contorta beds into the 
blue-grey marls below. At the tunnel and further south the boulder-clay 
rests upon the Lias, 


LEICESTERSHIRE. 


Mr. J. Plant reports the following :— 

Block of porphyritic granite at Shakerstone, near Gopsall Park. 5x 4x14 
feet. Height above the sea about 350 feet. No scratches or strie are at 
present visible, the block having been greatly worn by human agency. 
Identical in composition with the porphyritic greenstone of Whitwick, near 
Colville, at the N.E. end of Charnwood Forest, 7 miles from its present site. 
At the same village great numbers of blocks of all sizes (granite, syenite, 
greenstone, basalt) are to be found in the foundations of old houses, wells, 
and churches. 

Numerous Charnwood-Forest boulders, 7 miles due north of Mt. Sorrel, at 
Normanton, on spar. 

There is no doubt (as pointed out in a previous Report) that Charnwood 
Forest was a centre of distribution by ice of blocks of all sizes. 

Block of Millstone-grit at Hoby, near Melton, about 3x3 x3 feet. This 
grit is of peculiar composition, and full of large rounded pieces of quartz. It 
must have come from Durham and Northumberland. 


WORCESTERSHIRE. 


Bromsgrove district.—Ninety-three boulders have been examined in this 
district, many of them of considerable size. In addition to a few derived 
from local rocks, they appear to consist of three varieties of felspathic roek— 
(1) one variety compact, (2) one with small porphyritic crystals, and (3) 
one a decided ash. The colour of the rock is dark grey to light grey, some- 
times with a greenish tinge, but generally bluish. Evidences abound of a 
very great destruction of boulders in this district from time immemorial. 
Many have been buried to get them out of the way, and many broken up 
for building-purposes. It is impossible, therefore, to generalize upon their 
distribution ; but in the mean time it is very noticeable that no specimens 
of granite boulders haye yet been observed in the Bromsgrove district, 
although they occur so abundantly around Wolverhampton. The following 
is a list of the principal boulders in this locality. The Committee are 
under great obligations to Mr. G. Dipple, of Ford House, for his invaluable 
assistance. . 

Compact felstone (C. F. below), 2x 2x 3 ft., 275 feet above sea, corner of 
new road near station. 

Bee with quartz, 272 feet above sea, three fragments close to railway 
bridge. 

C. F., 2x2x2ft., 276 feet above sea, three boulders with fragments near 
Finstal House. 

Felspathic ash (F. A. below), 5x 32x 8 ft., 280 feet above sea. Another 
100 yards up the E. road, 3x2 x 12 ft., with four smaller, 

FP, A., 83 x33 x 13 ft., Webb’s farm. 


ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 89 


C. F. (almost hornstone), 2x13 x1 ft., near Stoke Elm and canal bridge ; 
another (felstone) near Meadow Farm. 

F. A. (greenish), 21” x 14" x 12", on road from Hanbury to Stoke, with 
two fragments of Wenlock limestone. 

F. A., 18” x15" 9", opposite Stoke church, with others smaller. 

F, A. (horny), 53’ x 4' x 2' 4", 273 feet above sea, at F ringe Green. 

Felstone (or ash?), six small, on new road to Bromsgrove, 270 feet above sea. 

Felstone (or ash ), five small, 292 feet above sea, near police station. 

Others similar at corner of Old Station Street, Hobbis’s Yard, Chapel 
Street, Mill Lane, Alcester Road, &c., at heights from 282 to 296 fect. 

Felspar porphyrite (F. P. below), 4’ 8” x 2' 6" x 1' 9", 410 feet above sea, 
Dog Lane, Catshill. 

F. A., 3'x2'x1' 8", 415 feet above sea, near Canister, with another 
almost as large. 

F. P., 6' 9” x 2' 9" x 1' 6", 585 feet above sea, near Woodrow, at corner of 
road to Lydgate Ash. 

F. P., 8’ 5" x4' x2’, angular, 700 feet above sea, near Whetty. 

Permian breccia, small boulders near Burcott. 

Felspathic ash, light grey, 3' x 2' x 13’, 380 feet above sea, at Burcott. 

Dolerite (? Rowley rag), 2’ x 1'6" x 1’, 280 feet above sea, corner of Perry 
Hall, opposite church, subangular; another, half a ton weight, reported as 
buried near. 

F. A., with quartz veins, subangular, 4’ x 2’ x1' 3” and 3’ x 1'3" x1’ 3”, 
with a large one, more than half buried, near Halfway House; 100 yards 
further, near gate, four others :—2' x1’ 6 x1’ 3", bluish ash, porphyritic ; 
2' 6" x 1' 3" x 1’ 3", almost hornstone ; and two smaller F. A. 

F. A., a group of nine, near the cross roads, Woodcote Farm; largest 
4' x 2' 4" x (boulder half buried), and 4’ x 3'6" x 1'10",subangular or angular. 

F. A. (subangular), 3’ 9" x 2’ 9" x 2! 6", road into Ran Dan Woods. 

Many others are found in walls, and some of great size are reported 
buried thoughout the district. 

Mr. C. J. Watson has pointed out a group of boulders between Northfield 
and King’s Norton. They occur in an excavation immediately above the 
letter d of Northfield on the Ordnance Map. Eleven large and some smaller 
are found within a radius of 20 yards; and many others are scattered through 
the fields immediately around and extending towards the railway. They are 
of felstone and felspathic ash. The specific gravity of one of them was 2°63, 
The following are the measurements of the largest of the group: —F., 6’ x 4’ x 3’; 
meee GG" 022) = FA Oe 1 6 VS BP. 3 4" x2! ey, 6! x 2" 6!" 
mabured); F.,5'x3'x 2'6"; F., 2°10" x2! 4" xP 11" 4 4x3! 6" 
Meacwpuried); 6 x3 x 2';-F.,2' 4° x 18" x I. 

Rev. J. M. L. Aston, Vicar of King’s Norton, reports a group of boulders 
of greenish felstone, some of which are worked into the masonry of the 
foundation of the church-tower and others imbedded in rubbish. They are 
subangular, and the exposed surfaces are often rounded. The largest is 
moe 6 x 1’ G6’. 

A boulder of compact felstone has been found in Cannon Hill Park, Bir- 
mingham, 6’ x 4’ 3” x 4’, rounded in parts and subangular, and to some extent 
smoothed and polished. It was dug out of valley-drift in making a lake. 

These Worcestershire felspathic boulders are probably from Wales. They 
are in positions which indicate that they have dropped from floating ice rather 
than been deposited by land-ice. Signs of land-ice in the Midlands must be 
looked for in boulder-clays at considerable depths beneath the general drift. 


90 REPORT—1875. 


LANCASHIRE, 


Mr. Morton reports the following cases of isolated boulders :— 


1. Hacking Hey, near Liverpool Exchange, parish of Liverpool. 
4 ft. 6in. X3 ft. 3in. x 2 ft. 
Rounded or subangular. 

- It was found in an excayation in the boulder-clay, and has since been 
placed in front of the Museum, in William Brown Street, half a mile from 
its original position. 

Striated lengthways on one of longest sides. 

Strize on one side only. 

Striations parallel with the longer axis. 

Composed of felspathic breccia. 

Original position in the clay, 30 feet above the sea. 
Originally imbedded in the boulder-clay. 


2. Kensington, near Liverpool (2 miles), parish of West Derby. Rounded 
boulder. 

5 ft. 6 in. x 4 ft. x 2 ft. 

It was found in the boulder-clay close by, and placed close to the rock 
in its present position. 

Greenstone diorite in a decomposed state. 

About 200 feet above the sea. 

Originally imbedded in the boulder-clay. 


3. Leasowe Castle, parish of Wallasey. A long rounded mass. 

6 ft. 6 in. x 3 ft. x3 ft. 

It has been drawn up from the shore (which is boulder-clay), and de- 
posited, with two others, in the grounds in front of Leasowe Castle. 

Greenstone diorite, a rock of common occurrence in the boulder-clay 
around Liverpool. It has a strong tendency to exfoliate, and contains the 
mineral isorine. 

It was found several feet below high-water mark. 

It was probably imbedded in the poulder-clay, and exposed by aeetiedon 


4. Leasowe Castle, parish of Wallasey. Rounded boulder. 

7 ft. x 7 ft. x3 ft. 

It has been drawn up from the shore (which is boulder-clay), and depo- 
sited, with two others, in the grounds in front of Leasowe Castle. 

Striated on part of the longest sides. 

A striated surface, 3 ft. x 7 ft. x 7 ft. 

Grey syenite. 

It was found several feet below high-water mark. 

It was probably imbedded in the boulder-clay, and exposed by denudation. 


5. Leasowe Castle, parish of Wallasey. A worn flat mass, subangular. 

7 ft. x 7 ft. x 2 ft. 6 in. 

It has been drawn up from the shore (which is boulder-clay), and depo- 
sited, with two others, in the grounds in front of Leasowe Castle. 

A variety of felspathic ash, similar to the boulders which occur in the 
neighbourhood of Llangollen ; but it is a question if it comes from the same 
region, as they are supposed to have done. 

It was found several feet below high-water mark. 

It was probably imbedded in the poulder-clay, and exposed by denudation, 


ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES, 91 


YORKSHIRE, 


Mr. Gibbins reports, at the N.W. of Bradford, a few whinstone boulders 
similar to the rocks at Scaw Fell, Cumberland, containing small garnets, 


To give completeness to their Report, the Committee propose to catalogue 
from time to time notices of remarkable erratic blocks which may appear. 

The following papers by Mr. D. Mackintosh, F.G.S., contain notices of 
the positions, dispersion, and derivation of many boulders in the North and 
West of England and in North Wales :—‘ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.’ for Nov. 
1867, Terminal Curvature of Slaty Lamine in W. Somerset; for June 1869, 
Correlation of the Drifts of N.W. Lancashire &.; for Nov. 1872, Sea-coast 
Section of Boulder-clay in Cheshire; for Aug. 1873, The more remarkable 
Boulders of the N.W. of England &¢.; for Dec. 1874, Additional Remarks on 
Boulders, with a particular reference to those of North Wales. ‘ Geological 
Magazine’ for Sept. 1867, Railway Geology, from Exeter to Newton Bushell 
and Moretonhampstead ; for Aug. 1870, Dispersion of Shapfell Boulders; for 
Oct. 1870, Origin of the Drifts &c. of the Lake-district ; for Dec. 1870, Dis- 
persion of Criffell Granite &c. over the plain of Cumberland; for July 1871, 
Drifts of the W. and S. borders of the Lake-district, and the three Great 
Granitic Dispersions; for Jan. 1872, Age of Floating Ice in North Wales; 
for Sept. 1872, Glacial Drift of the Central Part of the Lake-district, up to 
2800 feet above the sea; for Feb. 1874, Section of Preglacial White Clay and 
Sand near Mold. ‘Proc. of W. Riding Geol. Soc.’ for 1870, Drift-deposits 
of the West Riding of Yorkshire d&e. 

The perpetual destruction of erratic blocks going on throughout the 
country renders the Committee anxious to receive further reports. ‘The pro- 
blems to be solved are of large geological importance, and bear directly upon 
the extension of the ice-fields and the ocean currents, the elevation and sub- 
sidence of the land, and the divisions of the periods in the glacial epoch, 


Report of the Rainfall Committee for the year 1874-75. The Com- 
mittee consists of C. Brooxn, F.R.S., Chairman, J. F. Bareman, 
C.E., F.R.S., Rogurs Fiewp, C.H., J. Guatsuzr, F.R.S., T. 
Hawkstry, C.L., The Earl of Rossz, F.A.S., J. Smyrn, Jun., 
C.E., C. Tomunson, F.R.S8., G. J. Symons, Secretary. 


Your Committee have taken all the steps in their power to complete the 
reductional work already it hand, and have succeeded with two exceptions, 
each of which is only partial. The first, and one which is essential to the 
completeness of our work and invaluable to all future inquirers, is a list of 
all observations made in the British Isles from the earliest to the present 
time. The second is an abstract of about 800 position returns, which will 
indicate the value to be attached to the different current observations. Both 
of these works are in a very forward state. 

With a view to facilitate reference to our reports, and of placing before 
the Association an epitome of what we have done, our Secretary has em- 
bodied in this Report a précis of the rainfall work done by your Committee. 


92 REPORT—1875. 


RAINFALL WoRK UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE Britisu Assocrarion. 


The first reference to the rainfall work which has now reached so full a 
development is a short note in the British Association Report, 1861, Sections, 
page 74, which is as follows :— 


“ On British Rainfall. By G. J. Symons. 


“The author directed attention to the very contrary statements current on 
the question—Is there any secular variation in the amount of British rain- 
fall? 

“ After quoting several of the most important opinions, he stated that, in 
the hope of finally settling the question, he had commenced collecting all 
known rain-registers, and had already tabulated [an aggregate of | more than 
6000 years’ observations. 

“He proceeded to invite criticism on the mode of discussion which he in- 
tended to adopt, and also on a proposed method of delineation,—the rainfall 
in 1860, at 241 stations in Great Britain, being laid down on a large map as 
a specimen.” 

In 1862, Mr. Symons submitted a paper giving the monthly fall during 
1860-61 at 453 stations, preceded by remarks that unless all gauges were 
accurate, well placed, and their heights above the ground and above sea- 
level known, their results were not comparable. 

This could only be thoroughly ensured by gauges being visited and tested 
im situ by some competent person. 

This paper also contained Tables comparing the mean rainfall of the two 
years 1860-61 with that of the ten years 1850-59, and a short one com- 
paring that of the above-mentioned ten years with several very long series 
of years. We reprint this short Table, as it remarkably supports the results 
subsequently obtained by entirely different methods, 


Difference between Mean Rainfall, as obtained from long series of years and 
from the ten years 1850-59. 


Period of Total Mean of | Mean of Differ- 


Division. | Name of Station. | observa- never the whole | ten years, ee 
tion. years. period. | 1850-59, ae 
in. in. 
II. Greenwich .........+.- 1815-61 47 25°42 23°16 -—9 
vs St. Thomas, Exeter..| 1814-61 48 32°80 31:15 —5 
VI. | Orleton, Worcester..| 1831-61 31 29°18 28°82 -1 
VIII. Bolton-le-Moors ...| 1831-61 31 46°92 44:10 —6 
IX. Halifax ...iccsecsescass 1829-61 33 32°38 30°71 —5 
XY. Rothesay, Bute.,....) 1800-61 62 48°31 45-97 —5 


This paper was printed tn evtenso among the Reports. 


ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 93 


In 1868 the only paper submitted was a short description of some ex- 
perimental gauges erected by Colonel Ward at Calne, Wilts; but Mr. Symons 
was requested to report upon the rainfall of the British Isles during the years 
1862 and 1863, and the sum of £20 was placed at his disposal for the purpose 
of constructing and transmitting rain-gauges to districts where observations 
were not then made—the gauges to be sent within the British Isles, and 
the loan to be cancelled should the observations not be satisfactorily made. 


In 1864 the Report dealt with the steps taken to secure additional sta- 
tions, stated whither the gauges purchased out of the grant had been sent, 
reported the establishment, at the cost and under the personal care of Major 
Mathew, of an extensive series of stations in the Snowdonian district, as to 
the rainfall of which hardly any thing was known, and the testing in situ 
of a considerable number of rain-gauges. It concluded with the biannual 
series of tables of rainfall, viz. those for 1862 and 18638, and remarks 
thereupon. A grant of £30 for the same purposes as in the previous year 
Was passed. 


In 1865 an important Report was drawn up by Mr. Symons; it was 
divided into five principal sections: (1) what had been done prior to 1860 ; 
(2) what has been done since 1860; (3) what remains to be done; (4) a 
few particulars respecting the rainfall of the last fifty years and the fall in 
1864; (5) a list of all stations in the British Isles at which rainfall obser- 
vations were known to have been made, with details respecting them. 

Sections (1) and (5) jointly give a nearly complete history of the rainfall 
observations made in this country from their commencement in 1677 to 1864, 
and notes of publications upon the subject. Section (2) explains the steps 
taken by Mr. Symons to collect and arrange these old observations, to pub- 
lish current ones, to examine rain-gauges ia situ and also, before despatch, 
to secure uniformity in records of rainy days (by the adoption of 0-01 in. of 
rain as the unit), and to secure tolerably equal geographical distribution for 
the stations. It also briefly notices the necessity for accurate determinations 
of the influence of elevation above the ground and of variations in the re- 
ceiving area, and states that experimental determination of these values was 
in progress. Also notifies the reestablishment of the mountain rain-gauges 
in the Western Lake-district and the new series in North Wales. 

Section (3) was devoted to what remains to be done, and need not be con- 
sidered at length. Much of what was then (1865) described as necessary 
has been accomplished, and will therefore be subsequently mentioned ; but 
quite as much remains to be done; e. g., the search for old records at the 
British Museum has been entirely stopped for several years, and the exami- 
nation of gauges zm situ has by no means reached its proper development. 

Section (4) gave « few particulars respecting the rainfall of the last fifty 
years and the full in 1864. This was the first approximation to the deter- 
mination of the fluctuation of the fall of rain over a large extent of country; _ 
but as it was followed by a far more elaborate and rather different investi- 
gation, its interest is merely historical and confirmatory. At this (the 
Birmingham) Meeting (in 1865) it was resolved that Mr. Symons should 
have the assistance and support of a Committee ; and the following were the 
members originally appointed :—J. Glaisher, F.R.S., Lord Wrottesley, 
F.R.S., Professor Phillips, F.R.S., Professor Tyndall, F.R.S., Dr. Lee, 
F.R.S., J. F. Bateman, F.R.S., R. W. Mylne, F.R.S., C. Brooke, F.R.S., 
G. J. Symons, Secretary. 


94, REPORT—1875. 


In 1866 a very long Report was presented by your Committee; the prin- 
cipal subjects may be briefly mentioned. In November 1865 a circular 
letter was sent to the Editor of nearly every newspaper published in the 
British Isles, with a request for its insertion in the next issue; the letter 
gave a brief outline of the necessity for rainfall observations, and invited 
communications from any persons who possessed old records or were willing 
to become observers. About 1400 of these circulars were issued, many 
hundred newspapers reprinted them, so that upwards of a million copies 
must have been circulated. This produced an enormous influx of letters and 
material additions, both to the store of old observations and to the list of 
current observers. The Report contained full details of all the gauges ex- 
amined in situ up to that date, viz. 166; also short notices of a series of 
inclined and tipping-funnelled rain-gauges erected at Rotherham by Mr- 
Chrimes, and on river-mists in the Thames valley. But the special feature 
of the Report, and one which is at present unequalled in this or any other 
country, is the determination of the fluctuation of the rainfall of England 
during 140 consecutive years, viz. from 1726 to 1865. As all the original 
data are given in the Report, it is open to any one to verify the conclusions 
arrived at. Lastly, the Report contained the usual biannual tables of monthly 
rainfall, 


In the 1867 Report the principal fresh subjects are notes respecting the 
desirability of establishing fresh stations in the vicinity of the Peak of Derby- 
shire and in the Eastern Lake-district, of the percentage of annual rain 
which falls monthly in different localities, and on an extensive system for ap- 
proximately determining the height of rain-gauge stations above sea-level. 
The Report also contains details respecting the examination of 75 stations 
visited during the year. 


The 1868 Report deals briefly with the results obtained by the inclined 
experimental gauges at Rotherham, and shows the similarity of monthly 
curves representing—(1) ratio of rainfall at 25 fect to that at 1 foot; (2) 
velocity of wind; (3) mean angle from vertical of falling rain. It then 
notices the removal of the Calne experimental gauges to Strathfield Turgiss. 
The Report proceeds to embody the results of the discussion of about 40,000 
monthly values in order to determine the laws which regulate the monthly 
percentage of annual rainfall in different districts, and gives tabular state- 
ments of the results, and factors for eliminating the disturbing element due 
to the fact that the influence of elevation above ground varies with the time 
of year. The usual biannual tables of monthly rainfall are given, also a 
Table comparing the fall 186Q—67 with the average for 1850-59, raised by 
5 per cent. in accordance with the Table published in 1862. A valuable 
paper by Professor Phillips was printed as an Appendix, in which he dis- 
cussed the quantity of rain falling in the Lake-district. 


The 1869 Report contains—(1) a code of rules for observers; (2) a 
sketch and description of Mr. Symons’s first pattern of storm rain-gauge, 
adapted for the accurate measurement of heavy falls of rain of short dura- 
tion; (3) an abstract and discussion of the results of the gauges erected, 
first at Calne and then at Strathfield Turgiss, to determine the influence of 
size and shape upon the amount of rain indicated by rain-gauges: there 
were twelve gauges, of which the diameters ranged from 1 to 24 inches; and 
the final result was that, excluding the gauge 1 inch in diameter, which 
everywhere collects less pro rata than any other, the gauges while at Calne 


ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 95 


only differed 5-8 per cent., the largest quantity being recorded by those 
gauges which were most easily managed, viz. those 5, 6, and 8 inches in 
diameter, and that at Strathfield Turgiss they agreed still more closely, all 
but the l-inch and 24-inch agreeing within 1:5 per cent.; (4) the Report 
also contains the results of the visitation of 54 rain-gauge stations. 

In the autumn of 1869 our Secretary visited and examined every rain- 
gauge station in Cornwall, and also those in the Scilly Isles, and thirty-two 
of the Devonshire stations, besides personally starting several new ones on 
Dartmoor. 


The 1870 Report deals first with the establishment of thirty new stations 
provided with instruments by this Association, then proceeds to notice the 
above-mentioned extensive examination tour, 97 stations being reported upon. 
This is followed by a brief history of experimental determinations of the de- 
erease of rainfall with height, and a detailed description and thorough ana- 
lysis of the monthly results obtained at Calne. The Report also contains the 
biannual tables for 1868-69. 


The 1871 Report calls prominent attention to the necessity which exists 
for systematic inspection of stations. It then gives a specimen of forms 
which were issued to all observers, requesting particulars of the position and 
surrounding objects of their gauges. After brief notes upon the establish- 
ment of some new stations in North Derbyshire, and upon the results of some 
experiments with “Isolated level”? or “pit” rain-gauges, the Report pro- 
ceeds to notice the results of the discussion of all British rainfall registers 
which were absolutely continuous from January Ist, 1860 to December 31st, 
1869—(1) with reference to their bearing on the question of the existence 
or otherwise of secular variation of rainfall in the British Isles, and (2) as 
data indicative of the distribution of rain over the country. 


The 1872 Report explains the steps taken in consequence of the strong 
representations made to your Committee at Edinburgh respecting the neces- 
sity for additional stations in the Highlands, viz. the establishment of ten 
stations principally on the west coast, through the cooperation of the Secre- 
tary of the Scottish Meteorological Society, and of about thirty along the 
Highland and Dingwall and Skye railways, through the kindness of the 
Directors of those companies. 

It announces the presentation by this Committee to the Scottish Meteoro- 
logical Society of a set of standard measures for the complete verification of 
rain-gauges, together with the necessary note-books, the understanding being 
that the Secretary of that Society shall from time to time communicate to this 
Committee the results obtained by its employment. It concludes with a dis- 
cussion of the rainfall of the years 1870-71, and the usual biannual tables. 


The 1878 Report calls attention to the existence of many districts where 
additional stations are necessary, but suggests the postponement of any 
special effort towards their supply until the revised edition of the list of © 
stations published in the Report of this Association for 1865 is completed. 
The original list has, mainly in consequence of the development of the work 
under the auspices of the Committee, become obsolete, as it does not contain 
more than two thirds of the data now collected. The new list will contain 
notes of all records known at the date of publication, and will be extremely 
valuable to future inquirers. The Report proceeds to state the result of the 
issue of the Position Iiquiry forms mentioned in the 1871 Report, upwards 


96 REPORT—1875., 


of 800 of which elaborate returns were received. Although these returns 
would never remove the necessity for personal inspection, which all expe- 
rience, both British and foreign, shows to be essential, yet they are ex- 
tremely valuable as showing the districts in which that inspection is 
most needed. The monthly percentage of total annual fall during the 
decade 1860-69, as based upon more than thirty-eight thousand monthly 
amounts, is then thoroughly discussed, and the inquiry is supplemented 
by an analysis of several long registers, viz. seventeen registers which indi- 
yidually extend over 40 years, four which extend over 50 years, and one 
which exceeds 60 years. Lastly the Report gives the details of the inspec- 
tion of 63 stations. 


The 1874 (and last) Report opens with some remarks upon the comple- 
tion of the abstracts of the position returns and the difficulty respecting their 
publication, which arises from their very voluminous nature ; it then proceeds 
to the subject of the examination of gauges in situ, and dwells with satisfac- 
tion on the number inspected. The progress of the list of stations, which has 
been upwards of five years in hand, is stated; reference is made to the 
paucity of stations in Ireland ; and then details are given of the inspection by 
our Secretary of the East-Cumberland mountain gauges, which were pre- 
sented to this Committee in 1869, and have since been kept in operation at 
their expense. After mentioning a few minor matters, the Report proceeds 
to discuss fully the exceptional rainfall of 1872 and its many unprecedented 
features. The usual biannual tables for 1872-73 are then given, and the 
Report ends with the results of the examination in situ of 77 gauges. 


The foregoing outline of the contents of our Reports will give an idea of 
the very important work which has been accomplished under the supervision 
of your Committee ; but no one could fully realize its amount without going 
carefully through the various branches of work and considering what each 
implies. We may be permitted to give one illustration. The last line of 
the above narrative states that “the Report ends with the results of the ex- 
amination in situ of 77 gauges.” Now these stations range from Cumber- 
land to Southampton, from Kent to Devon; they are scattered over thirteen 
counties ; they include such difficultly accessible places as Walshaw Dean, 
Halifax, Dartmoor Prison, and Mardale Green, Haweswater, and have in- 
volved at least 1500 miles of travel in order to inspect them. 

We proceed to report what occurred at Belfast in 1874 and the work 
resulting therefrom. With reference to the engineering paper on the drain- 
age of the Shannon &c., considerable attention was drawn to the small 
number of rain stations in Ireland, which deficiency we had mentioned in 
our Report. Eventually, on our reappointment at Belfast, we were instructed 
to obtain additional stations in Ireland, and a special grant was entrusted to 
_ us for the purpose. 

Without entering into details respecting the steps which we took to obtain 
additional stations, it will be sufficient to mention that they were so success- 
ful that we received 190 offers of assistance. The acceptance of all these 
offers would have involved an expenditure far beyond the funds at our dis- 
posal; and your Committee were therefore reluctantly compelled to make a 
careful selection, resulting, however, in the establishment of 66 stations, many 
of them in localities of extreme importance. . 


i j 

wT hb te ht ae Se *! ne aw 44 F ora) 

ge emanates minAa toys y oh fF 
. 


‘ 


aa, ‘ ae xy juli: 


Vlate Hil 


G 


In explan 
out of our sr 
at the exper 
Eason of Du 
London to I 
to the destin 
for 100 copi 
purposes, an 
bo best appr 
vent any dex 
them to repc 
satisfactorily 
series of stat 
the organizat 
our offorts hi 
of the list of 
We hoped th 
every possibl 
the Associati 
minate with 
ation. Cons: 
had every en 
amined ; the 
fect form th 
counties. 

Tho Positic 
final abstract 
lection of the: 

J.P. Batema: 
Tespecting the 
their Secretar 
vented any st 
As, in the ; 
should be left 
reappointmen 
Th conclusi 
work accompl 
241 to nearly 
in-gauges h 
above ground 
haye been asc 
mately doterm 
250 stations h 
have been visi 
| We have ob; 
accessible plac 
moreland, Wi 
When the wor 
an index to al 
attached to thi 
Your Comn 
the system of 
able success, ti 
1875. 


ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 97 


In explanation of the large number which we have been enabled to erect 
out of our small grant, we are bound to state that several have been erected 
at the expense of private individuals, that we are largely indebted to Mr. 
Eason of Dublin, who not only gratuitously transmitted all the gauges from 
London to Dublin, but also subsequently despatched them by various routes 
to the destinations directed by our Secretary. We are also indebted to him 
for 100 copies of a map of Ireland, which has been very useful for working 
purposes, and generally for much assistance. As to the localities, they will 
be best appreciated by reference to the map (Plate III.). In order to pre- 
yent any dereliction of duty on the part of the observers, we have instructed 
them to report monthly; and we are glad to say that they are working very 
satisfactorily. We need hardly state that the organization of this large 
series of stations involved considerable expense, and occupied much time, as 
the organization of each station involved several letters. Subsequently all 
our efforts have been concentrated on the compilation of the revised edition 
of the list of stations and observations to which we have so often referred. 
We hoped that it would be completed for the present meeting, and have used 
every possible exertion to secure that object, so that we might not only show 
the Association precisely what we haye done, but also, if they wish it, ter- 
minate with partial completeness our labours in connexion with the Associ- 
_ ation. Conscious that without accuracy scientific work is useless, we have 
had every entry extracted in duplicate and every difference rigorously ex- 
amined ; the result, however, is that we are only able to present in its per- 
fect form the list for the first six divisions, which include twenty-seven 
counties. 

The Position returns have all been carefully reduced and analyzed, but the 
final abstract of them for publication has not yet been prepared. The col- 
lection of these returns haying been suggested by their eminent member Mr. 
J. F. Bateman, C.E., F.R.S., your Committee were desirous to consult him 
respecting the manuer in which they could best be utilized, and instructed 
their Secretary to do so. Unfortunately, however, his severe illness has pre- 
vented any steps being taken in the matter. 

As, in the opinion of your Committee, it is not desirable that these works 
should be left in their present incomplete state, they are obliged to ask for 
reappointment. 

In conclusion, looking back over the past fifteen years, we find among the 
work accomplished the following items :—the number of stations raised from 
241 to nearly 2000; the influence of size and shape on the indications of 
rain-gauges has been experimentally examined, and also the effect of height 
above ground; the laws which regulate the seasonal distribution of rainfall 
have been ascertained; the secular variation of annual fall has been approxi- 
mately determined ; a code of rules has been drawn up for observers ; nearly 
250 stations have been started at the cost of the Association, and 629 stations 
have been visited and the gauges examined by our Secretary. 
| We have obtained and supported observations on mountain-tops and other in- 
accessible places where no observations had been made, in Cumberland, West- 
moreland, Wales, and Scotland, and also an extensive series in Ireland. 
When the works actually in hand are completed, we shall also have furnished 
an index to all observations hitherto made, and a guide to the value to be 
attached to the returns from at least a thousand observers. 

Your Committee cannot conclude without expressing their hope that, as 
the system of rain-gauges in Ireland has been established with such remark- 
aaa the labours of the Committee may be continued. 

5. bi 


98 


nErort—1875. 


EXAMINATION OF 


558. 


560. 


561. 


562. 


563. 


564. 


565. 


566. 


567. 


| Aug. 


Date of 
examination. 


Aug. 


Aug. 


Aug. 


Aug. 


Aug. 25. 


Aug. 17. 


COUNTY. 
Station. 
OWNER. 
Observer. 


SOMERSET. 
Literary Institution, Bath. 
THE INSTITUTION. 
Mr, Russell. 


WILTSHIRE. 
Tytherton, Chippenham. 
MAJOR GRITTON. 
Major Gritton. 


WILTSHIRE. 
Sunnyside, Trowbridge. 
W.J. MANN, ESQ. 
W. J. Mann, Esq. 


WILTSHIRE. 
Alderbury, Salisbury. 
REV. R. S. HUTCHINGS. 
Rev. R. 8. Hutchings. 


WILTSHIRE. 
Lower Woodford, Salisbury. 
H. HINXMAN, ESQ. 
H, Hinuman, Esq. 


WILTSHIRE. 
West Dean, Salisbury. 
RLV. W. EYRE, 
Mr. J. Moodee. 


KENT. 
Eltham Green (Field), 
E. J. C. SMITH, ESQ. 

E. J. C. Smith, Esq. 


KENT. 
Dartford (The Downs). 
Rk, F. JARVIS, LSQ. 
R. F. Jarvis, Esq. 


CUMBERLAND. 
Scotby, Carlisle. 
A, SUTTON, ESQ. 
A, Sutton, Esq. 


CUMBERLAND. 
Cemetery, Carlisle. 
J. CARTMEL, ESQ. 
Mr. Beil. 


ANTRIM. 
Linen Hall, Belfast. 


Mr, Maitiand. 


Maker’s name. 


Construction 
of gauge 


VIII. | Anon.......... sbi 
KIL. | Casella sissies 
RIT. | Casella .......08... 
MAT; «Casella «ibeeaei22 
AD. || Kantiphtiss:.. tees. eee 
XII. | Casella ...... naan 
EE, | (NepRetti. iteeneaee 
XAT, | Apps s....-shasstens 
VIII.| Marshall ......... 


X. | Negretti&Zambra}ga.m.]o 8 


IT, | Anons....... sian etens gam. 


Height of 
“tb gauge. 
28 

z S | Above anes 
“| ground level. 
ft. in. | feet. 
ga.m.| 8 7 75 
ga.m.| I oO 157 


gam.|o 8] 263 
150 
ga.m.| I Oo 


140 


gam.| I 0 80 


140 


ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 


99 


RAIN-GAUGES (continued from Brit. Assoc. Rep. 1874, p. 117). 


2 - | Equivalents of 
ed 8 water. 
oS Su 
ae a 
meee Seale | Grains, 
i=] si point. 
in. in. 
6:00 7 710 
6°00 2 1420 
6:00 ) 2100 
6'00 “4 2780 
M 6000} °5 3450 
4°95 I 49° 
5°00 <2, 970 
4°98 53 1460 
5°Cco “4 1960 
M 4°983| °5 2460 
497 | ‘I 490 
5°00 32 97° 
moO | <3 1470 
5700 4 1950 
M 4°993| °5 24.50 
4°96 | ‘x 470 
498 | °2 970 
4'96 +3 1460 
5700 | “4 1970 
M 4°975| °5 2476 
498 or 500 
4°95 2 TORO 
498 | 3 1495 
4°98 4 2000 
M 4973] °5 2500 
4°97 z 49° 
5°02 2 970 
499 | °3 1460 
oo, | 4 1950 
M 4995| °5 2460 
498 ‘I 445 
5704 | “2 950 
495 3 1450 
4°96 | 4 1950 
M 4970} *5 | 2440 
498 | 1 450 
5°01 Z 1000 
5°00 *g 1480 
wo i 1970 
M 4'998| °*5 2480 
800 ‘I 1255 
7°86 *I9g2| 2400 
; °25 3100 
1280 
1390 
1260 
2520 


Error at 
seale-point 
specified in 

previous 

column. 
in, 
correct. 
+ ‘oor 
+'006 
+orr 
+017 
correct. 
+1003 
+'003 
+°002 
correct. 
+ ‘oor 
- +004 
+'003 
+006 
"004. 
"004, 
+'002 
"002 
—'‘ool 
—"004. 
—"002 
—"004. 
—"005 
—"'007 
—'o1o 
—‘oor 
+004 
+005 
+.006 
+003 
+1009 
+006 
+004, 
+'002 
+:coz 
+'009 
—"002 
+'oor 
+'002 
correct, 
—'Oor 
—‘ool 
+'oor 


— ‘oor 
—— "OO % 


correct. 
correct. 


Azimuth and an- 
gular elevation of 
objects above 
mouth of rain- 
gauge. 


Remarks on position &e. 


detheriadaseateasrasecs On thermometer-stand in grounds 
of Irstitution; corrected glass 
has been supplied. 


N.E. Shrubs, 32°. 
N.W. Fir, 28°. 

. Apple, 44°. 
.&8.58. HE. Prees,32° 
N.N.W. House, 22° 

-N.E. Trees, 25°. 
S.E. 25°. 


On lawn; best position available. 


In strawberry-bed, good open po- 


aa sition. 


'W.S.W.House,40° 
W. Tree, 30°. 
N.E. Trees, 30°. 
E. WiureOs: 


§.8.E. Trees, 38°. 
E.N.E. House, 20°, 
Hi. Tree, 18°. 
W.S.W. Tree, 30°. 


Surrounded by vegetables and not 
firmly fixed ; observer promised 
that this should be carefully 
done. 


eee eer ee CCPC Pe CC eee rere errr errr ere rere rer sy 


In a field, quite clear and open ... 


Pere rrr 


N.N.E. House, 25°.) Fixed on lawa, in the stump of a 

S.&8.8.E. Trees,34°] tree. 

S.W.&W.S.W. Tr.30° 

N.W. Trees, 25°. 

E. Low Trees, 20°.| In garden, quite clear except as 
noted, 


A piece of ground 9 ft. X18 ft. is 
surrounded by an iron railing 
5 ft. high, within which are all 
the instruments. 


In garden in centre of Linen Hal 
Buildings ; quite clear. 


Reference 
number. 


557: 


558. 


559: 


560. 


564. 


566. 


6 


Reference 
number 


568. 


569. 


570. 


571. 


572 


573: 


574- 


575: 


576. 


577- 


57k. 


100 


Date of 
examination, 


_ 
[) 

| 

+ 


Aug. 


Aug. 


Aug. 


Aug. 


Aug. 


Aug. 


Aug. 


Aug. 


Aug, 


Aug. 


28. 


29. 


29. 


31. 


REPORT—1875, 


COUNTY. 
tation. 
OWNER. 
Observer. 


ANTRIM. 
The Manse, Antrim. 
REV. J. H. ORR. 
Rev. J. H. Orr. 


ANTRIM. 
Queens College, Belfast. 
THE COLLEGE. 
W. Taylor. 


ANTRIM. 
Antrim Road, Belfast. 
THE CORPORATION. 
W. J. Smith, Esq. 


ANTRIM. 
Old Park. 
W. GIRDW OOD, ESQ. 
Mr, Armstrong. 


DOWN. 
Milltown, Banbridge. 
J. SMYTH, JUN., ESQ., C.E. 
J. Sinyth, Jun., Esq., C.E. 


DOWN. 
Milltown, Banbridge. 
J. SMYTH, JUN., ESY., CE. 
J. Smyth, Jun., Esq., CLE. 


DOWN. 
Corbet Reservoir. 
BANN RES. COMPANY. 
W. Sprott. 


DOWN. 
Bann Reservoir. 
J. SMYTH, JUN., ESQ., C.E. 
Mr. J. Burn. + 


DOWN. 
Bann Reservoir. 
ANN RES. COMPANY. 
Mr. J. Burn. 


DOWN. 
Waringstown. 
MAJOR WARING. 
Major Waring. 


DOWN. 
Waringstown. 
MAJOR WARING. 
Major Waring. 


Construction 
of gauge 


IIl. 


IV. 


IV. 


XII. 


Vii. 


Ve 


1a 


EXAMINATION OF 


S 

Maker’s name. 5 = 

ae 
Casella ..::..qsesdclonsesouss 
ANON %.030.+--a0200s| O\8-S 
ANON, .00....00-2+000| 9 2.1. 
Casella: ....soscgeess 10a.m. 
Negretti &Zambra) 9 a.m. 
ANON. 4is<05 05 <ctackatel spe toseee 
Mason, Dublin a Scan 
ANON ideas ¢oonesede noon. 
Mason, Dublin ...|......... 
Negretti & Zambra| 9 a.m. 
IBEYSODiEc<s\sanences ieewbeoae 


Height of 
gauge. 
Above i 
ground.) Jeyel. 
ft. in.| feet. 
1. Ss|a 250 
7 0 68 
7 oO 144 
A O34) 6/224 
o 6 200 
40 0 220 
343 234 
op 440 
3.3} 443 
°o 5 190 
O13 190 


ON THY RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 


RAIN-GAUGES (continued). . 
: 


- marked 
mean) 


M 


(that 


Diameters 


Equivalents of 


water. scale-point | gular elevation of 
specified in| objects above 
Scale- Grains. | Previous | mouth of rain- 
Bonne: * | column. gauge. 
in. in. 
I 500 HOON, Vhtacdiecccscoscner dea oee 
2 980 —*002 open position, 
=3 1490 —"oo1 
"05 1260 COVEECE + fst vcae<<ctscnecauescsvts 
lege; quite unsheltered. 
25 —23 1870 OOH, aifemsraecneseauacessnateics 
270 —1°75| 2210 +-oo1 rim ; position good. 
1'25—1°0 2320 —"004 
Io —o'5 4520 —‘ool 
05 —o'0 | 4540 —‘oor 
‘I 500 SOOT fasenssecccccuccnntacevien 
194 980 — "003 
broken. 
I 1270 correct. |N. Acacia, 28°. 
“3 2550 —‘oor |E. Laurel, 12°. 
“3 3780 +-oo2 (|S.E. Ash, 35°. than those noted. 
"4 5120 —'oo4 |W. Trees, under 20° 
< 6350 correct. 
I 2370 +006 |N. Trees, 15°. 
52) 4870 +:006 laboratory. 
Be 7410 +:006 
4 9940 +'006 
5 12490 | -+005 
*15 30Cc0 +'035 |S.E. Tree, 22°. 
27, 6coo +:o40 
+38 gcoo +'043 
“SI 12000 +'050 
63 15000 +°055 
Somees taht. | Athan ay=|sPoventees ieee N.E.R.-gauge, 25°. 
large. 
"14, 3000 +024. Seve vaaanes ave Close to No. 575. 
26 6cco +:029 
+38 goco +°034 
“48 II710 +°030 
58 14710 +'015 
‘I 1270 correct. |E. Trees, 25°. 
"2 2480 +004 
3 374° +005 
“4 5040 +002 
5 6320 + oor 
‘27—2°01| 3000 SOG) | Ul Mase atecceeaw acces stuns 
2°0I—3'76| 6oco +'c6 
ae 557) 900m |” +12 
5°57—7°34| 12c00 +:08 
7°34—9°15} 15000 +12 


101 


Error at | Azimuth and an- 


Remarks on position &e. 


In a field east of the town; very 


On the lawn south-west of the Col- 


Gauge has a very much rounded 


On a post on the east side of a 
hedge, and south of the works. 


On lawn with many trees, but 
none rising to higher angles 


On post 5 ft. above top of roof of 


On north bank of river Bann; 
open position except as noted. 


Quite exposed, but gauge No. 576 
rather too near; rod correct, 
but inner cylinder slightly too 


On large lawn, yery good position. 


Close to No. 577; gauge not in use. 


Reference 
number. 


an 
oD 
ie 


569. 


570. 


571. 


572. 


573: 


574. 


SY): 


576. 


577. 


102 REPORT—1875. 
EXAMINATION OF 


COUNTY. 
Station. 
OWNER. 


S) oe 
5 Ss 
S| Maker’s name. I Be) 
oS 
Aa =| 
Observer, is) 2 


Above | “ gea- 
ground.| Jeyel, 


examination. 
Construction 


1874. ft. in.| feet. 


579.| Sept. 2. 


580.| Sept. 2. 


81.| Sept. 


2. 


582.| Sept. 14. 


583. 


584. 


585. 


586. 


587. 


588. 


Sept. 


Sept. 


Sept. 


Sept. 


Sept. 


Sept. 


589.) Sept. 


14. 


14. 


15. 


15. 


Da: 


DUBLIN. 
Fitzwilliam Square W., Dublin. 
DR. J. W. MOORE. 

Dr. J. W. Moore. 


WICKLOW. 
Fassaroe, Bray. 
R. BARRINGTON, ESQ. 
R. Barrington, Esq. 


DUBLIN. 
Fitzwilliam Square, Dublin. 
DR. J. W. MOORE. 
Dr, J. W. Moore. 


BERKSHIRE. 
Wantage. 
E. C. DAVEY, ESQ. 
E, C. Davey, Esq. 


BERKSHIRE. 
Long Wittenham, Abingdon. 
REV. J. C. CLUTTERBUCK. 
Rev. J. C. Clutterbuck, 


BERKSHIRE. 
Ock Street, Abingdon. 
W. BELCHER, ESQ. 

W. Belcher, Esq. 


OXFORD. 
Magdalen Coll. Laboratory. 
MAGDALEN COLLEGE. 

J. Harris, Esq. 


BUCKINGHAM. 
Addington Manor, Winslow. 
£. HUBBARD, ESQ., M.P. 

Mr, J. Mathison. 


BUCKINGHAM. 
Addington Manor, Winslow. 
LE. HUBBARD, ESQ., MP. 

Mr, J. Mathison. 


BUCKINGHAM. 
Adstock Fields, Buckingham. 
E. HUBBARD, ESQ., MP. 

Mr. W. Weston. 


BUCKINGHAM. 
School Lane, Buckingham. 
MR. W. WALKER. 
Mr. W. Walker. 


XII. 


XI. 


TIT. 


XII. 


AUT, 


XII. 


Casella! s.crBac: 


Negretti &Zambra)......... 


Braham”, ..5ieaeces 


Negretti & Zambra 


Casella .. dese: 


CAasslla-t.ncssceeeeed 


Negretti & Zambra 


Casella <..0285% 


Negretti & Zambra 


gam. 


9 a.m. 


9.30 
a.m. 


al aa 


54 


+] 5 O |reeeeeees 


BeD 


ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 


RAIN-GAUGES (continued). 


1038 


| a — | Equivalents of 
, 8 eg Fs 3 water. 
© @ 4 
g S 4 i Scale- : 
A - point. Grains. 
in, in. 
5700 | ‘I 490 
5°00 2 980 
5700 | °3 oss) 
5°00 4 1960 
M 5'000! °5 2470 
10°02 Cr 2520 
I0'00 2 497° 
Torco | °3 747° 
10°00 “4 997° 
Mio'005 5 12220 
g00 | ‘I 480 
5°04. "2 980 
5°06 *3 1480 
5°08 ‘4. 1980 
M 5°045 
4°96 | ‘I 499 
5°04. 2 g92 
5°00 om 1480 
5°04. 4 2000 
M so1o| °5 2460 
5°00 oi 475 
5°00 2 995 
4°94 3 1500 
5°00 “4 ¥979) 
M 4°985| “5 | 2480 
5°00 ot! 499 
5°02 2 980 
5°03 3 1455 
499 | “4 1960 
M 5010] °5 2460 
5°00 I 495 
4°98 2, 980 
497 3 1479 
5°00 “4 1960 
M 4°988| °5 2450 
5702 a 495 
4°98 2 99° 
499 3 7490 
493 | "4 1990 
M.4°993| °5 2480 
8:00 “1 1200 
8'00 2 2500 
800 | 3 3780 
8°00 4 5050 
M 8-000] °5 6310 
5°00 oT 490° 
498 | 2 999 
5°00 ng 1490 
| “4 | 199° 
M 4990! °5 2500 
799 | "3 1255 
8-02 2 2560 
8:00 =) 377° 
8:01 4 5050 
M 8005] °5 6300 


Error at 


scale-point | gular elevation of 


specified in 
previous 
column. 


| an. 
+'oo! 

* +002 
+:007 
+°005 
+'002 
correct. 
+'003 
+"004. 
+ "005 
+015 
+'005 
+'006 
+:007 
+:008 


+'002 
+ oor 
+'o002 
+002 
+:006 
+'004. 
— ‘002 
—*'004. 
correct. 
—'003 
+'002 
+'003 
+:008 
+'oc6 
+:006 
correct. 
+'oo1r 
+"002 
+003 
+:003 
correct. 
correct. 
—‘ool 
"002. 
—"002 
+-'005 
+'003 
+002 
+:002 
+'003 
+:oor 
correct. 
—'002 
—'003 
—'006 
+:ool 


—‘oor 
+7003 
+'003 
+ "004. 


8.8. W. Trees, 25°. 


Azimuth and an- 


objects above 
mouth of rain- 


gauge. 


Remarks on position &e, 


Reference 
number 


| 
| 


8.E. Poplar, 56°, 


oe ie In small garden in rear of house; | 579. 
. House, 40°, 


bad position, but no better ayail- 


N. Wall, 10°. able. 

Wot, ode, 

8.H. Firs, 30°. In garden; good position, but | 580. 
W. Wood, 10°. ground undulating. 


E. House, 39°. | Close to No. 579. 581. 

N. Wall, 48°. 

W. Trees, 38°. 

S. Wall, 28°. 

iia SUS. « cpiesbiicanaice On post in kitchen-garden; all | 582. 
clear. 


8.B. Birch, 57°. 
S. Eln, 44°. 
N.W. Tree, 41°, 


In kitchen-garden, east of vicarage | 583. 
and church. 


8. Rose-bush, 35°.| Level garden; position good except | 584. 


as noted, 


8. Hhlns, 35°. In the botanical gardens; clear | 585. 


except as noted, 


E. Apple, 41°. In kitchen-garden, well exposed. | 586. 


EH. Apple, 41°. Close to No. 586. 


587. 


N.W. Trees, 35°. 
E. House, 20°. 


On small lawn in front of house; | 588. 
owing to the number of trees, 
no better position obtainable. 


Gauge loosely placed in an old 
tub, and position not good. 


W. Tree, 48°. 
8. House, 40°, 


589. 


104 


REPORT—1875. 


EXAMINATION OF 


Reference 
number, 
Construction 


| 


59°- 


591. 


592. 


593- 


594- 


595: 


596. 


597: 


598. 


599: 


600. 


Date of 
examination 


COUNTY. 
Station. 
OWNER. 
Observer. 


of gauge. 


1874. 


Sept. 15. 


Sept. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Oct. 


Oct. 


Cct. 


Oct. 


Oct. 


Oct. 


Oct. 


BUCKINGHAM. 
Castle Fields, Buckingham, 
C. PARROTT, ESQ. 
Mr. J. Richards. 


HAMPSHIRE. 
Park Corner, Heckfield. 
J, MARTINEAU, ESQ. 

J. Martineau, Esq. 


XII. 


sg: PE 


KENT. 
Culverlands Grove, Tunbridge Wells. 
— MILLER, ESQ. 
Mr. Townsend. 


30. 


3.|- SUSSEX. 
Crowboro’ Beacon Observatory. 
C. L. PRINCE, ESQ. 
C. L. Prince, Esq. 


SUSSEX. 
The Steyne, Brighton. 
BRIGHTON CORPORATION. 
Dr. Taafe. 


SUSSEX. 
The Dyke, Poyning. 
BRITISH ASSOCIATION. 
Mr. W. Thacker. 


12, XII. 


ESSEX. 
The Gardens, Audley End. 
MR. J. BRYAN. 
Mr, J. Bryan. 


20, 


ESSEX. 
Riverside, Audley End. 
MR. J. BRYAN. 

Mr, J. Bryan. « 


LEICESTERSHIRE. 
Town Museum, Leicester. 
LEICESTER CORPORATION. 
W. J. Harrison, Esq. 


WARWICK. 
St. Mary’s College, Oscott. 
THE COLLEGE. 
Rev. 8. Whitty. 


20, 


21, XII. 


21. XII. 


STAFFORD. 
The Heath House, Cheadle. 
J. C. PHILLIPS, ESQ. 
J. C. Phillips, Esq. 


22. 


XI. 


Xin { 


Maker’s name. 


Casella 


Negretti & Zambra 


Casella 


Casella 


Casella 


fete twee nee 


teem arenes 


Casella 


g a.m. 


9 a.m. 


Height 


of gauge. 


Above 
sea- 


*| level. 


ft. in.| feet. 


I 


6 


318 


257 


493 


777 


Peewee eel ewww ee wen MET eee eee 


690 


163 


151 


238 


461 


ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 105 


IN-GAUGES (continued). 


Equivalents of | Error at | Azimuth and an- 
water. seale-point | gular elevation of 
specifiedin| objects above Remarks on position &e. 
Grains, | previous | mouth of rain- 
column. gauge. 


—_) 
Hl 


number. 


Reference 


in. 
SOOM | upiesectscctecsenasven Very good position in rear of 
—"004 house; grounds level. 
correct. 
—"003 
—*002 : 
—"oor S.S.W. Tree, 35°. | In flower-garden ; clear except as | 591. 
—"002 noted. 
+001 


nn 
Ne) 
9 


Bs sues SAE 


—‘oor | H. Trees, 27°. On large lawn sloping to 8.W. 592. 
—"002 
correct. 
—"002 
—"0c2 
SECO || ees taccewctabteoow ent In meteorological enclosure south | 593. 
+ oor of observatory ; very open po- 
correct. sition. 

+°005 
+°003 
BOLECCL: || caveseles sores ewcsso0c 0% Gauge tested before actual erec- | 594. 
+-006 tion; it was to be placed in a 
+:006 place selected by myself in the 
+:003 Steyne gardens with other me- 
correct. teorological apparatus. 

correct. | N. Bushes, 20°. | In garden E. of house; good po- | 595. 
—"002 sition. 
-+-"'002 
—'003 
— "coz 
—oor |8.8.W. Apple, 33°; Ingardensnear Mr. Bryan’s house; | 596. 
correct. clear except as noted. 
+001 
+°005 
correct, 
FOCI I aestencd seceeensces ae. Very exposed position on bank of | 597. 
+'c04 river. 
+007 

+°003 

+:006 

COURCUUME I noowels ceiee a ceanmt cece Open garden in centre of town. | 598. 


+003 
+'ool 
+'002 
+oor |... Be vacesteacossac ois | Clear position, 8.W. of the college. | 599. 
+°002 
+'003 
—"004. 


| 
°2 
9 
4 
‘5 
“3 
“2 
3 
‘4 
5 
si 

w 
3 
4 
5 
7E 

2 
3 
4 
5 
oE 

‘2 
3 
4 
5 
ck 

°2 
3 
4 
z 
be 

"2 
e. 
“4 
‘5 
ae 
2 
3 
‘4 


—oor |8.E. Araucaria,30°| On sloping ground, W. of house, | 600. 
+:003 | N.W. House, 28°. 
+:ool 
+006 
—"oor 


UES A 


601.| Oct, 22. 


602. 


603. 


604. 


605. 


606. 


607. 


608. 


609. 


610. 


611. 


106 


Date of 
examination. 


1874. 


Oct, 


Oct. 


Oct, 


Oct, 


Oct. 


Oct. 


Oct, 


Oct. 


Oct. 


Noy. 


23. 


28, 


28. 


30. 


30. 


31. 


31. 


21, 


30. 


REPORT——1875. 


COUNTY. 
Station. 
OWNER. 
Observer. 


STAFFORD. 


The Heath House, Cheadle. 


J. C. PHILLIPS, ESQ. 
J. C. Phillips, Esq. 


STAFFORD. 
Upper Tean Vicarage, 
Stoke-upon-Trent. 
REV. G. T. RYVES. 
Rev. G. T. Ryves. 
YORKSHIRE. 
Hardrow Vicarage, Hawes. 
REV. F. W. STOW. 
Rev. R. Pink. 


YORKSHIRE. 


Lunds. 
REV. F. W. STOW. 
Rev. R. Pink. 


YORKSHIRE. 
Hawes Vicarage. 
REV. DR. PARKER. 
Rev. Dr. Parker. 


LINCOLN. 
Westgate, Louth. 
DR. FAWSSETT. 
Dr. Fawssett. 


LINCOLN. 
Gospelgate, Louth. 
T. W. WALLIS, ESQ. 
T. W. Wallis, Esq. 


LINCOLN. 
Gospelgate, Louth. 
T. W. WALLIS, ESQ. 
T. W. Wallis, Esq. 


LINCOLN, 
Calcethorpe Manor, Louth. 
D. G. BRIGGS, ESQ. 
D. G. Briggs, Esq. 


LINCOLN. 
Calcethorpe Manor, Louth. 
D. G. BRIGGS, ESQ. 
D. G. Briggs, Esq. 


MIDDLESEX. 


Colney-Hatch Lane, Muswell Hill. 


J. W. SCOTT, ESQ. 
J. W. Scott, Esq. 


Construction 
of gauge. 


B 
a 


XI. 


XIL.* 


See 
B.A.R. 
1867, 
p- 467. 


xs 


XII. 


III. 


ITT. 


XII. 


OIE 


EXAMINATION OF 


Get 
° 
g 
Maker’s name. on 
AS 
Aa 


Casella. ..coses0Sep aes 


Negretti & Zambra! 9 a.m. 


Cagella...«, «scree 9 a.m. 
Cagglla.. 5.20. xerelvacee sage 
Pastorelli ......... 9 am. 
ADDON iep0ess<cseane gam. 
ANON. 55s soevreevane|soseeemes 
ANON sbseace> cimeeie seceende 
ADO tress 2000 teen 9 a.m, 
ANON sesassngs scepens gam 
Ist. 
Casella ......sss00 9 a.m 


* This mark denotes that the gauge has a deep Snowdonian rim, 


Height of 
gauge. 

Above 
Above 
ground.| eve) 
ft. in.| feet. 
Too} 647 
Z orl, .A7o 
I o| 799° 
1 o| 806 
© g]| 100 
6 © 109 
6 0 109 
© 10] 380 
© 10] 380 
o 8 310 


a 


ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES, 


' 
RAIN-GAUGES (continued). 


107 


COMPAR NUNES SHUEW DY HU 


Scale- 
point. 


water, 


Grains. 


in. 


correct. 


+'003 
+ ‘oor 
+'006 


correct, 


+'006 
+°003 
+'003 
+’o09 
+'008 
—‘oor 
—*o02 
+002 


+-oor 


correct, 


+"004. 
+003 


correct. 


-++'008 
+’oIo 


ee ee ween tee eee ee eeeleeeeeeeeneasees 


correct, 
correct. 
correct. 
correct. 
correct. 
+ oor ¢ 


—"0o2, 
— ‘oor 


correct. 


+°003 
+ ‘002 
+004 
+'002 
+002 
+'002 
—"‘ool 
—'002 
—'003 
—*003 
+002 


Equivalents of | Error at | Azimuth and an- 

scale-point | gular elevation of 

specified in 
previous 
column. 


ss 


objects above 
mouth of rain- 


gauge. 


N. Vicarage, 31°. 
W. Trees, 24°, 


N. House, 51°. 


Pee ee rere reesreneeeseeees 


8. House, 31°. 


Ww. Treo, 35°. 


W. Houses, 39°. 
E 28°. 
43°. 


” 


NE.. ,. 


AAO e eee seen eee eeeennas 


E. Tree, 19°. 


Remarks on position &e, 


Close to No, 600, 


Clear, except as noted. 


Too much sheltered by house, but 
no better position obtainable ; 
quite clear in other directions. 


Gauge tested, but station not 
visited, 


Good position ; the measuring- 
glass was very faulty, and a 
new correct one was supplied. 


Good position on lawn ; clear ex- 


cept as noted. 


Very confined garden in centre of 
town. 
Close to No. 607. 


Very open position on large lawn. 


Close to No. 609. 


Reference 
number, 


| 


6o1. 


602, 


603. 


604.. 


605. 


606, 


607. 


608. 


610. 


Tn kitchen-garden ; good position. | 611. 


Reterence 
number. 


| 


612. 


614. 


615. 


616. 


617. 


618. 


619. 


620. 


621. 


622. 


108 


Date of 
examination. 


1874. 
Dec. 17. 


| Dec. 17. 


Dec. 17. 


Dec. 19. 


Dee. 19. 


Dec. 21. 


Dec. 21. 


REPORT—1875. 


COUNTY. 
Station. 
OWNER. 
Observer, 


WILTSHIRE. 
Marlborough College. 
REV. T. A. PRESTON, 
fev. T. A. Preston. 


WILTSHIRE. 
Marlborough College. 
REV, T. A. PRESTON. 
Rev, T. A. Preston. 


WILTSHIRE. 
Marlborough College. 
REV. T. A. PRESTON. 
Rev. T. A. Preston. 


CARMARTHEN. 
Asylum, Carmarthen. 


G. J. HEARDER, ESQ., M.D. 


G. J. Hearder, Esq., M.D. 
CARMARTHEN. 


Goal, Carmarthen. 
MR. G. STEPHENS. 
Mr, G. Stephens. 


GLAMORGAN. 
Tynant, Radyr. 
F. G. EVANS, ESQ. 
F. G. Evans, Esq. 


GLAMORGAN, 
Crockherbtown, Cardiff, 
W. ADAMS, ESQ., C.E. 

W. Adams, Esq., C.E. 


HERTFORD. 
Tyler Street, Hitchin, 
W. LUCAS, ESQ, 
Mr, W. Anderson. 


BEDFORD. 
Oaklands, Aspley Guise. 
E. E, DYMOND, ESQ. 

E. E. Dymond, Esq. 


BEDFORD. 
Oaklands, Aspley Guise. 
E. E. DYMOND, ESQ. 

EE. E. Dymond, Esq. 


CARDIGAN. 
Gogerddan, Aberystwith. 


SIR PRYSE PRYSE, BART. 


Sir Pryse Pryse, Bart. 


n 


EXAMINATION OF 


2. Height 
S & 6 bo | _ of gauge. 
= ’ Oey | ————————— 
£3 Maker’s name. Be lop Abort 
aS ae mais sea- 
oO Brom level. 
ft. in.| feet. 
X. | Negretti&Zambralg am.|o 8 | 456 
XI. | Casella ../.ca eco gam.| 1 0} 456 
TL | Ladd .cis.0.0sevee: gam.| 1 3 | 456 
X. | Negretti& Zambra} 9a.m.| 0 6} 180 
X. | Negretti& Zambra|9ga.m.| 0 6 92 
XII. | Casella ............19 a.m.]| 1 © | 100 
XII. | Casella ............)9 am.} 1 0 35 
ME | Apps teste. -sreasecee gam.| 1 3] 238 
XIT. | Casella. ......<s0000 gam.|1 0] 433 
Ist. 
XII. | Casella ............ 9:30: |X eauly a3 
a.m. 
XI. | Negretti& Zambral.........,. 1 13} 80 


Sena? 


ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 109 


] 
RAIN-GAUGES (continued). 


Equivalents of | Error at | Azimuth and an- 2 | 
water. scale-point | gular elevation of a3 
specified in| objects above Remarks on position &c. RE 
Ricales . previous | mouth of rain- Sa 
& | point. | Grains. | column. gauge. PA 
in. in, 
‘I 1280 —‘ool |N.W.&N.E.Chapel,39°| On grass in college grounds, 8. of | 612. 
2 2560 —‘ooz | 8. Mound, 18°. chapel. 
*4 3820 —‘ool , 
"4 5050 +002 
AE 6320 +002 
‘I 500 SHOTS. | set dtp abasssescssesuen Close to No. 612. 613. 
“2, 990 correct. 
3 1490 —"oo! 
"4 1960 +*004 
5 2450 +'006 
I 485 +'002 |N.W.-N.E.Chapel,35°| Near No. 612, but rather further | 614. 
2. 980 +002 from the chapel. 
3 1490 correct. 
"4 1975 + "002 
5 2470 +'002 
or 1260 COLTECE. |....cessereeseesereeeeee| Good gauge in very excellent po- | 615. 
2 2550 — ‘ool sition. 
8 379° +001 
*4 5040 +"002 
5 6350 —‘ool 
Bcesdecs lee seseeessssleeeeeeeeeeeeees| S/W. Trees, 27°. | Ona large round tower, the centre | 616. 
a 2590 —"005 of which is oceupied by a garden. 
Position unusual, but, I think, 
unobjectionable. 
5 6350 003 
x 495 correct. |N.N.W. Laburn., 55°.| Best position available. The la- | 617 
=, 1000 —‘ooz |N.W.-N.E,House, 40°} burnum will be cut back ; and | 
3 1490 —‘ool the observer states that rain 
4 2000 — "004 usually falls very nearly verti- 
5 2490 —"003 cally at Tynant. 
2 500 —‘oor |S.W. Tree, 65°. | No better position to be had. Ob- | 618. 
2 990 correct. |S.E.  ,, 50°. server did not like to cut tree. 
3 1480 +:oo1 N.E. Wall, 35°. 
"4. 1980 correct. 
5 2490 — "004. 
I 500 correct. | W. Elm, 33°. In garden, quite open. 619. 
2 995 correct. 
3 1500 —‘ool 
4 2000 —‘oo! 
<5 2500 —"002 
gi 490 +001 N. House, 20°. On lawn, south of house. 620. 
2 990 correct, 
3 1480 + "oor 
“4 1979 +003 
25 2470 +002 
I 490 +‘oor | N. House, 26°. 12 ft. N. of No. 620. 621. 
"2 99° correct. 
oe! 1480 +'oor 
"4 1970 +002 
5 2470 +001 
I 500 —‘oor | W.S.W. House,3°) On large lawn in broad valley run- | 622. 
2 1010 —"003 ning E.-W.; quite unsheltered. 
a3 1480 +002 
‘4 1980 +'002 
5 2470 +7003 


110 REPORT—1875. 
EXAMINATION OF 


* 8 : & Height 
gg Ss cou NTY. S So ‘S of gauge. 
Bs = 4 cps = & Maker’s name. ai3 Above | Above | 
rt ove = 
gal A 5 Observer. oa Se educa Bs 
1875. belt ft. in. | feet. | 
623.| Aug. 12. CARDIGAN. XII.*| Casella ...... 0:00 gam.| I 6] 46] 
Great Dark Street, Aberystwith. 
MORRIS JONES, ESQ. 
Morris Jones, Esq. 
624.| Aug. 14. MERIONETH. Ti. ..| Casella...ic..seete gam.| 1 o| 465 
Brithdir, Dolgelly. 
BRITISH ASSOCIATION. 
J. H. Hill, Esq. 
625.) Aug. 14. MERIONETH. XII. | Casella .........05 
Brithdir, Dolgelly (Field). 


J. H. HILL, ESQ. 
J. H. Hill, Esq. 


626.| Aug. 14. MERIONETH. AIT. | \Capellancss:<ssctweds 
National School, Dolgelly. 
MAJOR MATTHEW. 
Mr. Orn Wiiliams, 


627.| Aug. 16, MONTGOMERY. XATy | Apps: sevcrosesase 
Plas, Machynlleth. 

MR. J. JOHNSTONE. 
Mr. J. Johnstone. 


28.| Aug. 16, MONTGOMERY. TIT. | Casella ........050 
Llanwrin, Machynlleth. 
REV. D. EVANS. 
Rev. D. Evans. 


629.| Aug. 16. MERIONETH. Vi Al Ano ties ave oxen satel 
Peniarth. 
W. W. Ek. WYNNE, ESQ. 
The Gardener. 


| ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 111 
| 
RAIN-GAUGES (continued). 


ce =e Equivalents of | Error at | Azimuth and an- | 2 ys 
£225 water. scale-point | gular elevation of RS las 
a= 8 | |specified in| objects above Remarks on position &e. a 
S— 8 | | scale- ; previous | mouth of rain- Cae 
A = | point. | Fti2s- | column, gauge. re 
in. in. in. 
7°98 I 1280 —‘oor | W. House, 36°. | Very bad position ; to be removed | 623. 
8°03 NeW. ,, 42% to an open part of the castle 
7:98 °3 3790 +'oo2 | N. iy 30°. grounds, 
"02 8. ees 
M 8002} °5 6350 correct. 
poe | 490 HOOT  [asine pibwiaa in etac has pone Clear open position in garden. 624. 
4°99 *2 980 +002 
5°Or "3 1470 +'003 
5°00 "4 1980 +001 
M s‘coo] °5 24.70 +*002 
Grom. | > *t 490 “ODER lta seth bons -sssconenss This gauge was not in use. I ad- | 625. 
5°or 2 980 +*002 vised its erection in an adjacent 
Seay 63 “oath +004 field, rather higher than No. 
5O1 * 1980 -+-+'oor 624. 
M 5:000 < en +:002 : 
5:00 | "I 500 SSS MINT to iodainc tence Good position in private garden | 626. 
5°00 2, a +002 of school, 
5°00 “3 14.00 +'oor 
4°99 4 1980 correct. 
M 4998] °5 2470 +001 
5°00 or 510 =="GO2 5 |tvcredusencacasbavae sis In kitchen gardens, 8. of the town | 627. 
5°03 2 1020 —"co5 and unsheltered. 
501 3 1500 —‘ool 
5:01 4 2010 ='003 
M 5012} ‘5 2500 —"oo2 
4°98 Mh 500 "COT faccascaces eeeeeneneeeees Gauge not in use, but site chosen, | 628. 
prom |. 2 999 correct. and itserection promised. Quite 
5°00 *3 mee —‘ool clear. 
5°00 4 1960 +'oo1 
M s:000] °5 2480 correct. 
5°04 I 530 Z="OOO> |ic52s SroseaQBvsesceeaee In gardens, rather too near green- | 629. 
4°98 | ‘2 1030 —'006 house; recommended itsremoyal? 
5 bi 3 1510 —'003 to an unsheltered site, 
4°9 ‘4 2000 —*oo1 
M 5015) ‘5 | 2530 | —‘oo7 


112 REPORT—1875. 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. H. E. Armsrrone and 
Dr. T. E. Tuorre, appointed for the purpose of investigating Iso- 
meric Cresols and their Derivatives. Drawn up by Dr. Anmstrone. 


Srncz the last Meeting of the Association a number of derivatives of para- 
cresol have been examined, and some attention has been given to the isomeric 
cresols ; but the investigation has meanwhile assumed a much wider aspect 
than originally intended, having become a study of the “ law of substitution ” 
in the phenol series, for reasons which may be briefly stated as follows. 

The examination of the derivatives of phenol, C,H, OH, carried on during 
the past four years by various chemists, has shown conclusively that substi- 
tution takes place in that compound in a very definite and simple manner. 
Kekulé’s theory, it is well known, admits of the existence of three isomeric 
mono-derivatives of phenol; and it has been found that the action of all 
reagents which lead to the production of substitution derivatives always gives 
rise to the simultaneous production of two of the three, the so-called ortho- 
and para-derivative. The third isomeric (so-called meta-) mono-derivative 
is seldom formed in any quantity, if at all; thus there is no evidence to show 
that it is produced in the case of the action of nitric or sulphuric acid, and it 
is formed only in very small quantity by the action of chlorine and bromine ; 
the action of iodine, however, appears to give rise to asomewhat larger amount 
of the meta-derivative. The further action of reagents on the ortho- and 
para-mono-derivatives leads ultimately to the production of dri-derivatives, 
and under ordinary conditions there is no tendency to the formation of higher 
substituted derivatives. In all the di- and tri-derivatives thus directly formed 
from phenol, it is found that the ortho- and para-positions alone are occupied ; 
so that employing the usual hexagonal symbol to represent phenol, what, 
in the absence of a better expression, may be termed the direction in which 
substitution is effected in phenol may be graphically represented, somewhat 
in the manner suggested by Huebner, by lines drawn within the hexagon, 
thus :— 

OH 


oe 


ot - 
(Ortho-position) HC“ 9°” § “~~ CH (Ortho-position) 


| = “oe 


(Meta-position) HC. 


TEE 
(Para-position) 


CH (Meta-position) 


It is evidently a problem of considerable importance to determine whether 
this very simple “law of substitution” obtains in the case of the homologues 
of phenol; and our experiments have all been instituted in the hope of con- 
tributing to its speedy solution. The behaviour of paracresol and of thymol 
has, to a certain extent, already been studied, and experiments with the 
isomeric cresols, ethylphenol, xylenol, and carvacrol are in progress. 

Paracresol derivatives—Paracresol, C, H, (CH,)OH, being formed from 
phenol by the displacement of the atom of hydrogen in the para-position by 
methyl, it should yield di-derivatives only if the “law” above discussed is 
capable of application, and would accordingly be represented by the symbol :— 


ON ISOMERIC CRESOLS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES. 113 


OH OH 


\. 
, 
a 
Y, 


H + H + 

H H 
[ie Pe hee 

HC i HC i CH 
x x 
dig aA a: f ZA 

H (CH(® 
Phenol. Paracresol. 


So far as the action of nitric acid is concerned, it may be said that such is 
really the case ; but the behaviour with bromine does not appear to be in har- 
mony with the “law.” Thus paracresol is readily converted into nitropara- 
cresol ; and this compound evidently has the nitro-group in the ortho-position, 
since it is identical with the orthonitroparacresol recently obtained by 
Wagner from orthonitroparatoluidin. By the further action of nitric acid, 
orthonitroparacresol is converted into a dinitroparacresol, which, there is 
eyery reason to believe, has both nitro-groups in the ortho-positions ; it is 
not possible, however, to introduce a greater number of nitro-groups into 
paracresol. Similarly, by the action of bromine and iodine on orthonitro- 
paracresol, monobromo- and moniodo-nitroparacresol only can be obtained. The 
behaviour of paracresol with bromine has not yet been examined; but the action 
of bromine on potassium paracresolorthosulphonate, C, H,(CH,) OH SO, K, has 
been studied. From this compound, in the first instance, the corresponding 
bromoparacresolorthosulphonate, C, H, Br (CH,) OH SO,K,is produced; but on 
further treatment with bromine this is converted into ¢rebromoparacresol, and 
hitherto no intermediate product has been detected. The tribromoparacresol 
thus formed has not yet been sufficiently examined to enable an opinion as to 
its nature to be pronounced; it is a remarkably unstable compound, being de- 
composed and deprived of a portion of its bromine by mere dissolution in alco- 
hol. This behaviour is certainly remarkable, and may serve on investigation 
to throw light on the formation of a tri-derivative from paracresol, which at 
present we are inclined to regard as abnormal. Potassium bromoparacresol- 
orthosulphonate is readily converted by the action of nitric acid into a bromo- 
nitrocresol identical with that obtained by treating orthonitroparacresol with 
bromine. 

Thymol derivatives—Thymol being formed from phenol by the displace- 
ment of an atom of hydrogen in the ortho-position by the group propyl, and 
a second atom in the meta-position by the group methyl, it should ‘“ theore- 
tically ” furnish only di-derivatives, thus :— 


2) 
ss 
ie) 


H 
Cc C 
HC Aa mS cH uc as C (CsH) 
fet betes 
i i 
HC CH (cHs)C H CH 
Ne a is fA 
H 


iy henol. Thymol. 
1875. I 


114 REPORT—1875. 


The behaviour with bromine is in accordance with this view, inasmuch as 
we find that thymolparasulphonic acid (formed by treating thymol with 
SO,HC1) is converted by the action of bromine into bromothymolparasulphonic 
acid, which, on further treatment with bromine, is entirely transformed into 
dibromothymol. It must not be forgotten, however, that Lallemand has pre- 
pared such compounds as trichlorothymol and trinitrothymol; and these 
bodies certainly deserve reinyestigation. 

Since meta-derivatives are under certain circumstances produced directly 
from phenol, it is obvious that the “law” under discussion is not an absolute 
but merely an approximate expression of experimental observations, the ap- 
proximation to truth being, however, very close; and the results thus far 
obtained appear to indicate that in this sense the “ law ” is equally applicable 
to the homologues of phenol. ; 


First Report of the Committee for investigating the circulation of the 
Underground Waters in the New Red Sandstone and Permian Forma- 
tions of England, and the quantity and character of the water 
supplied to various towns and districts from these formations. The 
Committee consisting of Professor Hutu, Mr. B. W. Binney, Mr. 
F. J. Bramwe tt, Rev. H. W. Crosskey, Professor Green, Profes- 
sor Harkness, Mr. Hower, Mr. W. Motynevx, Mr. C. Moors, 
Mr. G. H. Morton, Mr. R. W. Myunz, Mr. Prencenty, Professor 
Prestwicnu, Mr. J. Puant, Mr. J. Metztarp Reapg, Rev. W. S. 
Symonps, Mr. Tytpun Wrieut, Mr. Wuitaxer, and Mr. C. E. 
DeRance (Reporter). \ 


Your Committee, endeavouring to carry out the investigation with which 
you have entrusted them, have specially directed their inquiries to obtain- 
ing information as to the thickness, character, sequence, and water- 
bearing properties of the New Red Sandstone and Permian formations, and 
to the nature and chemical composition of the waters derived from these 
rocks. As special knowledge and local influence are required in each 
particular area, your Reporter obtained the consent of the following mem- 
bers of your Committee to undertake the charge of districts :— 

In the north-west of England Prof. Harkness, F.R.S., Messrs. Binney, 
F.R.S., Morton, Mellard Reade, and your Reporter. 

In the north-east, Prof. Green and Messrs. Howell and Fox Strang- 
ways. 

In the Midland counties, Messrs. J. Plant, Molyneux, Tylden Wright, and 
the Rey. H. W. Crosskey. 

In the south-west of England, Messrs. Pengelly, F.R.S8., C. Moore, and the 
Rev. W. 5. Symonds. 

Through the courtesy of Professor Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S., Director- 
General of the Geological Survey of the United K ingdom, and Mr. Bristow, 
F.R.S., the Director of the English branch, instructions have been given to 
the officers of the Survey to give your Committee any information or sections 
they may require. The sections thus obtained from Mr. Clifton Ward are 
incorporated in the present Report; a large number of others have been 
promised in the N.E, of England. 


ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 115 


The following circular form of inquiry was drawn up and approved by the 
whole of your Committee, and nearly a thousand copies have been distributed 
by them. But your Committee regret to report that, owing to the action of 
certain Corporations and Companies seeking additional Parliamentary powers, 
information has been withheld from the Committee, as well as by individuals 
and firms; but your Committee venture to hope that, in the event of their 
being reappointed, these difficulties may be overcome, and that much addi- 
tional promised information relating to areas at present reported on will be 
received. 


Name of Member of Committee asking for information 
Name of Individual or Company applied to 


1. Position of well or wells with which you are acquainted. 


2. Approximate height of the same above the mean sea-level. 


3. Depth from surface to bottom of shaft of well, with 
diameter. Depth from surface to bottom of bore-hole, 
with diameter. 


4. Height at which water stands before and after pumping. if 


Number of hours elapsing before ordinary level is restored 
after pumping. 


S. Quantity capable of being pumped in gallons per day. 


6. Does the water-level vary at different seasons of the year? 
and how? Has it diminished during the last 10 years ? 


7. Is the ordinary water-level ever affected by local rains? and 
if so, in how short a time? And how does it stand in 
regard to the level of the water in the neighbouring 
streams or sea? 


8. Analysis of the water, if any. Does the water possess 
any marked peculiarity 2 


9. Nature of the rock passed through, including cover of 
drift, with thicknesses. 


10. Does the cover of drift over — rock contain surface-) 
springs ? 
11. If so, are they entirely kept out of the well? 


12. Are any large faults known to exist close to the well? 


13. Were any salt springs or brine-wells passed through in 
making the well? 


14. Are there any salt springs in the neighbourhood ? 


15. Have any wells or borings been discontinued in your 
neighbourhood, in consequence of the water being more 
or less brackish? If so, if possible, please give section in 
reply to query No 9. 


r2 


116 REPORT—187 5. 


The following form has been circulated amongst scientific and practical 
men, to obtain information as to the position of wells and borings. 


BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. 
UNDERGROUND WATER COMMITTEE. 


“ Scientific Club, '7 Savile Row, 
London, W. 
nA ate 115) 

“ Dear Sir,—As it is of great importance to obtain, as far as possible, all 
the information in reference to wells, borings, and waterworks in, or 
obtaining their water supplies from, the New Red Sandstone and Permian 
formations of England, I write to ask you to kindly fill in this sheet with 
the names and addresses of Individuals, Firms, or Companies likely to afford 
information, mentioning, under the name, the well or waterworks with 
which they are connected, and return it to me. 

“ Should you have yourself sent the circular form of inquiry to any of the 
names in your list, please put ‘8S’ against them in the sent column, and ‘ R’ 
in the returned coiumn to those who have sent you back the form filled up. 

**T am, dear Sir, 
‘Yours faithfully, 
“ Cuartes EK. De Rancz, F.G.S., 
Secretary of the Committee.” 


No. Name. Address. Sent. | Returned. 


Should the Committee be reappointed, it is proposed next year to report 
on the water-bearing properties of the New Red Sandstone and Permian of 
the whole of England. 2. The nature and chemical character of the water 
met with, including the results obtained by the analysis made for the River 
Pollution Commissioners not yet published. 3. The effect of these waters 
on the sanitary condition of the people using them. 4. The depth at which 
these waters occur in various districts where wells are now carried out, and 
the probable depth at which such waters will occur in districts not yet 
availing themselves of these waters for a supply. 

In the present preliminary Report information from Devonshire, Leices- 
tershire, Lancashire, and parts of other counties are described. 


DEVONSHIRE. 


Torquay.—Dr. Colt, of Maidencombe, describes a well at his house, 250 
feet above the level of the sea, which yields a very constant and good 
supply of water from the Red Sandstone at a depth of 91 feet, the top water 
being on an average 13 feet 6 inches from the bottom, falling to 9 ft. 6 in. 
during the dry seasons of 1868, 1869, and 1870, after very severe pumping 
for the use of neighbours and their cattle. 

A fault occurs 300 yards, near which a shaft was sunk 130 feet deep to 
obtain water, without success. 

Teignmouth.—Dr. Lake, writing to Mr. Pengelly, states that a brook rising 


—— ee —™” 


ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 117 


in the Greensand area of the Haldons, runs through the Combe valley above 
Teignmouth, a large part of the water being received in a small reservoir for 
the supply of that town; the remaining portion of the water left in the 
stream, after flowing down the natural channel, is conveyed in a culvert 
through the grounds of Myln Villa, after which it flows to the river Teign. 
During the severe drought of 1870 nearly the entire supply of this stream 
was taken by the reservoir, and only twenty gallons of water per minute 
entered the high end of the culvert at Myln Villa; but notwithstanding that, 
no less than fifty gallons per minute were discharged. Wells were sank to 
secure more of this excess supply, which was found. 

Tiverton.— At Tiverton Mr. H. 8. Gill informs Mr. Pengelly that the 
surface of the water in the wells at the Parish Church and of St. Peter Street 
is 10 feet below the level of the ground, while at the other end of the street, 
which is at a slightly lower level, the water has to be pumped up 35 to 40 
feet, and of much harder quality than that derived from the shallow wells, 
which are, however, affected by heavy rains, during which the deeper well- 
water remains clear and sparkling, especially in a well near the Town Hall, 
about 270 feet above the sea. 

Dawlish.—Dr. Baker informs Mr. Pengelly that the springs are believed 
to trend with the valley N.N.W. and 8.8.E.; breaking at right angles to this 
line, the wells have to be sunk to a level a little below that of the sea. 

A well at Captain Lampen’s on the North Hill, 171 feet above the sea- 
level, was sunk 175 feet through sandstone, gravel, and sand rock, of which 
100 feet had to be penetrated before water was found. 

In a well (Mr. Turner’s) 50 feet lower down the hill, 73 feet deep, the 
water suddenly disappeared in March 1875; but some water was reached on 
sinking an additional 5 feet. 

In Mr. Marshall’s well, recently sunk close to the edge of the cliff, on the 
opposite side of the valley, at a height of 70 feet above the sea-level, water 
was reached at 75 feet, beneath a hard pan of red sandstone; when pumped 
dry, five minutes’ rest yields sufficient for thirty minutes more pumping. 

At Oaklands, on the 8.W. hill, a well is now being sunk at an elevation of 
200 feet; a surface-spring was met with at 42 feet, which has been cut off, 
and the well is now in hard conglomerate at 65 feet. 

Near the Station, Hatchers Hotel, and along the railway, an abundant 
supply of surface-water is found in the gravel at a depth or 14 feet, which 
supply appears to be pounded back by the sea; these surface-springs vary much 
in quantity, and are lowest in July. The wells are bricked, and 3 feet 9 inches 
diameter. 

Bramford Speke.—Mr. Gamlen, of Bramford Speke, near Exeter, informs 


_ Mr. Pengelly that there are 16 wells in that village, of which 14 are from 


45 to 52 feet in depth ; the top water of one of these is maintained to a level 
only 14 feet below the surface of the ground, rising to within 6 feet 
in winter. The wells are in fine orange-coloured sandstone, overlaid by clean 
gravel ; the bottoms of the wells are below the level of the Exe, but the water 
is derived from the high ground to the west. 


SoMERSETSHIRE. 


At Taunton Mr. Moore reports the deeper wells 75 feet in depth, situated 
100 feet above the sea; Dr. Alford states these are with difficulty pumped dry ; 
the water is derived from the New Red Sandstone, and contains 6 grains per 
gallon of sulphate and carbonate of lime. 


118 REPORT—1875. 


Wells at Wellington and Somerton yield constant supplies of hard water, 
unaffected by local rain. 

At Wembdon, 60 feet above the sea, a well in the Red Sandstone, 30 feet 
deep, yields a plentiful supply of water, which is also the case at Wells, a well 
33 feet deep, at a point 70 feet above the sea. 


LEICESTERSHIRE. 


The deep wells of Leicester reach a maximum depth of 90 feet, and derive 
their water-supply from the Upper Keuper Sandstone, which dips 8.E. at a 
low angle from the outcrop, or Davies Hill, towards the town and river, which 
Mr. Plant considers must drain off a large portion of the supply held by the 
sandstone, which consists of from 20 to 50 feet of sandstone, “‘separated by 
beds of stiff red clay varying in thickness from a few inches to six feet.” The 
water in these wells is free from organic impurity ; permanent water-level is 
about the mean height of the water in the river. These wells are tubbed 
or bricked to keep out surface-springs in the Drift ; and one is reported capable 
of yielding 250,000 to 300,000 gallons a day ; another, emptied in 10 hours, 
was restored to its normal level during the night. 

Mr. Plant reports that a number of shallow wells in the town are being 
gradually closed by the authorities, being under 30 feet in depth, and their 
supply derived from drift deposits more or less charged with organic im- 
purity. 

Mr. Plant states the supply from the New Red Sandstone to be very con- 
stant, though limited in quantity, from the smallness of the collecting-area at 
Dayies Hill. The present supply given to the town is from ‘streams flowing 
from the Hills of Charnwood Forest, stored in two large reservoirs at Thornton 
and Cropston.” 

Mr. Plant sums up the result obtained by him in Leicestershire by stating 
that the supply of water from the Upper Keuper Sandstone (nowhere more 
than 50 or 60 feet thick) is small but permanent. All the deep wells of the 
town of Leicester being supplied from this source, the water is pure but hard 
from sulphate and carbonate of lime. 

In both the eastern and western districts of the county the supply is from 
the Lower Keuper Sandstone, which is in some places probably 600 feet in 
thickness. The water is pure but not free from hardness, but the supply is 
abundant and permanent. 

Where the Bunter and Permian beds are penetrated, the supply of water 
appears to be enormous and entirely unaffected by dry seasons ; it is pure and 
perfectly soft. 

These results may be tabulated thus :— 


Formation. Supply. Hardness. 
1. Upper Keuper Sandstone. Not abundant. Sulph. and carb. of lime. 
2. Lower _,, i Abundant. Not so hard as 1. 
3. Bunter beds. More abundant. Nearly soft. 
4, Permian beds. Most abundant. Soft. 


The SrarrorpsHrreE returns not being complete, Mr. Molyneux defers sending 
them until next year; but as previous to this inquiry he had published much 
information regarding the water-supply of Burton-on-Jvent, your Reporter 
has thought it well to briefly allude to his results. 

The large number of journals of borings placed at Mr. Molyneux’s disposal 
by Messrs. Allsopp and Sons and Messrs. Salt and Co. have enabled him to 


ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 119 


establish the following sequences of deposits in the valley of the Trent, near 
Burton, in descending order :— 


1. Old alluvial deposits, 
| Re aie Sa } In the bottom of the valley. 
3. Terrace-gravels. 
4, Stratified sands, gravels, and } On the slope of the valley. 
peat of fluviatile origin. 
5. Drift sands and gravel. . 
L 6. Boulder-clay. } On the top of the hills. 

7. Rheetic beds. 
B ROUPer MOEIS) 65 ve esi ses. 1000 feet thick. 
9. Keuper Sandstone ........ DPN tos 

10. Bunter Conglomerate...... BOO ae. 


11. Coal-measures, 


All the Burton wells previous to 1856 were sunk in the valley-gravels, 
and were not more than 20 feet deep ; in that year Messrs. Ind, Coope, and Co. 
sank a well 24 feet in depth in Station Street; and since then all the old brewery 
wells have been deepened, and are now carried down to the underlying Keuper 
beds. 

To obtain a supplementary supply to that afforded by the gravels and the 
top of the Keuper deposits, Messrs. Bass and Co. bored through 194 feet of 
gypsum marls with bands of hard sandstone; but it only produced one gallon 
of water per hour. 

In 1867-68 Messrs. Allsopp and Sons sank 28 feet through gravel and 
bored 102 feet, with a similar unsuccess. The various borings carried out by 
these firms and Messrs. Salt and Co. prove the existence of two faults in the 
very centre of the valley, bringing up the Keuper Sandstone, with a vertical 
downthrow towards the river of no less than 1100 feet, the whole of which 
enormous mass of strata has been denuded away. 

Mr. Molyneux gives the three following analyses—(1) of water from an arte- 
sian boring in Keuper marls 70 feet in depth, (2) of water from a well 30 feet 
deep in yalley-gravels, on the east side of High Street, in the time of the 
old breweries, and (3) of a well on the west side of that street. 


I ai i i i ee ee 


| No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. 
Grains in an Grains per Grains per | 
imperial gallon. gallon. gallon. 
Sulphate of lime ............ 70-994 25-480 7-050 
Carbonate of lime ......... 9-046 18-060 15°526 
Carbonate of magnesia ... 5-880 9-100 2128 
Sulphate of magnesia ...... 12-600 0-000 0-000 
Sulphate of soda ............ 13-300 7-630 3689 
Chloride of sodium ......... 9-173 10:010 6636 
Chloride of potassium...... 966 2275 13-447 
Chloride of magnesium ... “000 0-000 7350 
Carbonate of magnesium... 
Protoxide of iron........:... 1-218 900 Trace 
Warbonate of manganese...) ° > te.t. ety) ole aed Trace 
Mine ecid (88 lime-salt)ic. yoy Tey lik ees Trace 
Aen ee cis vce accnsoe bce 1:120 840 1-904: 
Total solid residues ,.. 124-297 74-295 57-730 


120 REPORT—1875. 


With the exception of the wells in the Keuper Marls at Hornington, all 
the borings prove these marls to be non-water bearing at Burton, the water 
found coming from the sands beneath them. Mr. Molyneux is therefore of 
opinion that the large amount of calcareous ingredients found in the artesian 
wells is derived from the vast area of Keuper Marls with gypseous aggrega- 
tions occurring in the old area of Needwood Forest, to the west of the valley, 
the gypsum-charged water flowing along lines of natural underground 
drainage in a north-easterly direction, until its progress is checked by the 
great north and south Trent-valley fault, and a portion of the water forced 
up into the overlying gravels, where it becomes mixed with the ordinary sur- 
face-water of the valley, which it charges with the calcareous elements which 
give it the materials necessary to the production of Burton beer. 

Mr. J. P. Griess, F.R.S., informs Mr. Molyneux that the gypsum derived from 
the water used in brewing 1000 barrels of ale would be 250 pounds; so that, 
assuming Burton produces annually 1,400,000 barrels of ale, no less than 
350,000 pounds of this mineral will be drank with the beer in the various 
parts of the world. Of the water derived from the Burton valley-gravels, and 
used in various operations of brewing, probably not less than 1,050,000 pounds 
of gypsum will be disposed of, which Mr. Molyneux considers will not re- 
present one tenth of the actual amount of gypsum being annually carried to 
the sea. And it is believed that many local subsidences which have taken 
place in various parts of Needwood Forest are due to the fracture and sink- 
ing of gypsum-beds corroded by underground streams. 

The water recently obtained by several of the large brewing firms from 
the Keuper Sandstone and Bunter beds rose 23 feet above the level of the 
valley, proving the great height of the sources of supply. These waters were 
softer than those from the marls or from the valley-gravels, the proportion 
of sulphate of lime being much less. 


LANCASHIRE. 


At Manchester Mr. Binney has experienced great difficulty in obtaining 
returns ; in fact out of twenty sent out only three have been returned. 

In one of these a well and boring at Ayecroft, 433 feet in depth, is stated 
to produce about 180,000 to 200,000 gallons per day; but the well is only 
pumped for two or three weeks at a time, chiefly in dry weather. 

The well is 70 yards from the river Irwell; and when that river rises, the 
water in the well rises also. 

Prof. Hull states that in 1863 from 60 to 70 wells in the New Red and 
Lower Permian Sandstones of :Manchester and Salford yielded not less than 
six million gallons per day, used for factories, breweries, bleaching and dye 
works. 

As the collecting-area is only 7 square miles, covered with houses and 
paved streets, a large part of this supply must be derived from infiltration 
from the rivers Irk, Medlock, and Irwell. 

As the water thus derived is useful for commercial purposes, while that in 
the rivers is little better than sewage, the great natural filtering-properties of 
the New Red Sandstone are here remarkably shown. . 

Dr. R. Angus Smith, F.R.S., found the water from the deep wells of 
Manchester, in the Permian and Bunter Sandstone, to yield 8 grains of 
sulphate of lime, and six of carbonate. 

Well-water rom the south side of Manchester, analyzed by him in 1865, 
contained :— 


ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 121 


grains. 

@hlorideoflsodimms 5./7. serds0 test os 4°83 
Rulphate, Oi sda fissure wis alee alo ploeicis se 7:33 
Carbonate ‘of:soda’ s/c es. bso eee es 7°35 
ss Olplimen tse ee aes Sali, 

3 SU EILAPMORIA 027 rata’ stetave, e's" +¢ 5:29 
34:57 


The following section of a well and boring at Seedly Print- Works, given 
by Messrs. Binney and Hull, is of value, as showing that while the Upper 
Permian series attain a thickness of 128 feet, the Lower Permian Sandstone 
is but 12 feet 6 inches, though at Collyhurst, 23 miles to the east, it has 
expanded to a thickness of 250 feet. 


feet 
mememt. §=Boulder-clay oo 2 ois i ee ee. TES 61 
Peeltridsts Soft red sandstone OL Se he oe le ee ae 139 
3. Upper Permian. Marls, sandstone, and beds of limestone.... 128 
4. Lower Permian. White rock, red sandstone .............. 123 
SEMMEMHISINIGASUTES 2.0 cic silos +s sve so 's.8 a s'acioe tin 86 0808 1s 0 SMe 30 
3704 


The whole of the Permian formation, as proved by various wells and 
borings, is subject to great variation of thickness, due probably to uncon- 
formability. 

In the borough of Salford Mr. Binney has recorded a large number of 
borings for water at the factories and printing works ; one of these, at Messrs. 
Dewhurst Dawson’s Croft, Greengate, gave :— 


feet 
1. New Red Sandstone. Red and streaked sandstone...... 180 
2. Upper Permian. Red marls, with 4 thin beds of lime- 
BlLone: and oneioh Orb irs. all siaascqeae he, j eas slels sith 210 
3. Lower Permian. Soft bright red sandstone, bottom not 
reached. 


In a boring at the brewery near Albert Bridge, the following sequence 
occurred :— 


feet 
DV Antinee UNTAtONES Lele. OL. Bo el. oth ald 470 
Upper Permian. Red marls with limestone ........ 120 
Lower Permian. Red sandstone and clay .........- 10 


These borings point to the Lower Permian Sandstone as the source of the 
water in the deep wells of the Salford district. 

At Ordsall a boring 460 feet in depth failed to reach the base of the New 
Red Sandstone, and the water at the bottom of the bore became so salt that 
the work was given up: this is probably the only instance of salt water 
being met with in the sandstones of the Trias, though it commonly occurs in 
the marls. 

East of the Manchester coal-field is a tract of New Red Sandstone, 2 
miles in width, in which is situated the Gorton Waterworks, where a well 
210 feet is capable of yielding 600 gallons per minute, notwithstanding the 
greater part of the drainage-area is covered with impermeable Boulder- 
clay. 


122 REPORT—1875. 


The New Red Sandstone in the Liverpool and Preston district consists of 
the following subdivisions :— 


feet, 
}. Lower: Keuper Sandstone ...... /:4s0%_ apneleits 400 
2. The Upper Mottled Sandstone ........,......... 600 
Fp CDEP CGS on: o).0:0"'0; 9i9r'e a'0xm.s plaperebasareesteap hae aoeeaetele 800 
4, Lower Mottled Sandstone.........0cccceecenees 100 


Permian beds thin and unimportant. 


In a section first described by your Reporter in the railway-ecutting at 
Orrel, near Waterloo, the upper beds of the Keuper Sandstone consist of 
beds of fine-grained sandstone, separated by seams of grey marl, throwing 
out springs, maintaining the characteristic which gives to the Keuper Sand- 
stone in the Midland counties the name of “‘ waterstones ;’” between these 
water-bearing beds and a patch of overlying Keuper Marls let in by a fault 
a conglomerate bed occurs similar to that occurring at the base of the 
Keuper. A small well at a private house to the 8.W. yields a good supply 
of water from the water-bearing bed; but it is probable that a large well 
sank into these rocks would afford a valuable auxiliary supply for Waterloo 
and Seaforth. 

The Upper Mottled Sandstone consists of rather hard yellow sandstone, 
sometimes used for building, which yields a good supply of water in a well 
at Scarisbrick, of the Southport Waterworks, 70 feet above the sea-level. 
Nearer Ormskirk are two other shafts sank, by the direction of Mr. Hawksley, 
in the lower beds of the Upper Mottled Sandstone ; in one of these, the Pilot 
shaft, a good supply of water is obtained; but in the other, a few yards 
distant, no water was obtained, and the Company are now engaged in driving 
a heading in hopes of finding some. 

At Ormskirk Brewery a powerful spring, known as the “ Bath Spring,” 
supplies not only the brewery but the town itself. The top of the well is 
about 134 feet above the level of the sea, is 36 feet in depth, and yields 33 
gallons per minute. 

The late Mr. Robert Stephenson, reporting on the supply of water to 
Liverpool in 1851, considered the New Red Sandstone of that district, which 
consists of hard Pebble-beds and Upper Mottled Sandstone, to be generally 
very pervious, deep wells drawing their supplies from distances of more than 
a mile; and he appears to have considered the whole mass as nearly equally 
permeable in every direction, except when fissures or faults filled with ar- 
gillaceous matter divide the field into water-tight compartments; and he 
showed that the yield of no well can be permanently increased by sinking, 
tunnelling, or boring, except so far as the contributing area is thereby 
enlarged. 

The mass of the Liverpool wells draw their supplies from the sandstone at 
a level between high- and low-water mark ; and when the uniform pressure 
of the column of fresh water, which prevents any ingress of the fluctuating 
tidal water, is interfered with by excessive pumping, the general top-water 
level is lowered, and Mr. Stephenson pointed out that a reverse action ensues 
and the brackish water obtains a slight advantage. 

As larger and larger quantities of water are pumped, ‘the current of 
brackish water gains in head; and it appears to be gradually reaching further 
and further inland; the wells at Bevington Bush, Soho Square, Hotham 
Street, and other places have had to be abandoned; but whether it will be 
able to penetrate the faults which divide the Liverpool area into a series 
of different water-bearing belts is exceedingly doubtful. 


ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 123 


The high permeability of the New Red Sandstone is remarkably shown in 
the Green-Lane well of the Liverpool Corporation waterworks, of which the 
details were furnished to Prof. Hull by Mr. Duncan, the resident engineer. 

The well was sunk in 1845-46, at a point 144 feet above the sea-level, to a 
depth of 185 feet, or 41 feet below the sea. The yield was then 1,500,000 
gallons per day. 

A 6-inch bore, sunk 60 feet from the bottom of the well, increased the 
yield to 2,317,000 gallons. 

In June 1853, the supply having slightly fallen off, the bore-hole was 
deepened a further 384 feet, when the yield increased to 2,689,000 gallons. 

In June 1856 the bore-hole was widened, and carried a further 101 feet, 
when the supply rose to 3,321,000 gallons per day. 

In the first boring, as pointed out by Prof. Hull, the increase was at the 
rate of 17,783 gallons per foot, in the second it was only 9789 gallons per 
foot, and the third only yielded 6277 additional gallons per foot; so that 
increase of depth gives so rapidly a diminishing ratio of volume, that a zero- 
point would be soon attained. 

The large volume of water in this well is believed to be due to the existence 
of a large fault, which acts as a duct for the underground waters over a large 
area. 

The water from the Green-Lane well was analyzed in 1850 by Mr. Phillips, 
and one gallon contained :— 


grains. 
Carbonate of LIMe....05.. s «stat. BLIORIERS QE eel es 5°26 
fihloridefof Sodimm. jersist. srcwiethia ls 2s ats te eie’el de srbcel 2°66 
Balpnarenn sede elie Wiis oLlesaie ices cba. 2:23 
STARE, yal SMS He ache ie ie eee eRe oe heii 0°64 
MUPMBMIC TORGLOL, GCs. 10% reese aioe s om Uw ee aot 2°81 

13-60 


Mr. Isaac Roberts, who has given much attention to the wells of Liverpool, 
found by experiment that one square foot of compact sandstone 103 inches 
in thickness, of average coarseness, allowed the following quantities of water 
to pass through it per hour :— 


At a pressure of 10 Ibs. to the square inch 43 gallons, 
2) ” 20 bE) 9 me 29 
” ”? 46 ”? ”? 19 9? 


the increase being nearly directly as the pressure. 

Mr. Roberts examined the Liverpool sandstone microscopically, and found 
it to consist of roughly rounded grains of quartz attached at the points of 
contact with a siliceous cement. When a block of this sandstone is immersed 
in water, the grains do not absorb but attract the water into the spaces 
between the grains by capillary attraction—sandstone of ordinary coarseness 
taking up no less than ;4, of its own weight of water, of which ;/; runs away 
by the influence of gravity, the remainder being held in the cavities of the 
stone by capillary attraction. 

Mr. Roberts describes seven wells which he has sunk or deepened at 
Liverpool, and gives information concerning them, which clearly proves the 
gradually lessening amount of rainfall which can make its way into the 
ground through the large extent of area in Liverpool covered with buildings 


124 REPOoRT—1875. 


or streets, which has caused the underground water to no longer flow from 
the sandstone towards the sea, but to allow a current of tidal water to set in 
towards the land, which gradually increasing in volume, the water in these 
wells becomes vearly more and more charged with salts. 

A well at (1) Earl Street, 350 yards ‘from the Mersey, was perceptibly 
affected by the tide, the top water sinking to low-water level at low tide, 
the bottom of this well being 32 feet below high water. 

In a well at (2) Rainford Square, 500 yards from the river, the bottom of 
which is 76 feet below high-water mark, the supply is abundant; and Mr. E. 
Davis, F.C.8., found by analysis that it contained 


Mineral matter per gallon .................. 231-00 
Organic matter eo REGR by Ete wakllte seaes  B 1:75 
232-75 
The mineral matter consisting of :— 

Chloride of calcium. Sulphate of lime. 

Ps magnesium. 35 magnesium. 

Bs potassium. Carbonate of lime. 

3 4 sodium. es magnesia. 
Oxide of iron. Nitrate of ammonia, trace. 


The large quantities of salts in this well render it unfit for generating 
steam, for which it was formerly used. 

In the water from a well (3) at Johnson Street, 850 yards from the Mersey, 
Mr. Phillips, of London, found the following salts per gallon :— 


DRIpiate Of NMG yo ote ne on rib wma ien Tees 8-80 
GAIDODALCIOR ING *o.9 014) s.aio ¢ieucie.c 1d cicuntots Speen 24-33 
Ohiloride OF MMs nas. oiShe ale tae kc Sesie schon 5:05 
a TEP TLOSIALIN Senate) ote leeet aie tose mie nent 20-80 

a SOU UIT 44 sees seers lash arte eae 55°79 
114-77 


The analysis was made in 1850, up to which time the water was suitable for 
brewing, but afterwards became so brackish that its use had to be discontinued. 
A well in (4) Wellington Street, about 1200 yards from the river, was 
sunk in the Keuper Sandstone to a depth of 71 feet below high water. An 
analysis of the water from a neighbouring well, made in 1865, gave 117-70 
grains of solid matter per gallon, consisting of :— 


grains. 
Pope aE MIPAIG Ne care es heey eo cc sans a ois 29°50 
Chilonidekoi inte eerie cr. ey aete Seis cece he ree 4-00 
5 TRACTAOSTUT EY stares wes oie aed ys Soe pe ete 33°60 
- LIL) ihe aed alee ne EES 47-60 
CarbOnaip i Memmi e's .\. ss ss 5's «sa om ene 2-00 
ronsalarnidatacueeee: cot cs... oes Sen ee 1:00 
117-70 


(Analysis made by Messrs. Huson and Audle for Mr. Westworth.) 


An analysis of the Corporation well at Bootle, about 1800 yards from the 
river, made in 1850 by Mr. Phillips, gave 24 grains of solid matter per 


ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 125 


gallon, consisting of :— 
g rains. 


Palpbate of lime ws dade doe lapis sixes). cia’ 3°31 
Carbonate: of limGiceesfst oaedern ey. She avs seeedld Sate. 7:10 
PAE: 7, casas ath LOR 5 btw Be gid wie 6°93 

Phibride Ofasmditinths 350.43 5h eee Ve. BET. oo de ss 3°37 
REIT Cebi., caso SRE evel e @ av0-'e 5's 8 aeRO AA hed: ¢ 0-48 
WRreanic MaLtens setae. Lidia. South See. Bs seta 2°81 
24-00 


Mr. Roberts gives the two following analyses, as showing the source of the 
increasing salinity of the Liverpool wells to be due to the percolation of the 
river and not to any natural hardness. Analysis A was made in 1850 by 
Mr. Phillips, of well-water in Great Howard Street, Liverpool, 200 yards 
from the docks. Analysis B was made in 1869 by Mr. A Norman Tate, 
F.C.S., of halftide-water, procured from the Mersey by Mr. Roberts, at the 
South Landing-Stage. 


A. Be 
grains. grains. 
Ganbonate of lime’. s2.5. 26.55.36 wes 28-70 0-64 
OP MGONORIA 5 os Sales dd ss 0:00 0:80 
Sulphate BMLneey OMA. Phe Atel. 144-00 56°44 
a Ofmasmesia . kk eee es 0-00 113-14 
Chloride of magnesiom  hfaee Salat 209-00 85:60 
ae OU MOMEBNOIN + 2 6x66 ob a F as. 3 0:00 5°32 
5 ORO CMMI es eho ccc eh neers 531-00 1295-50 
Le ae eee ene 0-32 0-64 
‘Alkaline nitrates) 3202 0000 ve ob. : sf trace 
Iodides and bromides .............. oe trace 
DIMPOMIG SRULLOE oy. ho sc ees alge es 1:30 not det. 


914-32 1558-08 


In South Lancashire Mr. Mellard Reade has collected valuable information, 
and reports a well at Cronton near Prescot, yielding 800,000 gallons a day, 
407 feet in depth; a well at the Iron Works, Garston, yielding 240,000 gal- 
lons per day, 351 feet in depth; a well of the Widness Local Board, with 
bore-hole 300 feet in depth, yielding 63 million gallons per week of 7 days. 


In Cuxsurre no returns have as yet been received by Mr. Morton, and he 
therefore defers reporting on the Wirral wells until next year. For compa- 
rison with other districts, it may be well to reproduce the following details. 

In sinking the well at Flaybrick Hill in Cheshire, 3400 yards from the 
Mersey, water began to weep into the well through cavities in the sandstone 
at 10 feet above high-water mark ; above that level Mr. Roberts, who sank 
the well, states the Keuper Sandstone was free from water; as the depth 
increased the yield of water became greater, until at 55 feet below high- 
water mark 350,000 gallons were supplied in 24 hours, which quantity, by 
a subsequent bore-hole and adit driven to cut a fault by the direction of 
Mr. Bateman, C.E., was increased to 1,600,000 gallons in the same time. 

Professor Hull states that this and the other wells belonging to the 
Tranmere Local Board, the Birkenhead Commissioners, and the Wirral Water 
Co., yield together not less than four million gallons. 


126 REPORT—1875. 


Norru-zast or EneLann. 


Yorxsutre.—Prof. Green and Mr. Fox Strangways defer sending the 
Yorkshire returns, as they are as yet very incomplete. 

The following sections of wells in the New Red Sandstone of Yorkshire 
were collected by Mr. Clifton Ward, F.G.S., of the Geological Survey, and 
forwarded by him to Mr. Whitaker. 

Probable thickness of New Red and Permian in the Leeds and York 


district :— 


feet 
Tri Keuper (red and blue binds with stone and beds of 

ein labast ; 400 

1300 feet. alabaster)ie ke oc. eS oe Oeics eae ee 3 
Dinter (Heil Sandstone) 22.04. YP. Ae 900 
rape Se aii Wpperienrares:,. OPC Te. ae thickness unknown 
A aa wk} Upper weempaudiie (8) 22S Ao NAR ee about 40 
300 feet Maddie arise’, 67, 2A. bv, Sete 0 to 30 
REM. | Hower, Dimestdtie 2)! 6.22201, Saw oes 200 


Ascertained thicknesses from rocks, borings, &c., but not all representing 
total thicknesses :— 


é feet. 

Trias { Kieuper:'.. i rsce gees cds beet ONIN ve oe 285 
—> © | Bonter Sandstone: sss os ¢2 0s 5505 004 ke eee 700 
Upper Maris «<3 aie eens Fee thickness unknown 

Pome { Upper Tiimestone........0 2:5. . Peele de Ah ye about 30 
teh LGB) © Fl | Se ee: oe ora hore. 1 aie 0 to 30 

\ Lower RaMestone 5 .5>5%%5> Pere ees one 170 


A boring through Magnesian Limestone (Lower) at Tadcaster, 170 feet of 
Lower Limestone was pierced to the underlying Millstone-grit (rough rock). 


Wells and Borings in the New Red and Permian of Yorkshire. 
Well at Selby :— 


feet. in 
Warp atid Gays silnss sjosea tye sams aes) 50 10° 0 
Rimone Clay shuns) sated siswid- gid & bb 10 6 
Seats atid Slaves wie bx shee ois a wpe. g 14 8 
Strong clay .......... ej Weak, exatalelonsys os 7 10 
ON EE IR 1 eR lg A ARE cee aie foul! 
Grey sand or loose water-sand ........ 7 9 
Med eam fois Otic: eines sls We ieblae v 6 6 
dadarated phd: swe, n)- Lewes wih sien, Ji 136 
Rad Sandstone nwsis it ais Waal. daisies i -s 54 6 
Red clay and Fuller’s earth with pipe-clay 5 0 } 262 ft. 6in. 
red: Samson cyst fasia ieee 5 owe ce a oie 203 0 : 


330°0 
(Particulars from Mr. Wainright, Holgate Lane.) 


The water is hard (as if from Magnesian Limestone) ; 243,000 gallons are 
pumped up every 24 hours, and the supply is constant. The water stands 
highest at 12 at noon and 12 at night, only varying about 2 inches at these 
hours, but 8 or 9 inches between these hours. 


ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. UDF 


At the other end of the town (from the Selby Waterworks) there is another 
well 380 feet deep, still in Red Sandstone ; the water stands very near the top. 

Another well at Cawood is about 300 feet deep; some years after its 
sinking, at 11 in the morning of a certain day, the water fell considerably, 
while at the same hour the Selby well gave an overwhelming supply. 

Well sunk by Mr. Swale at Walmgate Bar, York :— 


feet. in. 
DPR PARG SOOT chaise. ooo 5,0 oles 4 oss ences nee 24 0 
MOCK Said eerie <tc: tevs. ehaleheeg) wage de Kheh oteiyale A 60 0 
LOUSHITECOMGMEN wo rieta se ata loralacs Grtaale) oar ars avarne 204 0 
Rarting with water, s\P2Re 2k Meee", « 0 2 
TIE SANGRCON Gs ye ht, Te, . SE SUE 279 O 

Hor 2 


_ At Bilton Hall, near York, sandstone (New Red) reached at 20 yards, not 
gone through. 
Boring at Goole in connexion with a railway-bridge across the Ouse :— 


feet. 
RMU SEN ess aie ns sacha Sones Val antag WY oe 20 
RMN Poa urs osha s 500s, oan cep ansiers 2 hea ae Te 18 
Soft brown clay, sand, and gravel .............. 18 
Soft blue shale full of water :..............5.. 18 
Strong blue shale with gypsum (here foundation 
PPE TELAMDE J 75s US Tes Satna’ Saba Bala ela's! secon, vhs ivi a 30 
104 
Well at Street Houses in Tadcaster Road (York) :— 
feet. 
201 Eg RR > ar pee 2 33 
DBM Rebalbans lhe Few vt Years afar Om crerecerer stares 9 
Peeweied) tied Sandstone 2.0... . ccc eee eee nes 6 


feet. 
Gsunk) Sand... <.n2: ote. ae Po, 15 
(Bored) Blue stone with a layer of “ Plaster” at 
BARDON Gs G * la wyatt wnonaie WR Sed 60 
Blue and brown stone .............-5. 225 
300 
(Am not sure about these measures.—J. C. W.) 
Sinking and boring at Saltmarsh, 1834:— 
Swed feet. 
Harthy 137 See. ere ie hae alison lk Se 36 
Qaickvehd= Pape VEAL NGS Pes pe eS Ca 18 
White and blue plaster and red marl ............ 126 
TUCO MAE |. Seo Roe ae ete sat. «ss Se eee 33 } 201 
MEEALIOATL . t« dnl daw aac i « oa Ka a ke Bae Bs 42 
Piatt Wad SARASLONG! Mey f Me brahsrn deci hay SAM os ee. 60 


128 REPORT—1875. 


Boring at Reedness, upon the estate of Mr. John Egremont. Superin 
tended by Mr. John Walker, C.E. (commenced Oct. 7, 1835) :— 


feet. in. 

ENG OS ih is 2S re, ome creates 69 6 
BAT ya S555 0 2 nto po lA AE aah Me 272 2 
PAUINUEEY ons safes is ‘argh a8 heime/le lv ocd ye 687 2 
1028 10 


(N.B.—I have all the details of this boring.—J. C. W.) 


Mipptesporover, Boleckhow and Vaughan, 1861, sunk and communicated 
by Messrs. T. Docwra and Son. Shaft 178 feet, the rest bored :— 


feet. 
IMG ADIEPOMEN 5% '.0). 50s 0s 5 o's a's os OR 1 
PAA URES ois ore. 5 2 v0 os Cine wale ate Ae 8 
Rand dalat waters vcs. clemiae abynele dass - Bebe 10 
RUST VART RA TOLER CE Mind inci ci signs, win < 0/0. 0% Sp » ae Re 10 
Sand ayith water! ins 0 -<han 10snwp hea otek 1 
Dry PANAF MOA ini dk 2am ches eee Meee 3 
(redAO lA Y, WY. 0 es Fetes s'0!+ 5 he 16 
Claysbone, waiter *“3.".'.'.'>'« sis elste's Gate oe 11 
Clay wath ‘gy psuni, TY .\.)0i5..'s «ss ease coe a 
Gy PRU WALES. <<. Heer s ois snot mte terme 2 
Red sandstone with gypsum................ 50 
AG PPLE SUEY FAS ie = PO oc o's 1's tare eapecev soe 6 
Sweied: Red gointiston, a. ttle py paar)... NS. eee 5 
REN SPOS IU Sct sas, o- ¥cine) sree) bras SoRUOMERORNS 1 
ede TVA ones Ges ite Sos pings cys ee eee 4 
5 WM SypSUlly. : sa ee. ee 10 
Blue and white stone \..... .. .sf5).' eae 24 
| Red sandstone, no gypsum ..... .......... 720 


SourH-west or ENGLAND. 


Name of Member of Committee asking for information, W. Pengelly, La- 
morna, Torquay. 
Name of Individual or Company applied to :— 


Mr. Shepherd and Sons, Exeter. 

1. Bridge Mills, Silverton, near Exeter. 3. 20 ft., diameter 5ft., total depth 
237 ft.; bore-hole 6in. diameter. 4. 214 ft. 5. 100 gallons per minute. 9, Sand 
94 ft. 8in.; rock 26 ft. 11 in.; marl 29 ft. 4 in.; clay and greensand 30 ft.; gravel 4 ft. 
9in., water; hard clay 16 ft.; rock 15 ft. 10in. 


Mr. W. S. 8. Gamlen, Bramford Speke. 

1. In the village of Bramford Speke, Exeter, on a slight eminence at the foot of 
a long slope of gently rising ground. 2. 140 feet. 3. 52 feet; diameter 4 ft. Gin. 
4. 4 to 5 feet generally ; the water returns to this level in about 5 hours. 5. Can- 
not say. 6. About 1 ft. 6in., higher in winter: I do not think it has varied in quan- 
tity. 7. Only gradually by autumnal rains. The surface of the water is about 
2ft. above the level of the river Exe. 8, None. Very good drinking-water, slightly 
hard and containing carbonic acid gas. 9. Drift of sandy loam 3 to 9 ft., of water- 
worn gravel 3 to 7 ft. ; total cover of drift about 13 ft., then New Red Sandstone to 
bottom of well, in beds of about 10 ft. of loose sand, 2 of coarser ditto, and 27 of 
pretty solid sandstone, but not firm enough for building-stone. 10. About 15 feet 
below surface of the drift-soil springs occur. 11. No: they are slight in summer. 
12. No. 13. No. 14. No. 15. No. 


ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 129 


Mr. George Pycroft, Kenton, Exeter. 

1, Well situated in my house, on a hill-side one mile from tidal river Exe. 
2. 80 ft. 3. 70 ft., diameter 4 ft. 4. 13 ft.; do not know, but by two days’ pumping 
I once reduced the level to 3 feet, and it then rapidly refilled. 5. Not known: 
well never exhausted. 6. Yes; it varies from 6 ft. in excessively dry seasons to 
13 ft. 7. Yes. Icannotsay, but certainly in6 hours. The bottom of well'about 10 ft. 
above mean sea-level. 8. Not known, but not hard; excellent for washing and 
drinking; well filled to a few feet of the top with carbonic acid; water frequently 
contains well-shrimps. 9. New red conglomerate; no cover of gravel or drift. 
10. No cover of drift. 12. No. 13. No. 14. No. 15. No. 


Mr. George Pycroft, Kenton, Exeter. 
1. Powderham Castle, right bank of Exe. 2. 30ft. 3. 50 ft., diameter 3 ft. 
4. Not known; never exhausted. 5. Not known. 6. Not known. 7. Is affected 
by local rains, but how rapidly or to what extent not ascertained ; is 20 ft. below the 


level. 
oer ee 8. Saline matters...... 14:19 (less) 
IRC age eccstecs 0:62 


14:81 


Degree of hardness .. 7:80 


9. Light porous red sandstone. 10. No. 11. No, 12. No. 13. No. 14. No, 
15. No. 
Mr. Robert Blackburn, Trews Weir, near Exeter. 

1. Within 50 yards from the river Exe. 2. 20 ft. above sea-level at Exmouth. 
3.920 ft. depth of well, and 250 ft. 9 inches bore. 4. Not ascertained. 5. 500,000 
gallons in 24 hours. 6. In winter average height of water 2 ft. above summer 
level. 7. Not affected by rain. 8. Analysis of spring-water at Trews Weir: one 
imperial gallon contains :— 


ains. 
Organic matter (including ‘168 oxidizing organic matter) .... 32 
Carbonate of lime............. SOOO On Ode One oO Cite 11°61 
Pelohate of lime: .y0.5.cic5secy se aiegelereasyptnvers ritiaherssles or tas 5:01 
Carbonate of magnesia.......... Socio Mpiacaeibon vida HEREC . 5:25 
Nitrate of magnesia ........00.0.0 00. ABU OCE CO GOO CDA 6:92 
SE LOE PNG etre 5 5 sik Ceo wee PR ee ‘Al 
Chloride of potassium ...........000. nibeseterNiotele a skate el eiatePane ‘79 
Chloride of sodium ...... Parsharniglevale Sdclarale diane, cctv eveeiaee wee. 5:59 
Oxide of iron and alumina ...... Apanor Bralereneverercers saveyeraat Bee sl ks 
Ge: i le Acescely Reterarchercrortets else teria 


Total residuum (gained at 140° C., hardness before boiling 273°) 36:80 


9. Red sandstone, rain-drift. 10. No. 12. None. 13. Not known. 14. No. 
15. None that we know of. 
Dr. Lake, Teignmouth. 


1, Four wells in garden of Myln Villa, Coomb, West Teignmouth, sunk in 
1874 by Teignmouth Local Board as an extrasupply for town. These wells are in 
the bottom of a valley not far from a culvert which was built to carry the water of 
the brook running in the valley; they are therefore independent of the brook, and 
are supplied by springs breaking forth out of the rock in their sides and in those 
of the adit connecting them. 2. The surface of ground about 100 ft. above mean 
tide. 3. 30 ft., diameter 5 ft. 5. No certain means yet of ascertaining this. 8. 
Analysis by Professor Frankland in parts per 100,000 :—Total solid impurity 40-00; 
organic carbon ‘056; organic nitrogen ‘008; ammonia ‘001; nitrogen as nitrates 
and nitrites ‘530; total combined nitrogen ‘539 ; chlorine 3:20; hardness, temp. 11°4, 
perm. 11°-1, 9. See plan. 10. No. 13. No. 14. No. 15. No. 


Dr. Symes Saunders. 
1. The well at the Devon County Lunatic Asylum, Exminster, 2.150 feet. 3.114 
875. z 


130 REPORT— 1875. 


feet in depth; bore 70 feet; diameter of shaft 6 feet, ditto of bore4 inches. 4. 20 feet 
before reduced by pumping to 8 feet; restored in 10 hours. 5, 30,000 gallons. 
6. Yes; in January and February rises occasionally 20 feet. 7. After continuous 
rain level is affected and water rises 8 or 4 feet. 8. Analysis by Voelcker appended. 
9, Red Sandstone, 10. Yes. 11. No. 12. No. 13. No, 14. No. 15. No. 


Composition of two samples of Water sent by Dr. Symes Saunders, County Lunatic 


Asylum, Exminster. Water icon 


Nesari ae. vol 
. rd. 
An imperial gallon on evaparation left residue, dried at 260° ra ope ‘ 
Es Warshe p'evcas sem PEELE cn hvala etibis ey cae CU) deh choo 16:95 
An analysis of the residue gave by direct determination :— 
Organic matter aud loss in heating .........0+.e+eeeees ws isa 1:40 
Oxides of iron and alumina, traces of phosphoric acid ...... ‘24 "25 
BD ale wie viele os lace aN iaiehla ee: neers s Omen » Minis role 3:24 
Magnesia .......... SEPA atyiotd sts With saree oeel, Qa @ MO ee 1:49 
SSO NITIC ACO in ssis ss eee RT IRee ost leo Rise slea oles HOG ODE “72 74 
RPIUOTING Bri esas pe css ae a «bees RO IC DICER EOI bi G0 2:20 2:21 
SOLO GLO MSIL CH sie. hic otest atatetcl slate Roe ere e's" 00 5 aires israel ‘90 “81 
Alkalies and carbonic acid (not determined separately) ..,. 6:59 6:81 
PAL TERING POF PAN ON 4 vers access We eva eee ore eo ais 16°61 16:95 
Oxidizable organic matter per gallon ....,..... pili tutes? Seo 272 


According to the usual mode of combining the constituents of waters, the composi- 
tion of the two samples may be represented as follows :— 


General Composition of two samples of Water in use in the Deyon County Lunatic 
Asylum, Exminster, ~ 


An imperial gallon contains in grains :— Well-water. Water fom Te in 
*Organic matter and loss in heating.........+++e0000% 1:39 ; 
Oxides of iron and alumina and traces of phosphoric acid 24 25 
Sulphate of lime .....6....... titi cris ate acinar So at 1:22 1:25 
verona Of Die 251. kaise ss sete tee snc: ag eee 4:87 
Carbonate of rhhphesia 2) 2s cides ct beatees eae 3°06 Fi if 
Chloride of sodium :...... Sree crnene te ietere ete setetete terete eters meena 3°63 
Carbonates of ‘potash and soda... .. ec sei ec sees ete eee § 152 1:63 
Soluble gilica.......00.5% Rear vhs chit ye kk TREN 90 81 

16°61 16:95 
*Including oxidizable organic matter .iissseeeeeeevee ‘176 272 


: AuGusTus VoELCKER, Ph.D. 
11 Salisbury Square, Fleet Street, 
Noy, 2nd, 1866. 


Mr. Henry John Carter, Budleigh-Salterton, Devon. 


1, All the wells at Budleigh-Salterton are in the New Red Sandstone above the 
great Pebble-bed. 2. Do not know. 3. Depth of our own well 37 feet; diameter 
3 feet inside the revetment at the top: I know nothing of any other. 4. Do not 
know; water drawn up by bucket three or four times a day; bucket cylindrical iron 
153 by 133 in. measurement. 5. Do not know; there is always 4-6 feet of water in 
our well. 6. Do not know; well about 150 years old. 7. Do not know; must be, 
I should think, 40-50 feet above either at the bottom, with the strata inclined south- 
east. 8. No peculiarity ; comparatively pure compared with that from the land 
spring, which is so hard that it is only used for washing potatoes and the like, 
9. New Red Sandstone; drift variable in thickness, under 10 feet I should think. 
10. Yes, at our house for 6-8 months in the year. 11. Entirely kept out, I believe. 


ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS, 131 


12. Do not know. 13. Not to my knowledge; well 150 years old. 14. Not to my 
Imowledge. 15. Not to my lnowledge; but the water in many of the wells neat 
the sea, which are comparatively shallower, is very “ brackish,” 


Dr. Albert Baker, Dawlish. 


1, In the valley or town, and on the hills on each side of the valley or town of 
Dawlish. 2. From 5ft.to 200ft. 3. Varies from 30 to 180 ft.; diameter in sand 3 ft, 
9in., in stone or rock 4 ft. 9in.; bore-holes not in use. 4. The average from the 
“mother” or “main spring” is 7 feet, and if pumped out refills in 7 or 8 hours 
everywhere. 5. To be calculated. 6. Very little when the “mother” spring is 
struck; there is very little difference, if any, observed in the past 10 years; increase of 
population 500 to 600. 7. Only the shallow wells of 14 to 20 feet, which is all from 
drainage through the lower bed of coarse gravel ; this not more than 1 or 2 feet below 
the stream orsea anywhere. 8. Not very hard; contains a good deal of sulphate of 
lime (Sorby’s), which decreases as you ascend the brook; in many of the low levels it is 
brackish, but varies very much in adjoining wells. 9. Generally red sandstone until 
you reach 60 or 70 feet. The layers run from sandstone to coarse gravel like beach, 
with veins of fine sand, then large flinty stones and gravel, coarse and large; should 
hard pan of sandstone be hit, the water will be retained by it, or if bored through 
it wells up so fast very often that all further sinking is stopped and a permanent sup- 
ply of 7 feet deep is obtainéd ; at about 40 to 50 feet above the sea water is readily 
gotat 35 feet, but is generally believed to be branch springs and surface percolation 
together, very pure, but not always permanent. It is believed that any well pumped 
out would refill to 7 feet in from 10 to 12 hours. The various beds vary from 1 to 
10 feet or more in thickness; sandstone always predominates in the deep wells. 
The only well requiring blasting is at “Oaklands,” now 65 feet deep and in very hard 
conglomerate red rock: this well is 200 feet above the sea-level. 10. Yes, many 
in yarious places, 11. Not generally near wells, but used as open springs and con- 
sidered yery pure. 12. No. 13. Never heard ofany. 14. No. 15. Never heard 
of any ; and the brackish water gets bitter as you get deeper, and is very variable in 
most places, It appears to me entirely dependent on the loose gravel-beds, which 
vary in depth and thickness considerably, and no doubt allow the sea-water to pers 
colate through them in high tides, dry seasons, and such like. 


Rey. J. Lightfoot, Cofton, near Dawlish. 


1. On Cofton Hill, on the right bank of estuary of the Exe. 2. About 92 feet, 
3. Depth 71 feet, diameter 3 feet. 4. Height of water 19 feet; no sensible dif- 
ference after pumping. 5. Not known. 6. Do not know; the water hasneyer failed. 
7. Do not know; about 40 feet above mean sea-level. 9. Light porous sandy rock. 
10. No, 12. No. 13. No. 14. No. 15. No. 


Mr. John Watson, Torquay, 


1. Compton Farm, Marldon, near Torquay. 3. 90 feet deep, 5 feet diameter ; no 
bore-hole. 4. It is used for the ordinary purposes at the farm-house, and has never 
been exhausted. 6. 10 feet in winter and 6 feet insummer. 7. No stream nearer than 
half a mile, 8. Hard. 9, 10 feet of earth and drift, and the remainder red sand- 
stone. 10. No, 12. No, 13. No, 14 No. 15. I haye no knowledge of any. 


Dr. J. A, Colt. 


1, At my house at Maidencombe, 2. About 250 feet. 3. 91 feet deep, 3 feet 
diameter; continued to bottom of well. 4. Ordinary height of water 13 feet 
6 inches ; no perceptible difference, unless after two or three hours’ pumping in dry 
weather. 5. Several hogsheads have been pumped in a day without more than 2 
inches fall, 6, No, excepting in the dry seasons of 1868, 1869, and 1870, after severe 
pumping to supply cattle and neighbours, when it fell to 9 feet 6 inches in October 
1870. 7. The level is not affected to any evident extent by local rains. 8. It con- 
tains a small quantity of lime. 9. The cover of red-marl drift is about 12 feet thick, 
and afterwards nearly solid red sandstone rock, with here and there a layer of lime- 
stone cobbles cemented in the sand. 10. No surface-springs ; the well is flagged over 
with large slate flags, 11. Yes, 12. No, not nearer than 300 yards, where a well 
130 feet deep refused to hold water. 13. None, 14. No, 15. No. 3 

a 


132 REPORT—1875. 


-Name of Member of Committee asking for information, Mr. C. Moore, 
F.G.8., Bath. 
Name of Individual or Company applied to :—- 


Mr. W. W. Stoddart, F.G.S., Bristol. 

1. In the city of Bristol. 2. From 10 feet to 200feet. 3. From about 60 feet to 300 
feet. 8. Can give agreat number of analyses made for sanitary purposes. A large 
number of the Bristol wells are reached by tidal water. 9. Some Triassic marls; some 
through ditto and Coal-measures, many through peat and gravel. 10. Yes. 11. No. 
12. Yes, in Pennant rock. 13. No. 14. No. 15. Yes; will try and get section 
of the 300-foot well mentioned in No. 3. 


Mr. Stuart, Braysdown Colliery. 


1, Braysdown Colliery, near Bath. 3.500 yards. 6. Does not vary. 8. Analysis 
by Mr. Biggs of water from bottom of pit :— 


ers. 
SHINO Wb pat Girevn Dikanah APIO OMOEA: 25°76 
Sulphuric acid ............ (ane Repel 
RO LIORENGEE ee ete atetelslcis cis efeieyrisis ettiale ae 412-05 
ime’ as carbonate... ... 0. scis cerns 62°67 
IMBONIESION occ ce cies sss sane 28 Sia - 16:09 
OO BianyetePeue winje cifegeis seve avesey sya lacohsiadeys eiai= 332'06 
Solid residue after ignition per gallon. . 920°80 


Specific gravity .........+.- 1:010 


Very salt. 9. New Red Sandstone, Coal-measures. 10. Surface-springs are kept 
back, but occur on various points. 


Mr. D. Brown, Twerton coal-pit, near Bath. 


1. No. 2 pit (sinking), Twerton. 3. Depth from surface to bottom of shaft 125 
yards ; diameters 14 ft. x 11 ft. inside welling. 5. About 16,800 gallons per 24 hours. 
6. Water increases slightly in rainy seasons. 7. Top spring in gravel-hed 4 ft. 6 in, be- 
low water-level of brook; bottom spring 60 ft. 9 in. from level of water in brook. 8. 
112'8 parts per 100,000 of chloride of sodium, estimated purposely by Charles 
Ekin, £.C.8S., Bath. 

9. Section. 


ft. in. 

Alluvial and yellow clay...........00005 war's 

Gravel (Spring) :.6... «401. fsteewotent. iteees 1 0 

; -__ f Blue clay and plastic shales (with spring).. 64 0 

Blue or Lower Lins {ive Leg ste 0 
: White Laas 52... sinh. deh © actae ottets i afte ae 10 
Rheetic heds...... 1 Rhwtic Badd pice. 25, cl bode ce ee 23 0 
Now; ed Marl! OP Os. . sauna . 186 0 


10. Yes. 11. No. 12. No, 13. The lower spring was rather salt. 


Dr. H. J. Alford, Tangier House, Taunton. 
~ 1. Generally within a few yards of dwelling-house, 2. From 60 to 100 feet. 3. 
Various, from 25 to 75 feet. 4. In some instances in deep water there is difficulty in 
pumping it dry; it generally fills again in 12 hours. 7. The shallow wells are 
so affected. 8. On analysis the water is somewhat hard, containing sulphate and 
carbonate of lime; about 6 grains of lime per gallon. 9. New Red Sandstone 
eravel subsoil of few feet. 10. No. 12. No. 13. No. 14. No. 15. No, 


The Rey. O. T. Harrison, Thorn Falcon, Taunton. 
1. Thorn Falcon, Taunton. 3. 25 to 45 feet. 8. Very hard. 9. Red marls; 
spring derived from a sand-bed beneath. 
Mr. T. H. Dickinson, Ringweston, Somerton. 
1. About 200 yards W.S.W. of Somerton church. 2. About 95 feet above the 
river. 3. Depth 1293 feet, diameter 3 inches. 4. 47 feet from the surface no varia- 


* Giving 1008 grains common salt per gallon, or 1440 grains ditto per 100,000. 


ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 1338 


tion is noticeable. 5, Have never tested, but have taken over 3600 in that space 
of time. 6. Has not been tested. 7. Do not think it is. 


8. Sulphate of lime ...... 76°40 
Carbonate of lime...... 53°81 | nins per gallon. 
Carbonate of magnesia. , 12:26 


9. The White Lias is said to be from 90 to 99 feet down; no information in further 
detail can be given; another well is to be sunk soon about a 4 of a mile west of this, 
and a note of the strata will be carefully taken by Mr. Thomas, of Somerton, under 
whose direction it will be sunk. 10. There are surface-springs } of a mile west, 
which supply a good deal of water after rain and various pumps; but I do not appre- 
hend that much goes into this well, and no particular precautions have been taken, 
12. No. 13. No. 14. No. 15. No. 


Mr. Edward Tylor, Wellington. 
(These answers are given by Mr. Robert Knight, Wellington.) 

1. Centre of town of Wellington. 2. 230 feet. 3. Well 48 feet deep, 6 feet 
diameter. 4. Ordinary pumping does not alter the level perceptibly. 5. 120, 
6. There is usually 2 feet less of water in the summer: no diminution has been 
noticed in this well. 7. Is not affected by rain, and is too remote from streams or 
sea, 8. Water pure, particularly “hard.” 9. Loose sandstone covered by about 
2 feet of clay. (There is a saying common amongst the country people here, to 
the effect that the breaking of the springs in winter is in some manner influenced 
by the winds of the previous March.) 10. There is no surface-spring within a + 
of a mile of this well. 12. No. 13. No. 14. No. 15. No. 

Well-sinkers say that within the last 20 years the general level at which water 
is reached has sunk 1 or 2 feet. 


Mr. J. M*Murtrie, F.G.S., Radstock. 

1. Tyning Pit, Radstock. 3. Diameter of pit 8 feet; depth to chief spring or 
feeder 200 feet. 4. Before pumping, about 90 feet; after pumping, 200 feet. 5. 
864,000 gallons. 6. It varies a few feet in level summer and winter ; the quan- 
tity does not diminish. 7. Local rains increase the feeder; the water rises to the 
level of the brook in the valley, 


ft. 

GR aasres Sai Lie ie ae Te SL 
Rheotic .....+..+....,about 18 / 
IRGC MAN St csocsa ofa ture nat die.e .. 165 

200 


10. No drift. 11. No drift. 12. None. 13. None. 14. None, 15. None. 


Mr. Wilkins, Writhlington. 

‘1. Kilmersdon Coal-Shaft New Pit. 2. Kilmersdon Pits, one 8 feet, one 10 feet ; 
the 10-foot pit is down 42 fathoms 1 foot 6 in. to a hard stone; 4100 gallons of 
water per hour come into the pits. 4. Water rose 33 yds. in 24 hours, and stood 
at that point. 5. 24 hours, 98,400 gallons. 6. This spring rises when the wind is 
high, but not at any other time, though I have watched it many years. The above 
ae is what we call “the red-ground spring,” and lies from 20 to 24 fathoms under 
the Lias beds. 8. Stain red, and when in a vessel the sediment of the water is very 
red, The wateris hard. 9, Brown clay, Lias and clay, black and blue marl and 
marlstone 13 fathoms; 34 feet red ground with “lists” of blue stone and conglo- 
merate 4 feet; ditto 1 foot, then red ground 4 feet, then conglomerate again. 


[Surface beds Middle Lias, about 3 to 4 feet thick. . 

Base of Lower Lias ............ 37 feet ,, 

Base of Rheetic beds........... + Oit, 4in.,, 
All the beds above the Coal-measures are very thin in this district—C. M.] 10. Yes, 
lias springs, 11. Yes, 12. Yes; fault called the 100-fathom fault. 13, In coal-mea- 
sures the water is very salt. 14. One in the Foxcote pit between the first and second 
series of veins. Iknow none but Foxcote. 


134, REPORT—1875. 


Mr. E, Barham, Bath, Bridgwater. 

1. At Wembdon. 2. 60 feet. 3. 30 feet. 4. Plentiful supply except in very 
dry summers. 5, Cannot state precise quantity. 6. It is level in the summer; 
three or four years ago there was a partial failure of water in August or September. 
7. No immediate effect is produced by rain, however heavy. The bottom of the well 
is higher than any other stream in the neighbourhood. Ihave no analysis of the 
water ; it is very clear tolook at and very hard; it “rocks” kettles and sometimes 
when boiling looks “milky.” 9. The well is entirely situate in the red sandstone, 
which at the point in question is a band of conglomerate rock, the imbedded rock 
being, I should think, portions of the Quantock formation. 10, There are no surface- 
springs in the immediate neighbourhood. 12. There is a fault running from near 
the well past Connington to Charlwick. 13.No. 14. No. 15. No. 


The Rey. M. Drummond, Wookey Vicarage, near Wells. 

1, West of Wells, Somerset. 2. About 70 feet. 3. 33 feet. 4. 5-feet level 
does not alter under ordinary usage. 6. Varies from 3 feet in driest to 12 feet in 
wettest weather, but no diminution in the supply. 17. No, probably about level 
with the river Axe. 8. No analysis; always clear. 


i ft. 
9; Red marl: ciii ccc diis rier: 30 
Word Yeah. ede ee. ees Pane 


Redstone. 
A large body of water finds its way, by means of smaller holes and fissures in the 


_ Carboniferous limestone of the Mendip Hills, to the lower levels. Thus a spring 


rises in the Bishop’s Palace Garden at Wells which brings coal with it, some of 
which Ihave; and a large stream emerges from under the Carboniferous limestone 
at Cheddar. 10. No drift; all the neighbourhood full of land-springs. 11. Yes. 
13. No. 14. No. 15. No. 


Mipranp Counties. 


Name of Member of Committee asking for information, Mr. James Plant, 
F.G:8. 
Name of Individual or Company applied to :— 


Messrs. Fielding & Co. ° 
1, Leicester. 2. 210 feet, mean tide Liverpool. 3. 75 feet, 8 ft. diameter; no bore- 
hole. 4. 35 feet, in working reduced to 10 feet and restored in 10 hours. 5, 250 to 
300 thousand gallons. 6. Not observed; some 10 feet. 7. Not seen; well when full 
about same level as water in river Soar. 8. Sulphate and carbonate of lime ; pro- 
portions not known. 


ft. 

SD SOlL! viterentis arena ccopaieye auerelie ..... 2-6 (there are two wells). 
Drift (clay and sand) ............ 10 
CU an Sane kt tee etn Pees 1.» 30 
*Upper Keuper sandstone ...... ieveceo 
75 


10. Yes. 11. Yes. 12. None known. 13. No. 14. None known. 15. No. 


Messrs. Hodges and Sons. 


1. Leicester. 2. 206 ft. above mean tide Liverpool. 3. 90 ft., 9 ft. diameter, bottom 
12 feet diameter ; heading driven into sandstone to increase supply.. 4. 50 feet ; 
emptied during ten hours, restored in 14 hours. 5. No estimate. 6. Not observed 
(only sunk 5 years). 7. Not observed, about same level as rivert. 8. Sulphate 


* Thin “wayboards” of red and grey marl and red, white, and grey sandstone alternating 
and full of ‘‘ripple-marks ;” beds 4 to 6 inches. 

t The river Soar, near the town, runs through the “ Upper Keuper sandstone” beds, 
cutting: them down to the red marl below; the town of Leicester is partly built on these 
upper sandstone beds, but drift lies over all, a a 23 


ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 135 


and carbonate of lime, proportion not stated. 


ft. 

9. Dil, . Fart Pa ak orih girs x dw aibe ws . 10 
Red marl .s.ssesscieees cab eolies, OO 
Upper Keuper sandstone ........ .» 45 
90 


10. Yes. 11. Yes. 12. None known. 13. No. 14. None lmown. 15, No. 


Messrs. Pickard and Sons. 
1. Leicester. 2. 206 feet, mean tide Liverpool. 3.75 feet; no bore-hole; mean 
width of shaft 8 feet. 4.30 feet; emptied in 10 hours, restored in a night. 5, No 
estimate. 6. Not observed. 7. Not observed same (about) level as river. 


ft. 

9. Drift eepeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeereeee eeer 15 
Riedsmarki gsc /ag a eagays, 308 ctecenes, 20 
Upper Keuper sandstone ........ 35 
75 


10. Yes. 11. Yes. 12. Noneknown. 13. No. 14. Noneknown, 15. No. 


Messrs, Everhard and Co. (Brewery). 
1. Leicester. 2. 203 feet, mean tide Liverpool. 3. 50 feet, diameter 7 feet. 4. 15 
to 20 feet. 5. Not estimated. 6. Not observed. 7. No. 8, Sulphate and carbo- 
nate of lime, proportion not known. 


ft. 

9; Drift (clay, &C.) .vevececccseenci 30 
Upper Keuper sandstone .,....+. 20 
50 


10. Yes. 11. Yes. 12. None. 13. None. 14. None. 15. No. 


Messrs. Rust and Co. 


1. Leicester. 2. 208 ft., mean tide Liverpool. 3. 80 ft., diameter 9 ft. 4. 40 ft. 
5. No estimate. 6. Not observed. 7. Not observed. 8. No analysis, simply “ hard. 


ft. 

OS. Baily .m . orsiices deetebe nadine 10 
Drift (clay, sand, and gravel) .... 30 
Upper Keuper sandstone .....4.. 0 
80 


10. Yes. 11. Yes. 12. None. 13. None. 14. None, 15, No. 


~ Messrs, John Knowles, Mansfield. 

1. Nuneaton, centre of the town. 2. 210 ft., mean tide Liverpool. 3. 30 ft., 8 ft. 
diameter ; bore 82 ft., 4 in. diameter. 4. 105 ft.; no pumping done. 5. 250,000 
gallons in 24 hours. 6. No (not more than 8 ft. at most); stands permanently 6 ft. 
above level of river Anker. 7. Cannot say. 8. Hard. 


ft. 

‘9, Drift (sand, gravel, and clay) .... 18 
1 gs phd bee EERE 12 
Lower Keuper sandstone ........ 80 
Permian (or Carboniferous)...... 2 
112 


10. Yes, 11. Yes, by “tubbing.” 12. Great triassic fault (running from N.W. to 
S.E.) within 200 yards west of well. 13. None, 14. None, 15. None. 


f— ) 


136- REPORt—1875. 


Mr. R. C. Sinclair, C.E., Messrs. Howes, Dye Works. 
1. City of Coventry. 2. 220 ft., mean tide Liverpool. 3. Well 17 ft.; bore 120 ft., 
7 in. diameter. 4. Always flowing over top of well, pump cannot lower it. 5. 
Half a million gallons in 24 hours. 6. Made 1866; never varied since. 7. Not 
affected by rains; level of water always 4 ft. above level of river, which runs close 
by. 8. No analysis; quite clear and bright; no incrustation left on boilers; water 


considered ‘ soft.” ft. 
OFDM. ist eka lec sot Eee. al 
Redisandstowomentas geen eae hs 1 
Conglomerate (Bunter ?).......... 
Permian sandstone, very variable in 
colour and hardness............ 119 
137 


last 2 ft. 6 in. a light grey sandstone so hard that the “drilling” cost 2 guineas per 
inch. 10. Yes. 11, Yes. 12. None near this well. 13. None. 14. None nearer 
than Hinckley and Leamington.’ 15. None. 


Mr. R. C. Sinclair, Coventry Canal Company. 

1. Hawkesbury Pumping-station, 4 miles N.E. of Coventry, 2. 252 feet, mean tide 
Liverpool. 3. 120 feet deep, 10 feet diameter. 4. Before pumping 110 ft. ; after 10 
days and nights constant pumping 95 ft. ; fills up in 3 hows to 110 ft. 5. In 24 hours 
14 million gallons for weeks together. 6. Is perceptibly lower after long drought. 
7. No; when engine is not pumping the water stands nearly to the top of well. 8. No 
analysis ; water very pure, and leaves but little incrustation in boiler. 


ft. 

9. Driftisccadee cee sete folentate Rta ts oO) 
Lower Keuper sandstone ........ 90 
120 


In sinking through the sandstone but little water was met with until the bottom 
bed, ‘‘a very hard white sandstone,” was blasted; the water then burst in; the men 
had to escape, leaving all the sinking-tools at bottom, and the water rose at once 
to the above height. 10, Afew. 11. Yes. 12. Yes, both east and west. 13. No. 
14. No. 15. None. 

Hinckley Local Board. 


1. The “Holy Well,” Hinckley, Leicestershire. 2. About 380 ft., mean tide 


Liverpool. 
3. Shaft 20 ft. Bore 520 ft. 
diam. 6,, diam. 1lin., 90ft. 


10 12 
v ze 105 540 ft. 


4. Estimated at 420 ft. 5. No estimate. 6. Not observed; well not used. 7. Not 
observed. 8. 100 thousand gallons* contain 98 lbs. of sulphate and carbonate of 
lime (proportion of carbonate not stated) and 23 Ibs. chlorine gas. 


ft. 
9. Drift (pebbly clay, sand, and gravel)...... 150 
Rediman lier teraiiey cise stays.ajejn } ols,aaeiee 20 


Lower Keuper sandstone (viz. thin beds of 
clay and gypsum alternating with thick 
beds of red, grey, and white sandstone),. 370 


540 
10. Numerous (wells in use all from drift springs). 11. Imperfectly. 12. None 


* Rivers Pollution Commission. 


ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 137 


known. 13. See analysis (“Holy Well” was asalt spring). 14, None known 
elsewhere (there are other wells noted for medicinal properties). 15. No. 


Elmsthorpe Boring. 
1. Elmsthorpe, Leicestershire. 2. 300 ft., mean tide Liverpool. 3. 1400 ft.; bore 


8in., Gin., 4in., 3in. 4. 800 ft., constant. 5. 800 ft. 6. Permanent level 800 ft. 
7. Not observed. 8. None. 


ft. ‘ 
9: Deis. «is Naaby onthe ob ony eeeO \l 
ERE GETNATU Es ity araita «iavetoreraaiaiays to sleis 120 ie) 
Lower Keuper sandstone ........ 330 
Coal-measures..... ot fers Ree cle, 


these dipping 70° all through. 10. Yes. 11. Yes. 12, 3 miles west great fault 
in trias (Lower Keuper sandstone), 13. No. 14. No. 15. No. 


Lindridge Colliery Company. 
1, Lindridge Hall, Desford, Leicestershire. 2. 400 ft., mean tide Liverpool. 3. 120 


ft., shaft 10 ft. diameter. 4, Water runs over top of shaft. 5. Obliged to put engine 
down before. 6. Sinking shaft deeper. 


ft. \Z 
<), JUNG Soop on ad plop oii. ated C OR aCIC ey GOOG. aL 2 /N 
Wipper Menper sandstone: ..6.5 062 occ e cetaceans ves 20 
Red marl (marl with thin bands of gypsum)........ 44 by boring. 
Lower Keuper sandstone waterstones.............. 204 


10. Yes. 11. Yes, 12. East and west fault (downthrow to south) at Huggles- 
cote, 6 miles west. 13. None. 14. No. 15. No. 


Austy Paper-Mill Company. 
1. Austy, Leicestershire. 2. 225 ft.,mean tide Liverpool. 3. Shaft 102 ft., dia- 
meter 8 ft.; bore 85 ft., diameter 3 in. 4. No water; bottom of bore gypsum. 5. 
No water. 6. No water. 7. No water. 8. No water. 


ft. 
9, Drift, stiff brown “ boulder ” clay with many rounded pebbles.. 70 


187 


10. Yes, all shallow wells in villages. 11. Yes. 12. None; is about 1 mile from 
“joneous rocks” at Groby. 13. None. 14. None. 15. None. 


Hathern Boring. 


1. Hathern, Leicestershire. 2. 90 ft., mean tide Liverpool. 3.320ft.? 4. Water 
most abundant, height not observed. 5. Not known. 6. Not known. 7. Not 
known. 8. Not known. 


ft. 

9. Drift......... i ed oie 10 yn 
Redirnianls sereaeresicwshercs atisaes « 110 
Lower Keuper sandstone ...... 140 , 
Bunter conglomerate ........44 60? 

820 


10. Yes,many. 11. Yes. 12, 3 miles west of fault in trias. 13. None. 14, 


None. 15. None, . 
(Chilwell Boring. 


1. Chilwell, Leicestershire. 2. 95 ft., mean tide Liverpool. 3. 450 ft.; bore 6 in., 


5in., 4in., 3in. 4. Up to the top of bore-hole. 5, Great abundance, and conti- 
nuous. 


138 REPORT—1875, 


ft," ins 

9. Drift. . mr 1d hes 
Upper Keuper sandstone.. 53 0 
Red marl..... Oi reee ». 53 4 
Lower Keupersandstone:: 115 0 
Upper Bunter (?) ...... 110 4 
Conglomerate ........+. 30.8 
Lower Bunter.......... 44 4 

WP ETMIA Sercteyeveyeussosersieys SD aaah 
435 9 


10. kes. 12. Great number N.E, and W. 13. Greatnumber. 14. None. 15. None. 


Spinney Hills Company. 
ee Humberstone, near Leicester. 2, 180 ft., mean tide Liverpool. 3. 600 ft.; bore 
8in., 6in.,5in,4in. 4. 400 ft. 5. No estimate. 6. No. 7. No. 8, None. 


ft. 

9 Drifticcciccctvccccseeescicees 6 
Rhetic..... sO TA #8 HN cE ID 
Upper Keuper sandstone ...... «. 100 
Red marl with bands of gypsum ., 250 
Lower Keuper sandstone ........ 232 
600 


10. Yes. 11. Tube all the way. 12, None. 13. None. 14. No. 15. No. 


Norru-west oF ENGLAND. 


Name of Member of Committee asking for information, Mr. EK. W. Binney, 
F.R.S. 
Name of Individual or Company applied to :— 
Messrs. Bayley and Craven, Agecroft. 
. 70 yards from River Irwell. 2. Not known. 
312 ft. it is 18 in. diameter. 


State th Selb feo SiascudarnphVinieue Aeheja toute ‘ 
b. Bore-hole 455 feet deep from surface.» OE ” . * ” 
” A ” 


4. a. 16 ft. from bottom of well before pumping, and 4 ft. from bottom of well 
after pumping; 4. 5 or 6 hours. 5. About 180,000 to 200,000 gallons. 6. a. As 
we eay ump for two or three weeks during dry weather, we have not noticed 
this; 6. Yes, probably because not worked continuously, 7. a. We have not 
noticed this ; b. The water rises in the well if the river is high. 8. No analysis; 
the water contains a considerable quantity of iron. 9. Stratification in bore-hole 
only. 


ft. 
Réd Tock Ws is ces eee ee tenets ee eens cee coe e LILO 
Byer eR Stents e @'s.0)0 f96 0 Sevicsccsves . 114 
ap oy USS Wl conoveemoauneddpoumdooodDtn 76 
3 9) Soft, with various veins of white sandstone 
AL OMM SLO MO Mee PUNICKi a sis ae siete sieregs tiene 
» 9 very hard, with various saddle beds ...... 45 
by) gp ee SOL with veins of white sandstone ...... 12 
ae een vather hardscccecsc eves veee es sigomage tls) 
» 9) Soft, with veins of white sand striz ..... . 23 
413 
NGL AOWD “ii vs Feyemeiee etre poniaeee or ex 
433 * 


% There i is an error of 10 feet somewhere in this stratification: it is copied exactly from 
Messrs. Mather and Platt’s report when the bore-hole was made. 


ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS, 139 


10. We believe so. 11. No, 12. We have heard of one. 13. No. 14. No. 15. Not 
that we know of, 
Messrs. Andrew & Co. 

1, Mount-Street Mill, Harpurhey. 2. See Ordnance Survey. 6 ft. above the high- 
way well. 3. 64 yards deep, 7 feet diameter; bore-hole 44 yards deep, 9 inches 
in diam. for 26 yards, 8 inches for 18 yards: total depth 108 yards, 4. 20 yards 
from surface ; can empty the well; rises to its level in six hours, 5. 300 gallons 
a minute, night andday. 6. No. 7. No; above streams 26 to 28 yards. 8. None; 
hard, chiefly lime. 9. Various, chiefly soft red sandstone, soapstone. [Middle 
Coal-measures.—E. W. B.] 10. Yes, to a comparatively small extent. 11. No. 
12, — not aware [one of 4000 to 5000 ft. close to.— EH. W. B.]. 13. No. 14. No, 
1S. No. 

Messrs. Langworthy, Brothers & Co. Mr. John Taylor, Engineer. 

3. 12 yards deep, 6 ft. Gin. diameter, 5, Plant of four bore-holes, 33 in. diameter ; 
three of them 60 yards deep and one 180 yards; yields 20,000 gallons per hour 
perpetually if the pumps are kept at work. Another plant of two bore-holes 60 yards ~ 
deep, 33 in. diam., 8000 gallons per hour for about 60 hours per week, 98. A deposit 
of lime. 9. See enclosed skeish of rock &c. passed through to make the bore-hole 
that is 180 yards deep; it was bored in 1870 and 1871. I think it is the only 
sketch beyond 60 yards deep that is just in our immediate neighbourhood. 10. No. 
12. One is supposed to be on the west side of the 4-hole plant, about 100 yards 
distant. 13. No. 14. No. 15. No. 


Name of Member of Committee asking for information, Mr. Mellard Reade, 


C.E., F.G.S. 
Name of Individual or Company applied to :— 


Mr. Thomas 8. Stooke, C.E. 

1. Township of Whiston, Lancashire. 2. 190 feet. 3. 75 yards, 9 feet diameter ; 
bore-hole not made. 4. Works in an incomplete state, as shown by sketch of pre- 
vious date. 5. 1,000,000 gallons. 6,7. Works in an incomplete state, as shown 
by sketch of previous date. 8. Water not analyzed. 9. Red Sandstone, 3 ft. (no 
cover). 12. Yes. 13. No. 14, No. 


Mr. Robert Winstanley, C.E., Ince Waterworks, Golborne. 

1. Golborne, Newton-le-Willows, Lancashire. 2. Ordnance level, 125 ft. 
3. Well 150 ft. deep, 9 feet diameter ; bore-hole 300 ft., 3 in. diameter. 4. 80 ft., 
120 ft.; 6 hours. 5. 240,000 gallons, 6. Works established four years; no per- 
ceptible change.. 8. Hard water, 11°. : ty 


ft. 

9: Surface coal ..........80 0003 WR Sate Sesto atstone Rie 2 

; Mark wis. OR Oh Et fee Ge een ee eee Pe wm «OD 
RE a8 6 Waiis £5, Uia, 3) FT Ade pissed ids Bane Deets eas: 
Gravel &c. eine cigieneer’.> ath SHOHB a auch oot Une 
“19 

Red rock, pebble-beds......+...00005 veveseeeecees ASL 

150 


10. No. 12. Not known. 13. No. 14. No. 15. No. 
' ‘Messrs. Gaskell; Deacon, & Co. 


3. No. 1 shaft.30 feet deep, 5 feet diam.; bore-hole 275 yds., average 3 in. diam. 
No. 2 shaft 39 a 12 ” ” Fd es 59 . 9 
ia yo J51 yds., 9 in. diam. 


140 , REPORT—1875. 


4. We pump* almost continuously, except at Whitsuntide, when water slowly 
rises to old level at surface. 5, Total quantity now pumuer from three wells 
493,913, or, say, 500,000 gallons per 24 hours. 6. (a) No. (6) We fancy so, but 
have no evidence. 7. (a) Yes. (6) In aboutamonth. (c) Slightly by rise and fall 
of tide. No analysis lately ; no peculiarity ; good ordinary quality for domestic 
and manufacturing purposes. 9. Surface, 45 feet of brown clay; quicksand, 18 
feet; 135 feet of clay and boulder-clay; red sandstone. 10. Yes. 11. No. 
12. Yes; supposed to cut a fault. 13. No. 14. None in the immediate neigh- 
bourhood. 15. No; but we know of one or two wells which were sunk close 
to the river (which is tidal) which were affected by the entry of brackish water 
through the quicksand. 


Widnes Local Board Waterworks. 


1. Two wells (A and B) at Litton, near Widnes, about 100 feet apart. 2. About 
10 or 15 feet. 3. A, 50 feet, 10 feet diameter, without bore-hole; B, 30 feet, 
10 feet diameter, with 24-inch bore-hole 300 feet from surface. 4. A, pumped con- 
stantly and hard; cannot state; stands about 40 feet from surface in bore-pipe 
in B. 5. 6} million gallons per week (of 7 days). 6. Cannot state. 7. Yes, in 
about 10 days. 8. Dont know of any; nothing particular; very clear, and very 
slightly “hard.” 9. Soft shaly rock and sand. 10, No indication of surface~ 
springs. 12. None known. 13. No. 14. No. Believe that one or two have, 
much nearer the Mersey than ours. The Board’s wells are about 2 miles inland. 


Mr, E. Timmins, Engineer and Contractor, Runcorn. 

1, Stock’s Well, Cronton, near Prescot. 2. 45 feet. 3. Shaft 50 feet deep, 10 
fect in diameter; 1 boring 4 inches diameter, 407 feet deep ; 1 boring 24 inches dia- 
meter, 307 feet deep from surface. 4. Before pumping flows over at surface; for- 
merly four hours (six years ago), now twelve hours (July 1875). 5. 800,000. 
6. It has diminished. 7. The yield of water increases after several days’ rain. 
The flood-water from “ brooks” will rise to within 2 feet of top of well. The 
brook or sea has no influence upon the well. 8. The water is soft, very pure, and 
good for domestic purposes. 


ft. in. 

SESS, SERRE rl canter ta CiRORGRRNN  tabe-e ores ation & 1 6 
Red clay with boulder-stones .......... Sialanye ean 28 6 

d Dyres aril LIEN (CT TEC CS Biro Geis yet aloo Son Dehn weg N: 6 0 


The further sinking and boring soft red sandstone..., 371 0 


Total depth from surface .,........ 407 0 
10. No. 11. No. 12. None been ascertained. 13. No. 14. No. 15. None. 


Mr. E, Timmins. 

1, At the Iron Works, Garston. 2. About 15 feet. 3. Shaft 100 feet deep, 
7 feet diameter, and ‘chambered at bottom to 14 feet diameter. One boring 6 inches 
diameter, 351 feet 6 inches from surface 4. Before pumping 10 feet from surface, 
after pumping 80 feet from surface, with hore-valve open; eighteen hours before 
ordinary level is restored after pumps cease working. 5, 240,000. 6. The water- 
level varies, and has diminished. 7: The yield of water will increase after a 
month’s wet weather, and is not affected by the brooks or sea. 8. The water is 
moderately hard but very pure, and good for ordinary purposes, 


ft. in. 
Slam sont ooo oan cle setae is aia auehet ele seine Lae 
Red clay with boulder-stones ...... Paede bono alleys 10 
The further sinking and boring red sandstone........ 884 6 


Total depth from surface .......... 851 6 
10. No. 12. No. 13. None. 14. None. 15. None. 


* During pumping the water is about 35 feet from the surface, 


ON THE STEERING OF SCREW-STEAMERS. 14] 


_ Name of Member of Committee asking for information, Mr. C. E. DeRance, 
F.GS. 
Name of Individual or Company applied to :— 


. Mr. Matthew Brown. 

1. Pole-Street Brewery, Preston, Lancashire. 2. 123 feet. 3. 90 feet, diameter 
4 feet. 4. 12 feet G inches before, 5 feet 1 inch after, and rises to 12 feet 6 inches 
in 40 minutes. 5. 1015 gallons per hour. 6. No. 7. No. 8. Cannot tell, inas- 
much as there is a small supply of water at a higher level than the main spring; 
and this small supply when analyzed contained 30 per cent. of saline and mineral 
impurities, the mineral being chiefly iron; and I estimate this small supply, apart 
from the main spring, would fill a pipe of 1 inch diameter, continually falling into 
the bottom spring or well. 12. No. 13. No. 14. No, 15. No. 


ee 


APPENDIX. 


The information collected by Mr. Moore, F.G.S., in the Bristol, Bath, and 
Radstock coal-field, though not coming strictly within the limits of New Red 
Sandstone inquiry (the water being chiefly derived from the red marls above it 
or the Coal-measures), is of interest, as showing the water-bearing properties 
of these strata. 

At Twerten Coal-pit, Twerton, near Bath, 16,800 gallous of water are 
thrown out every 24 hours by a spring in the Lower Lias, at a depth of 
72 feet from the surface; the water was found to contain 112°8 parts per 
100,000 of chloride of sodium, by Mr. Ekin, F.C.8., of Bath. 

At Braysdown Colliery, 500 yards in depth, a constant volume of water is 
met with, which Mr. Biggs found to contain 1008 grains of common salt per 
gallon, or 1440 grains per 100,000: the water appears to be derived from 
the Coal-measures, and is very salt indeed. 

The wells in Bristol, Mr. Stoddart, F.G.S., reports to Mr. Moore are from 
60 to 300 feet in depth, situated on heights of from 10 to 200 feet above the 
sea-level; but the water is derived either from the red marls or the Coal- 
measures lying beneath; and some of the wells are reached by tidal water. 


On the Steering of Screw-Steamers. By Prof. Ossorne Reynoxps. 
[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.] 


Tere does not appear, as far as my observation goes, to be any particular 
difficulty in steering screw-steamers so long as they are going ahead under 
steam, but rather the other way ; they then seem to be better to steer than 
almost any other class of ships. Great difficulty often occurs, however, when 
they are stopping, starting, or otherwise manceuvring. Their vagaries are 
then so numerous as to give the idea that there is a certain degree of capri- 
ciousness and uncertainty about their behaviour. This is, of course, mere 
fancy ; and did we but know them, it is certain that there are laws 
which these steamers follow under all circumstances. In the hope of 
arriving at these laws, I have been investigating this subject now for twelve 
years as opportnnity offered ; and I had come, as I thought, to some leading 
facts, when the failure of the ‘ Bessemer’ to enter Calais Harbour on the 8th 
of May last seemed to establish them. 

It will be remembered that the ship entered between the piers at a speed 
of 12 or 13 knots, the tide running strong right across the mouth of the 


Fil 


142 ? _/ wevort—1875. 


harbour, that on her entering between the piers the. engines were reversed, 
and that the ship turned, under the influence of the current, in spite of her 
rudder; so that Capt. Pittoch, in his letter to the ‘Times,’ attributed the 
accident entirely to her failing to steer at the time. 

On reading of the accident I thought it would be a good opportunity to 
call attention to the subject of steering steamers ; and I wrote a paper, which 
was published in the ‘ Engineer’ of June 4th, 1875, in which I explained 
why the act of stopping a ship must necessarily affect her power of steering— 
pointing out that when a ship is stopping the water will be following her 
stern relatively faster than when she is moving uniformly, and consequently 
that the effect of the rudder will be diminished ; ‘that the longer the ship 
the greater will be the difference; also that this effect’ is greatly increased 
when a ship is stopping herself with her propellers, as was the ‘ Bessemer’; for 
then not only is the retardation of the vessel much more rapid, but the 
water has a forward motion imparted to it by the propellers, which motion, 
if the propellers are near the rudder, may be greater than that of the ship, 
under which circumstance the effect of the rudder’s action will be reversed. 
Since publishing this paper in the ‘ Engineer’ I have carried the investiga- 
tion further ; and the object of the present paper is to give .an account of 
some experiments on model boats driven by screws, and the conclusions to 
which these experiments have led me. ; 

Two models were used in making these experiments; the one 2’ 6” long, 

driven by a spring, and the other 5’ 6”, driven by steam. In both models 
the rudders were broad in proportion to the boats. In the clockwork model 
the rudder was almost close to the screw, there being no stern-post. In 
the steam model there was a wide stern-post, and the rudder was an inch 
and a half behind the screw. 
: Both boats went straight with their serews driving them ahead and with 
their rudders straight, and they both answered their rudders easily with 
their screws going, turning in circles of from four to six feet radius. When 
the screws were stopped and the boats carried on by their own way, they 
both answered their rudders, but much more slowly than when their screws 
were going, the smallest circle being now, as near as I could estimate, from 
twelve to fifteen feet radius. 

In order to try the effect of the serew when reversed on the steering of the 
spring-model, the model was towed by a cord attached (as shown in the accom- 
panying figure) to a point T amidship about one third of her length from her 


stern, so that the towing had little or no tendency either to keep her straight 
or turn her. The rudder was then set at an angle of 45° or thereabouts, so 
as to turn her head to the right, towing was commenced, the boat turning in 
a circle to the right. The screw was then started in the reverse direction ; 
whereupon the boat ceased to turn to the right, and commenced turning to 
the left to an extent depending on the slowness with which she was being 
towed. When towed very quickly, at from two to three miles an hour, she 
came nearly straight forward, but at the fastest speed showed no tendency to 
turn to the right. ‘ 


ON THE STEERING OF SCREW-STEAMERS. 143 


The rudder was then set so as to turn the boat to the left, and the opera- 
tion was repeated with very nearly corresponding results so long as the 
screw did not race ; but the action of the reversed screw on the rudder when 
set to the left was not so great as when set to the right. This difference 
led me to suppose that the screw itself might exert an influence to turn the 
boat to the left when it was reversed, although it had been found to exert no 
such influence when going ahead. This was at once shown to be the case 
by setting the rudder;straight and starting the screw reversed ; the boat 
immediately turned to the left, but not fast unless the screw raced, then she 
turned very rapidly. 

These direct effects of the screw to turn the ship appear to me to account 
for several of the anomalies which have hitherto beset the subject ; and further 
on in the paper I shall discuss them at length. 

The steam model was provided with paddles as well as screw, and the 
screw could be reversed without reversing the paddles, in which case the 
paddles overpowered the screw, and the boat moved forward somewhat 
slowly. In this boat the screw was so deeply immersed that it would not 
race, and it had no direct effect to turn the boat when reversed like that of 
the spring model. 

When the screw was reversed and the boat drawn slowly forward by the 
paddles, the effect on the rudder was almost to destroy its action, it having 
only a slight power to turn the boat in the opposite direction to that in 
which it would have turned the boat had the screw been going ahead. 
Practically the boat had lost all power of steering. Coupled in this way 
with the paddles the screw turned but slowly, the engine being held up by 
the opposing actions. On releasing the paddles and allowing them to turn 
freely, and applying the whole power of the engine to the screw, the model 
behaved almost exactly as the spring model had done, showing when towed 
against the screw a strong tendency to turn in the opposite direction to that 
in which the rudder was set. 

The screw was then set full speed ahead; and when the boat had acquired 
way the rudder was set, so that she began to turn rapidly to the right; the 
screw was then reversed, and by the time the boat had lost all forward way 
she had turned to the left through an angle of 30°, so great was the effect of 
the screw on the rudder when stopping the boat. 

This completed the list of the experiments, which, however, were repeated 
over and over again with exactly the same results. 

Conclusions to be drawn from the experiments.—The general conclusion is 
that in serew-steamers the effect of the rudder depends on the direction of 
motion of the screw rather than on the direction of motion of the boat. Or 
we have the three following laws :— 

1. That when the screw is going ahead the steamer will turn as if she 
were going ahead, whether she have stern-way on or not. 

2. That when the screw is reversed the rudder will act as if the vessel 
were going astern although she may be moving ahead. 

3. That the more rapidly the boat is moving in the opposite direction to 
that in which the screw is acting to drive it, the more nearly will the two 
effects on the rudder neutralize each other, and the less powerful will be its 
action. It would appear reasonable to suppose that a boat may move fast 
enough to overcome the effect of the reversal of the screw ; but this was not 
the case with the models. ‘ 

The effect of the screw to turn the boat independently of the rudder.— 
It seems to be supposed by some that a screw necessarily tends to force 


144 REPORT—1875. 


the stern of the boat in a direction opposite to that in which the tips of its 
lower blades are moving. ‘This is undoubtedly the case when the screw is 
racing or acting in broken water (7. e. water mixed with air), also when the 
screw is not completely covered with water. When, however, the screw is 
properly immersed and is working in unbroken or continuous water, and is 
not affected by dead water, it has not the least tendency to moye itself 
laterally whatever it may have onthe ship. Under these circumstances the 
screw-shaft can exert no lateral pressure on its bearings; and in ships with 
fine runs this is the case. 

Owing to the effect of the dead water, however, it may happen that even 
when the screw is properly immersed it will tend to move laterally. If the 
water be following the ship faster above than below (which it often is), the 
upper blades of the screw will have more work to do than the lower, and con- 
sequently they will have to meet with greater lateral resistance ; and hence 
upper and lower resistances will not balance, but there will be a lateral 
thrust transmitted to the bearings. 

Besides the lateral pressure which may be transmitted through the bear- 
ings, the screw may also tend to turn the ship by the lateral motion which 
it imparts to the water, which is again communicated to the ship or the 
rudder, If the form of the ship and the rudder were symmetrical above and 
below the screw-shaft, then the effect of the lateral motion which the screw 
imparts to the water below would exactly balance the effect above the screw- 
shaft; but owing to the fact that the surface both of the ship and the rudder 
is in general much greater above than below, the water which is driven 
laterally by the upper blades has much more surface to act upon than that 
which is driven in the contrary direction by the lower blades, and therefore 
drives the stern of the ship laterally or tends to turn the ship. This effect 
is in the opposite direction to that which arises from the unequal rate at 
which the water is following the ship as long as both the ship and the screw 
are going ahead; and consequently these two effects tend to counteract each 
other. When, however, the screw is reversed, and the vessel is still moving 
forwards, the two effects are in ‘conjunction ; and consequently they are more 
likely to become apparent and important. This was the case in the experi- 
ments with the spring model. When screwing ahead she went straight 
enough, but when towed ahead with the screw reversed she turned to the 
left. In this case the effect was small; and I imagine that it must always be 
so, particularly when the ship has a fine run. In the steam model, of which 
the run is very fine, the screw-way very large, and the screw small (being 
only three inches while the boat draws five), the effect of the screw to turn 
the boat when not racing was altogether imperceptible. I conclude, there- 
fore, that these effects maybe left out of consideration with reference to 
steering ; and in opposition to a popular notion I derive law 4. 

4. That when not breaking the surface the screw has no considerable 
tendency to turn the ship so long as the rudder is straight. 

The effect of racing.—Although the direct effect of the screw is insig- 
nificant when it is not racing or breaking the surface, this is not the case 
whenit isracing. It then exerts a very decided and important effect ; and it 
is doubtless experience of this which has given rise to the popular notion 
above referred to. 

In the experiments with the spring model when the screw was drawing 
air down, the stern always showed a tendency to move in the opposite 
direction to that in which the tips of the lower blades were moving, even 
when the boat was going ahead at full speed and the quantity of air very 


ON THE STEERING OF SCREW-STEAMERS. 145 


small ; and when the screw regularly raced, frothing the water, its effect to 
turn the stern of the boat was very great. 

The screw of the steam model was so deeply immersed that it would not 
race ; but if the stern of the boat was raised by a string it then raced, and the 
effect of the screw to turn the stern of the boat was the same as with the 
spring model. 

The screw of the spring model showed a much greater tendency to draw 
air when reversed (the boat being towed) than when it was driving the 
boat ahead; but its greatest tendency to race was when the boat was 
stationary, or nearly so. This latter tendency I have observed in large 
steamers; in fact I have never seen a large steamer start or reverse her 
screw when moving but slowly without frothing the water. It appears, 
therefore, that the effect of racing on the steering may be stated in the fol- 
lowing laws :— 

5. That when the screw is frothing the water, or only partially immersed, 
it will have a tendency to turn the stern in the opposite direction to that in 
which the tips of the lower blades are moving. 

6. That when the boat is going ahead its effect will be easily counter- 
acted by the rudder; but when starting suddenly, either forward or back- 
ward, at first the effect of the screw will be greater than that of the rudder, 
and the ship will turn accordingly. 

7. That if when the boat is going fast ahead the screw is reversed, at first 
it almost destroys the action of the rudder, what little effect it has being in 
the reverse direction to that in which it usually acts. If, then, the screw 
draws air or breaks the surface, it will exert a powerful influence to turn 
the ship. 

In accounts of collisions it may be frequently noticed that there is con- 
trary evidence given of the steering of one or both of the ships (if they both 
happen to be steamers). In the instance of the collision between the 
‘ Ville du Havre’ and the ‘ Loch Earn,’ the captain of the ‘ Loch Earn’ 
stated that the steamer altered her course almost at the last moment, thus 
rendering the collision inevitable. The officers of the steamer asserted that 
such was not the case; they state, however, that the screw was reversed just 
before the collision. In this case, therefore, the evidence is to show that the 
reversal of the screw caused the steamer to change her course, either by its 
direct effect or by its action on the rudder. The latter effect would be 
sufficient to explain the facts; and my experiments leave no doubt but that 
this must have taken place. With regard to the former I have no evidence ; 
although, considering that the ship was moving rapidly at the time, it seems 
probable that the screw may have raced on being reversed, and added its 
direct effect to turn the ship to its effect on her rudder. In this case, 
therefore, the reports of what took place are strictly in accordance with what 
was to be expected from my experiments; and I think that from the light 
these throw upon the subject in many cases, the accounts may be less con- 
tradictory than they have hitherto appeared ; and I am in hopes that in the 
future these experiments may assist not only in the discovery of the causes 
of accidents, but, as these become recognized, in the prevention of the acci- 
dents themselves. 

As an illustation of how important a clear conception of the whole cir- 
cumstances of the effect of the screw on the rudder may be, I will read an 
account with which I have been kindly furnished by Mr. Henry Deacon ; 
from which account it appears that a ship was saved by a combination of 
accidents, which led to her being handled in the very manner in which she 

1875. L 


146 REPORT—1875. 


would have been had the conduct of the officer in charge been governed by 
the laws laid down in this paper. 

Mr. Deacon says :— 

“ T have been reading your communication to the ‘ Engineer’ of the 4th 
inst. about the ‘ Bessemer’s’ steering, and think the following narrative may 
have some interest for you. A friend of mine came from Philadelphia, U.8., 
early in May to Liverpool in the 8.8. ‘Ohio.’ To avoid ice the vessel went 
out of her course 160 or 170 miles, and encountered very bad weather. The 
captain spent one or two days without taking off his clothes; and whilst 
laying down one day, leaving the chief officer in command of the deck, 
amongst fogs and rain, an iceberg was sighted right ahead and quite close 
when seen. The officer stopped and reversed the engines, and put the helm 
hard round, The cessation of motion awoke the captain, who rushed up 
the bridge. The excitement had spread, the officer’s orders had been strictly 
obeyed. The captain took all in at a glance, put the engines on ahead at 
full speed, and the ‘Ohio,’ breaking through the thin ice always skirting 
the icebergs, passed so close to the solid mass, that my American friend, who 
is fond of horses and was on deck, says he could have struck the ice from the 
ship with a tandem whip. The captain afterwards explained the matter 
thus :—the steering-gear was the now usual parallel screws, é. ¢. exerting 
the least force when the rudder is most moved, but of course retaining the 
rudder in any position with little or no effort. To put the rudder hard 
round when the ship is under full way and the engines working is an almost 
physical impossibility ; but to putit hard round when the engines are stopped, 
and especially to put it round when they are reversed, is comparatively easy. 
The chief officer’s order, therefore, enabled the rudder to be put round to the 
utmost ; he both stopped and reversed the engines. The captain’s arrival 
and comprehension completed the mancwuvre. The ‘way’ was but slightly 
interrupted, but the helm was put hard round and the ship turned from her 
course in the shortest possible distance. 

“T have all this at second hand from my friend; but this fact of the easy 
movement of the helm whilst the ship was under way with the engines 
reversed appeared to be one well understood ; and of course if no power be 
required to move the helm, no power can be exerted in steering the vessel ; 
and the whole tale seems to me so illustrative of your remarks on the 
‘ Bessemer,’ that I venture to trouble you with it.” 


Second Report of the Committee on Combinations of Capital and Labour, 
consisting of Lord Hoveuton, D.C.L.,; F.R.S. (Chairman), Jacos 
Brurens, THomas Brassry, M.P., Frank P. Fettows, ARCHIBALD 
Hamirton, Professor Lronz Ley, A. J. Munpenia, M.P., WM. 
Newmanrcu, /.R2.S8., Lord O’Haean, R. J. INetis Paterave, Pro- 


fessor THorotp Rogrrs. Drawn up by Professor Luonx Levi, 
F.S.A., FSS. 


Your Committee appointed to inquire into the economic effects of combi- 
nations of labourers or capitalists, and into the laws of economic science 
bearing on the principles on which such combinations are founded, have 
already stated in their preliminary Report, made last year, the course they 


ON CAPITAL AND LABOUR. 147 


have thought fit to take in order to ascertain the exact views held by both 
employers and employed on the subject in question. Although the general 
objects of such combinations, whether of capitalists or labourers, are well 
known, both from the written rules which bind them together and from the 
action taken from time to time, your Committee have deemed it desirable to 
come into personal contact with some representative men from both classes, 
with a view of finding whether they do now stand by the rules of their Unions 
and how far they are prepared to defend them; and for that purpose your 
Committee resolved to hold a consultative private conference of employers and 
employed in the presence of the members of the Committee, where they might 
discuss the questions involved in the resolution of the British Association, 
with a view of reporting thereon to the same. The points more especially 
inquired into were the following :— . 

ist. What determines the minimum rate of wages ? 

2nd. Can that minimum rate be uniform in any trade? and can that uni- 
formity be enforced ? 

3rd, Is combination capable of affecting the rate of wages, whether in 
favour of employers or employed? 

4th. Can an artificial restriction of labour or of capital be economically 
right or beneficial under any circumstances ? 

For the discussion of these questions your Committee had the advantage 
of bringing together a deputation from the National Federation of Associated 
Employers of Labour, consisting of Messrs. R. R. Jackson, M. A. Brown, H. R. 
Greg, Joseph Simpson, J. A. Marshall, R. Hannen, and Henry Whitworth ; 
as representing labour—Messrs. Henry Broadhurst, Daniel Guile, George 
Howell, Lloyd Jones, George Potter, and Robert Newton (Mr. Macdonald, 
M.P., and Mr. Burt, M.P., having been prevented from attending); and on 
the part of your Committee, Lord Houghton, Professor Rogers, Mr. Samuel 
Brown, Mr. W. A. Hamilton, Mr. Frank Fellows, and Professor Leone Levi 
were present. 

Many are the works and documents bearing on the questions at issue. 
Of an official character we have the Report of the Royal Commission ap- 
pointed “to inquire into and report upon the organization and rules of trade- 
unions and other associations, whether of workmen and employers, and to 
inquire into and report on the effects produced by such trade-unions and 
associations on the workmen and employers and on the relations between 
workmen and employers and on the trade and industry of the country.” Of 
an unofficial character we have the Report of the Committee of the Social 
Science Association “ on the objects and constitution of trade-societies, with 
their effects upon wages and upon the industry and commerce of the country.” 
Of special works we have the late lamented Professor Cairnes’s ‘ Leading 
Principles of Political Economy,’ Mr. Thomas Brassey’s ‘ Work and Wages,’ 
and Professor Leone Levi’s ‘ Wages and Earnings of the Working Classes.’ 

The chief functions of combinations, whether of capital or labour, being to 
operate on wages, your Committee were anxious to ascertain by what 
criterion the parties interested ordinarily judge of the sufficiency or insuf- 
ficiency of existing wages. The first test of the sufficiency of wages is the 
relation they bear to the cost of the necessaries of life. ‘ The minimum of 
wages,” said Prof. Rogers, “is the barest possible amount upon which a 
workman can be maintained; that which, under the most unfavourable cir- 
cumstances, a man is able to obtain.” But the minimum thus estimated can 
only be, and is, submitted to under circumstances of extreme necessity. 
“ T belicve the minimum rate of wages,” said one of the representatives of 

L2 


148 REPORT—1875. 


labour, “ is that which, under the worst circumstances, the worst workman 
gets from the worst master.”’ We cannot, therefore, take the minimum rates so 
considered as a proper basis for the sufficiency of wages. How far insufficient 
wages in relation to the cost of living in the United Kingdom is a cause of the 
large emigration which is taking place from year to year it is not possible to 
establish * ; but doubtless the prospect held out in the distant colonies and 
in the United States of America of considerable improvement has been for 
some time past, and still is, a strong inducement to those in receipt of insuf- 
ficient wages in this country to emigrate to other lands. Your Committee 
are desirous to point out in connexion with this question that not only has 
the cost of some of the principal necessaries of life greatly risen within the 
last twenty years Tt, but that, in consequence of the general increase of 
comfort and luxury, many articles of food, drink, and dress+ must now be 
counted as necessaries which some years ago were far beyond the reach of 
the labouring classes ; whilst house-rent, especially adapted for the labouring 
classes, is considerably dearer. If, therefore, the cost of living be taken as a 
guide to the rate of wages, it would not be enough to take into account the 
cost of the mere necessaries of life. A higher standard of living having been 
established, it is indispensable to compare the wages of labour with such 
higher standard. Your Committee are not satisfied, however, that it is pos- 
sible to regulate wages according to the scale of comfort or luxury which may 
be introduced among the people, and are compelled to assert that it is an 
utter fallacy to imagine that wages will rise or fall in relation to the cost 
of such supposed necessaries or indulgences. 

A better test of the sufficiency of wages is the relation they bear to the 
state of the labour-market; and tested by that standard the minimum rate 
of wages which workmen are at any time prepared to accept is the least 
which they think they are entitled to have under existing circumstances, the 


* The average number of emigrants in the last ten years from the United Kingdom, 
from 1862 to 1873, was 230,000 per annum. In‘1873 the total number was 310,612, and 
in 1874 241,014. The emigration to the United States decreased from 233,073 in 1873, 
to 148,161 in 1874. 

+ The prices of the principal articles of food in the five years from 1852 to 1856 and 
1868 to 1872 are shown in the following Table :— 


Wheat. |Mutton.| Beef. [Potatoes. Butter. | Cheese. | Tea. | Sugar. 
per qr.| per Ib. | per lb. | per ton, per lb. | per Ib. {per lb. | per Ib. 
& da.) d. d. 8. d. d, &, "ase ae 
1852-56] 62 0; 562 | 510 105 || 1856-58) 11-41 650 | 210) 0 5 
1868-72} 54 8} 635 | 615 110 || 1871-73) 10°38 | 6 1 6] 0 3} 
1873...) 58 8} 768 | 7:03 138 
1874 ...155 81 656 | 639 140 Report of Local Government Board. 


Report of Registrar-General of Births, 
Deaths, and Marriages. 


i 


$ The consumption of articles of food and drink per head in 1864, 1873, and 1874. was:— 


Bacon. | Cheese.| Rice. |Sugar.|Tobacco. | Wine. | Malt. ES ae omen 
pirits. | Spirits. 


_—————— | | = 


1864...) 3-77 | 313 | 5-72 | 3683] 1-29 |o 
1873 ...| 9:07 | 4-69 |11-37 | 51-59! 1-41 | 0: 
1874 ...| 784] 503 |1018 | 5637] 144 | 0 


ts ae : 3 ie . ] 


9 2 
6 | 1:98 0-91 0°32 
3 | 1:94 0:94 0:32 


ON CAPITAL AND LABOUR. 149 


trade-unions guiding them as to the state of trade and the value of labour at 
the time. Unfortunately, however, what workmen think themselves entitled 
to have docs not always correspond with what employers find themselves 
able to grant. Primarily the wages of labour are determined by the 
amount of capital available for the purposes of wages in relation to the 
number of labourers competing for the same. But the amount of capital 
employed in any industry is itself governed by considerations of the relation 
of the cost of production to the market-price of the produce (that is, to the 
price which the consumer is able or willing to give for the same)—the cost 
of production including the cost of materials, the value of capital, the cost 
of superintendence, and the wages of labour. 

Objection was taken at the Conference to this method for arriving at 
the rate of wages; and it was urged that instead of taking the price of the 
article produced or the interest of the consumer as the basis of the calcula- 
tion, the first ingredient in the cost of the article should be the price to be 
paid to the workman in producing it. But aserious consideration will show 
that the employer cannot ignore what the consumer can or will pay any 
more than tho share which the value of capital, the cost of superintendence, 
and the cost of the materials have upon the cost of production; for he must 
cease producing altogether if he cannot both meet the ability of the con- 
sumer to purchase his article and successfully compete with the producers of 
other countries. Your Committee think that it is not in the power of the 
employer to control the proportion of the different elements in the cost of 
production, each of them being governed by circumstances peculiar to itself. 
The value of capital as well as the value of the raw materials are regulated 
by the law of supply and demand, not only in this country but in the prin- 
cipal markets of the world. The cost of superintendence and the wages of 
labour are likewise governed by the relation of the amount of capital to the 
number seeking to share in the different employments. The employed say, 
** We must have certain wages. We care for nothing else. Labour is our 
property. We set our value upon it. If you will have our labour you must 
pay what we ask for it; and if such wages should require a rise in the 
market-price let the consumer pay it.” What, however, if the consumer will 
not or cannot pay sufficient price to enable the employer to pay such wages? 
What if he can get the article cheaper elsewhere? Must not production 
cease if there be no market? And where will. be the wages if there be no 
production ? Nor should it be forgotten that a general rise of wages pro- 
ducing an increase of the cost of all the commodities of life reacts on the 
masses of the people, and thus far neutralizes the benefit of higher wages. 

Disagreements between employers and employed are often produced on the 
subject of wages by the fact that allthe elements of the case are not within 
the cognizance of both parties, experience showing that, in making a demand 
for an advance of wages or for resisting a fall, workmen are of necessity 
groping in the dark as to the real circumstances of the case. One of the 
chief advantages supposed to result from the organization of trade-unions is 
the competency of their leaders to give solid and practical advice to those 
interested as to the condition of the labour-market ; and we haye no doubt 
that this duty is in the main honestly performed; but it is very much to 
expect that such leaders should universally possess large and liberal views 
enough to vindicate the exercise of their enormous power, and such constant 
and accurate knowledge of the various facts of the case as would enable 
them to be an almost infallible authority. On the other hand, were it 
possible for employers, who are not in the dark in such matters, to make 


150 REPORT—1875. 


known to their own workmen the grounds of the action they propose taking 
before the resolve is carried into execution, your Committee are convinced 
that many disputes would be avoided, and much of the jealousy which now 
exists between the parties would be removed. The recent lock-out in South 
Wales illustrated the need of such a course. Had the facts which Lord 
Aberdare elicited from the principal colliery firms in Glamorganshire been 
made known previous to or simultaneously with the notice of a fall, it is a 
question whether such a widespread calamity would have occurred. It is, 
perhaps, a natural but unfortunate circumstance that employers are seldom 
found to take the initiative in allowing a rise in wages when the state of the 
market permits it as they are in the case of a fall, and spontaneously to offer 
what they must sooner or later be compelled to grant. A more prompt and 
politic course on their part in this matter would go far to neutralize the 
hostile action of trade-unions. 

Your Committee were anxious to ascertain how far is it in the mind of 
the employed that the employers obtain for themselves too large a share 
of profits at their expense. Your Committee wero assured that no such 

. doubts are entertained, though cases were produced supporting such sus- 
picions by reference to the time of the great rise in the price of coals in 1878, 
when workmen’s wages did not, in the opinion of the representatives of 
labour, rise to any thing like the proportion of the masters’ profits *. Your 
Committee admit that in cases of great oscillations in prices, the share par- 
ticipated either by the employers in the shape of profits, or by the employed 
in the shape of wages, may be for a time greater or less than their normal 
distribution would justify. And it is possible that some portions of these 
extra profits may be unproductively spent or so employed as not to benefit 
the parties more immediately concerned, and even used in totally alien 
speculations. Yet, in the main, the working classes must receive, in one 
way or another, a considerable advantage from them, there being no doubt 
that the largest portion of such extra profits will be reinvested in the 
ordinary industries of the country. In the end, however, wages and profits 
will be divided among the producers in proper proportions; and if at any 
time profits or wages should be larger than they ought to be, we may be 
quite sure that ere long the competition of capitalists will tend either to the 
lowering of prices or the raising of wages, so as to make profits and wages 
gravitate towards each other. 

Immediately allied to the question of the determination of a minimum of 
wages is that of their uniformity. In the opinion of many trade-unions, all 
workmen of average ability in any trade should earn the same wages, the 
average ability of each man being understood to have been determined in 
advance by the fact of his being admitted as a member of the union. Buta 
man is subject to no examination, and is generally admitted upon the tes- 
timony of those who have worked with him, whose evidence must fre- 
quently be fallacious and insufficient. Nor does it appear that the rejection 
is absolutely certain even if the applicant should not be deemed a man of 
average ability, the acceptance or rejection of the party being always 
optional with the lodge to which he is introduced. Your Committee are 
therefore not satisfied that any guarantees exist that every member of a 


* Mr. Halliday’s evidence before the Committee of the House of Commons on coals was 
that, though the custom was to give to workmen a portion of any rise of prices in the 
shape of increasing wages, the proportion being an additional 2d. a day for every 10d. a 
ton, the rise in wages was often ld. per ton only, and sometimes nothing, whilst when the 
price rose 2s. 6d. to 5s. a ton, the wages were only increased $d. a day. 


ON CAPITAL AND LABOUR. 151 


union is able to earn a fair day’s wages for a fair day’s work; and they 
cannot, therefore, agree in the proposition that all workmen should be 
entitled to uniform wages on the ground of uniform ability. But another 
reason has been alleged for the uniformity of wages, which is still less 
tenable than the former, viz. a supposed uniformity of production independent 
of skill. The right of the workman to a uniform standard of wages was 
stated to be the production of an article which, though demanding less skill 
to perform, is of equal utility, and is proportionally as profitable to the 
employer. Your Committee must, however, entirely demur to the principle 
that, in the apportionment of wages, no account should be taken of the skill 
brought to bear on the execution of the task, since a system of that nature 
would act as a premium on inferiority of workmanship. Again, by another 
test should the right of each individual to earn certain wages be determined, 
and that is by his productive capacity. Professor Levi asked whether that 
was taken into account when the workman was assumed to be of average 
ability ; and the answer was that the amount of production depended largely 
upon the skill. “The more skilful a man is the more he will produce.” 
But whilst in so far this answer was correct, it contradicted the principle 
embodied in the preceding test ; the answer ‘itself did not take sufficiently 
into account that skill is not the only element in effectiveness of labour. 
There are qualities of mind, judgment, and even of heart, disposition, and of 
moral character, which go far to increase or diminish the efficiency of labour ; 
and of such qualities the employer is, of necessity, a far better judge than 
any union can be. That under ordinary circumstances wages in any trade 
should tend to uniformity is quite possible. The facility of communication 
and the extension of intercourse of necessity equalize prices and wages; but 
any attempt to compel uniformity of wages among any large number of men 
of varied capacity must of necessity prove a source of disappointment. 
Much, again, may be saidin favour of a common standard of wages in any 
industry, as avoiding the embarrassment necessarily encountered in any 
attempt to adjust the rate to the exact worth of each individual. Yet it is 
impossible to ignore the fact that whilst a uniform rate is sure to operate 
unjustly in favour of persons who may be wanting in fairness of dealing or 
capacity for workmanship, in the nature of things it is almost incapable to 
_ exist over a wide area, having regard to the varieties in the prices of fuel, 

carriage, house accommodation, or of the means of livelihood, as well as in 
the cost of yaw materials and in the processes employed as affecting the 
rate of production of each individual. On the whole, your Committee find 
that an absolute uniformity in the rate of wages in any trade, though to a 
certain extent convenient, is neither just nor practicable, whilst any effort 
to compel uniformity in the amount of earnings of any number of individuals 
must prove fallacious and wrong as an illegitimate interference with the rights 
of industry. 

A still more important question in connexion with the subject is how far 
combination of any kind can affect permanently or temporarily the rate of 
wages. Upon this, as might be expected, the most divergent opinions are 
held by the representatives of capital and labour. The employers of labour, 
standing on the solid principles of political economy, deny that combinations 
can, under any circumstances, affect the rates of wages, at least in any per- 
manent manner—the argument adduced being that if workmen are entitled 
to higher wages they are sure to get them, since, under the law of supply 
and demand, whenever it is found that profits trench unduly upon wages 
fresh capital is sure to be introduced. which provides for the raising of wages. 


The REPORT—1875. 


The employed, on the other hand, confidently appeal to past experience, and 
point to the fact that almost every increase of wages has been due to the 
action of trade-unions. They say that without combination workmen 
cannot secure the market-price of their labour, but are to a certain extent at 
the mercy of their employers; that in trades where one establishment 
employs a large number of workmen the employers can discharge a single 
workman with comparatively slight inconvenience, while the workman loses 
his whole means of subsistence; that without the machinery of com- 
bination the workmen, being dependent upon their daily work for their daily 
bread, cannot hold on for a market. 

Your Committee are not prepared to deny that combinations can render 
useful service in matters of wages; but they think that it is impossible for 
them to frustrate or alter the operations of the laws of supply and demand, 
and thereby to affect permanently the rates of wages. Combinations may 
hasten the action of those laws which would undoubtedly, though perhaps 
more slowly, operate their own results. The limited power of combinations 
is in effect admitted by the workmen themselves. ‘We do not say,” said 
one of the workmen’s representatives, “ that trade-unions can absolutely 
interfere with supply and demand, because when trade is very bad they 
cannot obtain the standard; when it is good they easily raise the standard. 
What they do is, they enable workmen sooner to strike at the right time for 
a general advance. They get the advance sooner than if they were an 
undisciplined mob, having no common understanding; and when trade is 
receding, the common understanding enables workmen to resist the pressure 
put upon them by their employers. It helps them in both ways, and the 
workmen find they can act together beneficially.” The ground here taken 
by the working men is not at variance with sound economic principles. 
But there is yet another way in which trade-unions may prove useful, and 
that is by rendering wages more sensitive to the ‘action of the state of the 
market, and so preventing the influence of custom to stand in the way of 
the operation of supply and demand; for there are such occupations, as 
agriculture, where custom often exercises imperious rule even upon wages. 
As it has been well said by M. Batbie, “ Wages do not change unless the 
causes for the change exercise a strong influence. Ifthe conditions of supply 
and demand do not undergo a great change, wages continue the same by 
the simple force of custom. ‘The variations of wages are not like those of 
a thermometer, where the least clouds are marked, where one can read the 
smallest changes of temperature. They may rather be compared to those 
bodies which do not become heated except under the action of an elevated 
temperature, and remain quite insensible to the slight modifications of the 
atmosphere. Until a great perturbation takes place in the conditions of 
supply and demand, no one would think of changing the rate of wages” *. 
After making every allowance your Committee cannot admit that combinations 
have any power cither to raise permanently the rate of wages or to prevent 
their fall when the conditions of trade require the same, as recent experience 
abundantly shows ; and whilst admitting that combinations may be bene- 
ficial in accelerating the action of economic laws, your Committee cannot be 
blind to the fact that they produce a state of irritation and discontent which 
often interferes with the progress of production. 

Limited as is the power of combinations to affect the rates of wages, still 
more limited is their power to affect materially the progress of productive 
industry. The Royal Commission on Trade-Unions reported that it was 


* See M. Batbie’s article on “ Salaires” in Bloek’s ‘ Dictionnaire de la Politique.’ 


ON CAPITAL AND LABOUR. 1538 


extremely difficult to determine how far unions have impeded the develop- 
ment of trade, whether by simply raising prices or by diverting trade from 
certain districts, or from this to foreign countries. The representatives of 
capital at the Conference alluded to endeavoured to prove that certain 
branches of trade have permanently been injured by the unions. Whether 
the fact can be established or not, it is undeniable that British trade has 
enormously increased within the last twenty years, and that the exports of 
manufactured goods are on a larger scale now than they were at any former 
eriod *, 

: What is perhaps most objectionable in combinations of labour is the 
method they often pursue in order to operate on the rates of wages ; for they 
are not content with making a collective demand on employers for a rise, 
but endeavour to force it, or resist a fall, by restricting the supply of labour 
and increasing the need of it. One such method, explained at the Con- 
ference, seems to your Committee peculiarly objectionable. A representative 
of labour said, ‘That when depression of trade comes, by means of associated 
funds, the men are liable to say to the surplus labourers ‘stand on one side, 
you are not wanted for the time being; if you go on with your labour at 
half price, it will not mend the trade: we will not let you become a drug on 
the market, putting every other man down, but we will sustain you.” In 
three years, your Committee were informed, over £100,000 was thus paid 
for unemployed labour, in the hope that undue fall in wages would be pre- 
vented by keeping labourers out of the market. Your Committee are of 
opinion that the artificial prevention of a fall of wages, when such a fall is 
necessary and inevitable, is economically wrong, and can only have the effect 
of still more injuring the condition of workmen, since by so doing they only 
throw hindrances in the way of production, which is the parent of all wages. 
Equally objectionable in your Committee’s opinion,.as interfering with the 
_ freedom of labour and with the general economy of production, is every regu- 
lation of such trade-unions that excludes from employment in the trades all 
who have not been regularly apprenticed, or any rule which should set a 
limit to the number of apprentices. Professor Cairnes, commenting on the 
monopoly thus advocated by trade-unions, said, “It is a monopoly, more- 
over, founded on no principle either of moral desert or of industrial effi- 
ciency, but simply on chance or arbitrary selection ; and which, therefore, 
cannot but exert a demoralizing influence on all who come within its scope— 
in all its aspects presenting an ungracious contrast to all that is best and 
most generous in the spirit of modern democracy.” 

The only other question on which your Committee will report is whether 
an artificial restriction of labour or of capital can, under any circumstances, 
be economically right or beneficial. It is, indeed, scarcely necessary to say 
that any restriction of labour cr of capital having the effect of limiting pro- 


* The following were the quantities of some of the principal articles of British pro- 
duce and manufacture exported from the United Kingdom in 1854 and 1874 :— 


Tnerease. 

1854. 1874. per cent. 
Goalk and. coke. ..:.s0v<ecececaee 4,309,000 tons. 13,927,000 223 
SOP PGIcs.e.-oustnccsuuentacvar 274,000 ewts. ,000 159 
Cotton yarn ....... soyass tenn 147,128,000 Ibs. 220,599,000 49 
Cotton manufacture ......... 1,692,899,000 yds, 3,606,639,000 113 
GTI cese coves <eupeecretesu ress 1,175,000 tons. 2,487,000 112 
Worsted manufacture ,..... 133,600,000 yds. 261,000,000 uk 


The total value of British produce exported increased from £135,891,000 in 1860 to 
£239,558,000 in 1874, or at the rate cf 76 per cent. . 


154 REPORT—1875. 


duction, must of necessity prove injurious. Yet it may be a point for con- 
sideration whether, under certain circumstances, it may not be better for 
either labour or capital to submit to the evil of restriction, in order to avoid 
a still greater evil, of producing at a loss, or working at rates of wages not 
sufficiently remunerative. The labourers justify their proceedings in this 
respect by reference to the practice of producers. One of the representatives 
of labour, speaking on this subject, said :—‘‘ No doubt there is not a working 
man in Lancashire who would not say that limitation was an injury. Gene- 
rally that there should be the largest possible production in a given time is 
no doubt a true law; but every trade must regulate that according to its own 
necessities. The ironmaster blows out his furnaces when an increased pro- 
duction would injure; the cotton manufacturer runs his manufactory short 
time ; and the labourer limits the production.” There is little or no difference 
in the relative position of capital and labour as respects their need of con- 
tinuous production. Primarily both employer and employed alike depend 
upon production as the only source for profits and wages. Whilst the em- 
ployers have the maximum interest in producing as much as possible, from 
the fact that the fixed capital, which they cannot withdraw, would lie dor- 
mant and unproductive while the forge or mill is silent, the employed find it 
their interest to aid in such production, inasmuch as they depend upon it for 
their means of subsistence. The argument of the employed against a pro- 
posal for a reduction of wages is expressed in the words :—* If you have too 
much of an article in the market and you cannot sell, I would rather limit 
the quantity in your hands than aggravate the evil and take less money for 
it.” But by refusing to work when the employer is able or willing to con- 
tinue producing, or by not submitting himself to accept lower wages when 
the inevitable law of supply and demand compels the same, the employed 
only aggravates his own position, whilst he places the employer in a still 
worse strait; the certain consequence of the withdrawal of labour being to 
discourage production, to enhance the cost, and to increase the difficulty of 
foreign competition—injurious alike to the producer and to the whole com- 
munity. 

A frequent source of contention between employers and employed is the 
mode of paying wages, viz. by time, such as by the day or hour, or by 
piecework. There appears to be no uniform practice on the subject. While 
in some branches of industry the rule is to pay wages by piecework, in other 
branches the rule is to pay by time—the reason probably being that whilst in 
some branches it is easy to establish a scale of prices at which the work is to 
be paid for, in other branches such ascale could not easily be framed. In so 
far as the method of payment can be considered to affect production, it seems 
to your Committe that whilst payment by piecework is likely to promote 
quantity of production, payment by time is more likely to promote precision 
of execution. Your Committee cannot believe, what has often been alleged, 
that payment by piecework is often offered to conceal any reduction of wages. 
If honestly acted upon on either side, payment by piecework has, in the 
opinion of your Committee, all the elements of fair justice. But the ques- 
tion in any case is not of sufficient importance to justify a breach of the 
friendly relation which should exist between capital and labour. When 
either party has any decided preference for one system, it seems advisable 
that the other party should accept the same. 

The economic effects of strikes and lock-outs are well known, and it matters 
but little which party in the contest in the end may prove successful. In 
recent years strikes and lock-outs have occurred among coal- and iro n-miners 


ON THE METHOD OF MAKING GOLD-ASSAYS, 155 


the building-trade, engineers, the cotton-trade, ship-builders, and most of the 
trades and industries of the country, each and all of which have caused 
serious losses on the community at large. In the opinion of your Committee 
a well-devised system of conciliation is the only proper and legitimate 
method of solving labour-disputes. And your Committee cannot too strongly 
express their sense of the grave responsibility which rests on either employers 
or employed when, regardless of consequences, they resort to a step so vexa-~ 
tious and destructive as a strike or lock-out. 

Your Committee are of opinion that the British Association will confer a 
lasting benefit if, on its pilgrimage in the principal industrial towns in the 
United Kingdom, it will seize every opportunity for the enunciation of sound 
lessons of Political Economy on the questions in ‘agitation between employers 
and employed. It was suggested to your Committee that workmen should 
be admitted to the meetings of Section F at a reduced rate. Your Committee 
desire to point out the importance of promoting, as far as possible, the study of 
political economy, and especially of those branches of industrial economy which 
most intimately concern the industry, manufactures, and commerce of the 
country. Your Committee have learned with pleasure that the Cobden Club are 
prepared to offer some encouragement for the teaching of political economy to 
the labouring classes; and your Committee would suggest that the Chambers 
of Commerce might advantageously take similar means in the great centres 
of commerce and manufacture. In the opinion of your Committee, a proper 
sense of the necessity and utility of continuous labour, an earnest desire for 
the achievement of excellence in workmanship in every branch of industry, 
and a keen and lively interest on the part of one and all to promote national 
prosperity, are the best safeguards against the continuance of those dis- 
turbances between capital and labour which have of late become of such 
hindrance to successful production. In the great contest which Britain has 
to wage with other industrial nations, it is the interest of both masters and 
men to be very careful lest, by raising the prices of British produce and 
manufacture too high, they should no longer be able to carry the palm in the 
arena of international competition. 

Your Committee regret the death of their much esteemed member Mr. 
Samuel Brown, who took an active part in the proceedings. Professor 
Faweett, M.P., was unable to act. But your Committee have pleasure in 
reporting that the Right Hon. Lord O’Hagan, Mr. Thomas Brassey, M.P., 
and Mr. A. J, Mundella, M.P., were added to the Committee. 


Second Report of the Committee, consisting of W. CuanpieR Roserts, 
Dr. Miuuts, Dr. Boycorr, A. W. Gapuspen, and J. S. Srixon, 
appointed for the purpose of inquiring into the Method of making 
Gold-assays, and of stating the Results thereof. Drawn up by W. 
Cuanvier Roserts, F.R.S., Secretary. 


In their last Report the Committee stated that portions of the gold plate, 
which had been so long in course of preparation, had been sent to various 
distinguished chemists on the continent and in America. : 

Several Reports have been received, all of which confirm the favourable 
opinion the Committee expressed as to the purity of the plate, Towards the 


156 REPORT—1875. 


close of the year the Secretary visited M. Stas in Brussels, and received 
from him details of the experiments which he had made in testing the metal, 
the results proving that the plate contained 999-95 parts of pure gold in 
1000. The minute trace of foreign matter which is admixed with the gold 
was probably derived from the clay crucible in which the finely divided metal 
was melted. Mr. J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S., has photographed the violet 
and ultra-violet parts of the spectrum produced by the electric are when 
pieces of this gold are employed as terminals, side by side with the solar 
spectrum ; and the result proves that neither silver, copper, nor iron, the 
metals which might have been expected to be present, exists in sufficient 
quantity to be detected by the spectroscope. 

With the completion of this standard plate an important step has been 
made in that a common standard for reference has been secured. With 
regard to the discrepancies between the results of different assayers, the 
Committee propose to collect evidence in the hope of being able to ascertain 
whether the causes of difference are introduced at the second or fourth 
stages of the operation, or, in other words, in the furnace or while parting 
with acid, 


Eighth Report of the Committee, consisting of Prof. Evrrrrr, Sir W. 
Tuomson, F.R.S., Prof. J. Currx Maxwe xt, F.R.S., G. J. Symons, 
F.M.S., Prof. Ramsay, F.R.S., Prof. A. Guixiz, F.R.S., James 
GuaisHEr, F.R.S., Rev. Dr. GRanam, Grorcr Maw, F.G.S., W. 
Pencrwiy, F.R.S., 8. J. Macniz, F.G.S., Prof. Hunt, F.R.S., 
Prof. Ansrrep, F.R.S., Prof. Prestwicn, F.R.S., and C. Ln Neve 
Foster, appointed for the purpose of investigating the Rate of 
Increase of Undeground Temperature downwards in various Locali- 
ties of Dry Land and under Water. Drawn up by Prof. Evererr, 
Secretary. 


Tue supposed difficulties in the way of obtaining observations of temperature 
in the St.-Gothard tunnel have vanished of themselves. On a recent visit to 
the tunnel, your Secretary had the pleasure of meeting Dr. Stapff, who has 
for two years filled the post of official geologist to the “Direction” of the 
Gothard Railway, and has in that capacity made the temperature of the tunnel 
a special object of investigation. Dr. Stapff’s observations are contained in 
successive numbers of the Monthly and Quarterly Reports of the Chief 
Engineer to the “ Direction,” and of the Swiss Government Engineer to the 
subyenting States, on the progress of the Gothard Railway. A paper on the 
subject was read by Dr. Stapff at a recent meeting of the Swiss Society of 
Naturalists held at Andermatt in the immediate neighbourhood of the tunnel; 
and an abstract of it has been kindly communicated by him to the Secretary, 
accompanied with tables and diagrams. 

Dr. Stapfi’s observations were of three kinds :— 

I. Observations of rock-temperature, made with very long thermometers, 
inserted in horizontal bore-holes, of depth not exceeding one metre, in the sides 
of the tunnel. The air was excluded by a firm plugging of tallow all along 
the stem, which was of such length that the scale projected into the air and 
could be read without disturbing the instrument. They were graduated to 


ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 157 


0-2 of a degree Centigrade, and read by estimation to 0-05, all necessary cor- 
rections being applied, including a correction for temperature of stem. The 
index-errors were known from comparison with standards, attention being 
paid to the difference between the reading in a vertical and in a horizontal 
position, which, on account of the great length of the column of mercury 
and consequent pressure on the interior of ‘the bulb, amounted to about half 
a degree. As the thermometers were costly, and- were very liable to be 
broken in the process of extraction, these rock-observations were compara- 
tively few. 

One of the Committce’s protected Negretti maximum thermometers was 
left by the Secretary with Dr. Stapff, and has been used by him for verifying 
some of his previous observations, the thermometer being pushed to the 
bottom of the hole, with a cord attached, and the hole being then tightly 
“plugged with rags and tallow. 

A minimum thermometer would have been more appropriate, as the rock 
was colder than the air; but the Rutherford’s minimum which the Secretary — 
had provided was too large for the holes. Besides, it is doubtful whether 
the index could be trusted to retain its place during the extraction of the 
thermometer. The extreme slowness of action of the protected Negretti 
maximum was the one quality which rendered its use possible, and a non- 
registering thermometer possessing the same characteristic would be more 
appropriate. It was accordingly agreed between Dr. Stapff and the Secretary 
that a new pattern of non-registering thermometer should be constructed 
with a special view to slowness of action. This end is to be attained by sur- 
rounding the bulb with tallow or some other non-conducting solid, the whole 
being inclosed in a sealed glass tube. [Six thermometers on this plan have 
since been constructed by Negretti and Zambra, and two of them, after satis- 
factory trials, were forwarded by the Secretary to Dr. Stapff on the Ist of 
November. ] 

IL. Observations of air-temperature in the tunnel. The air is artificially 
warmed by the presence of the workmen, by their lamps, and by blasting; 
and, on the other hand, is cooled by the escape of the compressed air from 
the boring-engines. Dr. Stapff states that, notwithstanding these disturbing 
influences, he “‘ gradually fell into a uniform system of observing air-tempe- 
rature, so that the mean results obtained were useful.’ He further found 
that the mean air-temperature thus determined at any point when first laid 
open by the driving forward of the narrow gallery (to be afterwards widened) 
was identical (to a fraction of a degree) with the rock-temperature afterwards 
observed at the same point at the depth of a metre in the walls. For ex- 
ample, at the distance of 800 metres from the Swiss portal the rock-tempera- 
ture, 1 metre deep, was 17°85, the mean air-temperature when first observed 
having been 17°80. Again, at the distance of 1443 metres from the Swiss 
portal the rock-temperature, 1 metre deep, was 18°-16; the mean air-tem- 
perature when the heading had just advanced to this point was 17°29, the 
temperature at the same time from 20 to 40 metres further back being 18°35. 
The last observations made at the Italian end on the occasion of the verifica~ 
tion of the axis of the tunnel confirm this conclusion as to the approximate 
identity of the air-temperature in the extreme end of the heading with the 
temperature of the surrounding rock. F 

III. Observations of the temperature of springs. In the Swiss portion, 
up to the date of the Secretary’s visit, there were no springs of any account ; 
but in the Italian portion they are numerous. When water-filled crevices 
(in the Italian portion) are first bored through, the water issues with the 


158 REPORT—1875. 


velocity due to a height of some 2 or 3 metres; but as soon as such a cleft 
is totally opened, the water runs down all around the perimeter of the gallery 
without showing signs of pressure. Springs from the bottom (which are by 
no means rare) have never shown signs of pressure. 

The temperature of springs is higher when they are first tapped than at any 
subsequent period. The springs at the distance of from 780 to 820 metres 
from the Italian portal fell, in the first fourteen days, from 10°-52 to 9°-75C., 
and those at the distance of from 1495 to 1500 metres from the Swiss portal, 
which had a temperature of 17°°1 when tapped in November 1874, have now 
fallen to 16°-2, after the lapse of ten months. 

The temperature of springs, even when first tapped, is lower than that of 
the surrounding rock. The average amount of this difference for the first 
2200 metres from the Italian portal was 3°14 C. In the first 1200 metres 
it was generally greater, and in the remaining 1000 metres always less than * 
this average value, At-2180 metres it was reduced to °77 of a degree. 
- As these differences constitute one of the most noteworthy results of Dr. 
Stapff’s observations, they are here presented in tabular form. The degrees 
are Centigrade. 


Temperature of 


Distance from rock, deduced Temperature 
Italian portal, from observations of Difference. 
in metres, in air. springs. 

te} ° ° 
II‘50 8°42 3°08 
13°43 8'00 5°43 
15'00 8°30 6°70 
13°13 8°80 4°33 
I1'03 8°79 2°24, 
11°53 8°75 2°78 
13°03 8°77 4°26 
14°08 10°63 3°45 
14°34 10°37 4°47 
15°04 11°38 3°66 
17°18 13°30 3°88 
16°97 13°35 3°62 
17°38 14°88 2°50 
17°63 15°25 2°38 
18°21 — — 
20°45 17°40 3°05 
20°84 18-60 2°24 
20°64 18°70 1°94. 
21°71 19'00 275 
21°38 19°80 1°58 
20°95 20°05 go 
2E2T 20°50 77 

Miear/<....157 3714 


The strongest springs are those in the first 1300 metres from the Italian 
portal. Their temperature varies, to the extent of a few tenths of a degree, 
with the quantity, as dependent on rainfall, being lowest when the quantity 
is greatest. 

The conformation of the ground and the course of the tunnel are such that 
at equal distances from the two portals the Italian portion is the more distant 
from the surface. It is not, however, upon the whole, warmer than the 
Swiss portion; but for distances (from the portals) intermediate between 
200 metres and 1400 metres is decidedly colder—an effect, probably, of the 
abundant infiltration of cold water. 


ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 159 


The tunnel has now been carried to a distance of 2500 metres at the Swiss 
and 2200 metres at the Italian end; and the temperature of the rock, as 
deduced from air-obseryations, is— 


At 2400 metres from Swiss portal .......... 21°-7 C, 
Bevieg mer tare ame ew Ueieay 21°3 0. 


The distances from the surface (measured in the nearest direction) are 306 
metres in the former case (the plain of Andermatt being overhead), and 
1090 metres in the latter. The mean temperature at Géschenen (the village 
at the Swiss end) is 6°82 C. 
Observations were taken (Aug. 17th, 1874) by Mr. John Donaldson, C.E., 
in a pump-well 413 feet deep, at Mr. Sich’s brewery, Chiswick, near London. 
The pumps were kept idle all day to facilitate observation. The thermometer 
used was a protected Phillips’s maximum. During the first series of obser- 
yations, pumping was going on from a well in a neighbouring brewery, an 
operation which lowers the level of Mr. Sich’s well by about 3 inches. This 
pumping was discontinued before the completion of the second series. The 
surface of the water is 60 feet below the surface of the ground. The diameter 
of the well is 5 feet to the depth of 200 feet, and is less than one foot (and 
gradually diminishing) for the remainder of the depth. The following are 
the observations :— : 


Depth from Temperature in degrees Fahr. 

surface of aa Trt oN 

ground. First Series, Second Series, 

ft. in fo) ° 

Gat NL. Se shetthseestte . |) 5Ss 56'2 
EGY Guait augises<sacaiane 54°6 54°5 
ToL OUND vafeecscaucnaaass ad 54°5 54°5 
SOMO ME a ccese! tecaraases 54°9 550 
RUN OL cstescesade toeecss 55°0 54°9 
RED TAME ec setessctdenxadae 55°5 55°4 
GER Tete) seacawraabogdces : 56°6 56°6 
Ct tat aareee Beer Pes 57°5 58°0 


The difference between the two observed temperatures at 65 feet is attributed 
to the disturbance of the water by passing the thermometer and suspending 
wire through it. The difference of half a degree between the two observations 
at the bottom is attributed to the discontinuance of pumping in the next 
brewery, as mentioned above. These temperatures (57°5 and 58°0 at the 
depth of 395 feet) may be compared with the temperatures observed by 
Mr. Symons in the Kentish-Town well at the depth of 400 feet, as given 
in our Reports for 1869 and 1871, namely 58°-1 and 57°°9. The agreement 
is satisfactory, as indicating, on the one hand, that even where there is 
strong convective action (as in this pump-well) the temperature near the 
bottom is but slightly affected; and, on the other, that where there are 
no strong springs the temperature at intermediate depths (the Kentish- 
Town well being 1100 feet deep) is likewise nearly free from convective 
disturbance. 

A boring in search of coal is being made at Swinderby, about eight miles 
to the west of Lincoln, in which observations have been made by Mr. J. T. 
Boot, the engineer of the works. The depth attained on July 19, 1875, was 
1535 feet, the strata penetrated being :—(1) Lower Lias, 140 feet ; (2) New 
Red Marl (Keuper), 569 feet ; (3) New Red Sandstone (Keuper and Bunter), 
790 feet. The boring is now in red marl of the Permian formation. A great 


160 REPORT—1875. 


feeder of water was met with at 790 feet on penetrating the Lower Keuper 
Sandstone, and another at 950 feet in the Bunter Sandstone, the water 
from the latter rising above the surface. The bore-hole is being lined 
with tubes. 

The best observations were taken on the 15th, 16th, and 17th of June, 
1875, the hole having remained undisturbed since May 27th. These obser- 
vations were as follows :— 


Temperature. 
Date. Depth. Fahr. Time down. 
feet. S hm 
JUNC TS cevseneee 100 68 be) 
sgt ne pladeeesen’ 200 684 30 
ctl vance 300 683 30 
9) eaenccnce 400 682 30 
HTLEL tyanes tases 500 684 30 
53 tut iticesence ose 600 69 30 
Spt onaceeBasee 700 69 30 
a3. | per eaeus ° 800 69 30 
Aap eed goo 69 30 
June 16 visseceee 1000 69% 35 
se aaeiecsteetes 1100 695 35 
SI | heeaneaane 1200 694 30 
Tel. * Mieedesats'e 1300 JOS 35 
PUNE CLT | aecsvvass 1400 a0 35 
She tl ST 1500 78 40 


At an earlier date, May 13th, the hole having been undisturbed for a few 
days, the temperature 683° was found at 1308 feet, which was the depth 
then attained, and the temperatures 66°, 66°, 66°°2, 66°-6 were found at the 
respective depths of 0, 300, 490, 590 feet. The instrument employed on 
both occasions was the protected Negretti maximum thermometer. 

These observations illustrate the difficulty of obtaining correct results in 
the presence of strong springs of water. It is obvious that nearly all the 
above temperatures are largely affected by convection. If we assume the 
temperature at the bottom in each case to have been free from this source of 
error, as well as from disturbance by the heat generated in boring (assump- 
tions which are somewhat doubtful), and if we estimate the surface-tempe- 
rature at 49°, we have the following mean rates of increase :— 


Between 0 feet and 1308 feet ........ 1° F. for 68 feet. 
<4 B08 .; ASOD IF, ONE. eh cy cree ae 
i 0 , L500 era een oe Pct ey 


A bore-hole is being sunk to a depth of 2000 feet at Bohmisch-Brod, near 

Prague; and the Secretary has received two independent applications for 
thermometers for the purpose of making observations in it—one of them from 
the Academy of Sciences of Vienna, the other from the Imperial Polytechnic 
School at Prague. Two thermometers (one of the Negretti and one of the 
Phillips pattern) were supplied in each case, the expense being defrayed by 
the recipients. These applications are gratifying, as tokens of an increasing 
interest in the subject of underground temperature. 
- Two protected Negretti thermometers have been sent to Dr. Oldham, 
Director of the Geological Survey of India, to be used in borings for coal in 
that country. Arrangements are also being made by Mr. Blanford, Director 
of Meteorological Observations for India, to establish regular observations of 
earth-temperature at small depths at certain selected stations. 


ON TIDES IN THE RIVER MERSEY. 161 


The following thermometers have also been issued :— 

To Mr. J. A. Bosworth, a protected Negretti, to be used in a deep boring 
in Shropshire. 

To Mr. Atkinson, of Newcastle, a similar instrument, to replace one broken 
in his previous observations. 

To Mr. Pengelly, a protected Phillips, for a boring at Torquay, 


Tides in the River Mersey. Hailf-tide Level at Liverpool. 
By James N. Suoorsren, CLE. 


[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be-printed in extenso. | 
[Prats IV.] 


In the year 1835, at the Meeting of the British Association in Dublin, 
Captain (now Admiral) Henry Mangles Denham, R.N., Resident Marine 
Surveyor of the Port of Liverpool, announced “ that, from observations which 
he had been enabled to take on the rise and fall of a number of tides in the 
River Mersey, he had ascertained that there was an oscillating point or mean 
centre which every six hours is common to all tides, whether spring or neap, 
and called the half-tide mark or level.” 

In 1837 Captain Denham further announced to the Association, at its 
Meeting in Liverpool, ‘‘that the oscillation of each tide, whether spring or 
neap, passed this line, viz. the half-tide level, at three hours before and three 
hours after every high-water time, and not at the half-elapsed time of high 
and low water.” 

Captain Denham considered this half-tide mark, though not a suitable 
one to adjust soundings to, to be a most valuable datum for tide-gauge 
operations, or as a point of departure for engineering levelling-operations— 
a remark which was subsequently fully confirmed by the selection of the 
“evel of mean tide at Liverpool” as the datum level for Great Britain for 
the Ordnance maps. 

' It will be seen, therefore, that this subject of the half-tide level is one that 
has already received some attention, and has had a practical and important 
application. 

It appears, therefore, not out of place to make a few remarks on this half- 
tide level, and as to its real nature, especially as much information as to the 
action of the tide in the Mersey has been obtained during the interval of 
forty years that has elapsed since Capt. Denham first broached the subject. 

In the latter part of 1853 a self-recording tide-gauge was established at 
Liverpool, near to the St. George’s Pier-head, advantage being taken of one 
of the bridges which connected the floating landing-stage to the shore, the 
rising and falling of the bridge with the tide being communicated by a chain 
arrangement to a self-recording drum driven by clockwork and there suit- 
ably registered. 

These observations had been continued without interruption, save for short 
repairs, since the above date until twelve months ago, when they were neces- 
sarily suspended, owing to the burning of the landing-stage and the removal 
of the connecting-bridge during its reconstruction. 

As, however, the whole of the stage is expected to be again open for use 
in the course of a short time, and as the connecting-bridges are now in posi- 

1875, M 


162 REPORT—1875. 


tion, it may be confidently anticipated that the self-recording of the tides 
may be again soon resumed. 

By the courtesy of the present Marine Surveyor to the Mersey Docks and 
Harbour Board, Staff-Commander Graham H. Hills, R.N., the writer has 
had an opportunity of inspecting a number of the resultant diagrams of the 
tidal curves. : 

After careful examination of many tides, the writer confesses himself quite 
unable to agree with Capt. Denham in his definition that “the half-tide level 
is an oscillating point or mean centre which every six hours is common to 
all tides, whether spring or neap,”’ or with the assertion “that the oscilla- 
tion of each tide, whether spring or neap, passed this line at three hours 
before and three hours after every high-water time.” 

Some difference of opinion seems to exist as to the interpretation of the 
term “mean or half-tide level.” The method by which this level appears 
commonly if not generally to be arrived at is by taking the mean of a 
number of levels of high water for a mean high water, then of a nearly 
similar number of low-water ones to form a mean low-water level, the 
difference between these two means giving a mean tidal range, the half of 
which amount, being reckoned upwards from the mean low-water level, 
gives an absolute level called the mean or half-tide level—in fact the 
mean half-range of the tide. 

Whether this is exactly what Capt. Denham meant by his “ oscillating 
point or mean centre,” is uncertain. But it is without doubt that this half- 
range varies considerably, not only with successive tides, but even over 
lengthy periods, such as a year in duration, or even a duration of years. 

The writer has been enabled, by the courtesy of the Marine Surveyor, to 
place upon the diagram hereto appended (Plate IV.) the annual means at 
Liverpool for high water, for low water, for tidal range, and for the half-tide 
level for the twenty years extending from 1854 to 1873—each year being 
represented by a vertical line with its date upon it, and the position of its 
mean of high water, low water, and half-tide level indicated upon it to a scale 
of a quarter of an inch to one foot. The irregular line at the top of the diagram 
is formed by the junction of the annual means of high water, the mean high 
water for the twenty years being indicated by a horizontal line. The low- 
water means are similarly treated at the bottom of the diagram; while in 
the middle of the sheet the half-tide levels are described in a like way. 

The datum to which they are reduced is the sill of the Old Dock at Liver- 
pool, a datum much in use in that neighbourhood. 

A very brief inspection of the diagram will show that there is considerable 
variation in each of the means between different years, amounting, in more 
than one case, to nearly twelve inches. And if so with annual means, how 
much greater the irregularity in shorter periods ! 

If, therefore, by “ half-tide. level” Capt. Denham means the level of half- 
tide range, his idea of “an oscillating point common to all tides” cannot 
hold good, seeing that the result of the twenty years’ observations shows 
considerable differences to have existed in the “ half-tide level” between the 
several years, in some cases nearly nine inches. 

It may, however, be urged that some of the variations occurring in the 
course of this lengthened period are caused by the altered form of the course 
of the tidal channel of the River Mersey near to its mouth, to its being gra- 
dually narrowed and made more direct by each successive prolongation of the 
river-wall of the Liverpool Docks. 

While admitting that something may be due to this cause (a matter not 


ON TIDES IN THE RIVER MERSEY. 163 


yet proved), there still exists sufficient irregularity, shown sometimes in one 
direction and sometimes in another, at times also when no new alterations 
in the form of the channel were taking place, to disprove the accuracy of 
Capt. Denham’s theory of a permanent oscillating point as far as regards the 
tides in the Mersey. 

As to his second assertion, ‘that this half-tide level line is passed by the 
oscillation of each tide at three hours before and three hours after high-water 
time, and not at the half-elapsed time of high and low water,” its value can 
only be ascertained by a close inspection and analysis of the tidal diagrams 
themselves. 

The writer can, however, state the opinion of the present Marine Surveyor 
of Liverpool (who has had charge of these tidal observations almost ever 
since their commencement, and therefore is intimately acquainted with 
them), who considers that this assertion of Capt. Denham’s is quite un- 
tenable. 

The selection of the half-tide level at Liverpool as the datum for the 
Ordnance Survey of Great Britain was made after a series of tidal observa- 
tions carried on in 1859 at a number of ports round the coast of England*. 

In the Ordnance book, ‘The abstract of Levelling in England and Wales,’ 
1861, it is defined in the following terms:—“The datum level for Great 
Britain is the level of mean tide at Liverpool, as determined by our own 
observations ; it is ;8, of an inch above the mean tidal level obtained from 
the records of the self-recording tide-gauge on St. George’s Pier, Liverpool.” 

These records, as will be seen by the annexed Table, give the mean half- 
tide level for the five years preceding 1859 as 4948 feet above the Old Dock 
Sill. If to this be added the 5 of an inch (-066 foot) referred to in the 
Ordnance book, a total of 5-014 feet above Old Dock Sill (the zero of the tide- 
gauge at the St. George’s Pier) is obtained as the leyel of the Ordnance 
datum, a difference which is quite borne out by the actual levelling of 
several engineers. 

The Ordnance book of levels already referred to gives, in another portion 
of the book, in the column of levels only 4°67 feet as the difference between 
the Ordnance datum and the zero of the tide-gauge. While, to render the 
discrepancy still more intelligible, no doubt, the printer has omitted the 
minus sign before the last-named level, so placing the zero of the tide- 
gauge above the half-tide level—thus introducing a possibility of error (to 
strangers to the locality) of over nine feet in the comparison of these two 
important systems of levels (the Ordnance and the Old Dock Sill). 

When it is considered of what importance to the country are those most 
carefully prepared maps of the Ordnance Survey, and the system of levels 
which they introduce, it will be readily seen that it should be a matter of 
paramount importance to dispel any discrepancy or uncertainty which may 
exist as to the very fons et origo of that system of levels. 

In conclusion, it must not be supposed from the above remarks that the 
writer, while adducing the irregularity of the half-tide level at Liverpool, as 
evidenced by the result of twenty years’ observations, wishes to argue against 
the practical uniformity of the mean level of the open sea all the world over 
—a fact which is being each day more fully admitted. Liverpool is not on 


* Since writing the above, it appears, from a communication received by the author 
from the Ordnance Office at Southampton, that “the assumed mean water at Liverpool 
depends upon tidal observations taken by this Department in March 1844,” and that 
the 1859 observations published in the Ordnance book are those of the self-registering 


tide-gauge. 
M 2 


164 REPORT—1875. 


the open sea but on an estuary, and one where the conditions of the channel 
have been altered considerably during late years by engineering structures. 


Records of Tides in River Mersey at Liverpool, taken by the Self-recording 
Tide-gauge at the George’s Pier-head, Liverpool. 


Mean Mean Mean eee . Means of 20 
Date pia tee Tidal | Level pie hs a0 years, 
‘ Range. | above 1854-1873. 
O. D.8. | O.D.S. Sl Oaanaee | 
ft. ft. ft. ft. 1854-1863. | 
1854. | 15423 | 5546 | 20969 | 4938 | . 
1855. | 15366 | 5570 | 20936 | 4898 | @ =z 3% . 
1856. | 15518 | 5-466 | 20979 | 5023) =. _, 
1857. | 15519 | 5:531 | 21-050] 4994 | SSN & 
1858. | 15349) 5575 | 20924) 4887 | 655 5 
etmek Fauci A ed See | POS 8 a al re 
Means of fae us 
‘ 15-434 | 5538 | 20973 | 4948 | At :5 
5 years. ag : 4 
ee: as 
1859. | 15661] 5-477 | 21138] 5107 | og :8 et 
1860. | 15573 | 5556 | 21:129| 5126 | of 58 2 2 
1861. | 15638 | 5-438 | 21076] 5100| See — | mee x 
1862. | 15777 | 5551 | 21328) 51138 | SEag4 mon 
1863. | 15°799| 5958 | 21-758 | 4-920 -SE3A wy 
M f| He c 3 Bhasin 
e€ans O ; , < , Aa aA: - 
B years. f| 20689 | 5596 | 21-285) 5-073 ia ie: 
es Aa 
1864. | 15°743 | 5-923 | 21-666 | 4-910 | 1864-1873. Oo 38} 
1865. 15848 | 5-980 | 21:828] 4934 | |. FEO: 
1866. 16041 | 5-708 | 21-749 | 5-166 he ite wt Hic PES 
1867. | 16:150| 5-443 | 21593] 5353 | So. . | “feum 
1868. | 16445 | 5139 | 21584 | 5653 | Sey S | PBA 
SS Sb a ry dace 
Means of x. ; } , oa Aa 
pte, \ 16045 | 5690 | 21684} 5208 |": sg | 
|__| |__| aa ig 
AA: 
1869. | 16116 | 5-617 | 21-733 | 5250 | 66 :3 
1870. | 15°820| 5663 | 21-483] 5078 | of 28 
1871. | 15-708 | 5206 | 20914] 5251 | § 6 &" 
1872. | 16-232 | 4832 | 21:064| 5700 | 288.94 
1873, | 15450 | 5854 | 20784 | 5038 | e BA | 
Ste 
a ree Buisman Be 
pee 15861 | 5804 | 21196 | 5265 meee / 


Datum: Old Dock Sill (O. D. 8.) at Liverpool. 


Plate IV 


verpool. 
evel. 


45 Keport Brit. Assoc 1875. 


So eS LEGG Pra = a te es Ne SG eee 
227 POIT 
cigs a Pile = 
J? 
oP) 
w 
= 
N 
i 
Ss 
i 
* N Fe oS 
“| N _ 
; S 
S St) SS N 
S 
See eee eee ee S 
= ee Poa BOG Me, eet 


Ws epee Drie. 


taver Mersey hides’ Self recording Gauge, S¢ Georges Pir Leverpool 
unnal Means SH WLW Vidal Hange, and Malf lide Leyed 
ISES4 to 1873 


Mean HWE 


8 20 Years 
j 
1 1 
' ISSF je iN 60 62 6 66 op 70 7\2 La\73 H 
" 
2 so 
& aS 
Si Sa | 
S! S 
i ) 
se H 
SS thean £ Tite Level, | ! 
ED : T 
Sy 1 
NA 
Qs wy 
N 8 
s Rig 
x 


Hatuin Od Bock) Sit Livenpopl { 
Mt 2 =| 


Feet. 


i 
! 
1 
t 
i 
1 
1 
it 


Mean LW y 


Fertical Scale Feet to Lach 


ON THE STRUCTURE OF CARBONIFEROUS CORALS. 165 


Sixth Report of the Committee, consisting of the Rev. Tuomas Wixr- 
suire, M.A., F.G.S., Prof. Wittramson, I.R.S., and Jamus 
Tuomson, F.G.S., Secretary, appointed to investigate the Structure 
of the Carboniferous Corals. 


Dourine the past year the Committee have conducted their investigations 
and have made sections of upwards of 300 specimens. In order that they 
might arrive at as clear a conception as possible of their specific value, the 
Secretary went over to Paris, and examined the types of MM. Milne-Edwards 
and J. Haime, and also those of Prof. de Koninck in Belgium, and compared 
them with the structural details as delineated in the Plates already prepared ; 
and the result of his investigation warrants them in saying that they are glad 
they have not published more than brief abstracts of their investigations. The 
delay has also enabled them to try several methods for delineating the intri- 
cate and delicate structure of many of these corals, well knowing that their 
structure could not be reproduced by the ordinary process of lithography. 
The system adopted is the result of many experiments, and the one most 
snited for the purpose, as by it can be given facsimiles of the most delicate 
structure, thus placing in the hands of students the means whereby they can 
name either genera or species even from small fragments. 

The results of the investigations and comparison of the type forms referred 
to point to three new genera. ‘The varieties, however, are so numerous, 
that it was felt desirable to make other sections before determining distinct 
varieties. 

The following have been determined, and are engraved upon what they 
provisionally term Plate XII. 

Aspidiophyllum, Thomson, gen. nov. The generic name is taken from 
the form and position of the boss in the centre of the calice, it being helmet- 
shaped. As the characters upon which the generic distinction is founded 
have been described in detail in the Transactions of the Philosophical Society 
of Glasgow for 1874, the descriptions need not be repeated. The generic 
and specific names of those published are :— 


Figs. : & 1A. Aspidiophyllum Koninckianum, Thomson, sp. noy. 
Husleyianum, Thom. .» Sp. Noy. 


9 


3. A! Hennedii, Thom., sp. nov. 
4, i cruciforme, Thom., Sp. noy. 
5 & 5A. + elegans, Thom., sp. nov. 


In Aspidiophyllum Huxleyianum one of the primary septa is shorter than 
‘the others, with a clavate tube-like process lying in the plane of the open 
interseptal spaces. Around the inner margin of the tube-like body are 
‘grouped a number of ovule-like bodies, much resembling ova. Detailed 
accounts of these are published in the Transactions of the Philosophica! 
Society of Glasgow for 1874. 

Plate XII. figs. 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, and 16 belong to the same genus, but 
differ from those described in essential specific characters, and will be described 
hereafter. 

Plate XIII. contains representations of seven species of the genus Rhodo- 
phyllum, Thomson, gen. noy., which haye been described in the ‘ Geological 
Magazine,’ viz. :— 


166 REPORT—1875. 
Figs.1 & 1A. Rhodophyllum Craigianum, Thomson, sp. nov. 
3. 


A Slimonianum, Thom., sp. nov. © 
4, is Phillipsianum, Thom., sp. nov. 
6&6A. » simplex, Thom., sp. noy. 


Figs. 2, 5, 7, and 8 belong to the same genus, and will be described along 
with the former genus. 

Plate XIV. contains representations of a new genus, which the Secretary 
discovered at Brockley, near Lesmahagow, Lanarkshire, many years ago. It 
exhibits characteristics hitherto unnoticed. The Secretary proposes calling 
it Kumatiophyllum. It has at least ten good species, which will be described 
as before stated. 

Plate XV. is another Plate partially prepared, but is not sufficiently for- 
ward to be described in this year’s Report. 


Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir Joun Luszocx, Bart., 
Prof. Prestwicu, Prof. T. M‘K. Hucues, Prof. W. Bory Daw- 
Kins, Rev. H. W. Crossxey, Messrs. L. C. Mrauu and R. H. Trppe- 
MAN, appointed for the purpose of assisting in the Exploration of the 
Settle Caves (Victoria Cave). Drawn up by BR. H. Tropeman, 
Reporter. 

[Puates V. & VI] 


Work was carried on almost uninterruptedly throughout the year, except 
from March 20th to May 20th, when it was stopped for want of funds. An 
appeal to the public by the Settle Committee was made, and at the end of two 
months they considered themselves justified in reeommencing work. 

It is a matter of much interest to the Committee that the last subscription 
received (on Jan. 10th, previous to stopping the work for want of funds) was 
from the late Sir Charles Lyell, and unsolicited. Sir Charles had taken a 
deep personal interest in the explorations from their commencement, had 
visited the Cave, and been a frequent subscriber to the fund. 

The Glacial Beds.—It will be remembered that in the last Reporé at Bel- 
fast we drew attention to the evidence respecting the pre- or interglacial 
age of the lower deposits in the Victoria Cave, which contain the early 
Pleistocene fauna associated with a human fibula. Since that time further 
evidence in this direction has been obtained. The great mass of boulders 
which lies upon the edges of the Lower Cave-earth at the entrance and be- 
neath all the screes or talus has been further followed; and the facts brought 
to light are very interesting, and throw much light upon the origin and de- 
position of the glacial beds. 

The boulders have now been uncovered over an area of about 30 x 40 feet, 
or 1200 superficial feet (see Plates V. & VI. and descriptions), and probably 
extend beneath the screes over a still greater area. As before, the boulders are 
of all sizes and of various origin. Of the limestone boulders a large proportion 
are of blue or black limestone, and not of the white limestone in which the 
cave is excavated. They probably come from the top of the Carboniferous 
Limestone, which is widely exposed in the country to the north around the 
foot of Penyghent. One large boulder, on the other hand, an easily recog- 


ON THE EXPLORATION OR. THE SETTLE CAVES. 167 


nizable rock, consists of a portion of the base of the Carboniferous Limestone, 
which is a conglomerate of Silurian pebbles in a matrix of limestone, and 
must haye travelled at least two miles to its present position. Other boulders 
consist of Carboniferous Sandstone or Millstone-grit, but a very large propor- 
tion are of Silurian rocks. 

In size they run from large blocks several tons in weight to mere sand- 
grains, for the passage may be easily observed. At one place you have 
large boulders in a matrix of stony clay, then a clayey gravel, the component 
stones well scratched and bruised as only glacial deposits are, then fine 
gravel, still of the same character, shading off into sand. The sand again 
gives place to laminated clay of the finest character. 

A yery interesting section showing this has been lately uncovered; it 
lies at the back of the boulders, and contains several beds of laminated clay, 
sand, and gravel intercalated with indisputable glacial deposits. 

This may be regarded as a positive proof that some at least of the lami- 
nated clay is of glacial age and origin. 

In removing some of the boulders at the entrance, a step which the pro- 
gress of the work necessitated, we appear at length to have come upon the 
solid floor of the caye-mouth. We found several long, wedge-like masses of 
rock, with their apices upwards, sticking up from amongst the boulders. They 
seem to run along definite lines, the spaces between which coincide with the 
vertical joints traversing the roof and side of the cave. 

They stand up in pinnacles, and are not unlike in form similarly weathered 
floors in other cayes in Craven. We may mention Browgill Cave near 
Horton in Ribblesdale, which is now occupied by a stream. This peculiar 
form seems to have arisen from the water working down along the joints 
and slowly dissolving the limestone, leaving an edge projecting upwards, in 
some cases almost as sharp as a knife. That the Victoria Cave was once a 
stream-course there can be no doubt; not only these limestone pinnacles, 
but the peculiar weathering of the side of the cave at the entrance into a 
succession of arched niches corresponding with the joints (another charac- 
teristic of water caves) render this tolerably certain (see Plates V. & VI. 
and descriptions). 

And now, with the additional evidence of another year’s diggings, we may 
again consider the question (the most interesting perhaps of all the problems 
before us)—Are the glacial deposits, which rest upon the older bone-beds 
containing the extinct pleistocene mammals and man, in the position which 
they occupied at the close of glacial conditions, or have they subsequently 
fallen into their present site? 

We may again urge the reasons given last year, strengthened by enlarged 
sections and a wider experience, which go to prove the first alternative. 


1. The cliff immediately above the cave is free from any boulder deposits 
for a considerable distance. 

2. The boulders lie at the base of all the talus, which must have been 
forming ever since glacial conditions declined, and no other falls of 
even isolated boulders have occurred throughout the whole thickness 
of talus. 

3. The boulders are so close beneath the cliff, that if all the limestone 
which has fallen from it and is now lying on the boulders could he 
restored to the cliff, it would project so much further forward, that the 
fall of the boulders from the cliff to their present position would be 
impossible. 


168 REPORT—1875. 


To these arguments we may now add the following :-— 


4. That the extent of the glacial deposits now exposed is so great that 
it is impossible that they can be a mere chance accumulation of 
boulders which have been redeposited in their present position since 
glacial times. 


This being the case, it is clear from the position of the boulders beneath 
all the screes that they form a portion of the general glacial covering of the 
valleys and hillsides which was left by the ice-sheet at the time of its disap- 
pearance. _ 

These are the main arguments to be derived from the cave itself; but 
further strong presumptive evidence that the Pleistocene fauna lived in the 
north of England before the ice-sheet exists as follows :— 

The older fauna once lived in that district, a point which admits of no 
dispute from its existence in the Victoria Cave, in Kirkdale Cave, Raygill 
Cave in Lothersdale, and perhaps in other caves; but their bones are now 
found nowhere in the open country. None of the river-gravels contain them ; 
and just that district which is conspicuous by their absence is also remark- 
able for the strongest evidences of great glaciation. If these facts be taken 
together, the probability is very strong that it was glaciation which destroyed 
their remains in the open country. 

To suppose that they have been destroyed by other subaerial agencies 
would be to ignore the fact that in the south of England and other non- 
glaciated areas such remains exist both in caves and in river-gravels. This 
view your Reporter has held for some years ; a somewhat similar view has been 
well stated by Mr. James Geikie, and Prof. Boyd Dawkins also agrees in it. 


Bones beneath the Talus and on the Boulders. 


In removing the talus, certain bones were found lying beneath it upon 
the boulders. 

They have, so far as practicable, been determined by Prof. Busk; and he 
gives the following account of them. 

“They are nearly all fragments, but No. 1 is perfect. 

“1. Right caleaneum of Ursus arctos, 3:4 inches long, 2-2 wide, 1°75 high. 

“2. Portion of a young, much worn left calcaneum of Ursus, with anterior 
and posterior epiphyses detached. 

* 3-67. Small chips and fragments, mostly apparently of the shafts of long 
bones and ribs of ruminants. Doubtfully referred to Ox? Deer? Goat? or 
Sheep ? 

“68. Fragment, probably Elephant. 

“69. Fragment of a large Deer-bone. 

“70. Fragment of long bone of large bird, probably Swan. 

«72, Sesamoid bone of ? 

“77. Fragment of vertebra, perhaps of Bear.” 

It is an interesting point, if we could make it out, what is the age of these 
bones. Are they the remains of animals who died upon the moraine rub- 
bish before the talus was of sufficient thickness to form a recognizable bed? 
or are they bones washed out of the edges of the older cave-earth then exposed 
above the boulders? The bone doubtfully referred to Wild Swan would seem 
to point to a rigorous or temperate* climate. The bone doubtfully referred 

* T have heard of three instances of Wild Swans having been shot in the immediate 
neighbourhood. C. Leigh, in his ‘ Nat. Hist. of Lancashire’ &c., published in 1700, says, 
“* Swans are common in these parts, but more particularly on the sea-coasts” (p. 141). 


ON THE EXPLORATION OF THE SETTLE CAVES. 169 


to Elephant does not give very strong indications. There seems a possibility 
of its having been washed out of the lower cave-earth, which contains 
Elephant-remains. 

Most probably both of these sources contributed to this deposit of bones ; but 
that the greater part of them are washed out of the lower cave-earth seems 
likely, for this reason—that not any fragments of bone were found through 
the 19 feet of talus which lies between the Neolithic layer and the top of the 
boulders. 

Work in Chamber D. New Galleries.—Besides the work which has been 
done towards unfolding the glacial evidence at the mouth of the cave, 
a considerable amount of work has been done in excavating chamber D, and 
we haye the result in a magnificent series of bones. Chamber D will be re- 
membered by those who made a thorough visit to the cave, and explored all 
its narrowest recesses, as a very low chamber to the right of the principal 
entrance, filled nearly up to the roof with soft wet mud. It was so low over 
a greater part of its extent that progression could not be effected on hands 
and knees, and a serpent-like movement through pools of water lying on soft 
mud was the only way in which it could be visited. Chamber D now presents a 
very different aspect. So extensive have been the workings there, that at 
the entrance the ceiling is now 20 feet above one’s head, and it gradually 
declines towards the inner extremity to a height of 4 or 5 feet. It is about 
20 feet wide and 110 feet long; and two galleries have been discovered 
leading off from it on the right. One is blocked at the entrance with thick 
beds of stalagmite and fallen blocks of limestone, and has not been explored 
hitherto. The other leads down at Parallel 44 into a chamber 44 feet long 
with a N.E. direction, at a tolerably rapid gradient of about 1 in 4:5. At 
the end of this is-a narrow squeeze which admits your Reporter for a short 
distance only. The forbidden ground beyond has been visited by Mr. John 
Birkbeck, Jun.; and he reports that this pipe-like cavity proceeds a short dis- 
tance further and crosses a narrow chasm about 20 feet deep, down which he 
descended; but further progress proved impracticable. 

This gallery we propose to call the Birkbeck Gallery, in acknowledgment 
of the energetic and valuable assistance of Messrs. John Birkbeck, Sen. and 
Jun., to the cave exploration from its commencement in 1870. 

The Remains found in Chamber D.—The Committee is much indebted to 
Prof. Busk for his kindness in determining the bones found. 

Before being submitted to him they have been all marked with register 
numbers* in the form of a fraction, the numerator (in this case 1) standing 
for the year (1874), and the denominator for the no. of the “find” in the 
year thus, 1, 3,3, &c. For 1875 the numerator is 2, and for 1876 it will be 
3 if the explorations continue, and so on. As records are kept of what 
portion of the cave is explored in each year, this system will facilitate the 
reference of any particular bone to its position in the cave. In the past 
year the bones have also been marked with notes of their position. Thus 
the large skull of the Grisly Bear 51, is marked “ P 37, L 4:0, D 4-0,” which 
means that it was found in the 2 feet Parallel 37, at a distance of 4 feet left 
of the wall of the chamber, and at a depth of 4 feet from the surface. 

The note-book in which Prof. Busk’s determination of the bones is written 
will be preserved in the Giggleswick Museum for reference. 

His summary of the bones found in chamber D is as follows :— 


_ _* This and other valuable services have been carefully carried out for the Committee by 
Mr. Jackson, the Superintendent. 


170 REPORT—1875. 


* Out of about 269 specimens, including detached teeth, 
127. belonged to Bear, 
oT 5 Hyena, 
36 a Bos, 


24 be Fox, 
15 Red Deer 
22 * Deer yD, ‘ 
7 Reindeer, 
10 : Rhinoceros, 


2 fi Horse, 
1 5 J Badger.” 


To these we may add 1 of Pig, 2 of Elephant, and 1 of Hippopotamus. 

The Elephant-remains consist of two small right and left lower antepenul- 
timate milk-molars of Elephas antiquus, determined by Prof. Leith Adams. 
A fragment of the tusk of a Hippopotamus, about 2 inches long, is a discovery 
of the year, being the first relic of Hippopotamus found throughout the ex- 
plorations. It was in Parallel 32, at a depth of 7 feet. Close by it was the 
carnassial tooth of a Hyzna, which perhaps may account for its haying been 
found at such a distance from the river, now flowing about 1000 feet below. 

It may be well here to correct an error as to the identification of remains 
of which a list occurs in Mr. Denny’s paper ‘On the Geological and Archszo- 
logical Contents of the Victoria and Dowkabottom Caves in Craven,” Proc. 
Geol. and Polytechnic Soc. of the West Riding, 1859, At the head of the 
list of animals found is the following entry :— 

“Cave TraEr (Felis spelea). A canine tooth recognized by the late Dr. 
Buckland, and now in the British Museum.—YVictoria Cave.” 

Inasmuch as in the course of six years’ diggings no remains of Tiger or 
Lion had been recognized by the Committee, Mr. William Davies, of the 
British Museum, was communicated with ; and he kindly returned an answer 
that he had examined the remains in the British Museum, that it was a case, 
as surmised, of erroneous identification, and that the tooth in question was 
the canine of a Bear. 

The existence of the Caye-Lion in the Victoria Cave remains therefore to 
be proved. 

Prof. Busk remarks of the bones and teeth submitted to him:—“ They are 
a remarkably interesting collection, especially in the Bears; and I think the 
larger of the two skulls is by far the finest specimen of the kind yet found in 
this country.” 

Many interesting facts come out from the systematic record of the position 
of the bones. The appended Table (p. 174) of instances of bones which appear 
to belong to the same individual, but which have been found apart from one 
another, is an interesting commentary upon the way in which bones become 
scattered through a cave whether by the intentional transportation by beasts of 
prey in the process of devouring, or by the shuffling tread of the same beasts 
amongst the loose bones lying on the floor. 

This leads us to the fact that many of the bones have a very fine polish ; 
and it seems probable that the cause of this is that suggested by Dr. Buck- 
land*, the treading of the beasts upon them; the fine mud occurring in the 
cave would make a very good polishing-paste, and being of a very plastic 
nature, would tend afterwards, when accumulating in sufficient quantity, to 
cover up the bones and preserve that polish. It occurs on the long bones of 
both ruminants and Bears, and not only on one side as noticed by Dr. Buck- 
land, but all round. The specimens noticed are all apparently in the upper 


* Reliquix Diluviane, p. 31. 


ON THE EXPLORATION OF THE SETTLE CAVES. vel 


bed, to be hereafter mentioned. One of the polished long~bones of an Ox 
has a crust of stalagmite upon it, and the polish runs up to and under it. 

The greatest distance to which we have traced separate bones of the same 
individual is 44 feet in the case of the right calcaneum and right astragalus 
of a Hyena; they occurred at the depths of 10 and 6 feet respectively. 

Another interesting case is that of a magnificent pair of Reindeer-antlers, 
which were in four portions scattered over a distance of 32 feet. Moreover, 
and this is an instructive fact, the several portions were in different states of 
preservation, yet could be fitted together without any difficulty. This we 
should do well to remember when inclined to speculate on the relative age of 
bones from their state of preservation. 

Again, the two fibule of Bear, probably belonging to the same individual, 
being a right and left, and having each a tumour of the bone in the same 
position on the shaft, remind us that bears may have sources of discomfert 
quite apart from the “res angusta domi.” ‘Two fearfully swollen and dis- 
torted metatarsals of the same animal (,/,* and =1,*) tell the same tale. On 
the other hand, two large tusks of the Grisly Bear (J, and 4), worn down 
almost to their sockets, would seem to indicate a healthy life extending to a 
good old age. 

Your Reporter has carefully reduced from the data in the register a synop- 
tical section, showing the occurrence of each animal in the different parallels 
and the depth at which they occur. The result is a Table too bulky for pub- 
lication, but its substance may be briefly given in words. 

The bones appear to group themselves chiefly along two horizons, which 
are separated from one another by a greater or less thickness of cave-earth, 
laminated clay, and stalagmite. 

The lower extends from the back of the boulder-beds before the cave 
mouth, is continuous with that which contained the human fibula, and runs 
almost continuously as far as P 42, and possibly further. The upper bed com- 
mences only at P15, and extends to about P43. Where the upper bed com- 
mences, the two horizons are about 12 feet from one another ; but the lower 
rises quickly towards P 23, then continues horizontally at a depth of about 5 
feet below the upper bed as faras P35. At this point it rises still more, and 
the two beds not only touch each other, but seem to be somewhat intermingled. 

The following Table shows the species occurring in the two beds in 
Chamber D :— 


2 \5 g¢|s eh 4 
af IIR lin ais §.8/ 8 S15|8 
ld] mlelgleslsi(S21o_| All he] Se 
2 (B]y 2 |s lo | SS 15/28) 28 loig le | 2s | 38 
SRR CM AISS BISS|R EA ele |S Sida 
Upper Bed ...... # |...) |]. .| Le wound: #\*|*! 2 | * 
Lower Bed .=.... % | | |e | * cil i a Fh * 
| 
Peculiar to Upper Bed. Peculiar to Lower Bed. Common to both. 
Badger. Hyzena. | Man. 
Horse. Brown Bear ? Fox. 
Pig. Elephas antiquus. Grisly Bear. 
Reindeer. Rhinoceros leptorhinus. Red Deer. 
Goat or Sheep ? Hippopotamus, 
Bos primigenius ? 


Of course further work may much alter these lists, 


172 , REPORT—1875. 


The upper bed probably contains remains from the Reindeer period to 
the present, those of later date being mixed up with the older in the mud at 
the surface. But as distinguished from the lower bed, the chief characteris- 
tics of the upper appear to be the presence of Reindeer, and the absence of 
Elephant, Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus, and Hyzna. It is true that by the 
register there appears to be one specimen (a molar tooth) of Reindeer in the 
lower bed. It is marked P 35, and as at a depth of 8 feet, which would 
place it in the lower bed. It seems that this may be possibly a clerical 
error, and that 8 inches would be the proper reading. The mere placing 
the stop before or after the numeral would make the difference; moreover 
there are Reindeer-remains in the same parallel at a depth of 1 foot, and in 
the next parallel at a depth of 8 inches. If it was really found at a depth 
of 8 feet, it is a solitary instance of Reindeer in the lower bed, whereas in 
the upper it is common. 

Of Hyzena, very common in the lower bed, there appears at first sight to 
be one specimen (a humerus) in the upper; but on examination this is not 
quite so certain. It occurs in Parallel 37 at a depth of 2 feet, where the 
two beds run together. This alone ought to put us on our guard. But 
strangely enough it is at 2 feet higher elevation in the same parallel than 
the great skull of Grisly Bear, which is proved by the situation of its lower 
jaw on the surface to belong to the upper bed. It did not lie, however, 
immediately above the Bear’s skull, but 2 feet east of it; so that it seems 
quite possible that the apparent superposition may be only due to the un- 
evenness of the floor at the time when the Bear’s skull came into position. * 

It is also highly improbable that had the Hyena lived at the same time as 
this great Bear, he would have left so fine a skull intact for the Committee 
to exhume. 

These facts are of great interest and importance, as warning us against 
the danger of assuming from the juxtaposition of objects their contempo- 
raneity in all cases. In this case we have a fauna which we may confi- 
dently assign to a cold climate, separated in some parts by an accumulation 
of deposits twelve feet im thickness from an earlier one, which is equally 
characteristic of high temperatures; whereas in another part of the cave 
not far off, where the material to separate them is wanting, we have animals 
from icy and tropical countries intermingled in a confusion which would 
be puzzling did we not get the clue hard by. It is evident that here the 
separation is natural and regular; the mixture is abnormal and accidental. 

It is probable that Brown Bear occurs in both the beds; there: are many 
Bear-remains in both; but they do not, in most cases, admit of specific deter- 
mination. Brown Bear has been found before in the higher beds in other 
parts of the cave. 

Rhinoceros leptorhinus has not been found before in the cave, but its pre- 
sence is well established now by teeth and bones*. It is interesting to note 
that it is as usual accompanied by Llephas antiquus. Hippopotamus, as 
already stated, has been found this year for the first time. 

In the upper bed, the only sign of man’s presence consists of the spinous 
process of a bear’svertebra, which has been hacked, apparently by some cutting- 
instrument with a tolerably regular edge. It might have been done 
with a bronze celt or a polished flint axe. It is probable that chamber D 
was never the resort of man within the historic period. The soft wet mud of 
the floor and the lowness of the roof render it most unlikely that any one would 
take to it, except under the direst necessity or in the pursuit of science. 


* PS, It would appear that the remains occurring in the Cave, formerly attributed to 
R. tichorhinus, really belong to this species, ‘ 


ON THE EXPLORATION OF THE SETTLE CAVES. 173 


In the lower bed, again, evidence of man’s presence is but scanty. At the 
mouth, and close to where the human fibula was found, we have this year 
met with a piece of rib (;2=) apparently nicked by human agency. It is 
about 23 inches of the dorsal end, but the articulating surfaces are broken 
off. There are nine transverse nicks not reaching quite across, some not 
halfway, and also a longitudinal nick. They appear to have been made by 
some clumsy instrument drawn backwards and forwards. In character they 
are totally unlike the square troughed hollows made by the gnawing of 
rodents; and they are equally unlike the furrows heavily ploughed by the 
teeth of Carnivores. This specimen was at a depth of 25 feet from the roof 
of the cave, which at this point was filled to the ceiling. We cannot at 
present say of what animal it isa rib. Some light may perhaps be thrown 
on it by a careful comparison. This is immaterial compared to the main 
fact, which is, that there is much difficulty in supposing it to have been 
nicked by any agency other than human. 

Conclusion.—And now, having restricted ourselves almost entirely to the 
hard road of fact, in conclusion we may perhaps be permitted to indulge in a short 
flight of fancy. Let us endeavour to realize how great is the distance in time 
which separates the savage of Craven from our own day. We have tho 
history of much of it in the Victoria Cave itself, and we may restore some of 
the missing pages from the surrounding district. At the Cave, Roman times 
are separated from our own by sometimes less than one, but not by more 
than two fect of talus, the chips which time detaches from the cliffs above. 
The Neolithic age, which antiquaries know was a considerable time before 
the Roman occupation, is represented by a layer in some places 4 or 5 feet 
beneath the Roman, in others running into it. ‘Then comes a thickness of 
19 feet of talus without a record of any living thing. Judging by the shal- 
lowness of the Roman layer, this must represent an enormous interval of 
time. And this takes us down to the boulders, the inscribed records of the 
Glacial Period. They must represent a long series of climatal changes, 
during which the ice was waxing and waning, advancing and melting back 
over the mouth of the Victoria Cave. This period saw the Reindeer and the 
Grisly Bear occasionally in possession. Then we have an unconformity, a break 
in the continuity of the deposits, the boulders lying on the edges of the older 
beds—Time again! And that time was long enough for changes to take 
place which allowed the district to cool down from a warmth suitable to the 
Hippopotamus and become a fitting pasture-ground for the Reindeer. It 
was in that warm period that the Craven savage lived and died. 

But these are not all the changes which occurred in the north of England 
since that time. The age of the great submergence represented by the sea- 
beaches of Moel Tryfaen and Macclesfield, and by the Middle-Sands-and- 
Gravels of Lancashire, has left no record up at the cave. Your Reporter is of 
opinion that the submergence did not attain in that district a greater depth 
than six or seven hundred feet; and this would still leave the cave 700 feet 
above the sea, though it would cut up the land into a group of islands. The 
fact is sufficient for us, the depth isimmaterial. Upon no fact are geologists 
better agreed than upon the existence of a widespread submergence and 
emergence of land towards the close of the Glacial Period. No tradition is 
common to more races or religions than that of a great deluge. Where back 
in the past is the common point whence these two far-travelled, almost paral- 
lel rays of truth had their origin? In the opinion of your Reporter the 
Crayen savage, who lived before the Great Ice-sheet and before the Great Sub- 
mergence, may form another of the many strong ties which bind together the 
sciences of Geology and Anthropology. 


174, REPORT—1875. 


APPENDIX. 


Table of Remains which fit, pair, or otherwise indicate their belonging to the 
same individual, with the distances at which they were found apart. 


’ =a sy Nat te +t 
I 8 135F bs 
A e |s3s| 8. S&F 

ca a fp Fe| 29 Nature of the Bones. ons 
s Mee 8 oe B28 
2s | 8 |sa| 38 ae 
oS | @ |e RO] Ba ihe 
a a |A A 
ae : Radi 
7 MB HO fe ch -G) Hbdine of large Bex \ COTYESPONA? ........eceeee 12 
7 24) 16-4 2:0 | Femur i 3 
sip =| 26: | 92] 5:3 | Atlas of Bear 
ots 37} 40) 40 | Skull of large Grisly Bear Litteseates 22 
ar 33} 2:0 10| t Right ramus of mandible of ditto 
+ 27 | 103 | 2-0 | Right scapula, Bear 
r 
<i5 30 4 ‘6 | Left 2 i } 7 correspond? ...... 6 or 86 
1 5 . “| , 
Ee 45 6 1:3 | Pelvis of very large Bear 
a |os| 120} 2 
28 c 12:0 0 Left femur of young Boyine 1 Lhe aes 8 
ao 32 | 17:0 ‘6 | Right. ,, u J 
1 i 5 : 2 . 
a3 ai 40 f 0 | Fibula of Bear with tumour } peigecalh alee 10 
B7 1-0 70 ” ” ” 
oo” 15 | 701} 10-0 | Right caleaneum, Hyena } Patt i ee 44 
saa" 37 | 16:0 6:0 Right astragalus, % 
of 1 se 12:0 | Right pisiforme of large Cervus 1 pai Aaa 12 
Ios 22 40 9:0 Left ” ” 
hs 28 9-0 7-0 | Calcaneum of large Bovine | 
Tor 18 | 7:0] 10-0 | Left naviewlare, Bos primigenius + fit ........... 34 
xis 35 56 80 | ,, astragalus, £. | 
1 r - 
1 i 7 e Fade ek ae efoe | pairs diese tia eee 3 
Tis 24 70| 9-0 | Radius, i" 
ul 
tay | 27) 30 1:0 
z 4 5 36 2:0 ‘8 | | Different portions of a magnificent pair Tank 32 
wig 14 10 1:8 | | of Reindeer-antlers J 
1 ; + 
aie | 43] 10] 10) 
Ton 4 5) 35 9-0 5-0 | Right os magnum of Red Deer \ fiih3:. ae 5 
Tor 35 4:0 50 s  uneciforme 5 = 
rh || 2| 8am ; 
ase |]. 3 16 | Right 5 ns 
4 20} 13:0 | 2:0 | Left scapho-lunar, Bear } Ppa A ie Mpligdeyoe. 39 
sty | 36} 30] 50] 4, osmagnum, _,, 


+ The left ramus was already in the Giggleswick Museum, and had been found in 
another part of the Cave. 


"4 
= 
x 

R 
a 
S 
r 
e 
a! 
¥ 
A 
ys 
: 
tp 
a 
: 
al 
» 


THE VICTORIA CAVE SETTLE N®1. 


THE VICTORIA CAVE SETTLA' NU 


- ON THE DRAINAGE-AREA ETC, OF THE RIVER AVON. 175 


EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 


Prats V, 


Victoria Cave, No. 1. This gives a general view of the Cave and the cliffs above. Above 
the workmen is a cave boarded up and used as a tool-house. To the right of that 
is a niche in the Cliff, the old entrance to the Cave first discovered by Mr. Jackson. 
The present entrance, before the excavations, was completely covered up with serees. 
Mr. Jackson, the figure on the right, is sitting close to the arched niches mentioned at 
p. 167. The flat in the fore ground is not a natural feature, but produced by the 
levelling of the tip and talus. The bottom of the valley is at a far lower level. A 
level cutting through the flat is seen going from the left-hand lower corner up to 
the boulders. 

Puare VI. 


Victoria Cave, No. 2, gives a nearer view of the boulders near the entrance, of the rock- 
[ee forming the floor, and of the arched niches described at p. 167. The 
uman relics were found near the crowbar, which is seen in the background be- 
yond the workmen, but at a lower level. Mr. Jackson is standing between the 
boulders and the talus, and the marked difference between the two deposits is well 
seen. The boulders before being photographed were marked § for Silurian, L for 
Carboniferous Limestone, and G for Carboniferous Gritstone. The marks C™ and 
St should have been Cte and Ste for Conglomerate and Stalactite, and denote respec- 
tively a piece of the conglomerate from the base of the Carboniferous Limestone, 
and two large pieces of Stalactite, which haye apparently fallen on the boulders 
from the roof of the Cave before it had been worn as far back as it now is. 


On the River Avon (Bristol): its Drainage-Area, Tidal Phenomena, 
and Dock Works. By Tuomas Howarp, M.Inst.C.E. 


[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.| 
[Prare VII.] 


Tux head-waters of the Bristol Avon may be considered to take their rise 
in the eastern slopes of the lower Cotswolds, to the north of Tetbury in 
Gloucestershire, the stream gathering in from the west, in its course south- 
ward through Malmesbury, the drainage of the oolitic district about Bad- 
minton; while the watershed on the east is only parted by a slight ridge 
from the country draining into the uppermost branches of the Thames. 
Below this the Avon drains the Wootton-Bassett district, together with the 
country bounded by the western outcrop of the chalk hills of Marlborough, 
Avebury, and Beckhampton Downs, and the north-western part of Salisbury 
Plain, including the towns of Calne, Devizes, Melksham, Westbury, Trow- 
bridge, and Bradford-on-Avon. An important tributary, the Frome (Somer- 
setshire), which brings the most southerly part of the drainage of the Avon, 
rises near Bruton, and, embracing the watershed of the easternmost part of 
‘the Mendip Hills, drains the town of Frome and several important manu- 
facturing villages, joining the Avon at about three miles below Bradford. 
Below this the Avon receives on the left the Midford Brook, and on the 
right the Box and other streams; and flowing on through Bath, receives 
several small affluents, and at Keynsham the Chew, which springs from the 
northern slope of the Mendips. In this district the springs from which 
Bristol is supplied with water take their rise, at Chewton Mendip. Con- 
tinuing its course towards Bristol, the river falls into the tideway over a weir 
at Netham, a point about 3? miles above the entrance to the docks at 


176 REPORT—1875. 


Bristol. The tidal portion of the river continues its course by a new channel, 
cut about seventy years ago south of the city, to its junction with the 
Severn estuary at Kingroad. The fresh water of the river, impounded by 
the dam at Netham, is diverted by a canal into the heart of the city, passing 
under Bristol Bridge through what was formerly the old course of the river, 
but now converted into the Bristol floating harbour. Into the harbour 
enters also another affluent, the Frome (Gloucestershire), taking its rise in 
the hills above Wickwar and Chipping Sodbury. The docks at Bristol have 
therefore the advantage, in short-water seasons, of the combined volume of 
these streams, which, after passing through the harbour, is discharged at the 
various outlets of the locks and basins. 

- The entire drainage-area of the Avon and its tributaries above Netham is 
about 795 square miles, and that of the Gloucestershire Frome about 68 
square miles, making the total area draining in through Bristol Harbour 
about 863 square miles. Between Bristol and the mouth of the river the 
area draining into the Avon is very limited, amounting only to about 314 
square miles, the chief drainage of this part of the district being direct into 
the Severn. 

The longest branch of the Avon, from its rise above Tetbury to Bath city 
bridge, is, taking its winding course, about 46 miles. The navigable part 
of the river from Bath to Netham is about 143 miles, and the tidal portion 
from Netham to the junction with the Severn about 11 miles. Total length 
about 72 miles. 

The fall in the bed of the Avon from Bath to the Severn is as follows, 
Viz. :— 


Distance. Fall. Average rate 


of fall. 
m. f. chs. | feet. 
From Bath Bridge to tail of Netham Dam... | 14 5 0 39°94 1 in 1934 
Tail of Netham Dam to opposite Cumberland 367 15°63 1 in 1298 


HARI +. 5 gases van renneaneksbeaaaes von adnes ction ous 
Cumberland Basin to junction of Avon and j 4 
Severn at low water .......s..ccccsccssceeceees | 4 Oi a ea Lieu 1908 


25 3.8 74:87 


Between Bath and Netham Dam there are several weirs for impounding the 
water for mills and for navigation purposes. 

The very interesting geological features of the district around Bristol will 
probably be dealt with in some other Section of the present Meeting; but it 
may be within the scope of this paper just to remark that there are few 
rivers of the size of the Avon which embrace in their drainage-areas so 
great _a geological range. Every formation from the Old Red Sandstone to 
the Upper Greensand and Chalk inclusive will be found within its water- 
shed. About two thirds of the whole consists of the various strata of the 
Oolitic system, while the remaining one third is made up of a small area of 
Chalk with the Greensand formations on the east, and on the west chiefly 
Lias, together with the formations below it down to the Old Red Sandstone. 

Although there are no mountainous elevations in the drainage-area of the 
Avon, the greater part of the country is of a hilly character. The general 
average elevation of the upper part of the watershed may be taken as about 
300 feet above mean sea-level ; but there will be found many outliers of the 
great and inferior oolites rising from 600 to 700 feet. The hills of greatest 


ON THE DRAINAGE-AREA ETC. OF THE RIVER AVON. 177 


elevation will, however, be found in the Frome (Wiltshire) district, where 
the Old Red Sandstone, at Downhead Common (Mendips), reaches 1078 feet ; 
the Inferior Oolite, at East Cranmore, 814 feet; the Mountain Limestone, 
at Leigh-upon-Mendip, 800 feet; and the Coal-measures above Mells 
about 770 feet. The Inferior Oolite at Lansdown, near Bath, also rises to 
about 720 feet, and at Dundry, south of Bristol, to about 750 feet. 

The hilly and non-absorbent character of the soils of a great portion of the 
district causes the rain which falls to be carried off rapidly ; and heavy floods 
are sometimes experienced in Bristol, especially when the discharge of flood- 
waters, through the floating harbour, is impeded for a time by the rise of high 
spring-tides. The mean average annual rainfall in Bristol is about 322 inches. 
This amount is increased on the slopes of the Cotswold and Mendip Hills, on 
the latter of which it averages about 47 inches; but the mean of the whole 
district would perhaps not be greatly different from that at Bristol, when the 
lessened quantity, falling on the eastern part of the drainage-area, is taken 
into calculation. 

In considering the tides of the Avon, it may be desirable for a moment to 
refer to the special tidal phenomena of the Bristol Channel and Severn estuary. 
The crest of the free tidal wave of the ocean, which in the deep waters of the 
Atlantic rolls forward the high-water line at a rate of probably not less than 
about 500 miles an hour, enters the English and Irish Channels with a gra- 
dually decreasing velocity, owing to the resistance from the seas becoming 
more shoal; and this retardation is further increased in the Bristol Channel 
by the converging lines of its shores. The whole of the appreciable tide in 
the estuary of the Severn is due to the momentum of the wave originated in 
the deep waters of the open ocean. One important result of these conditions 
is, that as increased resistance is met, so the wave is forced higher and the 
tidal range magnified ; and while the rate of progress of the crest of the wave 
is much diminished, the actual movement of the particles of water to and 
fro, in flood and ebb, becomes more rapid owing to the greater rise and fall. 
We have thus a great range of tide in the Severn and the Avon with a con- 
siderable velocity, especially in the narrow and deep parts of the former 
river. 

As evidence of the retarded advance of the crest of the tide-waye and the 
increased range of tide spoken of in the Bristol Channel, we may take the 
case of an ordinary spring-tide, which, advancing in from the Atlantic, brings 
high water off the Scilly Islands at 4" 30™ o’clock, with a rise of tide of 
16 teet above mean low-water springs at that point. This crest of high water 
will reach Lundy, a distance of 140 miles, at 5" 15", where the rise will be 
27 feet; Nash Point, 49 miles from Lundy, at 6" 25", with a rise of 33 feet ; 
Cardiff, 24 miles from Nash Point, at 6" 56", with a rise of 374 feet; King- 
road (mouth of the Avon), 16 miles from Cardiff, at 7" 13", with a rise of 
40 feet ; and Sharpness, 184 miles above Kingroad, at 7" 58", with a rise of 
25 feet, this latter above Ordnance datum, or an absolute height of about 2 feet 
_ A inches above high water at Kingroad, the total range at Sharpness being less 
than at Kingroad, on account of the great slope of the bed of the river. At 
Framilode, about 13 miles above Sharpness, the effect of the gorging up of the 
tide has attained its maximum, and the tide flowing up the remaining distance 
to Gloucester is due entirely to the acquired momentum. At Gloucester the 
further flow upwards is stopped at ordinary tides by weirs recently erected, 
although the top of equinoctial springs flows over them. 

a total range of tides at the mouth of the Avon, and the great difference 
cine. N 


178 REPORT—1875. 


between neaps and springs, are shown ona diagram plotted from observations 
made continuously for a fortnight. In this diagre am. (Plate VIL. fig. 1) the actual 
heights of high and low water “of each tide are plotted above or below Ordnance 
datum, and then two equalizing lines, drawn as a mean of the observations, 
serve to show what would be the high or low water for any given range of 
tide from 15 up to 46 feet. 

The same diagram shows also how far the mean half-tide level at the 
mouth of the Avon agrees with the theoretical mean sea-level, as adopted for 
the Ordnance datum. ‘The half height of each range of tide, taken in the 
above-mentioned observations, is plotted, and a mean equalizing line drawn 
between them. The result shows that at lowest neaps the half-tide level is 

bout 32 inches below, and at highest springs rises to about 1 foot 8 inches 
above Ordnance datum. Other observations made at the mouth of the Avon 
tend to confirm the conclusion that, so far as regards our local tides, the 
mean half-tide is not a fixed level, and that it is above the Ordnance datum. 
This may point to the probability that the mouth of the Avon is somewhat 
within the influence of the surface fall of the lowest part of the Severn, and 
above the true level of ocean low water. 

In connexion with the subject of mean sea-level, it may not be uninter- 
esting to notice that, at the time of the last Meeting of the British Association 
at Bristol, in 1836, the question was much under general discussion, and it 
was resolved that a series of levels should be taken between the Severn at 
Portishead and Axmouth on the English Channel. These were undertaken 
and carried out by the late Mr. T. G. Bunt in 1837, and were conducted 
with an amount of care and skill to secure accuracy which has seldom been 
exceeded. In connexion with the stations levelled to at either end of this 
line, a series of simultaneous tidal observations were made, by which it was 
found that the sea at Portishead rose at high water 13 feet 7 inches higher, 
and fell at low water 12 feet 2 inches lower than at Axmouth, the total 
difference in the ranges of the same tide at the two places being as much as 
25 feet 9 inches. This is a very striking illustration of the effect of the 
momentum of the incoming tide-wayve heaping up the water in this funnel- 
shaped estuary. 

On looking at the map it will be seen that the course of the Avon lies at 
about right angles to that of the Severn; and its tide may be considered to 
be generated, as it were, by the passing tide of the Severn, rather than directly 
due to the momentum of the original tide-wave. As the flood-tide rises in 
Kingroad it pours into the Avon, and a current is established in the latter 
river which soon obtains a momentum of its own. ‘The effect of this is very 
plainly seen, and serves to illustrate the same phenomena of engorgement 
which takes place on a larger scale in the Bristol Channel, for the tide rises 
to a higher level in the Avon the further we go up the river. Taking the 
flood of an equinoctial spring-tide, we find that at the mouth of the Avon 
high water rises to 24 feet 10 inches, at Sea Mills to 25 feet 3 inches, at 
Cumberland Basin to 25 feet 5 inches, at Netham Dam to 25 feet-9 inches, 
and finds its summit at a point about six miles above Cumberland Basin, 
where it rises to 26 feet 4 inches, all above Ordnance datum. Here the 
momentum, as we have seen in the case of the Severn, becomes spent, and 
the rest of the tide has a reversed slope up the freshwater river to Hanham, 
where its level is only 26 feet above datum. 

On the longitudinal section of the Avon exhibited, the points above men- 
tioned are shown, as also some cross sections of the river, the slope of the 


ESE 


ON THE DRAINAGE-AREA ETC. OF THE RIVER AVON. 179 


bed, lines of the ordinary run of low water, and lines of spring and neap 
tides. ‘Ihe crest of the dam at Netham is 19°78 feet above Ordnance datum, 
and is the level at which the floating harbour of Bristol is maintained. All 
tides above this level flow over the dam up towards Hanham and Keynsham. 

Another diagram of tidal observations, taken simultaneously for a fort- 
night at the mouth of the Avon and at Cumberland Basin, shows the relative 
heights and times of the tides at these stations through a complete range of 
springs and neaps. It will be seen that the level of high water at Cumber- 
land Basin is, on an average, about 7 inches higher than at the mouth of the 
river. We also find that, as regards time, high water at Cumberland Basin 
is about the same as at Kingroad. High-water equinoctial springs is, how- 
ever, at Netham about a quarter of an hour, and at Hanham half an hour 
later than at Cumberland Basin. 

Connected with this part of the subject is the duration of flood and ebb, 
and the rate of rise and fall of tide at Kingroad. The general result of our 
observations shows that, at. extreme low neaps, the flood is longer than the 
ebb by about one hour; but that, as the tides increase in range, the duration 
of ebb becomes progressively longer than flood, till at the highest equinoctial 
springs the tide rises from low to high water in 4 hours 45 minutes, and takes 
about 7 hours 30 minutes to ebb. A reference to the diagram (Plate VII. 
fig. 2) will show the rate, hour by hour, of rise and fall at the mouth of the 
Ayon for a low neap and a high equinoctial spring-tide. The rapid rate of 
rise of the spring-tide is remarkable, being 11 feet 11 inches in the second 
hour, and 12 feet 4 inches in the third hour of flood. 

The velocity of run of tide is not great in the Avon, the highest rate, from 
observations taken at spring-tides in the river 1? mile below Cumberland 
Basin, hardly reaching 3 miles an hour. In the Severn at Kingroad the velo- 
city on half-flood at high spring-tides comes up to about 6 miles, and at half- 
ebb to about 43 miles an hour. 

Amongst other diagrams connected with the tides will be found some which 
show simultaneous observations of a low neap, and the highest spring this 
year at Cardiff, Portishead, Avonmouth, Bristol, and Sharpness, kindly taken 
by the engineers of the docks at these several places (fig. 3). 

One important though unwelcome feature connected with the tides of the 
Ayon is the enormous quantity of mud held in suspension in the water. 
With the exception of the Humber, there is probably no river in England 
that in this respect will compare with it. This part of the subject is one not 
merely of scientific interest, but of practical economical importance ; for it is 
necessary that its effect should be taken into consideration in all questions 
of dock construction or maintenance in this district. From many observa- 
tions made to ascertain the average amount of mud held in suspension in the 
water in the river, it is found that, from any given volume of the tide-water, 
there will be a deposit of about ,1,th part of mud, which becomes, under super- 
imposed layers, soon converted into stiff silt. In the Severn the quantity, 
though very considerable, is less than in the Avon. 

The general character of this mud is somewhat different from that of the 
alluvial deposit which forms the banks of the river Avon and the adjacent 
flat lands bordering on the Severn. This alluvium is generally found to con- 
sist of several feet of stiff brown clay, or brick-earth, underneath the top soil, 
below which is a thick bed of bluish silt, containing much very fine quick- 
sand and with but little clay. Below this again is almost invariably found a 
bed of coarse gravel, with frequent fossil remains of red deer, horse, and 

n2 


180 REPORT—1875. 


ox (Bos longifrons and Bos primigenius). The level of the surface is very 
uniform over the whole district, and is below high water of equinoctial 
spring-tides, the country, where exposed to the overflow of the tides, being 
protected by an ordinary sea-bank of from 3 to 5 feet high. The flat margin of 
grass land between the sea-bank and the edge of the water still continues to 
be raised above the level of the enclosed land by the deposit from very high 
tides. 

The mud spoken of is of an exceedingly light character, borne up and 
down in suspension in the water as long as the mean velocity of ebb or 
flow does not fall much below about 24 feet per second. Whenever from 
any cause the velocity is much reduced, the mud begins to form a deposit. 
An analysis of this silt, and also of the upper and lower strata of the alluvial 
bed through which the lower part of the Avon runs, has been kindly made 
by Mr, W. W. Stoddart, F.G.S., and is as follows :— 


Top bed of Alluvium (Brown Clay). 


parts. 
Rlamteaeuicht eel! Jeet huad so adal.slowteate 26°52 
Sand with small quantity of mica ............ 28:14 
Canbosaip ofiiine wca wisn t..'2diewet kee Laat 
Bulphate disilie x '2.chys un purse! eo . sissrhacntoedils 4:41 
Protoxide and peroxide of iron .............. 4°74 
Salts of sodium, magnesium, &c. ............ 1:65 
Wieanie Aaniietal: de siicdt. Pails aie'd sta) nevis Be 4-15 
MSE tei ratte eis Saas Bf icesis de: «RR 15-28 

100-00 

Bottom bed (or Blue Silt). 

ie Make cite AER Omi YORE he Re 3°55 
Saale ad iirundcbtadndanvdkelviiestes spinels 31°71 
Canhgnate oftlimer, mccis gaiv\.ca hh eater ewiss 33°84 
Salphabewot Mampi.) decid «ids omen ee boenlonen 4:69 
Rerods ofarebigatic Sistas cae ae die atelncdsate ae 2°63 
Soluble, salts smcct.i:. iroitanake varied ete aoe 1-29 
Orzanicumater jis dirt ean de. ediededioakeant 2-64 
Motstare cn thisiteapials cpulltx inelnes tsar ee 19:65 

100-00 


Tidal mud of Avon, taken from recent deposit in “ North Channel.” 


parts. 


AAS! corde Rc ects SOSA at ie Poe te 22°48 
Sand (viz. coarse 0-61, fine 1:04) ............ 1:65 
Carbonate of lime ......... Pd A Pate th An cera af 99:27 
PELORTe OMINOME Sete ee eee Cee 4-43 
NOMDIGMaITSN ec ee ae eee 5:29 
PrrsHG MAME Sethe ees. os te ake es ee ee Oates 
borrraree ot Pore eeen Se Peniyhe! (fOs et He AL-75 

100-00 


A striking instance of the great amount of mud held im suspension in the 
tide-water of the Avon, and the readiness with which it will, under fayour- 


ON TIE DRAINAGE-AREA ETC, OF THE RIVER AVON, 181 


able conditions, deposit and form accretions, has been shown in the last: fow 
years at the mouth of the Avon. In the year 1852 the author assisted in 
making a very accurate survey of the depths of water at the junction of the 
Severn and Avon, and of the entrance-channels leading into the latter river. 
At that date, and indeed from time immemorial, the only available channel 
for shipping was the ‘‘ North Channel,” and there was then a depth of water 
of from 6 to 10 feet at low water spring-tides. The other channel, the 
“Swashway,” was gradually becoming used by small craft when the tide 
was in, but there was no low-water channel through it. The depth of the 
“North Channel” was good up to 1865, when the Irish and other steamers 
used to land their passengers there. Even in October 1867, Capt. Bedford, 
R.N., who was surveying the roadstead, says he “ found 42 feet of water in 
this channel, but that in 1871 he only found 8 feet, showing an accumulation 
of 34 feet, or at the rate of 92 inches a month.” 

On a plan accompanying this paper (Plate VII.) is shown a survey made 
of the entrances to the Avon in 1852, and another made in 1875, together 
with sections taken across the “ North Channel” at these dates. In these 
sections the extent of silting up is shown; and calculations made there- 
from give a quantity of over a million cube yards of mud deposited here 
within the last ten years. The top of spring-tide still flows over the surface 
and adds to the deposit, but at neap-tides the new ground can be safely walked 
across. ‘The greatest depth of the silting up is about 41 feet above the bed 
of the river in 1852. 

The foregoing remarks on the watershed and on the recorded observations 
of the tides of the Avon will, it is hoped, have served to give a general 
knowledge of the natural conditions and capabilities of the river. It remains 
only necessary to show briefly what has been, from time to time, done in the 
way of providing for or improving the accommodation for vessels frequenting 
the port. 

Up to about the middle of the last century the shipowners of Bristol seem 
to have been content with the accommodation the tide (then flowing and 
ebbing through the centre of the city) gave them. Vessels were then com- 
paratively small, and of a build adapted to lay aground at low water. From 
the year 1765 to 1800, however, various schemes, including amongst others 
designs from Smeaton, Ralph Walker, Josias and William J essop, were brought 
forward for providing floating dock accommodation, ending ultimately in the 
carrying out of a plan by William Jessop. This design took possession of 
those portions of the rivers Avon and Frome which ran through the city, 
converting them into the present floating harbour, and substituting a new 
channel for the tidal water of the Avon to the south of the city. This scheme 
was projected, carried out, and the docks held by a private company. 

Looking at the character of the public works at that day, the construction 
of Jessop’s works was a very spirited undertaking, and they afforded for a 
long time accommodation in advance of most other ports. But about the 
year 1830, when steam-vessels were beginning to take an important place 
and ships were growing in size, the inadequacy of the old lock entrances, and 
the difficulties of the navigation of the river, began to be seriously felt, and 
various schemes were brought forward to provide accommodation at King- 
road. Amongst other designs for this purpose was one for a stone pier by 
Mr. Mylne in 1832, and another by Sir J. MacNeill in 1839, and also one 
for a floating pier by the late Mr. I. K. Brunel in 1839. None of these, 
however, were carried out; and to the discontent felt at the want of adequate 


182 REPORT—1875. 


accommodation for the port soon. began tobe added the opinion that the high 
charges of the Dock Company tended still further to restrict the trade. Much 
local agitation ensued, ending in the transfer of the docks (in 1848) from the 
Company to the Corporation of Bristol. They at once resolved to make an 
alteration in one of their entrance-locks, so as to accommodate steamers of 
the ‘Great Western’ and ‘ Great Britain’ class, built in Bristol. A new lock 
sufficiently wide to admit these was constructed, on the site of a smaller lock 
at Cumberland Basin, by the late Mr. Brunel. In this lock may be seen the 
earliest examples of lock-gates made in the form of eaissons. 

The first act of the Corporation, on taking over the docks, was to reduce 
the dues ; and from this cause, as well as also partly from the port sharing 
in the general increase of trade throughout the country, the dock revenues 
began to amend. Just about the same time the dimensions of steamers were 
vastly increasing, and an increased desire was felt here that the port of Bristol 
should have accommodation for them. It was not so much a want of dock- 
space in the floating harbour that was felt, as the difficulties arising from the 
tortuous course of and want of depth in the river, and also the limits placed 
on the breadth of vessels by the lock entering the harbour. Some improve- 
ments were made in the river, and several schemes for more extensive 
alterations considered. Various designs for independent docks at Portis- 
head and on the Gloucestershire side of the Avon were also brought forth, 
the one on the most extensive scale being by the late Mr. J. M. Rendel in 
1852. 

Amongst other modes proposed for providing for the largest class of ocean- 
going steamers was that of placing a dam, with suitable entrance-locks and 
works, at the mouth of the Avon, so as to form the channel of the river into 
an extension of the present floating harbour, entirely supplied with land- 
water, and having facilities for admitting ordinary vessels at almost all states 
of the tide. After long consideration of the subject, and making tidal and 
other observations bearing upon the question of its feasibility, the author 
laid before the Corporation, in 1859, the particulars of a design which he con- 
sidered could be practically and safely carried out, and which, while it would 
have given to Bristol all she could need for any extension of trade, would 
not, in his opinion, have been detrimental to the navigation of the Severn 
estuary or to any national interest. Further, it was obvious that by keeping 
the whole of the trade of the port under one jurisdiction, with due responsi- 
bilities, means would have been available for affording that artificial aid to 
the maintenance of the roadstead, and for the regulation of a good channel 
through it, which successive surveys show to be increasingly desirable. These 
opinions have not been altered by more recent observations of the local con- 
ditions of the case, nor by an unprejudiced consideration of the various argu- 
ments which have been advanced against the idea. 

In venturing to propose such a plan, full recognition was given to the 
general axiom, that the abstraction or suppression of the tidal water of an 
estuary or harbour is undesirable. But every case must be judged on its 
own merits; and investigation of this led to the conviction that it would 
not, as regards the Severn, be so much a case of abstraction as of partial 
restoration. It is probable that the momentum of the tidal wave, which we 
have in a former part of this paper seen coming up to Kingroad, would not 
be reduced nor the rise of tide there lessened, whether the consequent flow 
of the water were drawn off up the Avon, or left to flow on directly up the 
Severn. Moreover, it was held likely that this diversion, instead of bene- 


Plate Vil 


Report Brit. As. 


- 


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LOTS. 


Diagram shewing hanges of tides 
at Mouth Cf ton : 


— Observed Mean Hall range 
Ordnance Datirn 7 


RATE 
RISE AND FALL oF TIDES 
AT MOUTH or AVON 


Neap 


FLooD 
fhegiees E: 
S4hour + #97 
hour 627 
ORDNANCE 

Se hour =" 0> 


2hour ~ 40" — 


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LW. + 877, 


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£86 
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ON THE DRAINAGE-AREA ETC, OF THE RIVER AVON. 183 


fiting the anchorage, tends to lessen the power of the tide to keep open a 
good deep channel in the Severn. Examination of the soundings tends to 
confirm this opinion ; there is an evident shoaling of the water in the Severn 
immediately above the mouth of the Avon. 

The limits of this paper will not, however, permit the bringing forward all 
that might be said on this subject, or the opportunity of showing the natural 
as well as commercial requirements and facilities which the district afforded 
for carrying out such a work. The scheme received, for various reasons, 
considerable local opposition, and was ultimately left in abeyance. The 
great outlay (about £1,000,000) which has been recently, or will very shortly 
have been, made on dock-works connected with the Avon, and the separate 
vested interests which have consequently arisen, have placed serious financial 
difficulties in the way of its speedy revival. 

Within the last few years the Corporation have, through the author, as 
their engineer, made many improvements in their existing dock-works, ‘The 
old lock entrances, which were not adapted to the trade of the present day, 
have been supplemented by two new locks, of larger dimensions, laid at a 
deeper level than the old ones, and provided with all modern appliances of 

“hydraulic and other machinery for quick work. It would be out of place to 
attempt to give here all the details of construction of these works. The 
ordinary and some special difficulties were met with and overcome. These 
chiefly arose from unsatisfactory foundations, and from haying to work in 
confined spaces surrounded by water, portions of the wall of the approach to 
the outer entrance-lock requiring to be built in trenches on the river-bank, 
within the line of high water, at a depth of 53 feet. In the bottom of the 
lock excavations much trouble was experienced from springs of water from 
the gravel bursting up through the foundation level of the lock. These were 
overcome by building in at intervals along the lock inverts pipes reaching 
down into the gravel, each fitted at the top with a very light gun-metal 
valve, which, lifting easily with pressure from beneath when the tide is low, 
permits the water to escape, and closes again when the pressure becomes 
greater from above. These relief-valves have acted very satisfactorily. The 
lock-gates are mostly of wrought iron, made on the arch principle, and partly 
buoyant. In their design some special features have been adopted, which 
may be seen in the working drawings laid before the Section for inspection 
by any Members feeling interest in the subject. The gates work remarkably 
weil and keep practically water-tight, a somewhat unusual success in. double 
skin lock-gates. Other drawings and details of the dock-works are also open 
for inspection. 

Improvements are also being carried on by the Corporation in the removal 
of some of the projecting points of rock, and the deepening of the bed of the 
river. The general line of slope to which it is proposed ultimately to re- 
duce the bed is shown on the longitudinal section of the river (Plate VII.). 

Another important work being carried out inside of the harbour is the 
formation of a new quay, about half a mile long, the construction of the 
retaining-wall of which may be a matter of some interest. It is being built 
in a trench, without a coffer-dam, partly within and partly along the edge 
of the water of the harbour. With the exception of the face, which is of 
dressed stone, and the coping, which is of granite, the whole of the wall is 
of concrete, laid in steps and beds alternately of blue lias lime and of Portland 
cement concrete, the object being to gain the advantage of the comparative 
cheapness of the lime, and the more quick and certain setting of the cement. 


184. REPORT— 1875. 


A drawing of this work is shown with the others. The two separate portions 
of the work are found to bond well together, and the system is one which 
admits of rapidity of construction, and without much skilled labour. 

In addition to the dock which has been alluded to as under construction 
on the Gloucestershire side of the Avon, there is also another dock on the 
Somersetshire side at Portishead. As details of each of these docks have 
already been laid before the Section, it is not necessary again to give the 
particulars which the author had prepared respecting them. 


Report of the Committee, consisting of the Rev. H. F. Barnes, H. E. 
Dresser (Secretary), T. Harzanp, J. E. Harrine, Professor 
Newton, and the Rey. Canon Tristram, appointed for the purpose 
of inquiring into the possibility of establishing a “ Close Time” for 
the protection of indigenous animals, and for watching Bilis intro- 
duced into Parliament affecting this subject. 


Your Committee have again to express their regret that, notwithstanding 
every exertion on their part, they were unable to obtain the introduction 
into Parliament, in time to allow of its being successfully carried, of the 
Bill which their former Reports have indicated to be most desirable ; but at 
the same time they have great pleasure in stating that Mr. Henry Chaplin, 
M.P. for Mid Lincolnshire, holds out to them the hope that he will at an 
early period of the next session bring forward such a measure. 
' Your Committee continue to receive assurances of the efficient working of 
the Sea-birds Preservation Act of 1869. 

In view of the proceedings likely to be taken in the ensuing session, as 
above stated, your Committee respectfully solicit their reappointment. 


Report of the Committee appointed to Superintend the Publication of 
the Monthly Reports of the progress of Chemistry, the Committee 
consisting of Professor A. W. Wittramson, J. R.S., Professor Franx- 
LAND, F.R.S., and Professor Rosconr, F.R.S. 


Tue Committee have much pleasure in reporting that the Chemica! Society 
has continued to publish the monthly reports of the progress of Chemistry, 
which were commenced five years ago by the aid of a grant of money from 
the Association, and also raised by donations from members of the Society. 

These reports have been edited by Mr. Watts, to whose earnest and 
assiduous labours much ofthe success of the reports must be attributed. A 
considerable number of chemists divide among themselves the labour of 
preparing abstracts of the chemical papers which have been published in the 
course of each month. 

In spite of the smallness of the remuneration offered to these gentlemen, 
the expense of publishing the abstracts is: very considerable, and has 


ON DREDGING OFF THE DURHAM AND N.-YORKSHIRE coast. 185 


become a scrious strain upon the resources of the Society, more especially 
now that the aids from the Association and from private sources have already 
been continued for the period which had been assigned to them. 

The Committee have reason to believe that these abstracts supply an 
important need for the advancement of our science, and that they are highly 
valued by the members of the Society and other chemists. 

They confidently trust that the Society may be able to carry on the im- 
portant work which has been thus auspiciously commenced; and they con- 
gratulate the Association on the service which it has rendered to science 
by supplying to that enterprise the aid which was absolutely needed in its 
infancy. 


Report on Dredging off the Coast of Durham and North Yorkshire in 
1874. By Grorce Srewarpson Brapy, C.M.Z.S., and Davin 
Rosertson, F.G.S. 


A srmr account of the dredging undertaken by us on the coast was presented 
to the British Association last year, but no attempt was then made to give 
lists or detailed observations. The following Report embraces lists of all 
that came under our notice in the groups of Mollusca, Entomostraca (Ostra- 
coda and Copepoda), Polyzoa, Hydrozoa, Spongozoa, and Foraminifera. 
Amongst Echinodermata our captures did not include any species requiring 
special notice, whilst among the larger Crustacea (Decapoda) the only species 
of unusual occurrence in the district were Stenorhynchus longirostris, Fabr., 
Portunus depurator, Linn., and Ebalia tumefacta, Mont. Several species 
belonging to an interesting group of minute Crustaceans not hitherto noticed 
in the British seas (Isopoda Remigantia of G. O. Sars) were taken, but we 
are not yet able to name more than one or two of them with certainty. 
Special attention was given to the Acarides, a large number of which were 
obtained, and amongst them some previously undescribed species which have 
been figured and described by one of us in the ‘ Proceedings of the Zoological 
Society’ for the present year. But the greatest number of novelties occurred 
amongst the Copepoda, 28 species of this group being new to science, and 11 
new to British records. 

The Mollusca, Ostracoda, and Foraminifera of the Northumberland and 
Durham coasts had been so fully investigated by the Dredging-Expeditions 
of the Tyneside Naturalists’ Field-Club, undertaken with the help of the 
British Association in the years 1862, 1863, 1864, that little was left to be 
done in those branches. But, as might be expected, notwithstanding that 
much of the ground had already been well searched, we are now able to add 
to the number of species noted in the previous Reports, while, on the other 
hand, some species contained in the earlier lists are absent from ours*, 

To the list of Testaceous Mollusca prepared by the late Mr. Alder from the 


* It must be noticed, however, that the area embraced in our dredgings of last year 
1874), though of nearly similar extent, is not quite identical with that investigated by the 
'yneside Field-Club in the years 1862-64. ‘The present Report refers to the coast of 

Durham and the northern part of Yorkshire as far as Scarborough, while those of the earlier 
expeditions embraced the seaboard of the two counties of Durham and Northumberland, 
thus reaching nearly sixty miles further north, while, on the other hand, our last year’s 
explorations went about thirty-five miles further south than those of ten years ago. 


REPORT—1875. 


186 


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REPORT—1875. 


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189 


ON DREDGING OFF THE DURHAM AND N.-YORKSHIRE COAST, 


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190 


FORAMINIFERA (continued), 


REPORT—1875. 


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ON DREDGING OFF THE DURHAM AND N.-YORKSHIRE COAST. 


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—- 


192 REPORT—1875. 


three years’ dredgings of the Tyneside Naturalists’ Field-Club, we are now 
able to add 21 species. 

From the same dredgings 19 species of Ostracoda were catalogued by 
Mr. Norman, but five years later the number was increased to 47 by 
Mr. G. 8. Brady. Our present list includes 71 species, one of which, 
Cytherideis Hilda, is new to science. 

The Rey, A. M. Norman, who accompanied us during part of the dredging- 
expedition, has kindly examined and reported on the Polyzoa, Hydrozoa, and 
Spongozoa. Among the Polyzoa is one interesting form new to the British 
seas, Bugula fruticosa, Packard ; one Hydrozoon new to the east coast, Lafoéa 
pocillum, Hincks ; and two undescribed sponges, Hymeniacidon virgulatus 
and Halichondria virgea, both of which are here described by Dr. Bowerbank. 

The Foraminifera from the earlier dredgings were ably worked out by 
Mr. H. B. Brady, and numbered 70 spccies, a total subsequently increased to 
74, or perhaps rather more. The list will now, with the additions we have 
made, comprise 94 species, or rather more than 60 per cent. of the recorded 
British Foraminifera. 

But apart from the number of specics obtained there is much of interest in 
their distribution, as may conveniently be seen in the annexed Tables. It 
was shown by Mr, Alder* that the Testaceous Mollusca of the Northumber- 
land coast present a distinctly boreal character, which is shared more or less 
by the whole invertebrate fauna; but it may be remarked with regard to the 
Ostracoda that this character is by no means so apparent. It will be seen 
from the Table that Cythere lutea, C. viridis, C. angulata, Cytheridea pune- 
tillata, and Cytherura nigrescens are absent or rare. All these species are 
characteristically boreal, and strongly represented in the Posttertiary (« Gla- 
cial”) clays of Scotland. At the same time it is interesting to note that 
although Cythere luica and Cytherura nigrescens are absent or rare in the 
dredgings from this coast, they are extremely common between tide-marks, 
where they must be subject to much greater variation of temperature. But 
if a low temperature were specially congenial to these species, we should 
expect to find them further out at sea, where they certainly lived in great 
abundance during the deposition of our Posttertiary clays. It is a curious 
fact that these two species are confined almost entirely to the littoral and 
Laminarian zones of the cast coast, but are abundant in deep water on the 
west, as, for instance, in the Frith of Clyde. On the whole, then, we must 
conclude that the Ostracoda and Foraminifera of the north-east coast of 
England do not present that marked arctic character which has been noticed 
in a considerable group of the Northumbrian Mollusca; but that there is, on 
the contrary, a marked absence of some typically northern forms which are 
abundant in the warmer seas of the western coast. Nor can we suppose that 
a cold arctic current is the only or even perhaps the chief agent in the con- 
tinued existence of this peculiar Northumbrian molluscan fauna, else we 
could scarcely fail to have had an equally well-marked development of arctic 
types amongst other groups of invertebrata whose organization renders them 
even more easy of distribution. We must therefore, in the absence of more 
accurate information, look to some strictly local circumstances as having been 
the chief causes of the retention of the species in question over particular 
circumscribed areas, 


* Natural-History Transactions of Northumberland and Durham, 1865. 


ON DREDGING OFF THE DURHAM AND N.-YORKSHIRE coast. 193 


TESTACEOUS MOLLUSCA. 


The letters c, me, r, mr, signifying common, moderately common, rare, moderately rare, 
refer only to the hauls in which the species were taken. Those marked * are new to the 
district. 

BRACHIOPODA. 
Argiope capsula, Jeff. 4 miles eff Robin Hood’s Bay, 30-35 fathoms ; bottom broken 
shells and zoophytes. 
CoNCHIFERA. 
Anomia ephippium, Linn.: mr. Small in most of the gatherings where the ground 
was hard. 
— , var. aculeata, Mill.: mr. Small in most gatherings on hard ground. 
Pecten pusto, Linn.: me. 4~6 miles off Hawthorn and Redclitf, 20-30 fa.; gravel 
and dead shells. 
—— opercularis, Linn.: mr, The living all small in various gatherings. 
— tigrinus, Mill.: mc. Off Hawthorn, Staiths, Redcliff, and Robin Hood’s 
Bay, 20-87 fa.; gravelly. 
similis, Laskey: mr. 5 miles off Redcliff, 50 fa.; gravel and dead shells. 
striatus, Mull.: mr. Off Castle Eden and Redcliff, 20-30 fa.; gravelly. 
varius, Linn. Dead, off Robin Hood’s Bay, 30 fa.; gravel, dead shells, and 
zoophytes. 
Mytilus pe Linn.: r. Dead shell, off Redcliff, 30 fa.; gravel and dead shells. 
modiolus, Linn.: me. Small, none above an inch, 6 miles off Hawthorn, 
37 fa.; sandy gravel. 
Lima Loscombii, G. B. Sow.: mr. Hawthorn and Redcliff, 20-37 fa.; sandy 
gravel and dead shells. 
subauriculata, Mont.: mr. 5 miles off Redcliff, 30 fa.; sandy gravel and 
dead shells. 
Modiolaria discors, Linn.: mr. 6 miles off Hawthorn, 20 fa. ; sandy gravel. 
nigra, Gray: r. Dead valves, off Staiths, 25 fa. ; gravelly. 
marmorata, Forbes. In the Ascidia mentula, off Seaham, 35 fa.; gravelly 
sandy mud. 
Crenella decussata, Mont.: c. 14 miles off Seaham, 35 fa.; sandy mud. 
Arca tetragona, Poli: ry. Small, 5 miles off Castle Eden, 20 fa.; coarse gravel. 
Nuculus nucleus, Linn.: Hawthorn and Redcliff, 20-30 fa. ; sandy gravel and 
dead shells. 
—— tenuis, Mont.: c. Fry 20 miles off Sunderland, 45 fa.; muddy sand. 
nitida, Sow. Dead shell, with the last. 
Leda (caudata) minuta, Mill.: me. In most of the gatherings. 
*Pectunculus glycymeris, Linn. A dead shell, 5 miles off Redcliff, 30 fa.; gravel and 
dead shells. 
Cardium echinatum, Linn. Dead valves, 5 miles off Robin Hood's Bay, 30 fa. ; 
ravelly. 
ious Gmel.: yr. With the above. 
edule, Linn,: r. Dead valves, off Durham coast. 
fasciatum, Mont. Off Hawthorn and Castle Eden, 20-27 fa. ; sandy gravel. 
norvegicum, Spengl.: mr. Dead valves, 6 miles off Hawthorn, 20 fa.; 
sandy gravel. 
Lucina borealis, Linn.: yr. 8 miles off Staiths, 25 fa.; sandy gravel and dead shells. 
Axinus flecuosus, Mont.: r. 5 miles off Hartlepool, 35 fa. ; muddy sand. 
*Diplodonta rotunda, Mont. 6 miles off Hawthorn, 37 fa.; sandy gravel. 
Keliia suborbicularis, Mont.: mr. Off Hawthorn and Redcliff, 20-30 fa.; sandy 
avel. 
_ Montacuta substriata, Mont.: me. Off Redcliff and Robin Hood’s Bay, 80 fa.; 
gravel and dead shells. 
Cyprina islandica, Linn.: mr. Small, off Marsden and Redeliff, 30-33 fa. ; gravel 
and muddy sand. 
Astarte suleata, Da Costa: c. 5 miles off Hartlepool, 35 fa.; muddy sand. 
compressa, Mont.: mc. With the above. 
triangularis, Mont.: mr. With the above. 
1875. “: o 


*. 


194 REPORT—1875. 


Venus exoleta, Linn. Dead valves, 6 miles off Hawthorn, 20 fa. ; sandy gravel. 
lincta, Pult.: mr. Off Marsden, 33 fa.; muddy sand. 
fasciata, Da Costa: me. Off Redcliffand Robin Hood’s Bay, 30 fa.; gravelly. 
casina, Linn.: me, and large. 14 miles off Seaham, 35 fa.; sandy mud. 
ovata, Penn.: me. Large, off Hartlepool and Redcliff, 30 fa.; muddy sand 
and gravel. 
gallina, Linn.: me. Off Redeliff, 30 fa.; gravelly. 
Tapes virgineus, Linn.: me. Off Hawthorn and Castle Eden, 20 fa.; sand and gravel. 
Lucinopsis undata, Penn.: r. Off Hartlepool, 36 fa. ; muddy sand. 
Tellina crassa, Gmel. Off Hawthorn, dead shells, 20 fa.; sandy gravel. 
* tenuis, Da Costa: mr. Off Redcliff, 30 fa.; gravel and dead shells. 
—— pusilla, Phil.: mr, With the above. 
*—— fubula, Gron.: me. Large, off Seaham, 35 fa. ; sandy mud. 
Psammobia tellinella, Lamk,: mr. 14 miles off Seaham, Hawthorn, 35 fa.; sandy 
mud and grayel. 
ferroensis, Chem.: me. Off Hawthorn, 20 fa.; sandy gravel. 
Mactra subtruncata, Da Costa: r. Castle Eden, 20 fa.; gravelly. 
elliptica, Brown. Off Hawthorn and Redcliff. 
*—— stultorum, Linn. A valve, off Scarborough, 17 fa.; sandy. 
- Scrobicularia prismatica, Mont.: me. Off Seaham, 35 fa, ; sandy mud, 
alba, Wood: ry. With the above. 
Solen pellucidus, Penn. 20 miles off Sunderland, 45 fa. ; muddy sand. 
*. ensis, Linn, A broken yalve, off Redcliff, 30 fa.; gravelly. 
Thracia papyracea, Poli: mr. Off Hawthorn, 20 fa.; sandy gravel. 
, var. villosiuscula, Macq.: r. With the above. 
Neera cuspidata, Olivi. One young, covered with sand, off Seaham, 35 fa.; sandy 
mud. 
Corbula gibba, Olivi: me. Off Sunderland and Seaham, 35-45 fa.; muddy sand. 
Mya truncata, Linn. Valves, and some fry between Castle Eden and Redcliff, 
20-35 fa.; gravelly. 
Saxicava rugosa, Linn.: me. None large, in most of the gatherings. 
arctica, Linn.: r. Redcliff, 30 fa. ; gravel and dead shells. 
*Pholas crispata, Linné. Fragment of large shell, between Castle Eden and Redcliff, 
20-35 fa. ; gravelly, 


SOLENOCONCHIA. 
Dentalium entalis, Linn.: ¢, and large, Off Hawthorn, 20 fa.; sandy gravel and 
other gatherings. 
*—— tarentinum, Lamk.: ry. Small, dead, off Hartlepool, 35 fa.; muddy sand. 


GASTEROPODA. 


Chiton cinereus, Linn.: ry. Off Staiths, 25 fa. ; gravel and dead shells. 
marmoreus, Fabr.: r. Robin Hood’s Bay, 30 fa.; gravel and zoophytes. 
Tectura virginea, Miill.: yr. Off Castle Eden, 20 fa. ; coarse gravel. 
Emarginula fissura, Linn.: mr. Off Redcliff, 80 fa. ; gravel and dead shells. 
Capulus hungaricus, Linn.: mr. Small, off Seaham and Robin Hood’s Bay, 
35 fa.; sandy mud and gravel. i 
*Trochus magnus, Linn.: ry. Dead, off Hawthorn, 20 fa. ; sandy gravel. 
tumidus, Mont.: me. Off Redcliff, 30 fa. ; gravelly and dead shells, mostly 
small. : 
cinerarius, Linn.: r. Off Castle Eden, 20 fa. ; coarse gravel. 
Montacuti, Wood: yr. Off Redcliff, 30 fa.; gravel and dead shells, 
millegranus, Phil.: c. Otf Castle Eden and. Redcliff, 20-30 fa.; gravel and 
dead shells. 
—— szizyphinus, Linn.: ec. Off Castle Eden and Redcliff, 20-30 fa.; gravel and 
dead shells. 
*. , var. Lyonsti, Leach. With the above. 
*LZacuna crassior, Mont.: r. Off Castle Eden, 20 fa.; coarse gravel. 
—— pallidula, Da Costa: vy. Off Staiths, 25 fa. ; gravel and dead shells. 
Rissoa punctura, Mont.: me, Off Marsden and Seaham and Hawthorn, 20-35 
fa. ; sandy gravel. 


> 


ON DREDGING OFF THE DURHAM AND N.-YORKSHIRE COAST. 195 


Ziussoa parva, Da Costa: me. Durham and Northumberland coasts, 20-30 fa, 
—_—— , var. interrupta. More common. 
striata, Adams: me. In most of the gatherings. 
vitrea, Mont.: r. Off Hawthorn, 35 fa.; sandy gravel. 
soluta, Phil.: me. Obtained with the above. 
Caecum glabrum, Mont.: me. Off Seaham and Redeliff, 30-35 fa.; sandy mud 
and gravel. 
Turritella terebra, Linn. Off Marsden and Seaham, 35 fa. ; muddy sand. 
Scalaria Trevelyana, Leach: me. Off Redcliff and Robin Hood’s Bay, 30-35 fa. ; 
avelly. ss 
Aclis ee Titton : r. Off Scarborough, 17 fa. ; sandy. 
*Odostomia rissoides, Hanley: r. Off Hawthorn, 20 fa. ; sandy gravel. 
* acuta, Jeff.: mr. Oif Hartlepool and Scarborough, 25-35 fa.; muddy sand 
and gravel. 
— unidentata, Mont.: r. Off Hawthorn, 20 fa.; sandy gravel. 
obliqua, Alder: ry. Off Marsden, 35 fa.; muddy sand. 


* 


+ , var. Warren, Thompson. Off Hawthorn. 
—— indistincta, Mont.: me. Off Robin Hood’s Bay, 30 fa.; gravelly. 
——— interstincta, Mont.: r.. Off Castle Eden, 20 fa.; gravelly. 
—— spiralis, Mont.: mc. Robin Hood’s Bay, 30 fa. ; gravelly. 
--— laciea, Linn.: me. Redcliff, 30 fa.; gravel and dead shells, 
* 


acicula, Phil.: me, Oif Hawthorn and Scarborough, 20-25 fa.; sandy gravel. 
Stilifer Turtont, Brod.: my. Off Sunderland and Seaham, 20-35 fa.; on spines 
of Echinus pictus. 
ELulima distorta, Desh.: c. Off Hawthorn, 20 fa. ; sandy gravel. 
» var. gracilis. With the above. 
bilineata, Alder: me. Off Seaham and Hartlepool, 35 fa.; muddy sand. 
Natica islandica, Gmel.: r. Off Redcliff, 80 fa.; gravel and dead shells. 
grenlandica, Beck: yr. 20 miles of Sunderland, 45 fa.; muddy sand. 
—— Alderi, Forbes: me. Small, in most of the gatherings, 
Montacuti (Montagui), Forbes: mr. In a few of the gatherings, 
Velutina levigata, Penn.: mr. Off Robin Hood’s Bay, 30 fa.; gravel and zoophytes. 
Aporrhais pes-pelecani, Linn.: me. Off Marsden and Sunderland, 33-45 fa. ; 
muddy sand. 
Buecinum undatum, Linn. Obtained with the above, the shells thin and small 
with high ridges. 
Trophon truncatus, Strom: me. Redcliffand Robin Hood’s Bay, 30-35 fa.; gravelly. 
Fusus gracilis, Da Costa: me. 7 miles off Marsden, 30 fa. ; muddy sand. 
antiquus, Linn.: me. With the aboye, mostly small, some large. 
propinguus, Alder: mr. Off Marsden, 33 fa. ; muddy sand. 
Wassa incrassata, Strom: me. Hawthorn and Redcliff, 20-80 fa. 3; sand and 
ravel, 
Defrancia linearis, Mont.: me. Redeliff, 30 fa. ; gravel and dead shells. 
* purpurea, Mont. Obtained with the above. 
Pleurotoma brachystoma, Phil.: mr. Off Marsden, 33 fa. ; muddy sand. 
turricula, Mont.: me. Off Redcliff, 30 fa. ; gravel and dead shells. 
Trevelyana, Turton: me. Off Robin Hood’s Bay, 30 fa.; gravel and zoophytes, 
Cyprea europea, Mont.: r. Dead shell in several gatherings. 
Cylichna umbilicata, Mont.: me. Castle Eden and Redcliff, 20-30 fa. ; gravelly. 
cylindracea, Penn.: c. With the above. 
* Utriculus mammillatus, Phil.: mr. With the above. 
—— truncatulus, Brug.: me. Off Sunderland and Redcliff, 30-45 fa.; muddy 
sand and gravel. 
obtusus, Mont.: r. Off Sunderland, 45 fa. ; muddy sand. 
*Acteon tornatilis, Linn.: me, All small, none more than + inch, off Hawthorn 
20 fa. ; sandy gravel. 
Philine scabra, Miill.: mr. Off Marsden, 33 fa. ; muddy sand. 


PIEROPODA. 


 *Spirialis retroversus, Flem.: x. 5 miles off Redcliff, 80 fa.; gravel and dead shells. 


02 


196 REPORT—1875. 


Subclass ENTOMOSTRACA. 


Order CoPpEPODA. 


Calanus finmarchicus (Gunner). Occurs in almost every dredging. 
longiremis (Claus). One specimen found in a depth of 35 fa., off Robin 
Hood’s Bay. 
Dias longiremis, Lilljeborg. Abundant in many dredgings, and occurred more or 
less in all. 
Temora longicornis (Miller). Occurred in most of the dredgings. 
Isias clavipes, Boeck. In a depth of 35 fa., off Robin Hood’s Bay. 
Centropages hamatus (Lilljeborg). Found in many of the dredgings. 
Cyclops littoralis, Brady. In a depth of 45 fa., 20 miles east of Sunderland. 
Thorellia brunnea, Boeck. Off Robin Hood’s Bay and Staiths, 25-35 fa. 
Cyclopsyllus elongatus, nov. gen. et sp. In a depth of 27 fa., off Hawthorn; sandy 
bottom. 
* Misophria pallida, Boeck. In company with the preceding species. 
Lophophorus insignis, noy. gen. et sp. One specimen taken in the same dredging 
as the preceding. 
Longipedia coronata, Claus. Abundant in almost every dredging. 
Ectinosoma curticornis, Boeck. Almost always in company with the preceding, 
and equally abundant ; both species prefer sandy ground. 
*—— Sarsit, Boeck. Off Robin Hood's Bay, 35 fa. 
erythrops, nov. sp. In depths of 20-35 fa., off Hartlepool, Red Cliff, Staiths, 
and Robin Hood’s Bay; but always scarce, 
—— tenuis, noy. sp. Off Hawthorn, 27-37 fa. 
Zosime (?) fusiformis, nov. sp._ Off Red Cliff, 35 fa. 
spuvilosa, noy. sp. Off Hartlepool. 
*Bradya typica, Boeck. Four specimens, off Hartlepool ; sandy bottom. 
Spio brunnea, nov. gen. et sp. Off Hawthorn, 27 fa. ; sandy bottom. 
*Amymone falcata, Norman. Off Marsden, 25 fa. ; off Robin Hood’s Bay, 35 fa. 
longimana, Claus. One specimen, taken off Hawthorn, 27 fa. 
* spherica, Claus. One specimen, off Red Cliff, about 35 fa. 
Pterothrix sordida, nov. gen. et sp. 20 miles off Sunderland, 45 fa.; muddy sand : 
and 5 miles off Hartlepool; sand, 
Tetragoniceps longiremis, nov. gen. et sp. In 80 fa., off Staiths and Robin Hood’s Bay. 
*Stenhelia rostrata? (Claus). In 35 fa., off Red Cliff and Robin Hood’s Bay. 
hispida (Norman). Off Marsden, 30 fa. 
(?) ama, Brady. Off Marsden, Seaham, Staiths, and Red Cliff, 20-30 fa. 
*Ameira longipes, Boeck. 20 miles off Sunderland, 45 fa.; and off Staiths, 35 fa. 
curticornis, nov. sp. Off Marsden, 30 fa.; 20 miles off Sunderland, 45 fa. 
‘Idya furcata (Baird). Occurred more or less commonly in all the dredgings. 
Delavalia refleca, nov. sp. 5 miles off Hartlepool; sandy bottom. 
robusta, noy. sp. Off Staiths and Robin Hood’s Bay, 30-35 fa. 
Laophonte dubia, noy. sp. Off Marsden, 30 fa.; off Hartlepool. 
Hodgw, Brady. Off Hawthorn, 27 fa. ; and off Hartlepool. a: 
Cletodes pectinata, nov. sp. Off Sunderland, Seaham, Hartlepool, Red Cliff, and 
Robin Hood’s Bay, in depths of 20-45 fa. 
—— propingua, noy. sp. Off Marsden, 25 fa. 
longicaudata, noy. sp. 5 miles off Hartlepool; sandy bottom. 
submgra, nov. sp. Off Robin Hood’s Bay, 35 fa. 
Harpacticus chelifer (Miiller). Off Marsden, 25 fa. ; muddy sand. 
crassicornis, noy. Sp. Off Robin Hood’s Bay, 35 fa. 
Zaus ovalis (Goodsir). Off Staiths and Red Cliff, 30-35 fa. 
Alteutha bopyroides, Claus. Common in all the dredgings. 
Thalestris longimana, Claus. Dredged off Scarborough. 
helgolandica, Claus. 6 miles off Hawthorn, 27 fa. 
rufocincta, Norman, Off Hawthorn and Red Cliff, 27-35 fa. 
*Dactylopus flavus, Claus. Off Hawthorn, Red Cliff, Staiths, and Robin Hood’s 
Bay, 27-85 fa. 
— tisboides, Claus. Off Red Cliff and Robin Hood’s Bay, 80-35 fa, 


* 


ON DREDGING OFF THE DURHAM AND N.-YORKSHIRE COAST, 197 


Dactylopus tenuiremis, nov. sp. 20 miles off Sunderland, 45 fa.; and off Red Cliff, 
Staiths, and Robin Hood’s Bay, 30-35 fa. 

nanus, nov. sp. 20 miles off Sunderland, 45 fa.; muddy sand. 

cmetus, Claus. Off Red Hill, 35 fa. 

Rhizothrix curvata, noy. gen. et sp. Off Robin Hood’s Bay, 35 fa. 

Jurinia minuta, noy. sp. Off Hawthorn, 27 fa. 


re Cyclopicera nigripes, nov. sp. In many dredgings, 3-5 miles off shore, in depths 


of 20-35 fa. 
*Notodelphys agilis, Thorell, 1 specimen, off Hawthorn, 27 fa. 


Lichomolgus fucicolus (Brady). In several dredgings from Marsden to Scarborough, 
20-35 fa, 


liber, noy. sp. Off Marsden, Scarborough, and Hawthorn, 20-27 fa. 
Thorellit, nov. sp. Off Marsden, Hawthorn, and Robin Hood’s Bay, 20-35 fa. 


ee errogue orbicularis?, Boeck. Off Red Cliff, Staiths, and Robin Hood’s Bay, 


4 —E—————— eee 


20-35 fa. 


Solenostoma scutatum, Brady and Robertson. Off Red Cliff, Staiths, Robin Hoed’s 
Bay, and Hawthorn, 27-35 fa. 

Ascomyzon calvum, noy. sp. Off Staiths, 30 fa. 

ornatum, nov. sp. Off Scarborough and Robin Hood’s Bay, 16-35 fa, 


we Dyspontius Normani, noy, sp. 3 specimens taken, 6 miles off Hawthorn, 27 fa. ; sand. 


/ The number of Copepoda noted in this list is 63, of which 28 are new to 
science, and 11 (marked here with an asterisk) are hitherto unrecorded as 
British species. It is but right, however, to add that several of these, though 
undescribed, were previously known to us. Still the result of the dredging in 
this department is extremely interesting, more especially in the considerable 
number of new species which it has brought to light belonging to the curious 
groups called by Thorell Peecilostoma and Siphonostoma. ‘The list of marine 
Copepoda published by Mr. Brady in 1872, in the ‘N atural-History Trans- 
actions of Northumberland and Durham,’ and including all then known as 
inhabiting the shores of those two counties, both littoral and pelagic, comprised 
only 49 species; so that our present list of 63 species taken over an area of 
similar extent, and from dredged material only, must, we think, be looked 
upon as highly satisfactory. 

The dissection and delineation of these minute’ creatures is extremely 
tedious, and we have not as yet been able to complete the work so far as to 
warrant us in giving descriptions of the various new species. 


On the Polyzoa, Hydrozoa, and Spongozoa. By the Rev. A. M. N onMAN, M.A. 


Pouyzoa. 


Scrupocellaria scruposa (Linn.). 
scabra (Van Ben.). 
Cellularia Peachii, Busk. 
Menipea ternata (Ellis § Sol.). 
Bugula avicularia (Pallas). 
purpurotincta, Vorman. 
Habellata (J. V. Thompson). 
Murrayana (Bean). 
fruticosa, Packard. 

Fiustra foliacea, Linn. 

truncata, Linn. 

Carbasea papyrea (Pallas). 
Gemellaria loriculata (Linn.). 
Membranipora pilosa (Linn.). 
—— Flemingii, Busk. 


Lepralia reticulata, Dacg. 
auriculata, Hassall. 
—— concinna, Busk. 
—— linearis, Hassall. 
ciliata (Lenn). 

——- nitida (fabr.). 
Peachii, Johnst. 
ventricosa, Hassail. 
Cellepora avicularis, Aincks. 
—— ramulosa, Linn. 
dichotoma, Hincks. 
Crisia eburnea (Zinn.). 
denticulata (Zamk.). 
Crisidia cornuta (Linn. ). 


198 REPORT—1875. 


HyDROzOA, 

Hydractinia echinata (Fleming). Sertularella polyzonias (Zznn.). 
Eudendrium ramosum (Zinn.). —— tenella, Alder. 
Tubularia indivisa, Zinn. Diphasia rosacea (Zinn.). 
——- coronata, Abildgaard. attenuata, Hincks, 
Clytia Johnstoni (Alder). | —— fallax (Johnston). 
Obelia geniculata (Linn.). | tamarisca (Linn.). 

longissima (Pallas). | Sertularia filicula, Lis § Sol. 
Campanularia Hincksii, Alder. —— abietina, Linn. 
—— verticillata (Linn.). fusca, Johnston. 
Lafoéa dumosa (fV/eming). | Hydrallmania falcata (Zinn.}, 

pocillum, Hincks. | Thuiaria articulata (Pallas). 
Calycella syringa (Zinn.). | thuia (Zinn). 
Filellum serpens (Zassail). | Plumularia pinnata (Zinz.). 
Coppinia arcta (Dalyell). | setacea (Zilis). 
Halecium halecinum (Zinn.). —— Catharina, Johnston. 
—— Beanii, Johnston. | —— frutescens, Ellis § Sol. 

SPonGozOA, 

Grantia ciliata, Johnston. Hymeniacidon ficus (Johnston). 
Polymastia robusta, Bow. Halichondria panicea, Johnston. 
—— mamillaris (Johnston). virgea, Bow., n. sp. 
Microciona fictitia, Bow. Isodictya lurida, Bow. 
Hymeniacidon coccineus, Bow. Spongionella pulchella (Sowerby). 


—— virgulatus, Bow., n. sp. 
+] 3 


Among the Polyzoa is Bugula fruticosa of Packard*, first described by 
Packard from Labrador, and subsequently by Smitt from Spitsbergen and 
Finmark, but not previously found in our seas. I entirely agree with Smitt 
in considering it to be a form, though a very interesting one, of Bugula 
Murrayana. It differs from the ordinary state of that species in being more 
delicate in structure, the branches and branchlets much narrower, commonly 
with only one or two rows of cells, and the cells armed with only few spines, 
typically one only at the superior and outer angle. 

The Hydrozoon Lafoéa pocillum, Hincks (Hist. Brit. Hydr. Zooph. p. 204, 
pl. xi. fig. 2), is a recently described species, which has not previously been 
found on the east coast. Its known habitats were Labrador and Oban. 

Two Sponges are pronounced by Dr. Bowerbank to be undeseribed, and 
subjoined will be found descriptions which have been drawn up by that 
gentleman. He has named the species /ymeniacidon virgulatus and Hali- 
chondria virgen. 


* Halichondria virgea, Bowerbank, n. sp. 


“Sponge massive, sessile, more or less nodulous. Surface smooth. Oscula 
simple, dispersed. Pores inconspicuous. Dermal membrane abundantly spi- 
culous ; tension-spicula acuate, very long and slender, numerous, fasciculated ; 
retentive spicula bidentate, equianchorate, large, few in number, and the 
same form, small and numerous. Skeleton—rete more or less regular ; fibres 
rarely multispiculous, seldom more than trispiculous; areas large; spicula 
subfusiformi-acuate, basally spinous. Interstitial membranes spiculous ; 
spicuiz same as those of the dermis; tension-spicula of rare occurrence ; 
retentive spicula rather numerous, 


* Menipea fruticosa, Packard, List of Labrador Marine Animals, p. 9, pl. i. fig. 3, = 
Cellularia quadridentata, Lovén, MS. 1834 ( fide Smitt), =Bugula Murrayana forma guadri- 
dentata, Smitt, Kritisk Forteckning éfyer Skandinayiens Hafs-Bryozoer, p. 292, pl. xviii. 
figs. 23-27, 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 199 


- “Colour, in the dried state, dark purple. 
«“ Hab. Coast of Durham, 30 to 35 fathoms (Rev. A. M. Norman). 
« Examined in the dried state.” 


“ Hymeniacidon virgulatus, Bowerbank, n. sp. 


“ Sponge virgultose, slender. Surface smooth. Oscula simple, dispersed. 
Pores inconspicuous. Dermis abundantly spiculous; spicula acuate, slender, 
same size as those of the skeleton, dispersed. Skeleton rather open and 
cavernous; spicula acuate, long and slender. 

“Colour, in the dried state, cream-white. 

“ Hab. Coast of Durham, in 20 to 30 fathoms (Rev. A. M. Norman). 

“ Examined in the dried state.” 


Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors during the year 1874-75, 
by a Committee, consisting of Jamus GuatsuEr, F.R.S., of the Royal 
Observatory, Greenwich, R. P. Gruc, F.G.S., F.R.A.S., C. Brooke, 
F-R.S., Prof. G. Forszs, F.R.S.E., Wartzr Fuicut, D.Sc., F.G.S., 
and Prof. A. S. Herscuet, F.R.A.S. 


Tux operations of the Committee during the past year were restricted to col- 
lecting and recording occasional observations of meteors, without renewing 
periodical requests to observers to watch for the meteor-showers of best 
known dates and characters of annual recurrence. The list of collected 
accounts of luminous meteors is therefore less ample, but not less remarkable 
and important, than in former years. The falls of aérolites (as will be seen 
in the concluding Appendix) whick have been placed on record since the last 
Report are more than ordinarily numerous and interesting. A mass of 
meteoric iron fell on the 24th of August, 1873, at Marysville, California, and 
is one of the very few metallic irons the actual descent of which has been 
witnessed. In the following month, on the 23rd of September, 1873,-a 
number of meteorites fell near Khairpur, in the Punjab; and it is also 
related that in the month of December in the same year, while the British 
army halted on the banks of the Prah, an aérolite fell in the market-place of 
Coomassie, and was regarded by the native population as a portent of evil. 
On the 14th and 20th of May, 1874, aérolites fell at Castalia, in North 
Carolina (U.S.A.), and at Virba, in Turkey, the last of which was noted in 
the last Report; and examinations of both of these meteorites have now been 
made. The last stone-fall of the past year took place near Iowa (U.S.A.) on 
the 12th of February, 1875 ; and of this meteorite also special analyses were 
made in the United States, of which some unforeseen results were lately 
announced by their author, Mr. A. W. Wright, as will be described in the last 
part of this Report. In comparison with meteoric irons, it was found that this 
meteorite gave off, by gentle heating in a vacuum, carbon oxides as occluded 
gases in greater abundance than hydrogen, which is the principal gaseous 
constituent of meteoric irons ; and it was observed that the electric spectrum of 
the gaseous products resembled very closely that found most frequently in 
comets, and even in one condition to exhibit most distinctly the green 
nitrogen line coinciding with a conspicuous line in the sun’s corone. A 
meteor of unusual size appeared over Victoria, in Australia, on the 14th of 


200 REPORT—1875. 


April last, which if not aérolitic was yet of the largest class, and detonated 
with a violent explosion. Further remarks in the same Appendix describe 
recent researches on meteorites, and some new links which they establish 
between aérolites and terrestrial rocks. 

In England no detonating meteor has been recorded sinee the last Report ; 
and the brightest meteor that was observed occurred on the Ist of Sep- 
tember last, taking its course over the north of England or Scotland, where 
clouded skies must have prevailed, as its flash was like that of lightning even 
in Cornwall, where, as in Lancashire, its bright luminous streak remained 
visible, at no great apparent altitude, among the northern stars of the Great 
Bear. Other bright meteors oecurred also on the 2nd and 16th of September, 
on the 11th of October, on the 17th of December, and subsequently on the 
9th of March, 12th of April, and 2nd and 4th of May in this year, of several 
of which duplicate observations are recorded in the lists of the first two 
Appendices of this Report. A meteor burst witha loud detonation over Paris 
and its neighbourhood on the 10th of February last, which was of great size 
and brilliancy, and left a cloud-like streak of light on its track for more than 
half an hour. No duplicate observation of it was obtained in England; but 
from the numerous French descriptions of its appearance, its real path and 
height may be expected to have formed at the present meeting in Nantes of 
the French Scientific Association a subject of examination and discussion. 
Another fireball, according to French scientific journals, fell at Orleans on 
the 9th of March, and of this two good observations appear to have been 
obtained in England (in London and in Essex), which may assist to determine 
its real height. 

During the annual meteor-showers of the past year very unfavourable 
weather generally prevailed for recording meteor-tracks, and few meteors 
were seen on those nights when the usual expectations of their appearance 
were entertained. On the 19th of October and 12th of December, 1874, and 
on the 19th—21st of April, 1875, the annual star-showers of those dates 
were scarcely perceptible, or were represented by so few conformable meteors 
as to make the scareity of the October, December, and April star-showers 
during the past year a marked feature of their periodical display, and no 
appearance of the January meteors could be observed on account of obstinately 
cloudy skies. The August star-showers of 1874 and 1875 were, however, of 
great brilliancy, and afforded a great number of excellent observations. 
Duplicate descriptions of some of the meteors were obtained, and the radiant- 
point was noted, its position appearing to have been this year more con- 
fined to the normal place near n Persei than it had been recently observed. 
Descriptions of these meteor-showers are added in the third Appendix of 
this Report. 

A thorough examination of all the observations collected by the Committee 
since the publication of the Metéor Atlas in 1867, with the view of extending 
and correcting the list of general and occasional meteor-showers which it 
embraced, from the best data furnished by recent observations, has been con- 
tinued with satisfactory results under the care and direction of Mr. Greg; 
and the projection of all these useful materials is now nearly completed and 
exhibited on maps. A supplementary Table of radiant-points contained in the 
pages of this Report represents the results of his examination ; and a number 
of interesting consequences are drawn from them of the position and identity 
of some star-showers, which had been a subject hitherto of questions and 
discussions. 

The scattered radiant-region belonging to the August meteors in Cas- 


LEE 


— = = 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 201 


siopeia and Perseus appears to be accounted for by a distinct radiant-point 
in Cassiopeia, of which the principal date coincides only partially with the 
10th of August, and whose shower again presents a prominent and distinct 
appearance on the 23rd of that month. Most of the general meteor systems 
described in the former Atlas are found to be confirmed, and some very 
distinct radiant-points not previously recorded have at the same time been 
added to its list. 


APPENDIX. 


I. Mereors povsLty OBSERVED. 


On September Ist, October 11th, and December 17th, 1874, and of 
April 12th and May 2nd, 1875, accounts of the appearance of large meteors 
were received, which had been pretty generally observed, and of which from 
their magnitude it may be hoped that more abundant particulars will be 
obtained. The following descriptions of the first two of these large meteors 
were collected from published sources by Mr. Wood, together with some other 
appearances of large meteors and meteor-showers of interest during the past 
year. Mr. Wood’s observation of the fireball of April 12th, 1875, and those 
relating to the other doubly observed meteors above mentioned, will be found 
in the fireball list of the next Appendix, together with some examples of 
doubly observed shooting-stars during the bright shower of the August 
meteors in 1874. It has not been attempted to submit these comparative 
observations to regular reduction and calculation, partly as those of the 
large meteors are too uncertain to afford useful determinations of their real 
heights, and (in the case of the shooting-stars) in the expectation that a 
closer examination of the descriptions received of the August meteor-shower 
in 1874 will continue to furnish further examples of them of which the present 
may be regarded as instances of only the most conspicuous occurrence. 
Among the few records of the periodical meteor-showers that have been 
received (without solicitations from the Committee), during the past year, 
no other cases have presented themselves in which determinations of a 
meteor’s real height might be obtained by the combination of distant ob- 
servations. 


Newsparer Accounts oF Merrors. 


Aughton, Lancashire.—* A large meteor seen September Ist, 8.49, in the 
$.S.W., descended the west margin of the Milky Way. ‘Trended a little 
more west. ‘Train of light 25° long, lasted one minute.”—Tmes, Sept. 5. 

Louth.—Meteor moved from S$. to N. 

Bristol Meteor appeared 3° under » Urse Majoris. W. to E.”— 
Times, Sept. 3. 

Birmingham.—* About 8.15 p.m. on Sept. 1st a bright meteor emerged 
from the Constellation of the Great Bear, and took a 8.W. course. The 
period of transit was several seconds, but the splendid light left in its track 
illuminated the heavens for a considerable time.”—Birmingham Daily Post, 
Sept. 3. [For descriptions of this large fireball at Bristol and at Bude, 
Cornwall, see the List in Appendix II.] 

Nottingham.— Meteor of Sept. 2nd, 10.53. See ‘ Times,’ Sept. 4th. 

Birmingham.— October 11th, 8.55. <A bar of fire as even as a mea- 
sure, 4 or 5 yards long and 2 inches thick, in a horizontal position. It 
was very bright, and remained so for a minute and a half. It appeared in 


. the N.E.” 


202 REPORT—1875. 


Tipton.—October 11th, 8°55". “ Meteor seen as a brilliant white body 
of the size of a 68-lb. shot. It started a little to the right of the North 
Star, taking a downward and rapid flight; then changing its course in an 
upward curve, in the direction of the Pleiades, with a much slower motion, 
lighting up the neighbourhood, and leaving a luminous train throughout its 
course, visible 6 minutes.” —Daily Post. 

A meteor similar to the one described above was observed at almost the 
same time at Leeds, near Maidstone, Kent. ‘At the end of its flight it ex- 
ploded with a loud noise, so loud that the informant described it as louder 
than the loudest thunder he ever heard.” —Birmingham Daily Post. 

Asserted meteor shower Oct. 15, “ between 12 p.m. and 1 aA.m.; meteors at 
the rate of fifty per minute at least.” —Hnglish Mechanic, Oct. 23, page 158, 
letter 20374. 

« The inhabitants of Valparaiso were in a terrible state of alarm on the 
14th ultimo [November 1874]. A bright star and full moon appeared at 
middle day, notwithstanding the fact that the sun was shining brightly at 
the time. The ignorant amongst the populace thought that an earthquake 
was about to take place. Nothing of the sort, however, occurred.”—Bir- 
mingham Local Newspaper, Dec. 1874. 

‘‘ Large meteors were seen during the recent clear nights in different 
places in France—at Havre on the 12th, and at Paris on the 10th. The 
Paris meteor was seen at two o’clock in the morning; the direction was not 
specified, but the colour was green. The Boulevard St. Michel appeared as 
if it were illuminated. The Havre meteor was very large, going with an 
immense velocity from §.E. to N.W.”—WNature, April 22nd, 1875. 

“ A beautiful meteor was seen at Tottenham Lock on June 38rd, at 
8.40 p.m., rather to the east of south, about 30° from the horizon. This is 
very close to Spica.”—English Mechanic, June 11th, page 328, no. 533. 

«At Clapton a splendid meteor was observed at 8.39 p.m. on June 3rd, 
due south, slow speed, taking a south-westerly course. Meteor brilliant, whiter 
and much brighter than Jupiter, which looked faint in comparison.” —English 
Mechanic, June 11th, page 328. 

“ Great detonating meteor seen at Melbourne, April 14th, 1875 (see the 
note below)”*.— W. H. W. 

To the above list of newspaper accounts of large meteors collected by Mr. 
Wood may be added the following two accounts in ‘ Nature’ of Oct. 15th, 
1874 (vol. x. p. 482), of the remarkable fireball of October 11th, last year. 
A singularity in the meteor’s motion, with slow speed on a deflected course 
at last, appears to have been observed both at Tipton (as above) and at 
Rainhill ; but it is doubtful if motions of the persistent streak, left for some 
minutes in a bright patch at the point where the meteor disappeared, may not 
account for the very singular change of motion there, which the nucleus 
itself, in two of these observations, is described to have presented. 


« Brigot MeEreors. 


« At 8.55 this evening a party of six observed a meteor in the constella- 
tion Aries, or below it, which emitted light sufficient to cast a bright gleam 
on the neighbouring trees. The body of the meteor shot rapidly along a 


* Communicated by Mr. W. H. Wood.—A paragraph from ‘ The Illustrated Australian 
News’ of May 17th, 1875, is added by Mr. Wood, the substance of which, relating alco 
to an engraving of the meteor which accompanies the original notice in the Australian 
journal, is included in Dr. Flight’s review of recent aérolitic meteors (Meteorites, Part I.) 
jn the concluding Appendix of this Report. 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 203° 


course extending about 20°. It then seemed to explode suddenly, and its 
track was luminous for a short time. The granular débris of the meteor con- 
tinued to pursue, with very much retarded velocity, a path slightly deflected 
from its former course: it continued to do so for several degrees ; and it was, 
I think, fully a minute after the explosion that several of us almost simul- 
taneously exclaimed ‘ It is falling.’ It resembled the expiring light of one 
globe of a rocket charged with golden rain. The falling motion was very 
slow. I think it was visible for two minutes after the explosion ; but though 
we tried more than once to consult our watches, the light was insufficient.” 
‘Henry H. Hieerns.” 
* Rainhill [Sunday], Oct. 11, 1874.” 


“An exceedingly brilliant meteor was seen here about 8.50 on Sunday 
evening, which was so bright that it attracted general attention, the light 
from it being as strong as an unusually bright flash of lightning, but more 
white. On looking up I saw, near the zenith, a long, almost straight and 
uninterrupted ribbon of light, somewhat pointed at the end towards the 
north-east. After watching it for some time, and noticing that it retained its 
brilliancy, I began slowly counting, and counted up to twenty before there 
was any noticeable diminution of luminosity. The last portion visible was 
the end opposite the pointed end, which appeared as a faintly luminous patch 
as large as the apparent disk of the moon. I consider that, from its first ap- 
pearance, it was visible from 80 to 100 seconds. « A, Batpine.” 

“Wisbech [Sunday], Oct. 11, 1874.” 


A bright fireball was also seen in Hampshire on the 16th of September, 
1874, of which the journal ‘ Nature’ contained the following description :— 


‘¢ METEOR. 


“The following is an account of a brilliant meteor which appeared at 
8.53 p.m. on Wednesday, Sept. 16 :— 

«Size: about four times that of Jupiter. 

“ Colour: blue, with a red tail. — 

«* Brightness: throwing a shadow deeper than that of a full moon. 

“ Angular measurement of tail: from 12° to 15°, 

* Duration: about 15”. 

“ Direction of course: N.W. 

« Zenith distance of point of disappearance: 75°. 
. “The brilliancy of the tail threw a red light on the surrounding land- 
scape.” —Wature, Sept. 24th, 1874. “-G. H, Hopxrys.” 

« Bisterne Close, Burley, Hants, Sept. 16,” 


II. Larner Mereors. 


The largest fireball seen in England during the past year appears to have 
been that of September Ist, 1874. Some descriptions of this fireball are 
given in the last, and in the list at the end of this Appendix. Of the remain- 
ing fireballs in the list but little general notice appears to have been taken ; 
but it is assumed, with considerable probability, that the two seen in England 
on the 9th of March and 12th of April, 1875, coincide with large fireballs 
seen in France on those dates, of which sufficient particulars for comparison 
with these accounts have not yet been received. Of the unusually large 
meteor of February 10th, 1875, generally observed in France, numberless 
accounts, it is reported (‘ Nature,’ vol. xi. p. 413), were received at the Ob- 


204, 


Date. 


1870. 
Sept. 


1874. 
July 28 


Aug. 5 


28 


10 


Hour 
(G. M. T. or 
local time). 


hm °s 
Between 
7 20 and 
7 30 p.m. 


8 41 pm. 


About 
midnight. 


10 52 15 


10 52 45 


10 30 


i0 30 


11 


Place of 
Observation. 


Clapton (Lon- 
don) [and 
Ashby-Brigg, 
Lincolnshire]. 


Writtle, Chelms- 
ford (Essex). 


Mysore, India. 


Newcastle-on- 
Tyne. 


ween eeweees 


Tyne. 


Tyne. 


Birmingham 


REPORT—1875. 


Apparent 
Magnitude. 


—. ——- 


[=Venus] 


> 


Large meteor, very! 
brilliant. 


>lst mag. 


\>1st mag. 


eneeee 


> Ist mag.* 


UL ..b..scrscccceves 


\Ist mag.* ......--- 


secrete cerereeenes 


Pe eeeeeeceee 


wee ve ree eeeeeeeen 


AND DOUBLE OBSERVATIONS OF 


OBSERVATIONS © 


Colour. 


Intense gold 
colour. 


Pale violet 
colour. 


Orange- 
yellow. 


Orange- 
yellow. 


tl ewer ereeeeeeeoeres 


red. 


eee eenee 


HO eee newer ereearee 


Pere cesereee 


3 seconds 


1°5 second 


1°5 second 


..../0°5 second 


0°5 second 


Duration. 


eee e eerie ne eeeae 


0°7 second ... 


see eee meee eee ereee 


1:0 second ... 


15 second ... 
0°5 second .. 


1:5 second .. 
0°5 second ...! 
0-5 second .. 


.../From 176°+75° 


Position, or 
Apparent Path. 


a é= 
Descended he- 
tween the tail 
of the Bear and 
Arcturus. 


From 219°+13° 
to 185 + 2 


ARERR meee rere eee et renee 


...(From 321°+15° 


to 310 — 5 


...|From 3249+ 7° 


to 312 —13 


«-|From 330°+57° 


to 300 +47 
From 333°+38° 
to 314 +50 


Passed across a 
[? B] Aquarii. 
> 


a= éo= 
350°+51° 
307 +27 
311°+36° 
301 + 7 
261°+68° 
236 +41 
334°+48° 
307 +11 


260° 480° 
250 +65 
‘From 31°+32° 
to 29 +24 


to 190 +62 


o@u 


OF LARGE 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 


METEORS, 


SHOOTING-STARS, 1874-75. 


205 


Length of 
Path. 


To near the|Fell vertically ............ wavaseer 


horizon. 


Peete ee eeeereseree 


as 


| 


eee errr rrr 


BA taasne-<..). 


f 


[Ree weer e ee eeeaee 


weet we eee 


| 


.|Perseid 


Direction or Radiant-point. 


seeeee POOP e meee ee tea nse e sean eerseenes 


Ore 


Perseid 


eee e ewe reer e snes eet eeeesseseseeeeees 


Appearance, Remarks, &c. 


Nucleus like an elongated drop ; 
burst as it approached the 
horizon with a profusion of 
sparks. (Seen also at Bushey, 
Watford, like a magnesium 
light, bursting into three green 
and three white stars. The 
flash of light was noticed by 
Mr. Lucas at the Radcliffe Ob- 
servatory, Oxford; see these 
Reports, 1873, p. 373.) 

Followed by a short yellow train 

and yellow sparks at the end of| 
its course. Seen by another 
observer to rise almost from 
the horizon at its first appear- 
ance. 

Exploded with a loud noise; 

caused a superstitious terror 
among the natives of Mysore. 


Two fine meteors following each 
other nearly together, leaving 
streaks for about 3 seconds. 
Several others nearly at the 
same time. 

Left a streak. [This and the 
next meteor identical with the 
last pair. ] 

Left a magnificent streak for 8 
seconds. Four other meteors 
in 2 minutes. 

Left a streak for 2 seconds. Per- 
seld (?); position of apparent 
course not well observed. 

Left astreak. [Identical with the 
last. | 


eaten ee eeenae POO eee eer eneeeeeee weeee 


.|Perseid....... scasheaucvesccsnadsents 


eee ee errr OOP e ee ee eter teen eeeeeresees 


PGYREIGI evs coxecsve coXesesersirx ..../Left a streak 7 seconds 


Left a streak brightest in middle 
of its course for 44 seconds. 

Left a streak for 2 seconds. 
[Identical with the last. ] 

Left a long streak brightest in 
the middle of its course for 8 
seconds. 

Left a streak for 4 seconds; Per- 

seid. [Identical with the last 
meteor. | 


Caen eet eenes 


Mviecasse.-...-.-|Radiant 77 Persel......cccsssscesee Seasessieteneieg Gan cauavengbecenscsonecsys. 


Observer 
and Reference. 


J. C. Jackson. ([W. 
Darby.] ‘ Astrono- 
mical Register,’ No- 
vember 1870 (mis- 
printed in the former’ 
Report, ‘September 
1870”). 


H. Corder. 


‘Madras Times,’ Aug. 
llth. ‘ Astronomical 
Register,’ November 
1874. 

A. S. Herschel. 


J. E. Clark. 


A. S. Herschel. 


J. E. Clark. 


A. S. Herschel. 
J. E. Clark. 
A.S. Herschel. 


J. E. Clark. 


J. E. Clark. 


W. H. Wood, 


206 REPORT—1875. 


a EEE EE eee 


Date. (G be a oe Place of Apparent Col Durati Position, or 
| ; Teal time). Observation. Magnitude. tages alate Apparent Path. 
1874.;h m s 
Aug-1012 7 30 |Newcastle-on- |=2nd mag. ......|/¥ellow......... 1 second ...... From % Cygnito 3° 
Tyne. | preceding e Del- 
phini. 
1110 41 O {Birmingham ...)/=1st MAX  secnce Wellownscsssc: l second ....../From 33°+66° 
toy 27 pe 72 
MEM ORAT. 0) |[DId.. 2. cicnnesoecee ==SGi magic, ....+-+<|MelOns ce << 0°75 second...|From 32°+65° 
| to 25 +70 
1110 43 0 Tooting, Surrey .|=12 mag.x....0..0.[WHItG ..cecscec[eccnscseceeseoneee From 157°+62° | 
| to 165 +57 
1111 30 0 [Birmingham .../=2nd MODE FPiviies da] soos <csews oceans 0-75 second...From 46°+62° 
| to 45 +65 
1111 30 0 /Tooting, Surrey ./=14 mag.x ........ Wihite mies cssettleveeeet <ccereeee From 142°+67° 
| to 157 +62 
Sept.1/ About | Bristol............ Very large meteor.|...........00000+- (ie vees eet Passed across Ursa 
8 49 p.m. Major, leaving a 
streak (visible for 
| | | several minutes 
| | until it was ob- 
| | scured by clouds) 
| 3° under n Urse 
1 ete er aa Very brilliant ‘White; very | Majoris. 
p-m.| wall). meteor. | dazzling. | 
(Time by | | 2 eae, Streak 
estimation.) | | | eee | 
H | | Ursa Major | 
| 
6| About  |Bristol.,.......... SY. cceresceecscceeees (Passed: be=" |r Sa. sneerseeee (a 
8 40 p.m. tween 8B & y From 275°-+-20° 
Ophiuchi. to 255 —12 | 
Dec.17| About Halifax (York- |Fully as bright as |......... seerecses 3 seconds...... In the S.E.  Dis- 
10 25 p.m.|_ shire). Sirius, | appeared half- 
| way between ; 
Sirius and the * 
| | horizon. | 
| | 
1875, | \* 
Feb.10| About [Belle Isle, Isle |Very large meteor |........sccesssees vessesseesesaseees|seseenseeeen ree . 
5 45 p.m.| d’Oléron, Ne- H § 
(Paris mours, Thiery, j 
time). Cognac, &e. 
(France). ° . 
March |Evening ...|France............ Many large meteors|............00+0+ tac che pe PEPE USLER ABA Tock: «0 
9 & 10. seen. | 
Mar. 9; About |Cooper’s Hill |As bright as Sirius!......000..0....2. Moved slowly.|Began at a point a 
8 0 pm| (Kent). few degrees east 
| | of Sirius. 
| | 
Apr.12) 8 6 p.m.|Birmingham ---|= Venus pegnrsodsuac Waiters ces 15 second ... From \ Corone to 
| y Serpentis. | 


j 


OBSERVATIONS 


Perel eee e tere ete e tense ene esas eens eee eeeneeee 


Perseid ; near the radiant-point. 


7 Course nearly a prolongation 


of the next (112 30™), at 

| Tooting. ; 
Sircowc.s+..+>- Perseid ; near the radiant-point. 
Wf 8°, “Sis ope ‘Neatly from o,,0, Ursz Majoris 


Began as far 
eastward 
from Sirius 
as that star 
was from | 
| the horizon.| 


slightly falling. 


Descended in a sonth-easterly 
direction on a path inclined 
about 60° to the horizon. 


tees UU eee eee e Peer rr ee eer eet 


Course ‘nearly horizontal but! 


OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 


Appearance, Remarks, &c, 


Left a streak for 2 seconds. Time 
uncertain to half a minute. 


[The Birmingham observations 
independent ; accord per- 
fectly with the next, at 
Tooting. | 

Disappeared close to 8 Ursz Ma- 
joris. 


{Two meteors only mapped at 
Tooting. | 

The light was as intense as that 
of a vivid flash of lightning. 
[Seen also at Winchester, be- 
hind clouds in the north (mo- 
tion apparently from S. to N.), 
by Dr. Flight. ] 


.|The meteor resembled a flash of 


light falling to the ground. 
The streak, like the tail of a 
comet without a head, re- 
mained 3 minutes in the star- 
lit sky, as in the figure, gra- 
| dually fading away. 

‘Left a streak almost vertical in 
the south-west for a second. 


Seen through glass panes of a 
conservatory. No streak visi- 
ble in the open air. [Perhaps 
the same meteor as that ob- 
served in Paris at 10 (local 

| time), and at Lewes, Sussex, at 

| 10230™ p.m. See the note from 

‘Nature,’ Dec. 24th, 1874, in the 

‘last paragraph of this Appendix. | 


..,Leaving a very persistent streak, 


at first straight, then contorted, 
visible for half an hour. 


A ‘meteorite’ is reported to 


have fallen at Orleans on 
March 9th. (‘ Nature,’ vol. xi. 
p- 396.) 


(For Mr. Denning’s description of 
the same meteor at Bristol, see 
next page.) 


Perhaps identical with meteors 
noted on the same date in 
France, in Paris, or at Havre. | 


207 


Observer 
and Reference. 


—_— 


A.S. Herschel. 


| W. H. Wood. 
| 'T. H. Waller. 
H. W. Jackson. 


T. H. Waller. 


H. W. Jackson. 
W. F. Denning, ‘ Astro- 


nomical Register,’ 
October 1874. 


&. H. Marshall. 


W. F. Denning, ‘ Astro- 
nomical Register,’ 
October 1874. 


Jos. Gledhill, ‘ Astro- 
nomical Register,’ 
October 1875. 


| 

Accounts by several ob- 

servers in ‘ Comptes 

Rendus,’ vol. Ixxx. 
p- 575 e¢ seq. 


‘Nature,’ vol. xi. p. 413. 


HI. Macleod. ‘ Nature,’ 
vol. xi. p. 427. 


W. H. Wood. 


208 REPORT—1875. 


Hour 


Place of Apparent ; Position, or 
aa. eee ey Observation. Magnitude. cs Duration. Apparent Path. 
1875.;}h m 
Mars 9/18), 0) p.t0.|.;...-...029:-.see00% Quite as bright as |............660... Motion ex- |Passed down the 

Venus. ceedingly S.E. sky, about 
slow; about} 9° W. of Cor 
3 seconds, Hydre. 
a= o= 
From 134°—16° 
to 144 —26 
Apr. 21] About |Newcastle-on- |About = Venus .../Bright white .| About 14 sec. 
115 am.| Tyne. 
a» 5 
 .\duptte 
“90° asia 


The 
Moon 


May 4] 9 59 p.m.|Ibid..............jAbout = Ip veseveree] WhItE .....-00- About 3 secs, 
e Cassiopeia 


e ° © 
e 


Descended obliquely from near 
the foot of Cassiopeia across 


Perseus. 
July 28)10 28 p.m./Regent’s Park, |Nearly = 2} ........./s000 sone teneaees Shot steadily ;)Began at « Pegasi. 
London. moderate Disappeared 
speed, near but below 
8 Aguile. 
Aug. 7) About |Hawkhurst, About =Venus ... Green ...... ..... About 14 sec.|From a few degrees 
10 5 pm. Kent. | below 7 Pegasi 
passed a few 
degrees below 
n ¢ Aquarii and 
4° or 5° further. 
15) 8 35 p.m./[bid........ eneiacone A fine meteor; |Likea bril-  |....sece.-e ..|Halfway between 
much brighter | Jiantly Capricorn and 
than Sirius, green star. Scorpio. 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 209 


Length of 


Pe Observer 
| ‘Path. 


Direction or Radiant-point. Appearance, Remarks, &c. aninaheenne. 


From Radiant A,, near a Persei,Seen through much haze ; left|W. F. Denning, 
No. 38 in Greg’s general list.) no visible streak on its course. ‘ Astronomical Re- 


[See last year’s Report. ] gister,’ May 1875. 

7: 

ES Se Se Globular nucleus; leaving no|J. Hopper. 

sparks nor streak. Apparent 

4 course nearly as shown in the 

" sketch. 

| 

| 
Ni 

| 

H |: 

te 
80 Oe cots esesgsitese Sit dedsereLsenoeecnder-odocoe Meteor without sparks or streak.|Id. 

i Apparent course about as repre- 


| sented in the sketch. 


5° or 16° ...|On a line produced from 6 7|Probably a Perseid (or ? Pegasid).|T. Crumplen. 
] Pegasi. Nucleus with very broad bril- 
liant blue train. 


j 


BROMER Rew aeen0s|-cscdconcecosevevecsevescscnees ee M. S. Hardcastle. 


Expanded to middle of its course, 
where it diffused a bright green 
light, and continuing about $a 
second further disappeared ab- 
ruptly. Left a broad reddish 
gold-coloured train, about 5° 
(from a to 6), on the middle o 
its course. 


210 REPORT—1875. 


servatory in Paris; and although it is not described as detonating, and no 
aérolitic fall is ascribed to it in any of the published narratives of its appear- 
ance, some determination of its real course, which appears to have been over 
the western departments of France, must, it may be expected, be derivable 
from the abundant materials which have thus been collected. In the follow- 
ing communication on a large fireball of the 2nd of May last supplied to the 
Committee by Mr. Symons, attention is directed to other accounts of the same 
meteor as seen in Kent and elsewhere ; but of these contemporary descrip- 
tions of its appearance the Committee has not received any additional par- 
ticulars. 


«The meteor noticed in Kent and elsewhere at 8° 45™ p.m. on the evening 
of the 2nd inst. was seen to advantage by myself and two friends. It passed 
from 8. by E. to E.8.E., from an altitude of about 35° to about 22°. It 
appeared brighter and larger than Venus, was of a very red tint, broke into 
fragments just before disappearing, and occupied, as seen here, not seven 
seconds, as mentioned in the papers, but between three and four.” 

“¢W. Crement Ley.” 
“ Ashby Parva Rectory, Lutterworth, May 4th, 1875. 


“To G. J. Symons, Esq.” 


Some meteors of unusual brightness observed in Essex during the early 
part of this year are thus described by Mr. H. Corder in the ‘ Astronomical 
Register’ of June 1875 (vol. xiii. p. 145):—‘‘On March 16, at 8" 23™, I 
was startled by a bright light from behind me, and on turning round was 
just in time to see the disappearance of what must have been a fine meteor. 
When I saw it it was about the size of Sirius, but had been far brighter. It 
rose perpendicularly over either 6 or 6 Leonis. I think the former, 

* On the 17th, about 9° p.m., another bright meteor was seen here, but I 
have received no details of it. 

“ On April 22nd, at 11" 19", I saw a very beautiful one in the extreme east 
of Virgo, falling about 4° on each side of the equator from Corona; and 
though the new moon was shining a few degrees from it, the meteor formed 
a distinct orange ring or corona in the highest cloud in front of it. It was 
of a lovely pale-green hue, with a train of sparks; and though of no appa- 
rent size, was considerably more brilliant than Venus. 

«© Another meteor, of a red colour and of short duration, brighter than 
Jupiter, was seen in the south-west about 25° from the horizon on May 6th 
at 7° 55".”—H. Corder, Writtle, near Chelmsford, May 8th, 1875. 


The following is the note in ‘ Nature’ (vol. xi. p. 153) on the meteor of 
the 17th of December last year, referred to in the present list under the 
observation of the corresponding date :—“ On Thursday, December 17th, at 
10 p.m., a magnificent falling star was observed in Paris. Its track was to 
be seen for more than a minute. A correspondent, Mr. J. H. A. Jenner, 
writing from Lewes [Sussex], states that ‘on Thursday evening, the 17th 
inst., at 10.30, a very fine meteor was seen here. It travelled from north 
to south at a seemingly very low elevation; and though the moon was 
shining brightly it was a very brilliant object, being several times the bright- 
ness of Sirius. Its colour was yellowish, and it left a long, but not very 
persistent, bluish-white train. Had the night been dark, it must have been 
a very splendid object. The point of disappearance was hidden from my 
sight by houses, but there was no noise attending it.’ ” 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 211 


III. Asroxrires AnD Mrreor-SHOWERS. 


Iowa, United States, America, 1875, Feb. 12th, 10" 30™ p.m. (Chicago 
time).—The Committee is indebted to Mr. B. V. Marsh, of Philadelphia, for 
many contemporary descriptions of this meteor and of the stonefall that 
accompanied it, from American local journals, of which the accompanying 
outline map roughly represents the geographical positions, together with the 
probable line over which the meteor was vertical in its course. The accounts 
contain descriptions of its appearance at Iowa city, where it was observed 
by Prof. N. R. Leonard (Iowa St. Univ.), who afterwards examined and 


Vinton 
e 


Marengo 


Newton | Brook- 2 x 
° eae lyre 


Toledo 
e 


De me 
Moines ® Iowa City 
Mari + 
arion 7 
r Sigourney West Liberty 
Oskaloosa 
60. Miles. 


described the sites of the meteor’s fall at Grinell, Oskaloosa, Vinton, Des 
Moines, &c., and additional observations of it at Brooklyn and West Liberty 
are supplied by Mr. Marsh. The apparent size of the meteor as seen at 
Towa city was half that of the full moon, and its light appeared at West 
Liberty as strong as that of full daylight. It presented three separate 
explosions (attended apparently by as many distinct reports), and a streak 
of bright light marked its course, described at Grinell as intensely bluish 
white and at Iowa city as slightly tinged with green; the apparent colour 
of the nucleus itself at the latter place was that of molten iron, and the 
whole duration of its visible flight was estimated at about one second. The 
sound of the report followed the appearance there in two or three minutes, 
like three blasts of a quarry, accompanied by a rolling or rumbling noise. 
The explosion at Brooklyn and westward from Iowa city was still more 
violent. It followed 3™ after the appearance of the meteor (by watch) at 
Grinell, and at an interval of about 5" at Searsborough (10 miles south of 
_ Grinell). Its description at Washington isas of a rumbling earthquake 
_ sound lasting a minute, and shaking houses plainly. At Vinton it consisted 
of three or four cannon-like reports, followed by a sound resembling that of 
a railway-train crossing a bridge. The.meteor and its report were seen and 
heard over a space 125 miles in extent from E. to W., and over half as 
wide a space from N. to 8. Fragments, varying in size from a few Ibs. to 
150 lbs., were found at Homestead and other places in the neighbourhood 
of Brooklyn and Iowa city, having excavated to a great depth both earth 
and snow upon which they fell, The point marked x in the map is the 
site of one of the first fragments found, about 6 lbs. or 7 Ibs. in weight, in 
N. lat. 41° 46’, W. long. 92° 0’. 

Descriptions of this meteorite and of another stonefall which took place a 

P2 


212 REPORT—1875. 


few months later in Zsaddny in Hungary, will be found in a review of such 
occurrences, and of the principal investigations that have been made with 
regard to them during the past year, in the notices on Meteorites (Part L., 
pp- 240, 243) at the end of this Report. 

The August Meteor-shower in 1874.—The shower was partially observed 
near Chelmsford, Essex, by Mr. H. Corder, with the following results as to 
the numbers seen; but the cloudy state of the sky prevented any appearance 
of the shower from being visible on the night of the 10th. 


August 2nd, 1874, August 5th, August 6th, 

9> 50™ to 10250™, 13°36™ to 13"45™, 9554™to 11», 11to11»40™, 

No. of meteors 
mapped ...... 8 5 31* 6* 


On the night of August 11th, with a favourable view of the sky, Mr. 
Corder, watching alone (as on the former nights), counted the following 
numbers of shooting-stars in the half-hours ending at 

Total in 

C10 gtO2Z0™ Le, Te s0™_ 128) 2 SO oes 
No. of meteors 
counted...... 13 il 22 22 iy 13 104 


Three of these meteors were as bright as Jupiter, the brightest appearing 
at 10"°35™ p.m. in Cassiopeia; 82 left streaks, including all of the Ist, 
nearly all of the 2nd, and a great proportion of the 3rd mag. shooting-stars. 
Twelve meteors were unconformable, or obviously not directed from the 
radiant-point in Perseus, and the length of path varied from 3° to 30° (in 
the case of a large one overhead at 11"5™ p.m.). The prevailing colour of 
the meteors from Perseus was orange. Their general centre of divergence 
was near the cluster x in Perseus, extending also to Cassiopeia. On 
August 2nd most of the meteors diverged from e Pegasi; and on the 6th the 
points of radiation were very various, belonging chiefly, however, to the 
shower from Perseus. 

Mr. J. E. Clark obtained a view of the shower at York on the night of 
the 10th, mapping 40 meteor-tracks between 10°7™ and 112 55™ p.m., and 
together with Mr. E.Grubb counting the following numbers in the successive 
half-hours of the watch ending at 


Total in 
10245™,  11h15™,) 115 45™, 11> 45™ to 122. 1b 45™, 
Numbers of meteors seen 


by two observers ...... 37 19 35 18 109 

The following numbers of meteors of different magnitudes were mapped :— 
Brightness...... =@ or Y¥. Ist mag. =I1stdo. =2nddo. =d8rd&4thdo. Total. 
No. of meteors 

mapped...... ff Do: 14 10 4 39 


Between 10" 45™ p.m. and midnight on the 10th of August the tracks of 
these August meteors were mapped by Prof. Herschel at Newcastle-on- 


Tyne in the following numbers, during the half-hours of the watch end- 
ing at 


* Of these meteors (mostly Perseids, and 14 with trains) the numbers of various bright- 
nesses were :-— 
Ist 2nd 8rd 4th and dth magn. stars. 
SFL LO 11 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 213 


Total in 
115 15™, 115 45™, 115 45™ to 125. 1» 15”, 
No. of meteors 
mapped,.... 20 17 7 ced 


Of the different magnitudes of brightness there were observed the follow- 
ing numbers :— 


Apparent 
brightness... 24 or 9. _—_ Sirius. Ist mag. 2nd do. 3srddo, 4th &5thdo. 


Nos. of meteors 
BEGIN dhe. nccss 2 5 8 10 11 10 


Mr. W. F. Denning’s view of the shower on the 10th, at Bristol, is thus 
described in a letter in the ‘ Astronomical Register ’ (September 1874), con- 
taining notes of his observations of the display. The night of the 10th was 
fine and moonless. The meteors were watched almost continuously for four 
hours, from 10° 45™ to 14" 45™, and 281 meteors were observed. Thirty- 
two of these were as bright or brighter than 1st-magnitude stars; 252 were 
Perseids, and almost all (with very few exceptions) left persistent streaks, 
lasting, however, rarely more than about 2 seconds. On the night of the 11th, 
although, as on the 9th, the sky was generally unfavourable for observation, 
a watch of 10™, in a clear interval, soon after 10 o’clock, presented 12 shoot- 
ing-stars; and they appeared to be nearly as numerous as on the preceding 
night. The principal radiant-centre of divergence of the Perseids was be- 
tween B, C Camelopardi and y Persei, at R. A. 39°, N. Decl. 583° ; and other 
radiant-centres in Cassiopeia, Pegasus, and Draco were at the same time in 
perceptible activity during the shower. 

The nights of the 9th and 11th having generally been unsuitable for a watch 
on account of the clouded state of the sky, it is satisfactory that at one station 
(Mr. Corder’s in Essex) a continuous enumeration of the meteors was possible 
on the night of the 11th; and by comparison with records on the 10th at the 
other places of observation, it does not appear that the intensity of the display 
had very notably diminished. It is not possible from these particulars to de- 
termine, the time of maximum of the display even approximately, although 
in point of brightness and numbers the Perseids in August 1874 were pro- 
bably more conspicuous on the night of the 10th than on the following night. 
If allowance is made for the absence of the moon, the shower appears to have 
been one of very considerable intensity, and to have presented an abundance 
of bright meteors, but scarcely to have exceeded in this respect either of 
those of the two preceding years, nor to have quite attained the somewhat 
exceptional brilliancy of the August star-shower in the year 1871. 

The October Meteor-shower in 1874.—Fine nights for observing these 
_ meteors occurred at Birmingham on the 18th and 19th of October, and a 
watch for them was continued for one hour on each night by Mr. Wood. 
Four meteors were seen and mapped between 11" and 12” on the 18th, and 9 
meteors between 10" 30" and 11° 30" on the 19th, while a further watch of 
half an hour on this latter night from 11" 30" to 12" was without result, no 
more shooting-stars being visible during the continuance of the watch. The 
meteors mapped radiated principally from O and F,, ,, the two radiants of 
the October period in Orion and Auriga, but not in sufficient numbers to 
make the return of these showers conspicuous, or to afford important deter- 
minations of their radiant-points from the few representatives of the prin- 
cipal October meteor-shower which were observed. On the night of the 20th 
the sky was overcast ; and, as far as the Committee has learned, no other 
notes on these dates could, for similar grounds, be obtained at other observing 


214 REPORT—1875. 


stations where the annual showers of October, November, and December, and 
of January, April, and August, have hitherto been observed. 

November, December, and January Meteor-showers, 1874—75.—In con- 
sequence of the accumulating number of meteor observations on the annual 
dates of the periodic shower, observations of the November, December, and 
other annual meteor-showers of the past year have not been especially 
solicited ; and the condition of the sky on the returning dates of the above 
three showers was such that only a widely organized watch could have ob- 
tained useful particulars of their appearance. The November and January 
showers were looked for without success from the prevalence of clouds; and 
that of the 12th of December, when the circumstances were favourable for 
its observation, disappointed expectation by an unusual scarcity of the Ge- 
minids on the periodic night. With a perfectly clear sky, in the absence of 
moonlight, one meteor only was visible at Newcastle-on-Tyne in an interval 
of 45" from 11" 30™ to 12" 15™ on the night of the 12th; and although this 
small shooting-star was a Geminid, the loss of intensity of the shower since its 
last periodic return on the 12th of December, 1873, is very conspicuous and 
striking. A careful record of the meteors of November and December last 
was kept, however, by the astronomers of the Toulouse observatory in France, 
where M. Gruey (‘Comptes Rendus,’ vol. lxxx. p. 56) mapped the tracks of a 
considerable number of meteors in both months. But few meteors, and those 
generally unconformable to Leo, were seen on the partially cloudy nights of 
November 12, 13, and during a fine interval of the following night, from 3" 
to 4" 30™; and on the morning of the 15th a greater scarcity even of sporadic 
meteors prevailed, and not a single shooting-star was visible during a very 
attentive watch. On the nights of the 10th, 11th, and 12th of December, 
1874, watch was again kept, and on the first two nights a somewhat plentiful 
display of meteors was observed. Three observers, watching a quarter of the 
sky, saw on the night of the 10th 34 meteors in 1" 20™ (average rate of 
frequency 25 per hour); on the night of the 11th, 17 meteors in 35 minutes 
(or at the rate of 30 per hour); while on the night of the 12th 4 meteors 
only were seen in the first and none in two subsequent watches of 10™ each, 
in which the clouds cleared away sufficiently to leave the sky unobscured. 
The majority of these meteors were conformable to a radiant-point near 
which (at R. A. 130°, Decl. + 46°) one of great brightness on the 10th 
appeared stationary; and although this place differs considerably from the 
usual direction of divergence of the Geminids of this shower, and from the 
place of its centre observed by M. Tisserand in December 1873 (‘ Comptes 
Rendus,’ 1873, December 15), yet the general emanation of the meteor-tracks 
recorded from about this point was very apparent; and as an average 
radiant-centre of the 11 meteors mapped on the 10th, 7 on the 11th, and 
2 on the night of the 12th (or 20 shooting-stars in all), it was very di- 
stinctly marked. Several radiant-positions by other observers, closely adjacent 
to it, will be found in Greg’s general list (1874), No. 175. As regards their 
brightness, the following numbers represent the total of each description 
which were visible throughout the watch :— 


Apparent brightness ......... Ist mag. 2nd do. 3rd do. Total. 
and under. 
No. of meteors seen in 225... 18 9 28 55 


M. Gruey suggests (and the conjecture well deserves further trial and 
corroboration) that the radiant-point of the December shower is multiple, and 
that his new position of it is a special one, which was very perceptible on 
this occasion. 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 215 


Mr. Clark watched at Heidelberg for the return of the November meteor- 
shower, during a partially overcast state (clouds concealing about one half 
or two thirds) of the sky, on the mornings of the 14th and 15th of November 
last (1874), for about 25 minutes on each date, and observed a small Leonid 
and two Taurids on the former, and three brighter Leonids (two of which 
left enduring streaks) and one unconformable meteor on the latter date. 
The shower does not appear to have entirely disappeared, and its tendency 
to reach a maximum on the morning of the 15th rather than on that of the 
14th appears still to be sensible in its decreasing phase. At Heidelberg and 
at Sunderland in England, Mr. Clark and Mr. Backhouse reported the state 
of the weather at the principal periods of the December and January showers 
as unfavourable for observations. No observations of the January star- 
shower in 1875 could, from the general prevalence elsewhere of similarly 
unfavourable conditions, be obtained. 

The April Meteor-shower in 1875.—All the accounts which the Committee 
has received of observations on this star-shower during the bright moon- 
light and hazy state of the sky on the nights of the 19th—21st of April last 
are corroborative of the almost total cessation or disappearance of the shower ~ 
at the usual time of its annual return. During a watch of 1" 30™ on the 
19th, and of 1" on the 20th, Mr. M‘Clure, with one assistant at Glasgow, 
observed only a single meteor (apparently not a Lyraid) on the former 
night. At Newcastle-on-Tyne the sky was very clear from 10" 50™ p.m. 
until midnight on the night of April 20th, and five meteors, one of which 
was a small Lyraid, were observed. Two of these were of remarkable 
length of course and brightness, directed apparently from radiant-points 
near Aquila, Arcturus, or in the southern hemisphere: but from the bright- 
ness of the full moon meteors of smaller brightness than 3rd- or 4th-magnitude 
stars would not have been visible on the occasion of this periodic watch ; 
and with regard to the disappearance of the shower on the night of April 
20th, some evidence of its occurrence may have been visible in foreign 
countries, of which, on account of the maximum being reached during day- 
time in England, the observation at English stations could only be very 
partial, and may in this manner have been quite prevented. 

At Birmingham the sky was clear on the 21st, and in the full moonlight, 
which still prevailed, Mr. Wood observed at Birmingham, at 10° 52™, one 
meteor only (a bright Lyraid) as the result of an attentive watch of 1” 5™ 
for the expected April shower. 

Meteor-showers of August 1875.—The stormy and unsettled weather of 
the early days of this month interfered at almost every station with regular 
observations, the day and evening of the 10th of August itself being one of 
most violent thunderstorms throughout the country, and but scattered 
records of the Perseus shooting-stars were in consequence received. Noticing 
meteors to be frequent on the night of July 28th, Mr. Crumplen mapped 
some of their apparent courses in London between 10° and 10" 30™ p.m. ; and 
those of seven proved to be Perseids, with a radiant-point between y Persei 
and Cassiopeia. A communication concerning observations of meteors on the 
Qnd of August was also received by the Committee from Mr. Hind, who 
relates that between 9" 30™ and 11" p.w. on that evening a number of 
meteors were remarked, one of them of a Lyre brightness, the radiant- 
point of which was “‘ most decided,” and its position was found to be at 

omicron Andromede (R.A. 344°, Decl.+41°). The existence of this radiant- 
point in August was pointed out in the first of Mr. Greg’s general lists of 
radiant-points (Report, 1864, p. 100, No. xxx.), attaching to it the sign EG 


216 REPORT—1875. 

after its neighbourhood to Heis’s radiant-point E in October in the constel- 
lation Lacerta (German Fidechse), which was found by Mr. Greg to be a very 
persistent and much earlier occurring shower. Although its position was 
afterwards confirmed (as will be seen in the subjoined Table) and extended 
to include radiants with more northern declinations in Schiaparelli’s and 
Tupman’s lists, yet it appears that the new radiant-point observed by Mr. 
Hind allies itself more closely to an earlier group, close to the same place, 
well marked in Schiaparelli’s list, and together with some closely adjoining 
radiant-points forming the only representatives in that list of the well-known 
meteor-shower of the “ Pegasids,” diverging about the time of the 10th of 
August star-shower of the Perseids from near the star a Pegasi. The con- 
firmation which this observation affords of the early occurrences in July and 
August of “Lacertid” meteor-showers noted in Schiaparelli’s list, which were 
unattested hitherto by other observers, is at the same time a corroboration of 
special interest from the very sharply-defined and well-recorded date and 


* position of the radiation. 


Table of Cepheid, Lacertid, and Pegasid Meteor-showers in July, August, and September. 


Duration of 


Position of 


Sign. shower. Radiant-point. a 
Heis (Die periodische Stern- R.A. Decl. 
schnuppen, 1859) and 5 ° 
Radiant-list, 1864......... E Oct. 16-31. 330 +50 
R. P. Greg, Radiant-list, EG Aug. 17-Sept. 30} 333 +50 
1864. (from 314, +52 
to 347, +47) 
Id. Radiant-list, 1867-68... E Aug. 7-Sept. 30 335 +52 
(e Lacerte) 
J.F. Schmidt, Radiant-list, 
SGD Rr aecenccccrasvecesaser |e "eas x Aug. 7-31 347 +51 |Continued nearly at the 
same place in Sep- 
No. 145 Aug. 28 340 +65)|No other neighbour. 
: : Pat 0. ug. 4- o other neighbour- 
Salar eae », 146 Sept. 5 321 a0 ing radiant in these 
’ eee ‘ pe pages 3817 +47 months. 
3 Bie ‘ .Aug. 2 340 +33 
ater ee se Radiant "64 ‘Aug, 23 334 +48 || Do. 
9 LOTS cevecscccccseecece ving Sept. 22 345 +61 
MAVVICISS; UB OO ssecesscccsacss ||) sccoseras Aug. 12-13 345 +50 |QuotedinTupman’slist. 
R. P. Greg, Radiant-list, { 90 (112) EH, Aug. 6-31? 335 +67) | (BH, subradiant of the 
1872 (and 1874) ...... 96 (125) E, | Aug. 10-Sept. 30 3385 +52 } Lacertids, K,). 
J. R. Hind, 1875............ (o Andro- Aug. 2 344 +41°5| Appears to coincide 
med) with the two ra- 
diants (below) S8.& Z. 
128 and 134. 
(No. 98 July 18 382 +35 
» 103 July 19 3388 +43 
Schiaparelli’s & Zezioli’s » 106 July 19 334 +45 | | Radiant-region, La- 
MISE: ss ccees Bona saineneaitmeee 3, 123 July 30 835 -+40 certa. 
(Average July 18-30 335 +41) 
Quoted in the Nos. below | ) No. 100 July 18 3842 +423 
of Greg’s General lists. » 104 July 19 332 +23 | | Radiant-region, 
» 113 July 23 336 +30 B n p» Pegasi. 
» 1384 Aug. 4 342 +29 | 
Greg’s General lists, 1872 | | (Average | July 18—Aug..4 338 +26) 
(and 1874) ..........s00e. 76(95,96)TG Aug. 3-15 337 +25 | Pegasid subradiant. 
A ¥ 67 (97) T, | Jan. 29-Ang. 24 |, aap +14 | Near a Pegasi. (Ra- 
diant of the Pega- 
sids.) 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 217 


Between 10" p.w. and midnight on August 9th, 1875, Mr. Waller ob- 
served 50 shooting-stars at Birmingham, showing that the shower of Perseids 
had already reached a considerable intensity on that night. On the follow- 
ing night Mr. Wood observed at the same place a somewhat larger number 
(as will be seen by his report), and mapped the tracks of 40 meteors radi- 
ating, with only one or two exceptions, from Perseus, and a few of them 
from a branch radiant-point apparently at e Cassiopeie. The principal 
radiant-point in Perseus was at the star 7 of that constellation—scarcely any 
of the meteor-tracks prolonged backwards diverging far from this point, and 
the radiant-point of the remainder, constituting a very small proportion of the 
whole number, being in the neighbourhood of y Persei. One of these meteors 
(at 11 39™ 30°) was as bright as Jupiter; and eight others were as bright as 
Sirius, or brighter than lst-magnitude stars. Mr. Wood thus describes the 
general characteristics of the shower during the period of his observations. 
The sky was very clear and, from the absence of moonlight, very favourable 
for obtaining meteor registrations. 


1875, Aug. 10, p.m. Hourly numbers, Average position of Percentage of 
From to Clear sky. One observer. the radiant-point. magnitudes, 
1/0) eae 20 meteors seen. R.A. 36°, Decl.+57° I1st=45p. ct. 
Ls, #12 40%! 5; a Perseids 85 percent. 2nd=27. ,, 
3rd =28 


” 


Predominating colour of the meteors yellow. Eighteen of the forty meteors 
mapped were described as leaving very persistent streaks, one of these (the 
last on the regular list, at 12" 6™) being a bright meteor from the direction 
of the well-known concomitant radiant-point of the August shower in 
Pegasus. On the nights of August 9th and 11th the sky was overcast. 

The sky was clear and the meteor-shower was well seen at Sunderland by 
Mr..T. W. Backhouse on the night of the 10th, from whom the particulars of 
its appearance noted below have been received. The following is Mr. Back- 
house’s description of a Perseid of great brightness, which exceeded in magni- 
tude any other meteor of the shower which he observed :—“ It appeared at 
13" 24™ [1" 24" a.m., August 11th, 1875] 3° to the right of a Aurige, and 
was directed towards 6, disappearing near y and 7 Aurige. It increased 
very rapidly in brightness just before disappearing, becoming brighter than 
Venus at its brightest, making a bright glow round it. Its tail also increased 
rapidly in brightness and was of many colours, but its changes were too 
rapid for me to follow them; purple, however, predominated at first, and 
afterwards green, After the head disappeared, the tail remained some 
seconds quite straight (and vertical), and gradually became slightly serpen- 
tine—the brightest part (that near the head) lasting at least 43 minutes, 
becoming a group of cloudy patches 3° or 4° in extent, and spreading out 
N. and 8. The stars » and ; were at first at the S. end, and then in 
the middle of this group. At 13" 27™ or 28" I looked at it with my 43- 
inch refractor with a low power; it was irresolvable, and like a group of a 
few large undefined nebule,.the brightest part at » and r Aurige.” In a 
watch at intervals between 10" 20™ and 14” 20™, amounting together to 96 
minutes, and equivalent to one of 82 minutes in a sky without clouds or 
twilight, 70 meteors were seen, corresponding (as the number seen in a clear 
sky by one observer) to an average rate of frequency of 51 meteors per 
hour. The great majority of the meteors seen in these periods of observation 
of the shower were Perseids. 


218 rEPORT—1875. 


Between 12" and 12" 30™ on the night of August 11th, Mr. Greg observed 
10 meteors, chiefly Perseids, in an interval of clear sky, at Buntingford, 
Herts; and four of these were of considerable brightness. The radiant- 
region was diffuse, extending apparently between a Persei and e or « Cas- 
siopeie. 

General Radiant-lists, and their extension and corroboration by observations 
(chiefly collected by the Committee since the year 1870).—The numerous 
observations (principally of the periodical meteor-showers of January, April, 
August, October, November, and December) communicated during the past 
six or seven years, since the publication of the Committee’s “ Atlas of 
Radiant-points”’ in the year 1867, which have remained* unpublished in 
these Reports since the year 1870, together with the printed meteor-cata- 
logue of the “ Radcliffe Observations,” Oxford, for the years 1869-1872, 
afford abundant materials for revising and correcting, and in some cases for 
extending the list of Radiant-points included in that Atlas, of which ad- 
vantage has only been partially taken by Mr. Greg in his most recently pub- 
lished general lists of Radiant-points (see these Reports for 1868, p. 401, 
the list of the ‘ Atlas’ of meteor-showers, 1872, Table facing p. 109, and 
1874, pp. 324-339). The latter list contains all the combined radiant-lists of 
various observers, and reproduces, with very little alteration, the earlier 
meteor-shower list of the British Association ‘ Atlas’ in 1867, as the portion 
of the Catalogue which depends directly upon observations collected by the 
Committee. By comparison with the more recent observations, Mr. Greg is 
now enabled to present the following modifications and instances of corro- 
boration of his general list (p. 221) which the above-named continued series of 
observations are found to afford, and which they suggest as desirable points for 
verification in the case of a continued collection of occasional meteor-observa- 
tions for such an object. Several new radiant-points are comprised among 
these results; and new positions and durations are assigned to several of the 
formerly established showers, of which the particulars and the general 
extent will most readily be gathered from the following notes of these com- 
parisons supplied by Mr. Greg. The reference numbers in the first column 
of the Table correspond to those of the general list in the volume of these 
Reports for 1874 (p. 324), and to this list and to the alder one of 1868 the 
present Table supplies a five or six years’ commentary and continuation. Some 
radiant-points of the list deserve special notice as having received from the 
new observations important illustrations. Showers formerly very conspicuous 
are occasionally unnoticed, or were invisible in the newer observations. Of 
these showers, BG (G. & H., No. 101) of the “ Cygnids ” in July and August 
is an example, having been only very sparingly observed since the year 1870 ; 
while an equally marked meteor-shower of July, near the head of Draco, BZ 
(No. 102), has presented itself with greatest intensity in August as a con- 
comitant of the 10th of August-meteors, and during the periods of obserya- 
tion immediately connected with the systematic watches for that shower. 

Two well-defined meteor-showers in October and November, and a third 
in December, the Orionids of October 16th—24th, Taurids of Noy. 2nd-12th, 
and Geminids of December 10th—14th, appear to be connected together by 
intermediate meteors, absorbing with the principal radiant-points themselves 
a large proportion of the sporadic meteors visible in those months. The first 
two of these showers are in great part contemporary, the shower-radiant in 
Orion comprising, according to Schmidt, six subradiants in October and 
November, with an average position at about R.A 83°, Decl. + 11°. The 
place of its maximum appearance, about the middle of October, is in some- 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 219 


what greater right ascension and declination (by four or five degrees) than 
this position ; and a comparison of its elements might perhaps be attempted 
successfully with those of the comet of 1821, I. (radiant-point at 86°,+19°-5), 
if the nodal date (November 11th) of this comet is capable of being recon- 
ciled with the much earlier time of appearance of the Orion shower. In the 
‘Memorie della Soc. degli Spettroscopisti Italiani’ of May 1874, a memoir on 
the meteors of the 17th—28th of October (1609 meteor-tracks observed by 
Drs. Heis and Schmidt, Zezioli, and at the Vienna Observatory, between the 
years 1843 and 1873), by Ludwig Gruber, of Vienna, is inserted, in which 
the author discusses the apparent radiant-points of this meteoric epoch by 
projecting the meteor-tracks recorded successively on each single date. The 
smallest number of tracks (65) occurred on the 20th, and the greatest (284 
and 226) on the 22nd and 24th of October; 310 meteors were found to be 
sporadic, or incapable of reduction to any distinguishable radiant-point. 
Of the remaining meteors, Dr. Gruber regards 16 radiant-points as having 
sufficiently well-defined positions to admit of further calculations as regards 
their orbits. The accompanying list (p. 220) exhibits the dates and positions 
together with the relative intensities of these several showers, as shown by 
the percentage numbers of meteors belonging to them on the days when 
they were most conspicuous. The Table also contains comparisons of their 
positions with those of already noted meteor-showers in other radiant-lists. 

These radiants may be grouped in great part under already recognized 
displays, as those of the Orionids (II. & VIII.), Muscids (V., X., XIV.), 
Taurids (VI.), Castorids, or Gemellids (between Castor and Pollux, IX.), a 
shower from near 3 Geminorum (first recorded in that constellation by Herrick 
from the 20th to the 26th of October, 1839, and observed at the above place, 
in great intensity, by Zezioli from the 21st to the 25th, and especially on 
the morning of the 23rd of October, 1868 *), Cassiopeids (XII.), and Polarids 
(XY.). But certain radiant-points of the list are new to the general Radiant 
Catalogue of Mr. Greg in the last volume of these Reports, and they are in- 
cluded below (Nos. 194, 195) in the present Supplementary Table of that list. 
Dr. Gruber’s position of the radiant-point XIII. agrees distantly with that of 
a new radiant-point for the end of October near o Piscium, noticed by Mr. 
Backhouse in 1872, and established by Mr. Greg from several other meteor- 
tracks in his examination of the recent observations. It may be added that 
the older radiants RG,, T,, 2, a and TG:; E, ,, and N,, A,, in August, and the 
October-December showers Aj; 37 near Cassiopeia, have undergone revision 
by means of the observations up to the year 1873, and that reductions to 
more definite positions that other showers admit of will perhaps be further 
illustrated when the unusually large collection of observations in the year 
1873-74 have all been projected. The radiant N,, (G. & H., 1874, No. 83) 
appears to have arisen out of a distinct meteor-shower in Cassiopeia (A,,, 
G. & H., Nos. 83, 98 in the Supplementary List), accompanying that of the 
Perseids, reaching a maximum about the 10th and again on the 23rd of 
August, which has been well marked among the recent observations at a 
place (provisionally assigned to it) at y Cassiopeiz. The relation of this 
new shower to the two formerly adopted radiant-points A, and N,,, and its 
final separation from the Perseus radiant-point, with which it has pro- 
bably been identified by indiscriminate projections hitherto, will form an 
important subject for investigation in future observations. 

* Herrick’s shower at 99°,+26° (« Geminorum), Gruber’s and Schiaparelli’s position 


from Zezioli’s observations, and one in Tupman’s list (No. 90) are the only recorded 
radiant-centres of the October period in the constellation Gemini. 


REPORT-—1875. 


220 


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OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 221 


Supplementary Table and general Radiant-list (continued), showing the cor- 
roborations of former meteor-showers and new radiant-points, derived by 
Mr. Greg from the Radcliffe Observations of 1870-74, the British Asso- 
ciation Catalogues in these Reports of 1867-74, and from private sources 
(R. P. Greg, A. S. Herschel, J. E. Clark, T. W. Backhouse), including about 
1000 observations independent of the periodic meteor-streams of Perseids, 
Orionids, Leonids, Andromedes, Geminids, Lyraids, and of meteors belong- 
ing to the annual star-shower of the Ist-3rd of January.—Supplement to 
the general list of Radiant-points 1874 (volume of these Reports for 1874, 
p. 324), by R. Greg. 


Old Meteor-Showers and Radiants. 


B.A. 
G. & H. ae 
nee oe of Dates and Confirmations by Observation. pee 
iant. 
1874. 
Ry elas eet 
(December, January) confirmed probably 6 0 
a6 for December 4-8 at ..............ccseeeeeee ell aoe 
2. M1,2 Confirmed tolerably December 13, at ......... 139 +53 
TG MG1 December 19 to January 2, partly confirmed| ... «+. 
14. AGI February 27 to March 6, partly confirmed ... 60 +37 
16. G3 January 9-19, partly confirmed ............... Baer see 
26. M3 February, partly confirmed ..............:s0+0+ 165 +35 
45, MZ. Partially confirmed vrscscscaracsanedesccvssssctees is Bie 
Ale DG1 Confirmed March and April ...........:00.00006 ee 
53. 8Z2 (=?S G 2) in part fairly confirmed............ . 
bb. Mi 654758) >) |Wairly Contirmed!..c12..c2-4.--sescntasee ss ee 
59a. ye (?M3Z) partially confirmed : 
Confirmed April and May, but not so 
9 pril an y; © 
67 Q1,2 { strongly marked as between 1862-1867 meets 
67. Q2 (=Q 1, 2) Mayand June, confirmed at ...... 232 +30 
69. W. (May and June) partially confirmed at ...... 285 +35 
ro { Slightly confirmed at; not so well marked = 
ie [W&Q G?] iianriormerly(p)) saeat ect tt ces scccte: 20 ae 
74. wa Partially confirmed at. ......Jcc.ccs-lecoescceseoeee 308 +15 
te} 
77. Bl Fairly confirmed at { arpe! + hse f til 307 +67 
79. QG Only slightly confirmed ; probably more qui- 303 +7 
escent than some years ago, at ............008 
81 B4 ie confirmed (15th July to August) at ...| 315 +45 
‘ Very well confirmed (August)...............40. 310 +45 
83. Nil antral iy COMMMEMs.10...086eicserecieeenocoesnances Pa wee 
98. A9 Wellveontirmedtat Orr... cccteccocsecescocnensdes 360 +45 
: 352 +62 
83. } All ees very fairly, July 25 to August t 
98. 26,(new radiant, Cassiopeize, 12°, +-59° Jat 10 +60 
84. MG5 Parulalllycomtirmed: trcsces. ch. cc ce-ssnescsscancers cds ye eas 
Very slightly confirmed only (perhaps a 
BS. Qs { radiant connected with it in Serpens?) at } ee 
SUb8 eee August (July), probably confirmed at ......... 273 +28 
93 N12.13 { Partially confirmed (August) .............0.005 eo ate 
: ; Fairly contirmed (in August only) at......... 240 +83 
94. asi Notinotioed fica iuibeccks is eee ae ee koe oscars 
Very slightly confirmed (and perhaps con- 
a coe ee with 96,112, or 125, 1G, 1,2) a 340 +48 


222 - REPORT—1875. 
Old Meteor-Showers and Radiants (continued). 


B.A. G&H P Posit} 

Cat. No Sion of Dates and Confirmations by Observation. eee 4 
Greg, ign 0 confirmed. 
1874. Radi ant, 

R.A. Decl 
o O° 
96. Ge (or ?95) slightly confirmed for August at...... 340 +35 
97. A Well confirmed (August) at ..........c00..0000 344 +16 
99. V Plighthyicortirmed ssc seestrss. cee eee ene eee ie 
102 BZ { Confirmed July 10 to September 30 ......... 250 +67 
; Position for August strongly confirmed at... | 255 +64 
103. R1,2 Fairly confirmed (in August) at ............2.. 361 +32 
11 123 { wae confirmed (August) at ..............000 359 «18 
: a Fairly confirmed (September and October) at | 858 +14 
112. El Tolerably well confirmed (August only) at ...| 840 +67 
Slightly confirmed (August) at ............... 283 +44 
113. Bd Not confirmed, September (? = No. 130, 
Die O.TTCIS) sae cteess ofr eee tee eae 
115. R Gl (August) radiant perhaps extends to............ 64 +22 
122. (Tupman) | (August 6-12). Very well confirmed by the| ... 
1870-71 Radcliffe observations ............... 94 +62 
125. B2 Slightly confirmed (August only) at............ 837 +52 
129. R1? (Of Heis), September (not =R38, October 1- 36 435 
15), well confirmed at 40°, +.35°to38°, +35° ie 
180. lye dts. August (September) suspected at ............... 287 +67 
HSE peter. Wiel confirmed ati s.1.peb-asctoonene te seerec ace 70 +67 
156. a Very slightly confirmed ..............02..c0ssec0es oon pee 
DAD a ae September, | and October, |) Wellconfirmed | 100 +83 
100°. 36°, | 98°,+380°, } at 
We | Siyre Tupman, confirmed ? September, at............ 130 +82 
es lbs pean e Perhaps confirmed (October) at ............... 3825 +60 
145 (Of Heis.) Apparently fairly confirmed in 
167. } ipl October (but possibly, however, only a 20 +40 
; PSEUGO-BHOWE!)| Bb .s-.seendenssdacegscaveanes 
146. BG6 Well confirmed (October 15-81) at............ 291 +50 
156. RG2 Extremely well confirmed (November 6-12) at} 56 +24 
156. G1 Well confirmed (? begins November 5)......... oie pee 
157. O Contiromed wellif, .a-1stoscasselereect tease ee 
166. DG2 Confirmed by Clarkyvatiy secs aces\25:-25.0eeeee 290 +65 
ee } wsbuns December 5-13. Probably confirmed at...... 30 +28 
168. Al6 (? Not Andromedes) fairly good at ............ 50 +49 
{i69, Te Slightly confirmed November 12 to 14, at ...| 185 +40 


172. A 17, 18,19 | (Heis). December 8-19; probably confirmed at} 20 +60 
ANG 


172. Greg). Confirmed December 4-8 (Andro- 

rien) ie Seceoadaiomcs nearer race sagen } 25 +42 
173. A 14,15 | (October). Well confirmed at.................. 5 +55 
VB? A115 (?14, 15). Moderately confirmed, November eA aA 
174. AGI Partly confirmed December 4-12 at............ 80 +20 
yam ee AA November 4-30; well confirmed (possibly } 127 447 

BNEW Radiant (abs. Mes.cecosden seuss teow eeene fitea 

176. KG Shehtily confirmed atiy.....<ctsacdantesceceseteeee 160 +60 
167} ope December 5-18. Probably confirmed at ... 30 +28 


* The observation of a star-shower on the night of December 7th, 1830, recorded by 
tne Abbé Raillard (‘ Comptes Rendus,’ vol. viii. Jan.—June, 1889, p. 177), is wrongly de- 
scribed as a bolide (?) on the 12¢h of December of that year in a former volume of these 
Reports (for 1873, p. 396) ; but there can be no doubt that the shower was a regular re- 
turn of the ‘ Andromedes’ connected with the periodical returns of Biela’s comet. 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 223 


New Meteor-Showers (1875). Principally from the English Observations. 


eee nee eS 


B.A. Cat. Ms 
tee ; Date and Observations. Hae sca 
Greg, 1875. 
R.A. Decl. 
188. N5  |Observed by Denza, Feb. 11-27, 1868, at ......... 105 — 5 
189. ‘ime Omitted in new B.A. Catalogue, but in 1867 Atlas) 36 +67 
March 3-27. Perhaps connected with the 
next, No. 190. 
re: BAN peep Ci. ge tg Sing ep ate a 
191. a April 13-May 1. Probable, extending about from) 217 +16 
(53 a) 225°, +22° to 210°,+10°. 
192. Bee. March 18-19, 1874. Observed by Mr. Backhouse] 157 +13 
(69 ?) a May 19-June 21. Probably new (?=W, No.69)| 263 +387 
(110?) rr July 10-30. Very well pronounced. Formerly| 255 +37 
no doubt confused between W and Q 1, 2. 
I Confirmed also by Mr. Herschel, July 16, 17, 
1870, at 257°,+386°. 
(83, 98) 563 July 25-August 26 (especially Aug. 7-12 and 23),) 12 +59 
A 11, Cassiopeids; accompanying the August 


shower of Perseids. 


193. —~ September. Well pronounced in Tarandus; pos-| 50 +75 
sibly has been confused with F,, , (No. 136). 
f September. Fairly pronounced at................-. 44 +73 
(119?) bc Suspected, September, at .........-..-s-seeeseneeeesees 305 +22 
194. as October 18-23; Gruber, Oct. Radiants IV., XT. 2 +25 
(average position). 
Hb; oo8 October 18-Noy. 10 (T. W. Backhouse, Oct. 30, 23 + 8 
1872, at o Piscium, 25°,+8°), RB. 
196. October 17-24; Gruber, Oct. Radiants I., VII., 21 +22°5 
XIII. (average position). 
197. ¥ MotobemQerses: Gift Ooi seen eterna ss <tinnnedaaeaascede: 110 +70 
October 28; Gruber, Oct. Radiant XVI. ......... 89°7 +71 
198. os Very fairly pronounced shower, Noy. 4-Dec. 8,at} 54 + 7 
199. ot J. BH. Clark, Dec. 10-12, 1873 (very accurate) 57 +°6 
radiation). 


| 


Corrections to the last Catalogue (1874). 


No. 12 (page 325). Tupman’s positions 177°,+22° and 205°,+4° should belong 
respectively to No. 5 and No. 8; 8. & Z. 14 should change place with 8. & 
Z. 25, No. 18. 

No. 69a (page 330) should be 68a, and should follow No. 68 in the Catalogue. 

No. 83=98 in Cassiopeia, confirmed (?=E 1 in part), includes also 8. & Z. 105 

No. 90, ?=87, not 89. 

No. 129. R3 of Greg and H.=Nos. 167 and 185, November and December. 

No. 141=147; receives a new confirmation in September, at 130°+32°. 


Papers relating to Meteoric Astronomy.—tIn the Sheffield Scientific School 
of Yale College, in the United States, Prof. H. A. Newton delivered a lecture 
on March 9th, 1874, “ On the story of Biela’s Comet,” in which he details 
with much completeness the circumstances of the positions of Biela’s comet 
in its orbit relative to the earth at the times of the occurrences of the 
greatest meteor-showers known to have proceeded from the earth’s approach 
to this comet’s orbit. The line of the nodes, or the place of the earth’s nearest 
approach to the comet’s track, being at N, it appears that in the year 1798, 


224 REPORT—1875. 


at the time when the earth encountered at that point the great meteor- 
shower of the 6th of December in that year, observed by Brandes, Biela’s 
comet was in the position marked C, somewhat nearer to the earth than at 
the next occasion when a similar occurrence was observed in the year 1838. 
The comet was in the latter year at a point marked A, about 300 millions of 


7---7 


es 
< 
1S 
3 
Lad 
is 
i) 
ial 


miles distant, measured along its orbit, from the earth. At the last great reap- 
pearance of this star-shower connected with Biela’s comet, on the 27th of 
November, 1872, the two bodies (which had last been observed in 1852 as 
forming the nucleus of the comet) must have occupied a place on the elliptic 
orbit marked B, at about 200 millions of miles along the comet’s path from 
the place of the earth’s intersection with the meteor-stream at N. It thus 
appears that a long extended group of meteor-particles must accompany the 
comet in its periodical revolution, preceding it to a distance of 300 millions 
of miles in front, and following it to a length of 200 millions of miles in the 
rear of its actual position, or occupying, if there is no reason to suppose this 
elongated meteor-current discontinuous, fully 500 millions of miles in its 
observed length along the comet’s path. 

A similar investigation has led Prof. Kirkwood, of the Indiana State Uni- 
versity, to a remarkable conclusion regarding the clusters of meteors included 
in the current of the Leonids of November, that at least one other such 
cluster besides that connected immediately with the comet exists to mark 
the ancient disintegrations which this cometary body must have undergone. 
The following letter in ‘ Nature’ of January 3rd, 1875, relates the results 
of Prof. Kirkwood’s investigation, and describes some observations of his own 
by which they are supported. 


“ The Meteors of November 14.—The writer some time since called atten- 
tion to the fact that the dates of certain meteoric showers, given by Hum- 


Ue ee ees eee ti—‘:S 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 225 


boldt and Quetelet as belonging to the November stream, indicated the 
existence of two distinct and widely separated clusters moving in orbits very 
nearly identical. The years thus designated were 1787, 1818, 1820, 1822, 
1823, 1841, and 1846. As the last two were subsequent to the great 
display of 1833, the meteors seen were noticed only in consequence of their 
being specially looked for; andas the number conformable to the radiant 
of the Leonids is not given, there may be some doubt whether those observed 
really belonged to the November stream. The former displays occurred 
before the periodicity of such phenomena had been suspected, and the 
number of meteors would seem to have been considerable. As the shower 
of 1787 preceded by twelve years the great meteoric fall witnessed in South 
America by Humboldt, the group from which it was derived had passed 
beyond the orbit of Saturn at the time of the latter display. The pheno- 
mena of 1818, 1820, 1822, and 1823 indicate that, as in the case of the 
major group, which passed its descending node between 1865 and 1870, the 
meteoroids are extended over a considerable arc of their orbit. From No- 
vember 1787 to the middle of the nodal passage of 1818-1823 is about 334 
years—a period nearly the same as that of the principal cluster. These 
facts alone were regarded by the present writer as giving reasonable pro- 
bability to the hypothesis of an approximate identity of orbits. In ‘ Noture,’ 
vol. xi. p. 407, it was shown that the meteor-showers of October 855 and 
856 were probably derived from the stream of Leonids* ; and it is certainly 
remarkable that the interval from 855 to 1787 is equal to twenty-eight 
periods of 33-293 years. Again, the shower observed in China, Sept. 28, 
A.D. 288, making proper allowance for the nodal motion, corresponds to the 
same epoch, the interval between 288 and 855 containing seventeen periods 
of 33°35 years. In view of the fact that the shower from this cluster was 
due between 1851 and 1855, the following extract from the writer’s note- 
book is not without interest :— 

*««« Newark, Delaware, Noy. 13, 1852. ... On the evening of the 11th, 
from 7 to 10 o’clock, an aurora borealis of ordinary brilliancy was constantly 
observed. About midnight the sky became overcast with clouds, thus pre= 
venting our watch for meteors which we were about to commence. On the 
12th, from about 3 to 9 o’clock a.m., rain fell almost incessantly. About 
noon the clouds broke away, and the night between the 12th and 13th was 
quite clear. During six hours (from 10 p.m. to 4 4.4.) constant watch was 
maintained at four windows, facing north, south, east, and west. From 
10 to 1 o’clock the observations were conducted by Prof. Ferris and myself 
with assistants. At 1 the place of Prof. Ferris was taken by Prof. Porter, 
who remained, with myself and assistants, till 4. We observed— 


* The first of these showers is recorded by an Arabian chronicler, and also as follows in 
the ‘Annales Fuldenses’:—‘“ Per totam noctem igniculi instar spiculorum occidentem 
versus per aérem densissime ferebantur.” That of the following year (856) is cited from 
similar but somewhat less authentic sources in Quetelet’s Catalogue, and is suspected to be 
identical with it. By comparing the dates of these two showers with that of the famous 
one which took place in 1366 (a year, as well as the year 868, in which the comet accom- 
panying this star-shower was also seen: vide these Reports for 1873, p. 401), Boguslawski 

t suspected an advance in the node of the meteor-orbit before its real form and period 
had yet been detected. But the showers of 855-56 preceded by 12 years the regular periodic 
shower of 868 ; and it is remarked by Professor Kirkwood that this divergence of their 
dates agrees exactly with the interval by which the well-marked November showers of 1820 
and 1822 anticipated the appearance of the celebrated star-shower of November 13th, 1833. 
(‘ Nature,’ sup. cit., March 25th, 1875.) 


1875. Q 


226 REPORT—1875. 


h h 
RromalOc. sto ldo hacen otolwee 4 20 meteors. 
FL spd inthe sy sete eee « 35° 41), 
p02 um Gy iP OS RE ee: 40, 
Pe Vane Mae rer is. a 52 less 
glid meio! vigst, BH Mae ee Eee ee Ton ts; 
arieuricr Susser Aiamavae Eire 50rin & 
Notaly erererists ote fella b5- 


*** When the meteors were most numerous, near 3 o’clock, the common 
point of divergence in Leo was distinctly observed.’ 

«J may here add, although the fact is not stated in my memoranda, that 
the conformable meteors, or a majority of them, were seen near the radiant, 
and that they were generally smaller and had shorter tracks than the No- 
vember meteors observed between 1865 and 1870. The number seen was 
too small to be called a shower; at the maximum, however, the fall per hour 
was nearly double that of ordinary nights. In short, I have no doubt that 
they were Leonids, and think it highly probable that they were derived from 
a distinct cluster which passed its perihelion in 1787 and 1820. We have 
therefore nine recorded meteor-falls which indicate the existence of a second 
cluster of Leonids, viz. those of a.p. 288, 855, 856, 1787, 1818, 1820, 1822, 
1823, and 1852. The showers of 855 and 856 may be somewhat doubtful. 
If derived from the same meteor-cloud as the others, the dates would indicate 
considerable perturbations either by Uranus or the earth. The displays 
have been much less conspicuous than those of the major group, and hence 
the phenomena have been less frequently observed. The period is about 
33°33 years, while that of the other swarm, according to Newton, is 33-25 
years. Since their separation, therefore, the latter has gained nearly two- 
thirds of a revolution in their relative motion. The estimates which have 
been made in regard to the recent entrance of the cluster into the planetary 
system must consequently be rejected.—Danizt Krrxwoop.” 


“ Bloomington, Indiana, U. 8. A., 
April 20th, 1875.” 


Lists of Meteor and Meteor-shower observations and of Cometary Radiant- 
points.—In the above-quoted publication (of May 1874) of the Italian Spec- 
troscopic Society, Prof. Schiaparelli reviews at some length the catalogue of 
observations and of meteor radiant-points by Capt. Tupman, deriving from 
them chiefly average results relating to the apparent length and to the time 
of flight of the recorded meteor-tracks. The annexed diagram shows ap- 
proximately the numbers of meteors in the list of different lengths and 
durations of flight proceeding by intervals of 1° up to 30° in length of path, 
and of one tenth of a second up to two seconds in the time of flight. The 
curve of relative frequency in length of path is drawn from the actual 
numbers of the observations, including 1951 recorded tracks ; and the most 
frequent lengths of path recorded among them are between 7° and 10°; the 
average length of path derived from the whole series of observations in the 
list is 11°-0, falling a little short of the mean apparent length of course of 
meteor-tracks (13°'9)-assigned by Coulvier Gravier. 

The curve of frequency of the different times of flight is a reduced one 
from the total number of 1613 observations, allowing for the rough estima- 
tions at 0*5, 10, 18-5, and 20 preponderating greatly among the other more 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 227) 


accurate determinations, and diminishing the scale of modified numbers so 
obtained to one half of the original figures, in order to bring the crest of the 
curve within the limits of the diagram. A duration of 0*2 is far the most 


/300 TT .] 


200 


Number of recorded meteors. 


100 + B LT 
SEEN 


1 f=) 
Fase s 


common time of flight assigned to about one third of all the observations ; but 
a tendency to record longer times of flight in the later years (1870-71) of 
the Catalogue than in the first year (1869), in which many durations of 
only 0*1 were recorded, indicates that these exceedingly momentary times 
of flight may very probably have been a little underrated, Above 1:5 
second there are actually noted in the list meteors of great durations in 
the following numbers :— 


Duration of flight in seconds ...... 16. 1-7. 2:0. 2:5. 3:0. Above 3 seconds, 
Numbers of meteors recorded ...... Vocals oe ao) all 


total 59, or only 32 per cent. of all the appearances recorded. Only 47 meteors 
with times of flight varying from 1*1 to 1*5 (or 2:9 per cent, of the whole) 
are noted in the list, the remaining 1506 meteors all having durations not 
exceeding one second. The longest time of flight observed was 16 seconds, 
and the average duration of all the recorded times of flight was 0°44. If 
durations exceeding 1 second are excluded as anomalous and exceptional 
from the general result, the average time of flight of the remaining 1506 
meteors was 0°32. 

The following agreements of radiant-points in Capt. Tupman’s list with 
showers apparently corresponding to them obtained from Zezioli’s observa- 
tions are pointed out by Schiaparelli. The sign and number of the shower 
in Mr. Greg’s last general list to which they correspond is added for refer- 
ence to that Table; and although these separate correspondences exhibit 
very excellent agreements, they afford little confirmation of the distinctness 

Q2 


2 


28 


REPORT—1 


875. 


of some of the adopted radiant-groups in the general list, and offer no new 
appearances of probable connexion with cometary meteor-showers. 


Radiant-point in List of Schia-| Radiant-poimt in Tupman’s | Radiant-point or Group in Greg’s 

parelli and Zezioli (S. & Z.). List (T). General List, 1874. 

Position of Position of 
fa Duration | Radiant. a arabe Radiant. eg 5 ied oy were 
FAs tees | =< ———— + | of Shower. |=. | "ora. and Remarks. 
8. & Z. R.A.| Decl. | 7: R.A.| Decl. | 1874 
ie} (2) ie} fe) 

5 |Jan. 11-12) 183} +28} 4 | Jan.4-31 |180| +385) 11 |MG. (G.&H.), Jan. 1-25; 
183°+36°. A well-defined 
radiant-group; centre at 
T. 4; apparent connexion 
with comet 1792 (II) not 

. confirmed. 

95% Feb. 1. |215| +380| 9f | Feb. 3-10 | 210) +36 | (+) 12 |Shower properly belongs to 

and | 12, a group contiguous 

(*)18| to1l8(Q Z). No cometary 
radiant-point confirmed. 

147* | Sept. 8. | 60) +82 | 64f |Sept.7-15| 66) +40 (ft) 114/FG. (G. & H.), including 
also T.74; August shower 
in Auriga. 

(*) 129)R, (G. & H.) Muscids. Ra- 
diant group and its dura- 
tion uncertain. 

189 Dec 27 |137| +45 | 102 | Dec. 23-27) 180) +49 2 |M,,,(G.&H.). Approxi- 
mate agreement with co- 
met of 1680 not confir- 
med. 


As instances of close apparent connexion of meteor-showers with comets 
which either have been or which yet remain to be verified by repeated obser- 


- vations, attention may be drawn to the comparative list of meteor-shower 


and cometary radiant-points in the Table at p. 350 of the volume for 1874 
of these Reports, in which examples of correspondence in the principal cha- 
racters of nodal or shower-dates and positions of the radiant-centres will be 
found to be very numerous, and to be chiefly exemplified in the annexed 
selected list of the most important cases (p. 229). 

The last Annual Report of the Council of the Royal Astronomical Society 
(« Monthly Notices,’ vol. xxxv. p. 243) contained some brief remarks on these 
coincidences. It is pointed out that the earth’s nearest approach to a comet’s 
orbit is sometimes (if the inclination of the comet’s orbit is small) at a con- 
siderable distance from the node, and in certain cases, as that of Lexell’s 
eomet (17701), Clausen’s comet (1743 I), the comets of 1833, 1702 11, 568 IT, 
the best agreements with known meteor-showers are found at the dates of 
the earth’s nearest appulse to their orbits rather than at those of its nodal 
conjunctions with them. Another example of the same kind appears to be 
that of Halley’s comet, 1835 III, with a date of appulse May 4th, about 
twelve days earlier than that of conjunction with the node, and with a radiant- 
point at that place which does not differ greatly from that of a considerable 
star-shower observed by Captain Tupman on the 2nd and 3rd of May, 1870, 
and on the 29th of April, 1871. In the place of the usual sign for the node, a 
capital Greek Omega (erect or inverted) might be used to signify an “ appulse,” 
or point of closest approach (which is generally near to one of the nodes) of a 
comet’s orbit to the earth’s. In a later Table of this Report this sign is, for 


Date of Cometary Most accordant Meteor-showers. Cometary Date of 
Comet and Harth’s Radiant- Radiant- Earth’s | Comet and 


for) 
uy its node or | Approach | point (1875). | Radiant-point. Sign or || Sign or Radiant-point.| point (1875). | Approach | its node or 
XR Appulse. | or Appulse. : P ee Ref. Ref. Tee, ————_—\_— or Appulse.} Appulse. 
(1875). | R.A. | Decl.| R.A. | Decl. | "7% | No. No. matron | R.A. | Decl. | B.A. | Decl.| (1875.) 
1792 IL eve ase 424% 188 198 Jan. 11-1918 & 25 PE papers: Aug. 10. | 1869 12 
2 IT ¢ ..| Jan. 5. 5) 2 an, 11-12 BS - ug. 10. 8 
1797 @......| Feb. 18, | 211 |+ 9 | 205 |4 4 | Feb. 13. | 78  || Schm. | August. | 55 |—18 { 49 |— 9 | Aug.27. | 15968 
1864 V ¢@...) Mar. 1. 251 |—13)| (247 |— 3 | Mar.3-25.(G & H) || Schm. | August. } | Le 
il SZ, || mes | Ane a-a5| $53 [+1 4 ; - Aug, 31. ee 
1862 IV @..| Mar. 16. | 24 2435/4 4 | Mar.7. | T27 || S&Z 475 | Aug.19. | 186211 
1556 Q ......| Mar. 19. | 179 aaa eee , 140 \ August 10) 47 |+18 { 41 |4+11:5| Aug 9: | - Do. near 
1264 Q......! Mar. 25, | 182 ~ 38 = gag 4 the 8 
1683 Q ......| Mar. 16, | 207 |—48 | 192 |-88 | March. H, |(G&H)| July 28to| 8+/+36 3°5|4+38:5| Aug.14. | 1780 Ile 
178 Q......| Apr. 23, | 208 |—32 | 194 |—30 | April. H, R Sept. 3. 


18611 @ ...{ Apr.20. | 270 |432 | 277-5|+345| Apr.19-21 (Oia) T 67 | August 31. 85 |-15 | 92 |+0 | Ang.23. | 17978 
18801 9 ...| Apr 15. | 16 |—36 | 126° |—43 | April 


a 

4 

° 

i) 

& 

3 

mM 

Pp ; > |f 53 |—16 | Sept. 10. | 1854 IV98 

z 1748 I 8...| Apr. 22. | 255 427 | 260 |+24 | April 25. |S «&463|| Schm. | Sept. ae { 129 |=155) Sept. 18. | 9618 
1853 IL g...) May 1. 296 |+13 291:5/+ 8:5] May 2. T 34, 35, 5 I+ ept. 19. 8 

Betis lgacig | ares o | fet! |205 Munelerge.)i| Soke, || 8 | Sen 142 (+67 |1 172 |468 | Sept. 30. | 18401IIe 

4 - =a 269 te June. OF Schm. Sept. 3-10. 17 + 9 18 +18 Se t 19, 1769 

& | 8371 8 ...| May1. | 334 |-16 (G& H)| Aug. 22 toj& 21 |4+18 { pes eis Wen eal cae oe 

3 TGBOILE nea 326 |— 2:5| Apr. 29tol [33 |] T,, Oct. 15. | 859 [+17 ie ‘hae 

z, the Q......| May 4. 337 |+ 0 May 3. Heis i 

S. | 178119 «..| June 14, | 888-|+57 | 398 |-449° | gune. |B, (Heis)| Ac, | Oct te.) OF ral: le mas ok si Ock 4” 5) Tear VIG 

& | 18501 @ ...| June 24. | 312 |461 | 315 |+60 | Junell tolB,,(G&|| Schm. | October. | 40 |-30 | 39 |—30 | Oct.19. | 17798 

= July 11] "H) |(G@& H)| Sept.17 tol go | 4 50 { 81 [+57 | Oct.21. | 184211 ¢ 

a 315 |454 | July 1-15.|B, (Heis)| F,, | Nov. 24) f°? 78 |460 | Oct.24. | 18481 @ 

@ | 18641 ev...) Juno 27. | 12 |+ 6 |{ 4g [t Gf] duly. | schm. [GES || oct. 3-20. | 142 Pot ee alee eer ee 

> 1770 I near T97 | Nov.7. | 160 |+40J . 


the g....| July 8. 276 |—21 285 |—13 | June28to} 136 || L(Leon.)| Nov.13-15) 149 |+23 150'5 |+23:'5| Nov.13. | 18661 ¢ 


: July 6. Sigel e Biela 9 

17701 v...| Aug. 6. 283 |—20 | 285 |—25 | July18to! Schm. | Nov. 27. | 25 |+43 25:2|+42 | Nov. 27.{ 1866-72 
Aug, 31. (Bieia) 174318 

GOST in n.| Ang db| 250 |—36 | 250 125. |-anpusts la\eneny|| ‘Sahm, 4) Deosmbar| (4 -|204 Tey Decemb. { te ie 
266 |—42 | August. Schm. the 8 


1764 2 ......] Tuly 25. | 49 446. |) 44 |456 | Aug.9-I1] Ay |\(@&H) | |Jan. 1 to] | 19 ee eee ee 
1862 TIL @ | Aug.10. | 43 |4575 |(penetiae)|Bt» | | "wep. 9} | 235 eet ea 
18701 8 ...| Aug. 12. | 43 [453 a MS Hate the 


Eee July 8. 39 |+45 §$&Z32| Feb.13. | 133 |4 ip) oe , ss 


pal UD 


a 


230 REPORT—1875. 


brevity, introduced ; but it is not thought necessary to use it in the above 
selected Table of cometary coincidences, where, for greater clearness of de- 
scription, such points of close approach (or of ‘‘ appulse”’ of comet-orbits to 
the earth’s) are simply denoted in the first columns of this Table as being 
“near” the comet’s ascending or descending node. For the general pur- 
poses of comparison between the probable orbits of observed meteor-streams 
whose dates and radiant-positions may be hereafter or have already been 
sufficiently well determined, and those of certain comets whose computed 
orbits are found to pass, at the points of approach to the earth’s orbit, either 
very near to or at no very remote distance from it, and for convenience of 
reference in identifying such examples of supposed agreement between 
meteor-showers and cometary radiant-points as have already been pointed 
out, the dates and positions of the radiant-points of all the computed comet- 
orbits intersecting the ecliptic plane within a quarter of the sun’s distance 
inside or outside of the earth’s orbit are collected together in two Tables 
(pp: 232, 234) in the order of dates and of position of the cometary radiant- 
points above or below the equator, the two lists being arranged for the 
northern and southern hemispheres respectively, according to the north or 
south declinations of the computed radiant-points. As these radiant-points 
were computed by the approximate graphical method devised by Schiaparelli 
(Entwurf einer astronomischen Theorie der Sternschnuppen, p. 78, § 49), the 
tests which the elaborate calculations of many of the radiant-points by 
Dr. Weiss supply are employed to check the graphical constructions ; and all 
the radiant-points originally calculated by Professor Weiss, who takes into 
account what has elsewhere been omitted throughout in the graphical pre- 
paration of these Tables (the ellipticity of the orbits of those comets which 
are known to be periodic, and whose orbits accordingly differ sensibly from 
parabolas), are included as standards of correct determinations in the present 
lists. 

In the column of reference numbers at the beginning of the Table the names 
of discoverers and particulars of meteoric connexion of some periodic comets 
are added, together with references to other numbers where comets are known 
or conjectured to be more or less probably identifiable with comets of an 
older date, although no elliptic figure may have been observed or calculated 
in the dimensions of their orbits. A question sign is added after that of the 
node or appulse if the elements are uncertain, and the date in the following 
column is corrected for precessional alteration to the year 1875 from that of 
the comet’s apparition. The fourth column contains the comet’s radius vector 
or distance from the sun in terms of the semidiameter of the earth’s orbit 
as unit, at the node or point of intersection of the orbit with the ecliptic, 
unless the appulse replaces the node in the Table, when the comet’s distance 
above (+) or below (—) the earth’s orbit at the point where its radius vector 
is unity is substituted in brackets (in terms of the same unit as the scale of 
measurement) for the value of the radius vector. A similar estimate to that 
afforded by the radius vector in other cases can thus be formed of the degree 
of proximity in which the path of the comet and the earth’s orbit approach 
each other in such instances at their points of close conjunctions at equal 
distances from the sun. Thus the comet 1862 II crossed the ecliptic plane 
(with retrograde motion, at an ascending node corresponding to the sbower- 
date on Aug. 19th) about 0-03 (or twelve moon’s distances) without the earth’s 
orbit ; but, owing to its small inclination, in approaching nearer to the sun 
it slightly neared the earth’s orbit ; and at a point corresponding in the earth’s 
annual motion to about the 7th of August, it passed only 0-025 earth’s solar 


-_ OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 231 


distance (or about ten times the moon’s distance) above the earth’s orbit. 
Thus the observation of a star-shower not far from the latter date, between 
the 7th and 19th of August (or on August 10th, 8. & Z. 140, in the above 
comparative list), with a radiant-point corresponding closely to that of meteor 
poursuivants of the comet at this point, is in satisfactory correspondence with 
the earth’s conjunction with this comet’s orbit, although the date of the 
shower and of the nearest conjunction of the orbits is not exactly that of the 
earth’s passage across the line of the comet’s nodes. In several other cases 
(as in that of Lexell’s comet) of comets moving nearly in the ecliptic, the 
point of nearest conjunction and the time of the year when the earth passes 
through it are very far removed from the place and from the corresponding 
time of the earth’s passage through the node; and the approach of the two 
orbits is yet often closer at the former than at the latter place. 

The particulars of each comet’s approach to the earth, whether occurring at 
the node or appulse, will be found, as thus described, in the columns of the 
accompanying lists, the dates in column 3 and the places of the radiant-points 
in columns 5 and 6 being brought up (for precession) to the year 1875, neg- 
lecting any perturbations which the orbit of the comet since the time of its 
appearance may have undergone. In cases of appulses (or of earth’s conjunction 
with the comet-orbits at a common radial distance from the sun), the motions 
of the meteor-particles are supposed to be equal and parallel to that of the 
comet in its orbit there, or at the point where its radius vector is equal to 
the earth’s distance from the sun; as no regard is paid in the graphical 
construction to the slightly elliptic form, both of the orbits of certain comets 
and of the earth’s orbit, which are severally assumed to be parabolic and 
circular, small errors on these accounts will present themselves in the lists, 
which, for preliminary purposes, may be looked upon as unimportant. 

A + or — sign following the dates indicates if the comet’s motion is direct 
or retrograde; and if the comet was approaching the sun, or if it was very 
near to its perihelion at the node or appulse, there is added after the radius 
vector, or appulse-distance, in column 4, a notation sign (* or §) denoting 
these conditions ; where no such sign is added, the comet’s motion is receding 
from the sun. The italic letters after the comets’ years in column 2 are 
intended to supply some information of their general characters and appearance. 
Thus d implies just discernible by the naked eye, d plainly, and D brightly so ; 
and D a comet visible by day. ¢t Z'T indicate corresponding proportions in 
the apparent dimensions of the tails: ¢ less than 5°; t, 5° to 15°; 7’, 15° to 
30°; and T upwards of 30° in length. Durations of the comets’ periods, 
where elliptic orbits are known to belong or have been calculated and assigned 
to them, are also roughly indicated by letters corresponding to their lengths 
of period thus: J, periods less than 15 years; 1,15 to 50 years; Z 50 to 400 
years; and L comets of very long periods exceeding 400 years. The letter 
p is added to comets having decidedly parabolic orbits, and h to those whose 
orbits are computed to have been hyperbolic. The sign || following these cha- 
racters indicates that at its appearance the comet passed very near the earth. 
The initials P., H. affixed to the comet of 1490 (N. 2) are those of two inde- 
pendent computers, Peirce and Hind, of two distinct and apparently equally 
probable orbits of the comet; while the mean of two independent sets of orbit- 
elements assigned to it by Pingré is adopted in the Table for the comet of 


Be, 
1582 (N. 83), to whose designation a similar initial 9 1s affixed. The orbit- 


elements used in the rest of the Table are those of Hind’s work ‘ The Comets,’ 


232 


nErort—1875. 


List of Radiant-points of Comets in the Northern Hemisphere (N.). 
By A. 8. Hurscuet. 


Reference No. 


(6, 51, 55) 9 
(15) 10 

(12, 13) 1) 
(11, 18) 12 
(11, 12) 18 
14 


(10) 15 
(3, 17) 16 
(3, 16) 17 

18 

(S. 44) 19 
20 

21 

(30, 90) 22 
(24, 32) 23 
(23, 32) 24 
25 

(S. 47) 26 
27 
(Lyraids) 28 
(Ly Bs 
(22, 90) 80 
31 


(28, 24) 82 


33 

34 

30 
Halley’s 
Do, 36 
37 


38 
39 
(48, 59) 40 


2. 


Comet and its 
Node Q 2, or 
nearest 
appulse Q G. 


1792 IT 3 ¢ 
Do. (Weiss) 
1490 wd (P) 
1490 @ ¢(H) 
1746? © | 
1672 st 
1863 V edz 
1833 6 

1810 ¢ 

1857 I 3 p 
Do. (Weiss) 
1833. 3 


1854 V ed 
Do. IV(Weiss) 
{1858 IV ¢ 
Do. (Weiss) 
1699 I 3 
1799 IT 3 dz 
1797 @ d 
1845 I 9 
1746? 3 || 
17462 © || 
1231 5d 
1862 IV 3 
Do. (Weiss) 
1763 3 L 
Do. (Weiss) 
961 Bd 
1743 Il? ed 
1702 Il? ad 
1857 V 3dt 
18251 3 dt 
18471 sD¢L 
1580? ¢ D 
1808 IIL? ¢ 


{ 


1861 I sd¢L 


1844 IT ed L}" 


1702 IL? Qd|| 
1748 IL? 3 
1790 IIT gdz 
Do. (Weiss) 
1784 IT ?? ¢ 
1853 Il 3 dz 
1835 IIT 9 L 
1835 ITI ¢ DZ 
1456 3 DT 
1757 Qt 
1757 Q 

1618 IIT ¢ DT 
17811 edz] 


{ 


3. 


Cometary-Shower 


date, 1875, 


1864 IT gL 


4, 5 6. 
Comet’s | Position of 
Radius |Radiant-point. 

vect. or least 1875. 
dist. from® 
(above +, 
below —).| R.A. |N.Deel. 
oO o 
1-050 214°5 |+16 
1:07 194 |+25 
0:79 214 |434 
0:902x | 179 |+69 
(+0:07x) 60 |+40 
1:042 256 |+20 
1:09 272'5 |4-25:5 
(+0:036%) | 185 |4+25 
33 277 |4+21 
1-015 261°5 |4-22-5 
1:03 261 |4+23 
O:'787% | 144°5 |+24 
0-988 304°5 |4+35 
0:985 804:0 |+37:3 
0-958 272 |4+10°5 
0:95 272 |+12 
1117 266 |+ 9 
0-72 264 |+17 
1:27% 211 |4 95 
1:23 809°5 |4- 27 
0:97 33 |4+33°5 
(—0:008) 380 |+28°5 
(+0:058) aye ere | 
0:982% | 250°5|+ 0-5 
0-987 249°5|4 1:0 
1:02 312 |+20°5 
1:02 312'5 |4+-21-5 
1:27 308 |+12 
0°703 296 |4+ 1:5 
0:792 86:5 |4 5:5 
0:722 302 |4+11 
1:38 S12 eae 
0:052x | 231:°5|4927 
1-22 337°5 |4+31 
0-73 307 |+ 4 
1:006% | 270°5 |+32° 
0-92% 288°5)+ 5 
(+0:022) | 43:5 |+11-5 
O:887% | 255°5|427-°5 
1-060 320°5 |+18°5 
0:94 819 |+19 
1-056 334:5 |+33 
0:927x | 296:5|+13°5 
(—0:061) | 337 |+ 0 
0:872 343-5 |+ 2 
0:90 3438 |+ 2 
0-73 37 = |+ 2 
(+0:073) 56 |+ 5 
1:10x 273°5|+ 05 
0:810 338 |+57 
(—0:003) 8 |+ 5 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 238 
List of Radiant-points (continued). 
l. 2, 3. 4, Bel 7. 
fe} fe) 
41 | {18501 6 d¢Z| June 234 1.0828 | 313-5/460:5| 263 
Do. (Weiss) ee 1-065 | 312-4/460-6| 25-1 
42| 18221Vedel] ” 25— 11458 | 348:5/+28 | 426 
1864 II 3 L aes 0-967 | 135|4+ 65] 441 
(40, 59) 43 |) “Do. (Weiss) eae 0953 | 12:0|4 63] 43-15 
44 | 1829 III @ 7 0 Ilx | 342 |414 | 426 
45| 7706 DT | July 8— 1-20 39 |445 | 37-0 
46 | 177011 3 ¢ de o9lx | 349 |412 | 408 
(58) 47 | (1819 III @ J tee 0-790 | 188 |432:5) 115 
Winnecke’s { 3858 Ig L * 64 0-787 | 188 |430:5| 11-6 
[Burkhardt's| 17661igd¢J) June 7+ 0-408 | 1745/430 | 10:8]? 
48 | 1764 edt July 25 — 0892 | 49 |445:5| 38-4 
4g | {1737 IL 8 80-4 0-987 | 180 |4685) 18-1 
{ Do. (Weiss) fe ne 0-975 |175 |471 | 17-85 
1862 Ile dt| Aug. 10— 1020 | 43 |4575| 380 
(Perseids) 50 |< Do. Hind 
(1872) ? ee aa bl [+52 
. 18701 8 2 jo 1012 | 435/453 | 39-0 
(6, 9,55) 51 | 1833 0 ” 494+ |(-0:009) | 141 |4 95] 204 
no |(1so8iileDt| 7} 134 031 | 300 |480 | 27-4 
2 1) Do. (Weiss) yee 031 | 299 |480 
58 | 1780 IL 3 ines O817x | 35/4385] 355 
[57154 | 1808II 2 ” te= 1:07 so 46 | 37-7 
(6,9,51)55 | 1833 2 eee 110 | 1395/410 | 21-0 
1862 Il 9 d¢ tages 1037% | 48 |414 | 440 
56 |4 Do. (Weiss) fh tg 1027 | 475/413 | 43-2 
Do. @ ” “7 (0-025) | 41 [4115] 443 
(14) 57 | 1797 a d se 0914. | 925/40 | 381 
(47) 58 | (18691 ol ” 954 |(—0-106) | 1795|421 | 155 
Winnecke’s || 1819 III oJ ” 964 (012) | 180 [421 | 155 
(40,43) 59 | 1864115 L | Sept. 2— [(40030%)| 57 [4.1 | 441 
Donati’s 60 1858VIg DTL| ,, 8— O71 | 100 |459 | 37-7 
61 | 3.0.68? edt wins io}? 0355 | 198 |458 | 27-0? 
(66)62 | 1769 ¢ DTL| Sept. 194 178% | 175/418 | 29-4 
(8. 13) 63 | 1683 edz Senta 1175 | 145 |449°5| 33-7 
ga | {1790 1? & aim 1-068 | 111-5/4+38 | 41-6 
Do. (Weiss) a 1053 | 108:1|437-7| 409 
(8. 16, le 1556 @ DT "994 0873 | 188 |430 | 200 
17) 165 | 1264 6 DT :. 96-4 0-775 | 190 |429 | 208 
(62) 66 | 17695 DT ” 984 \(—0:020x) | 245/4175| 27:3 
(80)67 | 1840 TIIe dad > 304 0-850 | 172:5/468 | 297 
68 | 1847 VI 8 Oct. 4— 0-745x | 54 |4525| 35-4 
69 | 1825 I g » 08858 | 134 [477 | 320 
757 ot ”  g4  —-(4.0:080x) | 195/419 | 22-7 
(87) [66] 70 |) 1757 3 ¢ 994 ere so 496 | 196 
71 | 18571V 3 L ye 07438 |978 |453 | 163 
7a | [ 1864 IV 8 ee 105 | 195/441 | 22-7 
Do. (Weiss) Gee 1-044 | 2096|442-7| 21-9 
73 | 1850 II @ ise 078% 201454 | 20-4 
74| 184211 8 ee 0-863x | 81 |457 | 35-0 
75 | 1739 @ i 108 |157 [439 | 391 
76| 18481 ¢ ee 0-770x | 78 |460 | 335 
77| 20? eaT coe 087 | 200 |425 | 244 
(8.21) 78| 178 6d "O74. 0817 | 212 |4 9 | 189 
ad (asere LArl wee L018 | 165 |475 | 31-0 
Do. (Weiss) 9 29+ 1:027 185 |+61 30°6 
(67) 80| 1097 dT | Nov. 14 094 | 205 |448 | 983 
81| 16957?eat| ,, 1+ 0882 | 318 |453 | 13-9 
(8.22) 82| ss71?edT| |, 4— 134% | 1045/4927 | 40-7 
83 158265)? oda Pian. 1) get 1-00x | 99-5|4+365| 35-0? 
84 | 1821 gat ee 1:030x | 86 |+19:5| 32-0 


234 


1. 


(Leonids) 85 
(8. 55) 86 
87 


Biela’s 88 


89 

(28, 30) 90 
92 

Pons’ 93 

| 94 
Méchain’s 95 
(? =)Tuttle’s 
96 


(Ss. lla) 434 


REPORT—1875. 


List of Radiant-points (continued). 


2. 


1866 I ¢ 1 
1743 1? Q7 
18138 I 3 
1852 IIT ¢ 7 
Do. (Weiss) 
Do. (1866), 
Hind 
1766 I 3 
1702 Il?o5d 
1798 IL? 3 
1818 1? 3 
1812 3 d¢L 
1846VI1¢ dtL 


{ 1790 IT ¢ 

1858 I 9° ZL 

{ 1680 3 DT L 
Do. (Weiss) 


1826 III? 


0852 
(—0:070x) 
0:86x 
0:798% 
0-77 
1-087 


1:110« 
1-075x 
0-940% 
0:95 


(+0:063) 


5 6. re 

fo) ° 
150°5|423:5| 440 
21 |4 4 | 130 
147 |40 | 43-7 
245/440 | 140 
93:4|+43 | 97 
25-25] +42 
190 |+165| 40-0 
56 |4+18 | 17-4 
162 |4345] 41-2 
359 |+53 | 136 
200 |+68:5| 37-0 
200°5|+ 4:5} 41-0 
220 |+76 | 23:3 
221 |+77 | 22:8 
133 |422 | 31:5 
132 |+21-4| 31-2 
42 |414 | 37:5 


List of Radiant-points of Comets in the Southern Hemisphere (S.). 
By A. 8. Herscuet. 


Reference No. 


(7, 54, 55) 


Blainpain’s 


(2, 54, 55) 7 
8 


9 
(40) 10 


11 
12 


(N. 63) 18 


14 

15 

(N. (17?) 16 
65) (16 ?) 17 


2. a: 
Comet and its 
Node & 2, or | Cometary-Shower 
nearest date, 1875. 
appulse Q G 
1860 IV 2 Jan. 6— 
1819 IV ol xt eS 
1299 7? 2 §5 9 i 
18401 2d » 19+ 
{ Do. (Weiss) » 20+ 
1718 8 » 29— 
{ Do. (Weiss) » 29— 
1092 3 Feb. 5+ 
Do. (Weiss) oe, BRE 
1743 1? Q7 » 6+ 
1506 3 EM Gee 
1861 III g » 18— 
1596 3d » 2— 
{ 1845111 e3 d¢Z » 26— 
1864 V 3 Mar. 1— 
1590 Qadt » 8 
16838 2 da7¢Z » 1l6— 
Do. (Weiss) » 1l6— 
565 IL? 9 dt} les 
1804 3 » 18+ 
1556 23 DT » 19+ 
1264 2 DT | yy 20-4 


4, 


Comet’s 
Radius 
vect. or least 
dist. from ® 
(above +, 
below —)° 


0°955 
(+0:08) 


5. 6. 
Position of 
Radiant-point, 
1875. 
R.A. |N.Decl. 
°o ° 
187 |—22 
343 |—30 
157 |-—18 
127 |—27:5 
128°5 | —28°5 
208 |—381°5 
208°4 | —31:2 
102 |—32:5 
103 |—3845 
14:5/— 0:5 
266°5 |—37 
235°5 | —45 
285 |— 8 
283 |— 4:5 
250°5 |—12°5 
275-5 |—38 
209 |—50 
207 |—48°5 
227 |—48 
385 |—69°5 
179 |—26 
182°5 | —28 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 


List of Radiant-points (continued). 


‘Ue 2. 
18 | 1742. adt 
(28) 19 | 173871 Q 
' 4 Aire I : dt 
(N. 78) 2 78 2 
(N. 82) 22 837 1Q?d T 
19) 28 | 17371 2 
26]24 | 1006 3 ?Dt 
25| 17481 9 dt 
[24] 26 | Bo. 136 ad 
27 | 1863 III 3 
28 1863 II 3 
ee. re ae, 
29 { bo. Do. (Weiss) 
30 | { 1861 [13 DT 
Bee, | Do. (Weiss) 
exell’s 
(34) 32 Ne TloDT 
33 | 1802 3 
(32) 34 568 112 DT 
Lexell’s me 
81,43,53) © : / i aH : 
211 8 
197,40] 36 { Do. (Weiss) 
[36, 40] 37 | 182711 3 
388 | 1499 3 dj 
1558 3 
(Al, 45) 39 [ 
| Do. (Weiss) 
ee 36 ?, 40 1596 3 d 
7?) 1845 TIT Q d¢L 
1854 IV gd 
on 45) 41 { ,, ILI( Weiss) 
ae 42 | 1788II 3 
exell’s = 
(31, 35, 53)" tg ne, 
r 8 
19) # { Do. (Weiss) 
(39, 41) 45 961 2 
46} 1723 a¢ 
(N, 26) 47 | 1580 2? D 
48 1779 Q 
Do. (Weiss) 
49} 1585 ad 
50 | 18261V Q 
51 | 17078 
Eo 52 | 17841 gdz¢ 
xell’s 
(31,35, 43)” W770Llodétl 
|Blainpain’ 854 f1819IV gl 
| (2, 7, 55) | Do. (Weiss) 
| Clausen’ 5b [1743 1?Q 
(2, 7, 54) Lo» 
56 | 1818 III gh 
57 | 18631V 2 dt 
4a) 1759 IIIQ || 
Do. Perihel. 
: Do. Q 
(N.48a)lla| 18261IT?9 
32a | B.c. 370 & 7? 


3. 4, 
Mar. 28— 0:827 
Apr. 12+ (—0°13*) 

» 15+ 0:925§ 
» 23-4 1:22% 
May 1— 1-03 
» 8+ 0-52% 
» LlO— 112% 
» Ld 0-860« 
” 29— 1:02 
” 31 + 0-804 
June 2— 1-068§ 
o Re 1-054 
» 22+ 1-022 
» 22+ 1-010 
» 80+ 0-88 
5 80,5+ 0-864 
July 8+ (+0-02) 
» 23+ (— 0-014%) 
Aug. 3+ 1:128% 
o D+ 0-94 
iy t= 1:002x 
On 
c naif 0-578 
” 26— 0:89 
» 27- 0-754% 
» 8l— 0:643* 
Sept. 10— 1-031 
» 1lO— 1-018x 
” 16+ 0-808x 
” 21 + 0:98 
20+ 0-971 
» (13 to é 
pat } 0-975 
Oct. 9— 1-065 
» 164+ 118% 
» 19+ O-974% 
» 194 0:978x 
Noy. 4+ 116 
” 7+ O:'87* 
» 164 0-910 
” 20— 0°737 
» 294+ |(—0:025) 
Dec. 10+ 0:897 
Noy. 138+ (—0:020) 
Dec. 21+ 0:862§ 
» 20— 0-868 
» 294 0:°707 
Jan. 19— (— 0-053) 
Feb. 8— (—0:07) 
Mar. 1— (-—0:084)% 
Mar. 6— (—0:076)« 
Aug. — Is 


235 


x 


Oo ho Ph eR 00 Co 
SBS STA) 
Hm T0100 O =1 Co 


ee 
ns 


306 REPORT —1875. 


as excellently reproduced and completed up to avery recent date by G. F. 
Chambers in his ‘ Handbook of Descriptive Astronomy.’ Orbits of comets of 
more recent dates (since the year 1866) were extracted from M. A. Guillemin’s 
comprehensive and exceedingly accurate descriptive work ‘ Les Cométes.’ The 
figures in the last column of the Table represent actual speeds of penetration 
or of flight through the atmosphere of meteoric particles proceeding from 
the comets, including the small additional velocities given to them by the 
earth’s attraction. A Table for obtaining these, and complete Tables for 
other calculations included in these lists, are given (at the place above 
quoted) in Schiaparelli’s work. 

Researches on Meteorites, and accounts of their recent falls or discovery.—As 
will be gathered from the following abstracts of papers and communications 
relating to these subjects, great progress continues to be made in the investi- . 
gation of the origin of meteorites, and of the circumstances which attend 
their fall. The first of these communications on the recent falls of Meteorites 
(Part I.), and that on the latest analytical researches and examinations of their 
structure (Part II.), contain descriptions of many such new occurrences and 
interesting observations on them which have hitherto been scarcely accessible 
to English readers, owing to the foreign languages and publications in which 
the original papers describing most of these particulars appeared; the 
following brief analyses and abstracts of their principal contents having accord- 
ingly been reproduced from his extensive summary of such recent contribu- 
tions to aérolitic literature in the ‘Geological Magazine’ of the present year 
_ by Dr. Flight, they are presented here concisely and in a conyenient arrange- 

ment for reference in this Report. 


Parr I.—Mereortres which have been seen to fall, or have been found, between 
August 1873 and April 1875. By Waxrer Fuient. 


1873, August 24th.—Marysville, California*. 

All the facts that I have yet been able to gather respecting this fall are 
that an aérolite, weighing 12 lbs., crashed through the tree-tops with a bright 
flash, and was buried to the unusual depth of eight feet in the ground. When 
dug out it was so hot that it could not be handled. 


Found 1873, August 27th.—Eisenberg, Saxe-Altenburg, Germanyt. 

A block of metal, weighing 1-579 kilog., was left exposed on the surface of 
the ground at the foot of the Schneckenberg, north of the Eisenberg, by a 
heavy thunder-shower washing away the surrounding soil. It is a finely gra- 
nular iron, through which are disseminated here and there yellow particles 
of magnetic pyrites or troilite. Unlike metallic masses of undoubted meteoric 
origin, it contains neither nickel nor cobalt ; when etched with nitric acid it 
exhibits, in place of figures, minute star-like forms. It has the composition :— 


MOTE Pepe acter tan ahcicgaecdek tot et «ns anemescteaeeeh 97°27 
IPH GRONORUBiRr ica dessscnasontdkvsesscerccnctch ds deme 0-21 
AT DONG eee cite tee ch caies sos ees n uses cacanceseenroeane 0-44 
MSU CTE ACI tear nec os fons doeeces exwnuhon eslaeenee 1:50 
Gira litfions ace tere tenatiee ce oseres-<b-\vctwsnansuecertwan 0:90 

100°32 


The presence of silica was confirmed by treating the white, amorphous, some- 
what rounded particles which remained undissolved with hydrofluoric acid. 


* Nature, Ist January, 1874. (From ‘ Iron.’) : 
+ H. B. Geinitz, ‘ Sitzungs-Ber. der Isis zu Dresden,’ 1874-75. 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 237 


- 1873, September 23rd, 5.10 A.m.—Khairpur, 12 miles south of Multan, 36 
miles E.N.E. of Bhawalpur, Punjab, India. (Lat. 29° 56’ N., long. 
_ 72° 12' E.)* 


A description of the meteor at Khairpur is given by the Rev. G. Yeates, 
similar in all essential details to that cited in these Reports (1874, p. 300), 
from the ‘Astronomical Register,’ with the addition that it first appeared 
near the star Algenib (about 15° above the west horizon) as a meteor,or rather 
cluster of meteors, each exceeding in brightness a star of the first magnitude ; 
and the breadth of the train left behind them is estimated to have been from 3° 
to5°. From this point “its motion was not very rapid but steady, and by the time 
it had reached about 10° of the meridian, which it passed south of the zenith, 
it assumed an exceedingly brilliant appearance, the larger fragments, glowing 
with intense white light with perhaps a shade of green, taking the lead in a 
cluster, surrounded and followed by a great number of smaller ones, each 
drawing a train after it, which, blending together, formed a broad belt of a 
brilliant fiery red.” It lit up the whole country, and produced an effect 
similar to that of the electric light. It proceeded in this way, passing in its 
onward course close under Orion, the lowest star of which (Rigel) was very 
near the meridian, until it reached a point nearly due east, paling again as it 
drew near the horizon, and at about 20° above it appeared to go out rather 
than to fall. The train, which continued very bright for some time, was di- 
stinctly traceable three quarters of an hour afterwards. At first it changed 
to a dull red; then, as the morning broke, to a line of silvery-grey clouds 
that divided into several portions, and floated away on the wind. The track 
of the meteor was unusually long, extending through nearly 180°. The sky 
was cloudless, the morning being described as remarkably clear, with a faint 
glow in the east, the sun being still 45 minutes below the horizon when the 
meteor was first observed. After it had disappeared, and while the train 
still attracted attention, there was perfect silence, which was at length broken 
by a loud report, followed by a long reverberation, that gradually died away 
like the roll of distant thunder. This interval is estimated to have been four 
minutes. 

At Bhawalpur the explosion was sufficiently violent to shake the houses 
and slam the doors. At Bhawalgur, 80 miles from Khairpur, the meteor was 
seen, but no explosion was heard. It was also observed at Jodhpur and 
Moradabad, and was probably visible within a radius of 300 miles round 
Khairpur. 

A correspondent of ‘The Pioneer’ of the 30th of September records his 
observations made on the Shujabad road, 13 miles south of Multan. He states 
that the different fragments into which the meteor broke up were distinctly 
visible, “‘ more than twenty of them, I should say, moving in parallel courses, 
two or three of the larger ones taking the lead in the centre, and each of 
- them leaving a tail of red light behind,” which blending together, formed one 
huge band of light. The report, which was very terrific, followed after the 
lapse of about three minutes and a half, which would make the point where 
the disruption of the aérolite took place about 42 or 45 miles distant. The 
train remained very bright for some time, and the clouds into which it was 


* H. B. Medlicott, ‘Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal,’ 1874, pt. ii. no. ii. p. 33; ‘The Pioneer,’ 
Sept. 80th, 1873; Brit. Assoc. Report, 1874, p. 300.—The description by “ G. Yates” (As- 
tronom. Register, March 1874) appears to be compiled from two sources, that of Mr. 
Yeates’s account above narrated, and that also quoted here, contributed by a correspondent 
to ‘The Pioneer, from a point of view between Multan and Shujabad. 


238 REPORT—1875. 


transformed were visible upwards of an hour afterwards, till they faded away 
in the bright sunlight. 

Another correspondent, ‘ Shikaree,” states that on the left bank of the 
Chenab, some 60 miles 8.W. of Bhawalpur, the meteor displayed great bril- 
liancy, and that a double detonation followed after an interval of six or seven 
minutes. 

One of the meteorites fell close to a man who had gone out into the jungle, 
and frightened him so much that he hardly knew what occurred, and was - 
under the impression that the stone pursued him for two hours, Heshowed 
the spot where it fell, however, and this was the first fragment unearthed and 
forwarded by the Tuhsildar of Khairpur to Major Minchin, Political Agent 
for Bhawalpur. 

The stones fell partly in the State of Bhawalpur and partly in the Multan 
district, on either bank of the Sutlej, over an area extending 16 miles in a 
direction bearing 35° 8. of E., with a breadth of about three miles. The 
largest and perhaps the greater number fell to the eastward of Khairpur, and 
penetrated the earth to the depth of about 14 foot. They are preserved in 
the following collections in India, and weigh respectively :— 


Tahore MMseunt | 4 .2.2..s.cccestotansesve 10 12 126 


prism IMIS Rts. 20.0 7.4.42Seca taalseedos 9 11 219 
endian Maiseunnys.7!.4-4jcvst-csee-.des-s 7 14 236 
Geological Museum ...............2.0006 1 2 412 
Geological Museum ..................-5- 0 3 79 


Of those stones or fragments that fell on the Multan side seven have been 
heard of :—four at different spots near Gogewala well, E.S.E. of Mahomed 
Moorut; two at Khurampur, on the right bank of the Sutlej; and one at 
Araoli, two miles N.W.of Khurampur. Of these, one only is in known hands, 
that from Mylsi Pergunnah, which weighs 6 oz. 70 grs. 

The account of the physical characters of the stones is very meagre. They 
are all very irregular in form, and are more or less broken. While some of 
the fractures have evidently been accomplished by hand, and others probably 
took place at the moment of falling, several appear to have occurred during 
the fall, as the glazed surface has been partially renewed. The stones are of 
the usual steel-grey colour and exhibit compact crypto-crystalline texture. 
One specimen has the specific gravity =3°66. 


1873, December.—Coomassie, Kingdom of Ashantee, Africa*. 


In a letter from the War Correspondent of ‘ The Staridard’ it is stated that 
among the portents of evil which were observed at Coomassie while the 
British Army halted on the banks of the Prah, an aérolite fell in the market- 
place of Coomassie. In reply to an application for further details respecting 
this event, Mr. Henty writes that he obtained his information from one of the 
clergymen of the Basle Mission. He says :—“ They mentioned these ‘ pro- 
digies’ as matters of common rumour and belief at Coomassie, but they do 
not appear to have even made any inquiries whatever as to their truth. 
Coomassie was deserted when we got there, so there was no opportunity of 
gaining further information.” 


* G. A, Henty, ‘March to Coomassie.’ London: Tinsley Bros, 1874, p. 320. 


™ — ee 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 239 


1874, May 14th, 2.30 p.w.—Castalia, Nash Co., N. Carolina. 
[Lat. 36° 11’, long. 77° 50'.]* 


A short notice in ‘ Silliman’s Journal’ states that the descent of these me- 
teorites, numbering a dozen or more, was accompanied with a series of explo- 
sions and rumbling noises which lasted about four minutes, and were ‘“ not 
unlike the discharge of firearms in a battle a few miles off.” Although the 
fall took place by day, a luminous body was observed. The area over which 
the fragments fell was ten miles long and three wide. Three stones, weigh- 
ing 5°5, 1:0, and 0:8 kilog., have been found. The dull-coloured crust does 
not entirely cover the stones, the fused matter forming it being scattered over 
some small parts of the surface in the form of pear-shaped beads ; in one or 
two crevices the fused material has penetrated 5 millims. below the surface, 
and here it is more brilliant than on the surface. 

The colour of the interior is in many parts of a dark grey, owing to the 
presence of a larger amount of nickel-iron ; in the lighter portions are seen 
some white spots of a mineral that is doubtless enstatite. The specific gravity 
of the stone is 2-601, and its proximate composition :— 


Na GKeL-TrOnen ca caetaneer fos ce teee n asaeeee seasons 15:21 
Noluplerpilieateas...s 5. soc seccatec ices cosa aapheste 44-92 
EMBG DIE RELOALCT: c8 ss ene cout enoeecesescesacecast 39°87 
The metallic part consists of 100-00 


Tron =92°12; Nickel =6:20; Cobalt =98°73; 
and the siliceous portions of 


Sio, AlO, FeQ MgO NaO § 
A. Soluble ......... SB O0 6) CAG ie Vibe ALOT et wiere 101 = 98-26 
B. Insoluble ...... ot, | 2o0 5 Ieee eS ke eon ae 


The soluble silicate is an olivine in which the ratio of MgO to Fe is about 
4:1; the insoluble part is a bronzite ; and in addition to the minerals already 
mentioned, the presence in the Castalia stones of small amount of iron sul- 
phide and anorthite was recognized, 


1874, May 20th.—Virba, near Vidin, Turkey 7. 


This meteorite fell with a loud noise, and entered the ground to the depth 
of one metre; it weighed 3:60 kilogs. A fragment presented to the Paris 
collection by His Excellency Safvet Pacha is covered with the usual dull 
black crust: a fractured surface shows the meteorite to have a light-grey 
colour and a very finely grained texture, with grains of metal distributed 
through the mass; in certain parts spherular structure is apparent. In a 
microscopic section it was found that the transparent and almost entirely 
colourless stony particles act on polarized light. The metallic portion is 
nickel-iron, the presence of an iron sulphide is recognized by the action of 
acid, and numerous small black grains of chromite are distributed thioughout 
the stone. A part of the siliceous constituents gelatinize with acid, indicating 
the presence of olivine; and a residue, which resists the action and consti- 
tutes less than one half of the weight of the stone, is believed to be enstatite. 

The Virba stone belongs to the large class of which the meteorite of Lucé, 
Sarthe, France (1768, September 13th), may be taken as the type; and is 


* J. L. Smith, ‘Amer, Journ. Sc.’ 3rd ser, vol, viii. p. 147. 
t G, A. Daubrée, ‘ Comptes Rendus,’ vol, lxxix. p. 276, 


240 REPORT—1875. 


most closely allied to the aérolites of Bachmut, Island of Oesel, St. Denis 
Westrem, Buschof, Dolgaja Wolja, and those of other localities mentioned in 
Daubrée’s paper. 


1874, August Ist, 11 p.w.—Hexham, Northumberland*. 


In the ‘ English Mechanic’ is a letter from a person signing himself ‘‘ Ralph 
Lowdon,” of Gateshead, stating that at the above time and place “ a massive 
ball of intense light,” accompanied by other pear-shaped balls of fire, was seen 
to drop towards the earth. The aérolite, which is alleged to have fallen in an 
orchard on the bank of the North Tyne, at no great distance from Hexham, 
is stated to have been found the following day at 9 a.m. at a depth of 14 inches 
in the soil, still quite warm, and to have weighed 3013 Ibs. Letters directed 
to the above are returned by the Post-oftice authorities, while a courteous 
reply which I received from the Rev. H. C. Barker, of Hexham, states that 
the editor of ‘The English Mechanic’ must haye been misinformed. The 
reverend gentleman writes :—‘‘ To make assurance doubly sure, I have made 
inquiry in several quarters, and cannot find even the slightest foundation for 
the statement.” 


1875, February 12th, 10.30 p.m. (Chicago time).—Iowa Co., State of Iowat. 


A very large and brilliant fireball passed over Iowa City at the above date, 
in a direction slightly N. of W.; the apparent size of the meteor was about 
half that of the full moon, and it was accompanied by a broad train of light 
of a slightly green hue. Three separate explosions of the fireball were neticed 
while it was still in view, and about two or three minutes after it disappeared 
three reports, resembling the discharge of the blast of a quarry, were heard. 

The phenomenon attracted general attention throughout several counties in 
the central part of the State of Iowa; and although the visible path of the 
meteor does not appear to have exceeded 50 to 60 miles, the occurrence 
attracted attention and was heard over an area measuring about 125 miles 
from E. to W., and half that distance from N.to§, An observer at Brooklyn 
was aroused from his bed by the report ; and another, who was riding in a 
sleigh near West Liberty, 40 miles E. of the spot where the stones fell, states 
that objects were rendered about as visible as if it were day, the explosions 
being loud, and followed by a rumbling sound that lasted some 60 or 90 
seconds. According to the ‘ Grinell Herald,’ the interval, as observed at that 
town, between the light of the meteor being seen and the report being heard 
was three minutes. The‘ Des Moines Register’ states that between Red Rock 
and Newton some of the meteorites passed so near the earth’s surface that 
they clipped off branches from the trees. 

Prof. N. R. Leonard, of the Iowa State University, states that the meteo- 
rites weighed altogether about 250 lbs., whereof 141 lbs. came into his pos- 
session ; Prof. Hinrichs makes the total weight about 300lbs. The largest 
mass, which was broken in falling, weighed 434 lbs., the chief fragments, 
found together, being 20 lbs. and 16 lbs. in weight. 

According to a description, of a very sensational character, which is given 
in the ‘ Dubuque Times,’ one of the meteorites was found in a field about 
three miles 8. of the village of West Liberty, having penetrated, so it is stated, 
to a depth of fifteen fect into the ground, 


* The English Mechanic, August 21st, 1874. 
+ A. W. Wright, ‘Amer. Journ. Sc.’ ix. p. 459, and x. p. 44. Cuttings from American 
newspapers and other communications to the Committee received from Mr. B. V. Marsh. 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METLORS. Q41 


The ‘ Davenport Gazette ’ states that another stone fell at Homestead, near 
Towa City (lat. 41° 46’ N., long. 92° 0' W.), in a field covered with ice and 
snow, and rebounded in a N.E. direction for a distance of more than thirty 
feet up a slight declivity, where it came to rest in the sand, which was fused 
and adhering to it. It weighed originally about 7 lb. 6 oz., but had been 
reduced by eager curiosity-hunters to 3 lb. 8 oz.; the fractured surface of 
this meteorite had a dark and less distinct coating than that belonging to the 
larger block from which it had been detached by the explosion. 

The stones are covered with the usual black crust, and there is evidence on 
some of the pieces of the meteorites of the fused material of the outer portion 
having run partially over the freshly fractured surfaces. Some fragments 
show distinct evidence of a sort of lamination or imperfect stratification, the 
parts where the surfaces cleaved being smoothed down as if by pressure or 
friction. About 100 were found, varying in size from 9500 to 50 grammes, 
25 kilogs. having been sent to Paris. A preliminary chemical examination 
of this meteorite has already been made by L. Smith, who finds the specific 
gravity to be 3°57 and the composition :— 


Nickel-iron =12°53, Troilite =5-82, Silicates =81'64: total 100-00. 
The nickel-iron consists of 


Tron=89:04, Nickel =10-35, Cobalt =0-54: total 99-93, 


with traces of copper, phosphorus, and sulphur. The silicate contains iron 
protoxide, alumina, magnesia, soda, with traces of lithia and potash, and has, 
according to L. Smith, very similar compositions to the meteorite of New 
Concord, Guernsey Co., Ohio (1860, 1st May). Daubrée remarks on its chon- 
dritic structure, and considers it to belong to a large class of meteorites, 
notably represented by the stones which fell at Vouillé (1831, May 31st) and 
Aumale, Algeria (1865, August 25th). 

This meteorite being of the stony kind, and having so recently fallen, it 
occurred to Wright (sce also the examination of the Texas Meteorite, p. 244) 
to examine the gases contained in the particles of iron distributed throughout 
its mass, with a view to learning whether they present the same characters 
as the gases occluded by the iron forming large and independent masses. 

He extracted from this picked iron at a moderately elevated temperature 
several times its volume of gas, consisting of 35 per cent. of carbonic acid, 14 
per cent. of carbonic oxide, the remaining 51 per cent. being chiefly hydrogen. 
These results were obtained from metallic portions removed with the magnet: 
the pulverized rocky residue, however, retained a considerable amount of iron in 
too finely divided particles to enable them to lift the stony fragments adhering 
to them ; accordingly a piece of the solid meteorite, about four cubic centimetres 
in amount, was reduced to powder and placed in the tube attached to the pump. 
The warmth of the hand sufficed to disengage some little gas, which, when 
tested, was found to contain carbonic acid and hydrogen. The pump was 
then set in action, and heat applied to the tube in the following manner :— 
I. The temperature of boiling water continued for several hours. II. The 
moderate heat (200°-250°) of a small Bunsen flame applied for a short time. 
III. A stronger heat, kept below visible redness, applied for nearly an hour. 
TY. Low red heat maintained about half an hour. Y. Full red heat. The 
total amount of gas evolved was about two and a half times the volume of the 
material operated upon, and twenty times that of the iron. The following are 
the relative proportions of the gases obtained at different temperatures :— 

- 1875, R 


242 REPORT—1875. 


iE II. III. IV. hs e . 
Below At low t fu 
At 100°. At 250°. red heat. red heat. red heat. 


Carbonic acid .............0008 DO'4G" 1. “ORS2..) AZT ee Ooms.) OO 
Carbonic oxide ......e0c..e0e OOO? G2. 0B Ze CAMO OO Le O00 
EV OROPON oad. «thes aes a +4-. 464 { cr Bb oan) AB OR, ~~ ie Oeil ered S7-G8 
Nitrogen (calculated)......... O00 ce, DOD.) ssn d ADB pire OAS, op fG:91 


100:00 100-00 190-00 100°00 100:00 


As regards the gas they occlude, iron and stony meteorites show a marked 
distinction. While the gases of the Lenarto iron contained 85:68 per cent. of 
hydrogen, those obtained from cosmical masses of the stony kind, if the Iowa 
meteorite may be regarded as a type, are characterized by the presence of car- 
honie acid, which constitutes nine tenths of the gas evolved at a temperature 
of boiling water, and about one half of that given off at a low red heat. 

The spectrum of the gas of the Iowa meteorite, when the pressure of the 
pump was high, gave very brilliant carbon bands, the hydrogen lines being 
weak and comparatively inconspicuous, although at a very low pressure they 
became relatively stronger. The brightest carbon bands were the three in 
the green and blue, the red one being much feebler. These are precisely the 
ones most conspicuous in the spectra of some of the comets; and this fact is 
a remarkable confirmation of the received theory as to the meteoric character 
of those bodies. 

This, moreover, is a very significant fact in showing that it is quite unneces- 
sary to assume the existence of volatile hydrocarbons to explain cometary 
spectra, as some writers have done, and that the presence of the two oxides 
of carbon in such quantity is quite sufficient to account for all that has been 
observed when we consider the circumstance that the tension of the gases of 
the cometary appendage must be extremely small. Were a large comet to 
approach near enough to the sun to have its nucleus intensely heated, it is 
highly probable that, over and above the bands already observed, the hydro- 
gen lines would be found in its spectrum. 

Wright expresses regret that such a comet as Donati’s should have departed 
into space just early enough to escape observation with the spectroscope. 
While the most probable cause of the emission of light under these conditions 
is electricity, another may be found in the property of gaseous bodies of 
emitting light of the same character as that which they absorb. It is not 
altogether improbable, Wright suggests, that the solar radiations absorbed by 
the gaseous matter, although for the most part converted into heat, would also 
in part be emitted again as light, and that in the case of volumes of gas filling 
many cubic inches, the intensity might be sufficient to give a distinct spectrum 
of broad bands or lines, even though, on the scale of any possible experiment, 
no trace of such an action can be detected. These researches have led the 
author to accept the following conclusions :— 

1, The stony meteorites are distinguished from those which are metallic by 
occluding the oxides of carbon, chiefly carbonic acid, as their characteristic 
gases, in place of hydrogen. 

2. The proportion of carbonic acid evolved is much greater at low than at 
high temperatures, and is sufficient to mask the hydrogen in the spectrum. 

3. The amount of gas contained in a large meteorite, or a cluster of such 
bodies serving as a cometary nucleus, is sufficient to form the train as ordi- 
narily observed, 

4. The spectrum of these gases closely resembles that of several of the 
comets. 


t - 


Wood (see the first Appendix of this Report). 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 248 


The emission of gaseous constituents by the action of solar heat may explain 
the loss of tail and the diminution of brilliancy observed in the case of several 
comets in their successive revolutions ; and their final disappearance from sight 
will follow as an inevitable consequence, the number of revolutions necessary 
to discharge the gases depending chiefly on their size and the nearness of their 
approach to the sun at their perihelia. When a meteorite enters our atmo- 
sphere, the gases which are evolved from it by the heat which is liberated 
must greatly contribute to increase the intensity of that heat, while the 
sudden expansion which these gases experience must constitute the leading 
cause of the violent disruption of these masses, = 


1875, March 31st, between 3 and 4 p.w.—Zsadiny, Temesyar, 
the Banat, Hungary*. 


No luminous meteor appears to have been observed at the time these stones 
fell; the day was bright and sunny and the sky cloudless. A sound as of 
platoon-firing was heard, and a small shower of black stones descended, some 
within the arca of the village of Zsadiny in the courtyards of the inhabitants, 
others in the open fields. They did not fall together, but at slight intervals, 
which appear to have been at least one third of a minute. Some were picked 
up immediately they reached the ground, and were found to be cold. It may 
be mentioned here that the stones which fell at Dhurmsala, in Indiat (1860; 
ay 14th), are stated to have been so cold that they could not be held in the 

and. 

Sixteen stones in all have been found ; the largest, having the size of a goose’s 
egg and weighing about 152 grammes, is preserved in the National Museum 


_ at Pest; the remainder have an average size of a walnut, and their aggregate 


weight is nearly 400 grammes. Memdk has sent a preliminary report de- 
seribing the seven largest stones, illustrated with photographs of the four most 
interesting masses, to the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. The investigation 
of this aérolite has been undertaken by Wartha and Krenner ; the former will 
subject it to analysis, the latter examine its mineralogical characters. 

I learn, from an obliging letter received from Prof. Szabé, that these meteor- 
ites have a coarse-grained texture and are somewhat friable, and that they 
contain nickel-iron and scales of graphite. 


1875, April 14th, 0.30 a..—Haddon, Grenville Co., Victoria, Australia. 
A very brilliant meteor appeared from a bank of cloud about 20° above the 


_N.W. horizon; it became elongated and pear-shaped as it traversed the 


heavens from W. to E., attaining an altitude of 50° on passing the zenith, 
where the nucleus appeared to break up and roll on in misshapen spheres of 
various sizes. On reaching a point within 20° of the N.E. horizon, the light 
became more intense and then the meteor disappeared. Eight or ten seconds 


later, reverberations as of thunder were distinctly heard. An eye-witness 


* Bgyetértés és Magyar Ujsig, 23rd April and June 16th, 1875. 
t W. von Haidinger, Sitzungsber. Akad. Wiss. Wien, xlii. 305, xliv. 285, [It was a subject 
of frequent remark in conversation by Professor Brayley that the only foundation for this 


_ statement was a part of the native evidence collected on the occurrence of this stonefall, 


that the meteorite came “ from the abode of snow’—a phrase which, in the native dialect, 


2 (gs a “northern direction,” by a simple but direct allusion to the snow-topped summits 


the Himalayas.—A. 8. H.] 
¢ The Mlustrated Australian News, May 17th, 1875, P 68.—The same extract from this 
Australian newspaper was also obligingly communicated to the Committee by Mr. W. H. 


R2 


244 REPORT—1875. 


stationed at Haddon thought he saw matter fall near him, and the next day 
found a lump of melted matter, light in weight and of a nearly black colour, 
a portion being “a yellowish-brown substance like cinders from iron-smelting,” 
as well as two fragments that were black, like coke, and a smaller fragment 
of a yellow hue. This great meteor, of which an engraving is given in ‘ The 
Illustrated Australian News,’ was, it appears, observed in several parts of the 
country ; but no other accounts of it indicating either the extent or position 
of its real course haye yet been received. 


Part II. Mernorrres.—Abstracts of papers published recently on Meteorites 
which either fell or were found before 1874. By Warren Frieur. 


1808.—Red River, Texas*. 


As Graham + has shown that the Lenarto meteoric iron contains 2°85 times 
its volume of occluded hydrogen, carbonic oxide, and nitrogen, and Mallet 
found 3:17 times its volume of hydrogen, carbonic oxide, carbonic acid, and 
nitrogen occluded in the meteoric iron of Augusta Co., Virginia, it occurred 
to the author that it might be possible to detect in the gas of these irons the 
unknown gaseous elements assumed to be present in the solar corona and 
chromosphere. ‘The investigation was undertaken with the hope that the 
spectroscope would reveal them, if present, although their small amount or 
peculiar characters might render their detection by ordinary chemical methods 
difficult or impossible. 

A vacuum-tube of the form ordinarily employed in spectroscopic work was 
attached to a branch of the exhaust-tube of a Sprengel pump, and a prelimi- 
nary examination was made of the lines exhibited by this tube after simple 
withdrawal of the air. As Pliicker and Hittorft have already shown, lines 
of hydrogen and bands due to carbon make their appearance as soon as the 
limit of exhaustion has been attained; the author noticed the red hydrogen 
line when the tension fell to 4 or 5 millims. and other hydrogen lines when a 
higher degree of rarefaction was attained. Mercury lines, varying in bright- 
ness with the temperature of the room, are also to beseen. His investigations 
were directed to an examination of the gases of the great Texas meteorite 
preserved in the Mineral Collection of Yale College, and the meteoric iron of 
Tazewell Co. and Arva, Hungary (pp. 247, 248). The iron was in yery small 
particles (chips produced by the borer), and the exhaustion was proceeded 
with without application of heat. He noticed that the iron gaye off a por- 
tion of its gas at ordinary temperature ; and when the tension was reduced to 4 
millims., Ha and #3 were bright and distinct, and Hy visible while the carbon 
bands were also distinctly seen. When a gentle heat was applied, the tube, 
which had hitherto presented the appearance of an ordinary hydrogen tube, 
underwent a change; the light in the broad portion became a straight hazy 
stream, of a dull greenish-white colour, similar to that observed in a tube 
containing either of the oxides of carbon. When the tube containing the 
metal was raised to low redness, only a small quantity of gas was given off. 
Wright did not measure the amount of gas removed by the pump, but has 
calculated this quantity from an observation of the degree to which 1 cub. 
centim. of the gas lowered the gauge of the instrument. He finds in this 
way the mixed gases extracted to have occupied 4°75 times the volume 
of the metal. While this exceeds the quantity which Graham and Mallet 


* A. W. Wright, ‘ Amer. Journ. Sci.’ 1875, ix. p. 294. 
t Proe, Roy. Soe. vol. xy. p. 502. ¢ Phil. Trans, yol, ely, p. 1. 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 245 


noticed in their investigations, the author believes that the whole amount was 
by no means exhausted, and ascribes the excess to the fact of the metal which 
he used having been in a fine state of division, 


1812, August 5th.—Chantonnay, Dép. de la Vendée, France*. 


In the winter of 1874 Tschermak published a paper on the structure of the 
meteorites of Orvinio and Chantonnay, which appear to have many characters 
incommon. Sections of the latter stone, three drawings of which are given 
in his paper, show it to be made up of chondritic fragments, covered with a 
dark-coloured crust, and cemented together with a black and in places semi- 
vitreous material. The fragments are not very abundantly provided with 
spherules, although large ones are here and there met with. It differs from 
the chondrite of the Orvinio meteorite in containing less iron ; a section shows 
olivine, bronzite, a finely fibrous translucent mineral, as well as nickel-iron 
and magnetic pyrites. ‘The presence of chromite was not recognized. Fine 
black veins of a mineral traverse the fragments here and there, and are con- 
nected with the cementing material. Similar veins are noticed in the me- 
teorites of Lissa, Kakowa, Chateau Renard, Alessandria, and Pultusk; and 
in the Lissa and Kakowa stones they present the appearance as if the me- 
teorite had originally come in contact with a molten material which had been 
injected into the clefts of its surface. Reichenbach was of opinion that the 
black veins were directly and intimately connected with the fused surface ; 
his view, however, is open to question, from the fact that the interior of a 
meteorite has usually a low temperature when it reaches the earth’s surface. 
Moreover, in the case of the Chantonnay stone, clefts are to be met with into 
which the black matter of the crust has penetrated to a depth of 6 millims. 
only, although the cleft remains partly open. The black semivitreous magma 
consists of an entirely opaque mass, enclosing flakes of the silicate which 
forms the fragments, as well as occasional spherules. 

Although Rammelsberg, who analyzed this stone, does not describe the phy- 
sical characters of the material he operated on, and did not separately examine 
the fragments and the cementing material, as Tschermak has done in his exami- 
nation of the Orvinio meteorite, Tschermak points out that the two meteorites 
have much the same composition, and differ mainly in the proportion of iron. 
The characters observed in these two meteorites point to the conclusion that 
they did not originally possess their present constitution, but that by the dis- 
integration of a solid rock-mass and its subsequent cementation with a semi- 
vitreous magma they attained their present appearance. Though they 
resemble somewhat the eruptive breccias, they differ from them in that the 
meteoric cementing material is less homogeneous, and encloses compact flakes 
of the rock itself. The Chantonnay stone exhibits the fine texture observed 
in some metamorphosed breccias. The two stones convey to us evidence of 
changes which must haye occurred on the solid surface of some planet that 
was subsequently reduced to fragments, 


1813, September 10th.—Adare, &c., Co. Limerick, Ireland +. 


This meteorite, originally investigated by Apjohnt, has been examined by 
R. Apjohn, who finds that it contains a trace of vanadium. ‘The date which 


* G. Tschermak, ‘ Sitzungsber. Ak. Wiss. Wien,’ lxx. November Heft, 1874. 
t+ BR. Apjohn, ‘Journ. Chem. Soe.’ xii. p. 104. 
j Apjohn, ‘ Trans, Ivish Acad.’ xviii. p. 17. 


246 REPoRT—1875. 


he assigns to the fall of this stone (1810) appears to be that of another Irish 
meteorite which fell at Mooresfort, Tipperary. The nickel-iron has the com- 
position :— 

Tron =85:120, Nickel =14:27, Cobalt =0°602, Phosphorus=trace: total 99-997 ; 
and the result of the treatment with acid :— 


: SiO, Al,O, FeO MnO CaO MgO Na,O K,O P,O 
A. Soluble...... 42-91 235 1693 626 534 2432 0:29 002 ...... = 98-42 
B. Insoluble... 5948 324 794 884 462 1317 186 0:30 trace = 99-45 


The mineralogical composition of the stone is stated to be :— 


NIGKEISINOM cots, rose cctecocactettrcstaeveararsnsnestetane 19:07 
Chromite lt, 2k iis oe eee eee era; 
Magnetic pyriteasios: J. ddddes lh sii Caees deeveet. pease 6°54 
Soluble silicates; ssiesscess aos oan bh cee van) abe Ooecgaataee 30°44 
Insoluble silicate......ssscpeeessees cach ‘pacnegetttraeieane 37:07 

99°87 


The chromium oxide present as chromite is not mentioned at all in the 
above analysis. The iron sulphide is probably present as troilite (iron mono- 
sulphide mica, according to the older analysis). ‘The greater part of the sul- 
phur is in the part which is not attracted by the magnet. There the ratio is 
given as Fe=3-92, S=2-04; the percentages for troilite, using the sulphur 
as the basis for the calculation, would be Fe=3'57, S=2-04, and for mag- 
netic pyrites Fe=3-12, S=2-04. 

In a courteous letter received from the author he informs me that the 
amount of vanadium present was too small to allow of a quantitative estima- 
tion being made. He believes that in amount it is about half that met with 
in the trap-rocks of Auvergne, which have recently been examined by him, 


He is inclined to the belief that the vanadium is present as an oxide associated _ 


with the chromite, “for we know vanadium occurs in terrestrial chrome-iron 
in comparatively large quantities.” 


1835, July 31st or August 1st.—Charlotte, Dickson Co., Tennessee*, 


The iron which is found disseminated in small particles throughout the 
mass of many meteoric stones represents in miniature the huge blocks of me- 
teorie iron that from time to time have been met with on many paws of the 
earth’s surface, the record of the fall of which is unknown, their descent 
having probably taken place at an epoch long anterior to that of their discovery. 
While the stones enclosing iron have not unfrequently been seen to fall, the 
descent of purely metallic masses has been rarely witnessed. At present we 
know of only the following few authentic cases :—-Agram (1751), Braunau 
(1847), Victoria West, 8. Africa (1862), Nidigullam, Madras (1870), and 
Marysville (1873). To these few instances is to be added the one heading 
this notice, of which a brief account was published by Troost, of Nashville, 
in 1845+. The Tennessee iron fell from a cloudless sky, near several persons 
who were working in the fields. A horse which was harnessed to a plough 
close by took fright and ran round the field, dragging the plough with it. 

The iron has remained in the Troost Collection up to the present time, when 
it passed into the hands of Dr. Laurence Smith. It is a kidney-shaped mass, 
and has a bright surface like that of soft cast iron. When etched it exhibits 
Widmannstiittian figures in great perfection, and the author states that in this 


* J. L. Smith, ‘Comptes Rendus,’ 1875, vol, lxxxi, p. 84. 
t+ Amer, Journ, Sc, yol, xlix. p. 336, 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 247 


respect he is acquainted with only three or four irons which rival it. An 
illustration accompanying his paper, closely resembling the one given by T'roost, 
is a representation of the outer surface magnified ; this is elaborately reticu- 
lated, edges of thin laminz of metal, inclined at angles of 60°, traversing the 
surface, the edges being separated from each other by an apparently semi- 
fused slag-like material, ‘The specific gravity of the iron is 7°717, and its 
composition :— 


Tron =91:15, Nickel =8:01, Cobalt =0-72, Copper =0-06 : total 99-94. 


Sulphur is not present, and of phosphorus only a trace was recognized ; and 
the author states that he has never before met with so small a proportion of 
this element in a meteoric iron. The gas extracted from this iron by A. W. 
Wright, who has recently examined the occluded gases of the irons of Texas, 
Arya, and Tazewell Co., as well as that of the meteorite of West Liberty, lowa 
(which see), has nearly twice the volume of the metal operated upon, although 
this is probably a portion only of that actually present. It is composed of :— 


Hydrogen =71:4, Carbonic oxide =15:3, Carbonic acid =13'3: total 100-00. 


A question of no slight interest in regard to the changes which meteoric 
irons undergo during their passage through the atmosphere is whether their 
surface becomes fused. From his study of the Tennessee meteorite, Dr. Smith 
has decided it in the negative. The fact of the delicate reticulated surface 
having been preserved is a proof that the heat, instead of having been raised 
to a high temperature on the surface, has quickly been conducted away into 
the mass of the metal. Had fusion of the superficial layer taken place, the 
meteorite would have been coated with molten oxide. 

The author finds in this fact a confirmation of his theory that the Ovifak 
masses are not of meteoric origin. 


1840.—Szalnicza, Arva, Hungary*, 


For his investigation by means of the spectroscope of the gases occluded by 
meteoric iron, Wright examined those from the Red River, Texas, and Taze- 
well Co., Tennessee (which see below). 

The amount of carbon present in the former iron was found on chemical 
examination to be very small; in the latter none was detected. A series of 
experiments were therefore made with the above iron, which, according to 
Lower, contains a larger amount of carbon. While it was an easy task to 
remove fragments of the above-mentioned irons, great difficulties were ex- 
perienced in the present case, the metal having nearly the hardness of steel, 
When the tube containing fragments of this iron was exhausted, and before 
heat was applied to it, the spectroscope indicated the presence in the * yacuum- 
tube ” of both hydrogen and carbon gases; the lines of the former element 
were very brilliant, and the first, second, and third bands of the latter, 
counting from the red end, were visible. The application of a heat hardly 
sufficient to pain the hand caused an entire change in the appearance of the 
yacuum-tube ; the broad part took a greenish hue, while in the spectroscope 
the carbon bands shone quite brightly. When the heat was raised to a tem- 
perature considerably short of redness, the only change noticed in the spec- 
trum was a greater intensity of the carbon bands; the gas collected at this 


* A, W. Wright, Amer. Journ. Sc. 1875, ix. p. 294. 
Amer, Journ. Se. [2], vol. viii. p. 439. 


248 REPORT—1875. 


stage of the operation was found on analysis to consist of hydrogen, carbonic 
oxide, and carbonic acid, the latter amounting to three or four per cent. 

In some experiments on artificial soft iron the author obtained a spectrum 
in eyery way similar to that of the meteoric metals; the hydrogen lines did 
not appear so early nor were they so bright as in the latter instances. 

The iron of this meteorite, which by its great hardness was separated in 
the state of fine powder, yielded, when heated at different temperatures up to 
low redness, 44 times its volume of gas. While it seems not improbable that 
some portion of what has been occluded gas may have been atmospheric air, 
the yield is so unusually large that it suggests the question, May not the more 
perfect removal of the gas from the iron be due to the fine state of division of 
the metal operated upon? In the case of the Texas and Tazewell irons, 
where the yield of gas exceeded that obtained from the Lenarto and Augusta 
Co. irons, the metals were in very small pieces, which would favour a more 
refined and complete evolution of the gas; in the last-mentioned instances 
they were en bloc. That iron may under certain conditions, as when deposited 
by electrolysis, take up nearly two hundred and fifty times its volume, has 
been shown by the recent researches of M. Cailletet*. An observation re- 
cently made has a bearing on this question. While analyzing a specimen of 
silver amalgam, I endeavoured to remove from a weighed fragment of the 
mineral the mercury by heating the specimen in a hard glass tube for more 
than five minutes in the flame of the table blowpipe. The silver immediately 
fused and remained during that time in a molten state. When cold, the 
globule of metal was flattened into a plate, and having cut it into strips and 
subjected it to a second heating, I succeeded in removing a considerable part 
of a per cent. of mercury from it. 

Wright’s researches on the gases of meteoric irons have shown a varying 
character in the oxygen and nitrogen lines when in the presence of hydrogen, 
and the near coincidence of two of them with prominent lines in the corona, 
with the possible coincidence of a third line, which appears to indicate that 
the characteristic lines in the coronal spectrum are due, not so much to the 
presence of otherwise unknown elements, as to hydrogen and the atmospheric 
gases oxygen and nitrogen. : 

The observations were made with a spectroscope of six prisms with a re- 
peating prism, giving the dispersion of twelve in all. 


1853.—Tazewell, Claiborne Co., Tennesseet. 


This meteorite was one of those selected by the author for his investigation 
with the spectroscope of the gases occluded by meteoric iron (see also the 
meteorites of Red River, Texas, and Arva, Hungary). It is noted for the 
large amount of nickel, 14°62 per cent., which it contains; it had been exa- 
mined by J. L. Smitht, who found no carbon init. As in the case of the 
Texas meteorite, this iron appears to evolve gas before heat is applied; the 
red and green hydrogen lines were brilliant, while the bands of carbon were 
not noticed. When heat was applied, the spectrum showed the hydrogen 
lines very brilliantly, and the four chief carbon bands in great strength. As 
the tension of the gas decreased, the hydrogen lines became relatively stronger, 
and the carbon bands grew narrower ; and at 1 millim. these bands were still 
prominent, and some narrow bands, apparently belonging to nitrogen, were 


* L'Institut, nouy. sér. iii. p. 44. 
t A. W. Wright, Amer. Journ. Se. 1875, ix. p. 294. 
{ Amer. Journ. Sc. [2], vol, xix. p. 153, 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 249 


observed. They differed, however, somewhat as to the order of their relative 
intensities from those observed with nitrogen alone. One of the lines appeared 
to coincide with the chief coronal line 1474 K, although not so sharp as the 
latter appears in the solar spectrum. An oxygen line likewise observed has 
the position 1462 K very nearly, and falls very near the position assigned to 
a bright coronal line by Denza and Lorenzoni when observing the eclipse of 
the 22nd December, 1870. A second oxygen line, less bright but sharp and 
distinct, has the position 1359+1K. The author directs attention to the 
complete change which the spectrum of an air-tube undergoes by the intro- 
duction of hydrogen. According to the method by which Wright calculates 
the amount of gas present in an iron (see the meteorite of the Red River, 
Texas, above), this metal occludes 4°69 times its volume of mixed gases. 
Although the greater part of the gas had been removed, the author is of 
opinion that the whole amount was by no means exhausted. The fact of the 
yolume of gas in this instance being in excess of that obtained by Graham and 
Mallet probably arises from the Tazewell iron haying been in a finely divided 
state. 
1871, Spring of—Roda, Province of Huesca, Spain*. 


The exact date of the fall of this meteorite is not given, but it is stated to 
have occurred during the spring of 1871, at a spot two kilometres from Roda. 
Two fragments in the possession of Pisani weigh about 200 grammes, and 
appear to have formed the half of a stone which was of the size of a fist. It 
is coyered with a black crust, which is continuous and brilliant in places 
where this species of lustrous varnish has run. The interior is ashy grey, 
with greenish grains resembling peridot (some several millimetres in diameter) 
scattered throughout the mass. The grey surface is, however, not of a uni- 
form tint, but presents two irregularly shaped areas, one being grey, the other 
yellowish grey. The stone is very friable, and has no action on the magnetic 
needle. Before the blowpipe it is fusible, becoming black and feebly magnetic. 

Only a small portion, 14-75 per cent., of the meteorite is broken up by acid, 
that unacted upon amounting to 85-97 per cent. Below are given, in addi- 
tion to the composition of the constituents separated by acid, the results of an 
analysis of the minerals constituting the mass of the stone :— 


SiO, Al,O, Cr,0, FeO CaO MgO K,OandNa,O § 
er 


A. Soluble... 38°35 481 ...... DAT VS: 21 © 23:86)» ue assess Oe Ie vote =100-00 
B. Insoluble 52:93 1:95 0:39 16:29 1:92 2652 = wiecce neeeee =100:00 
©. Total....:. 5151 2:30 034 17:04 231 2661 0:80 0-40 =101°31 


The soluble portion appears to be an iron olivine, mixed probably with a 
little anorthite ; the insoluble portion consists chiefly of bronzite, or, accord- 
ing to Pisani, probably hypersthene, with the specific gravity of which mineral 
that of the meteorite more closely accords. The sulphur and the chromium 
are, it is presumed, present as magnetic pyrites and chromite; no nickel 
whatever was detected. 

The yellowish green grains were very slightly attacked by acid, only 6 per 
cent. being soluble in that reagent. Their composition proved to be:— 


Gilicie ACID ...:-<sescessnnecsens HISTO), cc.ciccccnabun hie 
PATENT Fladies conesocs ces 'seen coves Pos ae Rerr perer eC 13 
Tron protoxide,.........se0ee0 DHT cevasctere J1-1 \ 149 
Magnesia .....-ssscenecenserseeee L720 ces cengenate 38 

98:83 


* F, Pisani, ‘Compt. Rend,’ Ixxix. 1507 ; G. A. Daubrée, ‘ Compt. Rend,’ Ixxix, 1509. 


250 REPORT—1875. 


These numbers indicate, according to Pisani’s view, the presence of a hy- 
persthene rather than a bronzite, a hypersthene richer in iron than that of 
Farsund, Norway. The ratio of iron oxide to magnesia is the same as that 
in the bronzites of the Hainholz, Shalka, Borkut, and several other meteorites. 

On some grains of this mineral a well-marked cleavage was distinguished 
along one direction ; in others a disposition to cleave along a second direction 
was remarked: on examining such fragments in the polarizing microscope, 
however, one of the optic axes was almost always seen, while the other is in- 
visible. The angle of the optic axes, as measured in oil, was approximately 
determined, making 2H=104°. The bisectrix is negative ; but whether it 
was the acute or obtuse bisectrix was not determined. 

This meteorite is remarkable for containing no metallic iron, and a very 
large proportion of bronzite or hypersthene. 

Daubrée, during an examination of microscopic sections, noted many cha- 
racters which favour the assumption that the chief constituent of this meteo- 
rite is bronzite rather than hypersthene. Such are :—the absence of dichroism, 
the frequent occurrence of the right angle in the contour of the crystals, and 
the fineness of the strie, peculiar to bronzite. When magnified 800 diameters, 
most of the crystals are found to enclose yellowish brown rarely translucent 
matter, with very varied contour, and occasionally with a crystalline form, 
that of a modified oblique prism, which is that of pyroxene. They are ranged 
in rectilinear series, which are not always orientated parallel to the axes of 
the crystal. Here and there, adhering to the crystals, a brown vitreous sub- 
stance, which is without action on polarized light, is seen; and in it occur 
cavities of relatively large dimensions, closely resembling those usually found 
in basaltic rocks. The Roda meteorite, with the single exception that it 
contains no iron, bears a great likeness to the meteorite of Lodran (1868, 
October 1st), and establishes a new link between cosmical rocks and those 
belonging to our planet. If, says Daubrée, we were to refuse to admit the 
testimony of those persons who affirm that they witnessed the fall of this 
fragment of rock, the characters of its crust would fully attest its cosmical 
origin. 


1872. August 31st, 5.15 aa. (Rome mean time).—Orvinio (formerly 
Canemorto), near Rome. [Long. 12°36’ E., lat. 42° 8’ N.]* 


A meteor was seen at daybreak by many observers in the provinces of 
Rome, Umbria, Abruzzo, and Terra di Lavoro. At first it appeared like a 
large star of ared colour. It increased in brilliancy as it traversed the sky ina 
northerly direction, leaving a white train. Ata certain point it became brilli- 
antly white, and then vanished, a luminous cloud remaining, which was visible 
for a quarter of an hour. The meteor appears to have crossed the coast-line at a 
point near Terracina, to have passed over Piperno in a direction 7° W. of N.,and, 
moving N.N.E. over Cori and Gennazzano,to have explodedover the latter town. 
After the lapse of two to three minutes, two reports were heard, the first like 
that of a cannon, the second like a series of from three to six guns fired in 
rapid succession. The greater part of the stone fell at Oryvinio, over which 


* A. Secchi, ‘Comp. Rend.’ Ixxv. p. 655.—G. 8. Ferrari, ‘ Ricerche fisico-astronomiche 
intorno all’ Uranolito caduto nell’ agro Romano il 31 di Agosto, 1872. Roma: Tip. Blel. 
Arti, 1873.—P. Keller, ‘Pogg. Ann,’ cl. p. 171 ; ‘ Mineralog. Mitt.’ 1874, p. 258.—M. Le 
Chevalier Michel-Etienne de Rossi and G. Bellucci, ‘ Atti dell’ Acc. pontif. di Nuovi 
Lincei,’ 1873.—‘ Les Mondes,’ 25th December, 1873.—L. Sipocz, ‘Mineralog. Mitt.’ 1874, 
p. 244.—G. Tschermak, ‘Sitz, Ak, Wiss, Wien, Ixx. November Heft, 1874.—These Re- 
ports, 1873, p. 384. 


; 
: 
’ 
= 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 251 


place the second explosion appears to have taken place, and some fragments 
were carried further northward. 

Six fragments of the meteorite, weighing collectively 3°396 kilogs., have 
been found :—No. 1, weighing 4? grammes, fell with a hissing noise near a 
peasant at Gerano; No. 2, weighing 92 grammes, fell at La Scarpa, within 
ten metres of a farmer, who picked it up while hot; No. 3, weighing 
622 grammes, was found two or three days after the fall a few centimetres 
below the surface, in a stubbled field at Pezza del Meleto, between Orvinio 
and Pozzaglia; No. 4, 1242°5 grammes in weight, was found a week after 
the fall, close to Orvinio: the grass around it had been somewhat singed ; 
No. 5, weighing 432 grammes, was picked up a week after the fall at 
Pezza del Meleto; No. 6, weighing 1003 grammes, was found on the 8th 
of May, 200 metres distant from No, 4, at a very trifling depth, while 
turning up the soil of a field. 

At the time of the fall a man was passing the spot where fragments num- 
bered + and 6 were found. Immediately after the explosion, he heard the 
sound of a heavy body striking the earth, and he fell on the ground with fear. 
At the samo time, or a little later, a fire broke out in a barn filled with hay 
in the village of Affile, and the occurrence was, with general consent, ascribed 
to the meteorite. 

In September 1873 Keller learnt that two more small fragments had fallen 
near the village of Anticoli Corradi. The one fell near two boys who were 
tending cattle. They became alarmed at the hissing noise, and believing this 
projectile to be aimed by the devil, they picked it up, and threw it far away 
from them. The other stone was observed to fall on the bare rock, and to 
break in pieces. The fragments were collected; but as they were held to be 
of no value, they were subsequently lost. In the case of this aérolite, as in 
that of others, the smaller appear to have fallen before the larger fragments. 

The velocity of this fall must have been very slow. The authors do not 
state whether any of the fragments could be fitted together; their specifie 
gravity ranged between 3°58 and 3-73—in one, richer in metallic constituents, 
it amounted to 4-598. Two of the fragments bear portions of the crust lying 
in pits and hollows. Itis only 4 millim. thick, has a pitch-black colour, and 
exhibits in some places a waxy lustre. The mass of the stone is of a lead- 
grey colour, being darker than that of the aérolites of Pultusk and Monte 
Milone. A polished surface exhibits metallic grains, some 2 millims, in dia- 
meter, and a green silicate, probably olivine. The ground-mass appears to be 
made up of two minerals, one clear and uniform, the other dull and less 
homogeneous. The stone acts powerfully on the magnet. 

In Ferrari’s memoir is given a plan of the country near Rome, on which 
is indicated the track of the meteor and the positions where the stones fell. 
The line of flight, a singularly devious one, is seen to pass immediately over 
the summits of M. Leano, M. Sempreviso, M. Lapone, and quite near to that 
of M. Gennaro, the chief mountains of the district, and suggests (although 
obviously only by appearance) the gravitating action of these more elevated 
masses of the earth’s surface on the path of the meteor. A sketch of the 
latter, the trajectory of which is computed to have been inclined 27° to the 
plane of the horizon, accompanies the map. 

The paper of M. Le Chevalier Michel-Ktienne do Rossi gives the analysis 
and observations of Prof. Bellucci, of Perugia. When heated to 120° the 
powdered mineral lost 1:875 per cent., and by treatment with water a little 
potassium and sodium chloride were dissolved. (Compare with Daubrée’s 
examination of the Lancé¢ stone.) Tho magnet removed 29-04 per cent., 


252 REPORT——1875,. 


and acid 45-04 per cent. The analysis of a portion of the stone gave 
the following numbers:—silicic acid=46-72, alumina=16°84, magnesia 
=1:97, iron= 25-59, iron oxide (fer owidé)= 4-82, sulphur=2-24, nickel 
with trace of cobalt=1:37, with traces of calcium, chromium, manganese, 
arsenic, and phosphorus. ‘Two points are worthy of remark in this analysis: 
first, the astonishingly large amount of alumina present, far in excess of that 
found in any other meteorite. In the absence of a second and confirmatory 
analysis, it may be assumed that insufficient ammonium chloride was em- 
ployed, and the greater portion of the 16-84 per cent. is magnesia, which was 
precipitated with the alumina. Secondly, the occurrence of arsenic, which 
is of extreme rarity in a meteorite; it is stated to be present in the iron of 
Braunau and the olivine of the Atacama siderolite. 

T'schermak’s report of his examination of this stone appeared in the winter 
of 1874. The structure developed on cutting the stone is unusual and re- 
markable, consisting of light-coloured fragments (I.), surrounded by a compact 
dark cementing material (II.). The former are yellowish grey, enclose sphe- 
rules and particles of iron and magnetic pyrites, are, in fact, normal chon- 
drite, and resemble the mass of the stone which fell at Seres, in Macedonia 
(1818, June). The latter encloses numerous particles of iron and magnetic 
pyrites, for the most part uniformly distributed; the portion nearest the en- 
closed fragments bears very distinct indications of having been at one time 
fluid, and conveys the impression that this cementing material was at one 
time in a plastic condition while inmotion. Along the boundary of these two 
very dissimlar portions flaws are seen, in which nickel-iron has crystallized 
in delicate plate-like forms; and here, moreover, the fragments are darker, 
harder, and more brittle than those of the centre, which argues the exposure 
of the cementing material to a very high temperature while in a plastic con- 
dition. Both portions have nearly the same density and apparently the same 
chemical composition and mineral characteristics. The Orvinio stone re- 
sembles, in fact, certain brecciated volcanic rocks, which consist of a ground- 
mass through which granular fragments of the same rock are distributed, as 
when older crystalline lavas are interpenetrated by others more compact and 
of a more recent period. 

The light-coloured fragments are, as has been stated, chondritic ; the sphe- 
rules are usually of one kind, lying in a splintery matrix of the same mineral, 
containing some nickel-iron and magnetic pyrites. Among the transparent 
constituents, olivine is recognized by its imperfect cleavage ; a second mineral, 
with a distinct cleavage along a prism of nearly quadratic section, is evidently 
bronzite ; while a third, which occurs in fine foliated or fibrous particles, may 
be either identical with the above or be a felspathic ingredient. 

The meteoric rocks possessing chondritic structure are regarded by Tscher- 
mak as tufas which have undergone detrition, and their spherules to be such 
particles as, by their superior toughness, have, during the trituration of the 
rock, instead of breaking up into splinters, acquired a rounded form. 

A black material is observed to coat the fragments of the rock and to fill 
the finer flaws existing between them, whereby their transparent character 
is considerably impaired; this has also been noticed in the meteorite of Tad- 
jera (1867, June 9th). 

The dark-coloured cementing material contains two ingredients: an opaque 
semivitreous constituent, and particles in every way similar to the dark crust 
of the fragments from which they may probably have been detached; many 
of them can still be recognized as olivine and bronzite. ‘The nickel-iron and 
magnetic pyrites of this portion of the stone are more finely divided than 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 253 


in the fragments, and have often a rounded form. The metal of this portion, 
as well as in the other, exhibits no Widmannstiittian figures ; but in both, by 
treatment with acid, lines are developed like those of the Braunau iron. 

The two species of rock, the chondritic fragments (I.) and the darker ce- 
menting material (II.), have the following composition :— 


; II. 

MINCIO: CIO os.cap accscacuseseacndeveeses ‘ Seacvansuee 36°82 
PRUNIIVIIID woatcccacecasdecadcarstteractscee “GANE Seasceusseee 2°31 
Ghromrum Oxide?! Vitek cs eseeese 7 brAee? ke. trace 
Tron protoxide ... oe Beep MO aateotsccusecte 9-41 
MVIGOTIPRIN iciocs scnieudeeeebecmaciessgcew LACELUD  csnsidclentvine 21-69 
MINA Cs ti cine dis cig ce dan 2 oak eae no auleaTe sap SAO ikea Beinn cake 2-31 
OLIN is taccecascecveavescesecaeavomatias|) Wl EU) scons debanes 0:96 
PGUASHOT, See eater etc aecccsactrsse OTOL waceaseseres 0:26 
anh Paiicces eeavek ode vascarescdnd- eaters ; Bee eee 2 
Nickel, with trace of cobalt ......... DAD | tehsesaeas’ 3" 
PUINATIY casiassde'saedt vantevas tenis Sands Te Seias.tivsasiess 2:04 

101°42 100-95 
Specific gravity... aitsccateeters 3675 3°600 


These results establish the similarity in composition of the two portions, 
and, as T'schermak points out, the erroneous character of Bellucci’s analysis, 
to which attention has already been directed. 

Tschermak’s paper is illustrated with a plate, giving a figure of the meteo- 
rite he examined; a drawing, actual size, of the section, showing very di- 
stinctly the appearance of fusion; and three microscopic sections, magnified 


20 diameters, of the two rock varieties composing the greater part of the 
stone. 


Parr II. Recent contributions to Aérolitic literature. By A. 8. Hersower. 


In the foregoing résumé it will be seen that the annals of meteoric falls 
increase yearly in numbers and extent, and that a leading clue to the ex- 
planation of these phenomena is presented by the frequently recorded falls 
of meteorites in every continent of the globe. The researches of Howard and 
Vauquelin, of G. Rose, Wéohler, Reichenbach, Rammelsberg, Tschermak, 
Daubrée, L. Smith, and Silliman, and, returning from the first of these to our 
own countrymen, of Maskelyne and Sorby, have rendered modern mineralo- 
gists so familiar with the nature, both structural and chemical or elementary, 
of these mineral fragments scattered and imported from distant spheres to the 
surface of our globe, that the views presented by these numerous investiga- 
tions cannot fail to give a strong impulse to questions in the solution of which 
cultivators of every science must feel an interest, and promise great achieve- 
ments in the future discoveries of astronomy. Not only is a kindred character 
met with among the fragments occurring thus problematically for examination, 
but again this type itself is kindred to that of materials which are substances 
of familiar occurrence in terrestrial rocks, and the majority of stony 
meteorites are themselves tufaceous or brecciated masses of obviously volcanic 
production. That they enclose metallic iron and nickel, and that they some- 
times consist of these metals in a solid mass, is not a complete anomaly even 
in terrestrial geology, if the inquiries in course of prosecution on the sites of 
discovery of the irons of Pallas and Ovifak, supposed to be meteoric, should 
(as appears probable) bear out a different conclusion. But in the progress 
of chemical and microscopical inspections of their substance, numerous 


254 REPORT—1875. 


peculiarities are perceived in meteorites which, as strongly as the preva- 
lence of metallic ingredients, contribute to distinguish them from terres- 
trial voleanic rocks. The early detection of olivine, and the separation of 
augite and (?) labradorite or anorthite (a felspar), in the meteorite of Juvinas, 
succeeded more recently by the distinction of enstatite and olivine as the 
major constituents of stony meteorites, and finally (steps which we owe to the 
chemical separation and skilful detection of these minerals by Maskelyne 
with the polarizing microscope) the recognition of enstatite and its ferro- 
magnesian variety bronzite as the usual representatives of the “insoluble,” 
combined with the basic mineral olivine. as the “ soluble” silicate entering into 
their ordinary composition, forms the substructure upon which the chemical 
analogy of their composition with terrestrial basalts in the many varieties 
which are met with among the class of stony meteorites is at present based. 
A system of structural classification according to the amount and mode of 
dissemination of the metallic iron, devised by Daubrée for the totality of 
meteorites, and the distinction of “chondritic”’ structure in aérolites or in 
the stony portions of a great number of meteorites by Reichenbach, forms, on 
the other hand, a ground-plan upon which their mineralogical description and 
microscopical examination are conducted,—all aérolites and stony parts of 
meteorites (with exception, perhaps, more or less, of the carbonaceous 
aérolites) not of this description consisting in general of finely brecciated, 
splintered and shapeless, cemented or otherwise consolidated crystalline 
fragments, those aérolites being termed chondritic which enclose scattered 
through their mass a number of rounded grains or spherules. To these 
ordinary characters of structure and composition many subordinate features 
are also frequently superadded, as the presence of graphite, troilite, and mag- 
netic pyrites, magnetite, chromite, schreibersite, and of some rarer but equally 
distinct minerals, as azmanite, oldhamite, &c., and of gases occluded in the 
metallic portions of the stones; and, again, the crystalline structure of the 
latter portions, as exhibited in Widmanstiittian figures by etching their cleanly 
polished surfaces with mercuric chloride or with dilute acids, together with 
the vitreous or crystalline characters of the spheres or fragments and of the 
cement composing the non-metallic portions of the meteorite, in the detection 
of which thin sections of it are.employed, and both the microscope and its 
powerful auxiliary polarized light lend important aid. In all these methods 
of interrogation and of systematic description great progress has recently been 
made, to describe at length the various results of which would here occupy 
too large a space. The subject has been ably handled by Dr. Flight in a 
series of articles in the ‘ Geological Magazine’ of the present year (January= 
August, 1875), and more than a reférence to its copious information in a 
fifteen years’ recapitulation of the united progress of similar investigations 
need not be offered in this Report as a sufficient recommendation for its perusal. 
As a separate treatise on the subject to which its further Parts are intended 
to contribute, it may be indicated as the source in which, since the close in 
the year 1860 of Dr. Buchner’s chronological work on ‘ Meteorites,’ students 
of this department of science (at least in the English language) will find the 
readiest assistance for their information and guidance in the recent abundant 
development of these inquiries. : 

Tn the valuable recently commenced Annual Record of contemporary papers 
bearing on the progress of Geclogy, the first volume of which is announced at 
the present Meeting of the British Association as being nearly completed 
and ready for immediate publication, the Committee has also the grati- 
fication to observe, in the Section devoted to Petrology, a copious abstract, 


OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 255 


ehiefly from the pen of Dr. Flight*, of analyses and mineralogical examina- 
tions during the past year of a great number and variety of meteoric products. 
In addition to those above described of the meteorites of Orvinio, Roda, 
Lodran, Adare, and of several meteoric irons, the leading particulars of which 
are given, some recent observations by Nordenskjéld on snow-dust gathered 
from the névés of various climates are noticed, with its probable relation to 
meteor-dust in the atmosphere and to the blue colour of glacier-ice. The 
whole of these short abstracts, occupying several pages of the printed volume, 
are full of concise and useful information on the advance and progress which 
haye been made in the various departments of meteoric mineralogy during 
the brief interval of the past year. 

A speculative paper on the origin of meteorites by Dr. G. Tschermak} 
expresses very clearly the author’s views on the present aspects of knowledge 
regarding their history, and presents a number of important remarks on their 
formation. The spectroscope has confirmed the earlier conjectures, derived 
from a study of meteorites, of a prevailing similarity of materials in the che- 
mical elements of the heavenly bodies ; and from the forms of meteorites it may 
be expected that a knowledge of the processes to which they have been sub- 
jected may be derived. Apart from their minute internal structure, it is 
certain that externally they are acutely angular fragments, evidently of a 
large planetary mass, and (as shown by the crystalline structure of meteoric 
irons and by sliding faces in some aérolites) of a large cosmical body where 
uniform temperature and long periods of tranquillity have prevailed. Their 
internal structure, exactly analogous to that of our volcanic tufas, is another 
evidence of the same conclusion ; and Daubrée regards collisions or explosions 
of such large cosmical bodies as the origin from which they sprang. But as 
their proportions are always diminutive or dust-like in comparison to the parent- 
bodies, explosive rather than disruptive agencies, or projectile forces acting 
from within outwards locally upon the bodies, appear to have ushered their 
ejected fragments into cosmical revolutions. With regard to their internal 
structure, a further acquaintance with these “ star-masses ” before their dis- 
integration is afforded to us by a close examination, Their porous materials, 
made up of pulverized rocks, were correctly pronounced by Haidinger to be 
yolcanic products, which may be characterized as meteorie tuffs. Spherular 
forms are of widely spread occurrence among their triturated grains, quite 
round and unconformably crystallized with regard to their figure, when the 
materials are tough, and varying in size from microscopic dust to that of small 
bird-shot or millot-seeds ; round fragments as large as a cherry are of rare 
occurrence ; but in the volcanic rocks of our globe they ordinarily occur in 
sizes varying from that of a hazel-nut to that of a bead. Numberless small 
volcanic fissures, it may be conjectured, contribute to their ejection ; and in no 
meteorites do we trace the appearance of slag-like rock enclosing well-deve- 
loped crystals which their formation from lava would lead us to expect. An 
example of a true crater of explosion without ejection of lava is furnished by 
the Eifel ; and in planetary bodies, where evolutions of occluded gases play a 
prominent part in the disturbances of the surface, the projection of such frag- 


ments as we find in meteorites from active volcanic craters may not be an 
_ unnatural or altogether improbable hypothesis of the kind of action of phy- 
_ sical forces concerned in their formation. 


* «The Geological Record for 1874: an account of Works on Geology, Mineralogy, and 
Palwontology published during the Year.’ Article “ Petrology,” p. 216. London: Taylor 


and Francis, 1875. 


t “Die Bildung der Meteoriten, und der Vulkanismus,” Vienna Acad, Sitzungsberichte, 
1875, pt. ii. April 1875, 


256 REPORT—1875. 


Tn the ‘ Astronomische Nachrichten’ (No. 2064), Herr N. v. Konkoly de- 
scribes results of some spectroscopic observations of the Perseids of August 
1874, examined by means of a Browning’s meteor-spectroscope. The spectra 
of 130 meteors on the nights of the 7th, 8th, and 10th to 12th of August, vary- 
ing in brightness from 1st to 4th magnitude stars, showed continuous colours, 
yellow and green predominating chiefly in all the nuclei, violet being always 
and indigo mostly absent, and red only bright in those which were markedly 
red-coloured. The spectra of the streaks were very various, those of di- 
stinctly yellow meteors showing only the double yellow line of sodium (always 
present in the streaks, and serving as a micrometric zero from which the 
positions of the other bright lines could be relatively estimated). In the streak- 
spectra of green meteors the green lines of magnesium were also yisible ; and 
in some of red colour red lines, apparently those of strontium, or of strontium 
and lithium, were observed. Some of these meteors were brighter than 
Venus, and left streaks which lasted for 30 or 40 seconds. The streak of one 
which remained visible for 156 seconds was observed with the spectroscope 
for 30 seconds. Not only the bright lines of sodium and magnesium, but 
many other bright lines, especially in the green, and some also in the blue, 
were seen, which were regarded as probably due to the presence of iron and 
copper in the substance of the streak; a cotton-ball dipped in alcohol and in- 
flamed, having particles of sodium, magnesium, and iron with very little copper 
in its fibres, exhibited, when tossed into the air, a very similar spectrum, while 
no other combination tried produced a similar effect. 

The following important paper by Dr. G. Tschermak on the meteorites of 
Lancé (1872, July 23rd) in the fifth volume (pt. i. Jan. 1875) of his ‘ Minera- 
logische Mittheilungen,’ shows that (as was found by Daubrée in the meteorites 
of Aumale, 1865, Aug. 25th) aérolites that fell about the period of the Augusti 
meteor-shower have more than once presented the rare occurrence of sodium 
chloride in their composition, The appearance and general course pursued 
by this fireball is described with unusual completeness in a work by M. 
Nouel*, of Vendome, in the neighbourhood of which town the meteorites fell ; 
and the fireball was very generally observed. 

Dr. Tschermak’s paper treats of the chemical analysis and of the micro- 
scopic examination of thin sections of the stone; and besides eleven admi- 
rable lithographic representations of the latter, it contains three plates of the 
external appearance of the largest of the stones (found in three pieces at the 
bottom of a hole 13 metre deep) from different points of view, the directions 
of the slag-fibres on its crust showing clearly how the front or pyramidal 
part and back or flattened base of the stone had been differently exposed to 
the rushing and smelting blast of heated air through which it forced its way 
point foremost with apparently only one or twoslight oscillations, The draw- 
ings of thin sections exhibit microscopic views of spherules of great variety, 
of a clear olivine crystal, and of one (the only wirrounded one observed) of 
bronzite. Among the spherules a remarkable one of bronzite is immediately 
recognized by the numberless cleavages and cross cleavages exhibited by its 
structurally prismatic crystal. Other spherules are of transparent olivine with- 
out radial structure ; and some are of highly composite characters, appearing 
occasionally to have been incrusted or metamorphosed externally and con- 
centrically to a certain depth, but found by polarized light to possess only 
apparent radial and in reality excentrical crystalline structure when sub- 


* Notice sur le bolide du 23 Juillet 1872 qui a projeté des météorites dans le canton 
de St.-Amand, arrondissement de Vendéme, département de Loire-et-Cher, par M. Nouel. 
Vendome, 1873. 


ON THE ANALYTICAL FORMS CALLED TREES, 257 


mitted to this test. The spherules do not exceed 1 millim. in diameter. Iron 
and iron sulphide are disseminated through both the spherules and pulverized 
ground mass, the latter compound sometimes forming grains and spherules 
about which metallic iron has incrusted, and conversely; and the general 
character of the meteorites is that of the minutely chondritic class. 

Water dissolves out from the stones 0-12 per cent. of sodium chloride, which 
can also be sublimed from them in a hydrogen atmosphere at a red heat; and 
the presence of a trace of copper can be detected by the aid of a spectroscope. 
Besides metallic grains of iron (7-81 per cent.) containing nickel and cobalt 
and iron pyrites (14-28 per cent., no troilite or iron monosulphide, it appears, 
occurring in this aérolite), and 1-36 per cent. of sodic chloride and hygroscopic 
water, there was found 42-44 per cent. of silicates soluble, and 33°34 per 
cent. insoluble (probably including chromite) in hydrochloric acid ; total (with 
loss 0-66 per cent.) 100. Of the latter silicate or bronzite no analysis is given ; 
but of the soluble silicate the following was the composition :— 


Si0,. MgO. FeO. Mn0. Total. 
L720, 1866" 11-338 0-05 42-44 


and no traces of calcium, barium, or strontium were detected in the stone. 
A perfectly similar chemical analysis of the same meteorite by Dr. R. von 
Drasche is added by Von Tschermak to the above account of its mineralo- 
gical examination and description. 


On the Analytical Forms called Trees, with Application to the Theory 
of Chemical Combinations. By Professor Cayiry, F.R.S. 


[Prate VIII] 


T wave in two papers ‘“‘ On the Analytical forms called Trees,” Phil. Mag. 
vol. xiii. (1857) pp. 172-176, and ditto, vol. xx. (1860) pp. 337-341, con- 
sidered this theory, and in a paper “ On the Mathematical Theory of Isomers,” 
ditto, vol. xlvii. (187-4) p. 444, pointed out its connexion with modern che- 
micaltheory. In particular as regards the paraffines C, H,,,., we have n atoms 
of carbon connected by n—1 bands, under the restriction that from each 
carbon-atom there proceed at most 4 bands (or, in the language of the papers 
first referred to, we have n knots connected by n—1 branches), in the form 
of a tree; for instance, »=5, such forms (and the only such forms) are 


we 
© 
Ovo 


uw 
D 
=I 
oO 

2 


258 REPORT—1875. 


And if (under the foregoing restriction of only 4 bands from a carbon-atom) 
we connect with each carbon-atom the greatest possible number of hydrogen- 
atoms (as shown in the diagrams by the affixed numerals), we see that the 
number of hydrogen-atoms is 12 (=2°5+42), and we have thus the repre- 
sentations of three different paraftines,C,H,,. It should be observed that 
the tree-symbol of the paraffine is completely determined by means of the 
tree formed with the carbon-atoms, or say of the carbon-tree, and that the 
question of the determination of the theoretic number of the paraffines 
C,, Hons. is consequently that of the determination of the number of the car- 
bon-trees of » knots, viz. the number of trees with ~ knots, subject to the 
condition that the number of branches from each knot is at most =4. 

In the paper of 1857 (which contains no application to chemical theory) 
the number of branches from a knot was unlimited ; and moreover the trees 
were considered as issuing each from one knot taken as a root, so that, n=5, 
the trees regarded as distinct (instead of being as above only 3) were in all 
9, viz. these were 


Wa Ye Vb hh 


which, regarded as issuing from the bottom knots, are in fact distinct ; while 
taking them as issuing each from a properly selected knot, they resolve 
themselves into the above-mentioned 3 forms. The problem considered 
was in fact that of the ‘ general root-trees with » knots ”—general, inas- 
much as the number of branches from a knot was without limit ; root-trees, 
inasmuch as the enumeration was made on the principle last referred to. It 
was found that for 


EMOLN iach oa. 1 Js 33 4 5 6 77-38 
No. of trees was.. 1 if 2 4 9 6 20° 48 9a5 
a ey a Wee Wie 


the law being given by the equation 
(l—#)7* (1—a*)- "(1-2)" * (1—atys. 
=1+4+A,v+A,a°+A, a? +A,a*+ ...; 


but the next following numbers A,, A,, A,,, the correct values of which are 
286, 719, 1842, were given erroneously as 306, 775, 2009. I have since 
calculated two more terms, A,,, A,,= 4766, 12486. 

The other questions considered in the paper of 1857 and in that of 1860 
have less immediate connexion with the present paper, but for completeness 
I reproduce the results in a Note*. 


* Tn the paper of 1857 T also considered the problem of finding B, the number with + 
free branches, bifurcations at least : this was given by a like formula— 


ON THE ANALYTICAL FORMS CALLED TREES. 259 


To count the trees on the principle first referred to, we require the notions 
of “centre” and “ bicentre,’ due, I believe, to Sylvester; and to establish 
these we require the notions of ‘‘main branch” and “altitude”: viz. in a 
tree, selecting any knot at pleasure as a root, the branches which issue from 
the root, each with all the branches that belong to it, are the main branches, 
and the distance of the furthest knot, measured by the number of interme- 


ee ae 


; 


A 


diate branches, is the altitude of the main branch. Thus in the left-hand 
figure, taking A as the root, there are 3 main branches of the altitudes 3, 3, 1 
respectively : in the right-hand figure, taking A as the root, there are 4 
main branches of the altitudes 2, 2, 1, 3 respectively ; and we have then the 
theorem that in every tree there is either one and only one centre, or else 
one and only one bicentre ; viz. we have (as in the left-hand figure) a centre 
A which is such that there issue from it two or more main branches of alti- 


(1—x)—} (1—a?)— Be (1 —23)—Bs (1—at) Bs... =1 +442, 224 2B, 23 4+2By at... 
leading to 


i P 2, 5, 12, 33, QO ane 
for r= 2, 3, 4, 5 6, Dg tetasete 


In the paper of 1860, the question is to find the number of trees with a given number 
m of terminal knots: we have here 


1 
2—e* 


om=1.2.3...(m—1) coefficient #”—! in , 


giving the values 
gm= 1, 1, 3, 18, 75, 541, 4683, 47293,.... 
form= 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, Spr ren P. 


But if from each non-terminal knot there ascend two and only two branches, then in this 


case ¢m= coefficient 2”—! in oe, viz. we have the very simple form 
1.3.5..2m—3 
om Spee ee 
* sivin m= WS Te 3225, 14 Aaa 
a i a) a Oe Baas on 


s2 


260 REPORT—1875. 


tudes equal to each other and superior to those of the other main branches 
(if any); or else (as in the right-hand figure) a bicentre AB, viz. two contigu- 
ous knots, such that issuing from A (but not counting AB), and issuing from 
B (but not counting BA), we have two or more main branches, one at least 
from A and one at least from B, of altitudes equal to each other and superior 
to those of the other main branches in question (if any). The theorem once 
understood, is proved without difficulty: we consider two terminal knots, 
the distance of which, measured by the number of intermediate branches, is 
greater than or equal to that of any other two terminal knots ; if, as in the 
left-hand figure, the distance is cven, then the central knot A is the centre 
of the tree; if, as in the right-hand figure, the distance is odd, then the two 
central knots AB form the bicentre of the tree. 

Tn the former case, observe that if G, H are the two terminal knots, the 
distance of which is =2A, then the distance of each from A is =A, and there 
cannot be any other terminal knot I, the distance of which from A is greater 
than ) (for if there were, then the distance of I from G or else from H would 
be greater than 2A); there cannot be any two terminal knots I, J, the dis- 
tance of which is greater than 2; and if there are any two knots I, J, the 
distance of which is =2,, then these belong to different main branches, the 
distance of each of them from A being =X; whence, starting with I, J (in- 
stead of G, H), we obtain the same point A as centre. Similarly in the 
latter case there is a single bicentre AB. 

Hence, since in any tree there is a unique centre or bicentre, the question 
of finding the number of distinct trees with 7 knots is in fact that of finding 
the number of centre- and bicentre-trees with n knots; or say it is the problem 
of the “ general centre- and bicentre-trees with » knots:” general, inasmuch 
as the number of branches from a knot is as yet taken to be without limit ; 
or since (as will appear) the number of the bicentre-trees can be obtained 
without difficulty when the problem of the root-trees is solved, the problem 
is that of the “ general centre-trees with n knots.” It will appear that the 
solution depends upon and is very readily derived from that of the foregoing 
problem of general root-trees, so that this last has to be considered, not 
only for its own sake, but with a view to that of the centre-trees. And in 
each of the two problems we doubly divide the whole system of trecs 
according to the number of the main branches (issuing from the root or centre 
as the case may be), and according to the altitude of the longest main branch 
or branches, or say the altitude of the tree; so that the problem really is, for 
a given number of knots, a given number of main branches, and a given 
altitude, to find the number of root-trees, or (as the case may be) centre- 
trees. 

We next introduce the restriction that the number of branches from any 
knot is equal to a given number at most; viz. according as this number is 
= 2,3 or 4, we have, say oxygen-trees, boron-trees*, and carbon-trees re- 
spectively ; and these are as before root-trees or centre- or bicentre-trees, as 
the case may be. The case where the number is 2 presents no diffioulty : in 
fact if the number of knots be =i, then the number of root-trees is either 
2 (n+1) or dn; viz. n=3 and n=4, the root-trees are 


* T should have said nitrogen-trees; but it appears to me that nitrogen is of necessity 
5-valent, as shown by the compound, Ammonium-Chloride, =NH, Cl: of course the word 
boron is used simply to stand for a 3-valent element. 


eect’ 


Rea eV, 


ON THE ANALYTICAL FORMS CALLED TREES. 261 


eo 
Wa 3e 


and the number of centre- or bicentre-trees is always=1: viz. 7 odd, there is 
one centre-tree ; and x even, one bicentre-tree ; itis only considered as a par- 
ticular case of the general theorem. The case where the number is =9 is ana- 
lytically interesting: although there may not exist, for any 3-valent element, 
a series of hydrogen compounds B, H,,,, corresponding to the paraffines. The 
case where the number is =4, or say the carbon-trees, is that which pre- 
sents the chief chemical interest, as giving the paraffines C, H.,,.; and I call 
to mind here that the theory of the carbon-root trees is established as an 
analytical result for its own sake and as the foundation for the other case, 
but that it is the number of the carbon centre- and bicentre-trees which is 
the number of the paraffines. 

The theory extends to the case where the number of branches from a knot 
is at most = 5, or = any larger number; but I have not developed the 
formula. ' 

I pass now to the analytical theory: considering first the case of gencral 
root-trees, we endeavour to find for a given altitude N the number of trces 
of a given number of knots » and main branches a, or say the generating 
function 


«——e—_s——__0 


TOt2”, 


where the coefficient Q gives the number of the trees in question. And we 
assume that the problem is solved for the cases of the several inferior alti- 
pudes 0; 1,2,3...N—1. 

This being so, observe that a tree of altitude N can be built up as shown 


in the figure (which I call the edification diagram), by combining one 


or more trees of altitude N—1 with a single tree of altitude not 


exceeding N—1; viz. in the figure. N=3, we have the two trees 


a,b, each of altitude 2, combined (as shown by the dotted lines) with 
the tree ¢ of altitude 1: the whole number of knots in the resulting tree is 


the sum of the number of knots on the three trees a, b,c: the number of 


_ main branches is equal to the number of the trees a, 6, plus the number of 


262 . REPORT—1875. 


main branches of the tree c. It is to be observed that the tree ¢ may reduce 
itself to the tree (.) of one knot and of altitude zero; but each of the trees 
a, b, as being of the altitude N—1, must contain at least N knots. 

Taking N=2 or any larger number, it is hence easy to see that the re- 
quired generating function 2Q¢t*x” is 


=(1—t2%)* (1—taN*1)~4 (1—ta*?)-2 ...[e'-?] (first factor), 
w+(te+(t,f)r+(t,t, A )a+ ... (second factor), 


where, as regards the first factor, the exponents taken with reversed sign, that 
is as positive, are 1=no. of trees, altitude N — 1, of N knots; /,=ditto, same alti- 
tude, of (N+1) knots; 7,=ditto, same altitude, of N+ 2 knots, and soon; and 
where the symbol [¢'::"* ] denotes that in the function or product of factors 
which precedes it, the terms to be taken account of are those in t'",#,#...; 
viz. that the term in ¢°, or constant term (=1 in fact), is to be rejected. 

In the second factor the expressions «,(t)”, (t, @)x’*, ... represent (for given 
exponents of ¢, x, denoting the number of main branches and the number of 
knots respectively) the number of trees of altitude not exceeding N—1: thus 
x, =1%°x' represents the number of such trees, 1 knot, 0 main branch, 
=1; and so if the value of (¢, #, ¢’, t*)a’ be (at+ Ht’ +yt?+0t') 2’, then for 
trees of an altitude not exceeding N—1, and of 5 knots, a represents the 
number of trees of 1 main branch, / that of trees of 2 main branches, y that 
of trees of 3 main branches, 6 that of trees of 4 main branches. It is clear 
that the number of trees satisfying the given conditions and of an altitude not 
exceeding N—1 is at once obtained by addition of the numbers of the trees 
satisfying the given conditions, and of the altitudes 0,1,2...N—1; all 
which numbers are taken to be known. 

It is to be remarked that the first factor, 


(1—t2%)-* (1—taN*?)~4 (1-812) a ees oi 


shows by its development the number of combinations of trees a, b..of the 
altitude N—1; one such tree at least must be taken, and the symbol [#!---> 
gives effect to this condition : the second factor #+(t)x*+(t, @)a°+ .. shows 
the number of the trees ¢ of altitude not exceeding N—1. And this being 
so, there is no difficulty in seeing how the product of the two factors is the 
* generating function for the trees of altitude N. 

In the case N=0, the generating function, or GF, is =#; viz. altitude 0, 
there is only the tree (.) 1 knot, 0 main branch. 


N=1, the GF is=(1—-tx)! [8° Jv, =te® +Pa°+te,..., 


viz. altitude 1, there is 1 tree ta”, 2 knots, 1 main branch ; 1 tree fw’, 3 knots, 
2 main branches; and so on. 
Hence N=2, we obtain 


GF=(1—tz”)~' (1—ta*)“! (1—te*))... [é'-° ]. (a4 ta? + Fao +P a*....); 


viz. as regards the second factor, altitude not exceeding 1, that is =0 or 1, 
there is altitude 0, 1 tree w, and altitude 1, 1 tree ta, 1 tree #x*, and so on. 
And we hence derive the GF’s for the higher values N=3, 4, &c.: the de- 
tails of the process will be afterwards more fully explained. 


ON THE ANALYTICAL FORMS CALLED TREES. 263 


So far we have considered root-trees; but referring to the last diagram, it 
is at once seen that the assumed root will be a centre, provided only that 
(instead of, it may be, only a single tree a of the altitude N—1), we take 
always two or more trees of the altitude N—1 to form the new tree of the 
altitude N. And we give effect: to this condition by simply writing in place 
of [t'-"°] the new symbol [¢?*"*], which denotes that only the terms 
#,t,t'...are to be taken account of; viz. that the terms in ?° and ?’ are to 
be rejected. The component trees of the altitude N—1 are, it is to be ob- 
served, as before, root-trees ; hence the second factor of the generating func- 
tion is unaltered: the theorem is that for the centre-trees of altitude N we 
have the same generating function as for the root-trees, writing only [¢?*-*?] 


in place of [t''""*]. Or, what is the same thing, supposing that the first 
factor, unaffected by either symbol, is 


=1+aNX(at+Pe+..)+aNt (Wt+P'P+..)+.., 


, 
q 
! 7 
. 
; 
] 
] 


_ then affecting it with [7'---*] the value for the root-trees is 
: =a™ (ot+-BP+ ..)+4Nt) (at+BP+...)+.-; 


and affecting it with [¢:::*] the value for the centre-trees is 


=a (GP +..)+aXt1 (6+ ..J4... 


It thus appears how the fundamental problem is that of the root-trees, its 
solution giving at once that of the centre-trees ; whereas we cannot conversely 
_ solve the problem of the root-trees by means of that of the centre-trees. 
As regards the bicentre-trees, it is to be remarked that starting from a 
centre-tree of altitude N+1 with two main branches, then by simply striking 
out the centre, so as to convert into a single branch the two branches which 
issue from it, we obtain a bicentre-tree of altitude N. Observe that the alti- 
tude of a bicentre-tree is measured by that of the longest main branch from 
A or B, not reckoning AB or BA as a main branch. Hence the number of 
_ bicentre-trees, altitude N, is = number of centre-trees of two main branches, 
altitude N+1. 

This is in fact the convenient formula, provided only the number of centre- 
trees of two main branches has been calculated up to the altitude N+1; but 
we can find independently the number of bicentre-trees of a given altitude N : 
_ the bicentre-tree is in fact formed by taking the two connected points A, B 
each as the root of a root-tree altitude N (the number of knots of the bicentre- 
_ tree being thus, it is clear, equal to the sum of the numbers of knots of the 
two root-trees respectively); and it is thus an easy problem of combinations 

to find the number of bicentre-trees of a given altitude N. Write 


a+) (14 Bat ya?+da5+ ...) 
as the generating function of the root-trees of altitude N ; viz. for such trees, 


1=no. of trees with N+1 knots, G=no. with N+2 knots, and so on; 
then the generating function of the bicentre-trees of the same altitude N is 


=eNt? 14 Ba+y2°+5,0°+..), 


264 REPORT—1875. 
where B,=P; 
7,=7+4(B+), 
8, =b+Py, 
e=etPpo+ay(yt+)), 
6=o + Bet 70; 


and so on ; or, what is the same thing, calling the first generating function gw, 
then the second generating function is =3{(¢v)+9(a”*)}. 

It will be noticed that the bicentre-trees are not (as were the centre-trees) 
divided according to the number of their main branches; they might be thus 
divided according to the sum of the number of the main branches issuing from 
the two points of the bicentre respectively ; a more complete division would 
be according to the number of main branches issuing from the two points 
respectively ; thus we might consider the bicentre-trees (2, 3) with 2 main 
branches from one point, and 3 main branches from the other point of the 
bicentre ; but the whole theory of the bicentre-trees is comparatively easy, 
and I do not go into it further. 

We have yet to consider the case of the limited trees where the number of 
branches from a knot is equal to a given number at most: to fix the ideas, 
say the carbon-trees, where this number is =4. The distinction as to root- 
trees and centre- and bicentre-trees is as before, and the like theory applies 
to the two cases respectively. Considering first the case of the root-trees, 
and referring to the former figure for obtaining the trees of altitude N from 
those of inferior altitudes, then the trees a, b...of altitude N—1 must be 
each of them a carbon-tree of not more than (4—1=)3 main branches: this 
restriction is necessary, inasmuch as if for any such tree the number of main 
branches was =4, then there would be from the root of such tree 4 branches 
plus the new branch shown by the dotted line, in all 5 branches; and simi- 
larly, inasmuch as there is at least one component tree a contributing one 
main branch, the number of main branches of the tree ¢ must be (4—1=)3 
at most: the mode of introducing these conditions will appear in the expla- 
nation of the actual formation of the generating functions [see explanation 
preceding Tables III., IV., &c.]. The number of main branches is =4 at 
most, and the generating functions have only to be taken up to the terms in 
t'; the first factor is consequently in each case affected with a symbol [¢'-:-4], 
denoting that the only terms to be taken account of are those in ¢, @, 2°, t; 
hence as there is a factor ¢ at least, and the whole is required only up to ¢', 
the second factor is in each case required only up to @°. 

As regards the centre-trees, the generating functions have here the same 
expressions as for the root-trees, except that instead of the symbol [¢!-‘], 


we have the symbol [¢:**], denoting that in the first factor the only terms 
to be taken account of are those in @, ¢°, ¢'; hence as there is a factor @ at 
least, and the whole is required only up to ¢', the second factor is in each caso 
required up to ¢*; and we then complete the theory by obtaining the bi- 
centre-trees. The like remarks apply of course to the boron-trees, number 
of branches =3 at most, and to the oxygen-trees, number =2 at most; but, 
as already remarked, this last case is so simple, that the general method is 


ON THE ANALYTICAL FORMS CALLED TREES, 265 


applied to it only for the sake of seeing what the general method becomes in 
such an extreme case. 

We thus form the Tables, which I proceed to explain. 

Table I. of general root-trees is in fact a Table of triple entry, viz. it gives 
for any given number of knots from 1 to 13 the number of root-trees cor- 
responding to any given number of main branches and to any given altitude. 
In each compartment, that is for any given number of knots, the totals of the 
columns give the number of the trees for each given altitude, and the totals 
of the lines give the number of the trees for each given number of main 
branches: the corner grand totals of these totals respectively show for each 
given number of knots the whole number of root-trees :— 


Peminot <...1 23945 6 7 8 -9 JO shh 142 13 
“numbers are.. 1 1 2 4 9 20 48 115 286 719 1842 4766 12486 


as already mentioned, and which numbers were calculated by an independent 
method. 

Table II. of general centre- and bicentre-trees consists of a centre part and 
a bicentre part: the centre part is arranged precisely in the same manner as 
the root-table. As to the bicentre part, where it will be observed there is no 
division for number of main branches, the calculation of the several columns 
is effected by the before-mentioned formula, 


GUAT (Gry + O(w')s 5 
thus column 2, we have by Table I. (totals of column 2) 
pu=wv'+ Qa*+ 4a’ + 6a° + 1007 4+ 140° 4 210° 4+ 292+ ..., 
and thence 


$c=x'+ 2x7 + Ta + 140° 43204 58a"+ 11024 1870" + .. 


‘As already mentioned, Table I. is calculated each column by means of a 
generating function given as a product of two factors, each of which is ob- 
tained from the columns which precede the column in question ; and Table II., 
the centre part of it, is calculated by means of the same generating functions 
slightly modified: these generating functions serving for the calculation of 
the two Tables are given in the table entitled “Subsidiary Table for the cal- 
culation of the GF’s of Tables I. and II.,” which immediately follows these 
two Tables, and will be further explained. 


1875. 


REPORT 


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REPORT 


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282 ( REPORT—1875. 


I proceed to explain the Subsidiary Table, first in its application to 
Table I. 

The Subsidiary Table is divided into sections, giving the GF’s of the suc- 
cessive columns of Table I., each section being given by means of the pre- 
ceding columns of Table I.; for instance, that for column 3 by means of 
columns 0, 1, 2 of Table I. 

As regards column 0, the Table shows that the GF is =a, 

As regards column 1, that the GF has a first factor, 


(1—tr)', =(1) + t7+ fa? +Pa'+..., 


which is operated on by the symbol [¢':::*], viz. the constant term (1) is to 
be rejected ; and that it has a second factor, =a: the product of these, viz. 
(tw+a°+tx°...)xw, is the required GF, the coefficients of which are ac- 
cordingly given in column | of Table I. 

As regards column 2, it shows that the GF has a first factor, 


(l—tz*) (1—t'*)“! (1—tr*)“ ...., 


where the indices —1, —1, —1... are the sums of the numbers in column 1, 
Table I., which first factor is 


etter te Naas 
Oe 


(and it is as before to be operated on with [¢'--'”], viz. the constant term is to 
be rejected) ; and further, that there is a second factor = a+ta*+fw?+..., 
the coefficients of which are obtained by summation of the numbers in the 
several lines of columns 0, 1 of Table I. We have thence column 2 of 
Table I. 

As regards column 3, it shows that the GF has a first factor, 


(1—éx*)—! (1— tr)? (1—tar*)-*.. 


where the indices —1, —2, —4..are the sums of the numbers in column 2 
of Table I., which first factor is 


=] +ta°+ 2tx'+4te’+ ( 6Gt\ae+... 
+? 


(and it is as before to be operated on with [¢'-"**], viz. the constant term is 
to be rejected); and that there is a second factor 


=etie?+/ t \2?+ EN Bic 
(++)"* (+2) 
+é 


the coefficients of which are obtained by summation of the numbers in the 
several lines of columns 0, 1, 2 of Table I.: we have thence column 3 of 
Table I. 

And similarly, by means of columns 0, 1, 2,3 of Table I., we form the 
GF of column 4; that is, we obtain column 4 of Table I., and so on in- 
definitely. 

To apply the Subsidiary Table to the calculation of the GF’s of Table IL., 


ON THE ANALYTICAL FORMS CALLED TREES. 283 


the only difference is that the first factors are to be taken without the terms 
in #!; thus for Table II. column 3, the first factor of the GF 


=P +2? 2 +7? 22+ (148\2° + &e., 
0% 


the second factor being as for Table I. 


=v+te?+/ t \e#*+&e. 
(+6) 


The remaining Tables are Tables III. and IV., oxygen root-trees and 
centre- and bicentre-trees, followed by a Subsidiary Table for the calculation 
of the GE’s: Tables Y. and VI., boron root-trees and centre- and bicentre- 
trees, followed by a Subsidiary Table; and Tables VII. and VIIL., carbon 
root-trees and centre- and bicentre-trees, followed by a Subsidiary Table. The 
explanations given as to Tables I., II. and the Subsidiary Table apply 
mutatis mutandis to these; and but little further explanation is required: 
that given in regard to the Subsidiary Table of Tables III. and IV. shows how 
this limiting case comes under the general method. As to the Subsidiary of 
Tables V.and VI., it is to be observed that each* line of the Table is calcu- 
lated from a column of Table V., rejecting the numbers which belong to 2° ; 
thus Table Y., column 4, the numbers are 


i OE aie 5 ey Ne Ree 
e i. 4 “£04 21 (36 
e 745 At) 267; 


and taking the sums for the first and second lines only, these are 
fy '4,.9,' 175.39, 45. x 


which, taken with a negative sign, are the numbers of the line *GF, column 5, 

And so as to the Subsidiary of Tables VII. and VIIL., each * line of the 
Table is calculated from a column of Table VII., rejecting the numbers which 
belong to ¢*; thus Table VII., column 4, the numbers are 


? Lo Se 8.15) 27 MSs, 


i, 4 -18)-83 174 
‘ t 4i 14 368 
{! Lf Pfs 


and taking the sums for the first, second, and third lines only, these are 
1, 4, 13, 32, 74, 155...,- 


which, taken with a negative sign, are the numbers of the line *GF, column 5. 

Referring to the foregoing “ Edification Diagram,” the effect is that. we 
thus introduce the conditions that in a boron-tree the number of component 
trees a,b, .. is at most (3—1=)2 and that in a carbon-tree the number of 
component trees a, 6, .. is at most (4—1=)3, 


1875. 


REPORT 


284 


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1875. 


REPORT 


298 


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T annex the following two Tables of (centre- and bicentre-) trees as far as I _ 
have completed them. 


TABLE A. 
g@ | Valency not greater than 
3 —— : = Gen 
a 0 I i} a2 3 4 5 6 7 8 
Be ia hal I Poe See 8 
cs Aik © sf S| Min i i Pl eh ae rae ce 
2 Lit ade a gues ae | Sa a ba bake | abe 
3 | BOE 0) a a PR ee Pe Oe 1 
4 TES RES |] PS ME SUI RR | ian 2 2 2 
all lea Bye (3: | Soe SS) e Nee 3 | 
Bid hoa Pes jm SN ee fe 6 | 
7 | | Rh 6 9 | a fe ite a 1% v4 
Ba) tS | 1 | fl | 18 | a | 22°) aB7| 23 3 
9 | n ie | 35 |) | 45 | 4g | aT | 47 
| fo | 1 ae ter | | 105 
| ee es a | | 235 
| 12 1 | 135 | 357 bbl 
fee | 1 | 285 | 799 | | 1301 | 
Taste B. 
ga Actual Valency. | 
° ! 
218 erie Oe a en We Rae ae ve fee ee 
Era ig | 
2 | oe ae | 
3 | | | at oh | 
ree | boil 1 | | | 
5 | 1 1 1 / | | 
| 6 | [MU ol eM | | 
7 | bet 5 | 8 oi | | | 
8 | US CS Ge a ee i | 
9 | Pea a) ae 7 le Bh 
10 | pet] 64) 38] | | 
ul 1 | 6 | 93 | | / 
12 1 | 134 | 222 | | | 
13 | 1 | 2964 | 534 


1) 


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Ok eRe ee o 5 o a 
— = 


SS ee t—™ 


ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 305 


viz. in A the columns 2, 3, 4, and the last column are the totals given by 
the Tables IV., VI., VIII., and II., and the remaining numbers of columns 
5, 6, 7, 8 have been found by trial; and in B the several columns are the 
differences of the columns of A, The signification is obvious; for instance, 
if the number of knots is =9, then Table A, if valency, or maximum number 
of branches from a knot, 


is= 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 or any greater number, 
No. of trees = 1, 18, 35, 42, 45, 46, 47: 


viz. with 9 knots the tree can have at most 8 branches from a knot, so 
that the number of trees having at most 8 branches from a knot is =47, the 
whole number of trees with 9 knots; and so the number of knots being as 


before =9, Table B shows that the number of 47 is made up of the numbers 


Ets Ui 73, 1;.%; 


viz. 1 is the No. of trees, at most 2 branches from a knot, 
1 


. 4 tS 3 is at least one 3-branch knot. 
17 ” ” 4 ” ” ” 4 ” 
7 »”» ” 5 ” ” ” 5 ” 
3 ” ” 6 ” ” ” 6 ” 
1 ” ” a ” ” ” Us ” 
1 ” ” 8 ” ” »”» 8 


Tannexalso a Plate showing the figures of the 1 + 1+2+4+3+46+411+4 23+47 
trees of 1, 2,3...9 knots, classified according to their altitudes and number 
of main branches ; and as to the bicentre-trees, according to the number of 
main branches from each point of the bicentre. The affixed numbers show 
in each case the greatest number of branches from a knot; so that when this 
is (2), the knots may be oxygen, boron, carbon, &c. atoms ; when (3), boron, 


carbon, &c. atoms ; when (4), carbon, &c. atoms; and so on. 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Cayury, F.R.S., 
Professor Stokes, F.R.S., Professor Sir W. Tuomson, F.R.S., 
Professor H. J. S. Smirn, F.R.S., and J. W. L. Guatsuer, F.R.S., 
on Mathematical Tables. (Professor Cayiey, Reporter.) 


Tuer present Report (say Report 1875) is in continuation of that by Mr. 
Glaisher, published in the volume for 1873, and here cited as Report 1873. 

Report 1573 extends to all those tables which are at p. 3 included under 
the headings :— 

A, auxiliary for non-logarithmic calculation, 1, 2, 3; 

B, logarithmic and circular, 4, 5, 6; 

C, exponential, 7, 8 (but only partially to C 8), other than those tables 
of C referred to as “h.1 tan (45°+4+3¢);” and also partially (see art. 24, 
pp. 81-83) to the tables included under the heading “ E, 11, transcendental 
constants e, 7, y, &c., and their powers and functions.” 

A future Report will comprise the tables, or further tables, included under 
the headings :— 

C. 8. Hyperbolic antilogarithms (e”) and h.1 tan (45°43), and hyper- 

bolic sines, cosines, &c. 
1875, x 


306 REPORT—1875. = 


D. Algebraic constants. 
9. Accurate integer or fractional values. Bernoulli’s Nos., Av0™, &e. 
Binomial coeflicients. 
10. Decimal values auxiliary to the calculation of series. 
E. 11. Transcendental constants e, 7, y, &c., and their powers and func- 
tions. 
The present Report (1875) comprises the tables included under the head- 
ings :— 
F. Arithmological. 
12. Divisors and prime numbers. Prime roots. The Canon arithme- 
ticus, &e. 
13. The Pellian equation. 
14. Partitions. 
15. Quadratic forms a?+6° &c., and partition of numbers into squares, 
cubes, and biquadrates. 
16. Binary, ternary, &c. quadratic and higher forms. 
17. Complex theories, 
which divisions are herein referred to, for instance, as [F. 12. Divisors &c.]. 
Report 1873 consists of six sections (§) divided into articles, which are 
separately numbered (see contents, p. 174); the present Report 1875 forms 
a single section ($ 7), divided in like manner into articles, which are sepa- 
rately numbered ; but besides this the paragraphs are numbered, and that 
continuously, through the present Report 1875, so that any paragraph may 
be cited as Report 1875, No. — (as the case may be). 


Art. 1. [F. 12, Divisors §c.] Divisors and Prime Numbers. 


1. As to divisors and prime numbers see Report 1873, art. 8 (Tables of 
Divisors (factor tables) and Tables of Primes), pp. 34-40. The tables there 
referred to, such as Chernac, Burckhardt, Dase, Dase and Rosenberg, are 
chiefly tables running up to very high numbers (the last of them the ninth 
million), wherein to save space multiples of 2, 3, 5 are frequently omitted, 
and in some of them only the least divisor is given. It would be for many 

"purposes convenient to have a small table, going up say to 10,000, showing 
im every case all the prime factors of the number. Such a table might be 
‘arranged, 500 numbers in a page, in some such form as the following ;— 


Factor Table | 1 to 500 | 
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 ff 8 9 


39 | 2.3.5.13|17.23 | 2°.7? [3.181 |2.197 | 5.79 | 27.82.11 | 397* [2.199]3.7.19 | 


where the top line shows the units, and the left-hand column the remaining 
figures, viz. the specimen exhibits the composition of the several numbers from 
390 to 399: a prime number, e.g. 397, would be sufficiently indicated by the 
absence of any decomposition, or it may be further indicated by an asterisk. 

It may be noticed that in the theory of numbers the decomposition is spe- 
cially required when the next following number is a prime, viz. that of p—1, 
p being a prime: and that this is given incidentally, for prime numbers p 
up to 1000, in Jacobi’s ‘Canon Arithmeticus,’ post, No, 20, and up to 15,000 
in Reuschle’s Tables, V. (a, b, c) post, No. 22. 

2. It may be proper to remark here that any table of a binary form is 
really a factor-table in the complex theory connected with such binary form, 


i 


ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 807 © 


Thus in a table of the form a?+ 2°, a number of this form has a factor a+bi 
(i= ¥ —1 as usual); and the table in fact shows the complex factor a+bi 
of the number in question: a well arranged table would give all the prime 
complex factors «+i of the number. But as to this more hereafter ; at pre- 
sent we are concerned with the real theory only, not with any complex theory. 

3. Connected with a factor-table we have (1) Table of the number of less 
relative primes ; viz. such a table would show for every number the number 
of inferior integers having no common factor with the number itself. The 
formula is a well-known one: for a number N=ab8cy..., (a, b,... the di- 
stinct prime factors of N), the number of less relative primes is 


a@(N), =at—1b8-1,., (a—1)(6—1),.., 


P 1 1 
or, what is the same thing, = N @ = “a= 5) ... A small table (N=1 to 


100), occupying half a page, is given, 

Euler, Op. Arith. Col. t. ii. p. 128; viz. this is 71=0, r2=1,...7100 
=40. 

4, But it would be interesting to have such a table of the same extent with 
the proposed factor-table. The table might be of like form ; for instance, 


No. of less relative Primes Table | 1 to 500 |. 


Sst? isi Gh hotdabs ab alinKovodn Todt toSmil B 
29 | 112 | 192 | 144 | 292 | 84 | 232 | 144 | 198 | 148 | 264 | 


and it would be of still greater interest to have an inverse table showing the 
yalues of N which belong to a given value of w(N); for instance, 


a= N= 


40 | 41, 55, 75, 82, 88, 100, 110 
42 | 43, 49, 86, 98 

44 | 69, 92 

46 | 47, 94 

48 | 65, 104, 105, 112 


‘where, observe, that aw is of necessity even. 

5. Again, connected with a factor-table, we have (2) Table of the Sum of 
‘the divisors of a Number. The formula is also a well-known one; for a 
number N=a*68..., (a, 6 the distinct prime factors of N), the required sum 
{N is =(1+a...4+a\(1+0...+0°),..., or, what is the same thing, 

qetl 1 68+1 anni! 
=—"a—1 ° b=1 
as a divisor. 

6. Such a table was required by Euler in his researches on Amicable 
Numbers (see post, No. 10), and he accordingly gives one of a considerable 
extent, 

Euler, Op. Arith, Coll. t. i, pp. 104-109. 

It is to be remarked that inasmuch as {Ni is obviously = ja" foe... , the 
fanction need only be tabulated for the different integer -yaighgse a% of each 
prime number a. The range of Euler’s table is as follows :— j 


.», where, observe, that the number itself is reckoned 


Keo 


308 REPORT—~1875. 


a= a= 
2 1 to 36 
3 1,, 15 
5 Iv giiaed 
7 1S-40 
11 dl fie 
13 i er 
17 hee 48h 
19 Lagat 
23 Lge: 
290997 |1,, 3 


” 
viz. for the several prime numbers from 29 to 997 the table gives Sa, fe, 


and \a°. And it is to be noticed that the values of the sum are exhibited, 
decomposed into their prime factors: thus a specimen of the table is 


Num. Summa Divisorum. 


139 OEY Sf 
139? 3.138.499 
139° 2° .5.7.9661 


7. The form of the above table is adapted to its particular purpose (the 
theory of amicable numbers); but Euler gives also, 


Euler, Op. Arith. Coll. t. i. p. 147 (in the paper “ Observatio de Summis 
Divisorum,” pp. 146-154, 1752), a short table of about half a page, N=1 
to 100, of the form J 1=1, f2=8, : -. (100=217. The paper contains on 
the subject of jn interesting analytical researches which connect themselves 
with the theory of the Partition of Numbers. 


8. It would be interesting to carry the last-mentioned table to the same 
extent as the proposed factor-table ; and to add to it an inverse table, as sug- 
gested in regard to the number of less relative primes table. 


9. Perfect Numbers.—A perfect number is a number which is equal to the 
sum of its divisors (the number itself not being reckoned as a divisor), ¢. g. 
6=142+4+38: 28=14244+4+7+414. Such numbers are indicated by a table 
of the sums of divisors [6=12, §28=56, these two being, as appears by 
the table, art. 7, the only perfect numbers less than 100. 

10. Amicable Numbers.—These are pairs of numbers such that each is equal 
to the sum of the divisors of the other (not reckoning the other number as 
a divisor); or, what is the same thing, such that each has the same sum of 


divisors (the number being here reckoned as a divisor); say (A=B, jB=A > 
or, what is the same thing, [A= JB(=A+B). Thus 220, 284, 
f220=(14244)(145)(14+11)—220, =284, 
f'284=(14244)(1+471)—284, =220; 
or, what is the same thing, 
§220= (14+2-44)(1+5)(14+11)=504=(142+44)(14+71)= (284. 
11. A catalogue of 61 pairs of numbers is given 


Euler, Op. Arith. Coll. t. i. pp. 144-145 (occupies about one page). The 
paper, “De Numeris Amicabilibus,” pp. 102-145, contains an elaborate in= 


ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES, 809 


vestigation of the theory, by means whereof all but two of the pairs of num- 
bers are obtained. The first pair is the above-mentioned one, 2*.5.11 and 
2°. 71(=220 and 284), and the fifty-ninth the high numbers 

3°, 72,13.19.53.6959 and 3*.77.13.19.179 . 2087. 
The last two pairs are referred to as “‘ forme diverse a precedentibus ; 
these are 


” viz. 
2.19.41 | 4 f2°.41.467 
2°,199 ae ht tO 200: 


12. A Table of the Frequency of Primes is given 

Gauss, Tafel der Frequenz de Primzahlen, Werke, t. xi. pp. 436-448 ; 
yiz. this extends to’3,000,000. 

The first part, extending to 1,000,000, =1000 thousand, shows how many 
primes there are in each thousand: a specimen is 


168 
135 
127 
120 
119 


ROS 


. 


& Or 


en 5 
viz. in the first thousand there are 168 primes, in the second thousand 135 
primes, and so on. ‘ 

For the second and third millions the frequency is given for each ten thou- 


sand: a specimen is 
1,000,000 to 1,100,000. 


il t 
1 1 i 1 = 
Bere attire eres it gamete eesti A 12 
ey ot or pod eo Ge 200s 4ec Oo abes 54 
Oe Si wwiacokBe: 220 41 LOemr D2 ous 2h209s 8 rile eet 


oonwTrocur WO NW FE 
beet 
3 
4 


10 8 6 8 5 9 5 5 9 ri 9 71 
11 6 6 4 6 3 i 3 1 4 5 39 
12 1 i 2 i iff 1 2 2 1 12 
13 il LU 1 1 (t 1 6 
14 
15 
16 


752 719 732 700 731 698 713 °722 760 737 | 7210 
{ dt 7919-99; 


log a 


310 REPORT—1875. 


viz. in the interval 1,000,000 to 1,010,000, 100 hundreds, there is 1 hundred 
containing 1 prime, 2 hundreds each containing 4 primes, 11 hundreds each 
containing 5 primes,... 1 hundred containing 13 primes, 


xe ee 
4x 2= 8 
5x ll= 55 
13x 1= 18 
100 752 


or the whole 10,000 contains 752 primes; the next 10,000 contains 719 
primes,and so on; the whole 100,000 thus containing 752+ 719 + &e. ..=7210 
primes, which number is at the foot compared with the theoretic approximate 


value (oe (limits 1,000,000 to 1,010,000)=7212:99. The integral in 


question is represented by the notation Li. w or i. «. 

p- 443. We have the like tables 1,000,000 to 2,000,000 and 2,000,000 to 
3,000,000, showing for each 100,000 how many hundreds there are contain- 
ing 0 prime, 1 prime, 2 primes, up to (the largest number) 17 primes. 

13, It is noticed that , 


the 26,379th hundred contains no prime, 
the 27,050th hundred contains 17 primes. 


It may be observed that if N=2.3.5...p, the product of all the primes 
up to p, then each of the numbers N+1 and N+gq (if q be the prime next 
succeeding p) is or is not a prime; but the intermediate numbers N +2, 
N+3,...N+q—1 are certainly composite; viz. we thus have at least g—2 
consecutive composites. To obtain in this manner 99 consecutive composites, 
the value of N would be =2.3.5...97, viz. this is a number far exceeding 
2,637,900 ; but in fact the hundred numbers 2,637,901 to 2,638,000 are all 
composite. 

Legendre, in his ‘Essai sur la Théorie des Nombres’ (1st edit., 1798 ; 
2nd edit., 1808; supplement, 1816: references to this edition), gives for the 
number of primes inferior to a given limit w the approximate formula 

v . 
log e— 108366 ” 
and p. 394, and supplement, p. 62, he compares for each 10,000 up to 100,000, 
and for each 100,000 up to 1,000,000, the values as computed by this for- 
mula with the actual numbers of primes exhibited by the tables of Wega and 
Chernac. . Thus v=1,000,000, the computed value is 78,543, the actual 
value 78,493. 

He shows, p. 414, that the number of integers less than n, and not divi- 

sible by any of the numbers 6, A, p, ... is approximately 


=n(1—5)(1-3)(1-2) me 


and taking 0, A, »... the successive primes 3, 5, 7,,,. he gives the values of 
the function in question, or, say, the function 
: 246 10 wl 
3 BP lis ae 


—— 


ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 311 


w a prime, for the several prime values w=3 to 1229 in the Table LX. (one 
page) at the end of the work. 

14. A table of frequency is given 

Glaisher, J. W. L., British Association Report for 1872, p. 20. This 
gives for the second and ninth millions, respectively divided into intervals 
of 50,000, the actual number of primes in each interval, as compared with 
the theoretic value liv’—liv; and also deduced therefrom, by the formula 
log 3(#' +), a table of the average interval between two consecutive primes ; 
this average interval increases very slowly: at the beginning and end of the 
second million the values are 13°76 and 14:58 (theoretic values 13°84 and 
14°50); at the beginning and end of the ninth million 16:02 and 15:95 
(theoretic values 15:90 and 16-01). 

15. Coming under the head of Divisor Tables, some tables by Reuschle 
and Gauss may be here referred to. These are :— 

Reuschle, Mathematische Abhandlung, zahlentheoretische Tabellen 
sammt einer dieselben treffenden Correspondenz mit der verewigten C. G. J. 
Jacobi, 4°, pp. 1-61* (1856). The tables belonging to the present subject are 

A. Tafeln zur Zerlegung von a”—1 (pp. 18-22). 

I. Table of the prime factors of 10”—1, viz. 
(a. pp. 18-19). Complete decomposition of 10"—1 (n=1 to 42) and 10"+1 
(n=1 to 21). Some values of x omitted. 
A specimen is 
10% —1=3". 53.79. 265371653, 
10%+1=11.189.1058313049. 


(b. p. 19). List of the specific prime factors f of 10"—1 (or the prime 
factors of the residue after separation of the analytical factors) 
for those values of n for which the complete decomposition is 
unknown, and omitting those values for which no factor is known, 
n=25 to 243. 

A specimen is n y 
25 2141. 
The meaning seems to be, residue of 10°°—1 is 14+ 10°+10"+4+10" 410”, 
and this contains the prime factor 21401; but it is not clear why this is 
the ‘specific prime factor.” 


Tl. Prime factors of a™—1 for different values of a and n. 


(a. p. 20) gives for 41 values of a (2, 3, &c. at intervals to 100) and 
for the following values of x the decompositions of the residues 
or specific factors of a”—1; viz. these are 


m=1 a—1 
2 a+l 
» o0 @+atl 
6 @—at+l 
4 @#¢+1 
5 atta+a°+at+l 
310 at—ad+a—atl 
» 8 a@+l 
»t2 at—e@+l 
* Titlepage missing in my copy; but, I find from Prof. Kummer’s notice of the work, 


‘ Crelle,’ t. lili. (1857), p. 379, that it appeared asa Programm of the Stuttgart Gymnasium, 
Michaelmas, 1856, and was separately printed by Liesching and Co., Stuttgart. 


812 REPORT—1875. 


A specimen is 


Cagle ase ge el ee 


Cala |a?—1 | Cait oe 


en eee Nn MORE eG 


3 | 11 |3°.37|7.13| 101 [41.271 9091 | 73.137] 9901 


(b. p.21.) Specific prime factors for the numbers 2, 3, 5, 6,7, 10 (the 
powers 4, 8, 9 being omitted as coming under 2 and 3) for the exponents 1 
to 42. 

A specimen is 

2r—1 
Houaee | 


19 (524287) 1597. 363889 191.v|191.#/419.2# 


where the « denotes that the other factor is not known to be prime. And so 
where no number is given, as in 10"°—1, it is not known whether the num- 
ber (=1+10'+10?... +10") is or is not prime. 
Addition, p. 22, For a=2, the complete decomposition of the prime factor 
of 2"—] is given for values of n, =44,45...at intervals to 156. 
A specimenis 7 
44 397. 2113, 
viz, 2°°—2"+4 2 ,,, —2?+1, =838 .861=397. 2113. 


n=31, Fermat’s prime. »=37, the first case for which the de- 
composition is not given completely. 241, the first case for 
which no factor is known. 


16. Gauss, Tafel zur Cyclotechnie, Werke, t. ii. pp. 478-495, shows for 
2452 numbers of the several forms a?+1, a?+4, v7+9,....@+81, the 
values of a such that the number in question is a product of prime factors 
no one of which exceeds 200, and exhibits all the odd prime factors of each 
such number. ‘The table is in nine parts, zerlegbare a?+ 1, zerlegbare a°+4, 
&c., with to each part a subsidiary table, as presently mentioned. Thus a 
specimen is 

zerlegbare a+ 9. 


nr 


a1 | o"—1 


6”—1 | 7”—1 |10”—1 


1 5 
2 13 
4 5.5 
5 17 
i 29 
8 73 
1411168679 D.o to. t7. 17.89. 013. 157 178.197 oe 
viz. 1°+9, odd prime factor is 5, 
2-+9, ” 39 13, 
449, », factors are 5, 5, 
and so on. 
And the subsidiary table is 
5 1, 4, 79 
13 2, 11, 41 


17\| 5, 29. 46, 379, 1042 


showing that the numbers ox which the largest factor is 5 are 1, 4, 79; 
those for which it is 13 are 2, 11, 41; and so on. 


ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES, 313 


The object of the table is explained in the ‘ Bemerkungen,’ p. 499, by 
Schering, the editor of the volume, viz. it is to facilitate the calculation of 
the circular ares the cotangents of which are rational numbers. ‘To take a 
simple example, it appears to be by means of it that Gauss obtained, among 
other formule, the following: 


a =12 arctan a +8 arctan —d5 arctan = 
and 
=12 arctan a +20 arctan e + 7 arctan Tad +24 arctan fly 
38 57 239 268° 


Art. 2. [F.12. Divisors §¢.] continued. Prime Roots. The Canon Arithmeticus, 
Quadratic residues. : 


17. Prime Roots.—Let p be a prime number; then there exist a(p—1) 
inferior integers g, such that all the numbers 1, 2,...p—1 are, to the mo- 
dulus p, = 1,9,9°, ... g?-? (g?-} is of course ==1); and this being so, g is 
said to be a prime root of »; and moreover the several numbers g*, where a 
is any number whatever less than and prime to p—1, constitute the series of 
the w(p—1) prime roots of p. It may be added thatif 6 be an integer num- 
ber less than p—1, and having with it a greatest common measure =/, so 

eg Lia 
that (ge) * = ge ; =l1, (since! is an integer, and g?-} == 1) then g8 has 


the indicatrix? 


raat the prime roots are those numbers which have the indi- 


eatrix p—1. 
The like theory exists as to any number N of the form p™ or 2p”, 
There are here a(N), =N(1—=) or 2N( 1—*) (in the two cases respec- 
bs 


tively) numbers less than N and prime to it; and we have then a(2(N)) 
numbers g such that to the modulus N all these numbers are =1, g, 9’... 
g2)-1 (ga) is of course = 1); and this being so, g may be regarded as 
a prime root of N (=p or 2p” as the case may be); and moreover the several 
numbers g*, where a is any number whatever less than and prime to a(N), 
constitute the series of the a (=(N)) prime roots of N. Thus N=3?=9, 
a(N)=6; we have 
il ieee ee OF 
oes by Biel 4y -8y,.7;-- Sn mod, 9's 
or prime roots are 2' and 2’, =2 and 5. 
So also N=2.3°=18, a(N)=6; we have 
1, oO. , we OF? O° 
=1, 5, 7, 17, 13,11 mod. 18; 
and 5! and 5°, =5 and 11 are the prime roots of 18. 


18. A small table of prime roots, p=3 to 37, is given 

Euler, Op. Arith. Coll. t.i. pp. 525-526. The Memoir is entitled 
-“Demonstrationes circa residua e divisione potestatum per numeros primos 
resultantia,” pp. 516-537 (1772). 

19. A table, p and p”, 3 to 97, is given 

Gauss, ‘ Disquisitiones Arithmetice,’ 1801 (Werke, t. i. p. 468). This 


314 REPORT—1875. 


gives in each case a prime root, and it shows the exponents in regard thereto 
of the several prime numbers less than p or p”. Thus a specimen is 


Bc Ble Oe A + dy koe Laie peng ca smente 


| 2 
| 10 
viz. for 27 we have 2 a prime root, and 2= 2', 5 ==2°, 7= 2", 11 = 2". 
&c.; and so also for 29 we have 10 a prime root and 2== 10", 310”, 
5=10", &e. 

20. Small tables are probably to be found in many other places; but the 
most extensive and convenient table is Jacobi’s ‘ Canon Arithmeticus,’ the 
complete title of which is 

‘Canon Arithmeticus sive tabula quibus exhibentur pro singulis numeris 
primis vel primorum potestatibus infra 1000 numeri ad datos indices et 
indices ad datos numeros pertinentes,’ Edidit C. G. J. Jacobi. Berolini, 
1839. 4°. 

The contents are as follows :— Page 
eeroamcare PP 9 2) PAGS) TR Dat, Sa RP i to xl 
Tabule numerorum ad indices datos pertinentium et indicum ~~ 

numero dato correspondentium pro modulis primis minoribus 

EEUU ods nt sho ng ane ine fe nips Ales oon ate Se eee 1-221 
Tabule residuorum et indicum sibi mutuo respondentium pro 

modulis minoribus quam 1000 qui sunt numerorum pri- 


27 
29 


LO, be 6 lS) 285 St a aarien 
11 OF AS. 20. 2a 2 eee 


chor potesbates ii hdl ao cata vye a atitas. Gla ay Oe 222-238 
Hujus tabula ea pars que pertinet ad modulos forme 2”, inve- 
BEI EDE coset SO ROT ea ae gp RRC ITO oreo Se, opie cro 239-240 


The following is a specimen of the principal tables :— 
p=l19, p—1=2.3*. 


Numeri. 


0 ee a ee, |e ee 


15 | 10 


where the first table gives the values of the powers of the prime root 10 (that 
10 is the root appears by its index being given as =1) to the modulus 19, 
viz. 10' == 10, 10?== 5, 10°= 12, &c.; and the second table gives the index 
of the power to which the same prime root must be raised in order that it 
may be to the modulus 19 congruent with a given number, thus 10° =1, 
10” — 2, 10° = 3, &c. The units of the index or number, as the case may 
be, are contained in the top line of the table, and the tens or hundreds and 
tens in the left-hand column, 


1S 5) ey | Sant ELS |e 4 
14) eG 3 | 18 44 


ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 315 


21. There is given, 
Jacobi, Crelle, t. xxx. pp. 181, 182, a table of m’' for the argument m, 
such that 
l+g"=9" (mod. p.), p=7 to 103, and m=0 to 102. 


A specimen is 


Pree it tee ee haere at 87... to 108 
Bs 2 6 MOMIOT ie to Tyo 5 

mM 

“a 2) ge mu or, gd Sd 


for instance, p=19, 1+10"==10" (mod. 19). 

Jacobi remarks that this table was calculated for him by his class during 
the winter course of 1836-37; and that, by means of the since-published 
‘ Canon Arithmeticus,’ the same might easily be extended to all primes under 
1000. In fact for any such number p, putting any number of the table 
“‘ Indices” =m, the next following number of the table gives the value of m’. 

22. We have next in Reuschle’s Memoir (ante, No. 15) the following 
relating to prime roots 

C. Tafeln fiir primitive Wurzeln und Hauptexponenten, oder V. erweiterte 
und bereicherte Burkhardtsche Tafel, pp. 41-61, being divided into three 
parts; viz. these are 

a. Table of the Hauptexponenten of the six roots 10, 5, 2, 6, 3, 7 for all 
prime numbers of the first 1000, together with the least primitive root of 
each of these numbers (pp, 42-46). 

A specimen is as follows :— 

10 5 2 6 3 Gate 
— oe ne — nme no 
p p-lenenenenenen 
Bo 2 15-19 4°52 1 52) 1. 26 2° 52'T 26 2 8 


where ¢ is the Haupt-exponent or indicatrix of the root (10, 5, 2, 6, 3, 7, as 


the case may be), rae et 


, w the least primitive root ; thus 


p=53, 10%=1, 5°=1, 2°=1 
(2 being accordingly the least prime root), 
lp 3° f 720], 


The number w of the last column is the least primitive root; it is, of course, 
not always (as in the present case) one of the numbers 10, 5, 2, 6, 3, 7 to 
which the table relates: the first exception is p=191, w=19, the highest 
value of w being w=21 corresponding to p=409. 

b. The like table for the roots 10 and 2 for all prime numbers from 1000 
to 5000, together with as convenient as possible a prime root (and in some 
cases two prime roots) for each such number (pp. 47-53). 

A specimen is :— 


10 2 
a it 
p p-l en en w 


1289 2°.7.23 9214 1618 6,11 


viz. here mod. 1289, 10°==1, 2"'==1; and two prime roots are 6, 11. We 
have thus by the present tables a prime root for eyery prime number not 
exceeding 5000, 


316 REPORT—1875. 


c. The like table for the root 10 for all prime numbers between 5000 and 
15000 (no column for w, nor any prime root given), pp. 53-61. 
A specimen is 
Pp p—l e' mn 
9859 2.3.31.53 3286 3 


viz. mod. 9859 we have 10°°°==1. But in a large number of cases we havo 
n=1, and therefore 10 a prime root. For example, 


9887 2.4983 9886 1. : 


23. For a composite number n, if N=(n) be the number of integers less 
than » and prime to it, than if w be any number less than n and prime to 
it, we have w%==1 (mod. n). But we have in this case no analogue of a 
prime root—there is no number «, such that its several powers v1, w*,... 
wX— (mod. n) are all different from unity; or, what is the same thing, there 
is for each value of « some submultiple of N, say N’, such that wN’==1 
(mod. 7). And these several numbers N’ have a least common multiple I, 
which is not =N, but is a submultiple of N ; and this being so, then for all 
the several values of w, I is said to be the maximum indicator. For instance, 
n=12, N=a(n); the numbers less than 12 and prime to it are 1, 5, 7, 11. 
We have (mod. 12) 1’==1, 5°=1, 7’°=1, 11°=1, or the values of N' are 1, 
2,2, 2; their least common multiple is 2, and we have accordingly I=2: 
viz. #°==1 (mod. 12) has the w(12) roots 1, 5, 7,11. So n=24, a(n)=8; 
the maximum indicator I is in this case also =2. 

A table of the maximum indicator n=1 to 1000 is given 

Cauchy, Exer. d’Analyse &c. t. ii. (1841), pp. 36-40, contained in the 
*‘ Mémoire sur la résolution des équations indeterminées du premier degré en 
nombres entiers,” pp. 1-40. 

24, It thus appears that for a composite number n, the a(n) numbers less 
than » and prime to it cannot be expressed as == (mod. n) to the power of a 
single root; but for the expression of them it is necessary to employ two 
or more roots. A small table, n=1 to 50, is given 

Cayley, Specimen Table M=a*b? (mod. N) for any prime or composite 
modulus ; Quart. Math. Journ. t. ix. (1867), pp. 95, 96, and folding sheet. 

A specimen is 


Nos. 12 
roots | 5,7 
inidine| "2.2 
M.I. 2 
“aap ele 
Tto.G 
2 
3 
4 
5 1,0 
6 
vi 0,1 
8 
9 
10 
Lg st esl 


ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 317 


viz. for the modulus 12 the roots are 5, 7, having respectively the indicators 
2, 2, viz. 5°=1 (mod. 12), 7°==1 (mod. 12). Hence also the maximum indi- 
cator is =2. $(=a(n))=4 is the number of integers less than 12 and prime 
to it, viz. these are 1,5, 7, 11, which in terms of the roots 5, 7 and to mod. 12 
are respectively = = 5°, 7, 547 7, ey eer 5 cer ae 

25. Quadratic Residues. ik regard to a given prime number p, 2 number 
N is or is not a quadratic residue according as the index of N is even or odd, 
viz. g being a prime root and N=’, then according as a is even or odd. 
But the quadratic residues can, of course, be obtained directly without the 
consideration of prime roots. 

A small table, p=3 to 97 and N=—1 and (prime values) 3 to 97, is given 

Gauss, Disquisitiones Arithmetic, 1801; Table II. (Werke, t. i. p. 469): 
I notice here a misprint in the top line; it should be —1, +2, +3, &e., 
instead of 1, +2, +3, &c.; the —1 is printed correctly in p. 499 of the 
French translation ‘ Recherches Arithmétiques,’ Paris, 1807. 

A specimen is 


+23) &e. 


+17; +19 


+5 


| | — | —— | —_—_ 


viz. —1, 2, 3, 13 are not, 5, 7, 11, 17 &c. are residues of 19. The residues 
taken positively and less than 19 are, in fact, 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 11, 16, 17. 

The same table carried from p=3 to 503, and prime values N=3 to 997, 
is given 

Gauss, Werke, t. ii. pp. 400-409. Specimen is 


lod 


( 


2 


11 


19 


viz. the arrangement is the same, except only that the —1 column is omitted. 

26. We have also by Gauss 

Table III. Disquisitiones Arithmetice (Werke, t. i. p. 470), for the con- 
version into decimals of a vulgar fraction, denominator p or p", not exceeding 
100. ‘The explanation is given in art. 314 et seq. of the same work. 

But this table, carried to a greater extent, is given by Gauss, Werke, 
t. ii. pp. 412-434, “ Tafel zur Verwandlung gemeiner Briiche mit Nennern aus 
dem ersten Tausend in Decimalbriiche ;” viz. the denominators are here 
primes or powers of primes, p” up to 997. 

To explain the table, consider a modulus p” (where » may be =1); 
if 10 is not a prime root of p”, consider a prime root 7, which is such that 
v°10= (mod. p"), e being a submultiple of p*-'(p—1); say we have 


ef=p"—(p—1), then 10/==1 (mod. p“), Consider any fraction si then 
pe 


we may write N=7*"*' (mod. p”) & from 0 to f—1, and 7 from 0 to e—1, 


yal 
=10*7", and consequently » and - have the same mantissa (decimal part 
regarded as an integer); hence, in order to know the mantissa of every frac- 


AN, Go. ‘ ; : 4 
tion whatever of pe it is sufficient to know the mantissa of = that is the 


318 REPORT—1875. 


22 e—1 
Sergi bee oe or, what is the same thing, the mantisse of 


, f 1 
mantisse o yp p 
LO LOR eS ee 
iy, le cieaille gil 
"For instance, p“=11, 10°=1 (mod. 11), whence f=2, e=5; and taking 
r=2, we have 10==r’ (mod. 11). 
The required mantisse, denoted in the table by 


oO @ @ ® ©® 
Bee dus Oe 10 10.2 10.2? 10.2% 10.2! 
a widdiy?: 1495 2m ddl: Rhee 
viz. these fractions are respectively = 
(0) Q) (2) (3) (4) 
9090 .., 1°8181 .., 3°6363 .., 7-2727 .., 14:5464..; 


or their mantisse are 90, 81, 63, 27, 54. 
And we accordingly have as a specimen 


11 | (1)..81 (2)..63 (8)...27° (4)..54. (0)90. 


Or again, as another specimen, 7=2 :— 
27 | @).--740 (2)..481 (3)..962 (4)..925 (5)..851 (0)..870. 


The table in this form extends to p"=463; the values of + (not given in 
the body of the table) are annexed, p. 420. 
In the latter part of the table p"=467 to 997, we have only the mantisse 
100 : : 
of —-. A specimen is 
1828153564 8994515539 3053016453 3820840950 
6398537477 1480804387 5685557586 8372943327 
2394881170 0182815356, 


547 


viz. the fraction ayo '182815 ....has a period of 91, =1546, figures. 


Art. 3. [F. 18. Zhe Pellian Equation. | 


27. The Pellian equation is y’=aa*+1, a being a given integer number, 
which is not a square (or rather, if it be, the solution is only y=1, #=0), 
and w, y being numbers to be determined: what is required is the least values 
of , y, since these, being known, all other values can be found. A small 
table a=2 to 68 is given. 

Euler, Op. Arith. Coll. t. i. p. 8. The Memoir is “Solutio problematum 
Diophanteorum per numeros integros,” pp. 4-10, 1732-33. The form of the 
table is 


a «=p) wW=9 
3 


2 2 
3 1 2 
5 4 9 
68 4 33. 


ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 319 


Even here, for some of the values of a, the values of w, 7 are extremely large ; 
thus a=61, v= 226,153,980, y=1,766,399,049. 

And probably tables of a like extent may be found elsewhere ; in particular 
a table of the solution of y?=aa*+1(— when the value of a is such that 
there is a solution of y’=aa*—1, and + for other values of a), a=2 to 135. 
is given, Legendre, ‘ Théorie des Nombres,’ 2nd ed. 1808, in the Table eX: 
(one page) at the end of the work. For the before-mentioned number 61 
the equation is y?=61 «*—1, and the values are <=3805, y=29718 ; much 
smaller than Euler’s values for the equation y°=61 «+1. 

28. The most extensive table, however, is 

Degen, “Canon Pellianus, sive Tabula simplicissimam equationis celebra- 
tissime: y’=av* + 1, solutionem, pro singulis numeri dati valoribus ab 1 usque 
ad 1000 in numeris rationalibus, iisdemque integris exhibens.” Auctore 
Carolo Ferdinando Degen. Hafn (Copenhagen) apud Gerhardum Bonnarum, 
1817. 8vo, pp. iv to xxiv and 1 to 112. 

The first table (pp. 3-106) is entitled as “Tabula I. Solutionem Equationis 
y°—ax*—1=0 exhibens.” It in fact also gives the expression of Va asa 
continued fraction ; thus a specimen is 


14.265 38 (2) 
209/77 18 5 8 ii 
3290 
46551 


Here the first line gives the continued fraction, viz. 

ee ee ee 
5+3+2434+5+2+28+2+ &e., 

the period being (2, 5, 3, 2, 3, 5, 2) indicated by 2, 5, 3(2). [The number 


of terms in the period is here odd, but it may be even; for instance, the 
period (1, 1, 5, 5, 1, 1) is indicated by 1, 1 (5, 5)]. 


The second line contains auxiliary numbers presenting themselves in the 


dani: 1 
V209=144+5 4 


process; thus R°=239 we have R= q4b.F 
a 
1). ier 14) | Bid 8 


sy gh a 
Oe Adtio apheagy: R412 125.4 
asp Sis BP 
eee: BBB = Basis) a 
i or ay 

&e., 


where the second line 1, 13, 5 ... shows the numerical factors of the third 
column. The value of this second line as a result is not very obvious. 

The third line gives w, and the fourth line y. 

29. The second table, pp. 109-112, is entitled “ Tabula II. Solutionem 
equationis y*—aa+1=0 quotiescunque valor ipsius a talem admiserat, ex- 
hibens;” viz. it is remarked that this is only possible (but see infra) for. those 


320 REPORT—1875. 


values of a which in Table I. correspond to a period of an even number of terms, 
as shown by two equal numbers in brackets; thus a=18, the period of / 13 
given in Table I. is (1, 1, 1, 1) as shown by the top line 3, 1 (1, 1), and ac- 
cordingly 13 is one of the numbers in Table IJ.; and we have there 


13 fee or take another specimen, 241 Petiog: 


viz. the first line gives the value of a, and the second line the value of y 
(least values), for which y*—av*=—1. 

It is to be noticed that a=2 and a=5, for which we have obviously the 
solutions (w=1, y=1) and (w=1, y=2) respectively, are exceptional numbers 
not satisfying the test above referred to; and (apparently for this reason) the 
values in question, 2 and 5, are omitted from the table. 

30. Cayley, ‘Table des plus petites solutions impaires de l’équation 
x’? — Dy? = +4, D=5 (mod. 8).” Crelle, t. iti. (1857), page 371 (one page). 

It is, as regards the theory of quadratic forms, important to know whether 
for a given value of D(=5, mod. 8) there does or does not exist a solution in 
odd numbers of the equation, 2*— _Dy’=4. As remarked in the paper, “ Note 
sur ’équation v —Dy’= +4, D==5 (mod. 8),” pp. 369-371, this can be deter- 
mined for values of D of the form in question up to D=997 by means of 
Degen’s Table; and the solutions, when they exist, of the equation a* —Dy’=4, 
as also of the equation «*—Dy’=—4, obtained up to the same value of D. 
Observe that when the equation «*—Dy’=W—4 is possible, the equation 
« — Dy’=4 is also possible, and that its least solution is obtained very readily 
from that of the other equation; it is therefore sufficient to tabulate the 
solution of «*—Dy’= +4, the sign being — when the corresponding equa- 
tion is possible, and being in other cases +. Hence the form of the Table, 
viz. as a specimen we have 


D | zy! sale 
757 imposs. 
765| +] 83/3 
773 | — | 1389] 5 
781 imposs. 


that is, D=757 or 781, there is no solution of either a°—Dy’=+4 or =—4; 
D=765, there is a solution v=83, y=3 of «*—Dy’=+4, but none of 
#—Dy’=—4; D=7738, there is a solution v==139, y=5 of a —Dy’= —4, 
and therefore also a solution of «*—Dy’=-+4; and so in other cases. 


Art, 4. [F.14. Partitions.] 


31. The problem of Partitions is closely connected with that of Derivations. 
Thus if it be asked in how many ways can the number be expressed as a 
sum of three parts, the parts being 0, 1, 2, 3, and each part being repeat- 
able an indefinite number of times, it is clear that n is at most =9, and that 
for the values of m, =0,1...9 shown by the top line of the annexed table, 
the number of partitions has the values shown by the bottom line thereof :— 


ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 321 


0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 


Pie | att | epee (eS nae ee | a 
| | ab? abe ac vd bed ed | 


b° b°¢ be* ce 
1 1 2 3 3 3 3 2 1 1 


But taking a, b, c, d to stand for 0, 1, 2, 3 respectively, the actual partitions 
of the required form are exhibited by the literal terms of the table (these 
being obtained, each column from the preceding one, by the method of deri- 
vations, or say by the rule of the last and last but one), and the numbers 
of the bottom line are simply the number of terms in the several columns 
respectively. 

32. Aset of such literal tables, say of tables ( Gale et Abi for different 

2 » SAY =0,1,2...m/ ’ 

values of and m (where the number of letters is =m-+1), would be ex- 
tremely interesting and valuable. The tables for a given value of m and for 
different values of 7 are, it is clear, the proper foundation of the theory of 
the binary quantic (a,6,¢...k XL w,1)", which corresponds to such value 
of m. Prof. Cayley regrets that he has not in his covariant tables given in 
every case the complete series of literal terms (viz. the literal terms which 
have zero coefficients are, for the most part, though not always, omitted in 
the expressions of the several covariants). 

33. But the question at present is as to the nwmber of terms in a column, that 
is, as to the number of the partitions of a given form: the analytical theory 
has been investigated by Euler and others. The expression for the number 
of partitions is usually obtained as = coefficient of «” in the development, in 
ascending powers of w, of a given rational function of x: for instance, if there 
is no limitation as to the number of the parts, but if the parts are 1, 2, 3, m 
(viz. a part may have any value not exceeding m), each part being repeatable 
an indefinite number of times, then 
ii 


(1—«a)(1—2"*) al —w*) ice (1 —gmy 


Number of partitions of n= coefficient «” in 


md we can, by actual development, obtain for any given values of m, n the 
aumber of partitions. : 

These have been tabulated m=1, 2, ... 20, and m=o (viz. there is in 
his case no limit as to the largest part), and »=1 to 59, 

Euler, Op. Arith. Coll. t. i. pp. 97-101 (given in the paper “ De Partitione 
Yumerorum,” pp. 73-101, 1750); heading is “ Tabula indicans quot variis 
nodis numerus » e numeris 1, 2, 3, 4 ...m per additionem exhibi potest, 
eu exhibens valores formule »).” The successive lines are, in fact, the 
‘efficients of the several powers w°, v’.. v° in the expansions of the functions 


1 1 1 


fae tee a Be weed Sak nde 


34. The generating function for any given value of i is, it is clear, = ——— 
§ ys 8; a | 


— an 
nto that for the next preceding value of m, and it thus appears how each 
ine of the table is calculated from that which precedes it. The auxiliary 
vumbers are printed ; thus a specimen is 

1875, ¥ 


822 REPORT—1875. 


Valores numeri n. 


me VON Led 2 BR A a Pe OL) eh 
ey oh je ey | tea ery 99 
AY Lod 2 8 be.) Cl 8 3) i) es ee 
. - : - Aj: 4) 2 4 eae ew 
in 4. 1 | 2)3 ) 5 | 7 | 10) 13) 18 | 28) 30 


viz. suppose the numbers in the second 4-line known: then simply moying 
these each five steps onward we have the (auxiliary) numbers of the first 
5-line; and thence by a mere addition the required series of numbers shown 
by the second 5-line. And similarly from this is obtained the second 6-line, 
and so on. 

35. More extensive tables are contained in the memoir 

Marsano, “ Sulle legge delle derivate generale delle funzione di funzione 
et sulla teoria delle forme di partizione dei numeri intieri,” (4°, Genova, 1870), 
pp. 1-281; a three tables paged separately, described merely as “ Tayoli 
dei nureri C,,, 8, ., 8’. citate nel testo colle indicazioni di Tavole I., II., III., 
ai ni 77, 79, 81;” viz. the reader is referred to these articles for the ex- 
planations of what the tabulated functions are; and there is not even then 
any explicit statement, but the investigation itself has to be studied to make 
out what the tables are. It is, in fact, easier to make this out from the 
tables themselves ; the explanation is as follows :— 

Table I. (16 pages) is, in fact, Euler’s table, showing in how many ways 
the number ” can be made up with the parts 1, 2,3 ...m; but the extent 
is greater, viz. n is from 1 to 103, and m from 1 to 102. The auxiliary 
numbers given in Euler’s table are omitted, as also certain numbers which 
occur in each successive line ; thus a specimen is 


9 i By Bike i ie Ce ihaBian Mer wpdoe hice ee 
Coat tpt Os ad De SO | oO Te aaa ee 
git) Ta) 2) te 
Gy =P Pe he eT sya age ae 
Go eaters Pe en 9 aa (ee ae 
&e. 


where the line C,,,, (ways of making up with the parts 1, 2, 3, 4) is 1, 1, 
2, 3, 5, 6, 9, 11, 15, 18, &e., viz. we read from the corner diagonally down- 
wards as far as the 5, ‘and then horizontally along the line: this saves a 
large number of figures, The table is printed in ordinary quarto pages, 
which are taken to come in in tiers of seven, five, and three pages one under 
the other, as shown by a prefixed diagram; and the necessity of a large 
folding plate i is thus avoided. 

The successive lines give, in fact, the coefficients in the expansions of 

1 1 1 1 

l—2 l—#.1l—2” l—@ la Sa Lae le i, ae 

each expanded as far as v'”’ 


ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 823 


Table II. (6 pages). The successive lines give the coefficients in the ex- 
pansions of 


g S NS SS) 
7 ey ee ee a 
where NS) 4 MY) phads ink; 


~ (Iai =a (=a) 
each expanded as far as «**, and further continued as regards the first ten 
lines, that is, the expansions of 


cc ete tectalynlgh elt Do, on caters 
7 1—2’ 1l—#.1—2@""" 1—2#.1-2"....1-—2” 
each as far as wv’. 
Table III. (2 pages). The successive lines give the coefficients in the ex- 
pansions of 


?1—a@ 1—a@ 1a? '* 1—2.1—2?... 1 = 2” 
each expanded as far as wv”. 

36. As regards Tables II. and III., the analytical explanations have been 
given in the first instance ; but it is easy to see that the tables give numbers 


of partitions. Thus in table II. the second line gives the coefficients in the 
development of 1 


(l—a)(i—a)\1—2")....’ 
viz. these are 1, 2, 4, 7, 12, 19, 30...., being the number of ways in which 
the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. respectively can be made up with the parts 
1, 1’, 2, 3, 4, &ce.; thus 
Partitions. No.= 


1 1 2 
qf 
2 2 4 
Ht 
d Tal 
fsa? 
3 3 fA 
+ | 
21 
a 
1 Ty! 
GST! ot 
at: Vs I! 
&e. &e. 


and similarly the third line shows the number of ways in which these 
numbers respectively can be made up with the parts 1, 1’, 2, 2', 3, 4, 5, &e ; 
the fourth line with the parts 1, 1', 2, 2’, 3, 3', 4, 5, &.; and so on. 

And in like manner in Table III. the first line shows the number of ways 
when the parts are 1, 1’, 2, 2', 3, 3’....; the second line when they are 
1, 1’, 1", 2, 2,3, 3'....3 the third when they are 1, 1’, 1”, 2, 2 2", 3, 3, 
&c.; and so on. 

x¥2 


B24 REPORT—1875. 


It is clear that the series of tables might be continued indefinitely, viz. 
there might be a table IV. giving the developments of 
S$? s° 
3 
8°, rp as and so on. 

An interesting table would be one composed of the first lines of the above 
series, viz. a table giving in its successive lines the developments of §, 8’, 8’, 
S*, &c. 

There are throughout the work a large number of numerical results given 
in a quasi-tabular form; but the collection of these, with independent expla- 
nations of the significations of the tabulated numbers, would be a task of 
considerable labour. 


Art. 5, [F.15. Quadratic forms a?+b* &e., and Partitions of Numbers into 
squares, cubes, and biquadrates. | 

37. The forms here referred to present themselves in the various complex 
theories, thus N=a’+b*, =(a+bi)(a—bc); this means that in the theory 
of the complex numbers a+ i (a and 6 integers) N is not a prime, but a 
composite number. It is well known that an ordinary prime number = 3, 
mod. 4, is not expressible as a sum a+”, being, in fact, a prime in the 
complex theory as well as in the ordinary one, but that an ordinary prime 
number = 1, mod. 4, is (in one way only) =a*+5°; so that it is in the 
complex theory a composite number. A number whose prime factors are 
each of them = 1, mod. 4, or which contains, if at all, an eyen number of 
times any prime factor = 3, mod. 4, can be expressed in a variety of ways 
in the form a°+0°; but these are all easily deducible from the expressions 
in the form in question of its several factors = 1, mod. 4, so that the re- 
quired table is a table of the form p=a’*+0’, p an ordinary prime number 
= 1, mod. 4: a and é are one of them odd, the other even; and to render 
the decomposition definite a is taken to be odd. 

p=a +b’; viz. decomposition of the primes of the form 4n+1 into the 
sum of two squares, a table extending from p=5 to 11981 (calculated by 
Zornow) is given 

Jacobi, Crelle, t. xxx. (1846), pp. 174-176. 

This is carried by Reuschle, as presently mentioned, up to p= 24917. 
Reuschle notices that 2713=3°+ 52? is omitted, also 6997=39°+74’, and 
that 8609 should be =47?+ 80°. 

38. Similarly primes of the form 6x+1 are expressible in the form 
p=a’+3b*. (Observe that w being an imaginary cube root of unity, this 
is connected with p'’=(a-+ bw) (a+ bw’), =a’ —ab+b’, viz. we have 
4p'=(2a—b)’+3b°; or the form a+ 30° is connected with the theory of the 
complex numbers composed .of the cube roots of unity.) 

p= +3b°; viz. decomposition of the primes of the form 6n+1 into the 
form a’+3b°. A table extending from p=7 to 12007 (calculated also by 
Zornow) is given 

Jacobi, Crelle, t. xxx. (1846), ut supra, pp. 177-179. 

This is carried by Reuschle up to p= 13369, and for certain higher num- 
bers up 49999, as presently mentioned. Reuschle observes that 6427 = 80° 
+3.3° is by accident omitted, and that 6481 should be =41°+3.40*. 

39. Again, primes of the form 8x-+ 1 are expressible in the form p=a’*-+ 20° 
(or say =c’+2d”), the theory being connected with that of the complex 
‘numbers composed with the 8th roots of unity (fourth root of —1, ae 


Ve 


el ee 


ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES, 325 


p=eO+2d; viz. decomposition of primes of the form 8x+ 1 into the form 
+20, A table extending from p=16 to 5943 (extracted from a MB. table 
calculated by Struve) is given 

Jacobi, Crelle, t. xxx. (1846), wt supra, p. 180. 

This is carried by Reuschle up to p=12377, and for certain higher num~ 
bers up to 24889, as presently mentioned. 
_ 40. Reuschle’s tables of the forms in question are contained in the work :— 

Reuschle, ‘Mathematische Abhandlung &c.’ (sce ante No. 15), under 
the heading “B. Tafeln zur Zerlegung der Primzahlen in Quadrate ” 
(pp. 22-41), They are as follows :— 

Table III. for the primes 6x+ 1. 

First part gives p= A*+3B° and 4p=L*+ 27M’, from p=7 to 574 

Table gives A, B, L, M; and those numbers which have 10 for a wet 
residue are distinguished by an asterisk. 


p A B L M. 
EG aes 2 hae 


viz. 87=5°4+3.2?, 148=11?4+27.1°; and asterisk shows. that «®=4+10 
(mod. 37) is possible [in fact 34°=10 (mod. 37). 

Second part gives p= A°+3B? only, from p=5749 to 13669. 

Table gives A, B and asterisk as before. 

Third part gives p=A°+3B’, but only for those values of » which have 
10 for a cubic residue (viz. for which w*==10 (mod. p) is possible), from 
p=13689 to 49999. 

Table gives A, B; asterisk, as being unnecessary, is not inserted. 

Table IV. for the primes 4n+1 in the form A’+B’, and for those which 
are also 8n+1 i in the form C’?+ 2D". 

First part gives p=A*+ B*, =C*+2D", from p=5 to 12377. 

Table gives A, B,C, D; and those numbers which have 10 for a bitniadlne atic 
residue (x* nei (mod. Pp) possible) are distinguished by an asterisk; those 
which have also 10 for an octic residue (a "10 (mod. p) possible) by a ouble 
asterisk. 


A specimen is 


P A B C D 
229 1 a —- — 
233 13 8 15 2 
241** 15 4 13 6 


Second part gives p=A°+B’, from p=12401 to 24917 for all those values 
of p which have 10 for a biquadratic residue («*==10 (mod. p) possible). 
Table gives A, B; and those values of p which have 10 for an octic resi- 


A specimen is 


due, w°==10 (mod. p) possible, are distinguished by an asterisk. 


Third part gives p=C*+ 2D”, from p=12641 to 24889 for all those values 
of p which havo 10 for a biquadratic residue. 

Table gives C, D; and those values of p which have 10 as an octic residue 
are distinguished by an asterisk. 

41. A table by Zornow, Crelle, t. xiv. 1835, pp. 279, 280 (belong to Me- 
moir ‘ De Compositione numerorum e Cubis integris positivis, pp. 276-280), 
shows for the numbers 1 to 3000 the least number of cubes into which each 
of these numbers can be decomposed. Waring gave, without demonstration, 


the theorem that every number can be expressed as the sum of at most 


9 cubes. The present table seems to show that 23 is the only number for 
which the number of cubes is =9 (=2.2°+7.1°%); that there are only 
fourteen numbers for which the number of cubes is =8, the largest of these 


3826 REPORT—1875. 


being 454; and hence that every number greater than 454 can be expressed 
as asum of at most 7 cubes; and further, that every number greater than 
2183 can be expressed as a sum of at most 6 cubes. A small subsidiary 
table (p. 276) shows that the number of numbers requiring 6 cubes gradually 
diminishes—z. g. between 12* and 13% there are seventy-five such numbers, 
but between 13* and 14% only sixty-four such numbers; and the author 
conjectures “that for numbers beyond a certain limit every number can be 
expressed as a sum of at most 5 cubes.” é 

42, For the decomposition of a number into biquadrates we hav 

Bretschneider, “Tafeln fiir die Zerlegung der Zahlen bis 4100 in Bi- 
quadrate.”’ Crelle, t. xlvi. (1853), pp. 3-23. 

Table I. gives the decompositions, thus :— 

N | i he aia hat AS 


696 


6 i.2 2 
oe OL 
O's, 5 


viz. 696=6.1*+1.2'4+2.3'+2.4', &e. 

And Table II. enumerates the numbers which are sums of at least 2, 3, 4 
....19 biquadrates; and there is at the end a summary showing for 
the first 4100 numbers how many numbers there are of these several 
forms respectively: 28 numbers are each of them a sum of 2 biquadrates, 
75 a sum of 3, .... 7 a sum of 19 biquadrates. The seven numbers, each of 
them a sum of 19 biquadrates, are 79, 159, 239, 319, 399, 479, 559. 


Art. 6. [F.16. Binary, Ternary, $c. quadratic and higher forms.] 


43. Euler worked with the quadratic forms ax*+cy’ (p and q integers), 
particularly in regard to the forms of the divisors of such numbers. It will 
be sufficient to refer to his memoir :— 

Euler, “ Theoremata circa divisores numerorum in hic forma pa* +b? con- 
tentorum ” (Op. Arith. Coll. pp. 35-61, 1744), containing fifty-nine theorems, 
exhibiting in a quasi-tabular form the linear forms of the divisors of such 
numbers. As a specimen :— 

“‘Theorema 13. Numerorum in hac forma a?+76 b? contentorum divisores 
primi omnes sunt vel 2, vel 7, vel in una sex formularum 


28m+1, 28m+11, 

28m +25, 28m -;- 23, 
seu in una harum trium 14m+1, 
14m-+9, 
14m+11 


sunt contenti;” viz. the forms are the three 14m+1, 14m+9, 14m+11. 
But Euler did not consider, or if at all very slightly, the trinomial forms 
ax’ +bxey+cy”, nor attempt the theory of the reduction of such forms. This 
was first done by Lagrange in the memoir 7 
Lagrange, ‘ Mém. de Berlin,’ 1773. And the theory is reproduced 
Legendre, ‘Théorie des Nombres.’ Paris, Ist edit. 1798; 2nd edit. 1808, 
§ 8, Reduction de la formule Ly*+ Myz+ Nz* a Vexpression la plus simple” 
(2nd ed. pp. 61-67). 
44, But the classification of quadratic forms, as established by Legendre, is 
defective as not taking account of the distinction between proper and im- 
proper equivalence ; and the ulterior theory as to orders and genera, and the 


ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 327 


composition of forms (although in the mean time established by Gauss), are 
not therein taken into account; for this reason the Legendre’s Tables I. 
to VIII. relating to quadratic forms, given after p. 480 (thirty-two pages not 
numbered), are of comparatively little value, and it is not necessary to refer 
to them in detail. 

The complete theory was established 

Gauss, ‘ Disquisitiones Arithmetice,’ 1801. 

It is convenient to refer also to the following memoir 

Lejeune Dirichlet, “Recherches sur diverses applications de l’Analyse a 
la théorie des Nombres,” Crelle, t. xix. (1839), pp. 338, as giving a succinct 
statement of the principle of classification, and in particular a table of the 
characters of the genera of the properly primitive order, according to the 
four forms D=PS’, P=1 or 3 (mod. 4), and D=2PS*, P==1 or 3 (mod. 4) 
of the determinant. 

45. Tables of quadratic forms arranged on the Gaussian principle are given 

Cayley, Crelle, t. lx. (1862), pp. 357-372; viz. the tables are— 

Table I. des formes quadratiques binaires ayant pour déterminants les 
nombres négatifs depuis D= — jusqu’é D= —100. (Pp. 360-363.) 

A specimen is 


D Classes. Gig | o | e-| dau} Op 
=96| 1, 0,96 Lob a hed 
od; — 1, 8 hor +/¢ 

3, 19) 4+ alee 

Fea ee Gale Eee 

> Ons — : +|g¢ 

5, -2, 6} — —| 9 


where a, (3 denote, as there explained, the characters in regard to the odd 
prime factors of D; 6, e, de those in regard to the numbers 4 and 8. The 
last column shows that the forms in the two genera respectively are 1, 9’, g* 
and g, g°, 9°, where g°=1, viz. the form g six times compounded, gives the 
principal form (1, 0, 26). 

Table II. des formes quadratiques binaires ayant pour déterminants les 
nombres positifs non-carrés depuis D=2 jusqu’é D=99. (Pp. 364-369.) 

The arrangement is the same, except that there is a column “ Périodes” 
showing in an easily understood abbreviated form the period of each form. 
Thus D=7, the period of the principal form (1, 9, —7), is given as 
1, 2, —3, 1, 2,1, —3, 2,1, which represents the series of forms (1, 2, —3), 
(—3, 1, 2) (2, 1, —3), (—3, 2, 1). 

Table III. des formes quadratiques binaires pour les treize déterminants 
négatifs irréguliers du premier millier. (Pp. 370-372.) 

Arrangement the same as in Table I. It may be mentioned that the 
thirteen numbers, and the forms for the principal genus for these numbers, 
respectively are :— 


—D= Principal genus. 
576, 580, 820, 900 (1, &*)(1, 4,7) 
884 (1, (A, #, #4, 2°) 


243, 307, 339, 459, 675, 891 | (1,d,d)(1,d,, d,?) 
755, 974 (1, d, d?)(1, d,, d,2)(1, ). 


828 REPORT—1875. 


where @=d3=1, ¢'=e¢,t=1, i?=1, viz. (1, €)(1,¢,°) denotes four forms, 
1, &, ¢,*, &e,*; and so in the other cases. 

46. Gauss must have computed quadratic forms to an enormous extent; 
but, for the reasons (rather amusing ones) mentioned in a letter of May 17, 
1841, to Schumacher (quoted in Prof. Smith’s Report on “The Theory of 
Numbers,” Brit. Assoc. Report for 1862, p. 526), he did not preserve his re- 
sults in detail, but only in the form appearing in the 

“Tafel der Anzahl der Classen biniirer quadratischer Formen,” Werke, t. ii. 
pp. 451-475 ; see editor’s remarks, pp. 497-499. 

This relates almost entirely to negative determinants, only three quarters 
of p. 475 and p. 476 to positive ones ; viz. for negative determinants it gives 
the number of genera and classes, as also the index of irregularity for the 
determinants of the hundreds 1 to 30, 43, 51, 61, 62, 63, 91 to 100, 117 to 
120; then in a different arrangement for the thousands 1, 3 and 10, for the 
first 800 numbers of the forms —(15x+47) and —(15n+13); also for some 
very large numbers, and for positive determinants of the hundreds 1, 2, 3, 9, 
10, and some others. 

A specimen is Centas I. 

G If. +(63)...52(280) 
th o,. 6° 8 
9, 10, 12 ‘ 

13, 15, 16 
18, 22, 25 
28, 37, 58 
14, 17, 20 
32, &e. 


bo 
. 


~ _ 


Summa 233....477 
Irreg. © Imp. 74 


viz. this shows (as regards the negative determinants 1 to 100) that the 
determinants belonging to G II. 1, viz. those which have two genera each of 
one class, are 5, 6, 8, 9, &c. (in all fifteen determinants) ; those belonging to 
G II. 2, viz. those which have two genera each of two classes, are 14, 17, 20, 
&c., and so on. The head numbers (58) .. (280) show the number of det er- 
minants, each having two genera, and the number of classes ; thus, 


GTi = 5 


2x17= 34 
axXxL7= 51 
4x 6= 24 
5x 2= 10 
6x l= 6 
58 140 
x IT 

= 280 


and the bottom numbers show the total number of genera and of classes, 
thus. 
Gale Wax t= 17, 61 
II. 58x2=116 280 
TV. 25x4=100 136 


100 233 477 


ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 829 


viz. seventeen determinants, each of one genus, and together of sixty-one 
classes ; fifty-eight determinants, each of two genera, and together of 280 
classes ; and twenty-five determinants, each of four genera, and together 136 
classes, give in all 233 gencra and 477 classes: these are exclusive of 74 
classes belonging to the improperly primitive order; and the number of 
irregular determinants (in the first hundred) is =0. 

The irregular determinants are indicated thus :— 


243(*3*) 

307(*3*) 339(*3*) 

459(*) 

576(#2*) 580(#2*) 

675(*3*) 

755(#3*) 

891(*3*) 820(#2*) 900(#2*) S84(#2*) 974(*3*) 
*3* 243, 307, 839, 459?, 675, 755, 891, 
*2* 576, 589, 820, 884, 900, 974, 


which is a notation not easily understood. 
As regards the positive determinants, a specimen is 


Centas I. 
Excedunt determinantis 
quadrati 10. 
ot ee ag Ge) 
9D 5s 1S 
17, 29, 41 
53, 61, 73 
89, 97 

3. 37 


viz. in the first hundred the positive determinants haying one genus of one 
class are 2, 5, 13, &c. ..(eleven in number); that having one genus of three 
classes is 37 (one in number), 11+1=12. The irregular determinants, if 
any, are not distinguished. 

47. Binary cubic forms.—The earliest table is 

Arndt, “ Tabelle der reducirten biniiren kubischen Formen und Klassen 
fiir alle negativen Determinanten —D von D=3 bis D=2000.”  Griinert’s 
Archiv, t. xxxi. 1858, pp. 369-448. 

The memoir is a sequel to one in t. xvii. (1851). The binary cubic form 
(a, b, ¢, d) of determinant —D( = (be—ad)y’ —4(b?—ac)(c’—bd)) is said to be 
reduced when its characteristic ¢, =(A, B,C), = 2(6°— ac), be —ad, 2(c*— bd)) 
is a reduced quadratic form, that is, when in regard to absolute values B is 
not >3A,C not <A. 

A specimen is 


D Reduced forms with characters. Classes. 


44) (0,1,0,—11) (1, —1, —2, 0)} 0, —1,0,11) (0, —2, +1, 1) 


z ’ J > 


Two subsidiary tables are given, pp. 351, 352, and 353-368. 

48. It appeared suitable to remodel a part of this table in the manner made 
use of for quadratic forms in my tables above referred to, and it is eccordingly 
divided into the three tables given 


330 REPORT-—1875. 


Cayley, Quart. Math. Journ. t. xi. (1871), where the notation &c. is 
explained, pp. 251-261; viz. these are :— 

Table I. of the binary cubic forms, the determinants of which are the 
negative numbers = 0 (mod. 4) from —4 to —400 (pp. 251-258). 

A specimen is 

Det. Classes. Order. Charact. Comp. 
A SCA 0 A— et er on) dl One 1 
0, —2, —1, i} m pp 3; ime d 
0,2 2,0 ak, 3,—-1,4 @. 

Table II. of the binary cubic forms the determinants of which (taken 
positively) are == 1 (mod. 4) from —3 to —99 [the original heading is here 
corrected]; and 

Table III. of the binary cubic forms the determinants of which are the 
negative numbers — 972, —1228, —1336, —1836, and — 2700; viz. —972 
=4x —243,....—2700=4x —675, where —243....—675 are the first 
six irregular numbers for quadric forms]. 

4x —675, = —2700 is beyond the limits of Arndt’s tables, and for this 
number the calculation had to be made anew; the table gives nine classes 
(1, d, d*) (1, d,, d,”) of the order zp on pp, but it is remarked that there may 
possibly be other cubic classes based on a non-primitive characteristic ; the 
point was left unascertained. 

49. The theory of ternary quadratic forms was discussed and partially esta- 
blished by Gauss in the ‘ Disquisitiones Arithmetice.’ It is proper to recall 
that a ternary quadratic form is either determinate, viz. always positive, such 
as a°-+y°?+2°, or always negative, such as —a*—y"”—z*; or else it is indeter- 
minate, such as #+y*—z*. But as regards determinate forms, the negative 
ones are derived from the positive ones by simply reversing the signs of all 
the coefficients, so that it is sufficient to attend to the positive forms; and 
the two cases are practically positive forms (meaning thereby positive deter- 
minate forms) and indeterminate forms; but the theory for positive forms 
was first established completely, and so as to enable the formation of tables, in 
the work 

Seeber, ‘ Ueber die Eigenschaften der positiven terniiren quadratischen 

Formen’ (4to, Freiburg, 1831), 
which is reviewed by Gauss in the ‘ Gott. Gelehrten Anzeigen, 1831, July 9 
(see Gauss, Werke, t. ii. pp. 188-193). The author gives (pp. 220-243) tables 
“‘ of the classes of positive ternary forms represented by means of the corre- 
sponding reduced forms” for the determinants 1 to 100. A specimen is 


1, 1, 2 L, 1, 2 
Det. 6 (i 0, at } is ea If OP 
Zugeordnete (8, 8, 3 ty dye 
Formen \0, 0, 8/’- 4, 4, 2p 


where it is to be observed that Seeber admits odd coefficients for the terms 
in y2, 2a, wy; viz. his 
a, b, Cc oO b 2 Pa 2 h 
ia. fj denotes aa*+by’+ cz*+ fyz+gzu+hay, 
and his determinant is 
4abe— af? —bg? —ch’+fgh. 
Also his adjoint form is 


4be—f?, 4ca—g*, 4ab—h’ i __ f2) a2 ‘ite 
ee 2hf —4bg, 2fg —4ch J’ =(4be—f*)a*.... + (2gh—4af)yz+...- 


7 a 


EE 


ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 351 


In the notation of the ‘ Disquisitiones Arithmeticw,’ followed by Eisenstein 
and others, 
4 ; a) denotes ax*+by?+ cz’ + 2fyz+ 2gzx+ 2huy ; 
the determinant is 
= —(abe—af? —bg? — ch’ + 2fgh), 
a positive form having thus always a negative determinant. And the adjoint 
form is 
be—f*, ca—q’, Dior) = pa: a 5 ‘ 
=(Ge hf tended =—(be—f?)x’.... —2(gh—af yz... 
Hence Seeber’s determinant is = — 4 into that of Gauss, and his tables really 
extend between tho values —1 and —25 of the Gaussian determinant. 
50. Tables of greater extent, and in the better form just referred to, are 
given 
Eisenstein, Crelle, . xli. (1851), pp. 169-190 ; viz. these are 
I. “Tabelle der eigentlich primitiven positiven terniiren Formen fiir alle 
negativen Determinanten von —1 bis —100” (pp. 169-185). 
A specimen is 


D | Anzahl. Reducirte Formen fiir — D. 


10 3 i ly ay 1,2, °) pee 3} 
0,0, 0/? \0,0,0/? \O, —1, 0 
5=8 b=4 j=4 
II. “Tabelle der wneigentlich primitiven positiven terniiren Formen fiir 


alle negativen Determinanten von —2 bis — 100” (pp. 186-189). 
A specimen is 


D | Anzahl. | Reducirte Formen fiir —D. 


10 il Ce ae. | 
i iB t) 
d=6. 

And there is given (p. 190) a table of the reduced forms for the determinant 
—385(=—5.7.11) (selected merely as a largish number with three factors) ; 
viz. there are in all fifty-nine forms, corresponding to values 1, 2, 4, 6, 8 of 6. 

It may be remarked that 6 denotes for any given form the number of ways 
in which this is linearly transformable into icself, this number being always 
1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 12, or 24. The theory as to this and other points is explained 
in the memoir (pp. 141-168), and various subsidiary tables are contained 
therein and in the ‘ Anhang’ (pp. 227-242); and there is given a small table 
relating to indeterminate forms, viz. this is 

«(Q, Versuch einer Tabelle der nicht iquivalenten unbestimmten (indif- 
ferenten) terniren quadratischen Formen fiir die Determinanten ohne 
quadratischen Theiler unter 20” (pp. 239, 240). 

A specimen is 


D | Indifferente terniire quadratische Formen. 


| ns, 


10 (° 1, 10 1 a iced 
GT G0, 0 


0, 0, 10 
OO. t 


B32 REPORT—1875. 


where, when the determinant is even, the forms in the second line are 
always improperly primitive forms, 


Art. 7. [F.17. Complea Theories. ] 


51. The theory of binary quadratic forms (a, b, ¢), with complex coefficients 
of the form a+ (i (i= V —1 as usual, a and 6 integers), has been studied by 
Lejeune Dirichlet, Prof. H. J. 8. Smith, and possibly others; but no tables 
have, itis believed, been calculated. The calculations would be laborious; but 
tables of a small extent only would be a sufficient illustration of the theory, 
and would, it is thought, be of great interest. 

The theory of complex numbers of the last-mentioned form a-+ (si, or say of 
the numbers formed with the fourth root of unity, had previously been studied 
by Gauss; and the theory of the numbers formed with the cube roots of unity 
(a+f6w, w +w+1=0, a and 6 integers) was studied by Eisenstein; but 
the general theory of the numbers inyolving the nth roots of unity (nm an odd 
prime) was first studied by Kummer. It will be sufficient to refer to his 
memoir, 

Kummer, “ Zur Theorie der complexen Zahlen,’’ Berl. Monatsb. March 
1845; and Crelle, t. xxxv. (1847), pp. 319-326; also ‘“‘ Ueber die Zer- 
legung der aus Wurzeln der Einheit gebildeten complexen Zahlen in 
ihre Primfactoren,” same volume, pp. 327-367, 

where the astonishing theory of ‘‘ Ideal Complex Numbers” is established. 

52. Itmay be recalled that, p being an odd prime, and p denoting a root of 
the equation p?~'+p?-*....+p+1=0; then the numbers in question are those 
of the form a+ bp ....+p”~*, where (a, b..../) aré integers; or (what is in one 
point of view more, and in another less, general) if », ,.... 7,1 are “ periods” 
composed with the powers of p (e any factor of p—1), then the form con- 
sidered is ay+bn,....+hy,_;. For any value of p or e¢ there is a corre- 
sponding complex theory. A number (real or complex) is in the complex 
theory prime or composite, according as it does not, or does, break up into 
factors of the form under consideration. For p a prime number under 23, 
if in the complex theory N is a prime, then any power of N (to fix the ideas 
say N*) has no other factors than N or N*; but if p=23 (and similarly for 
higher values of p), then N may be such that, for instance, N° has complex 
factors other than N or N* (for p=23, N=47 is the first value of N, viz. 
47° has factors other than 47 and 47°); say N* has a complex prime factor A, 
or we haye 3/ A as an ideal complex factor of N. Observe that by hypo- 
thesis N is not a perfect cube, viz. there is no complex number whose cube 
is =A. In the foregoing general statement, made by way of illustration only, 
all reference to the complex factors of unity is purposely omitted, and the state- 
ment must be understood as being subject to correction on this account. 

What precedes is by way of introduction to the account of Reuschle’s 
Tables (Berliner Monatsberichte, 1859-60), which give in the different com- 
plex theories p=5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29 the complex factors of the 
decomposable real primes up to in some cases 1000. 

It should be remarked that the form of a prime factor is to a certain ex- 
tent indeterminate, as the factor can without injury be modified by affecting 
it with a complex factor of unity; but in the tables the choice of the repre- 
sentative form is made according to definite rules, which are fully explained, 
and which need not be here referred to. 

53. The following synopsis is convenient :— 


a Extent 
% | Form of real | No. of factors 4 
bs prime to in complex er: Equation of periods. 
S&| mod p= theory. primes 
ae under 
1859. | 5 1 Y nek £ 2000 |at+....tat1=0. 
p- 2(not tabula yt+y—1=0. 
438191, 2,3 prime. 
694-697. | 7 7 6 1000 | a....--a+1=0. 
6 3 pt+y—2y—1=0. 
2,4 2 y+y+2=0. 
3, 5 prime 
1860. | 11 1 10 1000 | a... +a4+1=0. 
sop eio4 10 5 y “ty 4p — by? +3y+1 
3,4, 5,9 2 Pry ey 0. 
2, 6,7,8 1 * 
194-199. | 13 1 12 1000 |.) eee 
12 6 PAP EYAL LOPE Y 
3,9 4 y+y3+2y?—4y+3=0. 
5,8 3 ¥+y—4y+1=0. 
4,10 2 y+y—3= 
2, 6, 7, 11 prime 
714-719. | 17 1 16 1000 }al®....4a4+1=0. 
16 8 yy — Ty’ by? +15y" 
+107? —107?—4y+1=0. 
4,13 4 y+y —6y7?+1=0. 
2, 8, 9, 15 2 y+ty—4=0. 
3, 2 6 , Ul, 12, prime 
719-725.2| 19 | 1 18 1000 Ja... 4 a+1=0. 
18 9 Pty By! — Ty 421y* 
Har 9 20y5— 1042+ By 
=0. 
7,11 6 y tp +2y'—8y3 —7? +5y 
8, 12 3 ae an 7=0. 
Be ae eee 
4,5, 6, 9, 13, 17 2 +y+5=0. 
2; 3, 10, 13, 14, prime. alee 
725-729. | 93 1 22 7000, ae" acest 0: 
22 ll yy 10y" — 998+ 36y" 
+:28y" — 56y? —35y" , 
+557? + 157?—6y—1=0. 
‘ i Beets is : i a ara 
?5,7,10,11,14,| prime 
15, 17, 19, 20, 
21 
729-734. | 29 1 28 1000 | a?....-+a-+1=0. 
98 14 yp +ty3—13y2— 12y)! 
+66y9-+55y? —165y3 
—120y7 +-210y° + 126y" 
—126y'—56y? +287" 
as i ie 1=0. 
12, 17 7 ¥ +y°—12y°—Ty" ra 
a) : +147?—9+7+1=0. 
‘, 4 20, 23, 24, 4 ¥Yt+y+4y 430y + 23= 0. 
4, 5, 6, 9, 13, 22 2 yty—-7=0. 


2, 3, 8, 10, 11, prime. 
14, 15, 18, 19, 
an) ? 27 


er ee renee 


304 REPORT—1875, 


The foregoing synopsis of Reuschle’s tables in the ‘ Berliner Monatsberichte’ 
was written previous to the publication of Reuschle’s far more extensive 
work. It is allowed to remain, but some explanations which were given 
have been struck out, and were instead given in reference to the larger work. 

Reuschle, “ Tafeln complexer Primzahlen welche aus Wurzeln der Einheit 
gebildet sind.” Berlin, 4° (1875), pp. iii-vi and 1-667. 

This work (the mass of calculation is perfectly wonderful) relates to the 
roots of unity, the degree being any prime or composite number, as presently 
mentioned, haying all the values up to and a few exceeding 100; viz. the 
work is in five divisions, relating to the cases 


I. (pp. 1-171), degree any odd prime of the first 100, viz. 3, 5, 7, 11, 
13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 
83, °89;'97; 
II. (pp. 173-192), degree the power of an odd prime 9, 25, 27, 49, 81; 
III. (pp. 193-440), degree a product of two or more odd primes or their 
powers, viz. 15, 21, 83, 35, 39, 45, 51, 55, 57, 63, 65, 69, 75, 77, 
85, 87, 91, 93, 95, 99, 105; 
IV. (pp. 441-466), degree an even power of 2, viz. 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128; 
V. (pp. 467-671), degree divisible by 4, viz. 12, 20, 24, 28, 36, 40, 44, 
48, 52, 56, 60, 68, 72, 76, 80, 84, 88, 92, 96, 100, 120; 
the only excluded degrees being those which are the double of an odd prime, 
these, in fact, coming under the case where the degree is the odd prime 
itself. 

It would be somewhat long to explain the specialities which belong to 
degrees of the forms II., IIJ.,1V., V.; and what follows refers only to 
Division I., degree an odd prime. 

For instance, \=7, \— 1=2'3, the factors of 6 are 6, 3, 2,1; and there 
are accordingly four divisions, 


I. a a prime seventh root or root of a’+a°+a*+a°+a4+1=0. 


2— 24 °=247,, & 
Il. n,=a+a7,y,=a?+a~, n,=a°+a7*,0r } % th th Mao ON 
No =| a =F 22 ’ 1:0, = N+ Mo» &e. 


34 7»? 2n—-1=0 
n a root of 7°+7 n sr it it lees 
III. n,=a+a°+a*, n,=a°+a°+a°, or n a root of n°4+n+2=0. 
IV. Real numbers. 


I. p=7m+1. (1) gives for the several prime numbers of this form 29, 43 
..--967 the congruence roots, mod. p; for instance, 


p a a” a® a* a® a’ 
29 — 5 —4 —9 —13 + 7 —6 
43 +11 —8 —2 +21 +16 +4 


this means a==—5 (mod. 29); then a°==25, =— 4, a°=20, = — 9, &c., values 
which satisfy the congruence a*+a°+a*+a*+a’+a+1=0 (mod. 29). 
(2) gives under the simple and the primary form the prime factors f(a) 


of these same numbers 29, 43....967; for instance, 
p f(a) simple. F(a) primary. 
29 a+a’—a? 2+3a —a*+5a° — 2a*+ 4a° 
43 a’+2a° 2a —2a*+4a*— a’ —5a’°. 


The definition of a primary form is a form for which f(a) f(a~')=f(1)° 
mod. \, and f(a)==f(1) mod. (l—a)*. The simple forms are also chosen so 
as to satisfy this Jast condition ; thus f(a)=a+a°—a’, then f(1)—f(a)= 
l-a-—a’+a*=(1—u)( +a), =9 mod. (1—a)’. 


ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 835 


II. p=7m—1. (1) gives for the several prime numbers of this form 13, 
41....937 the congruence roots, mod. p; for instance, 


P No ny Ns 

13 —3 — 6 — 5 

41 4 +14 —11 
and (2) gives under the simple and the primary forms the prime factors f(n) 
of these same numbers 13, 41....937,; for instance, 

p  f(a)simple. —f(») primary. 

13 no +2n, 3+7n, 

41 4+ —11+7n,—7n,: 


Thus 13=(n,+2n,)(n,+2n,)(n,+2n,), 28 is easily verified; the product of 
‘first and second factors is =4+3y,+8n,+5n,, and then multiplying by the 
third factor result is 42+ 29(n,+7,), =13. 

Ill. p=7m-+4+2 or 7m+4. (1) gives for the several prime numbers of this 
form 2, 11, .... 991 the congruence roots, mod. p; for instance, 


iP No n 
2 0 —1 
i) 4 —5 
and (2) gives the primary prime factors f(n) of these same numbers :— 
Pp f(r) 
a No 
11 1—2y,. 
IV. p=7m+3 or 7m+5. The prime numbers of these forms, viz. 3, 5, 
17, 19 .... 997, are primes in the complex theory, and are therefore simply 


enumerated. 

The arrangement is the same for the higher prime numbers A= 23 &c., 
for which ideal factors make their appearance, but it presents itself under a 
more complicatedform. ThusA\=23,\—1=2.11, and the factors of 22 are 
22,11, 2,1. There are thus four sections. 

I. a a prime root, or a”+a™....+a°+a+1=0. 
II. y,=a+a™,....,=a"+a-", or n a root of 
n+n?—107 .... +15n?—6n—1. 

Il. yn, =a+a’, »,=a'+a~’, or n a root of 7’ -+7+6=0. 

IV. Real numbers. 

I. p=23m-+1 gives for the prime numbers of this form 47, 139....967 
congruence roots mod. p and also congruence roots mod. p**; these last 
in the form a+bp+cp*, where a is given in the former table ; thus first 
table :— Pp a a” ne a 

47 6 —11 —19 +8; 
and second table— 
Pp a a’ a? eee A io 
47 +p—2p? +138p—23p? +4+19p—8p* +422n+422p*, 
The meaning is that, p=47, the roots of the congruence 
ap? +a?+....+a°+a+1=0 (mod. 47°) 
are a=6+p—2p’*, a= —11+13p—238p’, &e. 

* Where, as presently appearing, 3 is the index of ideality or power to which the ideal 

factors have to be raised in order to become actual. 


336 REPORT—1875. 


I. (2) then gives f(a) the actual ideal prime factor of these same prime § 
47,139....967; viz. the whole of this portion of the table \= 23, I. (2) is, 
haying actual prime factors, 
p F(a) 
599 a +a*%—a" 
691 a’+a"+a” 
829 a?+a’+a"; 


having ideal factors, their third powers actual, 
P aC) : 
47 a'+a°+a°+a"4+a"%—a%+a” 
1389 1 —a°—a’+a°t+a'tatta’ta%+ta%+a%+a™ 
277 a? —a*—a°®+-a’—a" — a —a" +47 +a” 
AGT ¢ —a’+a?—a®+al!— 2a" 
967 a?—a*—a' 4+ a” +a —2a" +a +a. 
I repeat the explanation, that for the number 47 this means f(a) f(a’).... 
t(a*)=47. 

And the like further complication presents itself in the part III. of the 
same table, \=23 (not, as it happens, in part II., nor of course in the con- 
cluding part IV., which is a mere enumeration of real primes); thus IIT. (1) 
we have congruences (mod. p’), 


p=2, 1=—2, p=3, N= +12, &e.; 
and haying actual prime factors, 


P F(a) 
59-5 —2n, 


LOL 6» Tages 


and having ideal prime factors, their third powers actual, 


P F°() 
rae Hes 
3 1—2n, ; 


as regards these last the signification being 
2?=(1—n,)(1—n,), n+n,= —1, n,n, =6 (as is at once verified), 
= (1—2n,)(1 —2n,); 

but the simple numbers 2, 3 are neither of them of the form (a+bn,)(a+bn,)- 


Conrrents or Report 1875 on MaraematicaL TABLES. 


Page 
$7. Tables F. Arithmological. 

Art. 1. Divisons:and! Prime Numbers -.....:15 .0vseseossseshsvoeseseaeaeessesesecens een 306 
2. Prime Roots; the Canon Arithmeticus &c. .......cccccesescssecceesanscenseceunes 313 
3, DhewPellinm (MQuationy i: 2. cc<es-c00scocusesseses cee scceccrereudeectotneee Eieeaaee 318 
A, Partitions sianteseassay: coho ceae seretatonencoriem ners Seesesadancnen ya enssemeemnas 320 

5, Quadratic forms a?-+-b? &e., and partitions of Numbers into Squares, Cubes, 

and Biquadrates sectors pee sscb-.ccc eee sc sence faaheos «easter iegaewasas 32 

6. Binary, Ternary, &. Quadratic and Kuper Orns \ccceercececeses scares ranteenee 326 
7. Complex Theories ......sessceee0e SB ss9gsn abe eoaete ban cae slevoubegtebens chicane Eiiveeaputepe 


i 
4 
| 


ON MATHEMATICAL NOTATION AND PRINTING. 387 


Report of the Committee, consisting of W. Srorriswoope, F.R.S., 
Professor Sroxrs, F.R.S., Professor Caytry, F.R.S., Professor 
Cuirrorp, F.R.S., and J. W. L. Guaisner, F.R.S., appointed to 
report on Mathematical Notation and Printing, with the view of 
leading Mathematicians to prefer in optional cases such forms as 
are more easily put into type, and of promoting uniformity of 
notation. 


Wirz a view to the questions referred to them for consideration, your Com- 
mittee have made inquiries into the nature and processes of mathematical 
printing, and the difficulties attendant thereon; and it appears to them that 
a statement of the results of these inquiries will form the best introduction to 
the suggestions which they have to make. 

The process of ‘‘ composition” of ordinary matter consists in arranging 
types uniform in height and depth (or “ body” as it is termed) in simple 
straightlines. The complications peculiar to mathematical matter are mainly 
of two kinds. 

First, figures or letters, generally of a smaller size than those to which 
they are appended, have to be set as indices or suffixes; and consequently, 
except when the expressions are of such frequent occurrence as to make it 
worth while to have them cast upon type of the various bodies with which 
they are used, it becomes necessary to fit these smaller types in their proper 
positions by special methods. This process, which is called “ justification,” 
consists either in filling up the difference between the bodies of the larger 
and smaller types with suitable pieces of metal, if such exist, or in cutting 
away a portion of the larger, so as to admit the insertion of the smaller 


types. 


The second difficulty arises from the use of lines or “rules” which occur 
between the numerator and denominator of fractions, and (in one mode of 
writing) over expressions contained under radical signs. In whatever part 
of a line such a rule is used, it is necessary to fill up, or compensate, the 
thickness of it throughout the entire line. When no letters or mathematical 
signs occur on a line with the rule the process is comparatively simple ; 
but when, for example, a comma or sign of equality follows a fraction, or a 
+ or — is prefixed to it, the middle of these types must be made to range 
with the rule itself, and the thickness of the rule must be divided, and half of 
it placed above and half below the type. 

The complications above described may arise in combination, or may be 
repeated more than once in a single expression; and in proportion as the 
pieces to be “ justified” become smaller and more numerous, so do the 
difficulties of the workman, the time occupied on the work, and the chances 
of subsequent dislocation of parts augment. 

The cost of “ composing” mathematical matter may in general be estimated 
at three times that of ordinary or plain matter. 

With a view of illustrating these remarks, we have taken as an example 
an expression of not unfrequent occurrence in mathematics, but of consider- 
able difficulty to the printer, and have marked out in compartments the 
different types of which it has to be composed. The shaded parts represent 
the “justification ” spoken of. 


1875. . Z 


338 REPORT—1875. 


SS 2 


=n ra) 
| tans 


SaSSsse 


There are many expressions occurring in mathematics which are capable 
of being written in more than one way; and of these some present much 
greater difficulties to the printer than others. This being so, your Committee 
are of opinion that, instead of making any specific recommendations, the 
most useful course they can take will be to append a table of equivalent 
forms, specifying those which do and those which do not involve justification, 
and also a list of mathematical signs which may fairly be expected to be 
found, in the usual sizes, ready to hand among a printer’s materials. It will, 
of course, be understood that neither one nor other of these is even nearly 
exhaustive. But the specimens here given form the principal elements from 
which others are formed; and from the explanations given in the earlier 
part of the Report the intelligent reader will be able to discriminate in most 
cases between forms difficult and forms easy to be printed. 

In recommending in this qualified way some forms of notation in pre- 
ference to others, your Committee wish it to be distinctly understood that 
they are speaking from the printing, and not from the scientific point of 
view ; and they are quite aware that, even if some of the easier forms should 
be adopted in some cases, they may still not be of universal application, and 


that there may be passages, memoirs, or even whole treatises in which they 
would be inadmissible, 


—— 


——— 


Cee ~s ——s ~- “~~ 


ON INTESTINAL SECRETION. 339 


Your Committee are unwilling to close this Report without alluding to the 
advantages which may incidentally accrue to mathematical science by even 
a partial adoption of the modifications here suggested. Any thing which 
tends towards uniformity in notation may be said to tend towards a common 
language in mathematics; and whatever contributes to cheapening the pro- 
duction of mathematical books must ultimately assist in disseminating a 
knowledge of the science of which they treat, 


Marurmaricat Stans wor INVOLVING “ JUSTIFICATION.” 


Sele Si aol Ae mia FP pir 


So ur p e 
& ww  @ @ a Sy ae 


uy 


EqurvaLEnt Forms, 


Involving justification. Not involving justification, 
z “v@taorv:a 
a 
Nie A x or ai? 
— 3 : 
e/a / « or v3 
Ve—y v7 (w—y) or (w—y)}? 
v¥—1 i 
2.xe+a u(a@+a) 
pee exp (nr) (a) 
tan—la are tan # 
i nae By srabs ans a 
1 n 


Second Report of the Committee appointed to investigate Intestinal 
Secretion. By Dr. Lauper Brunton and Dr. Pye-Smirn. 


Tue experiments carried out by your Committee last year (vide p. 54 of 
Report for 1874) were directed, first, to ascertain the relative effect of 
various neutral salts locally applied to the small intestine; secondly, to de- 
termine the inhibitory action of drugs injected into the circulation im modi- 
fying the above effects ; and thirdly, to ascertain the precise manner in which 


the intestinal secretion is affected by the nervous system. Referring to the 


Appendices to our last Report for the contributions your Committee were 
able to make towards the solution of the first two of these problems, our 
22 


340 REPORT—1875. 


resent investigations have concerned the question of the innervation of the 
small intestine with regard primarily to its secretion, but also to its nutri- 
tion, its blood supply, and its movements. We had already ascertained that 
the paralytic profuse secretion, after division of the mesenteric nerves, which 
was first observed by Moreau in dogs and rabbits, also occurs in the case of 
cats. 

It remained to ascertain the centre and the channel of the inhibitory 
influence which, according to the best-known analogy, that of the sub- 
maxillary gland, must be supposed to control, under normal conditions, the 
intraparietal vasomotor and secretory ganglia of the small intestine. 

Before relating our own experiments, we may shortly refer to the results 
obtained by previous observers. 

The first facts we have been able to find which bear on the question were 
observed as long ago as 1853 by Ludwig and Haffter *, who ascertained that 
after dividing the great splanchnic nerves there was no important alteration 
in the intestinal secretion, although a slightly increased degree of moisture 
of the mucous membrane in the upper part of the small intestine could 
occasionally be remarked; nor were the peristaltic movements either stopped 
or accelerated. 

In 1856 Samuel published the results of experiments in which he had 
extirpated the solar plexus in dogs, cats, and rabbits. He observed diarrhea 
in some cases; and after death (which usually occurred between 12 and 24 
hours) found the upper part of the intestine hyperemic, with occasional 
ecchymoses and shedding of epithelium. The lower half was unaffected; the 
mucous membrane moist throughout. 

In the same year Pincus performed similar experiments on dogs, cats, and 
rabbits. He also found that after as complete destruction as possible of the 
solar plexus, the mucous membrane of the upper half of the small intestine 
was excessively hyperemic, with extravasations of blood and ulcerations. 
This observer noticed that hyperzemia of the stomach and duodenum followed 
section of the vagi. On dividing the cord of the sympathetic on the right 
side in four places below the diaphragm, he found the mucous membrane of 
the stomach, small intestine, and cecum very hyperemic, with slight hemor- 
rhage and ulceration, and also extravasation of blood among the muscles of 
the right thigh. The same operation on the left side produced similar, but 
less marked effects. Lastly, the abdominal gangliated cord was divided on 
both sides, and the solar plexus excised. Still more extensive hypersmia, 
submucous ecchymoses, and hemorrhage into the intestine, with “ disappear- 
ance of whole pieces of mucous membrane,” were the result. Unlike Samuel, 
Pincus did not observe any increased secretion whatever from the intestinal 
mucous membrane. 

Budge, in 1860, found that extirpation of the semilunar ganglia in rabbits 
produced increased fluidity of the faeces in the cecum and colon. No men- 
tion, however, is made of any thing approaching to paralytic secretion in the 
small intestine. 

In the same year Schiff also observed that, after extirpation of the solar 
plexus in two cats, the feeces appeared somewhat softer and moister than in 
healthy animals. He also found that application of an induced current to 
the divided splanchnics was followed by contraction of the vessels of the 
stomach and intestine, and anzmia of the chylopoietic viscera, including the 
spleen, which disappeared on removing the stimulus and returned on re- 
applying it. 
ian Oe Henle u. Pfeuffer’s Zeitsch. n. F. iv. 8. Sammuel, Wien. med. Wochenschr. 

. JO, 


ON INTESTINAL SECRETION. 341 


Lastly, Adrian, after extirpation (which he admits to have been imperfect) 
of the solar plexus, found no alteration whatever in the vascularity, secre- 
tion, or movements of the intestine. 

Last year your Committee satisfied themselves, by numerous experiments 
detailed in their Report, that division of both right and left splanchnic nerves 
was unattended by hemorrhage, hyperemia, or excessive secretion of the 
intestine. 

Messrs. Lewis and Cunningham, in their valuable report of researches on 
cholera, have confirmed these results in the case of dogs. The same observers 
found in three cases that excision of the left semilunar ganglion, in addition 
to division of the splanchnics, had no positive effect. 

We have ourselves excised the right, the left, and both semilunar ganglia, 
with division of both splanchnies in each instance, in fourteen experiments, 
and in no case did we find ecchymoses or excessive secretion. The mucous 
membrane was frequently pale and dry, sometimes moist. In one instance 
alone, however, as much as 42 cubic centimetres of pale opalescent fluid were 
found in a loop of the ileum four inches in length. In another case a loop 
of the ileum of the same length, 18 inches from the valve, contained 13 c. c. of 
fluid. The 35 inches between this loop and the pylorus only contained 12¢.c., 
and the mucous membrane throughout was normal. In this case the right 
semilunar ganglion had been completely removed, as was verified after death, 
but the left ganglion and splanchnic were uninjured. The animal was in 
full process of digestion, and the lacteals and receptaculum chyli were dis— 
tended. It was killed four hours after the operation. 

We have next repeated the experiments of other physiologists, and have, 
like them, observed that section of both pneumogastric nerves has no effect 
upon intestinal secretion. Since division of the vagi in the neck of the cat 
involves section of the cervical sympathetic, it appeared to your Committee 
that it has been sufficiently demonstrated that the centre regulating the 
intestinal nerves does not lie in the ganglionic cord either in the neck or the 
thorax. 

We therefore next endeavoured to ascertain the effect of destruction of 
the grey matter of the spinal cord, and with this object destroyed the cord 
from the sixth dorsal vertebra downwards, not only by means of a bougie 
passed down the vertebral canal, but also by complete removal of the lamine 
of the vertebre and excision of the cord entire. In numerous trials we 
found that this lesion had no effect upon the vascularity or secretion of the 
intestine; and even when the vagi were also divided and artificial respira- 
tion maintained, the result was negative. 

Looking, therefore, to the complete character of the experiments which 
have been now carried out on the vagus, the splanchnics, and the spinal 
cord, it would appear to follow, by way of exclusion, that the regulating 
influence conveyed by the nerves divided in Morceau’s experiments must 
arise from some of the ganglia of the great solar plexus. 

That the excision of the semilunar ganglia, in our own hands as in those 
of other experimenters, has been often followed by a negative result is true ; 
but in three cases we obtained good evidence of a consequent paralytic secre- 
tion; and the difficulty of this operation, as well as the varying number and 
irregular arrangement of the ganglia of the solar plexus in the cat, may not 
improbably explain the more numerous failures. 

It might be supposed, however, that the non-appearance of a paralytic 
secretion from the intestine after destruction, apparently tolerably complete, 
of the solar plexus, while it occurs after division of the mesenteric nerves 
going to a single loop of intestine, might be due to the blood going to any 


842 REPORT—1875. 


one part being insufficient to supply the material for secretion ; for, in Mor- 
ceau’s experiment, the nerves going to a part of the intestine only are divided, 
and any relaxation of the vessels of that part which succeeds the operation 
will increase the supply of blood to the intestinal loop operated upon, as the 
vessels in the after parts still retain their normal tone, and the blood naturally 
flows in the direction of least resistance. . When, however, the splanchnics, 
which are the chief vasomotor nerves of the intestine, are cut and the solar 
plexus destroyed, the vessels of the whole intestine become dilated and the 
flow of blood through every part languid. 

Such an explanation appears all the more probable from the fact observed 
by Cyon and Aladoff that section of the vasomotor nerves of the liver alone 
increased the flow of blood through the organ and produced diabetes, while 
section of these same fibres was not followed by this result if the intestinal 
vasomotor nerves contained with them in the splanchnics were divided at the 
same time. The reason assigned is that in the former case the blood flowed 
easily through the dilated vessels of the liver, and a proportionately small 
quantity through those of the intestine ; while in the latter, the vessels being 
all dilated, there was not sufficient pressure to keep up an active circulation 
anywhere. In order, then, to avoid this source of fallacy, your Committee 
repeated their experiments on the section of the splanchnics and excision of 
the solar plexus, but at the same time ligatured the aorta between the mesen- 
teric and renal arteries, so that the pressure in the vessels of the intestines 
might be maintained as nearly as possible normal. These experiments also 
yielded a negative result, so that the failure of the previous series cannot 
have been due to diminished supply of blood to the intestine. 

Apart from paralytic secretion, a striking result thrice obtained by your 
Committee was the occurrence of extravasations of blood into the mucous 
membrane of a great part of the small intestine, and the exudation of a 
bloody fluid into its lumen, after simultaneous destruction of the solar plexus 
and of the lower part of the spinal cord (Nos. 18, 19, 20). Although Samuel 
and Pincus had noticed this after destruction of the solar plexus alone, your 
Committee only observed it once, under these conditions, in the case of the 
dog (No. 23); while eechymoses and extravasations were absent in all other 
cases, even when they succeeded in obtaining a paralytic secretion of fluid. 
Nor did your Committee observe hemorrhage in any case after destruction 
of the spinal cord and division of the splanchnics alone, even when this was 
accompanied by section of the vagi. 

In three out of the six experiments, on the other hand, in which the solar 
plexus and spinal cord were simultaneously destroyed, extravasations occurred 
to a most remarkable extent (Nos. 18,19, 20). In one at least of the 
others their absence might be accounted for by the weak condition of the 
circulation. Another result, worthy of special notice, is the occurrence of 
vomiting in one animal after division of the vagus and splanchnic nerves on 
both sides. 

While the problem which has baffled so many previous investigations 
cannot yet be considered as solved, your Committee hope that their experi- 
ments may be considered to have proved the absence of influence on the 
intestinal secretion through the splanchnic nerves, the pneumogastrics, the 
sympathetic above the diaphragm, or the spinal marrow, and the probable 
influence of the ganglia contained in the solar plexus, though eertainly not 
of the two semilunar ganglia exclusively. Also the independent occurrence 
of hemorrhage and of paralytic secretion appear to point to a separate nervous 
influence on the blood-vessels and the secreting structures of the intestine. 


ON INTESTINAL SECRETION, 


843 


APPENDIX. 
No. of . 
Experi- pace: Lesion. Hours. Result. 
ment. 

ihe Chloroform. .| Cord divided between | 25 ...... Small intestine empty. 
D vi and vii. Mucous membrane 

pale and dry. 

2. Li Cord divided as in 1,| 24 ...... Intestine empty. Mu- 
and destroyed by a cous membrane pale 
wire down to L ii. and moist in duo- 

denum, which con- 
tained worms: else- 
where dry. 

5. Dab 2879 57... Lamine removed from| 23 ...... Intestine empty. Mu- 
D vii to L iii, and cous membrane dry, 
cord removed. Part less anzemic. Duo- 
below destroyed by denum contained 
a wire. worms. 

4. Dittioesiis3. . Laminz removed from | Died with-| Intestine empty and 
D vii-x and cord| in about} anemic. Tucous 
removed. Part be-| 2 hours. membrane dry. 
low destroyed by a 
hot wire. 

5. Mitte “30... Both splanchnies cut.|4......., Intestine empty, not 
Cord divided at D anemic. Ne cra 
vii or viii. Part be- membrane dry. Pe- 
low destroyed by a ristalsis active. 
catgut bougie. 

6. Ditto «i... Both splanchnies cut. |5........ Intestine empty. Mu- 
Both vagicut. Tra- cous membrane dry. 
cheotomy. Peristalsis active. 

This cat vomited 
bilious fluid several 
times shortly before 
being killed. 

ees Ditto... . Both splanchnics cut. | 3. .| Intestine empty. Hy- 
Both vagi cut. Tra- perzemia of mucous 
cheotomy. Cord di- membrane and peri- 
vided between D vi toneum. 
andvii,and destroyed 

. below that point by 
| a bougie. 

8. Ditto™...... Both splanchnics cut. | Died _al- | Intestine empty,tightly 
Aorta ligatured be-| most di- | contracted. Mucous 
tween sup. mesen-| rectly membrane dry. 

¥ teric and renal arte- 
ries. Cord divided 
and destroyed as in 7. 

9 | Ditto ...... Both splanchnics cut.|1........ Intestine emptied and 


Both vagi cut. Tra- 
cheotomy. Aorta li- 
gatured between sup. 
mesenteric and renal 
arteries. Cord di- 
vided and destroyed 
as in 7. 


contracted. Mucous 
membrane moist, 
with a little bile- 
stained fluid in lower 
part of ileum. 


Cee eee . eS 


344, 


No. of 
Experi- 
ment. 


10. 


11. 


12. 


13. 


14, 


15. 


16. 


17. 


18. 


REPORT—1875. 


Appendix (conti 
Anesthetic Ten 
employed. ao 

Chloroform. | Right splanchnic cut 
(artificial _ respira- 
tion). 

Ditto) stare. « Both splanchnics cut. 
Both vagicut. Tra- 
cheotomy. Cord de- 
stroyed as in 7. 

Ditto ......| Both splanchnics cut. 
Aorta ligatured 
above renal arteries. 


Ditto ......| Right splanchnic cut, 
left incompletely. 
Right and left vagi 
cut. Cord destroyed 
as in 7, 

Both splanchnies cut. 
Both vagi cut. Aorta 
ligatured above renal 
arteries, Cord de- 
stroyed as in 7. 

Three loops ligatured. 
Nerves to middle one 
cut. All its vessels 
but one artery and 
one vein ligatured. 


Chloroform, 
Chloral, 
er. XXX. 


Chloral, 
gr. XXX. 


Chloroform. 


Same operation as 15. 


Both semilunar ganglia 
completely removed. 
Cord destroyed as 
in 7. 4 inches of up- 
per jejunum and 4 
of lower ileum liga- 
tured off. 


Chloroform. |Both semilunar gan- 
glia removed. Cord 
estroyed as in 7. 
Loop (53 inches) a 
foot below pylorus. 
Second (82 inches) 
3 inches above valve. 


nued). 
Hours. Result. 

Died im-| Lungs emphysema- 

mediately.| tous, with patches 
of lobular grey hepa- 
tization. 

Dink onan Hyperzemia of parietal 
and visceral peri- 
toneum. Intestine 
empty. Mucousmem- 
brane injected, but 
dry. 

DS. es Hepncars Intestine contained a 


little fluid. Mucous 
membrane hyper- 
emic. 

Intestine contained a 
small quantity of 
bile-stained fluid and 
some worms. Mucous 
membrane anemic. 

Died im- |General hyperzemia. 

mediately.| Upper part of intes- 
tine empty, lower 
contained yellow 
liquid feeces. 

Upper loop empty ; 
mucous membrane 
dry. Lower loop 
empty ; mucous mem- 
brane moist. Middle 
loop empty: two 
fluid drams of a 
brownish liquid. 

Died quick-|All the loops empty. 
ly after. Moe membrane 

ale. 

Intestine full. Above 
Istloop(5in.) 9¢.¢. of 
bile-stained fluid. In 
Ist loop (6in.) lec. 
turbid fluid. Be- 
tween loops (81 in.) 
22 or 28 c. ¢. turbid 
fluid. In lower loop 
(14 in.) 174¢.¢. tur- 
bid brown fluid. No 
worms. Mucous 
membrane generally 
pale. 

First loop (nearly 2 ft. 
below pylorus) empty 
and contracted. Mu- 
cous membrane nor- 
mal, Second looked 
full, but only con- 
tained a small quan- 


averd: eee vie 


os! os, 0.{¢ 


4 


eee ee ne 


No. of 
Experi- 
ment. 


19. 


20. 


1) 
is) 


23.t 


Anesthetic 
employed. 


Ether & Chlo- 
roform. 


Ether. 


Ether. 


Chloroform. 


Chloroform. |Right and left splanch-| 3 


ON INTESTINAL SECRETION. 


Appendix (continued). 


Lesion. 


(Both loops squeezed 
empty.) 


Cord destroyed as in 7. 
Cotton-wool soaked 
in Tr. Ferri. perchl. 
thrust down canal. 
Unusually abundant 
fluid in peritoneum. 
Both semilunar gan- 
glia removed. 

Cord destroyed, as in 7, 
Unusually abundant 
fluid in peritoneum. 
Both semilunar gan- 
glia removed. 

Both splanchnics di- 
vided, and semilunar 
ganglia excisedt(only 
an ordinary amount 
of fluid in the perito- 
neum). Cord divided 
and destroyed asin 7. 

Cord exposed from D vi 
to Cauda Equina, and 
removed. Small in- 
testine ligatured at 
cecum, 6 in. above, 
and 12in. above that. 
Both ganglia excised. 


nics divided, and the 
largest nerve divided 
in the root of the 
mesentery. 


Hours. 


About 5. 


About 4. 


Died about 
3 hours 
after opera- 
tion. 


1 hour. 


845 


Result. 


tity of moist feces. 
Between the loops 
intestines contained 
30 c. c. of blood- 
stained fluid. Mucous 
membrane ecchy- 
mosed. 

Intestine empty. Mu- 
cous membrane pale, 
with patches of ec- 
chymosis. 


Intestine contained 
very little fluid. Mu- 
cous membrane ec- 
chymosed*, 


Small intestine con- 
tained 27 c. c. of thin 
mucus. Mucous 
membrane very ane- 
mic throughout. 


From pylorus to first 
ligature (12 in.) con- 
tained a little bile- 
stained thin mucus. 
Mucous membrane 
pale. Between the two 
ligatures (16 in.) the 
same: in neither 
enough to measure. 
From second ligature 
to czcum appeared 
full; but on opening 
it there was only a 
little mucus and li- 
quid freces. Mucous 
membrane pale and 
moist. 

From 2 inches below 
pylorus down to ileo- 
czecal valye mucous 
membrane intensely 
congested with he- 
morrhage: covered 


with tenacious mucus. 


* Epithelium not granular. Surface shed more or less completely. Deeper layer 
Vessels of villi crowded with blood-corpuscles. 


perfect. 


+ About this time a great mortality occurred in cats under ether. 


had died from catarrh while under chloroform. 
{ In this experiment a dog was used: all those preceding were on cats. 


Previously several 


346 REPORT—1875. 


Third Report of the Sub-Wealden Exploration Committee, consisting 
of Henry Wittett, F.G.S., R. A. C. Gopwin-Austen, F.R.S., 
W. Torrey, F.G.S., T. Davinson, F.R.S., Prof. J. Prestwicn, 
F.R.S., Prof. Boyp Dawxins, F.R.S., and Henry Woopwarp, 
F.R.S. Drawn up by Henry Wiuert, F.G.S. 


Or the £150 granted by the Committee of Recommendations in further- 
ance of this undertaking, £25 was voted in 1872, and, as reported at Brad- 
ford, in the subsequent twelve months, 295 feet of strata were penetrated at 
a diameter of 9 inches. 

The second grant of £25, made in 1873, encouraged an enlarged subserip- 
tion of sufficient amount to warrant the Committee in entering into a con- 
tract with the Diamond Boring Company to extend, by their process (at a 
diameter of 3 inches), the bore-hole to 1000 feet. This depth was success- 
fully reached on the 18th of June, 1874. 

In the report made at Belfast it was announced that the Government had 
(in consequence of a memorial signed on behalf of their Councils, by the 
Presidents of the Royal Society, of the Geological Society of London, and of 
the Society of Engineers) consented to a Treasury grant of £1000, to be 
paid on the condition that beyond the depth of 1000 feet an additional 1 foot 
should be explored for every £1 of the aforesaid grant. 

The foregoing facts induced the Committee of Recommendations at Belfast 
to give further assistance by a third and enlarged grant of £100. Thus 
again encouraged, the Committee arranged a contract with the Diamond 
Boring Company for an extension to 1200 feet, at an additional cost of £400 ; 
but at 1018 feet the strata were found to be so much broken and fissured 
that it became absolutely essential to line the entire depth. The estimated 
cost of this operation was an additional £400. 

Engineering difficulties of an unforeseen and of a finally insurmountable 
nature ensued ; and, in consequence, the Treasurer of the British Association 
was informed, in October 1874, that the grant might possibly not be re- 
quired—at any tate, not at that time. 

In January 1875 the contractors, with laudable courage and energy, 
volunteered to commence de novo, and to put down a bore-hole of consider- 
ably enlarged diameter, which should be lined at their expense to the depth 
of 1000 feet, at a cost, including lining tubes, of £600; viz. of £200 only 
beyond what had been agreed upon as the price for lining the old 3-inch 
diameter. 

This work, begun on February 12th, 1875, went on uninterruptedly, as 
will be seen by the subjoined statement :— 


Diameter 
of core. 
Bored at 8 in. diam., 28 ft. Lined with 8-in. tube, 28 ft. 6 in. 
= 7 in. aT AO tt. $4 hes 145 Ti it. eon 
He Gatien es ca 66 tts na 6-1n.: 5 240 nt. waren. 
fs 5 in. » o94 ft. of Sis 4 CoO dt.. Pasi, 
Pr 4:ins 5, 295 ft: 3 Asimsr LIB weet 
* inom 5, do6ate y 3-in. 4 1670 ft. 231m. 
3 arin) ,, 92 :ft. L762 fto-0 alin: 


1762 ft. 


ON SUB-WEALDEN EXPLORATION. 347 


It should be remembered that the problem originally offered for solution 
was one based on the strong opinion expressed by our most eminent geolo- 
gists, that there was a high degree of probability that Paleozoic rocks (fol- 
lowing the course of the axis of Artois, and dipping beneath the surface in 
Belgium and the north of France) would be found at a depth variously esti- 
mated at from 700 feet to 1700 feet. 

In this aspect the problem is solved, a depth of 1753 feet having been 
explored with the certainty that (within the aforesaid maximum distance) 
no such rocks exist in this locality. ; 

On the contrary, an extraordinary and unexampled thickness of sedi- 
mentary beds, possessing many features of the Jurassic series, with a fauna 
most persistent in type, and such as has hitherto been considered to denote 
the Kimmeridge Clay of England and of the Continent, is the result so far of 
the discoveries made by the Sub-Wealden Exploration. 

Although no economic adyantages were ever sought by the promoters, two 
not unimportant results have ensued :— E 

1. A company has been established for developing the rich beds of gypsum 
which we have discovered, and which were hitherto unknown to exist in 
Sussex. f 

2. We have proved that the project for supplying Hastings with water by 
means of a deep well on the Artesian system would be abortive. 

After three years of toil and anxiety, it is some satisfaction to be able to 
_ state further that, owing to the munificent response made by lovers of 
seience, of all orders and degrees of men among us, a contract has been 
entered into for completion to 2000 feet, should no unavoidable hindrance 
occur. 

No additional grant is solicited, or will be required, from the British 
Association. 

The geological results will be fully explained in more minute detail by 
Mr. Topley’s report, hereunto appended. 

To him, to Robert Etheridge, Esq., F.R.S. (for his invaluable palzonto- 
logical services), to J. H. Peyton, Esq., F.G.S. (for numberless journeys of 
inspection to the works), to Prof. Ramsay, to the Committee of Scientific 
Reference, over which he has so ably presided, and to the Patrons and Sub- 
scribers who have so generously supplied the funds for prosecuting the work, 
the thanks of all sympathisers with scientific advancement are due. 

Although, by Mr. Warner’s offer of £300, on reaching 2000 feet, that depth 
has been named as the maximum limit to be aimed at, yet the friability of 
the strata at the present depth (1762 feet), and the persistent character of 
the sedimentary deposits, seem to show the wisdom of stopping any further 
outlay on the “ Sub-Wealden Exploration.” 


Geological Report by W. Topley, F.G.S., Assoc. Inst. C.E., Geological Survey 
of England. 


In the Report submitted to the Association at Belfast an account was 
given of the strata passed through and of the fossils found down to a depth 
of 1013 feet. It was then believed that certain Ammonites found in the 
lower cores were Oxford-Clay forms; and it was therefore supposed that the 
boring had passed from the Kimmeridge Clay to the Oxford Clay without 
finding any representative of the Coral Rag or Calcareous Grit. 


348 REPORT—1875. ; 


The first boring was abandoned at the depth then attained (1013 feet), 
and a second boring was commenced, which has now (August 1875) reached 
the depth of 1820 feet. This has proved that the Kimmeridge-Clay fauna 
extends much lower than was inferred from the results of the first boring. 
Gryphea (Exogyra) virgula has been met with at various depths down to 
1656 feet. Ammonites mutabilis extends from about 960 feet to 1652 feet. 
Rhynchonella pinguis is common in some of the lower cores. The presence 
of these fossils would seem to settle the question as to the age of the beds in 
which they occur ; but fortunately we are not now left to paleontological 
evidence alone. At about 1769 feet an oolitic rock was reached, which con- 
tinued to 1786 feet, where the beds again changed to shale. The upper part 
of this 17 feet of rock is rather coarse in grain ; the lower partis finer. Save 
as regards colour (which depends on weathering) these cores may be matched 
precisely by examples of Coralline Oolite in the Museum of the Geological 
Survey at Jermyn Street. Mr. Bristow kindly referred me to the specimens 
which are contained in Wall-case No. 46. No. 58 in this case is a rather 
coarse-grained oolite from Steeple Ashton in Wiltshire, exactly resembling 
the cores found at about 1770 feet. No. 59 is an oolite of finer grain from 
Buckland, near Faringdon, which as closely resembles the cores found at 
about 1782 feet. These rocks are not very fossiliferous ; and in the boring 
they appear to contain only small oysters, which occur chiefly in the lower 
part. The coarse oolite in the boring is hard, and takes a fine polish; the 
finer variety is softer. 

We may, then, with some degree of safety, assume that these rocks repre- 
sent the Coral Rag (Coralline Oolite). The Upper and Lower Calcareous Grits 
are either absent, or they are represented by sandy, rather calcareous shales, 
which do not in any way differ from shales which are abundant in the true 
Kimmeridge Clay. 

It will perhaps be better to leave the description of the fossils until the 
materials have been more carefully worked up and the whole series fully 
arranged ; it will also be as well to defer till then a detailed section of the 
strata. Mr. Etheridge has carefully looked over the cores; and from his 
notes the foregoing remarks on the fossils are taken. 

Mr. H. Woodward has examined the Crustacea, and he refers some 
remarkably fine examples, found in the Kimmeridge Clay at 1057 feet, to a 
new species of Callianassa. He proposes to call this C. isochela; it is the 
oldest known form of the genus. Fragments of another crustacean were 
found at the same depth; Mr. Woodward refers this to Mecochirus Peytoni, 
Woodw. 

Beds of sandstone have been met with at various depths in the Kimmeridge 
Clay. Frequently they are traversed by wavy concretionary lines, which 
look exactly like fossils on the, outside of the core. All these sandstones are 
cemented by carbonate of lime. Oysters are almost the only fossils which 
they contain. Throughout both borings it has been noticed that oysters are 
most abundant in the sandy beds. 

The shales are frequently traversed by oblique veins of carbonate of lime. 
The hole, when not lined, is very apt to fall in at these points. In the 
method of boring employed by the Diamond Company it is necessary to send 
a stream of water down the middle of the rods from the surface, the water 
rising again to the surface outside the rods. Mr. Thornton, the engineer in 
charge, noticed that the hole fell in much more readily after heavy rain, when 
the brook from which the water was pumped was swollen, than it did when 
the brook only ran with spring-water. He referred this, no doubt correctly, 


ON SUB-WEALDEN EXPLORATION. 349 


to the superior solvent power for carbonate of lime of the rain-water charged 
with carbonic acid. 

The Kimmeridge Clay probably began at about 274 or 275 feet from the 
surface. If it extends to 1769 feet, we have here a thickness of 1495 feet 
in one continuous section, all the beds lying flat. The greatest thickness as- 
sumed by Mr. Blake for the Kimmeridge Clay of England, where exposed 


at the surface, is 1050 fect ; this thickness, however, is not present in any 
one district. 


The Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of considering the use 
of Steel for structural purposes will be printed in the next volume. 


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NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS 


OF 


MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS. 


MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 


Address by Professor Batrour Srewart, M.A., LL.D., PRAS., President of 
the Section. 


Sivcr the last meeting of the British Association science has had to mourn the 
loss of one of its pioneers in the death of the veteran astronomer Schwabe, of 
Dessau, at a good old age, not before he had faithfully and honourably finished his 
work. In truth this work was of such a nature that the worker could not be ex- 
pected long to survive its completion. 

It is now nearly fifty years since he first began to produce daily sketches of the 
spots that appeared upon the sun’s surface. Hvery day on which the sun was 
visible (and such days are more frequent in Germany than in this country), with 
hardly any intermisssion for forty years, this laborious and venerable observer made 
his sketch of the solar disk. At length this unexampled perseverance met with its 
reward in the discovery of the periodicity of sun-spots, a phenomenon which very 
speedily attracted the attention of the scientific world. 

It is not easy to overrate the importance of the step gained when a periodicity 
was found to rule these solar outbreaks. 

A priori, we should not have expected such a phenomenon. 

If the old astronomers were perplexed by the discovery of sun-spots, their 
successors must have been equally perplexed when they ascertained their periodicity. 
' For while all are ready to acknowledge periodicity as one of the natural con- 
ditions of terrestrial phenomena, yet every one is inclined to ask what there can be 
to cause it in the behaviour of the sun himself, 

Manifestly it can only have two possible causes. It must either be the out- 
come of some strangely hidden periodical cause residing in the sun himself, or 
must be produced by external bodies, such as planets, acting somehow in their 
varied positions on the atmosphere of the sun. 

But whether the cause be an internal or external one, in either case we are 
completely ignorant of its nature. 

e can easily enough imagine a cause operating from the sun himself and his 
relations with a surrounding medium to produce great disturbances on his surtace, 
but we cannot easily imagine why disturbances so caused should have a periodicity. 
On the other hand we can easily enough attach periodicity to any effect caused by - 
the planets, but we cannot well see why bodies comparatively so insignificant should 
contribute to such very violent outbreaks as we now know sun-spots to be. 

If we look within we are at a loss to account for the periodicity of solar dis- 
turbances, and if we look without we are equally at a loss to account for their 
macnitude, 


1875. 1 


2 REPORT—1875. 


But since that within the sun is hidden from our view, it cannot surely be con- 
sidered blameworthy if astronomers have directed their attention to that without, 
and have endeavoured to connect the behaviour of sun-spots with the positions of 
the various planets. 

Stimulated, no doubt, by the success which had attended the labours of Schwabe, 
an English astronomer was the next to enter the field of solar research. 

The aim of Mr. Carrington was, however, rather to obtain very accurate records 
of the positions, the sizes, and the shapes of the various sun-spots, than to make a 
very extensive and long-continued series of observations. He was aware that a 
series at once very accurate and very extended is beyond the power of a private 
individual, and can only be undertaken by an established institution. Nevertheless 
each sun-spot that made its appearance during the seven years extending from the 
beginning of 1854 to the end of 1860 was sketched by Mr. Carrington with the 
greatest possible accuracy, and had also its heliographie positions—that is to say, 
its solar latitude and longitude—accurately determined. 

One of the most prominent results of Mr. Carrington’s labours was the discovery 
of the fact that sun-spots appear to have a proper motion of their own, those 
nearer the solar equator moving faster than those more remote. Another was the 
discovery of changes apparently periodical affecting the disposition of spots in 
solar latitude. It was already known that sun-spots confined themselves to the 
sun’s equatorial regions; but Mr. Carrington showed that the region affected was 
liable to periodical elongations and contractions, although his observations were not 
sufficiently extended to determine the exact length of this period. 

Before Mr. Carrington had completed his seven years’ labours, celestial photo- 
graphy had been introduced by Mr. Warren De La Rue. Commencing with his 
private observatory, he next persuaded the Kew Committee of the British Associa- 
tion to allow the systematic photugraphy of the sun to be carried on at their 
observatory under his superintendence, and in the year 1862 the first of a ten years’ 
series of solar photographs was begun. 

Before this date, however, Mr. De La Rue had ascertained, by means of his 
photoheliograph, on the occasion of the total eclipse of 1860, that the red promi- 
nences surrounding the eclipsed sun belone, without doubt, to our luminary himself. 

The Kew observations are not yet finally reduced, but already several important 
conclusions have been obtained from them by Mr. De La Rue and the other Kew 
observers. In the first place the Kew photographs confirm the theory of Wilson 
that sun-spots are phenomena the dark portions of which exist at a level consider- 
ably beneath the general surface of the sun—in other words, they are hollows or 
Be the interior of which is of course filled up with the solar atmosphere. The 

<ew observers were likewise led to associate the low temperature of the bottom of 

sun-spots with the downward carriage of colder matter from the atmosphere of the 
sun, while the upward rush of heated matter was supposed to account for the 
faculze or bright patches which almost invariably accompany spots. In the next 
place, the Kew observers, making use not only of the Kew series but of those of 
Schwabe and Carrington, which were generously placed at their disposal, have dis- 
covered traces of the influence of the nearer planets upon the behaviour of sun- 
spots. This influence appears to be of such a nature that spots attain their maxi- 
mum size when carried by rotation into positions as far as possible remote from 
the influencing planet—that is'to say, into positions where the body of the sun is 
between them and the planet. There is also evidence of an excess of solar action 
when two influential planets come near together. But although considerable light 
has thus been thrown on the periodicity of sun-spots, it ought to be borne in mind 
that the cause of the remarkable period of eleven years and a quarter, originally 
discovered by Schwabe, has not yet been properly explained. The Kew observers 
have likewise discovered traces of a peculiar oscillation of spots between the two 
hemispheres of the sun; and finally their researches will place at the command of 
the observers the data for ascertaining whether centres of greater and lesser solar 
activity are connected with certain heliocentric positions. 

While the sun’s surface was thus*being examined both telescopically and photo- 
graphically, the spectroscope came to be employed as an instrument of research. It 
had already been surmised by Professor Stokes that the vapour of sodium at a 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 3 


comparatively low temperature forms one of the constituents of the solar atmo- 
sphere, inasmuch as the dark line D in the spectrum of the sun coincides in position 
with the bright line given out by incandescent sodium vapour. 

This method of research was greatly extended by Kirchhoff, who soon found 
that many of the dark lines in the solar spectruin were coincident with the bright 
lines of sundry incandescent metallic vapours ; and a good beginning was thus made 
towards ascertaining the chemical constitution of the sun. 

The new method soon brought forth further fruit when applied, in the hands of 
Iluggins, Miller, Secchi, and others, to the more distant heavenly bodies. It was 
speedily found that the fixed stars had constitutions very similar to that of the sun. 

ut a peculiar and unexpected success was attained when some of the nebula were 
examined spectroscopically. To-day it seems (so rapidly has knowledge progressed ) 
very much like recalling an old superstition to remind you that, until the advent of 
the spectroscope, the irresolvable nebulz were considered to be gigantic and remote 
clusters of stars, the individual members of which were too distant to be separated 
from each other even with a telescope like that of Lord Rosse. 

But Mr. Hugzins, by means of the spectroscope, soon found that this was not the 
case, and that most of the nebulee which had defied the telescope gave indications 
of incandescent hydrogen gas. 

It was also found by this observer that the proper motions of some of the fixed 
stars in a direction to or from the earth might be detected by means of the displace- 
=a of their spectral lines, a principle of research which was first enunciated by 

Mizeau. 

Hitherto in such applications of the spectroscope, the body to be examined was 
viewed as a whole. 

It had not yet been attempted to localize the use of this instrument so as to 
examine particular districts of the sun—as, for instance, a sun-spot, or the red flames 
already proved by De La Rue to belong to our luminary. 

This application was first made by Mr. Lockyer, who, in the year 1865, examined 
a sun-spot spectroscopically, and remarked the greater thickness of the lines in the 
spectrum of the darker portion of the spot. 

Dr. Frankland had previously found that thick spectral lines correspond to great 
pressure, and hence the inference from the greater thickness of lines in the umbra 
of a spotis, that this umbra or dark portion is subject to a greater pressure —that is 
to say, it exists below a greater depth of the solar atmosphere than the general sur- 
face ofthe sun. Thus the results derived from the Kew photoheliograph and those 
derived from the spectroscope were found to confirm each other. Mr. Lockyer next 
caused a powerful instrument to be constructed for the purpose of viewing spectro- 
scopically the red flames round the sun’s border, in the hope that if they consisted of 
ignited gas the spectroscope would disperse, and thus dilute and destroy, the glare 
which prevents them from being seen on ordinary occasions. 

Before this instrument was quite ready, these flames had been analyzed spec- 

troscopically by Capt. Herschel, M. Janssen, and others on the occasion of a total 
eclipse occurring in India, and they were found to consist of incandescent gas, most 
probably hydrogen. But the latter of these observers (M. Janssen) made the 
important observation that the bright lines in the spectrum of these flames remained 
visible even after the sun had reappeared, from which he argued that a solar eclipse 
is not necessary for the examination of this region. 
_ Before information of the discovery made by M. Janssen had reached this coun- 
try, the instrument of Mr. Lockyer had been completed, and he also found that by 
its means he was able to analyze at leisure the composition of the red flames with- 
out the necessity of a total eclipse. An atmosphere of incandescent hydrogen was 
found to surround our luminary, into which, during the greater solar storms, sundry 
metallic vapours were injected—sodium, magnesium, and iron forming the three that 
most frequently made their appearance. 

Here we come to an interesting chemical question. 

It had been remarked by Maxwell and by Pierce, as the result of the molecular 
theory of gases, that the final distribution of any number of kinds of gas in a vertical 
direction under gravity is such that the density of each gas at a given height is the 
same as if all the other gases had been removed, leaving it alone. 

iN 


A, REPORT—1875. 


In our own atmosphere the continual disturbances prevent this arrangement from 
taking place ; but in the sun’s enormously extended atmosphere (if, indeed, our lumi- 
nary be not nearly all gaseous) it appears to hold, eae as the upper portion 
of this atmosphere, dealing with known elements, apparently consists entirely of 
hydrogen. tC 

one other vapours are, however, as we have seen, injected from below the 
photosphere into the solar atmosphere on the occasion of great disturbances ; and 
Mr. Lockyer has asked the question, whether we have not here a true indication of 
the relative densities of these various vapours derived from the relative heights to 
which they are injected on such occasions. 

This question has been asked, but it has not yet received a definite solution; for 
chemists tell us that the vapour-densities of some of the gases injected into the sun’s 
atmosphere on the occasion of disturbances are, as far as they know from terrestrial 
observations, different from those which would be indicated by taking the relative 
heights attained in the atmosphere of the sun. Mr. Lockyer has attempted to bring 
the question a step nearer to its solution by showing that the vapours at the tem- 
perature at which their vapour-densities have been experimentally determined are 
not of similar molecular constitution ; whereas in the sun we get an indication, from 
the fact that all the elements give us line spectra, that they are in similar mole- 
cular states. 

Without, however, attempting to settle this question, I may remark that we have 
here an interesting example of how two branches of science, physics and chemistry, 
meet together in solar research. 

It had already been observed by Kirchhoff that sometimes one or more of the 
spectral lines of an elementary vapour appeared to be reversed in the solar spec- 
trum, while the other lines did not experience reversal. Myr, Lockyer succeeded in 
obtaining an explanation of this phenomenon. This explanation was found by means 
of the method of localization already mentioned. 

Hitherto, when taking the spectrum of the electric spark between the two me- 
tallic poles of a coil, the arrangements were such as to give an average spectrum of 
the metal of these poles; but it was found that when the method of localization 
was employed, different portions of the spark gave a different number of lines, the 
yegions near the terminals being rich in lines, while the midway regions give com- 
paratively few. 

If we imagine that in the midway regions the metallic vapour given off by the 
spark is in a rarer state than that near the poles, we are thus led to regard the short 
hnes whieh cling to the poles as those which require a greater density or nearness 
of the vapour particles before they make their appearance ; while, on the other hand, 
those which extend all the way between the two poles come to be regarded as those 
which will continue to make their appearance in vapour of great tenuity. 

Now it was remarked that these long lines were the very lines which were 
reversed in the atmosphere of the sun. Hence when we observe a single coinci- 
dence between a dark solar line and the bright line of any metal, we are further 
led to inquire whether this bright line is one of the long lines which will 
continue to exist all the way between two terminals of that metal when the 
spark passes. 

If this be the ease, then we may argue with much probability that the metal in 
question really oceurs in the solar atmosphere; but if, on the other hand, the 
coincidence is merely between a solar dark line and a short bright one, then we 
are led to imagine that it is not a true coincidence, but something which will 
probably disappear on further examination. This method has already afforded us 
a means of determining the relative amount of the various metallic vapours in the 
sun’s atmosphere. Thus, in some instances all lines are reversed, whereas in others 
the reversal extends only to a few of the longer lines. 

Several new metals have thus been added to the list of those previously detected 
in the solar atmosphere ; and it is now certain that the vapours of hydrogen, 
potassium, sodium, rubidium, barium, strontium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, 
iron, manganese, chromium, cobalt, nickel, titanium, lead, copper, cadmium, zine, 
uranium, cerium, vanadium, and palladium occur in our luminary. 

I haye spoken hitherto only of telescopic spectroscopy ; but photography has 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 5 


been found capable of performing the same good service towards the compound 
instrument consisting of the telescope and its attached spectroscope, which it had 
Perey been known to perform towards the telescope alone. 

It is of no less importance to secure a permanent record of spectral peculiarities 
than it is to secure a permanent record of telescopic appearances. 

This application of photography to spectrum observations was first commenced 
on a sufficient scale by Mr. Rutherford, of New York, and already promises to be 
one of the most valuable aids in solar inquiry. 

In connexion with the spectroscope I ought here to mention the names of 
rien and Secchi, who have done much in the examination of the solar surface 
from day to day. It is of great importance to the advancement of our knowledge, 
that two such competent observers are stationed in a country where the climate is 
so favourable to continued observation. 

The examination of the sun’s surface by the spectroscope suggests many interest- 
ing questions connected with other branches of science. One of these has already 
been alluded to. 

I may mention two others put by Mr. Lockyer, premising, however, that at 
present we are hardly in a position to reply to them. 

It has been asked whether the very high temperatures of the sun and of some of 
the stars may not be sufficient to produce the disassociation of those molecular struc- 
tures which cannot be disassociated by any terrestrial means; in other words, the 
ago has been raised, whether our so-called elements are really elementary 

odies. 

A third question is of geological interest. It has been asked whether a study of 
the solar atmosphere may not throw some light upon the peculiar constitution of 
the upper strata of the earth’s surface, which are known to be of less density than 
the average interior of our planet. 

If we have learned to be independent of total eclipses as far as the lower portions 
of the solar atmosphere are concerned, it must be confessed that as yet the upper 
portions—the outworlks of the sun—can only be successfully approached on these 
rare and precious occasions. Thanks to the various Government expeditions 
despatched by Great Britain, by the United States, and by several Continental 
nations—thanks, also, to the exertions of Lord Lindsay and other astronomers—we 
are in the possession of definite information regarding the solar corona. 

In the first place, we are now absolutely certain that a large part of this ap- 
pendage unmistakably belongs to our luminary; and in the next place, we know 
that it consists, in part at least, of an ignited gas giving a peculiar spectrum, 
which we have not yet been able to identity with that of any known element. 

The temptation is great to associate this spectrum with the presence of something 
lighter than hydrogen, of the nature of which we are yet totally ignorant. 

A peculiar physical structure of the corona has likewise been suspected. On the 
whole, we may say that this is the least known, while it is perhaps the most 
interesting, region of solar research; most assuredly it is well worthy of further 
investigation. 

If we now turn our attention to matters nearer home, we find that there isa 
difficulty in grasping the facts of terrestrial meteorology no less formidable than 
that which assails us when we investigate solar outbreaks. The latter perplex us 
because the sun is so far away, and because also his conditions are so different from 
those with which we are here familiar ; while, on the other hand, the former perplex 
us because we are so intimately mixed up with them in our daily lives and actions— 
because, in fact, the scale is so large and we are so near. The result has been that 
until quite recently our meteorological operations have been conducted by a band 
of isolated volunteers, individually capable and skilful, but from their very isolation 
incapable of combining together with advantage to prosecute a scientific campaign. 
Of late, however, we have begun to perceive that if we are to make any advance in 
this very interesting and practical subject, a different method must be pursued, and 
we have already reaped the first fruits of a more enlightened policy; already 
we have gained some knowledge of the constitution and habits of our atmo- 
sphere. 

Phe researches of Wells and Tyndall haye thrown much light on the cause of 


6 REPORT—1875. 


dew. Humboldt, Dove, Buys Ballot, Jelinek, Quetelet, Hansteen, Kupffer, Forbes, 
Welsh, Glaisher, and others have done much to give us an accurate knowledge of 
the distribution of terrestrial temperature. 

Great attention has likewise been given to the rainfall of Great Britain and 
Treland, chiefly through the exertions of one individual, Mr. G. J. Symons. 

To Dove we are indebted for the law of rotation of the wind, to Redfield for the 
spiral theory of cyclones, to Francis Galton for the theory of anti-cyclones, to 
Buchan for an investigation into the disposition of atmospheric pressure which 
precedes peculiar types of weather, to Stevenson for the conception of barometric 
gradients, to Scott and Meldrum for an acquaintance with the disposition of winds 
which frequently precedes violent outbreaks ; and, to come to the practical applica- 
tion of laws, we are much indebted to the late Admiral FitzRoy and the system 
which he greatly helped to establish for our telegraphic warnings of coming storms. 

Again, the meteorology of the ocean has not been forgotten. The well-known 
name of Maury will occur to every one as that of a pioneer in this branch of inquiry. 
FitzRoy, Leverrier, Meldrum, Toynbee, and others have likewise done much ; and 
it is understood that the meteorological offices of this and other maritime countries 
are now busily engaged upon this important and practical subject. finally, the 
movements of the ocean and the temperatures of the oceanic depths have recently 
been examined with very great success in vessels despatched by Her Majesty’s 
Government; and Dr. Carpenter has by this means been able to throw great light 
upon wa convection-currents exhibited by that vast body of water which girdles 
our globe. 

inwould be out of place to enter here more minutely into this large subject ; and 
already it may be asked, what connexion has all this with that part of the address 
that went before it? 

There are, however, strong grounds for supposing that the meteorology of the 
sun and that of the earth are intimately connected together. Mr. Broun has 
shown the existence of a meteorological period connected apparently with the sun’s 
rotation, five successive years’ observations of the barometer at Singapore all giving 
the period 25-74 days. Mr. Baxendell, of Manchester, was, I believe, the first to 
show that the convection-currents of the earth appear to be connected somehow 
with the state of the sun’s surface as regards spots; and still more recently Mr. 
Meldrum, of the Mauritius observatory, has shown, by a laborious compilation of 
ships’ logs, and by utilizing the meteorological records of the island, that the 
cyclones in the Indian Ocean are most frequent in years when there are most sun- 
spots. He likewise affords us grounds for supposing that the rainfall, at least in 
the tropics, is greatest in years of maximum solar disturbance. 

M. Poey has found a similar connexion in the case of the West-Indian hurricanes ; 
and, finally, Piazzi Smyth, Stone, Koppen, and, still more recently, Blanford have 
been able to bring to light a cycle of terrestrial temperature haying apparent reference 
to the condition of the sun. 

Thus we have strong matter-of-fact grounds for presuming a connexion between 
the meteorology of our luminary and that of our planet, even although we are in 
complete ignorance as to the exact nature of this bond. 

If we now turn to terrestrial magnetism the same connexion becomes apparent. 

Sir Edward Sabine was the first to show that the disturbances of the magnetism 
of the earth are most violent during years of maximum sun-spots. Mr. Broun has 
shown that there is likewise a reference in magnetic phenomena to the period of 
the sun’s rotation about his axis, an observation recently confirmed by Hornstein ; 
and still more recently Mr. Broun has shown that the moon has an action upon 
the earth’s magnetism which is not altogether of a tidal nature, but depends, in 
part at least, upon the relative position of the sun and moon. 

I must trust to your forbearance if I now venture to bring forward considera- 
tions of a somewhat speculative nature. 

We are all familiar with the generalization of Hadley; that is to say, we know there 
are undercurrents sweeping along the surface of theearth from the polestothe equator, 
and upper currents sweeping back from the equator to the poles. Weare likewise 
aware that these currents are caused by the unequal temperature of the earth; they 
are, in truth, convection-currents, and their course is determined by the positions of 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. ( 


the hottest and coldest parts of the earth’s surface. We may expect them, there- 
fore, to havea reference not so much to the geographical equator and poles as to 
the hottest and coldest regions. In fact we know that the equatorial regions 
into which the trade-winds rush and from which the anti-trades take their origin, 
have a certain annual oscillation depending upon the position of the sun, or, in 
other words, upon the season of the year. e may likewise imagine that the 
region into which the upper currents pour themselves is not the geographical pole, 
but the pole of greatest cold. 

In the next place we may imagine that these currents, as far as regards a par- 
ticular place, have a daily oscillation. This has, I believe, been proved as regards 
the lower currents or trade-winds, which are more powerful during the day than 
during the night, and we may therefore expect it to hold good with regard to the 
upper currents or anti-trades; in fact we cannot go wrong in supposing that they 
also, as regards any particular place, exhibit a daily variation in the intensity with 
which they blow. 

Again, we are aware that the earth isa magnet. Let us not now concern our- 
selves about the origin ofits magnetism, but rather let us take it as it is. We must 
next bear in mind that rarefied air is a good conductor of electricity; indeed, 
according to recent experiments, an extremely good conductor. The return trades 
that pass above from the hotter equatorial regions to the poles of cold, consisting 
of moist rarefied air, are therefore to be regarded in the light of good conductors 
crossing lines of magnetic force; we may therefore expect them to be the vehicle 
of electric currents. Such electric currents will of course react on the magnetism 
of the earth. Now, since the velocity of these upper currents has a daily variation, 
their influence as exhibited at any place upon the magnetism of the earth may be 
expected to have a daily variation also. 

he question thus arises, Have we possibly here a cause which may account for 
the well-known daily magnetic variation F Are the peculiarities of this variation 
such as to correspond to those which might be expected to belong to such electric 
currents? I think it may be said that, as far as we can judge, there is a likeness of 
this kind between the peculiarities of these two things; but a more prolonged 
scrutiny will of course be essential before we can be absolutely certain that such 
currents are fitted to produce the daily variation of the earth’s magnetism. 

Besides the daily and yearly periodic changes in these upper convection-currents, 
we should also expect occasional and abrupt changes forming the counterparts of 
those disturbances in the lower strata with which we are familiar. And these mav 
be expected in like manner to produce non-periodic occasional disturbances of the 
magnetism of the earth. Now it is well known that such disturbances do occur, 
and, further, that they are most frequent in those years when cyclones are most fre- 
quent—that is to say, in years of maximum sun-spots. In one word, it appears to 
be a tenable hypothesis to attribute at least the most prominent magnetic changes 
to atmospheric motions taking place in the upper regions of the atmosphere, where 
each moving stratum of air becomes a conductor moving across lines of magnetic 
force; and it was Sir William Thomson, I believe, who first suggested that the motion 
of conductors across the lines of the earth’s magnetic force must be taken into 
account in any attempted explanation of terrestrial magnetism. 

Tt thus seems possible that the excessive magnetic disturbances which take place 
in years of maximum sun-spots may not be directly caused by any solar action, 
but may rather be due to the excessive meteorological disturbances which are like- 
wise characteristic of such years; on the other hand, that magnetic and meteoro- 
logical influence which Mr. Broun has found to be connected with the sun’s rotation 

oints to some unknown direct effect produced by our luminary, even if we 
imagine that the magnetic part of it is caused by the meteorological. Mr, Broun 
is of opinion that this effect of the sun does not depend upon the amount of spots 
on his surface. 

In the next place, that influence of the sun in virtue of which we have most 
cyclones and ae meteorological disturbance in the years of maximum spots, 
cannot, I think (as far as we know at present), be attributed to a change in the 
heating-power of the sun. We have no doubt traces of a temperature effect which 
appears to depend upon the sun-period ; but its amount is very small, whereas the 


8 REPORT—1875. 


variation in cyclonic disturbance is very great. Weare thus tempted to associate 
this cyclone-producing influence of the sun with something different from his light 
and heat. As far, therefore, as we can judge, our luminary would appear to pro- 
duce three distinct effects upon our globe:—In the first place, a magnetic and 
meteorological effect, depending somehow upon his rotation; secondly, a cyclonic 
effect, depending somehow upon the disturbed state of his surface; and lastly, the 
well-known light-and-heat effect with which we all are familiar. 

If we now turn to the sun, we find that there are three distinct forms of motion 
which animate his surface-particles. In the first place, each particle is carried 
round by the rotation of our luminary ; secondly, each particle is influenced by the 
gigantic meteorological disturbances of the surface, in virtue of which it may 
acquire a velocity ranging as high as 130 or 140 miles a second; and lastly, each 
particle, on account of its high temperature, is vibrating with extreme rapidity, 
and the energy of these vibrations communicated to us by means of the etherial 
medium produces the well-known light-and-heat effect of the sun. 

Now, is it philosophical to suppose that it is only the last of these three motions 
that influences our earth, while the other two produce absolutely no effect? On 
the contrary, we are, I think, compelled, by considerations connected with the theory 
of energy, to attribute an influence, whether great or small, to the first two as well 
as to the last. 

We are thus led to suppose that the sun must influence the earth in three ways, 
one depending on his rotation, another on his meteorological disturbance, and a 
third by means of the vibrations of his surface-particles. 

But we have already seen that, as a matter of fact, the sun does appear to 
influence the earth in three distinct ways—one magnetically and meteorologically, 
depending apparently on his period of rotation; a second cyclonically, depending 
apparently on the meteorological conditions of his surface ; and a third by means 
of his light and heat. 

Is this merely a coincidence, or has it a meaning of its own? We cannot tell; 
but I may venture to think that in the pursuit of this problem we ought to be pre- 
pared at least to admit the possibility of a threefold influence of the sun. 

Even from this very meagre sketch of one of the most interesting and important 
of physical problems, it cannot fail to appear that while a good deal has already 
been done, its progress in the future will very greatly aeped on the completeness 
of the method and continuity of the observations by which it is pursued. We 
have here a field which is of importance not merely to one, or even to two, but 
almost to every conceivable branch of research. 

Why should we not erect in it a sort of science-exchange into which the physi- 
cist, the chemist, and the geologist may each carry the fruits of his research, 
receiving back in return some suggestion, some principle, or some other scientific 
commodity that will aid him in his own field P 

But to establish such a mart must be a national undertaking, and already several 
nations have acknowledged their obligations in this respect. 

Already the German Government have established a Sonnenwarte, the mere 
building and equipment of which is to cost a large sum. With an appreciation of 
what the spectroscope has done for this inquiry, the first directorship was offered 
to Kirchhoff, and on his declining it, Her Wagel has been placed in charge, In 
France also a physical observatory is to be erected at Fontenay, on an equal, if not 
greater, scale, of which Janssen has already accepted the directorship ; while in 
Italy a are at least three observatories exclusively devoted to this branch of 
research. 

Nor must we forget that in this country the new observatory at Oxford has been 
so arranged that it can be employed in such inquiries. But what has England as 
a nation done ? 

Some years since, at the Norwich Meeting of this Association, a movement was 
set on foot by Colonel Strange which resulted in the appointment of a Royal Com- 
mission on the advancement of science, with the Duke of Devonshire as chairman. 
This Commission have quite recently reported on the steps that ought, in thew 
opinion, to be taken for the advancement of scientific research. 

One of their recommendations is expressed in the following words :— 


. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 9 


“Important classes of phenomena relating to physical meteorology and to terrestrial 
and astronomical physics require observations of such a character that they cannot 
be advantageously carried on otherwise than under the direction of Government. 
Institutions for the study of such phenomena should be maintained by the Govern- 
ment; and in particular an observatory should be founded specially devoted to 
astronomical physics.” 

if the men of science of this country who procured the appointment of this com- 
mission, and who subsequently gave evidence before it, will now come forward to 
support its recommendations, it can hardly be doubted that these will be speedily 
carried into effect. 

But other things besides observations are necessary if we are to pursue with 
advantage this great physical problem. 

One of these is the removal of the intolerable burden that has hitherto been laid 
upon private meteorologists and magneticians. Expected to furnish their tale of 
bricks, they have been left to find their own straw. Nothing more wretched can 
be imagined than the position of an amateur (that is to say, a man who pursues 
science for the love of it and is unconnected with any establishment) who has set 
himself to promote observational inquiries, whether in meteorology or magnetism. 

He has first to obtain, with great expenditure of time or money, or both, copies 
of the individual observations taken at some recognized institution. He has next 
to reduce these in the way that suits his inquiry, an operation again consuming 
time and demanding means. Let us suppose all this to be successfully accomplished 
and a valuable result obtained. It is doubtless embodied in the Transactions of 
some Society ; but it excites little enthusiasm, for it consists of something which 
cannot be repeated by every one for himself like a new and interesting experiment. 
Yet the position ofsuch men has recently been improved. Several observatories and 
other institutions now publish their individual observations ; this is done by our 
Metereological Office, while Dr. Bergsma, Dr. Neumayer, and Mr. Broun are recent 
examples of magneticians who have adopted this plan. The publication of the 
work of the latter is due to the enlightened patronage of the Rajah of Travancore, 
who has thus placed himself in front of the princes of India and given them an ex- 
ample which it is to be hoped they will follow. But this is only one step in the right 
direction ; another must consist in subsidizing private meteorologists and magne- 
ticians in order to enable them to obtain the aid of computers in reducing the 
observations with which they have been furnished. The man of science would 
thus be able to devote his knowledge, derived from long study, to the methods 
by which results, and the laws regulating them, are to be obtained ; he could be 
the architect and builder of a scientific structure without being forced to waste his 
energies on the work of a hodman. 

Another hindrance consists in our deficient Inowledge as to what observations 
of yalue in magnetism and meteorology haye already been made. We ought to 
have an exhaustive catalogue of all that has been done in this respect in our globe, 
and of the conditions under which the various observations will be accessible to 
outside inquirers. A catalogue of this kind has been framed by a committee of 
this Association; but it is confined to the dominions of England, and requires to 
be supplemented by a list of that which has been done abroad. 

A third drawback is the insufficient nature of the present facilities for the inven- 
tion and improvement of instruments and for their verification. 

We have no doubt advanced greatly in the construction of instruments, espe- 
cially in those which are self-recording. The names of Brooke, Robinson, Welsh, 
Osler, and Beckley will occur to us all as improvers of our instruments of obser- 
vation. Sir W. Thomson has likewise adapted his electrometer to the wants of 
meteorology. Dr. Roscoe has given us a self-recording actinometer ; but a good 
instrument for observing the sun’s heat is still a desideratum. It ought likewise 
to be borne in mind that the standard mercurial thermometer is by no means a 
perfect instrument. 

In conclusion, it cannot be doubted that a great generalization is looming in the 
distance—a mighty law, we cannot yet tell what, that will reach us, we cannot yet 
say when. It will involve facts hitherto inexplicable, facts that are scarcely re- 
ayn _ such because they appear opposed to our present knowledge of a causes. 

875. 


10 : REPORT—1875. — 


It is not possible, perhaps, to hasten the arrival of this generalization beyond a 
certain point ; but we ought not to forget that we can hasten it, and that it is our 
duty to do so. It depends much on ourselves, our resolution, our earnestiess, on 
the scientific policy we adopt, as well as on the power we may have to devote our- 
selves to special investigations, whether such an advent shall be realized in our day 
and generation, or whether it shall be indefinitely postponed. If governments would 
understand the ultimate material advantages of every step forward in science, how- 
ever inapplicable each may appear for the moment to the wants or pleasures of 
ordinary life, they would find reasons, patent to the meanest capacities, for bringing 
the wealth of mind, now lost on the drudgery of common labours, to bear-on the 
search for those wondrous laws which govern every movement, not only of the 
mighty masses of our system, but of every atom distributed throughout space. 


MatHemarics, 


On a Serew-complew of the Second Order, 
By Professor R. 8. Batt, LL.D., ERS. 


Denoting by @,,..., 6, the six coordinates of a screw, then an homogeneous 
equation of the second degree, Ug=0, between the six coordinates denotes what 
may be termed a screw-complex of the second order, If « be a given screw, then 


UD escent qu _ 
* 6, VSO Fe ag, = 2s 


being a linear equation in 6,,..,, 4, denotes the locus of screws about which a 
body which has freedom of the fifth order can be twisted. To this system one 
screw ¢ is reciprocal; and we may call the screw 6 thus defined the polar of the 
screw « with respect to the screw-complex Ug=0, The relation between « and 
its polar is independent of the screws of reference. ; 

The locus of the screws about which a body can twist so that when it has the 
unit of twist velocity its kinetic energy is zero is an imaginary screw-complex of 
the second order. The polar of any screw « with respect to this serew-complex is 
as screw an impulsive wrench on which would make the body commence to twist 
about @. 


ee ee 


On the Analytical Forms called Factions. By Professor Caytny, F.R.S. 


A faction is a product of differences such that each letter occurs the same number 
of times; thus we have a quadrifaction where each letter occurs twice, a cubifac- 
tion where each letter occurs three times, and so on. A broken faction is one 
which is a product of factions having no common letter ; thus 


(a—b)? (e—d) d—e) (e-¢) 
is a broken quadrifaction, the product of the quadrifactions 
(a—b)? and (c—d)(d—e) (e—c), 


We have, in regard to quadrifactions, the theorem that every quadrifaction is a 
sum of broken quadrifactions such that each component quadrifaction contains two 
or else three letters. Thus we have the identity 


2(a—b) (b—c)(e—d)(d—a) = (b—c)?. (a—d)? — (e—a)?.. (b—d)?-+- (a—b)?. (e—d)?, 


which verifies the theorem in the case of a quadrifaction of four letters; but the 
verification even in the next following case of a quadrification of five letters is a 
matter of some difficulty. 


The theory is connected with that of the invariants of a system of binary quantics. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 11 


On the Theory of Linear Transformations: I. The Graphical Representation 
of Invariants; Il. The Expansion of Unsymmetrical Functions in Symme- 
trical Functions and Determinants; III. The Notation.of Matrices. By 
Professor Crrrrorp, F.R.S. 


On the Calculus of Motors, By Professor J. D. Evererr, F.2.S.E. 


See three articles, entitled “On a new Method in Statics and Kinematics,” in the 
‘ Messenger of Mathematics’ for 1874 and 1875, 


Formule of Verification in Partitions. By J.W. UL. Guaisurr, M.A., PRS. 


At the Edinburgh Meeting (Report, 1871, Transactions of the Sections, pp. 23- 
25) Sylvester gave a formula for verifying, in writing down all the partitions of a 
given number 7, that none had been omitted. The formula in question was that 

Sd —atey—ayz+ryzw—ke.)=0, » . ss se » J) 


where in any partition x denotes the number of 1’s present, y the number of 2’s, z 
the number of 3’s, and the = extends to all the partitions ; so that 51=N, the total 
number of partitions of x. 

In this very elegant formula, however, as the terms are alternately positive and 
negative, an omission may easily cancel itself; ex. gr. if the omitted partition con- 
tains one 1 and no 2, it would appear as 1 in the first term, as 1 in the second term, 
and as zero in the succeeding terms, so that its omission would not be pointed out. 
It becomes therefore a matter of interest to examine what the formula (1) becomes 
if all the terms are taken with the positive sign. 

I. Starting from the identity 


t e t Se a é 
joe is (2. 1_e Tater ie + &e, = 14+¢.14+¢2.1+42 sang 
and dividing throughout by 1-¢.1-#.1-—#@..., we have 
i! B 8 : 
ff 1-6. 1-8 Oc ice Ope wi 
_ 14t.14#.14@... 
™ T-#.1—#-°1-#... 
= (142¢4+2+4209+ &e.) (14224 2t'+&c.) 1 +2842 +&e.) ...5 
whence, equating the coefficients of ¢”, 

S(1+-a+ay--ayetayzw+&e.) = 323, .. 2... « 
where 7 is the number of different elements contained in any partition. Thus, take 
as an example n=7: the partitions are 

1414141414141, 1414144, 148418 
14141414142 , 1414+2+38, 1+6 
1+1+4142+2 go 0 def TSes ., = 2+5 
I+1]--l-+1+3 » 14244 , 844 
14242+2 » 24243 , 7 
so that N, the number of partitions, =15, 37=80, Sry=17, Sayz=2. Also there 


are 2 partitions in which only one element occurs, 11 in which two elements occur, 
and 2 in which three elements occur. Thus Sylvester’s formula (1) gives 


15 —30+17-2 = 0; 
O* 


12 " REPORT—1875. 


and (2) gives 
1543041742 = 2.2411. 2°42. 23, 


The two formule (1) and (2) taken together form a much better verification than 
either singly ; viz. we have 


3(1+2y+ayzw+ Ke.) = 3(a@+ayz+&e.) = 52-1, 
in which we may replace 32’-1 by 32%, s denoting the nwmber of changes in any 
partition. 


The following formule afford additional verifications :— 
II. From the identity 


pal = a Ps 
14t.14+2.14@... 


S+2r-1 = 0, 1, or —1, 


= 1-2f42t!-284 &e., 


we have 


according as m is not a square, is an even square, or is an uneven square: the sign-+- 
is to be used if the partition contains an even number of terms, and the sign — if 
the number is uneven. 

III. From the same identity inverted, viz. from 


14¢.14+2.148..._ il 
It. 1=F I=...) 1 2t4 2 = 2P + &e!’ 


=2" = (—)"(R-R’), 


we have 


where R denotes the number of representations* of as the sum of an even number 
of squares, and R' the number of representations as an uneven number of squares. 

To verify these results in the case n=7 we have, for II., considering the parti- 
tions with an even number of terms, 


2=2'°1=6X241x2?=16; 
and for the partitions with an uneven number of parts, 
22'-1=2145x241x2?=16, 


thus verifying the theorem, since 7 is not a square. 
For ILI. the partitions of 7 as a sum of squares are two, viz. 


15951 A Send a 


The former gives rise to 4X 16 representations and the latter to 1 x 128 representa- 
tions, and the formula becomes 


64=(—)7{4x 16—128}. 
The four theorems taken together, viz. 
2(1+ay+ &e.) = S(a+ayz+&e.) = 52’) = 1(—)(R-R), 
S22 0) ly — 1, 
form a striking system of mutually related formule of verification. 


The author had investigated other systems, but this was the most satisfactory he 
had met with. , 


with 


* See Professor H. J. 8. Smith’s “Report on the Theory of Numbers,” Brit. Assoc. 
Rep. 1865, p. 337. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 13 


Theorems on the n™ roots of Unity. By J. W. L. Guaisuer, MA., RS. 


If x be any number and if all the sets of r elements that can be formed from the 
numerals 1, 2,3...—1 be written down according to any rule with regard to 
sequences and breaks, then the sum of all these sets will always be rational if the 
numerals 1, 2,3...2-—1 be supposed to stand for 1—w, 1—#?, 1-2... 1—2""}, 
x being any rite nth root of unity. 

To make the theorem clear, consider an example. Take x= 7, and write down 
all the sets which can be formed from the numerals 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 having (say) a 
sequence of two and one break (7. e. having two numbers consecutive and one non- 
consecutive or isolated), viz. these are 


124, 125, 126, 235, 236, 346, 341, 451, 452, 561, 562, 563; 
then the theorem asserts that v being a 7th root of unity, the expression 
l—wv.l—2?.l—2' + l—-2x .l—2?.1l—2* + l—2 .1l—2?,.1—a*+... 
+ 1l—2* .l—2z*.1—2? + 1-2’. 1—2' . 1—2? 


is rational. The simplest case is that of a sequence without any break; ez. gr. con- 
sider a sequence of two, then, since 12, 23, 34, 45, 56 are the only sets, the theorem 
asserts that 


l—w#.1—2?+1—2?.1l—#?+1—2°. 1—2'+1—2'. 1—2#' +1—2° .1—2° 


_ig rational. 


The penetal mode of proof will be easily gathered from the demonstration of the 
truth of the theorem in the case of these two examples. Take the second first, and 
consider the function of <, 


(1—z) A—2z),=14 Azs+B2’, say, 
x being a 7th root of unity. Since 7 is a prime number every root is a prime root, 


and the roots of the equation x7=1 are x, x”, x, x*, 2°, 2°, 1; so that, substituting 
successively these values for z, and adding the results, we see that 


(l—z)—2. x) +(_—2?) (1—a#. 27) +(1—2°)(1—2. )4+G—2')\d—z. 2’) 
+ (1—2*)1—a. 2°) + (1—a*) (l—a. x*) +d—27)1—2.2"7) 


(the last two terms being zero) is rational, since the coefficients of A and B vanish 
by the summation. 

To prove the theorem in the case of the first example, note that all the sets may 
be obtained by starting with the three in which the sequence is 12, and continually 
adding unity to each of the three numbers in each set, thus: 


124, 125, 126 
235, 236, 237 
346, 347, 341 
457, 451, 452 
561, 562, 563 
672, 673, 674 
715} 714, 715 
124, 125, 126 


. (in which 8 is replaced by 1 as it arises). We arrive after a cycle of seven lines at 


the original line again; and, ignoring the terms in which 7 occurs, since 1—a7=0, 
we see that (1,2,3... denoting, as stated above, l—z, 1—2?, 1—z* . .,) the first 


column, viz. 
124 + 235 + 346 + 561, 


is formed by putting < equal successively to 2, 27, x*, x, x*, 2°, 1 in the expression 
1l—z.1—wz.1—a*z, which is of the form 1+Az+Bz’?+Cz*; and similarly for 


14 REPORT—1875. 


the other columns. It is evident in this example that the three cycles include all 
the sets which contain a sequence of two and one break; so that the theorem is 
roved for this case. A little consideration, however, shows too that if all the sets 
Senied according to any fixed rule regulating the sequences and breaks be written 
down, they must consist of a group (or cycle), or of an aggregation of several groups 
each of which is rational. For consider any one set: it must belong to a group, for 
we can obtain a group from it by increasing the numerals in it, each by unity, succes- 
sively till it reproduces itself; also no set can be common to two groups. 
We thus see that the truth of the general theorem depends upon two considera-= 
tions, viz. (i) upon the remark that any function such as 


P(x, 2) +G(x, 2) TP(z, v*) + ... Pla, an), 


- ‘where 


(2, 2) =A+Bz+02 ... +P"! 


(B, C...P being any non-infinite functions of x), is rational; and (ii) upon the 
proposition that the total series of sets formed by arranging the numerals according 
to any law of sequences and breaks consists of the aggregation of groups. 

It is evident that the theorem is equally true if we understand 1, 2,3... to mean 


(l—z)?, 1—2*)?, G—-2*)?,..., 
(l—z)"; (A=27)", (la)... 


or, in fact, any functions 


or even 


P(x, @), P(t, 2) ssa 


subject to the conditions that p(, 1)=0, and that in the development of the type 
expression involving z the coeflicients of the terms in 2°, 2, 22"... are to be inde- 
pendent of x. 

If the former condition is not satisfied, the theorem is still true if the sets are 
formed from the series of numerals 1, 2,3... (% e. including »), With this 
alteration therefore the theorem is true for 


1+a,1+2?... orfor (1+.2)", (1+a*)*... 


The point of the theorem lies in the fact that functions of the roots of an equation 
which are not in appearance symmetrical, are rational; but it is generally quite 
easy to go further and assign the absolute values of any of the expressions con- 
sidered, since the value of any group is readily assigned: ez. gr. consider the 
group written above, viz. 1244235+4846--561 ; this is 


2(1—z)(1—az) —2*2) = = (1+As+B2+Cs4), for z=2, 07... a7 


? 


and generally each group =n (1,2... standing for 1—z, 1—2?...), so that the 
value of an expression = » times the number of groups it contains. 

It is also to be noted that very often it is not necessary that x should be a prime 
nth root; ex. gr. in the expression just written it is enough that 


Sz=0, 327=0, =2°=0, 


z.e. that neither 2, x2, nor #* should be unity. In this particular instance, since 7 
is prime, every root is a prime root; but whatever m may be, if there be only 
three numerals in each set, it is enough that z is an xth root which is not a square 
or cube root of unity ; and the generalization of this remark is obvious, — 


On some Geometrical Theorems. By W. Haypen. 


The paper was principally concerned with the properties of an isosceles triangle 
in which the squares on the equal sides are each double the square on the unequal 
side obtained geometrically: (1) this triangle can be constructed without the use 


—~ 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 15 


of the diagonal of a square, as shown in the first proposition ; (2) a property of this 
triangle is that each of its equal angles is equal to 1} the unequal angle +3 the 
angle included by the straight lines joining the unequal angle to the points of tri- 
section of the unequal side; (3) another property is that the unequal angle can be 
divided into two parts such that the square on the chord of one segment is double 
the square on the chord of the other segment (a similar property belongs to the 
isosceles right-angled triangle); (4) the square can be reduced to what may be 
bred its elementary triangles, eight in number, all the angles having a definite 
relation. 

The paper treats of the properties of this triangle in combination with the circle, 
the square, circles in geometrical progression, two and three circles, the square and 
the circumscribing circle, and the ellipse. 


Two Memoirs.—I. On the Shadows of Plane Curves on Spheres. II. On 
-Oubie Spherical Curves with triple Cyclic Ares and triple Foci. By 
Henry M. Jerrery, WA. 


I, On THE SHADOWS oF PLANE CURVES ON SPHERES *, 


1. M. Chasles, in his Geometrical Memoirs on Spherical Conics (which laid the 
foundation of the subject), has investigated several of their properties from projec- 
tions of the circles lying in a cyclic plane of the cone. 

It was proposed to establish general analytical processes which should embrace 
these theorems, particularly as that geometer has urged the subject on analysts. 

2. The several systems of coordinates in ordinary use were adapted from plane 
to spherical geometry. 

Cartesian coordinates are reduced from gnomonic projection to Gudermann’s 
system, in which the coordinates of a point, whether rectangular or oblique, are 
tangents of the arcs intercepted on the arcs of reference. From gnomonic projec- 
tion, Boothian tangential coordinates are represented on the sphere by cotangents 
of the arcs intercepted on the arcs of reference. 

Ex. The focal equation to the plane conic 


Z = 1+ecosé. 


- 
The equation to its projection on the sphere has the same form, 


tand sin 2y 
tan p sin 2a 


cos 6; 


for 
ae A'S=AS — tan 6'=—tan 6 bu sin (6'—6) He sin 2y 
“ A'S+AS ~~ tand’+tand sin(o’+6) = sin 2a’ 


where the symbols have the ordinary acceptation. 

The same process was shown to be applicable to determine the analytical forms 
and geometrical properties of both pole- and polar-spherical curves. 

’ 3. Equations to a circle or conic, which are expressed in rectangular coordinates 
in a cyclic plane of a cone, were converted into three-point tangential equations of 
the projected spherical curve. 

Two points of reference are situated in the cyclic arc, and the third is the polar 
point of the cyclic are with respect to the spherical conic. By this process the several 
properties of the spherical conic which relate to a single cyclic arc are simply 
deduced from those of the plane circle, in following the geometrical guidance of 
M. Chasles. 

4. Formule were next given to express the shadow of a plane curve, as deter- 
mined by trilinear coordinates, by spherical coordinates. 


we memoir has been printed im eatenso in the ‘Quarterly Mathematical Journal,’ 


16 REPORT—1875. 


if a', B', y' be the primitive trilinear coordinates of a point referred to a triangle 
ABC, then if sin #, sin 8, sin y denote the spherical coordinates of the projected 
point referred to a spherical triangle, constituted by planes through the centre O 
and the sides of ABC, 


sinw:sin@:siny::sin BC: sinCA:sinAB 
2: apa’ : bp.@' : epsy', 
where p,, P., ps3 are the perpendiculars on the opposite faces of the tetrahedron 
OABC. 


If the chords of the ares of the spherical triangle constitute the sides of the tri- 
angle of reference, 


tl el cup es a . db. . Cc 
a 76 7 G08, Sil eS C08 SUN ACOs RE, 


By this process it was shown that the shadow of a circular cubic has the shadow 
of the line at infinity for a cyclic arc. The shadow of a Cartesian, which has cusps 
at the circular points at infinity, has two (and may have three) coincident cyclic 
ares in the shadow of the line at infinity. 

5. Formule were given to determine the tangential equation of the shadow on a 
sphere of a plane curve, which is itself expressed by tangential coordinates; 


p':q':7r':: OA sinp: OB sing: OB sinr 
7: p, sina sinp: p, sind sing: p, sine sin7, 


In the particular case where OA, OB, OC are equal, the formule of transformation 
are identical in form. 

These formule were applied to deduce equations to spherical curves, and in par- 
ticular to inyestigate the projections of the circular points at infinity, and their 
properties. 

6. This outline of the doctrine of projection on the sphere may be regarded as 
a separate chapter in spherical analytical geometry, and may suggest further deve- 
lopments of the subject by following the lead of the great French geometer, 


II, On Cusic SpHERICAL CURVES WITH TRIPLE CycLic ARCS AND 
TRIPLE FOCI. 


1. On the classification of cubic cones and spherical cubics.—There are five cubic 
cones—simplex, complex, crunodal, acnodal, and cuspidal, to use the nomenclature 
of Prof. Cayley. The singular and non-singular forms have been studied in the 
canonical and other distinct equations. 

It is here proposed to classify them according to their cyclic planes or ares—(1) 
with three single cyclic arcs, (2) one double and another single, and @) with a 
triple cyclic arc. The classification of Newton and Pliicker for plane cubies will 
thus be imitated; but the number of groups is much less, viz. three in all. 

As there are three real foci in a plane curve of the third class, it is inferred that 
there are three real foci in a spherical cubic of the same class, since the tangential 
equations to both are identical in form; hence, by reciprocation, there are three 
cyclic planes in a cubic cone of the third order. The three groups may be con- 
veniently studied in trilinear equations :— 


(1) xaBy = lat+m6+ny, 
(2) «aS =y, 
(3) xa = 8, 


where « is the variable perimeter in each group. The left-hand side defines the 
cyclic ares, the right-hand the satellite arc. The symbols denote the sines of the 
respective arcs. If the variables be interpreted as tangential coordinates, these 
three groups represent all cubics of the third class both plane and spherical—viz. 
(1) with three single foci, (2) with one double and one single focus, (3) with one 
triple focus, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 17 


As this investigation has a double interest, it is desirable that the five cubic 
cones of the third class should have distinctive names*. 

2. On the cubic referred to a triple cyclic arc.—Let the triple cyclic arc and its 
satellite include any angle c; since the third arc of reference is arbitrary, assume 
it to be the quadrantal polar of the intersection of the other two. 

The trilinear equation to this group is 


ka®+38(4n?)=0, where (4x7) denotes a?+f*+c’y?+2a8 cose, 


the expression for six times the volume of the plane tetrahedron formed by the 
centre of the sphere and the vertices of the spherical triangle of reference. (The 
symbols may denote the sines of the ares in question.) It is seen that the cubics of 
this group have a diametral are and a Newtonian centre at the point of inflexion. 

3. All cubies with triple eyche arcs have triple foct.—The equivalent tangential 
equation to these cubics denotes in general curves of the sixth class, 


9x7? (9G? +77)? +32 (pgtr? cos c)’—36«(p?+ 2°) (¢?-+7") (pg+r? cos c) 
+12(p?+7?)?(p?+9?+ cr?—2ny cose) =0, 


This equation may be arranged to exhibit the triple focus 


(p—gq cos c)’{9x?(2pq cos c—p’—¢’) (p—q cos c)—4(q—p cosc)*} 
+(2?+9?+ ¢?1?—2pq cos c)u,=0. 


4. If the non-singular cubics of this group be complex, all six real foci are situated 
on the diametral arc; if simplex, only four.—After removing the factor which de- 
notes the triple focus from the preceding tangential equation, the remaining factor 
denotes three other foci, 


9x(2p¢ cos c—p?—g?) (p—gq cos c)—4(g—p cose)’. 


Its discriminant will be found to be the same as that of the given cubic equation 
to the curve. Hence follows the truth of the proposition. 

5. Critic centres in the general case—Pliicker has defined them for plane cubic 
curves as middle points, irrespective of their being the sites of nodes. 

A plane cubic of a particular group intersects the lines of reference in three col- 
linear fixed points: the locus of the middle point of a straight line through one of 
these points, intercepted between the other two lines of reference, is a hyperbola ; 
the intersection of three such hyperbole determines the critic centres. 

The same definition is applicable to spherical cubics. 

In particular, if (xa8y=/a-+mB-+-ny) denote a spherical cubic of the first group 
referred to three rectangular arcs of reference, the critic centres determined by this 
definition are the intersections of three non-singular complex cubics with concur- 


rent cyclic arcs, 
—a’+p?+? >: a’—B?+7? ‘7 a?+B?—¥? 


la mp ny 


_ 6. Critic centres of cubies with triple cyclic arcs.—They are two in number, and 
lie in the quadrantal polar of the intersection of the point of inflexion. At a critic 


centre, 
Gy, 10 oy ee 
de.” Ce Ga dy 


Hence the equation of § 2 yields these data, 
y=0 : ka’+2a8+28? cose=0: a?+4a8 cosc+34?=0. 
It appears from the last equation, thus arranged, 
(a+28 cos c)*—B?(1—4 sin*c)=0, 


* They might be distinguished as simplex or unipartite, complex or bipartite, veri- 
bitangential, acubitangential, and inflexional. 


18 REPORT—1875. 


that for values of ¢ between 30° and 150° the curve is simplex, and there is no 
nodal point. , t 

In particular, if the cyclic arc and its satellite are at right angles to each other, 
the cubic is simplex and trilateral or campaniform. 

At the terminal values, e= 80°, the cubic is cuspidal, and will be separately 
considered. 

If 4 cos?e>8, the cubic may have all four forms, according to the value of the 
parameter x. ! 

The transition from the pimples to complex genera takes place at the critic centres. 

The discriminant (645*—T*) varies as 


{ 3e— ek (9—8 cos 2c) fas (4 cos?e—3). 


The cubic is complex, nodal, or simplex, as the discriminant > = <0. 


Ex. cose= ——=~: the conditions become 


wir "3 7 / 
(«- TJ e— Ty3)= =—0. 


27 28 


Between the limits of 36/9 and 36/2 for x the discriminant is positive and 


the curve is complex; at the former limit acnodal, at the latter crunodal, beyond 
these limits simplex. 


_In particular, if x = ae the invariant S=0, and the curve is simplex neutral. 
7. Cuspidal forms.—At a cusp both invariants 8’, T are equal to zero, Hence 


1=2« cose : 3x?—6x cose+2=0. 
In this case 


a = 
=F V3 e = 80° or 150°. 
The corresponding trilinear equations exhibit the cusps 


(Js +8) + by =0; (c=80°); 6 2 es 2 is Gd) 


(—J3+8) + 2Y =o, (oes BO?),.0i> &. eotrueemtnnl 


In (1) the cusp is 30° distant from A and 60° from B; in (2) it is 80° from A 
and 120° from B, and intermediate. 

- 8. By dualizing, corresponding theorems may be obtained for cubics of the third 
class with triple foci and triple cyclic arcs. The properties of plane cubies of this 
class may be deduced, although, as in cubics of the third order, they are not co- 
extensive. 

There are three species only zm plano of trifocal_cubics (complex, bitangential, 
and simplex), whereas all five occur in trifocal spherical cubics. Plane trifocal 
cubies exhibit (in their point-équations) cusps at infinity, but have not coincident 
asymptotes. ; 

9. The other two groups of spherical cubics are reserved for future consideration. 


Elementary Solution of Huyghens’s Problem on the Impact of Elastic Balls. 
By Paut Mansion, Professor in the University of Ghent. 


1. Iftwo positive quantities x, =7—2, and y have a constant product 7”, their sum, 


ge ET ig peat 
T—zZ ——| 
eer fe r—z 


is the smallest possible when z=0, viz. when #=y=7. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 19 


If we consider any number of quantities, say four, whose product xyz is equal 
to a constant p, their sum, 8,=¢+y-+2+w, is the smallest possible when they are 
all equal; for if two of the quantities are unequal, we can diminish their sum 8, 
by replacing each by the square root of their product. From these well-known 
principles we can deduce the solution of a celebrated question, known as Huyghens’s 
problem, as follows :— 

2. The sums of the products of these quantities, taken two and two and three 
and three, viz. 


S,=aytazteutystyuteu, S,=aystayutcaut you, 


are composed of terms which, multiplied together, give a constant product p,. S, 
and 8, will therefore have their smallest possible values when the terms are equal, 
viz. when z=y=2=u. 


3. The product, 
P=(1+2)(1+y)(1+2)(14+), which =1+8,+8,+8,+ ), 


is the least possible when x=y=z=u, because then §,, 8,,S, have their minima 
values. 
4, The expression 
aXYZ 


= ————————oooe 
(4+X)(X+Y)(¥FZ)(Z+6)’ 
in which a and 6 are constants and X, Y, Z variables, can be written 
1 


and the greatest value of H, or the least value of the denominator of the expression 
last written, corresponds to * ¥ F ; 


Gh ae Ae ce 
for the product 


is constant. 

5. The preceding argument can evidently be extended to any number of vari- 
ables. We are led to seek the maximum of a quantity analogous to H and con- 
taining 7 variables in treating the well-known question (Huyghens’s) :—“ Let there 
be any number of perfectly elastic balls ranged in a straight line ; the first strikes 
the second with a given velocity, the second with the velocity communicated by 
the first strikes the third, the third strikes the fourth, and so on. The masses a 
and 6 of the first and the last being given, determine the masses of the intermediate 
balls that the last may receive the maximum velocity.” M. Picart has treated this 

uestion by means of the differential calculus (‘ Nouvelles Annales de Mathéma- 
tiques,’ 1874, pp. 212-219); but the investigation is long. The mathematicians 
who had solved it previously (Huyghens, Lagrange, &c.) have, he states, only de- 
monstrated that H was really a maximum in the case of three balls. The present 
note contains a simple and complete solution by means only of elementary algebra. 


' 


On the singular Solutions of Differential Equations of the First Order which 
represent Lines at Infinity. By Pavu Manston, Professor in the University 
of Ghent. 

1. The following is a réswmé of the theory of singular solutions of differential 
equations of the first order. 
(1.) Ifa differential equation, 


SG, 9, 9)=9, or O@y,7)=0,....... J) 


20 REPORT—1875. 


has no general integral, it will only happen exceptionally that it will have a sin- 
gular solution. When this singular solution exists, we have simultaneously the 
three relations ii ‘ A 

f=0, y =0, Bf sf 


apie n=) on ree ee ee (A) 
Br d. op Ye) 
MH ' 
p=0, ae ir? a =0 . eee et ae (B) 


for the values of w and y which satisfy the singular solution *, 
(I1.) If the equation (1) has a general integral, 


HG 9; =O; Ney Oe ee ee (2) 
the singular solutions are given by the elimination of ¢ between the relations 
=~) We. 
[F = 0, FE — 0] , . . . . . . . . . (3) 
or : 
[F=% G=0],  o 2 y Mihai eee en) 
or by the systems 
2 dy _ rn 
Po wee ye es 0 4G oo ene (5) 
or 4 
xv 
[ =, geo. Es Mitel By bee, 
equivalent to (3) and (4), unless we have 
dy __ ; eae 
Fondo = 9.08 ©» ie PT ET TD) 


Besides, i general, the two equations (5) or (6) have as a consequence the third 
equation (A) or (B), contrary to what takes place in the first case . 

2. M. Darboux, to whom is due the subdivision of the subject as indicated above, 
has given several examples where the rule II. seems to fail. "We shall show that 
this is not the case if we introduce in the infinitesimal analysis the notion of singular 
solutions situated wholly at infinity. 

(I.) The differential equation 


, 9 4 
“ng oe, Sele =O 
has for its general integral 
(y—e)?—2°=0, orxv— (y—c)?=0. 


The system (5) cannot give a singular solution. The system (6) leads to 7=0, 
which does not satisfy the equation, as it belongs to the case of exception (7), viz. 
ma a; the system (6) is not equivalent to (4). The latter gives 

dx —2 


de 3(y—c)? 


Zags 
belts 


viz. z= 0. Now x= ois really a tangent to the cubic (y—c)?—a°=0, as is im- 
mediately evident. 


* Darboux, ‘Comptes Rendus,’ t. Ixx. pp. 1829-13883; Catalan, ‘Comptes Rendus,’ 
t. Ixxi. pp. 50-57; Darboux, ibid. pp. 267-270 ; ‘Bulletin des Sciences Mathématiques et 
Astronomiques,’ t. iv. pp. 158-176. 

t P. Mansion, ‘Bulletin de Bruxelles’ (2), t. xxxiy. pp- 149-167; Gilbert, ibid. 
pp. 142-145; P. Mansion, ‘Bullettino de Boncompagni,’ t. v1. pp. 283-285 (Luglio, 1878). 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 21 


(IL.) The differential equation 
y?+2ay'—y=0, or 1+2x2’—yx?=0, 
has for its general integral 
(8ya+2x° +c)?—4(y+a*)?=0. 


Putting, for simplicit 
g) piicity, ytor=e, S8yx4+20°+ce=22%, 


we find 
wg RY 2 2(8yz+ 22°+c) wt wave 
de 6x(By2+-2a°-+ce)—12(y+2")? ~— 8(w—z)’ 
dx 23ya+2x>+c) 1 


— — — 


de 6(y+2a*) (Byx+2x* +c) —24a(y+.27)? 3(a—z)” 
and consequently : 
ee om sane) 


The systems (5) and (6) lead to the relation y+-2?=0, which is not a singular solu- 
oy as it also belongs to the case of exception (7). But the systems (3) and (4) 

ead to 
s—a=0, or Vypar—a=0o, © se eee (9) 


a relation which is in a@ certain sense a singular solution of the given equation. 
To show this, put 
Vy+e—o=A, or y=2Art+A2, 

and we deduce 

i 
= eas 
On the other hand, the curves represented by the general integral have, after (8), 
for the coefficient of the direction of their tangent 


= & 
™% 
Tf A increases indefinitely, these two values of «' tend towards the common limit 
zero. In a certain sense, therefore, the equation (9) represents a singular solution 
of the given equation. ; 
These two examples are sufficient to explain the apparent exceptions to rule IT, 
which we may consequently regard as giving all the singular solutions which are 
not at the same time particular integrals. 


a! 


On Singular Solutions, By Professor Hunry J. Stepney Surrn, 7.2.8. 


On the Effect of Quadrie Transformation on the Singular Points of a Curve. 
By Professor Hunry J. Srepuen Suirn, /.2.S. 


— 


Note on Continued Fractions. By Professor Henry J. Sreruen Surtu, F.B.S. 


Contributions to the Mathematics of the Chessboard. By H. Marryn Taytor, 
M.A., Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Canibridge. 
The object of the peer was to ascertain the relative values of the pieces on a 


chessboard. Ifa piece be placed on a square of a chessboard, the number of squares 
it commands depends in general on its position. If we calculate the average num- 


22 REPORT—1875. 


ber of squares which any particular piece commands when placed in succession on 
every square of the board, it seems fair to assume that this gives a not very inexact 
measure of the value of the piece. 5 

For special reasons the above problem is stated in the following manner :—“ A 
king and a piece of different colours are placed at random on two squares of a chess- 
board of x? squares: it is required to find the chance that the king is in check.” 
The ordinary chessboard has an even number of squares; and as some of the results 
take different forms for odd and even values of n, the results are here given merely 
for even values of n, and the results for the ordinary chessboard of sixty-four squares 
deduced from them. As the relative values of the knight and bishop on the ordi- 
nary chessboard on this hypothesis come out in a ratio very different from the ratio 
that is ordinarily received by chess-players, it occurred to the author to investigate 
the chance that when a king and a piece of different colours were placed at random 
on two squares of a board, the king should be in check but unable to take the 
piece. This check is called safe check in distinction to a mere check, which may 
be safe or unsafe, which is called simple check. 

Simple check from one rook.—A rook on any position checks 2(m—1) squares. 
The king can be placed on x*—1 squares for any given position of the rook, The 
Ble L) soit sap pt tao? aan ee 

ni—1 n+1° 4 gar), 

Safe check from one rook.—If the rook be on a corner square, it could be taken 
by a king in check on two squares, and so on, The number of safe checks by a 
rook on the different squares is given by the following scheme :— 


chance of check, therefore, is 


Number of Number of such 
Rook on safe checks. positions of the rook. 
a Qn—4 4 
b 2Qn—5 A(n—2) 
c 2n—6 (n—2)/° 
The chance 
_ A(2n—4)+4(n—2) (2n—5) + (n—2)?(2n—6) _ 2(n—2) 
n*(n®—1) n(n+1) 


When n=8, the chance = . 


Simple check with one knight—The number of squares attacked by a knight placed 
on any square of a chessboard is given by the following scheme :— 


Number Number of 
Knight of such positions 
on cheeks. of knight. 
a 2 4 
b 3 8 
c 4 4(n—8) 
d 6 4(n—4) 
e 8 (n—4)? 


The chance of check 
hs 2.4+3.8+44.4(n—8)+6.4(n—4)48(n—4)? _ 8(n—2) 
; n° (n?—1) ~ 2(n+1) 


Tf »=8, chance = 9 For a knight all checks are safe cheeks. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 23 


The above two cases, which are the simplest, will suffice to show the method 
pursued by the author. In the case of the bishop, » being even, the numerator of 
the chance fraction is equal to. twice the sum of the first 3” terms of the series 


(n—1)(n—1)+ (n+1)(n—3)+(n+3)(n—5) +&e. = 2n(n—1)(2n—1). 


The results for the cases of n even are given in the following Table :— 


Chance of the king being in check, 


For board of n? squares. For board of 64 squares. 
Simple Safe Simple Safe 
check, check, check. check, 
Knicht ...... 8(n—2) 8(n=2) sMroggs bel 
n?(n-+1) n*(n+1) 12 12 
. 2 2n—1 2 (n—2)(2n—3) 5 3 
Bishop..,..... ap east Sa hgtce re Aer aes, = ae 
“ven 3 nine) 3 (nt) G 1d 
me 2 2(n—2) 2 i 
BRE u0»s'00 ert n(n¥1) 9 7 
2 5n—1 2 (n—2)(5n—3) 13 37 
Cyan so it i-nfed) io lal ike 36 1 
“a 2 4n?—9n-+-2 1 
Two bishops ., teccim z 
2(2n? —2n—1) 37 
Two rooks oree (n+1) (n®—2) 93 


-It is to be remarked that the relative values of the knight, bishop, rook, and 
queen are, according as we measure them by the chance of simple check or of safe 
check, on the ordinary chessboard in the ratio of 3, 5, 8, 13, and 12, 13, 24, 37 
respectively ; while the values of the pieces in the same order, as given by Staunton 
in the ‘Chess-Players’ Handbook,’ are 3:05, 3°50, 5:48, and 9:94, the value of 
the pawn being taken as unity. (The value of a pawn depends so much on the 
fact that it is possible to convert it into a queen, that the method explained in the 
paper does not appear applicable to it.) 


On Laplace’s Process for determining an Arbitrary Constant in the Integration 
of his Differential Equation for the Semidiurnal Tide. By Sir W. Taomson, 
FERS. HRSE, 


General Integration of Laplace’s Differential Equation of the Tides*, 
By Sir W. Tuomson, F.R.S., F.RS.E. 


On the Integration of Linear Differential Equations with Rational Coefficients. 
By Sir W. Tuomsoy, F.R.S., F.R.S.E. 


On some Effects of Laplace's Theory of Tides. 
By Sir W, Tuomsoy, F.B.S., F.B.S,E. 


* Published in ertenso in the ‘Philosophical Magazine’ for Noyember 1875, ser. 4, 
yol. 1. p. 388, 


24 REPORT—1875. 


ASTRONOMY. 


On the Total Solar Eclipse of April 5, 1875, observed at Bangchallé (Siam). 
By Dr. J. Janssen. 


Dr. Janssen used a special telescope for the study of the corona. The results 
obtained by the observations are as follows :— 

1. It was established that the line 1474 is infinitely more pronounced in the 
corona than in the protuberances. This line seems even to stop abruptly at the 
edge of the protuberances without penetrating them. The light, therefore, which 
this line 1474 gives belongs especially to the corona. This observation is one of 
the strongest evidences that can be brought forward to prove that the corona is 
a real object, matter radiating by itself. The existence of a solar atmosphere 
situated beyond the chromosphere (an atmosphere that Dr. Janssen had recognized 
in 1871 and proposed to call the coronal atmosphere) thus receives confirmation. 

2. Height of the Coronal Atmosphere.—In 1871 Dr. Janssen announced that the 
coronal atmosphere extended from a distance of half the sun’s radius to the distance 
of a whole radius at certain points. This assertion has been confirmed not only by 
the direct observation of the phenomenon, but also by photography. At Dr. 
Jaussen’s request, Dr. Schuster took photographs of the corona ao exposures of 
one, two, four, and eight seconds. In this series of photographs the height of the 
corona increases with the time of exposure. The height of the corona in the eight- 
seconds’ oe exceeds at some points the sun’s radius. (It is true that 
account ought to be taken of the influence of the terrestrial atmosphere.) 

3. As the sky was not perfectly clear at Bangchallé, Dr. Janssen was enabled to 
observe ae ae that explain previous observations of eclipses which seemed 
to invalidate the existence of the corona as an incandescent gaseous medium. 

On the whole the observations of April 5, 1875, have advanced us a fresh step 
in the knowledge of the corona by bringing forward new proofs of the existence of 
an atmosphere round the sun, principally gaseous, incandescent, and very extended. 


Tast of Meteors observed at Oxford. By the Rey. R. Mary, F.R.S. 


os 


Transit of Venus, December 8, 1874. 
By the Rev. 8. J. Perry, F.RS., F.R.AS. 


The remarks made referred mostly to the Kerguelen Expedition, of which the 
author had the charge. 

Some of the members of this Expedition left England on May 20, and the rest 
on June 20, 1874, All met at the Cape of Good Hope, and proceeded thence in 
two of H.M. vessels, the ‘Volage’ (Captain Fairfax, R.N.) and the ‘Supply’ 
(Captain Inglis, R.N.). The Crozets were passed with fair wind and weather; but 
a storm encountered off Kerguelen delayed the landing for two days. During this 
time many of the sheep, goats, and oxen, and other live stock taken on board at 
the Cape were destroyed, and a large boat carried off by the waves. No injury 

was sustained by the instruments, except the deck thermometers, and no lives were 
lost. — 

A few days were spent in surveying the west and south coasts of Royal Sound, 
and two excellent stations were found by the aid of Captain Bailey, of the sealing 
schooner ‘Emma Jane.’ The huts and instruments were erected at once at the 
principal station, and three weeks later at the second station. A third station was 
occupied afew days before the transit, as it was found to be perfectly impracticable 
to attempt observations at MacDonald Island. 

The weather generally was not so bad as we had been led to expect; but we were 
visited by snow-storms even in the middle of summer, and the wind blew half a 
gale at least five days out of every seven. Still we were free from mist, and the 
sky was fairly fine during at least part of most days. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 25 


On the morning of the transit the preparations were all complete, and every 
assistance was rendered to the astronomers by Captain Fairfax and Captain Inglis 
and the other officers. At Stations 2 and 3 excellent results were obtained at 
ingress ; but a cloud prevented internal contact being obtained at Station 1. Duri 
the progress of the transit a few photographs, and some measures with the double- 
image micrometer, were taken at Station 1, clouds, however, interfering with con- 
tinuous work. At egress both internal and external contact were observed at 
Stations 1 and 3. 

Considering the position of the Island of Desolation, these results were considered 
satisfactory, and the determination of the longitude was pursued with all possible 
energy. A most successful chronometer-run had been made from the Cape of Good 
Hope under the direction of Lieut. C. Corbet, R.N., who also connected the three 
British Stations in Kerguelen with those of America and Germany; but as the 
longitude must depend mainly on lunar observations, no opportunity was lost of 
observing the moon. An altazimuth, especially designed by Sir G. B. Airy for 
Kerguelen, procured for the longitude ninety double observations of the moon’s 
azimuth or zenith-distance; whilst the transit gave nineteen meridian passages of 
the moon, and the equatorial one occultation. 

In the mean time the observers carried on a very complete series of meteorological 
and magnetic observations, which were continued during the homeward journey, 
and the Rey. A. E. Eaton studied the natural history of the island. 

Goats and rabbits were left on the island to propagate. 

On February 26th the lunar observations were considered sufficient to secure a 
fundamental longitude ; and, provisions running short, in less than two hours after 
the last meridian observation of the moon H.M.S. ‘ Volage’ and ‘Supply’ were on 
their way, one to Ceylon, the other to the Cape. 

About a week after leaving the Island of Desolation H.M.S. ‘ Volage’ encountered 
‘a eyclone, which might have ended unfortunately for the observers, though their 
observations were secured by being sent home in duplicate on board H.M.S. 
‘Supply’ and the ‘Monongahela,’ U.S.N. 

The other Government Expeditions were sent to the Sandwich Islands, to New 
Zealand, Egypt, and Rodriguez; and all were successful except New Zealand, where 
only a few micrometric measures were obtained. 

The Stations in India and Australia, Lord Lindsay at Mauritius, and other 
private observers were also fairly fortunate ; so that we may hope that England will 
aid largely towards the accurate determination of the solar parallax. 


Lieut, Heat, anp Exrorricrry. 


On the Ratio of the Actinic Power to the Illuminating Power of the Magneto- 
Electric Light, By Capt. W. pz W. Ansney, RL, F.OS., FLRAS. 


In some recent experiments with magneto-electric machines driven at varying 
speeds, and consequently with varying engine-power, the author obtained photo- 
metric measurements, by optical and also photographic means, of the different 
intensities of the light produced. 

At first sight a discrepancy seemed to arise between the results obtained from 
the two distinct methods. When, however, the values were laid down graphically, 
showing the power of the lights in comparison with the work expended in their 
production, the resulting curves became interesting ; they showed that the actinic 
power of the light diminished much more rapidly than the optical power as the 
“work done” decreased. 

The results of the experiments also showed that there is a certain point for each 
machine beyond which it is wasteful to increase the motive power, the increase in 
optical or actinic value of the light being very small. 


26 REPORT—1875. 


On Mirage at Sea. By Dr. J. JANssEn. 


| Many facts relating to the phenomena of mirage at sea are already known; but 
the. author has paid great attention to these appearances in all his voyages since 
1868, and has made some remarkable observations.on mirage, especially at sunrise 
and sunset. He has established:—1l. That the mirage is nearly constant at the 
surface of the sea. 2. That the appearances can be explained by assuming the 
existence of a plane of total reflection, situated at a certain height above the sea. 
’ 8. That the phenomena are due to the thermic and_hygrometric action of the sea 
upon the peighbawans atmospheric strata. 4. That there exist at sea direct, 
inverse, lateral, and other mirages. 5, That these phenomena have a very general 
influence upon the apparent height of the sea-horizon, which is sometimes lowered, 
sometimes raised. 
- This variation of the apparent horizon it is very important to take into account, 
if we consider the use made of the horizon in nautical astronomy. 


On the Photographic Revolver, and on the Observations of the Transit of Venus 
is cress made in Japan. By Dr. J. JANssEen. 


‘-'The author's expedition to Japan to observe the transit of Venus divided into 
two parts, the one taking up its station at Nagasaki and the other at Kobi. 

. At Nagasaki he observed the transit with an equatorial of 8 inches aper- 
ture, 1. He obtained the two interior contacts. 2. He saw none of the pheno- 
mena of the drop or of the ligament; the appearances were geometrical. 3. He 
observed facts which prove the existence of an atmosphere to Venus: he saw the 
panes Venus before its entry on the sun’s disk by the aid of suitable coloured glasses. 

his important observation proves the existence of the coronal atmosphere. 5. 
There was taken at Nagasaki a plate by the revolver for the first interior contact. 
6. M. Tisserand observed the two interior contacts with a 6-inch equatorial; the 
contacts were sensibly geometrical. 7. Sixty photographs of the transit upon 
silyered plates were obtained, 8, There were also obtained some photographs of 
the transit (wet collodion and albumenized glass). 

At Kobi (weather magnificent).—Fifteen good photographs of the transit (wet 
collodion and albumenized glass), of about 4 inches in size, were obtained: they will 
admit of being combined with the English photographs at the southern stations. 
The astronomical observations of the transit were made successfully by M. Delacroix, 
who was provided with a 6-inch telescope. He observed facts which attest the 
existence of an atmosphere round Venus. E 


On a Mode of producing a sharp Meridian Shadow. By A. Mattocu. 


On the Optical Properties of a Titano-Silicic Glass. 
By Professor Sroxrs and J. Horxinson. 


At the Meeting of the Association at Edinburgh in 1871, Professor Stokes gave 
a preliminary account of a long series of researches in which the late Mr, Vernon 
Harcourt had been engaged on the optical properties of glasses of a great variety 
of composition, and in which, since 1862, Professor Stokes had cooperated with 
him*. One object of the research was to obtain, if possible, two glasses which 
should achromatize each other without leaving a secondary spectrum, or a glass 
which should form with two others a triple combination, an objective composed 
of which should be free from defects of irrationality, without requiring undue 
curvature in the individual lenses, Among phosphatic glasses, the series in which 
Mr. Harcourt’s experiments were for the most part carried on, the best solution of 
this problem was offered by glasses in which a portion of the phosphoric was 
replaced by titanic acid. It was found, in fact, that the substitution of titanic for 


* Report for 1871, Transactions of the Sections, p. 38 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 2h 


phosphoric acid, while raising, it is true, the dispersive power, at the same time 
produces a separation of the colours at the blue as compared with that at the red 
end of the spectrum, which ordinarily belongs only to glasses of a much higher 
dispersive power. A telescope made of disks of glass prepared by Mr. Harcourt 
was, after his death, constructed for Mrs. Harcourt by Mr. Howard Grubb, and was 
exhibited to the Mathematical Section at the late Meeting in Belfast. This telescope, 
which is briefly described in the ‘Report’*, was found fully to answer the expec- 
tations that had been formed of it as to destruction of secondary dispersion. 

’ Several considerations seemed to make it probable that the substitutiow of titanic 
acid for a portion of the silica in an ordinary crown glass would have an effect 
similar to what had been observed in the phosphatic series of glasses. Phosphatic 
glasses are too soft for convenient employment in optical instruments; but should 
titano-silicic glasses prove to be to silicic what titano-phosphatic glasses had been 
found to be to phosphatic, it would be possible, without encountering any extra- 
vagant curvatures, to construct perfectly achromatic combinations out of glasses 
having the hardness and permanence of silicic glasses; in fact the chief obstacle at 
present existing to the perfection of the achromatic telescope would be removed, 
though naturally not without some increase to the cost of the instrument. But it 
would be beyond the resources of the laboratory to work with silicic glasses on 
such a scale as to obtain them free from striz, or even sufficiently free to permit of 
a trustworthy determination of such a delicate matter as the irrationality of 
dispersion. 

- When the subject was brought to the notice of Mr. Hopkinson he warmly 
entered into the investigation; and, thanks to the liberality with which the means 
of conducting the experiment were placed at his disposal by Messrs. Chance 
Brothers, of Birmingham, the question may perhaps be considered settled. After 
some preliminary trials, a pot of glass free from stria was prepared of titanate of 
potash mixed with the ordinary ingredients of a crown glass. As the object of 
the experiment was merely to determine, in the first instance, whether titanic acid 
did or did not confer on the glass the unusual property of separating the colours at 
the blue end of the spectrum materially more, and at the red end materially less, 
than corresponds to a similar dispersive power in ordinary glasses, it was not thought 
necessary to employ pure titanic acid; and.rutile fused with carbonate of potash 
was used as titanate of potash. ‘The glass contained about 7 per cent. of rutile; 
and as rutile is mainly titanic acid, and none was lost, the percentage of titanic 
acid cannot have been much less. The glass was naturally greenish, from iron 
contained in the rutile; but this did not affect the observations, and the quantity 
of iron would be too minute sensibly to affect the irrationality. 

Out of this glass two prisms were cut. One of these was examined as to 
irrationality by Professor Stokes, by his method of compensating prisms, the other 
by Mr. Hopkinson, by accurate measures of the refractive indices for several definite 
points in the spectrum. These two perfectly distinct methods led to the same 
result—namely, that the glass spaces out the more as compared with the less 
refrangible part of the spectrum no more than an ordinary glass of similar disper- 
sive power. As in the phosphatic series, the titanium reveals its presence by a 
considerable increase of dispersive power; but, unlike what was observed in that 
series, it produces no sensible effect on the irrationality. The hopes, therefore, that 
had been entertained of its utility in silicic glasses prepared for optical purposes 
appear doomed to disappointment. 

P.S.—Mr. Augustus Vernon Harcourt has now completed an analytical deter- 
mination which he kindly undertook of the titanic acid. From 2°171 grammes of 
the glass he obtained -13 gramme of pure titanic acid, which is as nearly as possible 
6 per cent, =e 

On the Effects of Heat on the Molecular Structure of Steel Wires and Rods, 

ae _. By Professor W. F. Barrerr. , ae 


~—-—— 


* Report for 1874, Transactions of the Sections, p. 26: ae 


28 REPORT—1875. 


Experiments on Magnetized Rings, Plates, and Disks of Hardened Steel, 
By P. Brawam. 


On the Decomposition of an Electrolyte by Magneto-Electric Induction *. 
By J. A. Fremine, B.Sc. (Lond.), FCS, 


When a solid conductor is moved on a magnetic field induced currents are 
created in it. In a solid these expend themselves partly or wholly in producing 
heat in the conductor. This paper is occupied with an examination of the effect 
produced on electrolytes under the same circumstances, viz. when made to flow or 
move in a magnetic field. Experiments are described to show, first, that induced 
currents are produced under these conditions in electrolytes, and then that the 
electrolyte is to some slight extent decomposed by these currents. 

The experiment which gives grounds for making this statement may briefly be 
described thus:—A glass tube, 2 centims. in diameter, has platinum plates placed 
in its interior at the sides; these are welded to platinum wires sealed through the 
glass. The tube is supported between the poles of a powerful electromagnet 
in such a way that the tube is perpendicular, and the line joining the plates is at 
right angles to the line joining the poles. This tube is connected, by means of a 
siphon, with a reservoir of dilute sulphuric acid, placed at a height of about 
3 metres above the floor. After filling the tube and siphon and carefully depo- 
larizing the plates, the magnet is magnetized by a current from twenty Grove’s 
cells, and then the plates connected by wires with a delicate mirror-galyanometer 
in another room. ' 

On allowing the liquid to flow down, the galvanometer indicates a current 
ame across from one platinum plate to another; this is the induced current 
created by the flow of the liquid in the magnetic field. Various and numerous 
precautions haye to be taken to prevent any movement or vibration of the platinum 
plates and variation in the strength of the field. The magnet being kept mag- 
netized, the plates are then short-circuited, after having been carefully depolarized, 
and the liquid allowed to flow down. When the acid is nearly exhausted, this 
short circuit is broken and the flow of the liquid immediately after stopped. 
On joining the plates to the galvanometer a reverse current is now perceived—that is, 
one opposite in direction to the real induced current. This indicates that the 
La have become polarized again by the effect of the induced current created 

y the flow of the electrolyte in the magnetic field. It was found that this polari- 
zation could be rendered more decided by covering over the platinum plates with a 
layer of coarse cloth, or by placing a cloth tube in the interior of the glass one in 
such a way that the liquid flows down the inside of this tube, but the platinum 
plates are on the outside. The reason of this is because the rapid downrush of the 
liquid mechanically clears away the film of gases from the plates, and’ so renders 
the polarization less than it should be. 

In the last part of the pope the question is raised of how far the foregoing facts 
may have interfered with the success of Faraday’s experiment on the flow of the 
Thames at Waterloo Bridge. Since this polarization introduces a reverse electro- 
motive force, unless the electromotive force due to the strength of field and yelo- 
city and width of stream is greater than that required to decompose water, no 
permanent current can be produced in an electrolyte flowing in a magnetic field, 


but only a transient one, the strength of the induced current rapidly decreasing as 
it polarizes the electrodes, 


On the Position of the Magnetic Equator in the Gulf of Siam and in the Gulf 
of Bengal. By Dr. J. Janssnn. 


Dr. Janssen made observations at Bangkok, Bangchallé, Ligor, Singora, and Sin- 


gepore and he concludes that the magnetic equator passes between Ligor and 
ingora about 7° 43’ north latitude. 


* Published zn extenso in the ‘Electrical News,’ September 2, 1875, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 29 


The line without declination passes very near Singapore. 
In the Gulf of Bengal the equator passes through the north of Ceylon (the exact 
* position will be ae, 

The position of Ligor has been corrected. It is erroneously placed on the maps, 
latitude 8° 24’ 30”, 


On the Magnetizing Function of Iron, Nickel, and Cobalt. 
/ By H. A. Rowtanp. 


ee ee 


On Magnetic Distribution. By H. A, Rowzayp. 


On the Effect of Stress on the Magnetism of Soft Iron. 
By Sir W. Tuomson, F.RS., PRS, 


METEOROLOGY. 


On the Influence of the Physical Properties of Water on Climate. By Henny 
Heynessy, /.R.S., Professor of Applied Mathematics in the Royal College 
of Science for Ireland. 


The conditions of climate depend essentially on the thermal properties of the 
materials of the earth’s outer coating. These materials are solid, liquid, and gaseous ; 
and inaccurate ideas as to the relative thermal influence of these several substances 
necessarily lead to erroneous conclusions regarding problems of climate affecting 
both the present meteorology of the globe and its past geological history, 

Several years since Sir John Herschel enunciated his views on this question very 
clearly in the following words :—“The effect of land under sunshine is to throw 
heat into the general atmosphere and to distribute it by the carrying-power of the 
air over the whole earth. 

‘Water is much less effective in this respect, the heat penetrating its depths and 
being there absorbed, so that the surface never acquires a very elevated temperature, 
even under the equator ”*. These views, owing to the high name of their author, 
have naturally commanded much attention, and have been quoted in support of 
theories of terrestrial climate. This has been done especially by the late Sir Charles 
Lyell, in all the recent editions of his celebrated ‘ Principles of Geology.’ As Sir 
John Herschel’s views may still exercise an important indirect influence over in- 
quiries into terrestrial climate, the author called attention to the entirely different 
conclusions presented by him some time before the publication of the edition of 
Sir John Herschel’s work from which the foregoing passage is quoted. 

On carefully considering the properties of land, air, and water, with reference to 
heat (namely, their specific heat or capacity for heat, their properties with reference 
to conduction and convection, radiation and diathermancy), he came to the conclusion 
that of all substances largely existing in nature, water was that most favourable to 
the absorption and distribution of solar heat throughout the external coating of the 
earth. 

The relative heat-storing power of substances depends upon their specific heat ; and 
thus the results published by Pfaundler in Poggendorff’s ‘Annalen ’ for October 1866, 

. 102, have an immediate bearing on our inquiries. He has found that the specific 
eat of soils varies from 0:50 down to 0:19, taking the specific heat of water as unit. 
The lowest specific heat is found in sandy soils free from vegetable earth or humus. 
We may in general assume that dry sand, whether calcareous or siliceous, has only 
one fifth of the specific heat of water. As we might expect, this inquirer has found 
that.small capacities for heat are favourable to great fluctuations of soil-temperature, 


* Outlines of Astronomy, 1864, p. 236, 


30 REPORT—1875. 


while large capacities have the effect of lessening such fluctuations. A sandy soil, 
such as that of the great African desert, although capable of exhibiting a very high 
temperature during the day, becomes cooled down during the night, and is one of ° 
,the worst substances for storing up the heat derived from sunshine. Water, on the 
contrary, stores up such heat better than almost any other body, 

The grounds for the author's conclusions as to the thermal properties of 
water were fully exhibited in a paper published in the ‘ Atlantis’ and the ‘ Philoso- 
phical Magazine’ for 1859, and subsequently republished wholly or partially in 
some foreign scientific journals. Instead of the dictum expressed by Sir John 
Herschel, we may make the following almost diametrically opposite announcement. 
The effect of land receiving: sunshine is to throw off the heat it receives, not only 
into the atmosphere, but into the interplanetary spaces by night as well as by day ; 
and thus, although it rapidly produces a Sede increase of temperature in the 
stratum of air immediately in contact with it during the day, it is ill adapted for 
storing up and retaining the thermal energy it has received. Water is much more 
effective in this respect ; heat penetrates to a greater depth within it, and afterwards 
becomes more steadily absorbed, owing to the much higher specific heat of water 
and the ratchet-wheel action exercised on the luminous heat-rays from the sun, 
which, on their transformation into obscure rays, cannot again return through the 
liquid. Prof. Tyndall has established that this ratchet-wheel action of water exists 
for water in its vaporous state as well as in its ordinary condition, and accordingly 
that a vapour-charged atmosphere, though comparatively diathermanous for the 
sun’s heat-rays, which pass without considerable loss to the earth's surface, yet this 
moist air almost completely stops the radiation of non-luminous heat from the 

round. 
7 In his earlier researches the author pointed out how the distribution of heat over 
the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, and the general laws followed in the distri- 
bution of the isothermal lines of islands, and especially in the British Isles, confirmed 
_ these views. 

At this Meeting a remarkable confirmation is afforded by the results communi- 
cated by Captain Toynbee, whereby he has shown that in the equatorial Atlantic 
the water-surface temperature is higher than the air-temperature above it. With 
regard to geological climate, these conclusions were long since adopted and acknow- 
ledged by Professor Phillips. They have been also adopted, but not acknowledged, 
by other writers besides the distinguished and lamented geologist to whom this 
Association is so greatly indebted. 

The distribution of terrestrial temperature depends essentially both on oceanic 
and atmospheric currents, and the question of oceanic circulation is thus closely 
connected with that of climate. Much attention has been recently excited by two 
theories—one which ascribes oceanic currents to the motions of the atmosphere, and 
the other to the direct influence of gravity on masses of water unequally heated. 
This or the grayitation-theory has been already broached in the author’s paper 
already referred to. It has been recently pursued in more detail, and with his 
usual ability, by Dr. Carpenter. 


On the possible Influence on Climate of the substitution of Water for Land in 
Central and Northern Africa. By Prof. H. Hunnussy, /RS. 


The author referred to the fact that more than six years since he had put forward 
proofs of the connexion between some of the hot winds which blow from the south- 
west in Central and Southern Europe with the currents of the Atlantic and not with 
the desert of Sahara, as has been usually supposed*. Similar views had been also 
enunciated by Prof. Wild, Director of the Physical Observatory of Russia, Prof. 
Dufour of Lausanne, Dr. Hann, and other meteorologists. The attention excited 
by the great midday heat of Central Africa caused many to overlook the 

“remarkably low nocturnal temperature, and thus to ascribe to the desert a thermal 
influence which it does not possess. The conclusions which the author has established 
with regard to the physical properties of water in connexion with climate (of which 


* Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, vol. x. p. 496. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 3h 


a résumé is presented in the preceding paper) enable us to infer that the substitution 
of an area of water over the Sahara for the existing dry land would be followed by 
the storing up of the heat received so largely in that region from the sun’s rays 
which is now partly dissipated by nocturnal radiation, : fb cad S 

A great Mediterranean sea in Africa, possessing an area equal to the Gulf of Mexico 
and Caribbean Sea, would become, like these seas, a source of positive thermal in- 
fluence on distant places. In the Red Sea the temperature is high by night as 
well as by day, and this would also occur in the iemaetical Mediterranean of the - 
Sahara. The evaporation from its surface would give to the air aboye an immense 
mass of yapour containing heat in a potential or latentstate. This vapour-charged 
atmosphere, like a similar atmosphere over the Atlantic, would tend, in consequence 
of the earth’s rotation, to move from south-west towards north-east, thus carrying 
heat towards the western regions of Asiaand the eastern part of Europe, Theclimatal 
effect of this sea would, upon the whole, result in a higher mean temperature for 
these parts of the globe, and it would undoubtedly not operate in producing a lower 
temperature in Europe so as to cause a descent of the snow-line, Its action, if any, 
would probably be the reverse, 


On the apparent Connewion between Sun-spots, Atmospheric Ozone, Rain, and 
Force of Wind. By J. Morar, M.D., F.GS., Se. 


In this paper the author stated that, in discussing ozone observations from 1850-69, 
he observed that the maximum and minimum of atmospheric ozone occurred in 
cycles of years, and that he had compared the number of new groups ofsun-spots in 
each year of these cycles with the quantity of ozone; and the results showed that 
in each cycle of maximum of ozone there is an increase in the number of new groups 
of sun-spots, and in each cycle of minimum of ozone there is a decrease in the num- 
her of new groups of sun-spots, 

In a Table he also showed that there is an increase in the quantity of rain and 
the force of wind with the maximum quantity of ozone and sun-spots, and a de- 
erease in these with the minimum of ozone and sun-spots, 


On the Rainfall in Monmouthshire and the Severn Valley on July 14th, and 
on some subsequent Floods in England and Wales. By G. J. Symons, 


The author stated that it would hardly have been right to say nothing about the 
wonderful rainfall in the neighbourhood of Bristol on the day named, The rainfall 
was eunply a mass of vapour that came up from the west, and commenced to fall as 
rain at Tenby between midnight and 1 a.m. on the morning of the 14th of July. 
Its front edge travelled at the rate of about 18 miles an hour; and at 4 P.M. onthe 
same day it passed off by the north coast of Norfolk. As to its breadth, it took 
about 36 hours to pass over any given point. The quantity of water that fell varied 
yery much oyer the whole country, and was deepest on the west side of a line drawn 
from the Isle of Wight to the Isle of Sheppey, and thence to the north-west. Most 
stations in Monmouthshire and Glamorganshire had a rainfall of over 3 inches; at 
fourteen stations the rainfall exceeded 4 inches, at six it was over 5 inches; and. 
at Tintern Abbey, usually considered a dry station, the rainfall was 5°31 inches in 
24 hours. The result of this heavy rain was, as many of the inhabitants of Bristol 
knew too well, that most of the low-lying parts had been flooded. This was fol- 
lowed, especially in the Midland Counties, and as far north as Manchester, by storms 
in which from 2 to 3 inches of rain fell; and this coming on saturated ground, a great 
deal of damage was done in Leicestershire, Cambridge, and Huntingdon ; and he 
mentioned as an instance that when the day arrived for holding the Huntingdon 
races, the race-course was 2 feet 6 inches under water. The rainfall durin July 
was wonderfully concentrated; for instance, at Tamworth there was the extraordinary 
fall of 93 inches in 8 days, or 3 of the average rainfall for a year, 


32 REPORT-—1875. 


CHEMISTRY. 


Address by A. G. Vernon Harcourt, M.A., F.RS., F.C.8., President of the 
Section. 


To the privilege of presiding over this Section custom has added the duty of 
offering some preliminary remarks upon the branch of science for whose advance- 
ment we are met. 

In discharge of this duty some of my predecessors have reviewed the progress of 
Chemistry during the previous year; and until a few years ago there was no more 
needful service that your President could render, though the task of selection and 
abstraction was one of ever-increasing difficulty. But a few years ago the wisdom 
and energy of Dr. Williamson transformed the Journal of the Chemical Society 
into a complete record of chemical research, and this Association materially pro- 
moted the advancement of science when it helped the Chemical Society in an 
undertaking which seemed at one time hopelessly beyond its means. The excellen 
abstracts contributed to the Journal err, if at all, on the side of brevity; and yet 
the yearly volume seems to defy the bookbinder’s press. I shall not venture to 
attempt further abstraction, nor to put before you in any way so vast and miscel- 
laneous an aggregate of facts as the yearly increment of chemistry has become. 
The advancement of our science (to borrow again the well-chosen language of the 
founders of this Association) is of two kinds. The first consists in the discovery 
and co-ordination of new facts; the second in the diffusion of existing knowledge 
and the creation of an interest in the objects and methods and results of scientific 
research. For the advance of science is not to be measured only by the annual 
growth of a scientific library, but by the living interest it excites and the number 
and ardour of its votaries. The remarks I have to offer you relate to the advance- 
ment of Chemistry in both aspects. 

One fact has been brought into unpleasant prominence by the Journal of the 
Chemical Society in its present form—namely, the small proportion of original work 
in Chemistry which is done in Great Britain. All who are ambitious that our 
country should bear a prominent part in contributing to the common stock of 
knowledge, and all who know the effect upon individual character and happiness 
of the habit and occupation of scientific inquiry, must regret our backwardness in 
this respect. The immediate cause is easily found. It is not that English workers 
are less inventive or industrious than their fellows across the Channel, but that 
their number is exceedingly small. How comes it that, in a country which abounds 
in rich and leisurely men and women (for neither the reason of the case, nor the 
jealousy of the dominant sex, nor partial legislation excludes women from sharing 
this pursuit with men), there are so few who seek the excitement and delights of 
chemical inquiry? Moralists tell us that the reason why some men are content 
with the pleasures of eating and drinking and the like is, that they have never 
had experience of the greater pleasure which the exercise of the intelligence affords. 
I am not about to represent it as the moral duty of those who have means and 
leisure to cultivate Chemistry or any branch of science ; but no taste for a pursuit 
can be developed in the absence of any knowledge of its nature. A taste for 
Chemistry is often spoken of as a peculiar bias with which certain men are born, 
No doubt there are differences in natural aptitudes and tastes; but the chief reason 
why it is so rare for men of leisure to addict themselves to scientific pursuits is, 
that so few boys and young men haye had experience of the pleasure which they 
bring. Much has been done during the last twenty years, both at the Universities 
and at the Public Schools, to provide for the teaching of science. To speak of what 
I know best, the University of Oxford has made liberal provision for the teaching 
of science, and for its recognition among the studies requisite for a degree ; nor 
have the several Colleges been backward in allotting Scholarships and Fellowships 
as soon as and whenever they had reason to believe that those elected for profi- 
ciency in science would be men equal in intellectual calibre to those elected for 
proficiency in classics or mathematics. But the result is somewhat disappointing ; 
and under a free-trade system science has failed to attract more than a small per- 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 33 


centage of University students. Excellent lectures are delivered by the Professors 
to scanty audiences, and the great bulk of those educated at the University receive 
no more tincture of science than their predecessors did twenty years ago. 

The recognition of Science among the subjects of University examinations is by 
no means an unmixed advantage to those concerned. Examinations have played 
and will continue to play a useful part in directing and stimulating study, and in 
securing the distribution of rewards according to merit; but they produce in the 
student, as has often been pointed out, a habit of looking to success in examination 
as the end of his studies. This habit of mind is peculiarly alien to the true spirit 
of scientific work. Only such knowledge is valued as is likely to be producible at 
the appointed time. Whether a theory is consistent or true is immaterial, provided 
itis probable—that is to say, advanced by some author whose authority an examiner 
would recognize. All incidental observations and experimental inquiry lying out- 
side the regular laboratory course, which are the natural beginnings of original 
work, must be eschewed as trespassing on the time needed for preparation. The 
examination comes; the University career is at an end; and the student departs, - 
pr with a considerable knowledge of scientific facts and theories, but without 

aving experienced the pleasure, still so easily gained in our young science of 
Chemistry, of adding one new fact to the pile of knowledge, and, it may be, with 
little more inclination to engage in such pursuit than have most of his contempo- 
raries to continue the study of Aristotle or Livy. 

However, examinations have their strong side, to which I have referred, as well 
as their weak side; and although it is the natural desire of a teacher to see his 
more promising pupils contributing to the science with whose principles and 
pribols they have laboured to become acquainted, the younger, like the elder, 
branches of knowledge must be content to serve as instruments for developing men’s 
minds. Chemistry can only claim a place in general education if its study serves, 
not to make men chemists, but to help in making them intelligent and well in- 
formed. If it is found to serve this purpose well, the number of chemical students 
at the Universities ought to increase ; and if the number increases, no rigour of the 
Examination System will prevent one or two, perhaps, in every year adopting 
Chemistry as the pursuit of their lives. But the Universities have little power to 
determine what number of students shall follow any particular line of study. With 
certain reserves in favour of classics and mathematics, their system is that of free 
trade. Young men of eighteen or nineteen have tastes already formed, some for the 
studies which were prt before them at school (in which, perhaps, they are already 

roficient and have been already successful), some for games and good-fellowship. 
Te is, from the nature of the case, with the masters of schools that the responsibility 
rests of fixing the position of science in education. During the last ten years 
prvidion has been made at most of the larger schools for the teaching of some 

ranches of science ; and those who recall the conservatism of schoolboys, and their 
consequent prejudice in favour of the older studies, will understand a part of the 
difficulties which have had to be encountered. The main and insurmountable 
difficulty is what I may call the impenetrability of studies. A new subject cannot 
be brought in without displacing in part those to which the school-hours have been 
allotted. It is the same difficulty which occurs again and again in human life. 
There are many things which it would be well to know and well to follow; but 
life, like schooltime, is too short for all. From the educational phase of this diffi- 
culty the natural difference of tastes and aptitudes provides in some degree a way 
of escape. I think that wherever a school can afford appliances for the teaching 
of Chemistry, all the boys should pass through the hands of the teacher of this 
subject. Two or three hours a week during one school-year would be sufficient to 
enable the teacher to judge what pupils were most promising. There may be in- 
stances to the contrary; but I do not think it likely that any boy who attended 
chemical lectures for a year without becoming interested in the subject would ever 

ursue it afterwards with success. Suppose that out of one hundred boys who 

ave gone through this course five are selected as having shown more intelligence 
or interest than the rest; they should be permitted to give a considerable part of 
their time, while still at school, to studying science, without suffering loss of 
position in the school or forfeiting the chance of scholarships or prizes. If any 


34 hs REPORT—1875. 


such system is possible and were generally adopted, each school sending annually 
to the Universities, or other institutions for the education of young men, its small 
contribution of scientific students, the Professors’ lecture-rooms and laboratories 
would be filled with young men who had already learnt the rudiments of science. 
Laboratories of research as well as of elementary instruction would find a place at 
the English Universities, and the reproach of barrenness would be rolled away. 

Some of the defects or difficulties to which I have adverted are perhaps peculiar 
to our older schools and universities. The introduction of the study of natural 
science has borne earlier fruit in schools whose celebrity is of more recent date, 
such as the excellent College in this neighbourhood. Oxford and Cambridge ought 
to possess, but are far from possessing, such laboratories as have lately been built 
at the Owens College, Manchester. It is proposed to constitute in this city a 
College of Science and Literature, similar to Owens College and in connexion with 
two of the Oxford Colleges. The scheme set forth by its promoters appears 
thoroughly wise and well considered, and all who are interested in scientific educa- 
tion must wish it success. 

I have placed first among the modes in which science, and in particular Chemi- 
eal science, may be advanced the assignment to it of a more prominent and honoured 
place in education ; but owing, as I do, my own scientific calling and opportunities 
of work to a bequest made to Christ Church by Dr. Matthew Lee more than a 
hundred years ago, I cannot forget or disbelieve in the influence of endowments. 

I have spoken of the leisurely class in this country as that to which scientific 
Chemistry must look for its votaries. In our social conditions and in the absence 
of endowments it is hard to see where else they can be found. Men who have 
their livelihood to make cannot afford to spend money, and still less to bestow their 
time and energy, on the luxury of scientific inquiry. Even if they have the oppor- 
tunity of earning their livelihood by scientific teaching, and with it the command 
of laboratory and apparatus, no leisure may remain to them for original work; and 
the impulse to such work (often, it must be admitted, of a feeble constitution) 
may be starved in the midst of plenty. The application of endowments to the 
promotion of original research is a difficult question. I am inclined to think 
that posts, constituted chiefly with this object, should be attached in every case 
to some educational body, and should have light educational duties assigned to 
them. The multiplication of such posts in connexion with the many colleges 
and schools in this country, where there is some small demand for chemical 
teaching, with the provision in each case of a sufficient laboratory and means of 
work, would probably do more than any centralized scheme for the promotion of 
chemical research. 

To the advancement of Chemistry by the formation of public opinion on the 
questions of scientific education and the endowment of original research, the 
Chemical Section of the British Association may reasonably hope to contribute. 
But doubts have been expressed as to the serviceableness of this or any such 
organization for the direct advancement of our Science itself. No doubt we can- 
not accomplish much. Chemical inquirers at the present time may be compared 
to a party of children picking wild flowers in a large field; at first all were near 
together, but as they advanced they separated, till now they are widely scattered, 
singly or in groups, each busy upon some little spot, while for every flower that is 
gathered ten thousand others remain untouched. 

That the Science of Chemistry would advance more rapidly if it were possible 
to organize Chemists into working parties, having each a definite region to explore, 
cannot, I think, be doubted. Is such organization in any degree possible ? 

The experiments of which Bacon has left a record, though curious historically, 
have no scientific value. But in one respect his ‘ Physiological Remains’ furnish 
an example which we might follow with profit. ‘‘ Furthermore,” he writes, “we 
propose wishes of such things as are hitherto only desired and not had, together 
with those things which border on them, for the exciting the industry of man’s 
mind.” I will quote further, as an example, a part of one of his “ wishes,” which 
has very recently been fulfilled. ‘Upon glass four things would be put in proof. 
The first, means to make the glass more crystalline. The second, to make it more 
strong for falls and for fire, though it come not to the degree to be malleable.” 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 35 


I do not know that the industry of M. de la Bastie’s mind was excited by 
Bacon’s mention of glass more strong for falls and for fire among things hitherto 
only desired and not had; but the conception of such an enumeration seems to 
me worthy of its author. Much fruitless and discouraging labour might be saved, 
a stimulus might be given to experimental inquiry, and chemical research might 
become more systematic and thus more productive, if Bacon’s example were 
followed by the leaders of Chemistry at the present day. 

The Council of the Pharmaceutical Conference, whose meeting has just pre- 
ceded our own, has published a list of subjects for research which they commend 
to the attention of Chemists. Where one of these subjects has been undertaken 
by any Chemist his name is appended to it. Might not the representatives of 
Scientific Chemistry issue a similar list ? 

Perhaps two or three of the distinguished English Chemists who are members 
of this Association might be willing to serve on a Committee, which should put 
itself into communication with the leaders of Chemical inquiry abroad, and 
should make and obtain and publish suggestions of subjects for research. Such a 
list so got together would, I think, find a welcome place in all scientific journals, 
and would thus be widely known and easily accessible to every student. 

That which chiefly makes the organization of Chemical inquiry desirable is the 
boundless extent of the field upon which we have entered. Not every fact, how- 
ever laboriously attained and rigorously proved, is an important fact in Chemistry 
any more than in other branches of knowledge. Our aim is to discover the laws 
which govern the transformations of matter; and we are occupied in amassing a 
vast collection of receipts for the preparation of different substances, and facts as 
to their composition and properties, which may be of no more service to the 
generalizations of the science, whenever our Newton arises, than were, I conceive, 
the bulk of the stars to the conception of gravitation. 

It may, however, be urged that the cata of Chemical theory keeps pace with 
the accumulation of chemical facts. It is so, if the elaboration of constitutional 
formulz is leading us up to such atheory. But at present, however useful and 
ingenious this.mode of summarizing chemical facts may be, it does not amount to 
a theory of Chemistry. 

Two objections to regarding such formule as any thing more than a chemical 
short-hand, as it has been termed, seem worth recalling. The first is mentioned at 
the outset in most text-books in which these formule are employed, but some- 
times, I venture to think, lost sight of afterwards. The arrangement of the atoms 
of a molecule in one plane is equally convenient in diagrams and improbable as a 
natural fact. But is not this arrangement used as though it were a natural fact 
‘when the possible number of isomeric bodies is inferred from the number of 
different groupings of the atoms which can be effected on a plane surface ? The 
conceptions of plane Geometry are much simpler than those of solid Geometry 

‘(which is another recommendation of the present system of formule) ; but so far 
-as I am able to follow the similar theories which have recently been propounded 
independently by MM. Le Bel and Van ’t Hoff, the consideration of the possible 
isomerisms of solid molecules leads to new conclusions *. Wislicenus has found that 
aralactic acid undergoes the same transformations as ordinary lactic acid when 
eated and when oxydized. The two acids differ in their action on polarized light. 
His conclusion is that paralactic acid does not differ in its atomic structure from 
the lactic acid of fermentation, and that the kind of isomerism which exists between 
the two acids is not connected with the difference in the reciprocal arrangement of 
the atoms, but rather with a difference in the geometric structure of the molecule. 
To this difference he gives the name of “ geometric isomerism” +. The authors 
named above agree in supposing that the action of substances in solution on 
olarized light results from an unsymmetrical arrangement of atoms and radicles 
in three dimensions around a nucleus-atom of carbon. 

The second objection relates to the statical character of the account’ which 
“developed” formulz give of the differences between different kinds of matter. 
The modern theory of heat supposes not only that the molecules which constitute 

~* Bull. de la Soc. Chim. de Paris, t. xxii. p. 337, and t. xxiii. p. 295, 
t Ann, de Chim. et de Phys., 5e série, t. i. p. 122. 


36 REPORT—1875,. 


any portion of matter are in constant rapid motion, but that the atoms which con- 
stitute each molecule are similarly moving to and fro. Such movement might be 
an oscillation about the position assigned to the several atoms in the constitutional 
formula of the molecule. Since, however, the modes of formation and decompo- 
sition of substances are the principal facts upon which their formule are based, it 
is to be considered whether these facts may not depend altogether upon the nature 
or average nature of the motion impressed upon the atoms—that is, upon dynamical 
and not upon statical differences. 

Many substances are known whose existence is contrary to the theory of 
valency and saturation, such as nitric oxide and carbonic oxide; others which 
transeress the theory of isomerism, such as chloride of dichlordibromethane 
(C? Cl? Br?, Cl?) and bromide of tetrachlorethane (C* Cl', Br*), which should be 
identical, but are isomeric *: yet these theories are simply an expression of the state~ 
ment that certain substances can exist or can differ, while others cannot. It is true 
that in the vast majority of cases the theoretical limitation seems to hold good. 
But just as the absence of any fossil remains of the connecting links between 
species is only significant if the geologic search has been sufficiently thorough, so 
it is with chemical theories depending upon the non-existence of certain classes of 
bodies. Indeed, in our case, where investigation is guided by theory, and, as a 
rule, only those things which are looked for are found, the limitation may be 
partly of our own making. A Chemist who should depart from the general course, 
and set himself to prepare substances whose existence is not indicated by theory, 
would perhaps obtain results of more than the usual interest. 

Among chemical inquiries, if ever such a list as I have ventured to suggest 
should be drawn out, I hope that many would be included relating to the most 
familiar substances and the simplest cases of chemical change. The thorough 
study of a few reactions might perhaps bring in more Jmowledge of the laws of 
Chemistry than the preparation of many new substances. 

I believe that if any Chemist not content with a process giving a good yield of 
some product examines minutely the nature of the reaction, observing its course 
as well as its final result, he will find much more for study than the chemical 
equation represents. He will probably also find that the reaction and its con- 
ditions are of a formidable complexity, and will be driven back towards the 
beginnings of Chemistry for cases sufficiently simple for profitable study. 

In concluding my remarks, I desire briefly to refer to another branch of Chemical 
Science, to the advancement of which this Association seeks to contribute—I 
mean, applied or technical Chemistry. One of the principal differences between 
the papers read before this Section, as a class, and those which the Chemical 
Society receives, is the larger proportion in our list of papers on technical subjects. 
Whatever Chemists may hold, there can be no doubt that the estimation of our 
science by the outside world rests largely on the well-founded belief that Chemistry 
is useful. Indeed, though scientific Chemists are justly eager to vindicate the 
value of investigations remote from any application to the arts, they cannot but 
feel a livelier sense of triumph when the successful synthesis of a vegetable 
principle yields at the same time a product of great technical value, as in the case 
of the production of artificial alizarin. 

By visiting in turn the principal centres of British industry, this Association 
brings together men engaged on pure and on applied Chemistry. We who come 
as visitors may hope that ow papers and discussions here may bring fresh 
interest in the science, if not actual hints for practice, to those whose art or 
manufacture is based on Chemistry. In return, the most interesting communica- 
tions the Section has received have not unfrequently been the descriptions of local 
industries; and there is no part of our hospitable reception more welcome and 
more instructive to us than the opportunities which are provided of seeing chemical 
transformations on a large scale effected by processes which observation and inyen- 
tiveness have gradually brought to perfection and with the surprising familiarity 
and skill which are engendered by daily use. 


* Bull. de la Soc. Chim. de Paris, t. xxiv. p. 114. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 37 


Note on a Method of effecting the Solution of difficultly Soluble Substances. 
By A. H. Auten. 


—$_—_ 


On the Nature of Berthelot’s Vinylie Alcohol. 
By Heyry E, Armsrrone, Ph.D. 


According to Berthelot, acetylene is slowly absorbed when agitated with con- 
centrated sulphuric acid; and if the solution be diluted with water and distilled, 
a liquid product is obtained which is slightly more volatile than water, and 
possesses an extremely pungent odour recalling somewhat that of acetone. 

This product does not appear to have been obtained in a state of purity and 
analyzed; nevertheless Berthelot regards it as vinylic alcohol (C, H, . OH), formed 
by ba addition of the elements of a molecule of water to a molecule of acetylene ; 
and it is described as such in several of our text-books. The author believes, 
however, that theoretical considerations warrant a totally different conclusion. 

Thus experience entirely justifies the assumption that the first action probably 
consists in the combination of a molecule of acetylene with two molecules of sulphuric 
acid in the manner represented by the equation 


CH CH, 
i||_ +2H,SO,= | ’ 

CH CH(HSO,), 

and that the compound thus formed would be resolved by distillation with water 
into sulphuric acid and aldehyde-hydrate : 


CH, CH, 
| + 20H, = | + 2H,S0,. 
CH(HSO,), CH(OH), 

But Kekulé and Zincke’s experiments on the condensation of aldehyde lead us to 


believe that the aldehyde thus produced would, under the influence of the sulphuric 
acid, be converted into crotonic aldehyde: 


CH, = 
2| 
Conary + 20H, ; 
CH . COH 


and since the properties of Berthelot’s product agree closely with those assigned to 
crotonic aldehyde, there can be little doubt that the supposed vinylic alcohol is in 
reality that compound, especially as the properties (b. p. &c.) of the “vinylic 
alcohol” are not at all those which are likely to characterize the lower homologue 
of allylic alcohol. Experiments to prove this are already in progress. 


On the Alkaloids of the Aconites. By G.H. Becxert and C. R. Arper Wriaur, 
D.Sc., Lecturer on Chemistry in St. Mary’s Hospital Medical School. 


Through the kindness of Mr. J. B. Groves, of Weymouth, we received for ex- 
amination a quantity of the crystalline mixed nitrates of certain bases contained in 
Aconitum napellus, together with the hydrochloride of a base which separated from 
the liquor at a certain state of concentration during the process of extraction, and 
a crystalline base extracted from A. feror; the method of extraction was, in each 
instance, essentially exhaustion by alcoholic hydrochloric acid, evaporation to a 
small bulk, and extraction of the alkaloids by addition of ammonia and ether. 
After careful purification, the hydrochloride above mentioned gave numbers 
which are best represented by the formula C,, H,,NO,,, HCl, 13H, 0. This salt 
crystallizes from water in small silky crystals, but the solutions have a strong 
tendency to supersaturation: the free base refuses to crystallize from ether or 


38 REPORT—1875. 


alcohol, separating as.a varnish which becomes a mass of crystals on moistening 
with a drop of dilute hydrochloric or nitric acid; this base appears to be almost 
inert, its salts possessing a bitter taste, not producing the prickling of the tongue 
characteristic of the aconites, and, according to Mr. Groves’s observations, producing 
no result when swallowed by the human subject in half-grain doses. 

From the mixture of nitrates a base was extracted (by means of spontaneous 
evaporation of the ethereal solution of the mixed free bases) which crystallized 
readily from ether in smal] anhydrous crystals, producing energetically the aconite 
tongue-prickling, and forming well-crystallized salts ; the yield of pure base from 
2 ewt. of roots was, however, very small, being only a very few grains. This sub- 
stance gave numbers agreeing with the formula C,, H,, NO,,, the air-dry hydro- 
chloride containing 3H.,0; the body answered to the description of crystalline 
h ss ” given by Duquesnel; but the formula arrived at by this chemist was 
C, H 0 10° ; 

“Phe hase from A. ferox gave numbers agreeing with the formula ©,, H,, NO,,; 
it crystallizes in indistinct crystals from ether and alcohol by spontaneous evapora 
tion: its salts refuse to crystallize, drying up to varnishes, On leaving the freshly 
precipitated free base in contact with water and emulsin a change is produced, a 
salt of an alkaloid not yet investigated being gradually formed in solution; no 
glucose, however, can be detected in the liquid. 

Apparently the two last described bases of the aconites are readily alterable; on 
treating with mercuric iodide dissolved in potassium iodide the solution of their 
salts, iodo-mercurates, are precipitated ; and on decomposing these with sulphu- 
retted hydrogen, removing iodine by lead acetate and regenerating the bases by 
ammonia and ether, substances were in each case obtained possessing apparently a 
lower molecular weight than the original base used (7. e. the gold salt contained a 
somewhat larger percentage of gold): One specimen of the A; feror base thus re- 
generated from the iodo-mercurate by Mr- asics was magnificently crystalline, 
forming well-defined rhombohedra ; whilst that examined by the authors (prepared 
by Mr. Groves from a different batch of roots) was only indistinctly crystalline, 
and quite different in appearance under the microscope. These and other analogous 
circumstances observed lead us to conjecture that either the constituents of the 
roots are variable under different conditions of soil, climate, &c., or that the alka- 
loids originally present are apt to undergo considerable changes during the process 
of extraction. 


On Japanese Camphor from Peppermint. By G. H. Bucxerr and C. R. AtpER 
Wricut, D.Sc., Lecturer on Chemistry in St. Mary’s Hospital Medical School. 


Oppenheim has shown that this camphor is a monatomic alcohol indicated by 
the formula C,, H,,.OH, and that by the action of dehydrating agents it loses the 
elements of water, forming a hydrocarbon, menthene, O,, H,,. 

Through the kindness of Mr. John Moss (Messrs. Corbyn and Co.) we received a 
quantity of this camphor, and obtained the following corrected values for the 
melting- and boiling-points of the purified substance and its derivative menthene :— 


Camphor, melting-point 42° (in capillary tube). 
: boiling-point 212°, 
Menthene, fj 164°'5 to 165°'5, 


Mr. Moss found 39° as the melting-point and 87°-5 as the solidifying point of 
another specimen of camphor less completely purified ; whilst Oppenheim gives 36° 
as the melting-point and 210° as the boiling-poiat of the camphor, and 163° as the 
boiling-point of menthene. 

On cautiously adding four equivalents of bromine to menthene combination takes 
place, energetically at first, more slowly ultimately. The final product, C,, H,, Br,, 
may be regarded as a derivative of a marsh-gas homologue, C,, H,,, @. e. as tetra- 
bromo-decane ; on heating, this substance breaks up into eymene and hydrobromic 


acid, thus :— 
Ci, Hi, Br, = 4H Br + Wie iB 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 39 


The cymene thus obtained is identical with that described in former Reports to the 
Association by one of us as being produced from numerous terpenes and substances 
contained in essential oils and allied to the terpene family. 

It thus results that by a single reaction of decomposition a paraffine substitution 
derivative breaks up, forming a benzene homologue, a somewhat unusual if not 
quite novel reaction. ; 

Simultaneously with solid Japanese peppermint-camphor a liquid oil is imported ; 
this seems to be the liquid portion of an essential oil from which the solid has been 
partially separated by standing and pressure. From the results obtained, it appears 
that this oil consists either of the solid camphor or of a liquid isomeride dissolved in 
or mixed with a liquid oil of composition C,, H,, O, and identical or isomeric with 
the similar substance constituting the majority of citronella-oil. By the action of 
dehydrating agents, menthene, terpenes and their polymerides, and resinous bodies 
are formed from the liquid oil. P 


Some further Experiments on Crystallization of Metals by Electricity. 
By P. Branam. 


Some Account of the Manufacture and Refining of Sugar in Bristol, 1875. 
By Hunry T. CwamBervain. 

For about two centufies refining of sugar has’ been éatried on here. The old 
style was rude and little beyond melting in open pans by fire heat, and allowing 
the sugar to granulate. This old and uncertain process was much shortened by the 
new style and improvements, whieh consisted of the use of animal charcoal and 
the vacuum-pan, afterwards followed by the introduction of- the centrifugal machine, 
for all sugar except Loaf. 

- There is now scarcely any loaf made in England ; the French have an internation- 
ally unfair monopoly. The refiners now make only finest crystals, fine and yellow 
eet and treacle, most of them pleasing to the eye and pure in quality. Scientific 

owledge is now brought much into use in sugar-refining. The following course 
of manufacture is used by most refiners. The raw sugar as imported is melted with 
a little water, then filtered through bags, and afterwards through animal charcoal 
into cisterns, the first runnings pure and colourless as water; it is then boiled mm 
vacuo, at.a low temperature, to the granulating point, taken from the pan to the 
centrifugal machine, where in a few minutes of revolution all moisture is driven 
off, and the sugar remains finished and fit for use. As far as possible, all syrups 
are allowed to run by gravitation to save pumping. All syrups uncrystallizable 
form treacle, all washings and sweet water are evaporated, and not a particle of 
saccharine matter is lost. 

There are four sugar-refineries in Bristol, working, or capable of working, 1700 
to 1800 tons weekly. 5 


Action of Ethyl-bromobutyrate upon Ethyl-sodaceto-acetate. 
By ¥F. Crowns, B.Sc., F.C.8. 


Ethyl-bromobutyrate was prepared by the method of Gorup-Besanez and Klink« 
sieck*, and the fraction boiling between 175° and 185° C. was added slowly to a 
benzene solution of ethyl-sodaceto-acetate prepared as directed by Wislicenus f. 
- si reaction occurred with evolution of much heat and separation of sodium 

romide. 

After heating the mixture on the water-bath until no further separation of 
sodium bromide occurred, the benzene was removed by distillation, and the sodium= 
bromide by washing with water. The resulting liquid was rapidly fractionated, 
and the portion which distilled over between 260° and 263° again fractionated ; on 
being subjected to an elementary analysis it yielded the following analytical num- 
bers, which agree perfectly with those required by diethyl aceto-ethyl succinate :— 


* Ann, Chem. u. Pharm, exviii. 248. t+ Ber, Ber, vii, 685, 


40 REPORT—1875. 


I. 0-2044 grm. of substance yielded 0°1517 H, O and 0:4425 CO.,,. 
II. 0:2039 grm. of substance yielded 0°1504 H, O and 0:4412 CO,. 


CH, Theory. : Found. ” 
6. C,H, C= 5902 5904 59°01 

deape' =C,,H,,0,= {H= 819 8-24 8-19 
H—CH—COOC, H, O= 8279 3272 32:80 
| 

Cooc, H, 10000 10000 100-00 


The new ether is a colourless liquid of peculiar unpleasant smell; its boiling- 
point is about 262° C.; as indicated by theory, it acts readily upon sodium with 
evolution of hydrogen. 

The further study of the properties of this ether and of its isomer derived from 
isobutyric acid, and more especially their decomposition under the influence of 
alkaline hydrates, are already under investigation. 


The Tobacco Trade of Bristol. By Taomas Davey. 


A simple Method of determining the Proportion of Carbonic Acid in Air. 
By A.S8. Davis. 


On the Chemical Theory of Gunpowder. By Dr. Dsus, F.R.S. 


The author stated that ever since the introduction of gunpowder this subject has 
received considerable attention from chemists. The French chemist Gay-Lussac 
was the first to make a systematic analysis of the products of combustion; but it 
was not possible satisfactorily to explain the reactions taking place by a formula. 
The researches of Professor Bunsen and Schischkoff have shown that a much larger 
number of products is formed than was previously supposed, rendering it even more 
difficult to explain the nature of the <a taking place by a symbolic formula. 
Professor Bunsen, of Heidelberg, found, by the combustion of a mixture of hydrogen 
and carbonic oxide with a quantity of oxygen not sufficient to burn the whole of 
the two gases, that the water and carbonic acid produced stood to each other in 
proportion of their molecular weights, or their molecular weights mre Ao by 
simple coefficients; and these coefticients may be the same for mixtures of yarious 
compositions, but change suddenly when the amount of one or both of the gases is 
changed beyond certain limits. ‘The author has shown that the same law obtains 
when a mixture of baric and calcic chloride is precipitated by an insufficient amount 
of sodic carbonate, viz. that the barium carbonate and calcium carbonate precipi- 
tated are in proportion of their molecular weights, or their molecular weights 
multiplied by a simple coefficient. A necessary condition is that the reactions 
ahi be simultaneous. In the combustion of powder in an ordinary gun this 
condition is very nearly satisfied, and accordingly the quantities of some of the 
products formed obey the law enunciated by Bunsen. The author deduced from 
-the analytical results published in Messrs. Noble and Abel’s most excellent 
researches on fired gunpowder, as well as from the analyses of the products of the 
combustion of powder published by Bunsen and Schischkoff, the following general 
results concerning the products of combustion :—(1) the sum of the potassium con- 
~ tained in the potassic hyposulphite, sulphate, and sulphide stands to the potassium 
in the potassium carbonate approximately in simple proportions; (2) the carbon of 
the carbonic oxide stands to the carbon of the potassic carbonate also approximately 
in a simple proportion. From this, as well as from the relation of the sum of the 
potassium contained in the sulphide and hyposulphite to the potassium in the sul- 
phate, it is possible to form a theory for the combustion of powder. There are 
several reactions between the constituents of powder when the latter is fired, Two 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 41 


of these are simultaneous ; the way in which the others succeed each other cannot 
be accurately determined: at first, when a portion of the carbon is burned, potassic 
carbonate, carbonic oxide, nitrogen, and carbonic acid are produced. Simultane- 
ously with this reaction another takes place—a portion of the saltpetre and the 
whole or a portion of the sulphur form potassic sulphate and carbonic acid. The 
action of still unburnt carbon and of free sulphur on the potassic sulphate, in a suc- 
ceeding stage of the combustion, causes the formation of potassic sulphide and hypo- 
sulphite. On the ground of such considerations, the processes taking place during the 
combustion of powder can be represented by equations. These, with other details, 
will be published elsewhere, 


On the Manufacture of Sole-leather in Bristol. 
By Srarxe Evans, Avonside Tannery. 


Very little notice is taken of the trade in city records, probably from the position 
of the tanneries being outside the city boundaries. In 1816 there were nine tan- 
neries, now there are thirteen. The trade was formerly much fettered by absurd 
restrictions and excise laws. The leather made in this locality is of excellent 
quality, from proximity to oak-woods and the length of time allowed in tanning. 

M‘Cullock estimates the leather-trade as third in importance in the United 
Kingdom, giving precedence only to wool and iron. 

The growth of commerce caused such a demand for leather that it would soon have 
attained a fabulous value but for the introduction of South-American hides and 
Turkish Valonea. South-American hides were first imported to Castile in 1580: total 
shipment from South America in 1872 of dry and salted hides 3,121,758, the produce 
of vast herds roaming over the pampas, which is estimated at 11 to 15 millions. 
Hides obtained of cattle in a semi-wild state much thicker than from high-bred 
animals. The loss occasioned by branding to prove ownership computed at 
£300,000 yearly. 

The recent practice of pickling on the voyage strongly objected to, yet likely to 
prove its own cure. 

Messrs. Conyers and Pullein have introduced a mode of suspending hides in lime, 
thus unhairing in four days without heat. Neither cool-sweating process used in 
America nor the sulphide of sodium or by charcoal used in Bristol. 

Bristol early adopted the system of rounding. Failure of all patent processes for 
tanning. Rapid processes and new materials generally regarded with distrust, 
twelve months being required to make thick leather both pliable and impermeable. 
A considerable quantity of army leather supplied from this city, for which prize 
medals have been awarded. The British troops are better shod than any other 
soldiers in the world; and Sir Garnet Wolseley says, “The regiment that can 
march best in an army is the best in that army.” 

Increased working of large tanneries in favourably situated districts, and disap- 
earance of small country yards. Five, for example, have been closed in Ash- 
urton, Devon. 

Kip tanning.—Imports estimated at 7,000,000, Average amount of plaster adul- 

teration on each kip one and a half pound. 

Principal tanning materials used in Bristol :—Oak-bark, Valonea, Myrobalan, 
Mimosa, Terra Japonica, Divi-Divi, and recently hemlock extract. Valonea 
haying doubled itself in value, great need is felt for new materials, of which a few 
have been introduced, but not in commercial quantities. : 

Waste products—Untanned portions of hide sold for sizing paper and manu- 
facture of gelatine. Hair now largely used in manufacture of cheap clothing, 
blankets, and imitation of seal skins. Spent tan burnt for its ashes ; lime-deposit 
useful as a manure. 

Effect of Free Trade.—First American leather sent to England in 1844, Fae 
1000 sides; in 1874, 1,159,854 sides, which pay no duty; while any English 
leather shipped to America must pay an import duty of move than 30 per cent. 

Desirableness of importing live cattle from the River Plate, which may there be 
bought at £5 per head—thus importing meat, hide, bones, hair, and hoofs without 


1875, 4 


42 : REPORT—1875. 


Quantity of leather tanned in Bristol sufficient to provide soles for nine million 
ie of boots annually. Various articles have been used as substitutes for leather, 
ut very few have stood the test of time. 
Greut importance of preventing the tannic turning into gallie acid.—Unfortunately 
the trade generally are ignorant on chemical subjects, and will receive with much 
pleasure any information on the subject. 


On the Separation of Lead, Silver, and Mercury, with a proposed process for 
estimation of Lead. By T. Farruny, F.L.S.E. 


These metals form a group generally precipitated together as chlorides, and 
various processes, more or less perfect, have been devised for their separation. Thus 
the silver chloride may be separated by ammonia, or the lead chloride by boiling 
with much water, or the mercurous chloride by boiling with nitric acid or aqua 
regia. ‘This last is tedious and is open to the objection mentioned by Fresenius, 
that mercuric chloride yolatilizes with the vapour from boiling water. 

In the study of the reactions of hypochlorites and while engaged in teaching the 
ordinary course of analysis, the author ascertained that the conversion of mercurous 
chloride into soluble mercuric chloride is instantaneously effected by boiling with 
alkaline hypochlorite, taking cave that the solution remains acid throughout. 

The hypochlorite used may he potassium, sodium, or calcium hypochlorite. The 
author finds the most convenient to be a solution prepared by passing chlorine into 
a 10-per-cent. solution of sodium hydrate until the impurities (alumina &c.) con- 
tained in it begin to separate out. On then adding a small proportion of the sodium 
hydrate solution, say about one tenth of the quantity saturated with chlorine, we 
obtain a liquid of convenient strength, and which when kept in the dark remains 
almost unchanged. 

Of course in the absence of acids &c. affecting the solubility of calcium compounds, 
solution of ordinary bleaching-powder may be used. 

The separation of lead from mercurous salts may be readily performed by a con- 
tinuation of the above process. If any free acid be present, add sodium acetate or 
hydrate and sufficient acetic acid to ensure an excess of the latter throughout the 
process. On boiling with hypochlorite all the lead is precipitated as brown dioxide. 
The dioxide so obtained is pure ; and as no lead remains in solution the author has 
confidence that this may proye an accurate process for the estimation of lead. 


On a new Method of preparing Periodates, with Application as a Test 
for Lodine and Sodium. By T. Farruny, .RSL, 


When we boil any iodide or iodate with excess of alkaline hydrate and hypo- 
chorite, then, if sodium salts be present, a crystalline precipitate is after some time 
thrown down consisting of sodium periodate. 

Using potassium hydrate and hypochlorite this test may be used to ascertain the 
presence of sodium compounds in any substance added to the boiling liquid. Ina 
solution of about 80 cub. centims. in volume less than 0:1 gramme can readily be 
detected ; and with a smaller volume more minute quantities may be detected. 

As a test for iodine it is of course unable to take the place of more delicate well- 
known tests; but it is useful as affording in any case confirmatory evidence. 


On new Solvents for Gold, Silver, Platinum, &c., with an Explanation of the 
so-called Catalytic Action of these Metals and their Salts on Hydrogen 
Dionde. By T. Farrtny, RSL, 


—_ —__ 


On the Use of Potassium Dichromate in Groves and Bunsen’s Batteries to 
ensure constancy. By T. Faintny, RSL. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 43 


On Nitrite of Silver. . By J. W. Garenovse. 


The Relation of the Arrangement of the Acids and Bases in a Mixture of Salts 
to the original manner of Combination. By Dr. J.H. Grapstonn, FBS. 


The question proposed for consideration was :—Suppose two salts (such as chloride 
of sodium and sulphate of magnesium) are mixed in equivalent proportions in a 
certain quantity of water, is the solution identical with a mixture of equivalent 
proportions of sulphate of sodium and chloride of magnesium in the same amount of 
water? The method employed for testing the question was to mix such pairs of 
solutions with a certain quantity of an intensely coloured salt, such as ferric sulpho- 
cyanide, ferric meconate, terbromide of gold, or platino-iodide of potassium, and to 
note the diminution of colour that resulted from the reciprocal decomposition of 
the constituents. Four separate pairs of mixtures were examined, and each pair 
proved identical in its action on the coloured salts. As small differences can be 
easily detected by such a method, the question may be considered as answered in 
the affirmative. 


Notes on the Action of the Copper-Zine Couple*. 
By Dr. J. H. Grapsronz, /.RS., and Arrrep TRIBE. 


- Pure zine will scarcely decompose a weak solution of sulphuric acid; but if a 
cor quantity of copper be deposited on the same zine, it will decompose it 
readily. 

Zinc which contains arsenic when “ coupled ” with copper decomposes pure water 
with the evolution of hydrogen which is free from arsenic. If, however, arsenious 
acid be added to the solution, arseniuretted hydrogen makes its appearance. The 
presence of this gas when arsenieal zinc is dissolved in sulphuric acid is most 
probably due to the solubility of the arsenic in that acid. 


On the Augmentation of the Chemical Activity of Aluminium by contact with 
a more Negative Metalt: By Dr. J. H. Guapsronn, /.2.S., and ALFRED 
TRIBE, 

Aluminium alone decomposes water only at a white heat, but when “coupled ” 
with copter or platinum it will decompose water slowly at the ordinary temperature 
and rapidly at 100°C. The aluminium-platinum couple, as might be expected, 
gives a still larger amount of hydrogen in the same time. 


On an Apparatus for estimating Carbon Bisulphide in Coal-qas. 
By A. Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S. 


On Derivates of Mercaptan. By L. Jackson and A. OrPEnuem. 


— 


On the Oxidation of the Essential Oils—The Limited Oxidation of Terpenes 
and Cymenet. By Cuartus T, Krnezert, 7.0.8. fe. 

This research is a continuation of work the results of which I have communicated 
to the Chemical Society (Journ. Chem. Soe. ser. 2, vol. xii. p. 511, & vol. xiii. p. 210). 

In this Part the limited oxidation (by air) of terpenes of the general, formula 
Cr H,, and certain bodies related to terpenes, of the formula C,,H,,, an cymene 
(C,,H,,) is dealt with.’ 

All terpenes represented by the expression O,, H,, (so far as I haye ir tyestigated) 


* Published zx extenso in ‘Phil. Mag.’ October 1875, t- Ibid. 
t Vide ‘Chemical News,’ vol. xxxii. p. 138. ’ 


44, REPORT—1875. 


yield by atmospheric oxidation acetic acid and peroxide of hydrogen, and probably 
other bodies as yet undetermined. , C 

Thus Hesperidene (the terpene of oil of orange-peel) yielded an acid solution 
containing in 100 cub. centims. 0:154 gramme peroxide of hydrogen ; and, moreover, 
a copper salt was prepared from an’ acid (not acetic) existing in solution which 
contained 12-85 per cent. copper. This acid is not precipitated from its combination 
with soda by acetic acid. 

Myristicene—With this terpene three experiments were made. 

a. With ordinary oil of nutmeg. This yielded, when oxidized in the presence 
of water, an acid solution containing in one case 0-098 gramme peroxide of hydrogen 
in 100 cub. centims. 

b. This experiment was made with the terpene isolated from nutmeg-oil by sodium 
treatment and fractional distillation. It boiled at 164°C., and consisted of terpene 
containing a little cymene. It yielded by oxidation a solution containing 0°0915 
gramme peroxide of hydrogen in 100 cub. centims. 

c. This third trial was made with that fraction of nutmeg-oil, hydrocarbons, 
boiling at 173°-175°, and therefore mainly cymene (as shown by Wright). ‘This 
gave, on oxidation with water, a solution containing 00114 gramme H,0, in 100 
cub. centims. 

Wormwood.—Wright (Journ, Chem, Soe. vol. xii. p. 317) has shown this oil to 
consist mainly of an oxidized body, C,, H,, O, containing some terpene. 

It yielded peroxide of hydrogen on oxidation, although in small quantity. 

Citronella contains, as Wright has shown, no terpene, but is mainly an oxidized 
body, C,,H,,0. It yielded, as was to be expected, xo H, O, on oxidation. 

Vhlang- Yhlang.—This perfume (see a paper by H. Gil in ‘Year-hook of Pharmacy,’ 
1874) contains no terpene. It was subjected to atmospheric exposure in sunshine 
asa test, but developed no peroxide of hydrogen, showing it to contain no terpene, 
a result found by other means by H. Gil. 

The oils of caraway, bergamotte, juniper, cubebs, lemon, and chamomile also 
absorb oxygen from air, forming in the presence of water peroxide of hydrogen. 
Their essential terpenes in a pure state have not yet been examined. 

Such bodies of the formula C,,H,, as I have examined fail to develop H, O, by 
atmospheric oxidation. 

This is true at least of the so-called clove terpene, isolated by Church from oil of 
cloves (Journ. of Chem. Soe. ser. 2, vol. xiii. p. 113), and also of patchouli, although 
it is to be remarked that the patchouli I examined was not oxidized by myself; 
and so the experiment requires repetition. 

Cymene from all sources is identical, as proved by the researches of Fittica, 
Wright, and Paterno, &c, I have oxidized three samples :— 

a. Cymene from camphor by zinc chloride. Of this 7 cub. centims. absorbed 
52 cub. centims. oxygen in 18 days, and formed peroxide of hydrogen. 

b. Cymene from the dibromide of cajeputol, boiling. at 176°-177°, gave by oxida- 
tion with water a solution containing 0-196 gramme H, O, in 100 cub. centims. 

c. A mixture of quantities of cymene from various sources. This also gaye 
affirmative results. Besides peroxide of hydrogen so obtained by atmospheric 
oxidation of cymene, a toluic acid seems also to be formed. A crystallized acid 
was obtained from the solution: having the ordinary characters of a toluic acid; 
but there was not sufficient quantity to admit of analysis. 

It is to be remarked that the oxidation in each case was effected by exposing the 
oe oa water to sunshine and air, or passing a current of air through the mixture 
at : 

I have shown, in Parts I. and II. of this research, that turpentine by oxidation in 
this way gives rise to the formation of camphoric acid and peroxide of hydrogen 
indirectly—that is, by the decomposition by water of a previously formed peroxide 
of an organic nature. 

Bodies of C,, H,, composition have not yet been examined. 

These researches also prove that cymene is the nucleus matter of the terpenes ; 
and thus is established another link between the terpenes and the benzene series. 

Fittica (Deut. Chem. Ges. Ber. vii. 323) has shown cymene to be normal propyl- 
methyl-benzene in which the methyl and propyl occupy the paraposition. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 45 


Its atmospheric oxidation may possibly be expressed as follows :— 
C,H,(CH,)(C,H,)+0,=C,H,(CH,)CO(OH)+ CH,CO(OH)+H,0,, 
thus obtaining by limited oxidation a toluic and acetic acid and peroxide of 
hydrogen. 

When dilute nitric acid is employed as the oxidant toluic acid is formed ; and in 
the case of stronger oxidants terephthalic acid is produced, the latter being a product 
not formed by atmospheric oxidation. 

The production of peroxide of hydrogen from these bodies may possibly lead to 
a modification of the views of the constitution of hydrocarbons now entertained, 


On the Treatment of Sewage. By J.C. Mrtxiss. 


Some Remarks on Onynoitic Acid, By A. OprpENHEIM. 


On Noctilucine. By Dr. T. L. Purrson. 


On Apparatus and Modes of Examination for the Source of Polluted Au. 
By Wi11am Tromson, F.C.S. 


This paper has reference principally to the detection and relative determination 
of the amount of hydrochloric and sulphuric acids issuing from chemical or other 
works surrounded by works which are also said to pollute the air, to prove the 
amount of pollution proceeding from any individual works. 

My first experiments were confined to litmus-paper, which I found would not act 
well unless the papers were kept moist. To effect this I took bottles flattened on 
both sides, having a small hole bored in the shoulder; a piece of blotting-paper was 
fixed on the front of the bottle by elastic bands, and kept quite wet by a piece of 
cotton-wick passing through the small hole in the bottle, which was filled with pure 
water: the litmus-paper was then moistened with water and laid on the wet blotting- 
paper; it may thus be kept moist for any length of time without washing any of 
the litmus from the paper. If, then, several moist litmus-papers be kept at the 
side of the works, in a direct line with the direction of the smoke, and another set of 
papers placed at exactly the opposite side of the works, and both left for a few hours, 
a comparison of the two sets of papers will give a fair idea of the amount of acidity 
emitted by the works by the difference in point of redness of the litmus. 

With the view to determine the actual amount of impurities put into the atmosphere 
by any individual works, I placed carbonic-acid bulbs, connected by means of india- 
rubber tubing with an aspirator, and so arranged them that by means of a pulley they 
could be raised or lowered through arange of about 30 feet on a jointed pole ; by this 
means they could be placed as nearly as possible about the level at which the smoke and 
other vapours passed: but as the wind changed often it was necessary for the experi- 
ment that the pole, bulbs, and aspirators should be moved about in accordance with 
the changes in the direction of the wind; this was done by having the appliances 
fixed ona vehicle. About 120 gallons of air were passed through 500 grains of water 
alone and also made slightly alkaline with pure caustic soda, the apparatus being kept 
always in the direct line of the smoke from the works; and 120 gallons of air were 
passed through other bulbs, the apparatus always being kept to exactly the oppo- 
site side from that to which the smoke was blown. Thus I was enabled to get the 
relative amount of impurities in the atmosphere immediately before and immediately 
after it passed the works; and as it took about twelve hours to pass this quantity 
of air through each apparatus, it no doubt gave a fair estimate of the amount of 
impurities emitted by the works. 

It is also advisable to corroborate these results by other means, such as collecting 
rain-water from different directions near the works, at the same time observing the 
direction of the wind during the time the rain is falling &c. 


On a new Gaseous Compound of Fluorine and Phosphorus. 
By Professor T. E, Tuorpz, F.C.S, 


ee 


46 - REPORT—1875. 


Researches on the Crystalline Constituents of Aloes*, 
By Wrttram A. Trtpen, D.Sc. Lond., F.0.8. 


Barbaloin is the name given to the aloin from Barbadoes aloes. It is a yellow, 
soluble, crystalline body, which yields substitution compounds with chlorine, 
bromine, and acetyl. Zanaloin (from Zanzibar aloes) is supposed to be identical 
with Socaloin (from Socotrine aloes), because the two compounds give the same 
qualitative reactions ; but the latter has not been analyzed. Zanaloin, after drying 
in a vacuum, gives the same numbers as Barbaloin, the results of analysis in each 
case agreeing with the formula C,,H,,O0,. Zanaloin also yields substitution deriva- 
tives, the two series of isomeric compounds being expressed by the formulee 


C., i; C107, _ 
0,, H, Br, O,, 
C,, H,; (0, H, 0), 0,. 


Zanaloin is distinguishable from Barbaloin by the action of strong nitric acid, 
which gives a crimson coloration with the latter; whilst with the former very 
slight change is manifest till heat is applied, when a bright orange-red colour is 
developed. 


' Note on Miintz and Ramspacher’s Apparatus for the Estiraation of Tannie 
Acid. By Joun Warts, D.Sc. 


The following arrangement was devised by MM. Miintz and Ramspacher in order 
to ascertain with accuracy the actual leather-producing power of an astringent sub- 
stance, which, according to the experience. of the manufacturer, does not appear 
always to coincide with its percentage of tannic acid. 

The apparatus may be briefly described as a shallow gun-metal drum of about 
200 cubie centims. capacity, permanently closed at one end by an india-rubber 
plate, and capable of being closed watertight at the other by a piece of depilated 
hide when clamped upon a stand over which the hide has been previously stretched. 
The drum is perforated at the side with a screw to admit of the introduction of the 
tanning liquor, and is fitted above with a screw-piston to compress the india-rubber 
disk. When the piston is lowered the liquor is forced through the hide, while the 
latter retains the whole of the tannic acid. ‘Lhe density of the liquor is taken 
before and after the operation by means of a very fine hydrometer graduated to a 
special scale, when the difference expresses at once the percentage value of the 
liquor operated on, 

The advantages of the arrangement will be obvious to any one who has experi- 
ence in analyses of this description ; it is sufficient to say that the analysis is con- 
ducted with ease and rapidity, and that the average variation is about 0°5 per cent. 

In order to compare the results of Ramspacher’s tannometer with Himmer’s 
table of percentages of tannin in solutions of different densities, and to compare 
both with the results of evaporation, a number of experiments were undertaken by 
the author, as shown below. The percentages only indicate the value of the par- 
ticular sample under examination. 


By specific gravity. By tannometer. By evaporation. 


Cube Gambier ..,..... 41°45 40-44 47-43 
Bale Gambier ........ 42-44 39-50 49-02 
CUifehy civ saer® ade 47-70 44-60 52:16 
Nal ONGR ache arstauans ondary 25:32 95°22 26:30 
Myrobalanes .........- 82:3 20:28 31-08 
Mimosa-bark ........-- -81-44 30:18 31-72 
ine Galleig ov. av acdde tan 60-€0 59-10 

Green Galls:*. 0... onch 53°40 52:41 57:90 
Sump 6 Sis Nan a eee 17-10 _ 18:00 19°55 
Divie Digi Soe) vee ope: 33°94 _ 85°20 


* Published zn exrtenso in the Pharm, J. Trans. (3) vi. 208. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 47 


The numbers in the first column were obtained by taking the specific gravity at 
15° before and after removing the tannin, and obtaiming the percentage equivalent 
from Hiimmer’s Table. The third column was found by evaporating 25 cubic 
centims. in a platinum dish before and after the removal of the tannin, and drying 
the residue for three or four hours at 100°. 

For further details the reader is referred to a memoir by Miintz and Ramspacher 
in the ‘Ann, Chim. Phys.’ 1875 [5], v. 


GEOLOGY. 


Address by Tuomas Wnricut, W.D., FRSE., F.GS., President of the 
Section. 


In taking this Chair today, I desire first to express my deep sense of gratitude to 
the Council of the British Association for the honour conferred on me, and, secondly, 
to say how much I feel the responsibility of the position in which I am placed 
when I recollect the long list of distinguished savans who in former years have 

resided over this Section. The fact that Buckland, Conybeare, De la Beche, Forbes, 

eikie, Hopkins, Jukes, Lyell, Murchison, Phillips, Ramsay, and other men illus- 
trious in the annals of British Geology have filled this chair, may well make me 
doubt how far my own feeble powers are equal to an efficient discharge of its duties ; 
however, I shall bring a willing mind and an honest determination to do my best 
on this occasion. 

We have met again in one of the most interesting centres in England ‘to all 
students of practical geology; for within a short distance of this spot we can 
examine some of the most instructive sections of Paleozoic aud Mesozoic rocks, 
and study a magnificent collection of local fossils obtained from them.’ ‘So I purpose 
occupying the short space of time allowed for this introductory address in attempt- 
ing to give you a general outline of the geological character of the country around 
Bristol, with a réswmé of some of its more remarkable Paleontological features, by 
way of inducing you to visit and study the admirable collection of local organic 
remains so well displayed in the Museum of the Bristol Philosophical Institution, 

Geology is the history of the Earth ; for it attempts to construct a table of pheno- 
mena, physical and chemical, organic and inorganic, which haye succeeded each 
other from the past to the present, and on the terrestrial surface traces of its origin 
and progress are preserved. 

That phase which we see today is only the most recent of its eventful history, 
and although the last, is not the final one, as the physical forces that are ever in 
action among its different parts are slowly and steadily producing new combina- 
tions, which in time will effect mutations in its structure, change its physiography, 
and remodel the whole. 

There is probably no other place in England where, within so limited an area, 
typical examples of so many different formations occur as around this city; for 
within a short distance by road or rail we may inyestigate the Silurian, Devonian, 
Carboniferous, Triassic, Liassic, Oolitic, and Cretaceous formations, all of which 
will yield many interesting species for the cabinet of the paleontologist, and a 
valuable series of rocks and minerals for the student of Physical Geology. 

These different formations in relation to the entire series of stratified rocks will 
be better understood by a reference to the following Table, in which the periods, 
divisions, formations, and typical localities are given :— 


48 


REPORT—1875. 


TaBLE I,—Geological Formations in the Bristol Districts. 


Periods. 


Post TERTIARY. 


TERTIARY...... oc 
CRETACEOUS .... 


JURASSIC «sees 


DTASSIO 4% ee 


TRIASSIC . 


PERMIAN ......5- 


CARBONIFEROUS 


= a nt 


DEVONIAN 


UppER SILURIAN } 


IGNEOUS Rocks. { 


(| Upp 


Divisions. 


Recent .... { 
Post Pliocene . 


eeeeene 


er Oolite.. 
Middle Oolite . 


Lower Oolite- 


Upper Lias . 
Middle Lias . 


Lower Lias . 


Upper Trias. 


Old Red.... 


eeveeee 


Beso eh Se ee Hee 


Formations. | 


Alluvium 
Peat 


eee ee ee nes 


Coral Rag...... 
Oxford Clay .... 
Cornbrash ...... 
Forest Marble .. 
Bradford Clay 
Bath Oolite .... 
Fuller’s Earth .. 
Inferior Oolite .. 
Liassic Sands.... 
Upper LiasClay. . 
Marlstone ...... 


OLEL Ait soon 


(CUBS ti aiauelelsiaiage 
Limestones 
Avicula contorta . 
Keuper 
DolomiticConglo- 
merate 


ee ry 


Coal Measures .. 
Millstone Grit .. 
Upper Shales . 
Carboniferous 
Limestone 
Lower Shales 
Sandstones 


Conglomerates .. 


Ludlow ....... 
Wenlock ...... 
Upper Llandovery 
Greenstone .. 
Basalt 


Typical Localities. 


Bristol, Shirehampton. 


Cheddar, Glastonbury. 


.| Cheddar railway, Keynsham, 


Saltford. 
Absent. 
Postlebury. 
Absent. 
Cloford. 
Cloford, Marston Bigot. 
Chickwell, Faulkland. 


.| Bradford. 


Coombedown Lansdown P. 
North Stoke, Lansdown, Box. 
Dundry, Cotteswold Hills. 
Dundry, Midford, Frocester. 
Dundry, Midford, Frocester. 
Dundry, Sodbury, Stinch- 
combe. 
Dundry, Sodbury, Stinch- 
combe, 


.| Horfield, Pell. 
-| Keynsham, Saltford. 


Aust, Beechum, Garden Cliff. 
New River, Cotham. 


Bristol, Portishead, Clevedon. 
Absent. 

Mangotsfield, Radstock, &e. 
Brandon Hill, Fish-ponds, &e. 


.| Clifton, Ashton, Fish-ponds. 


..| Clifton, Mendips, Tortworth. 
..| Clifton, Clevedon, Tortworth. 
....| Clifton, Portishead, Mendips, 


Ke, 
Clifton, Portishead, Mendips, 
&e. 


.| Berkeley, Purton Passage, 


Tortworth, Falfield. 
Tortworth, Damory. 


..| Damory, Charfield, Woodford. 
.| Uphill, Mendips, Weston. 


The localities in this Table may be grouped into six districts :— 
1. Tortworth district. 


2. Mendip Hills. 
8. Radstock district. 


4. Bristol district. 
5. Dundry district. 
6. Bridgewater district. 


1. TortwortsH District. 


Stlurian.—Tortworth has long been classical ground to the geologist, and was 
first brought into notice by Dr. Cooke, formerly (1799-1835) rector of the parish. 
This gentleman made an extensive collection of fossils from all the rocks in the 
district, which after his death passed through my hands; andIcan therefore speak 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 49 


to the fact. A description of the Geology of Tortworth was made by Mr. Weaver*, 
and by Buckland and Conybearet. These memoirs were written at a time when 
the correlations of the then so-called Transition rocks were not understood; there- 
fore they help us little toward a correct understanding of their age and character. 
Tt was not until Murchison had succeeded in making out the true relation and 
character of the upper fossiliferous beds beneath the Old Red Sandstone, and had 
arranged his groups by their organic remains in consecutive order under the name 
of the Silurian System, that the true age and relation of the Transition strata of 
Tortworth were understood. It then appeared that the Silurian rocks of Tort- 
worth are the southern extension of the same formations which, extending through 
Micklewood Chase and the Vale of Berkeley, appear as a dome of Upper Silurian, 
rising near Tites Point on the left bank of the Severn near Purton Passage. The 
same rocks are found wrapping round the base of May Hill and Huntley Hill in the 
Forest of Dean, in the Valley of Woolhope, Herefordshire, on the western slopes 
of the Malvern Hills, and extending through Eastnor and Ledbury to Wenlock 
Edge, Salop. Whatever, therefore, is true relating to the Paleontological cha- 
xacter of the Upper Silurians in these other localities, is equally correct of the 
same formations that lie in the miniature basin of Tortworth. The Caradoc Sand- 
stone, or, as it is now called, the Upper Llandovery Sandstone, is the oldest rock at 
Tortworth, and forms the dominant stratum of the district. It covers an extensive 
area; and some small sections are seen at the south side of Micklewood Chase, and 
on both banks of the Avon near Damory Mill. Lithologically and palzontologically 
it is indistinguishable from hand specimens of the same formation at May Hill. It 
abounds in fossils : Pentamerus, Strophomena, Orthis, Atrypa, Spirifera, and Leptena, 
with broken Trilobites belonging to the genera Trinucleus, Calymene, Illenus, and 
Phacops, are found, together with the stems of Crinoids and Tentaculites, 

The Wenlock Limestone is exposed at Falfield Mill and Whitfield and other 
places; from its various beds the characteristic Upper Silurian Corals are collected ; 
as Favosites, Syringopora, Halysites, Porites, Caryophyllia, and Acervularia, 
Crinoidal stems are very abundant. Many Brachiopoda (as Leptena, Atrypa, 
Orthis orbicularis) and Gasteropoda (as Ewomphalus discors and Euomphalus Sunatus) 
are collected, with fragments of Calymene Blumenbachii and Phacops caudatus. 
The Ludlow Rock is best exposed at low-water mark on the west bank of the Severn 
at Purton Passage, where it rises in a dome-shaped mass, and dips away beneath 
the beds of Old Red Sandstone of the Devonian series on the opposite shore ; the 
upper portion of this formation consists of greenish-grey micaceous beds, with 
Leptena lata, Orthis unguis, and Terebratula Wilsoni, which probably represent the 
Aymestry limestone. 

Devonian.—The Old Red Sandstone, in its upper parts, consists of fine-grained 
thin flagstones of a whitish-grey colour; and Tortworth Court is built of these fine 
building beds. This upper division is underlain by coarse quartzose conglomerates, 
and at the base by red sandstone, which rests on the Llandovery strata. The same 
succession of beds is very persistent, with conglomerate in the centre and lower 
third, and sandstone above and at the base. 

Carboniferous.—The Bone-bed at the base of this formation is well developed, 
together with the Lower Limestone Shales. Psammodus linearis, P. levissimus, 
Coprolites, and Pileopsis angustus, Phil., a shell of the Carboniferous Limestone, are 
the leading fossils here. 

Millstone Grit and Coal Measures.—These beds have been fully and accurately 
described in the ‘Geological Transactions, by Weaver, Buckland, and Conybeare, 
accompanied by many valuable sections, They consist of Millstone Grit, Lower 
Coal Measures, Pennant Sandstone, and Upper Coal Measures; the whole series 
may be studied and examined in this district. A section constructed from Tort- 
worth Green to Frampton Cotterell gives the following :—Tortworth Green, Old 
Red ; the Court and Park, Lower Limestone Shales; Ley Hill and Cromhall, Car- 
boniferous Limestone ; Cromhall Heath, Millstone Grit ; Sweethouse, Lower Coal - 
Shales ; Sweethouse to Robin’s-wood House, Pennant, and from Robin’s-wood 
house to Frampton Cotterell, Upper Coal Measures of the Coal-pit Heath basin, 


* Trans. Geol. Soc, vol. i. p. 317 (2nd series). + Ibid. p. 210. 
1875. 5 


50 ; REPORT—1875. 


Aun able paper on this subject, with Map and Sections, by my friend Mr. Etheridge*, 
F.R.S., will be found in the papers of the Cotteswold Club. 

Dolomitic Conglomerate.—W eaver described this formation as composed princi- 
pally of “rounded and angular fragments of limestone exceeding the size of the 
head, with fragments also of quartz and hornstone. These are all cemented together 
by a calcareous paste, whichis frequently of a marly nature—or of a carbonate of 
lime either of an earthy or compact structure;” the cement is generally magnesian, 
and in this there are many cavities frequently lined with crystals of calcareous spar 
and quartz, and also with the sulphate of strontian. 

This remarkable formation forms a kind of irregular broken fringe, hanging on 
the flanks of the older rocks, and resting unconformably upon them. We shall 
meet with this conglomerate again in connexion with the beds in the Mendip Hills 
and in the Clifton section. 

New Red Sandstone—The upper and central members of the New Red Sand- 
stone are found near Tortworth; they consist chiefly of red clay and marl. 

Avicula-contorta beds have been found by the Earl of Ducie in the form of the 
Bone Bed, the series resting on the inclined edges of the Carboniferous Limestone. 


2, Menprp Hints, 


The Mendip Hills proper extend from Bleadon Hill near Hutton on the west, to 
Elm and Whatley on the east; and they strike nearly due west and east, and are 
about 30 miles in length, with an average breadth of 5to Gmiles. They constitute 
the southern base of the Bristol Coal-field, or the base of an almost equilateral tri- 
angie, formed by the Paleozoic rocks, comprising the area from Purton Passage and 
Tortworth to the south slopes of the Mendips; this includes the outlier Bream 
Down, which is only a westerly prolongation in the Severn, separated from the 
main range of the Mendips by the alluyial flat of the estuary of the Axe. 

The Lithology of the Mendips consists of Old Red Sandstone, Carboniferous 
Limestone, and ‘l'rias, the latter represented chiefly by the Dolomitic Conglomerate, 
which lies unconformably on the Old Red and Carboniferous, flanking nearly the 
entire range of hills, and in places capping their summits. 

Numerous islands of Carboniferous Limestone surrounded by Triassic rocks occur 
east of Wells and south of Croscombe, also encircled by fringes of Dolomitic Con- 
glomerate, of which Church Hill, Worminster, and Knowl-foot Hill are examples ; 
these outliers testify to the southern extension of the Carboniferous Limestone 
beneath the New Red Sandstone and Lias south of the Mendips, and lend us aid 
in determining the probable position of deep-seated Coal Measures similar to those 
at Vobster, Colford, Edford, Holcombe, &c., north of the Mendip range. 

The lower flanks of the northern portion of the range are covered by the New Red 
Sandstone, that of the south being a mere strip traversed by the Wells-and- 
Axbridge Railway, the peat plains and bogs of Sedgmoor covering them up to a 
certain level to the east of the meridian of Glastonbury. The Lias occupies an 
extensive plain, masking likewise the older rocks beneath. 

Old Red Sandstone forms the oldest stratified rock, and is, strictly speaking, 
the axis of the Mendip Hills. It is exposed in four well-marked areas along the 
highest ridge:—(1) Blackdown; (2) North Hill and Pen Hill; (8) Beacon Hill; 
and (4) Downhead Common, which is the largest exposed tract. The intervening 
areas are occupied by a mantle of Carboniferous Limestone, which arches over and 
covers the underlying Old Red, denudation haying yet spared the limestone, 

The Old Red is exposed along two anticlinal axes, these being, indeed, the chief 
cause of its exposure; the axes being post-Carboniferous and pre-Triassic, are not 
traceable beneath or where the patches of Dolomitic Conglomerate and cherty 
Lias cover up the Old Red Sandstone and Carboniferous Limestone, as at Harptree 
Hill, Rowham, Shipham, ce. 

The most northerly anticlinal brings up the fine range of Blackdown, on the north, 
south, and east of which occur the Lower Limestone Shales resting on Old Red. 

The northern dip of the anticlinal is higher than the southern, being in places 
as high as 54° in the north, whilst in the south it does not exceed 20°. This anti. ° 


* Proceedings of the Cotteswold Naturalists’ Field Club, p. 28 (1865). 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 51 


elinal is traceable from near the exposure of the igneous rock at Uphill, along 
Bleadon Hill, thence under the New Red Sandstone to Padingham, and Dolomitic 
Conglomerate and Calamine beds of Shipham, through the Old Red Sandstone of 
Blackdown, and on through the Ciinbamiignea: Limestone of Lamb-bottom, where 
it is lost under the cherty Rhetic beds of Harptree Hill. From Little Elm on the 
extreme east to Mashury Castle nearly due west of the range, the Old Red is again 
exposed for three miles, which is likewise due to the anticlinal axis. 

At Masbury Castle we lose trace of this S.E. anticlinal, and a second and parallet 
one to that of Blackdown occurs, ranging from the Old Red of North Hill through 
the Carboniferous Limestone of Stoke Warren, and last under the dolomitic conglo- 
merate of North Draycott. This may join the great anticlinal near Egar Hill. We 
thus see that the strike of the Mendips was induced by a force which has brought out 
its oldest rock to the surface, and thereby produced the present physiography of the 
bold range of hills we are now considering. 

Carboniferous Limestone surrounds the exposed and concealed nucleus of Old Red, 
and is conformable therewith both in dip and strike, The Carboniferous Limestone 
has grand development in the Mendips, and constitutes the great mass of the chain, 
having a continuous spread of five miles between Westbury Beacon and Abley, also 
between Croscombe and Emberrow. The Lower Limestone shales are nowhere 
more finely exposed than around and resting on the upper members of the Old Red 
Sandstone, and are highly fossiliferous throughout, the beds being crowded with 
Strophomena, Chonetes, Spirtfera, Polyzoa, the ossicula of Crinoids, and many Tri- 
lobites, presenting a strong contrast to the barren beds of the Old Red on which they 
conformably rest. The Shales are well developed around Blackdown, especially to 
the east of Charterhouse, at Rowbarrow and Priddy, west of North Hill, and Nine 
Barrows ; and east of Egar Hill they attain a thickness of 500 feet, and are extremely 
rich in organic remains. ‘They present an extended outcrop from Masbury to Stoke 
Lane, and Leigh upon Mendip, and in the Downhead beds near Asham Woods. 
The local development of these argillaceous beds of the lowest division of the Car- 
boniferous Limestone first gave origin to the name Lower Limestone Shales. They 
are almost special to the west of England, and are exposed on both flanks of the 
Mendip range. On them rest the thick-bedded strata of the Carboniferous Lime- 
stone, which is everywhere traceable for thirty miles from Oldford, the gorge of the 
Vallis to Elm on the east, to the distant headland of Bleadon in the west, and 
ai abounding more or less with organisms which form the leading fossils 
in its beds. 

Coal Measures.—On the northern flank of the Mendips, between Binegar and 
Wells, and resting on the Millstone Grit, highly faulted and contorted, are the well- 
known Coals of Vobster, Holcombe, Pitcot, &c., that portion on the west at Stratton 
on the Fosse, Downside, &c. being covered by Dolomitic Conglomerate, the eastern 
side. at Newbury and Vobster being overlain by the same rock and the Inferior 
Oolite. There is no reason why we should not conclude that the Coals of the 
northern side once extended across the Mendips and now lie deeply buried along the 
south parts of the range. At Ebber rocks, west of Wells, we have evidence of the 
Millstone Grit resting on the Carboniferous Limestone; and the elevation of the 
Mendips being post-Carboniferous, lends an additional reason for the occurrence of 
the Coals of the northern area to the south of the Mendips, and beneath the Lias 
and Peat plain of Glastonbury, Castle Carey, the Pennards, and the Poldon Hills. 
No Coal area in the United Kingdom is so disturbed and folded both along its strike 
and on the dip of the Coals as those of North Mendips; and like the Coals of the 
“ Mons Coal-field” in Belgium, which exists under similar conditions, the seams are 
vertical and thrown over, so that the same seams are passed through by shafts two or 
three times. The Vobster and Holcombe Coal-seams are the same as those at Ashton 
and Kingswood near Bristol, Twerton near Bath, and probably the same as those at 
Yate. They underlie the whole area between the Mendips and Bristol, and are proba- 
bly the same that occur at Kingswood and underlie the Pennant at Coal-pit Heath, 

The Trias.—Two divisions of this group are greatly developed around and upon 
the Mendips, especially the inferior or Dolomitic Conglomerate, a peculiar and local 
condition of the base of the Keuper Sandstone of the Bristol and South Wales: 
Coal-fields, chiefly that portion of the latter which extends from Cardiff to Bridg- 


i= 
oO 


52 REPORT—1875. 


end. The entire range of the Mendips is surrounded by Dolomitic Conglomerate ; 
and ten or twelve patches still remain as unconformable undenuded masses of that 
formation resting upon the older rocks forming the massive range of the Mendips. 
This remarkable deposit completely covered the range when at a lower level, its 
partial removal being conclusively shown by the remnants that still cling to the 
steep face of the northern and southern flanks of the Mendips. 

This Conglomerate is composed entirely of greater or lesser fragments of the older 
rocks composing the hills, and is the result of the denuding action of the sea that 
deposited the Keuper Beds. This marine denudation took place when the entire 
area occupied by the Mendips and Coal-basin underwent depression, the Dolomitic 
Conglomerate and sandstones accumulating po ratd with the depression and con- 
sequent destruction of the rocks offered for resistance. This conglomerate, the “ over- 

‘e” of the coal-miners of the Bristol basin, although visible only upon the Paleozoic 

rocks surrounding the coal-bearing area, is nevertheless entirely spread over them, 
and beneath the New Red Sandstones that occupy nearly the entire area from Tort- 
worth to the southern flanks of the Mendips, its presence being marked by the marls 
and sandstones of the Keuper, the Lias limestones, and in other places the Oolitic 
rocks that lie within the Coal-basin, especially along its south-east border from Bath 
to Wells. We have no physical evidence more convincing of denudation, elevation, 
and depression over large areas of the earth’s surface than what we can witness so 
easily and study so advantageously in the Mendip Hills; for this conglomerate 
rock here defines the limits between Mesozoic and Paleozoic times: the highly 
inclined Old Red Sandstone forms the nucleus of the chain, the Carboniferous rocks 
resting upon it; and the Coal Measures in conformable succession to the latter were 
all indurated, metamorphosed, elevated, and thrown into folds long prior to the time 
when, under slow depression, destruction, and denudation, the Dalomitic Conglo- 
merate was laid down by the Triassic Sea—the resultant of wave forces along 
a coast-line which was then the Mendip range, its shingle and boulders being slowly 
cemented by a magnesio-calcareous paste derived from the wasting beds of the 
great limestone series. For further details regarding the natural history of the Dolo- 
mitic Conglomerate I must refer to a valuable memoir on this formation by Mr. 
Etheridge, F.R.S.* 

The Rhetic.—Singular beds of cherty and sandy deposits of Rheetic age occur in 
several parts of the Mendips, in places brecciated, or as a conglomerate, and resting 
either upon the Dolomitic Conglomerate or Carboniferous Limestone. 

The fossils are either cherty, or they have been removed, and their moulds are 
formed of chert, or cavities are left where organisms existed. 

These beds are exposed at East Harptree, Egar Hill, Ashwick, and Shepton- 
Mallet. In the Vallis they repose immediately on the upturned edges of the Car- 
boniferous Limestone, and even fill in the numerous veins, pockets, and faults in that 
formation with fossil species common to the beds. 

Nowhere can the geologist read more clearly the physical history of the groups of 
associated rocks composing the structure of the Kastern Mendips than at Wells, 
the Vallis, Watley, Elm, Nunny, and Holwell, where Old Red Sandstone, Car- 
boniferous Limestone, Coal Measures, Dolomitic Conglomerate, Rheetic Beds, Lias, 
and Oolites are all exposed in natural sequence to each other. There can be 
no doubt that the Rhzetic Sea surrounded and covered the Mendips; for its remains 
are found reposing on the Old Red Sandstone, Carboniferous Limestone, Coal Mea- 
sures, and Dolomitic Conglomerate, and pass upwards into the Lias beds. 

The Lias.—Fragmentary portions of this formation are found resting upon the 
summits of the Mendips, covering respectively Old Red Sandstone, Carboniferous 
Limestone, Dolomitic Conglomerate, and Rhetic beds, and in the Holcombe and 
Barrington districts resting upon the Coal Measures, proving the former exten- 
sion of the Liassic Sea over the Mendips; for upon some of their highest points, as 
near as Castle Comfort, the cherty beds, with their characteristic fossils, are found ; 
also at Chewton Mendip, Emberrow, and Ashwick, &c.; and on the south side of 
the hills it is found at a considerable height, as at Downside, Chilcott, and West 
Herrington. During the Lias age the Mendips must either have been an archipe- 
1°80, or they were totally submerged beneath the sea which deposited the Liassic 


* Quart. Journ. Geol, Soe. vol. xxvi, p. 174 (1870). 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 53 


plain tothe north and south. The re-elevation of the Mendip range has occasioned the 
removal by aqueous denudation of most of the Lias beds deposited on their summit, 
whilst along the southern flanks of the hills, and in the valley, a considerable thick- 
ness of this formation still remains én situ. 

Igneous Rocks.—Mr. Charles Moore* has shown that there is an exposure of 
basaltic rock (dioritic) along the anticlinal of the Mendips, a little west of Down- 
head, extending visibly nearly as far as Beacon Hill, between two and three miles in 
length and a quarter of a mile in width. 

his igneous mass appears in the form of a dyke, and is coincident with the anti- 
clinal line along the axis of the Mendips, which is here traceable for seven miles, 
and is again continued from near Harptree to Shipham. 

There is likewise at the south end of Uphill cutting (Bristol and Exeter Railway), 
at the western extremity of Bleadon Hill, an extensive patch of igneous rock, dis- 
covered when that line was made, and described by Mr. W. Sanders, F-.R.S.; 
this exposure was also in the line of the anticlinal, and ended in the fault which 
there crosses the line. This rock, according to Mr, Rutley’s analysis, is a Pitchstone 
Porphyry, whilst Mr. David Forbes considers it a Dolerite. 

ether this dyke was really eruptive or overflowed the Old Red Sandstone is 
still a question to be solved; and whether it is coextensive with the range is un- 
Inown; but its age must be subsequent to the Coal Measures—the whole of the 
Paleozoic rocks being disturbed alike, and lying at one general angle of inclination, 
the overlying secondary strata not being influenced or at all affected by these 
Palxozoic changes. The Old Devonian rocks in contact with the dyke are not 
altered or metamorphosed, thus establishing the facts of age and condition. 


8. Tur Rapstock District. 


- Among the many interesting features of the neighbourhood in which we are 
assembled is the Bristol Coal-field, which still offers an inexhaustible subject for 
scientific inquiry—extending from Cromhall in the north to Frome in the south, 
and from Bath in the east to Nailsea in the west, comprising an area of 238 square 
tiles. 

From a very early date it attracted the attention of geologists, and was long ago 
the subject of a paper by Mr. Strachey, which was published by one of the local 
societies. Dr. Buckland} contributed an able memoir on this Coal-field, in which a 
great quantity of important information was placed on record, which has been of the 
greatest possible use down to the present time. 

Subsequently this area has formed the subject of able papers contributed to the 
North-of-Hngland and South- Wales Institutes of Engineers, by Mr. J. C. Greenwell, 
F.G.S., and Mr, Handel Cossham, F.G.S., and to other scientific societies by Mr. 
Robert Etheridge, F.R.S., and Mr. Charles Moore, F.G.S. 

During the past twelve years Mr. J. M‘Murtrie, F.G.S., of Radstock, has been con- 
tinuously engaged in working out the physical geology of the district, and has con- 
tributed a series of memoirs on the Bristol Coal-field to the Bath and Somerset- 
shire Societies, which have thrown anew and important light on those marvellous 
disturbances which have distorted the strata. 

That part of the Report of the Royal Coal Commission bearing upon the Bristol 
Coalfield and prepared by Professor Prestwich, and papers by Mr. Horace Wood- 
ward and Mr. John Anstey, have summarized our previous knowledge, and added 
recent facts thereto; but with all that has been done much remains to be investi- 
gated before a full history of the Bristol Coal-field can be written. 

Although more or less connected throughout, the Coal-fields adjoining Bristol con- 
sist of three well-defined areas, called the Gloucestershire, Radstock, and Nailsea 
basins, each of which has its own distinctive features. The Gloucestershire is 
separated from the Radstock basin by the great Kingswood anticlinal, which inter- 
sects in a ridge-like form the entire Coal-field from east to west; and the Nailsea 
basin has been almost, if not entirely, cut off from the principal coal district by the 
elevated limestones of Broadfield Down. Of these three areas Radstock basin is the 


* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxiii. p. 452 (1867)- 
t+ Trans. Geol, Soc. 2nd series, vol. i. 


5A REPORT—1875. 


most extensive, both geographically and sectionally, a great portion of its thickness. 
being yet entirely undeveloped. One of the features which will be remarked by 
visitors coming from other parts of England is the number and character of the 
Secondary formations by which the Radstock basin is overlain. Here and there, it 
is true, Mesozoic rocks have been denuded; but by far the greater portion of the 
Coal-field is hidden beneath a covering of New Red Sandstone, Lias, and Inferior 
Oolite, and many of the shafts have had to pass through all these formations before 
the coal-seams were reached. : 
_ A very slight change in the geological circumstances of the past would have left 
us in entire ignorance of the existence of a Coal-field so far south as Bristol ; and this 
reflection induces the hope that in other parts of our country (at present believed to 
be without coal, or, if present, to lie at such a depth from the surface that it cannot 
be worked) it may yet be discovered at a moderate depth. ; 

Another feature of the Radstock Coal Measures is their great thickness, which 
Mr. M‘Murtrie estimates at 8000 feet. From this we may infer that, however 
limited the area in Somersetshire of which we have at present positive knowledge, 
we are very far indeed from the edge of that infinitely more extensive area which 
the Coal Measures of the south of England originally occupied, and within which 
outlying basins may still be found. fis 

It is abundantly evident that the Bristol Coal-field was originally connected with 
that ofthe Forest of Dean and South Wales, with which it has many characters in 
common, although it differs in other respects. 

In all we find the same arrangement of the different strata, namely:—Ist, an upper 
division of productive Coal Measures; 2nd, a central mass of Pennant Sandstone ; 
and, 3rd, beneath, a lower division of productive Coal Measures resting upon, 4th, the 
Millstone Grit. Hitherto it has been found impossible to correlate the seams of 
coal; but they present many points of general correspondence in the districts referred 
to ; and the information obtained leads to the conclusion that their greatest sectional 
development occurs between Radstock and Bristol, according to the following esti- 
mate of the thickness of the strata, number of seams, and thickness of coal-seams :— 


TABLE II.—Strata and Coal-Seams. 


i Number Thickness 
Division of Strata, Fectongl of 
hi: RES. | Coal-seams. | Coal-seams. 
feet inches 
Upper Coal Measures. ... 2600 16 26 10 
Pennant Sandstone,..... 2750 4 5 10 
Lower Coal Measures ,, 2800 26 66 6 
8150 46 97 | 26 | 


This great sectional thickness is attended, however, with serious disadvantages ; 
for although, according to the Report of the Royal Coal Commission, the Bristol 
Coal-field was estimated to contain 6104 millions of tons of coal, a large portion of 
it lies at an unworkable depth. Another physical feature of the district is the 
thinness of many of the seams from which coal is at present obtained, 

In many of the collieries seams of from 10 to 12 inches in thickness are exten- 
sively worked, thus setting a good example of economy of one of our most precious 
natural productions to other parts of England, where veins of similar thickness are 
left behind as worthless. 

Another feature of the Radstock Coal-basin is the extreme richness of its beds in 
the fossil flora of the Coal Measures, The Pennant Sandstone and Lower Measures 
yield few plants; but the Upper divisions contain much finer specimens than I have 
seen elsewhere; and the fossil flora of Radstock preserved in Mr. M‘Murtrie’s 
Museum is alone worth a journey to study and admire, The fossil ferns are in 
great variety and beautifully preserved, The Sigillarie, Lepidodendra, and other 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 55 


acrogenous stems tell of the arborescent ferns that floated their plume-like foliage 
on the islands of the Carboniferous period, and the industry and genius of the man 
who has collected and preserved them for our instruction and delight. The animal 
remains are here very scarce ; two or three species of the genus Limulus, and one or 
two Anthracosie, are all that have been found: and I have the satisfaction of adding 
that I am authorized to say that by previous arrangement Mr. M‘Murtrie will be 
happy to show his Museum to any Members of the Association to whom the same 
might be interesting. As there will be, I understand, memoirs on the Radstock 
Coalfield, I must refer to these papers for further details on this interesting district, 


4, Tur Bristoxu District, 


. In aradius of eight miles from the Guildhall we find exposures more or less com- 
plete of the following Paleozoic and Mesozoic formations :—1. The Old Red Sand- 
stone; 2. The Carboniferous Limestone ; 3, Millstone Grit ; 4. Coal Measures 3; 5. Dolo- 
mitic Conglomerate and New Red Sandstone; 6. Rhetic; 7, Lias, Lower, Middle, 
Upper; 8. Upper Lias Sands; 9. Inferior Oolite; 10. Fuller’s Earth; 11. Great 
Oolite; 12. Alluvium, with igneous rocks of Paleozoic age. Several of these for- 
mations I have already noticed in speaking of the Mendip Hills; therefore I shall 
now only add such special remarks as are required to complete their sketch in the 
Bristol district. 

The Old Red Sandstone forms, as we have seen, the axis of the Mendip Hills, and 
here occurs as a massive rock in different regions of the Bristol Coal-field, forming 
ranges of hills that have been sculptured by denudation out of its anticlinal folds. 
The beds in general are very unfossiliferous. 

In the neighbourhood of Portishead, however, the remains of some large fishes 
have been found in a hard conglomerate, belonging to the genus Holoptychius— 
reminding us of the fishes of the Old Red Sandstone of Scotland, which were all 
encased in a bony armour, and possessed some of the most remarkable forms of the 
ichthyic type. Pterichthys or wing-fish, Holoptychius or wrinkle-scaled fish, Cepha- 
laspis or buckler-shielded fish are all forms of the Old Red, and the earliest repre- 
sentatives of the class Pisces in the Paleozoic rocks. 

The Carboniferous Limestone is a great marine formation, and is formed of the 
sediments of anextensive and wide-spreading sea; the beautiful scenery so charac- 
teristic of the Avon, Severn, and Wye is in a great measure due to the development 
of this rock in these regions, One of the grandest sections of all the beds of the Car- 
boniferous Limestone is that exposed in the gorge of the Avon near Clifton, where it 
is seen resting on the Old Red Sandstone, and overlain by the Millstone Grit. 

The various conditions of the old sea-bottom in which this mass of calcareous 
rock was formed may here be studied with ease. The entire thickness of the strata 
exposed is upwards of 4000 feet ; of this the Old Red Devonian is 768 feet, the Car- 
-boniferous Limestone 2338, and the Millstone Grit 950 feet. This magnificent section 
has repeatedly been the subject of memoirs by Buckland*, Conybeare, Bright t, and 
Williams§, who have given ample details of all its different beds. 

The Lower Limestone Shales, 500 feet in thickness, are very fossiliferous; they 
consist of alternations of shales and limestone, with a hone-bed near their base; in 
some places beds several feet thick are formed of the ossicula of Orinoids. In the main 
Limestone series you have a succession of Brachiopoda; Spirifera, Producta, and 
Orthis follow each other. Of Lamellibranchs we find Avicwdopecten, Cardiomorpha, 
&e., with Gasteropods, as Evomphalus and Bellerophon, and Cephalopods, as Gondatites, 
Orthoceras, Actinoceras, &c. To these may be added the teeth and defensive spines 
of large shark-like and other fishes, as Cladodus, Psammodus, Orodus, Holoptychius, 
&c, Some of the coral strata in the upper part of the series are very interesting, and 
extremely rich in very beautiful specimens of Actinozoa, belonging to the reef-building 
groups of the ancient sea, as Michelinia, Amplexus, Lithostrotion, Syringopora, Lons= 
daleia &c., reminding us of the structure of coral reefs in our present seas. Asso- 


* “On the South-Eastern Coal District of England,” Geol. Trans. 2nd series, vol. i. ° 
+ Geol. Trans. Ist series, vol. iv. : 
t “On the Limestone Beds of the River Avon,” Geol. Trans. 1st series, vol. y. 

§ ‘Memoirs of the Geol. Survey,’ Sir H. De la Beche's Essay, vol. i. p. 118, 


56 REPORT—1875. 


ciated with the coral masses are other organisms which lived on the reefs or in 
shallow lagoons. The coral beds are covered by strata formed of Oolitic limestone 
and other detrital materials derived from the débris of wasted reefs, and formed 
along the shores of the ancient coral strand ; sections of these oolitic beds prepared 
as slides for the microscope disclose the fact that the nucleus of the oolitic granules 
is often the shells of Foraminifera. 

Millstone Grit is well seen at Brandon Hill; it rests upon the Limestone, and 
attains a thickness of 1000 feet. On this repose the Coal Measures of the Bristol 
Coal-field, which I have already described in connexion with the Mendip and Rad- 
stock districts. 

Dolomitic Conglomerate.—The Paleozoic rocks of the Bristol Coal-field are here 
and there covered over by patches of Dolomitic Conglomerate lying unconformably 
on their upturned edges, at heights varying from 20 to 300 feet above the Avon. 
This remarkable formation is very well seen in the new road leading from the Hot- 
wells to Clifton and Durdham Down. It has been long well known to geologists, 
and was in former days described by Bright, Gilby, Buckland, and others. 

Rhetic.—Between the uppermost beds of the grey marls of the Keuper and the 
lowest beds of the Lias there lies a remarkable assemblage of strata, which I for- 
merly described * as the “Avicula-contortaheds,” from that shell forming the leading 
fossil therein. The name Rheetic has since been given to the series, from a supposi- 
tion that the beds are identical with some that occur in the Rhetian Alps, which is, 
however, more than doubtful. Typical sections of the Avicula-contorta series are ex- 
posed at Garden Cliff, Aust Cliff, Penarth, and Watchet on the Severn, and at Wes- 
ton, Keynsham, Willsbridge, and Saltford near Bath, and Puriton, Uphill, and Wells 
in Somersetshire, as well as at many other localities. Two of the most classical of 
the series are Garden Cliffand Aust Cliff; the latter has been long known to conti- 
nental geologists as the Bristol Bone-bed. In the upper part of the section are dark 
grey shales, intersected by bands of limestone; Avicula contorta, Cardium Rheticum, 
Pecten Valoniensis, Axinus, &c. are found in these. The Bone-bed consists of a 
hard dark grey siliceous grit full of the bones, spines, scales, and teeth of fishes 
belonging to the genera Nemacanthus, Acrodus, Sargodon, Hybodus, Ceratodus, &c. 
Beneath this thin Bone-bed with its ichthyic débris is a bed of shale which rests upon 
the grey marls of the Keuper. A similar succession of strata is repeated in most of 
the other typical sections. I have named especially those at Garden Cliff, Penarth, 
Uphill, and Watchet. 

Aust has been long famous for its Ceratodus-teeth, and is, I believe, the only 
locality where they are collected. You will find a fine series of them in the Bristol 
Museum. This wonderful collection is quite unique and will well repay an atten- 
tive examination. 

The only living representative of the genus Ceratudus now lives in the rivers in 
Queensland ; and a fine specimen was lately purchased for and presented to the 
Museum by W. W. Stoddart, Esq., F.G.S., for the purpose of showing the com- 
parative size of the recent and fossil teeth. 


5. Dunpry District. 


The Oolitic Formations.—The Oolitic formations will long remain classical ground 
of English geologists, as it was-whilst studying these rocks in Wilts and Somerset 
that Dr. William Smith first acquired that knowledge which enabled him to “iden- 
tity strata by organic remains,” and establish a true natural system of stratigraphical 

eology. 

e The Oolitic period admits of a subdivision into three groups—the Lower, Middle, 
and Upper; each group is based on a great argillaceous formation, on which rest 
minor beds of sands and cream-coloured Oolitic and Pisolitic limestones. The 
Argillaceous formations form broad valleys, extending diagonally across England in 
a direction north-east by south-west. The limestones constitute low ranges of hills, 
with escarpments facing the south-west and overlooking the valleys. The Lower 
Oolites rest on the Lias, the Middle Oolites on the Oxford Clay, and the Portland 
and Upper Oolites on the Kimmeridge Clays. 


* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. yol. xvi. p. 374. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 57 


The Lias Formation is well developed around Bristol; and many interesting and 
instructive sections of the Lower bed may be studied at Horfield, Keynsham, Salt- 
ford, and Weston, whilst the Middle and Upper divisions are exposed in other 
localities. It has been often repeated of late years that the geological record is 
imperfect, and that many of the leaves, and even whole chapters of the Rock-book 
on which the hieroglyphics of its history were written, are wanting ; yet “Time 
which antiquates antiquities, and hath an art to make dust of all things, hath yet 
spared these minor monuments ;” for it is certainly true that the Jurassic formations 
contain a marvellously complete record of the succession of life in time during their 
deposition from the dawn oF the Lias until the close of the Coral Sea, amid whose 
islands fossil Cycade@ luxuriantly flourished, and whose remains are buried in their 
native Dirt-beds in the Portland Oolites. 

I have shown elsewhere that the three divisions of the Great Lias formations 
admit of several subdivisions or zones of life, each characterized by a group of species 
which individualize it. A careful examination of these subdivisions has further 

roved that there is no confusion in the rocks when carefully examined—that Nature 
is always true to herself, although all geologists are not true to Nature. The 
fossils of the Lower Lias are quite distinct from those of the Middle Lias, and 
both specifically different from those of the Upper. 

The Ammonites are important leading Liassic shells, that appear to have had a 
limited life in time, but a wide extension in space; and they have greatly aided us 
in determining periods and making out the history of the Liassic Sea. The great 
SavROPTERYGIA, represented by the Plesiosaurus, and the IcoTHYOPTERYGIA by 
the Ichthyosaurus, are remarkable forms of Reptilia adapted to the waters of that 
epoch, whilst the Drvosaurta, represented by Scelidosaurus, the PTEROSAURIA 
by the Pterodactylus, lived in this area during the Lias age: magnificent spe- 
cimens of these different forms of reptile life adorn the walls of the Bristol 
Museum. 

The Jurassic Age.—Dundry Hill, 700 feet in altitude, is the most westerly out- 
lier of the Oolitic range, from which it is nine miles distant. It is a locality of great 
interest to the local naturalist, as it affords capital lessons of stratigraphical geo- 
logy, admirable examples of surface-rock sculpture by denudation, and a command- 
ing point of view for surveying the same, and showing the grand panorama in the 
midst of which it stands. The greater portion of the Hill is composed of Lower 
Lias strata, which are well exposed at Bedminster Down, Whitchurch, Keynsham, 
Queen Charlton, Norton, Malreward, Winford, and Barrow. The beds consist of 
alternations of limestones and shales, having a total thickness of 550 feet. The 
‘Middle Lias and Marlstone are feebly developed, and the Upper Lias repre- 
‘sented by some thin clays, with dwarfed specimens of Ammonites bifrons and A. 
communis; and the Upper Lias Sands, from 1 to 2 feet thick, are not fossiliferous, 
On these rest beds of Inferior Oolite rock which have long yielded a very fine series 
of organic remains, some of the best of which are now preserved in the Museum 
collection. The Inferior Oolite of the south of England admits of a subdivision into 
three zones of life : the Lower, resting upon the Lias Sands, has the Ammonites Mur- 
chisone as its leading fossil; the Middle contains a large assemblage of Mollusca, 
and especially of Ammonites, among which Ammonites Humphriesianus, Sowerbyi, 
concavus, and Blagdeni are conspicuously characteristic ; the Upper contains Am- 
monites Parkinson, Martinsii, and subradiatus, with many Kchinoderms and a large 
series of reef-building corals. These three subdivisions are rarely all developed in 

the same section; but the order of their sequence in nature is as stated in Dundry. 
The lower beds are feebly represented ; and there is an immense development of the 
middle and upper divisions. 

In the iron shot shelly beds there is a fine assemblage of Lamellibranchs; and the 
stratum which covers then is very rich in Ammonites, many with their shells pre- 
served, and having their oral lobes and other appendages 7 sttw. 

These are succeeded by other conchiferous strata; and the whole is covered by 
Ragstone and Building-stone, forming the upper zone, with Ammonites Parkinsont, 
Echinide, and Corals. The stratigraphical, lithological, and paleontological 
conditions seen in the Oolitic capping of Dundry Hill are repeated in other locali- 
ties e Gloucestershire, Somersetshire, and Dorsetshire ; and a full development of 

1875, 6 


58 ; REPORT—1875. 


all the zones in actual superposition may be examined in certain sections in the 
Cotteswold Hills, as at Leckhampton and Cleeve. 

The Fuller’s Earth must be studied at North Stoke and Lansdown, and the Great 
Oolite at Coombedown, Lansdown, and other localities around Bath; the typical 
Bradford clay, with Apiocrinital heads and stems and beautiful Brachiopoda, near 
Bradford ; the Forest Marble and Cornbrash at Faulkland, Chickwell, Marston 
Bagot, and Cloford. The Middle Jurassic rocks are admirably exposed near Calne, 
and the Upper Jurassic near Swindon, Wilts. : 

The great importance of the Bristol district as a source of mineral wealth, added to 
the complicated structure of thisregion, led my old friend Mr. William Sanders, F.R.8., 
to construct an elaborate geological map of the Gloucestershire and Somersetshire 
Coal-fields and adjacent country, on the scale of four inches to a mile. The topo- 
graphical portion of this undertaking was reduced to one scale from the Tithe-Com- 
mission Maps; and Mr. Sanders traced out all the geological boundary lines in the field, 
and laid them down in MS. copies of the Tithe Maps, making copious notes of the 
strata as he proceeded with his work. The whole was finally reduced to one scale 
four times the size of the Ordnance-Survey Maps, and reproduced with the most 
scrupulous care by Mr. Stratton, who for many yearsassisted Mr. Sanders with the 
work which he had made the chief object and occupation of his later years; and it is 
but simple justice to say that, single-handed, no such exact map for any one area 
was ever before constructed, either as regards scale or details. This undertaking 
occupied its author 15 years, fills 19 separate folio maps, and is a most valuable 
acquisition to the estate-agent, mineral engineer, and practical geologist. Its real 
merits can only be fully appreciated by those who understand how much patient 
labour, long-sustained energy, and high mental qualities were required to complete 
so extended a survey over such a complicated piece of country. In doing this, how- 
ever, Mr. Sanders has made his scientific reputation, enriched his native city, and 
achieved a success which falls to the lot of few men. Having considered the stra- 
tigraphical relation of the rocks in the Bristol district, I desire now to say a few words 
on a branch of the subject which falls more immediately within the range of my 
own special studies, I mean the organic remains found imbedded in these strata, 
The science of Palzeontology forms an immense field of observation, and one that 
widens more and more every year. It is impossible to enter upon any of its details 
now; but some of its principles may be satisfactorily explained, and this I shall 
endeavour to do. 

It is now established, Ist, that the stratified rocks containing organic remains 
admit of a division into four great groups, representing four great periods of time :— 
a, the Paleozoic or Ancient; 6, the Mesozoic or Middle ; ¢, the Cainozoic or Ter- 
tiary ; and d, the Quaternary or Modern periods. 2nd. That each period is distin- 
guished by its own hieroglyphic characters, which are engraven on the rocks in 
definite and determinable characters. 3rd. That these hieroglyphics are the fossil 
remains or imprints of animals that lived in the water in which the sediments were 
formed in successive layers on the earth’s crust, and are only found in the rocks 
they distinguish ; so that it is possible to determine the age and position of the strata 
from which they have been leas or, in other words, identify strata by organic 
remains; and by this key are we enabled to read the pages of the Rock-hook, study 
the history of extinct forms of life, and determine thee distribution in time and 
space, 

Tick us apply these principles to the subject we have in hand. The Paleozoic 
| bees comprises the history of the Cambro-Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, and 
ermian ages; and if we attentively examine the fossils of this period contained in 
the cases of the magnificent Geological Museum of this institution, we shall see that 
all the organisms belonging to one age are entirely distinct from those belonging to 
the others. You will find, for example, in the case of the Silurian age, some beau- 
tiful corals, crinoids, and cephalopods, with a remarkable assemblage of crus- 
tacea, the representatives of an extinct family, the Trilobitidee, which are so highly 
characteristic of this age that the rocks may be called Trilobitic. 

The Devonian age succeeds the Silurian ; and among the corals and shells so well 
seen in this Collection we observe a striking resemblance to those of the Silurian on 
the one side and the Carboniferous Limestone on the other; but when closely ex~ 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 59 


amined we find that many are generically, and all are specifically distinct from both ; 
besides this we discover that a new group of organisms of a different and higher 
type of structure are now introduced for the first time—namely, those remarkable 
forms of the ichthyic class the fishes of the Old Red Sandstone, and whose singular 
forms with their bony armour and osseous scales remind us of the remarkable 
fishes Lepidosteus and Polypterus from North-American, African, and Australian 
rivers of our time. The hieroglyphics, therefore, engraven on the strata of the 
second age are visibly different Horn those on the first. 
The Carboniferous succeeds the Devonian ; and here we find a marvellous deve- 
lopment of the life of this age preserved in the cases of this Institution. Pray 
study attentively the fine specimens of Anthozoa here exhibited, all derived from 
the upper beds of the Carboniferous Limestone at the gorge of the Avon, and show- 
ing very clearly that this portion of the section was formed in a tropical sea, and 
that the limestone is the product of the living energies of those Polyps, sections of 
whose skeletons lie there before you. Of the family Favosirmp= we see Fuvosites, 
Alveolites, Syringopora Michelinia; and of the family CyATHOPHYLLID™® we have 
Cyathophylhun, Lithostrotion, Lonsdalia, &c. Many of the beds of limestone are 
almost entirely composed of the ossicula of Crinoids ; and we see the stems, arms, 
and calyces of these sea-lilies strewed in abundance in the rocks, such as Actino- 
crinus, Poteriocrinus, Platycrinus, Cyathocrinus, Pentremites, &c., with the remark- 
able ancient Sea-urchin Palechinus associated with them. The Mollusca were 
chiefly represented by the Brachiopoda, which were very common in the Carboni- 
ferous age, as you may see in the large slabs containing Orthis, Spirifera, and Pro- 
ductus in great profusion. The Lamellibranchiata were represented by Cardiomorpha 
and Conocardium, and the Gasteropoda by Euomphalus, Pleurotomaria, and Natica, 
and the Cephalopoda by Goniatites, Orthoceras, &c, The Trilobites, which formed 
so remarkable a feature in the fauna of the Silurian sea, are here represented 
by a few specimens of Phillipsia, a dwarfed genus of this family. The fine 
collection of teeth and spines of large fishes from the Carboniferous Limestone 
enables us to compare the forms of this age with those of the Deyonian already 
described, and shows at a glance that the ichthyic types in the seas of these two 
periods were entirely distinct, and both evidently adapted to conditions of existence 
widely different. 
The life of the Carboniferous Limestone proves that it was a great marine forma- 
tion accumulated during a long lapse of time out of the exuvice and sediments of 
many generations of Mollusca, Echinodermata, and Actinozoa, the reef-building 
corals haying contributed largely to the thickness of the Coral-beds, and the wasted 
reefs of former generations having been used up again and again in the formation 
of the Oolitic beds which succeeded the reef-building periods. 
= The Coal Measures present a remarkable contrast to the Coral sea of the Carboni- 
ferousera. The Ferns (Sigillaria, Lepidodendra) and other arborescent Acrogens of 
the Coal-seams grew and flourished in low islands; and their remains were accu- 
mulated under conditions very different from those in which the thick-bedded lime- 
stones of the Avon section were formed. Good typicalexamples of the vegetation 
of this remarkable time in the world’s history are well preserved in the large 
collection, filling several cases; these specimens are all very fine, and require, and - 
Lam sure will have, a careful examination. 
With the close of Paleozoic time there appears to have been a great break in 
the stratigraphical sequence of the fossiliferous rocks; mighty changes then took 
lace. Volcanic agency was intense and active, flexing, contorting, and upheaving 

the older beds. These displacements in our area were post-carboniferous and 
re-triassic, and are well exemplified in the unconformable position of the Dolomitic 
onglomerate and New Red Sandstone of the Bristol district. 

The dolomitic conglomerate contains the bones of Dinosaurian reptiles dis- 
covered in Durdham Down, and preserved in this Museum; they were described 
by Dr. Riley and Mr. Stuchbury in 1836*, and were then’ the oldest Dinosauria 
in Britain. Since that date the Triassic sandstones of Cheshire, Scotland, and 
North America have been found to contain the foot-imprints of Cheirotheria, 
and the same formation near Warwick the bones and teeth of remarkable reptiles 


* Trans, Geol, Soc. 2nd series, vol. vy. p. 249 (1840). 


60 REPORT—1875. 


belonging to the family Labyrinthodontia; subsequently it has heen discovered 
that the coal-field of Miinster-Appel in Rhenish Bavaria, and that of Saarbriick 
between Strasburg and Tréves, contain the skulls and bones of several species 
of air-breathing reptiles which were described by Goldfuss under the generic 
name Archegosaurus. The reptilian remains of the conglomerate, though now 
not the oldest of their class, still retain their interest for the Paleontologist, as they 
prove that highly organized Dinosauria lived on Triassic land. I must refer you to 
the original memoir for a full account of these bones, which enabled its authors to 
establish two genera for them. The one, Thecodontosaurus, has the teeth placed 
closely together in the jaw-bones. They are sharp, conical, compressed, and have 
their anterior and posterior borders finely denticulated, and the extremity slightly 
bent, like the teeth of Megalosaurus. Paleosaurus has the teeth compressed and 
pointed likewise; but one of the borders only is denticulated, and the other tren- 
chant. The species are distinguished by the size and form of the teeth, The ver- 
tebrae resemble those of Teleosaurus in being contracted in the middle, and having 
their articular surfaces slightly biconcave ; and the rest of the bones of the skeleton 
resemble the forms of the Lacertian type. 

We know very little of the life of the Trias in the district under consideration, 
beyond the reptilian remains first noticed here, until we come to the close of this 
age, when we find upper grey marls of the Keuper overlain by and passing into a series 
of black shales and limestones known as the Avicula-contorta or Rheetic beds, which 
have a great interest for us, as they comprise the famous Bone-bed of Aust Cliff 
known to all geologists. The leading fossils are Avicula contorta, Cardium Rheti- 
cum, Monotis decussata, Pecten Valoniensis, and the small crustacean Estheria minuta. 
The fishes are Nemacanthus, Saurichthys, Hybodus, Gyrolepis, Sargodon, and Cera- 
todus, with bones of Plestosaurus and Ichthyosaurus. It is the teeth of Ceratodus, 
or horned teeth, that have made Aust Cliff famous; and more than 400 different forms 
have been described. Mr. C.T. Higgins made the finest collection of these remains, 
which has been purchased for the Museum, and forms one of its rarest treasures. 
When these horned teeth, so called from the prominences they exhibit, were first 
described by Agassiz, the living species of this genus was not known; it is now 
ascertained that it lives in the Mary, Dawson, and other rivers of Queensland, and 
is called by the natives “ Barramanda.” The Ceratedus is very nearly allied to the 
Lepidosiren, is cartilaginous, a vegetable-eater, and, like the Lepidosiren, lives in 
muddy creeks; during the hot season it buries itself in the mud, whence it is 
dug up by the natives, its retreat being discovered by the air-hole through which 
it breathes; its nostrils are placed in the inside of the roof of the mouth. 

A very interesting paper on Ceratodus Fostert (the specimen in the Museum) by 
Mr. Stoddart, F.G.S., will be found in the ‘ Proceedings of the Bristol Naturalists’ 
Society,’ vol. i. p. 145. 

The Lias, which succeeds the Avicula-contorta beds, presents a remarkable contrast 
to them, and shows how much the life-conditions of every age depend on the phy- 
sical agents that surround it. Two groups of animals appeared in great force in the 
Liassic Sea—Ammonites and Reptiles. 

The Ammonites of the Lower Lias beds (A. angulatus, A. Buchklandi, A. Cony- 
beart and others) attained a large size ; and the middle and upper divisions of the 
same formations were all characterized by different species that marked horizons 
of life in these divisions. Assoviated with the Ammonites a large assemblage of 
other Mollusca are found, as Gryphea, Lima, Unicardium, Pholadomya, Cardinia, 
Hippopodium, Pleurotomaria, and a profusion of Belemnites and large Nautili. 

The Reptiles were very large, as you can see by the fine specimens on the walls: 
Ichthyosaurus and Plesiosaurus were the dominant forms of this Class; and Ptero- 
dactyles with expanded wings performed the part of birds on the dry land of that 
era; so that the air, the estuary, and the ocean had each separate forms of Reptile 
life in the Lias age. Another change of conditions introduces us to new forms in 
the Lower Jurassic sea. A large number of species of Conchifera and Gasteropoda 
crowd the shelly beds of the Inferior Oolite; and new forms of Ammonites apper- 
taining to groups entirely different from those of the Lias are found in abundance 
in Dundry Hill. In addition to the Mollusca we find many beautiful forms of 
Fchinodermata, and a large collection of reef-building corals in the upper beds of 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 61 


the hill. Nothing gives us a clearer insight into the fact that all fossil species had 
a limited life in time than the distribution of the Echinodermata of the Jurassic 
strata, inasmuch as these animals possess a skeleton of remarkable structure, on 
which generic and specific characters are well preserved ; they form, therefore, an 
important class of the Invertebrata for the study of the life-history of species in 
time and space; and the Table of the stratigraphical distribution of the Jurassic 
Echinoderms which I now exhibit reduces these observations to a practical demon- 
stration. 

The Oolitic rocks were formed in a coral sea analogous to that which rolls its 
waters in the Pacific between 30° on each side of the equator. In the Lower Oolites 
are four or five Coral-formations superimposed one above another, with intermediate 
beds'of Mollusca. The Middle Oolite is remarkable for the number and extent of 
its coral reefs, and the Upper Oolite for those found in the Portlandian series. 

The Jurassic rocks were accumulated as sediments or shore-deposits under many 
changes of condition; and the idea of a slowly subsiding bed of the coralline sea 
gives us, perhaps, the nearest approach to what appears to have prevailed. 

The Jurassic waters were studded with coral reefs, extending over an area equal 
‘to that of Europe, as they stretch through England diagonally from Yorkshire to 
Dorsetshire, through France from the coast of Normandy to the shores of the 
Mediterranean, forming besides a chain winding obliquely through the Ardennes 
in the north to Charente-Inférieure in the south, including Savoy, the Hautes-Alpes 
and Basses-Alpes, the Jura Franche-comté, the Jura Chain of Switzerland through- 
out its entire length from Schaffhausen on the Rhine to Cobourg in Saxony, and 
along the range of the Swabian Alps and Franconian Jura. Throughout all 
this widely extended oolitic region coralline strata were accumulating through 
countless ages by the living energies of Jurassic Polypifera, as all the Madreporic 
limestone beds in these formations are due to the life-energies of different species of 
Anthozoa ; and were we to venture to estimate the lapse of time occupied in the sedi- 
mentation of the coralligenous Oolites by what we know of the life-history of some 
living species, we should find good reasons for concluding that the Jurassic age 
must haye been one of long duration. Itis not the mere coralline structure per se 
that is due to Polyp-life, but the entire mass of Oolitic limestones are the products 
of the same vital force ; for there could be no doubt in the mind of any competent 
observer who carefully examined such a rock as that in my hand that it was a mass 
of coral secreted by a Jurassic polyp, and that the Oolitic limestone which surrounds 
the coral stem is the product of a portion of a wasted reef which had been broken 
up, ground into mud, and constituted the calcareous paste that had coated particles 
on the shore, and formed by the roll of the waves the oolitic globules which were 
afterwards cemented by calcareous waters, and the whole transformed into the reck 
we call Oolitic limestone; and thus the genesis of the Oolites was due to the vital 
energies of the myriads of polyps that lived in the Jurassic seas. 

The reefs that remain are merely fragments of what had existed; and those that 
have disappeared furnished the calcareous material out of which the Oolites of sub- 
sequent formations have been built up. 

Lhave to thank my old friend Mr. Etheridge for the valuable notes he has 
supplied on the Mendip Hills (which he knows so well), and to Mr. M‘Murtrie for 
his excellent notes on the Radstock district (which he has so long explored), and to 
Mr. Stoddart for kindness and assistance in many ways. Without their friendly 
cooperation it would have been impossible forme to have given so much exact 
information on the structure of the interesting and complicated region in which we 
have again assembled. 

In these remarks I have carefully avoided any allusion to the origin of species, 
because Geology suggests no theory of natural causes, and Paleontology affords no 
support to the hypothesis which seeks by a system of evolution to derive all the 
varied forms of organic life from preexisting organisms ofa lower type. As far as 
T have been able to read the records of the rocks, 1 confess I have failed to discover 
any lineal series among the vast assemblage of extinct species, which might form a, 
basis and lend reliable biological support to such a theory, Instead of a grade- 
tion upwards in certain groups and classes of fossil animals, we find, on the con- 
trary, that their first representatives are not the lowest, but often highly organized 


62 REPORT——-1875. 


types of the class to which they belong. This is well illustrated in the Corals, 
Canora Asteriade, Mollusca, and Crustacea of the Silurian age, and which make 
up the beginnings of life in the Paleozoic period. ‘The fishes of the Old Red Sand- 
stone we have already seen occupy arespectable position among the Pisces; and the 
Reptiles of the Trias are not the lowest forms of their class, but highly organized 
Dinosauria. Ichthyosaurus, Plesiosaurus, Ptierodactylus, Teleosaurus, and Megalo- 
saurus stand out in bold relief from the Mesozoic strata as remarkable types of animal 
life that were specially organized and marvellously adapted to fulfil important con- 
ditions of existence in the Reptilian age; they afford, I submit, conclusive evidence 
of special work of the Great Designing Mind which pervades all creation, organic and 
inorganic. In a word, Paleontology brings us face to face with the Creator, and 
shows us plainly how in all that marvellous past there always has existed the most 
complete and perfect relation between external nature and the structure and dura-_ 
tion of the organic forms which gave life and activity to each succeeding age. 

Paleontology likewise discloses to our feeble understanding some of those methods 
by which the Infinite works through natural forces to accomplish and maintain His 
Creative design, and thereby teaches us that there has been a glorious scheme and 
a gradual accomplishment of purpose through unmeasured periods of time; hut 
Paleontology affords no solution of the problem of creation, whether of kinds, of 
matter, or of species of life, beyond this, that although countless ages have rolled 
away since the denizens of the Silurian beach lived and moved and had their being, 
the same Biological laws that governed their life, assigned them their position in 
the world’s story, and limited their duration in time and space, are identical with 
those which are expressed in the morphology and distribution of the countless 
organisms which live on the earth’s surface at the present time; and this fact realizes 
in a material form the truth and force of those assuring words, that the Great Author 
of all things, in these His works, is the same yesterday, today, and for ever. 


Description of a new Species of Labyrinthodont Amphibia from the Coal at 
Jarrow Colliery, near Castlecomer, co. Kilkenny. By Wiit1am Hurirmer 
Baty, PLS. .GS., MRILA., Acting Paleontologist to H.M. Geolo- 

- gical Survey of Ireland, 


The discovery of the remains of as many as seven genera of vertebrate animals 
of the Labyrinthodont type, associated with large Ganoid fish (Rhizodus, Gyracan- 
thus, &e.) and plant-remains (Lepidodendron and Sigillarta, with a few ferns, Ale- 
thopteris lonchitica, Sphenopteris latifolia, &c.), ten years ago in the coal of Jarrow 
Colliery, co. Kilkenny, by Mr. W. B. Brownrigg, and their description by Prof. 
Huxley (see a joint memoir by that gentleman and Prof. E. Perceval Wright, 
Danes Royal Irish Acad. vol. xxiv. 1867, pp. 351 &c.) was alluded to by the 
author. : 

Since then a much larger example than any of those previously described had 
been obtained from the same colliery by the Geological Survey* of Ireland, and 
was the subject of the present communication. The occurrence of the genus 
Anthracosaurus amongst the fossils formerly obtained from this colliery had already 
been indicated by Prof. Huxley ; that specimen, however, only consisted of a group 
of vertebrze and ribs, now in the British Museum collection. This the author had 
examined, and believed it to be identical with corresponding parts in the fossil now 
brought before the notice of the Association, and which he had named Anthraco- 
saurus Edge, considering it to be allied to, but not identical with, 4. Russell, 
Huxley, a species from the Lanarkshire coal-field, of which the palatine or under 
portion of the head, with the teeth, was the only part known. In A. Edgei a 
side view of the entire head is presented to view, triangular in shape, with a 
rounded snout, showing the large eye-orbits, external nostrils, and series of alveolar 
cavities. A detached ramus of the jaw, most probably of the same animal, also 
shows the remains of a dental series, a well-defined articulating extremity, and the 
division between the dentary and angular bones. Detached teeth near this jaw 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 63 


evidently belonged to it; they were described as conical, slightly curved, pointed, 
and finely striated, 1} inch long by 3 inch in diameter; also other smaller ones, 
only three eighths of an inch by one eighth and a half. The characteristic 
sculptured surface of the bone was well preserved on the detached jaw, and obser- 
vable on several | abe of the head. A portion of the body, consisting of displaced 
vertebree and ribs, with some larger bones (probably humerus, ilium, and other 
bones of the fore and hind limbs), were scattered over the slab; the termination of 
the body and tail was unfortunately deficient. 

The-bones were not in a very satisfactory state for study. Some of the verte- 
bree possessed their spinous processes (newrapophyses) and exhibited their concave 
articular surfaces ; in others the centra only were preserved; these were about an 
inch long and half an inch in breadth, the spinous processes being from 1} to 
2 inches in height and 3 inch wide at their upper and widest part. The longest 
rib measured about 63 inches with the curve, being 2 inch broad, a slight groove 
traversing its length; the proximal end shows the double articulating portions, 
capitulum and tuberculum. In the group of ribs and vertebre from the same col- 
liery, before alluded to as being in the British Museum, one of the ribs measured 

¢ Inches with the curve and } inch in breadth, showing it to have belonged to a 
much larger animal. 

The extreme length of the head is about 14 inches, measuring from the snout to 
the tympanic bone; its height from the lower portion of the under jaw to the 
supraoccipital is 93 inches, being in the proportion of two thirds to the length. 
The total length of the specimen is about 5 feet; this does not, however, represent 
any thing like that of the entire animal when complete, which must have been at 
least 6 or 8 feet long. 

The condition of the fossil, which is impressed upon two large slabs of anthracite 
coal (obverse and reverse of the same specimen), is not at all favourable for exact 
determination, and it is much flattened i pressure. 


On the Action of Ice in what is usually termed the Glacial Period. 
By the Rey. James Bropie. 


It is generally supposed that there was a lengthened period intermediate between 
the. tertiary and the quaternary eras, when a great part of the earth was subjected 
to extreme cold. This has been called the Glacial Period or Great Ice Age. 

The facts adduced in support of these conjectures are :— 


Traces of glacier-action have been found in regions which now enjoy a 
temperate climate ; 

Boulders, evidently transported by glacial currents from northern regions, 
are found in temperate localities. 


My reply is, that these discoveries prove that in former times there must have 
been great cold in places which are now comparatively warm; but they do not 
prove that that cold was contemporaneous over all the quarters where these traces 
are found. When the climate was cold in one place, there is every reason for sup- 
posing that it was warm in others. 

Glaciers are rivers of ice ; they come down from the mountain-side ; but they are 
fed by the vapours that are principally raised by the action of the sun on the in- 
tertropical seas. If the area from which that vapour is raised be diminished, the 
vapour will be diminished; and if vapour is not supplied, no glacier can be 
formed. 

Glacial currents come from the polar regions ; but they would cease if counter- 
currents from the equator did not bring up water to supply the place of that which 
they carry away. 

It has continued its uninterrupted onward course, the cold gradually increasing 
in intensity, down to the present day. 


64 REPORT—1875. 


On the further Extension of the Rhetie or Penarth Beds in Warwickshire, 
Leicestershire, Nottinghamshire, Yorkshire, and Cumberland ; and on the 
Occurrence of some supposed Remains of a new Labyrinthodon and a new 
Radiate therein. By the Rey. P. B. Broprs, F.G.S. 


The author points out a considerable extension of the Rheetics in Warwickshire, 
Leicestershire, Nottinghamshire, Lincolnshire, and Yorkshire, and traces of them in 
Cumberland and Staffordshire. Many sections are described and characteristic 
fossils given, thus showing that though they appear to thin out north and north- 
eastwards, yet in all probability they will be detected beneath the Lias in its range 
from S.W. to N.E. The fine typical sections of Aust, Watchet, Penarth, West- 
bury, and Wainlode cliffs are alluded to. In this formation near Leicester probable 
remains of the Labyrinthodon and a new Radiate are for the first time recorded. 
. Thus the British Rheetic series, though greatly inferior both in thickness and 
abundance and variety of fossils to the much more largely developed rocks of this 
age in the Austrian Alps, is still a well-defined and highly fossiliferous formation 
occupying a considerable area and holding an important and independent position ; 
and future researches will no doubt greatly increase our knowledge both of its 
extent and fossils, 


On the Origin of the Red Clay found by the ‘ Challenger’ at great Depths in 
the Ocean. By Dr. W. B. Carrentm, FR, 


On the Condition of the Sea-bottom of the North Pacific, as shown by the 
Soundings recently taken by the U.S. Steamship ‘ Tuscarora’ By Dr. W. 
B. Carpenter, 1.2.8, 


On the Northern End of the Bristol Coalfield. By Hayvrt Cossuam, F.G.S., 
Epwarp Werueren, F.G.S., and Watrter Saise, F.G.S. 


Note on the Deposit of Tin-ore at Park of Mines, St. Columb, Cornwall. 
By Crement Le Neve Fosrmr, B.A., D.Se., FG. 


The tin-ore occurs in thin layers, generally 1 or 2 inches thick, interposed be- 
tween the planes of bedding of the clay-slate, or kellas, a hardened jointy shale. 
These layers strike E. & W., and dip north, at an angle of 60° or 70° with the 
killas. They appear to be lateral offshoots of small north and south veins, and they 
rarely extend more than a few feet to the E. and W. of them. Sometimes the 
killas is full of little layers of tinstone for a distance of 100 fathoms from N, to S., 
40 fathoms along the dip, and 6 to 10 feet along the strike, 


— 


On Moraines as the retaining Walls of Lakes. By Eowarv Fry, Q.C. 


The object of this paper is to ask a question. 

The origin of many lakes is attributed to terminal moraines of extinct glaciers, 
which are supposed to act as the retaining walls by which the water is held back to 
form a lake, Llyn Idwy]l is referred to as an illustration of this theory. But all 
terminal moraines of existing glaciers are cut through to the level of the ground 
by the streams from the glaciers. The numerous terminal moraines of the Rhone 
glacier, each cut through by the infant Rhone, were referred to as an illustration of 
this familiar fact. 

For a moraine to act as a retaining wall for water, the breach must be wholly or 
partially filled up. How has this been done ? 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 65 


Notes on the Variations in Character and Thickness of the Millstone-grit of 
North Derbyshire and the adjoining parts of Yorkshire, and on the probable 
manner in which these Changes have been produced. By A. H. Green, 
M.A., F.GS. 


The Millstone-grit of the district treated of was subdivided as follows :— 
Top. 
(3) Rough Rock. 
(2) Middle Grits. 
(1) Kinder-Scout Grits. 
Bottom. 


(8) is a bed which, in spite of some local variations, may be fairly spoken of as 
singularly constant in character and thickness. 

(2) is a remarkably changeable group. In Derbyshire its most striking member 
is the Grit of Chatsworth (the Third Grit of the Geological Survey); this was 
shown to be a hed of only local occurrence, thinning away and disappearing entirely 
to the north. The beds above the Chatsworth Grit in Derbyshire which are called 
Second Grits by the Geological Survey, and the rocks in South Yorkshire which 
are called Third Grits by the Geological Survey, were shown to be in a general 
way the equivalents of one another, though, on account of the numerous changes 
that are met with in passing from place to place, no correlation of individual beds 
was possible. ; 

(1) is a group less changeable as a whole than the Middle Grits, but liable to 
many local variations. One very striking case of the sudden thinning away of a 
great mass of Grit and Conglomerate that forms its base in Derbyshire was de- 
scribed. To account for the variations spoken of, it was pointed out that wedge- 
shaped masses of sandstone have been, sometimes banks formed in shallow water 
and tailing out in the direction in which the water deepened, sometimes heaps piled 
up by the action of opposing currents. But it seemed that in the present case the 
oceurrence of lenticular masses of sandstone could in several instances be best 
explained by supposing that the floor on which these beds were deposited was very 
uneven and full of hollows, and that the great cakes of sandstone had been formed 
by the filling-up of these depressions by drifted sandy sediment. 


Notes on Carboniferous Encrinites from Clifton and from Lancashire. 
By J. G. Greyrety, B.A, F.G.S. 


The author exhibited and described a series of Poteriocrinus plicatus from the 
base of the Carboniferous limestone in the gorge of the Avon. The new facts 
brought to light by these specimens are the anal plates, the arms which bifureate 
four times, giving eighty rays, the stem and its side arms, and a very remarkable 
proboscis exhibitmg a structure hitherto unknown amongst the Crinoids. One of 
these is 4¢ inches long by 2 inch wide, and is composed of long narrow plates 
arranged in five horizontal rows with longitudinal and transverse ridges. 

The total number of plates is upwards of 1300. 

A new species of Poteriocrinus was then described, P. rugosus (Grenfell), found 
in the Lower Limestone Shales, Clifton, which resembles P. pentagonus and 
P. longidactylus (Austin), but is distinguished by the depression of the angles and 
lateral articulations of the body-plates, and by the surface of the body being rough 
and that of the arms strongly wrinkled. 

A specimen of Rhodocrinus verus from Clifton showed that the rays of this s ecies, 
hitherto unknown, were twenty in number and closely tentaculated. Miller's 
figures of this species include a distinct Silurian fossil; for which Phillips and 
De Koninck would retain the name R. verus. Since, however, Miller’s detailed 
drawing of the species agrees with the specimen exhibited, it was urged that this 
latter has the best claim to the name, 

Rhodocrinus verisimilis (Grenfell), a new species from Olifton, was described. It 


66 REPORT—1875. 


resembles R. verus, but differs in the arms being short, wide, and flat, and in the 
rays being 40. 

The author then showed that Phillips’s generic description of Gilbertsocrinus was 
inaccurate in the shape of the scapule and first intercostal; but he argued that the 
ei should not be confounded with #hodocrinus, as had been done of late years, 

eing clearly distinguished by the form of the brachials and by the presence of 
orifices opening into the perforations in the arms. He suggested that these openings 
are not ovarian, but for the purpose of admitting water into the interior. 

Gilbertsocrinus may be detined thus :— 

Basals 5; subradials 5; radials 3; brachials several, irregular; the second 
brachial channelled at top, and leading into an orifice which communicates with 
the perforation in the arms; axillary plates well developed ; arms round, and gene- 
rally set at right angles to the body; body-plates generally tuberculate. 

A new species of Gilbertsocrinus from Lancashire was described, G. Konincki 
(Grenfell). It is distinguished from all except G. simplex (Portlock) by five 
prominent tubercles round the base. From that species it differs in shape and 
size, in the narrowness of the subradials, and the presence of tubercles on the body- 
plates. 


On the Influe and Stranding of Icebergs during the so-called Glacial Epoch, 
and a suggestion of the possible cause of the Oscillation of the Level of Land 
and Water to which that Influa may be due. By Joun Gunn. 


The author repeated his previously propounded views, that an influx of icebergs 
was due to the increased area and depth of the sea in the northern hemisphere, by 
which the perpetual snow-line was altered, and consequently masses of ice and 
glaciers were disengaged and set floating southward. 

When the sea was of sufficient depth the icebergs would float over the land, and 
their passage would be marked by boulders let fall, as was the case in the Chalk, in 
which they are occasionally found imbedded; but when the sea was shallow they 
would be stranded, and the effects described by Mr. Gunn would be produced, as in 
Treland and the east of England. 

These phenomena were, he represented, distinct from glaciers formed on moun- 
tainous districts, as in Wales and the north of England, which would be indicative 
of cold; whereas the increased area of the sea would indicate a milder climate, 
except so far as it would be affected by the influx of ice. 

Mr. Gunn conjectured that as no adequate cause had’ been assigned for the 
alternate increase of water in the two hemispheres, it might possibly be due to the 
motion of the solar system in space, which Sir John Herschel had treated as a 
useless speculation, but to which Otto Struve and other astronomers had directed 
their attention, and had endeavoured to demonstrate the velocity and direction 
of. They had not, however, at present been able to ascertain whether the sun 
with its cortége of planets revolved around any and what centre. 

Here, therefore, was an unknown quantity; and since all other movements are 
inadequate to produce all the required results, he ventured to hint that they might 
be due to this. He referred to the possibility that the tides might be affected by 
the relative position of the sun to the earth, which might undergo a change during 
the enormous extent of the revolution of the solar system. At any rate it appeared 
to him that no positive conclusion could be arrived at until this was settled 


On the Occurrence of Rhetic.Beds near Leicester. 
By Wii11am J. Harrison. 


The Spinney Hills are a low range forming the eastern boundary of the town of 
Leicester and of the Soar valley. They are composed of red and blue Keuper 
marls containing selenite, salt-crystals, and a massive nodular band of gypsum. 

At the northern extremity the range is capped by the Rheetic beds, which are 
cut off from the Lias on the east by the valley of a little stream, the Willo brook. 
A vertical section of from 30 to 40 feet is obtained in brick-pits, whilst a boring of 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 67 


coal in an adjacent field has reached a depth of 600 feet, and is still in the Keuper 
mazrls and clays. 

The floor-of the brick-pits is of red Keuper marl, resting on which is a thick 
bed of grey marl, about 16 feet, with insect and fish remains, selenite and pseudo- 
morphic salt-crystals, pittings as of rain-drops, &c, On its uneven upper surface 
rests the bone-bed, 2 inches thick, containing rolled Saurian bones, vertebrie, and 
teeth of Ichthyosaurus, ribs of Plesiosaurus, spines of Nemacanthus monilifer and 
Hybodus minor, teeth, scales, &c. of Hybodus, Laricthys apicalis, Ceratodus, &c, 
Coprolites and large quartzose pebbles are numerous. 

Above this come 5 feet of vial shales, containing a new Starfish, Ophiolepis 
damesti, and Avicula contorta, Cardium rheticum, Axinus cloacinus, &c.; then 
about 4 feet of lizht-coloured shales with the same fossils ; and the whole is capped 
by a bed of rubbly limestone, 3 inches thick, containing casts of Hstherta nunuta, 
The beds have a slight dip to the 8.E, 


Undulations of the Chalk in the North of France, and their probable existence 
under the Straits of Dover. By Professor EK. Hfszrr. 
I showed at the Brighton Meeting that the beds of Chalk in the north of France 
are folded so as to form five anticlinal axes having a S.H. and N.W. direction, viz, 
the axis of the Perche, 


rr “4 Seine, 
” ” Bray, 
+ »  Bresle, 


o » Artois. 


On the present occasion i am about to prove that there is another series of folds 
at right angles to the former, that isto say having a 8.W. and N.E. direction. 

The mode of demonstration is very simple and rigorous. I take for example a 
well-known bed, such as the Chloritic Marl, and observe its altitude at various 

oints. 

j Taking, for example, the region between Fécamp and Paris, which belongs to the 
8.E. and N.W. anticlinal axis of the Seine, we see the Chloritic Marl at écamp at 
the level of the sea; the beds rise to the 8.E., and the same bed (near Mentheville, 
10 kilometres off) reaches 270 feet. Then they sink, so that the surface is soon 
_ formed of the Micraster cor-testudinarium beds, which are separated more than 200 
feet from the Chloritic Marl. They afterwards rise again, and the Chloritie Marl 
once more attains a height of 260 feet at Pavilly. 1t next descends by 470 feet at 
least, rises again to 150 feet at Rouen; and the base of the Chalk with JZ. cor-testu- 
dinarium veaches the height of nearly 500 feet. Again a dip takes place between 
Rouen and Vernon, this time of 340 feet; then at Pressagny, near Vernon, the 
Chloritic Marl appears at 169 feet; and finally there is a regular dip towards Paris, 
where the Chloritic Mazl is at about 1500 feet below the level of the sea. 

Thus the region between F'écamp and Vernon presents four undulations (Fécamp, 
Payilly, Rouen, and Vernon), the extent of which ranges between 400 and 500 feet. 

By a similar method I find that the region comprised between Tréport and 
Compiégne (the anticlinal axis of the Bresle) presents three bosses, the first having 
i ae at sea to the N.W. of Tréport, the second at Aumale, the third at 

reteuil. 

The axes of the Bray and of the Boulonnais present similar undulations. More- 
over it is easy to observe that these various bosses are connected among themselves ; 
thus the centre of the Bray axis is precisely on the line which runs from Rouen to 
Aumale, and this line, prolonged to the north-east, passes by Picquigny-s.-Somme, 
where is a rising of the Chalk, crosses at Arras the axis of Artois, and from this 
point is directed towards the ancient rocks which extend from Douai to Tournay. 

Here is then a 8. W. and N.E. fold of a well-marked character, and the extent of 
which is recognized from Rouen into Artois. 

The Vernon boss is the point whence starts another fold, parallel to the preceding 
one. This fold traverses the Bray near Ville-en-Bray ; it then passes at Breteuil, 
where a very distinct boss is to be seen. , 


68 REPORT—-187 5. 


These two folds are separated by a very distinct synclinal depression, which is 
anterior to the Bel. mucronata chalk, which at the north, near Moreuil and Hardi- 
villiers, have only been deposited in the depression and not on the rise. 

A third parallel fold extends from Mentheville, near Fécamp, to Tréport; to 
the north-east it passes near Lillers, where the Devonian crops out; at Dieppe 
this fold has caused a fault of about 250 feet. All the Boulonnais is to the N.W. 
of this line, and the beds dip to the sea. The Gault descends more than 830 feet 
from Fiennes to Wissant. 

But this movement of depression does not continue, and the strike of the beds, 
which can be perfectly followed at low water, indicates a gradual rise. This strike 
makes an angle of 38° to 40° with the coast-line (Chelloneix). The beds get further 
off to the north ; but as we find them again exactly the same at Dover, they must 
necessarily curve round towards the west; and this can only he by the effect of an 
undulation similar to the last. 

It is a legitimate inference to draw that the lie of the beds is the same under the 
channel as on the coast; and direct observation brings us to the same conclusion, 
viz. that the Cretaceous beds are raised in the form of an anticlinal axis in the 
middle of the Straits. Most certainly, starting from any point of the coast between 
Blane Nez and Calais, so as to proceed to Dover in a straight line, it will be 
impossible to keep in the same horizon of Chalk Marl, or Chalk without flints, 
even if this bed were 400 feet thick. An undulation or boss some 400 to 500 feet 
must be expected. 

We should therefore have here, in consequence of the preceding facts and argu- 
ments, a fourth axis (S.W. and N.E), V’axe de la Manche. ; 

The existence of this axis was announced in 1846 by D’Archiac, who reasoned 
from very different data. Every thing concurs to prove its reality. 

It will be noticed that the extent of these undulations, which always bring the 
Upper Greensand to the surface in the north of France, increases constantly on 
approaching the sea. 

At Fécamp the Upper Greensand, which is here quite sandy, crops out at more 
than 270 feet; at Aumale it reaches 400 feet; there is therefore serious cause for 
thinking that a tunnel carried in a straight line would go through not only the 
Upper Greensand, but also beds of older age. 

‘he two systems of folds which I have described both bring about important 
faults, from 260 to 400 feet in throw. The first parallel to the axis of the Boulon- 
nais and Weald is not likely, in my opinion, to have produced any great fault in 
its line of trend in the beds to be cut through by the tunnel. As to the second, 
there would be nothing surprising if it shit have caused a line of fracture parallel 
to the Channel axis; but hitherto no evidence has been forthcoming on this point. 

It follows from what I have said thatif the tunnel is bored in the Chalk Marl or 
the Chalk without Flints, or even proximately above this layer, it will leave not 
only this bed, but also the Chalk Marl and Green Chalk, and meet Upper Green- 
sand, the sandy base of which, lying on the clay of Gault, may, or rather must, 
contain a sheet of water. 

A means of avoiding the Upper Greensand would be to take a northerly direction 
towards Calais, and to enter first the Chalk with Flints and then to go down into 
the Chalk Marl. But this Chall: with Flints contains permeable beds; so that the 
boring made at Calais in 1844 tapped at 580 feet a fooflar of brackish water. 

In my opinion these permeable bands are beds of hard limestone pierced by holes 
such as I have frequently observed in the Chalk. It is to one of these bands that 
Mr. Whitaker has given the name of Chalk Rock. I do not say that these beds 
are always permeable, but that they maybe so. I believe thatitis they which feed 
the Artesian wells of Artois. 

Now there is one of these beds at the top of the Chalk with Ammonites Mantelli 
and Ammonites rotomagensis (Grey Chalk); and there is usually one, sometimes 
two or three, at the top of the Chalk with few flints. Above that horizon come 
the Holaster planus Chalk-beds of Dover, then those with Mic, cor-testudinarium of 
the base of the southern cliff of St. Margaret; all these beds are generally hard, 
fissured ; yet pe occasion less dangers than the base of the Upper Greensand, 
and their permeableness may be but accidental. 


TRANSACTIONS'*@® THE SECTIONS. 69 


Such are the data which studies carried on during more than fifteen years enable 
me to bring forward. Their application to engineering does not come within my 
province ; T leave that entirely to the eminent man who is carrying out this great 
work, and who I hope will master all obstacles. 


On the Geology of New Zealand. By Dr. J. Hector, F.R.S. 


On some Areas where the Cambrian and Silurian Rocks occur as Conformable 
Series. By Hunry Hicxs, F.G.S. 


The author stated that of late years it has been generally supposed that there 
was strong evidence in many Welsh sections of the presence of several important 
breaks in the succession in these rocks, and that the series forming these formations 
were not deposited over an area becoming gradually depressed, the usual idea being 
that the area was at one time under water and at another dry land. That this 
was really the case over limited areas he was not at present prepared to deny ; but 
he thought the evidence of this was as yet imperfect. In other cases, however, he 
was prepared to contest this view, and, amongst other sections, mentioned the 
following as showing conclusively that there was not the slightest evidence of the 
presence of an unconformity. 

In Pembrokeshire the succession from the Cambrian to the top of the Llandovery 
rocks is a perfectly continuous one; and there are no breaks seen anywhere but such 
as are produced by faults. 

In the neighbourhood of Llandovery, the Caradoc, Lower Llandovery, Upper 
Llandovery, Wenlock, and Ludlow beds are seen resting quite conformably upon 
each other. 

In parts of Shropshire, the Caradoc, Lower Llandovery, Upper Llandovery, 
Wenlock, and Ludlow are also seen, and there they also appear to be conformable ; 
in the neighbourhood of Cornwen, in Merionethshire, the sections also appear to show 
a regular succession from the Caradoc through the Tarannon shales to the Derbyshire 
slates, flags, and grits. 

He therefore looked upon these areas as portions of one great and gradually 
subsiding area, which remained continually under water, and received deposits 
uninterruptedly from the commencement of the Cambrian to the close of the 
Silurian epochs. He believed that this was the case over the whole European area 
where not greatly disturbed by volcanic forces. 


On the Distribution of the Graptolites in the Lower Ludlow Rocks near Ludlow. 
By Joun Horxtyson, /.Z.8., F.GS. 


The author first drew attention to the special interest attaching 1o the Ludlow 
_ rocks, in connexion with investigations on the vertical distribution of the Grapto- 
lites, as being the formation in which they apparently die out. 

The Rhabdophora, or true Graptolites, which, with the Cladophora, or dendroid 
forms, we find in infinite variety when they first appear in the Arenig rocks, genera 
the most complex coming in simultaneously with simpler forms, were stated to be 
represented in the Lower Ludlow rocks by but a single genus, and that the simplest, 
Monograptus—and the Cladophora also by one genus only, Ptilograptus. 

A list of the Graptolites of the Ludlow rocks, given in a former communication 
to the British Association (1873), was then alluded to*, and the main conclusions as 
to the distribution in these rocks near Ludlow of the species enumerated, arrived 
at in the course of a few days spent at Leintwardine immediately before the opening 
of the present Meeting, were given. 

It was shown that several species of Monograptus abound in the lowest beds of 
the Lower Ludlow, when these lowest beds do not, as they do near Stokesay, form 
a limestone divided from the Wenlock Limestone by a few feet of shales; that some 


* Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1873, Trans. Sections, p. 83. 


70 REPORT1875. 


of these pass up, and a few others come in, a little higher in the series, all in soft 
calcareous sandy shales, with here and there limestone nodules and bands of lime= 
stone; and that when a decided change in the strata takes place, indicating in some 
places, by more siliceous and gritty beds, comparatively shallow water deposits, 
and in others, by excessively hard fine-grained limestones, a deeper sea, a decided 
change in the Graptolite fauna océurs—the gritty beds containing in myriads a 
single new species, Monograptus leintwardensis, and the indufated limestone alone 
containing the few species of the Cladophora, belonging to the genus Ptilograptus, 
which have yet been detected. Monograptus colonus (a form passing up from the 
lowest Llandovery beds) appeared to be the only species which survived these 
physical changes, it haying alone been seen in the softer beds high in the Lower 
Ludlow, and passing up from these into the harder calcareous shales, which in some 
places immediately underlie the Aymestry Limestone, when this is at the summit of 
the Lower Ludlow, and again passing up into this limestone bed, in which it seems 
finally to disappear. 

The author considered this Aymestry Limestone to form a portion only of the 
Lower Ludlow rocks, not being constantly present, and sometimes haying beds of 
Lower Ludlow shales of considerable thickness between its layers; and concluded by 
showing the dependence of the fossil fauna and flora of these rocks on the physical 
conditions of the Lower Ludlow seas, the fossils frequently being only locally dis- 
tributed, and varying slightly in their horizons according to the nature of the sedi- 
ment deposited, the Graptolites especially being influenced by these changes, to 
which their final extinction, or at least their dispersion from the area under con- 
sideration, was considered to have been most probably due. : 

To the list previously given a single species only, Monograpius Roemeri, Bar- 
rande, occurring in the lowest beds of the Lower Ludlow, is added by these recent 
researches, 


Notes on the Classification of the Sedimentary Rocks. By T. M°K. Huemns, 
M.A., FS.A., F.GS., Woodwardian Professor of Geology, Cambridge. 


Prof. Hughes, in advocating a revision of the classification of the sedimentary 
rocks, pointed out :— 

(1) That, although the accumulation of rock-material may have been going on 
somewhere throughout the whole of the periods with which geologists haye to do, 
still that deposition has been locally interrupted many times ; 

(2) That the whole evidence had to be considered in each case, as it was a matter 
of every-day observation that trifling geographical changes might produce con- 
siderable alteration not only in the character of the sediment, but also in the fauna 
and flora of agiven area; and small local irregularities, due for instance to volcanic 
action, might produce phenomena which alone would be taken for an unconformity, 
implying a long interruption of deposit ; 

(8) That denudation proves a lapse of time somewhat commensurate with the 
deposition of a similar thickness of material to that denuded. ita ; 

Bearing these principles in mind, he observed that the great divisions should be . 
drawn where it can be shown there was the greatest and longest interruption in 
the continuity of conditions, the minor subdivisions being founded upon more 
yapidly varying circumstances, which often produce even greater difference in litho- 
logical character and fossil contents. 

He pointed out that our present classification was very inconsistent—some of 
the breaks within the Primary, for example, being far more important than that 
between the Primary and Secondary rocks themselves. 

He proposed the following classification, read in ascending order :— 


1st Epoch. Laurentian. 
2nd”, Gap. | 

ard ,, Labrador Series, > Pre-Cambrian. 
4th ,, Gap. 

bth, HHuronian? 


The Huronian he felt to be not quite well defined, but thought it probable that 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 71 


a group would be made out*between the Labrador series, or Upper Laurentian, and 
the Cambrian. He considered that the attempt to identify the subdivisions of the 
pre-Cambrian rocks in distant countries (Britain and America for instance) was pre- 
mature. Calling attention to the two unconformable groups which Dr. Hicks had 
made out at St. David's, he felt satisfied that the Cambrian was unconformable to 
the upper as well as to the lower, and stated that he had himself found fragments of 
the hornstones, z. e. the Upper pre-Cambrian group, in the conglomerates at the 
base of the Cambrian. The oldest rocks of N.W. Scotland, of the Malvern Ifills, 
and of Scandinavia, he thought could at present only be safely called pre-Cambrian. 

6th Epoch. Gap between Huronian and Cambrian.—Since we have in Britain 
certainly two, and in America probably three series of deposits before the Cam- 
brian, and the Cambrian may rest on any one of them, it is impossible to estimate 
the duration of the period between the Cambrian and the newest of the pre-Cam- 
brian rocks. 

7th Epoch. Cambrian.—He referred especially to the labours of Dr. Hicks, and 
thought that there were no hard and fast lines of demarcation between different 
subdivisions of the Lower and Middle Cambrian, but only zones of life, and that 
the boundary-lines between the portions of the series in which these zones of life 
occurred were continually being shifted. Sometimes, where a change in the sedi- 
ment happened to come between two zones, this was seized upon as marking a con+ 
venient place to draw a line. Such a boundary was that offered by the Garth Grit, 
which comes between the zone of Angelina Sedgwickii and that of Alglina binodosa, 
No life zone older than this last appears to have been yet made out in the Lake- 
district. This grit is not a conglomerate formed of fragments of the underlying 
rock, but is made up almost entirely of quartz-pebbles, small and well worn, as if 
derived from a distance. A precisely similar grit occurs associated with some- 
what similar slate low down in the green slates and porphyry in Chapel-le-Dale on 
the 8.E. border of the Lake-district, probably not very far above the horizon of the 
Garth Grit. It is like the grit which occurs frequently in South Wales in the 
Caradoc beds, in the Denbigh Grits in North Wales, and in the Lake-district in 
the Coniston Grits, and in all these cases is known to be far above the base in a 
conformable series. 

A great part of the series above this horizon is, in the Lake-district and in North 
Wales, made up of volcanic ejectamenta. In North Wales the ash and lava seem to 
have been deposited in the sea and modified by its action; while in the intervals 
between the periods of voleanic activity various forms of marine life lived on the 
muddy bottom, which enable us to correlate the beds with the Bala series. In the 
Lake-district the sea seems to have been filled up by the immense quantity of 
material thrown out, and much of the accumulation is supposed to have been sub- 
aerial. In both districts volcanic activity seems to have ceased, while the fauna of 
the Bala Limestone still inhabited the area; and subsidence went on while the 
Bala and Hirnant Limestones, with a great mass of interbedded and overlying 
flags, were deposited in North Wales; and in the Lake-district the corresponding 
deposits, viz. the Coniston Limestone, Fairy-Gill Shales and Ash-Gill Flags 
(= Lower Coniston Flags), were formed. In South Wales and the western borders 
of England only a few ash-like beds suggest the not distant line of volcanic outbursts: 
Scotland, Scandinavia, Bohemia, and America yield a series which, if not in detail, 
can in a general way be correlated with these. The fact that the Lake-district 
and North Wales were during this period the seat of old volcanoes, will partly explain 
the difficulty that was experienced by Prof. Sedgwick and Sir Roderick Murchison 
in identifying the corresponding beds in the two areas independently examined by 
them; and the sudden ending of the volcanic deposits may probably account for the 
local apparent irregularity of the Coniston or Bala Limestone on the underlying 
series, which induced Professor Sedgwick to make that limestone the base of his 
upper subdivision, and which has recently been urged as proofs of an unconformity 
by Mr. Aveline. Except in connexion with the volcanic deposits, no break has 
been proved from the conglomerates which form the base of the Harlech group to 
the top of the Bala series. 

8th Epoch. The Gap between the Cambrian and Silurian.—This he thought not 
strongly marked, and certainly not to be drawn between the Upper and Lower 


72 REPORT—1875, 


Llandovery. He criticised the paleontological and other evidence upon which 
this division had been made, and protested against the introduction of the name 
Llandovery Rocks instead of May-Hill Sandstone, under which it was first de- 
scribed by Prof. Sedgwick. In the Lake-district and in North Wales in every 
open section there was an apparent conformity, though the overlap of the Graptolitic 
mudstone, from the Coniston Limestone of Windermere to the Ash-Gill Flags of 
Coniston, seemed to suggest an unconformity. The May-Hill Sandstone, thinning 
out to the north and creeping over the edges of the Cambrian rocks and along the 
ancient mountain-range of the Malvern and Longmynd, rests on the oldest parts of 
the Cambrian and even on the pre-Cambrian. Still this cannot be said to repre- 
sent the previous denudation of the whole thickness of the Cambrian rocks, as they 
themselves thin out against the old Malvern ridge ; so that this epoch would appear 
to have been characterized in the typical regions by the upheaval of some mountain- 
chains and irregular movements in large adjoining areas. 

9th Epoch. Stlurian.—This series he thought commenced with the base of the 
May-Hill Sandstone (¢. e. at the bottom of the Lower Llandovery, with some cor- 
rections of boundary). There was a very considerable change in the forms of life, 
and this was conspicuous even where the stratigraphical discordance was not well 
marked. There was little difference of opinion as to the grouping of beds, except 
at the commencement and close of the period. Conglomerates mark the base at 
Austwick and Sedbergh, on the western borders of the Lake country, accompanied 
by a change in the character and colour of the sediment and of the organic remains. 
The boundary can be traced through the Lake-district proper, and in North Wales 
by the same change in the fossils and the sediment, but there is no conglomerate. 
In South Wales a conglomerate frequently marks the base ; but the group of fossils 
that comes on first is very different, and seems to sugyest an earlier submergence 
of the southern area. 

Passing over the Wenlock and Ludlow, the next difficulty is in drawing the 
upper boundary. This he would take at the top of the red shales and marls of the 
river Sawdde and the country east of Horeb Chapel in South Wales ; for there is no 
evidence of a break there or anywhere else between the tilestones and the red 
shales ; and where fossils have been found, as at Ledbury, in the red shales they 
are common Ludlow forms. 

The author pointed out, by reference to original and published sections by Prof. 
Sedgwick, that the views he now advocated as to the classification of the Cam- 
brian rocks and the position of the boundary-line between them and the Silurian 
were exactly those of Prof. Sedgwick. He further showed, by comparison of the 
map and sections of Murchison with those of the Survey and later authors, that 
Murchison had not, in 1839, correctly placed any one of the beds about which he 
later came into collision with Sedgwick ; that the Caradoc of Murchison’s sections, 
supposed to rest on the Llandeilo Flags south of Llandeilo, was May-Hill Sandstone 
or Wenlock ; that the Cambrian rocks, supposed by Murchison to crop out from below 
the Llandeilo Flags, were Caradoc and newer beds overlying it; that the supposed 
base of the Llandeilo Flags was in fact the top. He further stated that when these 
errors were corrected there was no acknowledgment of the approach made in the 
new editions to the original classification of Sedgwick; that the latest change had 
carried the base of the Silurian below the unconformities in the Cambrian rocks 
given in vol. ili. of the ‘Memoirs of the Geological Survey,’ and had left it where 
he thought no one would now venture to suggest there was any paleontological 
or stratigraphical break. As this must be changed, and the unconformities above 
mentioned svould, he thought, be certainly abolished before long, he asked whether 
for justice and consistency we should not, in adopting Prof. Sedgwick’s classifica- 
tion, adopt his nomenclature also. 

10th Epoch. The Gap between the Silurian and Carboniferous—This he con- 
sidered one of the two most strongly marked gaps (except, possibly, some pre- 
Cambrian intervals) in all the geologic series. In the north of England the 
Cambrian and Silurian rocks were folded and denuded down to the Skiddaw 
Slates: strata to the thickness of at least five or six miles were removed. In 
the north-west of Wales a similar denudation seems to have been going on; but 
as we turn to the east we find, along the Vale of Clwyd for instance, that there 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 73 


was not such great contortion and denudation previous to the deposition of the 
basement-bed of the Carboniferous rocks. The patchy sedimentary base, consisting 
of sands and Sanaa rests on the Denbigh grits and flags. Skipping the 
region of mid Wales, we find in South Wales still less pre-Carboniferous crumpling 
and denudation. As pointed out above, higher beds belonging to the Silurian series 
are left than any seen further north ; and the sedimentary base of the Carboniferous 
is thicker. Still further south (in Devonshire &c.), though the actual base is no- 
where seen, we have the sedimentary series more strongly developed ; and the early 
type of Devonian fossils agrees with the idea that the Devonian area went down 
first at the commencement of the Carboniferous epoch. 

llth Epoch. Carboniferous.—In accordance with the above view of the pre- 
Carboniferous geographical changes, the author, while disagreeing with Prof. 
Jukes in his interpretation of the stratigraphical structure of Devonshire, still goes 
with him in bracketing the Devonian with the Carboniferous, and would refer to 
the same age most of the Old Red of Scotland, while a great portion of the Old 
Red of South Wales he would group with the Silurian. Running over the principal 
subdivisions of the Carboniferous, and noticing the occurrence of coal-seams at 
lower and lower horizons as we proceed from S. to N., the author next drew at- 
tention to the large masses of rock of Carboniferous age which had been so deeply 
stained from the overlying New Red that they had been grouped with that forma- 
tion ; and pointed out that as we approach the newest known beds of Uarbqniferous 
age, we find indications of the commencement of earth movements in the local 
irregularities in the sequence of the uppermost Coal-measures. 

12th Epoch. The Interval between the Carboniferous and New Red.—This he con- 
sidered the second most important gap in the geologic series. The geographical 
changes which occurred in it were the hardening and upheaval of the whole of the 
Carboniferous (and how much besides we have not evidence to show), the carving- 
out of these rocks into hill and valley, and the development of a flora and fauna 
differing considerably from those preserved in the Carboniferous rocks. As the 
base of the New Red rests on the edges of rocks from one to four miles in thick- 
ness, this epoch must have been of very long duration. 

13th Epoch. New Red and Jurassic.—This epoch, like the Carboniferous, com- 
menced with the variable deposits accumulated along the shores and in the lakes 
and yalleys of an irregular continent unequally submerged. They consist of con- 
glomerates, sandstones, and mudstones, and, like those at the base of the Carboni- 
ferous, generally of a bright red colour. The red stain penetrates deep into the 
underlying rocks, the surface of which often shows evidence of subaerial wea- 
thering. What wonder that, as headlands disappeared, as barriers went down, as 
depressions got silted up, there should be irregularities of all kinds observable 
between successive deposits—such, for instance, as that at the base of the Upper 
Magnesian Limestone in places, or that between the Lower and Upper New Red, 
or that between the Bunter and Keuper. (He dropped the word Permian, as it 
was only a new name given by Murchison to what had been previously correctly 
described by Sedgwick as Lower New Red.) 

These rocks passed up through the Rheetic and Lias into the Oolitic series, at 
the close of which, as in every other case, we have a hint of the approaching 
changes. Probably we shall some day have sufficient data to speculate on the limit 
to which it is possible that continuous deposition can go on uninterruptedly in the 
same area. However that may be, the further on we get in geologic history the 
more clear does the evidence become that, as great waves of depression pass across 
an area, sometimes the accumulation of sediment keeps pace with it, and leaves depo- 
sits which show that the hollows had been filled and lagoons and estuaries had taken 
their place by the time the trough of depression had passed and the wave of upheaval 
had succeeded. Towards the close of the Jurassic epoch, at any rate, we have the 
Purbeck freshwater beds, and later the Weald estuary, where we know there had 
been hundreds, and probably thousands of feet of continuous marine deposits. 

The author then considered briefly the gaps which occurred at the base of the 
Neocomian and of the Cretaceous, and the intervals of which we have evidence at the 
base of the Kocene and of the Miocene, but reserved the fuller investigation of these 
points for a future occasion, 7 

5. “ 


7A REPORT—1875. 


Observations on the Discovery, by Count Abbot Castracane, of Diatomacece in Coal 
from Lancashire and other places*. By Prof. Epwarp Hott, F.2.S8. 


The author considered this discovery of so much interest and importance as to 
entitle it to the special notice of the Section, and particularly for the light it throws 
on the mode of formation of Carboniferous coal. Diatoms had been observed by 
Count Castracane in specimens of coal from Liverpool, Neweastle, Scotland, and 
St. Etienne; and in these, after repeated observations in which every precaution 
had been taken to guard against deception, examples had been found in greater or 
less numbers. The species obseryed are identified by Count Castracane with ex- 
isting forms, and, with the exception of three marine genera from the coal of 
Lancashire, were all of freshwater origin. The results appeared to the author to 
corroborate the views of those who consider that Carboniferous coal had its source 
in the decay of forests of plants, which grew with their roots and parts of their 
stems under stagnant lagoons, into which the waters of the ocean occasionally 
found access. 


The Drifting-power of Tidal Currents and that of Wind-wavest. 
By G. Henry Kryawan, RLA. fe. 


The author referred to the Report on Waves by J. Scott Russell (Brit. Assoc. 
Reports, vol. xiii, 1844, p. 311), which he considered ought to have decided the 
relative merits of the tidal currents and wind-waves. This, however, seems not 
to be the case, judging from the recent paper on the Chesil bank, Dorsetshire, read 
by Professor Prestwich before the Institution of Civil Engineers (February 2nd, 
wire and the discussion that followed the reading of it, 

After mentioning what can be learned from Scott Russell’s Report, the author 
gives the general conclusions he arrived at, after many years of the study of the 
drifting-power of the tidal currents and that of wind-wayes on the coast of Ireland; 
and to illustrate these general conclusions, a detailed description was given of that 
portion of the coast of Ireland (part of Wicklow, Wexford, and Waterford) con- 
tained in the Admiralty charts (Ireland, sheets xiv. & xy.), as this coast was 
minutely examined and the results tabulated. 

The memoir concluded as follows, The information gathered on this portion of 
the coast of Ireland goes to prove the following :— 

Ist. The driftage due to the incoming tidal currents is always, during its 
progress, going on in deep water, and more or less in the shallow water. 

_ 2nd, The driftage due to wind-waves only occurs during gales, and even then 
is only due to the waves that break on the shores. 

3rd. To prevent the tidal driftage, groins or piers should be erected; and if 
the pier is to form a harbour, transverse groins should run out from it to stop the 
back-wash generated by the piers; for otherwise this back-wash would carry the 
driftage seaward to he wicked round the pier into the harbour. 

4th. As the wind-wave driftage occurs during gales, and then only on the 
shore-line, it might be prevented from silting up a harbour or damaging the ship- 
ping in it by placing a breakwater across the direction from which the prevailing 
storms come. If such a breakwater were a fixed one, built of stone or some such, 
it must more or less affect the tidal driftage, and probably would help to silt up the 
harbour; but if it were floating, it would break the wind-waves in deep water, 


thus destroying their drifting~powers, while there would be no impediment to inter- 
fere with the tidal driftage. 


On the Limits of the Yoredale Series in the North of England. 
By G. A. Lupour, F.GS. §c. 
The author urged that the Great Whin-Sill, being an intrusive sheet of trap 
which shifted its horizon frequently in Northumberland, was worthless as a base- 
* Atti dell’ Accad. Pont. de’ Nuovi Lincei. Roma, 1874. A translation of the memoir, 


by Miss Littledale, of Dublin, appears in the Geol. Mag., Sept. 1875. 
¢ See ‘Royal Irish Academy Proceedings,’ 1875-76. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 75 


line to the Yoredale series; that north of the Pennine escarpment the Scar lime- 
stone series lost its distinct character and became quite indistinguishable from 
the Yoredales, either stratigraphically or paleontologically ; but that the entire 
set of beds between the Millstone-grit and the Tuedians in Northumberland re- 
presented the entire Carboniferous Limestone series of the Midlands and Belgium, 
and not only, as Prof. de Koninck had lately stated, the Upper Division, or Caleaire 
de Visé. The name “ Bernician series” was proposed for the whole series having 
a Yoredale facies in Northumberland *. 


On the Geological meaning of the term “ River-basin,” and the desirability of 
substituting ‘“Drainage-area.” By D, Macxtytosn, F.GS. 


The author believes that though field-geologists understand the meaning of the 
word “river-basin,” it is not only liable to convey a false impression, but has actu- 
ally induced many geographers to represent watersheds as almost invariably run- 
ning along the higher ground; and, as a consequence, mountain-chains are repre- 
sented as if they ran continuously along the lines of watershed or water-parting. 
Tn most maps, so-called river-basins are represented as if they were really basin- 
shaped ; but the author contends that there is scarcely such a thing in nature as a 
river possessed of an uninterrupted basin extending from end to end of its course ; 
that in mountainous countries rivers either flow through ruined mountain-domes, 
or what might be called inverted river-basins, or they traverse with equal indiffer- 
ence a series of basins and connecting narrow gorges. These basins are generally 
oblong; and in most instances the rivers cross them, not in the direction of their 
length, but obliquely. He describes the ruined dome through which the Dee flows 
in North Wales, and shows that the majority of the highest eminences are situated 
not on the sides, but towards the centre of this so-called river-basin. He also de- 
seribes the miscalled basins of the Wye in South Wales, the Tamar, and the 
Bristol Avon. After recommending the word “drainage-area” as a substitute for 
“ viver-basin,” he concludes with an explanation of how mountains constituting 
“lines of weakness” were either worn down into valleys or merely sawn asunder 
by marine denudation, so as to leave a series of narrow gorges through which rivers 
found their way to the sea. 


On the Origin of two polished and sharpened Stones from Oefn Cave. 
By D. Macxintosu, F.GS. 


The author entered particularly into a description and explanation of the peculi- 
avities of form and polish presented by two fragments of limestone found in the 
part of Cefn Cave where sand and sea-shells might still be seen clinging to the 
rocky wall. One of the stones was axe-shaped, with a very sharp edge, and an 
intensely polished though only partially smoothed surface. Many reasons were 
stated for arriving at the conclusion that the stones were first in the state of rocky 
projections, roughly shaped by fresh water charged with carbonic acid gas—that 
the subsequently polished surfaces and sharpened edges could not haye resulted 
from human agency, as they exhibited no indications of design, and could never 
haye answered any human purpose—and that they were merely an extreme or ex- 
ceptional result of some kind of natural agency. The author endeavoured to show 
that the polished surfaces could not have been caused by the rubbing of caye 
mammalia, as they occurred on both sides, and ran very nearly all round the spe- 
cimens. In discussing the natural causes by which the stones were finally shaped 
and polished, he showed that fresh water ora stream of water running only in one 
direction could not have been the agent, and that the only adequate explanation 
was to be found in the to-and-fro, recurving, insinuating, and powerful action of 
sea-wayes. The author went on to show that the sea-wayes must have wielded 
broken ice, that at the time the stones received their final polish the ice must have 


* Printed in extenso in the ‘Geological Magazine,’ new series, decade 2, vol. ii, no. 11, 
pp. 539-544, ne 


76 REPORT—1875. 


been free from coarse sand, and that the sand by which the stones became enye- 
loped was tranquilly introduced. He opposed the idea that the sand was derived 
by fresh water from the boulder-clay on the platform above the cave. 


Queries and Remarks relative to existing Ice-action in Greenland and the 
Alps, compared with former Ice-action in the N.W.of England and Wales. 
By D. Macxrntosu, 2.G.S. 


The author begins by discussing the question whether the so-called continental 
ice of Greenland be a true ice-sheet formed independently of mountains, or merely 
an exaggeration of a confluent system of glaciers. [This and several other ques- 
tions, furnished by the author, were incorporated with the Instructions for the 
Arctic Expedition.] He then goes on to consider the state of the surface of the 
Greenland ice-sheet, and believes that the amount of moraine matter is locally 
limited and of small extent. In query 3 he defends the idea of the internal purity 
of existing ice-sheets; and in query 4 he states reasons for doubting whether 
glaciers are capable of persistently pushing forward the large stones they may find 
in their beds, though he admits that the base of glaciers is charged with finer 
débris by means of which they grind and striate rock-surfaces. He mentions that 
in the Lake-district he had never seen a sharply bordered groove on a glaciated 
rock-surface which might not have been produced by a stone smaller than a walnut. 
He then quotes Forbes and Lyell to the effect that scarcely any of the stones found 
in the moraines of existing Alpine glaciers are polished or striated ; and this leads 
him to ask, in query 6, whether the base of the Greenland ice-sheet be capable of 
holding?stones firmly fixed in its grasp. He states reasons for doubting this; and 
after referring to the paucity of uniformly striated small stones among the mountains 
of the Lake-district and Wales, which once must have been covered with an ice- 
sheet or ice-sheets, compared with the abundance of regularly glaciated small 
stones in the boulder-clay of the neighbouring plains, he proceeds to consider the’ 
geological action of icebergs, and believes that they carry more rocky débris in 
their base than on their surface. In query 10 he considers whether grounding ice- 
bergs can give a rounded form to submarine rocks, or glaciate downhill; and 
states reasons for believing that they can do so to a certain extent, but that dome- 
shaped roches moutonnées have been principally formed by land-ice. He sees no 
reason for doubting that revolving icebergs are capable of scooping out hollows in 
the rocky bottom of the sea, and thinks that lake-basins on the rocky summits of 
hills, or on watersheds, may have been produced in this way. He then gives 
reasons for supposing that the drift-knolls called eskers, where their forms are very 
abrupt, may have been partly formed by eddying currents or waves generated or 
intensified by ice-movements, which sometimes will set the sea in motion as much 
as sixteen miles off. 

The principal and most original part of the paper is on the subject of coast-ice. 
The author brings forward a mass of testimony, accompanied by considerations 
which tend to show that floating coast-ice is the principal transporter and glaciator 
of stones, and that the uniformly striated stones found in the boulder-clay of the 
plains were both glaciated and transported by coast-ice. He enters minutely into 
a consideration of how stones, previously more or less rounded, became flattened 
and uniformly grooved on one, two, or more sides, the grooves on each side varying 
in their directions. He believes that many of the stones found in the boulder-clay 
of Cheshire must have been frequently dropped and again picked up by coast-ice 
during the passage from their original positions, 


On certain Isolated Areas of Mountain-Limestone at Luckington and Vobster. 
By J. M°Murrrim, F.GLS. 
In a few introductory remarks the writer described the general structure of the 


Carboniferous rocks of Somersetshire, together with their relation to the older rocks 
on which they rest, and the secondary formations by which they are overlaid. He 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 77 


then proceeded to point out three remarkable outliers of Mountain-limestone occur- 
ring at Luckington and Vobster immediately to the north of the Mendip Hills, 
which, owing to their abnormal position, had long been the subject of curious 
speculation, and concerning which different authors had arrived at very opposite 
conclusions. The dimensions and situation of these limestone masses were de- 
scribed in detail. The largest of the three occurred at Upper Vobster, and mea~ 
sured 1150 yards in length by 300 yards in breadth ; another at Luckington was 
450 yards in length by 120 yards in breadth ; while a third, called the Tor Rock, 
was of smaller dimensions. They were completely surrounded by Coal-measures, 
and occurred at a distance of from 1300 to 1900 yards from the principal outcrop 
of limestone in the Mendip range. 

The writer then proceeded to explain the views of other writers on the subject, 
which may be classed under three heads :—First, the original fault theory of Dr. 
Buckland ‘and the Geological Survey ; second, the combined fault and anticlinal 
theory of Mr. H. B. Woodward; and third, the overthrow theory of Messrs. 
Greenwell, Moore, and others. As to the first two theories, he said the workings 
of adjacent collieries had failed to show any proof of their existence. He then 
proceeded to prove that the limestones in question were superficial masses of no 
great thickness, and that they did not extend downwards to connect with the 
ereat underlying mass of Mountain-limestone, for the workings of several mines 
and one or tivo wells had proved the existence of Coal-measures beneath them at a 
comparatively shallow depth. 

He expressed his belief in the theory that, during the upheaval of the Mendips 
and the inversion and crumpling-up of coal-strata which accompanied it, the 
limestone masses of Luckington and Vobster were in some way carried over from 
the Mendip range, and so rested upon the Coal-measures instead of lying far be- 
neath them. The paper was explained by numerous diagrams and sections, the 
latter showing that the Mendips had originally attained a much higher elevation, 
and that the limestone strata removed by denudation were probably more nearly 
vertical than those which remain, if indeed the beds were not partially folded over 
in the same way as the Coal-measures. 


On the Age of the Durdham Down Deposit, yielding Thecodontosaurus ec. 
By Cuarres Moors, F.GS. 


About forty years ago some conglomerates were opened up apparently resting on 
the Carboniferous Limestone of Durdham Down, in which were found scattered 
reptilian remains, described by Messrs. Riley and Stutchbury under the names 
Thecodontosaurus and Paleosaurus. They were then supposed to be of Permian 
age, but are now referred to the Magnesian Limestone. ‘The author believed them 
to be still more recent, and that they belonged to the Rheetic period. 

In support of this conclusion he referred to a paper by himself published in the 
‘Geological Journal’ for 1867 *, in which he showed that over a large area in the 
Mendip district the Carboniferous Limestones had formed the floor of the seas of 
more recent geological epochs, and, having become fissured, those fissures had 
been filled with the organic and other contents of more recent periods, these being 
shown to be as wide apart as from Rheetic to Liassic times. In veins of the former 
age he had found a fauna of great interest, including the reptilia Thecodontosaurus 
and Paleosauus, found only before at Durdham Down, and amongst the fish- 
remains numerous examples of Suurichthys apicalis and Acrodus minimus. 

The author then showed that precisely similar physical, mineralogical, and 
palzeontological conditions were to be found on the tableland of Durdham Down, 
where numerous veins, one of them 18 feet in thickness, traversed the Carboniferous 
Limestone. One of these, near the Zoological Gardens, was proved to be of the 
age of the Lower Lias—Ammonites, Echini, Foraminifera, and other remains of 
that age being exhibited by the author taken from between the walls of the Car- 
boniferous Limestone 30 feet from the surface. In another vein near the Suspension 


* «On Abnormal Conditions of Secondary Deposits &c. when connected with the Sc- 
mersetshire and South Wales Coal-basin.” 


78 REPORT—1875., 


Bridge he had found numerous scattered fish-remains of Rheetic age, including 
Saurichthys and Acrodus, mentioned above, found also with the Thecodontosaurus 
and Palgosaurus on the Mendips; and he could therefore come to no other conclu- 
sion than that the deposits were equivalents in time, and that the Durdham Down 
reptilia must be referred to the Rhetic age rather than to the Magnesian Limestone. 


On the Distribution of Flint in the Chalk of Yorkshire. By J.R. Morrmer. 


On Azygograptus, a new Genus of Graptolites from the Skiddaw Slates. By 
-H. Atteyne Nicnotsoy, .B., D.Sc., P.RS.E., Professor of Natural 
History in the University of St. Andrews. 


In this communication the author recorded a new and remarkable genus of 
Graptolites from the Skiddaw Slates, founded upon specimens obtained by Mr. W. 
R. Dover. To this genus the name of Azygograptus was given; and in describing 
it the author associated Mr. Lapworth with himself, as he was greatly indebted to 
that gentleman for assistance in working out its true affinities. 

The polypary in Azyyograptus is simple and unilateral, consisting of a single 
monoprionidian stipe, which is developed from the central portion of the “sicula” 
on one side, The cellules are slightly overlapping. 

This genus seems to be intermediate in its characters between the Nemagraptidie 
and the true Monograptide, no member of the latter family having as yet been 
found in strata as old as the Skiddaw Slates. With the Monograpti the present 

renus agrees in the fact that the polypary consists of a single unicellular stipe ; 
iat it differs altogether from these in its mode of development, the celluliferous 
stipe springing directly from one side of the sicula about its centre. In this im- 
portant character Azygograptus agrees with no other known Graptolites than Ne- 
magraptus, Emmons, and Cenograptus, Hall, both of these, however, including 
bilaterally developed forms, The cellules of Azygograptus are essentially of the 
type of Monograptus Nilssoni, Barr., and in this respect the genus is connected in- 
differently with either the Monograptidé or the Nemagraptide. 

‘The only known species of the genus was described under the name of Azygo- 
graptus Lapworthi, It is a slender form, about an inch in length as a rule, and 
hitherto obtained by Ma. Dover only in the Lower Skiddaw Slates of Hodeson- 
How Quarry, near Portinscale. It is very readily recognized, eyen in small frag- 
ments, by the unique appearance presented by the triangular sicula standing nearly 
at right angles to the slender celluliferous stipe. The fact also that the stipe 
originates from the centre of the sicula, below its broader end, gives it a most 
characteristic appearance, and prevents its being confounded with a broken Didy- 
mograptus. 


On the Central Group of the Silurian Series of the North of England. By 
H. Autrynr Nicworson, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.SE., Professor of Natural History 
mm the University of St. Andrews, and Cuartes Lapworru, F.G.S. 


In this communication the authors record the results of their investigation of the 
central series of Silurian deposits which intervene between the Borrowdale series 
of volcanic rocks (“Green Slates and Porphyries”) on the one hand, and the Conis- 
ton Flags on the other. They conclude that the series in question may be naturally 
grouped as follows, in ascending order :— : 


A. The Coniston LivEsTONE SERIES, composed of 


a. The Dufton Shales. 
b. The Coniston Limestone. 
c. The Trinucleus Shales. 


B. The Coniston MupsTon& SERIES, composed of 


a. The Skelgill Beds. 
b. The Knock Beds, 


? 


a 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 79 


The Dufton Shales are shown to constitute a mass of fossiliferous shales under- 
lying the Coniston Limestone, without the intervention of any igneous rock of con~ 
temporaneous origin. They pass upwards into the limestone, and are about 
300 feet thick under the Pennine chain, but thin out in proceeding westwards. 
The Coniston Limestone is the only constant member of its series, and the Trinucleus 
Shales form a local group developed above it in the Sedbergh district. The entire 
Coniston Limestone series is shown to be identical with the limestones of Kildare 
and Pomeroy in Ireland and Girvan in Scotland. 

The Coniston Mudstone series is divided into two distinct groups, the Skelgill 
Beds and the Knock Beds. The name of Shelgill Beds is given by the authors to a 
group of black graptolitic mudstones and shales, which seem rarely or never to 
exceed 60 feet in thickness, and which are found almost everywhere above the 
Coniston Limestone. These beds are replete with Graptolites belonging to an ex- 
ceedingly well-marked ie 9 of forms, which can be precisely paralleled with the 
species characteristic of the highest beds of the Moffat series of the south of Scot- 
land (Birkhill Beds). Similar Bena occur in certain black beds which occupy 
a similar position on the shores of Belfast Lough and elsewhere in Ireland. 

The Knock Beds form asmall but exceedingly well-marked group of rocks, which 
are typically developed near the village of Knock in Westmoreland, but are found 
everywhere surmounting the Skelgill graptolitic beds. They consist mainly of 
green and purple shales and grits, and have yielded two species of Graptolites, viz. 
Monograptus priodon and M. Broughtonensis, un. sp. The authors consider the 
Knock Beds to be the diminutive representative of the Gala and Hawick Beds of 
the south of Scotland. They conclude, further, that the entire Coniston Mudstone 
series is to be regarded as belonging to the Middle Silurian period—that is, to the 
period in which the Lower and Upper Llandovery and the Tarannon Shales of 
“ Siluria ” were laid down. 

Finally, the authors conclude that the true Coniston Flags are to be entirely 
separated from the Coniston Mudstone series. They parallel the Coniston Flags 
with the Denbighshire Flags of North Wales and the Balmae and Riccarton Beds 
of the south of Scotland, and they regard them as forming the true base of the 
Upper Silurian series, 


The Cause of the Glacial Period, with reference to the British Isles*. 
By Cuarres Ricxerts, M.D., F.GS. 


Some who consider that the Glacial Period was dependent on extreme cold caused 
by the winters occurring when the earth was in aphelion, with a ereatly increased 
eccentricity of its orbit, have deduced inferences which do not appear to accord 
with present physical conditions. With great glacier systems, such as existed in 
North America and in Europe, the air would have had almost the whole of its 
moisture condensed out of it by the cold long before it reached the Arctic circle ; 
consequently glaciers could not have existed on the water-slope of the land sur- 
rounding the Arctic Ocean any more than they do now; and, so far from an “ ice- 
cap” covering the Arctic regions, there would not have been sufficient moisture 
left to form in it ice-floes so great or extensive as at present. 

The increased accumulation of snow now taking place in Greenland is accom- 
panied by subsidence of the land, whilst elevation is at the same time rapidly 
occurring in Norway and Spitzbergen; it is therefore not requisite to attribute 
“the invariable occurrence of submergence along with glaciation to change in the 
centre of gravity of the earth.” The cause of the present subsidence of Greenland, 
as well as that in Britain during the Glacial Period, was ascribed io the effect 
which an increased weight of snow would have in forcing downwards the crust of 
the earth into its fluid substratum (see Geol. Mag. vol. ix. p. 119). 

Previous to the Glacial Period the Gulf of Mexico extended as far north as the 
junction of the Mississippi and the Ohio, Florida was submerged, and an extensive 

elt of land on the east coast of the United States was covered by a sea having a 
tropical temperature. Such alterations in the coast-lines must have induced a 


* Printed in extenso in the ‘ Geological Magazine’ for December 1879. 


80 REPORT—1875. 


condition of climate nearly approaching, if not similar to, that which is indicated 
by the beds of plant-remains found in Greenland, Iceland, and Spitzbergen. 

Dr. Carpenter has demonstrated that the north-polar “set” or current (commonly 
called the north-east branch of the Gulf-stream) is dependent on diminution of 
temperature in the Polar regions, causing displacement by sinking of the surface 
sea-water rendered denser by cooling, and the consequent influx of lighter, that is 
warmer, water to supply its place. Increased severity of the winter in the north 
would therefore augment the volume and velocity of this current, and, ceteris 
paribus, thus render milder that of Britain. This appears to be in accordance with 
the persistent increase of cold in Greenland and Iceland simultaneously with 
recession of the glaciers in Norway and the occurrence of milder winters in Britain, 
and also with changes which occasionally take place of a more temporary character, 
as the occurrence of winters in America of exceptional severity, whilst the same 
seasons were remarkable for their mildness on the eastern shores of the Atlantic, 
and vice versd. 

Not only has the Gulf of Mexico extended far up the valley of the Mississippi, 
but a former depression of the land has occurred in the West-Indian Islands, to 
2000 feet and even to 5000 feet; raised sea-beaches occur on the west coast in 
California; and the Gulf of California is but an extension of the Colorado river, 
which has been submerged. Subsidence to so great an extent on each side would 
in all probability affect the isthmus in a similar manner. If such a depression took 
place in certain areas to the extent respectively of 134 and 300 feet only, it would 
enable the waters of the Atlantic to flow into the Pacific Ocean. The fauna have 
been considered to afford indications of a former intercommunication of the two 
oceans by the identity or similarity of many of the Mollusca (Mr. P. P. Carpenter, 
Brit. Assoc. Report, 1846) and also of the Echinodermata (‘Depths of the Sea,’ 
p- 14) on each side. It is thus more than probable that a passage for the equatorial 
current has been afforded at Panama and beatae If it occurred to a consider- 
able extent, the north-polar current would have had no higher temperature than 
that which it could derive from the temperate zone. Such a removal of the Gulf- 
stream is by most, if not all, considered sufficient to reduce the temperature so as 
to cause the formation of glaciers in Britain; but though the intense cold would 
condense the atmospheric moisture so as to cause extensive ice-floes between 
Greenland and Norway, there would have been but little remaining to be precipi- 
tated in the Arctic Ocean. 

It was contended that the succession of Glacial Periods, haying intervening 
times characterized by a mild or even genial climate, as demonstrated by Mr. James 
Geikie, might have been caused by successive depressions and upheavals of the 
Isthmus of Central America. To obtain positive proof of this supposed change in 
the direction of the equatorial current, it is requisite that investigations with this 
object in view be made in Nicaragua and other parts of Central America, 


On certain large Bones in Rhetic Beds at Aust Cliff, near Bristol. 
By Witr1aM Sanvers, F.R.S. 


In the year 1844 a large cylindrical bone was found on the shore at Aust by 
Mr. Edmund Higgins, from whom it was subsequently purchased for the Bristol 
Museum. It measures about 15 inches in length and about 17 inches in circum- 
ference. About four years later Mr. Alexander Thompson, residing near Aberdeen, 
found the largest of the bones, and generously presented it to the Museum. This 
is about 25 inches in length, and about equal to the other in circumference, that is, 
about 17 inches. A third bone, the smallest of the three, was found a few years 
ago, with a large vertebra, closely adjoining the thick ‘“bone-bed;” it is 8 inches 
long, with a circumference of 15 inches. 

Neither of these pieces had retained its terminations ; they were therefore incom- 
plete fragments. The two larger concurred in having a long furrow, apparently 
adapted to receive an artery or vein; and the late Mr. Samuel Stutchbury, who 
was then Curator of the Museum, observed that an analogous furrow passed along 
the femur of the frog, and suggested that these bones might haye belonged to 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 81 


some huge Batrachian allied to the Labyrinthodon. A few years ago Professor 
Huxley saw the bones, and remarked that Mr. Stutchbury’s determination could 
not possibly be correct. 

Subsequently I took them to Oxford, so that they might be examined by my 
late estimable friend Professor Phillips. He immediately brought into comparison 
with the large bone the femur of a Megalosaurus. It was observed that the femur, 
as well as the bone in question, was covered with minute longitudinal indentations ; 
also that these changed their course on approaching the process of the lesser 
trochanter. Now on the large bone there was a slight protuberance, and the longi- 
tudinal markings changed their direction on approaching it. If, then, this small 
protuberance were the remains of a larger one constituting a lesser trochanter, the 
resemblance between the bone in question and the femur of the Megalosaurus would 
become very insignificant. The great difference would consist in their relative 
dimensions, the circumference of the femur being about 13 inches, while that of the 
bone is about 17 inches. 

Now it might be supposed that I should venture on the conjecture that we have 
before us the remains of a very large species of Megalosaurus ; but I refrain from 
this because there is a striking difference in one respect between the two limbs that 
have been thus compared. Phillips says “the femur is, or appears to be, internally 
hollow.” It will be seen that the Rheetic bones are, on the contrary, solid 
throughout. 

I do not know of any other definite character requiring notice. My object is to 
draw attention to these remarkable remains, so that if any explorer of Rhetic 
strata should find in any other locality large bones of mysterious character, he 
may remember these, and bring his discovery into comparison with the bones 
of the Bristol Museum. 


——_ —__—_ 


On Auriferous Limestone at Walton. 
By W. W. Szroppart, F.C.8., F.GS., ge. 


Mr. Stoddart described the unusual occurrence of the presence of gold and silver 
which Mr. Pass and he had discovered in a sample of Carboniferous Limestone 
taken from a quarry in the neighbourhood of Clevedon. The limestone contains 
more than 94 per cent. of carbonate of lime, and is sufficiently pure to be used in 
the manufacture of glass, the principal impurity being oxide of iron. The author 
yemarked the absence of sulphur and silica which so often accompany gold deposits, 
but which in the present case were absent. The analysis of the dried limestone 
gaye the following :— 


PCLT TIMER oe ahaa, ois s5sa;3a,019\ cuaials Geel ‘8777 
PQrriGyORAMGh ye Cela, 5, asccbs, cc.che ofesci one 4:8000 
Calcic carbonate ............0005 94-3000 
Silcaiiin cras <ac +} WOOT CASIO PORE Oe 0200 
Silver atest Nar a"e’ stesia. apis; an aces enavays ‘0023 
Gold ...... Totsndteies9 Meas irls Sivas a trace 

100-0000 


In order to corroborate the results of the analyses which they had made, samples 
were sent to Mr. J. P. Merry, a well-known assayer at Swansea, who completely 
verified the fact of there being gold and silver present in the limestone. Although 


- the quantity of these metals is exceedingly small, yet the fact of their occurrence 


in carboniferous limestone at all is exceedingly interesting and unusual. The 
amount of silver present in the limestone varies in different samples, one sample 
containing 94 grains per ton, while another contains nearly an ounce. The quantity 
of gold present varies from 3 to 5 grains per ton. The limestone is granular, and, 
when magnified, shows a great number of specks of oxide of iron; the presence of 
pyrites was carefully looked for, but none could be detected. It is very difficult to 
account for the origin of these metals; in the part of the quarry from which the 
samples were taken the limestone appeared much weathered, and darker in colour 


82 REPORT—1875. 


than the rest of the beds; yet no line of demarcation could be discovered which 
separated it from the other strata, as would have been the case had there been an 
intrusion of foreign matter; the other parts of the pberid appeared throughout 

_tolerably uniform. The specimens of the metals and the limestone in different 
states were placed before the members of the Section. 


On Changes of Climate during the Glacial Period. 
By the Rey. W.8. Symonns, /.G.S. 


On the Age of the Cannington-Park Limestone, and its Relation to Ooal- 
measures South of the Mendips. By H. B, Tawney, F.GS, 


After noticing earlier opinions which gave a Devonian age to the limestone, the 
views of Mr. Baker were cited as the first expressed on the Carboniferous side. 
The latter origin was upheld by Mr. 8S, G. Perceval’s determination of the corals 
in the Taunton Museum. The present author had found Lithostrotion irregulare 
an situ, which was held to be conclusive as to its Carboniferous age. The occurrence 
of Triassic veins intersecting the limestone was noticed. Theoretically the Carbo- 
niferous age makes more probable the existence of productive Coal-measures under 
the Somersetshire flats. A 

Discovery of a Submerged Forest in the Estuary of the Orwell. 
' By J. E, Taynor. 


The author stated that his attention had been drawn to some peaty material 
which came from the bed of the river Orwell during the excavation of a new 
channel. Further investigation proved it to be 9 feet in thickness, full of reeum- 
bent trees, such as dwarf oak, pine, alder, &c., the lower part resting on a marl 
of freshwater shells &e., underneath which was the solid chalk. The peat-bed was 
buried beneath 6 or 8 feet of black river-mud. A series of thirteen excavations 
and dredgings conducted last November proved that the submerged forest extended 
for seven or eight miles. The peat-bed on an average was about 9 feet (in some 
places 14 feet) below low-water neap-tides. The tide rose 12 to 14 feet, and 
therefore, even if the old forest had grown at the sea-level, it must have stood about 
30 feet higher than we now find. Mr. Taylor then referred to other post-glacial 
forest beds along the eastern coast, and expressed his belief that they represented 
the last stage of the continental condition of England before the depression took 
place which brought the North Sea over the low-lying plains, and so formed the 
present German Ocean.. Some fine perfect teeth of the Mammoth (£lephas primi- 
genius) were found in the Orwell forest-bed and exhibited. 


Notes on the South-African Diamonds. By Professor J. Tennant, F.G.S. 


The first diamond was found in March 1867, and was pronounced by Dr. W. G. 
Atherstone to be genuine. : 

The number and quality of diamonds from the Cape are equal to those from the 
Brazils, which have chiefly supplied Europe during the last eighty years. 

About 10 per cent. of the Cape diamonds may be taken as those of the first 
quality, 15 per cent. of the second, 20 per cent. of the third; the remainder, under 
the name of boré, are employed for cutting diamonds, and for the numerous appli- 
cations to which this valuable substance is applied on the part of the glazier, the 
engineer for drilling rocks, the lapidary, and others. Many diamonds contain specks 
and cavities; these are placed in the hands of skilled workmen who are acquainted 
with the cleavage, and by careful manipulation they often get out portions of the 
first quality for making small “brilliants,” “roses,” and ‘“ tables.” 

It is estimated that the value-of the diamonds found at the Cape, from March 
1867 to the present time, exceeds twelve millions of pounds sterling. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 83 


On a new Genus of Rugous Corals from the Mountain-Limestone of Scotland. 
By Jamus Tomson, /.G.S. 


The author stated that this genus was closely allied to Dana’s genus Clissio- 
phyllum. It, however, differed from that genus, not only in its external aspect, 
but also very materially in the internal structure. He briefly described the cha- 
racteristies by which the genus Clissiophyllum can be distinguished, viz. that there 
was always a conical boss in the centre of the calice, and that in the centre of the 
corallum there was always a columellarian line, which passed from the apex of the 
boss down the centre of the corallum, and terminated at the inferior extremity ; 
and that there were lamellze which passed from the inner margin of the primary 
septa into the columella in the centre of the calice, and that they were united by 
convex endothecal dissepiments, convexity upwards and outwards. 

The genus he proposed to establish can readily be distinguished from Clissio- 
phyllum, not only externally, but also from the internal structure. The boss in the 
centre of the calice never assumes a conical aspect, and is only slightly raised above 
the inner margin of the primary septa, and is divided in two by a strong middle 
ridge, from which the author derives the generic name. He is confident that the 
structure of the central portion of the corallum is more characteristic for generic 
distinction than any other part. We cannot, however, rely alone on that or any 
other part of the corallum for either generic or specific distinction. If it is taken, 
however, in conjunction with the other parts of the internal structure, it will enable 
us to readily decide as to what group the form ought to be classified with for 
diagnostic purposes. 


DrIBsuNOPHYLLUM, gen. noy., Thomson. 


Generic Characters. Corallum simple, cylindro-conical, tall in some forms, whilst 
in others it is short and more or less turbinate and marked with irregular accre- 
tion-ridges. Oalice moderately deep, thin around the margin in some forms, 
whilst in others it is everted. Septa thin, with laminz for fully half their length 
from the inner margin, wherein they become flexuous. Columellarian boss slightly 
raised above the inner margin of the primary septa, with a prominent middle ridge, 
which, in a transverse section, is seen to be formed of convex endothecal dissepi- 
ments, convexity outwards. The outer area is formed of lamellz, which pass from 
the inner margin of the primary septa to the convex dissepiments of the median 
ridge. 

A yertical section shows that the central area is dissimilar from the genus Clis- 
siophyllum. Instead of a columellarian line in the centre of the corallum, as in the 
latter genus, there is a system of convex dissepiments, which converge to the centre, 
convexity outwards and upwards; whilst in other forms there are several vertical 
plates passing down the centre of the corallum, and each are united by concave 
endothecal dissepiments. Fossula with small septa in it. 

This genus is established for the reception of a group of corals that the author 
discovered many years ago in Ponneil Water, five miles south of Lesmahagow, 
Lanarkshire. He has subsequently found them in several localities in the central 
valley of Scotland, details of which will be given hereafter, when the specific cha- 
racteristics will be described in detail. : 


On the Occurrence of a Lower Boulder-clay or Till with Shells, in the Counties 
of Down and Mayo, Ireland. By Wiir1am A. Trarin, MAL. (Master in 
Engineering), P.R.GASL., HM. Geological Survey of Ireland. 


The author, in introducing his subject, briefly reviewed the divisions of the Drift 
series, especially so far as they related to the occurrence of shells in the lower boulder- 
clay, which he had met with in several localities in Ireland, and hoped that such 
places, and the mode of occurrence of such, would be carefully examined and noted, 
as only a few instances of these shelly drifts in Ireland had been recorded. 

After long examination in the county Down, he was fortunate enough to find 
some shells in the undoubted lower boulder-clay in four localities adjacent to the 


84 REPORT—1875. 


Kilkeel and Whitewater rivers. This district, lying to the S.E. of the Mourne 
Mountains, across which the ice-flow came from the N.N.W. and N.W., though 
obstructed and deflected, yet passing over elevations of at least 2000 feet, is covered 
by deep accumulations of drift, excellent sections of which are exposed in the river 
and sea-escarpments, some up to 120 feet in thickness. In these were seen the 
lower boulder-clay, or genuine till, resting on the denuded and often glaciated 
surfaces of the Silurian rocks, with subangular, rounded, and ice-scratched blocks 
firmly imbedded in a brownish clay, the lowest portion being chiefly a blue clay, 
and containing shells, mostly fragmental, those identified being Turitella com- 
munis, Buccinum undatum, Leda rostrata. Overlying this boulder-clay in the above 
cases, and as illustrated in diagrams, were the “ interglacial sands and gravels,” 
mostly horizontally bedded, and often forming extensive flat-land surfaces. Over- 
lying these in places were accumulations of irregularly bedded gravels. 

In the county Mayo, near Ballycastle, a section in the Glenulra river, 120 feet 
in depth, showed on top irregularly bedded coarse gravels for 25 feet, then evenly 
bedded fine gravels and sands for 30 feet, containing shell fragments, below which, 
though graduating from it, was some 50 feet of lower boulder-clay, the lowest part 
being a stiff plastic blue clay ; in these, especially in the latter, the shell fragments 
were very abundant. In several localities adjacent, particularly in the stream 
Fiddawntawnanauneen, the specimens obtained were both numerous and very per- 
fect ; those identified were Zellina proxima, Cyprina islandica, and a Balanus. The 
author, without wishing to theorize on these deposits, wished only to add a few 
facts to the general store of knowledge regarding our drift deposits. 


On a Mass of Travertine or Calcareous Tuff, called “ The Glen Rock,” near 
Ballycastle, County Mayo, Ireland. By Wii1tam A. Tram, MATL, 
(Master in Engineering), F.R.GS.1., HM. Geological Survey of Ireland. 


The district in which this rock occurs is situated on the northern shore of the 
county Mayo, the rocks of the country consisting of Carboniferous sandstones and 
limestones, viz. white, brown, yellow, and red sandstones, with bands of shales, 
and pure and impure limestones, mostly inclined at low angles E.N.E. In that 
district several stalactite formations and deposits of carbonate of lime occur, the 
largest being “The Glen Rock,” about two miles from Ballycastle, a mass of 
calcareous tuff and travertine resting on the eastern flanks of the valley along which 
the limestone beds crop out, approximately of the following dimensions :—length 
N. and §. 310 feet, E. and W. 285 feet, and in depth or thickness from 6 to 80 
feet. The mass is irregular, and in cubic contents about 2,100,000 cubic feet. The 
tuff varies from a soft porous nature to a hard ringing travertine, and is composed 
chiefly of the casts or incrusted forms of diverse Mi ede of brambles, ferns, 
grasses, and ivy, &c., and containing the bones of birds and small animals, and 
shells of land-snails, &c. The origin of this large mass must be attributed to a 
large spring or “ Holy Well,” situated a little above on the slope of the hill. The 
water, by its passage through the limestone rock, becoming highly impregnated 
with lime, and by flowing over the vegetation on the slopes, ie encased and 
cemented them together, and produced a much more vigorous growth, thus more 
rapidly building up this isolated mass of tuff, which stands out as a striking feature 
throughout the valley—the age of this mass being, of course, quite recent, after 
the present configuration of the country had been formed. There are evidences, 
however, that it has not increased in thickness for the last 300 years, as foundations 
of that age still exist on its highest summit; but now it seems to be rather break- 
ing up under its own superimposed weight. 

For upwards of twenty years a school was held in a natural cave in this rock, 
enlarged for the accommodation of sixty scholars, but which was closed in 
the year 1815. Since then the roof has subsided, filling it up for the most 
ued Voge traditions connected with this rock were also noted, and specimens 
exhibited. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 85 


Note on the Reptilian Remains from the Dolomitic Conglomerate on Durdham 
Down. By Dr. Tomas Wrieut, /.R.S.Z. 


The author placed on the table the original specimens of Thecodontosaurus and 
Paleosaurus obtained from the dolomitie conglomerate of Durdham Down, and 
described by Dr. Riley and Mr. Stutchbury in the Geological Transactions, 1836. 
The author briefly described the principal characters of these remains, especially 
the jaw, teeth, vertebra, and bones of the limbs, and which were all firmly im- 
bedded in the conglomerate rock. He said the object he had in view in bringing 
this subject before the Section was to obtain an authoritative expression of opinion 
from the local geologists present as to the age of the conglomerate containing these 
Dinosaurian remains, as a doubt had been cast on the usually received opinion of 
the age of this formation in the late discussion which had taken place on the 
Avicula contorta or Rhetic beds. Mr. W. Sanders, whilst objecting to the term 
“dolomitic conglomerate,” had nevertheless stated his conviction that the conglo- 
merate formed part of the New Red Sandstone or Triassic series, and as such he 
had placed it in his geological map of the district. Mr. W. W. Stoddart, who 
admitted the conglomerate to be of Trias age, stated that he had analyzed the rock, 
and found it to be for the most part a double carbonate of magnesia and lime, and 
that it contained minerals found only in the Triassic rocks. Mr. Etheridge was 
also cited by the author as giving affirmative testimony to the same opinion; he 
therefore held that, with the evidence adduced, there could be no doubt that 
the dolomitic conglomerate was of Triassic age, and that the bones exhibited 
belonged to Dinosaurian reptiles of that period. This conglomerate rock was alto- 
gether different from the Liassic’and other débris, rolled and rounded, that filled 
fissures in the Carboniferous limestone, of which they heard so much on a pre- 
vious occasion. This conglomerate had been likened by one of the. speakers in the 
Avicula-contorta debate to the matrix of these fissures ; but the expression of opinion 
given to-day on this subject, he hoped, would remove the doubt that had been cast 
upon this point, and settle the question of the age of the dolomitic conglomerate, 
which was, he believed, a formation of the Triassic period. 


BIOLOGY. 


Address by P. L. Scuarer, M.A., Ph.D., F.RS., FLS., President of the 
Section. 


Ty the office, which I-have now held for more than sixteen years, of Secretary to 
the Zoological Society of London, I have been not unfrequently requested by our 
Members and Correspondents in various parts of the world to furnish them with 
information as to the best works to be consulted on the Zoology of the countries 
in which they are resident, or which they are about to visit. With the well- 
furnished Library of the Zoological Society at my command this is not usually a 
very difficult task, so far as publications are actually in existence to supply the 
desired information. Iam also frequently asked to point out the principal defici- 
encies in our knowledge of the animals of particular countries. This is also a not 
very difficult request to comply with, although it is somewhat embarrassing on ac- 
count of the very imperfect information which we still possess of geographical zoology 
generally, and the largeness of the claims I am therefore constrained to put forward 
for the attention of those who make such inquiries. Great, however, has been the 
progress made of late years towards a more complete knowledge of the faunas of 
the various parts of the earth’s surface. Expeditions have been sent out into 
countries not previously explored ; collections have been formed in districts hitherto 
little known ; and many general works have been published combining the results 
of previous fragmentary knowledge on this class of subjects. Under these circum~ 
stances I haye thought that such an account asI might be able to give of the 


86 REPoRT—1875. 


general progress that has been recently made towards a better knowledge of the 
zoology of the various parts of the earth’s surface, accompanied by a series of 
remarks upon the best available authorities to be consulted upon such subjects, 
might supply a want which, as above mentioned, I know, by personal experience, is 
often felt, and at the same time would form a not inappropriate addvess from the 
chair which I have now the honour to oceupy, 

I must premise, however, that my observations must be restricted mainly to the 
terrestrial members of the Subkingdom Vertebrata, To review the recent progress of 
our knowledge of the yarious sections of invertebrate animals in different countries 
would be beyond my powers, and would inordinately enlarge my subject. Besides, 
it is certain that the higher classes of animals haye occupied the principal attention 
of recent writers on geographical zoology, and it is with the distribution of these 
classes that we are best acquainted. 

Taking therefore in succession the seven great Regions into which the earth’s 
surface may be most conveniently divided for zoological purposes, [ will endeayour 
to point out our present leading authorities on the Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, Batra- 
chians, and Fishes of each of them and their main constituent parts. At the same 
time I will endeavour to indicate the principal deficiencies in our knowledge of 
these subjects, and may perhaps be able to add a few suggestions as to how some 
of these deficiencies might be best overcome. 

In these remarks I will take the divisions of the earth’s surface in the same order 
as I haye generally used in my lectures on zoological geography *, namely :— 


I. Palearctic Region ) 

II. Ethiopian Region 
Ila, Lemurian Subregion + Arctogea. 
IU. Indian Region 

5 IV. Nearctic Region 

V. Neotropical Region 
Va. Antillean Subregion 
VI. Australian Region ,.Antarctogea. 
VII. Pacific Region ...... Ornithogea. 


Dendrogea. 


I, THE PALASARCTIC REGION. 


The Palearctic Region I shall consider for convenience’ sake in the following 
seven subregions :— 

1. The Cisatlantean Subregion, embracing all that part of the Palearctic Region 
lying south of the Mediterranean Sea. 

la. The Atlantic Islands. 

2. The European Subregion. 

3. The Siberian Subregion, embracing the whole of Northern Asia. ; 

4, The Mantchurian Subregion, containing Northern China and the adjoining 
part of Mongolia. 

5. The Japanese Subregion, embracing the Japanese Islands, 

6. The Tartarian Subregion, containing the great desert-region of Central Asia. 

7. The Persian Subregion, embracing Persia, Asia Minor, and Syria. 


1, Tor CISATLANTEAN SUBREGION, 


As regards the zoology of the main western portion of this district (Tunis and 
Algeria) our knowledge may now be said to be pretty far advanced. The standard 
work on the subject is the ‘Exploration Scientifique de l’Algérie’ (1), published 
hy the French Government, in which are treatises on the Mammals and Birds of 
Algeria by Loche, and on the Reptiles and Fishes by Guichenot. This work was 
commenced in parts in 1840; and the portions relating to the Mammals and 
Birds were, I believe, intended to be written by M. Vaillant, the artist of the 
Commission ; but only the plates were issued; and the text, by Captain Loche, was 
not completed until 1867, A smaller and more conyenient work for travellers is 


* See ‘Science Lectures for the People,’ Sixth Series, 1874, No. 5, ‘The Geographical 
Distribution of Mammals. By P. L. Sclater.” Manchester: Heywood, 1874. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 87 


the last-named author’s catalogue of the Mammals and Birds of Algeria (2) pub- 
lished in 1858; whilst upon the Freshwater Fishes, Gervais’s article in the 
‘Comptes Rendus’ for 1866 (3), and the memoir of Messrs, Playfair and Letourneux 
in the ‘ Annals’ for 1871 (4), may be profitably consulted, 

As regards the Herpetology of Algeria, an excellent memoir on this subject, 
by Dr. Alexander Strauch, will be found in the fourth volume of the new me- 
moirs of the Academy of St, Petersburg (5). Those who penetrate beyond the Atlas 
will find many references to the vertebrated animals of that district appended to 
Canon Tristram’s ‘ Great Sahara’ (6). Many interesting details about the birds of 
Tunis and Algeria will likewise be found in the papers communicated to ‘ The Ibis,’ 
by Messrs, Salyin (7), Tristram (8), and J. H. Gurney, jun, (9). 

Of Moroceo and the extreme western portion of the Atlas our knowledge is as yet 
by no means so perfect. As regards the Birds of Tangier and its vicinity we have 
Colonel Irby’s lately published volume on the Ornithology of the Straits of Gibraltar 
(10), in which the “ observations on the Moorish Birds are in a great measure culled 
from the MSS, of the late M, Favier—a collector long resident in Tangier,” But 
in the south of Morocco, in the Western Atlas, and surrounding district there is 
certainly a considerable terra incognita within easy reach of England, which has 
hitherto been almost inaccessible to naturalists, though the short expedition of 
Dr. Hooker, Mr. Maw, and Mr. Ball in 1871 (of which a notice only has been 
published (11); but a complete scientific account is, [helieve, in preparation) shows 
that it may be penetrated if proper precautions are taken, 


la. Tue ATLANTIC IsLANDS. 


The Atlantean Island-groups of the Canaries, Madeira, and the Azores may 
erhaps be most naturally appended to this division of the Palsarctic Region. 
ur knowledge of the fauna of each of these three groups is tolerable, although 
there is of course much to be done in working up details. As regards the Canaries, 
the standard work is Webb and Berthelot’s ‘ Histoire Naturelle des Iles Canaries ’ 
(12), published at Paris under the auspices of the Minister of Public Instruction. 
Dr. Carl Bolle has visited the group more recently, and has written several excel- 
lent articles in Cabanis’s Journal on its Ornithology 8), 

Madeira has had the advantage of the residence of several first-class English 
naturalists; I need only mention the names of Lowe, Vernon-Wollaston, and 
Johnston to establish this point. More than twenty yearsago Mr, E. V. Harcourt, 
in his Sketch of Madeira (14) and in contributions to the ‘ Proceedings of the 
Zoological Society’ (15) and ‘Annals of Natural History’ (16), gave us a good 
account of the Ornithology of Madeira. Mr, F, Godman has recently published 
an excellent article on the Birds of Madeira and the Canaries, in ‘ The Ibis’ for 1872 
(17), in which a complete résumé is given of the whole of our previous knowledge 
of this subject, together with the information obtained by the author himself 
‘during his expedition to those islands in 1871. 

As regards the Fishes of Madeira, they haye formed a subject of study of several 
excellent Ichthyologists, The Rev, R. T. Lowe made numerous communications 
to the Zoological Society of London upon them in the early days of the Society, 
and published in their ‘Transactions’ in 1839 a Synopsis of Madeiran Fishes (18), 
to which several supplements were afterwards added. Subsequently Mr. J. Y. 
Johnson took up the subject and made numerous additions to Mr. Lowe’s experi- 
ences, which were mostly published by the same Society (19). Dr. Giinther has 
likewise contributed to our knowledge of Madeiran Fishes (20); so that on the 
whole there is, perhaps, hardly any locality out of Europe with the Ichthyology of 
which we have a better general acquaintance. 

For our knowledge of the higher animals of the third of the Island-groups above 
spoken of, that of the Azores, we are mainly indebted to the energy of Mr, F, D. 

odman, who made a special expedition to those islands in 1865, with the object 
of studying their fauna, The results are embodied in his volume on the Azores, 
published by Van Voorst in 1870 (21). Morelet’s work (22), previously published, 
is mainly devoted to the Land-shells; Mr. Godman is almost our only authority 
upon the Mammals, Birds, and other Vertebrates. 


88 REPORT—1875. 


2. THE EvROPEAN SUBREGION. 


To discuss, or even to give the titles of all the works that have been published 
on the Vertebrates of Europe would extend this address to far beyond its proper 
limits. I must content myself with a few words on the principal works which 
have appeared of late years, first, upon the zoology of Europe generally, and, 
secondly, upon the faunas of its chief political divisions. 


A. Mammals of Europe. 


To begin with the Mammals, our standard authority upon the European mem- 
bers of this class is Blasius’s ‘ Naturgeschichte der Siugethiere Deutschlands und 
der angrenzenden Linder’ (25); and an excellent work it is. Unfortunately, how- 
ever, it does not extend into Southern Europe, where alone many of the more in- 
teresting forms of European Mammal-life make their appearance. A work founded 
on Blasius’s volume and embracing the additional species of Mammals to be met 
with in Spain, Italy, and Turkey is very desirable ; and it is with great pleasure that 
I have been informed that an energetic Member of this Association has already set 
some such undertaking before him. The only work of reference of this extent that 
Iam at present acquainted with is Lord Clermont’s useful ‘Guide to the Quadru- 
peds and Reptiles of Europe,’ published in 1859 (24). 

As regards the constituent countries of the European Subregion, there are but few 
recommendable works devoted to the illustration of their Mammal-faunas. In 
England we have Bell’s ‘ British Quadrupeds,’ belonging to Mr. Van Voorst’s excel- 
lent series (25). This remained long out of print, until its recent reissue in 1874 
by the author (26) with the assistance of Mr. R. F. Tomes and Mr. Alston. For 
France, M. Gervais’s ‘ Zoologie et Paléontologie Frangaise’ (27), enumerates both 
recent and fossil Mammals, though most regard is paid to the extinct Fauna. As 
regards Spanish Mammals, almost the only authority I am acquainted with is Rosen- 
hauer’s ‘ Thiere Andalusiens’ (28), which, however, is very defective, the author 
having devoted himself principally to the study of the Invertebrates. Capt. Cook 
(afterwards Widdrington) was the original discoverer of several of the rarer 
Mammals of Spain ; but the account of them in his ‘ Sketches’ (29) is very meagre. 
A bare list of the Mammals of Portugal is given by Prof. Barboza du Bocage 
in the ‘Revue Zoologique’ for 1863 (80). Passing over to Italy, Bonaparte’s 
‘Fauna Italica’ (31) and Costa’s ‘ Fauna del Regno di Napoli’ (32) must be men- 
tioned, though both are somewhat out of date. But the former work is still the 
only authority on certain of the rarer Italian species and local forms. A recent 
summary of Italian Mammals has been given by Prof. Cornalia in ‘ Italia’ ( a 
but on the whole it must be allowed that a good work upon the Mammals of the 
Italian peninsula is still a desideratum. Of the Mammals of Switzerland, on the 
other hand, we have an excellent recent work by Dr. Fatio, forming the first 
volume of his ‘ Faune des Vertébrés de la Suisse’ (34), in which special attention 
is devoted to the difficult groups of Rodents and Insectivores. No student of 
the European Mammal-fauna should omit to consult Dr. Fatio’s work. 

Passing to Eastern Europe, we find our state of exact knowledge as to the 
Mammals very defective. As regards Greece, we may refer to the French ‘ Ex- 
pédition Scientifique en Morée,’ in which there is a memoir on the Mammals by 
Geoffroy St.-Hilaire (35), and Erhard’s ‘Fauna der Cykladen’ (36) and Unger 
and Kotschy’s volume on Cyprus (37), which give some details on the Mammals 
of the Greek archipelago. Of Turkey we find little or no information, and there 
is certainly still much to be done as regards the smaller Mammals of this part 
of Europe. In Southern Russia we have Ménétriés’s Catalogue of the Animals 
of the Caucasus (38), and P. Démidoff’s ‘ Voyage dans la Russie Méridionale 
(39), and perhaps other works in the language of the country, which I am not 
acquainted with. But there can be no doubt that it is in South-eastern Europe 
that our knowledge of the Mammal-fauna of this continent is very defective, 
and that most remains to be done in order to complete our acquaintance with 
this branch of European zoology. 7 

In Northern Europe, which we now turn to, the case is quite different. The 
highly cultivated and laborious naturalists of Scandinavia have for many years 


TRANSACTIONS OF-THE SECTIONS. 89 


paid great attention to this as to every other part of their fauna. The first volume 
of Nilsson’s ‘Scandinavian Fauna’ (40), published at Lund in 1847, has long been 
a standard book of reference on this branch of zoology. Much, however, has been 
done since that period ; and in Prof. Lilljeborg’s lately issued work on the Mam- 
mals of Sweden and Norway (41), we have an exhaustive account of the present 
state of our knowledge of this subject. 

As regards the few Mammals of Spitzbergen, reference should be made to the 
second volume of Heuglin’s ‘Reisen nach dem Nordpolarmeer’ (42), where that 
energetic naturalist has put together an account of the nineteen species of Mam- 
mals that penetrate so far north. 


B. Birds of Europe. 


a. Europe generally.—There can be no question, I suppose, that the attractive 
class of Birds has received much more attention than its sister-classes of verte- 
brates in Europe, as generally elsewhere. Of late years especially a considerable 
number of naturalists in almost every part of this continent have bestowed their 
principal attention on Ornithology. ‘Two journals are devoted solely to this 
science—in which the larger number of artilen treat of the birds of some portion 
or other of Europe. The mass of literature on the subject is large ; and I must 
therefore be rather concise in my notices of the principal modern authorities that 
should be referred to by an inquirer on European Ornithology. 

First, as to the Avifauna of the whole continent, Temminck’s ‘Manuel’ (43)— 
long the acknowledged authority upon this subject—was superseded in 1849 by 
the issue of Degland’s ‘Ornithologie Européenne’ (44). The new edition of 
this work, revised by Gerbe and issued in 1867. (45), is perhaps now the 
most complete book of its kind. But it has great faults and imperfections, 
particularly as regards its indications of the distribution c{ tue species, This 
branch of the subject has never been properly worked out until the recent issue of 
Mr. Dresser’s (formerly Sharpe and Dresser’s) ‘Birds of Europe’ (46), which contains, 
so far as it has hitherto progressed, by far the most exhaustive account of the 
European Avifauna yet attempted. Its large size and numerous illustrations, how- 
ever, render it rather cumbersome as a manual; but a handbook based on it when 
completed, and containing a judicious abridgement of its information, (which I 
hope Mr. Dresser will not fail to prepare,) would, I am sure, form a most valuable 
work, 

Fritsch’s ‘ Naturgeschichte der Vogel Europa’s’ (47), lately published at Prague, 
is a cheap and useful manual for those who understand German; while Gould’s 
‘Birds of Europe’ (48), though out of date, will be always referred to for its 
illustrations. 

b. Birds of Great Britain.—For many years the standard book of reference on the 
Ornithology of these islands has been Yarrell’s ‘ British Birds,’ and its several 
Supplements (49). The new edition of this work, commenced in June 1871 by 
Prot. Newton (50), is familiar, no doubt, to most of the Members of Section D. 
As to its merits there can be no question; I think it is seldom indeed that a task 
is intrusted to one so thoroughly competent to perform it, or so careful in the 
execution of what he undertakes. But the slow progress of the work is appalling : 
after four years only one of the promised four volumes has been completed, As 
amongst the best of numerous local works on the Birds of this country recently 
issued should also be mentioned Gray’s ‘ Birds of the West of Scotland’ (51), and 
Hancock’s memoir on those of Northumberland and Durham (52). A very useful 
work of reference for Ornithologists is also Mr. Harting’s ‘ Hand-book of British 
Birds’ (53), in which the exact dates and places of occurrence of all the rarer 
visitants are recorded. Those who love life-sized illustrations, and have full 
purses, will-not fail to acquire (provided a copy is left) Mr. Gould’s splendid work 
on the Birds of Great Britain (54), now complete in five volumes. After this 
enumeration it will be almost needless to remark that Ornithology has no reason 
to complain of want of support in this country. 
¢. Birds of France—In France less attention has been devoted to the native 
birds of late years; and besides the new edition of Degland’s ‘ Ornithologie 

1875. 8 


90 REPORT—1875. 


Européenne’ already spoken of, I have only to mention Bailly’s ‘ Ornithologie de la 
Savoie’ (55), and Jaubert and Barthélemy-Lapommeraye’s ‘ Richesses Ornitholo- 
giques du Midi de la France’ (56), in each of which will be found much informa- 
tion about the rarer birds of the districts respectively treated of. 

d. Birds of Spain and Portugal—Much attention has been paid to the Avifauna 
of Southern Spain of late years, but rather by visitors from the north than by native 
naturalists. Lord Lilford and Mr. Howard Saunders have both given us some 
excellent articles in ‘The Ibis’ on this subject (57, 58), and have made a variety of 
interesting discoveries, amongst which are actually several new species *, or at all 
events well-marked local forms. Dr. R. Brehm, long resident at Madrid, has 
also devoted much attention to Spanish Ornithology, and written a complete list of 
Spanish Birds (59), which should be consulted. To Colonel Irby’s work on the 
Straits of Gibraltar (10) I have already alluded; as regards the southern extremity 
of the peninsula he is our best and most recent authority. For information on the 
birds of Portugal we must again go to an English source, Mr. Alfred Charles 
Smith’s Narrative of his Spring Tour (60) containing the best information which 
T am acquainted with on this subject. a 

e. Birds of Italy.—Savi's ‘ Ornitologia Toscana’ (61), published as long ago as 
1827, was for long almost our only authority on Italian Ornithology. Bonaparte’s 
‘Tconografia,’ already alluded to (81), gave some additional information as to 
rarer species. Salvadori’s memoir on the Birds, forming the second volume of the 
recently published ‘ Fauna d'Italia’ (62), is the best and most recent authority on 
this subject, and contains an excellent ‘“ Bibliografia Ornitologica Italiana.” A. 
large illustrated work on the birds of Lombardy has been recently published at 
Milan by Bettoni (63), I must also call attention to the persevering way in 
which Mr. C. A. Wright has worked up the Avifauna of Malta (64), and to Mr. 
A. B. Brooke’s recently published notes on the Ornithology of Sardinia (65). 

f. Birds of Turkey and Greece.—Dr. Kriiper, a well-known German naturalist, 
has been long resident in various parts of the Levant, and has contributed nume- 
rous articles upon the birds met with to various periodicals. These have been 
recently put together and edited by Dr. Hartlaub, and published as a number of 
Mommsen’s ‘ Griechische Jahreszeiten’ (66), which thus contains a summary of all 
our principal information on the birds of Greece and its islands. Before that our 
best authority on Grecian birds was Lindermayer’s ‘ Vogel Griechenlands’ (67) 
As regards European Turkey, Messrs. Elwes and Buckley have lately published a 
good paper in ‘ The Ibis’ on its birds (68); and MM. Alléon and Vian have written 
several articles in the ‘Revue Zoologique’ (69, 70) on the ornithology of the 
neighbourhood of Constantinople. But there is certainly still much to be done as 
regards birds in this part of the continent, as likewise amongst the islands of the 
Greek archipelago, many of which are almost unexplored by the naturalist. 

e. Birds of Southern Russia and the Caucasus.—Though many notices of the 
birds of Southern Russia have appeared in the ‘ Bulletin’ of the Society of Natu- 
ralists of Moscow, I am not aware of any complete account of them having been 
issued. Démidoff, in the third volume of his ‘ Voyage dans la Russie méridionale’ 
(39), gives a list of the birds of what he calls the “ Faune Pontique ;” but his 
original observations are somewhat meagre. Eichwald’s ‘ Fauna Caspio-Caucasica’ 
(71) and Ménétriés’s Catalogue of the Zoology of the Caucasus (38) should also be 
consulted, although both are rather out of date. An excellent zoologist, Hr: 
Gustav Radde, is now resident at Tiflis; but I do not think he has yet prepared 
any general account of the birds of the Caucasus, where there must be certainly 
much of interest, as is proved by the discovery of the remarkable Grouse, allied to 
our Black Grouse, which has just been described by M. Taczanowskif. 

h. Birds of Germany and Central Europe.—Local lists of the birds of the various 
states of Central Europe, and their principal divisions, are very numerous; and 
there are also many manuals and memoirs on the same subject. But J. A. Nau- 
mann’s excellent ‘ Vogel Deutschlands’ (73), commenced in 1822, with its sup- 
plements, is still, I believe, quite unsuperseded as a standard book of reference on 

* Gecinus sharpii, P. Z. 8, 1872, p. 153, and Calendrella betica, Dresser, ‘ Birds of 
ari pt. 21. 

t Letrao mlokosiewiezi, Taca., P. Z. 8. 1875, p. 266 (72). 


TRANSACTIONS Of THE SECTIONS. 91 


Central-European Ornithology. It was generally understood that Prof. Blasius, at 
the time of his lamented death, had a work on the birds of his native country in 
ae ; but unfortunately this was never finished ; or it would have proved to 

e, no doubt, of first-rate excellence. In no other country, however, except our own, 
is Ornithology so much cultivated asin Germany. Two societies emulate each other 
in their pursuit of this science ; and two special journals (74, 75) are devoted to its 
progress. ‘There is no lack, therefore, of recent information upon the birds of every 
part of Germany, although this has to be fished out of journals and periodicals of 
different sorts, instead of being put together (as we should rather wish to see it) in 
some general work. 

i. Birds of Scandinaviuand Northern Europe.—In Scandinavia also there is no dearth 
of diligent observers of birds, as of every other class of animals. The Bird volume 
of Nilsson’s Scandinavian Fauna (40) was published in 1858, and is still worthy 
of careful study. But the more recent works of Collett upon the Birds of Norway 
in German (76) and in English (77) should be consulted, as also Sundevall’s 
‘Svenska Foglarna’ (78), unfortunately not quite finished at the time of his de- 
cease, and yon Wright and Palmén’s ‘ Finlands Foglar’ (79). Several memoirs 
have also recently appeared upon the birds of the extreme north, which have 
always attracted great interest among ornithologists. Amongst these, special at- 
tention may he called to :—y. Heuglin’s account of the birds of Nova Zembla, first 
published in Cabanis’s Journal for 1872 (80), and afterwards enlarged and revised 
in the second volume of his ‘ Reisen nach dem Nordpolarmeer ;’ to Prof. Newton’s 
essay on the birds of Iceland, in Mr. Baring-Gould’s ‘Iceland, its Scenes and 
Sagas’ (81) ; and, lastly, to Messrs, Alston and. Brown’s narrative of their adyen- 
tures among the birds of Archangel (82)—a little-explored district, and one of 
much promise, to which one of these active explorers has returned this year. 


C. European Herpetology. 


Tn this field of research there is not so much of recent work to record as among 
the birds; but Dr. E. Schreiber’s ‘Herpetologia Europza,’ which has just ap- 
peared (83), marks an important epoch in this branch of science, since there was 
previously no good work of reference upon the Reptiles and Batrachians of Europe, 
Dr. Schreiber’s work is drawn up upon the same plan as Blasius’s well-known 
‘Saugethiere Europa’s,’ and forms a most convenient handbook. The list of pub- 
lished works and memoirs on the same subject prefaced to it renders it unnecessar 
for me to refer to the previous authorities on European Herpetology in detail. y 
observe, however, that lord Clermont’s very useful ‘ Guide to the Quadrupeds and 
Reptiles of Europe’ (24) is not referred to in the list; and it would appear that 
Dr. Schreiber is not acquainted with it. I must also call special attention to Dr, 
Strauch’s excellent memoir on the Serpents of the Russian Empire (84), recently 
published in the Memoirs of the Imperial Academy of St. Petersburg, which is as 
important for the European as for the Asiatic ak of the Russian dominions. As 
regards our native Herpetological fauna also, 1 may point out that the last edition 
of Bell’s ‘ British Reptiles’ (85), published in 1839, requires considerable revision 
to bring it up to our present standard of knowledge, and that it is much to be 
desired that a new edition should be undertaken. ‘Let me venture to suggest that 
Mr. Van Voorst should communicate with Dr. Giinther upon this subject. In the 
meanwhile ‘ Our Reptiles, by M. C. Cooke (86), may be used as a correct as well 
as popular guide to this branch of our fauna. 


D, European Ichthyology. 


Tam not aware of the existence of any special work on European Ichthyology ; 
but C. Th. v..Siebold published in 1863 a volume on the Freshwater Fishes of 
Central Europe (87), which forms a useful guide to the Piscifauna of the principal ' 
European river-basins. For the fishes of the Atlantic which visit the British 
coasts we have the third edition of Yarrell’s ‘ British Fishes,’ edited by the late 
Sir John Richardson (88), which was published in 1859. Now that Dr. Giinther's 
great general work on Fishes has heen completed, this portion of Mr. Van Voorst’s 
excellent series would he also much benefited by revision and oe 


92 REPORT—1875. 


according to Dr. Giinther’s modern system and nomenclature. As a cheaper 
and more popular work we may also refer to Couch’s ‘ British Fishes,’ in four 
volumes (89), of which the last was issued in 1865. In this book the figures are 
coloured. 

Prof. Blanchard issued in 1866 a volume of the Freshwater-Fishes of France 
(90), which, however, does not bear so high a character as Siebold’s work above 
referred to. For our knowledge of the fishes of Spain and Portugal we are chiefly 
indebted to Steindachner’s memoirs in the Sitzungsberichte of the Vienna Academy 
(91), and to F. de Brito Capello’s papers in the Journal of Sciences of Lisbon (92). 
Of those of Italy, Prof. Canestrini has lately published a revised list with short 
specific characters, as a section of the work called ‘ Italia’ already referred to (93). 
those interested in the fishes of the Black Sea and adjoining river-basins should 
consult the ichthyological portion of Démidoff’s ‘ Voyage dansla Russie méridionale,’ 
entitled “ Pisces Faun Pontice.’’ Iam not acquainted with any other important 
recent memoirs on the Ichthyological faunas of the different European states 
which it is necessary to refer to until we come to Scandinavia, where Malmgren 
published in 1863 an excellent essay upon the Fishes of Finland, which was sub- 
sequently translated into German (94)*. As regards the Fishes of Spitzbergen and 
Nova Zembla, Heuglin’s Synopsis of them in the second volume of his already 
quoted ‘ Reisen nach dem Nordpolarmeer’ is the most recent authority, though it 
is principally founded upon the labours of Lovén and Thorell, and of the naturalists 
of the Swedish expeditions of 1861 and 1864. 


3. THE SIBERIAN SUBREGION. 


When I call to mind the numerous scientific expeditions sent by the Russians 
into different parts of their recent acquisitions in Northern Asia, and turn over the 
pages of the excellent and instructive works in which the results of these expedi- 
tions have been given to the world, I must own to a feeling of indignation at the 
manner in which such matters are usually dealt with by the Government of this 
country. In the first place, in order to get such an expedition sent out at all, 
great exertions and special influence are necessary. The Teeaanty must be memo- 
rialized, the Chancellor of the Exchequer besought, and the Admiralty petitioned, 
before any grant of money can he sanctioned for the purpose; and even then it is 
too often bestowed in a niggardly and grudging way. When the expedition returns, 
similar applications have to be made in order to get the results worked out and 
properly published ; and these are in some cases altogether rejected, so that the 
money already spent upon collecting becomes virtually thrown away. In Russia, 
although the nation may be less awake to the claims of science than in this country, 
the Government is certainly more so; and it is to the scientific men attached to 
the Government expeditions that we are indebted for nearly all the knowledge we 
possess of the fauna of Northern Asia. Of the more important reports of the 
more recent of these expeditions I will say a few words. 

Middendorft’s ‘ Sibirische Reise’ (95), published in 1847-67, gives an account of 
the fauna of the extreme north and east of Siberia. The second volume of the zoolo- 
gical section is entirely devoted to the Mammals, Birds, and Reptiles, and gives 
full details concerning the structure and habits of the species met with. Of Von 
Schrenck’s ‘ Amur-Reisen’ (96), a volume published in 1859 contains a complete 
memoir on the Mammals and Birds of the newly acquired district trayersed by the 
Amoor, lying to the south of that investigated by Hr. v. Middendorff. Lastly, two 
volumes of Radde’s ‘ Reisen in dem Siiden vy. Ost-Sibirien’ (97), published in 1862 
and 1863, render more perfect our knowledge of the Mammals and Birds of South- 
eastern Siberia. Hz. Radde’s chief observations were made in Transbaikalia ; but 
he incorporates the knowledge accumulated by his predecessors in the surrounding 
districts, and goes deeply into general results. 

Dr. A. y. Middendorft’s ‘Isepiptesen Russlands’ (98) should also be consulted 
by those who wish to understand the migration of birds in Siberia, or indeed 
throughout the Russian dominions. 


* See Zool. Rec, 1864, p. 136. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 93 


4, Tur MANTCHURIAN SUBREGION, 


Of this district, which embraces the country lying south of the Amoor and the 
greater part of Northern China, down perene to the great river Yang-tsze, we have, 
Desides the Russian works lastly spoken of, two principal sources of information. 
‘The first of these consists in the researches of Mr. Robert Swinhoe, of H.M. Chinese 
Consular Service, one of the most industrious and successful exploring naturalists 
that have ever lived, who is well known to many of my brother Members here pre- 
sent. Mr. Swinhoe’s memoirs and papers on Chinese zoology are very numerous; 
but his last revised list of the Birds of China (99) will be found in the Zoological 
Society’s ‘Proceedings’ for 1871. Pére Armand David, a worthy rival of our 
Consul, has likewise contributed in no small degree to our knowledge of the fauna 
of Northern China. His journals, containing numerous remarks full of interest, have 
lately been published in the ‘Nouvelles Archives du Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle 
de Paris’ (100) ; and M. Alphonse Milne-Edwards’s recently completed ‘Recherches 
sur les Mammiféres’ (101) contains a section specially devoted to the Mammals of 
Northern China, which is mainly based on Pére David’s researches. I shall, how- 
ever, have again occasion to mention the discoveries of both Mr. Swinhoe and M. 
Dayid in a subsequent portion of this address. 


5. Tur JAPANESE SUBREGION. 


Temminck and Schlegel’s ‘Fauna Japonica’ (102) has long been our standard 
authority upon the’zoology of Japan ; and not much has been done of late years to 
perfect it, except as regards the Birds. On this branch of our subject some very 
good articles have been eae in ‘The Ibis’ by Capt. Blakiston (103, 104), based 
upon his researches in Hakodadi; by Mr. Whitely (105), who was for some time 
resident along with Capt. Blakiston at the same port; and by Mr. Swinhoe (106). 
Reference should also be made to the second volume of Commodore Perry’s ‘Nar- 
rative of the U.S. Expedition to Japan in 1852-54’ (107), wherein will be found 
articles on the Birds collected, by Cassin, and on the Fishes, by Brevoort. 


6, Tor TARvARIAN SUBREGION, 


Into the great desert-region of Central Asia, hitherto almost zoologically unknown, 
except from Eversmann’s ‘ Reise nach Buchara’ (108), which contains a short natural- 
history appendix, excursions have recently been made from two opposite quarters. 
The advancing tide of Russian conquest from the north, accompanied, as usual, by 
its scientific corps, has already made us well acquainted with the zoology of 
Turkestan. Mr. Severtzoff has unfortunately yielded to the unphilosophical spirit 
of nationality which has of late years attained such a monstrous development, and 

ublished his ‘ Turkestanskie Jevotnie,’ or review of the distribution of animal life 
in Turkestan (109), in his native Russian. But a translation and reproduction of 
the portion relating to the Birds has already appeared in German (110); and an 
anges it in English is now being given to the world by Mr. Dresser in ‘The 
This’ (111). 

Tron ‘hs south the peaceful embassies of this country to Yarkand have led 
naturalists into the fringe of the same zoological district. Of the first of these 
expeditions we have an excellent account as regards the birds by Mr. A. O. 
Hume, forming the second part of Henderson’s ‘Lahore to Yarkand’ (112). Sir 

_D. Forsyth’s second expedition to Yarkand and Kashgar was accompanied by 
Dr. Ferdinand Stoliczka, one of the most accomplished and energetic members of 
the staff of the Indian Geological Survey, whose life was miserably sacrificed 
to the hardships encountered on the return. Of this last expedition we have as 
yet only incomplete accounts*, but may, I trust, look forward to the publica- 
tion of an equally interesting volume on the zoological results. The Ichthyological 

art of the collections has, I believe, been intrusted to Dr. F. Day to work out 
in this country. 


* See Hume, ‘Stray Feathers,’ ii. p. 513 (113), and iii. p. 215 (114). 


94 REPORT—1875, 


7. Tue PERSIAN SUBREGION. 


Of the Persian or “ Mediterraneo-Persic”” Subregion, as Mr, Elwes prefers to call 
it*, which may be held to embrace European Turkey, Palestine, and Persia, our 
knowledge was until recently very limited, and even up to the present day remains 
very imperfect, considering the proximity of the district to Europe, and the many 
interesting features which it presents. As regards Palestine, Canon Tristram’s 
energetic researches have done much to remove what has long been a scandal to 
biblical scholars as well as to naturalists. His long-promised ‘Synopsis of the 
Flora and Fauna of Palestine,’ however, is not yet issued by the Ray Society, and 
we must consequently be content with Mr. Tristram’s papers on the Birds of the 
Holy Land in The Ibis’ (115) and in the ‘ Proceedings’ of the Zoological Society 
(116) and Dr. Giinther’s article upon the Reptiles and Fishes collected by Mr. 
Tristram (117), until the finished work appears. Of Asia Minor and Armenia it 
may be said that we are miserably ignorant, Tchihatcheff’s desultory account of its 
Natural History in his ‘Asie Mineure’ (118) being almost the only authority we 
have to refer to, Thirty years ago the Zoological Society had two excellent cor- 
respondents at Erzeroom—Messrs. Dickson and Ross ; and it is a great misfortune 
that no continuous account was ever prepared of the fine collections which they 
sent homeft. : 

As regards Persia we may hope very shortly to be much more favourably situ- 
ated. Mr. W. T. Blanford and Major St. John have recently made large zoological 
collections in various parts of that country, particularly of birds; and itis generally 
understood that the report of the Persian Boundary Expedition will contain a 
complete account of the zoology of Persia from Mr, Blanford’s accomplished pen. 
Hitherto we have had to rely on De Filippi’s ‘ Viaggio in Persia’ (119) and other 
fragmentary sources of information. 


Il. THE ETHIOPIAN REGION. 


- This Region I shall speak of, for convenience’ sake, under the following six sub- 

diyisions:— - 
1. Western Africa, from the Senegal to the Congo. 

. South-western Africa, or Angola and Benguela. 

. South Africa, t. e. the Cape colony and adjoining districts. 

. South-eastern Africa, from the Portuguese possessions up to the Somali coast, 

. North-eastern Africa, including Abyssinia, Nubia, and Egypt. 

. Arabia, 


> Ou Co bo 


1, WESTERN AFRICA. 


The Mammals of Western Africa are certainly not so well known as they should 
be; and there is no one work which gives an account of them, except Temminck’s 
‘Esquisses Zoologiques sur la céte de Guinée’ (1), which is devoted to the collec- 
tions transmitted to Leyden by Pel, a most energetic and successful Dutch explorer. 
On the Mammals of Gaboon, Pucheran’s article in the French ‘Archives du Muséum’ 
(2), and Du Chaillu’s travels (3) and the literature connected therewith, should be 
consulted (4, 5, 6). : 

The Birds of Western Africa, on the contrary, have attracted much attention 
from* European naturalists since the time when Swainson published his ‘ Birds of 
Western Africa’ (7). This work, however, has been quite superseded by Hartlaub’s 
classical ‘System der Ornithologie Westafrica’s’ (8), published in 1857. Since 
that period many memoirs and papers have appeared on the birds of various parts 
of this district, principally by Cassin, of Philadelphia, Dr. Finsch, of Bremen, and 
Mr. R. B. Sharpe, of the British Museum, who has paid special attention to the 
African Ornis, and is understood to be preparing a general work on it. 

For information on the Reptiles and Fishes of West Africa we must refer to 
Aug. Duméril’s memoir (9) ‘in the tenth volume of the ‘Archives du Muséum 
Histoire Naturelle,’ founded on the collections in the Paris Museum. 

* Of. P. Z. 8. 1873, p. 647. 
t See notices of their collections in P. Z. 8, 1839, 1842, and 1844. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 95 


2, SotvrH-WESTERN AFRICA, 


The Portuguese colonies of Angola and Benguela, which seem to belong to a 
zoological subregion distinct from both that of West Africa and that of the Cape, 
were until recently almost unexplored. Within these last few years, however, 
Prof. Barboza du Bocage has acquired extensive series of specimens in nearly every 
department of natural history from these countries for the Lisbon Museum, and 
has published several important memoirs on the subject (10), which he will pro- 
bably ultimately incorporate into a general work. Mr. J. J. Monteiro has also sent 
to this country collections of Mammals and Birds, which have formed the subject 
of several papers (11, 12), 


38. SouTHERN AFRICA, 


_ Sir Andrew Smith’s ‘Illustrations of the Zoology of South Africa’ (13) consti- 
tute four solid quarto volumes, deyoted to the new and rare vertebrates met with 
during that energetic traveller's many explorations of the Cape colony and the 
adjoining districts, and supplementing Levaillant’s celebrated aed d'Afrique’ 
(14). But there is no perfect list of the Cape fauna given in Sir Andrew 
Smith’s work; and therefore Mr. Layard’s ‘Birds of South Africa’ (15), though 
not very completely elaborated, was a most acceptable and convenient work 
to the ornithologist. Still more agreeable will it be to witness the completion 
of the new and enlarged edition of Mr. Layard’s little volume, which Mr. Sharpe 
has undertaken (16), and of which he has just issued the first part. Mr, Sharpe 
will, however, I trust, pardon me for remarking that he has cut the synonymy 
of the species rather short in his pages; it is hard to expect every South- 
African colonist to have at his side the British-Museum Catalogue of Birds, to 
which he always refers us. ‘The omission of generic and family characters is also 
much to be regretted in a work of this kind. Another modern and much-to-be- 
recommended bird-book belonging to this subregion is Mr. J. H. Gurney’s ‘ Birds of 
Damara-land’ (17), founded on the extensive collections of the late C. J. Andersson. 
No less than 428 species of birds were obtained by that indefatigable collector ; and 
the task of editing his field-notes has been well performed by Mr. Gurney. 


4, SourTH-EASTERN AFRICA, 


Our knowledge of the fauna of Mozambique is chiefly due to the scientific visit 
made to that country by Dr. W. Peters, of Berlin, in 1842 and the following years, 
The volume of this distinguished naturalist’s ‘Naturwissenschaftliche Reise nach 
Mossambique’ (18) on the Mammals was published in 1852, that on the Fishes in 
1864, The delay in the issue of the portions relating to the Reptiles and Birds is 
much to be regretted, more especially when we consider the high standard of the 
work, although diagnoses of the new species discovered in these groups (19, 20) 
have been long since published; and I am sure I am expressing the sentiments of 
naturalists in general when I say that I hope to see the series shortly completed, 
Proceeding further north along the African coast, we come to Zanzibar, where an 
excellent ichthyologist, Consul Playfair, was lately resident. The ‘Fishes of Zan- 
zibar,’ by Giinther and Playfair (21), founded on the extensive collections made 
by the latter, was published in 1866, and gives an account of above 500 species, and 
many excellent figures, 

The Ornithology of the whole East-African coast, from Cape Gardafui to Mozam- 
bique, has been elaborately worked out by Drs. Finsch and artlaub. The results 
are contained in these authors’ ‘Végel Ost-Afrika’s’ (22), forming the fourth 
. yolume of the unfortunate Baron Carl Claus von der Decken’s ‘Reisen in Ost- 
Afrika.’ Full details as to previous authorities on the subject are given in this 
excellent work; so that it is not necessary to allude to them. 

_ As regards the Mammals of this part of Africa, however, it is expedient to say a 
few words. Our knowledge of this class of animals is, as regards the coast opposite 
Zanzibar and the country surrounding the great lakes of the interior, mainly com- 
een the fragmentary collections of Speke and Grant, of which an account has 

een published in the Zoological Society’s ‘Proceedings’ (23), and in the few speci- 


96. REPORT—1875. 


mens transmitted by Dr. Kirk from Zanzibar*. There is no doubt, however, that 
much remains to be done here ; and I believe there is at the present moment no finer 
field for zoological discovery available than this district, where we know that animal 
life in every variety is still abundant, and excellent sport can be obtained to add a 
zest to scientific investigation. The Fishes of the great lakes of Tanganyika and 
the Victoria and Albert Nyanza are likewise utterly unknown; and their investiga- 
tion would be a subject of the greatest interest. Of those of the more southern 
Nyassa Lake, a few specimens were obtained by Dr, Kirk (24). 


5, NORTH-EASTERN AFRICA. 

For many years Riippell’s ‘Atlas’ (25) and ‘Neue Wirbelthiere’ (26), and, as’ 
regards birds, his ‘Systematische Uebersicht’ (27), remained our standard works 
of reference upon the zoology of North-eastern Africa. The recent completion of 
Th. von Heuglin’s ‘Ornithologie Nordost-Afrika’s’ (28) has superseded Riippell’s 
volumes for general use; and no more valuable piece of work for ornithologists has 
been accomplished of late years than the reduction of the multitudinous obserya- 
tions and records of this well-known traveller and naturalist into a uniform series. 
Von Heuglin’s work, however, concerns mainly Upper Nubia, Abyssinia, and the 
wide territory drained by the confluents of the Upper Nile. For Egypt and the 
Lower Nile a more handy volume is Capt. Shelley’s ‘ Birds of Egypt’ (29), pub- 
lished in 1872, which will be found specially acceptable to the tourist on the Nile. 
Nor must I forget to mention Mr. Blanford’s interesting volume on the Geology 
and Zoology of Abyssinia (30), which contains an account of the specimens of ver- 
tebrates collected and observed during his companionship with the Abyssinian 
Expedition. Mr. Jesse’s birds, collected on the same occasion, were examined by 
Dr. Finsch, and the result given to the world in a memoir published in the Zoolo- 
gical Society’s ‘Transactions’ (31). 

A good revision of the Mammal-fauna of North-east Africa is much to be 
desired. Meanwhile Fitzinger’s list of vy. Heuglin’s collections (82), and the latter 
author’s own account of them in his Travels on the White Nile (83), may be 
consulted. 

The Appendix to Mr. Petherick’s Travels in Central Africa contains a complete 
memoir on the Fishes of the Nile-basin, by Dr. Giinther (84); while those of the Red 
Sea have lately formed the subject of study by Dr. Klunzinger, who has published 
an essay upon them at Vienna (35). 


6. ARABIA, 


Of Arabia, as might have heen expected, we know but little, zoologically or 
otherwise. But little, it may be said, can be expected to be found there, looking 
to the general aspect of the country. Still it would be of interest to know what 
that little is. At present the only district that has been visited by naturalists is 
the peninsula of Sinai; and of this our knowledge is by no means complete. _Hemp- 
rich and Ehrenberg’s unfinished ‘ Symbole Physicee” (86) was for many years our 
sole authority. More recently Mr. Wyatt has published an article in ‘ The Ibis’ 
upon the birds of the Sinaitic peninsula (37), Let me suggest to some of the 
officers who are stationed idle at Aden that an account of the animals to be met 
with in that part of Arabia would be of great value, and would give them much 
useful and interesting occupation. I have been more than once told that there is 
nothing whatever to be found there ; but this Iam slow to believe. Any one with 
a good pair of eyes and a taste for collecting might certainly do much good to 
science by passing a few months at Aden, and making excursions into that part of 
“ Arabia Felix.” In Herpetology, especially, new discoveries may be expected. 


Ila. THE LEMURIAN SUBREGION, 


ie aberrant portion of the Ethiopian Fauna I will speak of under two heads, 
namely :— 
1, Madagascar. 2. Mascarene Islands. 


* Big. Colobus kirki, Gray, P.Z.8. 1868, p. 180, pl. xy. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 97 


1. MADAGASCAR. 


To our knowledge of the extraordinary fauna of “ Lemuria,” as I have elsewhere 
proposed to call Madagascar and its islands*, great additions have been recently 
made; but it is manifest that Madagascar is by no means yet worked out}. Dr. 
Hartlaub’s ‘ Ornithologischer Beitrag zur Fauna Madagascar’s’ (38) was the first 
attempt at a résumé of the remarkable Avifauna of this part of the world. Since its 
issue two Dutch naturalists, Pollen and Van Dam, have visited Madagascar, and 
forwarded rich collections to the Leyden Museum. Of these the Mammals and 
Birds have been worked out by Professor Schlegel and Mr. Pollen, and the results 
published in a well-illustrated volume entitled ‘ Recherches sur la Faune de Mada- 

ar.’ This has been since followed by an accompanying account of the Fishes, 
and treatise on the Fisheries, by Messrs. Bleeker and Pollen (39). Following upon 
the footsteps of these naturalists, a French explorer, Alfred Grandidier, has since 
visited the interior of Madagascar, and in his turn has reaped a grand harvest, of 
which some of the results have already been given to the public (40). But we are 
romised to have these set before us in a much more extended and complete form, 
in a work now in progress, in which M. Grandidier has obtained the efficient assist- 
ance of M. Alphonse Milne-Edwards. There still remain to be spoken of the dis- 
coveries recently made by an English collector in Madagascar, Mr. A. Crossley. 
Mr. Crossley’s birds have been worked out by Mr. Sharpe in several papers pub- 
lished from time to time by the Zoological Society (41) ; while Dr. Giinther has 
described several new and remarkable Mammals from the same source (42). 


2, Tor MascarENE ISLANDS. 


The Fauna of Bourbon, Mauritius, and Rodriguez forms an appendage to that 
of Madagascar, and merits careful study. Our knowledge of these islands, since 
the recent investigation of Rodriguez by the naturalists of the Transit-of-Venus 
Expedition, is tolerably complete, but requires to be put together, as it consists 
of fragments dispersed over various journals and periodicals. I trust that Mr. 
Edward Newton, who has had so many opportunities of acquiring information on 
this subject during his Colonial Secretaryship at Mauritius, and has so well used 
these opportunities, may shortly have leisure to devote to this task. His labours 
to recover the skeleton of Pezophaps, in which, I am pleased to think, he was aided 
by a grant from this Association, are well known, as is likewise the excellent me- 
moir, by himself and Prof. Newton (48), in which the result of his labours was 
given to the world. Nor must I omit to mention Prof. Owen’s dissertations on 
the fellow extinct bird of Mauritius, recently published by the Zoological Society 
(44, 45). 

As eds the Recent Ornithology of these islands, we have nothing later to refer 
to than Hartlaub’s little work on Madagascar, noticed above (38), which includes 
what was then known of the Avifauna of the Mascarenes. 

The neighbouring group of the Seychelles was visited by Mr. Edward Newton in 
1867, and several new and most interesting species of birds obtained there. A com- 

lete account of the ornithology of these islands was given by Mr. Newton in ‘ The 
this ’ for 1867 (46). Since that period Dr. E. P. Wright, formerly an active member 
of this Association, has made a scientific excursion to the Seychelles, with the view, 
as was generally understood, of preparing a complete monograph of the fauna and 
flora of these interesting islands. It is much to be regretted that this very 
desirable purpose has not yet been accomplished. 


Ill, THE INDIAN REGION. 


Of the extensive and varied Indian Region I will now proceed to say some- 
thing, under the subjoined heads :— 


* Quart. Journ. of Science, 1864, p. 213. 
+ Witness the Mammal-forms Brachytarsomys and Mixocebus, lately described by Dr. 
Giinther and Dr. Peters, and the new genus of Birds, Neodrepanis, recently characterized 


by Mr. Sharpe. 


98 _ REPORT—1875, 


1. British India, 

2. Central and Southern China, 
8, Burmah, Siam, and Cochin, 

4, Malay Peninsula. 

4a, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, 
5, Hast-Indian Islands. 

6, Philippine Archipelago, 


1, Brrrisu Inpra, 


For British India Dr. Jerdon’s well-known series of zoological handbooks was in- 
tended to supply a long-standing want; and it is a great misfortune that his untimely 
death has interfered with their completion. The three volumes on the Birds were 
finished in 1864 (1), and the one on the Mammals (2) in 1867. Of the volume on 
the Reptiles and Batrachians a portion, I believe, was actually in type at the time of 
his decease ; but of the Fishes no part, so far as I know, was so much advanced. 
For the Reptiles, therefore, we must for the present refer to Dr. Giinther’s ‘ Reptiles 
of British India’ (3), published by the Ray Society in 1864; indeed, as regards 
India, any future account of these animals must, in any case, be founded upon the 
basis of that excellent and conscientious work. Mr. Theobald’s Catalogue of the 
Reptiles in the Museum of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (4) should be also con- 
sulted. For the Indian Fishes generally there is at present no one authority, 
though Dr. Day, author of the ‘ Fishes of Malabar’ (5) and of numerous other 
penne, is understood to have in preparation a general work on this subject, which 

is office of Inspector-General of Indian Fisheries has given him excellent oppor- 
tunities of studying. Complete lists of both the freshwater and marine species of 
India are given in the appendices to Dr. Day’s two ‘ Reports on the Fisheries of 
India and Burmah’ (6 & 7), published in India in 1873. 

But although our wants as regards the Indian Vertebrates will probably be sup- 
plied in this way, it would be much more satisfactory if the Indian Goyernment 
would select a successor to Dr. Jerdon, and place under his control the necessary 
means for the preparation of a series of zoological handbooks for India. There is 
no reason why Botany should he more favoured than Zoology in this matter; and I 
believe it is only the greater energy of the botanists that in this, as in other cases, 
has given them the start. New editions of Dr. Jerdon’s‘ Mammals’ and ‘ Birds’ aro 
both necessary to bring our knowledge up to date ; and the original editions are long 
since out of print. There can be no question as to the great impetus to the study 
of Natural History in India that has already followed on the publication of these 
handbooks; and it will be a great misfortune to science if our Indian rulers fail to 
continue the good work. They have only to select a competent editor for the series, 
and to place the necessary funds temporarily at his disposal. The sale of the works 
will in the end more than recoup all the necessary expenses. 

Amongst more recent contributions to our knowledge of Indian Ornithology, which, 
under the influence above referred to, have been especially numerous, I can now only 
stop to call attention to a few. Mr, Allan Hume, C.B., has been specially active, and 
has published numerous papers in his queerly-titled periodical ‘Stray Feathers’ 
(8), which is exclusively devoted to Indian Ornithology. Amongst them the arti- 
cles on the birds of Scinde (9) and those of Upper Pegu (10) are of special interest. 
Mr, Holdsworth’s most useful “Synopsis of the Birds of Ceylon,” lately published 
in the ‘Proceedings of the Zoological Society ’ (11), is also of great value, more 
especially as Ceylon was omitted from the scope of Dr. Jerdon’s work, Nor must 
T omit to mention Major Godwin-Austen’s series of papers (12) on the Ornithology 
of the newly-explored districts on the north-eastern frontier, which contain so 
much of noyelty and instruction. 

As regards the Testudinata of India, we may shortly expect a complete account 
of them from Dr. John Anderson, who has devoted much time and toil to their 
study, His magnificent series of drawings of these animals, from living specimens, 
Ihave had the pleasure of inspecting ; and I trust sincerely that some means may 
be found of reproducing them for publication, Such a work would vastly increase 
our knowledge of this very difficult group of animals, ee: 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 99 


2. CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN CHINA, 


In speaking of Northern China I have introduced the names of the two great 
modern zoological discoverers in China, Mr. Robert Swinhoe and M. le Pére David. 
Mr. Swinhoe’s article on the Mammals of China, recently published in the 
Zoological Society's Proceedings (18), gives a complete list of the species known to 
him to occur south of the Yangtsze. It includes those of the great island of For- 
mosa, which is essentially part of China, although it possesses some endemic 
species, and which was a complete ¢erra incognita to naturalists before Mr. Swin- 
hoe’s happy selection as the first British Vice-Consul in 1861. Mr, Swinhoe’s last 
revised Catalogue of the Birds of China, published in 1871, has been already referred 
to. He is now at home, unfortunately in ill health, but is by:no means idle on his 
bed of sickness, and has in contemplation, and, I may say, in actual preparation, a 
complete work on Chinese Ornithology, for which he has secured the cooperation of 
one of our most competent naturalists. 

The still more remarkable discoveries of Pére David have revealed to us the ex- 
istence on the western outskirts of China, or rather on the border-lands between 
China and Tibet, of a fauna hitherto quite unknown to us, and apparently a pen- 
dant of the Himalayan hill-fauna first investigated by Hodgson. In his recently 
completed ‘Recherches sur les Mammiféres,’ already referred to, M. Alphonse 
Milne-Edwards has giyen us a complete account of M. Dayid’s wonderful dis- 
coyeries among the Mammals of this district. M. Davyid’s Birds were worked out 
by the late Jules Verreaux, and the novelties described in the ‘Nouvelles Archives’ 
(14); but no complete account of them has yet been issued. In Herpetology, I 
believe, M. Dayid has also made some remarkable discoveries, amongst which, not 
the least, assuredly, is that of a second species of gigantic Salamander* in the 
mountain-streams of Moupin. 


8, BurMAug, Siam, AND CocHIn. 


I speak of these ancient kingdoms, which occupy the main part of the great pe- 
ninsula of South-eastern Asia, principally to express my surprise at how little we 
yet know of them. There are several good correspondents of the Jardin des Plantes in 
the French colony of Saigon, who have, I believe, transmitted a considerable number 
of specimens to the Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle; but beyond the descriptions of a 
certain number of novelties + we have as yet received no account of them. The 
two philosophic Kings of Siam appear not yet to have turned their attention to 
biological discovery, although there is certainly much to be done in the interior of 
that State, with which the late M. Mouhot, had his life been spared, would probably 
have made us better acquainted. As it happens we have only one published me- 
moir (15) upon the results which this unfortunate naturalist achieved. 

Lower Burmah now forms part of British India, and will be doubtless well 
explored. As regards Burmah proper and the Shan-states, our Indian legislators 
appointed a most efficient naturalist to accompany the Yunan Expedition of 1868 
(16), but, when he returned, refused or neglected to provide him‘with the facilities 
to work out and publish his results. I rejoice, however, to learn that this error has 
been to a certain extent remedied, and that Dr, Anderson has now in preparation 
a connected account of his Yunan discoveries, which is to be issued by the Linnean 
Society in their ‘Transactions.’ A separate publication of these results, however, 
would not have involved much additional expense, and would have been more 
worthy of the Government which’sent out the Expedition, 


4, Matay PENINSULA. 


_ The Malay peninsula belongs unquestionably to the same Subfauna as Sumatra. 
Its zoology is tolerably well known to us from numerous collections that haye 
reached this country, but a modern revision of all the classes of Vertebrates is much 
to be desired. About twenty years ago, Dr. Cantor, of the East-Indian Medical 
Service, published catalogues of the Mammals (17), Reptiles (18), and Fishes (19) 


* Sicboldia davidiana, Blanchard. : 
t E. g. Cercopithecus nigripes, Milne-Hdwards, and Polyplectron germaini, Elliot. 


100 REPORT—1875. 


of Malacca in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. To obtain a know- 
ledge of its birds we must refer to the papers of Eyton (20), Wallace (21), and 
various other ornithological writers. 


4a, ANDAMAN AND Nicopar ISLANDS. 


The two groups of islands in the Bay of Bengal have of late years attracted con- 
siderable attention from naturalists. Port Blair, in the Andaman Islands, haying 
become the seat of an Indian penal settlement, has received visits from several 
excellent Indian workers who have made extensive collections, especially in Orni- 
thology. The most recent authorities upon the birds of the Andaman Islands are 
Lord Walden (22), who has worked out the series forwarded to him by Lieut. 
Wardlaw Ramsay, and Mr. Vincent Ball, who has published in ‘ Stray Feathers’ a 
complete list of all the birds known to occur in the Andaman and Nicobar groups 
(23). 

5, East-Invran Isianps. 


Up to arecent period the standard authority on the fauna of the East-Indian Islands 
was the great Dutch work on the zoology of the foreign possessions of the Netherlands 
Government (24), based upon the vast collections formed by Macklot, Miller, and 
other naturalists, and transmitted to the Leyden Museum. This has been supple- 
mented of late years by several works and memoirs of Dr. Schlegel, the emiment 
Director of that establishment and in particular by his ‘Musée des Pays-Bas’ 
(25), which contains an account of that magnificent collection drawn up in a 
series of monographic catalogues. Up to this time, however, Dr. Schlegel has 
only treated of the class of birds, though at the present moment, I believe, he is 
engaged on a revision of Quadrumana. To the class of Fishes, and especially to the 
Fishes of the Islands and Seas in the East Indies, another Dutch naturalist, Dr. P. 
P. Bleeker, has for many years devoted great attention. His memoirs and papers 
on the Ichthyology and Herpetology of the various islands and settlements are far 
too numerous to mention. But his ‘ Atlas Ichthyologique,’ his principal work on the 
Fishes of the Indian Seas (26), is one of great importance, and claims a special 
notice as embracing the results of the life-work of one of the most energetic and 
laborious of living naturalists. 

The travels of our countryman, Mr. Wallace, in the Malay Archipelago are 
well known to the general public from his instructive and entertaining narrative 
(27), and to zoologists from the large collections which he made in every branch 
of natural history. It is a misfortune that no general account of the latter has ever 
been prepared. But special articles on the birds of the Sula group to the east of 
Celebes +08), on those of Bouru (29), and on those of the islands of Timor, Flores, 
and Lombock (30), will be found in the Zoological Society’s ‘ Proceedings,’ besides 
other ornithological papers of Mr. Wallace referring more or less to this district. 

Of the Island of Celebes we have acquired more intimate knowledge from the 
researches of Dr. A. B. Meyer, and from two excellent memoirs on its Ornithology, 
prepared by Lord Walden (81, 32). The adjacent territory of Borneo has likewise 
not escaped the attention of recent writers, an accomplished Italian author, Dr. 
Salvadori, having made it the subject of a special ornithological essay (83). For 
the animals of Java and Sumatra we have, unfortunately, no such recent authority, 
but must refer primarily in the one case to Horsfield’s Zoological Researches (84), 
and in the other to Sir Stamford Raflles’s Catalogue (35), supplementing in each case 
the deficiency by reference to various more recent books and memoirs. The fact is, 
that before we can attain precise notions as to the real zoological relations of these 
great islands, we require a much more complete research into their different faunas, 
and special monographic essays upon them. So there is certainly no lack of useful 
work remaining for the zoologist in this quarter. 


6. PHILIPPINE ARCHIPELAGO. 


In spite of the visits of Cuming, and more recently of Semper (36) and Jagor, 
there has been until very lately great want of a work for reference on the Vertebrates 
of the Philippine archipelago. This deficiency has been partly supplied by the 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 101 


excellent essay published by Lord Walden in the ‘Transactions’ of the Zoological 
Society, upon the Birds of the Philippines (37). Although based upon the collec- 
tions of Dr. A. B. Meyer, this memoir contains a résumé of all that is yet known 
upon the subject. It likewise points out the deficiencies in our present information, 
which, I need hardly add, are many and numerous. 
That our knowledge of the Mammal-fauna of the Philippines is also by no means 
erfect, will be sufficiently manifest when I recall to my Mies the fact that there 
is now breeding in the Zoological Society’s Gardens a very distinct species of Deer *, 
quite unknown to all our Museums, which is undoubtedly endemic in one of the 
Philippine Islands. There is much want of more information on this subject, as 
also on the Reptiles and Fishes, although Dr. Peters has lately made us acquainted 
with many novelties from Jagor’s researches in these branches (388-40). 


IV. THE NEARCTIC REGION. 


This part of my subject will be most conveniently treated of under two heads— 


1. North America down to Mexico, 
2. Greenland,— 


leaving Mexico to be spoken of as a whole under the Neotropical Region, although 
part of it undoubtedly belongs to the Nearctic. 


1. NortH AMERICA. 


a. Mammals.—The latest revision of the Mammals of North America is still that 
of Prof. Baird, contained in the Reports on the Zoology of the Pacific-Railway 
routes, published by the War Department of the U.S. in 1857 (1). I understand, 
however, that Dr. Elliott Coues is now engaged on a more perfect work, which will 
embrace the results of the large additions since made to our knowledge of this subject. 
The marine Mammals are not included in Prof. Baird’s revision; and under this 
head I may notice two important works recently issued :—Dr. Allen’s memoir on 
the Eared Seals (2), which specially treats of the North-Pacific species; and Capt. 
Scammon’s volume on the marine Mammals of the North-western coasts of North 
America (3), which contains a mass of information relative to the little-known 
Cetaceans of the North Pacific. On the Bats of North America Dr. Allen has pub- 
lished a special essay in the ‘Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections’ for 1864 (4). 

Prior to the issue of these works Audubon and Bachman’s ‘Quadrupeds of North 
America’ (5), published at New York in 1852, was the best book of reference. 

b. Birds of North America—The American Ornithologists have been specially 
active of late years. Up to about 20 years ago, the recognized authorities upon 
the Birds of the United States were Wilson (6), Audubon (7), Bonaparte (8), 
and Nuttall (9). In 1856 Cassin’s ‘ Illustrations’ (10), chiefly devoted to the species 
then recently discovered in Texas, California, and Oregon, appeared. In 1858 the 
joint work of Messrs. Baird, Cassin, and Lawrence, on the Birds of North America 
(11), forming part of the ‘ Pacific-Railway Routes,’ was issued. This was repub- 
lished with additions as a separate work in 1860 (12) in two volumes, and still 
forms an excellent book of reference on American Birds. The List of autho- 
rities given at the end of the letterpress will be found extremely useful for those 
who require a guide to the literature of American Ornithology. But even this bids 
fair to be superseded by the more recent publications of our energetic fellow natu- 
ralists. In the first place, three volumes of a ‘ History of North-American Birds,’ 
illustrated by plates and numerous woodcuts, by Messrs. Baird, Brewer, and Ridg- 
way (13), were issued last year ; and two more volumes to complete the work will 

_soon be ready. Then for those who require a handy book for reference nothing can 
be more convenient than Dr. Coues’s ‘ Key’ (14), in one volume, published in 
1872. The same energetic naturalist has also lately issued a Handbook of the 
Ornithology of the North-west (15), containing an account of the birds met with 
in the region drained by the Missouri and its tributaries, amongst which he has had 
such long personal experience. Nor must [ conclude the list without mentioning 


* Cervus alfredi, Sclater, P. ZS. 1870, p. 381, pl. xxviii. 


102 rePoRT—1875. 


Mr. D. G. Elliot’s ‘ Birds of North América’ (16), which contains life-sized illus 
trations of many rare and previously unfigured species, and Cooper's ‘ Birds of Cali- 
fornia’ (17), devoted to an account of the birds of the Pacific coast-region, which 
has been edited by Prof. Baird from the late Mr. Cooper’s MSS. Of the last-named 
work, however, only the first volume is yet published. It will be thus seen that 
we have ample means of acquiring the most recent information on the birds of the 
Nearctic Region ; and in fact inno part of the world, except Europe itself, is our 
knowledge of the endemic Avifauna so nearly approaching towards completion. 

ce. Reptiles and Batrachians of North America.—Holbrook’s ‘North American Rep- 
tiles,’ in five quarto volumes, published at Philadelphia in 1842-4 (18), contains 
coloured figures of all the North-American Reptiles and Batrachians known to the 
author, andisa trustworthy work. A large amount of information has been acquired 
since that period, and published in the various “ Railroad Reports” and periodicals by 
Hallowell, Baird, Cope, and others. In 1855 Messrs. Baird and Girard published a 
catalogue of North-American Serpents (19); and Prof. Agassiz devoted the 
first volume of his ‘Contributions’ (20) mainly to the Testudinata of North 
America. Prof. Baird tells me that Prof. Cope is now engaged in printing a 
new catalogue of the Reptiles and Batrachians of North America, which will 
contain an enumeration of all the species and an account of their geographical 
distribution. + 2 a : 

d. Fishes of North America.—On the Fishes of North America there is up to the 
present time no one authority, and the inquirer must refer to the various works of 
Cope (21), Agassiz (22), and Girard (23) for information. This, aided by the 
copious references in Dr. Giinther’s well-known Catalogue (24), hewill have little dif- 
ficulty in obtaining, so far as itis available. But the “ History of American Fishes” 
is still to be written; and I have no doubt that our energetic brethren of the United 
States will before long bring it to pass. 


2. GREENLAND. 


Of Greenland, which is undoubtedly part of the Nearctic Region, I have made a 
separate section, in order to call special attention to the ‘Manual’ for the use of 
the Arctic Expedition of 1875, prepared under the direction of the Arctic Committee 
of the Royal Society (25). A résumé of all that is yet known of the biology of 
icsin ont is included in this volume. I may call special attention to the article 
on the Birds by Prof. Newton, and on the Fishes by Dr. Liitken, both prepared 
specially for this work. Iam sure you will all join with mein thanking the present 
Government for sending out this new Expedition so fully prepared in every way, 
and in hoping that large additions may be made to the store of information already 
accumulated in the ‘ Manual.’ 


V. THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 


The Neotropical Region is, I suppose, on the whole the richest in animal life of 
any of the principal divisions of the earth’s surface*. Much work has been done in 
it as regards every branch of zoology of late years; and I must confine myself to 
noticing the most recent and most important of the contributions to this branclr of 
knowledge. 

I believe the following to be altogether the most natural subdivisions of this Region, 
which are nearly as they are set forth in Hr. v. Pelzeln’s ‘Ornithology of Brazil.’ 


1. The Central-American Subregion, from Southern Mexico to Panama. 

2. The Andean or Columbian Subregion, from Trinidad and Venezuela, along the 
chain of the Andes, through Columbia, Ecuador, and Peru, down to Bolivia. 
5. The Amazonian Subregion, embracing the whole watershed of the Orinoco 

and Amazons up to the hills, and including also the highlands of Guiana. 


* A general sketch of the Mammal-life of this Region is given in my article on the 
Mammals of South America, in the ‘Quarterly Journal of Science’ for 1865 (1). A 
systematic list of all the species of birds of the Neotropical Region is given in Sclater 
and Salvin’s ‘Nomenclator Avium Neotropicalium,’ London, 1873 (2). 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 103 


4. The South-Brazilian Subregion, containing the wood-region of S.E. Brazil and 
Paraguay and adjoining districts. 

5. The Patagonian Subregion, containing Chili, La Plata, Patagonia, and the 

Falklands. 


Besides these we have :— 


~ 6. The Galapagos, which, whether or not they can be assigned to any other Sub- 
region, must be spoken of separately. 


1, Tor Cenrrat AMERICAN SUBREGION 


was, up to twerity years ago, very little known, but has recently been explored in 
nearly every part, and is perhaps now more nearly worked out than any other of 
the above-mentioned Subregions. There is, however, as yet no complete work on 
the zoology of any portion of it; and the discoveries of Sallé, Boucard, de Saussure, 
and Sumichrast in Mexico, of Salvin in Guatemala, of vy. Frantzius and Hoffman in 
Costa Rica, of Bridges and Arcé in Veragua, and of M‘Leannan in Panama, together 
with those of numerous other collectors, are spread abroad among the scientific 
periodicals of Europe and America. Even of Mexican zoology, long as it has been 
more or less known, we have no general account. To mention all these memoirs 
in detail * would be impossible within the limits of this address; but I will say a 
few words about the more important of them that have lately appeared. . 

The French are now publishing a work on the results of their scientific expedition 
to Mexico during the short-lived Empire. Three parts on the Reptiles, by Duméril 
and Bocourt, were issued in 1870; and a part on the fishes, hy Vaillant and Bocourt, 
has recently appeared (35). 

A paper on the Mammals of Costa Rica has lately been published by v. Frantzius 
in Wiegmann’s Archiv (36). Unfortunately, it seems to have been drawn up mainly 
from notes, without reference to the specimens in the Berlin Museum, but neverthe- 
less contains much that is useful and of interest. 

Dr. Giinther’s admirable memoir of the Fishes of Central America, published in 
the Zoological Society’s Transactions in 1869 (37), is based upon the collections 
made by Capt. Dow in various parts of the coast, and by Messrs. Salvin and God- 
man in the freshwater lakes of the highlands of Guatemala and in other localities, 
Its value in relation to our general knowledge of the fishes of this portion of 
America, heretofore so imperfectly known, can hardly be overestimated. 

As regards the Birds of Central America, it is much to be regretted that we have 
at aresent no one authority to refer to. The collection of Messrs. Salvin and Godman 
embraces very large series from different parts of this region, and together with those 
of my collection, wherein are the types of the species described in my own papers, 
would afford abundant materials for such a task. Mr. Salvin and I have often 
formed plans on this subject; and I trust we may before long see the results of them. 
A similar memoir on the Mammals of Central America is likewise of pressing 
necessity for the better understanding of the Neotropical Mammal-fauna. There 
are considerable materials available for this purpose in the collections sent by Salvin 
and Arcé to the British Museum ; and I hope that some naturalist may shortly be 
induced to undertake this task. 3 


- * Some of the more important are M. de Saussure’s papers on the Mammals of 
Mexico in the ‘Reyue Zoologique’ for 1860 (3), sixteen papers by myself on the birds of 
Mexico, published in the Zoological Society's ‘ Proccedings’ (4-19), two by myself and. 
Mr. Salvin on the same subject (20, 21), Dr. O. Finsch’s article on some birds from North- 
western Mexico, published at Bremen in 1871 (22), Prof. Sumichrast’s notes on the birds 
of Vera Cruz, published at Boston in 1869 (23), and Mr. Lawrence’s memoir on the birds 
of North-western Mexico in the second volume of the Boston Society’s memoirs (24). As 
regards Guatemala, consult ‘The Ibis’ for 1859 and 1860, “ Sclater and Salvin” (25, 26), 
and 1865 and 1866, “Salvin’’ (27, 28); for Honduras see G. C. Taylor in ‘ Ibis’ 1860 (29); 
for Costa Rica consult Cabanis, Journ. f. Orn. 1860 (30), Mr. Lawrence’s catalogue of 
Costa-Rican birds (31), and Mr. Salvin’s remarks on it in ‘ Ibis, 1869 (82). For Chiriqui 
refer to Mr. Salvin’s memoirs (33) in P. Z. 8. For Panama see Mr. Lawrence's Catalogue 
(Ann. L. N. York), and Messrs Sclater and Salvin’s paper in P. Z. 8. 1864 (34) 


104 REPORT—1875. 


2, Tor ANDEAN OR COLUMBIAN SUBREGION. 


Of this extensive subregion, which traverses six or seven different States, there is 
likewise no one zoological account ; but Imay mention some of the principal works 
lately issued that bear upon the subject. Léotaud’s ‘ Birds of Trinidad’ (88) give 
us an account of the ornithology of that island, which forms a kind of appendage 
to this subregion; and Dr. Finsch has more recently published (89) a supplemen- 
tary notice on the same subject. Of Venezuela, Columbia, and Ecuador there are 
only scattered memoirs in various periodicals on the numerous collections that 
have of late years been made in those countries to be referred to. Several 
excellent collectors are now, or lately have been, resident in these republics—Herr 
Goring and Mr. Spence in Venezuela*, Mr. Salmon in Antioquia, Professor 
Jameson and Mr. Fraser in Ecuador t—whose labours have vastly added to our 
knowledge of the zoology of these districts. When we come to Peru, we have 
Tschudi’s ‘ Fauna Peruana’ (55) to refer to, which, though unsatisfactory in exe- 
cution, contains much of value{. How far from being exhausted is the rich fauna 
of the Peruvian Andes, is sufficiently manifest from the wonderful discoveries 
lately made by Jelski in the district east of Lima, which was in fact that princi- 
pally investigated by Tschudi. Ofthese, M. ‘l'aczanowski has lately given an account, 
as regards the birds, in the Zoological Society’s ‘Proceedings’ (60) ; and Dr. Peters 
has published several notices of the more remarkable Mammals and Reptiles(61-62). 

Further south, in Bolivia, our leading authority is still the zoological portion of 
D’Orbigny’s ‘ Voyage dans l’Amérigue Méridionale’ (63). This rich and most in- 
teresting district has,.it is true, been visited by several collectors since D’Orbigny’s 
time; but the results of their journeys have never been published in a connected 
form; though many of their novelties have been described. Bolivia, I do not 
doubt, still contains many new and extraordinary creatures hid in the recesses of its 
mountain-valleys ; and there is no part of South America which I should sooner 
suggest as a promising locality for the zoological collector, 


3. Tur AMAZONIAN SUBREGION. 


On Guiana, where the Amazonian fauna seems to have had its origin, we have a 
standard work in Schomburgk’s ‘ Reisen,’ the third volume of which, containing the 
Fauna, was drawn up by the Naturalists of the Berlin Museum (64). For the 
valley of the Amazons itself, the volumes of Spix and Martius (65), though 
not very accurate, and rather out of date, must still be referred to—as likewise 
the Zoology of Castelnau’s ‘ Expédition dans l’Amérique du Sud’ (66), for the 
natural history of the Peruvian confluents. As regards the Birds, however, we 
have several more recent authorities. In 1873 Mr. Salvin and I published in the 
Zoological Society’s ‘ Proceedings’ a résumé of the papers treating of Mr. E. Bartlett’s 
and Mr. John Hauxwell’s rich ornithological collections on the Huallaga, Ucayali, 
and other localities in Eastern Peru (67-74). In 1867 we communicated to the same 
Society an account of Mr. Wallace’s collection of birds made near Para (75), 
and took occasion to deduce therefrom some general ideas as to the relations of the 
Avifauna of the Lower Amazons. 

As regards the valleys of the two great confluents of the Amazons, the Rio Ma- 
deira on the right bank, and the Rio Negro on the left bank of the mighty river, our 
knowledge of these Avifaunas is mainly due to the researches of Johann Natterer— 
one of the most successful and energetic zoological collectors that ever lived—of 
whose discoveries in ornithology a complete account has lately been published 
by Hr. A. v. Pelzeln, of Vienna (76). It is much to be wished that a similar 
résumé of Natterer’s discoveries and collections of Mammals, in which Class his 
investigations were of hardly less importance, could be given to the world; and I 
trust Herr y. Pelzeln will forgive me if I press this subject on his attention. 

The Fishes of the Amazons and its confluents are many and various, and fully 
deserve a special monograph. The late Professor Agassiz made his well-known 


* See on these collections seven papers by Sclater and Salvin in P. Z. S.-(40-46). 
tT See eight papers by Sclater in P. Z.S. 1858-60 (47-54). 
} See also Sclater’s papers on Prof, Nation’s collections (56-59). 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 105 


expedition up the Amazons in 1865, with the particular object of studying its fishes, 
and amassed enormous collections of specimens for this purpose*. Whether (as 
other naturalists have hinted) Professor Agassiz’s estimate of the number of new 
and undescribed species contained in his collections was exaggerated or not is 
at present uncertain, as the specimens unfortunately lie unstudied in the Museum 
of Comparative Zoology at Cambridge, Mass. It is a thousand pities this state of 
things should continue; and I venture to suggest to the great Professor’s numerous 
friends and admirers in the United States that no more appropriate tribute to his 
memory could be raised than the publication of a Monograph of Amazonian Fishes 
based on these collectionst. 


4, Tor SoutTH-BRAZILIAN SUBREGION. 


This subregion, which embraces the wood-region of S.E. Brazil and adjoining 
districts, and contains in nearly every branch of zoology a set of species and genera 
allied to but separable from those of the Amazonian Subregion, has been much fre- 
quented by European naturalists. Its productions are consequently tolerably well 
known, though there is even here still very much to be done. Burmeister’s 
‘Systematische Uebersicht’ (77) and ‘ Erliuterungen’ (78) may be referred to for 
information onits Mammals and Birds—likewise Prince Maximilian of Neu-Wied’s 
‘ Beitrige’ (79), which, although of old standing in point of date, is still of great 
value. The late Dr. Otto Wucherer, a German physician resident at Bahia, paid 
much attention to the Reptiles of that district, and has written an account of its 
Ophidians, which will be found in the Zoological Society's ‘Proceedings ’ (80). 

Hr. Hensel has also recently published in Wiegmann’s ‘Archiv’ valuable memoirs 
on Mammals and other Vertebrates collected in South Brazil (81, 82), which 
should be referred to. Prof. Reinhardt has lately completed an excellent account 
of the Avifauna of the Campos of Brazil, based on his own collections and those 
of Dr. D. W. Lund (83); and Hr. v. Berlepsch has treated of the Birds of Santa 
Catharina (84). These are all most useful contributions to our knowledge of 
this Subregion. But it is melancholy to think that although a (soi-disant) highly 
civilized European race has occupied the Brazilian Empire so long, and has 
introduced railways, steamboats, and many other of the appliances of modern 
Europe, there has never, so far as I Imow, been produced amongst them any one 
single memoir worthy of mention on the teeming variety of animal life that 
everywhere surrounds their dwellings. 

For information on the animals of Paraguay we must still refer to the writings 
of Don Felix de Azara (85), and to Dr. Hartlaub’s reduction of his Spanish terms to 
scientific nomenclature (86). As regards the Mammals, there is also the more recent 
work of Rengger (87). But modern information about this part of the South- 
Brazilian Subregion would be very desirable. 


5, Tue PATAGONIAN SUBREGION, 


For the zoology of the Argentine Republic, which forms the northern portion of 
this subregion, the best work of reference is the second volume of Dr. Burmeister’s 
‘La Plata-Reise’ (88), which contains a complete synopsis of the Vertebrates. 
Dr. Burmeister, who is now resident at Buenos Ayres as Director of the Public 
Museum of that city, has lately devoted himself to the study of the extinct Mammal- 
fauna, and specially to that of the Glyptodont Armadillos, of which he has lately 
completed a splendidly illustrated Monograph (89). He has likewise been the 
chief adviser of the Government in their plans for recognizing the University of 
Cordova, which will ultimately no doubt do much for the cause of Natural science 
in the Argentine Republic. Mr. W. H. Hudson, of Buenos Ayres, has long studied 
the birds and other animals of that country, and deserves honourable mention in a 
country where so few of the native-born citizens pursue science. His bird-collections 


* See ‘Travels in Brazil,’ by Prof. and Mrs. Louis Agassiz: Boston, 1868. 

+ Mr. Alexander Agassiz informs me that these collections are not so entirely unworked 
as I had supposed when this address was read. Dr. Steindachner has been through them ; 
and Mr. Putnam has announced a “Catalogue of the Agassiz Collection of Fishes” as 
preparing for publication, 

1875. 9 


106 REPORT—1875. 


have been worked out by Mr, Salvin and myself (90-92) ; and Mr. Hudson has like- 
wise published a series of interesting notices on the habits of the species (93-100). 

The ‘Zoology of the Voyage of the Beagle’ (101) contains much information 
concerning the animals of La Plata, Patagonia, and Chili. The ‘“ Mammals” by 
Waterhouse, the “ Birds” by Gould and G. R. Gray, the “ Fishes” by Jenyns, and 
the “ Reptiles” by Bell, illustrated with notes and observations of Mr. Darwin, will 
ever remain among the leading authorities on the animals of this part of America. 
On the Rio Negro of Patagonia, where Mr. Darwin made considerable collections, 
we have a more recent authority in Mr. W. H. Hudson, whose series of birds from 
this district was examined by myself in 1872 (102). new 

Dr. R. O, Cunningham has recently followed on the footsteps of Mr. Darwin in 
Patagonia, and, besides his journal of travels, has published notes on the animals 
met with, in the Linnean Society’s ‘ Transactions’ (103), Mr. Salvin and I have 
given an account of his ornithological collections in several papers in ‘The Ibis’ 

104), 

; Ke regards the Falkland Islands, two excellent collectors and observers—Capt. 
Packe and Capt. Abbott—have of late years been stationed there, and have pro- 
vided the means of our becoming well acquainted with the native birds. Their 
collections have been examined by Mr. Gould and myself (105, 106); and Capt. 
Abbott has furnished many valuable notes on their contents (107). 

Lastly, as regards Chili, we have Gay’s somewhat pretentious ‘ Fauna Chilena,’ 
forming the zoological portion of his ‘Historia Fisica y Politica de Chile.’ The 
volume on the Mammals and Birds was compiled at Paris by Desmurs, and that on 
the Reptiles and Fishes by Guichenot; but they are not a trustworthy. The 
German naturalists of the National Museum of Santiago, Philippi and Landbeck, 
have of late years published in Wiegmann’s ‘ Archiv’ many memoirs on the zoology 
of the Chilian Republic, of which I have given a list in a paper on the Birds of Chili 
in the Zoological Society’s ‘Proceedings’ for 1867 (108). More recently Messrs. 
Philippi and Landbeck have published a catalogue of Chilian birds in the ‘ Anales 
de la Universidad de Chile’ (109). But My. E. C. Reed, C.M.Z.S., who is likewise 
attached to the museum of Santiago, writes me word that he is now engaged in 
preparing for publication a complete revision of the Vertebrates of the Republic, 
which will no doubt give us still better information on this subject. 


6. GALAPAGOS. 


Until recently our knowledge of the very singular fauna of the Galapagos was 
mainly based upon Mr. Darwin’s researches, as published in the ‘ Zoology of the 
Beagle,’ above referred to. Recently, however, Mr. Salvin and I have described some 
new species of birds from these islands from Dr. Habel’s collection (110) ; and Prof. 
Sundeyall has published an account of the birds collected there during the yoyage 
of the Swedish frigate ‘Eugenie’ in 1852 (111). Mr. Salvin has likewise pre- 
pared and read before the Zoological Society a complete Memoir on the Orni- 
thology of the Galapagoan Archipelago, which will shortly be printed in the 
Society’s ‘Transactions.’ Much interest has also been recently manifested con- 
cerning the gigantic Tortoises of the Galapagos, which Dr. Giinther has reason to 
believe belong to several species, each restricted to a separate island*, Indeed I 
am much pleased to hear that the Lords of the Admiralty, incited by Dr. Giinther’s 
requests, have despatched H.M.S. ‘ Tenedos’ of the Pacific squadron from Panama 
to the Galapagos, for the express purpose of capturing and bringing to England 
specimens of the Tortoises of each of the islands. We may therefore hope to be 
shortly more accurately informed upon this most interesting subject. 


Va. THE ANTILLEAN SUBREGION, 


The study of the fauna of the West-India Islands presents problems to us of the 
preatest interest.:—first, on account of the relics of an ancient and primitive fauna 
which are found there, as indicated by the presence of such types as Solenodon, 
Dulus, and Starnenas ; and, secondly, from the many instances of representative 


* See ‘ Nature,’ vol. xii. p. 238 (1875). 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 107 


species replacing each other in the different islands. Much, it is true, has been 
done towards the working-out of Antillean faunas of late years; but much more 
remains to be done; and indeed it is scandalous that there should be many islands 
under the British rule of the Zoology of which we are altogether unacquainted. 
The greater activity of our Botanical fellow-labourers has supplied us with a handy 
volume of the Botany of these islands*; and it is by no means creditable to the. 
Zoologists to remain so far behind in this as in other cases already alluded to. 
Within the compass of the present address it would not be possible for me to 
enumerate all our authorities upon Antillean zoology; but I will mention some of 
the principal works of reference under the following heads :— 


1. The Bahamas. 4, Haiti. 
2. Cuba. 5, Porto Rico. 
3. Jamaica, 6. The Lesser Antilles. 


1. The Bahamas. 


The late Dr. Bryant has published, in the ‘Boston Journal of Natural History,’ 
several articles upon the Birds of the Bahamas, where he passed more than one. 
winter (112), These islands, however, merit much more minute investigation 
than has as yet been bestowed upon them. 


2. Cuba. 


Ramon de la Sagra’s ‘ Historia Fisica y Politica de Cuba’ (113), and Lembeye’s 
* Aves de la Isla de Cuba’ (114), were up to a recent period our chief authorities 
upon Cuban zoology. But Cuba has long had the advantage of the residence 
within it of an excellent naturalist, Don Juan Gundlach, whe has laboured hard 
towards the more complete investigation of its remarkable zoology. We are indebted 
to him for collecting the specimens upon which Dr. Cabanis based his revision of 
Cuban Ornithology, published in the ‘Journal fiir Ornithologie’ (115), as also for 
a tabular list of Cuban Birds, published in the same journal for 1861 (116), and for 
several supplements thereto—for the more recent reviews of the Mammals and 
Birds of the island, published in the first volume of Poey’s ‘ Repertorio’—and for 
many other contributions to the natural history of Cuba. This last-named work 
(117), as also the previous ‘ Memorias sobre la historia natural de la Isla de Cuba’ of 
the same author (118), contain a number of valuable contributions to our knowledge 
of the rich fauna of this island, and should be carefully studied by those who are 
anxious to become acquainted with the peculiarities of the Cuban fauna. 


8, Jamaica. 


Mr. Gosse’s meritorious work on the Birds of Jamaica (119), and his ‘Naturalist’s 
Sojourn’ (120), are still the main source of our information on the fine island of 
Jamaica, and very little has been done since his time. A young English naturalist, 
Mr. W. Osburn, made some good collections in Jamaica in 1860, of which the 
Mammals were worked out by Mr. Tomes (121), and the Birds by myself (122). Mr. 
W. T. March has also more recently sent good series of the birds of the island to 
America; and Prof. Baird has edited his excellent notes on them (123), I must not 
lose the opportunity of calling special attention to the Seals of the Antilles 
(Monachus tropicalis and.Cystophora antillarum of Gray), of which, so far as I 
know, the only specimens existing are the imperfect remains in the British Museum 
brought home by Mr. Gosse. More knowledge about these animals (if there be 
really more than one of them) would be very desirable. 


4, Haiti. 

Of this large island very little more is known as regards its zoology than was the 
case in the days of Buffon and Vieillot. Of its Birds alone we have a recent account 
in a paper which I prepared in 1857, upon M. Sallé’s collection (124), and in a 
more recent memoir drawn up by the late Dr. Bryant, and published in the ‘ Pro- 
ceedings’ of the Boston Society of Natural History (125). 


* Griesbach’s ‘ Flora of the West Indies.’ at 


108 REPORT—1875. 


5. Porto Rico. 


Nearly the same story holds good of this Spanish island, of which our only 
recent news relates to the Birds, and consists of two papers—one by Mr. E. C. 
Taylor in ‘The Ibis, for 1864 (126), and the other by the late Dr. Bryant, in the 
journal above mentioned (127). 


6. The Lesser Antilles. 


As I remarked above, every one of the numerous islands, from Porto Rico 
down to Trinidad, requires thorough examination. It is indeed strange that no one 
has yet been found to undertake this interesting task, which might easily be per- 
formed by excursions during the winter months of a few succeeding years. 

As regards the Ornithology of these islands, the subjoined summary of what we 
really know and do not know is mainly taken from a paper on the Birds of Santa 
Lucia, which I read before the Zoological Society of London in 1871. 

1. The Virgin Islands.—Of these islands we may, | think, assume that we have 
a fair acquaintance with the birds of St. Thomas, the most frequently visited of the 
group, and the halting-place of the West-Indian Mail-steamers. Mr. Riise, who 
was long resident here, collected and forwarded to Europe many specimens, 
some of which were described by myself *, and others are spoken of by Prof. 
Newton in a letter published in ‘The Ibis’ for 1860, p. 307. Mr. Riise’s 
series of skins is now, I believe, at Copenhagen. Frequent allusions to the birds 
of St. Thomas are also made by Messrs. Newton in their memoir of the birds of 
St. Croix, mentioned below. In the ‘Proceedings of the Academy of Natural 
Sciences of Philadelphia’ for 1860 (128), Mr. Cassin has given an account of a 
collection of birds made in St. Thomas by Mr. Robert Swift, and presented to the 
Academy ; twenty-seven species are enumerated. 

Quite at the extreme east of the Virgin Islands, and lying between them and the 
St.-Bartholomew group, is the little islet of Sombrero, ‘a naked rock about seven 
eighths of a mile long, twenty to forty feet above the level of the sea, and from a 
few rods to about one third of a mile in width.” Although “there is no vegeta~ 
tion whatever in the island over two feet high,” and it would seem a most unlikely 
place for birds, Mr. A. A. Julien, a correspondent of Mr. Lawrence of New York, 
succeeded in collecting on it specimens of no less than thirty-five species, the 
names of which, together with Mr. Julien’s notes thereupon, are recorded by Mr. 
Lawrence in the eighth volume of the ‘Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History 
of New York’ (129). 

The remaining islands of the Virgin group are, I believe, most strictly entitled 
to their name so far as Ornithology is concerned ; for no collector on record has ever 
polluted their virgin soil. Prof. Newton (Ibis, 1860, p. 307) just alludes to some 
birds from St, John in the possession of Mr. Riise. 

2. St. Croix.—On the birds of this island we have an excellent article by Messrs. 
A, and E. Newton, published in the first volume of ‘ The Ihis’} (130). This memoir, 
being founded on the collections and personal observations of the distinguished 
authors themselves, and haying been worked up after a careful examination of 
their specimens in England, and with minute attention to preceding authorities, 
forms by far the most complete account we possess of the ornithology of any one 
of the Lesser Antilles. It, however, of course requires to be supplemented by 
additional observations, many points haying been necessarily left undetermined ; 
and it is much to be regretted that no one seems to have since paid the slightest 
attention to the subject. 

3. Anguilla, St. Martin, and St. Bartholomew.—Of this group of islands St. 
Bartholomew alone has, as far as I know, been explored ornithologically, and that 
within a very recent period. In the Royal Swedish Academy’s ‘Proceedings’ for 
1869 will be found an excellent article (131), by the veteran ornithologist Prof. 
Sundeyall, on the birds of this island, founded on a collection made by Dr, A. yon 
Goes. The species enumerated are forty-seven in number. 


* Ann. N. H. ser. 3, vol. iv. p. 225; and P. Z, §, 1860, p. 314. 
+ This, 1859, pp. 59, 138, 252, and 365, 


YRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 109 


4, Barbuda.—Of this British island I believe I am correct in saying that nothing 
whatever is known of its ornithology, or of any other branch of its natural history. 

5. St. Christopher and Nevis, to which may be added the adjacent smaller islands 
St. Eustathius and Saba.—Of these islands also our ornithological knowledge is of the 
most fragmentary description. Mr. T. J. Cottle was, I believe, formerly resident 
in Nevis, and sent a few birds thence to the British Museum in 1889, Amongst 
these were the specimens of the Humming-birds of that island, which are men~- 
tioned by Mr. Gould in his well-known work. Of the remainder of this group of 
islands we know absolutely nothing. 

6. Antigua.—Of this fine British island, I regret to say, nothing whatever is 
lmown as regards its ornithology. Amongst the many thousands of American 
birds that have come under my notice during the past twenty years, I have never 
seen a single skin from Antigua, 

7. Montserrat.—Exactly the same as the foregoing is the case with the British 
island of Montserrat. 

8. Guadeloupe, Deseadea, and Marie-galante——An excellent French naturalist, 
Dr. ’Herminier, was for many years resident as physician in the island of Guade- 
loupe. Unfortunately, Dr. !Herminier never carried into execution the plan which 
I believe he contemplated, of publishing an account of the birds of that island. 
He sent, however, a certain number of specimens to Paris and to the late Baron de 
Lafresnaye, to whom we are indebted for the only article ever published on the 
birds of Guadeloupe (132), or of the adjacent islands. 

9. Dominica.—Dominica is one of the few of the Caribbean islands that has had 
the advantage of a visit from an active English ornithologist. Although Mr. F.C. 
Taylor only passed a fortnight in this island in 1863, and had many other matters 
to attend to, he nevertheless contrived to preserve specimens of many birds of very 
eel interest, of which-he has given us an account in one of his articles on the 

irds of the West Indies, published in ‘The Ibis’ for 1864 (126). It cannot be 
aeered, however, that the birds of this wild and beautiful island can have been 
exhausted in so short a space of time, even by the energetic efforts of our well- 
Jnown fellow-labourer. 

10. Martinique.—This island is one of the few belonging to the Lesser Antilles 
in which birdskins are occasionally collected by the residents, and find their way 
into the hands of the Parisian dealers. There are also a certain number of speci- 
mens from Martinique in the Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle in the Jardin des Plantes, 
which I have had an opportunity of examining; but, beyond the vague notices 
given by Vieillot in his ‘Oiseaux de l’Amérique Septentrionale, I am not aware 
of any publication relating specially to the ornithology of this island. Mr. E. C. 
Taylor passed a fortnight in Martinique in 1863, and has recorded his notes 
upon the species of birds which he met with in the article which I have 
mentioned above; but these were only few in number. The International 
Exhibition in 1862 contained, in the department devoted to the products of the 
French colonies, a small series of the birds of Martinique, exhibited by M. 
Bélanger, Director of the Botanical Garden of St. Pierre in that island* (133). 
This is all the published information I have been able to find concerning the 
birds of Martinique t. 

11. St. Lucia.—Of this island I gave an account of what is known of the birds 
in a paper published in the Zoological Society’s ‘ Proceedings ’ for 1871, based upon 
a Rilicction kindly forwarded to me by the Rey. J. E. Semper (134). Mr. Semper 
subsequently communicated some interesting notes on the habits of the species 

135). 
; ay St. Vincent—St. Vincent was formerly the residence of an energetic and 
most observant naturalist, the Rev. Lansdown Guilding, F.L.S., well-known to 
the first founders of the Zoological Society of London, who, however, unfortunately 
died at an early age in this island without having carried out his plans for a ‘ Fauna 
of the West Indies.’ Mr. Guilding paid most attention to the invertebrate animals ; 


* See article on Ornithology in the International Exhibition, ‘This, 1862, p. 288. 
+ On animals formerly living in Martinique but now extinct, see Guyon, ‘Compt. Rend.’ 


Isiii. p. 589 (1866), 


110 REPORT—1875. 


but his collections contained a certain number of birds, amongst which was a new 
Parrot, described after his decease by Mr. Vigors as Psittacus guildingii, which is 
a native of St. Vincent. 

18. Grenada and the Grenadines—Of the special ornithology of this group 
nothing is known. 
. 14. Barbadoes.—The sole authority * upon the birds of Barbadoes is Sir R. Schom- 
burgk’s well-known work on that island (186). This contains (p. 681) a list of 
the birds met with, accompanied by some few remarks. It does not, however, 
appear that birds attracted much of the author’s attention ; and more copious notes 
would be highly desirable. 

15. Tobago, I believe, belongs zoologically to Trinidad. Sir W. Jardine has 
given us an account of its ornithology from Mr. Kirk’s collections (137). 


VI. THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. 
Of the Australian Region I will speak in the following Subdivisions :— 


1. Australia and Tasmania. 
2. Papua and the Papuan Islands. 
3. The Solomon Islands, 


1. AUSTRALIA AND TASMANIA, 


That we know more of the fauna of Australia than of other English colonies in 
different parts of the world is certain; but no thanks are due from us for this 
Imowledge either to the Imperial or to any of the Colonial Governments. The 
unassisted enterprise of a private individual has produced the two splendid works 
upon the Mammals and Birds of Australia which we all turn to with pleasure 
whenever reference is required to a member of these two classes of Australian 
animals, Mr. Gould’s ‘Mammals of Australia’ was completed in 1863 (1). Since 
that period the little additional information received respecting the terrestrial 
Mammals of Australia has been chiefly furnished by Mr. Kvefft of the Australian 
Museum, Sydney, in various papers and memoirs. Mr. Krefft has also written the 
letterpress to some large illustrations of the ‘Mammals of Australia,’ by Miss 
H. Scott and Mrs. H. Forde (2), in which a short account of all the described 
species is given, On the marine Mammals, which were scarcely touched upon by 
Mr. Gould, we have a treatise by Mr. A. W. Scott (8) published at Sydney in 
1873, which contains a good deal of useful information concerning the Seals and 
Whales of the Southern ‘Hemisphere itis 

The magnificent series of seven volumes of Mr, Gould’s ‘ Birds of Australia’ (4) 
was finished in 1848. In 1869 a supplementary volume was issued, containing 
similar full-sized illustrations of about 80 species. In 1865 Mr. Gould reprinted 
in a quarto form, with additions and corrections, the letterpress of his great work, 
and published it under the title of a ‘Handbook to the Birds of Australia’ (5). 
This makes a convenient work for general reference. Of two Colonial attempts 
to rival Mr. Gould’s series I cannot speak with much praise. Neither Mr. Digeles’s 
‘Ornithology of Australia’ (6) nor Mr. Halley’s proposed ‘Monograph of the 
Australian; Parrots’ (7) are far advanced towards conclusion ; indeed of the last- — 
mentioned work I have seen but one number. 

Several large collections of birds have been made in the peninsula of Cape York 
and adjoining districts of Northern Queensland of late years; and it is a misfortune 
for science that we have had no complete account of them. One of the largest of 
these, however, made by Mr. J. T. Cockerell, has luckily fallen into the hands of 
Messrs. Salvin and Godman, and will, I trust, be turned to better uses than the 
filling of glass cases and the ornamentation of ladies’ hats. : 

It seems to me that there is still much to be done even in Birds in Northern 
Australia; and I cannot help thinking that Port Darwin, the northern extremity 

* A short note on a small collection of birds from Barbadoes was also published by 
me in the P. Z. 8. 1874, p. 174 (138). 

+ A general view of the Mammal-fauna of Australia is given in an article which I pub- 
lished in the ‘ Quarterly Journal of Science’ for 1865, p. 213, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. lil 


of the trans-continental Telegraph, would be an excellent station for a collecting 
naturalist, and one where many novelties, both zoological and botanical, would 
certainly be met with. 

On the Snakes of Australia we have an excellent work, published in 1869, by Mx. 
Gerard Krefft (8), one of the few really working Australian naturalists, who, how- 
ever, it appears, is not appreciated by the Trustees of the Sydney Museum as he 
deserves to be. Mr. Krefit during his long residence in Sydney, has become well 
acquainted with the Ophidians of the Colony and has devoted special attention to 
them, so that he has the advantage of practical as well as scientific acquaintance 
with his subject. The late Dr. Gray has written many papers on the Tortoises and 
Lizards of Australia, Of the latter, we have to thank br Giinther for a complete 
monographic list just published in one of the newly issued numbers of the ‘ Voyage 
of the Erebus and Terror’ (9). Most of the plates of this work were also issued 
in 1867 by Dr. Gray in his Fasciculus of the Lizards of Australia and New 
Zealand (10). 

For information on the Fishes of Australia reference must be made to the 
Ichthyological portion of the ‘Zoology of the Erebus and Terror,’ by Sir John 
Richardson (9), and to the same author’s numerous papers on Australian Fishes 
in the ‘Annals of Natural History’ and ‘Transactions’ and ‘ Proceedings’ of the 
Zoological Society of London Gis Way The Count F, de Castelnau, who seems to 
be almost the only working Ichthyologist in Australia, has recently published in 
the ‘ Proceedings of the Zoological and Acclimatization Society of Victoria’ several 
papers on the Fishes of the Melbourne Fish-market and of other parts of Australia, 
which include a complete synopsis of the Imown Australian species (16-24), 


2, PAPUA AND ITS ISLANDS. 


I believe that my paper upon the Mammals and Birds of New Guinea, published 
by the Linnean Society in 1858 (25), was the first attempt to put together the 
scattered fragments of our knowledge of this subject. In 1859 a British-Museum 
Catalogue by Dr. J. E. and Mr. G. R. Gray (26), gave a résumé of the then known 
members of the same two classes belonging to New Guinea and the Aru Islands, 
and included notices of all Mr. Wallace’s discoveries. In 1862 Mr. Wallace gave 
descriptions of the new species discovered subsequently to his return by his 
assistant, Mr. Allen (27). In 1865 Dr. Finsch published at Bremen an excellent 
little essay called ‘Neu-Guinea und seine Bewohner’ (28), in which is given a 
complete account of our then state of knowledge of the subject, But within these 
last ten years still more serious efforts have been made by naturalists of several 
nations to penetrate this terra incognita. Two emissaries of the Leyden Museum 
(Bernstein and vy. Rosenberg) have sent home full series of zoological spoils to 
that establishment, and have discovered a host of novelties. Of these the Birds 
haye been described by Prof. Schlegel in his ‘ Observations Zoologiques’ (29). An 
intrepid Italian traveller, Signor L. M. d’Albertis, made a still further advance, 
when in September 1872 he accomplished the first ascent of the Arfak mountains *, 
and discovered the splendid Bird of Paradise and other new species which I described 
in 1878 (30). Quickly following on his footsteps Dr. A, B. Meyer penetrated still 
further into the unknown interior, and reaped the abundant harvest of which he 
has given us an account in six papers lately published at Vienna (31-36). Dr. 
Meyer has now become Director of the Museum of Dresden, and is no doubt 
occupied in the further elaboration of his rich materials. In the meanwhile some 
accomplished Italian naturalists are engaged on the collections of D’Albertis and 
his quondam companion Beecari. Count Salvadori, who is at work on the birds, 
will take the opportunity of preparing a complete account of the Ornithology of 
Papua and its islands, similar to that of Borneo, of which I have already spoken. 
The Marquis Giacomo Doria has already published one excellent paper on the 
Reptiles of Amboina and the Ké Islands collected by his compatriot Beccari (37), 
maa is preparing other memoirs on the Mammals and Reptiles of New Guinea 
and the Aroo Islands obtained by D’Albertis. 

Dr. Meyer has lately given an account of his Herpetological discoveries in New 


* See ‘ Nature,’ vol. viii. p. 501, 


112 REPORT—1875. 


Guinea, which comprehend several new and most interesting forms, in a memoir 
read before the Academy of Berlin (88); and Dr. Bleeker some years ago gave a 
list of the Reptiles obtained by v. Rosenberg in that island, and enumerated the 
Papuan Reptiles then known to him (89). 

All these expeditions, however, have been directed towards the western penin- 
sula of New Guinea, which alone is yet in any way explored by naturalists. Of the 
greater south-eastern portion of the island we have as yet very little information. 
A Cassowary * and a Kangaroo}, brought away by the ‘ Basilisk’ from the 
southern coast, both proved to be new to science, as did likewise a Paradise-bird 
obtained in the same district by M. d’Albertis t. This is sufficient to give us an 
idea of what we may expect to find when the interior of this part of New Guinea 
is explored. And I may take this opportunity of mentioning that a most active 
and energetic traveller is perhaps at this very moment ‘at work there. M. L. M. 
d’Albertis, of whose previous labours I have just spoken, returned to the Hast last 
autumn. Letters received from him by his Italian friends in June last state that 
he had at the time of writing already succeeded in reaching Yule Island near 
Mously Bay on the S.E. coast of New Guinea, and proposed to establish his head- 
quarters there for expeditions into the interior. 


3. New Irevanp, New Brirar, AND THE SOLOMON ISLANDS. 


I devote a few words specially to these islands because they are easy of access 
from Sydney, and because their productions are of particular interest, belonging, as 
they do, to the Papuan and not to the Polynesian fauna. I have put together what 
is known of the birds of the Solomon’s group in a paper read before the Zoological 
Society in 1869 (40). Seeing the interesting results obtained from the examination 
of one small jar of birds collected here by an unscientific person, there can be little 
doubt of the value of what would be discovered on the more complete investigation 
of the group. As regards New Ireland and New Britain, we have but scattered 
notices to refer to. The last-named island is, we know, the home of a peculiar 
Cassowary (Casuarius bennett). 

A list of the fishes of the Solomon Islands is given by Dr. Giinther in Mr, 
Brenchley’s ‘ Cruise of the Curacoa’ (41), which I shall allude to again presently. 


VII. THE PACIFIC REGION. 


Of this Region, where Mammals (except a few Bats) are altogether absent, and 
Birds are the predominant form of Vertebrate life, I will say a few final words under 
three heads :— 


1, New Zealand. | 2 Polynesia. | 3. The Sandwich Islands, 


1. New ZEALAND. 


In New Zealand, of all our Colonies, most attention has lately been devoted to 
natural history, and several excellent naturalists are labouring hard and well; I 
need only mention the names of ‘Dr. Hector, Dr. Haast, Capt. F. W. Hutton, and 
Mr. Buller. The commendable plan of affiliating the various local Societies 
to one Central Institute has resulted in the production of an excellent scientific 
Journal, already in its sixth volume, which contains a mass of most interesting 
papers on the fauna and flora of the Colony (1). To refer to these memoirs in 
detail is quite unnecessary ; but it is obvious, on turning over the pages of the 
volumes of the ‘ Transactions of the New-Zealand Institute,’ how great are the 
exertions now being made to perfect our knowledge of the natural products, both 
recent and extinct, of our antipodean Colony. 

Mr. W. L. Buller’s beautiful volume on the Ornithology of New Zealand, finished 
in 1873 (2), is likewise a most creditable production Tah to the author and to 


* Casuarius picticollis, Scl., P. Z. 8. 1875, p. 85. 
t Dorcopsis luctuosa (D'Albertis), v. Garrod, P. Z. 8. 1875, p. 48. 
t Paradisea raggiana, Sclater, P. Z. 8. 1873, p. 559, 


. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 113 


those who have supported and promoted his undertaking. Few, indeed, are the 
Colonies that can boast of a similar piece of work ! 
In 1842 the late Sir John Richardson presented to this Association a special re- 
ort on the Ichthyology of New Zealand (3); but much advance has, of course, 
hen made since that period. 
The Lizards of New Zealand have been recently enumerated along with those of 
Australia in Dr. Giinther’s memoir above referred to. 


2. PoLYNESIA. 


Great additions have recently been made to our knowledge of the natural pro- 
ductions of the Polynesian Islands by the travellers and naturalists employed by the 
brothers Godeffroy of Hamburg. These gentlemen not only haye extensive col- 
lections made, but also trouble themselves to get them properly worked out. The 
excellent volume on the Ornithology of the Fiji, Samoa, and Tonga Islands pub- 
lished in 1867 by Drs. Finch and Hartlaub (4), is based entirely upon materials thus 
obtained, as are likewise the many capital memoirs which fill the parts of the Illus- 
trated quarto ‘ Journal des Museum Godeffroy ’ (5)—a journal replete with informa- 
tion upon the geography, ethnography and natural history of Polynesia. Amongst 
these memoirs I must call special attention to Dr. Giinther’s ‘Fische der Siidsee’ 
(6), founded upon Mr. Andrew Garrett’s splendid collection of fishes and of draw- 
ings of them coloured after life, of which three parts are already issued. We have 
now for the first time almost, in this country, the opportunity of becoming acquainted 
with the exceeding beauty of the tropical fishes in life! 

The late Mr. Julius Brenchley’s account of his cruise in H.M.S. ‘ Curagoa’ among 
the South-sea Islands (7), published in 1873, contains an appendix of “ Natural- 
History Notices,” illustrated by figures of remarkable specimens obtained on the 
occasion. Of these the part relating to the Birds is by the late Mr. G. R. Gray, and 
those concerning the Reptiles and Fishes by Dr. Giinther. 


3. Tur SANDWICH ISLANDS. 


The Sandwich Islands stand apart zoologically as geographically from the rest of 
Polynesia, and merit more special attention than has yet been bestowed upon them, 
Of their Birds, which form the most prominent part of their Vertebrate fauna, Mr. 
Dole has given a “ Synopsis ” in the ‘ Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural 
History’ (8). In noticing this paper in ‘ The Ibis’ for 1871, I have introduced 
some supplementary remarks (9) upon the general aspect of the Avifauna. 


In concluding this Address, which has extended, I regret to say, to a much 
greater length than I anticipated when I selected the subject of it, I wish to endea- 
your to impress upon naturalists the paramount importance of locality. 

In the study of distribution more probably than in any other direction, if perhaps 
we except embryology, will be ultimately found the key to the now much vexed 
question of the Origin of Species. The past generation of naturalists could not 
understand the value of locality. A Museum was regarded as a collection of curi- 
osities ; and so long as the objects were there it little mattered in their eyes whence 
they came. The consequence is that all our older collections, and even, I regret to 
say, our National Museum itself, are filled with specimens utterly without a 
history attached to them, unless it be that they were purchased of a certain dealer 
in a certain year. Even in the present generation it is only the more advanced and 
enlightened thinkers that really understand the importance of locality. It is with 
the hope of impressing the value of locality and distribution more firmly upon you 
that I have devoted this address not to the general progress of biology, but to the 
present state of our Inowledge of the Geographical Distribution of the Vertebrata. 


114. REPORT—1875. 


APPENDIX, 
List of the Works and Memoirs referred to*, 
I. Tue PatmarcTic Rreion. 


1. Exploration Scientifique de l’Algérie pendant les années 1840, 1841, 1842. 
Publiée par Ordre du Gouvernement. Mammiféres. Par le Commandant 
Loche. Oiseaux. Par le Commandant Loche. 2 vols. folio, Paris, 1867. 

Reptiles et des Poissons. Par A. Guichenot. 1 vol. folio, Paris, 1850. 

. Catalogue des Mammiféres et des Oiseaux de l’Algérie, Par le Capitaine 
Loche. 8vo, Paris, 1858. 

3. Nouvelles remarques sur les Poissons fluviatiles de Algérie. Par M. Paul 
Gervais. Comptes Rendus, tome Ixiii. (1866) p. 1051. 

4, Memoir on the Hydrographical System and the Freshwater Fish of Algeria. 
By Lieut.-Col. R. L. Playfair and M. Letourneux. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. 
1871, viii. p. 373. 

. Essai d’une Erpétologie de Algérie. Par Alexandre Strauch. Mém. de l’Aca- 
démie Impériale des Sciences de St. Pétersbourg, vii® sér. tome iv. No. 7. 

6. The Great Sahara: Wanderings South of the Atlas Mountains. By H. B. 
Tristram. 8vo, London, 1860. 

. Five Months’ Birds’-nesting in the Eastern Atlas. By Osbert Salvin. This, 
1859, pp. 174-191, 302-318, 352-365. 

8. On the Ornithology of Northern Africa. By the Rey. H. B. Tristram. Ibis, 

1859, pp. 153-162, 277-301, 415-435; 1860, pp. 68-83, 149-165, 361-376. 

9. On the Ornithology of Algeria. By J. H. Gurney, jun. Ibis, 1871, pp. 68-86, 

289-301. ; 
10. The Ornithology of the Straits of Gibraltar. By Lieut.-Colonel L. Howard 
L. Irby. 8vo, London, 1875. 
11. A Journey to Marocco, and Ascent of the Great Atlas. A Lecture delivered 
before the Birmingham and Midland Institute. By George Maw, F.G.S. 
&e. 8yo, Lronbridge. 
12, Histoire naturelle des iles Canaries. Ouvrage publié sous les auspices de M. 
le Ministre de l’Instruction publique. Par MM. P. B. Webb et S. Berthelot, 
Ato, Paris, 1835-50. : 
13a. Bemerkungen iiber die Végel der Canarischen Inseln. Von Dr. Carl Bolle. 
Cabanis, Journ. fiir Orn. 1854, p. 447; 1855, p. 171. 
b. Mein zweiter Beitrag zur Vogelkunde der Canarischen Inseln. Won Dr. 
Carl Bolle. Ibid. 1857, p. 258, 305. 
c. Der wilde Canarienvogel, eine Biographie. Von Dr. Carl Bolle. Ibid. 1858, 
. 125. 
14, A Sketch of Madeira, containing information for the Traveller, or Invalid 
Visitor. By Edward Vernon Harcourt. 8vo, London, 1851. 
15. Notice of the Birds of Madeira, By Edward Vernon Harcourt. P. Z. 8. 1854, 
. 153. 
16, Notes on the Ornithology of Madeira. By Edward Vernon Harcourt. Ann. 
Nat. Hist. xv. 1855, pp. 430-438, 
17, Notes on the Resident and Migratory Birds of Madeira and the Canaries, By 
F, DuCane Godman. Ibis, 1872, pp. 158, 209. 
18, A Synopsis of the Fishes of Madeira. By the Rey. R.T. Lowe. Trans, Zool. 
Soe, ii. p. 173; Supplement, ibid. iii. p. 1. 
19a, Descriptions of some new Genera and Species of Fishes obtained at Madeira. 
By James Yate Johnson, C.M.Z.S. P. Z. 8S. 1862, p. 167. 
b, Remarks on a specimen of Alepisaurus ferox recently obtained at Madeira. 
By James Yate Johnson, C.M.Z.S. P.Z.S, 1862, p. 126. 


* Nearly the whole of these are in the Library of the Zoological Society of London, and 
may there be referred to, on application to the Librarian, by Members of the Society and 
by other persons provided with introductions,—P. L. 8. 


bo 


Or 


~I 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 115 


ec. Descriptions of five new Species of Fishes obtained at Madeira. By James 


Yate Johnson, C.M.Z.S. P. Z. S. 1863, p. 36. 


d. Descriptions of three new Genera of Marine Fishes obtained at Madeira. 


By James Yate Johnson, C.M.Z.S. P.Z. 8. 1863, p. 403. 


e. Descriptions of a new Genus of Trichiuroid Fishes obtained at Madeira; 


with remarks on the Genus Dicrotus, Giinther, and on some allied Genera 
of Trichiuride. By James Yate Johnson, C.M.Z.S. P. Z. S. 1865, p. 434. 


J. Description of Trachichthys darwinii, a new Species of Berycoid Fish from 


38. 


39. 


Madeira. By James Yate Johnson, C.M.Z.S. P. Z.'S. 1866, p. 311. 


. On a New Genus of Pediculate Fish from the Sea of Madeira, By Albert 


Giinther, M.D., F.R.S., &. P. Z. 8. 1864, p. 301. 


. Natural History of the Azores, or Western Islands. By Frederick DuCane 


Godman. 8vo, London, 1870. 


. Notice sur Histoire naturelle des Agores suivie d’une description des 


Mollusques Terrestres de cet Archipel. Par Arthur Morelet. Roy. 8vo, 
Paris, 1860, 


. Naturgeschichte der. Siugethiere Deutschlands und der angrenzenden Linder 


von Mitteleuropa. Von J. H. Blasius, 8vo, Braunschweig, 1857. 


. A Guide to the Quadrupeds and Reptiles of Europe; with Descriptions of all 


the Species. Compiled from the latest writers. By Lord Clermont. 8vo, 
London, 1859. 


. A History of British Quadrupeds, including the Cetacea. By Thomas Bell. 


8vo, London, 1837. 


. -—. Second Edition, revised and partly re-written by the Author, assisted 
R 


by Robert F. Tomes and Edward R. Alston.. 8vo, London, 1874. 


. Zoologie et Paléontologie Frangaises. Nouvelles Recherches sur les Animaux 


Vertébrés dont on trouve les Ossements enfouis dans le sol de la France et 
sur leur Comparaison avec les espéces propres aux autres régions du Globe. 
Par M. Paul Gervais. 2 vols. 4to, Paris, 1859. 


. Die Thiere Andalusiens nach dem Resultate einer Reise. Von W. G, 


Rosenhauer. 8vo, Erlangen, 1856. 


. Sketches in Spain during the years 1829-32. By Captain S. E. Cook, R.N, 


'2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1834. 


. Liste des Mammiféres et Reptiles observés en Portugal. Par M. Barboza du 


Bocage. Revue Zoologique, xv. (1863) p. 329. 


. Iconografia della Fauna Italica per le quattro classi degli Animali Vertebrati 


di Carlo L. Principe Bonaparte. 38 vols. small folio, Roma, 1832-41. 


. Fauna del Regno di Napoli, ossia enumerazione di tutti eli animali che 


abitano le diverse regioni di questo régno e le acque che le bagnano, con- 
tenente la descrizione de’ nuovi o poco esattamente conosciuti, con figure 
ricavate da originali yiventi e dipinte al naturale di Oronzio-Gabriele 
Costa. 4to, Napoli, 1829-58. 


. Fauna d’ Italia. Parte prima. Catalogo Descrittivo dei Mammiferi osservati 


fino ad ora in Italia, compilato dal Prof. Emilio Cornalia. Roy. 8yo, 
Milano. 


. Faune des Vertébrés de la Suisse. Par Victor Fatio. 8vo, Geneve et Bile, 


1869-72. 


. Expédition scientifique en Morée. Section des Sciences Physiques. Tome iii. 


le partie. Zoologie. Premiére section des animaux yertébrés. Mammi- 
féres et Oiseaux. Par M. Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire. 4to, Paris, 1833. 


. Fauna der Cykladen, Von Erhard. 8vo, Leipzig, 1858. 
. Die Insel Cypern, ihrer physischen und organischen Natur nach mit Riicksicht 


auf ihre friihere Geschichte, geschildert yon Dr. F. Unger und Dr. Th, 
Kotschy. 8vo, Wien, 1865, 

Catalogue Raisonné des Objets de Zoologie recueillis dans un voyage au 
Caucase et jusqu’aux frontiéres actuelles de la Perse, entrepris par ordre de 
S.M./’Empereur. Par E. Ménétries. 4to, St. Pétersbourg, 1832. 

Voyage dans la Russie méridionale et la Crimée par la Hongrie, la Valachie et 
la Moldavie, exécuté en 1837. Par M. Anatole de Démidoff, © 4 vols. Royal 
8yvo, and atlas, folio, Paris, 1841-42, : 


116 REPORT—1875. 


40. Skandinavisk Fauna af 8. Nilsson, 5 vols. 8vo, Lund, 1847-60. 

41. Sveriges och Norges Ryggradsdjur, af W. Lilljeborg. 8vo, Upsala, ed. Berling, 
1874, 

42. Reisen nach dem Nordpolarmeer in den Jahren 1870 und 1871, von M. Th. 
von Heuglin. 3 vols. 8vo, Braunschweig, 1872-74. 

43, Manuel d’Ornithologie ou Tableau systématique des Oiseaux qui se trouvent 
en Europe; précédé d’une Analyse du Systéme Général d’Ornithologie, et 
suivi d’une table alphabétique des espéces; par C. J. Temminck, 2° édition, 

4 pts. 8vo, Paris, 1820-40. 

44, Maitholoets Européenne, ou Catalogue Analytique et Raisonné des Oiseaux 
observés en Europe, Par C. D. Degland. 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1849, 

. Deuxiéme édition, entiérement refondue par C. D. Degland et Z. Gerbe. 
2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1867. 

46, History of the Birds of Europe, including all the Species inhabiting the 
Western Palearctic Region. Parts i—xvii. by R. Bowdler Sharpe and 
H. E. Dresser. Parts xvii-xl. by H. E. Dresser, 4to, London, 1871-75 
(still being issued). 

47. Naturgeschichte der Vogel Europa’s. Von Dr. Anton Fritsch. Text, 8vo, 
atlas, folio, Prag, 1870. 

48, The Birds of Europe. By John Gould. 5 vols. folio, London, 1837. 

49. A History of British Birds. By William Yarrell. 3 vols. 8vo, London, 1843, 

——. Fist Supplement, 1845. 
——. Second Supplement, 1856. 

560. A History of British Birds. By the late William Yarrell. Fourth edition, 
revised and enlarged by Alfred Newton, M.A. Parts i—yili. 8yo, London, 
1871-74 (still being issued). 

51. The Birds of the West of Scotland, including the Outer Hebrides, with occa- 
sional Records of the occurrence of the rarer Species throughout Scotland 
generally. By Robert Gray. 8vo, Glasgow, 1871. 

52. A Catalogue of the Birds of Northumberland and Durham. By John Hancock, 
Trans. Northumberland & Durham Nat.-Hist. Soc. vol. vi. (1874). 

53, A Handbook of British Birds, showing the Distribution of the Resident and 
Mieratory Species in the British Islands; with an Index to the Records of 
the Rarer Visitants. By J. E. Harting. 8vo, London, 1872. 

54, The Birds of Great Britain. By John Gould, F.R.S., &c. 5 vols. folio, London, 
1873. 

55. Ornithologie de la Savoie ou Histoire des Oiseaux qui vivent en Savoie 4 l'état 
sauvage, soit constamment, soit passagérement. Par J. B, Bailly. 4 vols, 
and atlas, 8vo, Paris, 1853-54. 

56, Richesses Ornithologiques du Midi de la France, ou Description Méthodique de 
tous les oiseaux observés en Provence et dans les Départements circonvoisins. 
Par MM. J. B. Jaubert et Barthélemy-Lapommeraye. 4to, Marseille, 1859, 

57. Notes on the Ornithology of Spain. By Lord Lilford. Ibis, 1865, p. 166; 
1866, pp. 173, 377. 

58 a. Ornithological Rambles in Spain. By Howard Saunders. Ibis, 1869, p. 170. 

b. Notes on the Ornithology of Italy and Spain. By Howard Saunders. Ibis, 
1869, p. 391. 

c. A Last cf the Birds of Southern Spain. By Howard Saunders. Ibis, 1871, 
pp. 54, 205, 384. 

59, Vorlaufige Zusammenstellung der Vogel Spaniens mit kritischer Benutzung 
der bisher von spanischen Ornithologen herausgegebenen Verzeichnisse, 
Yen Dr. A. ue Brehm, Allgemeine deutsche Naturhistorische Zeitung, 
vol, ili. p. 431. 

60, Narrative df a Spring Tour in Portugal. By Rey. Alfred Charles Smith, M.A. 
8vo, London, 1870. 

61, Ornitologia Toscana ossia descrizione e storia degli Uccelli che trovansi nella 
Toscana con I’ aggiunta delle descrizioni di tutti gli altri prop) al rimanente 
d’ Italia del Dottore Paolo Savi. 3 vols. 8vo, Pisa, 1827-31. 

62. Fauna d’ Italia—Parte seconda—Uccelli per Tommaso Salvadori. Royal 8yo, 
Milano, 1872, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 117 


63, Storia Naturale degli Uccelli che nidificano in Lombardia, ad illustrazione 
della Raccolta Ornitologica dei fratelli Ercole ed Ernesto Turati, scritta da 
Eugenio Bettoni; con Tavole litografate e colorate prese dal vero da O. 
Dressler. 2 vols. folio, Milano, 1865-68. 

64, List of the Birds observed in the Islands of Malta and Gozo. By Charles A. 
Wright. Ibis, 1864, pp. 42,187. Appendix, 1864, p. 291; second appendix, 
1865, p. 459; third appendix, 1869, p. 245; fourth appendix, 1870, p. 488. 

65. oer on the Ornithology of Sardinia. By A. B. Brooke. Ibis, 1873, pp. 143, 

35, 335. 

66. Zeiten des Gehens und Kommens und des Briitens der Vogel in Griechenland 

und Ionien. Catalog von Dr. Kriiper, mit Citaten und Zusiitzen von Dr. 
Hartlaub. Mommsen’s Griechische Jahreszeiten, Heft iii. p. 155 (1875). 

67. Die Vogel Griechenlands. Ein Beitrag zur Fauna dieses Landes, von Dr. Ritter 
A. Lindermayer. 8vo, Passau, 1860. 

68. A List of the Birds of Turkey. By H. J. Elwes and T. E. Buckley. Ibis, 
1870, pp. 59, 188, 327. 

69. Des Migrations des Oiseaux de proie sur le Bosphore de Constantinople. Par 
MM. Amédée Alléon et Jules Vian. Revue Zoologique, tome xxi. (1869) 
pp. 258, 305, 342, 369, 401; tome xxii. (1870) pp. 81, 129, 161. 

70. Explorations Ornithologiques sur les rives européennes du Bosphore. Par 
MM. Armédée Alléon et Jules Vian, Revue Zoologique, 3° ser. tom, i. 
(1873) p. 235. 

71. Fauna Caspio-Caucasica nonnullis observationibus novis illustravit. Von Dr. 
Eduard Eichwald. Folio, Petropoli, 1841. 

72. Description d’une nouvelle espéce de Coq de bruyére. Par M. Taczanowski, 

F.M.ZS. P. Z. 8. 1875, p. 266. 

73. Naturgeschichte der Vogel ibedtechahas: nach eigenen Erfahrungen entworfen, 
durchaus umgearbeitet, systematisch geordnet, sehr vermehrt, vervoll- 
stiindigt und mit getreu nach der Natur eigenhiindig gezeichneten und 
gestochenen Abbildungen aller deutschen Vogel, nebst ihren Hauptver- 
schiedenheiten auf’s Neue herausgegeben von dessen Sohne John Friedrich 
Naumann. 13 vols. 8vo, Leipzig, 1822-44, 

74, Journal fiir Ornithologie. Ein Centralorgan fiir die gesammte Ornithologie. 
In Verbindung mit der deutschen ornithologischen Gesellschaft zu Berlin, 
herausgegeben von Dr. Jean Cabanis. Jahrgangi—xxii. 8vo, Cassel and 
Leipzig, 1853-74. 

75. Naumannia. Archiv fiir die Ornithologie, vorzugsweise Europa’s. Organ der 
deutschen Ornithologen-Gesellschaft. Herausgegeben von Eduard Balda- 
mus. 8 vols. 8vo, Stuttgart and Leipzig, 1851-58. 

76, Oversigt af Christiania Omegns ornithologiske Fauna, af Robert Collett. 
8yo0, Christiania, 1864. 

77. Remarks on the Ornithology of Northern Norway. By Robert Collett. Forh. 
Selsk. Christ., 1872, p. 1. 

78. Svenska Foglarna, med text,af Professor Carl J. Sundevall, tecknade och 
lithographierade af Peter Akerlund. Oblong 4to, Stockholm, 1856. 

79. Finlands Foglar-hufvudsakligen till deras driigter, beskrifna af Magnus von 
Wright. Senare afdelningen, after forfattarens ddd omarbetad, med sarskild 
hansyn till arternas utbredning och utgifven af Johan Axel Palmén. 8yo, 
Helsingfors, 1859-1873. 

80. Die Rosenthal’sche Expedition nach dem Nordpolarmeer. Ornithologie von 
Novaja Semlja und der Waigatsch-Insel. Von M. Th. von Heuglin, Ca- 
banis, Journ. fiir Ornithologie, 1872, pp. 113, 464. 

81. Iceland: its Scenes and Sagas. By Sabine Baring-Gould, M.A. Royal 8yo, 
ae 1863, [Appendix A.—Ornithology of Iceland, by Prof. A. Newton, 

399 


82. Moin from Archangel. By Edward R. Alston and John A. Harvie Brown. 
Ibis, 1873, p. 54. 
83, Herpetologia Europaea: eine systematische Bearbeitung der Amphibien und 
eptilien, welche bisher in Europa aufgefunden sind. Von Dr. Egid 
Schreiber, 8yo, Braunschweig, 1875.+ 


118 REPORT—1875, 


84. Die Schlangen des Russischen Reichs, in systematischer und zoogeographischer 
Beziehung geschildert von Dr. Alexander Strauch. Mémoires de l’Académie 
Impériale des Sciences de St.-Pétersbourg, 7° sér. tome xxi, No. 4 (1873). 

85, A History of British Reptiles. By Thomas Bell. Second Edition. 8vo, 
London, 1849, [First Edition, 1839, ] 

86. Our Reptiles. A plain and easy Account of the Lizards, Snakes, Newts, 
Toads, Frogs, and Tortoises indigenous to Great Britain. By M, C. Cooke. 
12mo, London, 1865. 

87. Die Siisswasserfische von Mitteleuropa bearbeitet von Ch. E. y. Siebold. 8vo, 

Leipzig, 1863. 

88. A History of British Fishes. By William Yarrell, F.L.S. Third Edition, 
edited by Sir John Richardson, C.B. 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1859. 

89, A History of the Fishes of the British Islands. By Jonathan Couch. 4 vols, 
Roy. 8vo, Londen, 1862-65, 

90, Les Poissons des Haux Douces de la France, Anatomie—Physiologie—De- 
scription des Espéces— Mceurs— Instincts — Industrie— Commerce—Res- 
sources alimentaires—Pisciculture—Législation concernant la Péche. Par 
Emile Blanchard. Roy. 8vo, Paris, 1866. 

91. Ichthyologischer Bericht tiber eine nach Spanien und Portugal unternommene 
Reise. Von F. Steindachner. Sitzb. d. k, Akad. d. Wissensch. Wien, 
(1865) Bde lii. p. 483; (1866) liii, p. 198, liv. pp. 4,261; (1867) lvi. p. 603; 
(1868) lvii. pp. 351, 667. 

92. Catalogo dos peixes de Portugal que existem no Museu Lisboa. Par F’. de 
Brito Capello. Jour. de Sciencias Mathemat. Phys. e Nat. Lisboa, tomo i. 
pp. 238, 307; ii. pp. 51, 131, 228, 

93. Fauna dq’ Italia. Parte Terza—Pesci, per Giovanni Canestrini. Roy. 8vo, 
Milano. 


94, Kritisk Ofversigt af Finlands Fisk-Fauna, af A. J. Malmgren. Akademisk 
Afhandling. Helsingfors, 1863, 8vo. Translated into German by Dr. C. F. 

Frisch in Wiegmann’s Archiy fiir Naturgesch. 1864, p. 259. 

25. Reise in den aussersten Norden und Osten Sibiriens wahrend der Jahre 1843 
und 1844 mit allerhéchster Genehmigung auf Veranstaltung der kaiserlichen 
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu St. Petersburg ausgefiihrt und in Verbin- 
dung mit vielen Gelehrten herausgegeben yon Dr. A. Th. v. Middendorff. 
4 vols. 4to, St. Petersburg, 1847-67. 

96, Dr. L. vy. Schrenck’s Reisen und Forschungen im Amur-Lande in den Jahren 
1854-56 im Auftrage der kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu St. 
Petersburg ausgefiihrt und in Verbindung mit mehreren Gelehrten heraus- 
gegeben. 4to, Leipzig, 1858-60. 

97. Reisen im Siiden von Ost-Siberien in den Jahren 1855-59 incl. im Auftrage der 
kaiserlichen geographischen Gesellschaft ausgefiihrt von Gustay Radde, 
2 vols. 4to, St. Petersiurg, 1862-63. 

98. Die Isepiptesen Russlands. Grundlagen zur Erforschung der Zugzeiten und 
Zugrichtungen der Vogel Russlands. Von Dr. A. v. Middendorft. Mém. 
(1860) en Impériale des Sciences de St.-Pétershourg, 6me sér, tome Vill. 
(1859) p. 1. 

99. A Sono ethdomes of the Birds of China and its Islands, with Descriptions 
of New Species, References to former Notes, and occasional Remarks. By 
Robert Swinhoe. Proce. Zool. Soc. 1871, p. 337. 

100 a, Journal d’un Voyage dans le Centre de la Chine et dans le Thibet oriental. 

; pe VAbbé Armand David. Nouvelles Archives du Muséum, tome viii. 

ull. p. 3. 

b. Gatalora des Oiseaux de Chine observés dans la partie septentrionale de 
VEmpire (au Nord du Fleuve-Bleu) de 1862 4 1870. Par M. Abbé Armand 
David. Ibid. tome vii. p. 3. 

101. Recherches pour servir & I’Histoire naturelle des Mammiferes comprenant des 
considérations sur la Classification de ces Animaux. Par M. H. Milne- 
Edwards et M. Alphonse Milne-Edwards. 2 yols. 4to, Paris, 1868-74. 

102, Fauna Japonica sive Descriptio animalium, que in itinere per Japoniam, 
jussu et auspiciis superiorum, qui summum in India Bataya imperium 


103. 
104, 
105. 
106. 
107. 


108, 
109. 
110. 


111. 
112, 


113. 


114, 
115. 
116. 
117. 
118, 
119. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 119 


tenent, suscepto, annis 1823-1830 collegit, notis, observationibus et adum- 
brationibus illustravit, Fr. de Siebold, conjunctis studiis C. J. Temminck 
et H. Schlegel pro vertebratis et W. de Haan pro invertebratis elaborata. 
Folio, Lygduni Batavorum, 1838-50, 

Mammiféres, par C. J. Temminck. 

Aves, par C. J. Temminck et H. Schlegel. 

Reptilia, par C. J. Temminck et H. Schlegel. 

Pisces, par C. J. Temminck et H. Schlegel. 

On the Ornithology of Northern Japan. By Captain Blakiston. ‘Ibis, 1862, 

. 809, 

Caftections and Additions to Captain Blakiston’s Paper “ On the Ornithology 
of Northern Japan.” Ibis, 1863, p. 97. 

Notes on Birds collected near Hakodadi, in Northern Japan. By Henry 
Whitely, junior. Ibis, 1867, p. 193. 
Notes on the Ornithology of Northern Japan. By Robert Swinhoe. Ibis, 

1863, p. 442. 

Narrative of the Expedition of an American Squadron to the China Seas and 
Japan, performed in the years 1852, 1853, and 1854, under the command of 
Commodore M. C. Perry, United-States Navy. By order of the Government 
of the United States. 4to, Washington, 1856, 

Reise von Orenburg nach Buchara yon Eduard Eversmann, nebst einem 
Wortverzeichniss aus der afgahnischen Sprache, beeleitet von einem natur- 
historischen Anhange und einer Vorrede yon Dr. H. Lichtenstein. 4to, 
Berlin, 1823. 

Vertikalnoe e Gorozontalnoe Raspedalenie Turkestanskie Jevotnie. By N. A. 
Severtzoff. Izvestia imperators koga obshestva linbiteley estestoynania 
Anthropologie e Etnographie. (Trans. Imp. Soc, Lovers of Nat. Hist. 
Anthr. & Ethnography.) Moscow, 1873. 

Alleemeine Uebersicht der aralo-tianschanischen Ornis, in ihrer horizontalen 
und verticalen Verbreitung. Von Dr. N. Severzow. Aus dem Russischen, 
von J. v. Fischer mit Originalzusiitzen und Berichtigungen des Verfassers, 
Journal fiir Ornithologie, 1873, p. 321; 1874, p. 403, 

Notes on Severtzoff’s “ Fauna of Turkestan” (Turkestanskie Jevotnie). By 
H. E. Dresser. Ibis, 1875, pp. 96, 236, 332. 

Lahore to Yarkand. Incidents of the Route and Natural History of the 
Countries traversed by the Expedition of 1870, under T, D. Forsyth, Esq., 
C.B, By George Henderson, M.D., and Allan O, Hume. Royal 8yo, 
London, 1873. ? 

Hume’s Stray Feathers. Stoliczkana stoliczke, &c. See Novelties, Vol. ii. 
(1874) p. 518. 

The Avifauna of Kashgar in Winter. By the late Dr. Ferdinand Stoliczika, 
Ph.D. Hume’s Stray Feathers, vol. iii. (1875) p. 215. 

On the Ornithology of Palestine. By the Rey. i. B. Tristram, M.A. Ibis, 
1865, pp. 67, 241; 1866, pp. 59, 280; 1867, pp. 73, 360; 1868, pp. 204, 321, 

oni genes the Birds of Palestine. By H. B, Tristram, M.A, P.Z.S. 1864, 


Report on a Collection of Reptiles and Fishes from Palestine. By Albert 
Giinther, M.D. P.Z.S. 1864, p. 488. 

Asie Mineure, Description Physique et Archéologique de cette contrée par P, 
de Tchihatcheff: 2 vols. Royal 8vo, with Atlas oblong 4to, Paris, 1853-56, 

Note di un Viaggio in Persia nel 1862 di F. de Filippi. 8vo, Milano, 1865, 


I. Tae Ermropran Recron. 


1. Esquisses zoologiques sur la cdte de Guinée, par OC. J. Temminck. 8yo Leiden, 


2 Documents Relatifs 4 la Mammalogie ia Gibbon Par M. C, Docteur Pucheran. 


Archives du Muséum d’Hist. Nat. tome x. p. 103. 


8. Explorations and Adventures in Equatorial Africa; with Accounts of the 


. 


Manners and Customs of the People, and of the Chace of the Gorilla, 


120 REPORT—1875. 


Crocodile, Leopard, Elephant, Hippopotamus, and other Animals. By 
Paul B. du Chaillu. 8vo, London, 1861, 

4, Descriptions of New Species of Mammals from Western Equatorial Africa. By 
Mr. P. B. Du Chaillu. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. vol, vii. (1859-61) 
pp. 296, 358. 

5. Observations on Mr. Du Chaillu’s papers on the new Species of Mammals 
discovered by him in Western Equatorial Africa. By Dr. John Edward 
Gray, F.R.S. P. Z. 8. 1861, p. 278. 

6. Catalogue of Birds collected on the Rivers Camma and Ogobai, Western Africa, 
by Mr. P. B. Duchaillu in 1858; with notes and descriptions of new 
Species. By John Cassin. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. 1859, p. 30. 

7. History of the Birds of Western Africa, By William Swainson. 1837. 
Jardine, Naturalist’s Library, vol. xix. 

8. System der Ornithologie Westafrica’s, von Dr. G. Hartlaub. 8vo, Bremen, 
1857. 

9. Reptiles et Poissons de l'Afrique occidentale. Etude précédée de considéra- 
tions générales sur leur Distribution Géographique, par M. le Professeur 
Aug. Duméril. Archives du Muséum d’Hist. Nat. tome x. p. 137. 

10 a, Aves das possessdes portuguezas d’Africa occidental que existem no Museu 
Lisboa, por J. V. Barbosa du Bocage. Jour. Sci. Mathem. Phys. e Nat. 
Lisboa, tomo i, p. 129, 324; ii. p. 88, 333; iii, p. 266; iv. p. 66, 194; v. 

. 82, 47, 
b, Lista dos reptis das possesses portuguezas d’Africa occidental que existem no 
Museu de Lisboa, por José Vicente Barboza du Bocage, Jour. Sci. Mathem. 
Phys. e Nat. Lisboa, tomo i. p. 37, 217. 

11. List of Mammalia collected by Mr. J. J. Monteiro in Angola. By P. L. 
Sclater, Ph.D., F.R.S., &c. P. Z. S. 1860, p. 245. 

12. Descriptions of seven new Species of Birds discovered by Mr. J. J. Monteiro 
in the Province of Benguela, Angola, West Africa, By Dr. G. Hartlauh, 
F.M.ZS. P. Z. 9. 1865, p. 86. 

15, Illustrations of the Zoology of South Africa; consisting chiefly of Figures and 
Descriptions of the objects of Natural History collected during an Expedi- 
tion into the Interior of South Africa in the years 1834, 1835, and 1836 ; 
fitted out by ‘the Cape of Good-Hope Association for Exploring Central 
Africa.’ By Andrew Smith, M.D. 4 vols. 4to, London, 1849. 

14, Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux d’Afrique ; par Francois Leyaillant. 6 vols. 
4to, Paris, 1799-1808. 

15. The Birds of South Africa. A Descriptive Catalogue of all the known Species 
occurring south of the 28th parallel of south latitude. By Edgar Leopold 
Layard. 8vo, Cape Town, 1867. 

16, The Birds of South Africa. By E. L. Layard. New edition, thoroughly 
revised and augmented. By R. Bowdler Sharpe. Part i. Royal 8vo, 
London, 1875. 

17, Notes on the Birds of Damara Land and the adjacent countries of South-west 
Africa. By the late Charles John Andersson. Arranged and edited by 
John Henry Gurney, with some additional Notes by the Editor, and an 
Introductory Chapter containing a Sketch of the Author’s Life, abridged 
from the original published in Sweden. 8vo, London, 1872. 

18, Naturwissenschaftliche Reise nach Mossambique auf Befehl seiner Majestiit 
des Kénigs Friedrich Wilhelm IV. in den Jahren 1842 bis 1848, ausgefiihrt 
von Wilhelm C. H. Peters. Zoology, i, Siugethiere. 4to, Berlin, 1852; 
iv. Flussfishe. 4to, Berlin, 1868. 

19, Uebersicht der auf seiner Reise (in Madagascar und Mossambique) gesam- 
melten Amphibien. Von Wilhelm Peters. Wiegmann, Archiy fur Natur- 
geschichte, xxi. (1855) p. 48. 

20. Vorliufige Mittheilung uber einige neue Vogelarten aus Mossambique. Von 
W. Peters. Journ. fiir Ornith. 1868, p. 131. 

21. The Fishes of Zanzibar. AcanrHoprERyar. By Lieut.-Col. R. Lambert 
Playfair. PHARYNGOGNATHI, etc. By Albert C, L. G, Giinther, M.A., 
Ph.D, 4to, London, 1866, 


26. 


27. 


28. 


29. 
30. 


3l. 


32. 


33. 


34. 


35. 
36. 


87. 
88. 


39. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 121 


2. Die Végel Ost-Afrika’s von Dr. O. Finsch und Dr. G. Hartlaub.—Baron Carl 


Claus von der Decken’s Reisen in Ost-Afrika, Band iy. Royal 8vo, 
Leipzig and Heidelberg, 1870. 


- On the Mammals collected and observed by Capt. J. H. Speke during the 


East-African Expedition. By P. L. Sclater; with Notes by Capt. J. H. 
Speke. P. Z. S. 1864, p. 98. 


. Report on a Collection of Reptiles and Fishes made by Dr. Kirk in the Zambesi 


and Nyassa Regions. By Albert Giinther. P. Z. S. 1864, p. 303. 


. Atlas zu der Reise im nérdlichen Afrika yon Eduard Riippell. 4 vols. small 


folio, Frankfurt am Main, 1826-28, Siiugethiere und Vogel, von Dr. Med. 
Ph. J. Cretzschmar. 

Reptilien, von C. H. G. von Heyden. 

Neue Wirbelthiere zu der Fauna Abyssinien gehérig, entdeckt und beschrie- 
hee Dr. Eduard Riippell. 2 vols. small folio, Frankfurt am Main, 

Systematische Uebersicht der Vogel Nord-Ost-Afrika’s nebst Abbildung und 
Beschreibung von fiinfzig theils unbekannten, theils noch nicht bildlich 

: en Arten. Von Dr. Eduard Riippell. Royal 8vo, Frankfurt a. M 

Ornithologie Nordost-Afrika’s, der Nilquellen- und Kiisten-Gebiete des Rothen 
Meeres und des nérdlichen Somal-Landes, yon M. Th. yon Heuglin. In 
vier Theilen, Royal 8vo, Cassel, 1869-74. 

A Handbook to the Birds of Egypt. By G. E. Shelley. Royal 8vo, London, 
1872. 

Observations on the Geology and Zoology of Abyssinia, made during the pro- 
gress of the British Expedition to that Country in 1867-68. By W. T. 
Blanford. 8yo, London, 1870. 

On a Collection of Birds from North-eastern Abyssinia and the Bogos Country. 
By Otto Finsch, Ph.D., C.M.Z.S. With notes by the collector, William 
Jesse, C.M.Z.S., Zoologist to the Abyssinian Expedition. Transactions of 
the Zoological Society, vol. vii. p. 197. 

Systematische Uebersicht der Siiugethiere Nordost-Afrika’s mit Einschluss der 
arabischen Kiiste, des Rothen Meeres, der SomAli- und der Nilquellen-Linder, 
siidwiirts bis zum vierten Grade nordlicher Breite. Von Dr. Theodor v. 
Heuglin, von dem W. M., Dr. Leopold Joseph Fitzinger. Sitzb. d.k. Akad. 
d. Wissensch. Wien (1866), Bd. liv. Abth. 1, p. 537. 

Reise in das Gebiet des Weissen Nil und seiner westlichen Zufliisse in den 
yanean 1862-64, Von M. Th. v. Heuglin. 8vo, Leipzig und Heidelberg, 

69. 

Travels in Central Africa, and Explorations of the Western Nile Tributaries. 
By Mr. and Mrs, Petherick. 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1869. 

[The Fishes of the Nile. By Dr. Albert Giinther, F.R.S. Vol. ii. 
Appendix C, p. 197.] 

Synopsis der Fische des Rothen Meeres. By C. B. Kianzinger. Verh. z.-b. 
Ges. Wien, 1870, p. 669; 1871, p. 441. 

Symbelae Physicae seu Icones et Descriptiones corporum naturalium novorum 
aut minus cognitorum quae ex itineribus per Libyarm gyptum Nubiam 
Dongalam Syriam Arabiam et Habessiniam publico institutis sumptu 
Friderici Guilelmi Hemprich et Christiani Godofredi Ehrenberg studio, 
annis 1820-1825 redierunt. Folio, Berolini, ex Officima. Academica, 1828. 

Notes on the Birds of the Peninsula of Sinai. By Claude W. Wyatt, of the 
late Sinai Surveying Expedition. Ibis, 1870, p. 1. 

Ornithologischer Beitrag zur Fauna Madagascar’s, mit Beriicksichtigung der 
Inseln Mayotta, Nossi-Bé und St. Marie, sowie der Mascarenen und 
Seychellen. Von Dr. G. Hartlaub. 8vo, Bremen, 1861. 

Recherches sur la Faune de Madagascar et de ses Dépendances, d’aprés les 
découvertes de Francois P. L. Pollen et D. C. van Dam. 

Mammiféres et Oiseaux, par H. Schlegel et Frangois P. L. Pollen. 4to, Leyde, 
1868, 

Poissons et Péches, par P, Bleeker et Francois P. L. Pollen. sie ati 1874. 

1875. 0) 


122 REPORT—1875. 


40, Notes sur les Mammiféres et les Oiseaux observés 4 Madagascar, de 1865 a 1867, 
par Alfred Grandidier. Rev. et Mag. de Zool. 1867, pp. 319, 353, 385, 417. 
41. Contributions to the Ornithology of Madagascar. By R. Bowdler Sharpe. 
P. Z. 8. 1870, p. 884; 1871, p. 313; 1872, p. 866; 1875, p. 70. 
42, Notes on some Mammals from Madagascar. By Dr. Albert Giinther. P. Z. 8. 
1875, p. 78. § 
43, On the Gateoldey of the Solitaire, or Didine Bird of the Island of Rodriguez, 
Pezophaps solitaria (Gmel.). By Alfred Newton, M.A., and Edward Newton, 
M.A. Phil. Trans. 1869, p. 327. ’ 
44, On the Osteology of the Dodo (Didus ineptus, Linn.). By Professor Owen, 
F.R.S. Trans. Zool. Soe. vol. vi. p. 49. a 
45, On the Dodo (Part ii.).—Notes on the Articulated Skeleton of the Dodo (Didus 
ineptus, Linn.) in the British Museum. By Professor Owen, F.R.S. Trans. 
Zool. Soe. vol. vii. p. 518. 
46, On the Land Birds of the Seychelles Archipelago. By Edward Newton, M.A., 
C.M.Z.S. Ibis, 1867, p. 335. 


TIT. Iypran ReEGion. 


1. The Birds of India, being a Natural History of all the Birds known to inhabit 
Continental India: with Descriptions of Species, Genera, Families, Tribes, 
Orders, and a brief Notice of such Families as are not found in India, 
making it a Manual of Ornithology specially adapted for India. By T. C. 
Jerdon. 38 vols. 8vo, Calcutta, 1862-64. 

. The Mammals of India; a Natural History of all the Animals known to inhabit 
Continental India. By T. C. Jerdon. 8vo, Roorkee, 1867. 

. The Reptiles of British India. By Albert C, L. G. Giinther. Small folio, 
London, 1864 (Ray Society). 

. Catalogue of Reptiles in the Museum of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. By 
W. Theobald, jun., Esq. Journ. Asiatic Soc. Beng. 1868 (extra Number). 

. The Fishes of Malabar. By Francis Day. 4to, London, 1865, — 

. Report on the Freshwater Fish and Fisheries of India and Burma. By Surgeon- 
Major Francis Day. Royal 8vo, Caleutta, 1873. 

. Report on the Sea Fish and Fisheries of India and Burma. By Surgeon-Major 
Francis Day. Royal 8vo, Calcutta, 1873. 

. Stray Feathers: a Journal of Ornithology for India and its Dependencies. 
Edited by Allan Hume. Vols. i-ii. 8vo, Caleutta, 1873-75. 

. Contributions to the Ornithology of India.—Sindh. By Allan O, Hume, Hume’s 
Stray Feathers, vol. i. pp. 44, 91. 4 

10, A First List of Birds of the Upper Pegu. Stray Feathers, vol. iii. p. 1. 

11, Catalogue of the Birds found in Ceylon; with some Remarks on their Habits 
and Local Distribution, and Descriptions of two new Species peculiar to the 
Island. By E. W. H. Holdsworth, F.L.S. &e. P. Z. 8. 1872, p. 404. 

12, A List of Birds obtained in the Khasi and North Cachar Hills. By Major 
Godwin-Austen. Journ. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, 1870, pp. 91, 264; 1872, 
pp. 142, 143. > 

13. Catalogue of the Mammals of China (south of the river Yangtsze) and of the 
Island of Formosa. By Robert Swinhoe, F.Z.S. P.Z.S. 1870, p. 615. 

14a, Journal d’un Voyage en Mongolie fait en 1866 sur les auspices de 8. E. M. 
Duruy, Ministre de l'Instruction publique. Par M. 1’Abbé Armand David. 
Nouvelles Arch. du Mus. d’Hist. Nat. tome iii. (Bulletin) p. 18; tome iy. 
(Bulletin) p. 1; tome v. (Bulletin) p. 3. 

b. Notes sur quelques Oiseaux considérés comme nouveaux provenant du Voyage 
de M. ’Abbé Armand David dans le Thibet Oriental par M. J. Verreaux. 
Nouvelles Arch. du Mus. d’Hist. Nat. tome v. (Bulletin) p. 33. 

ec, Notes sur les Espéces Nouvelles d’Oiseaux recueillis par hi. VAbbé Armand 
Dayid dans les Montagnes du Thibet Chinois, par M. J. Verreaux. Nou- 
velles Arch. du Mus. d’Hist. Nat. tome vi. (Bulletin) p. 33. 

d, Additions au Journal du Voyage de M. l’Abbé Armand David, par M. J. Ver- 
reaux, Nouvelles Arch. du Mus. d’Hist. Nat. tome yiii. (Bulletin) p. 187. 


© © =a Go > B & to ab 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 123 


e. Journal d’un Voyage dans le Centre de la Chine et dans le Thibet Oriental, 
par M. Abbé Armand David. Nouvelles Arch. du Mus. d’Hist. Nat. 
tome ix. (Bulletin) p. 15. 

f. Catalogue des Oiseaux de Chine observés dans la partie septentrionale de 
l’Empire (au Nord du Fleuve Bleu) de 1862 a 1870, par M. Armand David. 
Nouvelles Arch. du Mus. d’Hist. Nat. tome vii. (Bulletin) p. 3. 

g. Description des Oiseaux Nouveaux ou incomplétement connus collectés par 
M, ’Abbé Armand David pendant son voyage dans le Thibet oriental et 

_la partie adjacente de la Chine. Par M. J. Verreaux. Nouvelles Arch. du 
Mus. d’Hist, Nat. tome vii. (Bulletin) p. 25. 

15. List of Mammalia, Tortoises, and Crocodiles collected by M. Mouhot in Cam- 
boja. By Dr. John Edward Gray, F.R.S. P. Z. 8. 1861, p. 135. 

16. A Report on the Expedition to Western Yunan wdé Bhamo. By John An- 
derson, M.D. Royal 8vo. Calcutta, 1871. 

17. Catalogue of Mammalia inhabiting the Malayan Peninsula and Islands. By 
T. E. Cantor. Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, vol. xv. (1846) pp. 171, 241. 

18. Catalogue of Reptiles inhabiting the Malayan Peninsula and Islands. By T. E. 

Cantor. Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, vol. xvi. (1847) pp. 607, 897, 1026. 

19. Catalogue of Malayan Fishes. By T. E. Cantor. Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 
vol. xviii. 1849, p. 983. 

20a, Catalogue of a Collection of Birds from Malaya, with Descriptions of New 
Species. By T. C. Eyton. P. Z. 8. 1839, p. 100. 

b. Descriptions of some apparently New Species of Birds from Malacca. By 
T. C. Eyton. Ann. Nat. Hist. xvi, 1845, p. 227. 

21. On the Ornithology of Malacca. By Alfred Wallace. Ann, Nat. Hist. xv. 

1855) p. 95. 

22. ee “ TBinds collected in Tenasserim and in the Andaman Islands. By 
Arthur Viscount Walden. P, ZS. 1866, p. 537. 

23, List of Birds known to occur in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, By V. 
Ball, B.A. Stray Feathers, vol. i. p. 51. 

24. Verhandelingen over de Natuurlijke Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche over- 
zeesche bezittingen, door de Leden der Natuurkundige Commissie in Indié 
en andere Schrijvers. Uitgegeven op Last yan den Koning door C. J. 
Temminck [Zoologie]. Folio, Leiden, 1859-44. 

25, Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle des Pays-Bas. Revue Méthodique et Critique 
des Collections déposées dans cet Etablissement. Par H. Schlegel. Livrai- 
sons 1-11. 8vo, Leyde, 1862-74, 

26. Atlas Ichthyologique des Indes Orientales Néérlandaises, publié sous les aus- 

ices du Gouvernement Colonial Néérlandais par M. P. Bleeker. Vols. ivi. 
olio, Amsterdam, 1862-74. 

27. The Malay Archipelago: the Land of the Orang-Utan and the Bird of Para- 
dise, a Narrative of Travel, with Studies of Man and Nature. By Alfred 
Russel Wallace. 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1869. 

28, List of Birds from the Sula Islands (east of Celebes), with Descriptions of 
new Species. By Alfred Russel Wallace. P. ZS. 1862, p. 333. 

29, List of Birds collected in the Island of Bouru (one of the Moluccas), with De- 
scriptions of new Species. By Alfred Russel Wallace, P. Z, 8, 1863, p. 18, 

30, A List of the Birds inhabiting the Islands of Timor, Flores, and Lombock, 
with Descriptions of the new Species. By Alfred Russel Wallace. P.Z. 8. 
1863, p. 480. 

31. A List of Birds mown to inhabit the Islands of Celebes. By Arthur, Viscount 
Walden, F.R.S. Trans. Z. 8. vol. viii. p. 25. * 

82. Appendix to a List of Birds known to inhabit the Island of Celebes. By 
Arthur, Viscount Walden, F.R.S. Trans. Z.'S. vol. viii. De 109. 

33. Catalogo Systematico degli Uccelli di Borneo, di Tommaso Salvadori, con note 
ed osseryazioni di G. Doria ed O. Beccari intorno alle specie da essi raccolte 
nel Ragiato di Sarawak. Ann. del Museo Civico di Storia Nat. Genova. 
Vol. v. (1874). 

84, Zoological Researches in Jaya,-and the neighbouring Islands. By Thomas 
Horsfield, M.D. 4to, London, 1824. _ 


124. REPORT— 1875. 


35. Descriptive Catalogue of a Zoological Collection made on account of the Hon. 
East-India Company in‘ the Island of Sumatra and its vicinity; with addi- 
tional Notices illustrative of the Natural History of those Countries. By Sir 
Thomas Stamford Raffles, Knt., F.R.S., &e. Linn. Soe. Trans. xiii. (1822) 

. 239. 

36, rake im Archipel der Philippinen von Dr. C. Semper. 4to, Leipzig and 
Wiesbaden, 1868-74. (Still being issued.) 

37. A List of the Birds known to inhabit the pi, ae Archipelago. By Arthur, 
Viscount Walden, F.R.S., President Z.S. Trans. Z. 8. vol. ix. p. 125. 

38. Uebersicht der von Herrn F, F. Jagor auf Malacca, Java, Borneo und den 
Philippinen gesammelten und dem kénigl. zoologischen Museum iibersandten 
Schlangen. Von Hrn. W. Peters. Berlin. Monatsber. 1861, p. 683. 

39. Ueber die von Herrn F. Jagor bisher auf Malacca, Borneo, Java und den 
Philippinen gesammelten Saugethiere aus den Ordnungen der Halbaffen, 
Pelzflatterer und Flederthiere. Von Hrn, W.*Peters. Berlin. Monatsber. 
1861, p. 706. 

40. Ueber die von Herrn F. Jagor in dem ostindischen Archipel gesammelten 
und dem kénigl. zoologischen Museum iibergebenen Fische. Von Hrn. W. 
Peters. Berlin. Monatsber. 1868, p. 254. 


IV. Nearcric Reaion. 


1, Reports of Explorations and Surveys to ascertain the most practicable and 
economical Route for a Railroad from the Mississippi River to the Pacific 
Ocean. Made under the Direction of the Secretary of War in 1853-6. 4to, 
Washington, 1855-60. Mammals. By Spencer F. Baird. Vol. viii. (1857). 

2. On the Eared Seals (Otariad@), with detailed Descriptions of the North-Pacific 
Species, by J. A. Allen; together with an Account of the Habits of the 
Northern Fur-Seal (Callorhinus ursinus), by Charles Bryant. Bull. of the 
Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard College, Camb. vol. ii. No. 1. 

3, The Marine Mammals of the North-western Coast of North America, described 
and illustrated: together with an account of the American Whale-Fishery. 
By Charles M. Scammon. 4to, San Francisco, 1874. 

4, Monograph of the Bats of North America. By H. Allen, M.D. Smithsonian 
Miscell. Coll. vol. vii. (1867), Article I. 

5, The Quadrupeds of North America. By John James Audubon, F.R.S. &c., 
ere ee Rey. John Bachman, D.D. &c. 3 vols. Royal 8yo, New York, 

52-54. 

6, American Ornithology; or the Natural History of the Birds of the United 
States, illustrated with Plates engraved and coloured from Original Draw- 
ings taken from Nature. By Alexander Wilson. 9 vols. 4to, Philadelphia, 
1808-1814. 

7a, The Birds of America, from original Drawings made during a Residence of 
25 years in the United States and their Territories. By John James Au- 
dubon. Folio, London, 1826. 

b. Ornithological Biography, or an account of the Habits of the Birds of the 
United States of America; accompanied by Descriptions of the objects 
represented in the work entitled the ‘Birds of America,’ and interposed 
with Delineations of American Scenery and Manners. By John James 
Audubon. 5 yols. Royal 8vo, Edinburgh, 1831-39. 

ce. The Birds of America, from Drawings made in the United States and their 
Territories. By John James Audubon, F.R.S. &c. 8 vols. Royal 8vo, 
New York, 1844. 

8. American Ornithology; or the Natural History of Birds inhabiting the United 
States, not given by Wilson, with figures drawn, engraved, and coloured 
from Nature. By Charles Lucian Bonaparte. 4 vols. Royal 4to, Phila- 
delphia, 1825-33. 

9, A Manual of the Ornithology of the United States of Canada. By Thomas 


Nuttall. Vol. i. Land Birds. 8yo, Cambridge, 1832, Vol, ii. Water Birds. 
8yo, Boston, 1834. , 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 125 


10. Illustrations of the Birds of California, Texas, Oregon, British and Russian 
America, intended to contain descriptions and figures of all North-American 
Birds not given by former American authors, and a General Synopsis of 
North-American Ornithology. By John Cassin. Royal 8vo. Philadelpha, 
1856. 

11. Reports of Explorations and Surveys for a Railroad Route from the Mississippi 

. to the Pacific Ocean, made under the Direction of the Secretary of War, 
in 1853-56. 4to, Washington, 1855-60. Birds. By Spencer F. Baird ; 
with the cooperation of John Cassin and George N. Lawrence. Vol, ix. 
(1858). 

12, The Birds of North America; the Descriptions of Species based chiefly on the 
Collections in the Museum of the Smithsonian Institution. By Spencer F. 
Baird; with the cooperation of John Cassin and George N, Lawrence. 
2 vols, 4to, Philadelphia, 1860. 

13. A History of North-American Birds. By 8. F. Baird, T. M. Brewer, and R. 
Ridgway. (Land Birds.) 3 vols. Royal 8vo, Boston, 1874. 

14. Key to North American Birds, containing a concise Account of every Species 
of living and fossil Bird at present known from the Continent north of the 
Mexican and United-States Boundary. By Elliott Coues. 3 vols, Royal 
8vo, Salem, 1872. 

15. Birds of the North-west: a Hand-Book of the Ornithology of the Region 
drained by the Missouri River and its Tributaries. By Elliott Coues. 8yo, 
Washington, 1874. (Published by the Department of the Interior, U.S. Geol, 
Survey of the Territories; Miscellaneous Publications, No. 3.) 

16, The new and heretofore unfigured Species of the Birds of North America. 

By Daniel Giraud Elliot. 2 vols. folio, New York, 1869. _ 

17. Ornithology. Vols. i-iii. Land Birds. Edited by 8. F. Baird, from the Manu- 
script and Notes of J. G. Cooper. [Geological Survey of California. ] 
Small 4to, Cambridge, Mass. 1870. 

18. North-American Herpetology; or a Description of the Reptiles inhabiting the 
yin States. By John Edwards Holbrook, M.D. 5 vols. 4to, Philadelphia, 
1842-44, 

19. Catalogue of North-American Reptiles in the Museum of the Smithsonian 
Institution. Part. I. Serpents. By S. F. Baird and OC. Girard. Smith- 
sonian Miscell. Coll. vol. ii. 1862, Article V. 

20. Contributions to the Natural History of the United States of America. By 
Fouis Agassiz. Vol. i. [North-American Testudinata, &c.] 4to, Boston, 
1857. 

21a. A Synopsis of the Cyprinidze of Pennsylyania. By Edward D. Cope. Trans, 
Amer. Phil. Soc. vol. xiii. p. 352. 

b. On the Distribution of Fresh-water Fishes in the Alleghany Region of South- 
western Virginia, By E. D. Cope, A.M. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil, 
vol, vi. p. 207. 

22. Lake Superior: its Physical Character, Vegetation, and Animals, compared 
with those of other and similar regions. By Louis Agassiz. With a Nar- 
rative of the Tour, by J. Elliot Cabot ; and Contributions by other Scientific 
Gentlemen. 8vo, Boston, 1850. 

23, Reports of Explorations and Surveys to ascertain the most practicable and 
economical Route for a Railroad from the Mississippi River to the Pacific 
Ocean. Made in 1853-56. 4to, Washington, 1855-60. Fishes. By Charles 
Girard, M.D. Vol. x. (1858) part iv. 

24, Catalogue of the Fishes in the Collection of the British Museum, By Dr. 
Albert Giinther. 8 vols. 8vo, London, 1859-70. 

25. Manual of the Natural History, Geology, and Physics of Greenland and the 
neighbouring Regions; prepared for the use of the Arctic Expedition of 
1875, under the Direction of the Arctic Committee of the Royal Society, 
and edited by Professor T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S., F.G.S., &c. ; together 
with Instructions suggested by the Arctic Committee of the Royal Society 
for the use of the Expedition. Published by authority of the Lords Com- 
missioners of the Admiralty. 8vo, London, 1875, 


126 REPORT—-1875, 


V. NEoTROPICAL REGION, 


1, On the Mammals of South America. By P. L. Sclater. Quart. Journ. Se. 
1865, p. 605. 

2. Nomenclator Avium Neotropicalium, sive avium que in Regione Neotropica 
hucusque reperte sunt nomina systematice disposita, adjecta sua cuique 
speciei Patria: accedunt Generum et Specierum Novarum Diagnoses. Auc- 
toribus P. L. Sclater et Osberto Salvin. 4to, Londint, 1873. 

.3.a, Note sur quelques Mammiféres du Mexique, par M. H. de Saussure. Rev. 
et Mag. de Zool. 1860, pp. 3, 53, 97, 241, 281, 377, 425, 479, 

b. Note complémentaire sur quelques Mammiféres du Mexique, par M. H. de 
Saussure. Rey. et Mag. de Zool, 1861, p. 3. 

.4, Catalogue of the Birds collected by M. Auguste Sallé in Southern Mexico, 

with Descriptions of New Species. By Philip Lutley Sclater. P. Z.S. 1856, 
. 283, 

5. On Parus meridionalis, and some other species mentioned in the Catalogue of 
Birds collected by M. Sallé in Southern Mexica. By P.L.Sclater. P. ZS. 
1871, p. 81. ; 

6. List of additional Species of Mexican Birds, obtained by M. Auguste Sallé from 
the environs of Jalapa and S. Andres Tuxtla. By P. L. Sclater. P.Z. 8. 
1857, p. 201. 

7. On a Collection of Birds made by Signor Matteo Botteri in the vicinity of Ori- 

: zaba in Southern Mexico. By Philip Lutley Sclater. P. Z. S. 1857, p. 210. 

8. On a Collection of Birds received by M. Sallé from Southern Mexico, By 

: Philip Lutley Sclater. P. Z.8. 1857, p. 226. 

9. Notes on some Birds from Southern Mexico. By Philip Lutley Sclater. 
P. Z. 5. 1858, p. 95. 

10, Ona Collection of Birds received by M. Auguste Sallé from Oaxaca in Southern 
Mexico. By Philip Lutley Sclater. P.Z. 8. 1858, p. 294. 

11. Ona series of Birds collected in the vicinity of Jalapa, in Southern Mexico. 
By Philip Lutley Sclater. P.Z.S. 1859, p. 362. 

12. List of Birds collected by M. A. Boucard in the state of Oaxaca, in South- 
western Mexico, with descriptions of new Species. By Philip Lutley Sclater. 

: P. Z. 5. 1859, p. 369. 

13. Notes on a Collection of Birds from the vicinity of Orizaba and neighbouring 
parts of Southern Mexico. By Philip Lutley Sclater. P.Z.S. 1860, p. 250. 

14, On some Birds recently collected by M. Boucard in Southern Mexico. By 
Philip Lutley Sclater, M.A. P.Z.S. 1862, p. 18. 

15. On some Birds to be added to the Avifauna of Mexico. By P. L. Selater, M.A.- 
P. Z. 8. 1862, p. 368. 

16. List of a Collection of Birds procured by Mr. George H. White in the vicinity 

of the city of Mexico. By P. L. Sclater, M.A. P.Z.S. 1864, p. 172. 

17. A Collection of Birdskins formed by M. Adolph Boucard in the vicinity of Vera 
Cruz, Mexico. By P.L. Sclater. P. Z. S. 1865, p. 397. 

18, On a new species of Finch, obtained by M. Adolphe Boucard, C.M.Z.S., in the 
vicinity of La Puebla, Mexico. By P. L.Sclater. P. Z.S. 1867, p. 1. 

19. Description of a New Species of Mexican Wren. By P. L. Sclater, M.A. 
P. Z. 8. 1869, p. 591. 

20. On a Collection of Birds made by Mr. H. S. Le Strange near the city of Mexico. 
By P. L. Sclater, M.A., and Osbert Salvin, F.L.S. P. Z. 8. 1869, p. 361. 

21. On some recent additions to the Avifauna of Mexico. By P. L. Sclater, M.A., 
and Osbert Salvin, M.A. P. Z. 8. 1870, p. 550. 

22, Ueher eine Vogelsammlung aus Nordwest-Mexico, von Dr. O. Finsch. Abhand. 
naturwissen. Verein zu Bremen, Band ii. (1871) p. 321. 

23. The Geographical Distribution of the Native Birds of the Department of Vera 
Cruz, with a list of the Migratory Species. By F. Sumichrast. Translated 
“ee a French by T. M. Brewer, M.D. Mem. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. vol. i. 

. 542, 
24, The Birds of Western and North-western Mexico, based upon Collections made 
by Col. A, J. Grayson, Capt. J. Xantus, and Fred. Bischoff, now in the 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 127 


Museum of the Smithsonian Institution, at Washington, D.C, By Geo. N, 
Lawrence. Mem. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. vol. ii. p, 265. 
25. On the Ornithology of Central America. By Philip Lutley Sclater and Osbert 
Salvin. Ibis, 1859, pp. 1, 117, 213. 

26. Contributions to the Ornithology of Guatemala, By Osbert Salvin and Philip 
Lutley Sclater. Ibis, 1860, pp. 28, 272, 396. 

27. The Sea-Birds and Waders of the Pacific Coast of Guatemala, By Osbert 
Salvin, M.A. Ibis, 1865, p. 187. 

28. A further Contribution to the Ornithology of Guatemala. By Osbert Salvin, 
M.A. Ibis, 1866, p. 188. 

29. On Birds collected or observed in the Republic of Honduras, with a short 
account of a journey across that country from the Pacific to the Atlantic 
ay : By George Cavendish Taylor, F.R.G.S. Ibis, 1860, pp. 10, 110, 

, oll. 

30. Uebersicht der im Berliner Museum befindlichen Vogel von Costa Rica. Vom 
Dr. Jean Cabanis. Jour. fiir Ornith. 1860, pp. 321, 401; 1861, pp. 1, 81, 241. 

31, A Catalogue of the Birds of Costa Rica. By cl N, Lawrence, Ann. Lyc. Nat. 
Hist, New York, 1868, p. 86. 

82. Notes on Mr. Lawrence’s List of Costa-Rica Birds. By Osbert Salvin, M.A, 
&e. Ibis, 1869, p. 310. _ 

33. On some Collections of Birds from Veragua. By Osbert Salvin, M.A. P.Z.S. 
1867, p. 129; 1870, p. 175. 

84a. Catalogue of a Collection of Birds made in New Granada by James 
M‘Leannan, Esq., with Notes and Descriptions of new Species. By Geo. 
N. = ee Ann. Lye. N. H. New York, vol. vii, pp. 288, 315, 461, vol. 
viii. p. 1. 

b. Notes on .a Collection. of Birds from the Isthmus of Panama. By Philip 
_ Lutley Sclater and Osbert Salvin. P. Z.S. 1864, p. 342. 

35, Mission ‘Scientifique au Mexique et dans Amérique Centrale, ouvrage publié 
par ordre de 8. M. l’Empereur et par les soins du Ministre de 1’Instruction 
og Etudes sur les Reptiles et les Batraciens, par M. Auguste 

mméril et M. Bocourt. Royal 4to, Paris, 1870-74. 
Observations sur les Poissons de la Région Centrale de l’Amérique. Par Léon 
Vaillant et M. Bocourt. Royal 4to, Paris, 1874. 

86. Die Siiugethiere Costaricas, ein Beitrag zur Kenntniss der geographischen 
Verbreitung der Siiugethiere Amerika’s. Von Dr. A. V.Frantzius. Arch. 
fiir Naturgesch. 1869, p. 247. 

37. An Account of the Fishes of the States of Central America, based on collections 
made by Capt J. M. Dow, F. Godman, Esq., and O. Salvin, Esq. By Albert 

Giinther, M.A., M.D., Ph.D., &c. Trans. Z, 8. vol. vi. p. 377. 

88. Oiseaux de Vile de la Trinidad (Antilles). Par A. Léotaud. Royal 8vo, 
Port d’ Espagne, 1866. 

39. On a Collection of Birds from the Island of Trinidad. By O. Finsch. P.Z.8, 
1870, p. 552. 

40-45. On Vestimaciit Birds collected by Mr. A. Goering. By Philip Lutley 

; Sclater, M.A., and Osbert Salvin, M.A. P. Z.S. 1868, pp. 165, 626 ; 1869, 
p- 250; 1870, p. 779; 1875, p. 234. 

46. On some Venezuelan Birds collected by Mr. James M. Spence, By Philip 
Lutley Sclater, M.A., and Oshert Salvi, M.A, P.Z.8. 1873, p. 511, 

47. List of Birds collected by M. Louis Fraser, at Cuenca, Gualaquiza, and Zamora, 

: in the Republic of Ecuador. By Philip Lutley Sclater, M.A. P, Z.8. 1858, 

. 449. 

48, On’ the Birds collected by Mr. Fraser in the vicinity of Riobamba, in the 

Republic of Ecuador. “By Philip Lutley Sclater. P. Z.S. 1858, p. 549. 

49. List of the First Collection of Birds made by Mr. Louis Fraser at Pallatanga, 
Ecuador, with Notes and Descriptions of New Species. By Philip Lutley 
Sclater. P. Z.S. 1859, p. 155. 

50. List of additional Species of Birds collected by Mr. Louis Fraser at Palla- 

tanga, Ecuador, with Notes and Descriptions of new Species. By Philip 
Lutley Sclater, M.A, P,Z.5, 1860, p, 63, 


128 REPORT—1875. 


51. List of Birds collected by Mr. Fraser in the vicinity of Quito, and during 
excursions to Pichinca and Chimborazo; with Notes and Descriptions of 
new Species. By Philip‘Lutley Sclater, M.A. P. Z. S. 1860, p. 73. 

52, List of the Birds collected by Mr. Fraser in Ecuador, at Nanegal, Calacali, 
Perucho, and Puellaro; with Notes and Descriptions of new Species. By 
Philip Lutley Sclater, M.A. P. Z. 8S. 1860, p. 83. 

53. List of Binds collected by Mr. Fraser at Babahoyo in Ecuador, with Descrip- 
tions of new Species. By Philip Lutley Sclater, M.A. P. Z.S. 1860, p. 272. 

54. List of Birds collected by Mr. Fraser at Esmeraldas, Ecuador, with Deserip- 
tions of new Species. By P. L. Sclater. P.Z.S. 1860, p. 291. 

55. Untersuchungen iiber die Fauna Peruana. Von J. J. von Tschudi. 4to, 
St. Gallen, 1844-46. 

56-59, On the Birds of the vicinity of Lima, Peru. By P. L. Sclater, M.A., 
Ph.D. With Notes on their Habits by Prof. W. Nation. P.Z.S. 1866, 
p. 100; 1867, p. 340; 1869, p. 146; 1871, p. 496. 

60. Liste des Oiseaux recueillis par M. Constantin Jelski dans la partie centrale 
du Pérou oecidental. By L. Taczanowski, C.M.Z.8. P. Z. S. 1874, p. 501. 

61. Ueber Dinomys, eine merkwiirdige neue Gattung der stachelschweinartigen 
Nagerthiere aus Peru. Von Hrn. W. Peters. Monatsh. Berl. Ak. 10 July, 
1873. 

62. Ueber neue oder weniger bekannte Gattungen und Arten von Batrachiern. 
Von Hrn. W. Peters. Monatsb. Ak, Berl. 19 May 1873. 

68. Voyage dans l’Amérique méridionale (Le Brésil, la République Orientale de 
l’Uruguay, la République Argentine, la Patagonie, la République du Chili, 
la République de Bolivia, la République du Pérou) exécuté pendant les 
années 1826-33, par Alcide d’Orbigny. 4to, Paris. 

Mammiféres. Par M. Alcide d’Orbigny et Paul Gervais. 1847. 
Oiseaux. Par M. Alcide @Orbigny. 1835-44, 
Reptiles. Par M. Alcide d’Orbigny. 1847. 

64, Reisen in Britisch-Guiana in den Jahren 1840-44, im Auftrag Sr. Majestiit des 
K6nigs von Preussen augsgefiihrt yon Richard Schomburgk. Nebst einer 
Fauna und Flora Guiana’s, nach Vorlagen von Johannes Muller, Ehrenberg, 
Erichson, Klotzsch, Troschel, Cabanis und andern, 3 yols. royal 8yo, 
Leipzig, 1847-48. 

65. Reise in Brasilien auf Befehl Sr. Majestit Maximilian Joseph I. Kénigs von 
Baiern in den Jahren 1817 bis 1820 gemacht.und beschrieben yon Dr. Joh. 
Bapt. von Spix, und Dr, Carl Frieder. Phil, yon Martius. 3 vols. 4to, 
Miinchen, 1823-31. 

66, Expédition dans les parties centrales de l’Amérique du Sud, de Rio de Janeiro & 

ima, et de Lima au Para; exécutée oa ordre du Gouvernement Francais 
pendant les années 1843-47, sous la direction du comte Francois de Cas~ 
telnau. 3 vols. 4to, Paris, 1855-57. 

67. On the Birds of Eastern Peru. By P. L. Sclater, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., Secre- 
tary to the Society, and Osbert Salvin, M.A., F.Z.S. With Notes on the 
Habits of the Birds, by Edward Bartlett. P.Z.S. 1873, p. 252. 

68. On a Collection of Birds transmitted by Mr. H. W. Bates from the Upper 
Amazon. By Philip Lutley Sclater, M.A., Ph.D. P.Z.S. 1857, p. 261. 

69. Description of eight new Species of Birds from South America, By John 
Gould. P.Z.S. 1855, p. 67. : 

70, Catalogue of Birds collected by Mr. E. Bartlett on the river Ucayali, Eastern 
Peru, with Notes and Descriptions of new Species, By P. L. Sclater and 
Osbert Salvin. P.Z.S. 1866, p. 175. 

71. On some Additions to the Catalogue of Birds collected by:Mr. E. Bartlett on 
the River Ucayali. By P. L.Sclater and Oshbert Salvin. P. Z.S. 1866, p. 566. 

72. Catalogue of Birds collected by Mr. E. Bartlett on the River Huallaga, Eastern 
Peru, with Notes and Descriptions of new Species. By P. L. Sclater, M.A., 
Ph.D., and Osbert Salvin, M.A, P. Z. 8. 1867, p. 748. 

78, List of Birds collected at Pebas, oe Amazons, by Mr. John Hauxwell, with 


Notes and ce of new Species. By P, L. Sclater and Osbert Salvin. 
P.Z.S, 1867, p. 977. ; 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 129 


74. On two new Birds collected by Mr. E. Bartlett in Eastern Peru. By P. L. 
Sclater, M.A., Ph.D., and Osbert Salvin, M.A. P.Z.S. 1869, p. 437. 

75. List of Birds collected by Mr. Wallace on the Lower Amazons and Rio Negro. 
By P. L. Sclater, M.A., F.R.S., and Osbert Salvin, M.A. P. Z.S. 1867, 

. 566. 

76. Zur Ornithologie Brasiliens. Resultate yon Johann Natterers Reisen in den 
Jahren 1817 bis 1835. Von August von Pelzeln. 8vo, Wien, 1871. 

77. Systematische Uebersicht der Thiere Brasiliens, welche wahrend einer Reise 
durch die Provinzen von Rio de Janeiro und Minas Geraés gesammelt oder 
beobachtet wurden von Dr, Hermann Burmeister. Theil i—iii. 8vo, Bertin, 
1854-56. 

78. Erliuterungen zur Fauna Brasiliens, enthaltend Abbildungen und ausfiihrliche 
Beschreibungen neuer oder ungeniigend bekannter Thier-Arten, Von Dr. 
Herm. Burmeister. Folio, Berlin, 1856. 

79. Beitriige zur Naturgeschichte von Brasilien, von Maximilian Prinzen zu Wied. 
4 vols. 8vo, Weimar, 1825-33. 

80. On the Ophidians of the Province of Bahia, Brazil. By Dr. Otho Wucherer, 
C.M.Z.S8. P. Z.8. 1861, pp. 118, 322; 1863, p. 55. 

81. Beitriige zur Kenntniss der Wirbelthiere Siidbrasiliens, von Dr. Reinhold 
Hensel. Arch. fiir Naturgesch. 1867, p. 120; 1868, p. 323; 1870, p. 50. 

82. Beitriizge zur Kenntniss der Siiugethiere Siid-Brasiliens. Von Dr. Reinhold 
Hensel. Abh. Ak. Berlin, 1872, pp. 1-180, 3 pls. 

83. Bidrag til Kundskab om Fuglefaunaen i Brasiliens Campos af J. Reinhardt. 
Vidensk. Meddel. fra den Naturhist. Forening i Kjobenhavn, 1870, p. 315. 

84, Zur Ornithologie der Provinz Santa Catharina, Siid-Brasilien, Von Hans Graf 
y. Berlepsch. Journ. fiir Ornithologie, 1873, p. 225; 1874, p. 241. 

85 a. Apuntamientos para la Historia Natural de los Quadriipedos del Paragiiay y 
Rio de la Plata, escritos por Don Felix de Azara. 8vo, Madrid, 1802. 

b. Apuntamientos para la Historia Natural de los Paxaros del Paragiiay y Rio de 
le Plata, escritos por Don Felix de Azara. 38 vols. 8vo, Madrid, 1802-1805. 

86. Systematischer Index zu Don Felix de Azara’s Apuntamientos para la historia 
natural de las paxaros del Paraguay y Rio de la Plata. Von Dr. G. Hartlaub. 
Small 4to, Bremen, 1837. 

87. Naturgeschichte der Siiugethiere von Paraguay, von Dr. J. R. Rengger, 8vo, 
Basel, 1830. 

88. Reise durch die La Plata-Staaten, mit besonderer Riicksicht auf die physische 
Beschaffenheit und den Culturzustand der Argentinischen Republick. 
Ausgefiihrt in den Jahren 1857, 1858, 1859 und 1860. Von Dr. Hermann 
Burmeister. 2 vols. Haile, 1861. 

89. Monografia de los Glyptodontes en el Museo Publico de Buenos Aires, Por 
Dr. German Burmeister. Anales del Museo Publico de Buenos Aires, 
vol. ii. p. 1. 

90. List of Birds collected at Conchitas, Argentine Republic, by Mr. William H. 
Hudson. By P. L. Sclater, M.A., and Osbert Salvin, M.A. P.Z.S. 1868, 
p. 137. 

91. Second List of Birds collected at Conchitas, Argentine Republic, by Mr. Wil- 
liam H. Hudson, together with some Notes upon another collection from the 
same locality. By P. L. Sclater, M.A., and Osbert Salvin, M.A. P.Z.S 
1869, p. 158. 

92. Third List of Birds collected at Conchitas, Argentine Republic, by Mr. Wil- 
liam H. Hudson. By P.L. Sclater, M.A., and Osbert Salvin, M.A, P.Z.S. 
1869, p. 631. 

93. Letter on the Ornithology of Buenos Ayres. By William H. Hudson, C.M.Z.S, 
P.Z.S. 1870, p. 87, 

94. Second Letter on the Ornithology of Buenos Ayres. By William H. Hudson, 
C.M.Z.S. P.Z.S. 1870, p. 112. 

95. Third Letter on the Ornithology of Buenos Ayres. By William H. Hudson, 
C.M.Z.S. P.Z.S. 1870, p. 158. 

96. Fourth Letter on the Ornithology of Buenos Ayres. By William H. Hudson, 
C.M.Z.S. P.Z.S, 1870, p. 332, 


130 : REPORT—1875. 


97. Fifth and Sixth Letters on the Ornithology of Buenos Ayres. By William 
H. Hudson, C.M.Z.S. P. Z. 8. 1870, np 545. 

98, Seventh Letter on the Ornithology of Buenos Ayres, By William H. Hud- 
son, C.M.Z.S. P. Z. 8. 1870, p. 671. 

99. Highth Letter on the Ornithology of Buenos Ayres, By William H, Hud- 
son, C.M.Z.S, P. Z. 8. 1870, p. 748. 

100. Ninth Letter on the Ornithology of Buenos Ayres. By William H. Hudson, 
C.M.Z.S. P.Z.S. 1870, p. 798. 

101. The Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. ‘Beagle, under the Command of 
Captain Fitzroy, R.N., during the years 1832 to 1836. Published with the 
approval of the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury. Edited 
and superintended by Charles Darwin, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., &c. 4to, London, 
1840-43. 

Part I. Fossil Mammalia. By Richard Owen. 1840. = 

Part II. Mammalia. By George R. Waterhouse; with Notice of their Habits 
and Ranges, by Charles Darwin, M/A. 1839. 

Part III. Birds. By John Gould. 1841. 

Part IV. Fish. By the Rev. Leonard Jenyns, M.A. &e. 1842. 

Part V. Reptilia. By Thomas Bell, F.R.S. &e. 1843. 

102, On the Birds of the Rio Negro of Patagonia. By W. H. Hudson, C.M.Z.S, 
With Notes by P. L. Sclater, M.A., Ph.D., &e. P.Z.S. 1872, p. 534. 

103. Notes on the Reptiles, Amphibia, Fishes, Mollusca, and Crustacea obtained 
during the Voyage of H.M.S. ‘ Nassau,’ in the years 1866-69. By Robert 
O. Cunningham, M.D., F.L.S., &c. Trans. Linn. Soe. vol. xxvii. p. 465. 

104, List of Birds collected, during the Survey of the Straits of Magellan, by Dr. 
Cunningham. By P. L. Sclater, M.A., Ph.D., and Osbert Salvin, M.A. &e, 
Ibis, 1868, p. 183; 1869, p. 283; 1870, p. 499. 

105. List of Birds from the Falkland Islands, with descriptions of the Eggs of 
some of the Species from specimens collected principally by Captain C. C. 
Abbott, of the Falkland-Islands Detachment. By John Gould, F.R.S. 

106 a, Catalogue of the Birds of the Falkland Islands, By P. L. Sclater, M.A. 
P. Z.S. 1860, p. 382. 

b, Additions and Corrections to the List of Birds of the Falkland Islands. By 
P. L. Sclater, M.A., Ph.D. P.Z.S. 1861, p. 45; 1864, p. 73. 
107 a. The Penguins of the Falkland Islands, By Capt. C. C. Abbott. This, 


1860, p. 336. 

b, Notes on the Birds of the Falkland Islands. By Captain C. C. Abbott, Ibis, 
1861, p. 149. 

108. Notes on the Birds of Chili. By P. L. Sclater, M.A., Ph.D., &. P.Z.S. 
1867, p. 319. 


109. Catalogo de las aves chilenas existentes en el Museo Nacional de Santiago, 
por Don Rudolfo Armando Philippi. Anales de la Universidad de Chile, 
tomo xxxi, (1868) p. 241. 

110, Characters of new Species of Birds collected by Dr. Habel in the Galapagos 

' Islands. By P. L. Sclater, M.A., Ph.D., and Osbert Salvin, M.A. P. ZS, 

1870, p. 322. : 

111. On Birds from the Galapagos Islands. By Prof. Carl J. Sundevall, F.M.Z.S. 
P. Z. 8. 1871, p. 124. 

112 a. A List of Birds seen at the Bahamas, from Jan. 20th to May 14th, 1859, 
with descriptions of new or little-known species. By Henry Bryant. Proc, 
Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. vol. vii. (1859-61) p. 102. 

b. Additions to a List of Birds seen at the Bahamas. By Henry Bryant, 

Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. vol. xi. (1866-68) p. 63. 

113, Historia Fisica, Politica y Natural de la Islade Cuba. Di Ramon de Ja Sagra, 

114. Aves de la Isla de Cuba, por Juan Lembeye. Royal 8vo. Habana, 1850, 

115. Dr. J. Gundlach’s Beitrage zur Ornithologie Cuba’s, nach Mittheilungen des 
Reisenden an Hrn. Bez.-Dir. Sezekorn in Cassel: von letzterem zusammen 
gestellt, mit Zusiitzen und Anmerkungen geordnet yom Herausgeber. Journ. 
f. _ 1854, B, Ixxvii.; 1855, p. 465; 1856, pp. 1-97, 337 et 417; 1857, 
p- 225, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 131 


116, Tabellarische Uebersicht aller bisher auf Cuba beobachteten Végel. Von 
Dr. J. Gundlach. Journ. fiir Ornithol. 1861, p. 321. 

117. Repertorio Fisico-Natural de la Isla de Cuba. Director Felipe Poey. Tomo i. 
8vo, Habana, 1865-66. 

118. Memorias sobre la Historia Natural de la Isla de la Cuba, acompaiiadas de 
sumarios latinos y extractos en Frances, por Felipe Poey. 2 vols. royal 

- 8yo, Habana, 1851-58. 

119. The Birds of Jamaica. By Philip Henry Gosse, assisted by Richard Hill, 
Hsq., of Spanish-Town. 8vo, London, 1847. 

120. A Naturalist’s Sojourn in Jamaica. By Philip Henry Gosse, assisted by 
Richard Hill. 8vo, London, 1851. 

121, Notes on a Collection of Mammals made by the late Mr. W. Osburn in 

Jamaica. By Robert F. Tomes, C.M.Z.8. P. Z. 8. 1861, p. 63. 

122. List of a Collection of Birds made by the late Mr. W. Osburn in Jamaica, 
with Notes. By P. L. Sclater, M.A., Ph.D., &e. P. Z.S. 1861, p. 69. 

123. Notes on the Birds of Jamaica. By W.T. March. With remarks by J. F. 
Baird. Proc, Ac. Sc. Phil. 1863, p. 150, 283. 

124, Liste des oiseaux rapportés et observés dans la République Dominicaine 
(ancienne partie Espagnole de Vile St.-Domingue ou d’Haiti), par M. 
A. Sallé pendant son voyage de 1849 4 1851. P.Z.S. 1857, p. 230. 

125, A List of the Birds of St. Domingo, with Descriptions of some new Species 
or Varieties. By Henry Bryant, M.D. Proce. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. vol. 
xi, (1866-67), p. 89. 

126. Five Months in the West Indies. By E. Cavendish Taylor, M.A., F.Z.S. 
(Part I, Trinidad and Venezuela; Part IL. Martinique, Dominica, and 

Porto Rico.) Ibis, 1864, pp. 73, 157. 

127, A List of Birds from Porto Rico presented to the Smithsonian Institution by 
Messrs, Robert Swift and George Latimer, with Descriptions of new Species 
or Varieties. By Henry Bryant, M.D. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. vol. x. 
(1864-66) p. 248. 

128, Catalogue of Birds from the Island of St. Thomas, West Indies, collected and 
ee to the Academy of Natural Sciences by Mr. Robert Swift. With 

otes by John Cassin. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. 1860, p. 374. 

129. Catalogue of Birds collected at the Island of Sombrero, W. I., with Observa- 
tions by A. A. Julien. By Geo. N. Lawrence. Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. 
N. York, vol. viii. in 92. , 

130. Observations on the Birds of St. Croix, West Indies, made between February 
20th and August 6th, 1857, by Alfred Newton; and between March 4th 
tes September 28th, 1858, by Edward Newton. Ibis, 1859, pp. 59, 138, 

52, 365. 

151, Foglarne p& én St Barthelemy, efter de af Dr. A. von Goés hemsanda samlin- 
arna bestiimde. Af Carl J. Sundevall. Ofversigt af Kongl. Vet. Akad. 
dr. 1869, p. 579. 

182. Description de quelques Oiseaux de la Guadeloupe, par M. F, De Lafresnaye. 

; Rev. Zool. vii. p. 167. 

133. List of the Birds exhibited at the International Exhibition by M. Bélanger 

from Martinique, mounted by Verreaux. Ibis, 1862, p. 288. 

154, On the Birds of the Island of Santa Lucia, West Indies. By P. L, Sclater, 
M.A., Ph.D., &. P. Z. 8. 1871, p. 263. 

135. Observations on the Birds of St. Lucia. By the Rey. J. E. Semper, Colonial 
Chaplain. With Notes by P. L. Sclater. ‘P. Z. S. 1872, p. 647. 

136. The History of Barbadoes, comprising a Geographical and Statistical Descrip- 
tion of the Island ; a Sketch of the Historical Events since the Settlement: 
and an Account of its Geology and Natural Productions. By Sir Robert 
H.Schomburgk, Ph.D. Royal 8vo, London, 1848. 

137. Hore Zoologice. Ornithology of the Island of Tobago. By Sir William 
Jardine. Ann. Nat. Hist. 1846, xviii. p. 114; 1847, xix. p. 78, xx. pp. 528, 
370. 

138. On a small Collection of Birds from Barbadves, West Indies. By P. L, Sclater, 

l P. ZS, 1874, p. 174, chee diets Sada AOR AS ee, 


1382 REPORT—1875. 


NG Gf 


21, 


22, 


. Description of Australian Fish. By 


VI. AUSTRALIAN REGION, 


. The Mammals of Australia. By John Gould, F.R.S. &e. 38 vols. folio, 


London, 1863. 


. The Mammals of Australia, illustrated by Miss Harriet Scott and Mrs. Helena 


Forde, for the Council of Education ; with a short account of all the species 
hitherto described. By Gerard Krefft, F.Z.S. &e. Folio, Sydney, 1871. 


. Mammalia, Recent and Extinct, an Elementary Treatise for the Use of Public 


Schools of New South Wales. Sect. B, Pinnata. By A. W. Scott. 8vo, 
Sydney, 1873. 


. The Birds of Australia. By John Gould, F.R.S. 7 vols, folio, London, 1848; 


and a Supplement, folio, 1869. 


. Handbook of the Birds of Australia, By John Gould, F.R.S. &e. 2 vols, 


royal 8vo, London, 1865. 


. The Ornithology of Australia. By Silvester Diggles. Small folio, Queensland, 


n. d. (not completed). 


. Monograph of the Psittacide, or Parrot Family of Australia. By the Rey. J. 


J. Halley. Mlustrated from Original Drawings. By James W. Sayer. 
No. 1. Small folio, Ballarat, 1871. 


. The Snakes of Australia. By Gerard Krefft. 4to, London, 1869. 
. The Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.SS. ‘Erebus’ and ‘Terror,’ under the command 


of Captain Sir James Clark Ross, R.N., F.R.S., during the years 1839 to 1848. 
By authority of the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty. Edited by John 
Richardson, M.D., F.R.8., &c., and John Edward Gray, Ph.D., F.R.S., &e. 
Reptiles. By Albert Giinther, M.A., M.D., Ph.D. 4to, London, 1846-74. 
Ichthyology. By Sir John Richardson, Knt., M.D., F.R.S., &e. 4to, Lon- 
don, 1844-48. 


. The Lizards of Australia and New Zealand in the Collection of the British 


Museum (with 18 plates of the new species by Mr. Ford). By John Ed- 
ward Gray, Ph.D., F.R.S., &e. 4to, London, 1867. 


. On some new species of Fish from Australia, By John Richardson. P. Z.8. 


1840, p. 25. 


. On some new or little-known Fishes from the Australian Seas. By John Rich- 


ardson. P.Z. 8. 1841, p. 21. 


. Contributions to the Ichthyology of Australia. By John Richardson. Ann. N.H. 


1842, ix. pp. 15, 120, 207, 384, x. Pp. 25; 1843, xi. pp. 22, 169, 352, 422, 489, 
ohn Richardson. Trans, Z.S. iii. (1849) 
pp- 69, 133. 


. Notices of Australian Fish. By John Richardson. P. Z. 8. 1850, p. 58; and 


Ann. Nat. Hist. vii. (1851) p. 278. 


. Contributions to the Ichthyology of Australia. By Count. F. de Castelnau. 


No, i. The Melbourne Fish-Market. Proc. Zool. & Acclim, Soe, Victoria, 
vol. i. p. 29, 


. Contributions to the Ichthyology of Australia. By Count F. de Castelnau. 


No. ui. Note on some South Australian Fishes. Proc. Zool. & Acclim, 
Soc. Victoria, vol. i. p. 243. 


. Contributions to the Ichthyology of Australia. By Count F. de Castelnau. 


No. iii. Supplement to the Fishes of Victoria. Proc. Zool. & Acclim, Soc. 
Victoria, vol. ii. p. 37. 


. Contributions to the Ichthyology of Australia. By Count F. de Castelnau. 


No. ivy. Fishes of South Australia. Proc, Zool. & Acclim. Soc. Victoria, 
vol. ii. p. 59. 


. Contributions to the Ichthyology of Australia. By Count F. de Castelnau. 


No. v. Notes on Fishes from North Australia. Proc. Zool. & Acclim. Soc, 
Victoria, vol. ii. p. 83. 

Contributions to the Ichthyology of Australia. By Count F. de Castelnau. 
No. vi. Notes on Fishes from Knob Island. Proc. Zool. & Acclim. Soe, 
Victoria, vol. ii. p. 98. 

Contributions to the Ichthyology of Australia. By Count F. de Castelnau. 
No. vii. Fishes of New Caledonia. Pr. Zool. & Acclim, Sc. Vict, vol, ii. p. 110, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 133 


23. Contributions to the Ichthyology of Australia. By Count F. de Castelnau. 
No. viii. Fishes of Western Australia. Proc. Zool. & Acclim. Soc. Victoria, 
vol. ii. p. 121. 

24. Contributions to the Ichthyology of Australia. By Count F. de Castelnau. 
No. ix. New sorts for the Victorian Fauna. Proc. Zool. & Acclim. Soc. 

- Victoria, vol. ii. p. 150. 

25. On the Zoology of New Guinea. By P. L. Sclater, M.A. &c. Journ. Proce. 
Linn. Soc. (Zoology), vol. ii. (1858) p. 149. 

26. Catalogue of the Mammalia and Birds of New Guinea in the Collection of the 
British Museum. By John Edward Gray, Ph.D., and George Robert Gray. 
8yvo, London, 1859. 

27. On some new and rare Birds from New Guinea, By Alfred Russel Wallace. 
P. Z. 8S. 1862, p. 164. 

28. Neu-Guinea und seine Bewohner. Von Otto Finsch. 8vo, Bremen, 1865. 

29. Observations Zoologiques. Par H. Schlegel. Ned. Tijdschr. vol. iii. pp. 181, 
249, 325 ; vol. iv. pp. 1, 33. : 

30a, Exhibition of some Birds collected in New Guinea by Signor d’Albertis, and 
Description of a new Species of Paradise-bird. By P. L. Sclater, MA., 
Ph.D., &e. P. Z. 8. 1873, p. 557. 

b. Characters of new Species of Birds discovered in New Guinea by Signor d’Al- 
bertis. By P. L. Sclater, M.A., Ph.D. P. Z. 8S, 1873, p. 690. 

31-36. Ueber neue und ungeniigend bekannte Vogel von Neu-Guinea und den 
Inseln der Geelvinksbai. Von Dr. Adolf Bernhard Meyer. Sitzb. der k. 
Akad. der Wissensch. Wien, Bd. Ixix. (1874) pp. 74, 202, 386, 493; Bd. 
lxx. (1874) pp. 110, 200. 

37. Enumerazione dei Rettili raccolti dal Dott. O. Beccari in Amboina, alle isole 
Aru ed alle isole Kei durante gli anni 1872-73, per G. Doria. Ann. del 
Mus. Ciy. di St. Nat. di Genova, vol. vi. (1874) p. 5. 

38. Uebersicht der von mir auf Neu-Guinea und den Inseln Jobi, Mysore und Ma- 
foor im Jahre 1873 gesammelten Amphibien, von Dr. A. B. Meyer. Monats. 
der kgl. Akad. der Wissensch. zu Berlin, 1874, p. 128. 

39. Verslag omtrent reptilien van Nieuw-Guinea, aangeboden door H. van Rosen- 
berg, door P. Bleeker. Nat. Tijds. voor Nederl. Indié, vol. xvi. (Batavia, 
1858-59) p. 420. 

40. On a Collection of Birds from the Solomon Islands. By P. L. Sclater, M.A., 
Ph.D., F.R.S., &. P. Z. S. 1869, p. 118. 

41. Jottings during the Cruise of H.M.S. ‘Curacoa’ among the South-Sea Islands in 
1865. By Julius L, Brenchley, M.A., F.R.G.S. Royal 8vo, London, 1873. 


VII. Pacrric Reeton. 


. Transactions and Proceedings of the New-Zealand Institute, edited and published 
under the authority of the Board of Governors of the Institute. By James 
Hector, M.D., F.R.S. Vols. ivi. Royal 8vo, Wellington, 1869-74. 

PA ote he the Birds of New Zealand. By Walter Lawry Buller. . 4to, Zon- 

on, 3. 

. Report on the present State of the Ichthyology of New Zealand. By John 
Richardson, M.D., F.R.8., &c. Report British Assoc. 1842, p. 12. 

. Beitrag zur Fauna a! aa eee Ornithologie der Viti-, Samoa- und 
Tonga-Inseln. Von O, Finsch und G. Hartlaub. Royal 8vo, Halle, 1867. 

. Journal des Museum Godeffroy. Geographische, ethnographische, und natur- 
wissenschaftliche Mittheilungen. Heft i—viii. 4to, Hamburg, 1873-75. 

. Andrew Garrett’s Fische de Siidsee, beschrieben und redigirt yon Albert C. L. 

G. Ginther. Journ. Mus. Godeflroy. Heft iii., v. & vii. (1873-74). 

Jottings during the Cruise of H.M.S. ‘ Curagoa’ among the South-Sea Islands in 

1865. By Julius L. Brenchley, M.A., F.R.G.S. Royal 8vo, London, 1873. 

. Synopsis of the Birds hitherto described from Hawaiian Islands. By Sandford 

B. Dole. Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. vol. xii. p. 294. 

. Remarks on the Avifauna of the Sandwich Islands. By P. L. Sclater, M.A., 
Ph.D. F.R.S., &e. Ibis, 1871, p. 356. 


r— 


ao - Cc wb 


Do - 6 W-& 


134 REPORT—1875. 


ANATOMY AND PHysioLoey. 


Address to the Department of Anatomy and Physiology. 
By Professor Crutanp, M.D., F.RS., Vice-President of the Section. 


I shall not venture to occupy the time of the Section with any résumé of the 
work done in Anatomy and Physiology during the past year, as such information 
is readily accessible in the pages of journals and year-books. I shall content myself 
with making some comments on the condition of Anatomy at the present time in a 
few important particulars. 

I had intended to speak also of some subjects connected with Physiology; but I 
find that I cannot do so without lengthening my remarks to a greater extent than 
might be desirable. I shall be content, therefore, so far as that science is concerned, 
to mention that, although Experimental Physiology is probably less cultivated in 
this country than in any other in which Biology is studied, it has been practically 
decided by Parliament that it is quite time to put some check on investigation in 
that direction; for, as every one knows, a Royal Commission has been appointed 
to inquire into vivisection. In the scientific world all are agreed, whatever 
opinions may prevail in other sections of the community, that the man who would 
wantonly inflict pain on a brute beast is himself a brute, and deserving to be 
roughly handled; and because there is no difference of opinion on that subject, and 
because no experimental science can well prosper if one man is to judge for another 
what experiments are justifiable to institute or to repeat, or are likely to give im- 
portant results, I do deplore the clamour which well-meaning persons have raised, 
and regret that it has been so far yielded to. 

In Anatomy the most important progress in recent years has been made in those 
departments which abut most closely on Physiology, namely, the microscopy of the 
tissues and development. The whole conception of the nutrition of the body has 
become altered in comparatively recent years by the additions to our knowledge of - 
the nucleated corpuscles, which are the living elements of which it is composed ; 
and principally by the recognition of the secondary nature of cell-walls, the close 
connexion or even continuity of the nerves with other textures, and the identity of 
the white corpuscles of the blood with amceboid or undifferentiated corpuscles out- 
side the vessels. The origin of every living corpuscle from corpuscles preexisting 
is no longer difficult to imagine, but may, I incline to think, be almost looked on 
as proved. The history of each may be traced back through conjugated germs to 
the corpuscles of preceding generations in uninterrupted succession, and the pedigree 
of the structural elements is seen to differ in no way from that of individual plants 
or animals. It is true, indeed, that no absolute proof exists that new living cor- 
puscles originating by mere deposit are not added to the others; but the evidence 
against such a thing taking place is exactly of the same description as that which 
exists against spontaneous generation of independent organisms, namely, that things 
previously unexplained by the theory of parentage are explained now, while, on 
the other hand, there is no sufficient evidence of the origin of life by any other 
mode. : 

The advance of Histology in recent years is owing in part to the facility of ob- 
taining good microscopes at moderate prices having brought the study within the 
reach of a great and increasing crowd of observers. At first the progress of His- 
tology was influenced by the steps of improvement in the manufacture of micro- 
scopes ; but now, for a number of years back, we have been in possession of 
iustruments thoroughly suited for the investigation of tissues; and I think it will 
be generally admitted that the highest powers which have been manufactured are 
not those which have advanced discovery most, or are most likely, in the present 
state of science, to yield the richest harvest. We appear to be more dependent 
now on new methods of preparation. Thus, if we go back for a considerable 
number of years, we cannot but remember what a valuable addition glycerine 

roved when it came first into use, and what a harvest of discovery followed the 
introduction of chromic acid. More recently, the methods of transparent injec- 
tion, of preparing sections by imbedding, the freezing of tissues, the use of carmine 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 135 


and other pigments for staining, the resort to metallic depositions by the use of 
osmic acid, silyer and gold, and a variéty of other additions to our means of pre- 
paration have cei results of an astonishing kind, which have changed the 
whole aspect of histology from that which it wore when I myself first took an 
interest in the subject. 

Leaving Histology, I shall devote the rest of my remarks to the morphology of 
the Vertebrata. Here I am less disposed to indulge a gratulatory vein. No doubt 
within the last dozen years we have had work to be grateful for. Worthy of a 
prominent place in this, as in other departments of anatomy, is the encyclopaedic 
work, the ‘Legons’ of Milne-Edwards, invaluable as a treasury of reference to all 
future observers; while the memoirs of Gegenbaur on the carpus, on the shoulder- 
girdle, and on the skulls of Selachian fishes, and Kitchen Parker’s memoirs devoted 
to mature forms, may be taken as examples that morphological problems suggested 
by adult comparative anatomy have not lost their attraction to men capable of 
elaborate original research. And I the more willingly select the names of these 
two writers, because on one subject on which they have written, the shoulder- 
girdle, I am compelled to differ from their conclusions and to adhere rather to those 
of Owen, so far as the determination of the different elements in fishes is concerned ; 
and by stating this (although the subject cannot be now discussed) I am enabled 
to illustrate that the appreciation of the value of elaborate and painstaking work is 
a matter totally distinct from agreement with the conclusions which may be arrived 
at in the investigation of complicated problems, although wisdom and penetration 
as to these must ever command admiration. 

But when one looks back on the times of Meckel and Cuvier, and on the activity 
inspired by the speculations of the much-abused Oken, the writings of Geoffroy 
St.-Hilaire, the less abstrusely speculative part of the works of G. C. Carus, and 
the careful monographs of many minor writers; when one reflects on the splendid 
grasp of Johannes Miiller, and thinks of the healthy enthusiasm created in this 
country for a number of years by Owen’s ‘ Archetype and Homologies of the Ver- 
tebrate Skeleton,’ and then contemplates the state of vertebrate morphology at the 
present moment, it seems to me that its homological problems and questions of 
theoretical interest do not attract so much attention as they did, or as they deserve. 

There can be no doubt that a great and curious influence has been exercised on 
morphology by the rise of the doctrine of the origin of species by natural selection. 
Attention has been thereby directed strongly for a number of years to varieties ; 
and probably it is to this doctrine that we owe the larger number of observations 
made on variations of muscles, nerves, and other structures. Particularly elaborate 
have been the records of muscular variations, very praiseworthy, interesting to the 
recorders, very dry to most other people, and hitherto, so far as I know, barren 
enough of any general conclusions. So much the more credit is due to those 
who have worked steadily in faith that beauty will emerge to gild their results 
some day. 

But the doctrine of Natural: Selection has had a further effect in anatomical 
study, aiding the reaction against the search for internal laws or plans regulating 
the evolution of structures, and directing attention to the modifying influences of 
extérnal agencies. This effect has happened naturally enough, but it has been far 
from just; rather is it a pendulum-like swing to another extreme from what had 
previously been indulged in. The doctrine of natural selection starts with the 
recognition of an internal formative force which is hereditary; and in the develop- 
ment of the doctrine, the limits of hereditary resemblance have been greatly studied; 
and further, it will be observed that one of the fundamentals of the doctrine is, 
that the formative force alters its character gradually and permanently when traced 
from generation to generation in great tracts of time. Now I am not going to enter 
on a threadbare discussion of the origin of species in this company; suflice it to 
say that, while the existence and extensive operation of such a thing as natural 
selection seems to have been convincingly proved, it isa very different thing to 
allege that it has been the sole, or even the principal agent in producing the evolu- 
tions of living forms on the face of the earth. So far as Anatomy is concerned, it 
is a secondary matter whether the link between the members of the evolving hosts 
of life have been genetic or not. But I wish to point out that, even pushing the 


136 : REPORT—1875. 


Darwinian theory to the utmost possible extreme, the action of external agents 
infers the existence of something acted on ; and the less directly they act, the more 
importance must be given to the hereditary or internal element. We are there- 
fore presented with a formative force, which exhibited itself in very simple trains 
of phenomena in the first beginnings of life, and now is manifested in governing the 
complex growth of the highest forms. We are set face to face with that formative 
force, and are obliged to admit its inherent capability of changing its action; and 
that being the case, is it more of an assumption to declare that the changes are all 
accidental and made permanent by accident of external circumstance, or to con- 
sider that it has been the law proper to this force to have been adequate to raise 
forms, however liable to modification by external circumstances—to raise them, I 
say, from the simple to the complex, acting through generations on the face of the 
earth, precisely as it acts in the evolution of a single egg into an adult individual ? 
This is that formative force which has been elaborately shown by Mr. Darwin, in 
launching his theory of ‘ pangenesis,” not only to be conveyed through whole or- 
ganisms and their seed, but to pervade at all times the minutest particles of each ; 
and I merely direct attention to the fact that its extension over the whole history 
of life on the globe must be granted, and ask if, in the range of forms which furnish 
at the present day an imperfect key to the ages which are past, there is not exhi- 
bited a development comparable, in its progression to definite goals, with what is 
shown in the life of a single plant or animal. For my own part, I am fully con- 
vinced of a unity of plan running through animal forms, and reaching, so far as the 
main line is concerned, its completion in the human body. I confess that I think 
that there is evidence that animal life has reached its preordained climax in 
humanity ; and I cannot think it likely that, as myriads of years roll on, descendants 
differing in toto from man will be developed. ‘To argue the subject would be to 
enter on the largest subjects of morphological anatomy, and on speculations on 
which agreement could not be expected. Even, however, in the nature of the 
variations in the human race there seems to be some evidence that the progress of 
evolution is to be traced from man, not to other animal forms yet to appear, but, 
through his psychical nature, into the land of the unseen. Those variations, keep- 
ing out of view differences of bulk and stature, which appear to have some relation 
to geographical position, are principally to be found in the head, the part of the body 
most closely connected with the development and expression of the mental cha- 
racter ; and I may mention that when, some years ago, my attention was directed 
to the variations of the skull, the only part whose variations in different races I have 
had opportunity of studying with any degree of minuteness, I became satisfied that 
in uncivilized races there might be distinguished skulls which had undergone here- 
ditary degeneration, others which had reached the most advanced development 
possible for them, and a third set, notably the Kaffirs, with large capabilities for 
improvement in the future. Indeed it is beyond doubt that there is a limit for 
each type of humanity beyond which it cannot pass in the improvement of the 
physical organization necessary for mental action*. 

There are also some curious indications in human structure of the formative force 
nearing the end of itsjourney. Inthe detailsof the skeletons of other animals one sees 
the greatest precision of form; but thereare various exceptions tothisneatness of finish 
in the skeleton of man, and they are found in parts specially modified in connexion 
with the peculiarities of his development, and not requiring exactness of shape forphy- 
siological purposes ; while, on the other hand, physiognomical mould and nicety of 
various physiological adaptations are found in perfection. Look at the variations 
in the breast-bone, especially at its lower extremity, which is never shapely, as it 


* T allude to the circumstances—that under the influence of civilization the length of 
the base of the skull does not increase, but positively decreases ; that the proportion of the 
extent of the arch to the base has strict limits; that the curvature of the base in some un- 
civilized races falls slightly short of the normal; that in others it transcends the normal 
by a peculiar process of degeneration between the sphenoid and ethmoid ; and that increased 
capacity of the cranial cavity in the progress of civilization is obtained almost entirely by 
increase of breadth and by the rounding out of those flat surfaces above and below the 
temporal ridges which give savage skulls a roof-like appearance. (See ‘‘ Inquiry into Vari- 
ations of Skull,” Phil, Trans, 1870.) 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 137 


is in the lower animals. Look at the coccygeal vertebrie ; they are the most irre- 
gular structures imaginable. Even in the sacrum and in the rest of the column the 
amount of variation finds no parallel in other animals. In the skull, except in some 
of the lowest forms of humanity, the dorswm selle isa ragged, warty, deformed, and 
irregular structure, and it never exhibits the elegance and finish seen in other ani- 
mals. The curvature of the skull and shortening of its base, which have gradually 
increased in the ascending series of forms, have reached a degree which cannot be 
exceeded ; and the nasal cavity is so elongated vertically, that in the higher races 
nature seems scarcely able to bridge the gap from the cribriform plate to the palate, 
and produces such a set of unsymmetrical and rugged performances as is quite pecu- 
liar to man; and to the human anatomist many other examples of similar pheno- 
mena will occur. 

Questions of homology are matters which must be ever present in the study of 
structure, as distinct from function—both the correspondence of parts in one species 
to those in others, and the relations of one part to another in the same animal; and 
perhaps I shall best direct attention to the changes of opinion on morphological 
subjects in this country during the last twenty-five years by referring shortly to the 
ae ees writings of three eminent anatomists—Professors Owen, Goodsir, and 

uxley. 

For the first time in English literature the great problems of this description 
were dealt with in Professor Owen’s work already referred to, published in 1848 ; 
and it is unnecessary to say that, notwithstanding the presence of unquestionable 
errors of theory, that work was a most valuable and important contribution to 
science. The faults in its general scope were justly and quietly corrected by Good- 
sir at the Meeting of this Association in 1856 in three papers, one of them highly 
elaborate; and in these he showed that the morphology of vertebrate animals could 
not be correctly studied while reference was made exclusively to the skeleton. He 
showed the necessity of attending to all the evidence in trying to exhibit the under- 
lying laws of structure, and especially of having constant regard to the teachings of 
embryology. Among the matters of detail which he set rightit may be mentioned 
that he exposed the untenability of Professor Owen’s theory of the connexion of the 
shoulder-girdle with the occipital bone, and pointed out that the limbs were not 
appendages of single segments corresponding with individual vertebrae, Referring 
to the development of the hand and foot, he showed the importance of observing 
the plane in which they first appear, and that the thumb and great toe are originally 
turned toward the head, the little finger and little toe toward the caudal end of the 
vertebral column. But he probably went too far in trying to make out an exact 
correspondence of individual digits with individual vertebral segments, failing to 
appreciate that the segmentation originally so distinct in the primordial vertebrae 
becomes altered as the surface of the body is approached—a truth illustrated in the 
vertebral columns of the plagiostomatous fishes, in the muscle-segments over the 
head in the pleuronectids, and in the interspinal bones bearing the dorsal and anal 
fin-rays of numbers of fishes, but, so far as | know, not hitherto sufliciently appre- 
ciated by any anatomist, 

Goodsir also exploded, one would have thought for ever, the erroneous theory of 
the correspondence of the mammalian tympanic plate with the quadrate bone of 
birds and the suspensorium of fishes, directing attention to the neglected but just 
appreciation by St.-Hilaire of the homological importance of the ossicles of the ear, 
and to the embryological work of Meckel and Reichert. But undoubtedly he fell 
into great mistakes of his own in matters of detail connected with the exceedingly 
difficult question of the correspondence of the bones of the skull, the principal of 
these probably being an unfortunate notion that the great frontal of fishes was a 
bone which disappeared from the skulls of mammals, a notion which spread its 
influence over his determination of a number of other elements, and introduced a 
confusion which made his paper on the skull hard to understand. 

In 1858 Professor Huxley delivered his Croonian Lecture on the vertebrate 
skull, and in 1863 his lectures at the Royal College of Surgeons on the same sub- 
ject. He profited by the wisdom of Goodsir, and studied the works of Rathke, 

eichert, and other embryologists. But, rightly or wrongly, he took a step further 
than Goodsir, He assumed from the first that the homologies of adult structures 


1875, il 


138 REPORT—1875. 


could be determined by development, and that by that study alone could they be 
finally demonstrated. As regards the skull, the constitution of which always 
remains the central study of the vertebrate skeleton, his writings marked the intro- 
duction of a period of revulsion against not only the systems of serial homologies 
previously suggested, but even against any attempt by the study of the varieties of 
adult forms to set them right. Mr. Huxley has added materially to the previously 
existing number of interpretations as to what elements correspond in different 
animals, and in doing so has found it necessary to make various additions to the 
already troubled nomenclature. Those who consider these changes correct will of 
course see in them a prospect of simplicity to future students; “but to those who, 
like myself, have never been able to agree with them, they are naturally a source 
of sorrow. Among the changes referred to may be mentioned the theory of the 
“ neriotic bones.’ That theory I venture to think a very unfortunate one, intro- 
ducing a derangement of relations as wide spread as did Goodsir’s theory of the 
frontal bone. And do not think me presumptuous in saying so, seeing that this 
theory is in antagonism with the identifications of every anatomist preceding its 
distinguished originator, not excepting Cuvier and Owen; nor is it easy to dis- 
cover what evidence it has to support it against the previously received decision 
of Cuvier as to the external occipital and mastoid of fishes. Without entering into 
the full evidence of the subject; it may be stated that, so far as this theory affects 
the alisphenotd in the skull of the fish, it must be given up, and the determination of 
Professor Gwen must be reverted to, when it is considered that in the carp the third 
and fourth nerves pierce what that anatomist terms the orbitosphenoid, the bone which 
is alisphenotd according to the thecry which terms the alisphenoid of Owen the 
prootic, A proof still more striking is furnished by Malapterurus and other Silurids, 
in which the bone in question is pierced by the optic nerve. That being the case, 
the prootic theory will be seen to have arisen partly from giving too much impor- 
tance to centres of ossification, and partly from considering the nerve-passage in 
front of the main bar of the alisphenoid of Owen as corresponding with the foramen 
ovale of man rather than with the foramen rotundum and sphenoidal fissure. A 
spiculum, however, separating the second from the third division of the fifth nerve, 
and having therefore the precise relations of the mammalian alisphenoid, does exist 
in the carp and other fishes. But in reptiles Professor Huxley’s determination of 
the alisphenoid is vight, and Professor Owen’s clearly wrong; for in the crocodile 
the alisphenoid of Huxley and others is perforated by the sixth nerve, so that it 
cannot have any claim to be called orbitosphenoid. I must, however, maintain against 
Prof. Huxley’s view Prof. Owen’s determination of the nasal in fishes, notwith- 
standing that Prof. Owen has failed to appreciate the exact relation of that bone 
to the nasals of mammals, and has thereby laid his position open to attack. The 
arguments on that point Prof. Huxley was good enough to lay before the public 
fourteen years ago, by kindly reading for me before the Royal Society a paper 
which subsequently appeared in its ‘Transactions ;’ and I am not aware that any 
one has since attempted to controvert them. 

I shall not trouble you further with such matters of detail; but it will be clear 
from what has been said that the beginner in comparative anatomy must at 
the present day find himself at the outset, in the most important part of his osteo- 
logical studies, faced with a diversity of opinion and confusion of nomenclature 
sufficient to produce much difficulty and to have a repelling effect on many minds. 
Such difficulties might well be encountered with enthusiasm where a belief existed 
that behind them lay a scheme of order and beauty; but not many will spend time 
investigating such intricate details if they doubt the interest of the general con- 
clusions likely to be reached by mastering them. On this account it is a great pity 
that the scepticism generated partly by the difficulties of the subject, and partly by 
reaction from the dogmatism of the admirers of Oken, does too frequently dis- 
courage the investigation of the serial homologies of the parts entering into the 
segments of the skull, and the determination of the nature and number of those 
segments. It is a pity that so much clamour has been made for a number of years 
against the expression “vertebral theory of the skull,” because fighting against 
words is but stupid warfare at the best, and because all that was really meant, and 
that could be justly stated, could have been brought into prominence without ob- 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 139 


jecting to a time-honoured phrase. It is questionable if any one who ever used the 
convenient term “ vertebral theory” meant to indicate more than a certain com- 
munity of plan on which were built the segments of the skull as well as those of 
the spinal column ; that, in fact, the two constituted one complete chain, of which 
the first few sezments were so different from the rest that, till Oken pointed the 
fact out, it was not recognized that they were segments lying in lineal continuity 
with the rest. But the matter has recently stood thus :—that to some minds, in the 
amen state of our knowledge, one thing seemed essential to a segment compa- 
rable with the rest, and to others something else seemed requisite ; and the oddity 
of the position of affairs is this, that the objectors to the phrase “ vertebral theory ” 
have been as crotchety in setting up imaginary essentials to a segment as their 
neighbours. On the one side we were taught to expect certain definite osseous 
elements in each segment, to which definite names were given ; while, on the other, 
in opposition schemes, centres of ossification have been built on as matters of pri- 
mary consequence, although a glance at the modifications in the vertebral column 
proper might convince any one that they are things of the very slightest impor- 
tance morphologically. Also those who have objected to speaking of cranial ver- 
tebrae have put great importance on the point at which the chorda dorsalis termi- 
nates, although it has been long known that in one animal the chorda dorsalis runs 
right on to the front, that in others it fails to enter the skull at all, while in the 
majority it passes for a certain distance into the base. Johannes Miller, on such 
grounds, concluded, thirty years ago, that the presence of chorda dorsalis was not 
necessary to constitute a cranial vertebra; and there seems no reason to doubt that 
he was right. Looking at the early embryo, the cerebro-spinal axis is seen to be 
one continuous structure ; and the walls of the canal containing it are likewise mani- 
festly continuous, not at first distinguishable into a spinal and a cranial portion. 
Looking at the adult condition, in the higher classes the vertebree of the tail are 
seen dwindling into mere bodies developed round the chorda dorsalis, and giving 
off rudimentary processes without separate centres of ossification, while towards 
the head the bodies diminish and the arches enlarge ; and in the skull the chorda, 
round which the bodies in the rest of the column are developed, comes to an end, 
and the neural arches are enormously enlarged and have additional centres of ossi- 
fication, precisely as in the mammalian thorax costal centres of ossification are 
found which do not exist in the costal elements of cervical vertebre. It would 
therefore be quite as justifiable to object to the term vertebra as applied to a joint 
of the tail because it has no damine, or none with separate centres of ossification, 
as to object to its applicability to sezments of the skull because the chorda is ab- 
sent, or the osseous elements different in number from those found usually in the 
segments of the trunk. 

However, it is gratifying to observe that among the most recent additions to 
morphological anatomy there is a highly suggestive paper by Professor Huxley, 
appearing in the Royal Society's ‘ Proceedings’ for December last, and entitled 
* Preliminary Notes upon the Brain and Skull of Amphioxus lanceolatus,” in which 
the learned Professor, who has for many years been the most determined opponent 
to the mention of cranial vertebrae, declares, so far as I can apprehend his meaning, 
that the region of the head represents no less than fourteen segments, all of which 
he terms protovertebre in Amphiorus. This determination of correspondences is 
made the more remarkable by being followed up with a suggestion that the nume- 
rous protovertebree lying in front of the fourteenth in Amphiorus are represented 
only By muscles and nerves in the higher vertebrates. 

IT hail this paper as being practically at last an ample acknowledgment that 
there is no escape from admitting the correspondence of the region of the head with 
the segments of the trunk: but the details of the new theory scarcely seem con- 
vincing ; and#I might have preferred to leave its discussion to others, were it not 
that the notions Wich it opens up are far too important to allow it to be passed 
over in any account of the present state of opinion on the subject of vertebrate 

‘morphology. The argument in this new theory runs thus: that the palate-curtain 
of Amphioxus is homologous with that of the lamprey, and. that the palate-curtain 
of the lamprey is attached below the ear; that therefore all the seven segments 

seen in front of the palate-curtain of Amphioxus are represented ny parts in front 


ELF 


140 REPORT—1875. 


of the ear in the lamprey and the other Vertebrata. Again, the branchial arches of 
the higher Vertebrata are assumed to be of the nature of ribs, and in none of the Ver- 
tebrata next above Amphiocus “ are there more than seven pairs of branchial arches, 
so that not more than eight myotomes (and consequently protovertebre) of Am- 
phioxus, in addition to those already mentioned, can be reckoned as the equivalents 
of the parachordal region of the skull in the higher vertebrates.” Every thing, 
observe, depends on the segment to which the palate-curtain of Amphiorus belongs. 
Now I have already pointed out to you that the segmentation of the vertebrate 
body is not perfect; and there is no method by which the alimentary canal, of 
which the mouth and palate are the first part, can be divided into segments cor- 
responding with the cerebro-spinal nerves. Most certainly we cannot judge that a 
portion of a viscus belongs to a particular segment from its lying underneath some 
other structure in definite relation, like the ear, to the cerebro-spinal system ; for 
then should we be obliged to grant that one half or more of the heart pelongs to 
segments in front of the ear, since it is undoubtedly so situated in a chick of the 
thirty-sixth hour. But the branchial arches are in front of the heart, and, accord- 
ing to the theory which we are considering, are behind the ear; thus the principle 
assumed in the starting-point of the theory is taken away. 

Again, it is important to observe that the branchial skeletal arches cannot be 
ribs, for they lie internal to the primary circles of the vascular system formed by 
the branchial arteries and veins, while the ribs are superficial to both heart and 
aorta. If the ribs are represented at all in the branchial apparatus (and I doubt it 
very much), it is by the cartilages superficial to the gills in sharks, rays, and dog- 
fishes ; and it would seem impossible for any one who has dissected them to doubt 
that those cartilages are homologous with the branchial skeleton of the lamprey, 
which they somewhat resemble. In fact if the external and internal branchial 
openings of the lamprey be enlarged, its gills are reduced to a form similar to those 
of the shark, 

There is nothing in this, however, which interferes seriously with the proposed 
theory of the skull. It is merely a point in the argument which I have thought 
right to clear. More important it is to remark that, on the supposition that 
numerous protovertebre are represented in the region of the head, there are most 
serious difficulties interfering with the idea that they are, as Professor Huxley 
states, ‘‘represented only by muscles and nerves in the higher Vertebrata,” and that 
there is any correspondence between “the oculo-motor, pathetic, trigeminal, and 
abducens nerves with the muscles of the eye and jaws” and the regular nerves and 
muscle-segments of the fore part of Amphiorus. Even in the lamprey the eye- 
balls are supplied with muscles similar to those to which, in other vertebrates, the 
oculo-motor, pathetic, and abducens are distributed ; and I find in the large species 
that, notwithstanding this, the series of regular muscle-sezments is continued over 
the head, not indeed in the same way as in Mivxine, but in a highly instructive and 
curious manner. The five foremost muscle-segments have their upper extremities 
attached considerably in front of the nasal opening by a short tendon, which 
touches its fellow in the middle line; and extending thence in an outward and 
backward direction they pass behind the eyeballs, the first two running in front 
of the first gill-pouch, and the third lying over it. Therefore, in this instance, as 
surely as the nostril is in front of the eye, so surely the upper extremities of these 
muscle-segments are shifted forwards out of their morphological place, probably in 
connexion with the great protrusion of the jaws for the physiological purpose of 
forming a sucker. There is no escape from granting this shifting, even were it 
possible to believe that the eyeball could be further forward than the nostril; for 
while the fifth muscle-segment can be traced in front of the nostril, the sixth 
occupies the interspace between the skull and first vertebra, so that if the muscle- 
segments are taken as a @pide, the whole skull, forward to the nostril, belongs to 
one intersegmental space, a view which is clearly absurd. The succeeding inter- 
muscular septa correspond each with a cartilaginous vertebral arch; and it is 
interesting to observe that the branchial cartilages are not placed one for each 
septum, like the fibrous-representatives of ribs detectable within the septa; for the 
second cartilage is opposite the sixth septum, the third opposite the ninth, the 
fourth opposite the eleventh, the fifth opposite the thirteenth, and the sixth and 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 141 


seyenth opposite the fourteenth and fifteenth septa; and this is one reason for 
doubting that even these superficial branchial cartilages, though attached to the 
vertebral column, are to be regarded as ribs. 

~ It may be noticed as a wholesome symptom in anatomical speculation, that the 
new theory which has led to these remarks is founded on arguments drawn alto- 
gether from comparison of different species, and not from embryology, a very 
remarkable circumstance as coming from one who so lately as last autumn reite- 
rated in this Section his slowness to believe in reasonings founded on adult forms, 
and eyen on “ later development.”’ The wisest know so little, that humanity must 
be coritent to gather information from every possible source, and leave no set of 
ascertained facts out of view in attempting to arrive at generalizations. If we had 
before us all the adult anatomy of every species that ever lived on the earth, we 
should only then have the record completed from which to frame a full system of 
‘morphology; and as matters stand we must translate embryological phenomena 
with the aid of the series of adult forms, as well as translate the teachings of the 
adult series with the aid of embryology. * 

Falling back on my proposition, that the segments of the vertebrate body are 
nowhere complete, and that segmentation at one depth may exist to a greater ex- 
tent than at another, I may mention certain embryological phenomena in the brain, 
which haye received too little attention, and which to some extent warrant belief 
in a larger number of segments in the head than is usually admitted ; although I 
do not see that they are necessarily at variance with that theory of seven segments 
in every ossified skull which I indicated in 1862. In the chick, in the middle of 
the second day of hatching, already is the third cerebral vesicle divided into a 
series of five parts, separated by slight constrictions, the first part larger-than those 
which succeed, and the last part narrowing to the spinal cord. The auditory 
yesicle lies opposite the constriction between the fourth and fifth parts. At the 
end of the second day and during the third, these divisions assume dimensions 
which give them a general appearance exceedingly similar in profile to the proto- 
yertebrxe of the neck. In the following day they exhibit a more complex appear- 
ance, and after that the first compartment alone remains distinct as cerebellum, 
while the divisions between the others disappear in the thickening of the cerebral 
walls. In their first two stages, Mr. Huxley, whom I have already referred to so 
often, has figured these crenations, but he has not, so far as I know, described 
them. 

I may also direct attention to another embryological point, to which I referred 
last year at Belfast as a probability. I speak now from observation. That which 
is termed the first cerebral vesicle in the early part of the second day of hatching 
of the chick, is an undifferentiated region of the brain from which a number of 
parts emerge successively from behind forwards. As early as the thirty-sixth hour 
the optic nerves can be traced, separated from the rest of the vesicle by distinct 
elevations of the floor of the brain, reaching inwards to the constriction between 
the first and second vesicles: and as early as this date the first trace of bifidity of 
the brain in front may be discerned—that bifidity which, to my thinking, is only 
one of several instances of longitudinal fission in the fore part of the head, the 
trabecule presenting another instance of the same thing, and the cleft between the 
maxillary lobe and the part of the head above it a third; while in the muscular 
system such longitudinal cleavage or fission is common even in the trunk. In a 
chick of the third or fourth day, when rendered very transparent, the optic nerves 
can be seen extending from beneath the front of the optic lobes; while in front of 
the optic lobes there are placed in series from behind forwards a posterior division 
of the first vesicle, an anterior division, the cerebral hemispheres, and the olfactory 
lobes, Thus there is a large supply of material presented in the brain for the study 
of segmentation ; the difficulty to be overcome by future inquiry and careful col- 
lation of all available facts is to determine the value of the parts placed one in 
front of another. 

Perhaps [ have occupied time too long with matters involving a large amount 
of technical detail; but I trust that I may have, in some measure, illustrated that 
both in aim and in accomplished work Anatomy is no mere collection of discon- 
nected facts, no mere handmaid of the physician and surgeon, nor even of Phy- 


142 REPORT—1875. 


siology. I do not doubt that it is yet destined, as dealing with the most complex 
sequences of phenomena, to take the highest place among the sciences as a guide 
to Philosophy. One cannot help noticing the increased importance now given to 
Natural-History studies as a part of education; and it is worth while to note that 
it is most of all in Anatomy and Physiology that the close connexions of matter 
with mind are brought under review,—Physiology exhibiting the relations of our 
own mental being to our bodies, and Anatomy revealing a body of organized Nature, 
whose organization points to a source of beauty and order beyond. 

The people of Bristol do well to rally round their Medical School. They do well 
to furnish it with buildings suitable for the prosecution of all the Natural-History 
studies which adhere to medical education; and they do well to join with that 
school a complete College of literature and science. Let us hope that they will 
make it worthy of so wealthy and historic a city. But if they will have their 
medical school the success which in so flourishing a locality public enthusiasm 
may well make it, and if they will have it aid as well as be aided by a school of 
general education, let them follow the system latterly adopted in Oxford and 
Cambridge, long carried out in the Universities of Scotland, and recognized, though 
not in all instances sufficiently provided for, in Ireland. Let Anatomy, human 
and comparative, receive its place as an important and fundamental science. Let 
thorough and adequate provision be made for its being taught as a science; and 
see that it do not, as in too many medieal schools which shall be nameless, dege- 
nerate to the etymological and original meaning of the word, a mere cutting up 
of carcasses. 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 


Address to the Department of Anthropology. By Goren Roxrustoy, .D., 
ERS. FSA, Linaere Professor of Anatomy and Physiology, Oxford, 
Vice-President of the Section. 


Some few weeks ago Mr. James Parker, of Oxford, invited me to visit your Somer- 
setshire caves, in the company of the Warwickshire Naturalists’ and Archeologists’ 
Field Club, It struck me that I should do well, as I was to preside over the An- 
thropological Department at this British-Association Meeting, if I tried to learn as 
much as I could of the relics and of the surroundings of the Prehistoric inhabitants 
of your neighbourhood; and for this, as well as for other reasons, I gladly accepted 
the invitation. " During that pleasant midsummer excursion I was more than once 
impressed with the similarity which its incidents bore to those of the undertaking in 
which we are now engaged,and, indeed, to those of the study ofAnthropology generally. 
First, the organization of the expedition had entailed some considerable amount 
of labour upon those who had charged themselves with that duty; and, secondly, 
a thorough exploration of the recesses and sinuosities of the several caves which we 
explored devolved upon us not only a good deal of exertion, but even some slight 
amount of risk; for the passages and galleries along which we worked our way were 
sometimes low and narrow, often steep, and nearly always slippery. Thirdly, the 
outline of the regions explored bore quite different aspects accordingly as we lighted 
them up or had them lit up for us in one or in another of several different ways. 

If in any segment of these caves the outside daylight could anyhow find a zigzag 
way down some shaft into the interior, that segment wore a general aspect more 
comfortable to the eye, and so to the mind, than others not so illuminated. These 
latter regions again varied greatly enter se, according to the various artificial means 
employed for lighting them up. The means ordinarily used for this end made their 
outlines look a little colder and harder than the reality itself, cold and hard though 
this was; whilst under certain other modes of illumination employed (it is true, only 
occasionally, and for purposes of eflect, not ex necessitate) the self-same outlines 
looked somewhat lurid. But, howsoever produced and howsoever affecting us, the 
light was light nevertheless, and, on the whole, we preferred it a good deal to the 
darkness, It is never well to press a metaphor too far nor too closely; so I will 


YRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 143 


now lay aside my parable, though it admits of some further extension, and take up 
the actual business of the Department. 
- It may be well to lay before the Department, first of all, the titles of a few of the 
rincipal subjects upon which we have papers prepared for us; and after, or indeed 
uring the enumeration of these specimens of what will prove, I can assure you, a 
yery valuable series of memoirs, we can proceed, as will be naturally suggested, to 
those general considerations with which it is customary to open the transactions of 
such assemblages as ours. 

First among our contributors I must mention the President of the London An- 
thropological Institute, in which Institute the Ethnological Society of 1844 and 
the Anthropological Society of 1863 are united. Colonel Lane Fox has told us 

Archeologia, xlii. p. 45, 1869) that it was whilst serving on the Subcommittee of 
mall Arms in 1851 that he had his attention drawn to the principle of continuity 
by observing the very slow gradations of progress that were taking place at that 
time in the military weapons of our own country. Out of those labours of his on 
that Subcommittee other benefits have arisen to the country at large, of which it is 
not my “benim to speak. What Ihave to speak of is his suggestion, put out with 
reater definiteness in his invaluable Lecture on Primitive Warfare, delivered be- 
fore the United-Service Institution, June 5, 1868 (p. 15), to the effect that his find at 
Cissbury furnishes the links which were wanting to connect the Paleolithic with 
the Neolithic Celt types. Sir John Lubbock* and Mr. Evans t have told us that 
they do not see their way towards accepting this view; and Mr. James Geile, 
who holds that the paleolithie deposits are of preglacial and interglacial age, is 
almost necessitated, ex hypothesi, to repudiate any such transition. He does so 
(pp. 436-438 of his work on the Great Ice Age) in language which shows us that 
Colonel Lane Fox’s lecture just referred to, with its diagram No, 1 (printed, it is 
true, for private circulation), could not have met his eye. Colonel Lane Fox's 
paper will relate to further explorations carried on at Cissbury during the present 
ear by a Committee of the ee Institute with the kind permission of 
ajor Wisden, the owner of the soil. It will raise more than one large question 
for us to address ourselves to. I shall, when Colonel Lane Fox’s paper comes before 
the Department, contribute towards its discussion by showing a number of flints 
from Cissbury, given me by my friend Mr. Ballard, of Broadwater, 

Mr. Pengelly will, on Monday, give us an account of the “ Anthropological Dis- 
coveries in Kent’s Cavern.”” A more interesting subject will not often have been 
treated in a more interesting manner. 

Polynesia and Australasia generally have always been an interesting field for the 
anthropologist. Our recent acquisition of Fiji makes it doubly interesting to us 
just now; and a flood of literature has burst forth upon us to meet that interest. 

Professor Dr. Carl E. Meinicke is to be heartily congratulated on having, in the 

resent year, brought out a work on the islands of the Pacific (‘ Die Inseln der 
Btillen Oceans, eine geographische Monographie.’ Evster Theil, Melanesien und Neu- 
seeland. Leipzig, 1875), in which he can, with not unbecoming pride, say that he 
is still working upon the same principles which guided him nearly fifty years ago 
in the composition of his works on the continent of Australia and the South-Sea 
races. Though I possess Professor Meinicke’s works, I am not as yet entirely in 
possession of all his views; but so far as I can see, they are well worthy of atten- 
tion. I do not hesitate, however, at all in saying that the most important contri- 
bution to the ethnology of Polynesia which has been made recently is the article 
on that subject in the ‘Contemporary Review’ for February 1873, by the Rey. 8. 
Whitmee, of Samoa. And I may say that I am not without hopes that we shall be 
favoured with some papers upon the ethnology, anthropology, and future prospects 
of the Polynesian race by other persons eminently qualified to speak upon the sub- 
ject, as having spent many years usefully among them, and on the spot. I observe 
that writers who have little respect for most things else, and by no means too much 
for themselves, speak still with something like appreciation of the work done in 
those revions by the London Missionary Society; and we here shall value highly 


any papers which we may be favoured with from men who have had such long and 


* Nilsson’s ‘Primitive Scandinavia,’ Editor's Introd. p. 24. 
} ‘Flint Implements,’ p. 72, 


144 REPORT—1875. 


such favourable opportunities for forming opinions on matters which touch at once 
our national and our scientific responsibilities. 

What question can be of closer concernment than that of the possibility of rescu- 
ing the inhabitants of Polynesia from that gradual sliding into extinction which 
some writers appear to acquiesce in as the natural fate of such races. As a text for 
our discussions upon this subject, I will here quote to the Department a passage 
from the continuation of .Waitz’s ‘Anthropologie’ by Dr. Gerland—the author, 
be it remembered, of a special Monograph upon the Causes of the Decrease and 
Dying-out of Native Races, which appeared in 1868 (‘ Ueber das Aussterben der 
Naturvélker,’ Leipzig), and has been often referred to by writers on anthropology 
since that year, and is referred to by himself in the passage I now lay before you. 
It runs thus (‘ Anthropologie der Naturvélker,’ von Dr. Theodor Waitz, fortgesetzt 
von Dr. Georg Gerland, 1872, vol. ii. pp. 512, 518) :— > 

“The decrease of the Polynesian populations is not now going on as fast as it was 
in the first half of the century ; it has in some localities entirely ceased, whilst in 
others the indigenous population is actually on the increase*. From this it is clear 
that the causes for that disappearance of the native races which we discussed at 
length in the little book above referred to, are now less or no longer operative. 
For, on the one hand, the natives have adapted themselves more to the influences 
of civilization ; they are not so amenable as they were at first to the action of 
diseases, although we still from time to time have instances to the contrary at the 
present moment (see, for example, Ey. Miss. Mag. 1867, p. 300, Cheever, 295) Lor, 
I may add, our own recent information as to the destructive outbreak of measles in 
Fiji]; they have become more able to respond to the efforts to raise their mental 
and moral status than they were; and, with the advance of civilization, they have 
begun to avail themselves more of the remedial agencies which it brings with it. 
On the other hand, we cannot ignore the fact that the Europeans themselves, in 
spite of many important exceptions, have nevertheless done a very great deal for the 
natives, and are always doing more and more for them. Whilst in this matter the 
English Government deserves great praise, and whilst Sir George Grey has done 
more for the Polynesians than almost any other man, the missionaries nevertheless 
stand in the very first rank amongst the benefactors of these races, with their un- 
wearied self-sacrificing activity; and Russel (‘ Polynesia,’ Edinb., 1840) is entirely 
right in saying that all the progress which the Polynesians have made was really 
set on foot by the missionaries. They have had the greatest influence upon the 
civilization of the natives; they have taken their part and protected them when 
they could; they have further given them the fast foothold, the new fresh ober, 
motive, and meaning for their whole existence, of which they stood so much in 
need. The Polynesians have often declared to the missionaries, ‘If you had not 
come, we should have perished ;’ and they would have perished if their country had 
not been so discovered. The resources of their physical life were exhausted; and 
they had none of the moral nor ideal support for the needs of their spiritual nature 
which they stood so urgently in need of, as they had already attained a grade of 
culture too high to allow of their living without some support of that kind. It is 
true that extraneous circumsiances have often, especially in the outset, brought 
about their conversion—as, for example, the authority of their chiefs, the force of 
example, as also, on the other hand, the occurrence of misfortune, great mortality, 
the loss of a battle, afver which they wished to make the experiment of worshipping 
a new god (Russel, pp. 886, 890). And it is also true that the missionaries have in- 
troduced them to an exceedingly bigotted and often little-elevated form of Christi- 
anity; but even this has been a fortunate circumstance; for just the comprehensi- 


* See ‘Times’ of last Saturday, August 21, 1875, p. 6, where the Natal correspondent, 
writing of the Caffres, tells us, ‘‘we shall have to begin civilizing the natives some day. 
We had better have begun with them ten years ago at 200,000 strong, than now at 
350,000; but we had better begin with them now at 350,000 than ten years hence when 
they may number half-a-million.” Since writing as above I have received through my 
friend the Rey. W. Wyatt Gill a long extract from a paper written in 1861, by the Rey. 
A. W.Murray. This paper fully confirms Gerland’s more recent views as to the prospects 
of the native races. Mr. Murray, haying spent forty years in Polynesia, has the best possible 
right to be heard upon it. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 145 


bility, the plain appeal to the senses, of this new religion took hold of the imagination 
of these races, and they could take hold of it with their understanding ; and how- 
soever it may have been put before them, it was immeasurably above the level of 
heathenism, and considerably above that of Mahommedanism. Whatever the 
dogmas taught were, the ethics of Christianity were taught with them; and in 
most cases the missionaries gave, at the same time, in their lives striking examples 
of the value of those ethics ; and the fact of their maintenance and exemplification 
was the main thing.” 

Mr. Bagehot has been quoted by Mr. Darwin, in his ‘ Descent of Man,’ ed. 1, 
vol. i. p. 239, ed. 2, p. 182, as saying that “it is a curious fact that savages did not 
formerly waste away before the classical nations, as they do now before the modern 
civilized nations ; had they done so the old moralists would have mused over the 
event; but there is no lament in any writer of that period over the perishing bar- 
barians.” On reading this for the first, and indeed for a second time, I was much 
impressed with its beauty and originality ; but beauty and originality do not im- 
press men permanently unless they be coupled with certain other qualities. And I 
wish to remark upon this statement, first, that it is exceedingly unsafe to argue 
from the silence of any writer, ancient or modern, to the non-existence of the non- 
mentioned thing. I do not recollect any mention in the ancient writers of Stone- 
henge, nor can I call to mind at this moment any catalogue of the vocabularies of 
the Cimbri and Teutones, of the Ligures and Iberians, with whom the ancients were 
brought into prolonged contact. These little omissions are much to be regretted, as, 
if they had been filled up, a great many very interesting problems would thus have 
been settled for us which we have not as yet settled for ourselves. But these omis- 
sions do not justify us in thinking that Stonehenge is an erection of post-Roman 
times, nor in holding that any of the strange races mentioned were devoid of a 
language. But, secondly, what we know of the classical nations dates from a time 
when the “merciless bronze” had begun to give way to the “dark gleaming” steel. 
But long before the displacement of bronze weapons by iron ones, the bronze had 
had abundant time to displace both stone weapons and the people who used them. 
And it is plain enough to suggest that one reason why the old moralists did not 
muse over the disappearance of the aboriginal races lies in the fact that these races 
had neither a contemporary Homer to sing their history, nor an Evans to interpret 
their weapons after their extinction. The actual Homeric poems deal with a region 
thickly peopled and long subdued by a Greek-speaking metal-using race. Rhodes 
and Crete were as different then from what Fiji and New Guinea are now, as Me- 
rion and Idomeneus ave from Thakombau and Rauparahu. But, thirdly, let us ask, 
as the philosophers did with regard to the fish and its weight in and out of the 
bucket of water, Are the facts about which we are to inquire really facts? Now I 
am not going to plunge into the excursuses appended to editions of Herodotus, nor 
to discuss the history of the Minyee, or of any other race of which we know as 
little. But I will just quote a few verses from a beautiful passage in Job which 
appear to me to give as exact a description of a barbarous race perishing and out- 
east, as could be given now by a poetical observer in Australia or California. 
Speaking of such a race the poet says :— 

“For want and famine they were solitary, fleeing into the wilderness in former 
time desolate and waste. Who cut up mallows by the bushes, and juniper roots 
for their meat. They were driven forth from among men, (they cried after them as 
after a thief;) To dwell in the cliffs of the valleys, in caves of the earth, and in the 
rocks. Among the bushes they brayed ; under the nettles they were gathered to- 
gether. They were children of fools, yea, children of base men; they were viler 
than the earth” (Job, chap. xxx. ver. 3-8). 

I opine that these unhappy savages must have “ wasted away” under these con- 
ditions, and that there is no need, with such actual vere causse at hand, to postu- 
late the working of any “ mysterious” agency, any inscrutable poisonous action ‘ of 
the breath of” civilization. What is mysterious to me is not civilization, but the 
fact that people who are in relation with it do not act up to its behests. And what 
is the mystery to me is not how an epidemic can, when introduced amongst helpless 
Polynesians, work hayoc, but how it is that epidemics should be allowed to do so 
here in England from time to time. We are but some four years away from the last 


146 REPORT—1875, 


small-pox epidemic, of the management, or rather mismanagement, of which I had 
myself some little opportunity of taking stock; and what we saw then in England 
renders it a little superfluous to search for recondite causes to account for depopula- 
tion in countries without Local Boards. You owe much in Bristol to your able, en- 
ergetic, and eminently successful officer of health, Dr. David Davies. I hope he may 
favour us with his views upon this very interesting subject, and may, knowing, as 
he well does, how much energy and knowledge are required for the reduction of a 
rate of mortality, tell us how much wickedness, perversity, and ignorance are neces- 
sary for increasing such a rate, whether in Great or in Greater Britain. I think that 
he will tell us that what is mysterious is not the power of the principles of action 
I have just mentioned, but the toleration of them. Such, at least, are my views*. 

We have several philological papers promised us. Amongst them will be one 
by the Rev. John Earle, who is known to you in this neighbourhood as living near 
Bath, and who is known to people not so pleasantly situated on the earth’s surface 
as you are, as the author of a Handbook of the English tongue, I shall, as he will be 
present hereafter to speak on philology, spare myself and you the trouble of any 
remarks on that truly natural science, observing merely that Dr. Farrar t and Pro- 
fessor Hiickel t ave both agreed upon one point, namely that the adoption of natural- 
history methods by the students of languages has opened up for them a fresh career 
of importance and interest and usefulness. 

Somersetshire is not without its historian; and the possibility of his coming ren- 
ders it unadvisable for me to say any thing now as to the relation of history to our 
subject upon the present occasion. If, however, the Department can find time to 
listen to me a second time, I shall be glad to read a short paper myself upon this 
very subject, mainly in the hope of getting Mr. Freeman to speak upon it also. 

come now (perhaps I should have come before) to the consideration of the sub- 
ject of craniology and craniography. Of the value of the entirety of the physical 
history of a race there is no question ; but two very widely opposed views exist as 
to the value of skull-measuring to the ethnographer. According to the views of one 
school, craniography and ethnography are all but convertible terms; another set 
of teachers insist upon the great width of the limits within which normal human 
crania from one and the same race may oscillate, and upon the small value which, 
under such circumstances, we can attach to differences expressed in tenths of inches 
or even of centimetres. As usual, the truth will not be found to lie in either ex- 
treme view. For the proper performance of a craniographic estimation, two very 
different processes are necessary: one is the carrying out and recording a number of 
measurements; the other is the artistic appreciation of the general impressions as to 
contour and type which the survey of a series of skulls produce upon one. I have 
often thought that the work of conducting an examination for a scholarship or 
fellowship is very similarly"dependent, when it is properly carried out, upon the 
employment of two methods—one being the system of marking, the other that of 
getting a general impression as to the power of the several candidates; and I would 


* Since I wrote as ‘above, we have received the news of the murder of Commodore 
Goodenough at Santa Cruz. Commodore Goodenough was one of those persons to haye 
met whom makes a man feel himself distinctly the better for his interviews and inter- 
course. He was not only a typical representative of what is called ‘‘ Armed Science,” he 
not only possessed the eye to watch and the arm to strike, happily so common in our two 
services, but he added to all this a cultivation and refinement duly set forth and typified 
by manners which were 

“not idle but the fruit 
Of loyal nature and of noble mind.” 


It is indeed a “ puzzling world,” as it has been forcibly phrased, in which such a man 
loses his life, and we lose his power for good, through the act of what Wordsworth calls 


* A savage, loathsome, vengeful, and impure.” 


Still Corfe Castle is near enough to Bristol to preyent us from forgetting that we our- 
selves were once as treacherous and murderous as the modern Papuans, and that less than 
900 years ago. If we have improved, there is hope for them. 

t Farrar on the Growth of Language: pp. 17, 18, Journal of Philology, 1868, 

¢ Hackel, ‘ Anthropogenie,’'1874, p. 561. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 147 


wish to be understeod to mean by this illustration not only that the two lines 
of inguiry are both dependent upon the combination and counterchecking of two 
different methods, but also that their results, like the results of some other human 
investigations, must not be always, even though they may be sometimes, considered 
to be free from all and any need for qualification. Persons like M. Broca and Pro- 
fessor Aeby, who have carried out the most extensive series of measurements, are 
not the persons who express themselves in the strongest language as to cranio- 
graphy being the universal solvent in ethnography or anthropology. Aeby, for 
example, in his ‘Schiidelformen der Menschen und der Affen,’ 1867, p. 61, says :— 
“ Aus dem gesagten geht hervor, dass die Stellung der Anthropologie gegeniiber 
den Schiidelformen eine ausserordentlich schwierige ist ;” and the perpetual contra- 
diction of the results of the skull-measurements carried out by others, which his paper 
(published in last year’s ‘Archiv fiir Anthropologie,’ pp. 12, 14, 20) abounds in, 
furnishes a practical commentary upon the just quoted words. And Broca’s words 
are especially worth quoting, from the ‘ Bulletin de la Société d’Anthropologie de 
Paris,’ Noy. 6, 18738, p. 824 :—“ Dans l’état actuel de nos connaissances la cranio- 
logie ne peut avoir la pretention de voler de ses propres ailes, et de substituer ses 
diagnostics aux notions fournies par l’ethnologie et par l’archéologie.” 

I would venture to say that the way in which a person with the command of a 
considerable number of skulls procured from some one district in modern times, or 
from some one kind of tumulus or sepulchre in prehistoric times, would naturally 
address himself to the work of arranging them in a museum, furnishes us with a 
concrete illustration of the true limits of craniography. I say ‘a person with the 
command of a considerable number of skulls ;” for, valuable as a single skull may 
be, and often is, as furnishing the missing link in a gradational series, one or two 
skulls by themselves do not justify us (except in rare instances, which I will here- 
inafter specify) in predicating any thing as to their nationality. Greater rashness has 
never been shown, even in a realm of science in which rashness has only recently 
been proceeded against under an Alien Act, than in certain speculations as to the im- 
migration of races into various corners of the world, based upon the casual disco- 
yery in such places of single skulls, which skulls were identified, on the ground of 
their individual characters, as having belonged to races shown on no other evidence 
to have ever set foot there. 

It is, of course, possible enough for a skilled craniographer to be right in referring 
eyen a single skull to some particular nationality ; an Australian or an Eskimo, or 
an Andamanese might be so referred with some confidence; but all such successes 
should be recorded with the reservation suggested by the words, ubi eorwn qui 
perierunt ? and by the English line, “the many fail, the one succeeds.” They are 
the shots which haye hit, and have been recorded. But if it is unsafe to base 
any ethnographic conclusions upon the examination of one or two skulls, it is 
not so when we can examine about ten times as many—ten, that is to say, or 
twenty, the locality and the dates of which are known as certain quantities. A 
craniographer thus fortunate casts his eye over the entire series, and selects from 
it one or more which correspond to one of the great types based by Retzius not 
merely upon consideration of proportionate lengths and _breadths, but also upon 
the artistic considerations of type, curve, and contour. He measures the skulls 
thus selected, and so furnishes himself with a check which even the most practised 
eye cannot safely dispense with. He then proceeds to satisfy himself as to whether 
the entire series is referable to one alone of the two great typical forms of 
Brachycephaly or Dolichocephaly, or whether both types are represented. in it, 
and if so, in what proportions and with what admixture of intermediate forms. 
With a number of Peruvian, or, indeed, of Western American skulls generally, of 
Australian, of Tasmanian, of Eskimo, of Veddah, of Andamanese crania before him, 
the craniographer would nearly always, setting aside a few abnormally aberrant 
(which are frequently morbid) specimens, refer them all to one single type *, 


* Tt is not by any means entirely correct to say that there is no variety observable 
among races living in isolated savage purity. The good people of Baden who, when the 
first saw them, said all the Bashkirs in a regiment brought up to the Rhine in 1818 by the* 
Rugsians were as like to each other as twins, found, in the course of a few weeks, that 
they could distinguish them readily and. sharply enough (see Ecker, ‘Crania Germanix 


148 REPORT—1875. 


Matters would be very different when the craniographer came to deal with a 
mixed race like our own, or like the population of Switzerland, the investigation 
into the craniology of which has resulted in the production of the invaluable 
‘Crania Helvetica’ of His and Riitimeyer. At once, upon the first inspection of 
a series of crania, or, indeed, of heads, from such a race, it is evident that some are 
referable to one, some to another, of one, two, or three typical forms, and that a 
residue remains whose existence and character is perhaps explained and expressed 
by calling them “ Mischformen.” Then arises a most interesting question—Has the 
result of intercrossing been such as to give a preponderance to these ‘ Misch- 
formen?” or has it not rather been such as in the ultimate resort, whilst still 
testified to by the presence of intermediating and interconnecting links, to have 
left the originally distinct forms still in something like their original independence, 
and in the possession of an unoverwhelmed numerical representation ? The latter 
of these two alternative possibilities is certainly often to be seen realized within 
the limits of a modern so-called ‘‘ English” or so-called “ British” family; and 
His has laid this down as being the result of the investigations above-mentioned 
into the Ethnology of Switzerland. At the same time it is of cardinal importance 
to note that His has recorded, though only in a footnote, that the skulls which 
combine the characters of his two best-defined types, the “Sion-Typus” to wit, 
and the “ Disentis-Typus,” in the “ Mischform” which he calls «Bion Disentis 
Mischlinge,” are the most capacious of the entire series of the “ Crania Helvetica,” 
exceeding, not by their maximum only, but by their average capacity also, the 
corresponding capacities of every one of the pure Swiss types*. Intercrossing, 
therefore, is an agency which in one set of cases may operate in the way of 
enhancing individual evolution, whilst in another it so divides its influence as to 
allow of the maintenance of two types in their distinctness. Both these results are 
of equal biological, the latter is of preeminent archeological interest. Retzius + 
was of opinion, and, with a few qualifications, I think, more recent Swedish 
Kthnologists would agree, that the modern dolichocephalic Swedish cranium was 
very closely affined to, if not an exact reproduction of the Swedish cranium of the 
Stone Period ; and Virchowf holds that the modern brachycephalic Danish skull is 
similarly related to the Danish skull of the same period. There can be no doubt 
that the Swedish cranium is very closely similar indeed to the Anglo-Saxon; and 
the skulls which still conform to that type amongst us will be by most men supposed 
to be the legitimate representatives of the followers of Hengest and Horsa, just as 
the modern Swedes, whose country has been less subjected to disturbing agencies, 
must be held to be the lineal descendants of the original occupiers of their soil. 
Tam inclined to think that the permanence of the brachycephalic stock and type 
in Denmark has also its bearing upon the Ethnography of this country. In te 
Round-Barrow or Bronze Period in this country, sub-spheroidal crania (that is to 
say, crania of a totally different shape and type from those which are found in 
exclusive possession of the older and longer Barrows) are found in great abundance, 
sometimes, as in the South, in exclusive possession of the sepulchre, sometimes in 
company, as in the North, with skulls of the older type. The skulls are often 
strikingly like those of the same type from the Danish tumuli. On this coinci- 
dence I should not stake much, were if not confirmed by other indications. And 
foremost amongst these indications I should place the fact of the “ Tree-interments,” 
as they have been called (interments, that is, in coffins made out of the trunk of a 
tree), of this country, and of Denmark, being so closely alike. The well-known 


Occid.’ p. 2; ‘Archiv fiir Anthrop.’ y. p. 485, 1872). And real naturalists, such as 
Mr. Bates, practised in the discrimination of zoological differences, express themselves 
as struck rather with the amount of unlikeness than with that of likeness which prevails 
amongst savage tribes of the greatest simplicity of life and the most entire freedom from 
crossing with other races. But these observations relate to the living heads, not to the 
skulls. 

* See Dr. Beddoe, Mem. Soc. Anth. Lond. iii. p. 552; Huth, p. 808, 1875; D. Wilson, 
cit. Brace, ‘Races of the Old World, p. 880; and His, ‘Crania Helvetica.’ 

t Ethnologische Schriften, p. 7. 

{ Archiy fiir Anthropologie, iv. pp. 71 and 80. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 149 


monoxylic coffin from Gristhorpe contained, together with other relics closely 
similar to the relics found at Treenhoi, in South ir utland, in a similar coffin, a skull 
which, as I can testify from a cast given me by my friend Mr. H. 8. Harland, 
might very well pass for that of a brachycephalic Dane of the Neolithic period. 
Canon Greenwell discovered a similar monoxylic coffin at Skipton, in Yorkshire ; 
and two others have been recorded from the same county—one from the neigh- 
bourhood of Driffield, the other from that of Thornborough. Evidence, again, is 
drawn from Col. Lane Fox’s opinion that the earthworks which form such striking 
objects for inquiry here and there on the East-Riding Wolds must, considering 
that the art of war has been the same in its broad features in all ages, have 
been thrown up by an invading force advancing from the east coast. Now we 
do know that England was not only made England by immigration from that 
corner or angle where the Cimbric Peninsula joins the main land, but that long 
after that change of her name this country was successfully invaded from that 
Peninsula itself. And what Swegen and Cnut did some four hundred and fifty 
years after the time of Hengist and Horsa, it is not unreasonable to suppose other 
warriors and.other tribes from the same locality may have done perhaps twice or 
thrice as many centuries further back in time than the Saxon Conquest. The 
huge proportions of the Cimbri, Teutones, and Ambrones are just what the skeletons 
of the British Round-Rarrow folk enable us now to reproduce for ourselves. It is 
much to be regretted that from the vast slaughters of Aquie Sextie: and Vercellex, 
no relics have been preserved which might have enabled us to say whether Boiorix 
and his companions had the cephalic proportions of Neolithic Danes, or those very 
different contours which we are familiar with from Saxon graves throughout 
England, and from the so-called ‘‘ Danes’ graves” of Yorkshire. Whatever might 
be the result of such a discovery and such a comparison, I think it would in 
neither event justify the application of the term “ Kymric” to the particular form 
of skull to which Retzius and Broca have assigned it. 

Some years ago I noticed the absence of the brachycephalic British type of skull 
from an extensive series of Romano-British skulls which had come into my hands; 
and subsequently to my doing this, Canon Greenwell pointed out to me that such 
skulls as we had from late Keltic cemeteries, belonging to the comparatively 
short period which elapsed between the end of the Bronze Period and the estab- 
lishment of Roman rule in Great Britain, seemed to have reverted mostly to the 

ree-Bronze dolichocephalic type. This latter,type, the ‘“ kumbecephalic type” of 

P ecfacsor Daniel Wilson, manifests a singular vitality, as the late and much 
lamented Professor Phillips pointed out long ago at a Meeting of this Association 
held at Swansea—the dark-haired variety, which is very ordinarily the longer- 
headed and the shorter-statured variety of our countrymen, being represented in very 
great abundance in those regions of England which can be shown, by irrefragable 
and multifold evidence, to have been most thoroughly permeated, imbibed, and 
metamorphosed by the infusion of Saxons and Danes, in the districts, to wit, of 
Derby, Leicester, Stamford, and Loughborough. How, and in what way, this type 
of man, one to which some of the most valuable men now bearing the name of 
Englishman, which they once abhorred, belong, has contrived to reassert itself, we 
may, if I am rightly informed, hear some discussion in this department. Before 
leaying this part of my subject I would say that the Danish type of head still sur- 
vives amongst us; but it is to my thinking not by any means so common, at least in 
the Midland counties, as the dark-haired type of which we have just been speaking. 
And I would add that I hope I may find that the views which I have here hinted 
at will be found to be in accord with the extensive researches of Dr. Beddoe, a 
gentleman who worthily represents and upholds the interests of Anthropology in 

-this city, the city of Prichard, and who is considered to be more or less dis- 
qualified for occupying the post which I now hold, mainly from the fact that he 
has occupied it before, and that the rules of the British Association, like the laws 
of England, have more or less of an abhorrence of perpetuities. 

' The largest result which craniometry and cubage of skulls have attained is, 
to my thinking, the demonstration of the following facts, viz. :—first, that the 
cubical contents of many skulls from the earliest sepultures from which we haye 

‘any skulls at all, are larger considerably than the ayerage cubical contents of 


150 REPORT—-1875. 


modern European skulls; and secondly, that the female skulls of those times did 
not contrast to that disadvantage with the skulls of their male contemporaries 
which the average female skulls of modern days do, when subjected to a similar 
comparison *. Dr, Thurnam demonstrated the former of these facts, as regards 
the skulls from the Long and the Round Barrows of Wiltshire, in the Memoirs of 
the London Anthropological Society for 1865; and the names of Les Eyzies and 

‘ Cro-Magnon, and of the Caverne de Homme Mort, to which we may add that of 
Solutré, remind us that the first of these facts has been confirmed, and the second 
both indicated and abundantly commented upon by M. Broca. 

The impression which these facts make upon one, when one first comes to realize 
them, is closely similar to that which is made by the first realization to the mind of 
the existence of a subtropical Flora in Greenland in Miocene times. All our antici- 
pations are precisely reversed, and in each case by a weight of demonstration 
equivalent to such a work; there is no possibility in either case of any mistake ; 
and we acknowledge that all that we had expected is absent, and that where we 
had looked for poverty and pinching there we come tpon luxurious and exuberant 
erowth. The comparisons we draw in either case between the past and the present 
are not wholly to the advantage of the latter: still such are the facts. Philologists 
will thank me for reminding them of Mr. Chauncy Wright's brilliant suggestions 
that the large relative size of brain to body which distinguishes, and always, so far 
as we know, has distinguished the human species as compared with the species most 
nearly related to it, may be explained by the psychological tenet that the smallest 
proficiency in the faculty of language may “require more brain power than the 
greatest in any other direction,” and that “we do not know and have no means 
of knowing what is the quantity of intellectual power as measured by brains which 
even the simplest use of language requires” t. 

And for the explanation of the preeminently large size of the brains of these 

articular representatives of our species, the tenants of prehistoric sepulchres, we 
have to bear in mind, first, that they were, as the smallness of their numbers and 
the largeness of the tumuli lodging them may be taken to prove, the chiefs of their 
tribes; and, secondly, that modern savages have been known, and prehistoric 
savages may therefore be supposed, to have occasionally elected their chief's to their 
chieftainships upon grounds furnished by their superior fitness for such posts—that 
is to say, for their superior energy and ability. Some persons may find it difficult 
to believe this, though such facts are deposed to by most thoroughly trustworthy 
travellers, such as Baron Osten Sacken (referred to by Von Baer, in the Report of 
the famous Anthropological Congress at Gottingen in 1861, p. 22). And they 
may object to accepting it, for, among other reasons, this reason—to wit, that 
Mr. Galton has shown us in his ‘ Men of Science, their Nature and Nurture,’ p. 98, 
that men of great energy and activity (that is to say, just the very men fitted to act 
as leaders of and to commend themselves to savages){ have ordinarly smaller-sized 
heads than men possessed of intellectual power dissociated from those qualities. 

The objection I specify, as well as those which I allude to, may have too much 
weight assigned to them; but we can waive this discussion and put our feet on 
firm ground when we say that in all savage communities the chiefs have a larger 
share of food and other comforts, such as there are in savage life, and have con- 
sequently better and larger frames—or, as the Rev. S. Whitmee puts it (/. c.), when 
observing on the fact as noticed by him in Polynesia, a more “ portly bearing.” 
This (which, as the size of the brain increases within certain proportions with the 
increase of the size of the body, is a material fact in every sense) has been testified 


* The subequality of the male and female skulls in the less civilized of modern races 
was pointed out as long ago as 1845, by Retzius in Miiller’s ‘ Archiy,’ p. 89, and was com- 
mented upon by Huschke, of Jena, in his ‘Schidel, Hirn und Seele,’ pp. 48-51, in 1854. 

+ The bibliographer will thank me also for pointing out to him that the important 
paper in the ‘North-American Review,’ for October, for 1870, p. 295, frem which I 
tate just quoted, has actually escaped the wonderfully exhaustive research of Dr. Seid- 
litz (see his ‘ Darwin’sche Theorie,’ 1875). 

+ An interesting and instructive story in illustration of the kind of qualities which 
do recommend a man to savages, is told us by Sir Bartle Frere in his pamphlet, 
‘Christianity suited to all forms of Civilization,’ pp. 12-14. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 151 


to by a multitude of other observers, and is, to my mind, one of the most dis- 
tinctive marks of savagery as opposed to civilization. It is only in times of 
civilization that men of the puny stature of Tydeus or Agesilaus are allowed their 
proper place in the management of affairs, And men of such physical size, 
coupled with such mental calibre, may take comfort, if they need it, from the 

urely quantitative consideration, that large as are the individual skulls from pre- 
historic graves, and high, too, as is the average obtained from a number of them, it 
has nevertheless not been shown that the largest individual skulls of those days were 
larger than, or, indeed, as large as the best skulls of our own days; whilst the 
high average capacity which the former series shows is readily explicable by the 
very obvious consideration that the poorer specimens of humanity, if allowed to live 
at all in those days, were, at any rate, when dead not allowed sepulture in the 
“tombs of the kings,” from which nearly exclusively we obtain our prehistoric 
erania. M. Broca* has given us yet further ground for retaining our self-com- 
placency by showing, from his extensive series of measurements of the crania from 
successive epochs in Parisian burial-places, that the average capacity has gone on 
steadily increasing. 

It may be suggested that a large brain, as calculated by the cubage of the skull, 
may nevertheless have been a comparatively lowly organized one, from having its 
molecular constitution qualitatively inferior from the neuroglia being developed to 
the disadvantage of the neurine, or from having its conyolutions few and simple, 
and being thus poorer in the aggregate mass of its grey vesicular matter. It is 
perhaps, impossible to dispose absolutely of either of these suggestions. But, as re- 
gards the first, it seems to me to be exceedingly improbable that such could have 
been the case. For in cases where an overgrowth of neuroglia has given the brain 
increase of bulk without giving it increase of its true nervous elements, the Scotch 
proverb, “ Muckle brain, little wit” applies; and the relatively inferior intelligence 
of the owners of such brains as seen nowadays may, on the principle of continuity, 
be supposed to have attached to the owners of such brains in former times. But 
those times were times of a severer struggle for existence than even the present ; and 
inferior intelligences, and specially the inferior quickness and readiness observable 
in such cases, it may well be supposed, would have fared worse then than now. 
There is, however, no need for this supposition; for, as a matter of fact, the brain- 
ease of brains so hypertrophied + has a very readily recognizable shape of its own, 
and this shape is not the shape of the Cro-Magnon skull, nor indeed of any of the 
Prehistoric skulls with which I am acquainted. 

As regards the second suggestion, to the effect that a large braincase may have 
contained a brain the convolutions of which were simple, broad, and coarse, and 
which made up by consequence a sheet of grey matter of less square area than that 
made up in a brain of similar size but of more complex and slenderer convolu- 
tions, I have to say that it is possible this may have been the case, but that it seems 
to me by no means likely. Very large skulls are sometimes found amongst collec- 
tions purporting to have come from very savage or degraded races ; sucha skull 
may be seen in the London College of Surgeons with a label, “5357 D. Bushman, 
G. Williams. Presented by Sir John Lubbock;” and, from what Professor 
Marshall and Gratiolet have taught us as to other Bushman brains, smaller, it is 
true, in size, we may be inclined to think that the brain which this large skull once 
contained may nevertheless have been much simpler in its convolutions than a 
European brain of similar size would be. This skull, however, is an isolated 
instance of such proportions amongst Bushman skulls, so far, at least, as I have 
heen able to discover; whilst the skulls of Prehistoric times, though not invariably, 
are yet most ordinarily large skulls. A large brain with coarse convolutions puts 
its possessor at a disadvantage in the struggle for existence, as its greater size is not 
eompensated by greater dynamical activity ; and hence I should be slow to explain 


* See his paper, ‘Bull. Soc. Anthrop. de Paris,’ ¢. iii. ser. i. 1862, p. 102; or his collected 
Mémcires, vol. i. p. 848, 1871. 

+ I may, perhaps, be allowed to express here my surprise at the statement made by Messrs. 
Wilks and Moxon, in their very valuable Pathological Anatomy, pp. 217, 218, to the effect 
that they have not met with such cases of Cerebral Hypertrophy. They were common 
enough at the Children’s Hospital in Great Ormond Street when 1 was attached to it. 


152 REPORT—1875. 


the large size of ancient skulls by suggesting that they contained brains of this 
negative character. And I am glad to see that M. Broca is emphatically of this 
opinion, and that, after a judicious statement of the whole case, he expresses himself 
thus (Revue d’Anthropologie, ii. 1, 38) :—“ Rien ne permet done de supposer que 
les rapports de la masse encéphalique avec l’intelligence fussent autres chez eux que 
chez nous.” 

It is by a reference to the greater severity of the struggle for existence and to the 
lesser degree to which the principle of division of labour was carried out in olden 
days that M. Broca, in his paper on the Caverne de l’Homme Mort just quoted 
from, explains the fact of the subequality of the skulls in the two sexes. This is 
an adequate explanation of the facts; but to the facts as already stated, I can add 
from my own experience the fact that though the female skulls of Prehistoric times 
are often, they are not always equal, or nearly, to those of the male sex of those 
times; and, secondly, that whatever the relative size of the head, the limbs and 
trunk of the female portion of those tribes were, as is still the case with modern 
savages, very usually disproportionately smaller than those of the male. This is 
readily enough explicable by a reference to the operations of causes exemplifica- 
tions of the working of which are unhappily not far to seek now, and may be 
found in any detail you please in those anthropologically interesting (however 
otherwise unpleasant) documents, the Police Reports. 

Having before my mind the liability we are all under fallaciously to content 
ourselves with recording the shots which hit, I must not omit to say that one at 
least of the more recently propounded doctrines in Craniology does not seem to me 
to be firmly established. This is the doctrine of “occipital dolichocephaly” being 
a characteristic of the lower races of modern days and of Prehistoric races as com- 
pared with modern civilized races. I have not been able to convince myself by my 
own measurements of the tenability of this position ; and I observe that Ihering 
has expressed himself to the same effect, appending his measurements in proof of 
his statements in his paper, “Zur Reform der Craniometrie,” published in the 
‘ Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie’ for 1873. The careful and extensive measurements of 
Aeby * and Weisbach t have shown that the occipital region enjoys wider limits of 
oscillation than either of the other divisions of the cranial vault. I have some regret 
insaying this, partly because writers on suchsubjects as “ Literatureand Dogma” have 
already made use of the phrase, “occipitally dolichocephalic,” as if it represented one 
of the permanent acquisitions of science; and I say it with even more regret, as it 
concerns the deservedly honoured names of Gratiolet and of Broca, to whom Anthro- 
pology owes so much, What is true in the doctrine relates, among other things, to 
what is matter of common observation as to the fore part of the head rather than to any 
thing which is really constant in the back part of the skull. This matter of com- 
mon observation is to the effect that when the ear is “ well forward ” in the head, 
we do ill to augur well of the intelligence of its owner. Now the fore part of the 
brain is irrigated by the carotid arteries, which, though smaller in calibre during 
the first years of life, during which the brain so nearly attains its full size,than they 
are in the adult, are nevertheless relatively large even in those early days, and are 
both absolutely, and relatively to the brain which they have to nourish, much larger 
than the vertebral arteries, whith feed its posterior lobes. It is easy therefore to 
see that a brain in which the fore part supplied by the carotids has been stinted of 
due supplies of food, or however stunted in growth, is a brain the entire length and 
breadth of which is likely to be ill-nourished. As I have never seen reason to believe 
in any cerebral localization which was not explicable by a reference to vascular irri- 
een it was with much pleasure that I read the remarks of Messrs. Wilks and 

Loxon in their recently published ‘ Pathological Anatomy,’ pp. 207, 208, as to the in- 
dications furnished by the distribution of the Pacchionian Hiodick as to differences 
existing in the blood-currents on the back and those on the fore part of the brain, 
These remarks are the more valuable, as mere hydraulics, Professor Clifton assures 
me, would not have so clearly pointed out what the physiological upgrowths seem 
to indicate. Any increase, again, in the length of the posterior cerebral arteries is 
pro tanto a disadvantage to the parts they feed. If the blood-current, as these 


* Aeby, ‘ Schiidelform des Menschen und der Affen,’ pp. 11, 12, and 128. 
F Weisbach, ‘ Die Schiidelform der Roumanen,’ p. 32, 1869. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 153 


facts seem to show, is slower in the posterior lobes of the brain, it is, upon 
purely physical principles of endosmosis and exosmosis, plain that these seg- 
ments of the brain are less efficient organs for the mind to work with; and 
here again “ occipital’ dolichocephaly” would have a justification, though one 
founded on the facts of the nutrition of the brain-cells, not on the proportions of 
the braincase. In many (but not in all) parts of Continental Europe, again, the 
epithet “longheaded ’’ would not have the laudatory connotation which, thanks to 
our Saxon blood, and in spite of the existence amongst us of other varieties of 
dolichocephaly, it still retains here. And the brachycephalic head which, abroad* 
at least, is ordinarily a more capacious one, and carried on more vigorous shoulders 
and by more vigorous owners altogether, than the dolichocephalic, strikes a man 
who has been used to live amongst dolichocephali by wiping more forcibly, 
when he first comes to take notice of it, than by the nearness of its external ear to 
the back of the head; and this may be said to constitute an artistic occipital 
brachycephalism. But this does not imply that the converse condition is to be 
found conversely correlated, nor does it justify the use of the phrase “ occipital 
dolichocephaly ” in any etymological, nor even in any ethnographical sense. 

I shall now content myself, as far as craniology is concerned, by an enumeration of 
some at least of the various recent memoirs upon the subject which appear to me to 
be of preeminent value. And foremost amongst these I will mention Professor 
Cleland’s long and elaborate scientific and artistic paper on the Variations of the 
Human Skull, which appeared in the Philosophical Transactions for 1869. Next I 
will name Heker’s admirable, though shorter, memoir on Cranial Curvature, which 
appeared in the ‘ Archiy fiir Anthropologie,’ a journal already owing much to his 
labours, in the year 1871. Aeby’s writings I have already referred to, and Thering’s, 
to be found in recent numbers of the ‘Archiv fiir Anthropologie’ and the 
‘Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie,’ deserve your notice. Professor Bischoff’s paper on 
the Mutual Relations of the horizontal circumference of the Skull and of its con- 
tents to each other and to the weight of the Brain, has not, as I think, obtained the 
notice which it deserves. It is to be found in the Proceedings of the Royal 
Society of Munich for 1864, the same year which witnessed the publication of 
the now constantly quoted ‘Crania Helvetica,’ of Professors His and Riitimeyer. 
Some of the most important results contained in this work, and much important 
matter besides, was made available to the exclusively English reader by Professor 
Huxley, two years later, in the ‘ Prehistoric Remains of Caithness.’ I have made 
a list, perhaps not an exhaustive one, but containing some dozen memoirs by Dr. 
Beddoe, and haying read them or nearly all of them, I can with a very safe con- 
science recommend you all to do the like. I can say nearly the same as regards 
Broca and Virchow, adding that the former of these two savans has set the other 
two with whom I have coupled him an excellent example, by collecting and pub- 
lishing his papers in consecutive volumes. 

But I should forget not only what is due to the place in which I am speaking, 
but what is due to the subject I am here concerned with, if in speaking of its 
literature, I omitted the name of your own townsman, Prichard. He has been 
called, and, I think, justly, the “father of modern Anthropology.” Iam but put- 
ting the same thing in other words, and adding something more specific to it, 
when I compare his works to those of Gibbon and Thirlwall, and say that they 
have attained and seem likely to maintain permanently a position and importance 
commensurate with that of the “stately and undecaying” productions of those 
great English Historians. Subsequently to the first appearance of those histories 
other works have appeared by other authors, who have dealt in them with the 
same periods of time. I have no wish to depreciate those works; their authors 
have not rarely rectified a slip and corrected an error into which their great prede- 
cessors had fallen. Nay, more, the later comers have by no means neglected to 
avail themselves of the advantages which the increase of knowledge and the vast 

olitical experience of the last thirty years have put at their disposal, and they 
fave thus occasionally had opportunities of showing more of the true proportions 

*See upon this point:—Broca, Bull. Soc. Anth. Paris, ii. p. 648, 1861; cbid. Dec. 5, 
1872; Virchow, Archiv fiir Anth. v. p. 535; Zeitschrift fiir Ethnol. iv. 2, p. 836; Samm- 
lungen, ix. 193, p. 45, 1874; Beddoe, Mem, Anth. Soc. Lond. ii. p. 350. 

1875. , 12 


154 REPORT—1875. 


and relations of even great events and catastrophes; still the older works retain a 
lasting value, and will remain as solid testimonies to English intellect and English 
capacity for large undertakings as long as our now rapidly extending language and 
literature live. The same may be most truthfully said of -Prichard’s ‘ Researches 
into the Physical History of Mankind.’ An increase of knowledge may supply us 
with fresh and with stronger arguments than he could command for some of the 
great conclusions for which he contended ; such, notably, has been the case in the 
question (though “ question” it can no longer be called) of the Unity of the human 
species; and by the employment of the philosophy of continuity and the doctrine 
of evolution, with which the world was not made acquainted till more than ten 
years after Prichard’s death, many a weaker man than he has been enabled to bind 
into more readily manageable burdens the vast collections of facts with which he 
had to deal. Still his works remain, massive, impressive, enduring—much as the 
headlands along our southern coast stand out in the distance in their own grand 
outlines, whilst a close and minute inspection is necessary for the discernment of 
the forts and fosses added to them, indeed dug out of their substance in recent 
times. If we consider what the condition of the subject was when Prichard 
addressed himself to it, we shall be the better qualitied to take and make an esti- 
-mate of his merits. This Prichard has himself described to us, in a passage to be 
found in the preface to the third volume of the third edition of the ‘ Physical 
History,’ published in the year 1841, and reminding one forcibly of a similar 
utterance of Aristotle's, at the end of one of his logical treatises (Sopa. Elench. 
cap. xxxiv. 6). These are his words :— 

“No other writer has surveyed the same field, or any great part of it, from a 
similar point of view. . . . The lucubrations of Herder and other diffuse writers of 
the same description, while some of them possess a merit of their own, are not con- 
cerned in the same design, or directed towards the same scope. Their object is to 
portray national character as resulting from combined influences—physical, moral, 
and political. They abound in generalizations, often in the speculative flights of a 
discursive fancy, and afford little or no aid for the close induction from facts, which 
is the aim of the present work. Nor have these inquiries often come within the 
view of writers on Geography, though the history of the globe is, very incomplete 
without that of its human inhabitants.” A generation has scarcely passed away 
since these words were published in 1841; we are living in 1875; yet whata change 
has been effected in the condition of Anthropological literature! The existence of 
such a dignified quarterly as the‘ Archiv fiir Anthropologie,’ bearing on its titlepage 
in alphabetical order the honoured names of V. Baer, of Desor, of Ecker, of Hellwald, 
of His, of Lindenschmidt, of Luce, of Riitimeyer, of Schaafhausen, of Semper, of 
Virchow, of Vogt, and of Welcker, is in itself perhaps the most striking evidence 
of the advance made in this time, as being the most distinctly ponderable and in 
every sense the largest Anthropological publication of the day. 

Archxology, which but a short time back was studied in a way which admirably 
qualified its devotees for being called “ connoisseurs,’’ but which scarcely qualified 
them for being called men of Science, has by its alliance with Natural History 
and its adoption of Natural-History methods, and its availing itself of the light 
afforded by the great Natural-History principles just alluded to, entered on a 
new career. ‘There is, as regards Natural History, Anatomy, and Pathology, 
nothing left to he desired for the conjoint scheme represented by the periodical just 
mentioned, where we have V. Baer for the first and Virchow for the last, and the 
other names specified for the rest of these subjects ; whilst Archeology, the other 
party in the alliance, is very adequately represented by Lindenschmidt alone. But 
when I recollect that Prichard published a work ‘On the Eastern Origin of the Celtic 
Nations’ ten years before the volume of ‘ Researches,’ from which I have just quoted, 
and that this work has been spoken of as the work “ which has made the greatest 
advance in Comparative Philology during the present century,” I cannot but feel 
that the Redaction of the ‘Archiv fiir Anthropologie’ have not as yet learnt all that 
may be learnt from the Bristol Ethnologist ; and they would do well to add to the 
very strong staff represented on their titlepage the name of some one, or the names 
of more than one comparative philologist. This the Berlin ‘Zeitschrift’ has done. 

Of the possible curative application of some of the leading principles of modern 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 155 


Anthropology to some of the prevalent errors of the day, I should be glad to be 
allowed to say a few words. The most important lesson as regards the future (I do 
not say the émmediate future) which the modern study of Human Progress (for such 
all men who think, except the Duke of Argyll, are now agreed is the study of An- 
thropology) teaches is the folly and impossibility of attempting to break abruptly 
with the past. This principle is now enforced with persistent iteration from many 
Anthropological platforms; and I cannot but think it might advantageously be 
substituted in certain portfolios for the older maxim, “ Whatever is certainly new is 
certainly false,” a maxim which seems at first sight somewhat like it, but which, as 
being based on pure ignorance of the past and teaching only distrust of the future, 
is really quite different from it. I am not sure that Prichard ever put forward the 
former of these two doctrines, though it is just the doctrine which would have 
commended itself to his large philosophical, many-sided, well-balanced judgment. 
He died in 1848—the very year which perhaps, of all save one in history, and that 
one the year 1793 (a year in which he was yet a child), showed in the most palpable 
way the absurdity of attempting to make civilization by pattern, and of hoping to 
produce a wholesome future in any other way than that of evolution from the past. 

What have been called the senile, what could equally well have been called the 
eynical Ethics of Pessimism, had not in Prichard’s time found any advocates in. 
this country; indeed, so far as I have observed, they are of a more recent importa- 
tion than most other modern heresies. Ido not deny that at times it is possible to 
give way to certain pressing temptations to think that we are living in a certainly 
deteriorated and a surely deteriorating age, and that it is hopeless and useless to 
set up, or look up to, aspirations or ideals. When, for example, we take stock of the 
avidity with which we have, all of us, within the last twelve months read the me- 
moirs of a man whom one of his reviewers has called a “‘high-toned aristocrat,” 
but whom I should call by quite another set of epithets, we may think that we are 
not, after all, so much the better for the 3000 years which separate us from the time 
when it was considered foul play for a man to enact the part of a familiar friend, 
to eat of another man’s bread, and then to lay great wait for him. Or can we, in these _ 
days, bear the contrast to this miserable spectacle of mean treachery and paltry 
disloyalty, which is forced upon us in the same history by the conduct of the chi- 
valrous son of Zeruiah, who, when he bad fought against Rabbah and taken the 
city of waters, sent for his king who had tarried in Jerusalem, lest that city should 
thenceforward bear the name, not of David, but of Joab? Or again, as I have 
been asked, have we got very far above the level of sentiment and sympathy 
which Helen, an unimpeachable witness, tells us the Trojan Hector had attained 
to and manifested in his treatment of her, 


“With tender feeling and with gentle words” ? 


Would the utterances of any modern epic poet have so surely brought tears into 
the eyes of the noble-hearted boy depicted by Mr. Hughes, as the passage of Homer 
just alluded to, and characterized by him “as the most touching thing in Homer, 
perhaps in all profane poetry put together”? What answer can be made to all 
this by those who maintain that the old times were not better than these, who 
maintain the doctrine of Progress, and hold that man has been gradually improving 
from the earliest times, and may be expected to go on thus advancing in the future ? 
An answer based upon the employment of simple scientific method, and upon the 
observance of a very simple scientific rule—upon, to wit, the simple method of taking 
averages, and the simple rule of enumerating all the circumstances of the case. 
Noble actions, when we come to count them up, were not, after all, so very common 
in the olden times; and side by side with them there existed, and indeed flourished, 
intertwined with them, practices which the moral sense of all civilized nations has now 
definitely repudiated. Itis a disagreeable task, that of learning the whole truth ; but 
it is unfair to draw dark conclusions as to the future, based on evidence drawn from an 
exclusive contemplation of the bright side of the past. A French work, published 
. only last year, was recommended to me recently by an eminent scholar as containing 
a good account of the intellectual and moral condition of the Romans under the 
Empire. I have the book, but have not been able to find in it any mention of the 
gladiatorial shows, though one might have thought the words Panem et Circenses 
: 12* . 


156 REPORT—1875. 


might have suggested that those exhibitions entered as factors of some importance 
into the formation of the Roman character. It is impossible to go beyond that in 
the way of looking only at the bright side of things. Still we ourselves have 
less difficulty in recollecting that there were 300 Spartans sacrificed to the law- 
abiding instincts of their race at Thermopyle, than in producing, when asked for 
them, the numbers of Helots whom Spartan policy massacred in cold blood 
not so many years after, or those of the Melians and Mityleneans whom the 
polished and cultivated Athenians butchered in the same way, and about the same 
time, with as little or far less justification for doing so. Homer, whom I have 
above quoted, lived, it is true, some centuries earlier, but living even then he might 
have spared more than the five words contained in a single line (176 of ‘ Iliad’ xxiii.) 
to express reprobation for the slaughter of the twelve Trojan youths at the pyre of 
Patroclus. The Romans could applaud Terence’s line, ‘“ Homo sum, humani nihil 
a me alienum puto ;” but it did not strike them till the time of Seneca that these 
noble words were incompatible with the existence of gladiatorial shows, nor till 
the time of Honorius did they legally abolish those abominations, Mutinies and 
rebellions are not altogether free from unpleasant incidents even in our days; but 
the execution of 6000 captives from a Servile war, in the way that Crassus executed 
his prisoners after the final defeat of Spartacus, viz. by the slow torture of eru- 
cifixion, is, owing to the advance of civilization, no longer a possibility. If the 
road from Capua to Rome witnessed this colossal atrocity, there are still preserved 
for us in its near neighbourhood the remains of Herculaneum and Pompeii to show 
us what foul broad-daylight exuberance could be allowed by the public conscience 
of the time of Titus and Agricola to that other form which sits “hard by Hate.” 
The man who in those days contributed his factor to the formation of a better 
ublic opinion, did so at much greater risk than any of us can incur now by the 
ike line of action. Much of what was most cruel, much of what was most foul 
in the daily life of the time, had, M. Gaston Boissier notwithstanding, the sanction 
of their state religion and the indorsement of their Statesmen and Emperors to 
support it. There was no public press in other lands to appeal to from the falsified 
verdicts of a sophisticated or a terrorized community. Though then as now, 


“Mankind were one in spirit,’’ 


freedom of intercommunication was non-existent; no one could have added to the 
words just quoted from Lowell their complemental words, 


“ And an instinct bears along, 
“ Round the earth’s electric circle the swift flash of right or wrong.” 


The solidarity of nations had not, perhaps could not have been dreamt of—the 
physical prerequisites for that, as for many another non-physical good, being 
wanting. 

rite all these disadvantages men were still found who were capable of aspi- 
ration, of hope for, and of love of better things; and by constant striving after their 
own ideal, they helped in securing for us the very really improved material, mental, 
and moral positions which we enjoy. What they did before, we have to do for 
those who will come after us. - 


Botany. 
[For Dr. Sclater’s Address see page 85.] 


Notice of Rare Plants from Scotland. By Prof. Batrour, F.R.S., F.R.S.E. 


Notes on Turneracee from Rodriguez. By I. Baytny Baxrour, D.Sc. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 157 


General Remarks on the Geological Structure and Flora of the Mascarene 
Islands. By I. Baytey Baxrour, D.Sc. 


The geological structure of the principal islands of the Mascarene group, viz. 
Bourbon, Mauritius, and Rodriguez, was briefly described. These islands are all 
of voleanic origin, the rock being chiefly a very dark compact basalt. Each island, 
however, has not been altogether formed at one period. This fact is particularly 
well illustrated in Bourbon, where the N.W. portion is of more ancient date than 
the S.E., in which latter part there exists at present an active volcano. Consequent 
on this difference of age the rocks are of a different character; and this has a corre- 
sponding effect upon the vegetation of the two districts. These differences are 
such as characterize the flora of a dry as opposed to a moist region. 

The type of the Mascarene flora was shown to be Indian, although the islands 
are nearer to the African continent than to India; and the comparative absence of 
endemic types was indicated. 

After detailing several facts regarding resemblances betwixt the floras of the 
islands, and a brief reference to their fauna existing and extinct, the author indi- 
cated the bearings of the geological structure and of the flora upon the question of 
the separate origin of the islands, or of their being merely fragments of a preexisting 
continent which also embraced Madagascar and the Seychelles. 


On an Abnormality of Primula vulgaris with Interpetaline Lobes. 
By Prof. A. Dickson, M.D, 


The abnormal flowers exhibited were collected in 1874 at Pitlochrie, Perthshire, 
by the late Professor Inglis, of Aberdeen. The peculiarity consists in the develop- 
ment of five narrow petaloid segments, which alternate with the lobes of the corolla. 
These are not organs simply adherent to the inner surface of the corolla-tube like 
“ epipetalous ” stamens, but their bases form a continuous sheet of tissue with the 
petals. At first sight the abnormality pine to resemble the “ doubling ” of the 
primrose often seen in cultivation. In the ordinary double primrose, however, the 
additional petaloid lobes are metamorphosed stamens, and are opposite to (not 
alternate with) the lobes of the corolla. In the abnormality exhibited the super- 
added petaloid pieces are simply interpetaline lobes analogous to the intersepaline 
lobes of Nemophila, Campanula medium, &c. One of the most interesting points 
connected with this is that in the order Primulacete we have a genus, Soldanella, in 
which interpetaline lobes occur. In S. montana, for example, the limb of the 
corolla exhibits five broader lobes, which are trifid, and five narrower ones, which 
are entire. The five trifid lobes represent the petals proper, while the five entire 
ones are interpetaline lobes. In the monstrous Primula we have thus an abnor- 
mality imitating, so to speak, the normal condition of an allied genus. 


On a Monstrosity in Saxifraga stellaris. By Prof. A. Dickson, M.D. 


The plant from which the specimens exhibited were obtained was found b 
Dr. A. B. Aitken, of Edinburgh, in July last, on Ben Challum near Tyndrum. It 
had three flowering stems, which about their middle exhibited a few scattered 
narrow bracts with what appear to be viviparous buds in their axils. Each of 
these stems is terminated by a monstrous flower, with somewhat numerous sepals 
in several series. Petals absent ; stamens about as many as the sepals; and a vast 
number of separate carpels, forming an apocarpous gyneecium almost like that in 
Ranunculus. This monstrosity is Sinaoat exactly parallel to the monstrous flowers 
not unfrequently found terminating the inflorescence of Digitalis purpurea, where 
we have a multiplication of the parts of the floral envelopes and andrcecium, and a 
pistil composed often of several whorls of carpels. 


On Abnormal Flowers of Tropeolum. By Prof, A. Dickson, M.D. 


— 


158 . REPORT—1875. 


On a Variety of Polypodium vulgare. By Prof. W. R. M°Nas, ILD. 


Dr. M‘Nab exhibited and described an abnormal frond of the common polypody 
(Polypodium vulgare) which had been given him by Captain Jones, of Pembroke 
Road, Clifton, Bristol, and in whose magnificent collection the plant producing it 
was grown. The plant had been gathered in a wild state by Bape Jones, and 
has been cultivated by him for some time. The leaf was about nine inches long, 
and may be briefly described as a combination of the variety cambricum and the 
typical form. The basal pinna was bipinnatifid, the segments of the first order bein 
so deeply cut as to be pinnatipartite. The first lower pinnule (left) of the basa 
pinna was divided like the main portion of the pinna. The second pinna (right) 
was similarly divided, but larger than the first, the first lower pinnule being very 
much divided. The third pinna (left) was pinnatipartite, with pinnatifid divisions ; 
and this pinna, unlike the first and second, had the basal pinnule very small. The 
fourth pinna (right) is below almost undivided, like normal P. vulgare, but with the 
upper two thirds divided. The next pinna is on the right side and is normal; there 
is a space on the opposite side caused by the displacement of the fifth pinna (left), 
which is exceedingly small and undivided. The seventh pinna (right) is normal. 
The seventh and ninth pinne are close together and much divided, the eighth 
(tight), which is normal, being succeeded by a series of normal pinn, The upper 
part of the leaf is covered with sporangia, while the lower abnormal portion is not 
fertile. Another leaf was shown which was entirely bipinnatifid. 

In these leaves the normal basifugal and apical mode of growth was observable. 
The pinnz at the base assumed somewhat the form of the upper part; and it was 
evident that long-continued growth, apical and basifugal, had taken place_in the 
lower pinnules, the greater portion of which were tender and delicate, and showed 
a marked contrast in texture to the upper fertile part of the leaf. 

Hofmeister has shown that the branching of fern-leaves is dichotomous, the right 
and left fork-branches being alternately developed as a pinnule, and a sympodium 
or false axis produced by the other branches. In Polypodium vulgare a single 
central pseudaxis is produced, while in the abnormal form just described the lower 

inne become sympodially developed; and in two cases the first pinnule of each 
as a well-marked sympodial development. 


On a Variety of Rubus. By Prof. W. R. M°Nas, ILD. 


This Rubus was discovered by Captain Jones, of Clifton, in the neighbourhood of 
Bristol. It is a variety with very narrow leaves, not unlike the fern-leaved beech. 
The leaves are trifoliate, the terminal leaflet being the largest, the two lateral 
ones yery small and poorly developed. 


On the Application of the Fibre of Adansonia digitata. By J. J. Monrerro, 


On Spiranthes Romanzoyiana. By Davi Moore, Ph.D. 


On a rare Species of Fungus found in Surrey. By Crcit H. Sr. Percevat. 


The specimen which was exhibited was one of the Gasteromycetous family, and 
of the order Trichogastres, its specific name being Batarrea phalloides, P. 

This fungus was one of four found growing on the ground in the interior of an 
old hollow pollard-ash, in. the grounds of the Earl of Egmont at Nork, near 
Epsom, in Surrey, from which place Clavaria ardenia (Sow., pl. 215) also dates its 
name. It was found by the exhibitor on December 12, 1872, and had not, he 
was told, been met with for several years. The soil in the tree was very light 
and dusty, composed chiefly of the decayed débris of the old tree mixed with 


ee 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 159 


sandy mould scratched up by rabbits. The largest specimen was 12 inches in 
height, and its pileiform volva 21 inches across the top; the whole was covered 
with brown dust-like spores. The pileiform volva was on the exterior covered 
with raised reticulations with pieces of the exterior volva adhering to it; and on 
the inner side next the stem it was smooth and of a paler colour, somewhat 
whitish. 

The stem was rough and fibrous, of a woody nature, and slightly attenuated 
upwards; it was buried 3 or 4 inches in the soil. At its base were the remains 
of the lower part of the volva. All the plants were quite dry and covered very 
thickly with the brown spores. 

The largest specimen is in the possession of Mr. Worthington G. Smith, who, 
appreciating the rarity of the plant, has had it mounted under a glass, in the same 
manner as a picture. The next best is deposited in the Museum at Kew, where it 
receives the full benefit of the sun, which has, as might be expected, taken nearly 
all the colour out of it. The Rev. M. J. Berkeley has the third specimen, and the 
one exhibited has since been given to Mr. C. E. Broome for his herbarium. This 
latter specimen was growing on the outside of the tree, out of which, through a 
hole in the base, some of the soil had been scratched. It had not grown as well 
as the others, which were straight, well-grown specimens, but was much twisted 
and deformed. Every year since the finder has examined the spot, with the hope 
of meeting with more specimens, but with as yet no result; and last year the old 
Lan was cut down, being dead, so that the chance of obtaining more is considerably 
essened. 

He has tried, as yet with no success, to raise the fungus artificially, by planting 
some of the spores in a pot covered with a bell-glass and kept dark in a warm 
moist atmosphere, the soil consisting of a mixture of débris from an old ash mixed 
with silver sand. An account of one of the specimens found, with figures, micro- 
scopical structure, &c., was written by Mr. Worthington G. Smith in the ‘ Gardeners’ 
Chronicle’ of August 16, 1873; and a very good coloured drawing of it is to be seen 
amongst Mr. W. G. Smith’s collection of fungi drawings in the British Museum; 
also in Sowerby’s ‘ English Fungi,’ t. 390, there is a drawing of the specimen. 

The following is the description in Smith’s English Flora :—‘‘ Whole plant more 
or less of a brown hue. Exterior volva ovate, fleshy, dirty white, inclining to 
brown ; buried 6-8 inches in the sand, with a few dirty-white fioccose hairs at the 
base; middle volva much thinner and almost membranaceous, connected with the 
outer by mucilage, smooth within; inner volva internally villous, covered with 
very abundant yellow-brown dust-like seed ; externally concave and smooth. Stem 
formed within the cavity of the interior volva, cylindric, straight, short, fleshy, 
filled with mucilage, but afterwards elongated upwards with wonderful force and 
quickness, and protruded through the soil, carrying with it almost the whole inner 
volya, adnate with its apex, and. covered with a portion of the outer coat torn off- 
in the same manner. Immediately after maturity it becomes dry, as also the 
volva; tubular within, and externally fibrous, and remains a long time bleached 
and tossed about by wind and rain.” 

The following is a list of the authors by whom the plant is mentioned :— 

Batarrea phalloides, P.—Fr. 8. M. iii. p.7; Woodw. Phil. Trans. vol. Lxxiv. p, 423, 

. 26; Ann. N. H. no. 303; Smith, Spic. i. t. 12; Sow. t.390; Pers. Syn. t.3.f.1; 

ees, f. 257 ; Eng. Flor. v. p. 298; Hook. Journ. 1843, t. 22. f. 1; Bisch. f. 3463 ; 
Corda, Anl. t. E. f. 50, no. 4-6; Cooke, Br. Fungi, p. 867, f. 111; Smith, W. G., 
in ‘ Gardeners’ Chronicle,’ Aug. 16, 1873. 


On some Fossil Seeds from the Lower Carboniferous Beds of Lancashire. 
By Prof. W. C. Wittramson, F.R.S, 


M. Adolphe Brongniart has recently described a number of fossil seeds obtained 
by M. Cyril Grand Eury from the silicified Carboniferous deposits of St. Etienne, 
in France. Some of these exhibited a remarkable cavity at the apex of each ortho- 
tropous seed, enclosed within the testa and separating the latter structure from the 
nucleus. This cavity appeared to M. Brongniart to have received into its interior 


160 REPORT—1875. 


the pollen-grains, since he found within it, in several instances, small foreign 
bodies which bore a close resemblance to true pollen-grains. The author has dis- 
coyered seven similar though distinct species of seeds in the lower Coal-measures of 
Lancashire and Burntisland. These seeds he described in detail. The most striking 
of them is one to which he has assigned the name of Lagenostoma oviformis. This 
is a small suboval seed, containing an almost spherical nucleus. Its external 
covering consists of a hard dense cellular testa. This has had an opening in it 
corresponding to the exostome of an ordinary seed, and which constituted the orifice 
of a flask-shaped cavity, having a short narrow neck, and the base of which rested 
in its normal state upon the upper extremity of the nucleus. This “lagenostome,” 
as the author proposes to designate the cavity, is bounded by a bottle-shaped 
membrane composed of a single layer of short prosenchymatous cells, and contained 
a central mass of small delicate parenchymatous cells, which appear to have entirely 
filled the cavity when the seed existed as an ovule. This lagenostome is enclosed 
within a second and denser membrane, also composed of prosenchymatous cells, 
but of larger size than those constituting the membrane of the lagenostome. The 
outer investment hangs down from the inner margin of the micropyle like a fes- 
tooned tent, and becomes merged at its lower margin, as is also the case with the 
lagenostomal membrane, with a very especial membrane enclosing the nucleus. 
On making transverse sections of this part of the seed, the tent-like membrane just 
described is seen to exhibit ten crenated curves, the concavities of which are 
directed outwards. Between these concavities and the external testa a delicate but 
large-celled parenchyma seems to have formed a feeble bond of union between the 
two, whilst in the centre of the circle of which each crenulation is a portion is a 
black speck, which has either formed an intercellular canal or a pillar of cellular 
tissue more dense than that surrounding it. The crenulated curves referred to have 
corresponded with the undulation in the wall of the lagenostome. In two examples 
the interior of the latter organ contained several small bodies in close contact with 
the nucleus, and which exhibited every appearance of being pollen-grains. The 
nucleus itself is enclosed in a thin special membrane, full of small angular spaces, 
which look as if they had been occupied by crystals. 

To a second similar, yet very distinct seed, the author has assigned the name of 
Physostoma elegans. In it the apical extremity of the nucleus contracts into a 
mammillated projection, which appears to be pushed up into the base of the lageno- 
stome, which thus looks like a bladder half full of fluid resting upon and overhanging 
the end of a soda-water bottle. In this seed the lagenostome and nucleus are 
further enclosed in a special uniform prosenchymatous layer of some thickness, and 
which in all probability was again invested by some exotesta that is not preserved 
in the solitary seed of this species hitherto met with. 

Another species of seed the author designates Conostoma; and a fourth, of a some- 
what similar type, was obtained from Burutisland. 

A fifth species constitutes a very distinct type, having a dense parenchymatous 
exotesta, which has obviously been like that of the Salisburia—i.e. capable of 
drying and shrinking, and thus giving to the section of it an irregular outline. To this 
seed the author gives the name of Malacotesta oblonga. Some remarkably fine speci- 
mens of Cardiocarpon were also shown, exhibiting a central subconical nucleus, 
each lateral margin of which swelled out into a rounded and prominent moulding. 
This was enclosed by a delicate cellular endotesta and a much denser exotesta, both 
of which were prolonged superiorly into a long slender beak-like appendage con- 
taining the micropyle. A remarkable feature of this seed was the large size of the 
cells of the nuclear parenchyma. Like the Trigonocarpon, to some peculiarities in 
the structure of which the author directed attention, all these seeds have obviously 
been gymnospermous ; and, from a recent communication presented by M. Brong- 
niart to the Academy of Paris, there is reason to believe that all the seeds possessing 
a lagenostome may have been Cycadean. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 161 


Zoonoey. 
[For Dr. Sclater’s Address see page 85.] 


On the Primary Divisions of the Chitonide. 
By Puturr P. Carpenter, B.A., Ph.D. 


The writer showed that there were two parallel groups, the articulated or perfect 
Chitons, and the non-articulated or imperfect Chitons. Hach of these were natu- 
rally divided again into regular and irregular forms, and these again into family, 
generic, and subgeneric series. The palseozoic Chitons were all imperfect, and 
culminated in the Carboniferous period; very few are now living. The neozoic 
epochs gradually developed perfect Chitons, which culminate at the present time. 
The writer sought information as to unusual forms, recent or fossil. 


On the Nervous and Generative Systems of the Crinoidea. 
By Dr. W. B. Carprnrer, F.2.S. 


On the Occurrence of Moa-bones in New Zealand. By Dr. Huctor, F.R.S. 


On the Classification and Affinities of the Rotifera. By C. T. Hupson, LL.D. 


The author commenced by discussing Ehrenberg’s classification of the Rotifera, 
and showed by the help of illustrations and diagrams that its fundamental principles 
were erroneous, for it was based on a supposed structure of the trochal disks which 
really did not exist, on a forced interpretation of the term ‘‘lorica,” and on the 

esence, absence, and number of certain red spots, which Ehrenberg always took 

or granted to be eyes, but which were not always so ; moreover, those that really 
were eyes were often present in the young animal, but invisible in the adult. 

Ehrenberg’s symmetrical system erred in both directions. It brought together 
widely dissimilar forms, and separated those that were intimately connected. The 
rival systems of Leydig and Dujardin were then discussed, and dismissed as inferior 
to Ehrenberg’s ; though it was pointed out that each naturalist had contributed a 
happy idea in making his unsuccessful attempt—the former having brought into 

rominence the great value of the foot as a characteristic for classification, and the 

atter having hit upon the excellent notion of dividing the Rotifera into orders 
according to their means of locomotion. 

Dr. Hudson then proceeded to re-classify the Rotifera according to a system of 
his own, in which he availed himself of the labours of Ehrenberg, Leydig, Gosse, 
&c., and arranged the creatures by means of their nervous, nutritive, and vascular 
systems. 

TThe true position of the Rotifera was then discussed. It had long been disputed 
whether they should be placed among the Vermes, or whether they abeala be 
ranked as very humble members of the Arthropoda. Leydig and Gosse had always 
maintained the latter opinion, while the former was upheld by Cohn, Vogt, Huxley, 
&c., and followed by the majority of modern naturalists. The various arguments 
against the alliance of the Rotifera with the Arthropoda were severally met, and 
it was shown how recent discoveries had tended to lessen their value—notably 
that of Pedalion mirum, the six-legged rotifer, discovered by the author in a pond 
near Clifton four years ago. 

Professor Huxley’s reasons for considering the Rotifera to be permanent forms 
of Echinoderm-larve were then discussed. The Professor had asserted that the 
Rotifera were in their forms divisible into two great groups, that, as far as it 
was known, the one was moneecious and the other diccious, and that a corre- 
sponding division of form and sexual arrangements existed among the Echinoderms 
in their larval state. ‘It is this circumstance,” says the Professor, “ which seems 
vo ime to throw so clear a light upon the position of the Rotifera in the animal 


tee REPORT—1875. 


series. ... and hence I do not hesitate to draw ‘the conclusion that the Rotifera 
are the permanent forms of Kchinoderm-larvee.” 

Dr. Hudson pointed out that his own discoveries had destroyed this argument, 
for he had found the male forms of both groups. 

It was shown how closely Pedalion resembled one of the Entomostracous 
larve, and how it was connected by other aberrant rotifers with those of the 
ordinary type; and the conclusion was drawn that, if the Rotifera were arranged 
according to their complexity of structure, it would be found that at the lower end 
of the scale they would, through the Philodines, be allied to the worms, and would 
then form a gradually ascending series till at its upper end, through Pedalion, they 
would be linked on to the Entomostraca. 


On certain Neglected Subjects of Ornithological Investigation*. 
By Aurrep Newton, M.A., P.BRS., Vi-P.ZS., Se. 


To the author it seemed that ornithologists have of late been getting into certain 
well-worn ruts to the abandonment of other tracks which equally deserve travelling 
upon. He has recently had to “ take stock’ of our ornithological knowledge, and 
finds that the result on the whole is gratifying—some branches of the study having _ 
received much encouragement since the new views of Evolution were promulgated, 
but others have remained in statu quo anté. Among the former are the Differen- 
tiation of Species and Geographical Distribution ; but Developmental Osteology 
(the department of science which in this country Prof. Parker has made his own) 
still remains one in which the plenteous harvest has but few reapers, and is 
earnestly recommended to young ornithologists. Descriptive Anatomy has fair 
prospects; and Fossil Ornithology receives as much attention in Britain as can be 
eer pom the scarcity of ornitholites; but Pterylography is still far too little 
thought of. 

The ereatest falling off appears to be in Observational Ornithology, owing to the 
out-of-door ornithologists trying each to find out every thing for himself, instead of 
starting from the discoveries of our predecessors. The want of progress is most 
plainly shown by observations on Migration, which are of exactly the same kind 
as in Gilbert White’s time, though there was then a special object now not needed, 
No tabulation of such as have been made has been attempted, except by Von 
Middendorff (Die Isepiptesen Russlands. St. Petersburg: 1855) ; and consequently 
what may come of it cannot be said. Partial migration, which is most likely to 
reveal the cause of birds’ movements, is still much neglected; and no one in this 
country has tried to show the routes by which they migrate, a subject last year 
ably treated by Palmén (Om Foglarnes flyttningsvagar. Helsingfors: 1874). The 
step in advance taken by Knox more than twenty years ago has hardly been 
maintained by other British observers, and thus very little has been done since 
White’s time. We cannot guess at the faculty by means of which migration is so 
unerringly performed. We have no observed facts to urge against Von Midden- 
dorff’s hypothesis, wild as it seems, that birds may he aware of the position of the 
magnetic poles, so as to steer their course accordingly ; while Palmén’s supposition 
as to “(experience ”’ affording a key to the mystery is insufficient; for experience 
can only mean a recognition of landmarks, which is impossible in the case of birds 
which travel by ment or cross at one stretch 1000 miles of land or sea. 

The so-called “ Laws of Plumage” have also been almost entirely neglected of 
late. Incidental remarks on Moulting are found here and there ; but no connected 
series of observations on the subject generally, which might be profitably investi- 
gated by those who have constant access to zoological gardens, while those who 
keep tame birds might also afford efficient aid. 

The period of Incubation is a subject on which, with but very few exceptions, 
we are quite ignorant. When it differs in two species so nearly allied as the 
Pheasant and the Barndoor-fowl, we may be sure that some important cause exists 
which has hitherto escaped us; and the effects, if any, of atmospheric temperature 
on the development of the chick are equally unknown. Under 200 species breed 


* Published im extenso in the ‘ Field,’ and thence reprinted in the ‘ Zoologist.’ 


{TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 163 


in Britain, but the period of incubation has not been accurately ascertained in 20 ; 
and with respect to foreign birds our ignorance is still more profound. 

The author stated that he might easily extend his remarks to other heads, but 
perhaps this was enough. He looked rather to those who had not yet adopted any 
special branch of research to prosecute the inquiries he recommended than to 
ornithologists of experience who were occupied in their own line, though he 
doubted not they would countenance the view he took. 


On Instinct and Acquisition. By D. A. Sparpine. 


AwNaToMy AND Paystonoey. 
{For Professor Cleland’s Address see page 134.] 


On a new Method of taking Photographs of Microscopical Objects, devised ° 
by Mr. Huen T. Bowman. Tilustrated by Micro-photographs of Ana- 
tomical Preparations. By Henry B. Brapy, F.B.S. de. 


The instrument exhibited and described consisted of a small oval mirror of 
speculum metal, set in a brass cap to fit over the eyepiece of the microscope at an 
angle of 45°, the microscope to be placed horizontally. If used for drawing 
(instead of the ordinary camera lucida), the reflected image was received on a 
sheet of paper, the side light being shut out by the employment of a box blackened 
inside or a thick cloth. For photographic purposes an ordinary photographic 
camera was arranged, with a hole in the base instead of the end to receive the 
microscope tube, the plate-holder being in a horizontal position. The exposure re- 
quired for wet collodion plates, even with high powers, was stated to be very short, 


On some Physiological Effects of various Drinking- Waters. 
By W: J. Coormr. 


In 1870-73 M. Wurtz, the Dean of the Ecole de Médecine in Paris, presented to 
the French Academy of Science two important papers by M. F. Papillon. In those 
papers it was shown that the phosphate of lime in bone is capable of being replaced 
to aconsiderable extent by the phosphates of strontia, alumina, and magnesia. The 
first experiments of M. Papillon were commenced on Monday, September 6th, 
1869. He took a young pigeon, shut it up in a cage, and fed it with wheat rolled 
into a fine paste, and mixed with some phosphate of strontia and a solution of 
chlorides, carbonates, sulphates, and nitrates of potash in the proportion of 13 
gramme to the litre of distilled water ; a small quantity of hydrochloric acid was 
also added. On the Ist of April, 1870, the pigeon was killed. An analysis of the 
bone-ash showed :— 


BAITITO Safa Nh. 18 tetale ea AR wate ERS 46°75 
SSUMORUGMAL Soe a0. PPTs PS 8:45 
Pho sph orvewAeids ysis Met TR eas 41:80 
Phosphate of Magnesia ............ 1-80 
VOSIDITG) 41. Taner ees Ae ORAM Siete th 1:10 

99:90 


Another pigeon on the same date as the preceding was supplied daily with a solu- 
tion of phosphate and carbonate of magnesia and distilled water. Killed on the 
4th of April. The analysis of bone-ash showed :— 


Dime ohn. cae. Te 51:76 


164 REPORT—1875. 


On the 16th September, 1869, a white rat, six days old, was treated daily with 
a decigramme of phosphate of alumina in a litre of distilled water, with rice and 
gluten. On the 29th November, 1869, the rat died suddenly of convulsions. A 
post mortem examination showed inflammation of the intestines, attributed to the 
mechanical effect of nodules of phosphate of alumina. The rat was boiled in dis- 
tilled water, and then boned. The bone-ash contained :— 


On the same date as the first rat, a little rat of the same litter was put under the 
same conditions, except that in place of phosphate of alumina, phosphate of mag- 
nesia was administered. This rat was killed on the 25th November, 1869, appa- 
rently quite healthy. The bone-ash was found to contain :— 


UTE MOE SSRs SOE ene 46:15 


May 21st.—Six chickens, just hatched, were taken; one killed immediately ; 
others fed with rice, cooked in distilled water, with phosphate and carbonate of 
magnesia added to the ordinary salts in the water they drank. 

June 28th.—Rice replaced by wheat, cooked as the rice. 

The five chickens were killed at different periods. 


Ash showed in analysis. 


Birt Ate Valigy chs isin chesieseigitin’s 5 ee Pits ae 
Second, 12th July........s0.e+s ‘ieee he Soree 
Three others, 10 days later ...... kame ns ee 50°51 

Magnesia.... 2°01 


There were only inappreciable traces of magnesia in the bones of the chicken 
killed at the moment of its birth. The bones of all these animals had preserved 
their ordinary aspect and physiological properties, and there was no disturbance of 
the normal functions of the system. Bone-ash, as is known, consists of phosphate 
of lime, with about two per cent. of phosphate of magnesia, and more or less car- 
bonate of lime. The full importance of these experiments does not seem to have 
been fully appreciated. It is not only shown that the food which is eaten affects 
the composition of the bones, but that mineral matter in dilute solution is capable 
of being assimilated. The experiments are in fact experiments on different kinds 
of artificial drinking-waters, and illustrate how profoundly the bodies of animals 
are influenced by the mineral constituents of the water which they drink. They 
seem to show that the effect of altering the composition of the water-supply of a 
community might involve questions of vast importance to the organic structure of 
the human body, if the very composition of our bones is affected by the quality of 
the water. If the water contains lime, lime may be taken up, and would appear as 
phosphate of lime in the bones; if strontia, as phosphate of strontia; if magnesia, 
as phosphate of magnesia. If by any combination of circumstances these salts 
should be deficient, the bones would be imperfectly supplied with mineral matter. 
It is said that such instances have occurred in Holland in districts where the inha- 
bitants can only obtain rain-water for drinking-purposes. This fact, probably com- 
bined with an absence of lime in their food, occasions a softening and distortion of 
the bones of the body. By varying a water-supply it might be possible to alter 
the physical organization of a population, and in future ages, from the examina- 
tion of the bones of bygone generations, the character of the water they were in the 
habit of drinking might possibly be deduced. So much attention is now directed 
to organic impurity in drinking-water (a defect which can be completely remedied 
by careful filtration), that the inorganic impurities have been almost overlooked, 
although there are numerous instances where serious consequences have arisen 
from the incautious use of deep-spring waters. Some time ago at Hendon, in 
Middlesex, an artesian well was bored to supply the water necessary for some 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 165 


valuable horses which were being reared there. The water was bright looking, 
pleasant to the taste, and quite free from any organic impurity ; the foals, however, 
who drank the water soon died, and the whole stud were seriously affected with 
diarrheea. Professor Way, one of the Royal Commissioners on Water Supply, 
analyzed the water, and it was found to contain sulphates of magnesia and soda in 
‘considerable quantity. On discontinuing the use of the water the disease was 
arrested. A similar case occurred at Rugby; but in that instance human beings 
were the sufferers. The water from an artesian well free from organic impurity 
was hailed with satisfaction at its brightness; the community, however, were 
attacked with diarrhcea, caused by the sulphate of magnesia or Epsom salts present 
in the water, and the supply had to be discontinued, as there is no known method 
of freeing the water from sulphates. The opinions of some leading authorities on 
water-supply have undergone considerable modification recently. A few years ago 
Dr. Frankland returned all solid matters in water as impurities in the analyses he 
made. The author was therefore much surprised to hear him recommend as a 
supply to a district containing 14,000 inhabitants a water proved by analysis to 
contain 123 grains of anhydrous sulphate of magnesia per gallon, equal to 25 grains 
per gallon of Epsom salts. This evidence was given last session before a Com- 
mittee of the House of Commons. Dr. Frankland stated that it was absurd to say 
that a water containing such a quantity of Epsom salts could be objectionable from 
a dietetic point of view. Fortunately for the health of the people the Parliamen- 
tary Committee refused to allow the district to be supplied with the Epsom-salt 
solution. The water of St. Ann’s Well, at Buxton, the slight purgative quality of 
which is considered one of its merits, contains an amount of magnesia equal to 
13 grains of Epsom salts per gallon. It is known that goitre and other throat and 
glandular affections, and even idiocy, have been attributed to inorganic salts in 
drinking-water. We know that the human system is easily deranged by a change 
in the drinking-water. The spa and chalybeate waters at the favourite places of 
resort have been renowned for ages for their medicinal virtues. If the entire 
organic structures of the human body are liable to alteration when excess of mineral 
matter is introduced into the system, it is essentiai that health-seekers at these 
medicinal springs should place themselves under medical supervision. And one of 
the first considerations in the inauguration of a water-supply should be to ensure a 

rfect freedom from excess of any mineral except those comparatively harmless 
ingredients—chloride of sodium and carbonate of lime. 


Further Researches on the Physiological Action of the Chinodine and Pyridine 
Bases. By Prof. Dewar and Dr. M‘Kenpricx. 


On the Origin of the Lymphatics. 
By Drs. Grorer and Frances Exvizanern Hoeean. 


Our knowledge of the intimate structure of the lymphatic system commences 
-with Von Recklinghausen, the discoverer of the beautiful silver method of staining 
tissues. As it was impossible to speak in a short paper of the nature of the lym- 
hatic radicles in all tissues and in all classes of the Vertebrata, the authors exhibited 
ifaewinge carefully executed, by the aid of the camera lucida, of the following :— 


1. Lymphatics and their radicles in the voluntary muscles of mammals. 

2. Lymphatics and their radicles in the involuntary muscles of Batrachians, 
3. Lymphatics and their radicles in the skin of fishes. 

4. The development of lymphatic vessels in the embryo. 

5. The development of lymphatic radicles at all ages. 


The development of the lymphatic radicles is simply that of fixed connective 
tissue. The gradual development of embryonic cells into permanent connective 
tissue was described by means of drawings, which showed the distinct multinuclear, 
protoplasmic, embryonic cells in the early embryo, forming the first stages of the 
cells of a basement membrane. The embryonic cells place themselves in position, 


166 . REPORT—1875. 


grow larger, till each nucleus is able to separate with its own particle of proto- 

lasm to form an independent, although irregularly shaped flat cell, the so-called 

ranched or lymphatic cell of the ground substance ; in other words, the connective- 
tissue cell of a basement membrane. The varieties of form which these cells now 
assume are unlimited. At one spot in the same preparation the authors can see 
them pressing together to form the flat and irregularly hexagonal or round cells of 
the endothelium from (and lying upon) the cells of the basement membrane. At 
another place they have seen them elongating into fibrous tissues, such as are seen 
in the skin or in the wall-tissue of an ovarian cyst. When several months ago they 
discovered that, after rubbing epi- or endothelium off the surface, and treating the 
thus exposed surface with silver, there were presented to notice the cells of lym- 
phatic ground substance, they (having verified this on several structures) supposed 
they had discovered that basement membranes were really lymphatic membranes. 
Before, however, they had carried their investigation much further, they found that 
Dr. Debove, of the College of France, had a few months before arrived at the same 
conclusion in regard to the basement membrane of the epithelium of the respiratory 
and alimentary tracts, and that Dr. Slavianski had done the same in the case of the 
lining of the Graafian follicle. They had, however, discovered that the basement 
membrane under the human epidermis had the same significance, which Debove 
had only suggested as probable, but had been unable to demonstrate. While con- 
tinuing their investigations, they found, after stripping this thin layer or supposed 
basement membrane from the inside of the wall of an ovarian cyst, an identical 
structure underneath; and the same process could be often repeated with always 
the same result. Thus they were led to see that, these several sheets being identical 
with each other and with basement membrane, the so-called lymphatic ground 
substance was formed of the cells of connective tissue, of which basement mem- 
brane was itself composed. But just as the cells of basement membrane have 
been called lymphatic cells, so were the cells of these different layers quite as much 
lymphatic cells; and found as they are in all tissues, they constitute the radicles of 
the lymphatic system. The shape and position assumed by these cells depend on 
the form of the tissue proper’of the organ in which they are found ; separating the 
tissues proper from each other, while they are largely connected between them- 
selves, they form nutrient channels, by means of which the tissues proper may 
supply themselves from the liquid pabulum which passes along the chains of these 
connective-tissue cells or lymphatic radicles. 

The lymphatic circulation begins in this manner. The branched cells which we 
see depicted in the drawings of all careful observers as lying alongside of the capil- 
laries and forming the tunica adventitia of small vessels form, the authors believe, 
the proximal points of the nutrient lymphatic system to the blood-vascular system. 
From these proximal cells the liquid pabulum is passed on into other similar cells, 
with which they have innumerable anastomoses; and the process thus continued 
through innumerable intricate networks of anastomosing lymphatic radicles or 
connective-tissue cells, we have, finally, a joing of these cells with lymphatic 
capillaries or small sinuses, carrying the now effete liquid pabulum (now called 
lymph) into the trunks of the lymphatic system and thence into the blood. 

The authors believe that, as the seat of nutrition has been formerly removed from 
the smaller blood-véssels into the capillaries, so must we now further remove it from 
the capillaries into the network of anastomosing connective-tissue cells or lymphatic 
radicles. Nor is this hypothesis of nutrition connected with or depending on en 
hypothetical position or condition of the cells themselves. The authors have 
traced the cells of the tunica adventitia of a vein until they joined together in 
opening into a small lymphatic vessel; but it is from the drawings of others that 
they prefer to prove this arrangement. Take, for instance, some of Klein’s beautiful 
plates in his monograph on the lymphatics; we there see, in his drawing No. 34, 
the branched cells extending by anastomoses amongst themselves, between the 
smaller vessels of the blood and lymphatic systems. 

Upon the more or less permeable or channelled condition of those cells the 
authors did not dilate, although they pointed out that the well-known hollowing 
out of these branched cells to form new capillaries at the blocd-vascular end is pro- 
bably only the result of a demand for an excessive supply of liquid pabulum from 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 167 


the tissues nearer the lymphatic end of the chain, the cells at either end being 
capable of forming a blood or lymphatic vessel, by the process of hollowing out so 
often described by histologists, as the necessity of the case may demand. 

They next considered the development of lymphatic vessels in the embryo. Dr. 
Klein, in his work already quoted, draws and describes the formation of endothe- 
lium by vacuolation of cells—that is, cells becoming hollow and greatly enlarged, 
and their wall subsequently becoming divided off into numerous endothelial cells. 
He further predicts that it may subsequently be found, from the arrange ments of 
these vacuoles in relation to each other, as seen by him in natural and induced in- 
flammation, that they may ultimately open into each other, and thus form lymphatic 
channels. This very natural prediction of his the authors have seen fulfilled—not, 
however, in inflammatory conditions, but in the embryo itself. They have observed 
this process in its different stages, from the commencement of the formation of a 
vacuole to the junction of two or three fully formed vacuoles with each other and 
with the termination of an already formed lymphatic channel. While, however, 
they agree with his description of the process of formation of vacuoles in many cases, 
they do not consider it to be invariably applicable. In other cases it appears 
to consist of a circular hollowing or sinking down of the basement membrane from 
the surface endothelium, the lining cells being formed by multiplication and com- 
pression of the cells of the basement membrane, thus forming a pavement of cells 
for the lymphatic sinus. This mode of development of lymphatic vessels the 

authors do not consider as general, but applicable only to such conditions of exces- 
sive vital stimulation as are found in the embryo and during inflammation, the 
ordinary process of such formation being similar to the same in blood-vessels— 
namely, a gradual enlargement of a lymphatic radicle by distention and addi- 
tion of other cells, as the necessity for enlargement shows itself, until a com- 
paratively large lymphatic channel is formed. 


On Protoplasm and Adipocere. By D. J. Goopman. 


On the Preservation of the Bodies of the larger Animals for Dissection. 
By ¥F, Greenwoop. 


Although many suggestions have been made and methods described for the pre- 
servation of animal carcases for dissection, yet few seem to have been carried out 
in practice, at any rate so far as regards the larger animals. In the case of the 
ordinary subjects of veterinary anatomy, the abundant supply renders any attempt 
at long preservation needless, as a whole subject can well os sacrificed for the sake 
of some special region or organ. 

But when some uncommon but bulky specimen falls into the way of an ana- 
tomist, he must either content himself with a very cursory examination of the 
general disposition of the parts, or select some special points for investigation, and 
leave the rest. He must, besides, be prepared to devote all his time to the work, 
or the opportunity is lost. 

The latter consideration, in the case of those who can only devote their leisure 
or a portion of their time to such work, frequently prevents any attempt to pro- 
secute what might be most interesting researches. Nevertheless tolerably easy 
and simple means may be indicated by which a body can be preserved indefinitely 
in a state fit for dissection, so that the work may be either.pursued or laid aside as 
circumstances determine. 

_ It has been suggested that, as we have been tolerably successful in dealing with 
the carcase of a young elephant from last winter until now, some account of the 
mode of procedure may be of interest to those who have a taste for such work. 

The animal was purchased by the Council of the Leeds Philosophical and 
Literary Society, and most liberally handed over to their Curator, to be dealt with 
as he considered best; and it is owing to the facilities freely furnished by them 
that the work has been continued. 

The animal, which died about the 13th of December, was received on the 16th, 


168 REPORT—1875. 


in a very fresh condition, owing to the cold weather which set in about that time. 
It was deposited in an open yard, but the next day a light wooden shed was 
erected over it. At this time the possibility of making a detailed and leisurely dis- 
section was not contemplated. The dissector only hoped to make out a few of the 
principal points of interest; so that the first steps of the dissection were not so 
exact or well arranged as they would otherwise have been. The abdomen was 
opened, and the stomach, liver, spleen, and intestines were removed. The hide 
being wanted for the purpose of tanning, the carcase had to be flayed, not without 
some injury to the superficial structures. At this time the cold was very intense, 
and the work of dissection consequently both painful and laborious, crystals of ice 
forming under the knife. 

However, the work was continued, as the possibility of a sudden change in the 
weather, and consequent speedy decomposition of the carcase, was kept in mind, 
the elephant having the reputation of being especially prone to rapid putrescence 
after death. 

The pectoral and axillary regions of the left side were dissected, and the front 
and left side of the neck. 

At this time nothing was done to preserve the body with the exception of 
sprinkling it with spirit, which was found to facilitate the dissection by preventing 
the rapid freezing of the exposed parts, which was annoying. The cloths with 
which it was covered were also wetted with spirit. 

Finding that progress was very slow, and perhaps also entering more into the 
work than at first, it occurred to us to try the effect of the arsenical solution which 
is used in the School of Medicine to preserve subjects for the usual period of dis- 
section, hoping to delay the progress of decomposition for a time. 

We therefore inserted pipes into the abdominal aorta, and injected a quantity 
of the fluid both upwards and downwards. It ran very freely, and penetrated the 
most distant parts, although a good deal escaped from various points. With the 
view of better preserving the brain, a quantity of methylated spirit was injected 
by the carotid artery. 

Finding that the subject seemed to keep very well, and the great desirability of 
a detailed and careful dissection becoming more and more apparent, the possibility 
of a permanent preservation of the portions of the carcase began to be considered. 

We have for some time been in the habit of preserving such things as dissected 
limbs, which have been injected with the preservative solution, for considerable 
periods, by keeping them in a closed box with a little spirit sprinkled over them 
occasionally, so as to keep up a spirituous atmosphere in the box. 

This plan it was decided to adopt with the elephant. A large box was prepared, 
and ultimately a second, lined with lead and with closely fitting lids. 

Each fore limb, when separated, was again injected with the fluid and after- 
wards with dilute spirit ; and the injection, sometimes with one solution and some- 
times with the other, was repeated several times at intervals of a few days. The 

arts were covered with cloths wetted with spirit, and laid in the box. The hind 
imbs were kept attached to the pelvis, and were treated in the same way. The 
head was at first immersed in dilute spirit, and kept in a tub by itself. The viscera 
were preserved, as usual, in fluid. 

From this time, which was about the middle of January, until now the parts 
have remained perfectly sweet, sound, and natural in appearance, the muscles re- 
taining their natural colour, and the other tissues fully maintaining their distine- 
tive characters. The brain, however, was found not to be well preserved, though 
the cerebellum and medulla oblongata were tolerably perfect. This, however, was 
not examined until after six months had elapsed. 

Owing to various causes, the dissection has been going on very slowly and with 
repeated short interruptions; but the part under dissection has been simply rolled 
in a cloth which is kept moist by wetting it with dilute spirit, the use of the spirit 
being rather to prevent the water from producing too great flabbiness and mould 
than directly to preserve the part. A dilute solution of a mixture of carbolic acid, 
ieee and methylated spirit is also very useful to wet the cloths with, as it is 

ighly antiseptic ; and in the summer an outer covering of Mackintosh cloth has 
been found convenient to check evaporation. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 169 


If not kept wetted the parts soon dry up, and are apt to become covered with a 
whitish efflorescence, which is difficult to remove. : 

I am inclined to attribute the success in great measure to the repeated injections, 
a few days interval being allowed between each ; thus the tissues had time to be- 
come thoroughly impregnated with the fluid; and it is to that, rather than to the 
special virtues of the solution, that the result is due. 

It is thus apparent that a tolerably bulky animal may be preserved for dissection 
at leisure with a moderate amount of trouble and expense—all that is needed 
beyond the necessary anatomical knowledge and instruments being a sufficient 
quantity of the arsenical fluid (which is quite cheap), a gallon or two of methylated 
spirit, and a tolerably well-closed box or case in which to deposit the subject. 


On Vegetarianism. By C. O. Groom-Narizr. 


—— 


Bearings of “ the Conservation of Force” on Life. By P. Hatterr, M.A. 


The object of this paper is to consider the modern theory of the conservation of 
force in connexion with the phenomena of life. 

The author holds that these phenomena do not conform to it, but that they 
rather indicate that life, considered as a natural cause, whatever the nature or 
essence of that cause may be, has within itself a power of self-propagation and 
renewal. Though it borrows its materials from the physical universe, it confers on 
them the vital powers, both general and specific, that they possess through 
organization. 


Oa som: new Researches on the Anatomy of the Skin. By Dr. Martyn. 


The object of this communication was to make known some facts in the ana- 
tomical structure and growth of the cuticular layer of the skin. In a recent 
paper the author had described this with reference to disease, and he now had to 
confirm the view which those appearances led him to predict as holding good for 
ordinary and healthy epithelium also. 

Twelve years ago Max Schultze observed that the lowest of the cells forming, in 
many layers, the cuticle were often covered with spines (“ Stachel”) or grooves 
(“Riss”’), His brother confirmed this in fishes, and other observers had done so in 
many diseases of the skin, The subject attracted little notice, and had scarcely 
even now reached our English text-books. 

It was in endeavouring to make out the real nature of so strange a structure that 
the author, by employment of unusually thin sections, staining, and the highest 
available powers of the microscope, had discovered that the cells which appeared 
“ spinous ” or “ echinate’”’ when isolated from their connexion, if they could be at 
any time seen in single layers, were simply united together by delicate bands. 
These are so constantly seen broken across that they assume the form of tubercles 
or “ prickles.” As repeated observation confirmed this, the name “ conjoined 
epithelium” had been proposed for this form or stage in cell-life as here 
exhibited. 

These observations, of which drawings were engraved in the Number of the 
Monthiy Microscopical Journal of the present month, were made on cancer of the 
skin, in which the cells fortunately become monstrous. 

Now the author was in a position to say that the “conjoined” epithelium was 
also to be found in (1) human skin, (2) the front of the eye in the pig, (8) the lips 
of at least one fish (Zeus faber). The sturgeon was just now under investigation. 

The difficulty of making the structure clear in a healthy animal cuticle was 
(1) the intense cohesion of these very cells, so that, in trying to stretch, one usually 
breaks the uniting bands; (2) the necessity for using a high power, the 75, with 
800-1000 diameters, being required to make sure of the nature of the bands. 

The interest of the subject lies in this direction. All the cells of which living 
things at any moment consist were produced by division of a parent, either into 

13 


170 REPORT—1875, 


two equal parts (fissiparous) or by budding off a small bit (gemmiparous). Epithe- 
lial cells grow so too; and in “conjoined” epithelium we, so to say, catch the division 
process lingering on. Many cells divide like an hour-glass; but here the points 
are very numerous. Protoplasm, of which cells at first consist, varies constantly 
in form, as the amceba, or the white-blood cell, While alive in a formative sense 
it moves. The old outer firm wall or shell of “ matter ” which forms around cells, 
and which we call cell-wall, has ceased to have this formative life, whatever 
functional powers it has. Cells of many striking shapes are found in the organic 
world—star-shaped, spindle-shaped, caudate, and so on. In the early discoveries 
of cell-growth oe after Schwann, 1836), innumerable mysterious vital powers 
were attributed to cells, amongst which was that of projecting processes, long 
wandering arms pervading intercellular tissue or other structures. As the author 
had endeavoured to show some years ago, the form of the cell is almost invariably 
the result of ordinary force, It is a form which the cell is forced to take, by 
dragging out of points at which it was in the act of dividing. This idea is now 
a familiar one, and the conjoined epithelium a good illustration. A fresh subject 
for investigation would be those cases in which cells are covered with ciliary pro- 
cesses, probably from splitting of hardened and formed outer materials. 


On Vascular Plewuses in the Elephant and other Animals. 
By L. C. Mraz and F, Grernwoop. 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 
[For Professor Rolleston’s Address see page 142.] 


Note on the Ossuary at Rothwell, in Northamptonshire. 
By Joun Beppor, M.D., F.R.S. 


This is a very large ossuary in the crypt of a church. There is a sort of tradi- 
tion that the bones are those of men slain in some battle; but it is unworthy of 
notice. A few of the skulls were brought away three or four years ago by Sir 
William Grove, and restored to their waa after being measured and described by 
Prof. Busk. Dr. Beddoe examined a different set of skulls, which he took in- 
discriminately from the heaps, only rejecting those which were clearly feminine. 
The average length of fifteen was 7313 inches, the average maximum breadth 
5°757 inches, the average index of breadth 78°7, varying from 72 to 87, The index 
of height was probably low. The average capacity of ten (measured with rape- 
seed and Busk’s choremometer) was 1866'5 cubic centimetres, equal to a weight of 
45°6 oz. for the true brain-substance, reckoning the sp. gr. at 1040, and allowing 
4:5 oz. for the membranes and blood. This is a very low brain-weight, below even 
that of Dr, Boyd’s series of paupers and lunatics, 


Rhabdomancy and Belomancy. By A. W. Bucxtaxn, MA.L, 


In this paper the author endeavours to show :— 

ist. From personal observation that Rhabdomancey is still practised in England 
in certain localities, and that it is a survival of a very ancient superstition ori- 
ginating'in the use of rods as symbols of power. 

2nd. That the staff as a sceptre was probably a later form of the horn, which was 
thus used in very early prehistoric times, and in that character adorned the 
heads of gods. 

8rd. That from this use of rods or horns arose & veneration for them as possessing 
the inherent power of healing disease and eyen of yestoring life. Hence their use 
by magicians in all ages and countries, the chief instruments employed by them 
being a ring and a staff and a bifurcated stick, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 171 


4th. That these symbols conjoined are found in Egyptian, Assyrian, and Peruvian 
sculptures, and may be traced in some of the stone circles of Britain, and in the 
shape of Irish brooches or fibule. 

5th. That from the belief in the magical powers of rods perhaps arose tree- 
worship, or at least such veneration for trees as is observable of the oaks of 
Dordona and of the Druids, the ash of Scandinavia, and, for some unexplained 
reason, more particularly of the hazel. 

6th. That Belomancy or Divination by marked arrows, said to be of Scythic 
origin, was practised in Babylon, Judea, and Arabia, and that traces of it may still 
be found in folk tales of Russia and Siberia. 

7th. That the mode of using these arrows had a strong resemblance to the very 
ancient custom of casting lots, common to all peoples, ancient and modern, the 
_ “Hwiting Treow” of the Anglo-Saxons being still used by the Hottentots. 

8th. That the invention of lots and dice as well as that of the divining-rod is 
ascribed to Hermes or Mercury, identified with the Woden of the north and by 
some writers with the Indian Buddha. 

9th. That a strong resemblance exists between the implements of magic and 
the ancient alphabets, also the reputed invention of the same god or gods. 

10th. That many of the signs or letters forming the Archaic-Pheenician alphabet 
are found in the rock-sculptures of Peru, thus adding one more to the many proofs 
of a communication existing between the hemispheres in prehistoric times. 

llth. That the arts of magic and divination were not of Aryan origin, but a 
remnant of that Turanian or pre-Aryan faith which once overspread the world. 

12th. That this is proved by their present existence among aboriginal non- 
Aryan races, and may oa even be used as a test of race; so that those who in 
Somerset and Cornwall are said to possess the power of divination by the rod, may 
possibly have some remote affinity with the aboriginal inhabitants of Britain. 


oo 


On the Indians of the North-western United States. 
By Colonel Carrrxeroyn, LL.D. 


On Prehistoric Culture in India and Africa. By Wrenn Crarxe. 


Calling attention to the author's philological investigations as to the evidence of 
the successive migration and distribution of languages in Asia, Africa, North, 
Central, and South America, and in some cases in Australia, he proceeded to give 
the result of later special investigations as to the community of culture in 
India and Africa. For this purpose Koelle’s African vocabularies were used, 
with those of Dr. W. W. Hunter, Col. Dalton, and Sir G. Campbell for India, but 
excluding the Tibetan, Dravidian, and Sanskrit. Thus the materials were chiefly 
derived from Bodo, Dhimal, Kooch, Garo, Savara, Miri, Naga, Karen, Kami, and 
Kol, races which certainly had exercised no influences of commerce or civiliza- 
tion in Africa within the historic period. Besides weapon-names elsewhere 
referred to, Town, Canoe or Boat, Tree, and Leaf show a community. The 
author then showed how the Indian words for salt were reproduced in Africa, as :— 
Naga, matse; Miri, alu; Kol, bulung ; Kooch, nun; Kami, malot; Bodo, kara; Savara, 
lust; Karen, tthah; Gondi, sabbar. The facts he held to prove that the earliest 
savages had made themselves acquainted with the properties of salt, and carried 
this knowledge with them throughout the world in their migrations. The names 
of the domestic animals are recognizable; but those for elephant seem to show, 
as might be expected from geological testimony, that this animal being then most 
widely distributed was well distinguished. The philology of the aboriginal 
languages of India could only be effectually studied from those of Africa ; and the 
author suggests that it would be a great advantage if some of the missionaries of 
the two regions could interchange stations, 


13* 


172 , REPORT——1875. 


Further Note on Prehistoric Names of Weapons. By Hypn Crank. 


This was in continuation of a note laid before the British Association in 1873, 
showing, in connexion with the distribution of weapons, that there was a com- 
munity of aboriginal names in the prehistoric epoch as there is now. The author 
stated that these results were confirmed since then, and since the publication of 
his ‘ Researches in Prehistoric Comparative Philology,’ by the examination and 
classification of a larger body of facts. The names for arrow, dart, spear, sword, 
knife, and axe were found to present common forms in Asia, Africa, Australia, 
North America, Central America, and South America. The philological facts 
show a series of influences, so far as Australia is concerned, operating from the 
Old World. In conformity with Col. Lane Fox's conclusions, the names for the 
hoe and other tools are found to be allied with those of weapons, showing that the 
same instrument was used for tool and weapon. 


On the Himalayan Origin of the Magyar and Fin Languages. 
By Hyver Crarxn, 


The author pointed out the relations of numerous languages in High Asia to the 
Ugrian, and remarked that the affinities of Magyar and Fin were strongest for the 
languages of East Nepaul. Among the Himalayan Ugrian were to be found 
Magyar and Hung; and the author suggested these as being connected with the 
invasion of Hungary. To harmonize the facts as to the connexion with this event 
of the Lesghians, Avars, and Khunzag of Caucasia, Mr. Hyde Clarke treated the 
chiefs as Lesghians (Vasco Kelarian) and the people as mostly Ugrian. 


On the Ethnography of Scotland. . By the Rev. J. Earxe. 


1. Aspect.—That the Norwegians are like the Scotch in appearance and in several 
particulars of life is an ordinary and oft-repeated observation ; but what gives this 
popular remark its value is this, that it is confirmed by the authority of the 
scientific observer. arly this year the author asked Dr. Beddoe whether he 
thought that the comparison of the Scotch to the Norwegians had any thing sub- 
stantial in it; and the speedy result of that question was that he showed him a 
collection of large photographs which he had lately received from Dahlmann, the 
eminent Norwegian artist, as specimens of the various types in Norway; and 
almost all of them were, in his opinion, to be met with in Scotland. 

2. History.—The Landnama states that the north of Scotland was conquered by 
Norsemen. The biographical and romantic Sagas present it as a habit of the 
Norsemen, when tired of home, to “ harry west.” The condition of Lincolnshire 
as compared with Denmark confirms the truth of this; and we may safely conclude 
that Scotland received those who left the south of Norway. From the more 
northerly fiords the outgoers occupied the Hebrides, which they called the Southern 
Isles (in their speech “Sundreyjar,” a word which still lives on in the title of “Sodor 
and Man”). ‘The Saxon Chronicle under 924 gives the composition of the popula- 
tion of Northumbria, which included the Lothians, in these terms—“ ge Englisce, 
ge Denisce, ge Northmen.” We know that many points of the west coast down 
to the Lake-district were occupied by Scandinavians. A passage quoted from 
Burton (History of Scotland) expressed that Norse superstitions lingered in Scot- 
land down to a very recent date, 

3. Language.—In the Scots language the most conspicuous and striking features 
are Norse; and this fact may now be considered placed beyond question by the admi- 
rable dictionary of Vigfusson, which every one with a moderate philological train- 
ing can consult for himself. A list of words was given which strike our English sense 
as.curious ; and yet we, in thus judging of the Scots dialect, are using as a standard 
a language (English) which is itself deeply impregnated with Danish. Again, itis 
not just those words which seem most conspicuous that constitute the strongest 
evidence of the Norwegian element in Scotland. Such words as bairn, gar, greet 
(sweep), ken, lax, speer, speak for themselves; but such an auxiliary as maun 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 173 


really merits deeper attention, So of other little words, and especially the pre- 
position tz. 

4, Summary.—Our Danish and Norsk districts are the meeting-ground of the 
two great divisions of Gothdom, the Teutonic and Scandinavian. In England the 
Danish deposit has been much diluted, though spots there are, like Cleveland (so 
well described in My. Atkinson’s ‘Glossary’), where it is still in good preservation. 
The political line between Scotland and England protected North Britain from a 
like dilution, and made a place for the maturation of a language unparalleled in its 
own peculiar beauty, and especially as an instrument of lyric poetry. 


On Recent Discoveries of Flint Implements in Drift-Gravels in Middlesew, 
Essex, and Berks. By R. Epwarps. 


On the Original Localities of the Races forming the present Population of 
India. By Sir Waurer Exxrror. 


The object of this paper is to show that the Hindus, although exhibiting many 
varieties of form and feature, were all referable to a common type, differing essen- 
tially from the Aryan, and equally distinct from a Mongolian and Negrito source. 
This normal character was deduced from Professor Huxley’s Australoid type of 
mankind, the original seat of which was to be sought in Central Asia, whence from 
time to time, and often at distinct intervals, hordes have migrated into Hindustan, 
some through the passes of the Kastern Himalayas, others, as the later Dravidians, 
from the N.W., antecedent to the Aryan immigration. Later arrivals dispossessed 
earlier occupants, reducing them to slavery or amalgamating more or less intimately 
with them, but never losing the normal physical features of the race. Even the 
Aryans, when they came in contact with the despised Dasyus and Nishadas (or 
monkey- and goat-faced tribes, as they contemptuously called them), could not 
help intermingling with them in some degree, both in the ordinary and inevitable 
course of sexual intercourse, and also by proselytism arising out of the relative cir- 
cumstances in which they found themselves, as their own writings show, 


Notice of anew Code of International Symbols for use on Prehistoric Maps*. 
By Joun Evans, V.P.RS. 


The system has been devised by a Committee appointed last year at the Congress 
of Prehistoric Anthropology and Archeology at Stockholm. The symbols are 
simple, and intended to denote the occurrence of dolmens, tumuli, and other objects 
of archxological interest, but are also susceptible of being made compound, so as to 
denote the particular character and even the approximate age of any monument, 
The Report of the Committee on which the paper was founded has been published 
in the ‘Matériaux pour Histoire Primitive de 1’ Homme,’ vol, vi. 1875 (Supplement), 


On Recent Investigations in Cissbury Camp, Sussex, 
By Colonel A. H. Lanz Fox, Pres. At. 


On the Origin of the South-Sea Islanders. By the Rev. Wxart W. Gut, B.A. 


Mr. Alfred Wallace, in his admirable work on ‘ The Malay Archipelago ’ (p. 593, 
4th edit.), has advanced the theory that the Polynesians are descended from a race 
which once overspread a vast submerged southern continent. As the land gra- 
dually sank, a few of the aborigines may have escaped to the tops of the loftiest 
mountains, around which subsequently coral reefs formed. Admitting that 
“« Polynesia is preeminently an area of subsidence, and its great widespread groups 


* Published iz eatenso in the ‘ Anthropological Journal,’ 


174 . REPORT—1875, 


of coral reefs may mark out the position of former continents and islands,” the 
author still thinks Mr. Wallace’s inference to be unwarranted ; for:— 

1. Supposing that human beings inhabited this great southern continent at the 
period of the subsidence, and that a remnant escaped, the author believes that human 
life could not under such circumstances be sustained for any considerable time, as 
usually there is nothing edible on the tops of the Pacific mountains save berries, 
to say nothing of the difficulty, in most cases, of obtaining water. iy. 

2, The theory is utterly opposed to the native accounts of their own origin, 
which all point to the north-west. 

3. The spread of the race can be accounted for on the basis of historical facts. 
In 1862 the author saw on Manua an open boat, which had accidentally drifted from 
Moorea, a distance of 1250 miles, and no life lost. A few months later on in the 
same year Hlikana and his friends drifted in a canoe from Manibiki to Nukuraaeae, 
in the Ellice group (lying N.W. of Samoa), a distance of some 1360 miles. Half 
the party on board perished from want of food and water. In both these instances 
the drifting was from east to west, before the trade-winds. A far more remarkable 
event occurred in January 1858, during the prevalence of the westerly winds, when 
a numerous family of natives drifted from Fakaofo, in the Union group, north of 
Samoa, to Nassan Island, thence to Palmerston’s Island, and finally to Mangaia, 
altogether a distance of 1250 miles in a south-easterly direction. 

4, The colour, hair, general physiognomy, habits, character, and especially the 
language of the Polynesians, indicate a Malay origin. This cannot be accidental. 
Tt would be easy to give a long list of words identical or nearly so in Malay and 
Polynesian. The author believes that long ages ago the progenitors of the present 
race entered the Pacific from the south-eastern fork of New Guinea, but were 
driven to the eastward by the fierce Negrito race. The greatest distance from land 
to land, as they proceed eastward, would be from Samoa to the Hervey group, 
about 706 miles, which has been successfully traversed by natives in their fragile 
barks within the author’s own observation, 


Some Traditions of the Hervey Islanders. By the Rey. W. Wyatt Gin, B.A. 


The classical word in the dialect of the Hervey group for “nether-world ” is 
“ Avaiki.” The universe is conceived of as the hollow of a vast cocoa-nut shell, in 
the interior of which are many lands, the abode of gods and unhappy ghosts, Near 
the top of this vast shell, on the outside, are located their island homes, Rising 
one above another into immensity are at least ten separate heavens. Origin- 
ally mankind and the natives of Avaiki interchanged visits through the opening 
auth top, which is now closed on account of the ceaseless depredations of the 

airies. 

The esoteric doctrine of the priests was, that souls leave the body ere breath has 
quite gone, and travel on to the edge of a cliff facing the setting sun. A large 
wave now approaches the base of the cliff, and a gigantic bua-tree covered with 
fragrant blossoms springs up from Avaiki to receive on its limbs human spirits, 
who are mysteriously impelled to cluster on its far-spreading branches. When at 
length the mystic tree is covered with ghosts it goes down with its living freight 
to nether-world, These unhappy ghosts are caught in a net, nearly drowned in a 
neighbouring stream, and then emptied out, shivering and terrified, in the presence 
of ugly Miru, mistress of the invisible world. Each newcomer to the shades is 
lured to drink a bowl of “kava” (Piper mythisticum), becomes stupified, and is then 
cooked and eaten by the hag Miru and her companions. 

- Such was believed to be the inevitable fate of cowards and of all who died a 
natural death, A nobler fate awaited warrior-spirits; their pleasant home was in 
the azure sky. In the month of August, when the coral-tree is in blossom, they 
assemble at the edge of a cliff overlooking the marae of the war-god. A mountain 
now springs up at their feet; the road to its summit is built of the clubs, spears, and 
stones with which they met their fate. They ascend with pleasure, and from the 
top leap into the expanse, where they float about as specks, Givens with garlands 
of sweet-scented flowers, they spend their time in dancing the war-dance and in 
reciting oyer and oyer again the brave deeds performed in life, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 175 


The practical result of this faith was to breed contempt for violent death, and to 
nourish a race of warriors who (like ourselves) despised bush-fighting. 


On the Recent Discovery of a Stone Implement in the Brich-carth of Erith, 
Kent*. By Dr. J. H. Guapsronz, F.R.S. 


The implement exhibited was a flint flake of very regular form, 55 inches long 
and 2 inches broad, notched at the edges apparently from use. It hada small fossil 
Echinus at the broader end. It was picked up in the brick-earth pits at Erith, in 
the ancient valley of the Thames; but as it was found among the flints and other 
rubbish thrown aside by the workmen, it is impossible to say whether it came from 
the same beds that furnish the remains of the mammoth, rhinoceros, lion, &c., or 
from some higher and more recent stratum, 


The Weddas of Ceylon. 
By Bertram F, Hartsnorne, of the Ceylon Civil Service. 


The writer, after briefly referring to the accounts given by previous authors of 
this remarkable race, detailed the results of his personal observation of their habits, 
physiology, and language, dividing the whole tribe into the two classes of Jungle 
‘Weddas and Village Weddas. The former have retained more distinctly than the 
latter the essential characteristics of their autochthonous condition, still depending 
for their chief means of subsistence upon their bows and arrows, and passing their 
lives in the vast forests in the eastern part of Ceylon without any dwelling-places 
or system of cultivation, 

heir skill in the use of the bow and the strength of their left arm was to be 
noticed, as well as the absence of any stone or flint implements among them. The 
influence of the civilized Tamil and Sinhalese races contiguous to the district which 
they inhabit has only in a very slight degree made itself felt; and their state of 
barbarism is indicated by the practice of producing fire by means of rubbing two 
sticks together, as well as by an almost entire absence of clothing, and the custom 
which they observe of habitually refraining from any sort of ablution whatever. 

The copies of photographs exhibited showed them to possess features of no unin~ 
telligent type ; but they wear an expression of extreme unhappiness, and one of their 
chief peculiarities is that they never laugh. It is probable that this circumstance 
is due to psychological causes rather than to any physical conformation. 

Their intellectual capacity is extremely slight, and their power of memory de- 
fective. They are utterly unable to count; nor does thelr lan rang contain any 
words to denote the numerals; and it is singular that, whilst their moral notions 
lead them to regard theft or lying or the striking of another as an inconceivable 
wrong, they are devoid of any form of religion, and also, apparently, of any religious 
sentiment, except in so far as that may be inferred from their practice of offering a 
sacrifice to the spirit of one of their fellows immediately after his decease, their 
idea of a future state being limited to the belief that they become devils after 
death, not, however, in the sense of the Buddhist theory of metempsychosis, but 
simply as one final and irresistible transformation. 

he analysis of their language and of their songs or folk-lore was reserved by the 
author for subsequent occasion; but he observed that their vocabulary largely 
consisted of words derived directly from the Sinhalese, and others indicated an 
affinity with Pali and Sanskrit, whilst there remained a considerable residue of 
doubtful origin. There is, however, an absence of any distinctly Dravidian ele- 
ment, and the language appears to bear no resemblance to that spoken by the 
Yakkas of Nipal. The author, after adverting to the danger of insisting too 
strongly upon the inferences which may be drawn from linguistic evidence in the 
determination of ethnological questions, drew attention to the interesting cireum- 
stance that the Weddas are the only savage race in existence speaking an Aryan 


language. 
* Figured and described in the ‘Argonaut’ for September 1875, p. 263. 


176 - REPORtT—1875. 


On an Ethnological and Linguistic Tour of Discovery in Dardistan &e. 
By Dr. Lrrrver. 


On Anthropology, Sociology, and Nationality. By D. Macxrntosn, F.G.S. 


In this paper the author defends his statement of the results of observations in 
England and Wales which have already been given to the world in the ‘ Transac- 
tions of the Ethnological Society’ (1861), ‘ British Association Report’ (1865), and 
‘ Anthropological Review’ (1866). He believes that the inhabitants of different 

arts of England and Wales differ so much in their physical and mental character- 
istics, irrespectively of circumstances, that many tribes must have retained their 
peculiarities since their colonization of the country, by continuing in certain locali- 
ties with little mutual interblending, or through the process of amalgamation fail- 
ing to obliterate the more hardened characteristics. He describes the-character- 
istics of a race he provisionally terms Gaelic, traces the differences between the 
inhabitants of South and North Wales, gives a minute definition of the physical 
and mental peculiarities of Saxons strictly so called eieding the term Anglo- 
Saxon as misleading), shows the difference between Saxons and Danes, follows 
‘Worsaae in believing that the Danes have impressed their character on the inha- 
bitants of the north-eastern half of England, and tries to show that between the 
north-east and south-west the difference in the character of the people, irrespec- 
tively of circumstances, is so great as to give a seminationality to each division— 
restless activity, ambition, and commercial speculation predominating in the north- 
east, contentment and leisurely reflection in the south-west. He concludes by a 
reference to the derivation of the original inhabitants of New England from the 
south-west, and mentions the fact that, while a large proportion of New-England 
surnames are still found in Devon and Dorset, there is a small village called Boston 
near Totnes, and in its immediate neighbourhood a place called “Bunker's Hill.” 


Note on the supposed lost Language and Antiquity of the Kirghiz, or Buruts. 
By Rosrrt Micuetn, /.R.GS., FSS., and Member of the Imperial Russian 
Geographical Society. 

This people, which formerly dwelt in the country of the Upper Yenissei, now 
occupies the valleys of the Thian-shan range, where, it seems, still more ancient 
representatives of the race dwelt before those of the Upper Yenissei, driven (in the 
17th century) by the second series of Mongol Altyn Khans, and finally by Russian 
Cossacks, shifted their habitations. But while the Kirghiz of the Thian-shan are 
alluded to by Chinese chroniclers of the 18th century, those of the Yenissei, or 
Ulu-kem river, are spoken of in Chinese chronicles of the 5th century, where it 
would appear, from a casual allusion to Kirghiz slaves among the Tukiu, in the 
narrative of Zemarchus’s mission to Disobul, they were at that time a vanquished 
nationality. By the Chinese these Kirghiz are traced back two centuries B.C. 
These Kirghiz, anciently called Hakas, were overcome by the Tu-kiu or Turks, a 
race quite distinct from the Hakas, who are supposed to be an Aryan people. 
Their language is now Turk, and very few traces of their origin haye as yet been 
discovered ; but it is not impossible that philological inquiries may yet lead to a 
discovery of many roots in the languages of the Finns and other tribes of that 
family of the lost language, the Kirghiz or ancient Hakas. 

Language is often a deceptive guide to the determination of primitive stock. 
Yet it cannot be but that a once numerous and powerful people, at one time speak- 
ing a language of their own, have left in those that have superseded it evidences of 
an earlier form of speech. In the language of the Tongouts in Ordos there are 
sounds exactly similar to those uttered by the Finns, Laplanders, Savoyards, &e., 
quite distinct from those in the Turk tongue, albeit these last-named people are 
considered the Turk race, The author considers that a study of the symbols 
which are in common use in the far East in place of written characters would 
probably afford some assistance on the spot to the philological student and serve 
to throw some light upon the past. Joubert, Abel Remusat, Castrea, and others 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 177 


may be referred to on this subject; and there are said to be caverns in the Sayan 
mountain-passes where some ancient people deposited their records and relies, 
which have never been found or even searched for from the Russian side of the 
country. It is to be remembered that the so-called Kirghiz of the Biernes of 
North-western Asia have no affinities whatever with the Kirghiz here alluded to. 
These, now nearly all Russian subjects, do not know the name, and are really 
Kaisaks (Cossacks), roaming houseless waifs, and they are Turks. The Kirghiz 
proper are now few in number, and are fast dying out, succumbing to the Cauca~ 
sians, probably the descendants of this very ancient people. 


On the Localities from whence the Gold and Tin of the Ancients were derived. 
By Cuartes P, Groom Narirr, /.G.S., MAL, 


The author said tin was known from historic evidence at least 1500 years 3.c, 
He quoted Strabo with reference to the Phcenicians carrying on traffic for tin from 
Gades and Bochart, who deduced the term Britain from Barab anac, the land or 
field of tin. From the Phoenician inscriptions recently published in the journals 
of the London Anthropological Societies and Institute, as having been found in 
Brazil and Sumatra, he thought there was an early Pheenician intercourse with 
these countries, and that metals might have been derived from them. TBochart 
thought Ophir might be in Peru. The author thought Ophir was a general name 
for a gold-producing country. He reviewed the various theories with reference to 
the location of Ophir, and mentioned the leading localities where the gold of 
antiquity was said by ancient authors to have been procured. 


A new Paragraph in Early English History. 
By Dr. T. Nicnotas, M.A., F.GS. 


The author brought forward evidence, not before presented, to the effect that 
the letter to Aétius the Roman Consul, ascribed by Gildas to the Britons of 
Britain, and beginning, “ The groans of the Britons,” meant in reality a message to 
the same effect sent to the same consul and in the same year by the Armoricans, 
who were even at that early date (4.p. 447) often called Britanni, and their 
country Britannia (Bretagne). He quoted, in proof of his position, more especially 
from the life of St. Germanus by Constantius, found in the ‘Acta Sanctorum,’ 
establishing from this contemporary document the reality of such a message to 
Aétius from the Armoricans in the year of his third Consulship (a.p. 447), the 
date of the pretended “letter” given by Gildas. The coincidence was so striking 
as infallibly to suggest a blunder or a fraud on the part of Gildas, who was writ- 
ing more than a century after the events, and, according to his own confession 
without the aid of any British documents to supply him with facts, but from 
foreign hearsay and obscure tradition. Whether Gildas was the victim of im- 
posture, or himself played the impostor, and applied to his countrymen the Britons 
what in reality belonged to the Britanni of Armorica, he is in either case equally 
unworthy of credence as an authority in early English history, 


__— 


The Archeological Discoveries in Kent's Cavern, Torquay. 
By W. Prneztiy, F.RS. 


Note on a recent Notice of Brixham Cavern. By W. Prnertty, F.R.S. 


On the Works, Manners, and Customs of the Early Inhabitants of the Mendips, 
By J. 8. Punt, DL.D., FSA. 
In this paper the parallel evidence of various celebrated anthropologists, shown 


in their discoveries, and the arguments deduced from such discoveries by men of 
the highest scientific acquirements, were brought to bear upon the occupants of 


178 nePORT—1875. 


caverns in the west of Europe, from North Britain to Gibraltar, for the purpose 
of showing a similarity of race in the people occupying the sea-board of nearly the 
whole of that part of Europe bounded by the Atlantic Ocean. The discoveries by 
the author not only agreed with the authorities, but showed reasonable ground 
for supposing that the race of cave occupants known as dolichocephali inhabited 
as far north as some of the extreme portions of North Britain. And as from a 
subsequent joint occupancy it was apparent that an invading force in Britain, pro- 
bably the Cymry, had possessed themselves of the abodes and dwellings of these 
people, it was probable that the Cymry had occupied territory a good deal further 
north than was shown by Mr. Skene and other writers on that subject. It would 
seem, moreover, asa result, that the occupants of the Mendip Hills would originally 
have been of that race. This being so, the manner and customs of the early 
inhabitants of the Mendip Hills would approximate to those of the dolichocephalic 
occupants of Iberia and other western countries. In all such districts were found 
dolmens and chambered tombs, which appeared to have succeeded as places of in- 
terment, if not of residence (or, as the author considered, of both), to the natural 
caverns occupied by the earlier generations of this people. The interments, even 
when in connexion with those of the brachycephali, a more powerful and invading 
race, agreed in manner and accompaniments, including coarse pottery, bones of 
animals, and neolithic implements. But a prominent feature, hitherto unnoticed, 
to which the author drew attention, was the construction or arrangement of works 
sepulchral and otherwise in forms and devices simulating animal outlines; those 
on the Mendips at Blackdown, Priddy, Beacon Batch, and other places, as well as 
those at Beacon hill near Maesbury, consist in each case of a series of mounds 
arranged in studied positions representing very beautiful alternating curves, pre- 
cisely analogous to the positions that would be assumed by vast serpents of similar 
dimensions. The vast, stupendous, and terrible appeared the predominant charac- 
teristic of such devices ; ot it was noticeable that in all cases of such constructions, 
and, so far as he had been able to investigate personally, in all places of such cave 
occupancy also, the artificial emblems followed on some one or other natural simula- 
tion, which had either suggested the idea directly, or led to its adoption in a some- 
what varied form. That the simulations of animal forms which were to be found 
upon the Mendip Hills, as well as elsewhere along the Atlantic districts, were con- 
structed to represent deities, he thought there could be no doubt; and as such simu- 
lations appeared to be the result of natural suggestion, he assumed that such natural 
simulations would have been among the previous objects of worship of the people. 


On the Ethnography of the Cimbri. By the Rey. Canon Rawumvson, B.D, 


Note on the Animal Remains found in Cissbury Camp. 
By Professor Rotuuston, F.R.S. 


On the Applicability of Historical Evidence to Ethnographical Inquiries. 
By Professor Rottxsron, F.2.S, 


On the Physiognomy of the Ear. By Dr. Srus, 


On the Origin of the Maori Races in New Zealand. 
By W.S8. W. Vaux, I.A., FBS. 


The author considered this question under three heads:—1. Native Tradition ; 
2. Ethnology; 8. Language. 

In the first, he pointed out that there was no reasonable grounds for doubting 
the native traditions, as these had been found uniformly the same in all parts of 
the three islands, and, as in other matters, the people had proved themselves to 
be thoroughly trustworthy. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 179 


Tn the second, he showed that overwhelming evidence demonstrated that the New- 
Zealanders were one race, the few exceptions noticeable not being of any real 
moment, 

In the third, he proved by a careful examination of the chief Polynesian dialects, 
the Maori, the Tonga, the Hawaii (Sandwich), the Tahiti (Otaheite), and the 
Samoan (Navigator's Islands), that all these peoples must once have had a com- 
mon origin, the difference between the existing dialects being hardly as much as 
between that of Yorkshire and Somersetshire at the present day, and by no means 
as great as those between the popular dialects of Venice and Naples. The author 
had no doubt that they all came at some remote period from Central Asia—in 
other words, were Turanians ; but the route they took, he thought, could not now 
be traced with any certainty, 


On the Predatory Races of Asia and Europe ; a Chapter in Morals. 
By C, Srantzanp Wake, V.-P.L.AS. 


Notwithstanding the practice by peoples such as the Afghans, the Bedouins, the 
Slavonians of Southern Europe, and the ancient peoples of North-western Europe, 
classed together by the author as “predatory,” of the right of blood-revenge, such 
peoples are not without certain important moral characteristics. Among all of them 
that right has come to be usually given up in return for a compensation, pecuniary 
or otherwise, fixed by arbitration or by the person {injured or his relations. More- 
over, although towards strangers their conduct is governed by no sense of moral 
obligation, yet as between themselves the ordinary rules of the moral law required 
for the internal peace and prosperity of the state are recognized. In general con- 
duct the predatory peoples show a great superiority over less cultured races. The 

ractice of hospitality has become a virtue and a sacred tie of friendship. Marriage 

as ceased to be a matter of mere bargain and sale, and woman has become the 
wife instead of the slave of her husband. The whole character of the predatory 
peoples has, indeed, acquired a higher moral tone. Partly owing to the influence 
acquired by woman aa her power of moulding the character of her children, but 
chiefly owing to the recognition of the true position of the father as the head of 
the family, in substitution for the primitive notion of relationship to the clan 
through the mother, the feeling of “manliness” is developed to a great degree, 
This was noticeable in the character of the ancient Germans and Scandinavians 
no less than in that of the modern predatory peoples of Asia. With them “ man- 
liness” springs from an intense self-consciousness, and it shows its influence in the 
dignity, self-control, and magnanimity for which those peoples are distinguished, 
Those characteristics are accompanied by a sense of personal honour which is essen- 
tial to a true idea of moral obligation ; although moral strength rather than moral 
goodness is the special attribute of the predatory peoples. We see the same thing 
among the ancient Romans, who possessed the quality of “manliness” in a high 
degree. This quality was to them the sum of all morality, to which, indeed, they 
gave the name of “ virtue,” meaning strength, as applied to conduct. The “ virtue” 
of the Romans and of the ancient peoples of Europe was thus originally the same 
quality, and it possessed with each the possibility of acquiring a true ethical sense, 


Lhe Cycle of Development. By Hovppr M. Wesrrorr. 


The object of the author is to trace and bring into prominence the cycle of 
development, an invariable law which, in his opinion, presides over all that has 
growth and progress, in man and in nature. All progress and growth is in suc- 
cessive stages, which form a cycle, the stages proceeding in an ascending scale and 
in a descending scale—those in the ascending scale being rise, progress, maturity ; 
in the descending, decline, decay, and extinction, 


180 REPORT—1875. 


GEOGRAPHY. 


Address by Lieut.-General R. Srracuzy, #.Z., O.S.0, F.RS., President of 
the Section. 


In accordance with the practice followed for some years past by the Presidents 
of the Sections of the British Association, I propose, before proceeding with our 
ordinary business, to offer for your consideration some observations relative to the 
branch of knowledge with which this Section is more specially concerned. 

My predecessors in this Chair have, in their opening addresses, viewed Geo- 
graphy in many various lights. Some have drawn attention to recent geographical 
discoveries of interest, or to the gradual progress of geographical knowledge over 
the earth generally, or in particular regions. Others have spoken of the value of 
geographical knowledge in the ordinary affairs of men, or in some of the special 
branches of those affairs, and of the means of extending such knowledge. Other 
addresses again have dwelt on the practical influence produced by the geographical 
features and conditions of the various parts of the earth on the past history and 
present state of the several sections of the human race, the formation of kingdoms, 
the growth of industry and commerce, and the spread of civilization. 

The judicious character of that part of our organization which leads to yearly 
changes among those who preside over our meetings, and does not attempt authorita- 
tively to prescribe the direction of our discussions, will no doubt be generally recog- 
nized. It has the obvious advantage, amongst others, of ensuring that none of the 
multifarious claims to attention of the several branches of science shall be made 
unduly prominent, and of giving opportunity for viewing the subjects which from 
time to time come before the Association in fresh aspects by various minds. 

Following, then, a somewhat different path from those who have gone before 
me in treating of Geography, I propose to speak of the physical causes which have 
impressed on our planet the present outlines and forms of its surface, have brought 
about its present conditions of climate, and have led to the development and distri- 
bution of the living beings found upon it. 

In selecting this subject for my opening remarks, I have been not a little in- 
fluenced by a consideration of the present state of geographical knowledge, and of 
the probable future of geographical investigation. It is plain that the field for 
mere topographical exploration is already greatly limited, and that it is continually 
becoming more restricted. Although no doubt much remains to be done in 
obtaining detailed maps of large tracts of the earth’s surface, yet there is but com- 
paratively a very small area with the essential features of which we are not now fairly 
well acquainted. Day by day our Par become more complete, and with our greatly 
improved means of communication the knowledge of distant countries is constantly 
enlarged and more widely diffused. Somewhat in the same proportion the demands 
for more exact information become more pressing. The necessary consequence is 
an increased tendency to give to geographical investigations a more sirictly scien- 
tific direction. In proof of this.I may instance the fact that the two British naval 
expeditions now being carried on, that of the Challenger and that of the Arctic 
seas, have been organized almost entirely for general scientific research, and com- 
paratively little for topographical discovery. Narratives of travels, which not many 
years ago might have been accepted as valuable contributions to our then less 

erfect knowledge, would now perhaps be regarded as superficial and insufficient. 
n short the standard of knowledge of travellers and writers on Geography must 
be raised to meet the increased requirements of the time. 

Other influences are at work tending to the same result. The great advance made 
in all branches of natural science limits more and more closely the facilities for 
original research, and draws the observer of nature into more and more special 
studies, while it renders the acquisition by any individual of the highest standard 
of knowledge in more than one or two special subjects comparatively difficult and 
rare. At the same time the mutual interdependence of all natural phenomena daily 
becomes more apparent; and it is of ever-increasing importance that there shall be 
some among the cultivators of natural Inowledge who specially direct their atten- 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 181 


tion to the general relations existing among all the forces and phenomena of nature. 
Tn some important branches of such subjects, it is only through study of the local 
physical conditions of various parts of the earth’s surface and the complicated phe- 
nomena to which they give rise, that sound conclusions can be established; and 
this study constitutes Physical or Scientific Geography. It is very necessary to 
bear in mind that a large portion of the phenomena dealt with by the sciences 
of observation relates to the earth as a whole in contradistinction to the substances 
of which it is formed, and can only be correctly appreciated in connexion with the 
terrestrial or geographical conditions of the place where they occur. On the one 
hand therefore, while the proper prosecution of the study of Physical Geography 
requires a sound Imowledge of the researches and conclusions of students in the 
special branches of science, on the other success is not attainable in the special 
branches without suitable apprehension of geographical facts. For these reasons it 
appears to me that the general progress of science will involve the study of Geo- 
graphy in a more scientific spirit, and with a clearer conception of its true function, 
which is that of obtaining accurate notions of the manner in which the forces of 
nature have brought about the varied conditions characterizing the surface of the 
planet which we inhabit. 

In its broadest sense Science is organized knowledge, and its methods consist of 
the observation and classification of the phenomena of which’ we become conscious 
through our senses, and the investigation of the causes of which these are the effects. 
The first step in Geography, as in all other sciences, is the observation and descrip- 
tion of the phenomena with which it is concerned ; the next is to classify and com- 

are this empirical collection of facts, and to investigate their antecedent causes. 
t is in the first branch of the study that most progress has been made, and to it 
indeed the notion of Geography is still popularly limited. The other branch is 
a een of as Physical Geography, but it is more correctly the science 
of Geography. 

The sates of Geography has thus advanced from first rough ideas of relative 
distance between neighbouring places, to correct views of the earth’s form, precise 
determinations of position, and accurate delineations of the surface. The first im- 
pressions of the differences observed between distant countries were at length cor- 
rected by the perception of similarities no less real. The characteristics of the great 
regions of polar cold and equatorial heat, of the sea and land, of the mountains 
and plains, were appreciated ; and the local variations of season and climate, of wind 
and rain, were more or less fully ascertained. Later, the distribution of plants and 
animals, their occurrence in groups of peculiar structure in various regions, and the 
circumstances under which such groups vary from place to place gave rise to fresh 
conceptions. Along with these facts were observed the peculiarities of the races 
of men—their physical form, languages, customs, and history—exhibiting on the 
one hand striking differences in different countries, but on the other often con- 
nected by a strong stamp of similarity over large areas. 

By the gradual accumulation and classification of such knowledge the scientific 
conception of geographical unity and continuity was at length formed, and the con- 
clusion established that while each different part of the earth’s surface has its special 
characteristics, all animate and inanimate nature constitutes one general system, 
and that the particular features of each region are due to the operation of universal 
laws acting under varying local conditions. It is upon such a conception that is 
now brought to bear the doctrine, very generally accepted by the naturalists of our 
own country, that each successive phase of the earth’s history, for an indefinite 
period of time, has been derived from that which preceded it, under the operation 
of the forces of nature as we now find them; and that, so far as observation justifies 
the adoption of any conclusions on such subjects, no change has ever taken place in 
those forces or in the properties of matter. This doctrine is commonly spoken of 
as the doctrine of evolution, and it is to its application to Geography that I wish to 
direct your attention. 

I desire here to remark that in what I am about to say, I altogether leave 
on one side all questions relating to the origin of matter, and of the so-called forces of 
nature which give rise to the properties of matter. In the present state of know- 
ledge such subjects are, I conceive, beyond the legitimate field of physical science, 


182 REPORT—1875. 


which is limited to discussions directly arising on facts within the reach of obser- 
vation, or on reasonings based on such facts. It is a necessary condition of the 
progress of knowledge that the line between what properly is or is not within the 
reach of human intelligence is ill defined, and that opinions will vary as to where it 
should be drawn; for it is the avowed and successful aim of science to keep this 
line constantly shifting by pushing it forward; many of the efforts made to do this 
are no doubt founded in error, but all are deserving of respect that are undertaken 
honestly. 

The conception of evolution is essentially that of a passage to the state of 
things which observation shows us to exist now, from some preceding state 
of things. Applied to Geography, that is to say to the present condition of 
the earth as a whole, it leads up to the conclusion that the existing outlines of sea 
and land have been caused by modifications of pre-existing oceans and continents, 
brought about by the operation of forces which are still in action, and which have 
acted from the most remote past of which we can conceive; that all the successive 
forms of the surface,—the depressions occupied by the waters, and the elevations 
constituting mountain-chains,—are due to these same forces; that these have been 
set up, first, by the secular loss of heat which accompanied the original cooling of the 
globe, and second, by the annual or daily gain and loss of heat received from 
the sun acting on the matter of which the earth and its atmosphere are composed ; 
that all variations of climate are dependent on differences in the condition of the 
surface; that the distribution of life on the earth, and the vast varieties of its forms, 
are consequences of contemporaneous or antecedent changes of the forms of the surface 
and climate; and thus that our planet as we now find it is the result of modifi- 
cations gradually brought about in its successive stages, by the necessary action of 
the matter out of which it has been formed, under the influence of the matter 
which is external to it. 

I shall state briefly the grounds on which these conclusions are based, 

So far as concerns the inorganic fabric of the earth, that view of its past history 
which is based on the principle of the persistence of all the forces of nature, may 
be said to be now universally adopted. This teaches that the almost infinite variety 
of natural phenomena arises from new combinations of old forms of matter, under 
the action of new combinations of old forms of force. Its recognition has, however, 
been comparatively recent, and is in a great measure due to the teachings of that 
eminent geologist, the late Sir Charles Lyell, whom we have lost during the past 


ear, 

. When we look back by the help of geological science to the more remote past, 
through the epochs immediately preceding our own, we find evidence of marine 
animals—which lived, were reproduced, and died,—posssessed of organs proving 
that they were under the influence of the heat and light of the sun; of seas whose 
waves rose before the winds, breaking down cliffs, ol forming beaches of boulders 
and pebbles ; of tides and currents spreading out banks of sand and mud, on which 
are left the impress of the ripple of the water, of drops of rain, and of the track of 
animals; and all these appearances are precisely similar to those we observe at the 
present day as the result of forces which we see actually in operation. Hvery suc- 
cessive stage, as we recede in the past history of the earth, teaches the same lesson. 
The forces which are now at work, whether in degrading the surface by the action 
of seas, rivers, or frosts, and in transporting its fragments into the sea, or in recon- 
stituting the land by raising beds laid out in the depth of the ocean, are traced by 
similar effects as having continued in action from the earliest times. 

Thus pushing back our inquiries we at last reach the point where the apparent 
cessation of terrestrial conditions such as now exist requires us to consider the 
relation in which our planet stands to other bodies in celestial space; and vast 
though the gulf be that separates us from these, science has been able to bridge it. 
By means of spectroscopic analysis it has been established that the constituent 
elements of the sun and other heavenly bodies are substantially the same as those 
of the earth. The examination of the meteorites which have fallen on the earth 
from the interplanetary spaces shows that they also contain nothing foreign to 
the constituents of the earth. The inference seems legitimate, corroborated as it is 
by the manifest physical connexion between the sun and the planetary bodies 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 183 


circulating around it, that the whole solar system is formed of the same descrip- 
tions of matter, and subject to the same general physical laws. These conclu- 
sions further support the supposition that the earth and other planets have been 
formed by the aggregation of matter once diffused in space around the sun; that 
the first consequence of this aggregation was to develop intense heat in the con- 
solidating masses; that the heat thus generated in the terrestrial sphere was 
peapienily lost by radiation; and that the surface cooled and became a solid 
crust, leaving a central nucleus of much higher temperature within. The earth’s 
surface appears now to have reached a temperature which is virtuaily fixed, and 
on which the gain of heat from the sun is, on the whole, just compensated by the 
loss by radiation into surrounding space. 

Such a conception of the earliest stage of the earth’s existence is commonly 
accepted, as in accordance with observed facts. It leads to the conclusion that the 
hollows on the surface of the globe occupied by the ocean, and the great areas of 
dry land, were original irregularities of form caused by unequal contraction; and 
that the mountains were corrugations, often accompanied by ruptures, caused by 
the strains developed in the external crust by the force of central attraction exerted 
during cooling, and were not due to forces directly acting upwards generated in 
the interior by gases or otherwise. It has recently been very ably argued by Mr. 
Mallet that the phenomena of volcanic heat are likewise consequences of extreme 
pressures in the external crust, set up in a similar manner, and are not derived from 
the central heated nucleus. 

There may be some difficulty in conceiving how forces can have been thus 
developed sufficient to have produced the gigantic changes which have occurred 
in the distribution of land and water over immense areas, and in the elevation 
of the bottoms of former seas so that they now form the summits of the highest 
mountains, and to have effected such changes within the very latest geological 
epoch. These difficulties in great measure arise from not employing correct 
standards of space and time in relation to the phenomena, Vast though the greatest 
heights of our mountains and depths of our seas may be, and enormous though 
the masses which have been put into motion, when viewed according to a human 
standard, they are insignificant in relation to the globe as a whole. Such heights 
and depths (about 6 miles) on a sphere of 10 feet in diameter would be repre- 
sented on a true scale by elevations and depressions of less than the tenth part of 
an inch, and the average elevation of the whole of the dry land (about 1000 feet) 
above the mean level of the surface would hardly amount to the thickness of an ordi- 
nary sheet of paper. The forces developed by the changes of the temperature of the 
earth as a whole must be proportionate to its dimensions; and the results of their 
action on the’ surface in causing elevations, contortions, or disruptions of the strata, 
cannot be commensurable with those produced by forces having the intensities, or 
by strains in bodies of the dimensions, with which our ordinary experience is con- 
versant, 

The difficulty in respect to the vast extent of past time is perhaps less great, the 
conception being one with which most persons are now more or less familiar, But I 
would remind you, that great though the changes in human affairs have been since 
the most remote epochs of which we have records in monuments or history, there 
is nothing to indicate that within this period has occurred any appreciable modifi- 
cation of the main outlines of land ail sea, or of the conditions of climate, or of 
the general characters of living creatures; and that the distance that separates us 
from those days is as nothing when compared to the remoteness of past geological 

es. No useful approach has yet been made to a numerical estimate of the dura- 
tion even of that portion of geological time which is nearest to us; and we can say 
little more than that the earth’s past history extends over hundreds of thousands 
or millions of years. : 

The solid nucleus of the earth with its atmosphere, as we now find them, may 
thus be regarded as exhibiting the residual phenomena which have resulted on its 
attaining a condition of practical equilibrium, the more active process of 
aggregation having ceased, and the combination of its elements into the various 
solid, liquid, or gaseous matters found on or near the surface having been completed, 
During its passage to its present state many wonderful changes must have taken 


184 REPORT—1875. 


place, including the condensation of the ocean, which must have long continued in 
a state of ebullition, or bordering on it, surrounded by an pe densely 
charged with watery vapour. Apart from the movements in its solid crust caused 
by the general cooling and contraction of the earth, the higher temperature 
due to its earlier condition hardly enters directly into any of the considerations 
that arise in connexion with its present climate, or with the changes during past 
time which are of most interest to us; for the conditions of climate and temperature 
at present, as well as in the period during which the existence of life is indicated 
by the presence of fossil remains, and which have affected the production and distri- 
bution of organized beings, are dependent on other causes, to a consideration of 
which I now proceed. 

The natural phenomena relating to the atmosphere are often extremely 
complicated and difficult of explanation; and meteorology is the least ad- 
vanced of the branches of physical science. But sufficient is known to indicate, 
without possible doubt, that the primary causes of the great series of pheno- 
mena, included under the general term climate, are the action and reaction of the 
mechanical and chemical forces set in operation by the sun’s heat, varied from 
time to time and from place to place, by the influence of the position of the earth 
in its orbit, of its revolution on its axis, of geographical position, elevation above 
the sea-level, and condition of the surface, and by the great mobility of the 
atmosphere and the ocean. 

The intimate connexion between climate and local geographical conditions is 
everywhere apparent; nothing is more striking than the great differences between 
neighbouring places where the effective local conditions are not alike, which 
often far surpass the contrasts attending the widest separation possible on the globe. 
Three or four miles of vertical height produce effects almost equal to those of 
transfer from the equator to the poles. The distribution of the great seas and con- 
tinents give rise to periodical winds—the trades and monsoons—which main- 
tain their general characteristics over wide areas, but present almost infinite 
local modifications whether of season, direction, or force. The direction of the coasts 
and their greater or less continuity greatly influence the flow of the currents of the 
ocean; and these, with the periodical winds, tend on the one hand to equalize the 
temperature of the whole surface of the earth, and on the other to cause surprising 
variations within a limited area. Ranges of mountains, and their position in 
relation to the periodical or rain-bearing winds, are of primary importance in con- 
trolling the movements of the lower strata of the atmosphere, in which, owing to 
the laws of elastic gases, the great mass of the air and watery vapour are concen- 
trated. By their presence they may either constitute a barrier across which no 
rain can pass, or determine the fall of torrents of rain around them. Their absence 
or their unfavourable position, by removing the causes of condensation, may lead to 
the neighbouring tracts becoming rainless deserts. 

The difficulties that arise in accounting for the phenomena of climate on the 
earth as it now is, are naturally increased when the attempt is made to explain 
what is shown by geological evidence to have happened in past ages. The dis- 
position has not been wanting ta get over these last difficulties by invoking supposed 
changes in the sources of terrestrial heat, or in the conditions under which heat has 
been received by the earth, for which there is no justification in fact, in a manner 
similar to that in which violent departures from the observed course of nature have: 
been assumed to account for some of the analogous mechanical difficulties. 

Among the most perplexing of such climatal problems are those involved in the 
former extension of glacial action of various sorts over areas which could hardly have 
been subject to it under existing terrestrial and solar conditions; and in the dis- 
covery, conversely, of indications of far higher temperatures at certain places than 
seems compatible with their high latitudes; and in the alternations of such 
extreme conditions. The true solution of these questions has apparently been 
found in the recognition of the disturbing effects of the varying eccentricity of the 
earth’s orbit, which, though inappreciable in the comparatively few years to which 
the affairs of men are limited, become of great importance in the vastly increased 
period brought into consideration when dealing with the history of the earth. The 
changes of eccentricity of the orbit are not of a nature to cause appreciable differences 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 185 


in the mean temperature either of the earth generally or of the two hemispheres ; but 
they may, when combined with changes of the direction of the earth’s axis caused 
by the precession of the equinoxes and nutation, lead to exaggeration of the 
extremes of heat and cold, or to their diminution; and this would appear to sup- 
ply the means of explaining the observed facts, though doubtless the detailed ap- 
penton of the conception will long continus to give rise to discussions. Mr, 
roll, in his book entitled ‘ Climate and Time,’ has recently brought together with 
much research all that can now be said on this subject; and the general correctness 
of that part of his conclusions which refers to the periodical occurrence of epochs 
of greatly increased winter cold and summer heat in one hemisphere, combined 
with a more equable climate in the other, appears to me to be fully established. 

These are the considerations which are held to prove that the inorganic 
structure of the globe through all its successive stages—the earth beneath our 
feet, with its varied surface of land and sea, mountain and plain, and with its at- 
mosphere which distributes heat and moisture over that surface,—has been evolved 
as the necessary result of the original aggregation of matter at some extremely re- 
mote period, and of the subsequent modification of that matter in condition and 
form under the exclusive operation of invariable physical forces. 

From these investigations we carry on the inquiry to the living creatures found 
upon the earth; what are their relations one to another, and what to the inorganic 
world with which they are associated ? 

This inquiry first directed to the present time, and thence carried backwards as 
far as possible into the past, proves that there is one general system of life, 
vegetable and animal, which is coextensive with the earth as it now is, and as it 
has been in all the successive stages of which we obtain a knowledge by geolo- 
gical research. The phenomena of life, as thus ascertained, are included in the 
organization of living creatures, and their distribution in time and place. The 
common bond that subsists between all vegetables and animals is testified by the 
identity of the ultimate elements of which they are composed. These elements are 
carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, with a few others in comparatively small 
quantities; the whole of the materials of all living things being found among 
those that compose the inorganic portion of the earth. 

The close relation existing between the least specialized animals and plants, 
and between these and organic matter not having life, and even with inorganic 
matter, is indicated by the difficulty that arises in determining the nature of the 
distinctions between them. Among the more highly developed members of the two 

eat branches of living creatures, the well-known similarities of structure observed 
in the various groups indicate a connexion between proximate forms which was 
long seen to be akin to that derived through descent from a common ancestor by 
ordinary generation. 

The facts of distribution show that certain forms are associated in certain 
areas, and that as we pass from one such area to another the forms of life 
change also. The general assemblages of living creatures in neighbouring countries 
easily accessible to one another, and having similar climates, resemble one 
another; and much in the same way, as the distance between areas increases, or 
their mutual accessibility diminishes, or the conditions of climate differ, the like- 
ness of the forms within them becomes continually less apparent. The plants and 
animals existing at any time in any locality tend constantly to diffuse themselves 
around that local centre, this tendency being controlled by the conditions of 
climate, &c. of the surrounding area, so that under certain unfavourable conditions 
diffusion ceases. 

The possibilities of life are further seen to be everywhere directly influenced by 
all external conditions, such as those of climate, including temperature, humidity, 
and wind; of the length of the seasons and days and nights; of the character of 
the surface whether it be land or water, and whether it be covered by vegetation 
or otherwise; of the nature of the soil; of the presence of other living creatures, 
and many more. The abundance of forms of life in different areas (as distinguished 
from number of individuals) is also found to vary greatly, and to be related to the 
accessibility of such areas to immigration from without; to the existence, within 
or near the areas, of localities offering considerable variations of the ope ns that 

1875. | 


186 REPORT—1875. 


chiefly affect life; and to the local climate and conditions being compatible with 
such immigration. 

For the explanation of these and other phenomena of organization and distri- 
bution, the only direct evidence that observation can supply is that derived from 
the mode of propagation of creatures now living ; and no other mode is known 
than that which takes place by ordinary generation, through descent from parent 
to offspring. 

It was left for the genius of Darwin to point out how the course of nature 
as it now acts in the reproduction of living creatures, is sufficient for the inter- 
pretation of what had previously been incomprehensible in these matters. He 
showed how propagation by descent operates subject to the occurrence of certain 
small variations in the offspring, and that the preservation of some of these 
varieties to the exclusion of others follows as a necessary consequence when 
the external conditions are more suitable to the preserved forms than to those lost. 
The operation of these causes he called Natural Selection. Prolonged over a great 
extent of time it supplies the long-sought key to the complex system of forms 
either now living on the earth, or the remains of which are found in the fossil 
state, and explains the relations among them, and the manner in which their 
distribution has taken place in time and space. 

Thus we are brought to the conclusion that the directing forces which have been 
efficient in developing the existing forms of life from those which went before 
them, are those same successive external conditions, including both the forms of 
land and sea and the character of the climate, which have already been shown 
to arise from the gradual modification of the material fabric of the globe as it 
slowly attained to its present state. In each succeeding epoch, and in each 
separate locality, the forms preserved and handed on to the future were deter- 
mined by the general conditions of surface at the time and place; and the 
ageregate of successive sets of conditions over the whole earth’s surface has 
determined the entire series of forms which have existed in the past and have 
survived till now. 

As we recede from the present into the past, it necessarily follows, as a 
consequence of the ultimate failure of all evidence as to the conditions of the past, 
that positive testimony of the conformity of the facts with the principle of evyo- 
lution gradually diminishes, and at length ceases. In the same way positive evi- 
dence of the continuity of action of all the physical forces of nature eventually fails. 
But inasmuch as the evidence, so far as it can be procured, supports the belief in this 
continuity of action, and as we have no experience of the contrary being possible, 
the only justifiable conclusion is, that the production of life must have been going 
on as we now know it, without any intermission, from the time of its first appear- 
ance on the earth. 

These considerations manifestly afford no sort of clue to the origin of life. They 
only serve to take us back to a very remote epoch, when the living creatures 
differed greatly in detail from those of the present time, but had such resem- 
blances to them as to justify the conclusion that the essence of life then was the 
same as now; and through that epoch into an unknown anterior period, during 
which the possibility of life, as we understand it, began, and from which has 
emerged, in a way that we cannot comprehend, matter with its properties, hound 
together by what we call the elementary physical forces. There seems to be no 
foundation in any observed fact for suggesting that the wonderful property which 
we call life appertains to the combinations of elementary substances in association 
with which it is exclusively found, otherwise than as all other properties appertain 
to the particular forms or combinations of matter with which they are associated. 
It is no more possible to say how originated or operates the tendency of some sorts 
of matter to take the form of vapours, or fluids, or solid bodies, in all their various 
shapes, or for the various sorts of matter to attract one another or combine, than it 
is to explain the origin in certain forms of matter of the property we call life, or the 
mode of its action. For the present, at least, we must be content to accept such 
facts as the foundation of positive knowledge, and from them to rise to the appre- 
hension of the means by which nature has reached its present state, and is ad- 
yancing into an unknown future. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 187 


These conceptions of the relations of animal and vegetable forms to the earth 
in its successive stages-lead. to views of the significance of type (7. e. the general 
system of structure running through various groups of organized beings) very 
different from those under which it was held to be an indication of some occult 
power directing the suécessive appearance of living creatures on the earth. In the 
light of evolution, type is nothing more than the direction given to the actual 
development of life by the surface-conditions of the earth, which haye supplied the 
forces that controlled the course of the successive generations leading from the past 
to the present. There is no indication of any inherent or pre-arranged disposition 
towards the development of life in any particular direction. It would rather 
appear that the actual face of nature is the result of a succession of apparently 
trivial incidents,which by some very slight alteration of local circumstances might 
often, it would seem, haye been turned in a different direction, Some otherwise 
unimportant difference in the constitution or sequence of the substrata at any 
locality might have determined the elevation of mountains where a hollow filled 
by the sea was actually formed, and thereby the whole of the climatal and other 
conditions of a large area would haye been changed, and an entirely different 
impulse given to the development of life locally, which might haye impressed a 
new character on the whole face of nature. 

But further, all that we see or mow to haye existed upon the earth has been 
controlled to its most minute details by the original constitution of the matter 
which was drawn together to form our planet. The actual character of all in- 
organic substances, as of all living creatures, is only consistent with the actual 
constitution and proportions of the various substances of which the earth is com- 
posed, Other proportions than the actual ones in the constituents of the atmo- 
sphere would have required an entirely different organization in all air-breathing 
animals, and probably in all plants. With any considerable difference in the quan- 
tity of water either in the sea or distributed as vapour, vast changes in the consti- 
tution of living creatures must haye been involved. Without oxygen, hydrogen, 
nitrogen, or carbon, what we term life would have been impossible, But such 
speculations need not be extended. 

The substances of which the earth is now composed are identical with those of 
which it has always been made up; so far as is known it has lost nothing and has 

ained nothing, except what has been added in extremely minute quantities by the 

all of meteorites, All that is or ever has been upon the earth is part of the earth, 
has sprung from the earth, is sustained by the earth, and returns to the earth; taking 
back thither what it withdrew, making good the materials on which life depends, 
without which it would cease, and which are destined again to enter into new forms, 
and contribute to the ever onward flow of the great current of existence. 

The progress of knowledge has removed all doubt as to the relation in which the 
human race stands to this great stream of life. It is now established that man 
existed on the earth at a period vastly anterior to any of which we have records in 
history or otherwise. He was the contemporary of many extinct mammalia at a 
time when the outlines of land and sea, and the conditions of climate over large 
nk of the earth, were wholly different from what they now are, and our race has 

een advancing towards its present condition during a series of ages for the extent 
of which ordinary conceptions of time afford no suitable measure. These facts 
haye, in recent years, given a different direction to opinion as to the manner in 
which the great groups of mankind haye become distributed over the areas where 
they are now found; and difficulties once considered insuperable become soluble 
when regarded in connexion with those great alterations of the outlines of land 
and sea which are shown to haye been going on up to the very latest geological 
periods. The ancient monuments of Egypt, which take us back perhaps 7000 
years from the present time, indicate that when they were erected the neighbouring 
countries were in a condition of civilization not very greatly different from that 
which existed when they fell under the dominion of the Romans or Mahometans 
hardly 1500 years ago; and the progress of the population towards that condition 
can hardly be accounted for otherwise than by prolonged gradual transformations 
going back to times so far distant as to require a geological rather than an histori- 
cal standard of reckoning, fg 


188 REPORT— 1875. 


Man, in short, takes his place with the rest of the animate world, in the advan- 
cing front of which he occupies so conspicuous a position. “Yet for this position he 
is indebted not to any exclusive powers of his own, but to the wonderful compelling 
forces of nature which have lifted him entirely without his knowledge, and almost 
without his participation, so far above the animals of whom he is still one, though 
the only one able to see or consider what he is. 

For the social habits essential to his progress, which he possessed even in his 
most primitive state, man is without question dependent on his ancestors, as 
he is for his form and other physical peculiarities. In his advance to civiliza- 
tion he was insensibly forced, 2 the pressure of external circumstances, through 
the more savage condition, in which his life was that of the hunter, first 
to pastoral and then to agricultural occupations. The requirements of a popula- 
tion gradually increasing in numbers could only be met by a supply of food 
more regular and more abundant than could be provided by the chase. But 
the possibility of the change from the hunter to the shepherd or herdsman rested on 
the antecedent existence of animals suited to supply man with food, having gre- 
garious habits, and fitted for domestication, such as sheep, goats, and horned cattle ; 
for their support the social grasses were a necessary preliminary, and for the 
growth of these in sufficient abundance land naturally suitable for pasture was re- 
quired. A further evasion of man’s growing difficulty in obtaining sufficient food 
was secured by aid of the cereal grasses, which supplied the means by which agri- 
culture, the outcome of pastoral life, hecame the chief occupation of more civilized 
generations. Lastly, when these increased facilities for providing food were in turn 
overtaken by the growth of the population, new power to cope with the recurring 
difficulty was gained through the cultivation of mechanical arts and of thought, for 
which the needful leisure was for the first time obtained when the earliest steps of 
civilization had removed the necessity for unremitting search after the means of 
supporting existence. Then was broken down the chief barrier in the way of 
progress, and man was carried forward to the condition in which he now is. 

It is impossible not to recognize that the growth of civilization, by aid of its in- 
struments, pastoral and agricultural industry, was the result of the unconscious 
adoption of defences supplied by what was exterior to man, rather than of any truly 
intelligent oe taken with forethought to attain it; and in these respects man, 
in his struggle for existence, has not differed from the humbler animals or from plants. 
Neither can the marvellous ultimate growth of his knowledge, and his acquisition 
of the power of applying to his use all that lies without him, be viewed as differing 
in any thing but form or degree from the earlier steps in his advance. Theneedful 
protection against the foes of his constantly increasing race—the legions of hunger 
and disease, infinite in number, ever changing their mode of attack or springing up 
in new shapes—could only be attained by some fresh adaptation of his organization 
to his wants, and this has taken the form of that development of intellect which has 
placed all other creatures at his feet and all the powers of nature in his hand. 

The picture that I have thus attempted to draw presents to us our earth carrying 
with it, or receiving from the sun or other external bodies, as it travels through 
celestial space, all the materials and all the forces by help of which are fashioned 
whatever we see upon it. We may liken it to a great complex living organism, 
having an inert substratum of inorganic matter on which are formed many separate 
organized centres of life, but all bound up together by a common law of existence, 
each individual part depending on those around it, and on the past condition of the 
whole. Science is the study of the relations of the several parts of this 
organism one to another, and of the parts to the whole. It is the task of the geo- 
erapher to bring together from all places on the earth’s surface the materials from 
which shall be deduced the scientific conception of nature. Geography aun the 
rough blocks wherewith to build up that grand structure towards the completion of 
which science is striving. The traveller, who is the journeyman of science, collects 
from all quarters of the earth observations of fact, to be submitted to the research of 
the student, and to provide the necessary means of verifying the inductions obtained 
by study or the hypotheses suggested by it. If, therefore, travellers are to fulfil the 
duties put upon them by the division of scientific labour, they must maintain 
their knowledge of the several branches of science at such a standard as will 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 189 


enable them thoroughly to apprehend what are the present requirements of 
science, and the classes of fact on which fresh observation must be brought to 
bear to secure its advance. Nor does this involve any impracticable course of 
study. Such knowledge as will fit a traveller for usefully participating in the 
progress of science is now placed within the reach of every one. The lustre 
of that energy and self-devotion which characterize the better class of explorers 
will not be dimmed by joining to it an amount of scientific training which will 
enable them to bring away from distant regions enlarged conceptions of other 
matters besides mere distance and direction. How great is the value to science 
of the observations of travellers endowed with a share of scientific instruction is 
testified by the labours of many living naturalists. In our days this is especially 
true ; and I appeal to all who desire to promote the progress of geographical science 
as explorers, to prepare themselves for doing so efficiently, while they yet possess 
the yigour and physical powers that so much conduce to success in such pursuits. 


On the Physical Geography of South Africa, and Products and Prospects of 
the Cape of Good Hope. By J. C. Brown, LL.D. 


The contour of South Africa has been likened to an inverted dinner-plate, on 
the rim of which the colonies are situated. It has apparently been upheaved in 
amass. Much of it is covered by bushes of no great height; but differences of 
soil are indicated by other productions. Lignite and coal, copper and gold, rubies 
and diamonds are found in different localities. Forests appear to have been much 
more extensive than now. Corn and wine are produced. At present the inhabi- 
tants are to a great extent pastoral ; but this is apparently a temporary and transi- 
tional preparation for agriculture, for which are required moisture, labour, capital, 
skill, and facilities for the transport of agricultural products at moderate expense. 
Labour is being drawn to South Africa by diamonds and gold. Capital is being in- 
creased by the investment of money obtained for these ; railways are rapidly extended; 
and much water, which might be secured and utilized, at present escapes to the sea, 


On the late Inwndations in France viewed in connexion with Reboisement 
and Gazonnement on the Alps, Cevennes, and Pyrenees, employed as 
a means of extinguishing and preventing the Formation of Torrents. By 
J.C. Brown, LL.D. 


In 1793 Fabre showed that torrents were attributable to the destruction of forests 
on the mountains. In 1841 Sarell showed that torrents appear and disappear as 
forests were destroyed and reproduced. In 1872 Cezanne showed that this relation 
between forests and floods can be traced from preadamitic times to the present. 

In accordance with these views, in 1860 arrangements were made by the Govern- 
ment for an expenditure of ten million of francs in planting with trees and bushes 
and herbage mountain ground drained by torrents; and within ten years torrents 
which were most destructive had become placid perennial streams. The Alpine 
torrents are occasioned in autumn by storms of rain, and in spring by the melting 
of snow. The late inundations were occasioned by a storm of rain causing a melting 
of snow, and the substance of both flowing away simultaneously. Had the basins 
drained been covered with forests the flood would have been delayed and warning 
might have been given, and the flood would have been protracted, and it might 
have occurred without rising above the level of the river-banks. 

The reboisement of all the bassin de réception of mountain-torrents has been 
begun. Previous to the war a million of francs a year were being spent upon the 
work, A selection of localities had to be made; the propriety of the selection made 
has never been questioned,’ and the magnitude of the disaster which has occurred 
may be considered to justity the expediting of the work at even a greater expendi- 
ture than was incurred during the first decade of the operations. 


190 - REPORT—1875. 


On South-African Torrential Floods viewed in connexion with the late Inun- 
dations in the Valley of the Garonne and its Affluences, and Measures 
adopted in France to prevent such Floods. By J.C. Brown, LL.D. 


The aridity of South Africa is extreme ; it is attributable primarily to the drain- 
age consequent on upheaval, and secondarily to evaporation, promoted by the 
destruction of vegetation mainly by fire; and in so far it is typical of many other 
colonized lands. But withal, as is also the case with many of these, there are 
frequent occasional floods and very destructive inundations. ‘These are occasioned, 
like the autumn torrents in the Alps, by storms of rain. The production of torrents 
by these has in many localities been prevented by planting the basin drained by 
them with trees and shrubs and herbage. The operation of these in producing 
their effect has been ascertained. From this it appears to be reasonable that they 
would be also efficacious in regulating the flow of torrents elsewhere; and the 
losses of life and property reported as consequences of such inundations, warrant a 
large expenditure as preventive measures, as is incurred in France, to prevent by 
such means the occurrence of such inundations as have lately occurred in the 
valley of the Garonne. 


Bearings of recent Observations on the Doctrine of Oceanic Circulation*. 
By Dr. W. B. Carpenter, PBS, 


On Dacotah, North-west America. By Colonel H. B. Carrryeton. 


Journey towards the Outlet of the Nile from the Lake Albert Nyanza. 
By Lieutenant Curprinpate. 


On the North-west African Expedition. 
By General Sir Anruvr Corton, R.L. 


There are now thirteen or fourteen expeditions, either actually penetrating 
Central Africa or preparing to start, from five or six different countries; all the 
fruit of Livingstone’s leading. 

Why should a hundred millions of our fellow men be shut out from inter- 
course with the civilized races? And how coulda young man propose to himself a 
more worthy enterprise than Mr. M‘Kenzie has of bringing Timbuctoo within easy 
reach of England ? 

The testimony of several witnesses seems conclusive as to a great area between 
the Atlas mountains and the Niger being below the level of the sea, and separated 
from it only by a short space. Its extremity near the sea is about 10 miles wide, 
and covered with a crust of salt. The tribes of the country surrounding this 
depression are stated to be very hospitable and tractable. This direct line of 
communication with Timbuctoo was strongly recommended by Mr. Jackson, a 
merchant who resided on the coast many years (60 years ago), and his plans 
were strongly supported by Vasco de Gama and Mr. Willis, formerly Consul at 
Senegambia. 

Such a direct and cheap line of transit would greatly increase the present large 
traffic which is brought from the Mediterranean, the direct line being not only the 
shortest but the healthiest and most free from other difficulties. 

This is the best land-route incomparably ; but the great question is, whether the 
inland sea cannot be restored. The nature and extent of the bar at the mouth of 
what is called the Belta, the level and actual area of the depression, the quantity 
of water flowing into it, &c., are the poimts now to be ascertained; also how 
near shelter for shipping is to be found on the coast. 


* Vide Proc. Roy. Geogr, Soc. vol. xix. no. vii, (1875). 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 191 


Another point is the practicability of the Niger for navigation. It is now navi- 
gable by steamers for 500 miles, thence to Timbuctoo 1000, and above that may be 
navigable for 500 more. 

A complete line of navigation from the Atlantic by the inland sea, a canal to 
the Niger, and down the Niger, in all 2300 miles, would open the whole region. 

Mr. M‘Kenzie proposes to go first to the coast and ascertain what he can 
without penetrating far, then to return and report to the public, and propose 
for a thorough exploration of the whole line from the Atlantic to Timbuctoo and 
round to the Bight of Benin. 

There are probably twenty millions of people in North-western Africa, many of 
whom would be affected by this enterprise. 

The probable ultimate effects of an inland sea on the surrounding country and 
on South Europe is not the question at present; but we need information to jus- 
tify us in furthér investigation. If the area is as great as represented, an immense 
body of water would be required ; but while it was filling it would be available 
so far as the water extended. 

The south side of this depression is a fertile and pepulus country with two large 
towns, dividing the district into three portions of about 300 miles each; so that 
there does not appear any great obstacle to the land carriage. 

The point proposed to be occupied on the coast is at present without any 
inhabitants, being south of the kingdom of Morocco, and there appears nothing in 
the way of our establishing a depot there. 

The establishment of English missions and commercial depots on this line would 
greatly support our operations on the Gold Coast. Both the colonial and foreign 
offices have expressed an interest in the undertaking. 


On the ‘Challenger’s’ Crucial Test of the Wind and Gravitation Theories 
of Oceanic Circulation*. By Jamus Crott, of H.M. Geol. Survey. 


North Atlantic.—The researches of the ‘Challenger’ expedition bring to light 
the striking and important fact that the general surface of the North Atlantic, to 
be in equilibrium, must stand at a higher level than that of the ocean at the 
equator. In other words, the surface of the Atlantic is lowest at the equator, and 
rises with a gentle slope to well nigh the latitude of England—a result which proves 
the physical impossibility, in so far as the North Atlantic is concerned, of any 
Se aierchanze of equatorial and polar water due to gravitation. 

In order to establish this point a section was taken of the Mid-Atlantic, north 
and south, across the equator, viz. that section adopted by Dr. Carpenter as the 
one of all others most favourable to the gravitation theory 7. 

On looking at this section the author was forcibly struck that, if it was accu- 
rately drawn, the ocean, to be in equilibrium, would require to stand at a higher 
level in the North Atlantic than at the equator. To determine whether such was 
the case or not the temperature-soundings indicated in the section were obtained 
from the Hydrographer of the Admiralty. The following Table (p. 192) gives the 
soundings in question at three stations—the first (A) at latitude 38°N., the second 
(B) at latitude 23° N., and the third (C) at the equator. 

On computing the extent to which the three columns A, B, and C are each 
expanded by heat, according to Muncke’s Table of the expansion of sea-water for 
every degree Fahrenheit, it was found that column B, to be in equilibrium with 
column C (the nhl i was fou would require to have its surface standing 
2 feet 6 inches above the level of column ©, and column A fully 3 feet 6 inches 
above that column. In short, there must be a gradual rise from the equator to 
latitude 38° N. of 83 feet. Professor Hubbard's Table of expansion gives almost 
the same result. Difference in salinity of the columns produces scarcely any 
sensible effect. 


* Published én extenso in the ‘Philosophical Magazine’ for September 1875. 
t Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc. vol. xviii. p. 362 


192 . REPORT—1875. 


nn 


A. B. C, 
Depth Lat. 37° 54'N. | Lat. 23° 10' N. Mean of six temperature- 
in Long. 41° 44’W.| Long. 38° 42’ W. soundings near equator. 
fathoms. §,|_—————_— 
Temperature. | Temperature. |/Depthsin fathoms.) Temperatuoa. 
Co a a [See Die Tet ae f 3 
Surface. 70:0 720 Surface. 709 
100 63°5 67:0 10 772 
200 60:6 576 20 97-1 
300 60:0 52°5 30 76:9 
400 54:8 477 40 71:7 
500 46°7 43°7 50 64:0 
600 416 41-7 60 60:4 
700 40°6 40°6 70 59-4. 
800 381 39-4 80 58:0 
900 378 39°2 90 580 
1000 379 383 100 55°6 
1100 371 38:0 150 51:0 
1200 371 376 200 46°6 
1300 37-2 36°7 300 42:2 
1400 37-1 36°9 400 40°3, 
1500 : 36:7 500 38:9 
2700 35°2 oe 600 39-2 
2720 : 304 700 39:0 
800 391 
900 38-2 
1000 369 
1100 376 
1200 36:7 
1300 35°8 
1400 36°4 
1500 36-1 
Bottom. 34:7 


It will not do as an objection to assert that, according to the gravitation theory, 
the ocean never attains to a condition of static equilibrium. This is perfectly true, 
as has been shown on former occasions*; but then it is the equator that is kept 
below and the poles above the level of equilibrium; consequently the disturbance 
of equilibrium between the equatorial and polar columns would actually tend to 
make the difference of level between the equator and the Atlantic greater than 
3} feet, and not less, as the objection would imply. 

Another feature of this section irreconcilable with the gravitation theory is the 
fact that the warm water is all in the North Atlantic, and little or none in the 
South, a condition of things the reverse of what ought to be according to that 
theory. But according to the wind theory of oceanic circulation the explanation 
of the whole phenomena is simple and obvious. Owing to the fact that the 8.E. 
trades are stronger than the N.E., and blow constantly over upon the northern 
hemisphere, the warm surface-water of the South Atlantic is drifted across the 
equator. It is then carried by the equatorial current into the Gulf of Mexico, and 
afterwards, of course, forms a part of the Gulf-stream. The North Atlantic, on 
the other hand, not only does not lose its surface-heat like the equatorial and South 
Atlantic, but, in addition, receives the enormous amount of heat constantly carried 
into it by the Gulfstream. And the reason why the warm surface-strata are so 
much thicker in the North Atlantic than in the equatorial regions is perfectly 
obvious. The surface-water at the equator is swept into the Gulf of Mexico by 
the trade-winds and the equatorial current as rapidly as it is heated by the sun, 
so that it has not time to accumulate to any greatdepth. But all this warm water 
is carried by the Gulf-stream into the North Atlantic, where it accumulates. 

North Pacifie Ocean.—The temperature-soundings made in the U.S.S. ‘Tusca- 


* «Phil. Mag.’ October 1871; ‘Climate and Time,’ Chapter ix. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 193 


rora’ show that the North Pacific is much colder than the North Atlantic, and 
that the immense stratum of warm water found in the latter is wanting in the 
North Pacific. But as the North Pacific is almost entirely cut off from the cold 
Arctic basin, its waters, according to the gravitation theory, instead of being 
colder, ought to be much warmer than those of the Atlantic. It is found also 
that the North Pacific is actually warmer at latitude 52° than at latitude 43°, a 
fact also inconsistent with the gravitation theory, but easily explained by the wind 
theory. 

The Southern Ocean.—The thermal condition of the Southern Ocean, as ascertained 
by the ‘Challenger’ Expedition, appears also irreconcilable with the gravitation 
theory. Between the parallels of latitude 65° 42’ S. and 50° 1'S. the ocean, with 
the exception of a thin stratum at the surface heated by the sun’s rays, was found, 
down to the depth of about 200 fathoms, to be several degrees colder than the water 
underneath, But, according to the gravitation theory, the colder water should be 
underneath. 

The very fact of a mass of water 200 fathoms deep, and extending over 15° of 
latitude, remaining above water of 3° or 4° higher temperature, shows how little 
influence difference of temperature has in producing motion. If it had the potency 
which some attribute to it, one would suppose that this cold stratum should sink 
down and displace the warm water underneath. If difference of density is suffi- 
cient to move the water horizontally, surely it must be more than sufficient to 
cause it to sink vertically. 


Exploration of the Pamiv Steppe. By Colonel T. E. Gornon. 


On Journeys in Paraguay in 1874-75. By Kura Jounston. 


This paper* gave a general description of several journeys made in Paraguay 
during 1874-75, specially (1) of a journey through the old Jesuit mission-stations 
of Southern Paraguay bordering on the Parana; (2) of another with the mixed 
commission, marking out the limits between Paraguay and Brazil on the north; 
(3) in Central Paraguay, during which a running survey was made of the chief 
interior river, the Tebicuary. 

The paper further contained an account of the hydrography and extent of 
navigation in the rivers of Paraguay ; the elevation of the country, especially of the 
northern watershed in connexion with barometric observations made for altitude ; 
then of the population in numbers and race, and the distribution of the several 
tribes of independent Indians; concluding with a summary of the localities pro- 
ducing the Yerba-maté or Paraguay tea, the staple product of the country. 


Report on the Progress of the Arctic Expedition and on the Proceedings of 
HALM.S. ‘Valorous” By C. R. Marxuam, O.B., FBS. 


Himalayan Glaciers. By Colonel T. G. Montcomermn, R.Z., F.RS., Se. 


The author made a brief reference to the general geography of India and 
the Himalayas. He pointed out the very great progress which had been made 
with the geography of Northern India, the Punjab, &c. since 1842, and more espe- 
cially as to the exploration and survey of the Western Himalayas. In order to 
illustrate his pes he exhibited a large map of the Western Himalayas, showing 
the whole of the glaciers and the complete breadth of the Himalayan system from 
the Punjab to the plains of Eastern Turkistan, near Yarkund. The peaks and 
glaciers of this superalpine region were further illustrated by three large coloured 
sketches of portions of the Mustagh and Karakoram mountains, and by a section 
taken right through the mountains, which at this their narrowest part are 400 miles 
in breadth. He pointed out that the glaciers gradually increased in size from east 


* Vide ‘Geographical Magazine,’ parts 9, 10, 11 (1875). 


194, REPORT—1875. 


to west, reaching their greatest development in the Mustagh range, where there 
are several glaciers over 20 milesin length, and the Biafo glacier 34 miles in length, 
and a great many from 10 to 20 miles in length. From a glance at the map it 
could be gathered that these glaciers covered a very large area. Colonel Mont- 
gomerie pointed out what a very important feature they formed in the geography 
of Asia, not only in a scientific point of view, but in a practical one, as they formed 
a vast natural reservoir, which provided an unfailing supply of water in a tropical 
country at a period when it was most wanted—that is, between the spring and the 
fall of the summer rains. 

Colonel Montgomerie pointed out that the Himalayan peaks rose to twice the 
height of those in the Alps, and that the glaciers were more than four times as 
long as those in the Alps, the Mer-de-glace (the longest) being hardly 8 miles in 
length, while those in the Himalayas were of all lengths up to 34 miles. 


Prejevalsky’s Travels in Mongolia and Northern Tibet. 
By HK, Detmar Morean. 


To the north-west of China proper lies a broad belt of hilly sandy deserts, 1400 
miles in extent from east to west, which from the earliest historical times was a 
gathering-ground for the nomads of Inner Asia, whence they could descend on 
the populous but defenceless plains beneath, and pour a wave of conquest and 
desolation over the fertile provinces of the middle kingdom. : 

fl adapted, owing to the poverty of its vegetation, to support a settled popula- 
tion, it nevertheless afforded a secure retreat to the robber and marauder, and was 
on this account a dangerous country for travellers. The Great Wall, which never 
protected China from her enemies, served to mark the limits beyond which civilized 
man could advance no further; and if the spirit of the nomad has been subdued 
after so many generations of Chinese sway, his native deserts remain unconquered 
and invincible as in the days when the Great Wall was built. 

The further west the more bleak and desolate is the aspect of nature. The 
Great Wall still continues to define the limits of life and culture on the one side, 
of death and desolation on the other. Inside the northern bend of the Yellow 
River lies the country of Ordos, a sterile region of shifting sands, where many 
legends are still preserved of the great hero Jinghiz-Khan. To the west of the 
bend of the Yellow River is a region still more bleak and desolate, at one time the 
bed of a large lake; beyond it are the mountains which enclose the basin of Lake 
Koko-nor, and still further to the west grand snowy ranges and gradual ascents 
towards the uplands of Tibet. These are the regions visited by Colonel Preje- 
valsky, which few Europeans had ventured to penetrate previously. Marco Polo 
only devotes four short chapters of his first book to their description. Hue and 
Gabet traversed Southern Mongolia and passed by Koko-nor into Northern Tibet, 
but they gave no accurate geographical information. Pére Armand David visited 
the mountains lying to the north of the great bend of the Yellow River, and made 
some interesting botanical researches; but he would not risk travelling through 
Kansu and Koko-nor, at that time disturbed by the Mahomedan or Dungan insur- 
rection, of which our author gives a vivid description; Ney Elias also travelled 
through a part of the country about the same time. For the rest of our informa- 
tion we are chiefly indebted to Chinese records, fragments of which have been 
collected by Du Halde and Ritter. 

Thus Prejevalsky’s journey may really be termed a geographical feat, and will 
always hold an important place in science ; for, besides his remarkable expedition 
from Dalai-nor to the Upper Yang-tsze-liang, which alone would entitle him to 
the gratitude of men of science, he also made a march from Alashan to Urga (680 
miles) across the Gobi in its widest part, which no one had hitherto attempted. 

A recapitulation of all he has done and of the results obtained in the face of 
extraordinary difficulties would fill several pages; but as an English edition of his 
travels will shortly be published, those interested would do well to refer to it. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 195 


Expedition from the Lake Tchad to the Upper Nile. By Dr. G. Nacurreat. 


On the Turcoman Frontier of Persia. By Capt. the Hon. G. Narmr. 


Exploration of the Aurées Mountains. 
By Lieut.-Colonel R. L. Prayrarr, H.B.M. Consul-General in Algeria. 


This part of Algeria has probably never before been explored by an English 
traveller, although lying close to the ordinary diligence-route between Constantine, 
or rather between Batna and Biskra. 

Ptolemy places here his Awdon. Procopius and other geographers speak of it as 
Aurasion or Mons Aurasius ; but these hardly include the entire district now known 
as the Aurés Mountains, which may roughly be said to occupy the space between 
Batna and Biskra, eastwards towards the Tunisian frontier. 

The inhabitants of this region are called Chawi, and are a branch of the Berber 
nation, to which the Kabyles also belong. 

Colonel Playfair here traced the early history of this part of Numidia, and 
showed how one war of conquest after another had passed over it, and always with 
the same effect ; the conquerors in their turn became the conquered, and were 
driven for safety to the mountains. Thus the Romans, when driven out by the 
Vandals, the Vandals after their defeat by the Byzantines under Belisarius, and 
the Byzantines when finally conquered by the Mahommedans—all sought and found 
a refuge in the Aurés Mountains, where they have left on the Chawi the imprint 
of their physical and moral character which fourteen centuries have not been able 
to obliterate. Light hair and blue eyes are frequently met with, and the average 
of female beauty is even higher than it is in England. 

They observe the 25th of December as a feast, under the name of Moolid, or the 
birth, and keep three days’ festival at springtime and harvest. Their language is 
full of Latin words; and they use the ordinary solar instead of the Mohammedan 
lunar year, the names of the months being almost identical with our own. 

The Aurés range is a series of mountains running roughly parallel from N.E. to 
8.W., between which flow considerable rivers, of which advantage is taken with 
great skill to irrigate the valleys between them. 

The great body of the drainage is from the southern side, where the rivers, after 
aa a part of their volume in irrigation, flow into the great marshy basin of 

elghir. 

The most important of these is the Oued Abdi, the hills on either side of which 
terminate in the two highest peaks in Algeria, Djebel Chellia on the left and 
Djebel Mahmel on the right ; the former 7611 feet high, the latter scarcely lower. 

In the plains and valleys considerable quantities of cereals are produced, and 
fruit cultivated to a great extent. 

The inhabitants, unlike the Arabs, dwell in stone houses ; the villages are perched 
high up on the sides of the hills, at short distances apart on both sides of the 
river; and the houses are generally so disposed that the roof of one is on a level 
with the floor of that above it, to which it actually forms a terrace. 

The forests in the Aurés are very valuable, and have hardly yet been worked ; 
they consist of cedar, oak, juniper, Aleppo pine, &c. ; but it is sad to observe here, 
as almost everywhere else in Algeria, the scarcity of young trees, which are de- 
stroyed by the sheep and goats almost as soon as the seed germinates, and the 
destruction of the old ones by colonies of processional caterpillars, which establish 
their nests in the upper branches, and destroy all vegetable life as their ravages 
descend. 

The mineral wealth of the Aurés is also very great, though hardly as yet more 
than suspected; in some places abundant indices of copper, lead, and iron were 
met with, and in one place what will no doubt prove a valuable mine of mercury 
and lead. 

One can hardly ride a mile in the Aurés without meeting Roman remains of 


196 REPORT—1875. 


considerable importance, all testifying to the high state of civilization which 
existed wherever this great people founded colonies. 

But it is principally on their northern slopes and in the plains at their base 
that those splendid cities existed, the ruins of which now excite the wonder and 
admiration of modern travellers, Bruce'visited them a century ago, and made a 
large number of exquisite drawings of the principal architectural features. These 
are now in the possession of his descendant Lady Thurlow, by whose permission 
two of his original sketches were exhibited. 

Commencing from Lambessa, a complete chain of these cities extended as far as 
Tebessa, their order from west to east being as follows :— 

Lambees (mod. Lambessa), Verecunda (mod. Markouna), Thamugas (mod. 
Timegad), Mascula (mod. Ain Khenchia), Baghaia (mod. Kast Baghat), and Theveste 
(mod. Tebessa). 

The first two of these are well known to travellers. Thamugas was described by 
Colonel Playfair in considerable detail. It contains numerous magnificent ruins, 
the principal of which are a triumphal arch, theatre, forum, capitol, a Byzantine 
fortress, and a Christian church. The whole surface ofthe ground is covered with 
fragments of sculpture and inscriptions, many of the latter quite entire, which 
prove that the city was founded by Hadrian, and colonized by the veterans of the 
30th legion Ulpia after its return from the Parthian war. 

Not far from Timegad is the fertile plain of Firis, on the west and south of 
which are two mountains covered with countless numbers of the most interesting 
megalithic remains. Their variety is considerable; but the most ordinary type is 
that of a low circular structure, nearly level with the earth at the upper part of 
its base, and varying in height on the opposite side, according to the slope of the 
hill, from 3 to 8 feet. The walls are of rough dry masonry, generally about 6 feet 
thick; the diameter is from 15 to 30 feet; and each contains a central chamber of 
irregular shape covered with a single slab of stone. In some places the monuments 
are close together ; in others they are separated by a number of tombs of the ordi- 
nary dolmenic type, as if the latter were intended for people of less consideration 
than those for whom the circular ones were constructed. 

The next city is Mascula, now Ain Khenchla, where an attempt has been made 
at European colonization. The position is well chosen from a sanitary and stra- 
tegic point of view, but it is rather distant from any place where produce can be 
sold. 

The ruins of Kast Baghai are also interesting; they are close to the diligence- 
route from Khenchla to Ain Beida. From the latter place to Tebessa is a day’s 
journey, and here are to be found the finest Roman ruins in the colony. These 
consist of the ancient citadel restored by Solomon, the successor of Belisarius, who 
lost his life here. The modern city is built within it; there is a temple of Jupiter 
nearly ee ae a magnificent quadrifrontal triumphal arch, and the ruins of a 
basilica, subsequently converted into a Christian church. 


On the Physical Geography of that part of the Atlantic which lies between 
20° N. and 10° 8. and extends from 10° to 40° W. By Captain H. 
Toynser, /RAS., PR.GS., §c., Marine Superintendent of the Metcoro- 
logical Office. 


The paper was accompanied by monthly diagrams, which showed :— 

1st. The isobaric lines of mean pressure for each ‘05 of an inch, together with 
arrows showing the prevailing winds and their force. ; 

/2nd. The isothermal lines for every second degree of air-temperature. 

3rd. The isothermal lines for every second degree of sea-temperature, together 
with arrows showing the prevailing currents and their speed in 24 hours. 

The author called attention to important facts relating to atmospheric pressure, 
temperature, wind, currents, weather, sea, clouds, natural history, earthquakes, &c. 

The diagrams may be said to give the navigator a monthly picture of the dol- 
drums, clearly showing him how in some months they are wedge-shaped (as re- 
marked by the late Commodore Maury), and enabling him to select the best route 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 197 


across the equator. They illustrate the action of both air and water when meeting, 
as is constantly the case with the two trade-winds, and the currents which they pro- 
duce, showing also how the air as well as water seems to eddy round a point of land 
Jrom which the main stream is running. 

They also illustrate some very sudden changes of temperature in both air and 
sea, for which the paper endeavours to account. 

The paper also gives the specific gravity of the currents due to the N.E. and S8.E. 
trades, as well as that of the Guinea current, which indicates that the latter is a 
surface back-drift above a colder current. 

The district is the birthplace of many West-Indian hurricanes; and the place in 
which one originated was pointed out on the diagram for August, it having been 
afterwards traced to the island of St. Thomas. Besides many other allusions to 
remarkable and unsettled weather, the paper tells of five earthquakes which were 
experienced by ships in the district, two in 0° 30’ N. and 30° W., three in 1° 8. 
and 20° W. ; 

In the course of the paper frequent allusion was made to swells of the sea which 
had overrun by many hundreds of miles the winter gales which caused them, and. 
seemed to be related to the rollers experienced at Ascension, St. Helena, and the 
West Coast of Africa. 

The motion of upper clouds in relation to the direction of the winds was fre- 
quently remarked upon, their motion showing that the wind of one trade passed 
above that of the other at their equatorial verge; and, again, that above the south- 
westerly monsoon, which blows to the northward of the equator in certain months, 
the clouds very frequently move from the S.E. near the equator, and from the 
N.E. when further to the north. 

Several allusions were made to the red dust which falls on ships at certain 
seasons, and to the cetacea, land and sea-birds, fish, and insects met with. 

The whole paper may be said to be a résumé of a large work about to be published 
by the Meteorological Office, which is under the superintendence of the Meteoro- 
logical Committee of the Royal Society, and is published iz extenso as a non-official 
paper by that Office. 


Changes in the Course of the Oxus. By Major Herserr Woop. 


Trade-Routes to Western China, By Colonel Yuun, C.B. 


ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 


Address by Saxns Herwoon, M.A., F.R.S., F.GS., Pres. Statistical Society, 
President of the Section. 


Havine had the advantage of a school education in Bristol, I have noticed with 
interest, in subsequent years, the gradual development of this great city, and of its 
populous neighbour, Clifton ; and I trust that the second visit of the British Asso- 
ciation will be productive of benefit to your important district. : 

Railway communication, free trade, and the reduction of dock-dues have aided 
in increasing the commerce of this locality. Additional facilities for ocean steam- 
traffic will be afforded by the new docks alomst completed at the mouth of the 
river Avon; and fresh storage-room for timber, both by land and water, may also be 
expected in the same vicinity. 

As an example of the utility of a free port, it may be mentioned that large sup- 
plies of grain arrive here in screw iron ships from the Black Sea and the Mediterra- 
nean. For barley, used for grinding, Byistol has now become the first provincial 


198 REPORT—1875. 


market in the empire, The imports of Messrs. Wait and James amounted, in 1874, 
to between 400,000 and 500,000 quarters of corn; and in one year (1874-75) 
8,496,000 bushels of grain were landed in Bristol from foreign ports, The portion 
of England which may be supplied with grain from Bristol as a centre, extends in 
some directions for 100 miles. 

Sugar-refining forms one of the ancient branches of industry both in Bristol and 
elsewhere; its extent may be appreciated from the establishment of Messrs, Finzel 
in this city, where 1200 tons of refined sugar can be turned out in a week, 

French fiscal arrangements, however, are not favourable at the present time to 
the augmentation of British sugar-refineries ; and the subject merits the attention of 
Members of the Economic Section. 

Part of the French revenue is derived from taxes on spirits, salt, and sugar con- 
sumed in France. The duty levied in France on sugar, according to the ‘Times’ of 
the 28th July, 1875, when the sugar is sold for home consumption, equals in amount 
the value of the sugar. 

A sugar is prepared by the French beet-root sugar-makers, looking as if it only 
contained 80 per cent. of saccharine matter in a given bulk or weight, whilst the 
sugar really contains 90 per cent. of saccharine matter, The raw sugar is assessed 
at a quality 10 per cent. below the real standard; and the French sugar-refiner is 
debited with a duty according to that assessment, and which is not paid. 

When the sugar is exported, the actual quality of the sugar is taken, the draw- 
back is set against the duty, and the refiner is paid the duty thus shown to be due 
to him. 


French refined sugar really produced was at least ...........% lalos. 174,859,000 
and the “legal” equivalent of the refined sugar exported was.. _,, 158,185,000 
giving an excess over the “legal” quantity of = ,......... » 21,674,000 
AON ieee tae: 2 aul oi ans uae aie Sivicu' oa aetors Gareoadowueiy ewts. 413,000 


In 1874 the excess over the “legal” equivalent of the refined sugar rose to 
25,413,000 kilos., or about 498,000 cwts. 


In 1873 the duty on that excess was.......sceesesvecesees franes 15,891,000 
SMOG AUS A. gore Gickae amesnen oLopttsss alee ee IN ace aleve SALT 3, 18,636,000 
SHO WANE ATM CT CASO Ole, Gute sates soup cunwta ale dus peials seieatness » __ 2,745,000 
OULD OUiee cael Patstasals eles ahs Sa, PAPI skip eteeos Gieatalhp Wy, ter oa hays ians £110,000 sterling. 


If to this duty on excess, or bounty, amounting in 1874 to 18,800,000 francs per 
annum, be added the bounty derived from other sources, such as the “ détaxe ” on 
‘“‘poudres blanches,” the total amount of bounty will be easily raised beyond 
20,000,000 frances for sugar. 

In English money 18,000,000 francs are equal to £720,000, paid by the French 
tax-payer to the French sugar-refiner, and with this result: the French sugar- 
refiner can sell refined sugar in a foreign market, such as England, below cost 


price. ’ : E 1 

From the ‘Statistical Abstract’ it appears that the import of foreign refined 
sugar and sugar-candy into Great Britain in 1871 was.......... cwt. 1,460,102 
anu thats bad ancreased, dau US 7A \ tO oo scat go's ofr ewan + ole nae » 2,717,406 


The cheapness of refined sugar in Great Britain has augmented the average of 
consumption from 1 Ib. a head in 1860 to 83 Tbs. a head in 1874. 

Great Britain possesses commercial friends in France among the vine-growers of 
Bordeaux and Champagne, and the silk-manufacturers of Lyons. These great 
industries derive no profit either from a heayy tax on sugar consumed in France, 
or from a bounty enabling a French sugar-refiner to sell sugar in England below 
cost price. The occasion seems favourable for a remonstrance with the French 
Government, and for a conference with leading French statesmen connected with 
interests independent of beet-root sugar. : 

Beet-root grows admirably in England ; and the British sugar-refiner may con- 
sider the question of extending in this country a valuable product of home agri- 
culture. 

To conduct a negotiation with France, a knowledge of the French language 
will be requisite for the Commissioners, whether appointed by private individuals 
or by the British Government. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 199 


It is gratifying to notice that in a recent revision of Bristol charities under the 
Endowed Schools’ Commission, French has a place among educational requirements. 
Thus, in Queen Elizabeth’s Hospital, now a boarding-school for 150 boys, after the 
entrance examination, which comprises reading, easy narrative, writing text-hand, 
and the first two rules of arithmetic, a scheme of school instruction is given, con- 
taining history and geography, as well as English grammar, composition, and lite- 
rature, the elements of mathematics and natural science, the elements of French or 
Latin, or both, drawing and class-singing. 

A similar entrance examination is arranged for admission into the Red Maids’ 
Boarding-school for eighty girls, in Bristol, the income of which amounts to £4378 
a year. In this School, instruction is given to girls in history and geography, 
English grammar, composition, and literature, the elements of mathematics and 
natural science, and of French or Latin, or both, drawing and class-singing, do- 
mestic economy, and the laws of health, needlework, and (if the Governors think 
fit) telegraphy, or some other branch of science haying a bearing on skilled industry 
suitable for women. 

The examination for admission to the Grammar School is to be graduated accord- 
ing to the age of the Candidate, and is never to fall below the following standard— 
that is to say, reading, writing from dictation, the first two rules of arithmetic, and 
the outlines of the geography of England. 

The subjects of secular instruction in the Grammar School are to be as follows :— 
the Latin and Greek languages and literatures; the English language and litera- 
ture; arithmetic and mathematics; history and geography ; natural science and, in 
Recut, applied mechanics, chemistry, and experimental physics; French and 

erman; drawing’; class singing. 

An annual income of £1793 belongs to the Bristol Grammar School; and to this 
institution, as well as to Queen Elizabeth’s Hospital and the Red Maids’ School 
(all three being under the Bristol Municipal Charity Trustees), an augmentation 
has been arranged from various non-educational charities conyerted into educational 
endowments, of a capital sum of £14,500, 

New buildings for 400 scholars are to be erected for the Grammar School, inclu- 
ding a day- and boarding-school. 

olston’s Hospital is a boarding-school for 100 boys, into which no boy is to be 
admitted under the age of ten years; and the scholars are not to remain after they 
are fifteen years of age. The examination for the admission of paying scholars 
comprises reading easy narrative, writing text-hand, and easy sums in the first two 
rules of arithmetic, and the multiplication-table. The Governors may raise the 
minimum standard from time to time if they deem it advantageous for the School 
to do so. 

The subjects of secular instruction in Colston’s boarding-school are arranged as 
follows :—reading and spelling, writing, arithmetic, and elementary mathematics; 
English grammar, composition, and literature ; French or Latin, or both; the out- 
lines of history ; geography, political and physical ; natural science ; drawing and 
vocal music. 

There will be two classes of scholars, foundationers and paying scholars. The 
foundationers in the boarding-school must have attended an elementary school 
regularly for a year preceding their application. They will be elected in order of 
merit, as tested in competitive examination for boys between ten and eleven years 
of age in the subjects of Standard IV. (Code 1875), as follows :— 


“To read with intelligence a few lines of poetry selected by the Inspector, and 
to recite from memory fifty lines of poetry. 

“To write eight lines slowly dictated once from a'reading-book, and to show 
copy-books in improved small hand. 

“ Compound rules of arithmetic (common weights and measures).” 


A note is appended to the table of standards of examination in the new code of 
regulations, according to the ‘ Minute of the Committee of Council on Education,’ 
5th April, 1875, respecting the 4th Standard, that the “weights and measures” 
taught in public elementary schools should be Avoirdupois weight, long measure, 


200 REPORT—1875. 


liquid measures, time-table, square and cubical measures, and any measure connected 
with the industrial occupation of the district. 

Bristol, from its geographical position, seems especially adapted for trade with 
the western part of the continent of Europe, where the metric system of weights 
and measures is now universally in use. Through various treaties of commerce 
British trade is rapidly increasing with countries employing that simple and 
easy mode of calculating measures and weights; and as a permissive Act of Par- 
liament of 1864 sanctions the metric system in Great Britain and Iveland, it may 
be expedient for the Governors of Colston’s boarding-school to consider if some 
knowledge of the tables of metric weights and measures may not be desirable for 
the foundationers of that venerable institution. 

The competitive examination in Colston’s boarding-school is arranged in the 
subjects of Standard V. of the Educational Code for boys between eleven and twelve 
years of age, as follows :— 


“JTmproved reading; and recitation of not less than seventy-five lines of 
poetry. 

“ Writing from memory the substance of a short story read out twice. Spell- 
ing, grammar, and handwriting to be considered. 

“Pyactice, bills of parcels, and simple proportion.” 


The examination for admission to Colston’s Girls’ School is not to fall below the 
minimum standard for admission to Colston’s Hospital. 

The subjects of secular instruction are to be as follows :—Reading and spelling, 
writing, arithmetic or elementary mathematics; English grammar, composition, 
and literature; French or Latin, or both; the outlines of history; geography, 
political and physical; drawing and vocal music; household management ; the 
laws of health; and needlework. 

Besides the endowed schools of Bristol, Clifton College, in the immediate neigh- 
bourhood, founded in 1861, comprises 500 boys, in addition to whom there are 
45 boys in the preparatory school of that College. 

As soon as the boys of Clifton College reach the fifth form, they can enter either 
on the Classical or on the Modern side; but those who are not in the College are 
required to pass a preliminary examination. 

in Clifton College instruction is given to boys intended for the Royal Military 
Academy, Woolwich, or the Indian Civil Engineering College, Cooper’s Hill, or 
the profession of Civil Engineering ; and a system of education is carried on suitable 
for students intended for either Oxford or Cambridge. 

The Cathedral of Bristol assists in the establishment of a training College for 
the education of superior teachers ; and for this institution the Ecclesiastical Com- 
missioners provide a capital sum of £12,000. 

An entrance examination is arranged for admission into the Training College, 
comprising English grammar and composition, arithmetic, geography, and English 
history. Afterwards another examination is held, in which each Candidate is ex- 
pected to pass in at least two of the following subjects :— 


Divinity, English literature, Latin, one modern language, mathematics, and 
one branch of natural science. 


No student is to be admitted until he has attained the age of 17 years. 

Candidates may, if the Governors think fit, be admitted into the College without 
passing the examination for admission, if they are graduates of any university in 
the United Kingdom, or if they have passed the senior local examination of either 
of the Universities of Oxford or Cambridge, or the Matriculation Examination of 
the University of London, or if they are ‘holders of any scholarship or exhibition 
which may be deemed by the Governors an adequate qualification. 

The course of general instruction in the Training College has for its main object 
to illustrate methods of teaching, and the science and history of education, and to 
qualify the Students to become skilled teachers in higher schools. The course 
includes— 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 201 


Lectures on the art of teaching ; 

Model lessons given to classes of scholars in the presence of Students ; 

Lessons, from time to time, given by Students to classes of scholars in the pre- 
sence of the Principal or an Assistant Teacher, and under his tuition. 


Once in eyery year there is an examination of the Students by an Examiner, or 
Examiners, appointed for that purpose by the Governors, and paid by them, but 
otherwise unconnected with the College. The Examiners report in writing to the 
Governors on the proficiency of the Students, as shown by the result of the exami- 
nation, and on the ability which the Students evince in giving lessons to classes, 
and in the discipline and management of a school. The Governors are to commu- 
nicate the report to the Principal of the College. 

Entrance fees and tuition fees are determined by the Governors of the College, 
the rate for the tuition fees being not less than £20 a year. 

The Principal is to receive a stipend of £200 per annum. 

Near the top of Park Street, in this city, is the Bristol Museum and Library, the 
Council of which, in 1875, agreed with the Faculty of the Bristol Medical School 
to issue a circular setting forth the advantages of a technical college of science in 
Bristol for the west of England and South Wales. The Committee formed on this 
subject received a communication at an early period from the Master of Balliol 
College, Oxford, suggesting the cooperation of his own College, and probably that of 
another Oxford college in the undertaking. 

A promise on the part of Balliol College and New College, Oxford, was after- 
wards given, to assist in the establishment and support of the proposed College by 
means of a yearly contribution of £300 each for a period of not less than five years, 
on condition of each Oxford college being represented on the governing body of the 
new institution, of the instruction given being literary as well as scientific, and 
of the requirements of adult education being specially considered. It was also pro- 
vided that, so far as could be arranged, the instruction, other than that of the 
Medical classes, should be open to women, and that lectures should be given on 
general subjects. A ready assent to these conditions was accorded by the Com- 
mittee who had taken charge of the negotiation. 

In June 1874 the Mayor of Bristol presided at a public meeting in Clifton for 
the College. A scheme of constitution was prepared, and in 1875 a conference in 
favour of the College took place in one of the rooms of the Parliamentary palace 
in Westminster, attended by influential Members of both Houses of Parliament. 

It may be of some value to friends of the Bristol College to hear some particulars 
of the development of Owens College, Manchester, in which I assisted as one of the 
original trustees of that seat of learning. At its origin the Trustees were satisfied 
to commence the College in a house with spacious apartments, to which was at- 
tached a gymnasium as an exercise-ground for the Students. 

Chemistry and the English language are now especially attractive subjects in 
Owens College. Elementary history, Latin, mathematics, and mechanics, with 
jurisprudence and physiology, also command much attention among the Students. 

Each Candidate for admission into Owens College usually produces a testimonial 
of good character from his last instructor. No person is admitted under the age 
of fourteen years; and those who are under sixteen are required to pass a preliminary 
examination in English, arithmetic, and the elements of Latin. 

Periodical examinations are held in each class, and written exercises are given 
out. Neglect of these tests of progress disqualifies a Student from competing for 
prizes and honours at the end of the session, when a general examination takes 
place of all the Students. No certificate of attendance on the class is granted 
to a Student who absents himself, without a sufficient reason, from the general 
examination. 

Mr. Greenwood, Principal of Owens College, reported in June 1874, that there 
were in that year 356 Students in the Colleee, of whom 87 were under sixteen 
years of age, 117 between sixteen and eighteen, 75 between eighteen and twenty, and 
127 above twenty. There were 141 medical Students and 847 evening Students. 
The total number was 1544 Students. 

Owens College is affiliated to the University of London ; and Greek is no longer 
1875, 15 


202 REPORT—1875. 


compulsory in that University on Candidates at the Matriculation examination, but 
is ranked at that time as an optional subject, with French and German. Latin is 
compulsory at Matriculation ; and a Student is required also to pass in any two of the 
three following languages—Greek, French, and German. The remaining subjects 
for Matriculation comprise mathematics, natural philosophy, chemistry, and English 
language and history. 

It is recommended in Owens College, that if a Student elects to take up Greek, 
and either French or German for Matriculation, he should enter for the first year’s 
Arts course, taking chemistry and one of the modern languages; and that those 
Students who propose to take up both French and German for Matriculation 
should enter for the first year’s science course, taking Latin and both the modern 
languages of France and Germany. 

In June 1873, at the Matriculation Examination of the University of London, 
32 Students of Owens College passed ; and 3 Students passed, in January 1874, Of 
these 35 Students, 7 were evening Students. 

Students formerly at Owens College have obtained at Oxford a Stowell Civil-Law 
Fellowship at University College, a Burdett-Coutts Scholarship in Geology, a 
Fellowship at Pembroke College, and a Senior Mathematical University Scholarship, 
also an Exhibition and a Scholarship at Exeter College in natural science, and a 
Studentship in natural science at Christ Church. 

At Cambridge an Owens-College Student has been rewarded by attaining the 
place of eighteenth wrangler in the Mathematical Tripos of 1874; and other Owens 
College Students have been elected to scholarships at Trinity College, St. John’s 
College, and Sidney-Sussex College, and to a Sizarship at St. John’s College. 

Two Whitworth Scholarships have been gained by Owens-College Students. 

In twenty-one years, from 1853 to 1874, there have been 234 Owens-College Stu- 
dents matriculated in the University of London, and 225 have successfully presented 
themselves at higher examinations of that University. During the three years 
1871-74 seventy-one have matriculated, and seventy-five have passed the further 
examinations of the same University. Principal Greenwood observes that of the 
Owens-College Students a large body do not contemplate graduation either in Lon- 
don or elsewhere, and are yet in every sense devoted to academic work. 

Prizes and scholarships are awarded to Students in the Medical department of 
Owens College ; and the names of those who pass in universities and professional 
colleges are duly recorded in the Owens-College ‘ Calendar.’ 

A College for higher education at Bristol has a right to gather round it an ever- 
increasing number of students, and to give an importance to its own certificates 
and rewards, which will soon be appreciated as nearly equivalent to degrees in 
universities. 

Girton College, three miles from Cambridge, affords an instance of lady students 
succeeding in the same academical examinations to which Cambridge-University 
gentlemen students are admitted. The Cambridge Examiners have kindly allowed 
marks to the papers of the lady candidates ; and one lady student from Girton has 
recently obtained a few more marks than the highest gentleman student in the 
examination for the “pol.,” or ordinary B.A. degree, at Cambridge. 

Ladies who are ambitious of obtaining literary and scientific distinctions, seem to 
wish to enter the same examinations for which there are gentlemen candidates ; and 
several lady students of Girton College have obtained places corresponding to 
that of Senior Optime in the Cambridge Mathematical Tripos, and of the second 
class in the Cambridge Classical Tripos. 

The Middle-Class School in Cowper Street, London, under Dr. Wormell, has a 
high range of mathematical instruction ; and the boys are encouraged to construct 
their own apparatus from simple materials, and to employ themselves in workshops 
recently added to the school. The English language and English history are 
admirably taught in that institution. The senior boys of the sixth form show 
a creditable knowledge of the elements of constitutional law and of political 
economy. 

Treland has of late years increased in prosperity from the more ready transfer of 
landed property in that island. The Irish Commissioners, under the Incumbered- 
Estates Act, commenced their sittings in 1849; and in 1868 an act was passed ex- 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 203 


tending the powers of the Incumbered-Estates Court, for the sale of incumbered 
properties to properties that are unincumbered. A perpetual jurisdiction was 
granted to the new tribunal, under the name of the “ Landed-Estates Court.” In 
1873 the amount of purchase-money for land under this Court was £1,737,222, the 
net rental of the land sold was £86,685, and there were 208 sales. 

All Irish estates, whether incumbered or not, can be sold, or contracted for, or 
disposed of, through the medium of the Court, which is also judicially empowered 
to declare a title to property, and, by later acts, to sell or lease settled estates. 
Small purchasers of land would be benefited by a greater simplification of proce- 
dure, and a reduction of expense in the professional charges, which are fixed on 
a high scale. For instance, parties interested in the purchase of a farm worth 
aa, may be required, as a minimum expense, to pay nearly £100 in effecting the 

urchase. 

r Having visited the Landed-Estates Register Office in Boston, Massachusetts, I 
can report favourably of the excellent plan of recording transfers of landed property 
in the New-England States of North America, A book is kept, in which the de- 
scription of each estate is preserved, and the mortgages and other claims on the land 
are entered. Ifa sale is intended, the person proposing to purchase may at once 
see the incumbrances on the property, as well as many particulars of importance 
respecting the value of the estate. The transfer of property after the sale is duly 
registered ; and the new proprietor thus obtains his title to the land. 

Next year (1876) a meeting of the International Statistical Congress is to be held 
in Buda-Pesth, the capital of Hungary. Official statistical representatives of all the 
principal governments of Europe, and of the United States of America, attend the 
Congress, which also includes delegates from statistical societies of different coun- 
tries: it usually meets once every two years. 

When the Congress assembled at Berlin in 1863 (under the presidency of Count 
von Eulenberg, Secretary of State for the Home Department in Germany), the 
statistical representatives of Great Britain comprised :—Dr. Farr, F.R.S., Superin- 
tendent of Statistics in the General Register Office ; Mr. Valpy, Chief of the Sta- 
tistical Department and corn returns in the Board of Trade; Mr. Hammick, Secre- 
tary of the General Register Office, and others. 

n the 9th September, 1863, Mr. Valpy presented to the Congress the annual 
statement and the accounts of the trade and navigation of the United Kingdom of 
Great Britain and Ireland, and remarked that the International Congress was cer- 
tainly doing good service to all nations. “The periodical meetings,” observed Mr. 
Valpy, “which we are invited to hold in the capital cities, where the Members are 
received with such Royal and general kindness, must exercise a great and favour- 
able influence upon public opinion in regard to national statistics. The opportunity 
afforded by the Congress for the meeting of public officers and gentlemen interested. 
in statistics from so many countries is productive of much advantage. The circle 
of our friends is enlarged ; and, speaking as an official delegate, I can say that our 
means of usefulness at home are increased, and our efforts of improvement are 
much encouraged, by the cordial personal intercourse between the Members of the 
Congress.” 

Dr. Farr, at the meeting in Berlin, eulogized the address of H.R.H. the late Prince 
Consort, who had presided at the opening of the International Statistical Congress 
inLondon. Dr. Farr mentioned that the labours of the Congress had been described 
in that inaugural address “as connected with the loftiest principles of philosophy, 
and directed to the noblest end—the good of the people of all nations.” 

Mr. Hammick thanked Dr. Engel, the Director of the Statistical Department in 
Berlin, for his able abridgement of the resolutions and works of the International 
Statistical Congress at its previous meetings. 

The meeting at Buda-Pesth may have a special interest, as the Convention of 
Commerce between Great Britain and the Austro-Hungarian empire is liable to 
terminate on the 1st January, 1877, and commercial treaties with various other 
European states may also come under consideration, for modification or renewal, 
at the same time. 

A valuable work on commercial treaties was published by Mr. Hertslet (formerly 
at the Foreign Office); and his son, Mr. Edward Hertslet, C.B., ae and 

% 


204. REPORT—1875. 


keeper of the Papers at the Foreign Office, has recently prepared a collection of 
treaties, in one thin yolume, showing how the trade between this country and 
Austria is regulated in the present year (1875). 

Mr. E. Hertslet mentions the desire publicly expressed by Austria, Turkey, and 
other foreign powers to revise their commercial treaties not only with Great Britain, 
but with other states. He shows precisely in his treaties’ collection what commer- 
cial treaties have been concluded aaron foreign states, containing clauses con- 
ferring more favourable treatment on their respective subjects, on commerce, and 
on navigation, than are specially provided for in the English treaties, but the bene- 
fits of which concessions are or might be enjoyed by British subjects under the 
“ most-fayoured-nation ” clauses of the English treaties. 

If the commercial treaties between different countries are likely to be considered 
at the Buda-Pesth International Statistical Congress, a calm and dispassionate 
survey of international commercial relations may be anticipated on the part of an 
assembly comprising official representatives of high statistical talent from nearly 
all civilized nations. 

The Council of the Statistical Society of London nominates a small number of 
delegates to attend each Congress; and the Committee of Section F may perhaps 
arrange for some representation of the Section of Economic Science and Statistics 
in the Buda-Pesth Meeting of 1876. 

In another department of statistical research, education, the General Committee 
of the British Association formerly voted grants, which materially aided educational 
inquiries, In 1836 the Report of a Committee of the Manchester Statistical Society 
(consisting of Messrs. W. R. Greg, W. Langton, and Henry Romilly), on the state 
of education in the borough of Liverpool, was presented to Section F at Bristol. 
The investigation had occupied thirty-one weeks, at a cost to the Society of £96. 
On the recommendation of the Sectional Committee in Bristol the sum of £150 
was placed at the disposal of a Committee (consisting of Colonel Sykes, afterwards 
M.P. for Aberdeen, Mr. Hallam, and Mr. Porter, Secretary of the Board of Trade) 
in furtherance of inquiries into the actual state of Schools in England, considered 
merely as to numerical analysis; and similar grants were bestowed, with a like 
object, for several years in this Association. 

Last year, at Belfast, some of the leading Members of the Statistical Section inter- 
ested themselves in the restoration of harmony between the masters and the opera- 
tives in a strike which was going on at the time of the British-Association Meeting. 
A conference was recommended, happily followed by a compromise, and the differ- 
ences were satisfactorily arranged. 

At the present Meeting, the Section of Economic Science has various communi- 
cations of much interest to be brought forward; and it gives me pleasure to request 
the reading of the first paper, thanking you, at the same time, for your courtesy in 
listening to my introductory observations. 


On the probable Cost and Propriety of removing to England the fallen Obelish: 
of Alexandria, presented to Great Britain by the Pacha of Egypt. By 
Major-General Sir J. E, Atrxanpnmr. 


On the Need of Systematic Observations on the Physical Characters of Man in 
Britain. By Joun Beppor, M.D., F.R.S. 


The writer endeavoured to show the need for the collection of extensive and 
systematic observations (m the stature, bulk, weight, rate of growth, &c. of 
mankind in the British Islands. He had already laboured in this field for some 
time, but sought for more active cooperation from those interested. He pointed 
out how great results had already flowed from Quetelet’s researches in this depart- 
ment of knowledge, and how the practical bearing of such statistics on factory 
legislation, on the recruiting question, &c. might be immediate and considerable. 


Ce 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 20 


On the Mortality of Adolescence. By Joux Buvpor, M.D., PRS. 


This paper was founded on Mr. Charles Ansell’s, jun., Statistics of Upper-Class 
Families. According to Mr. Ansell’s figures, the mortality of upper-class girls, from 
11 to 17 years of age, decidedly exceeds that of boys, and about 15 and 16 it actually 
surpasses, to a notable degree, that of both boys and girls of the lower classes, as 
inferred from the English Life Table. Beyond 17 the upper-class female mortality 
recovers itself, and remains very favourable throughout the remainder of life ; while 
at the same age (17) the mortality of upper-class boys suddenly starts up, leaving 
below it first the upper-class female and then the lower-class male and female 
curves, and from 19 to 25 ranking worst of the four. A comparison of the statistics 
of childhood and youth, collected by Mr. W. Bowser, Rev. J. Hodgson, and others, 
confirms Mr, Ansell’s facts. The excess of male upper-class mortality from 17 to 
23 may be accounted for by that being the period of university and student life, 
of competitive examinations, sometimes of overstrain of mind and body, not unfre- 
quently of fatal accidents, more often of dissipation and excess of various kinds. 
Inthe case of the excessive upper-class female mortality from 11 or 12 to 17 or 18, 
the connexion with the period of puberty is more obvious; and in relation to this 
must be mentioned the aggregate of influences which may be summed up in the 
term “ school-life,” and which affect upper-class but not lower-class girls. These 
considerations reinforce Sidney Smith’s argumeuts against boarding-schools and in 
favour of the Scotch day-school system of education, at all events for girls during 
the age-period in question. 


On the Death-rates of some Health-Resorts, and specially of Clifton. 
By Joun Brppor, M.D., PRS. 


The conditions governing the relative mortality of towns fall under three heads, 
of which the second and third cannot be completely divided. These heads are 
Natural Climate, Artificial Climate, and Social Conditions, which last includes the 
amount and distribution of wealth, the prevailing occupations of the people, the 
degree of prevalence of drunkenness and vice, or of the improved habits which 
generally come with education, the proportions of sexes and ages in the popula- 
tion, the aggregation of individuals into masses, as in foundling hospitals, large 
schools, and barracks. 

Advantages of the three kinds commonly go together: wealth seeks the best 
localities and provides itself with the best artificial climate. Towns containing a 
large proportion of well-to-do people can fairly be compared, as to their death-rates, 
only among themselves. For selecting such towns for comparison the excess of 
young women from 15 to 35 yields on the whole the best tesl; and on that prin- 
ciple the following Table has been constructed :— 


Average Rates of Mortality for 1871 and 1872 in Registrar-Gereral’s Subdivision. 


Ditto, exclusive of 
Rate deaths in hospitals and 


per 1000. Workhouses. 
Westbury-on-Trym (including part of Clifton)... 14:5 145 
PNGWOne(CEOTQUAY Ji evsccetscistosestcesesccectosvensres 16-2 16-1 
Mbultonbiantepeessacteseeseesseeassvencarescsstitesveccse 178 16:2 
M@littort ys. asesar<seeenaee acs etetees cree seta sncevetecaenas 16:3 163 
iiastings (Ste Uviaryimvatcsctctessse sh cduecdewe cass, 16:9 16:6 
Brighton (Kemp Town and Palace) ............... 16:9 16°7 
Pere Outi uc 5 seek ewasienlod = celcanaie seve «nse ctaaetec's ads 17-2 17-0 
Banwell (Weston-super-Mare) .......s0se..sssee eee 177 17°35 
PESET SETI OR <c:0100 waar pee tactemess tues eenacasdensssa<saognas 18-4 17-5 
Miegmin POM "s.ccinessaddeuecdesaed==a-. cas a== SP eoasee 18:7 17-9 
PETIPHUON | seas qdeae-ovacaeaeyes Rechte cst eacszanter 21:9 186 
Bath (Bathwick, Lansdown, Walcot) ...........- 188 188 
NBhey (Whole Gistvict)! <..ccccaccssscecccsssesesssecaran) lee 18°8 
EAE DOLOUPD connceossc-tecatqrsareacescotscns conccarcn “pip cats 21:4 
mtn cer APM aeteeds tehcsettes fete cecce nc tetetoe Pee 21:6 


206 : REPORT—1875. 


In the succeeding years the death-rate of Clifton has been smaller ; and even if all 
deaths of parishioners occurring elsewhere (in hospitals &c.) are added, the rate 
for 1873-74 is but 169, and for the last spring quarter 15:4, the zymotic rate being 
1-4 per annum. It is doubtful whether anywhere in England an equal mass of 
population can be found yielding so favourable arate. By Mr. Humphreys’s method, 
the normal death-rate of Clifton would be 21:8, so that the actual rate is 4°9 below 
the calculated one. 


On Sericiculture. By Mons. Bonnommer. 


On Agricultural Statistics and Waste Lands, By Wit11aM Borty. 


The object of this paper was to show the utility of a better and more correct statis- 
tical publication of the amount of our cereal, root, grass, and other crops, cattle, sheep, 
swine, andhorses. The author stated that the nations of antiquity, and even Peru 
atthe present time, were much in advance of Great Britain and Ireland in carrying 
out this idea. In treating of waste lands, the total acreage of Great Britain and 
Treland was stated to be 77,500,000, of which, in 1874, there were :— 


in Goris taatonaial: Maeda ie ant 6410) 1. 4caial as satiot duals cciaiohe waasei eet 11,364,834 
HUOOpBNOUOVeCH CLOMS | cityeie veins cise piel piste eral sisalde ela eee 4,957,683 
Flax, hops, bare fallow, clover, and other grasses under rotation.. 7,140,887 
Permanent pasture, meadow, and grass, exclusive of mountain and 

AG eM eRe rat oWolere ee: hcne talS ve C necnenata Te Neer a cia se lel ete skate veh mene 23,680,416 


lt is a most extraordinary fact that out of the total acreage of 77,500,000, there 
are no less than 30,356,680 unaccounted for, 

The author suggested the propriety of the legislature offering secure inducements 
for the cultivation of waste lands. 


On Workmen's Dwellings. By W. Borty. 


On the Working of the Building Societies Act, 1874. 
By KH. W. Brasroox, F.S.A., Barrister-at-Law. 


By this Act the rules of Building Societies are to be transferred from the custody 
of the Clerks of the Peace in the several counties to that of the Registrar in London. 
The Clerks of the Peace for some counties of importance have not yet effected the 
transfer, but the rules of 5157 societies have been received by the Registrar. Of 
these, it is probable that about 2000 are still in existence, the others haying been, 
for the most part, terminating societies which had completed the period for which 
they were established. 

Hyery society established after the passing of the Act has, and every society pre- 
viously established may have, the privilege of incorporation. As yet, however, 
only 300 societies (of which 70 are new ones) have obtained certificates of incor- 
poe The certificate carries with it limitation of liability, and the right to 

orrow money to the extent of two thirds of the amount secured to the society by 
mortgages from its members. 

The Act provides for the making annual returns to the Registrar by every incor- 
porated society. Returns have not yet become due from the generality of societies ; 
but those of 93 societies (42 incorporated, 51 not) already recorded at the Regis- 
try-office show a capital from share-subscriptions of £4,015,977, from borrowed 
money of £2,044,287, and from accumulated profit of £230,751, together £6,291,015 ; 
of which there was invested on mortgage £5,961,820, existing in other assets 
£328,918, and a balance deficient in one society of £257. The annual income of 
the 93 societies was £3,819,504, \ 

The societies in Bristol and its neighbourhood are numerous and flourishing, and 
nearly all cf them have become incorporated; but it isin the North of England 


i 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 207 


building societies are most largely extended. The Queen’s Building Society, 
Manchester, has an income of £734,578, and assets exceeding £900,000; the Leeds 
Building Society has 10,262 members, an income of £454,624, and assets amount- 
ing to £786,179. In London, also, are several very large societies. 


On the Trade and Commerce of the City and Port of Bristol. 
By Lxonarp Bruton, Secretary to the Bristol Chamber of Commerce. 


The object of the paper was to point out the great advantages which had accrued 
to the trade and commerce and the general interests of the city and port of Bristol 
by the operations of the Bristol Docks Transfer Act 1848, and the consequent 
reductions in the dock dues. The reductions were very considerable, amounting to 
more than 50 per cent. on an average on vessels, and to about 20 per cent. on 
goods, that is, foreign produce imported. 

Statistics were given of the import trade for 20 years before and 27 years after 
the reductions, which showed that, whereas in the first period, under the high dues, 
the progressive increase was at the rate of 33 per cent. on an average, dividing the 
20 years into two decennial periods, a similar comparison for the 27 years since 
the reductions had been at the rate of 66 per cent. decennially. 

A similar comparison with regard to the net rateable value of property within 
the municipal limits showed, that whereas the rate of increase before the reduc- 
tions in the dock dues (that is, from 1841 to 1851) was 7 per cent., in the first period 
after the reductions it was at the rate of 16 per cent., comparing 1861 with 1851, 
and in the second period after the reductions it was 41 per cent., comparing 1871 
with 1861. 

Taking the extreme points, the foreign import trade of the port had increased 
300 per cent., comparing 1848 with 1874; and the net rateable value of property 
had been nearly doubled between 1841 and 1871, viz. from £406,206 in 1841 to 
£719,913 in 1871. 

Notwithstanding the reductions, the money receipts for dock dues had increased 
50 per cent., and those for town and other port charges paid into the city chest 
amounted to three times more in 1874 than in 1847; aad the city was receiving 
upwards of £12,000 more per annum from shipping than the amount of the rate on 
the fixed property towards the reductions in the dues. 

Statistics were also given to show to what extent the different branches of the 
foreign import trade had increased since the reductions in the dues, viz. :—sugar, 
126 per cent. ; timber, 65 per cent.; grain flour, &c., 430 per cent. ; hides, tallow, 
&e., 142 per cent. ; and other produce, 139 per cent. 

The paper referred also somewhat in detail to the general advantages which 
had resulted to aiJ interests in the city—commercial, manufacturing, public im- 
provements, docks, and railways, &c.,and concluded by paying a tribute of respect 
to the late Mr. Robert Bright, an eminent merchant of Bristol, to whom, as the 
President of the Bristol Free Port Association from 1846 to 1850, the credit of 
this great change was chiefly due, and by regretting that the Corporation and the 
citizens had not more continuously and more fully carried out the Act of 1848, 
which had conferred such great benefits on the city and port of Bristol. 

In reply to a question as to the rate of progress in other ports, statistics were 
read of the foreign ieaort trade of the United Kingdom, which showed that it 
was increasing about 25 per cent. faster than that of Bristol before 1848, whilst 
since 1848 Bristol had recovered that lost ground, and was now keeping equal 
pace with the United Kingdom generally. 


On the Principles of Penal Legislation.—Second Paper. 
By Joun T. Burr, Chaplain of Broadmoor Criminal Lunatic Asylum. 
Montesquieu laid it down as one proposition in political science, that the monar= 


chical governments of Europe were founded upon a principle of honour. Further, 
he contended that this principle of honour involved the setting of « lew value upon 


208 REPORT—-1875. 


life and of a high value upon property. This principle was strongly impressed 
upon the penal laws, which came down from former times. Assaults and injuries 
to the person, and even homicide, were purged by fines, offences against property 

were punishable with death. , 

The elements of social life have undergone great changes, and the relative value 
of life and of property has been reversed. 

Penal legislation has followed slowly in the wake of these changes, and the 
severity of penalties against property has been mitigated. 

_ The question is raised, whether the changes in penal legislation have been com- 
meusurate with the change in the relative value of life and property. 

Two propositions are submitted :— 

i. Assaults and injuries to the person are of the nature of offences against life. 

ii. Imprisonment 1s of the nature of a penalty levied upon human life. Itis a 
partial confiscation of human life. 

Notwithstanding the recent changes in criminal law, offences against the person, 
in large classes of cases, ure punished by penalties levied upon property. 

On the other hand, offences against property are punished by a confiscation of 
some portion of human life. 

This paper is limited to the consideration of offences against property. 

A summary of the returns given :—In the year 1872-73 the number of sentences 
a eee imprisonment or penal servitude for offences against property was 
30,603. 

The average daily prison population of all county and borough prisons, and of the 
so-called “Convict Prisons,” was 27,192. It is estimated that of these nearly 
one third are sentenced for offences against property without violence. 

Thus the result is arrived at, that the protection of property in England and 
Wales involves the confiscation of human life to an extent equal to the entire 
lives in constant succession of from 8000 to 2000 men, women, and children. 

It is admitted that if the existing method of punishing offences against property 
could be proved by experience to be indispensable, then it ought to be adhered to. 
But unless such evidence could be adduced there is a strong presumption in favour 
of punishing offences against property by penalties levied upon property, and not 
by penalties levied upon human life. 

Experience is strongly in favour of every change which has been effected in 
the direction of more merciful legislation. 

The abolition of capital punishment for offences against property was a depar- 
ture from the principle of the old law of the extremest kind. Other changes have 
followed. Nevertheless there has been a concurrent decrease of those forms of crime 
the penalties against which have been continuously mitigated. 

There has been at the same time a constant decrease of severity in the sentences 
assed by exercise of the discretionary power vested in judges and magistrates. 
his passing of more lenient sentences is conclusive evidence that in the opinion 

of the judges, and of the whole magistracy of the country, the past changes in the 
law have worked satisfactorily. 

The same general conclusion is supported by the testimony of Mr. Samuel Red- 
grave in the report for 1858, published in 1859. : 

Three cases within the personal knowledge of the writer adduced in illustration, 

The same conclusion corroborated strongly by a return published by the Bank 
of England of the number of forged notes presented for payment before and after 
the abolition of capital punishment. 

Tt is not contended that the decrease of crime is directly and altogether the result 
of the decrease in the severity of punishment. But in the face of all this evidence 
it is contended that the amount of crime is largely determined by other causal 
influences, and not mainly by the severity of punishment, 

Whatever those other causal influences may he, no pretension is made that their 
force has heen accurately measured. It will be impossible, therefore, to adduce proof 
that tre limits of safety have been reached within which crime may be effectually 
controlled, and punishment he still further mitigated. 

In one way the mitigation of penalties has to some extent contributed to the 
lessening of crime. It has brought the law more into accord with a natural sense 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 209 


of justice, the condition upon which the healthy and vigorous action of the law 
depends. This condition would be yet further fulfilled if offences against property 
were punished, so far as practicable, by penalties levied upon property. 

The mitigation of penalties has contributed to the lessening of crime in another 
way. 

it was one main argument with the advocates for the abolition of capital punish- 
ment for offences against property that the disproportionate severity of the penalty 
deterred injured persons from prosecuting and juries from convicting. But the 
effectiveness of penal law depends much more upon the certainty of punishment 
than upon the severity. 

At the present time many persons are deterred from prosecuting, the punishment 
of imprisonment being often felt to be disproportioned to many offences against 

roperty. 

. This paper, and that read by the writer at Belfast, should be considered together, 


On Industrial Schools. By Miss Carpenter. 


Some cecount of the Rise and Progress of the Sugar Trade in Bristol, 1875. 
By Henry CuaMBrRLaln. 


The total consumption of sugar in the United Kingdom in 1874 was 719,348 tons. 
We trace sugar first from China, through Arabia, to Europe and the Canaries, from 
the latter imported into Bristol in 1526 and earlier. In 1506 the cane was taken to 
America, in 1614 first to Barbadoes, and from thence to other West-India Islands. 
Spain had, however, before this a large trade at St. Domingo. Barbadoes first 
exported sugar to England in 1646, and the West-India trade continued the prin- 
cipal one until 1844; then free labour of other places was admitted. One of our 
Bristol merchant's ancestors obtained estates in Barbadoes about the time of 
Cromwell’s Protectorate in England, and some remain the family property to this 
day, and are still connected with this city. Other large mercantile houses were 
established here in the last century, and the import from the West Indies went on 
and flourished. From 1844 all kinds of sugar were imported, free and slave labour, 
and the duty was gradually removed, until in 1874 it was entirely abolished. The 
beet-root trade is protected in France, or it could not successfully compete with cane- 
sugar. In 1852, the year before slave emancipation, the total import trade into 
Bristol was 21,229 tons; in 1843, the year before the admission of free labour, 
16,611 tons; from that time it rapidly increased to the large total of 94,528 tons 
in 1872, though 1874 is not so large, being 81,914 tons. These figures are from 
the Bristol Chamber of Commerce accounts. The entire import into England in 
1700 was only 10,000 tons. In 1874 we have already seen it exceeded 700,000 
tons, a wonderful increase. The future of this great trade is beyond all present 
calculation. 


On Domestic Service for Gentlewomen. By Mrs. R. M. Crawsuay. 
On the Tanning of Sole-Leather in Bristol, By Sranxu Evans. 


On Indian Railways and Indian Finance. By Francis Wi111M Fox. 


The object of this paper is to direct attention to the important bearing that the 
further extension of railways in India has upon the welfare of her people and the 
development of her resources. 

The author showed :— 

Ist. That the land is capable of affording sufficient revenue for the general 

purposes of the government of the country and for the judicious develop- 


210 REPORT—1875. 


ment of public works, whilst at the same time allowing for the total aboli- 
tion of the taxes on salt and opium. 

2nd. That immediate steps should be taken to cover India with a network of 
railways. 

drd. That for the construction of the railways and working their traffic a new 
organization is required, as the existing system is not adapted for the 
special requirements of a country like India. 


Before proceeding to consider these propositions, the author gave a few statistics 
of the Indian empire. 

The total area of country under the administration of the Imperial Government 
is 1,558,254 square miles (or 997,282,560 square acres), of which 948,254 square 
miles (or 606,882,560 square acres) belongs to the British provinces, and about 
610,000 square miles (or 390,000,000 square acres) to the native states. 

The population, according to the last census returns, is about 240,000,000, of 
which about 193,000,000 belong to the British provinces, and 47,000,000 to the 
native states. 

The density of the population in the whole empire is about 154 persons per 
square mile ; or if the more important provinces only are taken, which form about 
one half of the whole area, the density would be about 254 persons per square 
mile; but in the North-West Provinces the average is 378, in Oude 465, in some 
of the Bengal provinces 500 to 573 persons per square mile, whereas in England 
the density of the whole population is 422 per square mile. 

In Ireland the density is 166 persons per square mile. 

The Indian railways opened and in course of construction at the commencement 
of 1873 were about 7722 miles, or one mile of railway to every 200 square miles 
of country, whereas in Hngland there is one mile of railway to every 4} square 
miles of country, and in Ireland one mile of railway to every 16} square miles of 
country. 

The Indian ‘railways, as above, have cost about £97,000,000, or £16,536 per 
mile. 

The Irish railways have cost about £16,000 per mile ; and by a curious coinci- 
dence the gross receipts per mile per annum on the Indian and Ivish railways are 
almost identical. 


In India the gross receipts are about £1148 per mile 
AA VTOLATIG Hea cha tes om Stet vckaateh ghd fos 1142 —(,, 


The total receipts on the Indian railways for the financial year of 1873 were 
£6,742,789, the net revenue £3,185,000, which gives a percentage of about 3} 
per cent. per annum on the outlay; or, if the railways had been made, as they 
might have been, upon a cheaper and more economical system, or for, say, about 
£8000 per mile, the percentage upon the outlay would have been 6} per cent. per 
annum. : 

The gross revenue of the Indian Government for the financial year ending 
March 1873 was £50,110,215, or nearly £2,000,000 in excess of the normal 
expenditure. 

Of this revenue £44,449,000 were realized as follows :— 


From land, and contributions from native States .. £22,000,000 


AE MONASH rcs getctaxelaceeetes vas dscecelar eter te es eerste etek ebeaerers 6,165,000 
Aiken auhe ne WR Giomroy aac BREN py OP roniD nor 8,684,000 
From Customs, Stamps, and Excise ............ 7,600,009 


But the cost of collecting the salt and opium duties is about £2,290,612 ; so that 
if these two taxes were abolished the amount derived from them, viz, £14,819,000, 
would have to be reduced by this sum of £2,290,612, which would leave 
£12,528,388 to be provided for. 

Assuming the population of India, as per last census returns, is 240,000,000, 
and that every person, including rich and poor, expended upon an average, on their 
food and clothing, one penny per day, this would give a sum equal to £365,000,000 
per annum; would not this amount give us approximately the value of the produce 
raised off the land per annum? For may not the value of the exports, amounting 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 211 


to about £55,227,495 per annum, be fairly set off against the imports, which 
amount to about £31,260,561, and the value of the labour required to convert 
the produce of the land into food and clothing and convey them to the market ? 

In this expenditure of £365,000,000 per annum, the author has estimated that 
200,000,000 of the population expend only 3d. per day per person. 

Of the 994,130,560 acres belonging to the British states, we cannot estimate 
that there are less than 250,000,000 of acres under cultivation, or say about one 
fourth of the whole area. 

This may be considered an under-estimate, as Sir George Campbell considers 
there is a much larger area of land under cultivation than this. 

Owing to the depressed condition of the Indian agricultural labourers (they 
being only half-fed and clothed), the land is nearly everywhere imperfectly culti- 
yated. It the condition of the agricultural labourer was improved, we may safely 
estimate that the value of the produce of the land off the same cultivated area 
would be increased at least 25 per cent. 

The revenue from the land is derived by certain assessment charges of so much per 
acre, which to all intents and purposes is simply an ordinary rent charge; but 
owing to the different and varied forms of land-tenure throughout India created or 
endorsed by the Imperial Government, the rent-charges vary considerably and 
are based upon no uniform principle. 

In addition to the rent-charge there is a special charge made per acre for those 
lands which are directly or indirectly benefited by irrigation, and which charges 
enable the Government to realize a profit (according to Lord G. Hamilton) of about 
5 per cent. upon all the large sums which have been expended upon irrigation works, 

From the imperfect state of land registration, a large area of cultivated land pro- 
bably escapes altogether paying any rent to the imperial revenue. 

It seems just and expedient that the revenues of India should be made depen- 
on. and should be realized on the produce of the land, and not from the land 
itself. 

The revenue would thus increase as the prosperity and wealth of the people 
advanced, and there would exist a powerful stimulant to develop and ameliorate 
the condition of the millions of her people. 

Simultaneously with the introduction of raising the revenue from the produce 
ef the land, the duties upon salt and opium should be abolished. 

If the reyenue from the land was to be raised by a charge of one tenth on the 
value of the produce, which is the ancient Oriental standard of rent, this value 
being estimated, as above, at £365,000,000, the amount of this revenue would be 
about £36,500,000, and would increase annually as the resources of India were in- 
creased in value by the extension of railways and spread of irrigation works, and 
by the improved purchasing power of the people. 

This revenue would show an excess of £16,500,000 per annum over the normal 
expenditure of a financial year like that ending March 1873 ; but this surplus would 
have to be reduced by £12,528,388, on account of the abolition of the salt and 
opium taxes, leaving still a surplus of about £4,000,000, which surplus would be 
an annually increasing one on account of the progressive value of the land revenues. 

Let us assume that only two thirds of the 1,558,254 square miles would be pro- 
vided with railways. 

_ This area, divided by 20, will give us about 50,000 miles of railways that would 
be ultimately wanted in order to give India about half the railway accommodation 
that Ireland has, or about 42,000 miles would have to be constructed in addition 
to those already finished and in course of construction during, say, the next 25 


ears. 

i If these 42,000 miles of railway are made, as they can be, for about £6000 per 
mile, under conditions to be hereafter specified, the total cost of these 42,000 miles 
would be £252,000,000, which added to the £100,000,000 approximately already 
expended, gives £352,000,000 as the ultimate capital to be invested in Indian rail- 
ways, an amount equal to about the value of one year’s produce of the land, 
assuming that the produce is only £365,000,000 ; but it must be remembered that 
of the £252,000,000 to be expended, about £126,000,000 would be expended in 
England in purchase of rails, railway-plant, rolling-stock, freight, and profits. 


212 REPORT—1875. 


The interest upon £352,000,000 at 5 per cent. amounts to £17,600,000 per 
annum; although we are aware that the required capital could be raised at 4 per 
cent., we have allowed 5 per cent. interest, as it offers a premium for private enter- 
prise to embark more readily into Indian railways. 

Assuming the average gross receipts of the whole of the Indian railways 
amounted to only one half of the average receipts of the Ivish lines, or say to £572 
per mile per annum, or £11 per mile per week, and allowing the working expenses, 
say, to be GG per cent. of the gross receipts, the net amount available to meet the 
above 17,600,000 would be £9,724,000, leaving a deficiency of £7,876,000. 

The deficiency on account of the guaranteed interest for the year ending March 
1875 is £1,428,442, which deducted from the £7,876,000 shows an increased charge 
when the works are all completed, say some 25 years hence, of £6,447,558 per 
annum. This would be provided for by the surplus of the revenue, which, as 
before shown, would in the first year be about £4,000,000, and would be increasing 

early. 
: The author proposed that the same principles which have been found by expe- 
rience successful in private industrial enterprises should be applied as far as 
possible to those of the State. 

Close personal attention must be given to details, in combination with a capacity 
for generalizing these details so as to mould the whole into an effective and com- 
plete organization. 

As the author believes it is a first essential for the successful development of 
Indian railways that the spirit and enthusiasm of private enterprise should ke en- 
listed, he suggested that a scheme somewhat similar to the following might be 
adopted with advantage. That the railways should be the property of the State, 
and the working of the traffic within certain specified limits to be under its supreme 
control. 

It will be necessary for obvious reasons that the 42,000 miles of new railways 
referred to above should be very approximately located, and, for the sake of con- 
venience, divided into three classes. 

The first-class railways should be those which would cost about £5000 per mile, 

The second class those which would cost £6000 per mile. 

The third class those which would cost £8000 per mile. 

The average of the whole to cost about £6000 per mile. The Government would 
then proceed to offer to approved parties concessions of certain railways on terms 
somewhat to the following effect :— 

Ist. The land to be provided free of cost. 

2nd. All materials required for the construction and equipment of the railway 

to be imported free of duty, and to be carried at special low rates over the 
railways in operation. 

3rd. That interest at 5 per cent. per annum should be guaranteed on the standard 

cost of the railway. 

4th. The said guarantee of 5 per cent. should come into operation only and when 

certain lengths or sections of a railway have been certified to be completed 
and equipped with rolling-stock in conformity with the concession. 

5th. That the concessionaire would have to work the traffic of the railway 

subject to certain Government regulations, and maintain it in working 
order to the approval of the Government for a term of, say, 35 years, deter- 
minable by the Government at the end of every seven years. 

6th. The concessionaire would have annually to pay to the Government in 

monthly instalments an amount equal to the Government cuarantee of 5 
per cent., after which all the receipts of the traffic would belong to the 
concessionaire. 

7th. That for those railways where the annual net receipts will not cover the 

guaranteed interest after the said railways have been opened and at work for 
three years, then the Government shall allow an abatement off the annual 
payment, such abatement to be assessed by an approved court of appeal. 
8th. That the concessionaire shall have the power of issuing ordinary shares 
unguaranteed by Government not exceeding, say, £4000 permile, the Govern- 
ment not to be liable to purchase these ordinary shares at the end of the 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 213 


35 years, but the said shares would remain the property of the holders and 
shall participate in all the profits after the guaranteed interest and working 
expenses have been paid. 

It will be readily seen that in the foregoing scheme capitalists in England and 
India would be attracted to embark with spirit and energy into Indian railways, 
as there exists many important elements for realizing substantial profits in propor- 
tion as the collateral trade in connexion with the traflie of a railway Loran 
developed, which elements, most must admit, are sadly wanting in the present 
organization of Indian State Lines, whilst at the same time it embraces all the 
advantages (and these are many) of the railways being owned and under the 
control of the State. 


On the Standard of National Education*. By Mrs. Wittiam Grey. 


The object of this paper is to draw some practical inferences from that on the study 
of Education as a Science, read last year at Belfast, the most important of these being 
that which forms the title. The definition of education in the former paper, as 
the direction given to the development of the human being by the external influ- 
ences brought to bear upon him, aiding, arresting, or distorting his growth, which 
applies to national as to individual education, will include under that name all 
direct instruction and influence, together with the indirect pressure of the social 
atmosphere and general conditions under which we live. It is on this indirect 
and apparently uncontrollable social element that a national standard of education 
would exercise the most powerful influence ; for every nation, class, and profes- 
sion, having any vigorous life, has an ideal of what its members should be, which 
affects each individual in them by a public opinion more potent than any law 
Some such ideal of education does indeed exist now in all classes of society, and 
creates a standard for each class. The question is, whether it is an adequate one, 
judged from a general, not a class, point of view, and whether the scientific study 
of education would not give us one universally applicable and resting on the firm 
ground of principle. The scientific view, taking human nature as its basis, makes 
that principle the equable development of all the powers and faculties in their due 
relation to each other. 

To begin with physical training: we have the Greek ideal preserved to us in 
their statues, and should adopt it for ours, making our drill, gymnastics, and phy- 
sical exercises for both sexes parts of a really scientific physical training, directed 
to attain the maximum of strength and grace, and reduce to a minimum weakness 
and deformity, This would give importance to the conditions of healthy develop- 
ment before and after school-life, and scientific unity to our sanitary legislation, 
coordinating every measure to the same end, the improvement of our human 
breed, hitherto infinitely less regarded than that of our cattle. 

Passing on to intellectual education, our ideal must include here also not only 
development but harmony, the balance of intellectual forces which constitutes 
soundness of mind and their due subordination to the supreme end of intellectual 
life, right reasoning, the discernment of the true relations to ourselves and each 
other of the objects and persons making up the world in which we live. Hence 
the standard of intellectual education should be the formation of a sound judg- 
ment, which exercised on common things is no other than common sense, and in 
the region of abstract thought is the discovery of truth. How to attain this 
standard by directing all our school teaching towards it, is a problem the science 
of education has still to solve; for the testimony of examiners of every degree 
and for every profession may be appealed to to prove that it is not solved yet, 
and that the development of intelligence producing a high average of reasoning 

ower is not the general result of our present methods of teaching. 

In the higher education given at the Universities, or whatever corresponds to 
them, knowledge ceases to be a means only, and becomes an aid in itself, but 
should lead to another end not less worthy, z.e. culture. This, which is too often 
supposed to be mere ornament, has a high educational value by giving a keener 
edee to our judgment, and training reason to deal with human probabilities, and to 


* Published in the * Journal of the Women’s Education Union,’ for September 1875. 


214: REPORT—1875. 


weigh evidence coloured by human feeling, which physical science does not bring 
before it. Assuming, on the authority of Mr. M, Amold and other competent per- 
sons, the notoriety of, at least, very common failure on the part of our schools and 
universities to produce the culture their whole system is directed to attain, it may 
be attributed, first, to the absence of a high national standard of culture as the 
necessary crowning of the educational edifice ; and, secondly, to the need of science 
to discover and correct the defects in our methods whence it proceeds. 

Foliowing the natural order of human development, we come next to moral 
education. In the moral as in the intellectual constitution we find a hierarchy of 
powers, and one supreme over the rest, This is conscience, the voice within us 
pronouncing on right and wrong, and determining the obligation expressed by 
“T ought” and “TI ought not.” The establishment of this rightful supremacy, 
the subjection to it of the desires, affections, passions, making “1 will’’ wait upon 
“T ought,” is the ideal of moral education. Here we have arecognized standard, 
that of Christian morality; but there is too much evidence to prove that it is not 
the practical and efficient one. How it is to be made efficient, how our moral 
enchite is to become as practical as it is universal, and establish the sovereignty 
of conscience “ de facto” as well as ‘de jure,” are questions on which the honour 
and prosperity of the country depend; and where can we find their solution except 
in the science of education, which is in fact the applied science of human nature ? 

Over the religious element of our nature, potentially the noblest, but also the 
root of our worst evils, superstition, fanaticism, and bigotry, education has almost 
unbounded power, and it has the highest standard, that of Christ, and an ideal of 
divine loveliness in the life of Christ. Many of the causes of the notorious failure 
of our religious teaching in producing corresponding results lie outside the scope 
of this essay, and the subject is mentioned only to point out that the standards of 
intellectual and moral education are most powerful factors in religious education, 
and that when we have trained the intellect to form sound judgments and the moral 
nature to obey conscience, we shall have laid the best foundation in human power 
for religious training up to the Christian standard. 

All that has been said hitherto applies equally to both sexes; but this paper 
would be incomplete without some mention of the standard of education for 
women. Practically there is no such standard above that of the elementary 
schools, and the whole subject is in a chaotic state, tossed on the horns of con- 
flicting opinions between the extremes of absolute dependence on the pleasure and 
convenience of men and absolute equality with them. Yet a high standard of 
womanly worth and dignity is the very salt of a nation’s life, without which it 
slowly rots to the core. ‘To the English ideal of the purity and sanctity of home pre- 
sided over bythe wife and mother, incomplete and inconsistently acted upon asit is, 
we owe whatever we have of wholesome social life. But there are signs of a change 
for the worse even here ; and considering that the unayowed but real standard held 
up to women from their cradle is to please men, and that experience early teaches 
them that mén as arule are best pleased by beauty and fashion, most easily won 
by the wiles of coquetry, and most effectually repelled by any independent exer- 
cise of thought and judgment, the wonder is that so much goodness, truth, and 
sound-heartedness is left among them. Professor Max Miiller, after saying to the 
writer that the future of England depended on her young mothers, asked, ‘ How 
are they to be educated?” Can there be any question in the whole range of 
scientific investigation more worthy to occupy our ablest minds, and the solution 
of which is more important to the welfare of the nation and the human race ? 

Mr. Matthew Arnold has a passage showing the necessity of a nation’s action 
being inspired by an ideal commanding the respect of the many, in order to keep 
that nation together and give it unity and true greatness. The practical comment 
on these words, based not on theory but the history of the decline and fall of 
nations, is this: Of all ideals giving a nation unity and greatness, the most powerful 
is a high ideal of national character, of what its men and women, its gentlemen 
and gentlewomen should be ; and of all sciences giving us the command over the 
forces of nature, the most important is that which will give us command over the 
forces of the human heart and mind, and enable us with approximate certainty to 
educate the nation up to its ideal. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 215 


On Income Fallacies and some of their Consequences. By P. Hatiurr, M.A. 


The object of this paper is to show that the word “income” has unequal 
meanings and values in its applications to different sources, and that therefore its 
use as a comparative measure either of wealth or taxation without previous correc- 
tion must necessarily lead to error. These inequalities arise from the unequal 
degrees in which different sources are naturally reacted on in the production of 
incomes, and from the variable manner in which these reactions are recognized by 
present modes of assessment. Nominally equal incomes are only really equal 
when they leave the things that produce them, considered as values, equally 
unimpaired, or when they leave them equally restored. £100 of income produced 
by a source that remains permanent in value is a very different thing from £100 
penned by a source that is consumed in and by the very process of its production. 

o yield the one may require a capital value of £2000 ; the other may arise from a 
value varying from below £2000 down to even less than the £100 of income itself, 
simply according to the rate of the source’s consumability. But the two are 
called equal incomes, and are treated as equal both in statistics and legislation. To 
incomes that leave their sources unimpaired belong the ordinary interest of money 
and, with some slight drawback, the rent of land. To those that consume their 
sources belong terminable annuities, the royalties of mines, the rent of houses, the 
income or wages of labour in its various forms, in all of which the income is 
increased at the expense of the source. In the one category the income is a pure 
profit on the source’s capital value; in the other, besides pure profit, it contains 
the repair and redemption-funds of its capital value, or, in other words, is a mixture 
of profit and capital. 

ifferent classes of income thus being of unequal constitution, their units are 
necessarily of unequal denomination, and are therefore, as such, incapable of being 
added, subtracted, or of forming comparative ratios. Various fallacies arise from 
ignoring these inequalities. (1) In estimating, for example, the National Income, 
land-rent, house-rent, industrial and professional incomes, and even common wages, 
have all been added together as if the income units of each class were of the same 
yalue; and the incongruous mixture has even been capitalized at pure interest rates 
in order to obtain the increment of National Wealth. (2) Again, in estimating the 
comparative incidence of General Taxation on different classes of persons or pro- 
perty, the same oversight has been committed. Income, according to the ordinary 
rule, has been taken as the comparative measure of incidence, but the measure not 
being of common value in different classes the comparison fails radically. If one 
class of incomes pays 11 per cent. of taxation and another class pays 14 per cent., 
but the income unit of the one is of more than double the value of that of the 
other, the percentages, without correction, are evidently scientifically worthless 
and practically misleading. (3) The same error that thus applies to taxation in 
general applies to the special Income-Tax ; and it is indeed probably owing to the 
mode in which different denominations of income are officially defined and treated 
in the income-tax administration that the preceding fallacies have arisen, 

As these consequences (statistical and legislative) result from a want of unifor= 
mity in the idea of income, their true remedy would appear to consist in supplying 
this want; and as the want arises from the unequal degrees in which the different 
sources are impaired through production, it would be supplied by restoring this 
impairment. Such restoration will generally imply a deduction from the incomes 
of terminating sources, as at present given, of repair or redemption funds sufficient 
to make the capital value of these sources permanent. The sources being thus 
rendered economically permanent the incomes would be permanent also, whilst 
their units being of the same denomination might be added, subtracted, or em- 
ployed as comparative measures of taxation without error or injustice. 

f, using symbols, P be a source’s production, E its productive expenditure or 
consumability, I its true income or profit, then I will be determinable by the 
formula I=P—E. Income will be thus universally definable as the difference 
between production and its cost—the pure excess by production above capital, the 
source’s pure profit or permanent annual value. 


eae 


216 REPORT—1875. 


On the Progress of the Coal Question. 
By Professor W. Srantey Jevons, /.R.S. 


The purpose of this paper is to compare statistical facts concerning the recent 
eS: of the output of coal with various predictions and theories which had 
een published on the subject in the previous fifteen years. The quantity of coal 
raised in the United Kingdom in the year 1873 amounted to the enormous weight 
of 127,000,000 tons, according to the mineral statistics of Mr. Hunt. Professor 
Hull, in his valuable work on the English Coal-fields, had questioned the power of 
the coal-fields to admit of a much greater drain in any one year than 100,000,009 
tons, at which rate he believed the supply would be sufficient for eight centuries. 
Facts now entirely negative the hypothesis of any such fixed limit. 

Sir W. Armstrong, in his Presidential Address of 1863, put forward his cele- 
brated calculation, that the produce of coal was advancing by a uniform arithmetic 
annual addition of 23 millions of tons, at which rate the coal in the country, as 
then estimated, would last only 212 years. According to this law of increase the 
produce in 1873 ought to be 119 millions, which is 8 millions /ess than the truth, 
the increase in the interval being at least 41 millions, instead of 33 millions, as it 
would be according to Sir W. Armstrong’s method of calculation. The annual 
average addition to the output is now nearly 33 millions of tons, instead of 23 mil- 
lions ; but the true law cannot really be that of arithmetic increase, which, if 
followed backwards, would lead us to zero about the year 1830, . 

The true law of increase is that of a geometrical series, with the average annual 
ratio of 31 per cent, According to this law, as described in the ‘ Coal Question’ 
in 1865 (1st ed. p. 213, 2nd ed. p. 240), it was calculated that the produce of 
coal in 1871 would be about 117-9 millions. According to Mr. Hunt's statistics 
it proved to be actually 117,352,028 tons. On the same method of calculation the 
produce of 1873 would be about 126-3 millions; and the actual quantity raised, as 
already stated, exceeds this by about 700,000 tons. In spite of the extraordinary 
rise of price of coal in the years 1872 and 1873, the law of geometric increase is 
thus remarkably verified. 

In the Report of the Royal Commission on Coal some calculations of My. Price 
Williams are put forward, in which the average consumption (apart from expor- 
tation) of coal per head of the population is assumed as rising from 3-9636 tons in 
1871, to 44266 tons in 1881, 45786 tons in 1891, and so on, to a maximum of 
4-6526 tons in 1941. But, according to this method, the conswmption (not includ- 
ing coals exported) of the year 1873 would be nearly 6 millions less than the 
truth. Mr. Price Williams believed that the rate of increase of consumption of 
coal per head had passed its maximum, and was declining, whereas the most recent 
statistics show that between 1869 and 1873 the advance was more than double 
that in the interval 1865-69, The whole theory of Mr. Williams rested upon 
the assumption that there was a continuous decease in the rate of increase of the 
population, whereas his own tables showed that this increase was, in the last 
decade (1861-71), 11:786 per cent. compared with 11-197 per cent., that of the 
decade 1851-1861. 

It is further pointed out that the remarks of the Commissioners upon the “ Coal 
Question” proceed from an entire misapprehension of the arguments given in that 
book. No one asserted that the production of coal in Great Britain ever would 
rise to the higher quantities given by the geometric law of increase. The true 
conclusion drawn was, “ that we cannot long maintain our present rate of increase of 
consumption ; that we can never advance to the higher amounts of consumption sup- 
posed. But this only means that the check to our progress must become perceptible 
within a century from the present time.” 

In the year 1872 the price of coal rose in many places to a height two or three 
times its previous highest amount. This rise was in some respects exceptional, but 
was mainly due to the increased demand which, in spite of the enormous price, 
advanced 5 per cent. per annum. ‘The great increase in the number of collieries 
produced by the extraordinary demand, will no doubt render the price more mode- 
rate for some time to come; but the coal famine of the years 1872-73 may be 
regarded as the first twinge of the scarcity which must come, and it has taught us 
that coal has now become the first necessary of life in this kingdom. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 217 


On the Influence of the Sun-spot Period upon the Price of Corn. 
By Prof. W. Srantey Jevons, F.R.S. 


On the prevailing Mode of Preparation for Competitive Examinations. 
By D. Macxintosu. 


On the Value of European Life in India in its Social, Political, and Economic 
Aspects. By F. J. Movat, M.D., F.B.C.S8., formerly Professor of Medicine 
and Medical Jurisprudence in the Medical College of Calcutta, Sc. 


The intention of this paper is to show that the high mortality rates which 
have heretofore prevailed in India among civil and military lives were not neces- 
sarily due to climatic causes or to unavoidable tropical risks, but were largely 
attributable to bad hygienic conditions, imprudence of living, unnecessary or reck- 
less exposure, and similar agencies. All of these were shown to be either removable 
by sanitary measures or to be so much within the personal control of individuals 
as to reduce the inevitable risks to life of residence or service in India to a very 
moderate degree above the chances of prolonged existence in more temperate 
climates. In support of this view carefully prepared tables were produced of the 
deaths and invaliding among the European officers of H.M. British forces serving 
in India from 1861-70 inclusive. In these tables proof was afforded that in India 
diseases of the abdominal organs take the place of the contents of the chest in 
Great Britain as causing mortality, and that phthisis alone in the latter country 
destroyed a larger ratio of persons in the active period of life than cholera, hepatic 
disease, and dysentery combined did of Europeans in India; while from all ordinary 
causes and diseases there was no material difference between the casualties of 
India and those of England. 

The gradual diminution of the death-rate in the English army in India within 
the present century from 69 to 15 per thousand, the reduction of the ratio for 
civil life in the covenanted services in a similar proportion, and the ascertained 
death-rate of carefully selected European railway employs in India, 10 per 1000, 
were all shown in their bearings on this great and important question. 

The conclusions at which Dr. Mouat arrived were, that in carefully selected lives 
of persons of prudent habits, in moderately comfortable circumstances, the risks to 
life in India were so little above those of England as to render it perfectly safe to 
insure those lives at English rates, which rates are known to be largely in excess of 
the estimated and ascertained value of selected lives at home at corresponding ages. 

Dr. Mouat also considered briefly the question of the colonization of India by 
European settlers. This he regarded very much as a question of race; and while 
he doubted the possibility of such colonization of tropical plains by the inhabitants 
of Northern Europe, he was of opinion that on the Steppes of Central Asia and 
the mountain-ranges of Hindostan it would be possible to rear as healthy, vigorous, 
manly, and intelligent a people as in any country in the world. 

As a social problem it was of great importance to determine that health and 
strength could be maintained in India at no undue risk; as a political question 
it had equally important bearings on the large drain upon the manhood of Great 
Britain necessary for the maintenance of our Eastern Empire ; and as an economic 
question it was scarcely secondary in interest, as affording a wide and productive 
field for English capital and enterprise in assisting to develop the vast resources of 
that ereat dependency of England. 


On Legislative Protection to the Birds of Europe. 
By C. O. Groom Narrsr, /.GS., M.A, 


The author said that in 1864 he brought before the Association ten Tables on 
the Food of Birds as a plea for their legislative protection. 

Having published the paper in the form of a small book, he had received 
acknowledgments from members of the Committee in the House of Commons op 
the ei Birds’ Protection Bills that his work had been the text-book of thei. 

1875. 16 


218 REPORT—1875. 


Committee in the matter. He therefore wished to urge legislation in foreign 
countries with a view of preventing the diminution of insectivorous birds, especially 
which wintered in the south, and maintaining strongly the immense advantage of 
protecting birds in the breeding-season as a means of increasing vastly the value of 
agricultural crops, and affirmed that the two years’ experience of good crops in 
England since the passing of the Act of 1872 was a proof of the correctness of his 
statement. With a view of putting this thoroughly to the test, he challenged all 
who were willing to join issue with him in the matter, both farmers, gardeners, 
landholders, sportsmen, and naturalists, to produce facts and be ready to answer 
his statement before the British Association next year. He stated he had had the 
thanks, through their ambassador Count Minster, of the Imperial German Govern- 
ment for his information with reference to legislation in Europe on the matter, and 
was therefore anxious that the benefits of following the example of England might 
be apparent. The author reviewed the European species with reference to their 
economic value, and had in his hand recorded facts for the good of each bird. 


On the Acclimatization of the Silkworm. By Mrs. Buapen Nett. 


Building Societies and the Act of 1874. By Tuomas Francis Peacock. 


Building Societies are of three classes, Permanent, Terminating, and “ Bowkett.” 
Hitherto they have been governed by an Act passed in 1836 (6 and 7 Wm. IV. 
c. 82); but the recent Act (37 and 38 Vic. c. 42) removes several practical difficulties 
in their working. These are (1) :—In the mode of raising capital, the new Act giving 
a limited power to borrow money; (2) in the liability of Members, the new Act 
expressly limiting it to the moneys paid or to the amount secured by mortgage ; (5) 
in joint Membership, the new Act expressly authorizing it ; (4) in payments to repre- 
sentatives of deceased Members, which may now be made up to £50 without ad- 
ministration ; (5) in the security to be given by Officers, which is now required from 
every officer having receipt or charge of money of the Society; (6) in the investment 
of surplus funds, which is now permitied on all the securities usually open to 
Trustees ; (7) in Societies uniting or transferring their engagements, which is now 
authorized and regulated ; (8) in winding up, which is now made easy and inexpensive; 
(9) in the settlement of disputes, which may now be referred either to arbitrators, 
to the County Court, or to the Registrar, by either of whom a case may be stated 
for the supreme court or discovery granted; and (10) in uncertainty of legislation, 
which is now removed by the Statute being a consolidation with amendments of the 
law on the question. The advantages ofiered by the Act are so important that 
Building Societies of all classes should avail themselves of them by becoming in- 
corporated. 


On the Industrial Position of Women as affected by their exclusion 
from the Suffrage. By A. M. Prrestman. 


The industrial resources of a people are best developed when every one exercises 
his faculties fully. ‘ 

In England the tendency is towards this ideal condition: more men of the 
upper ranks are engaged in trade and commerce now than former!y, and fewer men 
in the lower ranks are injuriously overworked, This tendency, however, though 
strongly marked amongst men, is not noticeable amongst women. The duties of 
mere housekeeping are lighter than when brewing, spinning, &c. were done at 
home; whilst those women who have to work for their bread are increasingly 
unable to gain employment, and those who have work are beset year by year with 
new drags and difficu ties. In some callings higher education is required than used 
to be the case, and the educational standard is lower for girls than for boys, so they 
cannot compete fairly. Trade-unions forbid their members to take girls as appren- 
tices, so women cannot become skilled workers. The laws of the country hamper 
and harass women while they leaye men free, so that the industrial value of 
women’s werk has sunk so low that in this city of Bristol women may be found 
making shirts for 24d. each. 

‘The improyement in the industrial value of men’s work has always grown out of 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 219 


certain political conditions. Industrial progress and political freedom are so closely 
united that John Bright spoke at a meeting of trade-unions and trade societies in 
1866 and said :—“ Your hile your obvious duty, a duty from which you cannot 
escape,” is to bring all your organization to bear “on the working out of your 
political redemption.” The homes, the wages, the wealthy unions of enfranchised 
artisans, contrasted with the condition of unenfranchised agricultural labourers, 
seeking charity to fly from their tumble-down cottages and hopeless future here 
for lands across the sea, bear out the wisdom of his words. 

Why should not working women benefit, as working men have done, by the same 
means? It issaid that they do not stand in need of the suffrage because in all ranks 
men and women are so closely connected that the interests of every class of women 
are watched over by some men as if identical with their own. The weakness of 
this assertion is shown by the fact that men make laws for women which men in 
the same position of life reject for themselves. The Factory Act of 1874 was 
pressed upon the consideration of Mr. Mundella by working men. Asa boon for 
working women, many of the factory women were very much against it, for they 
saw that less work meant less food or clothing; some of them in Leeds had an 
interview with the candidates for the representation of the borough, and urged 
their views with cogent reasoning ; they were as courteously received as non-electors 
usually are. But the folly of electors has more weight in Parliament than the 
common sense of the unrepresented. The Factory Act became law, and Parliament 
lent itself to one of the worst mistakes of the first Trade-Unions; for to limit the 
wages of men to one standard and to make a hard and fast line for the length of 
time women shall work, though different in detail, are one in principle. Women’s 
wages have already been reduced in many places where the Act applies; women 
lose by the shilling or sixpence taken off their wages, and the country loses by the 
lesser productiveness of the 392,986 hands employed in the manufacture of textile 
goods. Working women are beginning to be alarmed at the dangers which 
threaten them, and are forming unions for their own protection. At the Trades 
Congress in January last, an excellent letter was read from Mrs. Paterson, the 
Secretary of a League in London; and the National Union of working women sent 
a delegate, to endeavour to dissuade the Congress from pressing for further legisla- 
tive restriction. The Congress strongly condemned such legislation for men, but 
upheld it for women ; they said they were acting entirely in the interests of women: 
and two delegates said women ought to be prevented from working in some 
trades altogether, for the work was not fit for them; and added, they took lower 
wages than men, and brought men’s wages down. A new element was here 
brought into the discussion, but no one took any notice of this ; and with only one 
dissentient (the women’s delegate) it was agreed that the Parliamentary Com- 
mittee should endeavour to obtain an extension of the Factory Act to other trades 
where women are employed. 

Women would not work twelve or fourteen hours a day for a mere pittance if 
they could earn bread more easily, nor follow repulsive callings if lighter trades 
were open to them. It is clear that the interests of working women are not repre- 
sented by the class of men to whom they belong, and that the industrial position 
of women is suffering at their hands. The policy is as short-sighted as it is selfish ; 
for if women have to live at all they must eat; and if they are shut out from indus- 
trial pursuits, they must live on the earnings of others, either on money supplied 
directly by individuals or indirectly by the State. A country must lose in wealth 
if a number of its inhabitants, who could be productive labourers, are made idle by 
force. If women worked for their own bread, they would spend their money again, 
and stimulate other trades. Productive industry is in itself so expansive, 
that no one can determine the bounds which it shall not pass. In England, 
where the employers of labour are ever supplementing the toil of the workman by 
new inventions, new machinery, there must be room for more labourers if the laws 
or the usages of society did not hold them back. The difficulty women find in 
getting work is not because there is none in the country to be done, but because 
they are held in by artificial barriers, within which they crowd and jostle and 
tread one another down in a terrible struggle tolive. If these arbitrary hindrances 
were taken away, the industrial efforts of women would find ample and enriching 
scope ; to do this, to remove these barriers, they must have their due share in the 


220 REPORT—1875. 

unmaking of those laws which now hedge them in on every side. Those whom 
Government can afford to forget must not expect to be fairly dealt with by the 
law. Not working women only but all women suffer. The loss from waste labour 
is not greater than the loss from waste thoughts prevailing up and down the king- 
dom in women’s minds. Incentives to industry that are powerful for men are 
wanting to women. 


On Free Trade in Labour. By D. A. Spacpine. 


Statistics of Free Public Libraries. By Miss Stamp. 


On the Comparative Mortality of Abstainers and Non-Abstainers from 
Alcoholic Liquors. By E. Vivian, M.A. 


From the returns of the United Kingdom Temperance and General Provident 
Institution established on the 3lst December, 1840, exclusively as a Total Absti- 
nence Life Assurance Society, to which a second department, open to the General 
Public, was added in the year 1847, the following statistics were given :— 

I. Pecuniary Results, as shown by the Reversionary Bonus declared on the 
Premiums during successive quinquennial periods :— 


Mean 
Year. Section. Per cent. per cent. Difference. 
1860. Total Abstinence.... 385to86 = 61 20 
£ General’, 7re220 4 Q6ito 59 = A } 
1865. Total Abstinence.... 24t056 = 40 G 
A Generale eee. sete 17t0o52 = 34 
1870, Total Abstinence.... 34to84 = a 25 
PET an VF. tS 20t049 = 34 2 


From this it appeared that the advantage in favour of the Total Abstinence 
Department was, in the five years ending 1860, as 61 to 41; in the period ending 
in 1865 as 40 to 34; and in 1870, as 59 to 34. 

As it might have been objected that the pecuniary results were affected by the 
varying amounts of the claims under the Policies in the several Departments, it 
was considered advisable to calculate the expected and actual deaths; the follow- 
ing were the results :— 


In the Total Absti- In the General 


nence Department. Department. 

= RET Be ITD a +e 

Expected Actual Expected Actual 

Deaths. Deaths. Deaths. Deaths. 
1866-70 549 406 1008 944 
(five years). Difference —143 Difference —64 
1871-74 § 561 390 994 1027 

(four years). ) Difference = Afil Difference Pr 

Totals (nine J 1110 796 2002 1971 
years). Difference —3l4 Difference —3l1 


viz. 25 per cent. below viz. 2 per cent. below 
the average. the average. 

In the last Report of the Institution presented at the Annual Meeting on May 25, 
1875, the Actuary reported the Mortality on Whole Life Policies to have been a: 
follows :—Expected Claims in the Total Abstinence Department 153, for £29,648 ; 
Actual Claims 110, for £24,685. 

In the General Department—Expected Claims 268, for £54,092 ; Actual Claims 
£578, for 28,006, 


On the Science of Capital and Money. By W. Wrsrearru, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 221 


MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 


Address by Witt1am Frovupr, Esq., C.E., M.A., E.RS., President of 
the Section. 


Tur address of the President of a Section would year by year possess an appro- 
priate interest, if it could always consist of an exposition of the progress made during 
the past year in the department of science which the Section embraces, And 
many of the addresses to this and other sections have conformed to this pattern 
with marked success, 

But the adequate preparation of an address shaped in this approved mould 
would require a range of experience and a grasp of thought such as few possess; 
and custom has wisely sanctioned a type of address which, though less appropriate 
to the occasion, need not be either uninteresting or inapposite. And we, in this 
Section, have not to search far for instances in which its President has charmed 
and instructed us by a masterful exposition of some single subject in practical 
science, or by a timely reminder of the improvident manner in which we deal with 
some precious store of natural wealth. 

I must express a hope that it will not be regarded as a conversion of liberty into 
licence, if the subject I have chosen obliges me to introduce a further innovation, 
and to use diagrams and experiments in order to make my meaning clear. 

I propose to treat of certain of the fundamental principles which govera the be- 
haviour of fluid, and this with special reference to the resistance of ships. By the 
term “resistance”? I mean the opposing force which a ship experiences in its pro- 
gress through the water. 

Considering the immense aggregate amount of power expended in the propulsion 
of ships, or, in other words, in overcoming the resistance of ships, I trust you will 
look favourably on an attempt to elucidate the causes of this resistance, It is true 
that improved results in ship-building have been obtained through accumulated 
experience ; but it unfortunately happens that many of the theories by which this 
experience is commonly interpreted are interwoven with fundamental fallacies, 
which, passing for principles, lead to mischievous results when again applied 
beyond the limits of actual experience. 

The resistance experienced by ships is but a branch of the general question of the 
forces which act on a body moving through a fluid, and has within a compara- 
tively recent period been placed in an entirely new light by what is commonly 
called the theory of stream-lines, 

The theory as a whole involves mathematics of the highest order, reaching alike 
beyond my ken and my purpose ; but I believe that, so far as it concerns the resist- 
ance of ships, it can be sufficiently understood without the help of technical mathe- 
matics; and I will endeavour to explain the course which I have myself found 
most conducive to its easy apprehension. 

It is convenient to consider first the case of a completely submerged body moving 
in a straight line with uniform speed through an unlimited ocean of fluid. A fish 
in deep water, a submarine motive torpedo, a sharp-ended sounding-lead while 
descending through the water, if moving at uniform speed, are all examples of the 
case I am dealing with. 

It is a common but erroneous belief that the resistance to its onward motion ex- 
perienced by such a body thus moving, originates in an increase of preeute through- 
out its head end, and a diminution of pressure throughout its tail end. It is thus 
supposed that the entire head end of the body has to keep on exerting pressure to 
drive the fluid out of the way, to force a passage for the body, and that the entire 
tail end has to keep on exerting a kind of suction on the fluid to induce it to close 
in again—that there is, in fact, what is termed plus pressure throughout the head 
end of the body and minus pressure or partial vacuum throughout the tail end. 

This is not so; the resistance to the progress of the body is not due to these 
causes. The theory of stream-lines discloses to us the startling but true propo- 
ecu a submerged body, if moving at a uniform speed through a perfect 

5. 17 


222 REPORT—1875. 


fluid, would encounter no resistance whatever. By a perfect fluid, I mean a fluid 
which is free from viscosity, or quasi-solidity, and in which no friction is caused 
by the sliding of the particles of the fluid past one another, or past the surface of 
the body. 

The Sermenty which I describe as “ quasi-solidity ” must not be confused with 
that which persons have in their minds when they use the term “solid water.” 
When people in this sense speak of water as being “solid,” they refer to the sen- 
sation of solidity experienced on striking the water-surface with the hand, or to 
the reaction encountered by an oar-blade or propeller. What I mean by “ quasi- 
solidity,” is the sort of stiffness which is conspicuous in tar or liquid mud; and this 
property undoubtedly exists in water, though in a very small degree. But the sen- 
sation of solid reaction which is encountered by the hand or the oar-blade is not 
in any way due to this property, but to the iertia of the water: it is in effect this 
inertia which is erroneously termed solidity; and this inertia is possessed by the 

erfect fluid with which we are going to deal, as fully as by water. Nevertheless 
it is true, as I am presently going to show you, that the perfect fluid would offer 
no resistance to asubmerged body moving through it at a steady speed. It will be 
seen that the apparent contradiction in terms which I have just advanced is cleared 
up by the circumstance, that in the one case we are dealing with steady motion, 
and in the other case with the initiation or growth of motion. 

In the case of a completely submerged body in the midst of an ocean of perfect 
fluid, unlimited in every direction, [ need hardly argue that it is immaterial 
whether we consider the body as moving uniformly through the ocean of fluid, or 
the ocean of fluid as moving uniformly past the body. 

The proposition that the motion of a body through a perfect fluid is unresisted, 
or, what is the same thing, that the motion of a perfect fluid past a body has 
no tendency to push it in the direction in which the fluid is flowing, is a novel 
one to many persons; and to such it must seem extremely startling. It arises from 
a general principle of fluid motion, which I shall presently put before you in detail— 
namely, that to cause a perfect fluid to change its condition of flow in any manner 
whatever, and ultimately to return to its original condition of flow, does not require, 
nay, does not admit of, the expenditure of any power, whether the fluid be caused 
to flow in a curved path, as it must do in order to get round a stationary body 
which stands in its way, or to flow with altered speed, as it must do in order 
to get through the local contraction of channel which the presence of the sta- 
tionary body practically creates. Power, it may indeed be said, is first expended, and 
force exerted, to communicate certain motions to the fluid; but that same power 
will ultimately be given back, and the force counterbalanced, when the fluid yields 
= the motion which has been communicated to it, and returns to its original con- 

ition. 

I shall commence by illustrating the action on a small scale by fluid flowing 
through variously shaped —~ and I must premise that in the greater part of 
what I shall have to say, I shall not require to take account of absolute hydro- 
static pressures. The flow of water through pipes is uninfluenced by the absolute 
pressure of the water. 

I will begin with a very simple case, which I will treat in some detail, and 
which will serve to show the nature of the argument I am about to submit to you. 

Suppose a rigid pipe of uniform sectional area, of the form shown in fig. 1 
(Plate IX.), something like the form of the water-line of a vessel. 

The portions AB, BC, C D, D E are supposed to be equal in length, and of 
the same curvature, the pipe terminating at E in exactly the same straight line in 
which it commenced at A, so that its figure is perfectly symmetric on either side 
of C, the middle point of its length. 

Let us now assume that the pipe has a stream of perfect fluid running through 
it from A towards HE, and that the pipe is free to move bodily endways. 

It is not unnatural to assume at first sight that the tendency of the fluid would 
be to push the pipe forward, in virtue of the opposing surfaces offered by the bends 
in it—that both the divergence between A and © from the original line at A, and 
the return between C and E to that line at E, would place parts of the interior 
surface of the pipe in some manner in opposition to the stream or flow, and that the 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 223 


flow thus obstructed would drive the pipe forward; but if we endeavour to build 
-up these supposed causes in detail we find the reasoning to be illusory. 

I will now trace the results which can be established by correct reasoning. 

The surface being assumed to be smooth, the fluid, being a perfect fluid, can 
exercise no drag by friction or otherwise on the side of the pipe in the direction 
of its length, and in fact can exercise no force on the side of the pipe, except 
at right angles to it. Now the fluid flowing round the curve from A to B will, no 
doubt, have to be deflected from its course, and, by what is commonly known as 
centrifugal action, will press against the outer side of the curve, and this with a 
determinable force. The magnitude and direction of this force at each portion of 
the curve of the pipe between A and B are represented by the small arrows marked 
ff; and the aggregate of these forces between A and B is represented by the larger 
arrow marked G. In the same way the forces acting on the parts B C, C D, and DE 
are indicated by the arrows H, I, and J; and as the conditions under which the fluid 
passes along each of the successive parts of the pipe are precisely alike, it follows 
that the four forces are exactly equal, and, as shown by the arrows in the diagram, 
they exactly neutralize one another in virtue of their respective directions; and 
therefore the whole pipe from A to E, considered as a rigid single structure, is 
— to no disturbing force by reason of the fluid running through it. 

hough this conclusion that the pipe is not pushed endways may appear on 
reflection so obvious as to have scarcely needed alitiondta proof, 1 hope that it has 
not seemed needless, even though tedious, to follow somewhat in detail the forces 
that act, and which are, under the assumed conditions, the only forces that act, on 
a symmetrical pipe such as I have supposed. 

Having shown that in the case of this special symmetrically curved pipe the 
flow of a perfect fluid through it does not tend to push it endways, I will now pro- 
ceed to show that this is also the case whatever may be the outline of the pipe, 
provided that its beginning and end are in the same straight line. 

Assume a pipe bent, and its ends joined so as to form a complete circular ring, and 
the fluid within it running with velocity round the circle. This fluid, by centvi- 
fugal force, exercises a uniform outward pressure on every part of the uniform 
curve ; and this is the only force the fluid can exert. This pressure tends to tear 
the ring asunder, and causes a uniform longitudinal tension on.each part of the 
ring, in the same manner as the pressure within a cylindrical boiler makes a uni- 
form tension on the shell of the boiler. 

Now, in the case of fluid running round within rings of various diameter, just 
as in the case of railway trains running round curves of various diameter, if the 
velocity along the curve remain the same, the outward pressure on each part of the 
circumference is less, in proportion as the diameter becomes greater; but the cir- 
cumferential tension of the pipe is in direct proportion to the pressure and to the 
diameter; and since the pressure has been shown to be inversely as the diameter, 
the tension for a given velocity will be the same, whatever be the diameter, 

Thus, if we take a ring of doubled diameter, if the velocity is unchanged, the 
outward pressure per lineal inch will be halved; but this halved pressure, acting 
with the doubled diameter, will give the same circumferential tension. 

Now this longitudinal tension is the same at every part of the ring; and if we cut 
out a piece of the ring, and supply the longitudinal tension at the ends of the piece, 
by attaching two straight pipes to it tangentially (see Plate IX. fig. 2), and if we 
maintain the flow of the fluid through it, the curved portion of the pipe will be under 
just the same strains as when it formed part of the complete ring. It will be subject 
merely to a longitudinal tension; and if the pipe thus formed be flexible, and fas- 
tened at the ends, the flow of fluid through it will not tend to disturb it in any 
way. Whatever be the diameter of the ring out of which the piece is assumed to be 

- eut, and whatever be the length of the segment cut out of it, we have seen that the 
longitudinal tension will be the same if the fluid be moving at the same velocity ; 
so that, if we piece together any number of such bends of any lengths and any 
curvatures to form a pipe of any shape, such pipe, if flexible and fastened at the 
ends. (see fig. 3), will not be disturbed by the flow of fluid through it; and the 
equilibrium of each portion and of the whole of the combined pipe will be satisfied 
by a uniform tension along it. 

17 


224 REPORT—1875. ~ 


Further, if the two ends of the pipe are in the same straight line, pointing away 
from one another (see Plate IX. fie. 4), since the tensions on the ends of the pipe 
are equal and opposite, the flow of the fluid through it does not tend to push it 
bodily endways*. 

This is the point which it was my object to prove; but in the course of this 
proof there has incidentally appeared the further proposition, that a flexible, tor- 
tuous pipe, if fastened at the ends, will not tend to be disturbed in any way by the 
flow of fluid through it. This proposition may to some persons seem at first sight to 
be so paradoxical as to cast some doubt on the validity of the reasonin which has 
been used; but the proposition is nevertheless true, as can be proved by a closely 
analogous experiment, as follows :— 

Imagine the ends of the flexible tortuous pipe to be joined so as to form a closed 
figure (see fig. 5), there will then be no feet for the imaginary fastenings at the 
ends, since each end will supply the fastening to the other. Then substitute for 
the fluid flowing round the circuit of the pipe, a flexible chain, running in the same 
path. In this case the centrifugal forces of the chain running in its curved path are 
similar to those of the fluid flowing in the pipe; and the longitudinal tension of the 
chain represents in every relevant particular the longitudinal tension on the pipe. 

As a simple form of this experiment, if a chain be set rotating at a very high 
velocity over a pulley in the manner shown in fig. 6, it will be seen that the cen- 
trifugal forces do not tend to disturb the path of the running chain; and indeed, 
the velocity being extremely great, the forces, in fact, tend to preserve the path of 
the chain in opposition to any disturbing cause. On the other hand, if by sufli- 
cient force we disturb it from its path, it tends to retain the new figure which has 
been thus imposed upon it (see fig. 7). 

The apparatus with which I am about to verify this proposition has been lent to 
me by Sir W. Thomson. It is one which he has used on many occasions for the 
same purpose ; and I must add that the proposition in his hands has formed the 
basis of conclusions incomparably deeper and more important than those to which 
I am now directing your attention. 

You observe, the chain when at rest hangs, in the ordinary catenary form, from 
a large pulley with a very wide-mouthed groove and mounted in a frame which is 
secured to the ceiling. By a simple arrangement of multiplying bands the pulley 
is driven at a high speed, carrying the chain round by the frictional adhesion of 
its upper semi-circumference, When at its highest speed the chain travels about 
40 per second. 

The idea that the chain when thus put in motion will be disturbed by its centri- 
fugal force from the shape it holds while at rest, must point to one of two con- 
clusions ; either (1) the chain will tend to open out into a complete circle, or (2) 
it will on the contrary tend to stretch itself at its lower bend to a curvature of 
infinite sharpness. 

But you observe that no tendency to either change of form appears. On the 
contrary, the chain, instead of taking spontaneously any new form in virtue of its 
centrifugal force, has plainly assumed a condition under which it is with difficulty 
disturbed, alike from its existiny form, or from any other which I communicate to 
it by violently striking it. Such blows locally indent it almost as they would bend 
a bar of lead. 

In spite, however, of this quasi-rigidity which its velocity has imparted to it, it 
does, if left to itself, slowly assume, as you perceive, a curious little contortion, 
both as it approaches and as it recedes from the lower bend of the catenary ; and it 
is both interesting and instructive to trace the cause of the deformation. 

T have already explained that the speed of the chain subjects it throughout to 
longitudinal tension. Speaking quantitatively, the tension is equal to the weight 


2 
of a length of the chain twice the height due to the velocity. This is = ; and this, 
g 


as the speed is about 40 feet per second, Se feet, or with this chain about 


32 
14 lbs. 
* Seo Appendix, Note A, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 225 


Now in travelling through the lower bend of the catenary, the chain passes from 
being nearly straight, to being sharply curved and immediately straightened again ; 
and this change of form involves a continued pivoting of link within link, the fric- 
tion being called into action by the tension which presses the surfaces together. 
Each link thus in succession resists this pivoting with a definite force, and the 
resistance, in eflect, converts what appears to be a perfectly flexible combination 
into one possessing a tangible degree of stiffness ; and the oblique attitude assumed 
by the chain as it approaches the bend, and the slight back turn which it assumes 
as it emerges from the bend, are alike consequences of this factitious stiffness. 

For, in virtue of gravity, the running chain, like the chain at rest, tends always 
to maintain the original catenary ; and in virtue of its speed of rotation, it seeks to 
maintain (not preferentially the catenary, but) whatever form it for the moment 

ossesses. Hence its departure from the true catenary was, as you saw, gradual. 

ut when the figure of equilibrium is once attained, the persistency of form im- 
ere by velocity, serves to maintain this figure as indifferently as any other. 

ence the figure is that in which equilibrium subsists between the force of gravity 
seeking to restore the catenary, and the factitious stiffness resisting the necessity 
of bending and unbending. 

The slowness with which the form is assumed, and its steady persistency when 
once assumed, alike bear witness to the truth of the proposition which it is the 
object of the experiment to verify. 

The stream of fiuid in the tortuous flexible pipe would behave in a strictly 
analogous manner. 

It might at first sight appear that I have now the materials for the proof of my 
chief proposition, the assertion of the unresisted progress of a submerged body; for 
such a body might be assumed to be surrounded-by a system of imaginary pipes, as 
shown in Plate IX. fig. 8; and each of these pipes being in equilibrium endways, that 
is to say, the flow of fluid through it not tending in the aggregate to move it endways, 
neither, it might be said, would the flow of fluid tend to move the submerged body 
endways. But thisreasoning would not be sound. The pipes we have hitherto been 
considering have been of uniform sectional area throughout their length, an assump- 
tion which has been necessary to the treatment pursued, as the velocity has in each 
case been assumed to be uniform throughout the pipe. The section of the pipe may 
haye been square, circular, trapezoidal, or any other form; but the area of the secticn 
has been assumed to be the same throughout the length of the pipe. 

But pipes of uniform sectional area do not truly represent the flow of a fluid past 
a submerged body. I shall presently ask you to consider the fluid as flowing past 
the body through a system of imaginary pipes; but to render the assumption ad- 
missible, the sides of the imaginary pipes must not be so placed as to interfere with 
the established course of the fluid, whatever that may be; in other words, if, for 
the sale of illustrating the behaviour of the fluid, we assume that it is divided into 
streams or filaments flowing through imaginary pipes, we must accept such a form 
for those imaginary pipes that their sides exactly follow the path of the adjacent 
particles of fluid. 

Now such a rule may, and probably will, require the imaginary pipes to be of 
varying sectional area throughout their length. Therefore, before we can apply 
the analogy of the flow of fluid through pipes to the flow of a fluid past a sub= 
merged body, it is necessary to consider the behaviour of fluid in pipes of varying 
sectional area. 

It is, I think, a very common but erroneous impression, that a fluid in a pipe 
exercises, in the case of its meeting a contraction (see fig. 9), an excess of pressure 
against the entire converging surface which it meets, and that, conversely, as it 
enters an enlargement (see fig. 10) a relief of pressure is experienced by the entire 
diverging surface of the pipe. Further it is commonly assumed that, when passing 
through a contraction (see fig. 11), there is in the narrow neck an excess of pres- 
sure due to the squeezing together of the fluid at that point. 

These impressions are in no respect correct ; the pressure at the smallest part of 
the pipe is, in fact, less than that at any other point, and vice versd. 

Tf a fluid be flowing along a pipe which has a contraction in it (see fig. 12), 
the forward velocity of the fluid at B must be greater than that at A, in the pro- 


226 REPORT—1875. 


portion in which the sectional area of the pipe at B is less than that at A; and 
therefore while passing from A to B the forward velocity of the fluid is being 
increased. This increase of velocity implies the existence of a force acting in the 
direction of the motion; that is to say, each particle which is receiving an increase 
of forward velocity must have a greater fluid pressure behind it than in front of it; 
for no other condition will cause that increase of forward velocity. Hence a par- 
ticle of fluid, at each stage of its progress along the tapering contraction, is passing 
from a region of higher pressure to a region of lower pressure, so that there must be 
a greater pressure in the larger part of the pipe than in the smaller, and a diminution 
of pressure at each point corresponding with the diminution of sectional area; and 
this difference of pressure must be such as to supply the force necessary to establish 
the additional forward velocity required at each point of the passage of the fluid 
through the contraction. Consequently, differences of pressure at different points 
in the pipe depend simply upon the velocities at those points, or, in other words, 
on the relative sectional areas of the pipe at those points*. 

It is simple to apply the same line of reasoning to the converse case of an enlarge- 
ment. Here the velocity of the particles is being reduced through precisely the 
same series of changes, but in an opposite order. The fluid in the larger part of 
the pipe moves more slowly than that in the smaller, so that, as it advances into the 
enlargement, its forward velocity is being checked; and this check implies the ex- 
istence of a force acting in a direction opposite to the motion of the fluid, and each 
particle being thus retarded must therefore have a greater fluid pressure in front of it 
than behind it; thus a particle of fluid at each stage ofits progress along a tapering 
enlargement of a pipe is passing from a region of lower pressure to a region of higher 
pressure. As is well known, the force required to produce a given change of velocity 
is the same, whether the change be an increase or a decrease. Hence, in the case of 
an enlargement of a pipe, as in the case of a contraction, the changes of velocity 
can be satisfied only by changes of pressure, and the law for such change of pres- 
sure will be the same, mutatis mutandis. 

In a pipe in which there is a contraction and a subsequent enlargement to the 
same diameter as before (see fig. 11), since the differences of pressure at different 
points depend on the differences of sectional area at those points, by a law 
which is exactly the same in an enlarging as in a contracting pipe, any points 
which haye the same sectional area will have the same pressures, the pressures 
at the larger areas being larger, and those at the smaller areas smaller. 

Precisely the same result will follow in the case of an enlargement followed by 
a contraction (see Plate IX. fig, 13)t. 

This proposition can be illustrated by experiments performed with water. 

Figs. 14, 15, show certain pipes, the one a contraction followed by an enlarge- 
ment, and the other an enlargement followed by a contraction. At certain points 
in each pipe, vertical gauge-glasses are connected, the water-levels in which 
severally indicate the pressures in the pipe at the points of attachment. 

In fig. 14 the sectional areas at E and P are equal to one another. Those at C 
and K are likewise equal to one another, but are smaller than those at E and P. 
The area at I is the smallest of all. Now, if the water were a perfect fluid, the 
pressures P Q and E D would be equal, and would be greater than C H and KN. 
CH and KN would also be equal to one another, and would be themselves greater 
than I J. 


The results shown in fig. 15 are similar in kind, equal pressures corresponding to 
equal areas. 

As water is not a perfect fluid, some of the pressure at each successive point is 
lost in friction; and this growing defect in pressure is indicated in the successive 
gauge-glasses in the manner shown in figs. 16, 17. 

As the pressure of the perfect fluid in the pipe at any point depends upon the 


* See Appendix, Note B. 

+ In a perfect fluid, we may say, in a sense, that the vis viva of each particle remains 
constant. If the particle is stationary, the vis viva is entirely represented by the pressure ; 
if it be under no pressure, the vis viva is entirely represented by the velocity; if it be 


moving at some intermediate velocity, the vis viva is partly represented by the pressure 
and partly by the velocity. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 227 


sectional area at that point, it follows that the amounts of the pressures are inde~ 
pendent of the distance, as measured along the pipe, in which the area of the pipe 
alters; so that if in the pipe shown in Plate IX. fig. 18 the areas at all the points 
marked A are equal, if also the areas at all the points marked B are equal, and so 
also with those at C and D, then the pressures at all the points A will be the same, 
the pressures at all the points B will be the same, and so with those at C and D. 
Since, then, the pressure at each point depends on the sectional area at that 
oint and on that only, it is easy to see that the variations in pressure due to the 
ow, are not such as can cause any total endways force on the pipe, provided its 
sectional area at each end is the same. 

Take the pipe shown in fig. 19. The conical portion of pipe AB presents 
the same area of surface effective for endways pressure as does the conical 
portion HI, only in opposite directions. They are both subject to the same pres- 
sure, being that appropriate to their effective mean diameter J. Consequently 
the endways pressures on these portions are equal and opposite and neutralize one 
- another. Precisely in the same way it may be seen that the endways pressures 
on BC, C D, D E exactly counteract those on GH, FG, E F; and in precisely the 
same way it may be shown that in any combination whatever of enlargements and 
contractions, provided the sectional area and direction of the pipe at the two ends 
are the same, the total endways effect impressed on the pipe by the fluid flowing 
through it must be nz. 

In the experiment I am about to show you, the several propositions which I 
have been elucidating will be seen to be verified step by step, if due allowance be 
made for the effect of friction. 

A cistern (see Plate X. fig. 20),in which a definite head of water is maintained, 
discharges itself through a continuous series of pipes, which, in their local changes 
of diameter, exhibit the several characteristic features which have been under con~ 
sideration. 

From a to ¢ at the outlet end, we have a contraction followed by an enlargement ; 
from e to g the diameter is uniform; from / to / we have an enlargement followed 
by a contraction. At the various critical features are fitted gauge-glasses such as 
have been described, so that the level at which the water stands in each indicates 
the pressure in the pipe at the point of attachment. 

The series of pipes is laid out on aninclination which represents the mean resist- 
ance due to friction, or the “head” lost by friction, between the cistern and the 
outlet—in other words, the hydraulic mean gradient. 

The mean diameter of the contracted part between a and ¢ has been so deter- 
mined by well-known hydraulic rules, that when it is compared with the adjoining 
parallel pipe, the hydraulic gradient shall be the same in each. 

You observe that while the levels at which the water stands in the several gauge- 
glasses, correspond from end to end with the gradient from the head in the cistern 
to the head at the outlet, when examined in detail they verify throughout the 
propositions I have been establishing. 

For if for the moment we regard the gradient as virtually level, the depressions 
of the several columns below it due to varying velocity of flow should be inversely 
as the fourth powers of the several diameters; but the local frictional gradient 
should be is inversely as the fifth power of the diameter, and thus steepest where 
the diameter is smallest. And, broadly speaking, the results plainly conform to 
these rules. Asa quantitative verification I point out that by careful calculation 
the mean diameter, and therefore the gradient from a’ to c', is the same as that for 
the parallel pipe from e’ to g'; and the result agrees exactly with the calculation. 

In dealing with pipes of varying sectional area I have hitherto treated only of 
the modifications caused in the forward motion of the particles of fluid; for I have 
limited the argument to cases where the alteration in sectional area of the pipe is 
so gradual that, practically, the only alteration in the motion of the particles is 
that in their forward velocity ; but I have previously shown that tortuosity in a pipe 
of uniform diameter does not introduce endways pressure, provided the initial and 
terminal directions are the same; and it is easy to see that an elongated system of 
such gradually tapered pipes as we have been considering may be also tortuous 


228 REPORT—1875. 


without introducing endways pressure. Now tortuosity of flow is but another 
word for sideways deviation of flow. 

This leads us up to the case of more sudden contractions or enlargements in 
pipes, where the particles next the sides of the pipes have to follow their surfaces 
and must therefore be moved rapidly sideways in their course. 

We will, for simplicity, consider the case of a contraction (see Plate XI. fig. 21), 
and one in which the pipe resumes the same diameter beyond the contraction. 

The particles along the central line pursue a straight course, and are subject 
only to the changes of pressure necessary to induce the changes of velocity. 

To consider the behaviour of the other particles, let us assume that we insert 
a number of perfectly thin partitions (see fig. 22), which we lay in sach a manner that 
they exactly follow the paths of the particles of fluid at each point, so as not in 
any way to affect their motion; these partitions are quite imaginary, and merely 
assist us in looking upon the entire fluid in question as divided into a number of 
small streams. These streams are generally curvilinear, and vary in sectional 
area; and at the point beyond the contraction where the pipe resumes its former 
sectional area, we shall naturally find these minor streams occupying the same 
sectional area as before, and moving with the same velocity as before. 

Now each of these small streams is exactly represented by a stream of fluid 
flowing within a pipe, that pipe being curvilinear and gradually varying in sectional 
area, and its two ends being of the same sectional area and in the same straight 
line. We have seen that in the case of such a stream the sum total of all 
the forces due to its motion has no resultant longitudinally; and this will be 
equally the case, whether the envelope of the stream be an actual pipe or the 
mutual pressure of adjacent streams ; this envelope will not be moved endways by 
the flow of the fluid. What is true of each stream is true of all put together; and 
thus it follows that the whole body of fluid which these separate streams constitute, 
does not exert any endways force; or, in other words, there will be equilibrium of 
fluid forces throughout the passage of the fluid through a local contraction in a 
Pipe, such as we have been considering. The same line of argument evidently 
holds good in the case of an enlargement, where the pipe beyond the enlargement 
regains the same diameter as before. 

Tn illustration of the conclusions which have been thus far establisked, if we 
had a perfect fluid with which to try the experiment, we might exhibit a very 
instructive and striking result. 

Assume a stream of perfect fluid flowing through a pipe of very large diameter, A B 
C, with a contraction in it, at B, as shown in fig. 25, and that the equal pressures at 
A and C on either side of the contraction are indicated by the head of fluid in pres- 
sure-gauges A D, C E—the pressure at B, which will be less, being represented by 
the height BF. Now, the condition of the pipe at A will be just the same if we sup- 
pose the pipe supplied from a large cistern G, as shown in fig. 24; and the appro- 
gens pressure at A will be maintained if the fluid stands in the cistern G at a 

eight H, equal to the head A D in the pressure-gauge. So, again, the condition of 
the pipe at é will be the same if the pipe discharges into a cistern, I ; and the appro- 

riate pressure at C will be maintained, and can only be maintained, if the water 
in the cistern stands at a height J, equal to the head C KE in the pressure-gauge, 
which is, in fact, the same level as H in the cistern G; so that if we once esta- 
blish the motion through the pipe A B C, and maintain the supply of fluid, we 
shall have the fluid running rapidly, and continuing to run with unabated 
rapidity, from one cistern into another, though both are at the same head. 

If we take such a condition of things that the pressure at B is zero, or, in other 
words, if the velocity at Bis that due to the head AD, then we might cut the 
pipe at B and separate the two cisterns, and we should find the fluid issuing at 
B in a jet, and re-entering the pipe again at K, and rising as before in the cistern 
I to the same level with a perpetual flow. 

The es here suggested is, if rightly understood, only a specialized 
instance of the properties of what in the previous experiment was termed a con- 
traction followed by an enlargement; it is, in fact, as if in that experiment the 
diameter of the contracted part had been so far reduced that the pressure within it 
would have sunk apparently to zero—that is to say, in reality, to the pressure of 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 229 


the atmosphere; in that case, of course, the pipe which enclosed that portion of 
the stream would haye become simply an inert envelope, and might have been 
removed without affecting the dynamic properties of the stream. Theoretically, 
indeed, with the frictionless fluid the contraction of jet might be carried so far as 
not merely to obliterate all positive pressure, but to produce a negative pressure 
equal to that of the atmosphere. For, in fact, the conditions thus brought into 
operation would be in eflect identical with those which would exist if the experiment 
were performed iz vacuo, and the head in cistern and at the outlet were both in- 
creased by 34 feet; but the theoretical possibility thus indicated is greatly curtailed 
by friction ; and the illustrative experiment I am about to exhibit deals only with 
the case in which the pressure at the contraction is reduced apparently to zero, or 
in reality, as I have said, to that of the atmosphere. 

In the apparatus as here arranged (see Plate XI. fig. 25), consisting of the dis- 
charging and the recipient cistern, with the intervening jet-orifice and recipient- 
orifice, the overflow of the recipient cistern is at 18 inches above the centre of the 
orifices. 

As I continue to fill the discharge cistern, you observe the jet shoots across the 
open space between the orifices, and the water-level continues to rise in the recipient 
cistern ; and so long as the head in the former is maintained at a moderate height 
above that in the latter, the whole of the stream enters the recipient-orifice, and 
there is no waste except the small sprinkling which is occasioned by inexactness of 
aim, and by the want of exact circularity in the orifices. 

When the head in the recipient has reached the overflow, and thus remains at a 
steady height of 18 inches stows the orifices, the virtually complete reception is 
insured by maintaining a head of 203 inches in the discharging cistern, or an excess 
of head of 23 inches on the discharge side ; and this excess, in eflect, represents the 
energy wasted in friction. 

You observe that as I diminish the supply of water and allow the excess of head 
in the discharger to hecome reduced, a steadily increasing waste becomes established 
between the orifices; and it is interesting to trace exactly the manner in which the 
friction operates to produce this result. 

If the conoids of discharge and reception are tolerably short as they are here, it 
is the outer annuli or envelopes of the stream which are in the first instance affected, 
that is to say retarded, by friction; and the escape or waste between the orifices 
implies that this surface-retardation has reduced the velocity of those envelopes 
below that due to the head in the recipient; thus an annular counter-current is 
able to establish itself, and in fact constitutes a counter discharge from the recipient. 

Asthe head in the discharger is more and more reduced, the diminishing velocity 
of the central inflow into the recipient offers less and less frictional resistance to the 
annular counter-current which envelops it, and the waste continually increases ; 
it is probable, however, that to the last the velocity of the central zones of the jet 
remains equal to that due to the head in the discharger; and hence you will observe 
that unless this is reduced below the level of the overflow, the head in the recipient 
is fully maintained to that level, though the whole quantity discharged is wasted 
between the orifices. 

When the supply is altogether cut off, both cisterns simultaneously empty them- 
selves, the two Jets meeting between the orifices and becoming spread into a beau- 
tiful plane disk or film of water at right angles to the line of discharge ; but you will 
notice that from some inequality in the commencement of the action, and to some 
extent probably from a quasi-instability in the equilibrium of the double discharge, 
one of the jets will presently for a moment get the better of the other and drive it 
back so as almost to arrest its flow, and thus for the moment arrest also the waste of 
head on that side; but the momentary excess of head thus occasioned, almost in- 
stantly asserts its superiority, producing a jet of superior force, and thus driving 
back for a moment the opponent by which it had just before been mastered. Thus 
a curious oscillation of discharge ensues, which is to a large extent a true dynamic 
phenomenon somewhat analogous to that which becomes established in an inverted 
siphon partly filled with water, if for a moment the head is increased in one of the 
legs; the reaction which in the siphon is furnished by the other leg, beyond the bend, 
is, in the case before you, furnished by the dynamic reaction of the jets; but the cir- 


230 REPORT—1875. 


cumstances here involve an instability which does not exist there, so that the small 
initial disturbance presently magnifies itself into one of considerably greater range. 

This curious corollary phenomenon of the alternated retardation of discharge, 
though not strictly relevant to the main object of the experiment, is nevertheless 
highly interesting in itself, and tends to enlarge our apprehension of some of the 
characteristic features of fluid dynamics. 

In this treatment of the propositions concerning the flow of fluid through pipes, 
I have at length laid the necessary foundation for the treatment of the case of the 
flow of an infinite ocean past a submerged body. Ihave shown these propositions 
to be based on principles which are undeniable, and the conclusions from which, 
when they seemed in any way startling or paradoxical, you have seen confirmed 
by actual experiment. 

I have dealt with the case of a single stream of uniform sectional area (and there- 
fore of uniform velocity of flow) enclosed in a pipe of any path whatever; I have 
dealt with the case of a single stream of very gradually varying sectional area and 
velocity of flow; and I have dealt with the case of a combination (or faggot, as it 
were) of such streams, each to some extent curved and to some extent varying in 
sectional area, together composing the whole content of a pipe or passage having 
enlargements or contractions in its course; and in all these cases [ showed that, 
provided the streams or pipe-contents finally return to their original path and their 
original velocity of flow, they administer no total endways force to the pipe or 
channel which causes their deviations. 

{ am now going to deal with a similar combination of such streams, which, 
when taken together, similarly constitute an infinitely extended ocean, flowin 
steadily past a stationary submerged body; and here also I shall show that the 
combination of curved streams surrounding the body, which together constitute the 
ocean flowing past it, return finally to their original direction and velocity, and 
cannot administer to the body any endways force. 

The argument in this case is, in reality, precisely the same as that in the case of 
the contractions and enlargements in pipes which I have already dealt with ; for, 
in fact, the flow of the ocean past the stationary submerged body is only a more 
general case of the flow of fluid through a contracted pipe; but, though the cases 
are really the same, there is considerable difference in their appearance ; and there- 
fore I will proceed to point out how the arguments I have already used apply 
equally to this case. 

Every particle of the fluid composing the ocean that passes the body must 
undoubtedly follow some path or other, though we may not be able to find out 
what path; and every particle so passing is preceded and followed by a continuous 
stream of particles all following the same path, whatever that may be. We 
may, then, in imagination, divide the ocean into streams of any size and of any 
cross-section we please, provided they fit into one another, so as to occupy the 
whole space, and provided the boundaries which separate the streams exactly 
follow the natural courses of the particles. 

I before suggested a similar conception of the constitution of the ocean flowing 
past the stationary body, and there pointed out that the streams forming this 
system must not only be curved in order to get out of the way of the body, but 
might each require to have to some extent a different sectional area, and therefore a 
different velocity of flow at different points of their course. If we trace the streams 
to a sufficient distance ahead of the body, we shall there find the ocean flowing 
steadily on, completely undisturbed by, and as we may say ignorant of, the exist- 
ence of the body which it will ultimately have to pass. There, all the streams must 
have the same direction, the same velocity of flow, and the same pressure. Again, 
if we pursue their course backwards to a sufficient distance behind the body, we 
shall find them all again flowing in their original direction ; they will also have 
all resumed their original velocity ; for otherwise, since the velocity of the ocean 
as a whole cannot have changed, we should have a number of parallel streams 
having different velocities and therefore different pressures side by side with one 
another, which is an impossible state of things*. 

* Tn an imperfect fluid it és possible to have parallel streams having different velocities 
side by side with one another, because, in an imperfect fluid, change of velocity may hayo 
been communicated by friction, and therefore does not imply difference of pressure. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 231 


Although, in order to get past the body, these streams follow some courses 
or other, various both in direction and velocity, into which courses they settle 
themselves in virtue of the various reactions which they exert upon one another 
and upon the surface of the body, yet ultimately, and through the operation of 
the same causes, they settle themselves into their original direction and original 
velocity. Now the sole cause of the original departure of each and all of these 
streams from, and their ultimate return to, their original direction and velocity, is the 
submerged stationary body ; consequently the body must receive the sum total of the 
forces necessary to thus affect them. Conversely this sum total of force is the only 
force which the passage of the fluid is capable of administering to the body. But 
we know that to cause a single stream, and therefore also to cause any combination 
or system of streams, to follow any courses changing at various points both in direc- 
tion and velocity, requires the application of forces the sum total of which in a lon- 
gitudinal direction is zero, provided that the end of each stream has the same direc- 
tion and velocity as its beginning, Therefore the sum total of forces (in other words 
the only force) brought to bear upon the body by the motion of the fluid in the 
direction of its flow is zero*. 

Lhaye now shown how it is that an infinite ocean of perfect fluid flowing past 
a stationary body cannot administer to it any endways force, whatever be the nature 
of the consequent deviations of the streams of fluid. The question, what will be 
in any given case the precise configuration of those deviations, is irrelevant to the 
proof I have given of this proposition. Nevertheless it is interesting to now some- 
thing, at least, of the general character which these deviations, or ‘stream-lines,” 
assume in simple cases; therefore I have exhibited some in Plate XI. figs. 26, 27, 
which are drawn according to the method explained by the late Professor Rankine, 

The longitudinal lines represent paths along which particles flow; they may 
therefore be regarded as boundaries of the streams into which we imagined the 
ocean to be divided. 

We see that, as the streams approach the body, their first act is to broaden, and 
consequently to lose velocity, and therefore, as we know, to increase in quasi- 
hydrostatic pressure. Presently they again begin to narrow, and therefore quicken, 
and diminish in pressure, until they pass the middle of the body, by which time 
they have become narrower than in their original undisturbed condition, and con- 
sequently have a greater velocity and less pressure than the undisturbed fluid. 
After passing the middle they broaden again until they become broader than in 
their original condition, and therefore have less velocity and greater pressure than 
the undisturbed fluid. Finally, as they recede from the body they narrow again, 
until they ultimately resume their original dimension, velocity, and pressure. 

Thus, taking the pressure of the surrounding undisturbed fluid as a standard, 
we have an excess of pressure at both the head and stern ends of the body, and a 
defect of pressure along the middle. 

We proved just now that, taken as a whole, the fluid pressures could exert no 
endways push upon the stationary body. We now see something of the way in 
which the separate pressures act, and that they do not, as seems at first sight 
natural to expect, tend all in the direction in which the fluid is flowing; on the 
contrary, pressure is opposed to pressure, and suction to suction, and the forces 
neutralize one another and come to nothing; and thus it is that an ocean of per- 
fect fluid flowing at steady speed past a stationary submerged body does not tend to 
push it in the direction of the flow. This being so, a submerged body travelling 
at steady speed through a stationary ocean of perfect fluid will experience no 
resistance. 

We will now consider what will be the result of substituting an ocean of water 
for the ocean of perfect fiuid. 

The difference between the behaviour of water and that of the theoretically 
perfect fluid is twofold, as follows :— 

First. The particles of water, unlike those of a perfect fluid, exert a drag or 
frictional resistance upon the surface of the body as they glide along it. This 
action is commonly termed surface-friction, or skin-friction; and it is so well 
‘mown a cause of resistance that I need not say any thing further on this point, 

. * See Appendix, Note C, 


232 REPORT—1875. 


except this, that it constitutes almost the whole of the resistance experienced by 
bodies of tolerably easy shape travelling under water at any reasonable speed. 

Secondly. The mutual frictional resistance experienced by the particles of water 
in moving past one another, combined with the almost imperceptible degree of vis- 
cosity which water possesses, somewhat hinders the necessary stream-line motions, 
alters their nice adjustment of pressures and velocities, and thus defeats the balance 
of stream-line forces and induces resistance. This action, however, isimperceptible 
in forms of fairly easy shape. On the other hand, angular or very blunt features 
entail considerable resistance from this cause, because the stream-line distortions 
are in such cases abrupt, and degenerate into eddies, thus causing great differences 
of velocity between adjacent particles of water, and great consequent friction be- 
tween them. ‘ Dead water,” in the wake of a ship with a full run, is an instance 
of this detrimental action. 

So far we have dealt with submerged bodies only; we will now take the case of 
a ship travelling at the surface of a perfect fluid. But first, let us suppose the 
surface to be covered with a sheet of rigid ice, and the ship cut off level with 
her water-line, so as to travel beneath the ice, floating, however, exactly in the same 
position as before (see Plate XI. fiz. 28). As the ship travels along, the stream-line 
motions will be the same as for a submerged body, of which the ship may be regarded 
as the lower half; and the ship will move without resistance, except that due to the 
two causes I have just spoken of, namely surface-friction and mutual friction of the 

articles. The stream-line motions being the same in character as those we have 

een considering, we shall still have at each end an excess of pressure which will tend 
to force up the sheet of ice, and along the side we shall have defect of pressure 
tending to suck down the sheet of ice. If, now, we remove the ice, the fluid will 
obviously rise in level at each end, so that excess of hydrostatic head may afford 
the necessary reaction against the excess of pressure; and the fluid will sink by 
the sides, so that defect of hydrostatic head may afford reaction against the defect 
of pressure ; and the same actions and reactions will happen in the imperfect fluid, 
water, making only the same allowance for the modification of velocities and pres- 
sures by friction as were shown to be necessary in treating of wholly submerged 
bodies. 

The hills and valleys thus formed in the water are, in a sense, waves; and, though 
originating in the stream-line forces of the body, yet when originated, they come 
under the dominion of the ordinary laws of wave-motion, and, to a large extent, 
behave as independent waves. 

The consequences which result from this necessity are most intricate; but the 
final upshot of all the different actions which tale place is plainly this—that 
the ship in its passage along the surface of the water has to be continually sup- 
plying the waste of an attendant system of waves, which, from the nature of their con- 
stitution as independent waves, are continually diffusing and transmitting them- 
selves into the surrounding water, or, where they form what is called broken water, 
crumbling away into froth. Now waves represent energy, or work done; and 
therefore all the energy represented by the waves wasted from the system attend- 
ing the ship, is so much work done by the propellers or tow-ropes which are urging 
the ship. So much wave-energy wasted per mile of travel, is so much work done 
per mile; and so much work done per mile is so much resistance, and this cause of 
resistance at least would operate with full effect even in a perfect fluid. 

The actions involved in this cause of resistance, which is sometimes termed “ Wave- 
Genesis,” are so complicated that no extensive theoretical treatment of the subject can 
be usefully attempted. All that can be known about the subject must, for the present 
I believe, be sought by direct experiment. 

Having thus briefly described the several elements of a ship’s resistance, I will 
proceed to draw your attention more particularly to certain resulting conside- 
rations of practical importance. Do not, however, suppose that I shall venture on 
dictating to shipbuilders what sort of ships they ought to build: I have so little 
experience of the practical requirements of ship-owners, that it would be presump- 
tuous in me to do so; and I could not venture to condemn any feature in a ship as 
a mistake, when, for all I know, it may be justified by some practical object of 
which I am ignorant. Tor these reasons, if I imply that some particular element of 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 233 


form is better than some other, it will be with the simple object of illustrating the 
application of principles, by following which it would be possible to design a ship of 
given displacement to go at given speed, with minimum resistance, in smooth water— 
in fact, to make the best performance in a “ measured mile ” trial. 

I have pointed out that the causes of resistance to the motion of a ship through 
the water are :-—first, surface-friction ; secondly, mutual friction of the particles 
of water (and this is only practically felt when there are features sufficiently abrupt 
to cause eddies); and thirdly, wave-genesis. I have also shown that these are the 
only causes of resistance. I have shown that a submerged body, such as a fish, or 
torpedo, travelling in a perfect fluid, would experience no resistance at all; that in 
water it experiences practically no resistance but that due to surface-friction and 
the action of eddies; and that a ship at the surface experiences no resistance in 
addition to that due to these two causes, except that due to the waves she makes. 
I have done my best to make this clear; but there is an idea that there exists a 
form of resistance, a something expressed by the term “direct head-resistance,” 
which is independent of the above-mentioned causes. This idea is so largely 
prevalent, of such long standing, and at first sight so plausible, that I am anxious 
not to leave any misunderstanding on the point. 

Lest, then, I should not have made my meaning sufficiently clear, I say distinctly, 
that the notion of head-resistance, in any ordinary sense of the word, or the 
notion of any opposing force due to the inertia of the water on the area of the 
ship’s way, a force acting upon and measured by the area of midship section, is, 
from beginning to end, an entire delusion. No such force acts at all, or can act, 
as throughout the greater part of this address I have been endeavouring to explain. 
No doubt, if two ships are of precisely similar design, the area of midship section 
may be used as a measure of the resistance, because it is a measure of the size of 
the ship; and if the ships were similar in every respect, so also would the length of 
the bowsprit, or the height of the mast, be a measure of resistance, and for just the 
same reason. But it is an utter mistake to suppose that any part of a ship’s resist- 
ance is a direct effect of the inertia of the water which has to be displaced from 
the area of the ship’s way. Indirectly the inertia causes resistance to a ship at the 
surface, because the pressures due to it make waves. But to a submerged body, 
or to the submerged portion of a ship travelling beneath rigid ice, no resis- 
tance whatever will be caused by the inertia of the water which is pushed aside. 
And this means that, if we compare two such submerged bodies, or two such sub- 
merged portions of ships travelling beneath the ice, as long as they are both of suffi- 
ciently easy shape not to cause eddies, the one which will make the least resistance 
is the one which has the least skin surface, though it have twice or thrice the area 
of midship section of the other. 

The resistance of a ship, then, practically consists of three items—namely, surface- 
friction, eddy-resistance, and wave-resistance. 

Of these the first-named is, at least in the case of large ships, much the largest 
item. In the ‘Greyhound,’ a bluff ship of 1100 tons, only 170 feet long, and 
having a thick stem and sternposts, thus making considerable eddy-resistance, and 
at 10 kmots visibly making large waves, the surface-friction was 58 per cent. of the 
whole resistance at that speed; and there can be no doubt that with the long iron 
ships now built, it must be a far greater proportion than that. Moreover the ‘Grey- 
hound’ was a coppered ship; and most of the work of our iron ships has to be done 
when they are rather foul, which necessarily increases the surface-friction item. 

The second item of resistance, namely the formation of eddies, is, I believe, imper- 
ceptible in ships as finely formed as most modern iron steamships. Thick square- 
shaped stems and sternposts are the most fruitful source of this kind of resistance. 

he third item is wave-resistance. On this point, as we have seen, the stream- 
line theory rather suggests tendencies, than supplies quantitative results, because, 
though it indicates the nature of the forces in which the waves originate, the laws 
of such wave-combinations are so very intricate, that they do not enable us to pre- 
dict what waves will actually be formed under any given conditions. 

There are, however, some rules, I will not call them ana which have to 
some extent been confirmed by experiment. At a speed dependent on her length 
and form, a ship makes a very large wavye-resistance. At a speed not much 


234 REPORT—1875. 


lower than this, the wave-resistance is considerably less, and at low speeds it is 
insignificant. Lengthening the entrance and run of a ship tends to decrease the 
wave-resistance; and it is better to have no parallel middle body, but to devote the 
entire length of the ship to the entrance and run, though in this case it be neces- 
sary to increase the midship section in order to get the same displacement in a 
given length. 

With a ship thus formed, with fair water-lines from end to end, the speed at 
which wavye-resistance is accumulating most rapidly, is the speed of an ocean wave 
the length of which, from crest to crest, is about that of the ship from end to end. 

I have said we may practically dismiss the item of eddy-resistance. The problem, 
then, to be solved in designing a ship of any given size, to go at a given speed with 
the least resistance, is to so form and proportion the ship that at the given speed 
the two main causes of resistance, namely surface-friction and wave-resistance, 
when added together, may be a minimum. 

In order to reduce wave-resistance we should make the ship very long. On the 
other hand, to reduce the surface-friction we should make her comparatively short, 
so as to diminish the surface of wetted skin. Thus, as commonly happens in such 
problems, we are endeavouring to reconcile conflicting methods of improvement ; 
and to work out the problem in any given case, we require to know actual quan- 
tities. We have suff cient general data from which the skin-resistance can be de- 
termined by simple calculation; but the data for determining wave-resistance must 
be obtained by direct experiments upon different forms to ascertain its value for 
each form. Such experiments should be. directed to determine the wave-resistance 
of all varieties of water-line, cross section, and proportion of length, breadth, and 
depth, so as to give the comparative results of different forms as well as the absolute 
result for each. 

An exhaustive series of such experiments could not be tried with full-sized 
ships; but I trust that the experiments I am now carrying out with models, for the 
Admiralty, are gradually accumulating the datarequired on this branch of the subject. 

I wish in conclusion to insist again, with the greatest urgency, on the hopeless 
futility of any attempt to theorize on goodness of form in ships, except under the 
strong and entirely new light which the doctrine of stream-lines throws on it. 

It is, T repeat, a simple fact that the whole framework of thought by which the 
search for improved fore is commonly directed, consists of ideas which, if the 
doctrine of stream-lines is true, are absolutely delusive and misleading. And real 
improvements are not seldom attributed to the guidance of those very ideas which 
I am characterizing as delusive, while in reality they are the fruit of painstaking, 
but incorrectly rationalized, experience. 

I am but insisting on views which the highest mathematicians of the day have 
established irrefutably ; and my work has been to appreciate and adapt these views 
when presented to me*. 

No one is more alive than myself to the plausibility of the unsound views against 
which I am contending; but it is for the very reason that they are so plausible that 
it is necessary to protest against them so earnestly; and I hope that in protesting 
thus, I shall not be regarded as dogmatic. 

In truth, it is a protest of scepticism, not of dogmatism ; for I do not profess to 
direct any one how to find his way straight to the form of least resistance. For 
the present we can but feel our way cautiously towards it by careful trials, using 
only the improved ideas which the stream-line theory supplies, as safeguards against 
attributing this or that result to irrelevant or, rather, non-existing causes. 


* T cannot pretend to frame a list of the many eminent mathematicians who originated 
or perfected the stream-line theory; but I must name, frem amongst them, Professor 
Rankine, Sir William Thomson, and Professor Stokes, in order to express my personal 
indebtedness to them for information and explanations, to which chiefly (however imper- 
fectly utilized) I owe such elementary knowledge of the subject as alone I possess. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 235 


APPENDIX. 


Note A, 


The proposition, that the flow of fluid through a tortuous pipe having its ends 
‘in the same straight line does not tend to push the pipe endways, can be treated in 
several ways, of which only one is given in the accompanying address; but it may 
be interesting to some readers to trace some of the other ways of viewing the 
question. } 

First let us take the case of a right-angled bend in a pipe (that is to say, where 
the direction of a pipe is altered through a right angle by a curve of greater or less 
radius; a bend of this sort is shown in Plate XII. fig. 29), and assume that the 
fluid in it at A is flowing from A towards C. I propose at present to deal only 
with those forces vr tendencies which act more or less powerfully in the direction 
of the original motion of the fluid, namely along the line AC. 

I must here remind you that 1 am dealing with this matter entirely indepen- 
dently of hydrostatic pressure. Perhaps to some it will be difficult to disassociate 
the idea of hydrostatic pressure from a fluid in a pipe. This difficulty might be 
got over by assuming that the pipe is immersed in a fluid of the same density 
and head as the fluid within it. There will thus be hydrostatic equilibrium 
between the fluid within and without the pipe, the only difference being that 
the fluid inside the pipe is assumed to be in rapid motion, and thus subjects the 
pipe to any stresses properly incidental to that motion of the fluid within it. 

The sole work that has to be done in the present case is that of deflecting the 
current of fluid to a course at right angles to its original course AC; and, regard- 
ing the forces employed in this work as resolvable throughout into two sets of com- 

onents, the one at right angles to the line AC, the other parallel to it, it is of the 
atter alone that account is to be taken. Manifestly the sum of these latter compo- 
nents is measured by the circumstance that it is precisely sufficient to entirely de- 
stroy the forward momentum of the fluid that flows along the pipe at A towards 
the bend. This force is administered to the fluid by the curved portion of the 
pipe at the bend DEF; and, as the pipe is assumed to be rigid, the work of 
arresting the forward velocity of the fluid throws a forward stress on the pipe in the 
line AC 

Let us now assume that to the right-angled bend, AB, we attach rigidly a second 
right-aneled bend, BG, as shown in fig. 80, in such a manner that the termina- 
tion of this second bend at G is parallel to the commencement of the first bend 
at A. Here I will again, for the present, deal only with the forces in a direction 
parallel to the line AC, 

The fluid at B has no velocity in the direction of the line AC, and at G it has 
a velocity in that direction equal to the velocity which it had at A. To give it 
this velocity in a forward direction (I mean forward in its original direction 
of motion)—to establish this forward momentum, requires the application of a 
force in the direction HG; and this force is administered to the fluid by the 
curved portion of the pipe at the bend IJK; and as the pipe is assumed to be 
rigid, the duty of establishing the forward Sue, of the fluid, throws a rear- 
ward stress on the pipe in the direction GH. Now as the forward momentum 
given to the fluid between B and G, in the line GH, is exactly the same as the 
momentum destroyed between A and B in the line AC, it follows that the rear- 
~ward stress thrown on the pipe at the bend IJK is exactly equal to the forward 
stress thrown on the pipe at the bend DEF. Hence it will be seen that the 
forces acting on the rigid pipe AG, treated as a whole, balance each other, so far as 
relates to the forces in the line AO, the original line of motion of the fluid; that is 
to say, the forward stress acting on the pipe at the bend DEF is balanced by the 
equal rearward stress acting on the pipe at the bend IJK. These two of the forces 
acting on the pipe are shown by the arrows L and M, which, it must be remem- 
bered, are the only forces which act in a line parallel to AC. 

It will have been seen that the measure of these forces is the amount of forward 


236 REPORT—1875. 


momentum of the fluid which is destroyed or created; and from this it will be 
inferred that the forces will be the same, no matter what is the radius of the curve 
of the pipe, inasmuch as the curvature of the pipe does not affect the amount of 
the forward momentum of the fluid that has to be destroyed or replaced. 

Let us next take the case of a bend in a pipe that is not a right angle, as shown 
in Plate XII. fig. 31; and here, as before, I only propose to deal with the forces 
that come into play in the direction A C of the original motion of the fluid. Now 
in this case the forward motion of the fluid is not, as in the instance of the right- 
angled bend, entirely destroyed in its progress from A to B; only a portion of the 
motion is checked, and a portion of the momentum destroyed ; and the magnitude 
of the force required to destroy the momentum is in proportion to the amount 
by which the forward velocity of the fluid in the line AC is destroyed. This 
force is administered to the fluid by the curved portion of the pipe at the bend 
DEF, and, as in the former case, exercises by reaction on the pipe a forward 
stress, which will be in proportion to the extent by which the forward motion of 
the fluid is checked by the divergence of the pipe from its original line. 

Suppose to this bend we attach rigidly another bend BG of the same angle, 
as Shown in fig. 32, so that the termination of this second bend at G is parallel to 
the commencement of the first bend at A. Here, in the portion of the pipe BG, 
that part of the forward velocity which was taken away has to be again given to 
the fluid; this requires force, which is administered to the fluid by the curved part 
IJK, of the pipe. There is thus thrown on the pipe a rearward stress represented 
by M. The force required in the bend between B and G to reinstate completely 
the forward velocity, is evidently the same in amount as the force required in the 
bend between A and B to destroy in part the forward velocity. 

It follows, therefore, that the two stresses on the ‘pipe, represented by the 
arrows L and M, which indicate the forces acting on the pipe, are equal and 
opposite to one another; and these are the only forces acting on the rigid pip in 
the line A C of the original motion of the fluid at A. It follows, therefore, that in 
the case of two right-angled bends rigidly attached, or in the case of two con- 
nected equal-angled bends of any other angle, the stresses brought on the pipe by 
the flow of the fluid will not tend to move the pipe bodily endways. 

It will be seen also by this reasoning that the forces we have referred to do not 
depend on the curvature of the pipes, but are simply measured by the amount of 
the forward momentum of the fluid and the extent to which that momentum is 
modified in the total amount of deflection of the course of the fluid at the bend, 
or, in other words, by the angle of the bend. And from this reasoning it becomes 
apparent that by whatever bends or combinations of bends we divert the course of 
a stream of fluid in the pipe, provided the combination be such as to restore the 
stream to its original direction, the aggregate of the forces in one direction required 
to destroy forward momentum are necessarily balanced by equal forces in the 
opposite direction required to reinstate the former momentum. 

It will be useful to consider more in detail the action of all the forces acting on a 
fluid in a bend of the pipe; and I will return to the case of a single right-angled 
bend, as shown in fig. 29, I before spoke merely of the forces acting parallel to 
the line AC, and said that the forward momentum of the fluid in that line had to be 
destroyed in its passage round the bend DEF, and that this must be effected by a 
force acting parallel to AC, which would by its reaction throw a forward stress on 
the pipe, tending to force it in the direction AC. But similarly velocity has to be 
given to the fluid in the direction NB; and to do this a force must be administered 
to the fluid which will cause a reaction on the pipe in the direction BN ; and as the 
momentum to be established in the direction NB, has to be equal to that in the di- 
rection AC, which had to be destroyed, it follows that the forces of reaction upon the 
pipe in the directions AC and BN are equal. These forces can be met in two ways, 
either by securing the bent part of the pipe DEF so that it will in each part resist the 
stresses that come on it, or by letting the forces be resisted hy the tensional streneth 
of the straight parts of the pipe AD and BF, operating in the direction of their 
length ; and in this case we see that the tension on AD must be equal to the force 
acting along AC, and the tension on BF must be equal to the equal force acting 
along BN, so that in fact the forces brought into play by the right-angled bend 


Plate 1X 


Fig. 13. 


ung tor fyction 


ALE ANIL 


Lune 


Coo — 


i 


Fig.17. 


a 


Fig. 7 


Be 


B 


1s 


pb 
Fig 
z 

E 
650 


Fig 


B 


s 
\ ' 
é L 
Plate X. 
,. 
¢ 
\ 
: 4 
Pea 
a Wy 
ae ae 
4 ; 
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‘ 4 
4 
ics 
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v ; ‘ 4 5 


tet) OP mig ste 
eae eee ens, See feat le) 
‘ 4 i) 


| nu 
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"| Aik 


AAR, SS, TS A ST TT BT Oe eee a 


Issurned. case 


t 


travelling urder 


a Sheet 


of 


Tin 


Stream 


subru 


Unfirate 


Stream 


figures are 


Line 


6, The shaded 
ged bodves, the depth 
as the Stream 
ries we Tivo Dirrver 
re easy to urnderstou 
of Revolution 


f which 


here 


than 


SSS 
the horizontal sectic of the 
must be supposed to be 
hewn are what are called 
only, Such Stream Lines 
those which 


accompany 


hich would be-put on pipe AD by wa 
yled berd 


uired to establish momentum 
at bend inline QP 

ce acting OTY pipe 

Ds with the tensions of 
pe=GCorGB ; 

.& = the tenstorv of pipe whan the 


Plate Xll. 


Plate XL 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 237 


produce a longitudinal tension on the pipe at either end of the bend equal to the 
force required to destroy the forward momentum of the fluid. 

Proceeding to the case of the non-right-angled bend, as shown in fig. 81—in 
this case, as we have seen, a portion only of the forward momentum of the fluid in 
the line AC has to be destroyed, also a certain amount of sideways momentum has 
to be created in a direction which we may consider parallel to the line QP; and 
the composition of the remaining forward momentum in the line AC with the 
created sideways momentum in the line QP, results in the progress of the fluid along 
the path FB; this partial destruction of forward momentum and establishment of 
some sideways momentum are essential to the onward progress of the fluid along FB. 
The bend DEF will be subject to the reaction of the forces necessary to produce 

these changes; and either the bend may be locally secured, or the stress upon it 
may be met, as in the case of the right-angled bend we have just been considering, 
by a tensional drag on the pipe at either end of the bend. There is, however, 
this difference between the cases, that the force required to establish sideways 
momentum parallel to QP cannot be directly met by the reaction of tension along 
the line BF of the second part of the pipe; but this force may be met by the 
obliquely acting tension of the pipe BE combined with additional tension along 
the pipe AD. It is well known that in the case of a given force, such as that we 
are supposing parallel to PQ, resisted by two obliquely placed forces such as the 
tension along the lines DA and FB, the nearer the lines DA and FB are to one 
straight line, the greater must be the tension along those lines to balance a given 
force acting on the line PQ. Now the less the line FB diverges from the line AC, 
the less will be the sideways momentum parallel to QP that has to be imparted 
to the fluid; but at the same time and to precisely the same extent will the pro- 
ortionate tension put upon the limbs DA and FB of the pipe be aggravated by 
the greater obliquity of their action. The sideways pull is greatest when the bend 
is a right angle ; and then it amounts to a force that will take up or give out the 
entire momentum of the fluid, and it is supplied directly by the tension of the 
limb of the pipe at FB, If the bend is made less than a right angle, the less the 
bend is made, the less is the sideways pull, but the greater by the same degree is 
the disadvantage of the angle at which the tension on the pipe resists the pull; 
and it results from this that in the case of a bend other than a right angle, the ten- 
sion on the pipe is the same as in the case of a right-angled bend. A geometrical 
roof of this is given in fig. 33. Itis evident that the radius of curvature of tha bend 
oes not enter into this consideration, and that the forces acting are not affected by 
the rate of curvature of the pipe, the simple measure of the forces being the increase 
or decrease in the momentum of the fluid in each direction. It results from this that 
if a fluid be flowing along a pipe with a bend in it, no matter what may be the angle of 
the bend or the radius of its curvature, the reactions necessary to deflect the path of the 
fluid will be met by a tensional resistance along the pipe; and this tension is equal to 
the force that would be required to entirely destroy the momentum of the fluid. 

If we now assume any number of bends, of any angle or curvature, to be con- 
nected together (see Plate IX. fig. 3), the equilibrium of each bend is satisfied by a 
longitudinal tension which is in every case the same; and this tension is therefore 
uniform throughout the pipe; for the tension at any intermediate point in a bend is 
clearly the same as at the ends of the bend, as we may suppose the bend to be divided 
at that point into two bends, and there joined together by an infinitely short piece 
of straight pipe. 

If then the tortuous pipe I have above referred to has its ends at A and B parallel 
to one another, as shown in fig. 4, it is clear that the tensional forces at its ends 
balance one another, and the pipe, as a whole, does not tend to move endways. 


Norte B. 


The law regulating these changes of peanze due to changes of velocity can be 
best understood by considering the case of a stream of perfect fluid flowing from a gra- 
dually tapeerd pipe or nozzle paces horizontally and connected with the bottom of 
a cistern, as shown in Plate XII. fig. 34. Let us suppose that at the points B and 
C the sectional areas of the pipe are severally twice and four times that at the point 
of exit A. 


1875. 18 


238 REPORT—1875. 


At the point of exit A the fluid is under no pressure whatever, since there 
is no reacting force to maintain any pressure; each particle of fluid in the issuing 
jet is rushing on on its own account, neither giving nor receiving pressure from its 
neighbours. We know, however, what force it has taken to give the velocity 
which the fluid has at the point of issue A, and we measure this force by the 
pressure, or head of fluid, lost. In the case we are considering, this head is 
represented by the height of the fluid in the cistern, or by the height AD. 

Within the cistern, at the point E, on the same level as A the point of issue—at 
this point E within the cistern, we have the pressure due to the head of fluid equal 
to hy, but we have no velocity, at any rate the velocity is so small as to be in- 
appreciable; and at the point of issue A we have no pressure at all, but we have 
what is termed the “ velocity due to the head.” : 

Let us suppose that at the points A, B, CO, and E, gauge-glasses or stand-pipes 
are attached so that the fluid in each may rise to a height corresponding with the 
pressure within the pipe or nozzle at the point of attachment. 

The gauge-glass attached at A will show no pressure, thus indicating that the 
entire head AD has been expended in producing the velocity at the point A. 

At the point B, as the sectional area is twice, the velocity is one half that at A; 
Now the head required to produce velocity varies as the square of the velocity to 
be produced ; in other words, to produce half the velocity requires one quarter of 
the head ; thus of the whole head AD available, one quarter only, or GD, has been 
absorbed in developing the velocity at B, and the remainder of the pst which 
will be represented by the head BG, will be sensible at the point B, and will be 
exhibited in the gauge-glass attached at that point. 

Again, as the pipe at C is four times the area that it is at A, it follows that, of the 
whole head AD, one sixteenth part only, or HD, has been absorbed in developing 
the velocity at C, and the remainder of the pressure, which will be represented 
by the head CH, will be sensible at the point O, and will be exhibited in the 
gauge-class attached at that point. 

In the case I have chosen for illustration the small end, A, of the nozzle, is open 
and discharging freely, and the pressure at that point is therefore md. But the 
absolute differences of pressure at each point of the pipe or nozzle will be 
precisely the same (as long as the same quantity of fluid is flowing through it 
per second), however great be the absolute pressures throughout. 

Thus, suppose that from the end of the nozzle at A a pipe of the same diameter, 
and of uniform diameter throughout its length, is curved upwards so that the end 
of it, I, is two feet higher than A, as shown in Plate XII. fie. 35, if the level of the 
cistern is also raised two feet, namely to the level marked J, instead of D, we shall 
have the same delivery of fluid as before; and the differences between the pres 
sures at each point will be the’same as before. 

If we add 50 feet instead of 2 feet to the head in the cistern; and raise 1 to 50 
feet, instead of 2 feet above the nozzle, the differences of head or pressure will 
still be the same, the head at A being 50 feet, that at B being BG-+-50 feet, that 
at C, CH-++50 feet, and that at I (the cistern-level) ED-+50 feet. 

To put the case into actual figures, suppose the sectional area at A to be 1 square 
inch; that at B, 2 square inches; and that at C, 4 square inches ; and suppose thatthe 
fluid is passing through the nozzle at the rate of one ninth of a cubic foot per second ; 
we shall have a velocity at A of 16 feet per second—to generate which would 
require a difference of pressure between E and A equivalent to 4 feet of vertical 
head. The velocity at B will be 8 feet per second, which would require a difference 
between E and B equivalent to 1 foot of head. That at C will be 4 feet per 
second, and will require a difference of pressure equivalent to 3 inches of head. If 
the pressure at A be zero, the pressures at B, C, and E will be 8 feet, 3 feet 9 inches, 
and 4 feet respectively. If the pressure at A be 1 foot, the pressures at B, C, and 
E will be 4 feet, 4 feet 9 inches, and 5 feet respectively ; and if the pressure at A 
be 1000 feet, the pressures at B, C, and E will be 1003 feet, 1008 feet 9 inches, and 
1004 feet respectively, always supposing the quantity of fluid passing per second to 
be the same. If the quantity be different, the absolute differences of pressure will be 
different, but will be relatively the same. If, for instance, the quantity flowing 
per second be doubled, the velocity at each point will be doubled, and the differences 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 239 


of penne quadrupled ; so that if the pe at A were again 1000 feet, those at 
B, C, and E would be 1012, 1015, and 1016 feet respectively. 

To sum up—the differences of hydrostatic pressure at diflerent points vary as the 
differences oF the squares of the velocities at those points. 


Nore C, 


Here again the argument given in the text suggests certain other lines of argument 
which some persons may feel interested in following out. 

Suppose each and every one of the streams into which we have subdivided the 
ocean to be enclosed in an imaginary rigid pipe made exactly to fit it throughout, 
the skin of each pipe having no thickness whatever. The innermost skin of the 
innermost layer of pipes (I mean that layer which isin contact with the side of the 
body), the innermost skin, I say, of this layer is practically neither more nor less 
than the skin or surface of the body. The other parts of the skins of this layer, 
and all the skins of all the other pipes, simply separate fluid from fluid, which fluid, 
ex i Nae would be flowing exactly as it does flow if the skins of the pipes were 
not there ; so that, in fact, if the skins were perforated, the fluid would nowhere tend 
to flow through the holes. Under these circumstances there clearly cannot be any 
force brought to bear in any direction by the flow of the fluid, on any of the skins 
of any of the pipes except the innermost skin of the innermost layer. Now, 
remembering that we are dealing with a perfect fluid which causes no surface- 
friction, we know that the fluid flowing through this system of pipes administers 
no total endways force to it. But it produces, as we have just seen, no force what- 
eyer upon any of the skins which separate fluid from fluid; consequently, if these 
are removed altogether, the force administered to the remainder of the system, 
will be the same as is administered to the whole system—namely, no total endways 
force whatever. But what is the remainder of the system? Simply the surface 
of the body, which is formed, as I have already said, by the innermost skins of the 
innermost layer of pipes. Therefore no total endways force is administered to the 
surface of the body by the flow of the fluid. 

Lastly, let us recur for an instant to the case of fluid flowing through the single 
flexible pipe. Here it was proved that the flow of the fluid through it, if it was 
anchored at the two ends, did not tend to displace any part of it, because the centri- 
fugal forces, produced by the flow of the fluid, and which must act exactly at right 
angles, or normally, as it is called, to the line of pipe at each point, are exactly counter- 
balanced by a uniform tension throughout the length of the pipe. If the flexible pipe 
has variations in its diameter, the differences of quasi-hydrostatic head appropriate to 
those variations are also normal to the surfaces of the pipe, being simply bursting-pres- 
sures. If, however, these normal forces were directly counterbalanced by equal and 
opposite and normal external forces or supports, it is obvious that this tension 
would be entirely relieved. Now, if we suppose the system of pipes which we have 
several times already imagined to surround the submerged body, to be flexible pipes, 
(instead of rigid pipes, as we have before imagined them), the counterbalancing, 
or normal, external forces which exactly relieve the tension are supplied to each 

ipe by its neighbour, except in the case of the innermost skin of the innermost 
leer of pipes, since this innermost skin has no neighbour. In this instance the 
counterbalancing, normal, external forces are supplied by the rigidity of the surface 
of the body. Now we Imow that, since the tensional forces produced by the flow 
of fluid through a flexible pipe, whether of uniform or varying sectional area, have 
no sum total of endways force, the counterbalancing forces which exactly relieve 
this tension must also have no total endways force; and since the counterbalancing 
forces acting throughout the whole system have thus no sum total of endways force, 
it can be proved, as before in the case of the similar system of rigid pipes, that if we 
remove the whole of the skins or sides of pipes, which separate fluid from fluid and 
which are all therefore necessarily in ap equilibrium, the forces acting on the 
remainder, namely on those skins which are in contact with the surface of the body, 
forces which therefore may be considered as acting simply upon the body, must also 
haye no endways sum total. 


18* 


240 REPORT—1875. 


On the Drainage of the City and County of Bristol. By Fruvrrtcx Asuunap, 
M. Inst. C.E., Engineer and Surveyor to the Santary Authority. 


The borough of Bristol extends over an area of 4687 acres, or nearly 8 square 
miles, containing a population at thelast Census in 1871 of 182,524, with an estimated 
population of 196,186 in 1875, and about 120 miles of streets and roads. The 
rateable value in 1875 was £739,045. Number of houses in 1871, 27,536. 

About the year 1803, the Bristol Dock Company was formed for the purpose of 
floating portions of the rivers Avon and Frome under the direction of Mr. William 
Jessop, C.E., and on April 30, 1809, the works were set in operation. From that 
date down to 1825 frequent complaints were made of the offensive state of the 
Frome part of the Harbour, and the Dock Company constructed the Culvert 
Jmown as Mylnes Culvert in addition to the Bread-Street Culvert previously con- 
structed. By means of these culverts a large quantity of sewage was removed 
from the floating harbour, and discharged into the tidal river. 

These culverts, with the existing sewers in the old city and the new sewers 
constructed by the late Surveyor to the Commissioners, Mr. John Armstrong, 
Assoc.Inst.C.E., making a length of about 41 miles, completed the drainage 
of the old city at the time of the adoption of “The Public Health Act” in 1851, 
at which time the outlying districts of Clifton, Westbury, St. Philip and Jacob, 
the District Parishes, and Bedminster were placed under one government, viz. the 
Corporation of the City and County of Bristol, acting as the Local Board of Health, 
since which time the management and control of the sewers of the whole district 
has been entrusted to a Committee of the Council elected annually. 

One of the first acts of this Committee was to ascertain the state of the drainage 
of the whole borough with a view of improving the same; and it was decided to 
proceed with the drainage gradually and in districts, as the best and cheapest 
manner, this course being almost a necessity in consequence of the peculiarly 
isolated position of parts of the borough, by reason of the rivers Avon and Frome 
(floating harbour, locks, tidal basins, and other works) naturally dividing the whole 
borough into districts—the levels and dimensions of the sewers being so designed 
and arranged as to form one continuous scheme, to be eventually united so as to 
discharge the sewage of the whole borough at two points, one on each side of the 
river, for deodorization or for continuing the same to the mouth of the river Avon 
to be hereafter determined; and for drainage purposes the borough has been 
divided into six districts, viz. Ist, Chfton High Pood ; 2nd, Bedminster; 3rd, 
Clifton Low Level; 4th, Saint Philip's; 5th, The Frome Intercepting; 6th, The 
Avon Intercepting. 

lst. Clifton High-Level District.—Clifton has been divided into two districts, 
viz. the High- and the Low-Level districts; and the first undertaken was the High- 
Level district. It includes the whole of the higher parts of Clifton, and parts of 
Westbury and Cotham, and is drained by means of a main sewer commencing in 
Hampton Road, passing under White Ladies Road, along Alma Road under the 
College grounds, and the Clifton Down Road, passing down the new zigzag to the 
river Avon. Main branch sewers are also constructed along the several main roads 
of the district. 

Qnd. Bedminster District.—The next district undertaken was part of the parish 
of Bedminster, and situate on the south side of the river Avon, which is drained 
by the main sewer commencing in Hast Street, passing into and along Dean 
Lane, under Nelson Terrace and Coronation Road to the tidal river, main branch 
sewers being constructed along the several principal streets of the district; also 
a separate sewer, called Parsons-Street sewer, was constructed for a portion of 
this district, passing along Parsons Street under the main road to Bedminster 
Down, along Duckmoor to the tidal river. 

8rd. Clifton Low-Level District—The main sewer of this district may be called 
an intercepting sewer, as it passes in nearly a parallel line with the floating 
harbour and the river Avon ; it is also constructed sufficiently large to receive the 
drainage from a portion of the Frome district to be hereafter described. 

- It commences in Hotwell Road, near the bottom of Jacobs Wells Road, and 
continues along Hotwell Road in front of Dowry Parade, St. Vincent’s Parade, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 241 


thence underneath the rocks in front of Point House to the outlet of the High- 
Leyel sewer district. 

4th. Saint Philip’s District—This district is situate on the east side of the 
borough, and is bounded on the north by the river Frome, on the west and south 
by the floating harbour, and on the east by the boundary of the borough. This 
district was partially drained by the Bread-Street culvert already described ; but a 
new sewer has been constructed, commencing at Baptist Mills, and continuing 
along the south side of the river Frome, so as to intercept all drains discharging 
into the said river as far as Haberfield Street, up which it passes and_ continues 
along Captain Carey’s Lane, and underneath Old Market Street, John Street, 
St. Philip’s Plain, Bread Street, into and along Cheese Lane and Avon Street 
to the Feeder, under which it passes and continues along the Feeder Road to the 
tidal river. 

5th. Frome Intercepting Sewer District.—This district lies on the north side of 
the river Frome, which river formerly received the drainage of the district. 

This district has been divided into separate areas, and is now drained by means 
of two main sewers, one for the higher ground, and the other for the lower level. 

-The first named commences at the boundary of the borough in Stokes Croft Road, 
at which point it receives the drainage of Horfield Parish; passing down Stokes 
Croft Road it continues along Jamaica Street, in front of the Infirmary, along 
Upper Maudlin Street into Trenchard Street, passing the bottom of Lodge Street, 
into Frogmore Street to the bottom of Park Street, continuing along College 
Street, passing the back of the gas-works at Canons Marsh, and discharges into 
the Low-Level district of Clifton, before described, and the tidal river. 

The Low-Level main sewer of this district commences at Baptist Mills on the 
north side of the river Frome, and passes under Ashley Road and under the new 
road leading into Newfoundland Lane, continuing along Newfoundland Lane, Milk 
Street, Clarke Street, and Rosemary Street into Broadmead, passing under the river 
Frome into Nelson Street, and formerly discharged into Mylne’s culvert and the 
tidal river, but now discharges into the Prince-Street sewer hereafter described. 

These sewers with main branch sewers up Ashley Hill complete the drainage of 
this district. 

6th. The Avon Intercepting Sewer District.—This is the last remaining district, 
and is bounded on the north side by the floating harbour, and on the east by the St. 
Philip’s district. It comprises nearly the whole of the old city, which, as before 
stated, was fairly drained by the late Commissioners; and the existing sewers 
have been made available by constructing new sewers on either side of the river 
Avon, so as to connect the whole and discharge the sewage at present at three 
points in the river; and eventually the sewage of this district on the north side of 
the river will be connected with the Main-Outlet sewer on the south side of the 
river, hereinafter described, by means of iron siphons passing under the river from 
the north to the south side, and discharged at one point near Clift House. 

In considering the drainage for this district, it was also necessary to determine 
the levels for the Main-Outlet sewer, with a view, if necessary, of continuing the 
same to the mouth of the river, a distance of about 7 miles; and the portion now 
constructed is laid at such level as to allow of its being so continued at the same 
gradient, and to discharge at a level of 3 feet above low-water mark, which will 
allow of free access to the valves &c, at the mouth for about three or four hours 
each tide. 

The principal sewers in this district are the main sewer on the south side of the 
river Avon, and the Prince-Street sewer. This latter commences at the stone 
bridge, at which point it now, receives the sewage of the Low-Level sewer of the 
Frome district; it then continues underneath the Tontine warehouses and Clare 
Street, along Marsh Street and Prince Street, underneath the floating harbour to a 
point in front of the Gaol, and discharges into the tidal river. This sewer, with 
the main branch sewers constructed on the north side of the river, and the old 
sewers constructed by the late Commissioners, completes the drainage of the 
portion of the district north of the river Avon. 

The main sewer on the south side of the river Avon commences at a point 
opposite Totterdown Lock, above which is situate the outlet for St. Philip’s 


224 REPORT—1875. 


district, and also the outlet for the St. George’s district, lying outside the Borough 
of Bristol, but which by arrangement has been allowed to pass through the 
borough to this point; and the new sewer has been canghinedel of sufficient size 
and at such levels as to receive the sewage from these two districts by means of 
iron siphons, to be laid under the river; the sewer then continues along the side 
of the river until arriving opposite to Mylne’s culvert and Prince-Street sewer ; it 
then continues along Coronation Road, passing the outlet for the Bedminster 
district and Mr, Drake’s tan-yard, continuing underneath the fields at the back of 
Clift House, and discharges into the tidal river for the present through the outlet 
described as Parsons-Street sewer, thus intercepting the whole of the sewage on 
the south side of the river Ayon, and providing for the conveyance of all the 
sewage now discharging into the river above Cumberland Basin. 

From the foregoing it will be seen that these drainage works have been designed 
and constructed for the delivery of the whole of the sewage now discharging into 
the river above Cumberland Basin, at one point near Clift House, by means of three 
iron siphons, to be laid under the bed of the river from the outlets of the following 
districts, viz. lst, St. Philip’s and St. George’s districts; 2nd, Redcliff Hill; and 3rd, 
Mylnes or Prince-Sireet district; the only points of discharge will then be the 
Clifton outlet on the north side, and the outlet near Clift House on the south side 
of the river. 

Having brought the sewage of the borough to these two outlets, the question to 
be determined is, In what manner shall the same be dealt with? and until this 
point is settled the writer has recommended that all the present five outlets be 
retained, viz. four on the north side, and one on the south side of the river. 

The sizes of the several sewers in each district are calculated to carry 5 cubic 
feet or 314 gallons per head per diem, for a variable population of from 80,000 to 
50,000 per square mile, according to the district, and 4 inch of rainfall in twenty- 
four hours, storm overflows being formed in all cases where possible to provide for 
any greater rainfall. 

The question of ventilation, after many years’ consideration and discussion, and 
after the experience of other localities, has been left in the same position as found 
by the writer, viz. the sewers are without any external openings or means of 
yentilation, the whole of the street gullies are trapped, and the manholes are all 
closed down, in which particulars the sewers of Bristol differ from those of nearly 
all other towns, all external air being excluded. The several districts have for the 
most part separate outlets into the tidal river, as before described, in all of which 
districts, with one exception (that of the High Level of Clifton), provision has been 
made for flushing from the floating harbour or watercourses discharging into the 
harbour; but im no case has it been found necessary to have recourse to artificial 
flushing, there being no deposit in any of the new sewers; nor has it been found 
necessary to provide other means of ventilation. But in the High-Level district 
of Clifton, it was found that during low water, when the outlet was exposed, the 
draught in these sewers was sufficient to drive the sewer-air into some of the 
houses, and an air-valve was placed at the top of the incline to the outlet, which 
has prevented such draught. The whole of the other sewers, being low-level 
sewers, have double tidal valves fixed at their outlets. These valves are self-acting, 
of cast iron, and oval in form; they are hung with chains and bedded on india- 
rubber. 

In February 1871 the writer reported on a proposal for dealing with the sewage 
of the borough by discharging it only on the ebb of the tide. 

The outlets of the present sewers being provided with self-acting valves, which 
open with the receding tide and close with the rising tide, it was proposed to 
provide means for preventing the discharge of the sewage during the up-flow of 
the tide, previous to the closing of the valves, by means of penstocks and storage 
tanks, 

From a series of float experiments it was found that during spring-tides the 
sewage would be carried down the Bristol Channel nearly as far as Portishead, 
and would return in such a diluted form as not to be in any way offensive, but that 
during neap-tides and all tides below 22 feet in height, no portion of the sewage 
would pass out of the river, but would flow backwards and forwards with each tide, 


—  —_—" 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 243 


until the return of the spring-tides, when it would be carried out into the Bristol 
Channel as before stated; and on referring to the Tide Tables it will be found that 
about 226 of these low tides occur each year. 

Under these circumstances it has been determined not to incur any further cost 
in the matter until such time as the Report of the Rivers Pollution Commission is 
published, or some Act of Parliament is passed requiring Local Boards and sanitary 
authorities to deal with all sewage discharged into the tidal river. 

In November 1873 the writer reported as to the practicability of uniting the 
two outlets by bringing the sewage of the north side to the site near Clift House, 
this site haying been approved of by Mr. Robert Rawlinson, C.B., as in all respects 
suitable for dealing with the sewage in any manner that may be determined on; 
and it was proposed to accomplish this in one of two ways, viz. :— 

First, by carrying the sewage across the river by means of iron siphons at or 
near its present outlet, and then by sewers to be constructed along the south side 
of the river to Clift House, 

Second, by means of iron siphons carried under the river at or near the new 
entrance-lock gates at Cumberland Basin, at which point the sewage of the Clifton 
Low-Level district, and the portion of the Frome district, could be intercepted and 
conveyed to the south side, leaving only the Clifton High-Level sewage to be dealt 
with ; and as the level of this district is so much aboye that of the Low-Level 
district, advantage could be taken of the length of sewer now conveying the Low- 
Level sewage to the High-Level outlet, by using this length of sewer as a siphon, 
and forcing the sewage from the High-Level district against the gradient of the 
sewer to the same point near the new lock-gates to Cumberland Basin, now 

roposed for the conveyance of the sewage of the Low-Level district, by means of 
iron siphons across the river to the south side, to be continued thence by double or 
single culyert, as may be hereafter determined, to the proposed outlet near Clift 
House; and the only objection to the same is the use of the present sewer with the 
gradient the reverse way to the flow of the sewage; but this objection could be met 
by proyiding means for periodically flushing this length of sewer ; at the same time 
it will be a question, to be hereafter determined, if it will not be better to adopt 
the first-mamed plan; the whole sewage of the borough would then be brought to 
the one site near Clift House, and could be dealt with in any manner that may be 
hereafter decided upon, 

In conclusion, it will be seen that at present no determination has been arrived 
at with regard to the ultimate disposal of the sewage of the borough, which is still 
discharged into the tidal river at the five separate outlets, The total cost of the 
drainage works to the proven time, less £6161 paid by the St. George’s district, 
has been £154,743, which, taking the estimated popalatien of the borough at 
196,186, will give as the cost per head 15s. 9¢d. This amount has been raised by 
rates in each separate district, varying from ls. 6d. to 2d. in the pound. The 
whole cost in the two first-named districts haying been repaid, the special rates 
haye ceased; in the next two districts it will expire in 1878, in the fifth district in 
1880, and in the last district, the amount borrowed having been spread over thirty 
years instead of twenty years as in the other districts, the repayment will extend 
to the year 1901, : 

The average death-rate before the construction of the foregoing works was 28:0 
per 1009, and for the year ending January 1875 it was 22-7. 


On the Prevention of Sand Bars at the Mouth of Harbours. 
By ©. BrreEron. 


Roberts's Patent Communicator for Railway Trains. 
By Waxzer R. Browne, A.L.C.E. &c. 
The apparatus consists of a small standard mounted sideways on the roof of the 


carriage and carrying a short inclined tube, open at the upper end, From the lip 
of this tube or holder light cords are conducted into each compartment of the 


244, REPORT—1875, 


carriage; and on pulling any one of these cords the lip is drawn down and the tube 
reversed. A small counterweight, in the form of a flag, attached to the tube by an 
arm, prevents its returning to its former position, and at the same time shows at a 
distance which holder has been reversed. 

The communicating cable is in the first instance coiled round a light drum or 
reel; it consists of two copper wires perfectly insulated, and further protected by a 
stout waterproof sheath. At intervals corresponding to the length of a carriage 
short branches are led from each of these wires and taken through the sealed top of 
a small wooden tube about 4 inches long (denominated a “ tipper ”’), whence they 
terminate in two adjacent platinum points. The tipper, which is solid at the other 
end, also contains a small quantity of pure mercury. 

The two batteries and bells, one for the locomotive the other for the guard’s van, 
may either be fixed in their respective places, or mounted inside a reel provided 
with the wire and tippers, in which latter case there are absolutely no electric con- 
nexions whatever to make, the cable being paid out either way from the centre of 
the train, the wire of the two reels being continuous. In the former case the cable 
is connected to the locomotive battery, then paid out along the train, the surplus 
wire on its reel being placed in the guard’s van alongside the second battery. 

The tippers are normally in a more or less upright position, and the mercury in 
each remains at the bottom away from the wires. Dn reversing the tipper the 
mercury flows downwards upon the wires, and thus causes both bells to ring. 

After a passenger has once pulled over a tipper he cannot replace it, and the red 
disk or flag makes detection easy. 

Tf desired the cable forms a ready means of intercommunication between guard 
and driver at all times. 

Should a train part from a broken coupling, the cable will necessarily break ; but 
before doing so the two tippers adjacent to the break will have been reversed, thus 
calling attention of both driver and guard. 


On the Bristol Port and Channel Dock at Avonmouth, near Bristol. 
By James Bruntens, CL, 


The site of the dock is so chosen that the centre line of the lock passes through the 
centre of the mouth of the Avon, or what is known as the Swashway entrance from 
Kingroad. Between the Swashway and the lock there will be a deep channel, or 
approach, 450 yards long by 100 yards wide. The part immediately in front of the 
dock has a bell-mouthed shape, the side diverging from the centre line of the lock at 
an angle, and forming a tidal basin of about two acres in area. The lock is 600 ft. 
in Bee 70 feet wide from cope to cope, and has a depth of water on the lower 
sills of 41 ft. 6 in. at high water equinoctial spring-tides. The dock itself is 1400 
ft. long by 500 ft. wide, and has an area of 16 acres. It will have a depth of water 
of 35 ft. at high water equinoctial springs, 31 ft. 3 in. at ordinary springs, and 22 ft. 
3 in. at ordinary high-water neaps. By locking vessels in and out at high water 
of neap-tides 28 ft. of water can always be maintained in the dock. 

The formation of a dam in front of the works proved of considerable difficulty, 
but it was successfully constructed ; and although the tide has reached to within 2 ft. 
6 in. of its top, it has never shown any symptom of weakness. About 1,520,000 
cubic yards of earth have been excavated from the dock-basin and entrance-lock. 
The excavations for the foundations were made with the help of portable engines for 
pulling up the earth at the rate of 100 cubic yards per day. A steam-lift pump, 
throwing up 20,000 gallons an hour, was employed to keep the foundation trenches 
clear of water. 

The construction of the lock is the most important and costly part of the works. 
The foundations are laid about 6 ft. under low water equinoctial springs, the level 
of the sand varying only about 12 in. throughout the whole 600 of its length. 
Above the sand a bed of rubble masonry 6 ft. thick and from 100 ft. to 120 ft. wide 
is laid, and on this foundation the inverts and wallsare built. The length between © 
the inner and outer cells is 454 ft. This length is divided by a pair of gates into 
cock-chambers, the outer 204 ft., and the inner 250 {t. in length. The sluice-ways 
for filling and emptying the locks are formed in the interior of the side walls. They 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 245 


are 7 ft. by 4 ft. 6 in. culverts, having brick arches and inverts and ashlar sides; 
About 60,000 cubic yards of masonry have been put into the lock, a quantity that 
represents about 100,000 tons of stone. The stone used in the works is of various 
kinds, according to the situations and uses inand for which itis applied. The dock 
walls are 20 ft. thick at the bottom, and gradually reduced to 7 ft. thick at the top. 
They havea curved batter on the inner face on a radius of 157 ft. The lower 
foundation is of blue lias concrete, and over it Portland concrete to 2 feet below 
the floor of the dock, where the masonry commences. The dock-gates, originally 
intended to be of iron, consist of oak keel and mitre-posts and cross pieces of pitch 
pine. The lower gates are designed to retain a 41}-ft. head of water. On the rib 
next the sill the pressure of the water is about 1} ton per square foot, and the total 
stress resulting on the sectional area of the rib is 77°3 tons. The leaf is 3 ft. thick 
at the centre, and 2 ft. 8 in. at keel and mitre-posts, so that the effective sectional 
area of the rib is 384 square inches, and the stress on the square inch about one 
fifth of aton. The total weight of one leaf of the lower gate is eighty nine tons. 
There has been a double line of railway constructed, at the joint expense of the 
Great Western and Midland Railway Companies, to connect the dock with the 
respective systems of those Companies, and that will bring the dock into commu- 
nication with all parts of England. 


On Chrome Steel. By Col. Carnineron, U.S.A., LL.D. 


On Sharpness Docks. By W. B. Crucram, CLL. 


On Toughened Glass. By J. D. Coca. 


On a System of Audible Signals for Railways. By Messrs. Cricuton & Crate. 


The object of this invention is to prevent a class of accidents of very frequent 
occurrence, viz. those that arise from non-observance of signals. The desired end is 
attained by self-acting apparatus, causing the engine whistle to sound when a driver 
inadvertently passes a danger-signal, 

The inventors have found that the following qualities are essential to apparatus 
for this purpose, and they trust it may be found that they have been successful in 
embodying the same in the system described :— 

1. The impact of apparatus fixed on the line against that upon the engine must 
not cause injury to either. 

2. Special provision must be made to counteract the tendency to carelessness that 
usually results from the employment of automatic machinery. 

8. The apparatus should be constructed so that it cannot be kept out of action 
either through negligence or improper motive. 

4. It should be solely auxiliary, and in no way a substitute for the appliances at 
present used in securing safety. 

5. It should be capable of being adapted to the various types of engine. 

6. The apparatus on the line should be easily actuated and not liable to derange- 
ment from contingencies of weather. 

7. The whole should be of simple construction and thoroughly reliable in action. 

Description.—At each distant signal a simple piece of mechanism is placed beside 
the line of rails. It may be described as a bell-crank connected by a wire to said 
signal, so that both work in unison, 7. e. an arm of the bell-crank moves towards the 
rails at the same time that the semaphore arm rises to danger, and recedes when 
the semaphore arm falls. 

‘The engine carries a vertical rod, which is free to slide in a protecting tube attached 
to the side of the “cab.” This rod is connected at its wpper end toa lever, which 
acts upon an arrangement for sounding the whistle, precisely the same as that now 
extensively used for the passenger’s communication. (The same mechanism may 


246 REPORT—1875, 


serve both purposes.) The dower end of the rod is formed hollow, and receives one 
end of a staff or baton of wood which rests on a bracket. The baton when put into 
this socket cannot afterwards be withdrawn without being broken, as it is held by 
means of a spring catch,-which is inaccessible so long as the baton remains whole. 

The action of the apparatus is as follows :—So long as the driver does not require to 

ass within a danger-signal for protection the apparatus requires no attention. 
hen he finds this necessary,it is his duty to raise the vertical rod carrying the 
baton, which is thereby removed from a position where it would be broken by 
coming in contact with an arm of the “ bell-crank” on the line. This action is 
accompanied by a sounding of the whistle, which prevents the driver from keeping 
the baton out of the normal position after passing the signal. It also gives the 
necessary warning to signalmen and others that a train is approaching. Should a 
driver inadvertently pass a danger-signal, the baton, not having been moved into the 
osition of safety, must of necessity be broken at a point made specially weak. 
The vertical rod being thus deprived of support falls, and by means of its con- 
nexions causes the whistle to sound, at once giving warning of danger and recording 
the driver’s negligence. When a baton has been broken, the lower part of the ver- 
tical rod protrudes from the tube in which it slides and allows the spring-catch to 
become accessible, so that the part of the baton remaining in the socket can be 
withdrawn and a new one substituted. The batons are to be supplied to engine- 
drivers at such a price as may be considered sufficient to secure the necessary vigi- 
lance in preserving them. A simple and efficient way of preventing counterfeit 
would be to place a seal on the weakened part. 

As usually constructed automatic signals act on every occasion that a danger- 
signal is passed, The effect of this is necessarily to induce reliance on the apparatus. 
By the system which has been described, the driver has a certain duty to perform at 
every danger-signal the neglect of which will subject him to pecuniary loss, and 
also, if of frequent occurrence, to dismissal. There is therefore eyery reason to expect 
that the vigilance of the driver would be fully maintained. 

The “block system ”’ has now been very extensively adopted, and the apparatus 
used in connexion with it is being improved in order to eliminate the element of 
human fallibility in so far as the operators are concerned. But if it is important to 
get signals duly exhibited, it is equally important that they be attended to when 
exhibited. It is therefore evident that the “block system” cannot work satis- 
factorily so long as its efficiency depends exclusively upon the semaphore-signal, 
which appeals to the sense of sight alone, and, especially when there is fog, is often 
passed unnoticed by drivers. 


On the Trials of Screw Steam-Ships. 
By Wut1aM Denny, Leven Ship-yard, Dumbarton, 


The object of this paper was to further the adoption of the progressive method 
of trying steam-ships on the measured mile. 

The present method is, as a rule, confined to maximum power speeds, or to 
speeds which are the maximum effects of half-boiler power. Such trials afford 
only meagre and isolated results, giving little if any basis for the comparison of 
different steamers, and they cannot, as they ought to, show the varying relations 
of power and ee throughout the range of any steamer’s possible speeds. 

The ratios of these relations are very unlike in different steamers, and a know- 
ledge of them must be the basis of any true method of comparison. Mr. Froude’s 
resistance-curves, formed from model experiments, are a very good illustration of the 
objects to be attained by progressive trials, which, when set off on suitable scales, 
should show at once the relation existing between any speed and power within 
the limits of the experiments. 

For example, a vessel capable of such a series of speeds might be tried at or 
about 13, 11, 9, 8, and 5 knots, the resulting mean speeds and developments of 
power being set off and formed into a curve; and it is very evident such a curve 
would show more easily than any number of single trials the progressive difficulty 
of driving the ship. 


Plate X11] 


Fig. 4. 


Fig. 5. 
SPEED SCALE oF STEAMER “TAUPO” 


Dimensions Moulded: 45.0% 27.0% 14. Th, 
Area of £ Immersed 268 Sgr. #. 
Drak for® 10.10 Afi 12.7 
Displacement 1080 tons 
Date of Trial 23°" April 1875 
Place Skelmorlie 
Note 
Garves of Powers & (o-efhictents read. off Scale of IHP 
r] » Revolutions & Slip eee tiee Pies ie 
4 Coelficiene Speeds tlmmersed 


Bow of Boat. showing 
position of weighes, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 247 


Tt must be clear to‘any unbiassed mind that a method which is of absolute im- 
portance in the trials of models, can be of no less need in the concrete trials of 
ships’ engines and propellers made on the mile. Of course, curves of revolutions 
per minute, ship percentages and constants, according to any formula, can also be 
set off with the simple speed and power curve. 

Such curves were shown in the diagrams illustrating this paper, and included, 
besides specimens of trials conducted by the author’s firm, others conducted by 
Messrs. A. and I. Inglis and the Admiralty. 

The constant curve shown in each case was set off to the numbers of the Ad- 
miralty midship-section formula, but papreaeniae equally well, with suitable scales, 
the Admiralty displacement and Prof. Rankine’s augmented surface constants. 
Had the theory been true that the power required for propulsion varied as the 
cube of the speed, these constants would not have been curves but straight lines 

arallel to the base of the diagram. As they were very marked curves, and, indeed, 
ar remoyed from any approach to horizontal straight lines,“they indicated an 
equally great fault in all the three formule, An examination of the curves showed 
this fault to be the acceptance of the fallacious theory that the power varied as 
the cube of the speed. 

In none of the diagrams and in no progressive series of trials submitted to the 
author had this fallacy even the shadow of a sound support; and had Professor 
Rankine Inown the extent and worthlessness of it, he would never have been 
tempted to prove his theory underlying the augmented surface formula from the 
‘ Warrior’s’ highest speed trial, as two other trials exist, taken at the same draughts 
and within a few days of each other, which contradict it. In one of the speed- 
curves shown to the Association, the horse-power varied from ratios in the square 
to ratios nearly in the fifth power of the speed, 

Had Professor Rankine possessed such sets of trials as the practical world 
should have supplied him with, his great skill would have doubtless drawn from 
them some very valuable teachings, instead of the formula of the augmented 
surface, which for every purpose (seeing a comparison of steamers is rendered im- 
possible by our ignorance of their progressive speeds and powers) is of no more 
yalue than the Admiralty formule it was intended to supersede. Beyond this 
these curves go to prove that in the expenditure of power in relation to speed, 
within the limit of the highest ocean speeds now in use, marked speeds peculiar 
to the vessel are seldom likely to be apparent, excepting they be found by some 
such empirical formule as those referred to, These formule show apparent speeds 
of maximum efliciency ; but they are only apparent, and depend upon the theoretical 
power of the speed in which the horse-power is supposed to vary. Different speeds 
of apparent maximum efficiency will appear as the square, the cube, and the fourth 
and fifth powers of the speed are selected. 

Indeed if we are ever to get a tolerably good formula for finding speeds and 
power, which is doubtful, it will not be found without progressive trials combined 
with and checked by such experiments as Mr. Froude is now making on models, 

Regarding the conduct of progressive trials, it is of primary importance that 
their accuracy in all parts should not fall below the Admiralty standard, and that 
a calm day should be chosen for their performance. The wind has a most disturb- 
ing influence on the slow speeds. In the engine-room, the head of it must not 
only control his observing staff, but must carefully regulate the development of 
power on each pair of runs, Any great inequality will vitiate the results of the 
trials. In fact progressive trials without honesty and accuracy will be failures. 

A small copy of the speed-power, revolution, Admiralty midship and section 
constants, and ship percentage curyes of the serew steam-ship ‘Taupo,’ built and 
tried by the author’s firm, is appended (see fig. 5, Plate XIII.). After the remarks 
already made, this diagram will be clear, Small circles mark the points of mean 
speeds observed on trial. 

Note.—Mr. Denny’s paper is printed in full, with the original diagrams, in 
‘ Engineering,’ for October 15th, 1875, vol. xx. p. 311. 


re es 


248 REPORT—1875, 
On the Bristol joint Station. By Francis Fox, C.LE. 


On a Steel Gradient Formation. By H. Hanpystpr. 


On Block-signalling on Railways. By R. R. Warrer. 


On Improvements in the Clockwork of Revolving Lighthouses. 
By J. Horxrnson, D.Sc. 


Until recently the machinery driving the apparatus of revolving lights has 
always been controlled by revolving fans, which slightly mask the variations of 
friction in the machine and rollers which carry the light by adding a considerable 
resistance of the air, which increases slowly with the velocity. A light thus 
governed goes, at the best, if carefully regulated by the lightkeeper, too slow at 
starting, whilst the lantern is cool and the lubricating oil thick, and too fast when 
the apparatus has run some time. The lightkeepers endeavour to correct this ac- 
celeration by taking off driving-weight. It is perhaps true that a careful man, 
with the fan arrangement, or indeed without any governor at all, by adjusting the 
driving-weight, may keep his apparatus so near to time that there would be little 
danger of mistake. But it is undesirable that the want of such care should cause 
such serious risks, if it can by any means be avoided. As a matter of discipline, 
too, it is advantageous that an absolute rule may be laid down that zo sensible vari- 
ation of velocity is permissible ; and if it occurs, it should be only attributable to 
interference with the machine, insufficient driving-weight, or neglect of winding 
up, for either of which the lightkeeper is responsible. With fans it was necessary 
that a certain error should be tolerated; it is better that any error should con- 
demn the lightkeeper. 

In the apparatus made at the works of Messrs. Chance during the last year, I 
have replaced the fans by a centrifugal governor, in principle the same as those of 
Sir William Thomson and Mr. Grubb. It consists of a weight in the form of a 
disk, sliding on a vertical revolving shaft, guided by feather keys. ‘Two governor 
balls, carried by arms which make an angle of about 45° with the shaft, are con- 
nected with the disk by links, so that in expanding they lift the disk from the collar 
on which it rests when below speed. Two adjustable screws, tipped with leather, 
are fixed to the frame of the clock above the outer rim of the ial As soon as the 
disk is lifted from the collar it comes in contact with these brale-screws. Since 
the disk has a diameter of 12 to 16 inches, and makes over a hundred revolutions 
per minute, the friction has sufficient moment to control the rotation of the appa- 
ratus. Indeed the clock goes at sensibly the same speed whether the apparatus, 
weighing about a couple of tons, is in gear or at rest. A little thumbscrew pressed 
at pleasure against the edge of the disk serves to instantly stop the clock. With 
the exception of Sir William Thomson’s clock at the Holywood Bank, and those 
arranged by Mr. Douglas for light-vessels, the clocks made by Messrs. Chance during 
the last year are the only ones ii use for revolving lights capable of going any 
thing like uniformly. This governor almost places it beyond the power of the light- 
keeper to make his apparatus go wrong. Deficient weight he will be compelled 
to correct; for the friction of the apparatus being constant, and the governor 
not acting when below speed, the machine will slowly stop. 

In most lighthouse clocks, whilst the driving-weight is wound up, the motion of 
the apparatus is either allowed to take care of itself, or is maintained by a weighted 
lever acting on a ratchet-wheel, and spasmodically lifted by the act of winding. 
With the fan-governor this must interfere with the regularity of the motion, and 
in any case it jerks the machine. The author finds it best to return to the oldest 
maintaining arrangement, that of Huyghens, in which an endless chain or rope 
passes over separate winding and driving pulleys, and hangs in two loops, of which 
one passes under a snatch-block to which the weight is hung. The chain passes 
continuously over the driving-pulley asit revolves. The author cannot understand 
why this old and simple plan is not used for turret-clocks. With suitable pulleys, 
and a chain of moderately accurate pitch, the clock works perfectly smoothly, and 
is absolutely unaffected by the operation of winding. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 249 


A Scheme of Water-supply for the Villages and Country Parishes of the 
Central and Eastern Counties of England. By Professor Hutt, /.2.S., 
Director of the Geological Survey of Ireland. 


After referring to the prevalence of zymotic diseases in villages, hamlets, and 
country parishes, admittedly due to “dirt” (which, as Lord Palmerston defined 
it, is “matter in the wrong place”) and bad water, the author proposed to deal 
with the latter evil by a scheme applicable to the central and eastern counties of 
England. This scheme was only intended to apply to those districts which come 
under the division of “ Rural Sanitary Districts” of the Public Health Act of 1872, 
the “Urban Sanitary Districts” being provided for by local resources and en- 
gineering skill; but the author maintained that in a large number of instances the 
villages and hamlets required the introduction of some system of water-supply 
quite as much as the larger towns and cities. 

The author’s proposal involved a double system of supply applicable in two dif- 
ferent sets of cases, (1) either by means of wells, or (2) when wells were inadmis- 
sible, by surface streams. He proposed, as a preliminary step, that, by the aid of 
the Rural Sanitary Officers appointed under the Act of 1872, returns should be ob- 
tained regarding the water-supply at present in existence in the villages and ham- 
lets throughout the central and eastern counties. These returns were to be trans- 
mitted to the Central Board of Health in London, and from them it could be deter- 
mined what were the cases requiring the application of a scheme of supply. 

The author then proceeded to point out how favourably circumstanced were 
those districts of England to which his observations applied for a system of supply 
by means of wells of greater or less depth. These districts were formed geologi- 
cally of the Mesozoic or Secondary strata, included between the Lower ‘Tertiary 
strata above and the Permian beds below. And it would be found that they were 
capable of being grouped into an alternating series of permeable (or water-bearing) 
strata on the one hand, and impermeable (or dry) strata on the other. 

The permeable strata were grouped as follows:—1. Chalk and Upper Green- 
sand. 2%. Lower Greensand. 3. Purbeck and Portland Beds. 4. Coralline Oolite 
and grit. 5, Great and Inferior Oolites and sands. 6. Middle Lias, or Marlstone. 
7. New Red Sandstone. Attaining a combined thickness of 1,275 to 5,600 feet. 

The impermeable strata were also grouped as follows:—l. Gault Clay. 2. 
Kimmeridge Clay. 8. Oxford Clay. 4. nee Lias Clay. 5, Lower Lias Clay 
and Keuper Marls. Attaining a combined thickness of 2,100 to 5,000 feet. 

It was shown, by reference to the Geological Map of England, that these groups 
of strata, alternating with each other, were spread out over considerable areas, and 
dip one underneath the other at very moderate inclinations, owing to which the 
waters collected from the rainfall over the permeable strata percolate downwards 
till stopped by the underlying impermeable strata, forming underground reservoirs 
which might be reached by wells or bore-holes. 

It was also shown that these underground waters pass for long distances under 
the overlying impermeable formations in the direction of the dip, and could he 
reached and rendered available by wells or borings on the Artesian principle. 

As an illustration of this, the author referred to the deep boring recently made 
at Scarle, near Lincoln, where, after the impermeable Lias and Keuper Marls had 
been passed through, the water-bearing beds of the New Red Sandstone were en- 
tered, and a fine fountain of water rose through the bore-hole above the surface of 
the ground. In this instance the water had travelled 12 to 16 miles underground, 
from the outcrop of the water-bearing sandstones near Mansfield. The author 
then described the qualities of the waters yielded by the different formations as 
shown by numerous examples submitted to chemical analyses. 

From the knowledge now possessed on such subjects, it was certain that, by 
means of wells or borings, supplies of water could be obtained, not only in localities 
situated on water-bearing strata, but on those situated on the overlying impermeable 
strata, according to depth. At the same time there would necessarily be a large 
number of villages and hamlets where the depth to the water-bearing beds and the 
cost of reaching them would be too great for the resources of the inhabitants. 
These would have to be dealt with by other means of supply. 

In order to carry out a general scheme applicable to all villages found, from the 


250 : REPORT—1875, 


returns of the Medical Officers of Health, to be insufficiently or improperly supplied, 
the author proposed to utilize the maps of the Government Geological Survey, 
now nearly complete, for the districts referred to, and on which the areas of the 
water-bearing and impermeable formations respectively are accurately laid down. 
With the aid of these maps (which were easily obtainable) it could be determined 
by the Local Sanitary Authority whether any special village or hamlet was so situ- 
ated as to be capable of receiving a supply by a well of reasonable depth. In case 
of necessity, however, professional advice might be called in; but the author con- 
sidered that, owing to the special nature of such cases, it would be necessary to 
have a geologist of experience attached to the Central Board of Health, whose duty 
it would be to advise with each Local Sanitary Board as occasion might arise. 
This officer should also assist in the selection of a proper site for a well, and afford 
data for determining the depth and cost of sinking, &e. 

Upon the report by the Officers of the Local Board of Health, certified by the 
Government Adviser, of the feasibility of a plan of water-supply by a well or bore- 
hole, an order should issue for the compulsory carrying out of the work, and powers 
should be vested in the Local Sanitary Authority to raise money for the purpose. 

The well thus constructed should be carefully preserved from pollution, and be 
accessible to the inhabitants of the village or hamlet comprised in the order; and 
all objectionable or impure sources of supply should be destroyed or stopped up. 

In cases, on the other hand, where it is found that, owing to the position of any 
village or hamlet in reference to the subjacent water-bearing formation, the depth 
and cost would be too great for the resources of the inhabitants, then it would be 
necessary to have recourse to the most suitable stream or brook, which should be put 
under strict regulation as regards the prevention of contamination. The author 
proposed that in such cases small tanks should be constructed for storage of the 
waters in winter, and should be vested in the Local Sanitary Board, who should 
be responsible for their due preservation. 

In conclusion the author expressed his opinion that the time for carrying out 
some general scheme of water-supply for the too greatly neglected villages and 
country parishes had come, and which he considered might be carried out by com= 
bining the information to be derived from Geological Survey maps with the power 
granted under the Public Health Act of 1872. He considered that any scheme to 
be of use should be both compulsory and of general application. He also considered 
that until every village and hamlet, as well as every town and city, had a constant 
supply of pure water for domestic purposes, sanitary legislation could not be consi- 
dered to have effected its purpose. 


On a Sewer-Trap. By Hexry Masrers. 


On the Severn Tunnel. By Cuartes Rictarpson, CLL. 


On the Tidal Scowr in the Severn. By Cantus Ricwarnson, CZ. 


Tides in the Irish Sea. By James N. Suootsren, C.E. 


At the Easter equinoctial tides in 1875,a series of simultaneous observations 
were carried on at several points on the English and Irish coasts of the Irish Sea, 
on March 31st and on April 8th, the calculated least neap and the greatest spring 
of the year. 

On the English side, at Whitehaven, Barrow, Fleetwood, Liverpool, and Holyhead, 
and on the Irish one at Belfast, Dundalk, and Dublin, simultaneous observations 
were obtained, generally under the direction of the Engineer in charge of the port. 

The English observations, taken by Greenwich time, have been reduced to a 
uniform level of 100 feet below the Ordnance datum of Great Britain; while the 
Trish ones, where Dublin time was observed, were reduced to the Ordnance datum 
of Ireland. And as the difference between each Ordnance datum and the mean 
level of the surrounding sea has been ascertained, it is possible, by assuming uni- 
formity in the mean sea-level, still further to compare directly the two systems of 
levels with each other. From a general comparison of these tidal data the fol- 
lowing conclusions may be roughly drawn, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 251 


ist. That the time of H. W. at all the points of observation is practically the 
same, allowance being made for the disturbing influence of weather; and the 
same remark applies to L. W. 

2nd. That the level of H. W. at all points (actually within the Irish Sea) on 
each coast, taken separately, is nearly identical; and the same may be said of the 
level of L. W. 

srd. That the tidal range on the English coast is about double of that on the 
Irish side. 

In explanation of these peculiarities it must be borne in mind that there are two 
tides which set into the Irish Sea—the northern one round the north of Ireland, 
and the southern one coming from the English Channel, the meeting of the two 
being somewhat along a line drawn from Fleetwood across to Dundalk. 

Captain Beechey, R.N., who some years back made considerable researches as to 
the tides of the Irish Sea, described them under the name of “ Stationary Tide,” in 
contradistinction to the “ Progressive Tide,” where the times of H. W. and of L. W. 
at different points vary with the distance previously travelled by the tidal wave. 
The result of the above-named simultaneous observations has been on this head to 
confirm positively what Captain Beechey and others had supposed to be the case. 

The greater range of the tide on the English side, 30 feet at equinoctial springs 
as against 15 feet, may be accounted for by the shallow water of Morecambe and 
Liverpool bays and along the English coast, where, under well-known tidal laws, 
@ considerable heaping up and a corresponding depression might be anticipated. 

At equinoctial springs the H. W. on the English side stands about 7 feet 
above, andat L. W. about 7 feet below that on the Irish coast; while at equinoc- 
tial neaps the excess on the English side, both at H. W. and at L. W., is reduced 


to little over one foot. 
Tides in the Irish Sea. 


Equinoctial Spring-Tide, April 8, 1875. 


L. W. H. W. L. W. 
a ee SSS SEE Remarks. 
Time. {Height} Time. |Height} Time. |Height 
hm ft. in.| h m ft. in.) h m ft. in. 
Whitehaven] 6 45 a.m./86 0/12 45pm. /113 0) 7 15 p.m.|/86 0 |N.n.w.strongbreege. 
Barrow ...| 8 30 ,, |84 3] 130 ,, 111411) 9 O ,, |83 7)Jn. light, 29-80. 
Fleetwood..| 715 ,, |86 9/1245 ,, |115 8) 745 ,, |87 O|n.n. gale, 29-50. 
Liverpool..| 6 45 ,, |84 2/12noon. |113 11) 715 ,, |83 7 \n.n.z. strong, 29-73. 
Holyhead... 515 ,, |89 8/11 80 4.m./108 2) 545 ,, |89 1 '|n.u. strong. 
30:20, 
Belfast ...... 6 0 ,, |95 10) 12 15 p.m. |105 10) 615 ,, |94 10|y.n. strong ety 
Dundalk 750 ,, |938 8/1215 ,, |108 0} 8 00 ,, |93 10\N.u. strong breeze, 
Dublin ...... 6 0 ,, |938 2/12 45 ,, 1106 2 615 ,, |92 8\n.z. strong. [80-0. 
Kingstown | 545 ,, |92 7/1245 ,, |105 1{ 615 ,, |91 11 |n.w. strong, 29-87. 
Equinoctial Neap-Tide, March 31, 1875. 
Whitehaven! 12 15 r.0 [94 9| 6 15 pa. 103 7] 1 Os.0./95 8 Light. [80°60. 
Barrow ...|12 15 ,, |93 4 pene he? (TOS » 9 |94 3 in.w. fresh breeze, 
Fleetwood |12 noon. | 94 3 R [LOEN'S » 53 |95 LIn.w. calm, 80°50, 
Liverpool...) 11 45 a.m. | 93 


6 

4 »  » {102 8 ,, 4, {94 Lin.mw. light, 30°60. 
Holyhead...)11 0 ,, |95 8) 545 ,, [101 6) 12 midn’t. |9 

0 

9 


Belfast ...... 12 noon. |97 1 
9! 


6 6 |N.Nw.strong, 30°62. 


6 00 ,, {102 10,12 454.m.|/98 9 jN.v.w. light, 30°60. 
FOO) + 5: [LO Dis Blowvean vests wets|seeasstes y.n.w. light, 30-65. 
QO 5, LUZ 2) a rsacenvwacvaclivteostie N. very light. 


Greenwich Time throughout (Dublin time being 25" 21s behind Greenwich). 

Datum of levels, 100 feet below English Ordnance. 

Assuming the Mean Sea-level to be uniform, Irish Ordnance =92 feet 63 inches 
above Datum, 


252 REPORT—1875. 


On A, S. Hallidie’s Wire Rope Traction-Railway. By W.Smrcn, C.F. 


On a means of Recording the Movements of Points and Signals. 
By W. Suiru, CL. 


On a Breech-loading Mountain Gun. By W. Suaru, C.E. 


On a Military Bidon. By W. Suir, CLE. 


On Portishead Dock. By ¥. C. Stitemay, C.L. 


Position.—The docks are situated on the eastern side of Portishead Hill, which 
forms a most complete shelter, both to the dock and approaches thereto. 

Pier and Outer Works.—A timber pier, having a double line of railway, 540 feet 
in length, was constructed by the Bristol and Portishead Pier and Railway Com- 
pany in the year 1870. ‘The new works were commenced by continuing the line 
of this pier for a length of 430 feet inland, completing nearly 1000 feet of outer 
quay wall and pier. A return wall, forming the entrance to the docks, and in 
which the entrance-gates will be erected, is also constructed. All this work has 
been executed between the times of the tides, or ‘ tidal work.” 

Dam.—A. temporary dam is formed across the future entrance, constructed of 
wrought-iron girders built into the masonry and planked with timber. 

Interior Works.—The tide was excluded on the 10th June, a not sufficiently long 
time to allow of the inner works being in “full swing.” Some portions of the ex- 
cavation are down to within 2 feet of the permanent level of the dock. The foun- 
dation of the dock and wharf wall have been proved to consist of rock and marl. 

Lock.—The lock will be 560 feet in length, and 66 feet in width; the sills are 6 
feet above lL, W. O. S. tides, affording a depth at H. W. of 34 feet at O. S. and 25 
at neaps. 

Beovician has been made for excluding the equinoctial tides by a caisson 
(already built). 

Dock.—The wharf wall will be built (and is just about to be commenced) in the 
same straight line as the outer wall for a length of 1800 feet. 

The area of the dock will be 123 acres, having a depth of 24 feet, In addition 
to this, a considerable area covered by water will be available for timber ponds. 

Anchorage-—The well-known anchorage ground at King Road is immediately 
adjacent to the docks. 

Railway.—The Bristol and Portishead Railway, in connexion with the railway 
system and these docks, was opened in 1867. 


On Communication between Passengers and Guards. 
‘By Messrs. Stroupiey & Russriper. 


On Vertical Motion of Vessels, By Joun I. Toornycrorr. 


The present paper treats on some experiments made to ascertain the vertical 
motion of a vessel relative to the undisturbed water-surface. 

The experiments were made with a torpedo-boat, 67 feet in length and 83 
feet beam, which had a speed of about 19 knots. The water-surface was measured 
at three points respectively (1, 14, and 27 feet ahead of the launch) by suspended 
weights adjusted to its surface, as suggested by Mr. Froude (see Plate XIII. fig. 3), 
the Tm of the boat and revolutions of the propeller being at the same time 
noted. 

The results are shown in the accompanying diagram (see fig. 4, Plate XIII.), where 
the horizontal ordinates represent revolutions of the propeller per minute (240 to 
one inch); the vertical ordinates of the line A, speed of screw ; vertical ordinates of 
the curve B, speed of boat; the curve C, inclination of the vessel in 125 inches ; 
the curve D, motion of centre of gravity relative to water-surface at rest ; the curve 
FE, mean reading of the weight No, 3; F, mean reading of weight No, 2; G, mean 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 253 


reading of weight No.1. In the diagram the vertical scales being—for speed 12 knots 
er inch, for inclination in 125 inches and vertical motion of vessel 12 inches per 
inch, for motion of weights 24 inches per inch. 

The diagram shows that the vessel sank more deeply as the speed increased to 
about 12 knots, when almost suddenly, with increasing speed, the boat rises ; and 
this continues up to the highest speed attained, the depression at 12 knots being 
about 5 inches, and the elevation at 19 knots 3 inches. Thus the greatest change 
of level observed was about 8 inches. 


On a Machine for the Calculation of Tides. By Sir W. Tuomson, F.K.S, 


On Methods of giving Distinctive Characters to Lighthouses. 
By Sir W. Tuomson, F.2.S., and J. Horxrson, D.Sc. 


On the Channel Tunnel*. By W. Tortuy, F.GS., Assoc. Inst.C.E. 


The author first described the geological structure of the shores of the Straits of 
Dover, noting especially the water-bearing qualities of the various strata. The 
most important bed in relation to this question is the Chalk; the upper part of it 
contains layers of flints, which are wanting in the lower part. Water passes only 
slowly through the mass of the chalk, but more freely along joints and fissures or 
along the lines of flint. Below the Chalk come Gault, Lower Greensand, Weald 
Clay, and Hastings Beds. Of these the Gault and the Weald Clay may be taken 
asimpervious beds. ‘The author then passed on to note the lower beds, which come 
to the surface near Boulogne, but which are only known in the 8.E. of England 
by the Sub-Wealden boring. The various folds into which the strata have been 
thrown were then noticed, and the relation of these to the structure of the district 
was discussed. 

The author then referred to the yarious schemes which had been proposed for 
traversing the bed of the Channel, dwelling in greatest detail upon that of Sir J. 
Hawkshaw—a tunnel through the Chalk, He alluded to the views of Prof. 
Hébert as to the supposed existence of a large transverse fold in the Channel, which 
it was suggested might seriously interfere with the work, by bringing up beds 
lower than the Chalk along the proposed line of tunnel. He was not prepared to 
follow Prof. Hébert in his argument, believing that there was no evidence of such 
difficulties as were suggested. It is frequently supposed that faults in the strata 
would cause great inconvenience ; but the author showed, by reference to actual 
workings in coal and other mines, that the danger here was exceedingly small, and 
that there is no reasonable expectation of meeting with a larger quantity of water 
than can be dealt with by pumping. 

The author referred to a proposal, by Prof. Prestwich, to construct a tunnel 
through the Paleozoic rocks; and also to one, first suggested by Mr. H. Willett, 
for using in this way the Kimmeridge Clay, which occurs in great thickness in 
the Sub-Wealden boring, and also exists on the French coast. He showed that a 
tunne! through the Kimmeridge Clay would be quite feasible, the chief objection 
being its length. He gave a preference to Sir J. Hawkshaw’s scheme—a tunnel 
through the Lower Chalk, and had little doubt that this could be successfully 
carried out. 


On a Machine for obtaining Motive Power from the Motion of « Ship among 
Waves. By Bravenamp Tower. 


This machine consists in principle of a weight supported on a spring, so that it 
can oscillate on the spring through a considerable range in a vertical line. The 


* This subject has been discussed in greater detail by the author in ‘Quart. Journ, 
of Science’ for April 1872, and ‘ Pop. Sci. Review’ for October 1874. 


1875, 19 


254 REPORT—1875. 


scale of the spring, and consequently the natural period of oscillation of the weight, 
can be varied at will. When it is so adjusted that it synchronizes with the waves, 
the oscillations become very violent, and a large amount of power can be obtained 
from them. The theoretical amount of power per minute in foot-lbs. obtainable, 
when the synchronism is perfect, is equal to 57-7 x the range of oscillation of the 
weight Xthe mass of the weight in lbs. x the effective height of the wayes in feet, 
divided by the cube of the period in seconds. 


m=mass of oscillating weight, in lbs. 
P=period of oscillation, in seconds. 

v=range of vertical oscillation of ship, in feet. 
y=range of vertical oscillation of weight. 


Gey 
Maximum force on spring =F = ore Z 

pane ; Fe : 
Work per oscillation in foot-lbs. =the area of ellipse=w= esha Aled 


2 B27 o 

: ; _ w60 — wymx60 _ ST Tyme 
Work per minute =—5— ee ig a se 
The manner in which this result is arrived at is explained by the diagram. The 
dotted wavy line represents the motion of the ship through one oscillation, and the 
full wavy line that of the weight. The distances between these two lines are indi- 
cated by the ordinates a, b, c, d, &c., which also represent the tension of the spring. 
When the ship is rising the spring is pushing down, and when it is falling the spring 
is pulling up, thereby affording a resistance against which the ship can work. The 
ordinates a, b, c, &e., planted as ordinates on a line which represents the vertical 
motion of the ship, make an elliptical figure, the area of which represents the work 
taken out of the ship and put into the oscillating weight in one complete oscillation. 
In practice the spring would consist of highly compressed air pressing on the rams 
of hydropneumatic cylinders ; and the arrangement is such that the vessel containing 
the compressed air forms the moving weight. The natural period of oscillation in 


seconds =27 AN / ©, in which c is the capacity of the air-vessel in cubic feet, and 
f ag 


ais the sum of the area of the rams in square feet. 

The author exhibited a design for a machine for working an auxiliary propeller 
of a sailing-ship of 1800 tons displacement. The moving weight in this case is 
200 tons; and hs showed by calculation that with a range of oscillation of 20 feet 
it would give, after allowing for friction, about 30 horse-power in the long swell 
met with in the tropical calm, 260 horse-power in average ocean-waves, and more 
than 600 horse-power in a heavy head sea. The space occupied by the machine 
compares favourably with a steam-engine of the same power. 

The author exhibited a model of the machine, which in a moderate sea had yielded 
power at the rate of 13 horse-power per ton of moving weight. 


On a Revolution-Indicator. By Bravonamup Tower. 


The simplest form of the instrument invented by the author is a centrifugal 
pump. ‘The centre of the pump-case is connected to a small tank, and the periphery 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 255 


to a vertical glass tube. The pump-case and tank contain water. The fan of the 

ump is rotated by the engine, the speed of which it indicates by the centrifugal 
orce causing the water to rise in the glass tube, and to indicate by its height, cor- 
responding to marks on a scale, the speed, in revolutions per minute, at which the 
engine is running. 

[n ships of war it is very desirable that the revolutions per minute should be 
visible at a glauce, both to the engineer in the engine-room and to the officer of the 
watch on the bridge. This the author effects by carrying two small pipes from the 
engine-room to tha bridge; one of these pipes is connected to the centre, and the 
other to the periphery of a centrifugal pump fixed in the engine-room and driven 
by the engine. The pump and pipes are full of water; and the centrifugal force, 
due to the rotation of the pump, creates a difference of pressure in the two pipes, 
which difference is the same at any point in the two pipes, and is rendered sensible 
in the engine-room or on the bridge by a differential pressure-gauge applied to the 
two pipes, and capable of measuring the difference of pressure. By properly gra- 
duating the diais of these gauges, the indications can be read in revolutions per 
minute of the engine. 

Attached to this apparatus is an arrangement for indicating whether the engines 
are going ahead or astern by means of a small oscillating air-pump, which pumps 
air into a small pipe when the engines are going astern, and sucks the air out of the 
pipe when they are going ahead. This pipe is carried to the bridge, and connected 
to a small cylinder containing a piston which moves to one or other end of the 
cylinder according as the pressure in the pipe is above or below that of the atmo- 
sphere. ‘This piston is attached to and moves a piece having the words “ ahead” 
and “astern” ‘written on it, and causes one or other of these words to become 
visible, as the case may be. 


On Steering. By Jossrpx Woottny, LL.D., Vice-President of the Institution 
of Naval Architects. 


The only mode of steering considered in this paper is that in which the rudder 
is the instrument employed, screws placed athwartships, in the bow or stern, and 
jets of water on the principle of Ruthven’s propeller, having been proposed, but 
neyer seriously adopted. 

Ancient authors always assumed that, in accordance with the received theory of 
resistance, the resistance on the rudder varied as v° sin? ®, where v is the velocity of 
the ship and the angle to which the rudder is put over. Modern observations and 
experience show that this law is incorrect ; that the resistance is not uniform over 
the whoie surface, but more effective at the fore than the aft part; and the pivot- 
balanced rudder gives reason to believe that the resistance of the foremost third is 
equivalent to that on the aftermost two thirds of the whole surface. It isalso now 
allowed by most competent authorities that the resistance at different angles varies 
more as the sine than as the square of the sine of the angle. In accordance with 
the old theory, the angle of maximum efficiency was laid down at 54 deg. 44 sec. 
Bouguer points out that this angle is too large, and that it ought to be reduced, in 
consequence of the change of direction of the water particles at the upper or 
broader part of the ship; and in a general way thinks it should be reduced by at 
least 7 deg. or 8 deg. ae er following in his steps, by reasoning analogous to rudi- 
mentary stream-line principles, finds that v cos 6 is the velocity with which the 
particles of water impinge on the rudder at the part where 8 represents the angle 
made by the water-line with the fore and aft lines. He then deduces for the angle 
of maximum efficiency at that height 90° “lela where y=cos" 5 cos 8. Thus, 
if B be 45 deg., this angle is 29 deg. 9 min. But as the angle varies for different 
water-lines, he concludes in favour of a mean angle of 48 deg., or at least 45 deg. 

There is reason to believe that not only does the putting over of a rudder produce 
a direct resistance on its outer surface (which alone has hitherto found its way 


19* 


256 REPORT—1875. 


into mathematical formule), but also increases the pressure on the stern-post and 
dead wood for a considerable distance forward by checking the velocity, the effect 
of which on the turning of the ship would form a considerable item in the whole 
action. This is in accordance with the principle of stream-Jines so ably explained 
by Mr. Froude, in which he shows that a diminished velocity is always accompanied 
by increased pressure. When the stream has, however, set up a decided current 
towards the outer edge, the velocity increases and the pressure diminishes. This 
explains the experimental fact before mentioned, that the fore part of the rudder is 
more efficient than the after part. In accordance with this view, it is understood 
that some ships in the royal service are being fitted with the balanced rudder, so 
arranged that, when under canvas only, not only is the fore part of the rudder 
turned into a stern-post, and the blades of the screw made to act as dead wood, 
but additional dead wood is made to run out under the counter, so as entirely to fill 
up the cavity before the screw. 

There are two conditions in the putting over of the rudder to be considered. At 
the first moment the axis of motion, or instantaneous axis of rotation, is not the 
centre of gravity, but a point determined as follows:—The first impulse in the 
rudder is to produce a pressure on it perpendicular to its surface, which on ordinary 
mechanical principles is equivalent to an impulse applied to the ship at its centre 
of gravity in a parallel direction, and a couple to turn it round the centre of gravity. 
In fig. 2, Plate XIII., A is the instantaneous axis, thus formed : B G A is drawn per- 
pendicular to the direction of the water-pressure on the rudder ; G D parallel to B C, 
and equal to the ship’s outer radius of gyration round a vertical axis through G; 
DA is drawn at right angles to B D, cutting BG produced in A. Then, evidently 

1 T)2 2 
by the construction, G A ="h == gives A the instantaneous axis. 

This is only true at the first moment. The ship afterwards shifts laterally until 
the lateral resistance so created becomes equal to the lateral force on the rudder, 
and there remains a couple turning the ship round, whose force is the resistance on 
the rudder, and the arm the distance between the centre of effort on the rudder 
and the centre of lateral resistance on the ship. This latter point is almost always 
before, and sometimes very considerably before, the middle point of the ship’s 
length. Hence evidently the stern is the most effective place for the rudder, as no- 
where else can this arm be so large; and hence also is the manifest disadvantage 
of a rudder raking forward from the top downwards, as is sometimes the case in 
yachts, which arrangement not only diminishes the arm of the turning couple, 

ut practically increases the immersion in consequence of the existence of a verti- 
cally resolved part of the water-pressure on the rudder. 

Sensibility to the helm (¢. e. quickness and readiness in a ship to go about) is 
a most important quality. At the first moment the angular acceleration, which is 
a measure of this sensibility, varies directly as the moment of the water-pressure 
on the rudder, and inversely as the product of the weight of the ship and the 
square of its radius of gyration about a vertical axis through the centre of gravity. 
The moment of water-pressuré varies ceteris paribus as the area of rudder surface. 
When large ships were first built the area of rudder surface was not increased in 
lee to the dimensions; hence large ships (e.g. the ‘ Achilles’) were not 

andy. Handiness is also diminished by putting heavy weights at the stem and 
stern, and so increasing the radius of gyration. A short ironclad would thus carry 
heavy bow and stern guns with less injury to steering qualities than a larger one. 
The great difficulty under which nayal architects lay on the first introduction of 
large ships was not in making the rudder big enough, but in finding power enough 
on the wheel to turn them through an efficient angle, rudders of even moderate size 
being found to require the united efforts of 40 or even GO men to bring them over 
to 18 deg. or 20 deg., not to speak of 38 deg. or 40 deg. This difficulty has since been 
overcome by applying steam or hydraulic pressure to the wheel. In the latter case, 
however, if Mr. Reed’s explanation of the cause of the ‘Bessemer’ not answering 
her helm fast enough on steering into Calais harbour be accepted, there seems to 
be the inconvenience that it requires an appreciable interval of time to move the 
rudder ; and hence for instantaneous purposes (e.g. getting clear of an obstacle or 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 257 


avoiding a collision) this mode of supplying power is faulty. The period in which 
a complete turn of a eee is effected and the diameter of the circle described 
are important elements in the handiness. 

On this subject I abridge from M. Bertin’s ‘Notice sur la Marine & Vapeur de 
Guerre et de Commerce, 1875. In fig. 1, Plate XIII., f is the pressure on the 
rudder O B, and F the resultant of the lateral pressure acting through the ship’s 
centre of lateral resistance and the direct resistance acting on the bows. V is 
the velocity of the ship in direction G V. Though here the angular velocity 
has become uniform, G & perpendicular to GV is the diameter of the circle in 
which the ship turns. A G V is the angle of turning described in a unit of 
time while the ship moves through the space V. The moment of resistance of 
the water to the ship’s turning, which is nearly proportional to the square of the 
angular velocity, is equal to the moments of the two forces fand F. The sum of 
the projections of these forces on the line G C is equal to the centripetal force under 

eran 
which the circle is described, and therefore to ‘ oe If, then, f and F were 


exactly proportional to V?, and made with the axis OA a constant angle, the 
length of the radius GC would be independent of the velocities, and the period of 
a complete turn would vary inversely as V. In actual practice the velocity di- 
minishes, the lateral resistance which is due to the small lateral velocity decreases 
more slowly than the direct resistance which is proportional to V’, the angle made 
by G F with GC increases, and the centripetal force decreases more slowly than 
V2, and the radius GC diminishes, The circles described thus become smaller at 
smaller velocities. In comparing similar ships of different dimensions, f and F 
increase as the square, while W increases as the cube of the dimensions. Hence 
G C should increase nearly in the direct ratio of the dimensions. Thus the dia- 
meter of the circle described by a ship in a complete turn should be about twice 
that described by a similar ship of half its length. 

The smailer the diameter of the circle in which a ship turns the more handy 
she is. Records of the performances of the most handy ships in the English and 
French navies established five times the length as the limit below which this 
diameter never falls. Mention has been made of the difficulty felt by naval archi- 
tects in supplying effective steering-apparatus in lieu of the limited power available 
in former days at the tiller. M. Barnes, starting from the principle that only a 
given power couid be thus used, made an investigation of the conditions under 
which this could be most efficiently applied. He established two propositions :— 
(1) that for the same power to bring over rudders of different breadths to different 
angles, the breadths should be inversely as the sines of the angles; and (2) that 
the efficiency of the rudder under such circumstances varies as the sine of twice 
the angle. Hence, if a rudder of acertain length could be brought over to 15 deg., 
a rudder of half its breadth could be brought over by the same force to 30 deg., and 
the efficiency thereby nearly doubled. He recommended subsidiary rudders to be 
fitted so as to assist the main rudder when required. Such rudders were tried b 
Admiral Halsted at Sheerness in 1863, but were found to diminish instead of in- 
creasing the steering efficiency. This investigation has now little more than an 
historical interest. It is to be observed that he finds the angle of maximum effi- 
ciency to be 45 deg., which, however, on stream-line principles, would require to be 
reduced to 33 deg. or 34deg. The law of variation of the resistance which he adopts 
is that of the square of the sine. If that of the sine alone be introduced, it would 
seem that the breadths of the rudders should be inversely as the square root of 
the sines, and the angle of maximum efficiency 35 deg. 16 min., or, practically, 
30 deg. 

It often asserted now-a-days that the lower part of the rudder is of no use; 
and hence the practice of cutting it away has come into vogue. An experiment, 
however, made by Mr. Froude, which he kindly communicated to me, leaves no 
doubt that this opinion is erroneous. To a model of the new ‘ Encounter,’ 10 ft. 
Gin. long, was fitted a rudder, consisting of two blades of equal dimensions, one 
above the other, and fixed at an angle of 30 deg. They were governed by the 
same tiller, provided with a graduated arc, to which it could be clamped ; thus, 


258 REPORT—1875. 


when the angle of one blade was reduced, that of the other was increased to an equal 
extent. The model was towed by the nose with an arrangement which allowed 
perfect freedom of motion in a vertical direction, but inexorably resisted any attempt 
at lateral motion, while the stern was left perfectly free to move sideways in 
either direction. The set of the rudder was varied until she followed neutrally ; 
and it was found that when she did this, the upper half required just 20 deg. of 
inclination to balance the lower half with 10 deg., thus proving incontestably the 
higher efficiency of the lower half. Possibly, however, an advantage may accrue 
from raising the centre of effort on the rudder, in some cases by reason of the arm 
of the turning couple, viz. the distance between this centre of effort and centre 
of ship’s lateral resistance becoming less inclined; while this is inclined, there is 
f tendency to heel, which may sometimes be troublesome, especially in sailing- 
ships. 

Govumcincs modify the velocity and the direction with which particles of water 
impinge on the rudder less perceptibly in screw-propelled than in sailing-ships. 
Another phenomenon may be noticed, viz. that a vessel or model moving in the 
direction of its length is, on stream-line principles, in a position of unstable equi- 
librium. She will always have a tendency to deviate on one side or the other— 
on which seems a matter of indifference; but this tendency will, when once ex- 
hibited, go on increasing until she turns broadside on to her original direction. In 
a sailing-vessel moving obliquely to the direction of the wind the relative position 
of the centre of effort of sail and of lateral resistance may oblige her to carry lee 
or weather helm according as she is ardent or slack. In any case the less helm a 
ship requires, the less is her way retarded, and the better she will sail. 

I can only glance at the improvements which have been made in the forms of 
rudder; of these the most important, as far as screw-ships are concerned, is the 
pivot-balanced rudder, in which, by placing the axis of rotation at or near the 
centre of effort, very little power is required at the tiller or wheel to bring it over 
to any required angle. The most usual form is that titted to the ‘ Bellerophon,’ in 
which the proportion of the fore and aft part (determined by experiment) is as 1 
to 2; when under steam the column of water driven backwards by the screw acts 
powerfully on each side and produces a strong turning power. When under sail 
the fore part is disconnected trom the aft, and being fixed in the direction of the 
keel, becomes a stern-post. The means of still further increasing this stern-post 
or dead wood by a moyable plane under the counters now fitting in screw-ships has 
already been adyerted to. 

Lumley’s rudder, in which the aft part is capable of being brought over by a 
system of chains or other suitable apparatus under the counter to a larger angle 
than the fore part, is based on a sound principle, intended by the inventor to imitate 
the action of a fish’s tail. It is evident that by checking the velocity of the im- 
piiging stream a very considerable additional pressure is brought to bear on the 
fore part, and thus the steering quality is much improved. It was formerly fitted 
in several of H.M. ships, but has been latterly discontinued in consequence of the 
rusting and corrosion of the chains and self-acting machinery under water. Chap- 
lin’s rudder, consisting of two plane surfaces fitted in the counter, inclined at about 
an angle of 30 deg., the outer edges flush with the counter when not required, but 
let down by suitable machinery when wanted for use, was tried on board H.M, 
ship ‘Sultan’ and immediately condemned as useless, needs no further comment. 
Other forms which have not been received at all favourable need no description. 

Another form, however, invented by Mr. Gumpel, seems very promising. Its 
peculiarity is that the tiller-power applied in the ordinary way gives motion to a 
crank working on a vertical axis moving freely on the rudder-blade at or about the 
centre of water effort. The fore end of the blade is directed by a pintle moving in 
a fore-and-aft slot, so that it always remains in a line with the keel. When put 
hard over to an angle of 38 deg. 40 min. the crank is at right angles to the blade, 
which requires the length of the crank to be to the distance of the vertical axis 
from the fore edges as 4 to 5. The ratio of the forces required at the tiller of this 
rudder to that of the ordinary rudder, to keep it at angles of 5 deg., 10 deg., 15 dee., 
up to 35 deg., and 38 deg. 40 min., is given in the following Table, and is in- 
dependent of the laws of resistance. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 259 


Angles at which Ratio of forces at the tiller in 
rudder is held. Gumpel’s and common rudder. 
OP ii choad TER PE SE ee SN aa GI “80 
ST CET haan SAGER om rth Gai tion Eck cds ‘78 
MOS wrsven cry ch Pym att» SeRNSRS, Ralls Sven, ia PLE Ath mea 
TBS wesok Jeaeabhcat. cad siziat. aiaid. GRAS i4 36:66 
ZOSa hw in oF Rvaink Hose ae: SOPs Hee AOR, 56 
DOP ey hare aevtni aaa eieneaes wre Tame rente oR hag erent “44. 
SRO)O wi cress Dhevenees te, MAG SRLS, MRR as 29 
SPOTS taal s, SRDSIC ONS ROM w SPARRO ES collar aerate als 18 
SAU isa Rart an auc etotela/ata.o: a cI Oe ale ganas ne -2 00 


The ratio of work required to put over the two rudders respectively to angle 
88 deg. 40 min. is found to be four tenths if the resistance is supposed to vary as 
the square of the line of inclination, and five tenths if (as is more correctly assumed) 
it vary simply as the sine of this angle. 

The value of this rudder is manifest, as when the angle increases the relative 
force diminishes considerably ; and after about 26 deg. the absolute force diminishes, 
until at 38 deg. 40 min. it vanishes; and it is for the higher angles that the diffi- 
eulty of putting the common rudder over is most felt. 


APPENDIX. 


On the Effect of Heat in altering the Molecular Structure of Steel. By W. F. 
Barrett, /.RS.E., Professor of Physics, Royal College of Science for 
Ireland. 


If a wire of steel of any thickness be heated, by any means, at a certain critical 
temperature and for a certain length of time, the wire ceases to expand, although 
heat be continuously poured in. During this period also the wire does not sen- 
sibly increase in temperature. The length of time this abnormal condition lasts 
yaries with the thickness of the wire and the rapidity with which it can be heated 
through its mass. 

Rods of steel from two to three tenths of an inch in diameter cease to expand for 
five seconds when the wire is heated in a powerful combustion-furnace. This 
change takes place as the wire begins to glow with a red heat and after it has ex- 
panded one bundredth of its total length. The temperature of the critical point is 
a little over the melting-point of antimony, but under that of silver. The heating 
being continued, the elongation of the wire is resumed till the wire glows with the 
full heat it can attain from the source; it then ceases to expand, and no further 
change is noticed till the heat is cut off When this is done, the wire begins to 
cool down regularly, till it has reached the critical point at which the change took 
place on heating. Here a second and reverse change occurs. This is the disturb- 
ance first noticed some time ago by Mr. Gore, and which he believed was confined 
to the cooling of steel wires and of wires of small diameter. This, however, the 
author has found not to be the case. Hence it appears that, at a certain critical 
temperature, the molecular structure of steel changes. The specific heat of the 
metal doubtless increases at this point, and the heat that is rendered latent is again 
given out at the corresponding temperature during cooling, when both the molecular 
structure and the specific heat of steel pass into their normal state at the tempera- 
ture of the air. 

The molecular disturbances during the cooling of steel wires are thus exceedingly 
remarkable, and may be summarized as follows :— 

1st. At the critical temperature these wires undergo a momentary and consider- 
able elongation, the amount mainly depending on the strain to which the wire is 


260 REPORT—1875. 


subjected. When wires of gradually increasing thickness are used, the amount of 
the elongation diminishes; but the duration increases considerably, lasting fifteen 
seconds with a steel wire from two to three tenths of an inch in diameter. 

2nd. At the moment that the expansion occurs, an actual increase in tempera- 
ture takes place sufficiently large to cause the wire to glow again with a red heat. 
It is very curious that this after-glow has not been noticed long ago, for it is a very 
ol wes object in steel wires that have been raised to a white heat and allowed 
to cool. 

3rd. The molecular change taking place during cooling is accompanied by a 
series of ticking sounds like those produced by scraping the edge of a metal plate 
with a jagged ‘cnt 

4th. But the most interesting point remains to benoticed. This is the fact that 
the critical temperature is precisely that at which iron and steel resume their pro- 
perties as magnetic metals, a property they had lost when at a white heat. 

5th. Further, the molecular changes already noticed are coincident with the 
alteration in the thermoelectric properties of iron discovered by Prof. Tait. It 
appears, therefore, that this remarkable critical temperature of steel is intimately 
connected with many different and important phenomena. Some light may thus 
be obtained on the inner structure of a magnet and other obscure phenomena. 
The author stated that he had brought forward the foregoing points in a research 
that is now in progress, in the hope that he might have the ‘benefit of suggestions 
from the eminent physicists that were present. 


On Mechanical Self-Registering Apparatus for Barometer, Thermometer, Rain- 
and Wind-Gauges. By N. Lowrnruat Lonspate. 


The author described (1) a glass pen, of the form of the Wiirtemberg siphon, 
filled with clear lithographic ink, and marking on a prepared zinc plate or cylinder, 
from which might be printed zincographically copies for distribution and com- 
parison; (2) the gearing, the “tape” connexion instead of rack and pinion; and 
(3) two sensitive thermometers—one an iron tube 56 inches long (closed at one 
end), filled with mercury, and an iron piston ground in at the open end: the 
piston has a play of one inch between the freezing- and boiling-points; but by 
means of his gearing this inch can be augmented ad libitum, and in connexion with 
the writing-apparatus would mark any fraction of Fahrenheit’s degree. The other 
thermometer is a hammered or drawn zinc rod, 13 feet 6 inches long. These ther- 
mometers being fixed in the open air move an axis which penetrates the wall (or a 
pane of glass); and fixed on the other end, i the room, is an index, as also the 
well-balanced registering-apparatus. 

Rain and velocity of wind are indicated by a governor and the above-mentioned 
gearing ; and the direction of wind by an arm, in connexion with the vane-shaft, 
revolying 1ound a zine cylinder. 


INDEX I. 


TO 


REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. 


Ops ECTS and rules of the Association, 
xvii. 

Places and times of meeting, with names 
of officers, from commencement, xxiv. 

List of former Presidents and Secretaries 
of the Sections, xxx. 

List of evening lectures, xl. 

Lectures to the Operative Classes, xlii. 

Treasurer’s account, xliii. 

Table showing the attendance and re- 
ceipts at the Annual Meetings, xliv. 

Officers of Sectional Committees, xlvi. 

Officers and Council for 1875-76, xlvii. 

Report of Council to the General Com- 
mittee at Bristol, xlviii. 

Recommendations adopted by the Ge- 
neral Committee at Bristol :—invol- 
ving grants of money, lii; applica- 
tions for reports and researches, lv; 
communications to be printed in ex- 
tenso, lvii; resolutions referred to the 
Council by the General Committee, 
lvii. 

Synopsis of grants of money appropriated 
to scientific purposes, lviii. 

General statement of sums which have 
been paid on account of grants for 
scientific purposes, lx. 

Arrangement of General Meetings, lxvii. 

Address by the President, Sir John 
Hawkshaw, C.E.,F.R.S.,F.G.S., Ixviii. 


Allen (A. H.) on the estimation of pot- 


ash and phosphoric acid, 24. 

Analytical forms called trees, Prof. 
Cayley on the, with application to 
the theory of chemical combinations, 
257. 

Ansted (Prof.) on underground tempe- 
rature, 14, 156. 

Armstrong (Dr. H. E.) on isomeric cre- 
sols and their derivatives, 112. 

Avon, the River (Bristol) : its drainage- 
area, tidal phenomena, and dock 
works, T. Howard on, 175, 


Balfour (F. M.) on the zoological station 
at Naples, 18. 

Barnes (Rev. H. F.) on the possibility 
of establishing a “close time” for 
the protection of indigenous animals, 
184, 

Bate (C. 8S.) on the present state of our 

’ knowledge of the Crustacea, 41. 

Bateman (J. F.) on the rainfall of the 
British Isles, 91. 

Behrens (J.) on combinations of capital 
and labour, 146. 

Binney (E. W.) on the circulation of 
underground waters, 114. 

Boycott (Dr.) on the method of making 
gold-assays, and of stating the results 
thereof, 155. 

Brady (G. 8.) on dredging off the coast 
of Durham and North Yorkshire in 
1874, 185. 

Bramwell (F. J.) on the treatment and 
utilization of sewage, 65; on the 
circulation of underground waters, 
114. 

Brassey (T.) on combinations of capital 
and labour, 146. 

British Isles, report on the rainfall of 
the, 91. 

Brooke (C.) on the rainfall of the British 
Isles, 91 ; on observations of luminous 
cots ly during the year 1874-75, 

99. 

Brough (J.) on earthquakes in Scotland, 

64 


Brunton (Dr. L.) on intestinal secretion, 
339. 
Bryce (Dr.) on earthquakes in Scotland, 


Busk (G.) on the exploration of Kent's 
Cavern, 1. 


Capital and labour, second report on 
combinations of, 146. 

Carboniferous corals, sixth report on the 
structure of the, 165. 


262 


Cayley (Prof.) on the analytical forms 
called Trees, with application to the 
theory of chemical combinations, 257 ; 
on mathematical tables, 305; on 
mathematical notation and printing, 
307. 

Chemistry, report of the committee for 
superintending the publication of the 
monthly reports of the progress of, 
184. 

Circulation of the underground waters in 
the New Red Sandstone and Permian 
formations of England, and the quan- 
tity and character of the water sup- 
plied to various towns and districts 
from these formations, report on the, 
114. 

Clifford (Prof.) on mathematical nota- 
tion and printing, 337. 

“ Close time” for the protection of indi- 
genous animals, report of the com- 
mittee appointed to inquire into the 
possibility of establishing a, and for 
watching Bills introduced into Par- 
liament affecting this subject, 184. 

Corfield (Prof.) on the treatment and 
utilization of sewage, 65. 

Crosskey (Rey. H. W.) on the erratic 
blocks of England and Wales, 82; on 
the circulation of underground waters, 
114; on the exploration of the Settle 
Caves, 166. 

Crustacea, C. 5S, Bate on the present 
state of our knowledge of the, 41. 


Davidson (T.) on the Sub-Wealden ex- 
ploration, 546. 

Dawkins (Prof. W. Boyd) on the explo- 
ration of Kent’s Cavern, 1; on the 
erratic blocks of England and Wales, 
82; on the exploration of the Settle 
Caves, 166; on the Sub- Wealden ex- 
ploration, 346. 

DeRance (C. E.) on the circulation of 
underground waters, 114. 

Dewar (J.) on the estimation of potash 
and phosphoric acid, 24. 

Dew-Smith (A. G.) on the zoological 
station at Naples, 18. 

Dredging off the coasts of Durham and 
North Yorkshire in 1874, report on, 
185. 

Dresser (H. E.) on the possibility of 
establishing a “close time” for the 
protection of indigenous animals, 184. 


Earthquakes in Scotland, sixth report on, 
64 


Erratic blocks of England and Wales, 
third report on the, 82. 


REPORT—1875. 


Evans (J.) on the exploration of Kent’s 
Cavern, 1. 

Everett (Prof.) on underground tem- 
perature, 14, 156. 


Fellows (IF. P.) on combinations of ca- 
pital and labour, 146. 

Field (R.) on the rainfall of the British 
Isles, 91. 

Fletcher (A. E.) on the estimation of 
potash and phosphoric acid, 24. 

Flight (W.) on observations of lumi- 
nous meteors during the year 1874— 
75, 199. 

Forbes (Prof. G.) on earthquakes in 
Scotland, 64; on observations of lumi- 
nous meteors during the year 1874— 
75, 199. 

Foster (C. Le Neve) on underground 
temperature, 156. 

(Dr. M.) on the zoological station 
at Naples, 18. 

Frankland (Prof.) on the monthly re- 
ports of the progress of chemistry, 
184. 


Gadesden (A. W.) on the method of 
making gold-assays, and of stating the 
results thereof, 155. 

Geikie (Prof.) on underground tempera- 
ture, 14, 156, 

Gilbert (Dr.) on the treatment and 
utilization of sewage, 65. 

Glaisher (J.) on underground tempera- 
ture, 14, 156; on the rainfall of the 
British Isles, 91; on observations of 
luminous meteors during the year 
1874-75, 199. 

—— (J. W.L.) on mathematical tables, 
305; on mathematical notation and 
printing, 537. 

Godwin-Austen (R. A. C.) on the Sub- 
Wealden exploration, 346. 

Gold-assays, second report on the method 
of making, and of stating the results 
thereof, 155. 

Graham (Rey. Dr.) on underground 
temperature, 14, 156. 

Grantham (R. B.) on the treatment and 
utilization of sewage, 65. 

Green (Prof.) on the circulation of 
underground waters, 114. 

Greg (R. P.) on observations of luminous 
meteors during the year 1874-75, 
199. 


Hamilton (A.) on combinations of capi- 
tal and labour, 146. 

Harkness (Prof.) on the erratic blocks 
of England and Wales, 82; on the 


INDEX T. 263 


circulation of underground waters, 


Harland (T.) on the possibility of esta- 
blishing a “close time’’ for the pro- | 
tection of indigenous animals, 184. | 

Harting (J. E.) on the possibility of | 
establishing a “close time” for the 
protection of indigenous animals, 184. 

Hawksley (T.) on the rainfall of the 
British Isles, 91. 

Herschel (Prof. A. 8S.) on experiments 
to determine the thermal conductivi- 
ties of certain rocks, 54; on observa- 
tions of luminous meteors during the 
year 1874-75, 199. 

Hope (W.) on the treatment and utili- 
zation of sewage, 65. 

Houghton (Lord) on combinations of 
capital and labour, 146. 

Tloward (T.) on the River Avon (Bris- 
tol): its drainage-area, tidal pheno- | 
mena, and dock works, 175. 

Tlowell (Mr.) on the circulation of 
underground waters, 114. 

Hughes (Prof.) on the erratic blocks of 
England and Wales, 82 ; on the explo- 
ration of the Settle Caves, 166. 

Hull (Prof.) on underground tempera- 
ture, 14, 156; on the circulation of 
underground waters, 114. 

Huxley (Prof.) on the zoological sta- 
tion at Naples, 18. 


Intestinal secretion, second report on, 339. 
Isomeric cresols and their derivatives, 
report on, 112. 


Jeffreys (J. Gwyn) on the zoological 
station at Naples, 18. 


Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire, eleventh re- 
port of the committee for exploring, 1. 


Labour, second report on combinations 
of capital and, 146. 

Lankester (EK. Ray) on the zoological 
station at Naples, 18. 

Lebour (G. A.) on experiments to deter- 
mine the thermal conductivities of 
certain rocks, 54. 

Lee (J. E.) on the exploration of Kent’s 
Cayern, 1; on the erratic blocks of 
England and Wales, 82. 

Levi (Prof. L.) on combinations of 
capital and labour, 146. : 
Lubbock (Sir J.,Bart.) on the exploration 
of Kent’s Cavern, 1 ; on the explora- 

tion of the Settle Caves, 166. 

Luminous meteors, report on observa- 

tions of, during the year 1874-75, 199. | 


Lyell (Sir C., Bart.) on underground 
temperature, 14. 


Mackie (S. J.) on underground tempe- 
rature, 14, 156. 

Mathematical notation and printing, re- 
port on, 337, 

tables, report on, 305, 

Maw (G.) on underground temperature, 
14, 156; on the erratic blocks of Eng- 
land and Wales, 82. 

Maxwell (Prof. J. C.) on underground 
temperature, 14, 156. 

Mersey, the river, J. N. Shoolbred on 
tides in, 161. 

Miall (L. C.) on the erratic blocks of 
England and Wales, 82; on the ex- 
ploration of the Settle Caves, 166. 

Mills (Dr.) on the method of making 
gold-assays, and of stating the resuits 
thereof, 155. 

Milne-Holme (D.) on earthquakes in 
Scotland, 64. 

Molyneux (W.) on the circulation of 
underground waters, 114. 

Moore (C.) on the circulation of under- 
ground waters, 114. 

Morton (G. H.) on the erratic blocks of 
England and Wales, 82; on the cir- 
culation of underground waters, 114. 

Mundella (A. J.) on combinations of 
capital and labour, 146. 

Mylne (R. W.) on the circulation of 
underground waters, 114, 


Naples, report on the zoological station 
at, 18. 

Newmarch (W.) on combinations of 
capital and labour, 146. 

Newton (Prof.) on the possibility of 
establishing a “close time” for the 
protection of indigenous animals, 184. 


O’Hagan (Lord) on combinations of capi- 
tal and labour, 146. 


Palestine explorations, report of the 
committee appointed for the purpose 
of furthering the, 81. 

Palgrave (R. J. I.) on combinations of 
capital and labour, 146. 

Pengelly (W.) on the exploration of 
Kent’s Cavern, 1; on underground 
temperature, 14, 156; on the circula- 
tion of underground waters, 114. 

Phosphoric acid in commercial products, 
report on the methods employed in 
the estimation of potash and, and on 
the mode of stating the results, 24. 

Plant (J.) on the circulation of under- 
ground waters, 114. 


264 


REPORT—1875. 


Potash and phosphoric acid in commer- | Specific volumes of liquids, preliminary 


cial poe report on the methods 
employed in the estimation of, and 
on the mode of stating the results, 
24. 

Prestwich (Prof.) on underground tem- 
perature, 14, 156; on the erratic blocks 
of England and Wales, 82; on the 
circulation of underground waters, 
114; on the exploration of the Settle 
Caves, 166; on the Sub-Wealden ex- 
ploration, 546. 

Pye-Smith (Dr.) on intestinal secretion, 
339. 


Rainfall committee, report of the, for 
the year 1874-75, 91. 

Ramsay (Prof.) on underground tem- 
perature, 14, 156. 

Ravenstein (Mr.) on the Palestine ex- 
plorations, 81. 

Reade (J. M.) on the circulation of un- 
derground waters, 114. 

Reynolds (Prof. O.) on the steering of 
screw-steamers, 141. 

Roberts (W. C.) on the method of 
making gold-assays, and of stating the 
results thereof, 155. 

Robertson (D.) on dredging off the coast 
of Durham and North Yorkshire in 
1874, 1865. 

Rogers (Prof. T.) on combinations of 
capital and labour, 146, 

Roscoe (Prof.) on the specific volumes 
of liquids, 62; on the monthly reports 
of the progress of chemistry, 184. 

Rosse (the Earl of) on the rainfall of 
the British Isles, 91. 


Sanford (W. A.) on the exploration of | 


Kent’s Cavern, 1. 

Sclater (P. L.) on the zoological station 
at Naples, 18. 

Scotland, sixth report on earthquakes in, 
64, 

Screw-steamers, Prof. O. Reynolds on 
the steering of, 141. 

Sellon (J. 8S.) on the method of making 
vold-assays, and of stating the results 
thereof, 155. 

Settle Caves (Victoria Cave), third re- 
port on the exploration of the, 166. 


Sewage, seventh report on the treatment | 
_ Trees, the analytical forms called, Prof. 
Shoolbred (J. N.) on tides in the river 


and utilization of, 65. 


Mersey, 161. 

Smith (Prof. H. J. S.) on mathematical 
tables, 305. 

Smyth (J., jun.) on the rainfall of the 
British Isles, 91. 


report of the committee appointed 
for the purpose of extending the ob- 
servations on the, 62. 

Spottiswoode (W.) on mathematical 
notation and printing, 337. 

Stanford (EK. C. C.) on the estimation 
of potash and phosphoric acid, 24. 
Steering of screw-steamers, Prof. O. 

Reynolds on the, 141. 

Stewart (Prof. Balfour) on the specific 
volumes of liquids, 62. 

Stokes (Prof.) on mathematical tables, 
305; on mathematical notation and 

rinting, 337. 

Sub- Wealden exploration, third report 
on, 346; geological report thereon, by 
W. Topley, 347. 

Symonds (Rey. W. 8.) on the circula- 
tion of underground waters, 114. 

Symons (G. J.) on underground tempe- 
rature, 14, 156; on the rainfall of the 
British Isles, 91. 


Temperature, underground, on the rate 
of increase of, downwards in various 
localities of dry land and under water : 
seventh report, 14; eighth report, 156. 

Thermal conductivities of certain rocks, 
second report on experiments to deter- 
mine the, showing especially the geo- 
logical aspects of the investigation, 54. 

Thomson (J.) on earthquakes in Scot- 
land, 64; on the structure of the car- 
boniferous corals, 165. 

(Sir W.) on underground tem- 
perature, 14, 156; on earthquakes in 
Scotland, 64; on mathematical tables, 
505. 

Thorpe (Prof. T. E.) on the specific 
volumes of liquids, 62; on isomeric 
cresols and their derivatives, 112. 

Tiddeman (R. H.) on the exploration of 
the Settle Caves, 166. 


| Tides in the river Mersey, J. N. Shool- 


bred on, 161. 

Tomlinson (C.) on the rainfall of the 
British Isles, 91. 

Topley (W.) on the Sub-Wealden ex- 
ploration, 346; geological report on 
the Sub- Wealden exploration, 547. 

Treatment and utilization of sewage, 
seventh report on the, 65. 


Cayley on, with application to the 
theory of chemical combinations, 257. 

Tristram (Rev. Canon) on the possibility 
of establishing a “close time” for 
the protection of indigenous animals, 
184, 


INDEX II. 


Underground temperature, on the rate 
of increase of, Fi in various 
localities of dry land and under water : 
seventh report, 14; eighth report, 156. 

—— waters in the New Red Sandstone 
and Permian formations, the circula- 
tion of the, and the quantity and cha- 
racter of the water supplied to various 
towns and districts from these forma- 
tions, report on, 114. 

Utilization of sewage, seventh report on 
the treatment and, 65. 


Vivian (E.) on the exploration of Kent’s 
Cavern, 1. 


Whitaker (Mz.) on the circulation of 
underground waters, 114. 


Willett (H.) on the Sub-Wealden ex- 


ploration, 546. 


265 


Williamson (Prof. A. W.) on the treat- 
ment and utilization of sewage, 65; 
on the monthly reports of the progress 
of chemistry, 184. 

—— (Prof. W. C.) on the structure of 
the carboniferous corals, 165. 

Wilson chiajor) on the Palestine explo- 
rations, 81. 

Wiltshire (Rey. T.) on the structure of 
the carboniferous corals, 165. 

Woodward (C. J.) on the erratic blocks 
of England and Wales, 82. 

—— (H.) on the Sub-Wealden explora- 
ration, 346. 

Wright (T.), on the circulation of under- 
ground waters, 114. 


Zoological station at Naples, report, on 
the, 18. 


INDEX II. 


TO 


MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE 
SECTIONS. 


[An asterisk (*) signifies that no abstract of the communication is given. | 


Abney (Capt.) on the ratio of the 
actinic power to the illuminating 
power of the magneto-electric light, 
25. 

*Acquisition, D. A, Spalding on instinct 
and, 163 

* Adansonia digitata, J. J. Monteiro on 
the application of the fibre of, 158, 

*Adipocere, D. J. Goodman on proto- 

lasm and, 167. 

Adolescence, Dr. J. Beddoe on the mor- 

tality of, 205. 


Africa, South, Dr. J. C. Brown on the | 


physical geography of, 189. 
1875. 


African expedition, the North-west, 
Gen. Sir A. Cotton on, 190. 

Agricultural statistics and waste lands, 
W. Botly on, 206. 

*Alexander (Maj.-Gen. Sir J. E.) on the 
probable cost and propriety of remoy- 
ing to England the fallen obelisk of 
Alexandria, 204. 

* Alexandria, the fallen obelisk of, Maj.- 
Gen. Sir J. E, Alexander on the pro- 
bable cost and propriety of removing 
to England, 204, 

Alkaloids of the aconites, G. H. Beckett 
and Dr, C, R. A. Wright on the, 87. 

20 


266 


*Allen (A. H.) on a method of effecting | 
the solution of difficultly soluble sub- 


stances, 37. 


Aloes, researches on the erystalline con- 


stituents of, by W. A. Tilden, 46. 
Aluminium, Dr. J. H. Gladstone and A. 
Tribe on the augmentation of the 
chemical activity of, by contact with 
a more negative metal, 43. 
Analytical forms called factions, Prof. 
Cayley on the, 10. 


Anatomy and Physiology, Address by | 


Prof. Cleland to the Department of, 

134. 

of the skin, some new researches 
on the, Dr. Martyn on, 169. 

*Animal remains found in Cissbury 
Camp, Prof. Rolleston on, 178. 

Anthropology, Address by Prof. Rolles- 
ton to the Department of, 142. 

, sociology, and nationality, D. 
Mackintosh on, 176. 

Apparatus and modes of examination 
for the source of polluted air, W. 
Thomson on, 45. 

*Arctic expedition, report on the 
egress of the, and on the 
of H.M.S. ‘ Valorous,’ by 
ham, 193. 

Armstrong (Dr. H. E.) on the nature of 
Berthelot’s vinylic alcohol, 37. 

Ashmead (F.) on the drainage of the 
city and county of Bristol, 240. 

Atlantic, that part of the, which lies 
between 20° V and 10°S., and ex- 
tends from 10° to 40° W., Capt. H. 
Toynbee on the physical geography 
of, 196. 

Aurés mountains, exploration of the, by 
Lieut.-Col. R. L. Playfair, 195. 

‘Auriferous limestone at Walton, W. W. 
Stoddart on, 81. 

Azygograptus, a new genus of grapto- 
lites from the Skiddaw slates, Prof. 
H. A. Nicholson on, 78. 


Baily (W. H.), description of a new 
labyrinthodont amphibia from the 
coal at Jarrow Colliery, near Castle- 
comer, co. Kilkenny, 62. 

*Balfour (I. B.) on TZwrneracee from 
Rodriguez, 156; on the geological 
structure and flora of the Mascarene 
Islands, 157. 


pro- 


eeeeetipe 
p | 


R. Mark- | 


*—— (Prof.) on rare plants from Scot- | 


land, 156. 
Ball (Prof. R. 5.) on a screw-complex 
of the second order, 10. | 
*Barrett (Prof. W. F.) on the effects of | 
heat on the molecular structure of | 


REPORT—1875. 


steel wires and rods, 27; on the effect 
of heat in altering the molecular 
structure of steel, 259. 

Beckett (G. H.) and Dr.C. R. A. Wright 
on the alkaloids of the aconites, 57 ; 
on Japanese camphor from pepper- 
mint, 38. 

Beddoe (Dr.) on the ossuary at Roth- 
well, in Northamptonshire, 170; on 
the need of systematic observations 
on the physical characters of man in 
Britain, 204 ; on the mortality of ado- 
lescence, 205; on the death-rates of 
some health-resorts, and specially of 
Clifton, 205, 

Belomancy, Miss A. W. Buckland on 
rhabdomancy and, 170. 

*Bergeron (C.) on the prevention of sand 
bars at the mouth of harbours, 243. 
Berthelot’s vinylic aleohel, Dr. H. E. 

Armstrong on the nature of, 37. 

Biological Section, Address by P. L. 
Sclater to the, 85. 

Birds of Europe, legislative protection 
to the, C. O. Groom-Napier on, 217. 
*Block signalling on railways, R. R. 

Harper on, 217. 

Bones, certain large, in Rheetic beds at 
Aust Cliff, near Bristol, W. Sanders 
on, 80. 

eS (Mons.) on sericiculture, 

6 


Botly (W.) on agricultural statistics 
and waste lands, 206; *on worlmen’s 
dwellings, 206. 

Bowman’s (Mr. H. T.) new method of 
taking ee of microscopical 
objects, H. B. Brady on, 168. 

Brabrook (E. W.) on the working of the 
Building Societies’ Act, 1874, 206, 

Brady (H. B.) on a new method of 
taking photographs of microscopical 
objects, devised by Mr. H. T. Bow- 
man, 163. 

*Braham (P.), experiments on magne- 
tized rings, plates, and disks of hard- 
ened steel, 28; *some further experi- 
ments on crystallization of metals by 
electricity, 38. 

*Breech-loading mountain gun, 
Smith on a, 262, 

Bristol, 1875, some account of the manu- 
facture and refining of sugar in, by H. 
T. Chamberlain, 39. 

, H. Chamberlain on the rise 

progress of the sugar trade in, 209. 

T. Dayey on the tobacco trade of, 


AWW 


me cd 
and 
Agassi et 
7 
40. 
, 8. Evans on the manufacture of 
sole-leather in, 41. 


INDEX II, 


* Bristol, S. Evans on the tanning of sole- 
leather in, 209, 

, L. Bruton on the trade and com- 
merce of the city and port of, 207. 

——, F. Ashmead on the drainage of 
the city and county of, 240. 

*—— coalfield, the northern end of the, 
H. Cossham, E. Wethered, and W. 
Saise on, 64. 

joint station, F. Fox on the, 248. 


* 


mouth, near Bristol, J. Brunlees on 
the, 244. 

*Brixham Cavern, W. Pengelly on a 
recent notice of, 177. 


Brodie (Rev. J.) on the action of ice in | 
what is usually termed the glacial | 


period, 63. 

—— (Rev. P. B.) on the further exten- 
sion of the Rheetic or Penarth beds 
in Warwickshire, Liecestershire, Not- 


port and Channel dock at Avon- | 


267 


tay of Good Hope, Dr. J. C. Brown on 

the products and prospects of the, 189. 

*Capital and money, W. Westgarth on 
the science of, 220. 

*Carbon bisulphide in coal-gas, A. V. 
Harcourt on an apparatus for estima- 
ting, 43. 

*Carbonic acid in air, A. S. Davis on a 
simple method of determining the 
proportion of, 40. 

Carboniferous encrinites from Clifton 
and from Lancashire, J. G. Grenfell 
on, 65. 

Carpenter (Dr. P. P.) on the primary 
divisions of the Chitonide, 161. 

(Dr. W. B.) on the origin of the 

red clay found by the ‘Challenger’ at 

great depths in the ocean, 64; *on 
the condition of the sea-bottom of the 

North Pacific, as shown by the sound- 


* 


tinghamshire, Yorkshire, and Cum- | 


berland; and on the occurrence of 
some supposed remains of anew La- 
byrinthodon and a new Radiate there- 
in, 64. 

Brown (Dr. J. C.) on the physical geo- 
graphy of South Africa, and products 
and prospects of the Cape of Good 
Hope, 189 ; on the late inundations in 
France, 189; on South-African tor- 
rential floods, 190. 

Browne (W. R.) on Roberts’s patent 
communicator for railway trains, 245. 

Brunlees (J.) on the Bristol port and 
Channel dock at Avonmouth, near 
Bristol, 244. 

Bruton (L.) on the trade and commerce 
of the city and port of Bristol, 207. 
Buckland (Miss A. W.) on rhabdomancy 

and belomancy, 170. 

Building Societies’ Act, 1874, E. W. 
Brabrook on the working of the, 206. 

—— societies and the Act of 1874, 
T. F. Peacock on, 218. 

Burt (Rey. J. T.) on the principles of 
penal legislation, 207. 

Buruts, the Kirghiz or, R. Michell on 


the supposed lost language and anti- | 


quity of, 176. 


on the, 11. 
Cambrian and Silurian rocks, H. Hicks 


on some areas where the, occur as | 


conformable series, 69. 


Cannington-Park limestone, E. B. Taw- | 


ney on the age of the, and its relation 
to coal-measures south of the Men- 
dips, 82. 


ings recently taken by the U.S. steam- 

ship ‘ Tuscarora,’ 64; *on the nervous 

and generative systems of the Crinoi- 
dea, 161; *on the bearings of recent 
observations on the doctrine of oceanic 

circulation, 190. 

(Miss) on industrial schools, 209. 

*Carrington (Col. H. B.) on the Indians 
of the North-western United States, 
171; *on Dacotah, North-west Ameri- 
ca, 190; *on chrome steel, 245. 

Castracane, Count Abbot, Prof. E. Hull 
on the discovery of Diatomaceze in 
coal from Lancashire and other places, 
by, 74. 

Cayley (Prof.) on the analytical forms 
called factions, 10. 

Cefn Cave, D, Mackintosh on the origin 
of two polished and sharpened stones 
from, 75. 

Chamberlain (H.) on the rise and pro- 
eress of the sugar trade in Bristol, 
1875, 209. 

(H. T.), some account of the 
manufacture and refining of sugar in 
Bristol, 1875, 39. 

Channel tunnel, W. Topley on the, 
253. 

Chemical Section, Address by A. G. V. 
Harcourt to the, 32. 


* 


| —— theory of gunpowder, Dr. Debus on 
*Calceulus of motors, Prof. J. D. Everett | 


the, 40. 

Chessboard, contributions to the mathe- 
matics of the, by H. M. Taylor, 21. 
*China, Western, Col. Yule on trade- 

routes to, 197. 
*Chinodine and pyridine bases, further 


researches, by Prof. Dewar and Dr. 
| M‘Kendrick, on the physiological 
| action of the, 165, 

20* 


268 


*Chippindale (Lieut.) on a journey to- 
wards the outlet of the Nile from the 
Lake Albert Nyanza, 190. 

Chitonide, Dr. P. P. Carpenter on the 
primary divisions of the, 161. 

*Chrome steel, Col. Carrington on, 245. 

*Cimbri, Rev. Canon Rawlinson on the 
ethnography of the, 178. 

*Cissbury Camp, Prof. Rolleston on the 
animal remains found in, 178. 

bs , Sussex, Col. A. H. Lane Fox 
on recent investigations in, 173. 

Clarke (Hyde) on prehistoric culture in 
India and Africa, 171; further note 
on prehistoric names of weapons, 172 ; 
on the Himalayan origin of the Ma- 
gyar and Fin languages, 172. 

Classification of the sedimentary rocks, 
Prof. T. M«IX. Hughes on the, 70. 

*Clegram (W. B.) on Sharpness Docks, 
245 


Cleland (Prof.), Address by, to the De- 
aoa of Anatomy and Physiology, 

*Clifford (Prof.) on the theory of linear 
transformations, 11. 

Climate, Prof. H. Hennessy on the in- 
fluence of the physical properties of 
water on, 29. 

; on the possible influence on, 
of the substitution of water for land 
in Central and Northern Africa, 30. 

* 


period, Rev. W. 8. Symonds on, 82. 

Clockwork of revolving lighthouses, J. 
a on improvements in the, 

Clowes (F.) on the action of ethyl-bro- 
mobutyrate upon ethyl-sodaceto-ace- 
tate, 39. 

Coal question, Prof. W. S. Jevons on the 
progress of the, 216. 

te (J. D.) on toughened glass, 
245, 


*Communication between passengers 
and guards, Messrs. Stroudley and 
Rusbridge on, 252. 

Communicator for railway trains, Ro- 
berts’s patent, W. R. Browne on, 243, 

*Competitive examinations, D. Mackin- 
tosh on the prevailing mode of pre- 
paring for, 217. 

‘“‘Conservation of force,” P. Hallett on 
the bearings of the, on life, 169. 

*Continued fractions, Prof. H. J. 8. 
Smith on, 21. 

Cooper (W. J.) on some physiological 
Sh of various drinking-waters, 

Copper-zine couple, Dr, J. H. Gladstone 


, changes of, during the glacial © 


| 


REPORT—1875. 


and A. Tribe on the action of the, 
43 


Corals, a new genus of rugous, from the 
mountain-limestone of Scotland, J. 
Thomson on, 83. 

*Corn, Prof. W. 8. Jevons on the in- 
fluence of the sun-spot period upon 
the price of, 217. 

*Cossham (H.), E. Wethered, and W. 
Saise on the northern end of the 
Bristol coal-field, 64. 

Cotton (Gen. Sir A.) on the North-west 
African expedition, 190. 

Craig and Crichton (Messrs.) on a sys- 
tem of audible signals for railways, 
245, 

*Crawshay (Mrs. R. M.) on domestic 
service for gentlewomen, 209. 

Crichton and Craig (Messrs.) on a sys- 
tem of audible signals for railways, 
245, 

*Crinoidea, Dr. W. B. Carpenter on the 
nervous and generative systems of the, 


Croll (J.) on the ‘Challenger’s’ crucial 
test of the wind and gravitation theo- 
ries of oceanic circulation, 191. 

Crystalline constituents of aloes, re- 
searches on the, by W. A. Tilden, 46. 

*Crystallization of metals by electricity, 
some further experiments on, by P. 
Braham, 89. 

Cubic spherical curves with triple cyclic 
arcs and triple foci, H. M. Jeffery on, 
16. 

Cycle of development, H. M. Westropp 
on the, 179. 


*Dacotah, North-west America, Col. H. 
B. Carrington on, 190. 

*Dardistan, &c., Dr. Leitner on an eth- 
nological and linguistic tour of dis- 
covery in, 176. 

*Davey (T.) on the tobacco trade of 
Bristol, 40. 

*Davis (A. 8.) on a simple method of 
determining the proportion of carbonic 
acid in air, 40. 

Death-rates of some health-resorts, Dr. 
J. Beddoe on the, and specially of 
Clifton, 205. 

Debus (Dr.) on the chemical theory of 
gunpowder, 40. 

Decomposition of an electrolyte by mag- 
neto-electric induction, J. A. Fleming 
on the, 28. 

Denny (W.) on the trials of screw 
steam-ships, 246, 

Development, H. M. Westropp on the 
cycle of, 179._ 


INDEX II. 269 


*Dewar (Prof.) and Dr. M‘Kendrick, 
further researches on the physiological 
action of the chinodine and pyridine 
bases, 165. 

Diamonds, the South-African, Prof. J. 
Tennant on, 82. 

Diatomacev in coal from Lancashire and 
other places, the discovery of, by Count 
Abbot Castracane, Prof. EK. Hull on, 74. 

Dickson (Prof. A.) on an abnormality of 
Primula vulgaris with interpetaline 
lobes, 157 ; on a monstrosity in Saxi- 
Fraga stellaris, 157; *on abnormal 
flowers of Trope@olum, 157. 

*Domestic service for gentlewomen, Mrs. 
R. M. Crawshay on, 209. 

Drainage of the city and county of 
Bristol, F. Ashmead on the, 240. 

Drifting power of tidal currents and 
that of wind-waves, G. H. Kinahan 
on, 74. 

Durdham Down deposit, yielding The- 
codontosaurus, &c., C. Moore on the 
age of the, 77. 


*ar, the physiognomy of the, Dr. Sims 
on, 178. 

Farle (Rev. J.) on the ethnography of 
Scotland, 172. 

Evlipse, the total solar, of April 5, 1875, 
observed at Bangchallé (Siam), Dr. J. 
Janssen on, 24. 

Eeonomic Science and Statistics, Ad- 
dress by J. Heywood to the Section 
of, 197. 

Education, national, Mrs. W. Grey on 
the standard of, 213. 

*Edwards (R.) on recent discoveries of 
flint implements in drift-gravels in 
Middlesex, Essex, and Berks, 173. 

*Electricity, some further experiments 
on the crystallization of metals by, by 
P. Braham, 39. 

Elementary solution of Huyghens’s pro- 
blem on the impact of elastic balls, 
by Prof. P. Mansion, 18. 

Elliot (Sir W.) on the original locali- 
ties of the races forming the present 
population of India, 173. 

English history, early, a new paragraph 
in, by Dr. T. Nicholas, 177. 

Essential oils, C. T. Kingzett on the 
oxidation of the, 43. 

*Ethnographical inquiries, Prof. Rolles- 
ton on the applicability of historical 
evidence to, 178. 

Ethnography of Scotland, Rey. J. Earle 
on the, 172. 

*__ of the Cimbri, Rev. Canon Raw- 
linson on the, 178. 


Ethyl-bromobutyrate, F. Clowes on 
the action of, upon ethyl-sodaceto- 
acetate, 39. 

Evans (J.) on a new code of interna- 
tional symbols for use on prehistoric 
maps, 173. 

(S) on the manufacture of sole- 
leather in Bristol, 41; *on the tanning 

- of sole-leather in Bristol, 209. 

*Everett (Prof. J. D.) on the calculus 
of motors, 11. 

*Experiments on magnetized rings, 
sea and disks of hardened steel, 

y P. Braham, 28. 


Factions, Prof. Cayley on the analyti- 
cal forms called, 10. 

Fairley (T.) on the separation of lead, 
silver, and mercury, with a proposed 
process for the estimation of lead, 
42; on a new method of preparing 
eae with application as a test 

or iodine and sodium, 42; *on new 
solvents. for gold, silver, platinum, 
&e., with an explanation of the so- 
called catalytic action of these metals 
and their salts on hydrogen dionide, 
42; *on the use of potassium dichro- 
mate in Grove’s and Bunsen’s_bat- 
teries to ensure constancy, 42. 

Fin languages, H. Clarke on the Hima- 
layan origin of the Magyar and, 172. 
Fleming (J. A.) on the decomposition 
of an electrolyte by magneto-electric 

induction, 28. 

*Flint in the chalk of Yorkshire, J. R. 
Mortimer on the distribution of, 78. 
implements, R. Edwards on recent 
discoveries of, in drift-gravels in 

Middlesex, Essex, and Berks, 173. 

Flora of the Mascarene Islands, I. B. 
Balfour on the geologica structure 
and, 157. 

Formule of verification in partitions, 
J. W. L. Glaisher on the, 11. 

Fossil seeds, some, from the lower car- 
boniferous beds of Laneashire, Prof. 
W.C. Williamson on, 159. 

Foster (C. Le Neve) on the deposit of 
tin-ore at Park of Mines, St. Columb, 
Cornwall, 64. 

*Fox (Col. A. H. Lane) on recent in- 
vestigations in Cissbury Camp, Sus~ 
sex, 173. 

- (F.) on the Bristol joint station, 
248. 

—— (I. W.) on Indian railways and 
Indian finance, 209, 

*Fractions, continued, Prof. H. J, 8, 
Smith on, 21, 


* 


270 


France, the late inundations in, Dr. J.C. | 
Brown on, 189. | 

*Free trade in labour, D. A. Spalding 
on, 220. 

Froude (W.), Address by, to the Me- 
chanical Section, 221. 

Fry (E.) on moraines as the retaining 
walls of lakes, 64. 

Fungus, a rare species of, found in Sur- 
rey, C. H.S. Perceval on, 158. 


*Gaseous compound of fluorine and 
phosphorus, a new, Prof. T. E. Thorpe 
on, 45, 

*Gatehouse (J. W.) on nitrite of silver, 
43. 


*General integration of Laplace’s differ- 
ential equation of the tides, by Sir W. 
Thomson, 25. 

Geographical Section, Address by Lieut.- 
Gen. R. Strachey to the, 180. 

Geological meaning of the term “ river- 
basin,” and the desirability of sub- 
stituting “ drainage-area,’”’ D. Mack- 
intosh on the, 75. 

Section, Address by Dr. T. Wright 

to the, 47. 

structure and flora of the Masca- 
rene Islands, I. B. Balfour, on the, 
157. 

*Geology of New Zealand, Dr. J. Hec- 
tor on the, 69. 

Geometrical theorems, W. Hayden on 
some, 14. 

Gill (Rev. W. W.) on the origin of the 
South-Sea Islanders, 173; some tra- 
ditions of the Hervey Islanders, 
174. 

Glacial period, Dr. C. Ricketts on the 
cause of the, with reference to the 
British Isles, 79. 

, Rev. W. 8. Symonds on changes 
of climate during the, 82. 

Gladstone (Dr. J. H.) on the relation of 
the arrangement of the acids and 
bases in a mixture of salts to the ori- 
ginal manner of combination, 43; 
on the recent discovery of a stone im- 
plement in the brick-earth of Erith, 
175. 

and A. ‘T'ribe on the action of 
the copper-zine couple, 43; on the 
augmentation of the chemical acti- 
vity of aluminium by contact with 
a more negative metal, 43. 

Glaisher (J. W. L.) on the formule 
of verification in partitions, 11; on 
theorems on the vth roots of unity, 13. 

*Glass, toughened, J. D. Cogan on, 245. 

Gold and tin of the ancients, C. O. 


* 


REPORT—1875. 


Groom-Napier on the localities from 
whence the, were derived, 177. 

*Goodman (D. J.) on protoplasm and 
adipocere, 167. 

*Gordon (Col. T. E.) on the explora- 
tion of the Pamir Steppe, 193. 

Graptolites in the Lower Ludlow rocks 
near Ludlow, J. Hopkinson on the dis- 
tribution of the, 69. 

Green (A. H.) on the variations in cha- 
racter and thickness of the millstone- 
grit of North Derbyshire and the 
adjoining parts of Yorkshire, and on 
the probable manner in which these 
changes have been produced, 65. 

Greenwood (F.) on the preservation of 
the bodies of the larger animals for 
dissection, 167. 

and L. C. Miall on vascular plex- 
uses in the elephant and other ani- 
mals, 170. 

Grenfell (J. G.) on carboniferous en- 
crinites from Clifton and from Lan- 
cashire, 65. 

Grey (Mrs. W.) on the standard of 
national education, 213. 

*Groom-Napier (C.O.) on vegetarianism, 
169; on the localities from whence 
the gold and tin of the ancients were 
derived, 177; on legislative protection 
to the birds of Europe, 217. 

Gunn (J.) on the influx and stranding 
of icebergs during the so-called glacial 
epoch, and a suggestion of the possi- 
ble cause of the oscillation of the 
level of land and water to which that 
influx may be due, 66. 

Gunpowder, Dr. Debus on the chemical 
theory of, 40. 


*. 


Hallett (P.) on the bearings of “the 
conservation of force” on life, 169 ; 
on income fallacies and some of their 
consequences, 215, 

*Hallidie’s (A. S.) wire rope traction- 
railway, W. Smith on, 252. 

*Handyside (H.) on a steel gradient 
formation, 248. 

Harcourt (A. G. V.), Address by, to the 
Chemical Section, 32; *on an appa- 
ratus for estimating carbon bisulphide 
in coal-gas, 43. 

*Harper (R. R.) on block signalling on 
railways, 248. 

Harrison (W. J.) on the occurrence of 
Rheetic beds near Leicester, 66. 

Hartshorne (B. F.) on the Weddas of 
Ceylon, 175. 

Hayden (W.) on some geometrical 
theorems, 14. 


INDEX II. 


*Heat, the effects of, on the molecular 
structure of steel wires and rods, Prof. 
W. F. Barrett on, 27. 

5 , in altering the molecular 

structure of steel, Prof. W. F. Barrett 


on, 259. 

Hébert (Prof. E.) on the undulations 
of the in chalk the north of France, 
and their probable existence under the 
Straits of Dover, 67. 


*Hector (Dr. J.) on the geology of New | 


Zealand, 69; *on the occurrence of 
moa-bones in New Zealand, 161. 
Hennessy (Prof. H.) on the influence of 
the physical eh Ga of water on 
climate, 29; on the possible influence 
on climate of the substitution of water 


for land in Central and Northern | 


Africa, 30. 


Hervey Islanders, some traditions of the, | 


Rev. W. W. Gill on, 174. 
Heywood (J.), Address by, to the Sec- 


271 


Ive, Rey. J. Brodie on the action of, in 
what is usually termed the glacial 
period, 63. 

Ice-action, existing, in Greenland and 
the Alps, compared with former ice- 
action in the N.W. of England and 
Wales, queries and remarks relative 
to, by D. Mackintosh, 76. 

Icebergs, J. Gunn on the influx and 
stranding of, during the so-called 
glacial epoch, and a sugyestion of the 
possible cause of the oscillation of the 
level of land and water to which that 
influx may be due, 66. 

Income fallacies and some of their con- 
sequences, P. Hallett on, 215. 

India, Sir W. Elliot on the original 
localities of the races forming the 
present population of, 173. 

-——, Dr. F. J. Mouat on the value of 
European life in, 217. 


| Indian railways and Indian finance, F. 


tion of Economic Science and Statis- | 
| *Indians of the North-western United 


tics, 197. 

Hicks (H.) on some areas where the 
Cambrian and Silurian rocks occur as 
conformable series, 69. 

Himalayan glaciers, Col. T. G. Mont- 
gomerie on, 193. 


uages, Hyde Clarke on the, 172. 

*Historical evidence, Prof. Rolleston on 
the applicability of, to ethnographi- 
cal inquiries, 178. 

Hoggan (Drs. G. and F. E.) on the 
origin of the lymphatics, 165. 

Hopkinson (J.) on the distribution of 
the graptolites in the Lower Ludlow 
rocks near Ludlow, 69. 

on improvements in the clockwork 
of revolving lighthouses, 248. 

—— and Prof. Stokes on the optical pro- 
perties of a titano-silicic glass, 26. 
*_—— and Sir W. Thomson on methods 

of giving distinctive characters tolight- 
houses, 253. 
Hudson (Dr. C. T.) on the classification 
and affinities of the Rotifera, 161. 
Hughes (Prof. T. M°K.) on the classifi- 
cation of the sedimentary rocks, 70. 
Hull (Prof. E.) on the discovery, by 
Count Abbot Castracane, of Diato- 
mace in coal from Lancashire and 
other places, 74; a scheme of water- 
supply for the villages and country 
parishes of the central and eastern 
counties of England, 249. 
Huyghens’s problem on the impact of 
elastic balls, elementary solution of, 
by Prof. P. Mansion, 18. 


origin of the Magyar and Fin lan- 


W. Fox on, 209. 


States, Col. Carrington on the, 171. 
rendpstpyt schools, Miss Carpenter on, 
209. 

Influence of the physical properties of 
water on climate, Prof H. Hennessy 
on the, 29. 

*Instinct and acquisition, D. A. Spalding 
on, 165. 

*Iutegration of linear differential equa- 
tions with rational coefficients, Sir W. 
Thomson on the, 23. 

International symbols for use on pre- 
historic maps, J. Evans on a new code 
of, 173. 

Inundations in France, the late, Dr. J. 
C. Brown on, 189. 

Trish Sea, J. N. Shoolbred on tides in 
the, 250. 


*Jackson (L.) and A. Oppenheim on 
derivates of mercaptan, 43. 

Janssen (Dr. J.) on the total solar eclipse 
of April 5, 1875, observed at Bangchallé 
(Siam), 24; on mirage at sea, 26; on 
the photographic revolver, and on the 
observations of the transit of Venus 
made in Japan, 26; on the position of 
the magnetic equator in the Gulf of 
Siam and in the Gulf of Bengal, 28. 

Japanese camphor from peppermint, 
G. H. Beckett and Dr. é R. A. 
Wright on, 38. 

Jeffery (H.M.) on the shadows of plane 
curves on spheres, 15; on cubic 
spherical curves with triple cyclic 
ares and triple foci, 16, 


272 


Jevons (Prof. W. 8.) on the progress of 
the coal question, 216; *on the in- 
fluence of the sun-spot period upon 
the price of corn, 217. 

Johnston (K.) on journeys in Paraguay 
in 1874-75, 193. 


*Kent’s Cavern, Torquay, W. Pengelly 
on archological discoveries in, 177. 
Kinahan (G. H.) on the drifting power 
of tidal currents and that of wind- 
waves, 74. 

Kingzett (C. T.) on the oxidation of 
the essential oils, 45. 

Kirghiz, or Buruts, R. Michell on the 
supposed lost language and antiquity 
of the, 176. 


*Labour, D. A. Spalding on free trade 
in, 220. 

Labyrinthodont amphibia, a new species 
of, from the coal at Jarrow Colliery, 
near Castlecomer, co. Kilkenny, 
description of, by W. H. Baily, 62. 

*Laplace’s differential equation of the 
tides, general integration of, by Sir 
W. Thomson, 23. 

process for determining an arbi- 
trary constant in the integration of 
his differential equation for the semi- 
diurnal tide, Sir W. Thomson on, 23. 

* theory of tides, some effects of, 
Sir W. Thomson on, 23. 

Lapworth (C.) and Prof. H. A. Nichol- 
son on the central group of the Silu- 
rian series of the North of England, 


* 


78. 

Lead, T. Fairley on a proposed process 
for the estimation of, 42. 

Leather, sole-, 8. Evans on the manu- 
facture of, in Bristol, 41. 

*__, —-—, on the tanning of, in 
Bristol, 209. 

Lebour (G. A.) on the limits of the 
Yoredale series in the North of Eng- 
land, 74. 

Legislative protection to the birds of 
Europe, C. O. Groom-Napier on, 217. 

*Leitner (Dr.) on an ethnological and 
linguistic tour of discovery in Dardis- 
tan, &c., 176. 

*Libraries, free public, Miss Stamp on 
statistics of, 220. 

Life, P. Hallett on the bearings of “the 
conservation of force ” on, 169. 

, European, Dr. F’. J. Mouat on the 
value of, in India, 217. 

*Lighthouses, Sir W, Thomson and 
J. Hopkinson on methods of giving 
distinctive characters to, 253. 


REPORT—1875. 


Lighthouses, revolving, J. Hopkinson on 
improvements in the clockwork of, 
248. * 

*Linear transformations, Prof. Clifford 
on the theory of, 11. 

*List of meteors observed at Oxford, by 
the Rev. R. Main, 24. 

Lonsdale (N. L.) on mechanical self- 
registering apparatus for barometer, 
thermometer, rain- and wind-gauges, 
260. 

Lower boulder-clay or till with shells, 
W. A. Traill on the occurrence of a, 
in the counties of Down and Mayo, 
Treland, 83. 

Lymphatics, Drs. G. and F. E. Hoggan 
on the origin of the, 165, 


*M‘Kendrick (Dr.) and Prof. Dewar, 
further researches on the physiologi- 
cal action of the chinodine and pyri- 
dine bases, 165. 

Mackintosh (D.) on the geological 
meaning of the term “ river-basin,” 
and the desirability of substituting 
“ drainage-area,” 75; on the origin 
of two polished and sharpened stones 
from Cefn Cave, 75; queries and re- 
marks relative to existing ice-action 
in Greenland and the Alps, compared 
with former ice-action in the N.W. 
of England and Wales, 76; on an- 
thropology, sociology, and national- 
ity, 176; *on the prevailing mode of 
preparation for competitive examina- 
tions, 217. 

M°*Murtrie (J.) on certain isolated areas 
of mountain-limestone at Luckington 
and Vobster, 76. 

M‘Nab (Prof. W. R.) on a variety of 
Polypodium vulgare, 158; ona variety 
of Rubus, 158. : 

*Maegnetic distribution, H. A. Rowland 
on, 29. 

equator in the Gulf of Siam and in 
the Gulf of Bengal, Dr. J. Janssen on 
the position of the, 28. 

*Magnetism of soft iron, Sir W. Thom- 
son on effect of stress on the, 29. 

*Magnetized rings, plates, and disks of 
hardened steel, experiments on, by 
P. Braham, 28. 

*Magnetizing function of iron, nickel, 
and cobalt, H. A. Rowland on the, 29. 

Maeneto-electric induction, J. A. Fle- 
ming on the decomposition ofan elec- 
trolyte by, 28. 

light, Capt. Abney on the ratio of 

the actinic power to the illuminating 

power of the, 25. 


INDEX II. 


Magyar and Fin languages, Hyde Clarke 
on the Himalayan origin of the, 172. 

*Main (Rey. R.), list of meteors ob- 
served at Oxford, 24. 

*Malloch (A.) on a mode of producing 
a sharp meridian shadow, 26. 

Man in Britain, Dr. J. Beddoe on the 
need of systematic observations on the 
physical characters of, 204. 

Mansion (Prof. P.), elementary solution 
of Huyghens’s problem on the impact 
of elastic balls, 18; on the singular 
solutions of differential equations of 
the first order which represent lines 
at infinity, 19. 

Maori races in New Zealand, W. 8. W. 
Vaux on the origin of the, 178. 

*Markham (C. R.), report on the pro- 
gress of the Arctic expedition, and on 
the proceedings of H.M.S. ‘ Valorous,’ 
193. 

Martyn (Dr.) on some new researches 
on the anatomy of the skin, 169. 

Mascarene Islands, I. B. Balfour on the 
geological structure and flora of the, 
157. 

*Masters (H.) on a sewer-trap, 250. 

Mathematical and Physical Section, 
Address by Prof. B. Stewart to the, 
1 


Mathematics of the chessboard, contri- 
butions to the, by H. M. Taylor, 21. 
Mechanical Section, Address by W. 

Froude to the, 221. 

self-registering apparatus for baro- 

meter, thermometer, rain- and wind- 

gauges, N. L. Lonsdale on, 260. 

*Melliss (J. C.) on the treatment of 
sewage, 45. 

Mendips, the early inhabitants of the, 
J.S.Phené on the works, manners, 
and customs of, 177. 

*Mercaptan, L. Jackson and A. Oppen- 
heim on derivates of, 43. 

*Meridian shadow, a sharp, A. Malloch 
on a mode of producing, 26. 

*Meteors observed at Oxford, list of, by 
the Rev. R. Main, 24. 

*Method of effecting the solution of dif- 
ficultly soluble substances, A. H. Allen 
on a, 37. 

*Miall (L. C.) and F. Greenwood on 
vascular plexuses in the elephant and 
other animals, 170. 

Michell (R.) on the supposed lost lan- 
guage and antiquity of the Kirghiz, or 
Buruts, 176. 

*Military bidon, W. Smith on a, 252. 

Millstone-grit of North Derbyshire and 


the adjoining parts of Yorkshire, | 


273 


A. H. Green on the variations in 
character and thickness of the, and 
on the probable manner in which 
these changes have been produced, 65. 

Mirage at sea, Dr. J. Janssen on, 26. 

*Moa-bones in New Zealand, Dr. Hector 
on the occurrence of, 161. 

Moffat (Dr. J.) on the apparent con- 
nexion between sun-spots, atmospheric 
ozone, rain, and force of wind, 31. 

*Money, W. Westgarth on the science 
of capital and, 220. 

*Monteiro (J. J.) on the application of 
the fibre of Adansonia digitata, 158. 
Montgomerie (Col. T. G.) on Hima- 

layan glaciers, 195. 

Moore (C.) on the age of the Durdham 
Down deposit, yielding Thecodonto- 
saurus, &e., 77. 

(Dr. D.) on Spiranthes Romanzo- 
viana, 158. 

Moraines as the retaining walls of lakes, 
E. Fry on, 64, 

Morgan (E. D.) on Prejevalsky’s travels 
in Mongolia and Northern Tibet, 194. 

Mortality of adolescence, Dr. J. Bed- 
doe on the, 205. 

, comparative, of abstainers and 
non-abstainers from alcoholic liquors, 
E. Vivian on the, 220. 

*Mortimer (J. R.) on the distribution of 
flint in the chalk of Yorkshire, 78. 
Motive power from the motion of a ship 
among waves, B. Tower on a machine 

for obtaining, 253. 

*Motors, Prof. J. D. Everett on the 
calculus of, 11. 

Mouat (Dr. F. J.) on the value of 
European life in India, 217. 

Mountain-limestone, certain isolated 
areas of, at Luckington and Vobster, 
J. M*Mutrtrie on, 76. 

Miintz and Ramspacher’s apparatus for 
the estimation of tannic acid, J. Watts 
on, 46. 


* 


*Nachtigall (Dr. G.), expedition from 
the Lake Tchad to the Upper Nile, 
195. 

*Napier (Capt. the Hon. G.) on the 
Turcoman frontier of Persia, 195. 

Nationality, anthropology, sociology, 
and, D. Mackintosh on, 176. 

*Neill (Mrs. B.) on the acclimatization 
of the silkworm, 218. 

Newton (A.) on certain neglected sub- 
jects of ornithological investigation, 
162. 


| *New Zealand, Dr. J. Hector on the geo- 


logy of, 69. 


274 


*New Zealand, Dr. Hector on the occur- 
rence of moa-bones in, 161. 

, W.S. W. Vaux on the origin 
of the Maori races in, 178. 

Nicholas (Dr. T.), a new paragraph in 
early English history, 177. 

Nicholson (Prof. H. A.) on Azygograp- 
tus, a new genus of graptolites from 
the Skiddaw Slates, 78. 

—— and C. Lapworth on the central 
group of the Silurian series of the 
North of England, 78. 

*Nile, journey towards the outlet of the, 
from the Lake Albert Nyanza, by 
Lieut. Chippindale, 190. 

, the Upper, expedition from the 
Lake Tchad to, by Dr. G. Nachtigall, 
195. 

*Nitrite of silver, J. W. Gatehouse on, 
43 


* 


*Noctilucine, Dr. T. L. Phipson on, 45. 


*Oceanic circulation, Dr. W. B. Carpen- | 


ter on the bearings of recent observa- 

tions on the doctrine of, 190. 

J. Croll on the ‘Chal- 
lenger’s’ crucial test of the wind and 
eravitation theories of, 191. 

*Onynoitic acid, A. Oppenheim on, 


5. 

*Oppenheim (A.), on onynoitic acid, 
45, 

« and L. Jackson on derivates of 
mercaptan, 45. 

Optical properties of a titano-silicic 
glass, Prof. Stokes and J. Hopkinson 
on the, 26. 

Origin of two polished and sharpened 
stones from Get Cave, D. Mackin- 
tosh on the, 75. 

Original localities of the races forming 
the present population of India, 
Sir W. Elliot on the, 173. 

Ornithological investigation, A. Newton 
on certain neglected subjects: of, 162. 

Ossuary at Rothwell, in Northampton- 
shire, Dr. Beddoe on the, 170. 

Oxidation of the essential oils, C. T. 
Kingzett on the, 43. 

*Oxus, Major H. Wood on changes in 
the course of the, 197. 


Pamir Steppe, Col. T. E. Gordon on 
the exploration of the, 193. 

Paraguay, K. Johnston on journeys in, 
in 1874-75, 193. 

Partitions, J. W. L. Glaisher on the 
formule of verification in, 11. 

Peacock (T. F.) on building societies 
and the Act of 1874, 218, 


REPORT— 1875. 


Penal legislation, Rev. J. T. Burt on the 
principles of, 207. 

*Pengelly (W.) on the archeological 
discoveries in Kent’sCavern, Torquay, 
177; *on a recent notice of Brixham 
Cavern, 177. 

Perceval (C. H. S.) on a rare species 
of fungus found in Surrey, 158. 

Periodates, I’. Fairley on a new method 
of preparing, with application as a 
test for iodine and sodium, 42. 

Perry (Rey. S. J.) on the transit of 
Venus, Dec. 8, 1874, 24. 

*Persia, the Turcoman frontier of, Capt. 
the Hon. G. Napier on, 195. 

Phené (J. 5S.) on the works, manners, 
and customs of the early inhabitants 
of the Mendips, 177. 

*Phipson (Dr. T. L.) on noctilucine, 
45, 


Photographic revolver, Dr. J. Janssen 
on the, and on the observations of the 
transit of Venus made in Japan, 26. 

Photographs of microscopical objects, 
H. B. Brady on a new method of 
taking, devised by Mr. H. T. Bow- 
man, 163. 

*Physiological action of the chinodine 
and pyridine bases, further researches 
on the, by Prof. Dewar and Dr. 
M‘Kendrick, 165. 

effects of various drinking-waters, 
some, W. J. Cooper on, 163. 

Physiology, Address by Prof. Cleland 
to the Department of Anatomy and, 
134, 

*Plants, rare, from Scotland, Prof. 
Balfour on, 156. 

Playfair (Lieut.-Col. R. L.), exploration 
of the Aurés mountains, 195. 

*Points and signals, W. Smith on a 
means of recording the movements of, 
252. 

Polluted air, W. Thomson on apparatus 
and modes of examination for the 
source of, 45. 

Polypodium vulgare, Prof. W. R. MtNab 
on a variety of, 158. 

Portishead Dock, F. C. Stileman on, 252. 

Position of the magnetic equator in the 
Gulf of Siam and in the Gulf of Ben- 
gal, Dr. J. Janssen on the, 28. 

*Potassium dichromate, T, Fairley on 
the use of, in Grove’s and Bunsen’s 
batteries to ensure constancy, 42. 

Predatory races of Asia and Europe, 
C. 8. Wake on the, 179. 

Prehistoric culture in India and Africa, 
Hyde Clarke on, 171. 

maps, J. Evans on a new code 


INDEX II. 


of international symbols for use on, 
1738. 

Prehistoric names of weapons, further 
note on, by Hyde Clarke, 172. 

Prejevalsky’s travels in Mongolia and 

orthern Tibet, E. D. Morgan on, 
194. 

Preservation of the bodies of the larger 
animals for dissection, F. Greenwood 
on the, 167. 

Priestman (Miss A. M.) on the indus- 
trial position of women as affected by 
their exclusion from the suffrage, 218. 

Primula vulgaris with interpetaline 
lobes, Prof. A. Dickson on an abnor- 
mality of, 157. 

*Protoplasm and adipocere, D. J. Good- 
man on, 167. 

*Pyridine bases, chinodine and, further 
researches, by Prof. Dewar and Dr. 
M‘Kendrick, on the physiological 
action of the, 165. 


*Quadric transformation, the effect of, 
on the singular points of a curve, 
Prof. H. J. S. Smith on the, 21. 

Queries and remarks relative to existing 
ice-action in Greenland and the Alps, 
compared with former ice-action in 
the N.W. of England and Wales, by 
D. Mackintosh, 76. 


*Railway, A. S. Hallidie’s wire rope 
traction, W. Smith on, 252. 

Railways, Messrs. Crichton and Craig 
on a system of audible signals for, 
245, 

, R. R. Harper on block signal- 
ling on, 248. 

Rainfall in Monmouthshire and the 
Severn valley on July 14th, G. J. 
Symons on, and on some subsequent 
floods in England and Wales, 31. 

Ratio of the actinic power to the illumi- 
nating power of the magneto-electric 
light, Capt. Abney on the, 25. 

*Rawlinson (Rey. Canon) on the ethno- 
graphy of the Cimbri, 178. 

*Red clay found by the ‘ Challenger ’ at 
eat depths in the ocean, Dr. W. B. 
arpenter on the origin of the, 64. 

Relation of the arrangement of the acids 
and bases in a mixture of salts to the 
original manner of combination, Dr. 
J. H. Gladstone on the, 43. 

Reptilian remains from the dolomitic 
conglomerate on Durdham Down, 
Dr. T. Wright on the, 85. 

Researches on the crystalline consti- 
tuents of aloes, by W. A Tilden, 46. 


* 


2795 


Revolution indicator, B. Tower on a, 
254. 

Rhabdomancy and belomancy, Miss A. 
W. Buckland on, 170, 

Rheetic beds near Leicester, W. J. Har- 
rison on the occurrence of, 66. 

or Penarth beds, Rev. P. B. Brodie 
on the further extension of, in War- 
wickshire, Leicestershire, Nottingham- 
shire, Yorkshire, and Cumberland ; 
and on the occurrence of some sup- 
posed remains of a new Labyrin- 
thodon and a new Radiate therein, 
64. 

*Richardson (C.) on the Severn tunnel, 
ste ; *on the tidal scour in the Severn, 

50. 

Ricketts (Dr. C.) on the cause of the 
glacial period, with reference to the 
British Isles, 79. 

“ River-basin,” D. Mackintosh on the 
geological meaning of the term, and 
the desirability of substituting “ drain- 
age-area,” 75, 

Roberts’s patent communicator for rail- 
way trains, W. R. Browne on, 243. 
Rolleston (Prof.), Address by, to the 

Department of Anthropology, 142; 
*on the animal remains found in 
Cissbury Camp, 178; *on the ap- 
plicability of historical evidence to 

ethnographical inquiries, 178. 

Rotifera, Dr. C. T. Hudson on the classi- 
fication and affinities of the, 161. 

*Rowland (H. A.) on the magnetizing 
function of iron, nickel, and cobalt, 
29; *on magnetic distribution, 29. 

Rubus, Prof. W. R. M°Nab on a variety 
of, 158. 

*Rusbridge and Stroudley (Messrs.) on 
communication between passengers 
and guards, 252, 


*Saise (W.), H. Cossham, and E. 
Wethered on the northern end of 
the Bristol coalfield, 64. 

*Sand bars at the mouth of harbours, 
ST cake on the prevention of, 


Sanders (W.) on certain large bones in 
Rheetic beds at Aust Cliff, near Bris- 
tol, 80. 

Saxifraga stellaris, Prof. A. Dickson on 
a monstrosity in, 157. 

Sclater (P. L.), Address by, to the 
Biological Section, 85. 

Scotland, Rev. J. Earle on the ethno- 
graphy of, 172. 

Screw steam-ships, W. Denny on the 
trials of, 246. 


276 


Serew-complex of the second order, 
Prof. R. 8. Ball on a, 10. 

*Sea-bottom of the North Pacific, Dr. 
W. B. Carpenter on the condition of 
the, as shown by the soundings recent- 
ly taken by the U.S. steamship ‘Tus- 
carora,’ 64. 

Sedimentary rocks, Prof. T. McK. 
Hughes on the classification of the, 70. 

Separation of lead, silver, and mercury, 
T. Fairley on the, 42. 

*Sericiculture, Mons. Bonhomme on, 
208. 

*Severn, the tidal scour in the, C. 
Richardson on, 259. 

* tunnel, C, Richardson on the, 250. 

*Sewage, J. C. Melliss on the treatment 
of, 45. 

*Sewer-trap, H. Masters on a, 250, 

Shadows of plane curves on spheres, 
H. M. Jeffery on, 15. 

*Sharpness Docks, W. B. Clegram on, 
245. 

Shoolbred (J. N.) on tides in the Irish 
Sea, 250. 


‘Signals, W. Smith on a means of re- | 


cording the movements of points and, 

252. 

, audible, 

Crichton and Craig on a system of, 245, 

‘*Silkworm, Mrs. B, Neill on the accli- 
matization of the, 218. 

Silurian series of the North of England, 
Prof. H. A. Nicholson and OC. Lap- 
worth on the central group of the, 78. 

*Simms (Dr.) on the physiognomy of 
the ear, 178. 

*Singular solutions, Prof. H. J. 8. Smith 
on, 21. 


of differential equations of the 
first order which represent lines at 
infinity, Prof. P. Mansion on the, 19. 

Skin, some new researches on the ana- 
tomy of the, Dr. Martyn on, 169. 

“Smith (Prof. H. J. 8S.) on singular 
solutions, 21; *on the eflect of qua- 
dric transformation on the singular 
points of a curve, 21; *on continued 
fractions, 21, 

Z (W.) on A, 8. Hallidie’s wire 
rope traction-railway, 252; *on a 
means of recording the movements of 
points and signals, 252; *on a breech- 
loading mountain gun, 252; *on a 
military bidon, 252. 

Sociology, anthropology, and nationality, 
D. Mackintosh on, 176. 

*Solution of difficultlysoluble substances, 
A. H. Allen on a method of effecting 
the, 37. i 


for railways, Messrs. | 


REPORT—1875. 


*Solvents, new, for gold, silver, plati- 
num, &c., T, Fairley on, with an ex- 
planation of the so-called catalytic 
action of these metals and their salts 
on hydrogen dionide, 42. 

South-African diamonds, Prof. J. Ten- 
nant on the, 82. 

torrential floods, Dr. J. C. Brown 
on, 190. 

South-Sea Islanders, Rev. W. W. Gill 
on the origin of the, 173. 

*Spalding (D. A.) on instinet and ac- 
quisition, 163; *on freetrade in labour, 
220. 

*Spiranthes Romanzoviana, Dr. D. Moore 
on, 158. 

*Stamp (Miss) on statistics of free pub- 
lic libraries, 220. 

Standard of national education, Mrs. 
W. Grey on the, 215. 

*Statistics of free public libraries, Miss 
Stamp on, 220, 

Steel, the effect of heat in altering the 
molecular structure of, Prof. W. F. 
Barrett on, 259. 

gradient formation, H. Handyside 
on a, 248, 

—— wires and rods, the effects of heat 
on the molecular structure of, Prof. 
W. F. Barrett on, 27. 

Steering, Dr. Woolley on, 255. 

Stewart (Prof. B.), Address by, to the 
Mathematical and Physical Section, 1. 

Stileman (F. C.) on Portishead Dock, 
252. 

Stoddart (W. W.) on auriferous lime- 
stone at Walton, 81. 

Stokes (Prof.) and J. Hopkinson on the 
optical properties of a titano-silicic 
lass, 26. 

Stone implement, Dr. J. H. Gladstone 
on the recent discovery of a, in the 
brick-earth of Erith, 175. 

Strachey (Lieut.-Gen. R.), Address by, 
to the Geographical Section, 180. 

*Stroudley and Rusbridge (Messrs.) on 
communication between passengers 
and guards, 252. 

Submerged forest in the estuary of the 
Orwell, discovery of a, by J. H. Taylor, 
82. 

Sugar, some account of the manufacture 
and refining of, in Bristol, 1875, by 
Hi. T. Chamberlain, 39. 

— — trade in Bristol, 1875, H. Cham- 
berlain on the rise and progress of 
the, 209. 

*Sun-spot period, Prof. W. 8S. Jevons 
on the influence of the, upon the price 
of corn, 217. 


* 


* 


INDEX IT. 


Sun-spots, atmospheric ozone, rain, and | 
force of wind, Dr. J. Moffat on the 
apparent connexion between, 31. 

*Symonds (Rev. W. 8.) on changes of 
climate during the glacial period, 82. 

Symons (G. J.) on the rainfall in Mon- 
mouthshire and the Severn valley on 
July 14th, and on some subsequent 
floods in England and Wales, 31. 


Tannic acid, J. Watts on Miintz and 
Ramspacher’s apparatus for the esti- 
mation of, 46. 

*Tanning of sole-leather in Bristol, 5. 
Evans on the, 209. 

Tawney (HK. B.) on the age of the Can- 
nington-Park limestone, and its rela- 
tion to coal-measures south of the 
Mendips, 82. 

Taylor (H. M.), contributions to the 
mathematics of the chessboard, 21. 
(J. E.), discovery of a submerged 
forest in the estuary of the Orwell, 

82. : 

Tennant (Prof. J.) on the South-African 
diamonds, 82. 

Theorems on the nth roots of unity, J. 
W. L. Glaisher on, 13. 

Thomson (J.) on anew genus of rugous 
corals from the mountain-limestone 
of Scotland, 83. 

*——_ (Sir W.) on Laplace’s process for 
determining an arbitrary constant in 
the integration of his differential 
equation for the semidiurnal tide, 23; 
*veneral integration of Laplace’s dif- 
ferential equation of the tides, 23; 
*on the integration of linear differen- 
tial equations with rational coeffici- 
ents, 25; *on some effects of La- 
oat theory of tides, 23; *on the ef- 

ect of stress on the magnetism of soft 
iron, 29; *on a machine for the cal- 
culation of tides, 253. 

and J. Hopkinson on methods of 
giving distinctive characters to light- 
houses, 253. 

—— (W.) on apparatus and modes 
of examination for the source of pol- 
luted air, 45. 

Thornycroft (J. I.) on vertical motion 
of vessels, 252. 

*Thorpe (Prof. T. EK.) on anew gaseous 
compound of fluorine and phosphorus, 
45 


* 


Tidal currents, the drifting power of, 
and that of wind-waves, G. H. Kina- 
han on, 74. 


* 


*Tide, the semidiurnal, Laplace’s pro- 
cess for determining an arbitrary con- | 


277 


stant in the integration of his differen- 
tial equation for, Sir W. Thomson on, 
9 


Tides in the Irish Sea, J. N. Shoolbred 

on, 250. 

, Laplace’s differential equation of 
the, general integration of, by Sir W. 
Thomson, 23. 

. , Laplace’s theory of, Sir W. Thom- 
son on some effects of, 23. 

, Sir W. Thomson on a machine 
for the calculation of, 253. 

Tilden (W. A.), researches on the crys- 
talline constituents of aloes, 46. 

Tin-ore, C. Le Neve Foster on the de- 
posit of, at Park of Mines, St. Columb, 
Cornwall, 64. 

Titano-silicic glass, Prof. Stokes and J. 
Hopkinson on the optical properties 
of a, 26. 

*Tobacco trade of Bristol, T. Davey on 
the, 40. 

ope (W.) on the Channel tunnel, 
2995, 


* 


Tower (B.) on a machine for obtaining 
motive power from the motion of a 
ship among waves, 253; on arevyolu- 
tion-indicator, 254. 

Toynbee (Capt. H.) on the physical 
geography of that part of the Atlantic 
which lies between 20° N, and 10°S., 
and extends from 10° to 40° W., 
196. 

Traill (W. A.) on the occurrence of a 
lower boulder-clay or till with shells 
in the counties of Down and Mayo, 
Ireland, 83; on a mass of travertine 
or calcareous tuff, called “The Glen 
Rock,” near Ballycastle, County 
Mayo, Ireland, 84, 

Transit of Venus, Dec. 8, 1874, Rey. 
8. J. Perry on the, 24, 

, Dr. J. Janssen on the obser- 
vations of the, made in Japan, 26. 
Travertine or calcareous tuti, a mass of, 
called “ The Glen Rock,” near Bally- 
castle, County Mayo, Ireland, W. A. 

Traill on, 84, 

*Treatment of sewage, J. C. Melliss on 
the, 45. 

Tribe (A.) and Dr. J. H. Gladstone on 
the action of the copper-zine couple, 
45; on the augmentation of the 
chemical activity of aluminium by 
contact with a more negative metal, 
43, 

Tropevlum, Prof. A. Dickson on abnor- 
mal flowers of, 157. 

*Turneracee from Rodriguez, I. B, 
Balfour on, 156. 


278 


Undulations of the chalk in the North 
of France, and their probable exist- 


ence under the Straits of Dover, Prof. | 


E. Hébert on the, 67. 


*Vascular plexuses in the elephant and 


other animals, L. C. Miall and F. | 


Greenwood on, 170. 
Vaux (W. 8. W.) on the origin of the 
Maori races in New Zealand, 178. 
*Vegetarianism, ©. O. Groom-Napier 
on, 169. 

Venus, the transit of, Dec. 8, 1874, 
Rey. S. J. Perry on, 24. 

- , Dr. J. Janssen on the obser- 
vations of, made in Japan, 26. 

Verification in partitions, J. W. L. 
Glaisher on the formule of, 11. 

Vertical motion of vessels, J. I. Thorny- 
croft on, 252. 

Vivian (E.) on the comparative mor- 


tality of abstainers and non-abstainers | 


from alcoholic liquors, 220. 


Asia and Europe, 179. 
Waste lands, W. Botly on agricultural 
statistics and, 206. 


Water-supply for the villages and coun- | 


try parishes of the central and eastern 


counties of England, a scheme for, by | 


Prof. Hull, 249. 

Waters, drinking-, W. J. Cooper on some 
physiological effects of various, 163. 
Watts (J.) on Miintz and Ramspacher’s 
apparatus for the estimation of tannic 

acid, 46, 


REPORT—1875. 


Weddas of Ceylon, B. F, Hartshorne on 
the, 175. 

*Westgarth (W.) on the science of 
capital and money, 220. 

Westropp (H. M.) on the cycle of de- 
velopment, 179. 

*Wethered (E.), H. Cossham, and W. 
Saise on the northern end of the 
Bristol coalfield, 64. 

Williamson (Prof. W. C.) on some fos- 
sil seeds from the lower carboniferous 
beds of Lancashire, 159. 

Wind-waves, G. H. Kinahan on the 
drifting power of tidal currents and 
that of, 74. 

Women, Miss A.-M. Priestman on the 
industrial position of, as affected by 
their exclusion from the suffrage, 218. 


| *Wood (Major H.) on changes in the 


course of the Oxus, 197. 
Woolley (Dr. J.) on steering, 255. 
*Workmen’s dwellings, W. Botly on, 
206. 


| Wright (Dr. C. R. A.) and G. H. Beckett 
Wake (C. 8.) on the predatory races of | 


on the alkaloids of the aconites, 37 ; 
on Japanese camphor from pepper- 
mint, 38. 


| —— (Dr. T.), Address by, to the Geo- 


logical Section, 47; on the reptilian 
* remains from the dolomitic conglome- 
rate on Durdham Down, 85. 


Yoredale series in the North of Eng- 
land, G. A. Lebour on the limits of 
the, 74. 

*Yule (Col.) on trade-routes to Western 
China, 197. 


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281 


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21* 


282 


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Steel;—Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the Cooperation of the British As~ 
sociation in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;—Sir 
J. F. W. Herschel, Bart., Report of the Committee appointed for the Reduction of Meteoro- 
logical Observations ;—Report of the Committee appointed for Experiments on Steam- 
Engines ;—Report of the Committee appointed to continue their Experiments on the Vitality 
of Seeds ;—J. S. Russell, Report of a Series of Observations on the Tides of the Frith of 
Forth and the East Coast of Scotland ;—J. S. Russell, Notice of a Report of the Committee 
on the Form of Ships;—J. Blake, Report on the Physiological Action of Medicines;—Report 
of the Committee on Zoological Nomenclature ;—Report of the Committee for Registering 
the Shocks of Earthquakes, and making such Meteorological Observations as may appear to 
them desirable ;—Report of the Committee for conducting Experiments with Captive Balloons; 
—Prof, Wheatstone, Appendix to the Report ;—Report of the Committee for the Translation 
and Publication of Foreign Scientific Memoirs ;—C. W. Peach, on the Habits of the Marine 
Testacea ;—E. Forbes, Report on the Mollusca and Radiata of the Aigean Sea, and on their 
Aistribution, considered as bearing on Geology ;—L. Agassiz, Synoptical Table of British 
Fossil Fishes, arranged in the order of the Geological Formations ;—R. Owen, Report on the 
Uritish Fossil Mammalia, Part 1I.;—E. W. Binney, Report on the excavation made at the 
junction of the Lower New Red Sandstone with the Coal Measures at Collyhurst ;—W. 


283 


Thompson, Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Div. Jnveréebrata ;—Provisional Reports, and 
Notices of Progress in Special Researches entrusted to Committees and Individuals. 

_ Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Earl of Rosse’s Address, and Recommen- 
dations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or toe FOURTEENTH MEETING, at York, 1844, 
Published at £1. 


ConTENTs:—W. B. Carpenter, on the Microscopic Structure of Shells ;—J. Alder and A. 
Hancock, Report on the British Nudibranchiate Mollusca ;—R. Hunt, Researches on the 
Influence of Light on the Germination of Seeds and the Growth of Plants ;—Report of a 
Committee appointed by the British Association in 1840, for revising the Nomenclature of the 
Stars ;—Lt.-Col. Sabine, on the Meteorology of Toronto in Canada ;—J. Blackwall, Report 
on some recent researches into the Structure, Functions, and Economy of the Araneidea 
made in Great Britain ;—Earl of Rosse, on the Construction of large Reflecting Telescopes ; 
—Rev. W. V. Harcourt, Report on a Gas-furnace for Experiments on Vitrifaction and other 
Applications of High Heat in the Laboratory ;—Report of the Committee for Registering 
Earthquake Shocks in Scotland ;—Report of a Committee for Experiments on Steam-Engines; 
—Report of the Committee to investigate the Varieties of the Human Race ;—Fourth Report 
of a Committee appointed to continue their Experiments on the Vitality of Seeds;—W. Fair- 
bairn, on the Consumption of Fuel and the Prevention of Smoke ;—I’. Ronalds, Report con- 
cerning the Observatory of the British Association at Kew ;—Sixth Report of the Committee 
appointed to conduct the Cooperation of the British Association in the System of Simulta- 
neous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;—Prof. Forchhammer on the influence 
of Fucoidal Plants upon the Formations of the Earth, on Metamorphism in general, and par- 
ticularly the Metamorphosis of the Scandinavian Alum Slate ;—H. E. Strickland, Report on 
the recent Progress and Present State of Ornithology ;—T. Oldham, Report of Committee 
appointed to conduct Observations on Subterranean Temperature in Ireland ;—Prof. Owen, 
Report on the Extinct Mammals of Australia, with descriptions of certain Fossils indicative 
of the former existence in that continent of large Marsupial Representatives of the Order 
Pachydermata ;—W. S. Harris, Report on the working of Whewell and Osler’s Anemometers 
at Plymouth, for the years 1841, 1842, 1843 ;——W. R. Birt, Report on Atmospheric Waves + 
—L. Agassiz, Rapport sur les Poissons Fossiles de l’Argile de Londres, with translation ;—J. 
S. Russell, Report on Waves ;—Provisional Reports, and Notices of Progressin Special Ree 
searches entrusted to Committees and Individuals. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dean of Ely’s Address, and Recommenda- 
tions of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tHe FIFTEENTH MEETING, at Cambridge, 
184.5, Published at 12s. 


ConrENTS:—Seventh Report of a Committee appointed to conduct the Cooperation of the 
British Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observa- 
tions ;—Lt.-Col. Sabine, on some points in the Meteorology of Bombay ;—J. Blake, Report 
on the Physiological Actions of Medicines ;—Dr. Von Boguslawski, on the Comet of 1843; 
—R. Hunt, Report on the Actinograph ;—Prof. Schénbein, on Ozone ;—Prof. Erman, on 
the Influence of Friction upon Thermo-Electricity;—Baron Senftenberg, on the Seif- 
Registering Meteorological Instruments employed in the Observatory at Senftenberg ;— 
W. R. Birt, Second Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—G. R. Porter, on the Progress and Pre- 
sent Extent of Savings’ Banks in the United Kingdom ;—Prof. Bunsen and Dr. Playfair, 
Report on the Gases evolved from Iron Furnaces, with reference to the Theory cf Smelting 
of Iron ;—Dr. Richardson, Report on the Ichthyology of the Seas of China and Japan ;— 
Report of the Committee on the Registration of Periodical Phenomena of Animals and Vege- 
tables ;—Fifth Report of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—Appendix, &e. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir J. F, W. Herschel’s Address, and Re- 
commendations of the Association and its Committees, 


PROCEEDINGS or true SIXTEENTH MEETING, at Southampton, 
1846, Published at 15s. 


ConTENTS:—G. G, Stokes, Report on Recent Researches in Hydrodynamics ;—Sixth 
Report of the Committee on the Vitality uf Seeds ;—Dr. Schunck, on the Colouring Matters of 
Madder ;—J. Blake, on the Physiological Action of Medicines;—R. Hunt, Report on the Ac- 
tinograph ;—R. Hunt, Notices on the Influence of Light on the Growth of Plants ;—R. L. 
Ellis, on the Recent Progress of Analysis ;—Prof. Forchhammer, on Comparative Analyticai 


284 


Researches on Sea Water ;—A. Erman, on the Calculation of the Gaussian Constants for 
1829;—G. R. Porter, on the Progress, present Amount, and probable future Condition of the 
Tron Manufacture in Great Britain ;—W. R. Birt, Third Report on Atmospheric Waves ;— 
Prof. Owen, Report on the Archetype and Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton ;— 
J. Phillips, on Anemometry ;—J. Percy, M.D., Report on the Crystalline Flags;—Addenda 
to Mr. Birt’s Report on Atmospheric Waves. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir R. I. Murchison’s Address, and Re- 
commendations of the Association and its Committees, 


PROCEEDINGS or tuzr SEVENTEENTH MEETING, at Oxford, 
1847, Published at 18s. 


ConTENTS :—Prof. Langberg, on the Specific Gravity of Sulphuric Acid at different de- 
grees of dilution, and on the relation which exists between the Development of Heat and the 
coincident contraction of Volume in Sulphuric Acid when mixed with Water ;—R. Hunt, 
Researches on the Influence of the Solar Rays on the Growth of Plants ;—R. Mallet, on 
the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Pyrof. Nilsson, on the Primitive Inhabitants of Scan- 
dinavia;—W. Hopkins, Report on the Geological Theories of Elevation and Earthquakes; 
—Dr. W. B. Carpenter, Report on the Microscopic Structure of Shells; —Rev. W. Whewell and 
Sir James C. Ross, Report upon the Recommendation of an Expedition for the purpose of 
completing our knowledge of the Tides;—Dr. Schunck, on Colouring Matters ;—Seventh Re- 
port of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—J. Glynn, on the Turbine or Horizontal 
Water-Wheel of France and Germany ;—Dr. R. G. Latham, on the present state and recent 
progress of Ethnographical Philology ;—Dr. J. C. Prichard, on the various methods of Research 
which contribute to the Advancement of Ethnology, and of the relations of that Science to 
other branches of Knowledge ;—Dr. C. C. J. Bunsen, on the results of the recent Egyptian 
researches in reference to Asiatic and African Ethnology, and the Classification of Languages ; 
—Dr. C. Meyer, on the Importance of the Study of the Celtic Language as exhibited by the 
Modern Celtie Dialects still extant;—~Dr. Max Miller, on the Relation of the Bengali to the 
Arian and Aboriginal Languages of India;—W. R. Birt, Fourth Report on Atmospheric 
Waves ;—Prof, W. H. Dove, Temperature Tables, with Introductory Remarks by Lieut.-Col. 
E. Sabine ;—A. Erman and H. Petersen, Third Report on the Calculation of the Gaussian Con- 
stants for 1829. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir Robert Harry Inglis’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tHe EIGHTEENTH MEETING, at Swansea, 
1848, Published at 9s. 


ConTENTsS :—Rev. Prof. Powell, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous Meteors ;— 
J. Glynn on Water-pressure Engines ;—R. A. Smith, on the Air and Water of Towns ;—Eighth 
Report of Committee on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—W. R. Birt, Fifth Report on At- 
mospheric Waves ;—E. Schunck, on Colouring Matters ;—J. P. Budd, on the advantageous use 
made of the gaseous escape from the Blast Furnaces at the Ystalyfera Iron Works;—R. Hunt, 
Report of progress in the investigation of the Action of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of 
Plants allied to those of the Coal Formations ;—Prof. H. W. Dove, Supplement to the Tem- 
perature Tables printed in the Report of the British Association for 1847 ;—Remarks by Prof. 
Dove on his recently constructed Maps of the Monthly Isothermal Lines of the Globe, and on 
some of the principal Conclusions ih regard to Climatology deducible from them; with an in- 
troductory Notice by Lt.-Col. E. Sabine;—Dr. Daubeny, on the progress of the investigation 
on the Influence of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of Ferns ;—J. Phillips, Notice of further 
progress in Anemometrical Researches ;—Mr. Mallet’s Letter to the Assistant-General Secre- 
tary ;—A. Erman, Second Report on the Gaussian Constants ;—Report of a Committee 
relative to the expediency of recommending the continuance of the Toronto Magnetical and 
Meteorological Observatory until December 1850. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Marquis of Northampton’s Address, 
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tur NINETEENTH MEETING, at Birmingham, 
1849, Published at 10s. 


ConTENTS:—Rev. Prof. Powell, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Ear] 
of Rosse, Notice of Nebulz lately observed in the Six-feet Reflector ;—Prof. Daubeny, on the 
Influence of Carbonic Acid Gas on the health of Plants, especially of those allied tu the Fossil 
Remains found in the Coal Formation ;—Dr. Andrews, Report on the Heat of Combination ; 
—Report of the Committee on the Registration of the Periodic Phenomena of Plants and 


285 


Animals ;-—Ninth Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ; 
—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Observatory of the British Association at Kew, from 
Aug. 9, 1848 to Sept. 12, 1849 ;—-R. Mallet, Report on the Experimental Inquiry on Railway 
Bar Corrosion ;—~W. R. Birt, Report on the Discussion of the Electrical Observations at Kew. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Rey. T, R. Robinson’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tur TWENTIETH MEETING, at Edinburgh, 
1850, Published at 15s. (Out of Print.) 


ConTents:—R. Mallet, First Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Rey. Prof. 
Powell, on Observations of Luminous Meteors;—Dr. T. Williams, on the Structure and 
History of the British Annelida;—T. C. Hunt, Results of Meteorological Observations taken 
at St. Michael’s from the Ist of January, 1840 to the 31st of December, 1849;—R. Hunt, on 
the present State of our Knowledge of the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;—Tenth 
Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Major-Gen. 
Briggs, Report on the Aboriginal Tribes of Indias—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Ob- 
servatory of the British Association at Kew ;—E. Forbes, Report on the Investigation of British 
Marine Zoology by means of the Dredge;—R. MacAndrew, Notes on the Distribution and 
Range in depth of Mollusca and other Marine Animals, observed on the coasts of Spain, Por- 
tugal, Barbary, Malta, and Southern Italy in 1849 ;—Prof. Allman, on the Present State of 
our Knowledge of the Freshwater Polyzoa ;—Registration of the Periodical Phenomena of 
Plants and Animals ;—Suggestions to Astronomers for the Observation of the Total Eclipse 
of the Sun on July 28, 1851. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir David Brewster’s Address, and Recom~ 
mendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tue TWENTY-FIRST MEETING, at Ipswich, 
1851, Published at 16s. 6d. 


Contents :—Rev. Prof. Powell, on Observations of Luminous Meteors;—Eleventh Re- 
port of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Dr. J. Drew, on 
the Climate of Southampton ;—Dr. R. A. Smith, on the Air and Water of Towns: Action of 
Porous Strata, Water and Organic Matter ;—Report of the Committee appointed to consider 
the probable Effects in an Economical and Physical Point of View of the Destruction of Tro- 
pical Forests ;—A. Henfrey, on the Reproduction and supposed Existence of Sexual Organs 
in the Higher Cryptogamous Plants;—Dr. Daubeny, on the Nomenclature of Organic Com- 
pounds ;—Rev. Dr. Donaldson, on two unsolved Problems in Indo-German Philology ;-~ 
Dr. T. Williams, Reporton the British Annelida;—R. Mallet, Second Report on the Facts of 
Earthquake Phenomena ;—Letter from Prof. Henry to Col. Sabine, on the System of Meteoro- 
logical Observations proposed to be established in the United States ;—Col. Sabine, Report 
on the Kew Magnetographs ;—J. Welsh, Report on the Performance of his three Magneto- 
graphs during the Experimental Trial at the Kew Observatory ;—F. Ronalds, Report concern~ 
ing the Observatory of the British Association at Kew, from September 12, 1850 to July 31, 
1851 ;—Ordnance Survey of Scotland, 

Together with the Transactions} of the Sections, Prof, Airy’s Address, and Recom- 
mendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or rut TWENTY-SECOND MEETING, at Belfast, 
1852, Published at 15s. 


ContTENTs :—R. Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Twelfth 
Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds;—Rev. Prof. 
Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1851-52 ;—Dr, Gladstone, on the In- 
fluence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers of Plants;—A Manual of Ethnological 
Inquiry ;—Col, Sykes, Mean Temperature of the Day, and Monthly Fall of Rain at 127 Sta- 
tions under the Bengal Presidency ;—Prof. J. D. Forbes, on Experiments on the Laws of the 
Conduction of Heat;—R. Hunt, on the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;—Dr. Hodges, 
on the Composition and Economy of the Flax Plant;—W. Thompson, on the Freshwater 
Fishes of Ulster; —W. Thompson, Supplementary Report on the Fauna of Ireland;—W, Wills, 
onthe Meteorology of Birmingham;—J. Thomson, on the Vortex-Water- Wheel ;—J. B. Lawes 
and Dr. Gilbert, on the Composition of Foods in relation to Respiration and the Feeding of 
Animals. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Colonel Sabine’s Address, and Recom- 
mendations of the Association and its Committees. 


286 


PROCEEDINGS or tne TWENTY-THIRD MEETING, at Hull, 
1853, Published at 10s. 6d. 


ContTENTs :—Rey. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1852-53; 
—James Oldham, on the Physical Ieatures of the Humber ;—James Oldham, on the Rise, 
Progress, and Present Position of Steam Navigation in Hull;—William Fairbairn, Experi- 
mental Researches to determine the Strength of Locomotive Boilers, and the causes which 
lead to Explosion ;—J. J. Sylvester, Provisional Report on the Theory of Determinants ;— 
Professor Hodges, M.D., Report on the Gases evolved in Steeping Flax, and on the Composition 
and Economy of the Flax Plant;—Thirteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on the 
Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Robert Hunt, on the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations; 
—John P. Bell, M.D., Observations on the Character and Measurements of Degradation of the 
Yorkshire Coast; First Report of Committee on the Physical Character of the Moon’s Sur- 
face, as compared with that of the Earth;—R. Mallet, Provisional Report on Earthquake 
Wave-Transits; and on Seismometrical Instruments ;—William Fairbairn, on the Mechanical 
Properties of Metals as derived from repeated Meltings, exhibiting the maximum point of 
strength and the causes of deterioration ;—Robert Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earth- 
quake Phenomena (continued). 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Hopkins’s Address, and Recommenda- 
tions of the Association and its Committees, 


PROCEEDINGS or roe TWENTY-FOURTH MEETING, at Liver- 
pool, 1854, Published at 18s. 


ContEnTS:—R. Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena (continued) ; 
—Major-Gencral Chesney, on the Construction and General Use of Efficient Life-Boats;—Rev. 
Prof. Powell, Third Report on the present State of our Knowledge of Radiant Heat ;—Colonel 
Sabine, on some of the results obtained at the British Colonial Magnetic Observatories ;— 
Colonel Portlock, Report of the Committee on Earthquakes, with their proceedings respecting 
Seismometers ;—Dr. Gladstone, on the influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers 
of Plants, Part 2;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1853-54; 
—Second Report of the Committee on the Physical Character of the Moon’s Surface ;—W. G. 
Armstrong, on the Application of Water-Pressure Machinery ;—J. B. Lawes and Dr. Gilbert, 
on the Equivalency of Starch and Sugar in Food ;—Archibald Smith, on the Deviations of the 
Compass in Wooden and Iron Ships ;—Fourteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on 
the Growth and Vitality of Seeds. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Earl of Harrowby’s Address, and Re- 
commendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or true TWENTY-FIFTH MEETING, at Glasgow, 
1855, Published at 15s. 


ConTENTS :—T. Dobson, Repert on the Relation between Explosions in Coal-Mines and 
Revolving Storms;—Dr. Gladstone, on the Influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers 
of Plants growing under different Atmospheric Conditions, Part 3;—C. Spence Bate, on the 
British Edriophthalma ;—J. F, Bateman, on the present state of our knowledge on the Supply 
of Water to Towns ;—Fifteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and 
Vitality of Seeds ;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1854—55 
—Report of Committee appointed to inquire into the best means of ascertaining those pro- 
perties of Metals -ad effects of various modes of treating them which are of importance to the 
durability and efficiency of Artillery ;—Rev. Prof. Henslow, Report on Typical Objects in 
Natural History ;—A. Follett Osler, Account of the Self-Registering Anemometer and Rain- 
Gauge at the Liverpool Observatory ;—Provisional Reports. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Duke of Argyll’s Address, and Recom- 
mendations of the Association and its Committees. . 


PROCEEDINGS or tne TWENTY-SIXTH MEETING, at Chel- 
tenham, 1856, Published at 18s. 


ConrEents:—Report from the Committee appointed to investigate and report upon the 
effects produced upon the Channels of the Mersey by the alterations which within the last 
fifty years have been made in its Banks;—J. Thomson, Interim Report on progress in Re- 
searches on the Measurement of Water by Weir Boards ;—Dredging Report, Frith of Clyde, 
1856 ;-—Rey. B. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1855-1856 3—Prof. 
Bunsen and Dr. H. E. Roscoe, Photochemical Researches ;—Rev. James Booth, on the Trigo- 
nemetry of the Parabola, and the Geometrical Origin of Logarithms ;—R. MacAndrew, Report 


287 


on the Marine Testaceous Mollusca of the North-east Atlantic and Neighbouring Seas, and 
the physical conditions affecting their development ;—P. P. Carpenter, Report on the present 
state of our knowledge with regard to the Mollusca of the West Coast cf North America ;— 
T. C. Eyton, Abstract of First Report on the Oyster Beds and Oysters of the British Shores; 
—Prof. Phillips, Report on Cleavage and Foliation in Rocks, and on the Theoretical Expla- 
nations of these Phenomena: Part I.;--Dr. T. Wright on the Stratigraphical Distribution of 
the Oolitic Echinodermata ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Tensile Strength of Wrought Iron at various 
Temperatures ;—C. Atherton, on Mercantile Steam Transport Economy ;-—J. 8. Bowerbank, on 
the Vital Powers of the Spongiade;——Report of a Committee upon the Experiments conducted 
at Stormontfield, near Perth, for the artificial propagation of Salmon ;—Provisional Report on 
the Measurement of Ships for Tonnage ;—On Typical Forms of Minerals, Plants and Animals 
for Museums ;—J. Thomson, Interim Report on Progress in Researches on the Measure- 
ment of Water by Weir Boards;—R. Mallet, on Observations with the Seismometer 3A. 
Cayley, on the Progress of Theoretical Dynamics ;—Report of a Committee appointed to con. 
sider the formation of a Catalogue of Philosophical Memoirs. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. Daubeny’s Address, and Recom- 
mendations of the Association and its Committees, 


PROCEEDINGS or tHe TWENTY-SEVENTH MEETING, at 
Dublin, 1857, Published at 15s. 


ContEentTs:—A. Cayley, Report on the Recent Progress of Theoretical Dynamics ;—Six- 
teenth and final Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ; 
—James Oldham, C.E., continuation of Report on Steam Navigation at Hull;—Report of a 
Committee on the Defects of the present methods of Measuring and Registering the Tonnage 
of Shipping, as also of Marine Engine-Power, and to frame more perfect rules, in order that 
a correct and uniform principle may be adopted to estimate the Actual Carrying Capabilities 
and Working-Power of Steam Ships;—Robert Were Fox, Report on the Temperature of 
some Deep Mines in Cornwall;—Dr. G. Plarr, De quelques Transformations de la Somme 
—2 atltigeitigé+} 


| (a, 
x ye tlytt+ lett? 


est exprimable par une combinaison de factorielles, la notation atl+1 désignant le produit des 
t facteurs a (a+1) (a+2) &c....(a-+¢—1);—G. Dickie, M.D., Report on the Marine Zoology 
of Strangford Lough, County Dewn, and corresponding part of the Irish Channel ;—Charles 
Atherton, Suggestions for Statistical Inquiry into the extent to which Mercantile Steam Trans- 
port Economy is affected by the Constructive Type of Shipping, as respects the Proportions of 
Length, Breadth, and Depth ;—J. S. Bowerbank, Further Report on the Vitality of the Spon- 
giadz ;—John P. Hodges, M.D., on Flax ;—Major-General Sabine, Report of the Committee 
on the Magnetic Survey of Great Britain ;—Rev. Baden Powell, Report on Observations of 
Luminous Meteors, 1856-57 ;—C. Vignoles, C.E., on the Adaptation of Suspension Bridges to 
sustain the passage of Railway Trains ;—Professcr W. A. Miller, M.D., on Electro-Chemistry ; 
—ZJohn Simpson, R.N., Results of Thermometrical Observations made at the ‘ Plover’s’ 
Wintering-place, Point Barrow, latitude 71° 21’ N., long. 156° 17’ W., in 1852-54 ;—Charles 
James Hargreave, LL.D., on the Algebraic Couple; and ou the Equivalents of Indeterminate 
Expressions ;—Thomas Grubb, Report on the Improvement of Telescope and Equatorial 
Mountings ;—Professor James Buckman, Report on the Experimental Plots in the Botanical 
Garden of the Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester ;—William Fairbairn,on the Resistance 
of Tubes to Collapse ;—George C. Hyndman, Report of the Proceedings of the Belfast Dredging 
Committee ;—Peter W. Barlow, on the Mechanical Effect of combining Girders and Suspen- 
sion Chains, and a Comparison of the Weight of Metal in Ordinary and Suspension Girders, 
to produce equal deflections with a given load ;—J. Park Harriscn, M.A., Evidences of Lunar 
Influence on Temperature ;—Report on the Animal and Vegetable Products imported into 
Liverpool from the year 1851 to 1855 (inclusive) ;—Andrew Henderson, Report on the Sta- 
tistics of Life-boats and Fishing-boats on the Coasts of the United Kingdom. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Rev. H. Lloyd’s Address, and Recommen- 
dations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tue TWENTY-EIGHTH MEETING, at Leeds, 
September 1858, Published at 20s. 


Contents:—R. Mallet, Fourth Report upon the Facts and Theory of Earthquake Phe- 
nomena ;— Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1857-58 ;—R. H. 
Meade, on some Points in the Anatomy of the Araneidea or true Spiders, especially on the 
internal structure of their Spinning Organs ;—W. Fairbairn, Report of the Committee on the 
Patent Laws ;—S. Eddy, on the Lead Mining Districts of Yorkshire ;—W. Fairbairn, on the 


a étant entier négatif, et de quelques cas dans lesquels cette somme 


288 


Collapse of Glass Globes and Cylinders ;—Dr. E. Perceval Wright and Prof. J. Reay Greene, 
Reporton the Marine Fauna of the South and West Coasts of Ireland ;—Prof. J. Thomson, on 
Experiments on the Measurement of Water by Triangular Notches in Weir Boards ;—Major- 
General Sabine, Report of the Committee on the Magnetic Survey of Great Britain ;—Michael 
Connal and William Keddie, Report on Animal, Vegetable, and Mineral Substances imported 
from Foreign Countries into the Clyde (including the Ports of Glasgow, Greenock, and Port 
Glasgow) in the years 1853, 1854, 1855, 1856, and 1857 ;—Report of the Comnnittee on Ship- 
ping Statistics;—Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D., Notice of the Instruments employed in the Mag- 
netic Survey of Ireland, with some of the Results;—Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin 
Dredging Committee, appointed 1857-58 ;—Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Report on Crustacea of Dub- 
lin District ;—-Andrew Henderson, on River Steamers, their Form, Construction, and Fittings, 
with reference to the necessity for improving the present means of Shallow-Water Navigation 
on the Rivers of British India;—George C. Hyndman, Report of the Belfast Dredging Com- 
mittee ;—Appendix to Mr. Vignoles’s paper ‘‘ On the Adaptation of Suspension Bridges to sus- | 
tain the passage of Railway Trains ;’”’—Report of the Joint Committee of the Royal Society and 
the British Association, for procuring a continuance of the Magnetic and Meteorological Ob- 
servatories;—R. Beckley, Description of a Self-recording Anemometer. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Qwen’s Address, and Recommenda- 
tions of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or ruze TWENTY-NINTH MEETING, at Aberdeen, 
September 1859, Published at 15s. 


Contents :—George C. Foster, Preliminary Report on the Recent Progress and Present 
State of Organic Chemistry ;—Professor Buckman, Report on the Growth of Plants in the 
Garden of the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester ;—Dr. A. Voelcker, Report on Field 
Experiments and Laboratory Researches on the Constituents of Manures essential to cultivated 
Crops ;—A. Thomson, Esq., of Banchory, Report on the Aberdeen Industrial Feeding Schools; 
—On the Upper Silurians of Lesmahago, Lanarkshire ;—Alphonse Gages, Report on the Re- 
sults obtained by the Mechanico-Chemical Examination of Rocks and Minerals ;—William 
Fairbairn, Experiments to determine the Efficiency of Continuous and Self-acting Breaks for 
Railway Trains ;—Professor J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin Bay Dredging Committee for 
1858-59 ;—Rev. Baden Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors for 1858-59 ; 
—Professor Owen, Report on a Series of Skulls of various Tribes of Mankind inhabiting 
Nepal, collected, and presented to the British Museum, by Bryan H. Hodgson, Esq., late Re- 
sident in Nepal, &c. &c. ;—Messrs. Maskelyne, Hadow, Hardwich, and Llewelyn, Report on 
the Present State of our Knowledge regarding the Photographic Image ;—G. C. Hyndman, 
Report of the Belfast Dredging Committee for 1859 ;—James Oldham, Continuation of Report 
of the Progress of Steam Navigation at Hull;—Charles Atherton, Mercantile Steam Trans- 
port Economy as affected by the Consumption of Coals;—Warren de la Rue, Report on the 
present state of Celestial Photography in England ;—Professor Owen, on the Orders of Fossil] 
and Recent Reptilia, and their Distribution in Time ;—Balfour Stewart, on some Results of the 
Magnetic Survey of Scotland in the years 1857 and 1858, undertaken, at the request of the 
British Association, by the late John Welsh, Esq., F.R.S.;—W. Fairbairn, The Patent Laws: 
Report of Committee on the Patent Laws;—J. Park Harrison, Lunar Influence on the Tem- 
perature of the Air ;—Balfour Stewart, an Account of the Construction of the Self-recording 
Magnetographs at present in operation at the Kew Observatory of the British Association ;— 
Prof. H. J. Stephen Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part I.;—Report of the 
Committee on Steamship performance ;—Report of the Proceedings of the Balloon Committee 
of the British Association appointed at the Meeting at Leeds ;—Prof. William K. Sullivan, 
Preliminary Report on the Solubility of Salts at Temperatures above 100° Cent., and on the 
Mutual Action of Salts in Solution. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prince Albert’s Address, and Recommenda- 
tions of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tue THIRTIETH MEETING, at Oxford, June 
and July 1860, Published at 15s. 


CONTENTS :—James Glaisher, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1859-60 ;— 
J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin Bay Dredging Committee ;—Rev. J. Anderson, Report on 
the Excavations in Dura Den ;—Professor Buckman, Report on the Experimental Plots in the 
Botanical Garden of the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester ;—Rev. R. Walker, Report of 
the Committee on Balloon Ascents ;—Prof. W. Thomson, Report of Committee appointed to 
prepare a Self-recording Atmospheric Electrometer for Kew, and Portable Apparatus for ob- 
serving Atmospheric Electricity ;—William Fairbairn, Experiments to determine the Effect of 


289 


Vibratory Action and long-continued Changes of Load upon Wrought-iron Girders ;—R. P. 
Greg, Catalogue of Meteorites and Fireballs, from A.D. 2 to A.D. 1860 ;—Prof. H. J. S. Smith, 
Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part II.;—Vice-Admiral Moorsom, on the Performance of 
Steam-vessels, the Functions of the Screw, and the Relations of its Diameter and Pitch to the 
Form of the Vessel;—Rev. W. V. Harcourt, Report on the Effects of long-continued Heat, 
illustrative of Geological Phenomena ;—Second Report of the Committee on Steamship Pers 
formance ;—Interim Report on the Gauging of Water by Triangular Notches ;—List of the 
British Marine Invertebrate Fauna. 

Together with the ‘l'ransactions of the Sections, Lord Wrottesley’s Address, and Recome 
mendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tut THIRTY-FIRST MEETING, at Manches- 
ter, September 1861, Published at £1. 


ConTentTs:—James Glaisher, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Dr. E. 
Smith, Report on the Action of Prison Diet and Discipline on the Bodily Functions of Pri- 
soners, Part I.;—Charles Atherton, on Freight as affected by Differences in the Dynamic 
Properties of Steamships ;—Warren De la Rue, Report on the Progress of Celestial Photo- 
graphy since the Aberdeen Mecting ;—B. Stewart, on the Theory of Exchanges, and its re- 
cent extension ;—Drs. E. Schunck, R. Angus Smith, and H. E. Roscoe, on the Recent Pro- 
gress and Present Condition of Manufacturing Chemistry in the South Lancashire District ;— 
Dr. J. Hunt, on Ethno-Climatology ; or, the Acclimatization of Man ;—Prof. J. Thomson, on 
Experiments on the Gauging of Water by Triangular Notches ;—Dr. A. Voelcker, Report on 
Field Experiments and Laboratory Researches on the Constituents of Manures essential to 
cultivated Crops ;—Prof. H. Hennessy, Provisional Report on the Present State of our Know- 
ledge respecting the Transmission of Sound-signals during Fogs at Sea;—Dr. P. L. Sclater 
and F. von Hochstetter, Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of the Birds of the 
Genus Apteryx living in New Zealand ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Report of the Results of Deep-sea 
Dredging in Zetland, with a Notice of several Species of Mollusca new to Science or to the 
British Isles ;—Prof. J. Phillips, Contributions to a Report on the Physical Aspect of the 
Moon ;—W. R. Birt, Contribution to a Report on the Physical Aspect of the Moon ;—Dr. 
Collingwood and Mr. Byerley, Preliminary Report of the Dredging Committee of the Mersey 
and Dee ;—'Third Report of the Committee on Steamship Performance ;—J. G. Jeffreys, 
Preliminary Report on the Best Mode of preventing the Ravages of Teredo and other Animals 
in our Ships and Harbours;—R. Mallet, Report on the Experiments made at Holyhead to 
ascertain the Transit-Velocity of Waves, analogous to Earthquake Waves, through the local 
Rock Formations ;—T. Dobson, on the Explosions in British Coal-Mines during the year 1859; 
—J. Oldham, Continuation of Report on Steam Navigation at Hull ;—Professor G. Dickie, 
Brief Summary of a Report on the Flora of the North of Ireland ;—Professor Owen, on the 
Psychical and Physical Characters of the Mincopies, or Natives of the Andaman Islands, and 
on the Relations thereby indicated to other Races of Mankind ;—Colonel Sykes, Report of the 
Balloon Committee ;—Major-General Sabine, Report on the Repetition of the Magnetic Sur- 
vey of England ;—Interim Report of the Committee for Dredging on the North and East 
Coasts of Scotland ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Resistance of Iron Plates to Statical Pressure and 
the Force of Impact by Projectiles at High Velocities ;—W. Fairbairn, Continuation of Report 
to determine the effect of Vibratory Action and long-continued Changes of Load upon 

_ Wrought-Iron Girders ;—Report of the Committee on the Law of Patents ;—Prof. H. J. 8. 
Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part ITI. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Fairbairn’s Address, and Recommen- 

dations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tut THIRTY-SECOND MEETING, at Cam- 
bridge, October 1862, Published at £1. 


Contents :—James Glaisher, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1861-62 ;-— 
G. B. Airy, on the Strains in the Interior of Beams ;—Archibald Smith and F, J. Evans, 
Report on the three Reports of the Liverpool Compass Committee ;—Report on Tidal Ob- 
servations on the Humber ;—T. Aston, on Rifled Guns and Projectiles adapted for Attacking 
Armour-plate Defences ;—Extracts, relating to the Observatory at Kew, from a Report 
presented to the Portuguese Government, by Dr. J. A. de Souza ;——H. T. Mennell, Report 
on the Dredging of the Northumberland Coast and Dogger Bank ;—Dr. Cuthbert Colling- 
wood, Report upon the best means of advancing Science through the agency of the Mercan- 
tile Marine;—Messrs. Williamson, Wheatstone, Thomson, Miller, Matthiessen, and Jenkin, 
Provisional Report on Standards of Electrical Resistance ;—Preliminary Report of the Com- 
mittee for investigating the Chemical and Mineralogical Composition of the Granites of Do- 


290 


negal ;—Prof. H. Hennessy, on the Vertical Movements of the Atmosphere considered in 
connexion with Storms and Changes of Weather ;—Report of Committee on the application 
of Gauss’s General Theory of Terrestrial Magnetism to the Magnetic Variations ;---Fleeming 
Jenkin, on Thermo-electric Currents in Circuits of one Metal ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Me- 
chanical Properties of Iron Projectiles at High Velocities ;—A. Cayley, Report on the Pro- 
gress of the Solution of certain Special Problems of Dynamics ;—Prof. G. G. Stokes, Report 
on Double Refraction ;—Fourth Report of the Committee on Steamship Performance ;— 
G. J. Symons, on the Fall cf Rain in the British Isles in 1860 and 1861 ;—J. Ball, on Ther- 
mometric Observations in the Alps ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Report of the Committee for Dredging 
on the N.and E. Coasts of Scotland ;—Report of the Committee on Technical and Scientific 
Evidence in Courts of Law ;—James Glaisher, Account of Eight Balloon Ascents in 1862 ;— 
Prof. H. J. S. Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part IV. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Rey. Prof. R. Willis’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tuzt THIRTY-THIRD MEETING, at New- 
castle-upon-Tyne, August and September 1563, Published at £1 5s. 


Contents :—Report of the Committee on the Application of Gun-cotton to Warlike Pur- 
poses;—A. Matthiessen, Report on the Chemical Nature of Alloys;—Report of the Com- 
mittee on the Chemical and Mineralogical Constitution of the Granites of Donegal, and on 
the Rocks associated with them ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Report of the Committee appointed for 
Exploring the Coasts of Shetland by means of the Dredge ;-—G. D. Gibb, Report on the 
Physiological Effects of the Bromide of Ammonium ;—C. K. Aken, on the Transmutation of 
Spectral Rays, Part I.;—Dr. Robinson, Report of the Committee on Fog Signals ;—Report 
of the Committee on Standards of Electrical Resistance ;—E. Smith, Abstract of Report by 
the Indian Government on the Foods used by the Free and Jail Populations in India ;—A. 
Gages, Synthetical Researches on the Formation of Minerals, &c.;—R. Mallet, Preliminary 
Report on the Experimental Determination of the Temperatures of Volcanic Foci, and of the 
Temperature, State of Saturation, and Velocity of the issuing Gases and Vapours ;—Report 
of the Committee on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Fifth Report of the Committee 
on Steamship Performance ;—G. J. Allman, Report on the Present State of our Knowledge 
of the Reproductive System in the Hydroida;—J. Glaisher, Account of Five Balloon Ascents 
made in 1863;—P. P. Carpenter, Supplementary Report on the Present State of our Know- 
ledge with regard to the Mollusca of the West Coast of North America ;—Professor Airy, 
Report on Steam-boiler Explosions;—C. W. Siemens, Observations on the Electrical Resist- 
ance and Electrification of some Insulating Materials under Pressures up to 300 Atmo- 
spheres ;—C. M. Palmer, on the Construction of Iron Ships and the Progress of Iren Ship- 
building on the Tyne, Wear, and Tees ;—Messrs. Richardson, Stevenson, and Clapham, on 
yhe Chemical Manufactures of the Northern Districts ;—Messrs. Sopwith and Richardson, 
on the Local Manufacture of Lead, Copper, Zinc, Antimony, &c.;—Messrs. Daglish and 
Forster, on the Magnesian Limestone of Durham ;—I. L. Bell, on the Manufacture of Iron 
in connexion with the Northumberland and Durham Coal-field ;—T. Spencer, on the Manu- 
facture of Steel in the Northern District ;—H. J. S. Smith, Report on the Theory of Num- 
bers, Part V. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir William Armstrong’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees, 


PROCEEDINGS or tne THIRTY-FOURTH MEETING, at Bath, 
September 1864, Published at 18s. 


ConTENTS :—Report of the Committee for Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Report 
of the Committee on the best means of providing for a Uniformity of Weights and Mea- 
sures ;—T. 5, Cobbold, Report of Experiments respecting the Development and Migration 
of the Entozoa;—B. W. Richardson, Report on the Physiological Action of Nitrite of Amy]; 
—J. Oldham, Report of the Committee on Tidal Observations ;—G. S. Brady, Report on 
deep-sea Dredging on the Coasts of Northumberland and Durham in 1864 ;—J. Glaisher, 
Account of Nine Balloon Ascents made in 1863 and 1864 ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Further Report 
on Shetland Dredgings ;—Report of the Committee on the Distribution of the Organic 
Remains of the North Staffordshire Coal-field ;—Report of the Committee on Standards of 
Electrical Resistance ;—G. J. Symons, on the Fall of Rain in the British Isles in 1862 and 
1863 ;—W. Fairbairn, Preliminary Investigation of the Mechanical Properties of the pro- 
posed Atlantic Cable. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir Charles Lyell’s Address, and Recom- 
mendations of the Association and its Committees. 


291 


PROCEEDINGS or tue THIRTY-FIFTH MEETING, at Birming- 
ham, September 1865, Published at £1 5s. 


Contents :—J.G. Jeffreys, Report on Dredging among the Channel Isles ;—F. Buckland, 
Report on the Cultivation of Oysters by Natural and Artificial Methods ;—Report of the 
Committee for exploring Kent’s Cavern ;—Report of the Committee on Zoological Nomen- 
clature ;—Report on the Distribution of the Organic Remains of the North Staffordshire 
Coal-field ;—Report on the Marine Fauna and Flora of the South Coast of Devon and Corn- 
wall ;—Interim Report on the Resistance of Water to Floating and Immersed Bodies ;—Re- 
port on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Report on Dredging on the Coast of Aberdeen- 
shire ;—J. Glaisher, Account of Three Balloon Ascents ;—Interim Report on the Transmis- 
sion of Sound under Water ;—G. J. Symons, on the Rainfall of the British Isles ;—W. Fair- 
bairn, on the Strength of Materials considered in relation to the Construction of Iron Ships; 
—Report of the Gun-Cotton Committee ;—A. F. Osler, on the Horary and Diurnal Variations 
in the Direction and Motion of the Air at Wrottesley, Liverpool, and Birmingham ;—B. W. 
Richardson, Second Report on the Physiological Action of certain of the Amyl Compounds ; 
—Report on further Researches in the Lingula-flags of South Wales ;—Report of the Lunar 
Committee for Mapping the Surface of the Moon ;—Report on Standards of Electrical Re- 
sistance ;—Report of the Committee appointed to communicate with the Russian Govern- 
ment respecting Magnetical Observations at Tifiis;—Appendix to Report on the Distribution 
of the Vertebrate Remains from the North Staffordshire Coal-field;—H. Woodward, First 
Report on the Structure and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea ;—H. J. S. Smith, Report 
on the Theory of Numbers, Part VI.;—Report on the best means of providing for a Unifor- 
mity of Weights and Measures, with reference to the interests of Science ;—A. G. Findlay, 
on the Bed of the Ocean;—Professor A. W. Williamson, on the Composition of Gases 
evolved by the Bath Spring called King’s Bath. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Professor Phillips’s Address, and Recom- 
mendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tne THIRTY-SIXTH MEETING, at Notting- 
ham, August 1866, Published at £1 4s. 


Contents :—Second Report on Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire ;—A. Matthiessen, Preliminary 
Report on the Chemical Nature of Cast Iron ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ; 
—W. S. Mitchell, Report on the Alum Bay Leaf-bed ;—Report on the Resistance of Water 
to Floating and Immersed Bodies;—Dr. Norris, Report on Muscular Irritability ;—Dr. 
Richardson, Report on the Physiological Action of certain compounds of Amyl and Ethyl;— 
H. Woodward, Second Report on the Structure and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea ;— 
Second Report on the “ Menevian Group,” and the other Formations at St. David’s, Pem- 
brokeshire ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Report on Dredging among the Hebrides ;—Rey. A. M. Norman, 
Report on the Coasts of the Hebrides, Part II.;—J. Alder, Notices of some Invertebrata, in 
connexion with Mr. Jeffreys’s Report ;—G. S. Brady, Report on the Ostracoda dredged 
amongst the Hebrides ;—Report on Dredging in the Moray Firth ;—Report on the Transmis- 
sion of Sound-Signals under Water;—Report of the Lunar Committee ;—Report of the 
Rainfall Committee ;—Report on the best means of providing for a Uniformity of Weights 
and Measures, with reference to the Interests of Science ;—J. Glaisher, Account of Three Bal- 
loon Ascents ;—Report on the Extinct Birds of the Mascarene Islands ;— Report on the pene- 
tration of Iron-clad Ships by Steel Shot ;—J. A. Wanklyn, Report on Isomerism among the 
Alcohols ;—Report on Scientific Evidence in Courts of Law ;—A. L. Adams, Second Report 
on Maltese Fossiliferous Caves, &c. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Grove’s Address, and Recommendations 
of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or trax THIRTY-SEVENTH MEETING, ait 
Dundee, September 1867, Published at £1 6s. 


Contents :—Report of the Committee for Mapping the Surface of the Moon ;—Third 
Report on Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire;—On the present State of the Manufacture of Iron 
in Great Britain ;—Third Report on the Structure and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea; 
—Report on the Physiological Action of the Methyl Compounds ;—Preliminary Report on 
the Exploration of the Plant-Beds of North Greenland ;—Report of the Steamship Perform- 
ance Committee ;—On the Meteorology of Port Louis in the Island of Mauritius ;—On the 
Construction and Works of the Highland Railway ;—Experimental Researches on the Me- 


292 


chanical Properties of Steel;—Report on the Marine Fauna and Flora of the South Coast of 
Devon and Cornwall ;—Supplement to a Report on the Extinct Didine Birds of the Masca- 
rene Islands ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Fourth Report on Dredging 
among the Shetland Isles ;—Preliminary Report on the Crustacea, &c., procured by the 
Shetland Dredging Committee in 1867 ;—Report on the Foraminifera obtained in the Shet- 
land Seas;—Second Report of the Rainfall Committee ;--Report on the best means of 
providing for a Uniformity of Weights and Measures, with reference to the Interests of 
Science ;—Report on Standards of Electrical Resistance. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, and Recommendations of the Association 
and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tue THIRTY-EIGHTH MEETING, at Nor- 
wich, August 1868, Published at £1 5s. 


ConTents :—Report of the Lunar Committee ;—Fourth Report on Kent’s Cavern, Devon- 
shire ;—On Puddling Iron;—Fourth Report on the Structure and Classification of the 
Fossil Crustacea ;—Report on British Fossil Corals;—Report on Spectroscopic Investigations 
of Animal Substances ;—Report of Steamship Performance Committee ;—Spectrum Analysis 
of the Heavenly Bodies;—On Stellar Spectrometry ;—Report on the Physiological Action of 
the Methyl and allied Compounds ;—Report on the Action of Mercury on the Biliary 
Secretion ;—Last Report on Dredging among the Shetland Isles ;—Reports on the Crustacea, 
&c., and on the Annelida and Foraminifera from the Shetland Dredgings ;— Report on the 
Chemical Nature of Cast Iron, Part I. ;—Interim Report on the Safety of Merchant Ships 
and their Passengers ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Preliminary Report 
on Mineral Veins containing Organic Remains ;—Report on the desirability of Explorations 
between India and China;—Report of Rainfall Committee ;—Report on Synthetical Re- 
searches on Organic Acids ;—Report on Uniformity of Weights and Measures ;—Report of the 
Committee on Tidal Observations ;—Report of the Committee on Underground Temperature; 
—Changes of the Moon’s Surface ;—Report on Polyatomic Cyanides. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. Hooker’s Address, and Recommenda- 
tions of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or ron THIRTY-NINTH MEETING, at Exeter, Au- 
gust 1869, Published at £1 2s. 


Contents :—Report on the Plant-beds of North Greenland ;—Report on the existing 
knowledge on the Stability, Propulsion, and Sea-going Qualities of Ships ;—Report on 
Steam-boiler Explosions ;—Preliminary Report on the Determination of the Gases existing 
in Solution in Well-waters;—The Pressure of Taxation on Real Property ;—On the Che- 
mical Reactions of Light discovered by Prof. Tyndall ;—On Fossils obtained at Kiltorkan 
Quarry, co. Kilkenny ;—Report of the Lunar Committee ;—Report on the Chemical Na- 
ture of Cast Iron;—Report on the Marine Fauna and Flora of the south coast of Devon 
and Cornwall ;—Report on the Practicability of establishing ‘‘a Close Time” for the Protec- 
tion of Indigenous Animals ;—Experimental Researches on the Mechanical Properties of 
Steel;—Second Report on British Fossil Corals ;—Report of the Committee appointed to 
get cut and prepared Sections of Mountain-limestone Corals for Photographing ;— Report on 
the rate of Increase of Underground Temperature ;—Fifth Report on Kent’s Cavern, De- 
vonshire ;—Report on the Connexion between Chemical Constitution and Physiological 
Action ;—On Emission, Absorption, and Reflection of Obscure Heat ;—Report on Obser- 
vations of Luminous Meteors ;—Report on Uniformity of Weights and Measures ;—Report on 
the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Supplement to Second Report of the Steam- 
ship-Performance Committee ;—Report on Recent Progress in Elliptic and Hyperelliptic 
Functions ;—Report on Mineral Veins in Carboniferous Limestone and their Organic Con- 
tents ;—Notes on the Foraminifera of Mineral Veins and the Adjacent Strata;—Report of 
the Rainfall Committee ;—Interim Report on the Laws of the Flow and Action of Water 
containing Solid Matter in Suspension;—Interim Report on Agricultural Machinery ;— 
Report on the Physiological Action of Methyl and Allied Series;—On the Influence of 
Form considered in Relation to the Strength of Railway-axles and other portions of Machi- 
nery subjected to Rapid Alterations of Strain ;—On the Penetration of Armour-plates with 
Long Shells of Large Capacity fired obliquely ;—Report on Standardsof Hlectrical Resistance. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Stokes’s Address, and Recom- 
mendations of the Association and its Committees. 


293 


PROCEEDINGS or rar FORTIETH MEETING, at Liverpool, Septem- 
ber 1870, Published at 18s. 


Contents :—Report on Steam-boiler Explosions ;—Report of the Committee on the 
Hematite Iron-ores of Great Britain and Ireland ;—-Report on the Sedimentary Deposits of 
the River Onny ;—Report on the Chemical Nature of Cast Iron ;—Report on the practica- 
bility of establishing ‘‘ A Close Time’’ for the protection of Indigenous Animals ;—Report 
on Standards of Electrical Resistance ;—Sixth Report on Kent’s Cavern ;—Third Report on 
Underground Temperature ;—Second Report of the Committee appointed to get cut and 
prepared Sections of Mountain-Limestone Corals ;—Second Report on the Stability, Pro- 
pulsion, and Sea-going Qualities of Ships ;—Report on Earthquakes in Scotland ;—Report 
on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Me- 
teors, 1869-70 ;—Report on Recent Progress in Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Functions ;— 
Report on Tidal Observations ;—On a new Steam-power Meter ;—Report on the Action of 
the Methyl and Allied Series ;—Report of the Rainfall Committee ;—Report on the Heat 
generated in the Blood in the process of Arterialization ;—Report on the best means of 
providing for Uniformity of Weights and Measures. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Huxley’s Address, and Recommen- 
dations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or roe FORTY-FIRST MEETING, at Edinburgh, 
August 1871, Published at 16s. 


Contents :—Seventh Report on Kent’s Cavern ;—Fourth Report on Underground Tem- 
perature ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1870-71 ;—Fifth Report on the 
Structure and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea ;—Report for the purpose of urging on 
Her Majesty’s Government the expediency of arranging and tabulating the results of the 
approaching Census in the three several parts of the United Kingdom in such a manner as 
to admit of ready and effective comparison ;—Report for the purpose of Superintending the 
publication of Abstracts of Chemical papers;—Report of the Committee for discussing 
Observations of Lunar Objects suspected of change ;—Second Provisional Report on the 
Thermal Conductivity of Metals;—Report on the Rainfall of the British Isles ;—Third 
Report on the British Fossil Corals ;—Report on the Heat generated in the Blood during the 
process of Arterialization ;—Report of the Committee appointed to consider the subject of 
physiological Experimentation ;— Report on the Physiological Action of Organic Chemical 
Compounds ;—Report of the Committee appointed to get cut and prepared Sections of 
Mountain-Limestone Corals ;—Second Report on Steam-Boiler Explosions ;—Report on the 
Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Report on promoting the Foundation of Zoological 
Stations in different parts of the World ;—Preliminary Report on the Thermal Equivalents of 
the Oxides of Chlorine ;—Report on the practicability of establishing a “Close Time” for 
the protection of Indigenous Animals ;—Report on Earthquakes in Scotland; Report on 
the best means of providing for a Uniformity of Weights and Measures ;—Report on Tidal 
Observations. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir William Thomson’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees, 


PROCEEDINGS or tur FORTY-SECOND MEETING, at 
Brighton, August 1872, Published at £1 4s. 


ConTEnTs :—Report on the Gaussian Constants for the Year 1829 ;~-Second Supplemen 
tary Report on the Extinct Birds of the Mascarene Islands ;—Report of the Committee for 
Superintending the Monthly Reports of the Progress of Chemistry ;—Report of the Com- 
mittee on the best means of providing for a Uniformity of Weights and Measures ;—Eighth 
Report on Kent’s Cavern ;—Report on promoting the Foundation of Zoological Stations in 
different parts of the World ;—Fourth Report on the Fauna of South Devon 3—Preliminary 
Report of the Committee appointed to Construct and Print Catalogues of Spectral Rays 
arranged upon a Scale of Wave-numbers;— Third Report on Steam-Boiler Explosions ;— 
Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1871-72 ;—Experiments on the Surface- 
friction experienced by a Plane moving through water;—Report of the Committee on the 
Antagonism between the Action of Active Substances ;—Fifth Report on Underground 
Temperature ;—Preliminary Report of the Committee on Siemens’s Electrical-Resistance 
Pyrometer ;—Fourth Report on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Interim Report 
of the Committee on Instruments for Measuring the Speed of Ships and Currents ;—Report 
on the Rainfall of the British Isles ;—Report of the Committee on a Geographical Explora- 
tion of the Country of Moab;—Sur l’élimination des Fonctiongs Arbitraires ;— Report on the 


294 


Discovery of Fossils in certain remote parts of the North-western Highlands ;—Report of the 
Committee on Earthquakes in Scotland ;—Fourth Report on Carboniferous-Limestone Corals; 
—Report of the Committee to consider the mode in which new Inventions and Claims for 
Reward in respect of adopted Inventions are examined and dealt with by the different 
Departments of Government ;—Report of the Committee for discussing Observations of 
Lunar Objects suspected of change ;—Report on the Mollusca of Europe;—Report of the 
Committee for investigating the Chemical Constitution and Optical Properties of Essential 
Oils ;—Report on the practicability of establishing a “Close Time” for the preservation 
of indigenous animals ;—Sixth Report on the Structure and Classification of Fossil Crustacea ; 
—Report of the Committee to organize an Expedition for observing the Solar Eclipse of Dec. 
12, 1871; Preliminary Report of a Committee on Terato-embryological Inquiries ;—Report 
on Recent Progress in Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Functions ;—Report on Tidal Observations ; 
—On the Brighton Waterworks ;—On Amsler’s Planimeter. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. Carpenter’s Address, and Recom~ 
mendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or maz FORTY-THIRD MEETING, at Bradford, 
September 1873, Published at £1 5s. 


Contents :—Report of the Committee on Mathematical Tables ;—Observations on the 
Application of Machinery to the cutting of Coal in Mines ;—Concluding Report on the 
Maltese Fossil Elephants ;—Report of the Committee for ascertaining the existence in diffe- 
rent parts of the United Kingdom of any Erratic Blocks or Boulders ;—Fourth Report on 
Earthquakes in Scotland ;—Ninth Report on Kent’s Cavern ;—On the Flint and Chert Imple- 
ments found in Keni’s Cavern ;—-Report of the Committee for investigating the Chemical 
Constitution and Optical Properties of Essential Oils ;—Report of inquiry into the Method of 
making Gold-assays ;—Fifth Report on the Selection and Nomenclature of Dynamical and 
Electrical Units ;—Repcrt of the Committee on the Labyrinthodonts of the Coal-measures ; 
—Report of the Committee to construct and print Catalogues of Spectral Rays ;—Report 
of the Committee appointed to explore the Settle Caves ;—Sixth Report on Underground 
Temperature ;—Report on the Rainfall of the British Isles ;—Seventh Report on Researches 
in Fossil Crustacea ;—Report on Recent Progress in Elliptic and Hyperelliptie Functions ;— 
Report on the desirability of establishing a ‘‘ Close Time” for the preservation of indigenous 
animals ;—Report on Luminons Meteors ;—On the visibility of the dark side of Venus;— 
Report of the Committee for the foundation of Zoological Stations in different parts of the 
world ;—Second Report of the Committee for collecting Fossils from North-western Scot- 
land ;—Fifth Report on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage;—Report of the Com- 
mittee on Monthly Reports of the Progress of Chemistry ;—On the Bradford Waterworks ;— 
Report on the possibility of Improving the Methods of Instruction in Elementary Geometry ; 
—Interim Report of the Committee on Instruments for Measuring the Speed of Ships, &c.; 
—Report of the Committee for Determinating High Temperatures by means of the Refran- 
gibility of Light, evolved by Fluid or Solid Substances ;—On a periodicity of Cyclones and 
Rainfall in connexion with Sun-spot periodicity ;—Tifth Report on the Structure of Carbo- 
niferous-Limestone Corals ;—Report of the Committee on preparing and publishing brief 
forms of Instructions for Travellers, Ethnologists, &c.;—Preliminary Note from the Com- 
mittee on the Influence of Forests on the Rainfall;—Report of Sub-Wealden Exploration 
Committee ;—Report of the Committee on Machinery for obtaining a Record of the Rough- 
ness of the Sea and Measurement of Waves near shore ;—Report on Science-Lectures and 
Organization ;—Second Report on Science-Lectures and Organization. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Professor A. WW. Williamson’s Address, 
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or ran FORTY-FOURTH MEETING, at Belfast, 
August 1874, Published at £1 ds. 


Contents :—Tenth Report on Kent’s Cavern ;—Report for investigating the Chemical 
Constitution and Optical Properties of Essential Oils ;—Second Report of the Sub-Wealden 
Exploration Committee;—On the Recent Progress and Present State of Systematic Botany ; 
—Report of the Committee for investigating the Nature of Intestinal Secretion ;—Report of 
the Committee on the Teaching of Physics in Schools ;—Preliminary Report for investiga- 
ting lsomeric Cresols and their derivatives ;—Third Report of the Committee for Collecting 
Fossils from localities in North-Western Scotland ;—Report on the Rainfall of the British 
Isles ;—On the Belfast Harbour ;—Report of inquiry into the Method of making Gold- 
assays ;—Report of a Committee on Experiments to determine the Thermal Conductivities 


295 


of certain Rocks ;—Second Report on the Exploration of the Settle Caves ;—On the Indus- 
trial uses of the Upper Bann river ;—Report of the Committee on the Structure and Clas- 
sification of the Labyrinthodonts;—Second Report of the Committee for recording the 
position, height above the sea, lithological characters, size, and origin of the Erratic Blocks 
of England and Wales, &c.; Sixth Report on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;— 
Report on the Anthropological Notes and Queries for the use of Travellers ;—On Cyclone 
and Rainfall Periodicities ;—Fifth Report on Earthquakes in Scotland ;—Keport of the 
Committee to prepare and print Tables of Wave-numbers ;—Report of the Committee for 
testing the new Pyrometer of Mr. Siemens ;—Report to the Lords Commissioners of the 
Admiralty on Experiments for the Determination of the Frictional Resistance of Water on 
a Surface &c. ;—Second Report for the Selection and Nomenclature of Dynamical and 
Electrical Units;—On Instruments for measuring the Speed of Ships;—Report of the 
Committee on the possibility of establishing a “‘ Close-time ” for the Protection of Indige- 
nous Animals ;—Report of the Committee to inquire into the economic effects of Combina- 
tions of Labourers and Capitalists ;—Preliminary Report on Dredging on the Coasts of 
Durham and North Yorkshire ;—Report on Luminous Meteors ;—Report on the best means 
of providing for a Uniformity of Weights and Measures. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Professor John Tyndall’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


1875. 22 


PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS, 
RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET. 


BRITISH ASSOCIATION 


FOR 


THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. 


LPs: t 


OF 


OFFICERS, COUNCIL, AND MEMBERS. 


CORRECTED TO MAY 1876, 


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OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1875-76. 


PRESIDENT. 
SIR JOHN HAWKSHAW, C.E., F.R.8., F.G.S. 


VICE-PRESIDENTS. 


The aia Hon. the EArt or Ducie, F.RS., ae Se ss ard C. RAWLINsON, K.C.B., 

The Right Hon. Sir SrarrorD H. NortHcore, | Dr. W. B. CARPENTER, C.B., LL.D., F.B.8., F.LS8., 
Bart., C.B., M.P., F.R.S. F.G,8. 

The Mayor oF Brisrou (1874-75). W. SANDERS, Esq,, F.R.S., F.G.S. 


PRESIDENT DESIGNATE. 
PROFESSOR THOMAS ANDREWS, M.D., LL.D., F,R.S., Hon. F.R.8.E. 


VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT. 
His Grace the DuKE oF ARGYLL, K.T., LL.D., eign Sir WiLtIAM THomson, M.A., LL.D., 


E.R.S.L. & E., F.G.S. C.L., F.R.8.L. & E. 
The Lorp PRovost oF GLASGOW. pian ALLEN THomson, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.L. 
Sir WILLIAM STIRLING MAxwWELIL, Bart., M.A} & E. 
M.P. Professor A. C. RAMSAY, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. 
LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT GLASGOW. 
Dr. W. G. BLACKIE, F.R.G.S. J. D. Marwick, Esq. 


JAMES GRAHAME, Esq. 


LOCAL TREASURERS FOR THE MEETING AT CLASCOW. 


Dr. FERGUS. 
8. M‘CLELLAND, Esq. 


ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. 


ABEL, F. A., Esq., F.R.S. MAXWELL, Professor a srl = R.S. 
BATEMAN, J. F., Esq., F.R.S. MERRIFIELD, C. W., wee 

BRAMWELL, F. 7 Esq., C.E., F.R NEwTon, Professor A. R.8 

De La Rue, WARREN, Esq. ir D. C. ‘8 F. R.S. OMMANNEY, Admiral E, C.B. iF. R.S. 
Evans, J., Esq., F.R.S. PENGELLY, W., Es R.8. 

Farr, Dr. W., F.R.S. PLAYFAIR, Rt. Hon Sone Lyon, C.B.,M.P.,F.R.S8. 
FLOWER, Professor W. H., F.R.S. PRESTWICH, Professor J., F.R.8. 
Foster, Professor G. C., ERS. ROLLESTON, Professor Ge M.A., F.R.S. 
GassiorT, J. P., Esq., D. 0. L,, LL.D., F.R.S. Roscoe, Professor H. ae i: D., F.R.S. 
HEYwoop, J., ’Esq., F. RS. RUvSSELL, Dr. W. J., 

JEFFREYS, J. GWYN, a ta SIEMENS, C. W., Esq., DD Cu. F.R.S. 
Lockyer, J. N., Het E . E.R.8 SMITH, Professor H. J. 8. ua E.R.S. 
MASKELYNE, Prof, N > ea F.R.S. 


GENERAL SECRETARIES. 


Capt. DouGLAs GALTON, C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.8., 12 Chester Street, Grosvenor Place, London, 8.W. 
Dr. MicHAEL Foster, F.R.S., F.C. s., Trinity College, Cambridge. 


ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY. 
GEORGE GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., F.C.S., Harrow-on-the-hill, Middlesex. 


GENERAL TREASURER. 
Professor A. W. WILLIAMSON, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., University College, London, W.C. 


EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. 
The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents and 
Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former years, 
the General Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurer and Secretaries for the 
ensuing Meeting. 
TRUSTEES (PERMANENT). 

General Sir EDWARD SABINE, K.C.B., R.A., D.C.L., F.R.S. 

Sir PHILIP DE M. GREY EGERTON, Bart., M. Pek R. 8., F.G.8. 

Sir Jonn Luszock, Bart., M.P., F.R.8., ELS. 


PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS. 


The Duke of Devonshire. The Rey. H. Lloyd, D.D. Professor Stokes, M.A., D.C.L. 
The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D. Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L. Prof. Huxley, LL.D., See. R. 8. 
Sir G. ey, Astronomer Royal. | Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B., LL.D. | Prof. Sir W. Thomson, D.C.L. 
General Sir E. Sabine, K.C.B. Sir William R. Grove, F. R. 8. Dr. Carpenter, F.R.S. 

The Earl of Harrowby. The Duke of Buccleuch, K.B. Prof. Williamson, Ph.D., F.R.8. 
The Duke of Argyll. Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, D.C.L. Prof. Tyndall, D.C.L., F.R.8. 


GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS. 


F. Galton, Esq., F.R.S. Gen. Sir E. Sabine, K.C.B., F.R.8. | Dr. T. Thomson, F.R.8. 
Dr. T. A. Hirst, F.R.5. W. Spottiswoode, Esq., F.R.8. 
AUDITORS. 


Professor J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S. W. Spottiswoode, Esq., F.R.S. Major-General Strachey, F.R.S. 


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LIST OF MEMBERS 


Or THE 


BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT 


OF SCIENCE. 


1876. 


* indicates Life Members entitled to the Annual Report. 
§ indicates Annual Subscribers entitled to the Annual Report. 
¢ indicates Subscribers not entitled to the Annual Report. 
Names without any mark before them are Life Members nct 
entitled to the Annual Report. 
Names of Members of the GrnrrAL ComMirTexE are printed in 
SMALL CAPITALS. 
Names of Members whose addresses are incomplete or not known 
are in ttalics, 


Notice of changes of Residence should be sent to the Assistant General Secretary, 


22 Albemarle Street, London, W. 


Year of 
Election. 


1866. 
1863. 


1872. 


Abbatt, Richard, F.R.A.S. Marlborough House, Woodberry Down, 
Stoke Newington, London, N. 
tAbbott, George J., United States Consul, Sheflield and Nottingham. 
*ApeL, Freperick Avucustus, F.R.S., F.C.8., Director of the 
Chemical Establishment of the War Department. Royal Arsenal, 
Woolwich, 8.E. 


. tAbercrombie, John, M.D. 15 Suffolk-square, Cheltenham. 

. LAbercrombie, Wiliam. 5 Fairmount, Bradford, Yorkshire. 

. *Abernethy, James. 4 Delahay-street, Westminster, London, S.W. 
. fAbernethy, James. Ferry-hill, Aberdeen. 

; Seen Robert. _Ferry-hill, Aberdeen. 

. *Apney, Ca 

. tAbraham, John. 87 Bold-street, Liverpool. 

. §Ackroyd, Samuel. Greayes-street, Little Horton, Bradford, York- 


tain, R.E., F.R.A.S., F.C.S. St. Margaret’s, Rochester, 


shire. 
. tAcland, Charles T. D. Sprydoncote, Exeter. 
. *Acland, Rev. H. W. Loughton, Essex. 


ActANnD, Henry W. D., M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.B.S., F.R.G.S., Re- 
gius Professor of Medicine in the University of Oxford. Broad- 
street, Oxford. 


. fActanpD, Sir THomas Dyxe, Bart., M.A., D.C.L., M.P. Sprydor- 


cote, Exeter; and Atheneum Club, London, S.W. 
Adair, John. 13 Merrion-square North, Dublin. 
tApams, A, Lriru, M.A., M.B., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Zoology, 
Royal College of Science for Ireland. 18 Clarendon-gardens, 
Maida-vale, W.; and Junior United Service Club, Charles- 
street, St. James’s, London, 8. W. 
B 


2 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1871. 
1869. 


1873. 


1860. 
1865. 
1864. 
1871. 


1842. 


1871. 
1859, 


1871. 
1862. 


1861. 
1872. 


1857. 
1859. 


1873. 
1858. 
1850. 


1867. 
1863, 
1859, 
1871. 


1871. 
1861, 


1852. 
1863. 


*Apams, Jonn Coucu, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Director of 
the Observatory and Lowndsean Professor of Astronomy and 
Geometry in the University of Cambridge, The Observatory, 
Cambridge. 

§Adams, John R. 15 Old Jewry Chambers, London, E.C. 

*A DAMS, WILLIAM GRYLLS, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.P.8., Professor 
of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in King’s College, London. 
9 Notting-hill-square, London, W. 

§Adams-Acton, John. Margutta House, 103 Marylebone-road, N.W. 

ADDERLEY, The Right Hon. Sir CHarLes Bowyer, M.P. Hams- 
hall Coleshill, Warwickshire. 
Adelaide, Augustus Short, D.D., Bishop of. South Australia. 

*Adie, Patrick. Grove Cottage, Barnes, London, 8.W. 

*Adkins, Henry. The Firs, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

*Ainsworth, David. The Flosh, Cleator, Whitehaven. 

*Ainsworth, John Stirling. The Flosh, Cleator, Whitehaven, 

Ainsworth, Peter. Smithills Hall, Bolton. 

*Ainsworth, Thomas, The Flosh, Cleator, Whitehaven. 

tAinsworth, William M. The Flosh, Cleator, Whitehaven. 

jArrum, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.T, Holly Lodge, Campden 
Hill, London, W.; and Airlie Castle, Forfarshire. 

Arry, Sir Georer Bropett, K.C.B., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.RB.S., 
F.R.A.8., Astronomer Royal. The Royal Observatory, Green- 
wich, 8.E. 

§Aitken, John. Darroch, Falkirk, N.B. 

Akroyd, Edward. Bankfield, Halifax. 

tAncock, Sir RurHerrorp, K.C.B. The Atheneum Club, Pall 
Mall, London, 8.W. 

tAlcock, Thomas, M.D. Side Brook, Salemoor, Manchester. 

*Alcock, Thomas, M.D. Oakfield, Ashton-on-Mersey, Manchester. 

*Aldam, William. Frickley Hall, near Doncaster. 

ALDERSON, Sir James, M.A., M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Consulting Phy- 
sician to St. Mary’s Hospital. 17 Berkeley-square, London, 


W. 

tAldridge, John, M.D. 20 Ranelagh-road, Dublin, 

tALEXANDER, Major-General Sir James Epwanrp, C.B., K.C.L.S., 
F.R.AS., F.R.G.S., F.R.S.E. Westerton, Bridge of Allan, N.B. 

tAlexander, Reginald, M.D. 13 Hallfield-road, Bradford, Yorkshire. 

tALEXANDER, WiLLiAM, M.D. Halifax. 

tAlexander, Rey. William Lindsay, D.D., F.R.S.E. Pinkieburn, Mus- 
selburgh, by Edinburgh. 

tAlison, George L..C, Dundee. 

t Allan, Miss. 

fAllan, Alexander. Scottish Central Railway, Perth. 

tAllan, G., C.E. 17 Leadenhall-street, London, H.C. 

Allan, William. 
§ALLEN, ALFRED H., F.C.S, 1 Surrey-stveet, Sheffield. 
tAllen, Richard. Didsbury, near Manchester. 
Allen, William. 50 Henry-street, Dublin. 

*Ariten, Writs J. C., Secretary to the Royal Belfast Academical 
Institution. Ulster Bank, Belfast. 

fAllbusen, C. Elswick Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

*Allis, Thomas, F.L.S. Osbaldwick Hall, near York. 

*ALLMAN, GzorGE J., M.D.,F.R.S.L.&E.,M.R.LA., F.L.S., Emeritus 
Professor of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh. 
21 Marlborough-road, London, N,W.; and Atheneum Club, 
London, S.W. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 3 


Year of 
Election. 


1875. 
1873. 
1850. 
1850. 
1874. 
1859. 
1875. 


1870. 
1853, 


§Alston, Edward R. 22a Dorset-street, Portman-square, London, W. 

§Ambler, John. North-park-road, Bradford, Yorkshire. 

tAnderson, Charles William. Cleadon, South Shields. 

tAnderson, John. 81 St. Bernard’s-crescent, Edinburgh. 

tAnderson, John, J.P., F.G.S. Holywood, Belfast. 

tAnprErson, Parrick. 15 King-street, Dundee. 

§Anderson, Captain 8., R.E. Junior United Service Club, Charles- 
street, St. James's, London, 8.W. 

tAnderson, Thomas Darnley. West Dingle, Liverpool. 

* Anderson, William (Yr.). 2 Lennox-street, Edinburgh. 

*AnpREws, THomas, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Hon. F.R.8.E., M.R.LA,, 
F.C.8., Vice-President and Professor of Chemistry, Queen’s 
College, Belfast. (Presment Drst¢NnaTr.) Queen's College, 
Beliast. 

tAndrews, William. The Hill, Monkstown, Co. Dublin. 

tAngus, John. Town House, Aberdeen. 

*AwnstED, Davip THomas, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 4 West- 
minster Chambers, Westminster, 8. W.; and Melton, Suffolk, 

Anthony, John, M.D. Caius College, Cambridge. 
Apsoun, James, M.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA., Professor of Mineralogy 
at Dublin University. South Hill, Blackrock, Co. Dublin. 

tAppleby, C. J. Emerson-street, Bankside, Southwark, London, 8.E, 

tArcher, Francis, jun. 3 Brunswick-street, Liverpool. 

*ArcHER, Professor THomas C., F.R.S.E., Director of the Museum 
of Science and Art. West Newington House, Edinburgh. 

fArcher, William, F.R.S., M.R.LA. St. Brendau’s, Grosvenor-road 
East, Rathmines, Dublin. 


. {Areytt, His Grace the Duke of, K.T., LL.D., F.R.S. L.& E., F.G.S8. 


Argyll Lodge, Kensington, London, W.; and Inveraray, Argyle- 
shire. 
tArmitage, J. W., M.D. 9 Huntriss-row, Scarborough. 
tArmitage, William. 7 Meal-street, Mosley-street, Manchester, 
*Armitstead, George. Errol Park, Errol, N.B, 


. §Armstrong, Henry E., Ph.D., F.C.S, London Institution, Finshury- 


circus, B.C. 

§Armstrong, James T., F.C.S. 17 The Willows, Breck-road, Liver- 

ool, 
ewieltestg Thomas. Higher Broughton, Manchester. 

*AnmstronG, Sir Witt1amM Grorer, C.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R-S. 
8 Great George-street, London, 8.W.; and Jesmond Dene, 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

tArnold, Edward, F.0.5. Prince of Wales-road, Norwich. 

tArnot, William, F.C.S. St. Margaret’s, Kirkintilloch, N.B. 


. §Armott, Thomas Reid. Bramshill, Harlesden Green, N.W. 
. *Arthur, Rev. William, M.A. Clapham Common, London, 8. W. 


*Ash, Dr. T. Linnington. Holsworthy, North Devon. 


. tAshe, Isaac, M.B. District Asylum, Londonderry. 
3. §Ashton, John. Gorse Bank House, Windsor-road, Oldham. 


*Ashton, Thomas, M.D. 8 Royal Wells-terrace, Cheltenham, 
Ashton, Thomas. Ford Bank, Didsbury, Manchester. 


. fAshwell, Henry. Mount-street, New Basford, Nottingham, 


*Ashworth, Edmund. Egerton Hall, Bolton-le-Moors, 
Ashworth, Henry. Turton, near Bolton. 
tAspland, Alfred. Dukinfield, Ashton-under-Lyne. 
sa oa Algernon Sydney. Glamorgan House, Durdham Down, 
ristol, 
*Aspland, W. G. Tanesfield, Clifton, Bristol, 
B2 


4 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1861. 
1861. 
1872. 
1875. 
1858. 
1866. 
1865, 
1861. 
1865, 


1863. 
1858. 
1842. 


1861. 
1858, 
1865. 


1860, 


1865. 
1867. 
1853. 


1863. 
1870. 
1865, 
1855. 


1866. 
1866. 
1857. 


1873. 
1865, 


1858. 
1858, 
1866. 
1858. 
1865. 
L861. 
1865. 
1849, 
1863. 
1875. 
1875, 


§Asquith, J. R. Infirmary-street, Leeds. 

tAston, Thomas. 4 Elm-court, Temple, London, E.C. 

§Atchison, Arthur T, Rose-hill, Dorking. 

tAtchison, D. G. Tyersall Hall, Yorkshire. 

tAtherton, Charles. Sandover, Isle of Wight. 

tAtherton, J. H., F.C.S. Long-row, Nottingham. 

tAtkin, Alfred. Griffin’s-hill, Birmingham. 

tAtkin, Eli. Newton Heath, Manchester. 

py. Epmunp, Ph.D., F.C.S. 8 The Terrace, York Town, 

urrey. 

* Atkinson, &. Clayton. 21 Windsor-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne, 

*Atkinson, John Hastings. 14 East Parade, Leeds. 

*Atkinson, Joseph Beavington. Stratford House, 118 Abingdon-road, 
Kensington, London, W. 

tAtkinson, Rev. J. A. Longsight Rectory, near Manchester. 

Atkinson, William. Claremont, Southport. 

*Artrimip, Professor J., Ph.D., F.C.8. 17 Bloomsbury-square, 
Londen, W.C. 

*Austin-Gourlay, Rey. William I, C., M.A. Stoke Abbott Rectory, 
Beaminster, Dorset. 

*Avery, Thomas. Church-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

tAvison, Thomas, F.S.A. Fulwood Park, Liverpool. 

*Ayrton, W.S., F'.S.A,  Cliffden, Saltburn-by-the-Sea. 


*BABINGTON, CHarLes Carpaty, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., Pro- 
fessor of Botany in the University of Cambridge. 5 Brookside, 
Cambridge. 

Bache, Rey. Samuel. 74 Beaufort-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 
Backhouse, Edmund. Darlington. 
Backhouse, Thomas James. Sunderland. 

{Backhouse, T. W. West Hendon House, Sunderland. 

§Bailey, Dr. F. J. 51 Grove-street, Liverpool. 

{Bailey, Samuel, F.G.S. The Peck, Walsall. 

{Bailey, William. Horseley Fields Chemical Works, Wolver- 
hampton. 

{Baillon, Andrew. St. Mary’s Gate, Nottingham. 

TBaillon, L. St. Mary’s Gate, Nottingham. 

tBarty, Witii1am Hever, F.L.S., F.G.8., Acting Paleeontologist to 
the Geological Survey of Ireland. 14 Hume-street ; and Apsley 
Lodge, 92 Rathgar-road, Dublin. 

§Bain, James. 3 Park-terrace, Glasgow. 

{Bary, Rev. W. J. Glenlark Villa, Leamington. 

*Bainbridge, Robert Walton. Middleton House, Middleton-in-Tees- 
dale, by Darlington. 

*Barnes, Kpwarp. Belgrave-mausions, Grosyenor-gardens, London 
S.W.; and St. Ann’s-hill, Burley, Leeds. 

{Baines, Frederick. Burley, near Leeds. 

}Baines, T. Blackburn. ‘Mercury’ Office, Leeds. 

{Baker, Francis B. Sherwood-street, Nottingham. 

*Baker, Henry Granville. Bellevue, Horsforth, near Leeds, 

{Baker, James P. Wolverhampton. 

*Baker, John. Gatley-hill, Cheadle, Manchester. 

tBaker, Robert I, Barham House, Leamington. 

*Baker, William. 63 Gloucester-place, Hyde Park, Londen, W. 

§Baker, William. 6 Taptonville, Sheffield. 

*Baker, W. Mills. Stoke Bishop, near Bristol. 

§Baker, W. Proctor, Brislington, Bristol. 


cr 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
DPlection. 


1860. 
1871. 
1871. 
1875. 


tBalding, James, M.R.C.S. Barkway, Royston, Hertfordshire. 

{Baifour, Francis Maitland. Trinity College, Cambridge. 

*Balfour, G.W. Whittinghame, Prestonkirk, Scotland. 

*Balfour, Isaac Bayley, D.Sc. 27 Inverleith-road, Edinburgh. 

*Batrour, Joun Hurron, M.D., M.A, F.R.S. L. & E., F.L.8., Pro- 
fessor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh. 27 Inyerleith- 
row, Hdinburgh. 

*Baxt, Joun, M.A., F.R.S., F.LS., M£R.LA. 10 Southwell-gardens, 
South Kensington, London, W. 


. *Batt, Ropert Stawe tt, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Andrews Professor 


of Astronomy in the University of Dublin, and Royal Astro- 
nomer. The Observatory, Dunsink, Co. Dublin. 


. (Ball, Thomas. Bramcote, Nottingham. 


*Ball, William. Bruce-grove, Tottenham, London, N.; and Glen 
Rothay, near Ambleside, Westmoreland. 


. {Balmain, William H., F.C.S. Spring Cottage, Great St. Helens, 


Lancashire. 


. {Bamber, Henry K.,F.C.S. 5 Westminster-chambers, Victoria-street, 


Westminster, S. W. 


. *Bangay, Frederick Arthur. Cheadle, Cheshire. 

. {Bangor, Viscount. Castleward, Co. Down, Ireland. 

. {BanisterR, Rey. Wii11aM, B.A. St. James’s Mount, Liverpool. 

. {Bannerman, James Alexander. Limefield House, Higher Broughton, 


near Manchester. 


. {Barber, John. Long-row, Nottingham. 
. *Barbour, George. Kingslee, Farndon, Chester. 
. tBarbour, George F. 11 George-square, Edinburgh. 


*Barbour, Robert. Bolesworth Castle, Tattenhall, Chester. 


. {Barclay, Andrew. Kilmarnock, Scotland. 


Barclay, Charles, F.S.A., M.R.A.S. Bury-hill, Dorking. 


. {Barclay, George. 17 Coates-crescent, Edinburgh. 


Barclay, James. Catrine, Ayrshire. 


. *Barclay, J. Gurney. 54 Lombard-street, London, E.C, 

. *Barclay, Robert. High Leigh, Hoddesden, Herts. 

. *Barclay, W. L. 54 Lombard-street, London, E.C. 

. *Barford, James Gale, F'.C.S. Wellington College, Wokingham, 


Berkshire. 


. *Barker, Rev. Arthur Alcock, B.D. ast Bridgford Rectory, 


Notts. 


. {Barker, John, M.D., Curator of the Royal College of Surgeons of 


Ireland. Waterloo-road, Dublin. 


. {Barker, Stephen. 30 Frederick-street, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 
. {Barxiy, Sir Henry, K.C.B., F.R.S., Governor of Cape Colony 


and Dependencies. Cape of Good Hope. 


. {Barlow, Crawford, B.A. 2 Old Palace-yard, Westminster, 8.W. 


Barlow, Lieut.-Col. Maurice (14th Regt. of Foot). 5 Great George- 


street, Dublin. 
Barlow, Peter. 5 Great George-street, Dublin. 


. [Bartow, Peter Wiiriay, F.R.S., F.G.5. 8 Eliott-place, Black~ 


heath, London, 8.E. 


. {Bartow, W. H., C.E., F.R.S. 2 Old Palace-yard, Westminster, 
S.W. 

. *Barnard, Major R. Cary, F.L.8. Bartlow, Leckhampton, Chelten- 
ham. : 

. §Barnes, Richard H. (Care of Messrs. Collyer, 4 Bedford-row, London, 
W.C 


Barnes, Thomas Addison, 40 Chester-street, Wrexham, 


6 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 


Year of 
Election. 


1859, 


1861. 
1860. 
1872. 


1852. 
1874. 
1874, 


1866. 
1858, 


1862. 
1875. 


1858. 
1855. 
1858. 


1873. 
1868, 
1857. 
1852. 
1864, 


1870. 


1861. 
1866. 


1866. 
1869, 
1871. 


1848. 
1875. 
1868. 


1842, 


1864. 


1852. 
1851. 


1865. 
1869. 


1863. 
1861. 
1867. 
1867. 


*Barnett, Richard, M.R.C.8, Alfred Villa, Leicester-street, Lea- 
mington. 

tBarr, Major-General, Bombay Army. Culter House, near Aber- 
deen. (Messrs, Forbes, Forbes & Co., 9 King William-street, 
London.) 

*Barr, William R.,F.G.8. Fernside, Cheadle Hulme, Cheshire. 

{Barrett, T. B. High-street, Welshpool, Montgomery. 

*Barrett, Professor W. F., F.R.S.E., M.R.LA., F.C.S. Royal 
College of Science, Dublin, 

tBarrington, Edward. Fassaroe Bray, Co. Wicklow. 

{Barrington, R. M.  Fassaroe, Bray, Co. Wicklow. 

§Barrington- Ward, Mark J., B.A., F.LS., F.R.G.S. St. Winifred’s, 
Lincoln. 

tBarron, William. Elvaston Nurseries, Borrowash, Derby. 

{Barry, Rey. A., D.D., D.C.L., Principal of King’s College, 
London, W.C. 

*Barry, Charles. 15 Pembridge-square, Bayswater, London, W. 

§Barry, John Wolfe. 23 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W. 

Barstow, Thomas. Garrow-hill, near York. 

*Bartholomew, Charles. Castle-hill House, Ealing, Middlesex, W. 

tBartholomew, Hugh. New Gas-works, Glasgow. 

*Bartholomew, William Hamond. Ridgeway House, Cumberland- 
road, Headingley, Leeds. 

§Bartley, George C.T. Ealing, Middlesex. 

*Barton, Hdward (27th Inniskillens). Clonelly, Ireland. 

{Barton, Folloit W. Clonelly, Co. Fermanagh, 

{Barton, James. Farndreg, Dundalk. 

{Bartrum, John 8. 41 Gay-street, Bath. 

§Barucuson, ARNOLD. 19'The Boltons, South Kensington, London, W. 

*Bashforth, Rev. Francis, B.D. Minting Vicarage, near Horncastle. 

tBass, John H., F.G.8. 287 Camden-road, London, N. 

“Bassey Henry. 44 St. Paul’s-road, Camden-square, London, 

V 


tBassett, Richard. Pelham-street, Nottingham. 

{Bastard,S. 8. Summerland-place, Exeter. 

{Basrran, H. Cuantron, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of 
Pathological Anatomy at University College Hospital. 20 
Queen Anne-street, London, W. 

{Barter, C. Spence, F.R.S., F.L.8. 8 Mulgraye-place, Plymouth. 

*Bateman, Daniel. Low Moor, near Bradford, Yorkshire. 

{Bateman, Frederick, M.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich. 

Bateman, James,.M.A., F.R.S., F.L.8. 9 Hyde Park-gate South, 
London, W. 

*BATEMAN, JOHN Freperic, C.E., F.R.S., F.G.8. 16 Great George- 
street, London, S.W. 

{Batres, Henry Warten, Assist.-Sec. R.G.8., F.L.S. 1 Savile-row, 
London, W. 

{Bateson, Sir Robert, Bart. Belvoir Park, Belfast. 

{Baru anp We tts, Lord Anrnur Hervey, Lord Bishop of. The 
Palace, Wells, Somerset. 

*Bathurst, Rev. W. H. Lydney Park, Gloucestershire. 

{Batten, John Winterbotham. 85 Palace-gardens-terrace, Kensing- 
ton, London, S.W. 

§BavERMAN, H., F.G.S. 22 Acre-lane, Brixton, London, 8.W. 

{Baxendell, Joseph, F.R.A.S. 108 Stock-street, Manchester. 

{Baxter, Edward. Hazel Hall, Dundee. 

{Baxter, John B, Craig Tay House, Dundee. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 7 


Year of 
Election. 


1867. 
. tBayes, William, M.D. 58 Brook-street, London, W. 

. *Bayley, George. 2Cowper’s-court, Cornhill, London, F.C, 

. tBayley, Thomas. Lenton, Nottingham. 

. {Baylis, C. 0., M.D. 22 Devonshire-road, Claughton, Birkenhead. 


{Baxter, William Edward, M.P. Ashcliffe, Dundee. 


Bayly, John. Seven Trees, Plymouth. 


. *Bayly, Robert. Torr-grove, near, Plymouth. 
. *Beats, Lionet S., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Pathological Anatomy 


in King’s College. 61 Grosvenor-street, London, W. 


. §Bean, William. Alfreton, Derbyshire. 
. tBeanes, Edward, F.C.S. Avon House, Dulwich Common, Surrey, 


S.E 


; {Beard, Rev. Gharles. 13 South-hill-road, Toxteth Park, Liver- 


pool. 
*Beatson, William. Chemical Works, Rotherham. 


. *Beaufort, W. Morris, F.R.G.S, Atheneum Club, Pall Mall, Lon- 


don, 8. W. 


. *Beaumort, Rev. Thomas George. Chelmondiston Rectory, Ips- 


wich. 


. *Beazley, Captain George G. Army and Navy Club, Pall Mall, 


London, 8. W. 


. *Beck, Joseph, F.R.A.S, _31 Cornhill, London, E.C. 
. §Becker, Miss Lydia E. Whalley Range, Manchester. 
. {Becxies, Samvet H., F.B.S., F.G.S. 9 Grand-parade, St. Leonard’s- 


on-Sea. 


. {Beddard, James. Derby-road, Nottingham. 

. §Beppor, Joun, M.D., F.R.S.__ Clifton, Bristol. . 

. {Behrens, Jacob. Springfield House, North-parade, Bradford. 

. *BeLavenerz, L., Captain of the Russian Imperial Navy, F.R.LG.S., 


M.S.C.M.A., Superintendent of the Compass Observatory, 
Cronstadt. (Care of Messrs. Baring Brothers, Bishopsgate~ 
street, London, E.C.) 


| *Beicner, Admiral Sir Epwarp, K.C.B., F.RAS., F.RGS,. 


13 Dorset-street, Portman-square, London, W. 


. {Belcher, Richard Boswell. Blockley, Worcestershire. 
. §Bell, A. P. Royal Exchange, Manchester. 
. §Bell, Charles B. 6 agli ank, Hull. 


Bell, Frederick John. oodlands, near Maldon, Essex. 


. tBell, George. Windsor-buildings, Dumbarton. 


{Bell, Rev. George Charles, M.A. Christ’s Hospital, London, E.C. 


. {Bell, Capt. Henry. Chalfont Lodge, Cheltenham. 
. *Burt, Isaac Lowrutay, M.P., F.R.S., F.CS., M.LC.E. The Hall, 


Washington, Co. Durham. 


. §Bell, James, F.C.S._The Laboratory, Somerset House, London, W.C. 
. *Bell, J. Carter, F.C.S. Cheadle, Cheshire. 

. tBell, John Pearson, M.D, Waverley House, Hull. 

. {Bell, R. Queen’s College, Kingston, Canada. 


Bett, Tuomas, E.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S. The Wakes, Selborne, near 
Alton, Hants. 


. *Bell, Thomas. The Minories, J esmond, Neweastle-on-Tyne. 
. tBell, Thomas. Belmont, Dundee. 
. §Bell, William. 36 Park-road, New Wandsworth, Surrey, 8.W. 


Bellhouse, Edward Taylor. Hagle Foundry, Manchester. 


. {Bellhouse, William Dawson. 1 Park-street, Leeds. 


Bellingham, Sir Alan. Castle Bellingham, Treland. 


. *Betper, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S. 78 


Eaton-square, London, 8.W.; and Kingston Hall, Derby. 


8 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 


Year of 
Election. 


1864, 
1870, 


1871, 
1870. 
1870. 
1852. 
1857. 


1848, 
1870. 
1865. 
1848, 


1842. 
1863, 


1875. 
1868. 


1865. 
1848. 
1866, 
1870. 
1862. 
1865. 
1858, 


1859. 
1874, 
1863. 


1870. 
1868. 


1863. 
1864. 
1855. 
1842, 
. {Binns, J. Arthur. ‘Manningham, Bradford, Yorkshire. 


*Bendyshe, T. 13 Buckingham-street, Strand, London, W.C. 
{Bennett, ALFRED W., M.A., B.Sc., F.L.8. 6 Park Village Hast, 
Regent’s Park, London, N.W. 
{Bennett, F. J. 12 Hillmarten-road, Camden-road, London, N. 
*Bennett, William. 109 Shaw-street, Liverpool. 
*Bennett, William, jun, Oak Hill Park, Old Swan, near Liverpool. 
*Bennoch, Francis, F.S.A. 19 Tavistock-square, London, W.C. 
{Benson, Charles. 11 Fitzwilliam-square West, Dublin. 
Benson, Robert, jun. Fairfield, Manchester. 
{Benson, Starling, F.G.S. Gloucester-place, Swansea. 
tBenson, W. Alresford, Hants. 
{Benson, William. Fourstones Court, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
{Benroam, Groran, F.RS., F.L.S. 25 Wilton-place, Knights- 
bridge, London, 8. W. 
Bentley, John. 9 Portland-place, London, W. 
§Bentiey, Ropert, F.L.S., Professor of Botany in King’s College. 
91 Alexandra-road, St. John’s-wood, London, N.W. 
§Beor, Henry R. 38 Harcourt-buildings, Temple, London, E.C, 
{Berxetry, Rev. M. J., M.A., F.L.S. Sibbertoft, Market Har- 
borough. 
tBerkley, C. Marley Hill, Gateshead, Durham. 
{Berrington, Arthur V. D. Woodlands Castle, near Swansea. 
{Berry, Rey. ArthurGeorge. Monyash Parsonage, Bakewell,Derbyshire. 
{Berwick, George, M.D. 36 Fawcett-street, Sunderland. 
{Besant, William. Henry, M.A., F.R.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge. 
*BrssEMER, Henry. Denmark-hill, Camberwell, London, $.E. 
{Best, William. Leydon-terrace, Leeds. 
Bethune, Admiral, C.B., F.R.G.S. Balfour, Fifeshire. 
}Beveridge, Robert, M.B. 36 King-street, Aberdeen. 
*Bevington, James B. Merle Wood, Sevenoaks. 
{Bewick, Thomas John, F.G.8. Haydon Bridge, Northumberland. 
*Bickerdike, Rev. John, M.A. St. Mary’s Vicarage, Leeds. 
{Bickerton, A. W., F.C.S. Hartley Institution, Southampton. 
{Brmper, Grorer Parker, C.E., F.R.G,S. 24 Great George-street, 
Westminster, 5. W. 
{Bigger, Benjamin. Gateshead, Durham. 
tBiggs, Robert. 17 Charles-street, Bath. 
tRillines, Robert William. 45t. Mary’s-road, Canonbury, London, N. 
Bilton, Rey. William, M.A., F.G.S. United University Club, Suffolk- 
street, London, 8.W.; and Chislehurst, Kent. 
Binney, Epwarp Wix11aM, F.R.S., F.G.8. 40 Cross-street, Man- 
chester. 


Birchall, Edwin. Airedale Chiff, Newley, Leeds, 
Birchall, Henry. College House, Bradford. 


. *Birkin, Richard. Aspley Hall, near Nottingham. 


*Birks, Rey. Thomas Rawson, M.A., Professor of Moral Philosophy in 
the University of Cambridge. 7 Brookside, Cambridge. 


. *Brrt, Witi1am Rapcuirr, F.R.A.S, Cynthia-villa, Clarendon-road, 


Walthamstow, London, N.E. 


. *Biscuor, Gustav. 4 Hart-street, Bloomsbury, London, W.C. 
. {Bishop, John. Thorpe Hamlet, Norwich. 

. {Bishop, Thomas. Bramcote, Nottingham. 

. tBlackall, Thomas. 15 Southernhay, Exeter. 


Blackburne, Rey. John, M.A. Yarmouth, Isle of Wight. 
Blackburne, Rey. John, jun., M.A. Rectory, Horton, near Chip- 
penham, 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 9 


Year of 

Election. 

1859. {Blackie, John Stewart, M.A., Professor of Greek in the University 
of Edinburgh. 

1855. *Biackre, W. G., Ph.D., F.R.G.S._ 17 Stanhope-street, Glasgow. 

1870. {Blackmore, W. Founder’s-court, Lothbury, London, E.C. 

‘saaeiantes Rey. Joun, F.L.S. Hendre House, near Llanrwst, Den- 

bighshire. 

1863. {Blake, C. Carter, Ph.D., F.G.S. St. Michael’s-buildings, 9 Grace- 
church-street, London, H.C. 

1849, *Braxn, Henry Wotzaston, M.A., F.R.S. 8 Devonshire-place, 
Portland-place, London, W. 

Ln *Blake, William. Bridge House, South Petherton, Somerset. 

845. 


* 1861. 


1868. 
1869. 


1870. 


1859. 
1859, 


1858. 
1870. 
1845. 
1866. 
1859. 


1871. 
1859. 


1866. 
1863. 


1871. 


1866. 
1861. 
1835. 


1861. 
1861. 


1849. 
1863. 


1867. 
1858. 


{Blakesley, Rev. J. W., B.D. Ware Vicarage, Hertfordshire. 

§Blakiston, Matthew. 18 Wilton-crescent, S.W. 

*Blakiston, Peyton, M.D.,F.R.S. 140 Harley-street, London, W. 

{Buanc, Henry, M.D. 9 Bedford-street, Bedford-square,London, W.C. 

{Blanford, W. T., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Geological Survey of India, 
Calcutta. (12 Keppel-street, Russell-square, London, W.C.) 

*BLoMEFIELD, Rev. Leonanrp, M.A., F.LS., F.G.8. 19 Belmont, 


Bath. 

Blore, Edward, LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A. 4 Manchester-square, Lon- 
don, W. 

{Blundell, Thomas Weld. Ince Blundell Hall, Great Crosby, Lan- 
cashire. 


{Blunt, Sir Charles, Bart. Heathfield Park, Sussex. 
{Blunt, Capt. Richard. Bretlands, Chertsey, Surrey. 
Blyth, B. Hall. 135 George-street, Edinburgh. 
*Blythe, William. Holland Bank, Church, near Accrington. 
{Boardman, Edward. Queen-street, Norwich. 
{ Bodmer, Rodolphe. 
§Bogg, Thomas Wemyss. Louth, Lincolnshire. 
*Boun, Henry G., F.LS., F-R.AS., F.R.G.S., F.S.S. North End 
House, Twickenham, 8.W. 
§Bohn, Mrs. North End House, Twickenham, 8. W. 
{Bolster, Rev. Prebendary John A. Cork. 
Bolton, R. L. Laurel Mount, Aigburth-road, Liverpool. 
{Bond, Banks. Low Payement, Nottingham. 
{ Bond, Francis T., M.D. 
‘Bond, Henry John Hayes, M.D. Cambridge. 
§Bonney, Rev. Thomas George, M.A., F.S.A., F.G.S. St, John’s Col- 
lege, Cambridge. 
Bonomi, Ignatius. 36 Blandford-square, London, N.W. 
Bonomi, JosrpuH. Soane’s Museum, 15 Lincoln’s-Inn-fields, Lon- 
don, W.C. 
{Booker, W. H. Cromwell-terrace, Nottingham. 
§Booth, James. Elmfield, Rochdale. 
{Booth, Rev. James, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. The Vicar- 
age, Stone, near Aylesbury. 
*Booth, William. Hollybank, Cornbrook, Manchester. 
*Borchardt, Louis, M.D. Barton Arcade, Manchester. 
{Boreham, William W., F.R.A.S. The Mount, Haverhill, Newmarket. 
{Borries, Theodore. Loyaine-crescent, Neweastle-on-Tyne. 
*Bossey, Francis, M.D. Mayfield, Oxford-road, Redhill, Surrey. 
Boswortn, Rey. Josrru, D.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A., MR.LA,, 
Professor of Anglo-Saxon in the University of Oxford. Oxford. 
§Botly, William, F.S.A._ Salisbury House; Hamlet-road, Upper Nor- 
wood, London, §.E. 
{Botterill, John. Burley, near Leeds. 


10 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 


Year of 

Election. 

1872. {Bottle, Alexander. Dover. 

1868. {Bottle, J. T. 28 Nelson-road, Great Yarmouth. 

1871. {Borromiry, James THomson, M.A.,F.C.S, The College, Glasgow. 


Bottomley, William. Forbreda, Belfast. 


1850. {Bouch, Thomas, C.E. Oxford-terrace, Edinburgh. 


1870. 
1868. 
1866. 
1872. 


1870. 
1867. 
1846, 


1856. 
1863. 


1869. 
1869. 
1863. 
1863. 
1871. 
1865. 
1872, 


1869. 
1870. 
1861. 
1842, 
1857, 


1863. 
1862. 


tBoult, Swinton. 1 Dale-street, Liverpool. 

{Boulton, W. 8S. Norwich. — 

§Bourne, Stephen, F.S.8. Abberley Lodge, Hudstone-drive, Harrow. 

{Bovill, William Edward. 29 James-street, Buckingham-gate, 
London, S.W. 

{Bower, Anthony. Bowerdale, Seaforth, Liverpool. 

{Bower, Dr. John. Perth. 

*BowERBANK, James Scort, LL.D., F.R.S., F.GS8., F.LS., FR.AS. 

2 East-ascent, St. Leonard’s-on-Sea. 

*Bowlby, Miss F. E. 27 Lansdown-crescent, Cheltenham. 

t{Bowman, R. Benson. Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

Bowman, William, F.R.S., F.R.C.S. 5 Clifford-street, London, W. 
{Bowring, Charles T. Elmsleigh, Princes Park, Liverpool. 
{Bowring, J. C. Larkbeare, Exeter. 
tBowron, James. South Stockton-on-Tees. 

§Boyd, Edward Fenwick. Moor House, near Durham. 
{Boyd, Thomas J. 41 Moray-place, Edinburgh. 
tBoyix, Rey. G. D. Soho House, Handsworth, Birmingham. 
§Brasroox, E. W., F.S.A., Dir, A.I. 28 Abingdon-street, West- 
minster, 8.W. 
*Braby, Frederick, F.G.S., F.C.S. Mount Henley, Sydenham Hill, 
London, 8.E. 
§Brace, Edmund. 9 Exchange-square, Glasgow. 
Bracebridge, Charles Holt, F.R.G.S. The Hall, Atherstone, War- 
wickshire. 
*Bradshaw, William. Slade House, Green-walk, Bowdon, Cheshire. 
*Brapy, Sir Antonto, J.P., F.G.8. Maryland Point, Stratford, 
Essex, E. 
*Brady, Cheyne, M.R.LA. Four Courts, Co. Dublin. 
Brady, Daniel F., M.D. 5 Gardiner’s-row, Dublin. 
{Brapy, Grorer 8. 22 Faweett-street, Sunderland. 
§Brapy, Henry Bowmay, F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.8. 40 Mosley-street, 
Newcastle-on-Tyne. 


1858. { Brae, Andrew Edmund. 


1875 


1864, 
1870. 
1864. 


. §Bragge, William, F.S.A., F.G.S. Shirle Hill, Sheffield. 

§Braham, Philip, F.C.S. 6 George-street, Bath. 

§Braidwood, Dr. Delemere-terrace, Birkenhead. 

§Braikenridge, Rev. George Weare, M.A.,F.L.S. Clevedon, Somerset. 


1865. §BraAMWELL, Freperick J., M.LC.E., F.R.S. 387 Great George- 


street, London, 8.W. 


1872. §Bramwell, William J. 17 Prince Albert-street, Brighton. 


1867. 
1861. 


Brancker, Rev. Thomas, M.A.  Limington, Somerset. 
{Brand, William. Milnefield, Dundee. 
*Brandreth, Rev. Henry. Dickleburgh Rectory, Scole, Norfolk. 


1852. tBrazmr, James §., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in Marischal Col- . 


1857. 
1869. 


1873 


1868. 
1869, 


lege and University of Aberdeen. 

{Brazill, Thomas. 12 Holles-street, Dublin. 

*BREADALBANE, The Right Hon. the Earl of. Taymouth Castle, 
N.B.; and Carlton Club, Pall Mall, London, S.W. 

. §Breffit, Edgar. Castleford, near Normanton. 

{Bremridge, Elias. 17 Bloomsbury-square, London, W.C. 

tBrent, Colonel Robert, Woodbury, Exeter. 


1870. 
1870. 
1870. 
1866. 
1866, 
1863, 


1870. 
1868, 


1842. 
1859. 


1847. 


1834. 
1865. 


1853. 


1855. 
1864. 
1855. 
1863. 
1846, 


1874. 
1847. 
1863. 


1864. 
1863. 


1867. 
1855. 
1871. 
1863. 
1865. 
1858. 
1870. 


1870. 
1859. 


1863. 
1874, 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 11 


Year of 
Election. 
1860. {Brett, G. Salford. 
1866. {Brettell, Thomas (Mine Agent). Dudley. 
1865. §Brewin, William. Cirencester. 
1875. §Briant, T. Hampton Wick, Kingston-on-Thames. , 
1867. {Bripaman, Wrt1AM Kence.ry. 69 St. Giles’s-street, Norwich. 


*Bridson, Joseph R. Belle Isle, Windermere. 

{Brierley, Joseph, C.E. New Market-street, Blackburn. 

*Briae, JoHN. Broomfield, Keighley, Yorkshire. 

*Briges, Arthur. Cragg Royd, Rawdon, near Leeds. 

§Briggs, Joseph. Barrow-in-Furness. 

*Bricut, Sir Cuartes Tinston, C.E., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.AS. 

69 Lancaster-gate, W.; and 11 Delahay-street, London, 8. W. 

{Bright, H. A., M.A., F.R.G.S. Ashfield, Knotty Ash. 

Bricut, The Right Hon. Joun, M.P. Rochdale, Lancashire. 

{Brinr, Commander Linpesay. Army and Navy Club, Pall Mall, 
London, 8. W. 

Broadbent, Thomas. Marsden-square, Manchester. 

*Bropuurst, BerNnaRD Epwarp. 20 Grosvenor-street, Grosvenor- 
square, London, W. 

{Bropte, Sir Bensamrin C., Bart., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S.  Brockham 
Warren, Reigate. 

{Broprm, Rev. Jamus, F.G.S. Monimail, Fifeshire. 

{Broprs, Rey. Peter BELLENGER, M.A., F.G.S. Rowington Vicar- 
age, near Warwick. 

{Bromby, J. H., M.A. The Charter House, Hull. 

*Brooxs, Cuaries, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.C.S. 16 Fitzroy-square, 
London, W. 

tBrooke, Edward. Marsden House, Stockport, Cheshire. 

*Brooke, Rev. J. ngham. Thornhill Rectory, Dewsbury. 

{Brooke, Peter William. Marsden House, Stockport, Cheshire. 

§Brooks, John Crosse. Wallsend, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

*Brooks, Thomas. Cranshaw Hall, Rawstenstall, Manchester. 

Brooks, William. Ordfall Hill, Hast Retford, Nottinghamshire. 

§Broom, William. 20 Woodlands-terrace, Glasgow. 

{Broome, C. Edward, F.L.S. Elmhurst, Batheaston, near Bath. 

*Brough, Lionel H., F.G.S., one of Her Majesty’s Inspectors of Coal- 

fines. 11 West Mall, Clifton, Bristol. 

*Broun, JoHn ALLAN, F.R.S., late Astronomer to His Highness the 
Rajah of Travancore. 4 Abercorn-place, St. John’s Wood, 
London, N.W. 

{Brown, Mrs. 1 Stratton-street, Piccadilly, London, W. 

*Brown, ALEXANDER Crum, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.C.8., Professor of 
es ce in the University of Edinbugh. 8 Belgrave-crescent, 
adinburgh. 

{ Brown, Charles Gage, M.D. 88 Sloane-street, London, S.W. 

{tBrown, Colin. 3 Mansfield-place, Glasgow. 

§Brown, David. 93 Abbey-hill, Edinburgh. 

*Brown, Rey. Dixon. Unthank Hall, Haltwhistle, Carlisle. 

§Brown, Edwin, F.G.S._ Burton-upon-Trent. 

§Brown, Henry, J.P., LL.D. Daisy Hill, Rawdon, Leeds. 

§Brown, Horacr T. The Bank, Burton-on-Trent. 

Brown, Hugh. Broadstone, Ayrshire. 

§Brown, J. Camppety, D.Se., F.C.S. Royal Infirmary School of 
Medicine, Liverpool. 

{Brown, Rev. John Crombie, LL.D., F.L.8. Berwick-on-Tweed. 

tBrown, John H. 

tBrown, John $8, Edenderry, Shaw’s Bridge, Belfast. 


12 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 


Year of 
Election. 


1863. 
1871. 


1868, 


1855. 
1850. 


1865, 


1866, 
1862. 
1872. 


1875. 
1865. 
1865. 
1855. 
1853. 
1863, 
1863. 


1875. 


1871. 


1868. 


1875. 


1875. 


1861. 


1859. 
1867, 


1871. 
1867, 


1871. 
1864, 


1865. 
1848, 


1869. 
1851. 


1848, 
1875. 
1871. 
1845, 


1865. 
1863. 


{Brown, Ralph. Lambton’s Bank, Newcastle-on-'yne. 

tBrown, Roprrt, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.G.S. 4 Gladstone-terrace, 
Edinburgh. 

{Brown, Samuel, Grafton House, Swindon, Wilts. 

*Brown, Thomas. Gwentland, Chepstow. 

*Brown, William. 11 Maiden-terrace, Dartmouth Park, London, N. 

{Brown, William. 33 Berkeley-terrace, Glasgow. 

{Brown, William, F.R.S.E. 26 Dublin-street, Edinburgh. 

{tBrown, William. 414 New-street, Birmingham. 

*Browne, Rev. J. H. Lowdham Vicarage, Nottingham. 

*Browne, Robert Clayton, jun., B.A. Browne’s Hill, Carlow, Ireland. 

es R. Mackley, F.G.S. Northside, St. John’s, Sevenoaks, 

Cent. 

§Browne, Walter R. Bridgwater. 

*Browne, William, M.D, The Friary, Lichfield. 

§Browning, John, F.R.A.S. 111 Minories, London, E. 

§Brownlee, James, jun. 30 Burnbank-gardens, Glasgow. 

{Brownlow, William B. Villa-place, Hull. 

*Brunel, H. M. 23 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W. 

}Brunel, J. 23 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W. 

*Brunlees, James, C.E., F.G.S. 5 Victoria-street, Westminster, 5.W. 

{Brunnow, F. 

tBrunton, T. Lauper, M.D.,F.R.S. 23 Somerset-street, Portman- 
square, London, W. 

§Bryant, G. Squier. 15 White Ladies’-road, Clifton, Bristol. 

§Bryant, Miss 8. A. The Castle, Denbigh. 

tBryce, James. York Place, Higher Broughton, Manchester. 

Bryce, Jamus, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.G.8. 18 Mornington-place, 
Edinburgh. 
Bryce, Rev. R. J., LL.D., Principal of Belfast Academy. Belfast. 

{Bryson, William Gillespie. Cullen, Aberdeen. 

{Buccirevcu and QuEENSBERRY, His Grace the Duke of, K.G., D.C.L., 
F.RS.L. & E., F.L.8. Whitehall-gardens, London, S.W.; and 
Dalkeith House, Edinburgh. 

§Bucuan, ALEXANDER, M.A., I'.R.S.E., See. Scottish Meterological 
Society. 72 Northumberland-street, Edinburgh. 

{Buchan, Thomas. Strawberry Bank, Dundee. 

Bucuanan, ANDREW, M.D. Professor of the Institutes of Medicine 
in the University of Glasgow. 4 Hthol-place, Glasgow. 

Buchanan, Archibald. Catrine, Ayrshire. 

Buchanan, D. C. Poulton cum Seacombe, Cheshire. 

{Buchanan, John Y. 10 Moray-place, Edinburgh. 

§BucxkiE, Rey. Grorar, M.A. Twerton Vicarage, Bath. 

*Buckley, Henry. 27 Wheeley’s-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

*BuckMan, Professor Jamus, F.L.S., F.G.8. Bradford Abbas, Sher- 

borne, Dorsetshire. 

tBucknill, J., M.D., F.R.S. Hillmorton Hall, near Rugby. 

*BuckTon, Grorcr Bownter, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.C.8S. Weycombe, 
Haslemere, Surrey. 

*Bupp, JAMES Parmer. Ystalyfera Iron Works, Swansea. 

§Budgett, Samuel. Cotham House, Bristol. 

§Bulloch, Matthew. 11 Park-circus, Glasgow. 

*Bunpoury, Sir Cuartes James Fox, Bart., F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S., 
F.R.G.S. Barton Hall, Bury St. Edmunds. 

{Bunce, John Mackray. ‘Journal Office,’ New-street, Birmingham. 

§Bunning, T. Wood. Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers, 
Newcastle-on-Tyne. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 18 


Year of 
lection. 


1842, 
1875. 
1869, 
1874. 
1872. 
1857. 
1865. 
1869, 
1859. 
1860. 
1874, 
1866. 
1864. 


1855. 


1857. 
1855. 
1872. 
1870. 


1868. 
1872. 
1854, 


1852. 
1875. 


1858. 
1865. 
1854, 
1858, 


1863. 
1861. 
1855. 
1875. 
1868, 
1868. 
1857. 


1853. 
1857. 
1870. 
1859. 
1857. 


1874. 


1872. 


*Burd, John. 5 Gower-street, London, W.C. 

§Burder, John, M.D. 7 South Parade, Bristol. 

{Burdett-Coutts, Baroness. Stratton-street, Piccadilly, London, W. 

{Burdon, Henry, M.D. Clandeboye, Belfast. 

*Burgess, Herbert. 62 High-street, Battle, Sussex. 

Burk, J. Lardner, LL.D. 

tBurke, Luke. 5 Albert Terrace, Acton, London, W. 

*Burnell, Arthur Coke. 

tBurnett, Newell. Belmont-street, Aberdeen. 

{Burrows, Montague, M.A., Professor of Modern History, Oxford. 

§Burt, Rev. J. T, Broadmoor, Berks. 

*Burton, Freperick M., F.G.S. Highfield, Gainsborough. 

tBush, W. 7 Circus, Bath. 

Bushell, Christopher. Royal Assurance-buildings, Liverpool. 

*Busk, Grores, F.R.S., V.P.L.S., F.G.S., Examiner in Comparative 
Anatomy in the University of London. 32 Harley-street, Caven-~ 
dish-square, London, W. 

tButt, Isaac, Q.C., M.P. 64 Eccles-street, Dublin. 

*Buttery, Alexander W. Cardarroch House, near Airdrie. 

{Buxton, Charles Louis. Cromer, Norfolk. 

{Buxton, David, Principal of the Liverpool Deaf and Dumb Institution, 
Oxford-street, Liverpool. 

{Buxton, 8. Gurney. Catton Hall, Norwich. 

{Buxton, Sir T. Fowell. Warlies, Waltham Abbey, Essex, 

}Byerzey, Isaac, F.L.S8. Seacomhe, Liverpool. 

Byng, William Bateman. 2 Bank-street, Ipswich. 

{Byrne, Very Rey. James. Ergenagh Rectory, Omagh. 

§Byrom, W. Ascroft, F.G.S, 27 King-street, Wigan. 


§Cail, John. Stokesley, Yorkshire. 

{Cail, Richard. Beaconsfield, Gateshead. 

{Caine, Nathaniel. 38 Belvedere-road, Princes Park, Liverpool. 

*Caine, Rev. William, M.A. Christ Church Rectory, Denton, near 
Manchester. 

{Caird, Edward. Finnart, Dumbartonshire. 

*Caird, James Key. 8 Magdalene-road, Dundee. 

*Caird, James Tennant. Shipyard, Greenock. 

§Caldicott, Rev. J. W., D.D, The Grammar School, Bristol. 

tCaley, A. J. Norwich. 

{Caley, W. Norwich. 

ee Ae N. J., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Maynooth 

ollege. 

tCalver, Captain E. K., R.N., F.R.S. The Grange, Redhill, Surrey, 

{tCameron, Charles A., M.D. 15 Pembroke-road, Dublin. i 

{Cameron, John, M.D. 17 Rodney-street, Liverpool. 

{Campbell, Rey. C. P., Principal of King’s College, Aberdeen. 

ris ioe Dugald, F.C.S. 7 Quality-court, Chancery-lane, London, 


*CAMPBELL, Sir GrorGe, K.C.S.1., M.P., D.C.L., F.R.G.S. 13 Corn- 
wall-gardens, South Kensington, London, S.W.; and Edenwood 
Cupar, Fife. f 

Campbell Sir Hugh P. H., Bart. 10 Hill-street, Berkeley-square 
London, W.; and Marchmont House, near Dunse, Berwickshire. 

*Campbell, Sir James. 129 Bath-street, Glasgow. 

Campbell, John Archibald, M.D., F.R.S.E. Albyn-place, Edinburgh, 
tCamesett, Rey. J. R., D.D, 5 Eldon-place, Manningham-lane 
Bradford, Yorkshire, J 


14 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1859. 


1871. 


1862. 
1868. 
1873. 


1861. 
1867. 
1867. 


1871. 
1871. 


1854, 
1845, 
1872, 
1842, 
1867, 


1861. 
1857. 


1868. 
1866. 
1855. 
1870. 


1870. 
1862. 


1868. 
1866. 


1871. 


1873. 
1842, 


1874, 


1853. 
1859, 


1866. 


1875, 


tCampbell, William. Dunmore, Argyllshire. 
{Campbell, William Hunter, LL.D. Georgetown, Demerara, British 
ow. (Messrs. Ridgway & Sons, 2 Waterloo-place, London, 
S.W. 
CAMPBELL-J OHNSTON, ALEXANDER RoBeERT, F.R.S. 848t.George’s- 
square, London, 8. W. 
*Campion, Rey. Dr. Witt1aM M. Queen’s College, Cambridge. 
*Cann, William. 9 Southernhay, Exeter. 
*Carbutt, Edward Hamer, C.K. St. Ann’s, Burley, Leeds, Yorkshire. 
*Carew, William Henry Pole. Antony, Torpoint, Devonport. 
Car .IsLF, The Right Rey, Harvey Goopwmy, D.D,, Lord Bishop of. 
Carlisle. 
tCarlton, James. Mosley-street, Manchester. 
{Carmichael, David (Engineer). Dundee. 
{Carmichael, George. 11 Dudhope-terrace, Dundee. 
Carmichael, HZ, 
Carmichael, John T. C. Messrs. Todd & Co., Cork. 
{CaRPENTER, CHartEs. Brunswick-square, Brighton. 
§Carpenter, Herbert P. 56 Regent’s Park-road, London, N.W. 
*CARPENTER, Purr Prarsaty, B.A., Ph.D. Montreal, Canada. 
Cw Dr. W. B. Carpenter, 56 Regent’s Park-road, London, 
}Carpenter, Rey. R. Lant, B.A. Bridport. 
f{CaRPeNTER, Witiiam B., C.B., M.D., LL.D., F.RS., F.LS., 
F.G.8., Registrar of the University of London. 56 Regent’s 
Park-road, ‘London, NW: 
§CARPENTER, WiL11AM Lant, B.A., B.Se., F.C.S, Winifred House, 
Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol. 
*Carr, tne ie M.D., F.L.S., F.R.C.S. Lee Grove, Blackheath, 


§CarruTuers, Wii114M, F.R.S., F.L8., F.G.8. British Museum, 
London, W.C. 

*Carson, Rey. Joseph, D.D., M.R.L.A. 18 Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin, 

tCartr, ALEXANDER, M.D. Royal Dublin Society, Dublin. 

§Carteighe, Michael, F.C.8. 172 New Bond-street, London, W. 

{Carter, H. H. The Park, Nottingham. 

{Carter, Richard, C.E.,F.G.8. Cockerham Hall, Barnsley, Yorkshire, 

{Carter, Dr. William. 69 Elizabeth-street, Liverpool. 

*CarTMELL, Rev. James, D.D., F.G.S., Master of Christ’s College. 
Christ College Lodge, Cambridge. 

Cartmell, Joseph, M.D. Carlisle. 

§Cartwright, Joshua. 70 King-street, Dukinfield. 

tCarulla, Facundo, F.A.S.L. Care of Messrs. Daglish and Co., 8 Har- 
rington-street, Liverpool. 

{Cary, Joseph Henry. Newmarket-road, Norwich. 

{Casella, L. P., F.R.A.S. South-grove, Highgate, London, N. 

§Cash, Joseph. Bird Grove, Coventry. 

*Cash, William, Elmfield-terrace, Saville Park, Halifax. 

* Cassels, Rev. Andrew, M.A. 

Castle, Charles. Clifton, Bristol. 

§Caton, Richard, M.D., Lecturer on Physiology at the Liverpool 
Medical School. 18a Abercromby-square, Liverpool. 

{Cator, John B., Commander R.N. 1 Adelaide-street, Hull. 

jCatto, Robert. 44 King-street, Aberdeen, 

t Catton, Alfred, R., M.A., F. RSE. 

—- Lord Frederick, M.P. 21 Carlton House-terrace, London, 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 15 


Year of 
Election. 


1849. 
1860. 


1871. 
1870. 
1858. 


1860. 
1842, 
1842. 
1859. 
1861. 


1859. 
1865. 
1868. 
1842, 


1868. 


1865. 
1865. 
1865. 
1861. 
1861. 
1866. 
1871. 


1874. 
1871. 
1836. 
1874. 
1863. 
1866. 


1867. 
1864. 


1874. 
1872. 


1865. 
1842. 
1863. 
1859. 
1861. 


tCawley, Charles Edward. The Heath, Kirsall, Manchester. 

§Caytry, Artuur, LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.R.A.S., Sadlerian Professor of 
Mathematics in the University of Cambridge. Garden House, 
Cambridge. 

Cayley, Digby. Brompton, near Scarborough. 
Cayley, Edward Stillingfleet.. Wydale, Malton, Yorkshire, 

*Cecil, Lord Sackville. Hayes Common, Beckenham, Kent. 

tChadburn, C. H. Lord-street, Liverpool. 

rr eae Charles, M.D. Lynncourt, Broadwater Down, Tunbridge 

ells. 

t¢Cuapwicx, Davin, M.P. 27 Belsize-park, London, N.W. 

Cuapwick, Epwin, C.B. Richmond, Surrey. 
Chadwick, Elias, M.A. Pudleston Court, near Leominster. 
t{Chadwick, Robert. Highbank, Manchester. 

tChadwick, Thomas. Wilmslow Grange, Cheshire. 

*CHALLIS, Rey. Jamus, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Plumian Professor of 
Astronomy in the University of Cambridge. 2 Trumpington- 
street, Cambridge. 

{Chalmers, John Inglis, Aldbar, Aberdeen. 

{CHaMBERLAW, J. H. Christ Church-buildings, Birmingham. 

t{Chamberlin, Robert. Catton, Norwich. 

Chambers, George. High Green, Sheffield, 
Chambers, John. 

{Chambers, W. O. Lowestoft, Suffolk. 

*Champney, Henry Nelson. 4 New-street, York. 

{Chance, A. M. Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

*Chance, James T, Four Oaks Park, Sutton Coldfield, Birmingham. 

§Chance, Robert Lucas. Chad Hill, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

*Chapman, Edward, M.A., F.L.S., F.C.S. Frewen Hall, Oxford. 

*Chapman, John, M.P. Hill End, Mottram, Manchester, 

{Chapman, William. The Park, Nottingham. 

sOhapvell, William, F.8.A. Strafford Lodge, Oatlands Park, Wey- 
ridge Station. 

§Charles, John James, M.A,, M.D. 11 Fisherwick-place, Belfast. 

tCharles, T. C., M.D. Queen’s College, Belfast. 

CHARLESWORTH, Epwarp, F.G.S. 1134 Strand, London, W.C. 
tCharley, William. Seymour Hill, Dunmurry, Ireland. 

tCharlton, Edward, M.D. 7 Eldon-square, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

{Cuarnock, Ricuarp Strpuen, Ph.D., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. 8 Gray’s- 
Inn-square, London, W.C. 

Chatto, W. J. P. Union Club, Trafalgar-square, London, 8.W. 

*Chatwood, Samuel. 5 Wentworth-place, Bolton. 

{CueavtF, W. B., M.A., M.D., F.R.G.S. 2 Hyde Park-place, Cum- 
berland-gate, London, W. 

*Chermside, Lieutenant H. C., R.E. Oare of Messrs. Cox & Co., 
Craig’s-court, Charing Cross, London, 8.W. 

§CutcuEsTER, The Right Hon. the Earl of. Stanmer House, Lewes. 

CuicuEsTER, The Right Rev, Rrcnarp Durnrorp, Lord Bishop of. 
Chichester. 

*Child, Gilbert W., M.A., M.D., F.L.8. Oxford. 

*Chiswell, Thomas. 17 Lincoln-grove, Plymouth-grove, Manchester. 

tCholmeley, Rev. C. H. Dinton Rectory, Salisbury. 

{Christie, John, M.D, 46 School-hill, Aberdeen. 

{Christie, Professor R.C., M.A. 7 St. James’s-square, Manchester. 

CuristiIson, Sir Roper, Bart., M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.E., Professor 
of Dietetics, Materia Medica, and Pharmacy in the University 
of Edinburgh. Edinburgh, 


16 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1875. 
1870. 


1860. 


1857. 
1868. 
1863. 


1863. 
1855. 


1869, 


1857, 


*Christopher, George, F.C.S. (Assistant GENERAL TREASURER.) 
University College, London, W.C. 
§Cuurcu, A. H., F.C.8., Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Agri- 
cultural College, Cirencester. 
t{Church, William Selby, M.A. St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, 
London, E.C. 
tChurchill, F., M.D. 15 Stephen’s-green, Dublin. 
t{Clabburn, W. H. Thorpe, Norwich. 
TtClapham, A. 3 Oxford-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
tClapham, Henry. 5 Summerhill-grove, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
§CLAPHAM, RoBERT CALVERT. Garsdon House, Garsdon, Newcastle- 
on-Tyne. 
§Clapp, Frederick. 44 Magdalen-street, Exeter. 
tClarendon, Frederick Villiers, 1 Belyidere-place, Mountjoy-square, 
Dublin. 
Clark, Courtney K. 


. tClark, David. Coupar Angus, Fifeshire. 


Clark, G.T. Bombay; and Athenzeum Club, London, 8.W. 


. *Clark, Henry, M.D. 2 Arundel-gardens, Kensington, London, W. 


fClark, Latimer. 5 Westminster-chambers, Victoria-street, London, 
S.W. 


5. tClark, Rey. William, M.A. Barrhead, near Glasgow. 
. {Clarke, Rey. Charles. Charlotte-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 


§Clarke, Charles 8. 4 Worcester-terrace, Clifton, Bristol. 
Clarke, George. Mosley-street, Manchester. 


. *CrarKE, Hypr. 32 St. George’s-square, Pimlico, London, S.W. 
. *Clarke, J. H. Lark Hill House, Edgeley, Stockport. 
5. §CuarKE, Jonn Henry. 4 Worcester-terrace, Clifton, Bristol. 


Clarke, Joseph. 


{CrarKE, Josnua, F.L.S. Fairycroft, Saffron Walden. 


Clarke, Thomas, M.A. Knedlineton Manor, Howden, Yorkshire. 

tClay, Charles, M.D. 101 Piccadilly, Manchester. 

*Clay, Joseph Travis, F.G.S. Rastrick, near Brighouse, Yorkshire. 

*Clay, Colonel William. The Slopes, Wallasea, Cheshire. 

{Clayden, P. W. 13 Tavistock-square, London, W.C. 

§Clegram, T. W. B. Saul Lodge, near Stonehouse, Gloucestershire. 

f{CLecHorn, Hvueu, M.D., F.L.S., late Conservator of Forests, Madras, 
Stravithy, St. Andrews, Scotland. 

tCleghorn, John. Wick. 

§CLELAND, JOHN, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy and Physiology 
in Queen’s College, Galway. Vicarscroft, Galway. 


. {Clements, Henry.. Dromin, Listowel, Ireland. 


tClerk, Rey. D. M. Deverill, Warminster, Wiltshire. 


. {Clibborn, Edward. Royal Irish Academy, Dublin. 
. §Cliff, John. Halton, Runcorn. 
. §Ciirrorp, Witi1am Krnenon, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Applied 


Mathematics and Mechanics in University College, London. 
26 Colville-road, Bayswater, London, W. 
{Clift, John E., C.E. Redditch, Bromsgrove, near Birmingham. 
*Currron, R. Betiamy, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Experi- 
mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. Portland 
Lodge, Park Town, Oxford. 
Clovbrock, Lord Robert. Clonbrock, Galway. 


. {Close, The Very Rey. Francis, M.A. Carlisle. 
. §CLosz, THomas, F.S.A. St. James’s-street, Nottingham, 
. {Clough, John. Bracken Bank, Keighley, Yorkshire. 


{Clouston, Rey. Charles, Sandwick, Orkney. 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 17 


Year of 
Election. 


1861. 
1863. 
1868. 
1855, 
1855, 


1851. 
1864. 


1864. 
1854. 
1861. 
1865. 
1853. 
1868. 
1859. 
1860. 
1854. 
1857. 
1861. 
1869. 
1854. 


1851. 


*Clouston, Peter. 1 Park-terrace, Glasgow. 

*Clutterback, Thomas. Warkworth, Acklineton, 

{Coaks, J. B. Thorpe, Norwich. 

*Coats, Sir Peter. Woodside, Paisley. 

*Coats, Thomas. Fergeslie House, Paisley, 

Cobb, Elward. 20 Park-street, Bath. 

*ConnoLp, Joun Curvatiimr. Iolywells, Ipswich ; and Atheneum 
Club, London, 8.W. 

{Cozszorp, T. Spencer, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Lecturer on Zoology 
and Comparative Anatomy at the Middlesex Hospital. 42 Har- 
ley-street, London, W. 

*Cochrane, James Henry, 129 Lower Baggot-street, Dublin, 

tCockey, William. 

*Coe, Rey. Charles C., F.R.G.S. Highfield, Manchester-road, Bolton, 

{Coghill, H. Newcastle-under-Lyme. 

tColchester, William, F.G.S. Grundesburgh Tall, Ipswich. 

{Colchester, W. P, Bassingbourn, Royston. 

*Cole, Henry Warwick, Q.C. 23 High-street, Warwick. 

{Coleman, J. J., F.C.S. 69 St. George’s-place, Glasgow. 

*Colfox, William, B.A. Westmead, Bridport, Dorsetshire, 

tColles, William, M.D. 21 Stephen’s-green, Dublin. 

*Collie, Alexander, 12 Kensington Palace-gardens, London, VW. 

{Collier, W. F. Woodtown, Horrabridee, South Devon. 

f{CoLiincwoop, Curusert, M.A., M.B., F.L.S. 4 Grove-terrace, 

Belvedere-road, Upper Norwood, Surrey, 8.E. 
*Collingwood, J. Frederick, F.G.S. Anthyopological Institute, 4 St, 
Martin’s-place, London, W.C. 
*Collins, James Tertius. 12 Church-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 
Collis, Stephen Edward. Listowel, Ireland. 


. “Corman, J. J., M.P. Carrow House, Norwich; and 108 Cannon- 


street, London, E.C. 


. §Coltart, Robert. The Hollies, Aigburth-road, Liverpool. 


Colthurst, John. Clifton, Bristol. 


. {Combe, James. Ormiston House, Belfast. 


*Compton, The Ven. Lord Anwyn. Castle Ashby, Northampton- 
shire; and 145 Piccadilly, London, W. 


. “Compton, Lord William. 145 Piccadilly, London, W. 

. {Connal, Michael. 16 Lynedock-terrace, Glasgow. 

. *Connor, Charles C. Hope House, College Park East, Belfast. 

. *Conwell, Eugene Alfred, M.R.I.A. The Model Schools, Cork. 

. {Cooxer, Epwarp Witxiay, R.A., F.RS., F.R.GS., F.LS., F.G.S, 


Glen Andred, Groombridge, Sussex ; and Atheneum Club, Pall 
Mall, London, 8.W. 


. {Cooke, Rey. George H. Wanstead Vicarage, near Norwich. 


§Cooke, Henry. . The Paragon, Clifton, Bristol. 

Cooke, James R., M.A. 73 Blessington-street, Dublin. 

Cooke, J. B. Cavendish-road, Birkenhead. 
{Cooxs, M.C., M.A. 2 Grosvenor-villas, Upper Holloway, London, N, 
Cooke, Rev. T. L., M.A. Magdalen College, Oxford. 

co a William Fothergill, Telegraph Office, Lothbury, Londen, 


*Cooke, William Hemy, M.A., Q.C., FS.A, 42 Wimpole-street, 
London, W.; and Rainthorpe Hall, Long Stratton. 


65. {Cooksey, Joseph. West Bromwich, Birmingham. 


*Cookson, Rev. H. W., D.D. St. Peter’s College Lodge, Cambridge. 
{Cookson, N.C. Benwell Tower, Neweastle-on-Tyne, 
§Cooling, Edwin. Mile Ash, Derby, 


18 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1850. 


1875. 
1868. 
1846. 
1871. 
1868. 
1863. 
1842. 
1842. 
1855. 


1870, 


1857. 
1855. 
1874, 


1864. 
1869. 


1874. 
1865. 


1834. 


1863. 
1863. 
1872. 
1873. 


1871. 
1860. 


1867. 
1867. 
1867. 
1870. 


1867. 
1867. 
1866. 
1871, 


1859. 
1857. 


1858. 
1871. 


1871. 
1870, 


{Coorrr, Sir Henry, M.D. 7 Charlotte-strect, Hull. 

Cooper, James. 58 Pembridge-villas, Bayswater, London, W. 

§Cooper, T. T, Surbiton, Kent. 

{Cooper, W. J. The Old Palace, Richmond, Surrey. 

{Cooper, William White, 19 Berkeley-square, London, W. 

{Copeland, Ralph, Ph.D, Parsonstown, Ireland. 

{Copeman, Edward, M.D. Upper King-street, Norwich. 

{Coppin, John. North Shields. 

*Corbet, Richard. Bayshill Lawn, Cheltenham. 

Corbett, Edward. Ravenoak, Cheadle-hulme, Cheshire. 

tCorbett, Joseph Henry, M.D., Professor of Anatomy and Physiology, 
Queen’s College, Cork. 

*Corrietp, W. H., M.A., M.B., F.G.S., Professor of Hygiéne and 
Public Health in University College, 10 Bolton-row, Mayfair, 
London, W. 

Cormack, John Rose, M.D., F_RS LE. 
Cory, Rev. Robert, B.D., F.C.P.8. Stanground, Peterborough. 
Cottam, George. 2 Winsley-street, London, W. 

{Cottam, Samuel. Brazennose-street, Manchester. 

{Cotterill, Rev. Henry, Bishop of Edinburgh, Edinburgh. 

*Cotterill, J. H., M.A., Professor of Applied Mechanics, Royal Nayal 
College, Greenwich, 5.1. 

§Corron, General Frepertcx C. Atheneum Club, Pall Mall, 
London, 8. W. 

{Corron, Witu1aM. Pennsylvania, l'xeter, 

*Cotton, Rev. William Charles, M.A. Vicarage, Frodsham, Cheshire, 

§Courtald, John. Bocking Bridge, Essex. 

{Courtald, Samuel, F.R.A.S, 76 Lancaster-gate, London, W.; and 
Gosfield Hall, Essex. 

t{Cowan, Charles. 38 West Register-street, Edinburgh. 

Cowan, John. Valleyfield, Pennycuick, Edinburgh. 

tCowan, John A. Blaydon Burn, Durham. 

{Cowan, Joseph, jun. Blaydon, Durham. 

*Cowan, Thomas William. Hawthorn House, Horsham. 

*Cowans, John. Cranford, Middlesex. 

Cowie, The Very Rev. Benjamin Morgan, M.A., B.D., Dean of Man- 
chester. The Deanery, Manchester. 

{Cowper, C. E. 3 Great George-street, Westminster, S.W. 

{Cowper, Edward Alfred, M.L.C.E. 6 Great George-street, West- 
minster, 5. W. 

*Cox, Edward. 18 Windsor-street, Dundee. 

*Cox, George Addison. Beechwood, Dundee. 

tCox, James. Clement Park, Lochee, Dundee. 

*Cox, James. 8 Fallmer-square, Liverpool. 

Cox, Robert. 25 Rutland-street, Edinburgh. 

*Cox, Thomas Hunter. Duncarse, Dundee. 

tCox, William. Foggley, Lochee, by Dundee, 

*Cox, William H. 50 Newhall-street, Birmingham. 

Cox, William J. 2 Vanburgh-place, Leith. 

Craig, J. T. Gibson, F.R.S.E, 24 York-place, Edinburgh. 

tCraig, 8. The Wallands, Lewes, Sussex. 

pc hive, Rey. Josiah., M.R.IL.A. The Rectory, Florence-court, Co. 

ermanagh, Ireland. 

t{Cranage, Edward, Ph.D. The Old Hail, Wellington, Shropshire. 

*Crawford, William Caldwell. Eagle Foundry, Port Dundas, Glasgow. 

{Crawshaw, Edward. Burnley, Lancashire. 

*Crawshay, Mrs. Robert. Cyfarthfa Castle, Merthyr Tydvil. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 19 


Year of 
Election. 


1865. 
1858. 
1859, 
1857. 
1855, 


1866. 
1870. 


1865, 


1855, 
1870. 
1870. 


1870. 
1861. 
1868. 
1867. 


1853. 
1870. 
SrA, 
1866. 
186]. 
1863. 
1860. 
1859. 
1873. 


1859. 
1874, 
1861. 
1861. 
1852. 
1869, 


1855. 


1850. 
1866. 


1867, 


1857. 
1866. 
1834, 


1863. 
1854. 
1863. 
1853. 
1865. 
1867. 
1870. 


Creyke, The Venerable Archdeacon. Bolton Percy Rectory, Tad- 

caster. 

{Crocker, Edwin, F.C\S. 76 Hungerford-road, Holloway, London, N. 

{Crofts, John. Hillary-place, Leeds. 

{Croll, A.A. 10 Coleman-street, London, E.C. 

tCrolly, Rey. George. Maynooth College, Ireland, 

{ Crompton, Charles, M.A. 

*Crompron, Rey. Josppu, M.A. Bracondale, Norwich. 

{Cronin, William. 4 Brunel-terrace, Nottingham, 

{Crookes, Joseph. Marlborough House, Brook Green, Hammersmith, 
London, W. 

§Crookes, Wrii1iaM, F.R.S., F.C.S. 20 Mornington-road, Regent’s 
Park, London, N.W. 

{Cropper, Rev. John. Wareham, Dorsetshire. 

tCrostield, C. J. 5 Alexandra-drive, Prince’s Park, Liverpool. 

*Crosfield, William, jun. 5 Alexandra-driye, Prince’s Park, Liver- 
rool. 

{Crosflela, William, sen. Annesley, Aigburth, Liverpool. 

{Cross, Rev. John Edward, M.A. Appleby Vicarage, near Brigg. 

{Crosse, Thomas William. St. Giles’s-street, Norwich, 

§Crosskry, Rey. H. W., F.G.8S. 28 George-street, Edgbaston, Bir- 
mingham. 

{Crosskill, William, C.E. Beverley, Yorkshire. 

*Crossley, Edward, F.R.A.S. Bermerside, Halifax. 

tCrossiey, Herbert. Broomfield, Halifax. 

*Crossley, Louis J., F.M.8. Moorside Observatory, near Halifax. 

§Crowley, Henry. Smedley New Hall, Cheetham, Manchester. 

{Cruddas, George. Elswick Engine Works, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

tCruickshank, John. City of Glasgow Bank, Aberdeen, 

tCruickshank, Provost. Macduff, Aberdeen. 

§Crust, Walter. Hall-street, Spalding. 

Culley, Robert. Bank of Ireland, Dublin. 

t{Cumming, Sir A. P. Gordon, Bart. Altyre. 

tCumming, Professor. 33 Wellington-place, Belfast. 

*Cunliffe, Edward Thomas. The Elms, Handforth, Manchester. 

*Cunlifie, Peter Gibson. Tho Elms, Handforth, Manchester, 

{Cunningham, John. Macedon, near Belfast. 

}Cunninewam, Professor Ropert O., M.D., F.1L.S. Queen’s College, 


Belfast. 

t{Cunningham, William A. Manchester and Liverpool District Bank, 
Manchester. 

{Cunningham, Rey. William Bruce. Prestonpans, Scotland. 


{Cunnington, John. 68 Oakley-square, Bedford New Town, London, 
N.W 


*Cursetjee, Manockjee, F.R.S.A., Judge of Bombay. Villa-Byculla, 
Bombay. 

t{Curtis, Professor ArrHur Hiri, LL.D. Queen’s College, Galway, 

{Cusins, Rev. I. L. 

*Cuthbert, John Richmond. 40 Chapel-street, Liverpool. 


{Daglish, John. Hetton, Durham. 

tDaglish, Robert, C.K. Orrell Cottage, near Wigan. 
{Dale, J. B. South Shields. 

tDale, Rev. P. Steele, M.A. Hollingfare, Warrington. 
{Dale, Rev. R. W. 12 Calthorpe-street, Birmingham. 
tDalegleish, W Dundee. 

{Dallinger, Rev. W. H. 


20 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1859. 


Dalmahoy, James, F.R.S.E. 9 Forres-street, Edinburgh. 
{Dalrymple, Charles Elphinstone. West Hall, Aberdeenshire, 


1859. {Dalrymple, Colonel. Troup, Scotland. 


1862. 
1859. 
1875. 
1849. 
1861. 


1870. 
1859. 
1871. 
1859. 
1872. 
1868. 
1875, 
1870. 
1863, 
1842. 
1875. 
1870. 
1864. 


1873. 
1856. 


1859. 
1859. 
1873. 
1864. 
1857. 
1869. 
1869. 
1854. 
1860. 
1864. 
1865. 


1855, 


Dalton, Ndward, LL.D., F.S.A. Dunkirk House, Nailsworth. 
*Dalton, Rev. J. E., B.D. Seagrave, Loughborough. 

Dalziel, John, M.D. Holm of Drumlanrig, Thornhill, Dumfies- 

shire. 

{Danby, T. W. Downing College, Cambridge. 
{Daneer, J. B., F.R.A.S. Old Manor House, Ardwick, Manchester. 
tDanchill, F. H. Vale Hall, Horwich, Bolton, Lancashire. 

*Danson, Joseph, FCS. 

*Danstsuire, Roperr Duxrrierd, B.A., 1.G.S, 26 George-street, 

Manchester. 
Darwiy, Cranes R., M.A., F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.8., Hon. F.R.S.E., 
and M.R.1.A. Down, near Bromley, Kent. 


. {DaSilva, Johnson. Burntwood, Wandsworth Common, London, 
.W. 


. §Davenport, John T. 64 Marine Parade, Brighton. 


Davey, Richard, F.G.S. Redruth, Cornwall. 

{Davidson, Alexander, M.D. 8 Peel-street, Toxteth Park, Liverpool. 

{Davidson, Charles, Grove Tlouse, Auchmeull, Aberdeen. 

§Davidson, James. Newhbattle, Dalkeith, N.B. 

tDavidson, Patrick. Inchmarlo, near Aberdeen. 

{Davipson, Tuomas, F.R.S., F.G.S. 5 Leopold-road, Brighton. 

{ Davie, Rev. W. C. 

§Davies, David. 2 Queen’s-square, Bristol. 

{Davies, Mdward, F.C.8. Royal Institution, Liverpool. 

{Davies, Griffith. 17 Cloudesley-street, Islington, London, N. 
Davies, John Birt, M.D. The Laurels, Wdobasion, Birmingham. 
Davyies-Colley, Dr. Thomas. 40 Whitefriars, Chester. 

*Davis, Alfred. Sun Foundry, Leeds. 

*Davis, A. S. 37 Montpellier-villas, Cheltenham. 

{Davis, CHartus ., F.S.A. 55 Pulteney-street, Bath. 

Davis, Rey. David, B.A. Lancaster. 
*Davis, James W. Albert House, Greetland, near Halifax. ° 
*Davis, Sir Joun Francis, Bart., K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Holly- 
wood, Westbury by Bristol. ; 
tDavis, J. Barnanp, M.D., F.R.S., F.S.A. Shelton, Hanley, Staf- 
fordshire. 

*Davis, Richard, F.L.S. 9 St. Helen’s-place, London, 1.C. 

{Davis, William Samuel. 1 Cambridge-villas, Derby. 

*Davison, Richard, Beverley-road, Great Driffield, Yorkshire. 

—— een W., M.D. Kimmage Lodge, Roundtown, near 

ublin. 

tDaw, John. Mount Radford, Exeter. 

tDaw, R. M. Bedford-circus, Ixeter. 


*Dawbarn, William. _Elmswood, Aigbhurth, Liverpool. 
Dawes, John Samuel, F.G.8S. Lappel Lodge, Quinton, near Bir- 
mingham. 
ei John T., jun. Perry Hill House, Quinton, near Birming- 
am, 


{Dawexins, W. Boyn, M.A., F.R.S.,1.G.8., F.S.A.  Birchyiew, Nor- 
man-road, Rusholme, Manchester. 
Dawson, George, M.A. Shenstone, Lichfield. 
Dawson, John. Barley House, Exeter. 
{Dawson, Jonn W., M.A., LL.D, F.R.S., Principal of M‘Gill Col- 
lege, Montreal, Canada. ' 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 21 


Year of 
Election. 


1859 


1871. 


1870, 


1861. 


1870. 


1859. 


1861 
1866 


1869. 


1870. 


“Dawson, Captain William G. Plumstead Common-read, Kent, 
8.1. 

{Day, St. John Vincent. 166 Buchanan-street, Glascow. 

§Deacon, G. I’., M.I.C.E. Rock Ferry, Liverpool. 

{Deacon, Henry. Appleton House, near Warrington, 

{ Deacon, Henry Wade. 

{Dean, David. Banchory, Aberdeen. 

{Dean, Henry. Colne, Lancashire. 

*Deane, Rey. George, D.Se., B.A., F.G.S. Moseley, Birmingham. 

{Desvs, Hetnnicu, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.8. Lecturer on Chemistry 
at Guy’s Hospital, London, 8.5. 

*De La Run, Warren, D.C.L., Ph.D., F.RS., F.CS., FLR.A.S. 
75 Portland-place, London, W. 


{De Meschin, Thomas, M.A., LL.D. 3 Middle Temple-lane, Tem- 


ple, London, F.C. 
Denchar, John. Morningside, Edinburgh. 


5. §Denny, William. Seven Ship-yard, Dumbarton. 


Dent, Wilham Yerbury. Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, 8.1. 


. *Denton, J. Bailey. 22 Whitehall-place, London, S.W. 
. §Dr Rancn, Cuarzes #., IVG.8, 28 Jermyn-street, London, 8. W. 
. *Dersy, The Right Hon. the Earl of, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 23 St. 


James’s-square, London, 8.W.; and Knowsley, near Liver- 


pool. 
. *Derham, Walter, B.A., F.G.S. Henleaze Park, Westbury-on-Trym, 
Bristol. 
De Saumarez, Rey. Havilland, M.A. St. Peter’s Rectory, North- 
ampton. 


. Desmond, Dr. 44 Invine-street, Hdge Hill, Liverpool. 
. {Dessé, Etheldred, M.B., F.R.C.S. 48 Kensington Gardens-square, 


Bayswater, London, W. 
Dr Tasiry, Grorcer, Lord, F.Z.8. Tabley House, Knutsford, 
Cheshire. 

{Devon, The Right Hon. the Earl of, D.C.L. Powderham Castle, 
near Exeter. 

*DrvonsHirE, WILLIAM, Duke of, K.G., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., 
F.R.G.8., Chancellor of the University of Cambridge. Devon- 
shire House, Piccadilly, London, W.; and Chatsworth, Derby- 
shire. 


. {Dewar, James, F.R.S.E., Jacksonian Professor of Natural Philo- 


sophy in the University of Cambridge. 


. {Dewick, Rey. HE. 8. The College, Eastbourne, Sussex. 

. *Dew-Smith, A. G. 7a Eaton-square, London, 5. W. 

. {Dibb, Thomas Townend. Little Woodhouse, Leeds. 

. {Dicxim, Groran, M.A., M.D., F.L.58., Professor of Botany in the 


University of Aberdeen. 


. *Dickinson, F. H., F.G.S8. Kingweston, Somerton, Taunton; and 121 


St. George’s-square, London, 8.W 


. {Dickinson, G. T. Claremont-place, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
. *Dickinson, William Leeson 1 St. James’s-street, Manchester, 
. §Dicxson, ALEXANDER, M.D., Professor of Botany in the University of 


Glasgow. 11 Royal-circus, Edinburgh. 


. {Dickson, J. Thompson. 33 Harley-street, London, W. 
. *Duxr, Sir Caartres Wentworth, Bart., M.P., F.R.G.S. 76 


Sloane-street, London, 5. W. 


. {Dmuwyy, Lewis LLEwetyy, M.P., F.L.S.,F.G.8.  Parkwern, near 


Swansea. 


2. §Dines, George. Grosyenor-road, Lendon, 8.W. 


22 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1869. 
1859. 
1837. 


1868. 
1874. 
1853. 
1865. 
1861. 


1851, 
1860. 
1864. 


1875, 
1870. 
1874. 
1857. 


1851. 
1867. 
1867. 
1873. 
1869. 
1871. 
1874. 
1861. 
1857. 


1857. 
1867. 
1871. 
1863. 
1855. 
1870. 


1857. 


1872. 
1865. 
1868. 


1873. 
1869. 
1865. 


1872. 
1874. 


1859. 
1866. 


1863, 
1870, 


{Dingle, Edward. 19 King-street, Tavistock. 
*Dinele, Rev. J. Lanchester Vicarage, Durham. 
Dircxs, Henry, C.E., LL.D., F.C.S. 48 Charing-cress, London, 
5.W 


tDittmar, W. Andersonian University, Glasgow. 

*Dixon, A. E. Dunowen, Cliftonville, Belfast. 

tDixon, Edward, M.L.C.E. Wilton House, Southampton, 

tDizon, L. 

{Drxon, W. Herworrn, F.S.A., F.R.G.8. 6 St. James’s-terrace, 
Regent’s-park, London, N.W. 

*Dobbin, Leonard, M.R.LA. 27 Gardiner’s-place, Dublin. 

tDobbin, Orlando T., LL.D., M.R.L.A.  Ballivor, Kells, Co, Meath. 

*Dobbs, Archibald Edward, M.A. Richmond-road, Ealing, W. 

*Dobson, William. Oakwood, Bathwick Hill, Bath. 

Dockray, Benjamin. 

*Doewra, George, jun. Grosyenor-road, Handsworth, Birmingham. 

*Dodd, John. 6 Thomas-street, Liverpool. 

{Dodd, W. H., M.A. Mountjoy-street, Dublin, 

{ Dodds, Thomas W., C.E. Rotherham. 

*Dodsworth, Benjamin. Westwood, Scarborough. 

*Dodsworth, George. The Mount, York, 

Dolphin, John. Delvyes House, Berry Edge, near Gateshead. 

tDomvile, William C., F.Z.8. Thorn Hill, Bray, Dublin. 

tDon, John. The Lodge, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee. 

tDon, William G. St. Margaret’s, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee. 

{Donham, Thomas. Huddersfield. 

{Donisthorpe, G. T. St. David’s Hill, Exeter. 

{ Donkin, Arthur Scott, M.D. Sunderland. 

tDonnell, Professor, M.A, 23 Upper Saclkyille-street, Dublin. 

tDonnelly, Captain, R.E. South Kensington Museum, London, W. 

*DonNELLY, WitxiAM, C.B., Registrar-General for Ireland. Charle- 
mont House, Dublin. 

tDonovan, M., M.R.LA. Clave-street, Dublin. 

{Dougall, Andrew Maitland, R.N. Scotscraig, Tayport, Fifeshire. 

{Dougall, John, M.D. 2 Cecil-place, Paisley-road, Glasgow. 

*Doughty, C. Montagu. 

tDovs, Hector. Rose Cottage, Trinity, near Edinburgh. 

{Dowie, J. M. Walstones, West Kirby, Liverpool. 

Downall, Rey. John. Okehampton, Devon. 

{Down1ine, 8., LL.D., Professor of Civil Engineering in the University 
of Dublin. Dublin. 

*Dowson, Edward, M.D. 117 Park-street, London, W, 

*Dowson, E. Theodore. Geldeston, near Beccles, Suffolk. 

§Drusser, Henry E., F.2.8. 6 Tenterden-street, Hanoyer-square, 
London, W. 

§Drew, Frederick, LL.D., F.G.S. | Claremont-road, Surbiton. 

§Drew, Joseph, LL.D., F.G.S., F.R.S.C., F.R.S.L. Weymouth. 

TD revised Pate A, 6 Stanley-place, Duke-street, Broughton, Man-: 
chester. 


“*Druce, Frederick, 27 Oriental-place, Brighton. 


{Druitt, Charles. Hampden-terrace, Rugby-road, Belfast. 
Drummond, H. Home, F.R.S.E. Blair Drummond, Stirling. 

{Drummond, Robert. 17 Stratton-street, London, W. 

*Dry, oe 25 Gloucester-read, Regent’s Park, London, 


{ Dryden, James, South Benwell, Northumberland. 
§Drysdale, J, J., M.D. 36a Rodney-street, Liverpool. 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 23 


Year of 
Election. 


1856. 


1870. 
1867. 


1875. 
1859. 
1859. 
1866, 


1871. 
1867, 


1853, 
1865. 
1862. 


1859, 
1866. 
1869. 


1860, 


1869. 


1868. 
1861. 
1864, 


1874, 
1871. 
1863. 


1870, 


1867. 
1861. 
1858. 
1870. 


1855. 
1859. 
1870, 
1867. 


*Ducim, Hunry Joun Reynotps Moreton, Earl of, F.R.S., F.G.8, 
16 Portman-square, London, W.; and Tortworth Court, Wot- 
ton-under-Hdge. 

{Duckworth, Henry, F.L.8., F.G.8, 5 Cook-street, Liverpool. 

*Durr, MounrstuartT HpHiystone Grant-, LL.B,, M.P. 4 Queen’s 
Gate-gardens, South Kensington, London, W.; and Eden, near 
Banff, Scotland. 


2. {Dufferin, The Right Hon. Lord. Highgate, London, N.; and Clande- 


boye, Belfast. 

§Duflin, C. L’istrange, C.K. Rathkeale, Co. Limerick. 

*Dunean, Alexander. 7 Prince’s-gate, London, 8.W. 

{Duncan, Charles, 52 Union-place, Aberdeen. 

*Dunean, James. 71 Cromwell-road, South Kensington, London, W. 

Dunean, J. F., M.D, 8 Upper Mervion-street, Dublin. 

{Duncan, James Matthew, M.D. 30 Charlotte-square, Edinburgh. 

{Duncan, Perer Marvin, M.B.,F.RB.S., F.G.S8., Professor of Geology 
in King’s College, London. 99 Abbey-road, St. John’s Wood, 
London, N.W. 

Dunlop, Alexander. Clober, Milngavie, near Glasgow. 

*Dunlop, William Henry. Annanhill, Kilmarnock, Ayrshire. 

{Dunn, David. Annet House, Skelmorlie, by Greenock, N.B. 

§Dunn, Ropert, F.R.C.8. 31 Norfolk-street, Strand, London, W.C. 

Dunnington-Jefferson, Rey. Joseph, M.A., F.C.P.S. Thicket Hall, 
York. 
{Duns, Rey. John, D.D., F.R.S.E. New College, Edinburgh. 
Duprey, Perry. Woodbury Down, Stoke Newington, London, N. 

{D’Urban, W. S. M., F.L.S. 4 Queen-terrace, Mount Radford, 
Exeter. 

{Durwam, Antuur Epwarp, F.R.C.S., F.L.8., Demonstrator of 
Anatomy, Guy’s Hospital. 82 Brook-street, Grosvenor-square, 
London, W. 

Dykes, Robert. Kilmorie, Torquay, Devon, 
§Dymond, Edward E. Oaklands, Aspley Guise, Woburn. 


tEade, Peter, M.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich. 

tEadson, Richard. 15 Hyde-road, Manchester. 

tLarle, Rev, A. 

*EHannsHaw, Rey. Samunt, M.A. 14 Broomfield, Sheffield. 
§Eason, Charles. 30 Kenilworth-square, Rathgar, Dublin. 
*Easton Epwarp. 7 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W. 

§Easton, James. Nest House, near Gateshead, Durham. 
Eaton, Rey. George, M.A. The Pole, Northwich. 

§Eaton, Richard. Basford, Nottingham. 
Ebden, Rey. James Collett, M.A., .R.A.S, Great Stukeley Vicarage, 

Huntingdonshire, 

t£eckersley, James. 

tEcroyd, William Farrer. Spring Cottage, near Burnley. 

*Eddison, Francis. Martinstown, Dorchester. 

*Eddison, Dr. John Edwin. 29 Park-square, Leeds. 

*Eddy, James Ray, F.G.S. Carleton Grange, Skipton. 
Eden, Thomas. Talbot-road, Oxton. 

*Eperwortn, Micuart P., F.LS., FR.A.S. Mastrim House, 

Anerley, London, S.E. 

tEdmiston, Robert. Elmbank-crescent, Glasgow. 

{Edmond, James. Cardens Haugh, Aberdeen. 

*Edmonds, F. B. 8 York-place, Northam, Southampton, 
“Edward, Allan, Farington Hall, Dundee, 


24 LIST OF MEMBERS. 
Year of 
Election. 
1867. {Edwaid, Charles. Chambers, 8 Bank-street, Dundee. 
1867. tEdward, James. Balruddery, Dundee. 
Edwards, John. 
1855, *Epwanrps, Professor J. Baker, Ph.D., D.C.L. Montreal, Canada. 
1867. {Edwards, William. 70 Princes-street, Dundee. 
*EGERrtTon, Sir Primi pe Maras Grey, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.G.5, 
Oulton Park, Tarporley, Cheshire. 
1859. *Hisdale, David A., M.A. 38 Dublin-street, Ediuburgh. 
1873. §Flcock, Charles. 89 Lyme-street, Shalispere-street, Ardwick, Man- 
chester. 
1868, {Elger, Thomas Gwyn Empy, F.R.A.S. St. Mary, Bedford. 
Hilacombe, Rev. H. T., F.S.A. Clyst, St. George, Topsham, Devon. 
1863. {ienberger, J. L. Worksop. 
1855. §Elliot, Robert, I°.B.S.E. Wolfelee, Hawick, N.B. 
1861. *Exuiiot, Sir Warrer, K.C.8.1, F.L.S. Wolfelee, Hawick, N.B. 
1864, {EMiott, EH. B. . Washington, United States. 
1872. {Elliott, Rey. KE. B. 11 Sussex-square, Kemp Town, Brighton. 
Eliott, John Foge. Elvet Hill, Durham. 
1864, *Evuis, Abexanper Joun, B.A., F.R.S., F.S.A. 25 Argyll-road, 
Kensington, London, W. 
1875. *Ellis, H. D. Tair Park House, Exeter. 
1859. {Eiuis, Henry 8., F.R.A.S. Fair Park, Exeter. 
1864, *Ellis, Joseph. Hampton Lodge, Brighton. 
1864, {Ellis, J. Walter. High House, Thornwaite, Ripley, Yorkshire. 
*Ellis, Rev. Robert, A.M. The Institute, St. Saviour’s Gate, 
York. 
1874. §Hllis, Sydney. ‘The Newarke, Leicester. 
1869, {Ellis, William Horton. Pennsylvania, Exeter. 
Ellman, Rey. E. B. Berwick Rectory, near Lewes, Sussex. 
1862, {EIphinstone, H. W., M.A., F.L.8. Cadogan-place, London, 8. W. 
Eiltoft, William. 
1863. {Embleton, Dennis, M.D. Northumberland-street, Newcastle-on- 
Tyne. 
1863. {Emery, Rey. W., B.D. Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. 
1858. {Empson, Christopher. Bramhope Hall, Leeds. 
1866, {Knfield, Richard. Low Pavement, Nottingham. 
1866, {Enfield, William. Low Pavement, Nottingham. 
1871. {Engelson, T. 11 Portland-terrace, Regent’s Park, London, NW. 
1858. ae Edgar Wilkins. Yorkshire Banking Company, Lowgate, 
ull. : 
1869. {English, J.T. Stratton, Cornwall. 
Ewniskinten, Wini1am Wit.Lovucusy, Earl of, D.C.L., F.R.S., 
M.R.LA., 1.G.S. 65 Eaton-place, London, 8. W.; and Florence 
Court, Fermanagh, Ireland. 
1869. {Ensor, Thomas. St. Leonards, Exeter. 
1869, *Enys, John Davis. Canterbury, New Zealand. (Care of F. G. Enys, 
Esq., Enys, Penryn, Cornwall.) J 
1844, {Erichsen, John Eric, Professor of Clinical Surgery in University 
Coliege, London. 9 Cavendish-place, London, W. 
1864. *Eskrigge, R. A., F.G.S, 18 Hackins-hey, Liverpool. 
1862. *Esson, Witi1ay, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., FLR.A.S. Merton College; 
and 1 Bradmore-road, Oxford. . 
ioe Estcourt, Rev. W. J. B. Long Newton, Tetbury. 


{Erueriper, Roper, F.R.S.L. & E., F.G.S., Palxontologist to the 
Geological Survey of Great Britain. Museum of Practical 
Geology, Jermyn-street; and 19 Halsey-street, Cadogan-place, 
Londen, 8.W. ; 


bo 
or 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 


Year of 
Election. 


1870. 
1865. 
1872. 
1869. 


1861. 


1865. 
1875. 
1866. 
1865, 
1871, 
1868, 


1863. 
1574. 
1874. 
1859. 


1871. 
1846. 


*Tvans, Arthur John, Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead. 

*Evans, Rey. Coartus, M.A. The Rectory, Solihull, Birmingham 

*Evans, Frederick J., C.E, Clayponds, Brentford, Middlesex, W. 

*Ievans, H. Saville W. Wimbledon Park House, Wimbledo 
SW: 

*Evans, Joun, F.RS., F.S.A., 1.G.8. 65 Old Bailey, London, 
E.C.; and Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead. 

tEvans, Sepastran, M.A., LL.D. Highgate, near Birmingham. 

§Eyans, Sparke. 3 Apsley-road, Clifton, Bristel. 

{Evans, Thomas, PGS. Belper, Derbyshire. 

*Evans, William. Ellerslie, Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

§Eye, H.W. Wellington College, Wokingham, Berkshire. 

*Everett, J. D., D.C.L., F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy in 
Queen’s College, Belfast. Rushmere, Malone-road, Belfast. 

*Everitt, George Allen, K.L., K.H., F.R.G.S. Knowle Hall, War- 
wickshire. 

{Ewart, William. Glenmachan, Belfast. 

tEwart, W. Quartus. Glenmachan, Belfast. 

*Ewing, Archibald Orr, M.P. Ballikinrain Castle, Killearn, Stirling- 
shire. 

*Exley, John T., M.A. 1 Cotham-road, Bristol. 

*Kyre, George Edward, F.G.8., F.R.G.S. 59 Lowndes-square, 
London, 8. W.; and Warren’s, near Lyndhurst, Hants. 


. {Eyrn, Major-General Sir Vincent, I.R.G.8. Athenzeum Club, 


Pall Mall, London, 8.W. 
Eyton, Charles. Hendred House, Abingdon. 


. {Eyton, T.C. Kyton, near Wellington, Salop. 


Fairbairn, Thomas. Manchester. 


. {Fairley, Thomas, F.R.S.E. 8 Newton-grove, Leeds. 

. {Fairlie, Robert, C.K. Woodlands, Clapham Common, London, 8.W. 
. [Fallmer, F. H. Lyncombe, Bath. 

. {Farquharson, Robert O. Houghton, Aberdeen. 

. §Farnr, Wit11am, M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Superintendent of the Statis- 


tical Department, General Registry Office. Southlands, Bickley, 
Kent. 


. *Farrar, Rev. Freperick Wit1iaM, D.D., F.R.S., Canon of West- 


minster, Marlborough College, Wilts. 


. {Farrelly, Rev. Thomas. Royal College, Maynooth. 
. *Faulconer, R.S. Fairlawn, Clarence-road, Clapham Park, London, 


. *Faulding, Joseph. The Grange, Greenhill Park, New Barnet, 


Herts. 


. { Faulding, W. F. Didsbury College, Manchester. 
. “Fawcett, Henny, M.P., Professor of Political Economy in the Uni- 


versity of Cambridge. 5] The Lawn, South Lambeth-road, 
London, 8.W.; and 8 '‘Trumpington-street, Cambridge. 


. {Fawcus, George. Alma-place, North Shields. 
. *Fazakerley, Miss. The Castle, Denbigh. 
. {elkin, William, I.L.8. The Park, Nottingham. 


Fell, John B. Spark’s Bridge, Ulverston, Lancashire. 


. §Fettows, Frank P., I\S.A., F.8.S. 8 The Green, Hampstead, 


London, N.W. 


. {Fenton, S.Greame. 9 College-square ; and Keswick, near Belfast. 
. {Ferguson, John. Cove, Nigg, Inverness. 
. *Ferguson, John, M.A., Professor of Chemistry in the University of 


Glasgow. 


26 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 


Year of 

Election. 

1867. {Ferguson, Robert M., Ph.D., F.R.S.E, 8 Queen-street, Edinburgh. 

1857, {Ferguson, Samuel, 20 North Great George-street, Dublin. 

1854, {Ferguson, William, F.L.S., F.G.8, Kinmundy, near Mintlaw, 
Aberdeenshire. 

1867. *Fergusson, H. B. 13 Airlie-place, Dundee. 

1863. *Fernim, Joun. Bonchureh, Isle of Wight. 


1862. 
1873. 
1875. 
1868, 
1869, 


1864, 


1867. 


{Frrrers, Rev, N. M., M.A. Caius College, Cambridge. 
{¥Ferrier, David, M.D, 23 Somerset-street, Portman-square, London, 
WW. 


§Fiddes, Walter. Clapton Villa, Tyndall’s Park, Clifton, Bristol. 
tField, Edward. Norwich. 
*Fincp, Rogers. 5 Cannon-row, Westminster, 8.W. 
Fielding, G. H., HD. 
{Finch, Frederick George, B,A,, F.G.8, 21 Crooms-hill, Greenwich, 
S.E 


Finch, J ohn. Bridge Work, Chepstow. 
Finch,John, jun. Bridge Work, Chepstow. 


. [Finney, Samuel. 


{Firth, G. W. W. St. Giles’s-street, Norwich. 
Firth, Thomas. Northwick. 
*Firth, William. Burley Wood, near Leeds. 
*Fiscuer, Wiwiiam L. F., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S8., Professor of Mathe- 
matics in the University of St. Andrews. St. Andrews, Scot- 
land. 


. {Fishbourne, Captain E. G., R.N. 6 Welamere-terrace, Padding- 


ton, London, W. 

{Fisuer, Rey. Osmonp, M.A., F.G.S, Tlarlston Rectory, near Cam- 
bridge. 

§Visher, William. Maes Fron, near Welshpool, Montgomeryshire. 

*Fisher, W. W., M.A., F.C.8, 2 Park-crescent, Oxford. 

{Fishwick, Henry. Carr-hill, Rochdale. 

*Fison, Frederick W., F.C.S. Eastmoor, Ilkley, Yorkshire, 

§Fircu, J. G., M.A. 5 Lancaster-terrace, Regent’s Park, London, 
N.W 


{Fitch, Robert, F.G.8., F.8.A. Norwich. 
{Fitzgerald, The Right Hon. Lord Otho. 13 Dominick-street, Dublin. 
{Vitzpatrick, Thomas, M.D. 31 Lower Bagot-street, Dublin. 
Fitzwilliam, Hon. George Wentworth, .R.G.S. 19 Grosyenor- 
square, London, 8.W.; and Wentworth House, Rotherham, 


- [Fleetwood, D. J. 45 George-street, St. Paul’s, Birmingham. 


Fleetwood, Sir Peter Hesketh, Bart. Rossall Hall, Fleetwood, 
Lancashire. 

{Fleming, Professor Alexander, M.D. 121 Hagley-road, Birmingham. 
Fleming, Christopher, M.D. Merrion-square North, Dublin, 
Fleming, John G., M.D. 155 Bath-street, Glasgow. 

*Fremine, Wint1aM, M.D. Rowton Grange, near Chester. 

§Ftetcuer, ALFRED EK. 21 Overton-street, Liverpool. 

{Fletcher, B. Edgington. Norwich. 

{Fiercuer, Isaac, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Tarn Bank, Work- 

ington. 
{Fiercunr, Lavineron E.,C.E, 41 Corporation-street, Manchester. 
Fletcher, T. B. E., M.D. 7 Waterloo-street, Birmingham. 
{Fiower, Witi1aM Henry, F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S., F.R.C.S8., Hun- 
terian Professor of Comparative Anatomy, and Conservator of the 
Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. Royal College of 
Surgeons, Lincoln’s-Inn-fields, London, W.C. 

{Foggie, William, Woodville, Maryfield, Dundee. 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 27 


Year of 
Election. 


1854, 
1873. 
1855. 
1866, 
1875. 


1867. 
1858. 


1871. 
1854, 


1870. 
1875. 
1865, 
1865, 


1857. 


1845. 
1859, 


1859. 


1873. 
1865. 
1859. 
1875. 
1842. 


1870, 
1866. 
1868. 
1856. 
1870. 
1868. 
1842. 


1860. 
1866. 


1846, 


1859. 


*Fonrnes, Davin, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.S, 11 York-place, Portman- 
square, London, W, 

*Forbes, Professor George, M.A., F.R.S.E, Andersonian University, 
Glasgow. f 

tForbes, Rev. John, Symington Manse, Biggar, Scotland. 

Ford, H. R. Morecombe Lodge, Yealand Conyers, Lancashire. 

{Ford, William. Hartsdown Villa, Kensington Park-gardens East, 
London, W. 

*Fordham, H, George, F.G.S. Odsey, near Royston, Herts. 

*Forrest, William Hutton. The Terrace, Stirling. 

{Forster, Anthony. Finlay House, St. Leonard’s-on-Sea. 

*Forstrer, The Right Non. Witt1am Epwanp, M.P.,F.R.S. Wharfe- 
side, Burley-in- Wharfedale, Leeds. 

{ Forsyth, Wilham F. 

*Fort, Richard. 24 Queen’s-gate-gardens, London, W.; and Read 
Hall, Whalley, Lancashire. : 

{Forwood, William B, Hopeton House, Seaforth, Liverpool. 

§Foster, A. Le Neve. East Hill, Wandsworth, Surrey, 8,W. 

{Foster, Balthazar W., M.D. 4 Old-square, Birmingham. 

*Foster, Chument Le Nave, BA., D.Se5 F.G.8. Truro, Corn- 
wall. 

*Foster, Grorce C., B.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Physics in 
University College, London. 12 Hilldrop-road, London, N. 

*Foster, Rey. John, M.A. The Oaks Vicarage, Loughborough. 

{Foster, John N. Sandy Place, Sandy, Bedfordshire. 

“Foster, Micuart, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S,, F.0.8. (Guneran 
CRORRTART:) Trinity College, and Great Shelford, near Cam- 

ridge. 

§Fostrr, Peter Le Nuve, M.A. Society of Arts, Adelphi, London, 

W.C. 


tFoster, Peter Le Neve, jun. Mortara, Italy. 

{Foster, Robert. 30 Rye-hill, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

*Foster, S. Lloyd. Old Park Hall, Walsall, Staffordshire. 
*Foster, William. Harrowins House, Queensbury, Yorkshire. 

Fothergill, Benjamin. 10 The Groye, Boltons, West Brompton, 

London, 8. W. 
{Foulger, Mdward. 55 Kirkdale-road, Liverpool. 
§$Fowler, George. Basford Hall, near Nottingham. 
{Fowler, G. G. Gunton Hall, Lowestoft, Suffolk. 
tFowler, Rey. Hugh, M.A. College-gardens, Gloucester. 
*Fowler, Robert Nicholas, M.A., F.R.G.S. 50 Cornhill, London, E.C, 
{Fox, Colonel A. H. Lann, F.G.S., F.S.A, Guildford, Surrey, 
*Fox, Charles. Trebah, Falmouth. 
*Fox, Rev. Edward, M.A. The Vicarage, Romford, Essex. 
*Fox, Joseph Hayland. The Cleve, Wellington, Somerset. 
{Fox, Joseph John. Church-row, Stoke Newington, London, N. 

Fox, Ropert Were, F.R.S. Falmouth. 

*Francis, G. B. 43 Stoke Newington-green, London, N. 

Francis, Witii1AM, Ph.D., F.L.S., F.G.8., F.R.A.S. Red Lion-court, 
Fleet-street, London, E.C.; and Manor House, Richmond, 
Surrey. 

{Franxianp, Epwanrp, D.C.L., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of 
Chemisty in the Royal School of Mines. 14 Laneaster-gate, 
ondon, W. 
*Frankland, Rey. Marmaduke Charles. Chowbent, near Manchester. 
{Fraser, George B, 3 Aizlie-place, Dundee, 
Fraser, J ames, 25 Westland-row, Dublin. 


23 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1865. 
1871. 
1859. 
1871. 
1860. 
1847. 


1865. 
1869, 
1869. 
1857. 
1869, 
1847. 
1860. 
1875. 
1875. 
1872. 
1875. 
1859. 
1869. 
1864, 
1857. 
1863. 
1850. 
1861. 
1867. 
1865. 
1861. 
1861. 
187 
1860. 
1860. 
1869. 


1870, 


1870. 
1868. 


1862 
1865, 


Fraser, James William. 84 Kensington Palace-yardens, London, W. 
*Fraser, Jonn, M.A., M.D. Chapel Ash, Wolverhampton. 
{Fraser, THomas R., M.D., F.R.S.E. 8 Grosvenor-street, Kdinburgh. 
*Frazer, Daniel. 113 Buchanan-street, Glasgow. 

{Frazer, Evan L. R. Brunswick-terrace, Spring Bank, Hull. 

tFreeborn, Richard Fernandez. 88 Broad-street, Oxford. 

*Freeland, Humphrey William, F.G.8. West-street, Chichester, 
Sussex. | 

{Freeman, James. 15 Francis-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

Frere, George Edward, F.R.S. Roydon Hall, Diss. 

{Frerer, The Right Hon. Sir H. Barrie E., G.C.S.I., K.G.C.B., 
F.R.G.S. Wressil Lodge, Wimbledon, 5. W. * 
{Frere, Rev. William Edward. The Rectory, Bilton, near Bristol. 
Fripp, George, D., M.D. 
*Frith, Richard Hastings C.E., M.R.LA., F.R.G.S.1. 48 Summer- 
hill, Dublin. 
ee ae Se iy 26 Upper Bedford-place, Russell-square, Lon- 
on, W.C. 
{Frost, William. Wentworth Lodge, Upper Tulse-hill, London{S.W. 
*Froupn, Wri11AM, M.A., C.K, F.R.S. Chelston Cross, Torquay. 
§Fry, F. J. 104 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol. 
Fry, Francis. Cotham, Bristol. 
*Fry, Joseph Storrs. 2 Charlotte-street, Bristol. 
Fry, Richard. Cotham Lawn, Bristol. 
Fry, Robert. Tockington, Gloucestershire. 
*Fuller, Rey. A. Ichenor, Chichester. 
§Fuller, Claude §., R.N. 44 Holland-road, Kensington, W. 
{Futter, Frepprick, M.A., Professor of Mathematics in the Uni- 
versity and Kine’s College, Aberdeen. 
{Futirr, Groras, C.E., Professor of Engineering in Queen’s College, 
Belfast. 6 College-gardens, Belfast. 
*Furneaux, Rey. Alan. St. German’s Parsonage, Cornwall. 


*Gadesden, Augustus William, F.S.A. Ewell Castle, Surrey. 
tGages, Alphonse, M.R.I.A. Museum of Irish Industry, Dublin. 
*Gainstord, W. D. Richmond Hill, Sheffield. 
{Gairdner, Professor W. F., M.D. 225 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow. 
{Galbraith, Andrew. Glasgow. 

GaLbraity, Rev. J. A., MR.LA. Trinity College, Dublin. 
tGale, James M. $3 Miller-street, Glasgow. 
{Gale, Samuel, I°.C.S. 338 Oxford-street, London, W. 
tGalloway, Charles John. Knott Mill Iron Works, Manchester. 
tGalloway, John, jun. Knott Mill Iron Works, Manchester. 


. §Galloway, W., H.M. Inspector of Mines. Cardiff. 


*Gauton, Captain Dovaxas, C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.8., 
F.R.G.S. (Genrran SecreTARY.) 12 Chester-street,Grosvenor- 
place, London, 8.W. 

*GaLTON, Francis, F.R.S., F.G.8., F.R.G.S. 42 Rutland-gate, 
Knightsbridge, London, S.W. 

tGatton, Joun C., M.A., F.L.8. 13 Margaret-street, Cavendish- 
square, London, W. 

§Gamble, Lieut.-Col. D. St. Helen’s, Lancashire. 

*Gamble, John G. Savile Club, 15 Savile-row, London, W. 

ier Antuur, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.: Owens College, Man- 

chester. 

§Garner, Ropert, F.L.8. Stoke-upon-Trent. 

§Garner, Mrs, Robert. Stoke-upon-Trent. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 29 


Year of 

Election. 

1842.. Garnett, Jeremiah. Warven-street, Manchester. 

1873. }Garnham, John. 128 Bunhill-row, London, E.C. 

1874. *Garstin, John Ribton, M.R.LA., F.S.A. Greenhill, Killiney, Co, 
Dublin. 

1870. {Gaskell, Holbrook. Woolton Wood, Liverpool. 

1870. *Gaskell, Holbrook, jun. Maytfield-road, Aizburth, Liverpool. 

1847. *Gaskell, Samuel. Windham Club, St. J ames’s-square, London, 8.W. 

1842. Gaskell, Rey. William, M.A. Plymouth-erove, Manchester. 

1846. {Gasstor, Joun Perer, D.C.L., LL.D., FRS., F.C.S. Clapham 
Common, London, 8. W. 

1862. *Gatty, Charles Henry, M.A., F.L.8., F,G.S. Felbridge Park, Mast 
Grinstead, Sussex. 

1875. §Gavey, J. 21 Shrubbery Park West, Clifton, Bristol. 

1875. §Gaye, Henry 8. Newton Abbott, Devon. 

1873. {Geach, R. G. Crage Wood, Rawdon, Yorkshire. 

1871. {Geddes, John. 9 Melville-crescent, Edinburgh. 

1859. {Geddes, William D., M.A., Professor of Greek, King’s College, Old 
Aberdeen. 

1854. tGee, Robert, M.D. 5 Abercromby-square, Liverpool. 

1867. §Grrkin, Arcurpaxp, LL.D., F.R.S.L. & E., ¥.GS., Director of the 
Geological Survey of Scotland. Geological Survey Office, Vic- 
toria-street, Edinburgh ; and Ramsay Lodge, Edinburgh. 

1871. §Geikie, James, F.R.S.L.& E., 1.G.S, 16 Duncan-terrace, New- 
ington, Edinbureh. 

1855. {Gemmell, Andrew. 38 Queen-street, Glasgow. 

1875. *George, Rey. Hereford B., M.A., F.R.G.S. New College, Oxford. 

1854, {Gerard, Henry. 8a Rumford-place, Liverpool. 

1870. {Gerstl, R. University College, London, W.C. 

1870. *Gervis, Walter 8., M.D. Ashburton, Devonshire. 

1856, *Gething, George Barkley. Springfield, Newport, Monmouthshire. 

1855. {Gibbins, William. Battery Works, Digbeth, Birmineham. 

1871. {Gibson, Alexander. 19 Albany-street, Edinburgh, ~ 

1863. {Gibson, C. M. Bethel-street, Norwich. 

1874, {Gibson, Edward, Q.C. 23 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin. 

*Gibson, George Stacey. Saffron Wallen mac 

1852. {Gibson, James. 35 Mountjoy-square, Dublin. 

1870. { Gibson, R. £. 

1870. {Gibson, Thomas, 51 Oxford-street, Liverpool. 

1870. {Gibson, Thomas, jun. 19 Parkfield-road, Prince’s Park, Liverpool, 

1867. {Gibson, W. L., M.D. | Tay-street, Dundee. 

1842, Gipert, Josepu Henry, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.8. Harpenden, near 
St. Albans. } 

1857. {Gilbert, J. T., M.R.LA. Blackrock, Dublin. 

1859, *Gilchrist, James, M.D, Crichton House, Dumfries. 

Gilderdale, Rev. John, M.A. Walthamstow, Essex, E. 
Giles, Rev. William. Netherleigh House, near Chester, 

1871. *Gill, David, jun. The Observatory, Aberdeen. 

1868. {Gill, Joseph. Palermo, Sicily. (Care of W. II. Gill, Esq., General 
Post Office, St. Martin’s-le-Grand, 11.0.) 

1864, {Gitt, Tomas. 4 Sydney-place, Bath, 

1861. *Gilroy, George. Hindley Hall, Wigan. 

1867, {Gilroy, Robert. Craigie, by Dundee. 

1867. §Ginspuna, Rev. C. D., D.C.L., LL.D. Binfield, Bracknell, Berkshire, 

1869, {Girdlestone, Rey. Canon E., M.A. Halberton Vicarage, Tiverton. 

1874. *Girdwood, James Kennedy. Old Park, Belfast. 

1850. *Gladstone, George, F.C.S.,F.R.G.S, 31 Ventnor-villas, Cliftonville, 
Brighton. 


30 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1849, 


1861. 
1875. 
1861. 


1871. 


1853. 
1870. 
1859, 
1867. 


1874. 


1874. 
1870. 
1872. 
1852. 
1846, 


1873. 
1852. 
1870. 
1842. 
1865. 
1869. 
1870, 


1871. 
1840. 
1857. 
1865. 
1870. 
1875. 


1873. 
1849, 
1857. 
1868. 


1854. 
1878. 
1967. 


1873. 
1861. 
1867. 


1875. 
1852. 


*GQLADSTONE, JOHN Hatt, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Fullerian Professor 
of Chemistry in the Royal Institution. 17 Pembridge-square, 
Hyde Park, London, W. 

*Gladstone, Murray. 386 Wilton-crescent, London, S.W. 

*Glaisher, Ernest Henry. 1 Dartmouth-place, Blackheath, London,S.E. 

*Griaisu“r, James, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 1 Dartmouth-place, Black- 
heath, London, S.E. 

*GriaisHER, J. W. L., M.A. F.RS., F.R.A.S. Trinity College, 
Cambridge. 

t{Gleadon, Thomas Ward. Moira-buildings, Hull. 

§Glen, David Corse. 14 Annfield-place, Glasgow. 

tGlennie, J.S. Stuart. 6 Stone-buildings, Lincoln’s-Inn, London, W.C. 

tGloag, John A. L. 10 Inverleith-place, Edinburgh. 

Glover, George. Ranelagh-road, Pimlico, London, S.W, 

§Glover, George T. 50 Donegall-place, Belfast. 

Glover, Thomas. Becley Old Hall, Rowsley, Bakewell. 

t{Glover, Thomas. 77 Claverton-street, London, S.W. 

{Glynn, Thomas R. 1 Rodney-street, Liverpool. 

tGopparp, RicHarp. 16 Booth-street, Bradford, Yorkshire. 

tGodwin, John. Wood House, Rostrevor, Belfast. 

t{Gopwiy-Avsten, Roper A. C., B.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. Chilworth 
Manor, Guildford. 
Gotpsmip, Sir Francis Henry, Bart., M.P. St. John’s Lodge, 
Regent’s Park, London, N.W. . 

§Goldthorp, Miss R. F.C. Cleckheaton, Bradford, Yorkshire. 

tGoodbody, Jonathan. Clare, King’s County, Ireland. 

tGoodison, George William, C.K. Gateacre, Liverpool. 

*GoopMan, JoHn, M.D. 8 Leicester-street, Southport. 

tGoodman, J. D. Minories, Birmingham. 

tGoodman, Neville. Peterhouse, Cambridge. 

*Goodwin, Rey. Henry Albert, M.A., F.R.A.S. Lambourne Rectory, 
Romford. 

{Gordon, Joseph. Poynter’s-row, Totteridge, Whetstone, London, N. 

tGordon, Lewis D. B. Totteridge, Whetstone, London, N. 

tGordon, Samuel, M.D. 11 Hume-street, Dublin. 

tGore George, F.R.S. 50 Islington-row, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

{Gossage, William. Winwood, Woolton, Liverpool. 

*Gotch, Francis. Stokes Croft, Bristol. 

*Gotch, Rey. Frederick William, LL.D. Stokes Croft, Bristol. 

*Gotch, Thomas Henry. Kettering. 

§Gott, Charles, M.I.C.E. Parkfield-road, Manningham, Bradford. 

tGough, The Hon. Fréderick. Perry Hall, Birmingham. 

tGouch, George S., Viscount. Rathronan House, Clonmel. 

§Gould, Rev. George. Unthank-road, Norwich. 

Govtp, Joun, F.R.S., F.LS., F.R.G.S., I.Z.8. 26 Charlotte-street, 
Bedford-square, London, W.C. 

{Gourlay, Daniel De la C., M.D. 

{Gourlay, J. McMillan. 21 St. Andrew’s-place, Bradford, Yorkshire, 

tGourley, Henry (Engineer). Dundee. 

Gowland, James. London-wall, London, E.C. 

§Goyder, Dr. D. Manville-crescent, Bradford, Yorkshire, 

tGrafton, Frederick W. Park-road, Whalley Range, Manchester. 

*Granam, Cynit, F.L.S., F.R.G.S. 9 Cleveland-row, Si. James’s, 
London, 8. W. ; 

§GRAHAME, JAMES. Auldhouse, Pollokshaw, near Glasgow. 

*Grainger, Rey. John, D.D., MR.LA. Skerry and Rathcayan Rectory, 
Broughshane, near Ballymena, Co, Antrim. 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 31 


Year of 

Election, 

1871. {Granr, Sir ALEXANDER, Bart., M.A., Principal of the University of 
Edinburgh. 21 Lansdowne-crescent, Edinburgh. 

1870. §Granr, Colonel J. A., C.B., C.S.L, F.R.S., F.LS., F.R.G.S. 7 Park- 
square West, London, N. W. 

1859. {Grant, Hon. James. Cluny Cottage, Forres. 

1855, *Grant, Ropert, M.A., LL.D.. F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Regis Professor of 
Astronomy in the University of Glasgow. The Observatory, 
Glasgow. 

1854. eee, Ricuarp B., C.E., F.G.8. 22 Whitehall-place, London, 


1864. {Grantham, Richard F. 22 Whitehall-place, London, S.W. 
1874, §Graves, Rey. James, B.A., M.R.LA. Inisnag Glebe, Stoneyford, 
Co. Kilkenny. ; 
*Graves, Rev. Richard Hastings, D.D. 31 Raglan-road, Dublin. 
1864. *Gray, Rev. Charles. The Vicarage, Blyth, Worksop. 
1865. {Gray, Charles. Swan-bank, Bilston. 
1870. {Gray, C. B. 5 Rumford-place, Liverpool. 
1857. {Gray, Sir John, M.D. Rathgar, Dublin. 
1864. {Gray, Jonathan. Summerhill House, Bath. 
1859. {Gray, Rev. J. H. Bolsover Castle, Derbyshire. 
1870. — ; eee 10 York-grove, Queen’s-road, Peckham, Lon- 
on, 8.F. 
1873. §Gray, William. Belfast. 
*Gray, Wm11AM, F.G.S8. Gray’s-court, Minster Yard, York. 
*Gray, Colonel William. Farley Hall, near Reading. 
1854, *Grazebrook, Henry. Clent Grove, near Stourbridge, Worcester- 
shire. 
1866. §Greayes, Charles Augustus, M.B., LL.B. 32 Friar-gate, Derby. 
1873. {Greaves, James H., C.E. Albert-buildings, Queen Victoria-street, 
London, §.C. 
1869, §Greaves, William. Wellington-circus, Nottingham. 
1872. ea a heen 2 Raymond-buildings, Gray's Inn, London, 
V rT fh. 


1872. *Grece, Clair J.. LL.D. Redhill, Surrey. 

1858. *Greenhalgh, Thomas. Thornydikes, Sharples, near Bolton-le-Moors. 

1863. {Greenwell, G. EK. Poynton, Cheshire. 

1875. §Greenwood, Frederick. School of Medicine, Leeds. 

1862. *Greenwood, Henry. 32 Castle-street, and The Woodlands, Anfield- 
road, Anfield, Liverpool. 

1849. {Greenwood, William. Stones, Todmorden. 

1861, *Gree, Ropert Pumps, F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Coles Park, Bunting- 
ford, Herts. 

1833. Gregg, T.H. 22 Ironmonger-lane, Cheapside, London, E.C. 

1860. {Grecor, Rey. Watrrr, M.A.  Pitsligo, Rosehearty, Aberdeen- 


shire, 
1868. {Gregory, Charles Hutton, C.E, 1 Delahay-street, Westminster, 
S.W 


1861. §Gregson, Samuel Leigh. Aigburth-road, Liverpool. 
1875. §Grenfell, J. Granville, B.A., F.G.S. 5 Albert-villas, Clifton, Bristol. 
*GnrESWELL, Rev. Ricwarp, M.A., F.R.S.,F.R.G.S. 89 St. Giles’s- 

street, Oxford. 

1869, {Grey, Sir Grorer, F.R.G.S. Belgvave-mansions, Grosyenor- 
gardens, London, 8. W. 

1863. t{Grey, W. 8. Norton, Stockton-on-Tees. 

1871. *Grierson, Samuel. Medical Superintendent of the District Asylum, 
Melrose, N.B. 

1859, {Grierson, Tuomas Borin, M.D, Thornhill, Dumfriesshire. 


32 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1875. 
1870. 


1859, 


1867. 


1842. 
1856. 


1862. 


1866. 
1868. 
1860. 
1859. 


1864. 
1870. 
1857. 


1865. 


1866, 


1866, 


§Grieve, David, P.R.S.E. Hobart House, Dalkeith. 
{Grieve, John, M.D, 21 Lynedock-street, Glasgow. 
*(Gyriffin, John Joseph, F.C.8. 22 Garrick-street, London, W.C. 
Griffith, Rey. C. T., D.D. Elm, near Frome, Somerset. 
*GrirritH, Geor@e, M.A., I.C.8, (Assistanr GENERAL SECRE- 
TARY.) Harrow. 
Griffith, George R, Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin. 


. {Grirriru, Rey. Jonny, M.A., D.C.L. Findon Rectory, Worthing 


Sussex. 


. {Griffith,N.R. The Coppa, Mold, North Wales. 
. (Griffith, Rev. Professor. Bowden, Cheshire. 


*(Grirritu, Sir Ricuarp Joun, Bart., LL.D., F.R.S.E., M.R.LA., 
F.G.S. 2 Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin. 


. {Griffith, Thomas, Bradford-street, Birmingham, 


Grirrirus, Rev. Joun, M.A. Wadham College, Oxford. 


. §Grignon, James, H.M. Consul at Riga. Riga. 
. {Grimsdale, T. F., M.D. 29 Rodney-street, Liverpool. 


Jrimshaw, Samuel, M.A. Errwod, Buxton. 


. [Groom-Napmr, CHartes Orriey, F.G.8. 13 Elgin-road, St. 


Peter’s Park, London, N.W. 


. §Grote, Arthur, F.L.S., ’.G.8. The Athenzeum Club, Pall Mall, Lon- 


don, S. W. 
Grove, The Hon. Sir Wini1am Ropert, Kat., M.A., Ph.D., I.R.S, 
115 Harley-street, London, W. 


3. *Grovss, Toomas B., F.C.S. 80 St. Mary-street, Weymouth. 
. {Grups, Howarp, F.R.A.S. 40 Leinster-square, Rathmines, 


Dublin. 


. {Gruss, Toomas, F.R.S., M.R.LA. 141 Leinster-road, Dublin. 
. [Griineisen, Charles Lewis, F.R.G.S. 16 Surrey-street, Strand, Lon- 


don, W.C. 

Cuest, Edwin, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., FLAS., F.R.AS., Master of 
Caius College, Cambridge. Caius Lodge, Cambridge; and Sand- 
ford Park, Oxfordshire. 

{Guild, John. Bayfield, West Ferry, Dundee. 

Guinness, Henry. 17 College-green, Dublin. 

Guinness, Richard Seymour. 17 College-green, Dublin. 

*Guise, Sir WILLIAM VrrRnoy, Bart., I°.G.8., F.L.S. Elmore Court, 
near Gloucester. 

{Gunn, John, M.A., F.G.S. Irstedd Rectory, Norwich. 

1G Aupert C. L. G., M.D.,F.R.S. British Museum, London, 
WwW 


*Gurey, John, Sprouston Hall, Norwich. 

*Gurney, SAMUBL, F.L.S., F.R.G.S. 20 Hanover-terrace, Regent's 
Park, London, N.W. 

*Gutch, John James. Holgate Lodge, York. 

{Gururm, Freperick, B.A., P.RAS.L. & E., ¥.C.S., Professor of 
Physics in the Royal School of Mines. 24 Stanley-crescent, 
Notting Hill, London, W. 

§Guyon, George. South Cliff Cottage, Ventnor, Isle of Wight. 

{ Guyton, Joseph. 

{Gwynne, Rey. John. Tullyagnish, Letterkenny, Strabane, Ireland. 


Hackett, Michael. Brooklawn, Chapelizod, Dublin. 
ape William. 9 Victoria Chambers, Victoria-street, London, 


*HTadden, Frederick J. 3 Park-terrace, Nottingham, 
iHfaddon, Henry, Lenton Field, Nottingham, 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


to 
ne) 


Year of 
Election, 


1866. 
1865. 


1869. 
1869. 
1851. 
1863. 


1875, 


1863. 
1850. 


1861. 


1857. 
1847. 
1865, 


1867. 
1859. 
1853. 


1865. 
1869, 
1869, 


Haden, G.N. Trowbridge, Wiltshire. 


. [ Haden, W. H. 


Hadfield, George. Victoria-park, Manchester. 
tHadivan, Isaac. 3 Huskisson-street, Liverpool. 


. {Hadland, William Jenkins. Banbury, Oxfordshire. 
. {Haigh, George. Waterloo, Liverpool. 


*Hailstone, Mdward, F'.S.A. Walton Hall, Wakefield, Yorkshire. 


. tHake, R. C. Grasmere Lodge, Addison-road, Kensington, Lon- 


don, W. 


. §Hale, Rev. Edward, M.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Eton College, Windsor. 
. {Halhead, W. B. 7 Parkfield-road, Liverpool. 


Havrax, The Right Hon. Viscount. 10 Belgrave-square, London, 
8.W. ; and Hickleston Hall, Doncaster. 


. tHall, Dr. Alfred. 30 Old Steine, Briehton. 

. *Havy, Hues Frere, F.G.8. Greenheys, Wallasey, Birkenhead. 
. ¢Hall, John Frederic. Ellerker House, Richmond, Surrey. 

72. *Hall, Captain Marshall. Scientific Club, Savile-row, London, W. 


*Hall, Thomas B. Australia. (Care of J. P. Hall, Esq., Crane House, 
Great Yarmouth.) 


. *Hatt, TownsHenD M., F.G.S. Pilton, Barnstaple. 

» §Hall, Walter. 10 Pier-road, Erith. 

. §Hallett, T. G. P., M.A. Bristol. 

. *“Hauverr, Witiiam Henry, F.L.S. 10 Percival-terrace, Brighton. 
. {Halliday, James. Whalley Cottage, Whalley Range, Manchester. 


Halsall, Edward. 4 Somerset-street, Kingsdown, Bristol. 


. *Hambly, Charles Hambly Burbridge, F.G.8. The Leys, Barrow-on- 


Soar, near Loughborough. 
§Haminron, ArcurBarp, F.G.S. South Barrew, Bromley, Kent. 
§Hamilton, Gilbert. Leicester House, Kenilworth-road, Leamington. 
Hamitton, The Very Rev. Henry Parr, Dean of Salisbury, M.A., 
ERS.L, & i, F.G.S., FR.A.S. Salisbury. 
{Hamilton, John, F.G.8. Fyne Court, Bridgewater, 
§Hamilton, Roland. Oriental Club, Hanover-square, London, W. 
tHammond, C. C. Lower Brook-street, Ipswich. 
fHancock, AtBAny, F.L.S. 4 St. Mary’s-terrace, Newcastle-upon- 


Tyne. 
§Hancock, C. F., jun., M.A. Royal Institution, Albemarle-street, 
London, W. 
tHancock, John. 4 St. Mary’s-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
{Hancock, John, J.P. The Manor House, Lurgan, Co. Armagh. 
renee, Walker. 10 Upper Chadwell-street, Pentonville, London, 


tHancock, William J. 74 Lower Gardiner-street, Dublin. 
{Hancock, W. Nerison, LL.D. 74 Lower Gardiner-street, Dublin. 
fHands, M. Coventry. 
Handyside, P. D., M.D., F.R.S.E. Fairmount, Moffat, Dumfries- 
shire. 
{Hannah, Rey. John, D.C.L. The Vicarage, Brighton. 
tHannay, John. Montcoffer House, Aberdeen. 
tHansell, Thomas T. 2 Charlotte-street, Sculcoates, Hull. 
*Harcourr, A. G. Vernon, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S. 3 Norham- 
gardens, Oxford. 
Harcourt, Egerton V. Vernon, M.A., F.G.8. Whitwell Hall, York- 
shire. 
tHarding, Charles. Harborne Heath, Birmingham. 
tHarding, Joseph. Hill’s Court, Exeter. 
tHarding, Wiliam D, Islington Lodge, Kings Lynn, Norfolk. 
D 


54 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


187 
1872. 


1858. 
1853, 


1871. 
1875. 


1862. 


1862. 


1861. 
1868. 
1872. 


1871. 


1863. 
1875. 
1860, 
1864, 
1873. 


1874. 
1858. 


1870. 
1853. 
1863. 
1853. 
1849, 
1859. 
1875, 
1856, 


1871. 
1854, 
1850. 
1870, 


1862. 
1875. 


. ¢Hardman, E. T., F.C.S. 14 Hume-street, Dublin. 


tHardwicke, Mrs. 192 Piccadilly, London, W. 

*Harn, Cuartes Jonny, M.D., Professor of Clinical Medicine in Uni- 
versity College, London. 57 Brook-street, Grosyenor-squure, 
London, W. 

Harford, Summers. Haverfordwest. 

tHargrave, James. Burley, near Leeds. 

§Harxkyess, Ropert, F.R.S.L. & E., F.G.8., Professor of Geology 
in Queen’s College, Cork. 

§Harkness, William. Laboratory, Somerset House, London, W.C. 

*Harland, Rev. Albert Augustus, M.A. The Vicarage, Harefield, 
Middlesex. 

*Hariry, Groras, M.D., F.R.S., F.C.5. 25 Harley-street, London, 
W 


*Harley, John. Ross Hall, near Shrewsbury. 

*Harwry, Rey. Ropert, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Mill Hill School, Middle- 
sex; and Burton Bank, Mill Mill, Middlesex, N.W. 

tHarman, H. W., C.E. 16 Booth-street, Manchester. 

*Harmer, F. W., F.G.S. Oakland House, Cringletord, Norwich. 

§Harpley, Rev. William, M.A., F.C.P.S. Clayhanger Rectory, 
Tiverton. 

*Harris, Alfred. Oxton Hall, Tadcaster, 

*Harris, Alfred, jun. Lunefield, Kirkby-Lonsdale, Westmoreland. 

tHarris, GrorGe, F.S.A. Iselipps Manor, Northolt, Southall, Mid- 
dlesex. 

tHarris, T. W. Grange, Middlesborough-on-Tees. 

tHarris, W. W. Oak-villas, Bradford, Yorkshire. 

{Harrison, Rev, Francis, M.A. Oriel College, Oxford. 

§Harrison, George. Barnsley, Yorkshire. 

§Harrison, George, Ph.D., V.L.5., F.C.5. 265 Glossop-road, Shef- 
field. 

§Harrison, G. D. B. 3 Beaufort-road, Clifton, Bristol. 

*Harrison, JAMES Park, M.A. Cintra Park Villa, Upper Norwood, 

8.E. 

t{Harrison, Reainatp, 51 Rodney-street, Liverpool, 

tHarrison, Robert. 36 George-street, Hull. 

tHarvison, T, E, Engineers’ Office, Central Station, Neweastle-on- 


Tyne. 
amie, William, F.\S.A., F.G.S. Samlesbury Hall, near Preston, 
Lancashire. 
t{Harrowsy, Dubey Ryper, Earl of, K.G., D.C.L.,F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 
39 Grosvenor-square, London, W.; and Sandon Hall, Lichfield. 
*Hart, Charles. Harbourne Hall, Birmingham. 
§Hart, W. EK. Kilberry, near Londonderry. 
{Hartland, F. Dixon, F.S.A., F.R.G.S. The Oaklands, near Chel- 
tenham. 
Hartley, James. Sunderland. 
{Hartley, Walter Noel. King’s College, London, W.C. 
diet Joun, F.R.A.S. Liverpool Observatory, Bidston, Birken- 
ead, 
{Harvey, Alexander, 4 South Wellington-place, Glasgow. 
{Harvey, Enoch. Riversdale-road, Aigburth, Liverpool. 
*Harvey, Joseph Charles. Knockrea, Douglas-read, Cork, 
Harvey, J. R., M.D. St. Patrick’s-place, Cork. 
*Harwood, John, jun. Woodside Mills, Bolton-le-Moors, 
§Hasting, G. W. Barnard’s Green House, Malvern. 
Hastings, Rey. H.S. Martley Rectory, Worcester. 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 35 


Year of 
Election. 


1837. 
1842. 
1857. 


. {Henderson, Alexander. Dundee, 


Hastings, W. Huddersfield. 

*Hatton, James. Richmond House, Higher Broughton, Manchester. 

tHaveHrton, Rey. Samurr, M.D., M.A., F.R.S., M.R.LA., F.G.S., 
Professor of Geology in the University of Dublin. Trinity Col- 
lege, Dublin. 

*Haughton, William. 28 City Quay, Dublin. 


. {Hawkins, B. Waterhouse, F.L.8., F.G.S. Allison Tower, Dulwich, 


London, 8.E. 
Hawkins, John Heywood, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.8. Bignor Park, Pet- 


worth, Sussex. 


72. *Hawkshaw, Henry Paul. 20 King-street, St. James’s, London, 
S.W 


*THawkstaw, Sir Jonn, C.E., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Presment.) Holly- 
combe, Liphook, Petersfield; and 33 Great George-street, 
London, S.W. 


. *Hawkshaw, John Clarke, M.A., F.G.8S. 25 Cerny iegerdans, 


South Kensington, S.W.; and 33 Great George-street, London, 


S.W. 


, SHawxKstry, Tuomas, C.E.,F.G.S. 380 Great George-street, London, 
S.W. 


5 {Hawthorn, William. The Cottage, Benwell, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
. tHay, Sir Andrew Leith, Bart. Rannes, Aberdeenshire. 
. *Hay, Rear-Admiral the Right Hon. Sir Jonn C. D., Bait., C.B., 


M.P., F.R.S. 108 St. George’s-square, London, 8. W. 


. tHay, Samuel. Albion-place, Leeds. 

. THay, William. 21 Magdalen-yard-road, Dundee. 

. THayden, Thomas, M.D. 380 Harcourt-street, Dublin. 

. *Hayes, Rey. William A., B.A. 61 George-street, Leeds. 

. tHayward, J. High-street, Exeter. 

. *Hayward, Roperr Banpwin, M.A. The Park, Harrow. 

. §Heap, Jeremian, C.E., F.S.S. Middlesbrough, Yorkshire. 
. t{Head, R. T. The Briars, Alphington, Exeter. 

. tHead, W. R. Bedford-circus, Exeter. 

. Heald, Joseph. 22 Leazes-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

: +Healey, C. EK. H. Chadwyck. 8 Albert-mansions, Victoria-street, 


ondon, 8.W. 


. §Healey, George. _Matson’s, Windermere. 
. *Heape, Benjamin. Northwood, Prestwich, near Manchester, 


tHearder, William. Victoria Parade, Torquay. 


. tHeath, Rev. D. J. Esher, Surrey. 
. {Heath, G. Y., M.D. Westgate-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
. §Hraturierp, W. E., F.C.8., F.R.G.S., F.R.S.E. 20 King-street 


St. James’s, London, 8. W. 


. {Heaton, Harry. Harborne House, Harborne, near Birmingham. 
. “Heaton, Joun Drax, M.D., F.R.C.P. Claremont, Leeds. 

. {Heaton, Ralph. Harborne Lodge, near Bumingham. 

; Pacentie R 

. {HecrTor, Jamus, M.D., PRS, F.G.S., F.R.G.8., Geological Survey 


ev. Canon J. W. L., M.A. The Close, Norwich. 


of New Zealand. Wellington, New Zealand. 


. }Hepprs, M. Fosrrr, M.D., Professor of Chemistry in the University 


of St. Andrews, N.B. 


. tHedgeland, Rev. W. J. 21 Mount Radford, Exeter, 
. {Hedley, Thomas. Cox Lodge, near Newcastle-on-Tyne, 


. [Helm, George F. 
i *Hemans, George William, C.E., M.R.LA., F.G.S, 1 Westminster- 


chambers, Victoria-street, London, S.W. 


Dg 


26 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 


Year of 
Election. 


1845. 


1875. 
1866. 


1874. 


1873. 
1856. 


1866. 
1866. 
1861. 


1861 


1875. 


1864, 
1854. 


1861. 


1866. 


1875. 
1871, 


{Henderson, Andrew. 120 Gloucester-place, Portman-square, Lon- 
don, W. 

*Hendergon, A. L. 49 King William-street, London, E.C, 

{ Henderson, James, jun. Dundee. 

§Henderson, James Alexander. Norwood Tower, Belfast. 

*HenpErson, W. D. 12 Victoria-street, Belfast. 

t{Hunvessy, Henry G., F.R.S., M.R.LA., Professor of Applied 
Mathematics in the Royal College of Science for Ireland. 
Mount Eagle, Sandyford, Co, Dublin. 


. {Hennessy, John Pope, Governor of the Bahamas. Goyernment 


House, Nassau. 


. *Henrici, Olaus M.’F. E., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics 


in University College, London. 22 Torriano-avenue, Camden 
Town, London, N.W. 
Henry, Franklin. Portland-street, Manchester. 
Henry, J. Snowdon. East Dene, Bonchurch, Isle of Wight. 
Henry, Mitchell, M.P. Stratheden House, Hyde Park, London, 
W. 


4, {Henry, Rev. P. Saurtpam, D.D., M.R.LA. President, Queen's 


College, Belfast. 
*Hoenny, Wii11aM Cuarres, M.D., F.R.S., .G.8., F.R.G.S, Haf- 
field, near Ledbury, Herefordshire. 


. {Henty, William. Norfolk-terrace, Brighton. 
5. *Hepburn, J. Gotch, LL.B., F.C.S. Sidcup-place, Sideup, Kent. 
55. {Hepburn, Robert. 9 Portland-place, London, W. 


Hepbwn, Thomas. Clapham, London, 8.W. 


. tHepburn, Thomas H. St. Mary’s Cray, Kent. 


Hepworth, John Mason. Ackworth, Yorkshire. 


. {Hepworth, Rey. Robert. 2 St. James’s-square, Cheltenham. 


*Herbert, Thomas. The Park, Nottingham. 


2. {| Herdman, John. 
. §Herrick, Perry. Bean Manor Park, Loughborough, 
. *Henscuen, Professor ALEXANDER §., B.A., I.R.A.S. College of 


Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 


. {Herschel, Captain John, R.E., F.R.S. Collingwood, Hawkhurst, 


Kent. 


5. tHeslop, Dr. Birmingham. 

3. { Heslop, Joseph. 

3. tHeugh, John. Gaunt’s House, Wimborne, Dorset. 
. {Hewitson, William C. Oatlands, Surrey. 


Hey, Rey. William, M.A., F.C.P.S. Clifton, York. 
*Heymann, Albert. West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire. 
tHeymann, L. West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire. 
*Heywood, Arthur Henry. Elleray, Windermere. 
*Hrywoop, James, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A., F.RG.S., F.S.8. 26 Ken- 
sington Palace-gardens, London, W. 
*Heywood, Oliver. Claremont, Manchester. 
§Hicks, Henry, F.G.S. Heriot House, Hendon, Middlesex, N.W. 
Heywood, Thomas Percival. Claremont, Manchester. 
*Hiern, W. P., M.A. 1 Foxton-villas, Richmond, Surrey. 
* Higgin, Edward. 
*Miovin, James. Lancaster-avenue, Fennel-street, Manchester. 
Higeinbotham, Samuel. 4 Sprinefield-court, Queen-street, Glasgow. 
tHigginbottom, John, F.R.S., F.R.C.S. Gill-street, Nottingham. 
*§Higoins, Charles Hayes, M.D., M.R.C.P., F.R.C.S., F.R.S.B. Alfred 
House, Birkenhead. 
{Hiecins, Crement, B.A., F.C.S. 27 St. John’s-park, Upper Hol- 
loway, London, N. 


LIST OF MEMBERS, o7 


Year of 
Election. 


1861. 
1854. 


1861. 
1870. 


1864 
1864 


1864. 


1863 


1866. 
. {Hodges, John F., M.D., F.C.S., Professor of Agriculture in Queen’s 


1873. 
. tHodgson, James. Oakfield, Manningham, Bradford, Yorkshire. 


. *Hodgson, Kirkman Daniel, M.P. 67 Brook-street, London, W. 

. {Hodgson, Robert. Whitburn, Sunderland. 

. tHodeson, R. W. North Dene, Gateshead. 

. {Hlodgson, W. B., LL.D., F.R.A.S. 41 Grove-end-road, St. John's 


tihiggins, George. 
{Hiaerns, Rey. Henry H., M.A. The Asylum, Rainhili, Liver- 


ool. 
*Higgins, James. Stocks House, Cheetham, Manchester, 
{Hiaainson, ALFRED. 44 Upper Parliament-street, Liverpool. 
Hildyard, Rey. James, B.D., 1°.C.P.S. Ingoldsby, near Grantham, 
Lincolnshire. 
Hill, Arthur. Bruce Castle, Tottenham, London, N. 


. §Hill, Charles. Rockhurst, West Hoathley, Hast Grinstead. 


*Hill, Rev. Edward, M.A., F.G.S8. Sheering Rectory, Harlow. 


. §Hill, John, M.IC.E., M.R.LA., F.R.G.S.I. County Surveyor’s 


Office, Ennis, Ireland. 


. {Hill, Lawrence. The Knowe, Greenock. 


*Hitt, Sir Rowxianp, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.A.S, Hampstead, 
London, N.W. 


. {Hill, William. Combe Hay, Bristol. 


{Hills, F. C. Chemical Works, Deptford, Kent, S.E. 


. §Hills, Graham H., Staff-Commander R.N. 4 Bentley-road, Princes 


Park, Liverpool. 


. *Hills, Thomas Hyde. 338 Oxford-street, London, W. 
. }Hrcxs, Rey, THomas, B.A., F.R.S,  Stancliff House, Clevedon, 


Somerset. 


. {Hinde, G. J. Buenos Ayres. 


Hindley, Rev. H. J. Edlington, Lincolnshire. 
*Hindmarsh, Luke. Alnbank House, Alnwick. 


. {Hinds, James, M.D. Queen’s College, Birmingham. 

. {Hinds, William, M.D. Parade, Birmingham. 

. *Hinmers, William. Cleveland House, Birkdale, Southport. 

. §Hirst, John, jun. Dobcross, near Manchester. 

. *Hirst, T. Arcuer, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Royal Naval College, 


Greenwich, 8.1i.; and Athenzeum Club, Pall Mall, London, 
5.W. 


. {Hitch, Samuel, M.D. Sandywell Park, Gloucestershire. 
. {Hitchman, William, M.D., LL.D., F.L.S., &c. 29 Erskine-street, 


Liverpool. 
*Hoare, Rev. George Tooker. Godstone Rectory, Redhill. 
- Hoare, J. Gurney. Hampstead, London, N.W. 
tHobhouse, Arthur Fane. 24 Cadogan-place, London, 8.W. 
tHobhouse, Charles Parry. 24 Cadogan-place, London, S,W. 
tHobhouse, Henry William. 24 Cadogan-place, London, 8. W. 
§Hobson, A.S8., F.C.8. 8 Upper Heathfield-terrace, Turnham Green, 
London, W. 
t{Hockry, Cuarirs, M.D. 8 Ayenue-road, St. John’s Wood, Lon- 
don, N.W. 


College, Belfast. 
*Hopaxin, THOMAS. 
*Tlodgson, George. 


Benwell Dene, Newcastle-on-Tyne, 
Thornton-road, Bradford, Yorkshire. 


Wood, London, N.W. 


. *Tormann, Auacustus WiuriaM, LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.8. 10 


Dorotheen Strasse, Berlin. 


. {Hogan, Rev. A. R., M.A. Watlington Vicarage, Oxfordshire. 


88 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 


Year of 
Election 


1854. 
1873. 
1856. 
1858. 


1865. 
1866. 
1873. 
1870. 


1875. 
1847. 


1865. 
1861. 
1856. 
1842. 
1869. 
1865. 
1870. 
1871. 
1858. 


1875. 
1854. 
1856. 


1868. 


1859. 


1858. 


1859. 
1865. 


1857. 


1868. 
1865. 


1863. 
1854. 
1870. 
1835. 
1842, 
1867. 
1858. 
1857. 
1871. 


1870. 


*Holeroft, George. Byron’s-court, St. Mary’s-gate, Manchester. 
*Holden, Isaac. Oakworth House, near Keighley, Yorkshire. 
tHolland, Henry. Dumbleton, Evesham. 
§Holland, Loton, F.R.G.S. The Gables, Oshorne-road, Windsor. 
*Holland, Philip H. 41 Parliament-street, Westminster, 8. W. 
tHolliday, William. New-street, Birmingham. 
*Holmes, Charles. 59 London-road, Derby. 
tHolmes, J. R. Southbrook Lodge, Bradford, Yorkshire. 
tHolt, William D. 23 Edge-lane, Liverpool. 
*Hone, Nathaniel, M.R.I.A. Bank of Ireland, Dublin. 
*Hood, John. The Elms, Cotham Hill, Bristol. 
t{Hooxer, Joseru Daron, C.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., Pres. R.S., 
V.P.LS., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Royal Gardens, Kew, W. 
*Hooper, John P. The Hut, Mitcham Common, Surrey. 
§Hooper, William. 7 Pall Mall Hast, London, S.W. 
tHooton, Jonathan. 80 Great Ducie-street, Manchester. 
Hope, Thomas Arthur. Stanton, Bebington, Cheshire. 
tHoprr, Wit11aM, V.C. Parsloes, Barking, Essex. 
tHopkins, J. S. Jesmond Grove, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 
*Hopkinson, John. Woodlea, Beech-lanes, Birmingham. 
§Horxinson, JouN, F.G.S.,F.R.M.S. Holly Bank, Watford. 
tHopkinson, Joseph, jun. Britannia Works, Huddersfield. 
Hornby, Hugh. Sandown, Liverpool. 
*Horniman, F. J. Surrey House, Forest Hill, London, 8.E. 
tHorsfall, Thomas Berry. Bellamour Park, Rugeley. 
tHorsley, John H. 1 Ormond-terrace, Cheltenham. 
Hotham, Rey. Charles, M.A., F.L.S. Roos, Patrington, York- 
shire. 
tHotson, W. C. Upper King-street, Norwich. 
{Hough, Joseph. 
Hoventon, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 
16 Upper Brook-street, London, W. 
Houghton, James. 41 Rodney-street, Liverpool. 
tHounsfield, James. Hemsworth, Pontefract. 
Hovenden, W. F., M.A. Bath. 
tHoward, Captain John Henry, R.N. The Deanery, Lichfield. 
tHoward, Philip Henry. Corby Castle, Carlisle. 
tHowell, Henry H., F.G.S. Museum of Practical Geology, Jermyn- 
street, London, 8. W. ) 
tHowe tt, Rey. Canon Htyns. Drayton Rectory, near Norwich. 
caper Rey. Freprricr, F.R.A.S. East Tisted Rectory, Alton, 
ants. 
tHoworrn, H. H.. Derby House, Hecles, Manchester. 
tHowson, The Very Rev. J. S., D.D., Dean of Chester. Chester. 
tHubback, Joseph. 1 Brunswick-street, Liverpool. 
*Hupson, Henry, M.D.,M.R.LA. Glenville, Fermoy, Co. Cork. 
pa ae E.R.S., F.G.8., F.L.8. Clapham Common, London, 
tHudson, William H. H., M.A. 19 Bennett’s-hill, Doctors’ Commons, 
London, E.C.; and St. John’s College, Cambridge. 
*Huaers, Witu1AM, D.C.L. Oxon., LL.D. Camb., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 
Upper Tulse-hill, Brixton, London, 8.W. 
tHugeon, William. 380 Park-row, Leeds. 
Hughes, D. Abraham. 
*Hughes, George Pringle, J. P. Middleton Hall, Wooler, Northum- 
berland. 
*Hughes, Lewis, Fenwick-court, Liverpool. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 39 


Year of 
Election. 


1868. 


1863. 
1865. 


1867. 


1861. 


1856. 
1882. 


1863. 


1865. 
1840. 


1864. 
1875. 


1868. 
1867. 
1860. 
1855. 
1863. 
1875. 
1869, 
1861. 


1870. 


1874. 


1868. 
1863. 


1864. 


1857. 
1861. 
1852. 


1871. 


1873. 
1861. 


§Huaues, T. M‘K., M.A., F.G.S., Woodwardian Professor of Geology 
in the University of Cambridge. 

tHughes, T. W. 4 Hawthorn-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

tHughes, W. R., F.L.S., Treasurer of the Borough of Birmingham. 
Birmingham. 

Hull, Arthur H. 18 Norfolk-road, Brighton. 

§Hurt, Epwarp, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S._ Director of the Geological 
Survey of Ireland, and Professor of Geclogy in the Royal College 
of Science. 14 Hume-street, Dublin. 

*Hull, William Darley. Stenton Lodge, Tunbridge Wells. 

*Hulse, Sir Edward, Bart., D.C.L. 47 Portland-place, London, W.; 
and Breamore House, Salisbury. 

t{Hume, Rey. Apranam, D.C.L., LL.D, F.S.A. All Souls’ Vicarage, 
Rupert-lane, Liverpool. 

{Humphries, David James. 1 Keynsham-parade, Cheltenham. 

*Humpury, Grorer Murray, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy 
in the University of Cambridge. Grove Lodge, Cambridge. 

*Hunt, Aucusrus H., M.A., Ph.D. Birtley House, near Chester-le- 
Street. 

tHunt, J. P. Gospel Oak Works, Tipton. 

tHunt, Roser, F.R.S., Keeper of the Mining Records. Museum 
of Practical Geology, Jermyn-street, London, 8.W. 

tHunt, W. 72 Pulteney-street, Bath. 

*Hunt, William. The Woodlands, Tyndall’s Park, Clifton, Bristol. 

Hunter, Andrew Galloway. Denholm, Hawick, N.B. 

{Hunter, Christopher. Alliance Insurance Office, North Shields. 

tHunter, David. Blackness, Dundee. 

*Hunter, Rev. Robert, F.G.8. 9 Mecklenburgh-street, London, W.C. 

*Hunter, Thomas 0. 13 William-street, Greenock. 

{Huntsman, Benjamin. West Retford Mall, Retford. 

§Hurnard, James. Lexden, Colchester, Essex. 

tHaurst, George. Bedford. 

*Hurst, William John. Drumaness Mills, ‘Ballynahinch, Lisburn, 
Treland. 

{Hurter, Dr. Ferdinand. Appleton, Widnes, near Warrington. 

Husband, William Dalla. Coney-street, York. 

{Hutchinson, Thomas J., F.R.G.S. Chimoo Cottage, Mill Hill, 
London, N. W. 

*Hutcluson, Robert, F.R.S.E. Carlowrie, Kirkliston, N.B. 

tHurrt, The Right Hon. Sir W., K.C.B. Gibside, Gateshead. 

Hutton, Crompton. Putney-park, Surrey, 8. W. 

lean se Darnton. (Care of Arthur Lupton, Esq., Headingley near 
eeds. 

Hutton, ee Edenfield, Dundrum, Co. Dublin. 

tHutton, Henry D. 10 Lower Mountjoy-street, Dublin. 

*Hutton, I. Maxwell. Summerhill, Dublin. 

{Huxtny, Taomas Henry, Ph.D., LL.D., Sec. B.S., FE.LS., F.G8., 
Professor of Natural History in the Royal School of Mines. 
4 Marlborough-place, London, N.W. 

Hyde, Edward. Dukinfield, near Manchester. 
*Hyett, Francis A. 13 Hereford-square, Old Brompton, London, 8.W. 
Hyett, William Henry, F.R.S. Painswick, near Stroud, Gloucester- 
shire. 


Thne, William, Ph.D. Heidelberg. 
§Ikin, J. T. 19 Park-place, Leeds. 
fIles, Rev, J. H. Rectory, Wolverhampton, 


40 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1858. 
1871. 


1858. 
1852, 


1870. 


1857. 
1862. 


1863. 


1865. 
870. 
1859. 
1866. 


1869, 
1863. 


1852. 
1874. 


1865. 
1872. 
1859. 
1860, 


1863. 


1875. 
1858. 
1863. 
1859. 
1850. 
1870. 
1853. 


1870. 


1862. 


1868. 
1870. 


1856. 


1855. 


1867, 
1861. 


1852. 


1342. 


{Ingham, Henry. Wortley, near Leeds, 

fineuts, The Right Hon. Jonny, D.C.L., LL.D., Lord Justice General 
of Scotland. Edinburgh. 

*Ingram, Hugo Francis Meynell. Temple Newsam, Leeds. 

tIncram, J. 1, LL.D., M.R.LA., Regius Professor of Greek. Trinity 
College, Dublin. 

*inman, William. Upton Manov, Liverpool. 

Treland, R. 8., M.D. 121 Stephen’s-green, Dublin. 

{ivvine, Hans, M.A., M.B. 1 Rutland-square, Dublin. 

fIsenin, J. F., M.A., F.G.S. 52 Stockwell Park-road, London, 
S.W. 


*Ivory, Thomas. 23 Walker-street, Edinburgh. 


tJabet, George. Wellington-road, Handsworth, Birmingham. 

{Jack, James. 26 Abercromby-square, Liverpool. 

tJack, John, M.A. Belhelvie-by- Whitecairns, Aberdeenshire. 

tJackson, H. W., F.R.ALS., F.G.8. 15 The Terrace, High-road 
Lewisham, 8.E. 

§Jackson, Moses. The Vale, Ramsgate. 

Jackson, Professor Thomas, LL.D. St. Andrew’s, Scotland. 

*Jackson-Gwilt, Mrs. 1. Moonbeam Villa, The Grove, New Wim- 
blebon, London, 8. W. 

{Jacoss, Berner. 40 George-street, Hull. 

*Jatfe, John. Messrs. Jaffe Brothers, Belfast. 

*Jatiray, John. Park-grove, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

{James, Christopher. 8 Laurence Pountney Hill, London, E.C, 

{James, Hdward. 9 Gascoyne-terrace, Plymouth. 

tJames, Edward H.  Gascoyne-terrace, Plymouth. 

Jamus, Major-General Sir Henry, R.E., .R.S., F.G.8., MR.TA. 
Topographical Depot, 4 New-street, London, 8. W. 

*James, Sir WALTER, Bart., I.G.S. 6 Whitchall-gardens, London, 
S.W. 

§James, Rey. William. Harley Lodge, Clifton, Bristol. 

tJames, William C. 9 Gascoyne-terrace, Plymouth. 

tJameson, John Henry. 10 Catherine Terrace, Gateshead. 

*Jamieson, Thomas F., F.G.S. Ellon, Aberdeenshire. 

tJardine, Alexander. Jardine Hall, Lockerby, Dumfriesshire. 

{Jardine, Edward. Beach Lawn, Waterloo, Liverpool. 

*Jarratt, Rev. Canon J., M.A. North Cave, near Brough, York- 
shize. : 

Jarrett, Rey. THomas, M.A., Professor of Arabic in the University 
of Cambridge. Trunch, Norfolk. 

§Jarrold, John James. London-street, Norwich. 

jJeakes, Rey. James, M.A. 54 Aroyll-road, Kensington, W. 

Jebb, Rey. John. Peterstow Rectory, Ross, Herefordshire. 

{Jecks, Charles. 26 Langham-place, Northampton. 

tJeffery, F. J. 

tJeffery, Henry, M.A. 458 High-street, Cheltenham. 

*Jeffray, John. Cardowan House, Millerston, Glasgow. 

Jeffreys, Howel, M.A., # R.A.S. 5 Brick-court, Temple, F.C. ; and 

. 25 Deyonshire-place, Portland-place, London, W. 
*Jrrrreys, J. Gwyn, LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Treas. G.S., F.R.G.S. 
Ware Priory, Herts. 

{tJeLtterr, Rev. Jonn H., M.A., M.R.I.A., Professor of Natural 
Philosophy in Trinity College, Dublin. 64 Upper Leeson-street, 
Dublin. 

Jellicorse, John. Chaseley, near Rugeley, Staffordshire, 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 41 


Year of 
Election. 
1862. §Jenkin, H. C, Punemine, F.R.S., M.LC.E., Professor of Civil 


1864. 
1873. 


1852. 
1872. 
1870. 


1872. 
1870. 


1872. 
1871. 


1865, 
1875, 
1866. 
1866. 
1868. 
1872. 
1861. 
1870. 
1863. 


1864. 


1861. 
1871. 
1864. 
1864, 
1859. 
1864. 


1864. 
1864. 
1871. 
1849. 
1856. 
1854. 
1854. 
1864. 
1865. 


1873. 
1&60, 


Engineering in the University of Edinburgh. 3 Great Stuart- 
street, Edinburgh. 

ones Captain Grirrity, C.B., F.R.G.S. Little Garth, Welsh- 
pool. 

§Jenkins, Major General J. J. 14 St. James’s-square, London, 9.W. 

*Jenkyns, Rey. Henry, D.D. The College, Durham. 

Jennette, Matthew. 106 Conway-street, Birkenhead. 

tJennings, Francis M., F.G.8., M.R.LA. Brown-street. Cork. 

jJennings, W. Grand Hotel, Brighton. 

{Jerdon, T.C. (Care of Mr. H. 8. King, 45 Pall Mall, London, S.W.) 

a: Rey. 8. John, M.A. Chobham Vicarage, near Bagshot, 

urrey. 

§Jesson, Thomas. 7 Upper Wimpole-street, Cavendish - square, 
London, W. . 

Jessop, William, jun. Butterley Hall, Derbyshire. 

*Jevons, W. Staniey, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Logic and 
Political Economy in Owens College, Manchester. 36 Parsonage- 
road, Withington, Manchester. 

*Joad, George C. Oakfield, Wimbledon, Surrey, 8.W. 

*Johnson, David, F.C.S., I.G.8.  Irvon Villa, Grosvenor-road, 
Wrexham. 

*Johnson, G. J. 36 Waterloo-street, Birmingham. 

§Johnson, James Henry, F.G.S. 8 Queen’s-road, Southport. 

§Johnson, John. Knighton Vields, Leicester. 

{Johnson, John G. 18a Basinghall-street, London, E.C. 

tJohnson, J. Godwin. St. Giles’s-street, Norwich. 

{Johnson, J. T. 27 Dale-street, Manchester. 

{Johnson, Richard. 27 Dale-street, Manchester. 

§Johnson, Richard C. Warren Side, Blundell Sands, Liverpool. 

{Johnson, R.S. Hanwell, Fence Houses, Durham. 

*Johnson, Thomas. The Hermitage, Frodsham, Cheshire. 

tJohnson, Thomas. - 

J sa William. The Wynds Point, Colwall, Malvern, Worcester- 
shire. 

{Johnson, William Beckett. Woodlands Bank, near Altrinchem. 

jJohnston, A. Keith, F.R.G.S. 1 Savile-row, London, W. 

peposion, Boake 15 Marlborough-buildings, Bath. 

{Johnston, Edward. 

{Johnston, James. Newmill, Elgin, N.B. 

PED Bee James, Manor House, Northend, Hampstead, Lor- 
don, N.W. 

*Johnstone, James. Alva House, by Stirling, N.B. 

tJohnstone, John. 1 Barnard-villas, Bath. 

{Jolly, Thomas. Park View-villas, Bath. 

§Jolly, William (H.M. Inspector of Schools). Inverness, N.B. 

tJones, Baynham. Selkirk Villa, Cheltenham. 

tJones, ys Ws 7 Grosyenor-place, Cheltenham. 

tJones, Rev. Henry H, 

t Jones, John. 

§Jonrs, JOHN, I’.G.8. Saltburn-by-the-Sea, Yorlkshive. 

tJones, John. 49 Union-passage, Birmingham. 

*Jones, Robert. 2 Castle-street, Liverpool. 

tJones, Theodore B. 1 Finsbury-circus, London, E.C. 

jJones, Tuomas Rupert, F.R.S., F.G.8., Professor of Geology 
and Mineralogy, Royal Military and Staff Colleges, Sandhurst. 
5 College-terrace, York Town, Surrey. 


42 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 


Year of 


Election. 


1847. 
1864. 
1875. 


1842. 
1847. 
1858. 


1872. 
1848. 


{Jones, THomas Rymer, F.R.S, 52 Cornwall-road, Westbourne 
Park, London, W. ; 
§Jonrs, Sir WILLOUGHBY, Bart.,F.R.G.S. Cranmer Hall, Fakenham, 
Norfolk. 
*Jose, J. E. 3 Queen-square, Bristol. 
*Joule, Benjamin St. John B. 28 Leicester-street, uthport, Lan- 
cashire. 
*Joutse, JAMES Prescott, LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.8, 343 Lower Brough- 
ton-road, Manchester. 
{Jowxrt, Rey. B., M.A., Regius Professor of Greek in the University 
of Oxford. Balliol College, Oxford. 
tJowett, John. Leeds. 
tJoy, Algernon. 17 Parliament-street, Westminster, S.W. 
*Joy, Rey. Charles Ashfield. Grove Parsonage, Wantage, Berkshire. 
Joy, Henry Holmes, LL.D., Q.C., M.R.IA. Torquay. 
Joy, Rey. John Holmes, M.A. 3 Coloney-terrace, Tunbridge 
Wells. 
*Jubb, Abraham. Halifax. 


. tJudd, John Wesley, F.G.S. 6 Manor-view, Brixton, London, S.W. 
. tJukes, Rev. Andrew. Spring Bank, Hull. 


. *Kaines, Joseph, M.A., D.Sc. 8 Osborne-road, Stroud Green-lane, 


Hornsey, London, N. 
Kang, Sir Ropert, M.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA., Principal of the Royal 
College of Cork. 51 Stephen’s-green, Dublin. 


. {Kavanagh, James W. Grenville, Rathgar, Ireland. 
. {Kay, David, F.R.G.S. 19 Upper Phillimore-place, Kensington, 


London, W. 
Kay, John Cunliff. Fairfield Hall, near Skipton. 
*Kay, John Robinson. Walmersley House, Bury, Lancashire. 
Kay, Robert. Haugh Bank, Bolton-le-Moors. 


. *Kay, Rey. William, D.D. Great Leghs Rectory, Chelmsford. 
. {Kay-Shuttleworth, Sir James, Bart. peer! Burnley. 

. {Keames, William M. 5 Lower-rock-gardens, 

. [ Keddie, William. 

. §Keeling, George William. Tuthill, Sydney. 

. {Keene, Alfred. Eastnoor House, Leamington. 

. {Kerianp, Rey. Purr, M.A., F.R.S. L. & E., Professor of Mathe- 


righton. 


matics in the University of Edinburgh. 20 Clarendon-crescent, 
Edinburgh. 


. *Kelly, W. M., M.D. 11 The Crescent, Taunton, Somerset. 
. {Kemp, Rey. Henry William, B.A. The Charter House, Hull. 
. §Kennedy, Alexander B. W., C.E., Professor of Engineering in 


University College, London. 9 Bartholomew-road, London, 
N.W 


. Kennedy, Lieut-Colonel John Pitt. 20 Torrington-square, Blooms- 


bury, London, W.C. 


Kenny, Matthias. 3 Clifton-terrace, Monkstown, Co. Dublin. 


. {Kenrick, William. Norfolk-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 


Kent, J.C. Levant Lodge, Earl’s Croome, Worcester. 


. t{Kent, Wilham T., M.R.D.S. 51 Rutland-square, Dublin. 

. {Kenworth, James Ryley. 7 Pembroke-place, Liverpool. 

. *Ker, André Allen Murray. Newbliss House, Newbliss, Ireland. 
. *Ker, Robert. Auchinraith, by Bothwell, Scotland. 

. {Kerrison, Roger. Crown Bank, Norwich. 

. *Kesselmeyer, Charles A. 1 Peter-street, Manchester. 

. *Kesselmeyer, William Johannes. 1 Peter-street, Manchester. 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 45 


Year of 
Election. 


1861. 
1865, 
1860. 


1858. 
1875. 
1872. 
1875. 
1871. 
1855. 
1870. 


1864. 
1860. 


1875. 
1842. 


*Keymer, John. Parker-street, Manchester. 
*Kinahan, Edward Hudson. 11 Merrion-square North, Dublin. 
{Krvanan, G. Henry, M.R.LA., Geological Survey of Iveland. 14 
Hume-street, Dublin. 
tKincaid, Henry Ellis, M.A. 8 Lyddon-terrace, Leeds. 
*Kinch, Edward, F.C.S. 12 Wellington-street, Islington, London, N. 
*King, Mrs. E.M. 84 Cornwall-road, Westbourne-park, London, W. 
*King, F. Ambrose. Avonside, Clifton Down, Bristol. 
*King, Herbert Poole. Theological College, Salisbury. 
{King, James. Levernholme, Hurlet, Glasgow. 
§King, John Thomson, C.E. 4 Clayton-square, Liverpool. 
King, Joseph. Blundell Sands, Liverpool. 
§Kine, Ketpurne, M.D. 27 George-street, and Royal Institution, 
Hull. 
*King, Mervyn Kersteman. 16 Vyvyan-terrace, Clifton, Bristol. 
*King, Percy L. Avonside, Clifton Down, Bristol. 
Kine, Rrcnarp, M.D. 12 Bulstrode-street, London, W. 
King, Rey. Samuel, M.A., F.R.A.S. St. Aubins, Jersey. 


. King, William. 18 Adelaide-terrace, Waterloo, Liverpool. 


King, William Poole, F.G.S. Avonside, Clifton, Bristol. 


. {Kingdon, K. Taddiford, Exeter. 
. {Kingsley, John. Ashfield, Victoria Park, Manchester. 


Kingstone, A. John, M.A. Mosstown, Longford, Ireland. 


§Kinezett, Charles T., F.C.S. 23 Shaftesbury-terrace, Warwick- 


road, Kensington, London, W. 


. tKinloch, Colonel. Kirriemuir, Logie, Scotland. 
. *Krynarrp, The Hon. Arntuur Firzerraxp, M.P. 1 Pall Mall East, 


London, 8.W.; and Rossie Priory, Inchture, Perthshire. 


. {Kuynarep, The Right Hon. Lord., K.T., F.G.S8. Rossie Priory, Inch- 


ture, Perthshire. 
Kimear, J. G., PRISE. 


. {Kinsman, William R. Branch Bank of England, Liverpool. 
. { Kirkaldy, David. 28 Bartholomew-road North, London, N.W. 
. {Kircman, Rev. Tuomas P., M.A., F.R.S. Croft Rectory, near 


Warrington. 
Kirkpatrick, Rev. W. B., D.D. 48 North Great George-street, 
Dublin. 


. §Kirsop, John, 6 Queen’s-crescent, Glasgow. 

. {Kitchener, Frank KE. Rugby. 

. {Knapman, Edward. The Vineyard, Castle-street, Exeter. 
. §Kneeshaw, Henry. 2 Gambier-terrace, Liverpool. 


Knipe, J. A. Botcherby, Carlisle. 


. *Knott, George, LL.B., F.R.A.S. Cuckfield, Hayward’s Heath, 


Sussex. 


. *Knowles, George. Moorhead, Shipley, Yorkshire. 
. {Knowles, James. The Hollies, Clapham Common, 8.W. 


Knowles, John. Old Trafford Bank House, Old Trafford, Man- 
chester. 


. tKnowles, Rev. J. L. ] 
. §Knowles, William James. Cullybackey, Belfast, Ireland. 


*Knox, George James. 2 Portland-terrace, Regent’s Park, London, 


Knox, Thomas B. Union Club, Trafalear-square, London, W.C. 


. *Knubley, E. P. Steeple Ashton Vicarage, Trowbridge. 
. {Kynaston, Josiah W. St. Helens, Lancashire. 
. {Kynnersley, J.C. S. The Leveretts, Handsworth, Birmingham. 


44 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1858. 
1862. 
1859. 


1850. 
1870. 


1870. 
1859. 


1846, 
1870. 
1871. 
1859. 
1864, 
1870. 


1865, 


1861. 


1870. 


1870. 


1875. 
1870. 
1857. 


1862, 


1870. 


1875. 


1869. 
1857, 


1868, 
1863. 


1853. 


1865. 
1857. 
1870. 


1847, 


1858, 
1863. 


§Lace, Francis John. Stone Gapp, Cross-hill, Leeds. 
{Lackerstein, Dr. . 
§Ladd, William, F.R.A.S, 11 & 13 Beak-street, Regent-street, Lon- 
don, W. 
tLaing, David, F.S.A. Scotl. Signet Library, Edinburgh, 
tLaird, H.H. Birkenhead. 
Laird, John, M.P. Hamilton-square, Birkenhead. 
§Laird, John, jun. Grosvenor-road, Claughton, Birkenhead. 
tLalor, John Joseph, M.R.LA. 2 Longford-terrace, Monkstown, Co. 
Dublin. 
*Laming, Richard. Flansham, near Bognor, Sussex. 
{Lamport, Charles. Upper Norwood, Surrey, 8.E. 
§Laneaster, Edward. Karesforth Hall, Barnsley, Yorkshire. 
tLang, Rey. John Marshall. Bank House, Morningside, Edinburgh. 
§Lang, Robert. Mancombe, Henbury, Bristol. 
{Langton, Charles. Barkhill, Aigburth, Liverpool. 
*Langton, William. Manchester and Salford Bank, Manchester. 
§Lanxester, KE. Ray, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Comparative Ana- 
tomy and Zoology in University College, London. Exeter 
College, Oxford. 
Lanyon, Sir Charles. The Abbey, White Abbey, Belfast. 
*“Larcom, Major-General Sir Tuomas Arskew, Bart., K.C.B., R.E., 
F.R.S., M.R.LA. Heathfield House, Fareham, Hants. 
LasseLy, Witir1aM, F.R.S., F.R.A.S, Ray Lodge, Maidenhead. 
*Latham, Arthur G. Lower King-street, Manchester. 
*Latham, Baldwin. 7 Westminster-chambers, Westminster, S.W. 
{Laughton, John Knox, M.A., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. Royal Naval 
College, Portsmouth. 
§Lavington, William F. 107 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol. 
*Law, Channell. 5 Champion-park, Camberwell, London, S.F. 
{Law, Hugh, Q.C. 4 Great Denmark-street, Dublin. 
tLaw, Rey. James Edmund, M.A. Little Shelford, Cambridgeshire, 
Lawley, The Hon. Francis Charles, Escrick Park, near York. 
Lawley, The Hon. Stephen Willoughby. Escrick Park, near York. 
{Lawrence, Edward. <Aigburth, Liverpool. 
§Lawson, George, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of Chemistry and Botany. 
Halifax, Nova Scotia. 
{Lawson, Henry. 8 Nottingham-place, London, W. 
{Lawson, The Right Hon. James A., LL.D., M.R.LA, 27 Fitzwilliam- 
street, Dublin. 
“Lawson, M. Atexanven, M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the 
University of Oxford. Botanic Gardens, Oxford. 
{Lawton, Benjamin C. Neville Chambers, 44 Westgate-street, 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
{Lawton, William. 5 Victoria-terrace, Derringham, Hull. 
Laycock, Tuomas, M.D., Professor of the Practice of Physic in the 
University of Edinburgh, 4 Rutland-street, Edinburgh. 
{Lea, Henry. 35 Paradise-street, Birmingham. 
{Leach, Capt. R. E. Mountjoy, Phoenix Park, Dublin, 
“Leaf, Charles John, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.S.A. Old Change, Londcn, 
ie.C.; and Painshill, Cobham. 
“Learuam, Epwarp Atpam, M.P. Whitley Hall, Huddersfield ; 
and 46 Eaton-square, London, S.W, 
*Leather, John Towlerton, F.S.A, Leventhorpe Hall, near Leeds. 
{Leather, John W. Newton Green, Leeds. 
{Leayers, J. W. The Park, Nottingham. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 45 


Year of 
Election. 


1872. 


1858. 
1858. 
1842. 
1861. 
1853. 
1859, 


1872. 


1869. 
1868. 
1856, 


1861. 
1870. 
1837. 
1870. 
1859. 
1853. 


1867. 
1861. 


1871. 


1874. 
1861. 
1872. 
1871. 
1856. 
1852. 


1866. 


1870. 


1853. 
1860, 
1855. 
1859. 
1864, 
1862. 


{Lepour, G. A., F.G.S. Weedpark House, Dipton, Lintz Green, Co. 
Durham. 

*Le Cappelain, John, Wood-lane, Highgate, London, N. 

tLedgard, William. Potter Newton, near Leeds. 

Lee, Daniel. Springfield House, Pendlebury, Manchester. 

tLee, Henry. Inrwell House, Lower Broughton, Manchester. 

*Ler, Joun Epwarp, F.G.8., F.S.A, Villa Syracusa, Torquay. 

tLees, William. Link Vale Lodge, Viewforth, Ndinbargh. 

*Leese, Joseph. Glenfield, Altrincham, Manchester. 

*Leeson, Henry B., M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.C.S The Maples, Bon- 
church, Isle of Wight. 

{Lereven, G. Saw, M.P., F.R.G.S. 18 Spring-gardens, London, 
5.W. 

*Lerroy, Major-General J. Henry, C.B., R.A., F.RS., F.R.GS., 
Governor of Bermuda. Bermuda. 

*Legh, Lieut.-Colonel George Cornwall, M.P. High Legh Tall, Che- 
shire ; and 43 Curzon-street, Mayfair, London, W. 

tLe Grice, A. J. Trereife, Penzance. 

t{Letcrstrr, The Right Hon. the Karl cf. Wolkham, Norfoll. 

{Leren, The Right Hon. Lord, D.C.L. 37 Portman-square, London, 
W.,; and Stoneleigh Abbey, Kenilworth. 

*Leigh, Henry. Moorfield, Swinton, near Manchester. 

{Leighton, Andrew. 35 High-park-street, Liverpool. 

§Leishman, James. Gateacre Hall, Liverpool. 

tLeister, G. F. Gresbourn House, Liverpool. 

{Leith, Alexander. Glenkindie, Inverkindie, N.B. 

*Lenpy, Capt. AuGcusTE Frepertic, F.L.S.,P.G.8. Sunbury House, 
Sunbury, Middlesex. 

tLeng, John. ‘Advertiser’ Office, Dundee. 

{Lennox, A. C. W. 7 Beaufort-gardens, Brompton, London, 8.W. 

Lentaigne, John, M.D. Tallaght House, Co. Dublin; and 14 Great 
Dominick-street, Dublin. 
Lentaigne, Joseph. 12 Great Denmark-street, Dublin. 

§Leonanp, Huan, M.R.LA., Geological Survey of Ireland, 14 
Hume-street, Dublin. 

{Lepper, Charles W. Laurel Lodge, Belfast. 

{Leppoc, Henry Julius. Kersal Crag, near Manchester. 

§Lermit, Rev. Dr. School House, Dedham. 

tLeslie, Alexander, C.K. 72 George-street, Edinburgh. 

tLeslie, Colonel J. Forbes. Rothienorman, Aberdeenshire. 

{Lesiiz, T.E. Crirre, LL.B., Professor of Jurisprudence and Political 
Economy, Queen’s College, Belfast. 

§Levi, Dr. Lronn, F.S.A., F.S.8., I. R.G.S., Professor of Commercial 
Law in King’s College, London. 5 Crown Office-row, Temple, 
London, E.C. 

tLewis, Alfred Lionel. 151 Church-road, De Beauvoir Town, 
London, N. 

tLiddell, George William Moore. Sutton House, near Tull. 

{Limwpe tt, The Very Rey. H. G., D.D., Dean of Christ Church, Oxford, 

{ Liddell, John. 2 

{Ligertwood, George. 

{Lreursopy, Rosert, F.G.S. Ludlow, Salop. 

{Lrrorp, The Right Hon. Lord, F.L.S. Lilford Hall, Oundle, Nerth- 
amptonshire. 

*Lormnrick, CHantes Graves, D.D., M.R.1.A., Lord Bishop of. The 
Palace, Henry-street, Limerick. 

*Lindsay, Charles, Ridge Park, Lanark, N.B, 


46 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 


Year of 
Election. 


1855. 
1871. 
1871. 


1870. 


1842 


*Lindsay, John H. 
*Linpsay, The Right Hon. Lord, M.P. 47 Brook-street, London, W. 
{Lindsay, Rev. T. M. 7 Great Stuart-street, Edinburgh, 
{Lindsay, Thomas. 283 Renfrew-street, Glasgow. 
*Lingard, John R., F.G.S. Mayfield, Shortlands, Bromley, Kent. 
Lingwood, Robert M., M.A., F.L.S., P.G.S. 1 Derby-villas, Chel- 
tenham. 


' Lister, James. Liverpool Union Bank, Liverpool. 
. *Lister, Samuel Cunliffe. Farfield Hall, Addingham, Leeds. 
. §Lister, Thomas. Victoria-crescent, Barnsley. 


Littledale, Harold. Liscard Hall, Cheshire, 
*Lrverna, G. D., M.A., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Uni- 
versity of Cambridge. Cambridge. 


4, §Liyesay, J. G. Cromarty House, Ventnor, Isle of Wight. 
. tLivingstone, Rev. Thomas Gott, Minor Canon cf Carlisle Cathedral. 


Lloyd, Rey. A. R. Hengold, near Oswestry. 
Lloyd, Rev. C., M.A, Whittington, Oswestry. 
Lloyd, Edward. King-street, Manchester. 


5. tLloyd, G. B. Edgbaston-groye, Birmingham, 


*Lloyd, George, M.D., F.G.S. Park Glass Works, Birmingham. 

*Lioyp, Rey. Huwpurey, D.D., LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E., M.R.LA, 
Provost of Trinity College, Dublin. 

{Lloyd, James. 16 Welfield-place, Liverpool, 

{Lloyd, J. H., M.D. Anglesey, North Wales. 


. ¢{Lloyd, John. Queen’s College, Birmingham. 


Lloyd, Rev. Rees Lewis. Belper, Derbyshire. 


. *Lloyd, Wilson. Myrod House, Wednesbury. 
54, *Losiey, James Loaan, F.G.S., F.R.G.S, 59 Clarendon-road, Ken- 


sington, London, W. 


. *Locke, John. (Care of J. Robertson, Esq., 8 Grafton-street, 


Dublin.) 


7. *Locke, John. 83 Addison-road, Kensington, London, W. 
72. t{Lockr, Joun, M.P, 63 Eaton-place, London, 8.W. 
. {Locxyrer, J. Norman, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 5 Alexandra-road, 


Finchley-road, London, N.W. 


. *Lodge, Oliver J. Hanley, Staffordshire. 

. {Login, Thomas, C.E., F.R.S.E, India. 

. {Long, Andrew, M.A. King’s College, Cambridge. 

. tLong, Jeremiah, 50 Marine Parade, Brighton, 

. *Long, John Jex. 727 Duke-street, Glasgow. 

. t{Long, William, F.G/S. Hurts Hall, Saxmundham, Suffolk. 
. §Longdon, Frederick. Luamdur, near Derby. 

. t{Lonefield, Rev. George, D.D. Trinity College, Dublin. 


Lonermip, Mountirorr, LL.D., M.R.LA., Regius Professor of 
Feudal and English Law in the University of Dublin. 47 Fitz- 
william-square, Dublin. 


. *Longman, William, F.G.S. 36 Hyde Park-square, London, W. 
. {Longmuir, Rey. John, M.A., LL.D. 14 Silver-street, Aberdeen. 


Longridge, William 8. Boyne Grove, Maidenhead, Berks. 


5. *Longstaff, George Blundell, B.A., F.C.S. Southfield Grange, Wands- 


worth, S.W. 


. §Longstaff, George Dixon, M.D., F.C.S. Southfields, Wandsworth, 
8. 


W.; and 9 Upper Thames-street, London, E.C, 


. *Longstaff, Major Llewellyn Wood, F.R.G.S. Summergangs, Hull. 
75. §Lonsdale, N. Lowenthal. The Firs, Westbury Park, Redlands, 


Bristol. 


. *Lord, Edward., Adamroyd, Todmorden. 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 47 


Year of 

Election. 

1863. {Losh, W.S. Wreay Syke, Carlisle. 

1875. *Lovett, W. J. 96 Lionel-street, Birmingham, 
1867. *Low, James I’. Monifieth, by Dundee. 


1863. 
1861. 
1870. 


1868. 
1850. 


*Lowe, Lieut.-Colonel Arthur 8. H., F.R.A.S, 76 Lancaster-gate, 
London, W. 

*Lowr, Epwarp Josrrn, F.R.S., F.R.AS,, F.LS., F.G.8., FMS 
Highfield House Observatory, near Nottingham. 

tLowe, G.C. 67 Cecil-street, Greenheys, Manchester. 

{Lowe, John, M.D. King’s Lynn. 

tLowe, William Henry, M.D., F.R.S.E. Balgreen, Slateford, Hdin- 


burgh. 


. *Luppock, Sir Joun, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.8. High Elms, 


Farnborough, Kent. 


. {Lubbock, Montague. High Elms, Farmborcugh, Kent. 

. *Luckeoek, Howard. Oak-hill, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

. §Lucy, W. C., F.G.S._ The Winstones, Brookthorpe, Gloucester. 
. *Luis, John Henry. Cidhmore, Dundee. 

. tLumley, J. Hope Villa, Thornbury, near Bradford, Yorkshire. 
. *Lund, Charles. 1 Blenheim-road, Bradford, Yorkshire. 

. tLund, Joseph. St. George’s-place, Bradford, Yorkshire, 

. {Lund, Joseph. St. George’s-place, Bradford, Yorkshire. 

. *Lundie, Cornelius. Tweed Lodge, Charles-street, Cardiff. 

. {Lunn, William Joseph, M.D. 23 Charlotte-street, Hull. 


*Lupton, Arthur. Headingley, near Leeds. 


. *Lupton, Darnton. The Harehills, near Leeds. 

. *Lupton, Sydney. The Harehills, near Leeds. 

. *Lutley, John. Brockhampton Park, Worcester, 

. tLycerr, Sir Francis. 18 Highbury-groye, London, N. 

. thyell, Leonard. 42 Regent’s Park-road, London, N.W. 

. §Lynam, James, C.E, allinasloe, Ireland. 

. tLyons, Robert D., F.R.C.P.I. 8 Merrion-square West, Dublin. 

. *Lyte, F. Maxwell, F.C.S. 6 Cité de Retiro, Faubourg St, Honoré, 


Paris. 


. {MacAdam, Robert. 18 College-square Kast, Belfast. 
. *Macapam, Stevenson, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., F.C.S., Lecturer on 


Chemistry. Surgeons’ Hall, Edinburgh; and Brighton House, 
Portobello, by Edinburgh. 


. {Macarister, ALexanpEr, M.D., Professor of Zoology in the Uni- 


yersity of Dublin, 13 Adelaide-road, Dublin. 


. {M‘Allan, W. A. Norwich. 
. *M‘Arthur, A., M.P. Raleigh Hall, Brixton Rise, London, 8.W. 


Macaulay, James A. M., M.D, 22 Cambridge-road, Kilburn, London, 
N.W 


. {MBain, James, M.D., R.N, Logie Villa, York-road, Trinity, Edin- 


burgh. 
5D bad 
*MacBrayne, Robert. Messrs. Black and Wingate, 5 Exchange- 
square, Glasgow. 


. |M‘Carian, Rey. J. F., M.A. Basford, near Nottingham, 

. {i Callum, Archibald K., M.A. 

. TM‘Calmont, Robert. Gatton Park, Reigate. 

. }M‘Cann, Rev. James, D.D., F.R.S.L., F,G.S. 18 Shafteshury-terrace, 


Glasgow. 


M‘Clelland, James, F.S.8. 32 Pembridge-square, London, W. 


. {M‘Cirrocx, Rear-Admiral Sir Francis L., R.N., F.RS., F.R.G.S. 


United Service Club, Pall Mall, London, 8.W, 


. *McClure, J. H, 10 Esplanade, Waterloo, Liverpool. 


48 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 


Year of 
Election. 


1874. 


1859, 


1858. 


1871. 


1859. 
1871. 
1855. 
1854. 


1867. 
1855, 
1872. 


1873. 


1855, 
1855. 
1859. 
1859. 
1874. 
1867. 
1854. 
1871. 


1875. 
1855. 


1865. 


1872. 
1867. 


1865. 


1850, 
1867. 
1872. 


1875. 


1860. 
1864. 
18735. 
1859. 


1862. 


1868. 


1875. 
1875. 
1861. 
1862. 
1874. 
1871. 


{M‘Clure, Sir Thomas, Bart. Belmont, Belfast. 

*M‘Connel, James. Moore-place, Esher, Surrey. 

*M‘Connell, David C., F.G.S. 44 Manor-place, Edinburgh. 

t{M‘Connell, J. E. Woodlands, Great Missenden, 

t{M‘Donald, William. Yokohama, Japan. (Care of R. K. Knevitt, 
Esq., Sun-court, Cornhill, 1.C.) 

MacDonnell, Hercules H. G. 2 Kildare-place, Dublin. 

*M‘Ewan, John. 9 Melville-terrace, Stirling, N.B. 

{Macfarlane, Alexander. 73 Bon Accord-street, Aberdeen. 

§M‘Farlane, Donald. The College Laboratory, Glasgow. 

*Macfarlane, Walter. 22 Park-circus, Glasgow. 

*Macrir, Ropert Anprew. 13 Victoria-street, Westminster, 5. W. 

*M‘Gavin, Robert. Ballumbie, Dundee. 

{MacGeorge, Andrew, jun. 21 St. V mane es! Glasgow. 

{M°George, Mungo. Nithodale, Laurie-park, Sydenham, 8.1. 

{McGowen, William Thomas. Oal-avenue, Oak Mount, Bradford, 
Yorkshire. 

{M‘Gregor, Alexander Bennett. 19 Woodside-crescent, Glasgow. 

{MacGregor, James Watt. Wallace-grove, Glasgow. 

{M‘Hardy, David. 54 Netherkinkgate, Aberdeen. 

{Macintosh, John. Middlefield House, Woodside, Aberdeen. 

{MaclIlwaine, Rev. William, D.D. Ulsterville, Belfast. 

*M«Introsu, W. U., M.D., F.L.S. Murthly, Perthshire. 

*Maclver, Charles. 8 Water-street, Liverpool. 

§Mackay, Rev. A., LL.D., F.R.G.S. 2 Hatton-place, Grange, Edin- 
burgh. 

{McKernopnicx, Joun G.,M.D., F.R.S.E, 2Chester-street, Kdinburgh. 

{M‘Kenzie, Alexander. 89 Buchanan-street, Glasgow. ; 

*Mackenzie, James. Glentore, by Glasgow. 

t{Mackeson, Henry B., F.G.S. Lyde, Kent. 

*Mackey, J. A. 24 Buckingham-place, Brighton. 

§Macxip, Samvuet Josep, F.G.8. 84 Kensington Park-road, Lon- 
don, W. 

*Mackinlay, David, Great Western-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow. 

{Mackintosh, Daniel, F.G.S. 36 Derby-road, Higher Tranmere, Birk- 
enhead. 

{Maclnight, Alexander. 12 London-street, Edinburgh. 

§Mackson, H. G, 25 Clifi-road, Woodhouse, Leeds. 

*McLacuuan, Ronent, F.L.S. 89 Limes-grove, Lewisham, 8.E. 

{McLandsborough, John, C.E., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Shipley, near Brad- 
ford, Yorkshire. 

{Maclaren, Archibald, Summertown, Oxfordshire. 

§MacLaren, Duncan, M.P. Newington House, Edinburgh. 

{MacLaren, Walter S. B. Newington House, Edinburgh. 

{Mac ean, Sir Tuomas, F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.A.S., late Astronomer 
Royal at the Cape of Good Hope. Cape Town, South Africa. 

{Macleod, Henry Dunning. 17 Gloucester-terrace, Campden-hill-road, 
London, W. 

§M‘Lrop, Hersert, F.C.S. Indian Civil Engineering College, 
Cooper’s Hill, Egham. 

§Macliver, D. 1 Broad-street, Bristol. 

§Macliver, P.S. 1 Broad-street, Bristol, 

*Maclure, John William. 2 Bond-street, Manchester. 

{Macmillan, Alexander. Streatham-lane, Upper Tooting, Surrey. 

§MacMordie, Hans, M.A. 8 Donegall-street, Belfast. 

{M‘Nab, William Ramsay, M.D., Professor of Botany in the Royal 
College of Science, Dublin. 4 Vernon-parade, Clontarf, Dublin, 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 49 


Year of 
Election. 


1870. 
1867. 


1859, 
1852. 


1855. 
1855. 
1868. 
1875. 


1869, 


1869. 
1866, 


1870. 


1874, 
1863. 
1857, 


1846. 


1870. 
1866. 


1866. 
1864. 
1870, 
1864. 


1863. 
1871. 


1857. 
1842, 
1870. 
1865. 
1856. 
1864, 
1852. 
1858. 
1849, 


{Macnaught, John, M.D. 74 Huskisson-street, Liverpool. 

§M‘Neill, John. Balhousie House, Perth. 

MacNer1, The Right Hon, Sir Joun, G.C.B., F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S, 
Granton House, Edinburgh. 

MacNEe x1, Sir Jonn, LL.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA, 17 The Grove, South 
Kensington, London, S.W. 

{ Macpherson, Rev. W. Kilmuir Easter, Scotland. 

*Macrory, Adam John. Duncairn, Belfast. 

*Macrory, Epmunp, M.A. 40 Leinster-square, Bayswater, London, W. 

{M‘Tyre, William, M.D. Maybole, Ayrshire. 

tMacvicar, Rey. Joun Grsson, D.D., LL.D. Moffat, N.B. 

{Magnay, F. A. Drayton, near Norwich. 

§Magnus, Philip. 2 Portsdown-road, London, W. 

Magor, J. B. Redruth, Cornwall. 

§Mary, Rey. R., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Director of the Radcliffe Observa- 
tory, Oxford. 

tMain, Robert. Admiralty, Somerset House, W.C. 

§Masor, nee Henry, F\S.A., F.R.G.S. British Museum, Lon- 
don, W.C. 

*Maxanipe, The Right Hon, Lord Tarzor px, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., 
F.\S.A. Malahide Castle, Co. Dublin. 

*Malcolm, Frederick. Mordon College, Blackheath, London, 8.E. 

*Malcolm, Sir James, Bart. The Priory, St. Michael’s Hamlet, 
Aigburth, Liverpool. 

§Malcolmson, A. B. Friends’ Institute, Belfast. 

.{Maling, C. T. Lovaine-crescent, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

tMallet, Dr. John William, F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the 
University of Virginia, U.S. 

*Maxet, Rosert, Ph.D.,F.R.S., F.G.S., M-R.I.A. The Grove, Clap- 
ham-road, Clapham ; and 7 Westminster-chambers, Victoria- 
street, London, S.W. 

Mansy, Cuartus, F.R.S., F.G.S. 60 Westbourne-terrace, Hyde 
Park, London, W. 

tManifold, W.H. 45 Rodney-street, Liverpool. 

§Mann, Rosert James, M.D., F.R.A.S. 5 Kingsdown-yillas, Wands- 
worth Common, 8. W. 

Manning, His Eminence Cardinal. 8 York-place, Portman-square, 
London, W. 

{Manning, John. Waverley-street, Nottingham. 

tMansel, J. C. Long Thorns, Blandford. 

{Marcoartu, Senor Don Arturo de. Madrid. 

{Marxuam, Ciements R., C.B., F.R.S., F.LS., F.R.G.S., F.S.A. 
21 Eccleston-square, Pimlico, London, 8S. W. 

tMarley, John. Mining Office, Darlington. 

*Marling, Samuel S.,M.P. Stanley Park, Stroud, Gloucestershire, 

§Marreco, A. Frrerr-. College of Physical Science, Neweastle-on- 
Tyne. 

Makeces, John. 
§Marriott, William, F.C.S. Grafton-street, Huddersfield. 
Marsden, Richard. Norfolk-street, Manchester. 

{Marsh, John. Rann Lea, Rainhill, Liverpool. 

{Marsh, J. F. Hardwick House, Chepstow. 

{ Marsh, M. H. 

{Marsh, Thomas Edward Miller. 37 Grosyenor-place, Bath. 

{Marshall, James D. Holywood, Belfast. 

{Marshall, Reginald Dykes. Adel, near Leeds. 

*Marshall, William P, 6 Portland-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

E 


50 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1865. 
1848. 
1871. 
1870. 
1836. 
1867. 


1865. 
1865. 
1875. 
1847, 


1861, 
1868. 


1870, 
1870. 
1865. 
1861. 


1865. 
18658. 
1860. 


1863. 
1855. 
1865, 


1864, 


1865. 
1868. 
1863. 


1863. 


1871. 
1867. 
1866. 
1854. 
1847. 


1863, 
1862. 


1868, 
1872, 


§Marren, Epwarp Binpon. Pedmore, near Stourbridge. 

{Martin, Henry D. 4 Imperial-circus, Cheltenham. 

{Martin, Rev. Hugh, M.A. Greenhill-cottage, Lasswade by Edinburgh. 

{Martin, Robert, M.D. 120 Upper Brook-street, Manchester. 

Martin, Studley. 177 Bedford-street South, Liverpool. 

*Martin, William, jun. 38 Airlie-place, Dundee, 

*Martindale, Nicholas. Berryarbor, Ilfracombe. 

*Martineau, Rev. James, LL.D., D.D. 5 Gordon-street, Gordon- 
square, London, W.C. 

{Martineau, R. F. Highfield-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

{Martineau, Thomas. 7 Cannon-street, Birmingham. 

§Martyn, Samuel, M.D. 8 Buckingham-villas, Clifton, Bristol. 

{Masketyne&, Nevin Srory, M.A.,, F.RS., F.G.S., Keeper of the 
Mineralogical Department, British Museum; and Professor of 
Mineralogy in the University of Oxford. 112 Gloucester-terrace, 
Hyde-park-gardens, London, W. 

*Mason, Hugh. Groby Lodge, Ashton-under-Lyne. 

{Mason, James Wood, F.G.S. The Indian Museum, Calcutta. (Care 

of Messrs. Henry 8. King & Co., 65 Cornhill, London, H.C.) 

Massey, Hugh, Lord. Hermitage, Castleconnel, Co. Limerick. 

tMassey, Thomas. 5 Gray’s-Inn-square, London, W.C. 

{Massy, Frederick. 50 Grove-street, Liverpool. 

*Mathews, G. 8S. Portland-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. j 

*Matruews, WILLIAM, M.A., F.G.S. 49 Harborne-road, Birming- 

ham. 

{Matthews, C. E. Waterloo-street, Birmingham. 

{Matthews, F.C. Mandre Works, Driffield, Yorkshire. 

ee Rey. Richard Brown. Shalford Vicarage, near Guild- 

ord, 

t{Maughan, Rev. W. Benwell Parsonage, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

tMaule, Rev. Thomas, M.A. Partick, near Glasgow. 

*Maw, Grores, F.LS., F.G.8., F.S.A. Benthall Hall, Broseley, 

Shropshire. 

*Maxwell, Francis. Dunragit, Wigtownshire. 

Maxwe tt, James Cierk, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.L. & E., Professor of 

Experimental Physics in the University of Cambridge. Glenlair, 

Dalbeattie, N.B.; and 11 Scroope-terrace, Cambridge. 

*Maxwell, Robert Perceval. Groomsport House, Belfast. 

*May, Walter. Elmley Lodge, Harborne, Birmingham. 

{Mayall, J. E., F.C.S. Stork’s-nest, Lancing, Sussex. 

§Mease, George D. Bylton Villa, South Shields. 

{Mease, Solomon. Cleveland House, North Shields. 

t{Meath, Samuel Butcher, D.D., Lord Bishop of. Ardbraccan, Co, 
Meath. 

tMeikie, James, F.S.S. 6 St. Andrew’s-square, Edinburgh. 

{Metprum, Cuarves. Mauritius. 

tMello, Rev. J. M. St. Thomas’s Rectory, Brampton, Chesterfield. 

{Melly, Charles Pierre. 11 Rumford-street, Liverpool. 

tMelville, Professor Alexander Gordon, M.D. Queen’s College, 
Galway. 

{Melvin, Alexander. 42 Buccleuch-place, Edinburgh. 

§MENNELL, Henry J. St. Dunstan’s-buildings, Great Tower-street, 
London, E.C. 

§MeRRIFIELD, Cuartes W., F.R.S. 20 Pembroke-gardens, Ken- 
sington, London, W. 

{Merryweather, Richard M. Clapham House, Clapham Common, 
London, 8. W. 


* 


* 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 51 


Year of 

Election. 

1871. {Merson, John, Northumberland County Asylum, Morpeth. 
1872. *Messent, John. 429 Strand, London, W.C. 

1863. {Messent, P. T. 4 Northumberland-terrace, Tynemouth. 


1869. 
1847. 
1865. 
1865. 
1866. 
1867. 
1859, 
1863. 


1875. 
1865. 


1861. 


§Mratt, Louis C. Philosophical Hall, Leeds 
*Michell, Rev. Richard, D.D., Principal of Magdalen Hall, Oxford. 
{Michie, Alexander. 26 Austin Friars, London, E.C. 
{Middlemore, William. Edgbaston, Birmingham. 
{Midgley, John. Colne, Lancashire. 
Midgley, Robert. Colne, Lancashire. 
{Millar, John, Lisburn, Ireland. ; 
§Millar, John, M.D., F.L.S., F.G.8. Bethnal House, Cambridge-road, 
London, E. 
Millar, Thomas, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E. Perth. 
§Miller, George. Brentry, near Bristoi. 
=a Canon J. C., D.D. The Vicarage, Greenwich, London, 


*Miller, Robert. Broomfield House, Reddish, near Manchester. 
Mriter, WitiiAm Hattows, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Pro- 
fessor of Mineralogy in the University of Gambridge. 7 Scroope- 
terrace, Cambridge. 


. *Milligan, Joseph, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.AS., F.R.G.S. 6 Craven- 


street, Strand, London, W.C. 
Milligan, Robert. Acacia in Rawdon, Leeds. 


; §Mritts, Epmunp J., D.Sc. F.R.S., F.C.S., Young Professor of 


Technical Chemistry in Anderson’s University, Glasgow. 234 
East George-street, Glasgow. 
*Mills, John Robert. 11 Bootham, York. 
Milne, Admiral Sir Alexander, G.C.B., F.R.S.E. 65 Rutland-gate, 
’ London, 8.W. 


. {Milne, James. Maurie House, Errol, by Dundee. 
. *Minne-Home, Davin, M.A., F.RS.E., F.G.S. 10 York-place, 


Edinburgh. 


. *Mitton, The Right Hon. Lord, F.R.G.S. 17 Grosvenor-street, 


London, W.; and Wentworth, Yorkshire. 


. {Minton, Samuel, F.G.S. Oakham House, near Dudley. 
. {Mirrlees, James Buchanan. 45 Scotland-street, Glasgow. 


{Mitchell, Alexander, M.D. Old Rain, Aberdeen. 


. {Mitchell, C. Walker. Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

. {Mitchell, Henry. Parkfield House, Bradford, Yorkshire. 

. §Mitchell, John. York House, Clitheroe, Lancashire. 

. §Mitchell, John, jun. . Pole Park House, Dundee. 

. *Mitchell, Wilkam Stephen, LL.B., F.LS., F.G.8. Caius College, 


Cambridge. 


. *Moffat, John, C.H. Ardrossan, Scotland. 
. §Morrat, Tuomas, M.D., F.G.S., F.R.AS., F.M.S. Hawarden, 


Chester. 


. (Mogg, John Rees, High Littleton House, near Bristol. 


toter) 


. §Moaeriper, Matrurw,F.G.8. 8 Bina-gardens, South Kensington, 


London, 8.W. 


. §Moir, James. 174 Gallogate, Glasgow. 
. {Molesworth, Rev. W. N., M.A. Spotland, Rochdale. 


Mollan, John, M.D. 8 Fitzwilliam-square North, Dublin. 


. tMolony, William, LL.D. Carrickfergus. 
. §Motynevx, Witi1am, F.G.S. Branston Cottage, Burton-upon- 


Trent. 


. {Monk, Rey. William, M.A., F.R.A.S, Wymington Rectory, Higham 


Ferrers, Northamptonshire. 
E2 


52 LIST OF MEMBERS, 


Year of 
Election 


1853. {Monroe, Henry, M.D. 10 North-street, Sculcoates, Hull. 
1875. §Montgomerie, Major Thomas George, R.E., F.R.S8., F.R.G.S8., Deputy 
Superintendent of the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India. 
Athenzeum Club, London, 8. W. 
1872, §Montgomery, R. Mortimer. 38 Porchester-place, Hdgeware-road, 
ondon, W. 
1872, {Moon, W., LL.D. 104 Queen’s-road, Brighton. 
1859, {Moorz, Cuaries, F.G.S. 6 Cambridge-terrace, Bath. 
1874. §Moore, Dayid, F.L.S. Glasnevin, Dublin. 
1857, {Moore, Rev. John, D.D. Clontarf, Dublin. 
Moore, John. 2 Meridian-place, Clifton, Bristol. 
*Moorg, Joun Carrick, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. 113 Eaton-square, 
& London, 8.W.; and Corswall, Wigtonshire. 
1866. *Moonn, Tuomas, F.L.S. Botanic Gardens, Chelsea, London, S.W. 
1854, {Moorn, Tuomas Joun, Cor. M.Z.S. Free Public Museum, Liyer- 
pool. 
1857. *Moore, Rev. William Prior. The Royal School, Cavan, Iveland. 
1871. aie Sea NES F.LS., M.R.LA. 3 Botanie View, Glasnevin, 
ublin. 
1873. §Morgan, Edward Delmar. 15 Rowland-gardens, London, W. 
1868. {Morgan, Thomas H. Oakhurst, Hastings. 
1833. Morgan, William, D.C.L. Oxon. Uckfield, Sussex. 
1867. {Morison, William R. Dundee. 
1863, {Mortry, Samvuet, M.P. 18 Wood-street, Cheapside, London, E.C, 
1865, *Morrieson, Colonel Robert. Oriental Club, Hanover-square, London, 


*Morris, es Francis Orpen, B.A, Nunburnholme Rectory, Hayton, 
ork, 
Morris, Samuel, M.R.D.S, Fortview, Clontarf, near Dublin. 
1861. tMorris, William. 
1874, §Morrison, G. J., C.E. 5 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W. 
1871. *Morrison, James Darsie. 27 Grange-road, Edinburgh. 
1863. {Morrow, R. J. Bentich-villas, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
1865. §Mortimer, J. R. St. John’s-villas, Driffield. 
1869. {Mortimer, William. Bedford-cireus, Exeter. 
1857. §Morton, Grorce H., F.G.S. 21 West Derby-street, Liverpool. 
1858, ae, Henry JosepH. Garforth House, West Garforth, near 
eeds. 
1871. {Morton, Hugh. Belvedere House, Trinity, Edinburgh. 
1868. {Moseley, H. N. Olveston, Bristol. 
1857, {Moses, Marcus. 4 Westmoreland-street, Dublin. 
Mosley, Sir Oswald, Bart., D.C.L. Rolleston Hall, Burton-upon- 
Trent, Staffordshire. 
Moss, John. Otterspool, near Liverpool. 
1870, {Moss, John Miles, M.A. 4% Esplanade, Waterloo, Liverpool. 
1873. *Mosse, George §. Clarendon House, Stanford-road, Kensington, 
. London, W. 
1864, *Mosse, J. R. Public Works’ Department, Ceylon. (Care of Messrs. 
H. 8. King & Co., 65 Cornhill, London, E.C.) 
1873, §Mossman, William. Woodhall, Calverley, Leeds. 
1869, §Mort, AtsErt J. Adsett Court, Westbury-on-Severn, 
1865. §Mott, Charles Grey. The Park, Birkenhead. 
1866. §Mott, Frederick T., F.R.G.S. 1 De Montfort-street, Leicester. 
1872. §Mott, Miss Minnie. 1 De Montfort-street, Leicester. 
1862, *Movat, Freprrick Joun, M.D., Local Government Inspector. 
12 Durham-villas, Campden-hill, London, W. 
1856, {Mould, Rey, J, G., B,D, Fulmodeston Rectory, Dereham, Norfolk. 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 53 


Year of 
Election. 


1863, 
1861. 


1850. 
1874. 
1871. 
1872. 
1871. 
1857. 


1666. 
1864, 


1872. 
1872. 
1864. 


1864. 
1855. 
1852. 
1852. 
1869, 
1850. 


tMounsey, Edward. Sunderland. 

Mounsey, John. Sunderland. 

*Mountcastle, William Robert. Ellenbrook, near Manchester. 

Mowbray, James. Combus, Clackmannan, Scotland. 

{Mowbray, John T, 15 Albany-street, Edinburgh. 

§Muir, M. M. Pattison. Owens College, Manchester. 

tMur, W. Hamilton. : 

{Muirhead, Alexander, D.Se., F.C.S. 159 Camden-road, London, N, 
*Muirhead, Henry, M.D, Bushy-hill, Cambuslang, Lanarkshire, 
{Mullins, M. Bernard, M.A., CLE. 

Munby, Arthur Joseph. 6 Fig-tree-court, Temple, London, E.C. 
{Munve.na, A. J., M.P., F.R.G.S. The Park, Nottingham. 
*Mounro, Major-General Witt1aM,C.B., F'.L.S. United Service Club, 

Pall Mall, London, 8.W.; and Mapperton Lodge, Farnborough, 
Hants. 
*Munster, H. Sillwood Lodge, Brighton. 
*Munster, William Felix. 41 Brompton-square, London, W. 
§Murcu, Jrrom. Cranwells, Bath. 
*Murchison, John Henry. Surbiton-hill, Kingston, 8.W. 
*Murchison, K. R. Ashurst Lodge, East Grinstead. 
t{Murdock, James B. Hamilton-place, Langside, Glasgow. 
{Murmey, Henry, M.D. 10 Chichester-street, Belfast. 
{Murphy, Joseph John. Old Forge, Dunmurry, Co. Antrim. 
§Murray, Adam. 4 Westbourne-crescent, Hyde Park, London, W. 
tMurray, Anprew, F.L.S. 67 Bedford-gardens, Kensington, Lon- 


don, W. 
. {Murray, Dr. Ivor, F.R.S.E. The Knowle, Brenchley, Staplehurst, 


Kent. 
Murray, John, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 50 Albemarle-street, London, W. 3 
and Newsted, Wimbledon, Surrey. 


1871. §Murray, John. 3 Clarendon-crescent, Edinburgh. 
1859. {Murray, John, M.D. Forres, Scotland. 
*Murray, John, C.K. Downlands, Sutton, Surrey. 
{Murray, Rey. John. Morton, near Thornhill, Dumfriesshire. 
1872. {Muwray, J. Jardine. 99 Montpellier-road, Brighton. 
1863. {Murray, William. 34 Clayton-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne, 


Murton, James. Highfield, Silverdale, Carnforth, Lancaster. 
Musgrave, The Venerable Charles, D.D., Archdeacon of Craven, 
Halifax. 


. §Musgrave, James, J.P. Drumglass House, Belfast. 

. {Musgrove, John, jun. Bolton. 

. *Muspratt, Edward Knowles. Seaforth Hall, near Liverpool. 

. [Myers, Rev. E., F.G.S. 5 Waterloo-road, Wolverhampton. 

. §Myxinz, Roperr Witty, F.R.S., F.G.8., F.S.A. 21 Whitehall. 


place, London, 8. W. 


. [Nachot, H. W., Ph.D. 73 Queen-street, Edinburgh, 


Nadin, Joseph. Manchester. 


. *Naprer, James R., F.R.S. 22 Blythwood-square, Glasgow, 


*Napier, Captain Johnstone, C.E. Laverstock House, Salisbury. 


. *Naprer, The Right Hon. Sir Josrpu, Bart. 4 Merrion-square South, 


Dublin. 


. [Napier, Robert. West Shandon, Gareloch, Glasgow. 


Napper, James William L. Loughcrew, Oldcastle., Co. Meath. 


. §Nares, Captain G. 8., R.N., F.R.S. Stoneham House, Christchurch- 


road, Winchester. 


» {Nash, Davyd W., F.S.A., F.L.S. 10 Imperial-square, Cheltenham, 


54 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 


Year of 
Election. 


1850 


1864, 
1860. 
1867. 


1878 
1873 


1857, 
1852. 
1869. 
1842, 


1855. 
1865, 


1868. 
1866. 


*Nasmytu, James, Penshurst, Tunbridge. 
{Natal, William Colenso, Lord Bishop of. Natal. 
{Neate, Charles, M.A. Oriel College, Oxford. 
§Nraves, The Right Hon. Lord. 7 Charlotte-square, Edinburgh. 
tNeill, Alexander Renton. Fieldhead House, Bradford, Yorkshire, 
tNeill, Archibald, Fieldhead House, Bradford, Yorkshire, 
{Neilson, Walter. 172 West George-street, Glasgow, 
{Neilson, W. Montgomerie. Giasaen 
Ness, John. Helmsley, near York. 
tNevill, Rev. H. R. The Close, Norwich. 
*Neyill, Rev. Samuel Tarratt, D.D., F.L.S., Bishop of Dunedin, New 
Zealand. 
tNeville, John, C.E., M.R.LA. Roden-place, Dundalk, Ireland. 
tNeville, Parke, C.E. Town Hall, Dublin. : 
{Nevins, John Birkbeck, M.D. 8 Abercromby-square, Liverpool. 
New, Herbert. Evesham, Worcestershire. 
Newall, Henry. Hare-hill, Littleborough, Lancashire. 
*Newall, Robert Stirling, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Ferndene, Gateshead-. 
upon-Tyne, 


. *Newdigate, Albert L, 2 The Pavement, Clapham Common, London, 
3. W 


. *NewMAN, Professor Francis Winiram. 15 Arundel-crescent, 


Weston-super-Mare. 


. *Newmarcu, Witxttam, I.R.S. Beech Holme, Clapham Common, 


London, 8.W. 


. *Newmarch, William Thomas. 
. *NnwrTon, Atrrep, M.A., F.R.S., F.LS., Professor of Zoology and 


Comparative Anatomy in the University of Cambridge. Mag- 
dalen College, Cambridge. 


72. t{Newton, Rey. J. 125 Hastern-road, Brighton. 
. {Newton, Thomas Henry Goodwin. Clopton House, near Stratford- 


on-Avon. 


. {Nicholl, Dean of Guild. Dundee. 

. §Nicholls, J. F. City Library, Bristol. 

. §Nicholls, N. F. King’s-square, Bridgewater, Somerset. 

. {Nicnoxson, Sir Cuarues, Bart., D.C.L., LL.D., M.D., F.GS., 


F.R.G.S. 26 Devonshire-place, Portland-place, London, W. 


. *Nicholson, Cornelius, F.G.S., F.8.A. Wellfield, Muswell-hill, Lon- 


don, N 


: *Nicholson, Edward. 88 Mosley-street, Manchester. 
. §Nicholson, E. Chambers. Herne-hill, London, 8.E. 
. {NicHotson, Henry AtiEyne, M.D., D.Sc., F.G.8., Professor of 


Natural History in the University of St. Andrews, N.B. 


. {Nrcox, James, F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Professor of Natural History in 


Marischal College, Aberdeen. 


. {Nimmo, Dr. Matthew, L.R.C.8.E. Nethergate, Dundee. : 


Niven, Ninian. Clonturk Lodge, Drumcondra, Dublin. 
{Nixon, Randal, C. J., M.A. Green Island, Belfast. 


. [Noap, Henry M., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.8. 72 Hereford-road, Bays- 


water, London, W. 


. *Nosxx, Captain, F.R.S. Elswick Works, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
. {Nolan, Joseph. 14 Hume-street, Dublin. 
. *Nolloth, Rear-Admiral Matthew S., R.N., F.R.G.S. United Service 


Club, 8.W.; and 13 North-terrace, Camberwell, London, 8.I. 


. {Norfolk, Richard. Messrs. W. Rutherford and Co., 14 Canada Dock, 


Liverpool. 


. {Norgate, William. Newmarket-road, Norwich, 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 55 


Year of 
Election. 


1863. 


1865. 
1872. 
1866. 


1869. 


1868. 
1861. 


1858. 


1857. 
1870. 
1866. 
1859, 


1874. 
1863. 
1863. 


1859. 
1837. 
1874. 
1862. 
1857. 
1853. 
1857. 


1860. 
1863. 


1874. 


1872. 


1867. 
1842. 


1861. 
1858. 


1835. 
1873. 


§Norman, Rey. ALFRED Mrrix, M.A. Burnmoor Rectory, Fence 
House, Co. Durham. 

Norreys, Sir Denham Jephson, Bart. Mallow Castle, Co. Cork. 
t{Norris, Ricuarp, M.D, 2 Walsall-road, Birchfield, Bmingham. 
§Norris, Thomas George. Gorphwysfa, Llanrwst, North Wales. 
{North, Thomas. Cinder-hill, Nottingham. 

NortnamptTon, The Right Hon, Cuartes Dovenas, Marquis of. 

Castle Ashby, Northamptonshire; and145 Piccadilly, London, W. 

t{Norrucorg, The Right Hon. Sir Srarrorp H., Bart., C.B., M.P., 
F.R.S. Pynes, Exeter; and 86 Harley-street, London, W. 

*Norruwick, The Right Hon. Lord,M.A, 7 Park-street, Grosvenor- 
square, London, W. 

{Norwich, The Hon. and Right Rev. J. T. Pelham, D.D., Lord Bishop 
of. Norwich. 

t{Noton, Thomas. Priory House, Oldham. 

Nowell, John. Farnley Wood, near Huddersfield, 


O’Brien, Baron Lucius. Dromoland, Newmarket-on-Fergus, Ireland. 

O'Callaghan, George. Tallas, Co. Clare. 

Odgers, Rev. William James. Savile House, Weston-road, Bath. 

*OprmG, Witt1am, M.B., F.R.S., F.C.S8., Waynflete Professor of 
Chemistry in the University of Oxford. The Museum, Oxford. 

{O’Donnayan, William John. Portarlington, Ireland, 

{O’Donnell, J. O., M.D. 34 Rodney-street, Liverpool. 

tOgden, James. Woodhouse, Loughborough. 

{Ogilvie, C. W. Norman. Baldovan House, Dundee. 

*Oaitvin, GrorGE, M.D., Professor of the Institutes of Medicine in 
Marischal College, Aberdeen. 29 Union-place, Aberdeen. 

§Ogilvie, Thomas Robertson. 19 Brisbane-street, Greenock, N.B. 

{Ogilvy,G. R. Inverquharity, N.B. 

tOeitvy, Sir Jonny, Bart. Inverquharity, N.B. 

*Ogle, William, M.D., M.A. The Elms, Derby. 

{Ogston, Francis, M.D. 18 Adelphi-court, Aberdeen. 

{O’Hagan, John. 22 Upper Fitzwilliam-street, Dublin. 

§O’Haaan, The Right Hon. Lord. Dublin. 

{O’Kexxy, Josmpu, M.A. 51 Stephen’s-green, Dublin. 

tO’Kelly, Matthias J. Dalkey, Ireland. 

§OLpuamM, James, C.E. Cottingham, near Hull. 

*O_puaM, Tuomas, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., M.R.LA., Director 
of the Geological Survey of India. 1 Hastings-street, Calcutta. 

{O’Leary, Professor Purcell, M.A. Queenstown. 

{Oliver, Daniel, F.R.S., Professor of Botany in University College, 
London. Royal Gardens, Kew, W. 

{O’Meara, Rev. Eugene. Newcastle Rectory, Hazlehatch, Ireland. 

*OmMANNEY, Vice-Admiral Erasmvs, C.B.,F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,F.R.G.S. 
6 Talbot-square, Hyde Park, London, W.; and United Service 
Club, Pall Mall, London, 8.W. 

shee, a Robert. New University Club, St. James's, London, 


{Orchar, James G. 9 William-street, Forebank, Dundee. 
age Grorce Warerne, M.A., F.G.S. Brookbank, Teign- 
mouth. 
{Ormerod, Henry Mere. Clarence-street, Manchester; and 11 Wood- 
land-terrace, Cheetham-hill, Manchester. 
{Ormerod, T. T. eden near Halifax. 
Orpen, Jonn H., LL.D., M.R.LA. 58 Stephen’s-green, Dublin, 
tOshorn, George. 47 Kingcross-street, Halifax, 


56 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1865. 


1865. 
1869. 
1854. 


1870. 
1857. 


1863. 
1859. 


18653. 
1872. 
1875. 
1870. 
1873. 
1866, 
1866. 
1872. 


1857. 
1863. 
1863. 


1874. 


1865. 


1853. 
1865. 
1864 
1859, 


1862. 


1865. 
1875. 
1855. 
1861, 
1871. 
1863. 
1867. 
1871. 
1874. 
1863. 
1863. 
1867, 
1864. 
1863. 
1863. 


t{Osborne, E. C, Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

*Ostmr, A. Fouiett, F.R.S. South Bank, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 
*Osler, Henry F. 50 Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 
*Osler, Sidney F. South Bank, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

{Outram, Thomas. Greetland, near Halifax. 

Overstonr, SamuEt Jones Luoyo, Lord, F.G.S. 2 Carlton- 
gardens, London, 8.W.; and Wickham Park, Bromley. 

tOwen, Harold. The Brook Villa, Liverpool. 
t{Owen, James H. Park House, Sandymount, Co, Dublin. 

Owen, Ricuwarp, C.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.,F.LS., F.G.S., 
Hon. M.R.S.E., Director of the Natural-History Department, 
British Museum. Sheen Lodge, Mortlake, Surrey, 8.W. 

*Ower, Charles, C.E. 11 Craigie-terrace, Dundee. 


t{Paar, Davi, LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. College of Physical Science, 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

tPaget, Charles. Ruddington Grange, near Nottingham. 

*Paget, Joseph. Stuffynwood Hall, Mansfield, Nottingham. 

§Paine, William Henry, M.D., F.G.S8. Stroud, Gloucestershire. 

*Palorave, R. H. Inglis. 11 Britannia-terrace, Great Yarmouth. 

{Palmer, George. The Acacias, Reading, Berks. 

§Palmer, H. 76 Goldsmith-street, Nottingham. 

§Palmer, William. Iron Foundry, Canal-street, Nottingham, 

*Palmer, W. R. Phoenix Lodge, Brixton, London, 8.W. 

Palmes, Rev. William Lindsay, M.A. The Vicarage, Hornsea, Hull. 
*Parker, Alexander, M.R.LA. 59 William-street, Dublin, i 
{Parker, Henry. Low Elswick, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

{Parker, Rev. Henry. Idlerton Rectory, Low Elswick, Newcastle-on- 


e. 

ee Henry R., LL.D. Methodist College, Belfast. 
Parker, Joseph, F.G.S. Upton Chaney, Bitton, near Bristol. 
Parker, Richard. Dunscombe, Cork. 

*Parker, Walter Mantel. High-street, Alton, Hants. 
Parker, Rev. William. Saham, Norfolk. . 

tParker, William. Thornton-le-Moor, Lincolnshire. 

*Parkes, Samuel Hickling. King’s Norton, near Birmingham. 

§Parxes, WintiAM. 23 Abingdon-street, Westminster, S.W. 

{Parkinson, Robert, Ph.D. West View, Toller-lane, Bradford, York- 

shire. 

*Parnell, John, M.A. Hadham House, Upper Clapton, London, E. 
Parnell, Richard, M.D., F.R.S.E. Gattonside Villa, Melrose, N.B. 
*Parsons, Charles Thomas. 8 Portland-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

§Pass, Alfred C. 16 Redland Park, Clifton, Bristol. 

{Paterson, William. 100 Brunswick-street, Glasgow. 

{Patterson, Andrew. Deafand Dumb School, Old Traftord, Manchester. 

*Patterson, A. H. Craigdarragh, Belfast. 

tPatterson, H. L. Scott’s House, near Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

tPatterson, James. Kinnettles, Dundee. 

{ Patterson, John. 

tPatterson, W. H., M.R.I.A. 26 High-street, Belfast, 

{Pattinson, John. 75 The Side, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

{Pattinson, William. Felling, near Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

§Pattison, Samuel R., F.G.8. 50 Lombard-street, London, E.C. 

{Pattison, Dr, T. H. London-street, Edinburgh. 

tPavx, Bensamin H., Ph.D. 1 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W. 

{Pavy, Freprrick WiriraM, M.D., F.R.S8., Lecturer on Physiology 
and Comparative Anatomy and Zoology at Guy’s Hospital. 35 
Grosyenor-street, London, W. 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 57 


Year of 
Election. 


1864, {Payne, Edward Turner. 3 Sydney-place, Bath. 
1851. {Payne, Joseph. 4 Kildare-gardens, Bayswater, London, W. 
1866, {Payne, Dr. Joseph F, 4 Kildare-gardens, Bayswater, London, W. 
1847, {Pracu, CHartes W,, Pres. R.P.S. Edin., A.L.S. 30 Haddington- 
place, Leith-walk, Edinburgh. 
1863. §Peacock, Richard Atkinson, C.E., F.G.S. 2 Moselle-villas, St. Peter’s- 
road, Margate. 
1875. §Peacock, Thomas Francis. 12 South-square, Gray’s Inn, London, W.C. 
*Pearsall, Thomas John, F.C.S8. Birkbeck Literary and Scientific Insti- 
tution, Southampton-buildings, Chancery-lane, London, W.C. 
1875. §Pearson, H. W. Tramore Villa, Nugent Hill, Cotham, Bristol. 
1872. *Pearson, Joseph. 54 Welbeck-terrace, Mansfield-road, Nottingham. 
1870. {Pearson, Rey. Samuel. 48 Prince’s-road, Liverpool. 
1863. §Pease, H. F. Brinkburn, Darlington. 
1863. *Pease, Joseph W., M.P. Hutton Hall, near Guisborough. 
1863. {Pease, J. W. Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
1858. *Pease, Thomas, F.G.S. Cote Bank, Westbury-on-Trym, near Bristol. 
Peckitt, Henry. Carltm Husthwaite, Thirsk, Yorkshire. 
1855. *Peckover, Alexander, F.L.S., F.R.G.S. Harecroft House, Wisbeach, 
Cambridgeshire. 
*Peckover, Algernon, F.L.S. Sibaldsholme, Wisbeach, Cambridge- 
shire. 
*Peckover, William, I'.S.A. Wisbeach, Cambridgeshire. 
*Peel, George. Soho Iron Works, Manchester. 
1873. §Peel, Thomas. Hampton-place, Horton, Yorkshire. 
1861. *Peile, George, jun. Shotley Bridge, Co. Durham. 
1861. *Peiser, John. Barnfield House, 491 Oxford-street, Manchester. 
1865. {Pemberton, Oliver. 18 Temple-row, Birmingham. 
1861. *Pender, John, M.P. 18 Arlington-street, London, S.W. 
1868. {Pendergast, Thomas. Lancefield, Cheltenham. 
1856. §PenGELLY, WittiaM, F.R.S., F.G.S. Lamorna, Torquay. 
1875. §Percival, Rev. J., M.A., LL.D. The College, Clifton, Bristol. 
1845, {Prrcy, Joun, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.8., Professor of Metallurgy in the 
Government School of Mines. Museum of Practical Geology, 
Jermyn-street, S.W.; and 1 Gloucester-crescent, Hyde Park, 
London, W. 
*Perigal, Frederick. Thatched House Club, St. James’s-street, 
ondon, 8.W. 
1868, *Perxry, Wittr1aM Henry, F.R.S., F.C.S, The Chestnuts, Sudbury, 
Harrow. 
1861. {Perkins, Rey. George. St. James’s View, Dickenson-road, Rusholme, 
near Manchester. 
Perkins, Rey. R. B., D.C.L. Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire. 
1864, *Perkins, V. R. The Brands, Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire. 
1861. {Perring, John Shae. 104 King-street, Manchester. ; 
Perry, The Right Rev. Charles, M.A., D.D., Bishop of Melbourne, 
Australia. 
1874. {Perry, John. 5 Falls-road, Belfast. 
*Perry, Rev. 5.G. F., M.A. Tottineton Vicarage, near Bury. 
1870. *Perry, Rey. 8. J., F.R.S., F.R.A.S,, F.M.S. Stonyhurst College 
Observatory, Whalley, Blackburn. 
1861. *Petrie, John. South-street, Rochdale. 
Peyton, Abel. Oakhurst, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 
1871. a John EK. H.,F.R.A.S., F.G.S. 108 Marina, St. Leonard’s-on- 
ea. 
1867, {PHAyRE, Major-General Sir ArrHuR, K.C.S.I. East India United 
Service Club, St. James’s-square, London, 8. W. 


58 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 


Year of 
Election. 


1863. 


1870, 
1853, 
1853. 


1863. 
1859, 


1862. 
1870. 
1868. 
1868, 
1864. 
1861. 
1870. 
1870. 
1871. 


1865. 
1873. 
1857. 
1863. 


1861, 
1868. 
1859, 
1866. 
1875. 
1864, 
1869. 
1865. 
1867. 


1842, 
1857, 


1861. 
1846, 


1862. 


1854. 
1868. 
1868. 


1874. 
1866. 


*PHENE, JOHN SAMUEL, F\S.A., F.G.8S., F.R.G.S, 5 Carlton-terrace, 
Oakley-street, London, 8.W. 

§Philip, T. D. 51 South Castle-street, Liverpool. 

*Philips, Rey. Edward. Hollington, Uttoxeter, Staffordshire. 

*Philips, Herbert. 35 Church-street, Manchester. 

*Philips, Mark. Welcombe, Stratford-on-Avon. 

Philips, Robert N. The Park, Manchester. 

tPhilipson, Dr. 1 Sayille-row, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

*Puitiies, Major-General Sir B. Travetu. United Service Club, 
Pall Mall, London, 8. W. 

{Phillips, Rev. George, D.D. Queen’s College, Cambridge. 

{Puruies, J. AntHuR. Cressington Park, Aigburth, Liverpool. 

{Phipson, R. M., F.S.A. Surrey-street, Norwich. 

{Pureson, T. L., Ph.D. 4 The Cedars, Putney, Surrey, 5. W. 

{Pickering, Wiliam. Oak View, Clevedon. 

{Pickstone, William. Radcliff Bridge, near Manchester. 

§Picton, J. Allanson, F.S.A. Sandylknowe, Wavertree, Liverpool, 

{Pigot, Rey. EK. V. Malpas, Cheshire. 

{Pigot, Thomas F. Royal College of Science, Dublin. 

*Pike, Ebenezer. Besborough, Cork. 

{Pice, L. Ownn. 25 Carlton-villas, Maida-vale, London, W. 

§Pike, W.H. 4 The Grove, Highgate, London, N. 

{Pilkington, Henry M., M.A.,Q.C. 45 Upper Mount-street, Dublin. 

*Pim, Captain Beprorp C, T., R.N., M.P., PRGS. Leaside, Kings- 
wood-road, Upper Norwood, London, 8.E. 

Pim, George, M.R.I.A, Brennan’s Town, Cabinteely, Dublin. 

Pim, Jonathan. Harold’s Cross, Dublin. 

Pim, William H. Monkstown, Dublin. 

tPincoffs, Simon. 

{Pinder, T. R. St. Andrews, Norwich. ; 

tPirrie, William, M.D., LL.D. 238 Union-street West, Aberdeen, 

{Pitcairn, David. Dudhope House, Dundee. 

§Pitman, John. Redcliff Hill, Bristol. 

{Pitt, R. 5 Widcomb-terrace, Bath. 

§Pxrant, JAmEs, F.G.S. 40 West-terrace, West-street, Leicester. 

{Plant, Thomas L. Camp-hill, and 33 Union-street, Birmingham. 

}Puiayrarr, Lieut.-Colonel, H.M. Consul, Algeria. (Messrs. King 
& Co., Pall Mall, London, S.W.) 

Puayrarr, The Right Hon. Lyon, C.B., Ph.D., LL.D., M.P., 
F.RS.L. & E., F.C.8. 68 Onslow-gardens, South Kensington, 
London, S.W. 

{Plunkett, Thomas. Ballybrophy House, Borris-in-Ossory, Ireland. 

*Pocutn, Henry Davis, F.C.8._ Broughton Old Hall, Manchester. 

t{Porz, Witi1aM, Mus. Doe., F.R.S., M.LC.E. Atheneum Club, 
Pall Mall, London, 5. W. 

*Pollexfen, Rev. John Hutton, M.A. Middleton Tyas Vicarage, 
Richmond, Yorkshire. ‘ 

Pollock, A. 52 Upper Sackville-street, Dublin. 

*Polwhele, Thomas Roxburgh, M.A., F.G.8.  Polwhele, Truro, 
Cornwall. 

{Poole, Braithwaite. Birkenhead. 

{Pooley,Thomas A.,B.Se. South Side,Clapham Common,London,S.W. 

{Portal, Wyndham 8. Malsanger, Basingstoke. 

*PorTer, Henry J. Ker, M.R.LA. Hanover Square Club, Hanover- 
square, London, W. 

{Porter, Rev. J. Leslie, D.D., LL.D. College Park, Belfast. 

§Porter, Robert. Beeston, Nottingham. 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 59 


Year of 
Election. 


1863. 


1842, 
1863, 
1857, 


1873. 
1875. 


* 1857. 
1867, 
1855. 
1864, 
1869. 


1864. 


1871. 
1856. 


1872. 


1875. 
1870. 
1875. 
1865. 
1865. 
1875. 
1864. 
1835. 


1846, 


1872. 
1871. 
1863. 


1858. 
1863. 
1863. 
1865. 
1872. 
1871. 
1864. 
1873. 
1867. 
1867. 
1842. 


Porter, Rev. T. H., D.D. Desertcreat, Co. Armagh. 
tPotter, D. M. Cramlington, near Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
*Porrer, Epmunp, F.R.S. Camfield-place, Hatfield, Herts. 

Potter, Thomas. CGeorge-street, Manchester. 

tPotts, James. 26 Sandhill, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

*PouNDEN, Captain Lonspa1x, F.R.G.S. Junior United Service Club, 
St. James’s-square, London, 8.W.; and Brownswood House, 
Enniscorthy, Co. Wexford. 

*Powell, Francis 8. Horton Old Hall, Yorkshire; and 1 Cambridge- 
square, London, W. 

§Powell, William Augustus Frederick. Norland House, Clifton, 
Bristol, 

{Power, Sir James, Bart. Edermine, Enniscorthy, Ireland. 

tPowrie, James. Reswallie, Forfar. f 

*Poynter, John E. Clyde Neuck, Uddingstone, Hamilton, Scotland. 

tPrangley, Arthur. 

*Preece, William Henry. Gothic Lodge, Wimbledon Common, 
London, 8. W. 

*Prentice, Manning. Violet-hill, Stowmarket, Suffolk. 

Prest, The Venerable Archdeacon Edward. The College, Durham. 

*PRESTWICH, JOSEPH, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.S., Professor of Geology in 

the University of Oxford. 34 Broad-street, Oxford; and Shore- 
ham, near Sevenoaks. 

{Price, Astley Paston. 47 Lincoln’s-Inn-Fields, London, W.C. 

*Pricr, Rey. BarrHotomew, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.AS., Sedleian 
Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Oxford 
11 St. Giles’s-street, Oxford. 

{Price, David S., Ph.D. 26 Great George-street, Westminster, S.W. 

Price, J.T. Neath Abbey, Glamorganshire. 

*Price, Rees. 54 Loftus-road, Shepherd’s Bush, London, W. 

§Price, Captain W. E., M.P., F.G.S. _Tibberton Court, Gloucester. 

*Price, William Philip. Tibberton Court, Gloucester. 

*Prichard, Thomas, M.D. Abington Abbey, Northampton. 

t{Prideaux, J. Symes. 209 Piecadilly, London. 

§Prince, Thomas. 6 Marlborough-road, Bradford, Yorkshire. 

*Prior, R.C. A., M.D. 48 York-terrace, Regent’s Park, London, N.W. 

emeics, Andrew, F.R.S.E. 87 St. Paul’s-road, Canonbury, Lon- 

on, N. 

*PrircHARD, Rey.CuHaruns, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., Professor 
2 grote in the University of Oxford. 8 Keble-terrace, 

xford. : 

{Pritchard, Rev. W. Gee. Brignal Rectory, Barnard Castle, Co, Durham, 

{Procter, James. Morton House, Clifton, Bristol. 

{Procter, R.S. Summerhill-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

Proctor, Thomas. Elmsdale House, Clifton Down, Bristol. 

Proctor, William. Elmhurst, Higher Erith-road, Torquay. 

§Proctor, William, M.D., F.C.S. 24 Petergate, York. 

*Prosser, Thomas. West Boldon, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

tProud, Joseph. South Hetton, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

tProwse, Albert P. Whitchurch Villa, Mannamead, Plymouth. 

*Pryor, M. Robert. Weston Manor, Stevenage, Herts. 

*Puckle, Thomas John. Woodcote-grove, Carshalton, Surrey. 

tPugh, John. Aberdovey, Shrewsbury. 

}Pullan, Lawrence. Bridge of Allan, N.B. 

tPullar, John. 4 Leonard Bank, Perth. 

*Pullar, Robert. 6 Leonard Bank, Perth. 

*Pumphrey, Charles. 33 Frederick-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham, 


60 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 


Year of 
Election. 


1869. 
1852. 
1860, 


1874. 
1866, 
1860, 
1868. 


1861, 


1870. 
1860, 
1870. 


1861. 


1854. 
1870. 
1855. 
1864, 


1865. 


1845, 


Punnett, Rev. John, M.A., F.C.P.S. St. Harth, Cornwall. 

tPurchas, Rev. W. #1. 

{Purdon, Thomas Henry, M.D. Belfast. 

{Purpy, Frepwrick, F.S.8., Principal of the Statistical Department of 
the Poor Law Board, Whitehall, London. Victoria-road, Ken- 
sington, London, W. 

{Purser, Frederick, M.A. Rathmines, Dublin. 

tPurser, Professor John, M.A., M.R.I.A. Queen’s College, Belfast. 

*Pusey, 8. E. B. Bouverie-. Pusey House, Faringdon. 

§Pyn-Sairu, P.H., M.D. 56 Harley-street, W.; and Guy’s Hospital, 
London, 8.E. 

*Pyne, Joseph John. St. German’s Villa, St. Lawrence-road, Not- 
ting-hill, W. 


{Rabbits, W.T. Forest-hill, London, 8.H. 

{RavcuiirFE,CHarves Branp,M.D. 25 Cavendish-square,London, W. 

tRadcliffe, D. R. Phoenix Safe Works, Windsor, Liverpool. 

*Radford, William, M.D. Sidmount, Sidmouth. 

{ Rafferty, Thomas. 

tRafiles, Thomas Stamford. 13 Abercromby-square, Liverpool. 

{Raffles, William Winter. Sunnyside, Prince’s Park, Liverpool. 

{Rainey, Harry, M.D. 10 Moore-place, Glasgow. 

{Rainey, James T. St. George’s Lodge, Bath. 

Rake, Joseph. Charlotte-street, Bristol. 

tRamsay, ALpxanpeR, F.G.S. Kilmorey Lodge, 6 Kent-gardens, 
Kaling, W. 

{Ramsay, AnDREW Crompm, LL.D., F.RS., F.G.8., Director- 
General of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom and 
of the Museum of Economic Geology ; Professor of Geology in 
the Royal School of Mines. Geological Survey Office, Jermyn- 
street, London, 8S. W. 


. [Ramsay, D. R. 

. {Ramsay, James, jun. Dundee. 

. tRamsay, John. MKildalton, Argyleshire. 

. *Ramsay, W. F., M.D. 15 Somerset-street, Portman-square, Lon- 


on, W. 

. *Ramsden, William. Bracken Hall, Great Horton, Bradford, Yorkshire. 
35. *Rance, Henry (Solicitor). Cambridge. 

. *Rance, H. W. Henniker, LL.M. 62 St. Andrew’s-street, Cambridge. 
. tRandall, Thomas: Grandepoint House, Oxford. 

. tRandel, J. 50 Vittoria-street, Birmingham. 

. {Randolph, Charles. Pollockshiels, Glasgow. 


Ranelagh, The Right Hon. Lord. 7 New Burlington-street, Regent- 
street, London, W. 


. “Ransom, Edwin, F.R.G.S. Kempstone Mill, Bedford. 
. §Ransom, William Henry, M.D.,F.R.S. The Pavement, Nottingham. 
. Ransome, Arthur, M.A. Bowdon, Manchester. 


Ransome, Thomas. 34 Princess-street, Manchester, 


2. *Ranyard, Arthur Cowper, F.R.A.S. 25 Old-square, Lincoln’s-Inn, 


London, W.C. . 
Rashleigh, Jonathan. 3 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park, 
London, N. W. 
*Rarcuirr, Colonel CHartes, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.8.A., F.R.G.S. Wyd- 
drington, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 


. §Rate, Rey. John, M.A. Lapley Vicarage, Penkridge, Staffordshire. 
. {Rathbone, Benson. Exchange-buildings, Liverpool. 
. {Rathbone, Philip H. Greenbank Cottage, Wavertree, Liverpool. 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 61 


Year of 
Election. 


1870. 
1863. 
1874, 
1870. 


1866, 


§Rathbone, R.R. Beechwood House, Liverpool. 

tRattray, W. St. Clement’s Chemical Works, Aberdeen. 

}Ravenstein, E. G., F.R.G.S. 10 Lorn-road, Brixton, London, 8. W. 

Rawdon, William Frederick M.D. Bootham, York. 

{Rawlins, G.W. The Hollies, Rainhill, Liverpool. 

*Rawlins, John, Shrawley Wood House, near Stourport. 

*RAWLINSON, Rey. Canon Guorax, M.A., Camden Professor of An- 
cient History in the University of Oxford. The Oaks, Precincts, 
Canterbury. 


55. *Rawxryson, Major-General Sir Henry C., K.C.B., LL.D., F.RS., 


F.R.G.S, 21 Charles-street, Berkeley-square, London, W. 


5. §Rawson, Sir Rawson W., K.C.M.G., C.B. Newlands House, 


Sydenhem, 8.E. 


. *Rayteren, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A., F.R.S. 4 Carlton-gardens, 


Pall Mall, London, 8.W.; and Terling Place, Witham, Essex. 


. {Rayner, Henry. West View, Liverpool-road, Chester. 
. [Rayner, Joseph (Town Clerk). Liverpool. 


tRead, Thomas, M.D. Donegal-square West, Belfast. 
tRead, William. Albion House, Epworth, Rawtry. 
*Read, W. H. Rudston, M.A., F.L.S. 12 Blake-street, York. 


. §Reade, Thomas M., C.E., F.G.S. Blundellsands, Liverpool. 
- “Readwin, Thomas Allison, M.R.LA., F.G.S. 37 Osborne-road, 


Tuebrook, Liverpool. 


. *RepFERn, Professor Perrr, M.D, 4 Lower-crescent, Belfast. 
. {Redmayne, Giles. 20 New Bond-street, London, W. 
. [Redmayne, R.R. 12 Victoria-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 


Redwood, Isaac. Cae Wern, near Neath, South Wales. 


. *Reé, H. P. Villa Ditton, Torquay. 
. {Reep, Epwarp J., Vice-President of the Institute of Naval Archi- 


tects. Chorlton-street, Manchester. 


. §Rees-Mogg, W. Wooldridge. Cholwell House, near Bristol. 

. tReid, J. Wyatt. 

. [Reid, Robert, M.A. 35 Dublin-road, Belfast. 

. {Reid, William, M.D. Cruivie, Cupar, Fife. 

. §Reinold, A. W., M.A., Professor of Physical Science. Royal Naval 


College, Greenwich, 8.E. 


. §Renals, E. ‘Nottingham Express’ Office, Nottingham. 


fRendel, G. Benwell, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 


. {Renny, W. W. 8 Douglas-terrace, Broughty Ferry, Dundee. 
. TRévy, J. J. 16 Great George-street, Westminster, S. W. 


}Reynotps, Professor Jamrs Emerson, M.A., F.C.S. Royal Dublin 
Society, Kildare-street, Dublin. 


. “Reynotps, Osporne, M.A., Professor of Engineering in Owens 


College, Manchester. Fallowfield, Manchester, 


. §Reynolds, Richard, F.C.S. 13 Briggate, Leeds. 


Reynolds, William, M.D. 


. *Rhodes, John. 18 Albion-street, Leeds. 
. §Ricarps, Rear-Admiral Grorer H., C.B., F.R.8., F.R.GS. 


The Athenzeum Club, London, S.W. 


. §RicHarpson, Bensamin Warp, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. 12 Hinde- 


street, Manchester-square, London, W. 


. §Richardson, Charles. 10 Berkeley-square, Bristol. 
. *Richardson, Charles. Albert Park, Abingdon, Berks. 
. *Richardson, Edward. 6 Stanley-terrace, Gosforth, Newcastle-on- 


ne. 


. “Richardson, George, 4 Edward-street, Werneth, Oldham, 
. [Richardson, J, H, 3 Arundel-terrace, Cork, 


62 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1868, 
1863. 
1870. 


1861. 
1861. 
1863. 
1870. 
1868, 


1861. 
1859, 
1861. 
1872. 
1862. 
1861, 
1863. 
1873. 
1873. 


1860. 


1867. 
1855. 
1867. 
1869, 
1854, 
1869. 


1859, 
1859. 
1870. 
1857. 
1868. 


1866. 


1859. 
1867. 
1871. 
1870. 
1866. 
1861. 
1852. 
1859. 


1873. 
1866, 
1861. 
1863. 
1855. 
1875. 


{ Richardson, James C. 
{ Richardson, John. W. 
{Richardson, Ralph. 16 Coates-crescent, Edinburgh. 
Richardson, Thomas. Montpelier-hill, Dublin. 
Richardson, William. Micklegate, York. 
§Richardson, William. 4 Edward-street, Werneth, Oldham. 
{Richson, Rev.Canon, M.A. Shakespeare-street, Ardwick, Manchester. 
tRichter, Otto, Ph.D. 7 India-street, Edinburg h. 
tRickards, Dr. 36 Upper Paxliament-street, Liveepach 
§Ricketrs, Cuarues, M.D., F.G.8. 22 Argyle-street, Birkenhead. 
*Rrppax1, Major-General Cuarcns J, BuoHaNan, O.B., R.A, F.RS, 
Oaklands, Chudleigh, Devon. 
*Riddell, Henry B. Whitefield House, Rothbury, Morpeth. 
{Riddell, Rey. John. Moffat by Beatlock, N.B. 
*Rideout, William J. 51 Charles-street, Berkeley-square, London, W. 
tRidge, James. 98 Queen’s-road, Brighton. 
{Ridgway, Henry Akroyd, B.A. ‘Bank Field, Halifax. 
{Ridley, ‘John. 19 Belsize-park, Hampstead, London, N.W. 
*Rigby, Samuel. Bruche Hall, Warrington. 
tRipley, Edward. Acacia, Apperley, near Leeds. 
§Ripley, H. W. Acacia, pace near Leeds. 
*Rron, The Marquis of, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.L.8; 1 Cartons 
gardens, London, S.W. 
tRitchie, George Robert. _ 4 Watkyn-terrace, Coldharbour-lane, 
Camberwell, London, 8.E. 
tRitchie, John. Fleuchar Craig, Dundee. 
tRitchie, Robert, C.K. 14 Hill-street, Edinburgh. 
{Ritchie, William. Emslea, Dundee. 
*Rivington, John. Great Milton, Tetsworth, Oxon. 
tRobberds, Rev. John, B.A. Battledown Tower, Cheltenham. 
*Rossins, J., F.C.S. 57 Warrington-crescent, Maida-vyale, London, 
N.W. 
Roberton, John. Oxford-road, Manchester. 
tRoberts, George Christopher. "Hull. 
{Roberts, Henry, F.S.A. Athenzeum Club, London, 8. W. 
*Roberts, Isaac, F.G.S. 26 Rock-park, Rock- -ferry, Cheshire. 
tRoberts, Michael, M.A. Trinity College, Dublin. 
§Roperts, W. Cuanpirr, F.RS., IG.S., F.C.8. Royal Mint, 
London, E. 
* Roberts, William P. 
{Robertson, Alister Stuart, M.D., F.R.G.S. Horwich, Bolton, Lan< 
cashire. 
tRobertson, Dr. Andrew. Indego, Aberdeen. 
§Robertson, David. Union Grove, Dundee. 
{Robertson, George, C.E., FRSE. rigN eee hn) 
*Robertson, John. Bank, High-street, Manchester. 
{Roperrson, WILLIAM TINDAL, M.D. Nottingham. 
}Robinson, Enoch. Dukinfield, Ashton-under-Lyne 
tRobinson, Rey. George. Tartaragham Glebe, Loughgall, Ireland. 
tRobinson, Hardy. 156 Union-street, Aberdeen. 
*Robinson, H. Oliver. 34 Bishopsgate- -street, London, E.C._ 
§ Robinson, Ea 3 Donegal-street, Belfast. 
{ Robinson, John 
tRobinson, John. Atlas Works, Manchester. 
}Robinson, J. H. Cumberland-row, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
{ Robinson, M.E. 116 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow. 
§Robinson, Robert, C.E. Darlington. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 63 


Year of 
Election. 


1860. 


1863. 
1870. 
1870, 


1855. 
1872. 
1872. 


1866. 
1861. 
1860. 


1867. 
1869, 
1870. 
1859. 


1866. 


1863. 
1846. 
1869. 
1872. 


1855. 


1863, 
1874, 
1857. 
1872. 
1859. 
1861. 
1842. 
1874, 
1869, 


1865. 
1861. 


1872. 


1861. 
1855. 
1865. 
1855, 


1862. 
1861. 


{Robinson, Admiral Sir Robert Spencer, K.C.B., F.R.S. 61 Eaton- 

place, London, 8.W. 
Ropinson, Rev. THomas Romney, D.D., F.RS. F.RAS., 

M.R.LA., Director of the Armagh Observatory. Armagh. 

tRobinson, T. W. U. Houghton-le-Spring, Durham. 

{Robinson, William. 40 Smithdown-road, Liverpool. 

*Robson, E. R. 20 Great George-street, Westminster, S.W. 

*Robson, Rey. John, M.A., D.D Ajmére Lodge, Cathkin-road, 
Langside, Glasgow. 

tRobson, Neil, C.E. 127 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow. 

*Robson, William. 3 Palmerston-road, Grange, Edinburgh. 

§RopweELL, Grorce F., F.R.AS., F.C.S. Marlborough College, 
Wiltshire. 

tRoe, Thomas. Grove-villas, Sitchurch. 

§Rors, JoHN, #.G.S. 9 Crosbie-terrace, Leamington. 

tRogers, James E. THoroxp, Professor of Economie Science and 
Statistics in King’s College, London. Beaumont-street, Oxford. 

tRogers, James 8. Rosemill, by Dundee. 

*Rogers, Nathaniel, M.D. 87 South-street, Exeter. 

tRogers, T.L.,M.D. Rainhill, Liverpool. 

fRoxzeEsron, Grorer, M.A., M.D.,.F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Ana- 
pom and Physiology in the University of Oxford. The Park, 

ord. 
ane George Frederick. War Office, Horse Guards, London, 


TRomilly, Edward. 14 Hyde Park-terrace, London, W. 

tRonalds, Edmund, Ph.D. Stewartfield, Bonnington, Edinburgh. 

tRoper, C. H. Magdalen-street, Exeter. 

“Roper, Freeman Clark Samuel, F.L.S., F.G.8. Palerave House, 
Eastbourne. 

*Roscor, Henry Enrim xp, B.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of 
Chemistry in Owens College, Manchester. 

{Roseby, John. Havyerholme House, Brigg, Lincolnshire. 

tRoss, Alex. Milton, M.A., M.D., F.G.S. Toronto, Canada. 

tRoss, David, LL.D. Drumbrain Cottage, Newbliss, Ireland. 

§Ross, James, M.D. Tenterfield House, Waterfoot, near Manchester. 

*Ross, Rev. James Coulman. Baldon Vicarage, Oxford. 

*Ross, Thomas. 7 Wigmore-street, Cavendish-square, London, W. 

Ross, William. 

§Ross, Rey. William. Chapelhill Manse, Rothesay, Scotland. 

*RosseE, The Right Hon. The Earl of, D.C.L., F.R.S., FR.A.S. Birr 
neta Parsonstown, Ireland ; and 32 Lowndes-square, London, 

aw) 


*Rothera, George Bell. 17 Wavyerley-street, Nottingham. 

fRouth, Edward J., M.A., F.RS., F.R.AS., F.G.S. St. Peter's 
College, Cambridge. 

*Row, A. V. Nursing Observatory, Daba-gardens, Vizagapatam, 
India. (Care of Messrs. King & Co., 45 Pall Mall, London, 8.W.) 

{Rowan, David. Elliot-street, Glasgow. 

{ Rowand, Alexander. 

SRowe, Rev. John. Load Vicarage, Langport, Somerset. 

*Rowney, THoomas H., Ph.D., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in 
Queen’s College, Galway. Salerno, Salt Hill, Galway. 

*Rowntree, Joseph. 13 Castle-gate, York. 

{Rowsell, Rey. Evan Edward, M.A. Hambledon Rectory, Godalming. 

ae Peter, M.D., L.R.C.P., M.R.C.S. 27 Lever-street, Man- 
chester. 


64 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


_ 1875. 


1869, 
1856, 


1873. 
1847. 


1857. 
1875. 
1865, 
1859, 


§Riicker, A. W. Yorkshire College of Science, Leeds, 
§Rudler, F. W., F.G.S. “The Museum, Jermyn-street, London, 8. W. 
tRumsey, Henry Wyldbore, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.S. Knoll Hill, 
Prestbury, near Cheltenham. 
tRushforth, Joseph. 43 Ash-grove, Horton-lane, Bradford, Yorkshire. 
tRusk1n, Joun, M.A., F.G.S., Slade Professor of Fine Arts in the 
University of Oxford. Corpus Christi College, Oxford. 
tRussell, Rey. C. W., D.D. Maynooth College. 
*Russell, F. A. R. Pembroke Lodge, Richmond Park, Surrey. 
{Russell, James, M.D. 91 Newhall-street, Birmingham. 
{tRussett, The Right Hon. Joun, Earl, K.G., F.R.S., F.R.G.S, 37 
Chesham-place, Belgraye-square, London, 8. W. 
Russell, John. 
RussEtt, JoHn Scott, M.A., F.R.S.L.& E, Sydenham; and 
5 Westminster Chambers, London, 8. W. 


. *Russell, Norman Scott. 5 Westminster-chambers, London, 8.W. 


§Russect, W. H. L., A.B., F.RS. 5 The Grove, Highgate, Lon- 
don, N. 


2, *RusseLt, Winw1aM J., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry, 


St. Bartholomew’s Medical College. 384 Upper Hamilton- 
terrace, St. John’s Wood, London, N. W. 


5, {Rust, Rey. James, M.A. Manse of Slains, Ellon, N.B. 
. §Rutherford, David Greig. Surrey House, Forest Hill, London, 8.1. 
. §RurwerFrorD, WitiraM, M.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of the Insti- 


tutes of Medicine in the University of Edinburgh. 
Rutson, William. Newby Wiske, Northallerton, Yorkshire, 


. [Ruttledge, T. £. 

. §Ryalls, Charles Wager, LL.D. 3 Brick-court, Temple, London, E.C. 

. §Rye, E. C., F.Z.S., Librarian R.G.S. Parkfield, Putney, London, 
S.W 


*Ryland, Arthur. The Linthurst Hiil, Broomseroye, Worcestershire. 


. {Ryland, Thomas. The Redlands, Erdington, Bumingham. 
. {Rylands, Joseph. 


. *Ryzanps, THomMAs GLAzEBROOK, F.L.S., F.G.S. Highfields, Thel- 


wall, near Warrington. 


*Sanine, General Sir Epwanrp, K.C.B., R.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., 
F.R.ALS., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. 13 Ashley-place, Westminster, 8. W. 


. {Sabine, Robert. Auckland House, Willesden-lane, London, N.W. 
. §Sadler, Samuel Champernowne. Purton Court, Purton, near Swindon, 


Wiltshire. 


. *St. Albans, His Grace the Duke of. Bestwood Lodge, Arnold, near 


Nottingham. 

Salkeld, Joseph. Penrith, Cumberland. 

{Sautmon, Rey. Groree, D.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Regius Professor of 
Divinity in the University of Dublin. Trinity College, Dublin, 


. *Salomons, Sir David, Bart. Broom-hill, Tunbridge Wells. 
. *Saxt, Sir Trrus, Bart. Crow-Nest, Lightcliffe, near Halifax. 
. {Satvry, Ospert, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. Brookland Avenue, Cam- 


bridge. 
Sambrooke, T. G. 82 Eaton-place, London, S.W. 


. “Samson, Henry. 6 St. Peter’s-square, Manchester. 

. {Samuelson, Edward. Roby, near Liverpool. 

. [Samuetson, James. St. Domingo-grove, Everton, Liverpool. 
. *Sandeman, Archibald, M.A. Tulloch, Perth. 

. {Sanders, Gilbert. The Hill, Monkstown, Co. Dublin. 

2, {Sanders, Mrs, 8 Powis-square, Brighton. 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 65 


Year of 
Election. 


1871. 
1872. 


{Sanders, William R., M.D. 11 Walker-street, Edinburgh. 
§SanpEnson, J. S. Burpon, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology 
in University College, London. 49 Queen Anne-street, London, 


Sandes, Thomas, A.B. Sallow Glin, Tarbert, Co, Kerry, 


4, {Sandford, William. 9 Springfield-place, Bath. 

. {Sandon,The RightHon. Lord, M.P. 39Gloucester-square, London, W. 
. {Sands, T. C. 24 Spring-gardens, Bradford, Yorkshire. 

. {Sargant, W. L. Edmund-street, Birmingham. 


Satterfield, Joshua, Alderley Edge. 


. TSaunders, A., C.E. Kine’s Lynn. 

. {Saunders, Trelawney W. India Office, London, S.W. 

. [Saunders, T. W., Recorder of Bath. 1 Priory-place, Bath. 

. *Saunders, William. 3 Gladstone-terrace, Brighton. 

. §Savage, W.D. Ellerslie House, Brighton. 

. tSavory, Valentine. Cleckheaton, near Leeds. 

2. §Sawyer, George David. 55 Buckingham-place, Brighton. 

. {Sawyer, John Robert. Grove-terrace, Thorpe Hamlet, Norwich. 
. {Sceallan, J. Joseph. 

. {Scarth, Pillans, 2 James’s-place, Leith. 

. §Schacht, G. F. 7 Regent’s-place, Clifton, Bristol. 

A | ele Roserrt, Ph.D. 398 Manor-terrace, Brixton, London, 


Schofield, J oseph. Stubley Hall, Littleborough, Lancashire. 


. §Scholefield, Henry. Windsor-crescent, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 


“Scholes, T. Seddon. 10 Warwick-place, Leamington. 
Scuuncx, Epwarp, F.R.S., F.C.S. Oaklands, Kersall Moor, Man- 
chester. 


. *Schuster, Arthur, Ph.D. Stwmyside, Upper Avenue-road, Regent’s 


Park, London, N.W. 


. *Schwabe, Edmund Salis. Ryecroft House, Cheetham Hill, Man- 


chester. 


. {Sctarer, Pump Luriey, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., See. Zool. 


Soe. 11 Hanover-square, London, W. 


. {Scorr, ArexanpER. Clydesdale Bank, Dundee. 

. [Scott, Rev. C.G. 12 Pilrig-street, Edinburgh. 

. Scott, Captain Fitzmaurice. Forfar Artillery. 

. §Scott, Major-General H. Y. D., C.B., R.E., F.R.S. Sunnyside, 


Ealing, W. 


. {Scott, James 8. T. Monkrigg, Haddingtonshire. 
. §Scorr, Ronprrt H., M.A., F.R.S., FESS ¥.M.S., Director of the 


Meteorological Office. 116 Victoria-street, London, 8.W. 


. §Scott, Rev. Robert Selkirk, D.D. 16 Victoria-crescent, Dowanhill, 


Glasgow. 
tScott, Rev. Robinson, D.D. Methodist College, Belfast. 


. TScott, Wentworth Lascelles. Wolverhampton. 

. {Scott, William. Holbeck, near Leeds. 

. §Scott, William Bower. Chudleigh, Devon. 

. tScott, William Robson, Ph.D. St. Leonards, Exeter. 

. tSearle, Francis Furlong. 5 Cathedral-yard, Exeter. 

. {Seaton, John Love. Hull. 

. { Seaton, Joseph, M.D. 

. *Sretey, Harry Govimr, F.LS., F.G.8., Professor of Physical 


Geography, Bedford College, London, 61 Adelaide-road, South 
Hampstead, London, N.W. 


5, {Seligman, H. L. 155 Buchanan-street, Glasgow. 
3. {Semple, R. H., M.D. 8 Torrington-square, London, W.C. 


EF 


66 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1858. 


1870. 
1875, 


1873. 
1868. 
1861, 


1853. 
1871. 
1867. 
1869, 
1861. 


1858. 
1854, 
1870. 
1865, 
1870. 
1845. 


1853, 
1859. 


1865. 
1870. 


1869. 
1866. 
1867. 


*Senior, George, F.8.8. Rosehill Lodge, Dodworth, near Barnsley. 
*Sephton, Rev.J. 92 Huslisson-street, Liverpool. 
§Seville, Thomas, Elm House, Royton, near Manchester. 
§Sewell, Rev. E., M.A., F.R.G.S. Ilkley College, near Leeds. 
{Sewell, Philip HE. Catton, Norwich. 
*Seymour, Henry D. 209 one cee London, W. 
Seymour, John, 21 Bootham, York. 
{Shackles, G. L. 6 Albion-street, Hull. 
*Shaen, William. 15 Upper Phillimore-gardens, Kensington, Lon- 
don, W. 
*Shand, James. Fullbrooks, Worcester Park, Surrey. 
§Shanks, James. Den Iron Works, Arbroath, N.B. 
*Shapter, Dr. Lewis, LL.D. The Barnfield, Exeter. 
Sharp, Rey. John, B.A. Horbury, Wakefield. 
{Suarp, Samuet, F.G.S., F.S.A.  Dallington Hall, near North- 
ampton. 
*Sharp, William, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. Horton House, Rugby. 
Sharp, Rey. William, B.A. Mareham Rectory, near Boston, Lincoln- 
shire. : 
SHaRPey, Witu1aM, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. 50 Torrington- 
square, London, W.C. 
*Shaw, Bentley. Woodfield House, Huddersfield. 
*Shaw, Charles Wright. 3 Windsor-terrace, Douglas, Isle of Man, 
{Shaw, Duncan. Cordova, Spain. 
{Shaw, George. Cannon-street, Birmingham. 
{Shaw, John. 24 Great George-place, Liverpool. 
ates rea: M.D., F.L.S., F.G.8. Hop House, Boston, Lincoln- 
shire. 
{Shaw, Norton, M.D. St. Croix, West Indies. 
Shepard, John, 41 Drewton-street, Manningham-road, Bradford, 
Yorkshire. 
{Shepherd, A. B. 49 Seymour-street, Portman-square, London, W. 
§Shepherd, Joseph. 29 Kverton-crescent, Liverpool. 
Sie Rey. Henry W., B.A. The Parsonage, Emsworth, 
ants. 
tSherard, Rev. S. H. 
{Shilton, Samuel Richard Parr. Sneinton House, Nottingham. 
{Shinn, William C. Her Majesty’s Printing Office, near Fetter-lane, 
London, E.C. 


. *SHootsrep, James N., C.E., F.G.S. 3 Westminster Chambers, 


London, 8. W. 


. §Shore, Thomas W., F.C.S. Hartley Institution, Southampton. 


Shuttleworth, John. Wilton Polygon, Cheetham-hill, Manchester. 


. {Srpson, Francis, M.D., F.R.S. 59 Brook-street, London, W. 

. *Sidebotham, Joseph. 19 George-street, Manchester. 

. *Sidebottom, Robert. Mersey Bank, Heaton Mersey, Manchester. 

. [Sidgwick, R. H. The Raikes, Skipton. 

. {Sidney, Frederick John, LL.D., M.R.LA. 19 Herbert-street, 


Dublin. : 
Sidney, M. J. F. Cowpen, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 


3. *Siemens, Alexander. 12 Queen Anne’s-gate, Westminster, S.W. 
. *Sremens, C, Witzt1am, D.C.L., F:R.S. FC 


1... M.I.C.E. 12 Queen 


? 


Anne’s-gate, Westminster, S.W. 


*Sillar, Zechariah, M.D. Bath House, Laurie Park-gardens, Syden- 
ham, London, 8.E. 


* 9. {Sim, John. Hardgate, Aberdeen, 


. {Sime, James. Craigmount House, Grange, Mdinburgh. 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 67 


Year of 

Election. 

1865, §Simkiss, T. M. Wolverhampton. 

1862, jSimms, James. 138 Fleet-street, London, E.C. 
1352. {Simms, William. Albion-place, Belfast. 


1374, 


1347, 


1866. 
1871, 


1867, 
1859. 
1863. 
1857, 


§Simms, William. The Linen Hall, Belfast, 

{Simon, John, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.C.S., Medical Officer of the Privy 
Council. 40 Kensington-square, London, W. 

{Simons, George. The Park, Nottingham. 

*Smmpson, ALEXANDER R., M.D., Professor of Midwifery in the Uni- 
versity of Edinburgh. 52 Queen-street, Edinburgh, 

{Simpson, G. B. Seafield, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee. 

{Simpson, John. Marykirk, Kincardineshire. 

{Simpson, J. B., F.G.S8. Hedgefield House, Blaydon-on-Tyne. 

{Snrpson, Maxwe.t, M.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in 
Queen’s College, Cork. 

*Simpson, Rey. Samuel. Greaves House, near Lancaster. 

Simpson, Thomas. Blake-street, York. 
Simpson, William. Bradmore House, Hammersmith, London, W. 

fSinclair, Alexander, 133 George-street, Edinburgh. 

fSinclair, Thomas. Dunedin, Belfast. 

{Sinclair, Vetch, M.D, 48 Albany-street, Edinburgh. 

*Sinclair, W. P. 19 Deyonshire-road, Prince’s Park, Liverpool. 

*Sircar, Babdo Mohendro Lall, M.D. 1344 San Kany, Tollah-street, 
Calcutta, per Messrs, Harrenden & Co., 3 Chapel-place, Poultry, 
London, E.C, 

§Sissons, William. 92 Park-street, Hull. 

§Sladen, Walter Percy, F.G.S. Exley House, near Halifax. 

{Slater, Clayton. Barnoldswick, near Leeds. 

{Slater, W.B. 42 Clifton Park-avenue, Belfast. 


. “Slater, William, Park-lane, Higher Broughton, Manchester, 


{Sleddon, Francis, 2 Kingston-terrace, Hull. 

§Sloper, George Edgar. Devizes. 

{Sloper, Samuel W. Devizes. 

§Sloper, S. Elgar. Winterton, near Hythe, Southampton. 
{Smale, The Hon. Sir John, Chief Justice of Hong ong. 
{Small, David. Gray House, Dundee. 


. {Smeeton, G.H. Commercial-street, Leeds. 


{Smeiton, John G. Panmure Villa, Broughty Ferry, Dundee. 


. {Smeiton, Thomas A. 55 Cowgate, Dundee. 


{Smith, Augustus. Northwood House, Church-road, Upper Norwood, 
Surrey, 8.E. 

{Smith, Aquila, M.D., M.R.LA. 121 Lower Bagot-street, Dublin. 

"Smith, Basil Woodd, F.R.A.S. Branch Hill Lodge, Hampstead- 
heath, London, N. W. 

*Smith, Benjamin Leigh. 64 Gower-street, London, W.C. 

{Smith, C. Sidney College, Cambridge. 

{Smirx, Davin, F.R.A.S, 4 Cherry-street, Birmingham, 

{Smith, Frederick. The Priory, Dudley. 

*Smith, F.C., M.P. Bank, Nottingham. 


. {Smith, George. Port Dundas, Glasgow. 
. Smith, George Cruickshank. 19 St. Vincent-place, Glasgow. 


*SuiTu, Hinry Joun Srepuen, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., Savilian Pro- 
fessor of Geometry in the University of Oxford, and Keeper of 
the University Museum. The Museum, Oxford. 


. “Smith, Heywood, M.A., M.D, 2 Portugal-street, Grosvenor-square, 


London, W. 
{ Smith, Isaac. 
{Smith, James. 146 Bedford-street South, Liverpool. * 
F2 


68 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Plection. 


1873. 
1871. 


1874. 
1867. 


1852. 
1871. 


1860. 


1837. 
1847. 


1870. 
1366. 
1873. 
1867. 
1867. 
1859. 
1852, 
1857. 


1875. 
1874. 
1850, 


1870, 
1874. 
1870. 
1857. 


1868. 
1864. 


1854. 


1859. 
1865. 
1859. 
1856. 
18653. 
1863. 
1859, 


{ Smith, James. ‘ 

*Smith, John Alexander, M.D., F.R.S.E. 10 Palmerston-place, Edin- 
burgh. 

tSmith, John Haigh. Beech Hill, Halifax, Yorkshire. 

*Smith, John P., C.E. 67 Renfield-street, Glasgow. 

Smith, John Peter George. 

* Snuth, Rev. Joseph Denham. 

{Smith, Professor J. William Robertson. Free Church College, Aber- 
deen. 

*Smith, Philip, B.A. 26 South-hill-park, Hampstead, London, 
N.W 


*Smith, Protheroe, M.D. 42 Park-street, Grosvenor-square, London, 
W 


Smith, Richard Bryan. Villa Nova, Shrewsbury. 

§Smrru, Roperr Anavus, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S, 22 Devonshire-street, 
Manchester. 

*Smith, Robert Mackay. 4 Bellevue-crescent, Edinburgh. 

{Smith, Samuel. Bank of Liverpool, Liverpool. 

§Smith, Samuel. 35 Compton-street, Goswell-road, London, E.C. 

tSmith, Swire. Lowfield, Keighley, Yorkshire. 

t{Smith, Thomas (Sheriff). Dundee. 

{Smith, Thomas. Pole Park Works, Dundee. 

{Smith, Thomas James, F'.G.S., F.C.S. Hessle, near Hull. 

{Smith, William. Eglinton Engine Works, Glaszow. 

§Smiru, Wii11aM, C.K. F.G.S.,F.R.G.S. 18 Salisbury-street, Adelphi, 
London, W.C. 

§Smith, William. Sundon House, Clifton, Bristol. 

{Smoothy, Frederick. Bocking, Hssex. 

*Smytu, Cuarves Pizzi, F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S., Astronomer Royal for 
Scotland, Professor of Astronomy in the University of Edin- 
burgh. 15 Royal-terrace, Edinburgh. 8 

{Smyth, Colonel H. A., R.A. Barrackpore, near Calcutta. 

{Smyth, Henry, C.K. Downpatrick, Deland. 

tSmyth, H. L. Crabwall Hall, Cheshire. 

*Smytu, JouN, jun., M.A., M.LC.E.L,F.M.S. Milltown, Banbridge, 
Treland. 

{Smyth, Rey. J. D. Hurst. 13 Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich. 

{Smyru, Warineton W., M.A., F.RS., F.G.S., F.R.GS., Lecturer 
on Mining and Mineralogy at the Royal School of Mines, and 
Inspector of the Mineral Property of the Crown. 92 Inyerness- 
terrace, Bayswater, London, W. 

{Smythe, Major-General W. J., R.A., F.R.S. Atheneum Club, 
Pall Mall, London, 8. W. 

Soden, John. Athenzeum Club, Pall Mall, London, 8.W. 

*Sotty, Epwarp, F.RS., F.LS., F.G.S., F.S.A, Park House, 
Sutton, Surrey. 

*Sopwirn, THomas, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 103 Victoria- 
street, Westminster, S. W. 

Sorbey, Alfred. The Rookery, Ashford, Bakewell. 

*Sorny, H. Currron, F.R.S., F.G.S. Broomfield, Sheffield. 

*Southall, John Tertius. Leominster. 

{Southall, Norman. 44 Cannon-street West, London, E.C. 

{Southwood, Rey. T. A. Cheltenham College, 

{Sowerby, John. Shipcote House, Gateshead, Durham. 

*Spark, H. Kine. Slairseill Park, Penrith. 

{Spence, Rey. James, D.D. 6 Clapton-square, London, N.E. 

*Spence, Joseph. 60 Holeate Hill, York. — 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 69 


Year of 
Election. 


1869. 
1854. 


1861. 
1861. 


1863. 


1875. 
1855. 
1871. 


1864. 


1864. 
1847. 
1868. 
1864. 
1846, 
1864. 
1854. 
1853. 
1858. 


1865. 
1837. 


*Spence, J. Berger. Erlington House, Manchester. 

§Spence, Peter. Pendleton Alum Works, Newton Heath; and Smedley 
Hall, near Manchester. 

{Spencer, John Frederick. 28 Great George-street, London, 8.W. 

*Spencer, Joseph. Bute House, Old Trafford, Manchester. 

*Spencer, Thomas. The Grove, Ryton, Blaydon-on-Tyne, Co. 
Durham. 

§Spencer, W. H. Richmond-hill, Clifton, Bristol. 

{Spens, William. 78 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow. 

tSpicer, George. Broomfield, Halifax. 

*Spicer, Henry, jun., B.A., F.L.S., F.G.8. 14 Aberdeen Park, High- 
bury, London, N. 

aepicet, aie R. 19 New Bridge-street, Blackfriars, London, 


“Spiers, Richard James, F.S.A. Huntercombe, Oxford. 
*Spiller, Edmund Pim. 3 Furnival’s Inn, London, F.C, 
*SPILLER, JOHN, F.C.S. 2 St. Mary’s-road, Canonbury, London, 


N, 
*SporriswoopE, WILLIAM, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. 
50 Grosvenor-place, London, 8. W. 
*Spottiswoode, W. Hugh. 50 Grosvenor-place, London, 8.W. 
*SpracuE, THomas Bonp. 26 Buckingham-terrace, Edinburgh. 
{Spratt, Joseph James. West-parade, Hull. 
Square, Joseph Elliot, F.G.S. 24 Portland-place, Plymouth. 
*Squire, Lovell. The Observatory, Falmouth. 
feos. ae T., F.RB.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. Mountsfield, Lewis- 
am, 8.E. 
§STANFORD, Epwarp C. C. Edinbarnet, Dumbartonshire, N.B. 
Staniforth, Rev. Thos. Storrs, Windermere. 
Srantey, The Very Rev. AnTHUR Penruyn, D.D., F.R.S., Dean of 
Westminster. The Deanery, Westminster, London, S.W. 
Stapleton, H. M. 1 Mountjoy-place, Dublin. 
{Starey, Thomas R. Daybrook House, Nottingham. 
Staveley, T. K. Ripon, Yorkshire. 


. *Stead, Charles. The Knoll, Baildon, near Leeds. 


{Steale, William Edward, M.D. 15 Hatch-street, Dublin, 
{Stearn, C.H. 3 Elden-terrace, Rock Ferry, Liverpool. 
§Steele, Rev. Dr. 35 Sydney-buildings, Bath. 


. §Steinthal, G.A. 15 Hallfield-road, Bradford, Yorkshire. 


{Steinthal, H. M. Hollywood, Fallowfield, near Manchester. 
Srennovuse, Joun, LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 17 Rodney-street, Pen- 
tonville, London, N. 
{Stennett, Mrs. Eliza. 2 Clarendon-terrace, Brighton. 


. §Stephens, Walter L. 5 Cambridge Park, Redlands, Bristol. 
. *Stern, S. J. Littlegrove, Hast Barnet, Herts. 


§Sterriker, John. Driffield. 
§Sterry, William. Union Club, Pall Mall, London, 8.W. 


. *Stevens, Miss Anna Maria. Belmont, Devizes-road, Salisbury. 


alah Henry, F.S.A., F.R.G.S. 4 Trafalgar-square, London, 
WwW 


*Stevenson, Archibald. 2 Wellington-crescent, South Shields. 


. Stevenson, David. 
. [Stevenson, Henry, F.L.S. Newmarket-road, Norwich. 


*Srnvenson, James C.,M.P. Westoe, South Shields. 


. {Srewart, Barrour, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Natural 


Philosophy in Owens College, Manchester. 
{Srewart, Cuaruexs, F.L.8, 19 Princess-square, Plymouth. 


70 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year ot 
Election. 


1856, 


1847. 
1867. 
1868. 
1867. 
1865. 


1864. 
1854. 


. *Swinburne, Sir John, Bart. 
. {Swindell, J. S. E, Summerhill, Kingswinford, Dudley. 


*Stewart, Henry Hutchinson, M.D., M.R.IL.A. 75 Eccles-street, 
Dublin. 

tStewart, Robert, M.D. The Asylum, Belfast, 

{Stirling, Dr. D, Perth. 

{Stirling, Edward. 34 Queen’s-gardens, Hyde Park, London, W. 

*Stirrup, Mark. 14 Atkinson-street, Deangate, Manchester. 

*Stock, Joseph 8. Showell Green, Spark Hill, near Birmingham. 

Stoddart, George. 

§SroppartT, WILLIAM WALTER, F.G.S., F.0.S. 7 King-square, Bristol. 

{Stoess, Le Chevalier Ch. de W. (Bavarian come Liverpool. 

*Sroxes, Grorcr Gaprikt, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Sec. R.S., Lucasian 
Professor of Mathematics in the University of Cambrdge. Lens- 
field Cottage, Cambridge. 


. }Stone, Epwarp James, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Astronomer Royal 


at the Cape of Good Hope. Cape Town. 


. §Stone, J. F. M. H., F.L.S. St. Peter’s College, Cambridge. 
. {Stone, Dr. Wiliam H. 18 Vigo-street, London, W. 
. [Stonery, Brypon B., M.R.LA., Engineer of the Port of Dublin. 42 


Wellington-road, Dublin. 


. *Sronry, Grorce JonnstTone, M.A., F.R.S., M.R.LA., Secretary to 


the Queen’s University, Ireland. Weston House, Dundrum, Co. 
Dublin. 


. [Store, George. Prospect House, Fairfield, Liverpool. 
. {Storr, William. The ‘ Times’ Office, Printing-house-square, Lon- 


don, E.C. 


. {Storrar, Jonn, M.D. Heathview, Hampstead, London, N.W. 

. §Story, James. 17 Bryanston-square, London, W. 

. §Stott, William. Greetland, near Halifax, Yorkshire. 

. *SrracHEY, Major-General Riowarp, R.E., 0.8.1, F.R.S., F.R.G.S., 


F.LS., F.G.8.  Stowey House, Clapham Common, London, 
S.W. 


3. {Straker, John. Wellington House, Durham. 


*Strickland, Charles. Loughglyn House, Castlerea, Ireland. 
Strickland, William. French-park, Roscommon, Ireland. 


. tStronach, William, R.E. Ardmellie, Banff. 
. [Stronner, D. 14 Princess-street, Dundee. 
. *Strurr, The Hon. Arruur, F.G.S. Milford House, Derby. 
2. *Stuart, Edward A. Sudbury-hill, Harrow. 
. [Style, Sir Charles, Bart. 102 New Sydney-place, Bath. 
3. §Style, George, M.A. Giggleswick School, Yorkshire. 
. {Sutrrvan, WitrraM K., Ph.D., M-R.LA. Royal College of Science 


for Ireland; and 53 Upper Leeson-road, Dublin. 


. {Sutcliffe, J.W. Sprink Bank, Bradford, Yorkshire. 

. {Sutcliffe, Robert. Idle, near Leeds. 

. {Sutherland, Benjamin John. 10 Oxford-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
. “SUTHERLAND, GEORGE GRANVILLE Wiu1AM, Duke of, K.G., 


F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Stafford House, London, 8.W, 


. [Sutton, Edwin. 


{Surron, Francis, F.C.S. Bank Plain, Norwich. 


. *Swan, Patrick Don S._ Kirkcaldy, N.B. 
. “Swan, Witr1am, LL.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy 


in the University of St. Andrews. 2 Hope-street, St. Andrews, 
N.B. 


: *Swann, Rey. 8. Kirke. Gedling, near Nottingham. 


Sweetman, Walter, M.A.,M.R.LA. 4Mountjoy-square North, Dublin. 
Capheaton, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 71 


Year of 
Election. 


1873. 
1863, 


1873. 
1847. 


1862. 


1847. 


1870. 


1856. 
1859. 


1860. 


1859. 
1855. 


1872. 


1865. 


1871. 


1867. 


1874. 


1866. 


1861. 
1856. 
1857. 
1863. 
1870. 


1865. 


1858. 
1864. 
1871. 


1874. 
1867. 


1874. 


1861. 
1873. 


*Swinglehurst, Heury. Hincaster House, near Milnthorpe. 
{Swrnuor, Ropert, F.R.G.8., Her Majesty’s Consul at Taiwan, 
33 Carlyle-square, 8.W.; and Oriental Club, London, W. 

§Sykes, Benjamin Clifford, M.D. Cleckheaton. 

tSykes, H. P. 47 Albion-street, Hyde Park, London, W. 

{Sykes, Thomas. Cleckheaton, near Leeds. 

ga Captain W. H. F. 47 Albion-street, Hyde Park, London, 


Syivester, JAMES Josrpu, M.A., LL.D.,F.R.S. 60 Maddox-street, 
W.; and Athenzeum Club, London, 8.W. 
§Symes, Ricnarp Guascort, A.B., F.G.8., Geological Survey of Ire- 
land. 14 Hume-street, Dublin. 
*Symonds, Frederick, F.R.C.S. 35 Beaumont-street, Oxford, 


tSymonds, Captain Thomas Edward, R.N. 10 Adam-street, Adelphi, 
London, W.C. 
{Symonps, Rey. W.S., M.A., F.G.S. Pendock Rectory, Worcester- 
shire. 


§Symons, G. J., Sec. M.S. 62 Camden-square, London, N.W. 
*Symons, Wint1aM, F.C.8. 26 Joy-street, Barnstaple. 
Synge, Francis. Glanmore, Ashford, Co, Wicklow. 
{Synge, Major-General Millington, R.E., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. United 
Service Club, Pall Mall, London, 8.W. 


{Tailyour, Colonel Renny, R.E. Newmanswalls, Montrose, N.B. 

{Tart, Perer Gururm, F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy 
in the University of Edinburgh. 17 Drummond-place, Edin- 
burgh. 

tTait, P. M., F.R.G.S. Oriental Club, Hanover-square, London, W. 

§Talbot, William Hawkshead. Hartwood Hall, Chorley, Lancashire. 


_ Tatpot, Wrntram Henry Fox, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.  La- 


cock Abbey, near Chippenham. 

§Talmage, C.G. Leyton Observatory, Essex, E. 

Taprell, William. 7 Westbourne-crescent, Hyde Park, London, W. 

{Tarbottom, Marrott Ogle, M.LC.E., F.G.S. Newstead-grove, Not- 
tingham. 

*Tarratt, Henry W. Bushbury Lodge, Leamington. 

tTartt, William Macdonald, F.S.S. Sandford-place, Cheltenham. 

*Tate, Alexander. 2 Queen’s-elms, Belfast. 

{Tate, John. Alnmouth, near Alnwick, Northumberland. 

tTate, Norman A. 7 Nivell-chambers, Fazackerley-street, Liver- 

ool. 

t Tate, Thomas. 

*Tatham, George. Springfield Mount, Leeds. 

*Tawney, Epwarp B., F.G.S. 16 Royal-crescent, Clifton, Bristol. 

{Tayler, William, F.S.A., F.S.S. 28 Park-street, Grosvenor-square, 
London, W. 

tTaylor, Alexander O’Driscoll. 3 Upper-crescent, Belfast. 

tTaylor, Rev. Andrew. Dundee. 

Taylor, Frederick. Laurel-cottage, Rainhill, near Prescot, Lan- 
cashire. 

tTaylor, G. P. Students’ Chambers, Belfast. 

*Taylor, James. Culverlands, near Reading. 

*Tayior, Joun, F.G.S. 6 Queen-street-place, Upper Thames-street, 
London, E.C. 

*Taylor, John, jun. 6 Queen-street-place, Upper Thames-street, 
London, E.C. 

§Taytor, Joun Exror, F.L.8., F.G.S. The Mount, Ipswich. 


72 LIST OF MEMBERS. 

Year of 

Election. 

1865. {Taylor, Joseph. 99 Constitution-hill, Birmingham. 


Taylor, Captain P. Meadows, in the Service of His Highness the 
Nizam. Harold Cross, Dublin. 

*Taytor, Ricuarp, F.G.8. 6 Queen-street-place, Upper Thames- 
street, London, H.C. 


. §Taylor, Thomas. Aston Rowant, Tetsworth, Oxon. 


*Taylor, William Edward. Millfield House, Enfield, near Accrington, 


. {Teale, Thomas Pridgin, jun. 20 Park-row, Leeds. 
. {Teesdale, C. 8. M. Pennsylvannia, Exeter. 
. {Tennant, Henry. Saltwell, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 


*TENNANT, JAMES, F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Professor of Mineralogy in 
King’s College. 149 Strand, London, W.C. 


. {Tennison, Edward King. [Kildare-street Club House, Dublin. 

. {Thackeray, J. L. Arno Vale, Nottingham. 

. Thain, Rey. Alexander. New Machar, Aberdeen. 

. {Thin, James. 7 Rillbank-terrace, Edinburgh. 

. {Tutseiron-Dyrer, W. T., M.A., B.Sc., F.L.5. 10 Gloucester-road, 


Kew, W. 
Thom, John. Lark-hill, Chorley, Lancashire. 


. {Thom, Robert Wilson. Larkk-hill, Chorley, Lancashire. 
. §Thomas, Ascanius William Neyill. Chudleigh, Devon. 
. *Thomas, Christopher James. Drayton Lodge, Redland, Bristol. 


Thomas, George. Brislingion, Bristol. 


. §Thomas Herbert. 2 Great George-street, Bristol. 

. {Thomas, H. D. Fore-street, Exeter. 

. {Thomas, J. Henwood, F.R.G.S. Custom House, London, E.C. 
5. §Thompson, Arthur. 12 St. Nicholas-street, Hereford. 


*Thompson, Corden, M.D. 84 Norfolk-street, Sheffield. 


. {Thompseon, Rey. Francis. St. Giles’s, Durham. 
. *Thompson, Frederick. South-parade, Wakefield. 


. §Thompson, George, jun. Pidsmedden, Aberdeen. 
Thompson, Harry Stephen. Kirby Hall, Great Ouseburn, York- 
shire. 
. {T'mompson, Sir Henry. 35 Wimpole-street, London, W. 
Thompson, Henry Stafford. Fairfield, near York. 
. *Thompson, Joseph. Woodlands, Fulshaw, near Manchéster. 


. {THompson, Rev. JosepH Hesseterave, B.A. Cradley, near 


Brierley-hill, 
Thompson, Leonard. Sheriff-Hutton Park, Yorkshire. 

. {Thompson, M. W. Guiseley, Yorkshire. 

. §Thompson, Robert. Royal-terrace, Belfast. 

. {Thompson, William. 11 North-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

. [Thoms, William. Maedalen-yard-road, Dundee. 

» {THomson, AutEN, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.L. & E., Professor of Anatomy 
in the University of Glasgow. 


2. {Thomson, Gordon A. Bedeque House, Belfast. 


Thomson, Guy. Oxford. 


. {Thomson, James. 82 West Nile-street, Glasgow. 
. *THomson, Professor Jamus, M.A., LL.D., C.E., F.R.S.E. The Uni- 


versity, Glasgow. 


. §THomson, James, F.G.S. 276 Eglington-street, Glasgow. 


*Thomson, James Gibson. 14 York-place, Edinburgh. 
. §Tbomson, John. Harbour Office, Belfast. 


- “Thomson, John Millar, F.C.S. King’s College, London, W.C. 


. [Zhomson, M. 8 Meadow-place, Edinburgh. 
- [Thomson, Peter, 34 Granville-strect, Glasgow. 


1871. {Thomson, Robert, LL.B. 12 Rutland-square, Edinburgh. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 73 


Year of 
Election. 


1865, 
1850. 


1874. 


1847. 


1871. 
1870. 
1850. 


{Thomson, R. W., C.E., F.R.S.E. 3 Moray-place, Edinburgh. 


{THomson, Tuomas, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. The Cottage, West Far- 
leigh, Maidstone. 

§Thomson, William, F.C.S. Royal Institution, Manchester. 

*Tyomson, Sir Wii, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., FRAS.L. & E, 
Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Glasgow. 
The University, Glasgow. 

§Thomson, William Burnes. 11 St. John’s-street, Edinburgh. 

t¢ Thomson, W. C., M.D. 

{Tuomson, Wyvitix T.C., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Regius Professor 
of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh. 20 Pal- 
merston-place, Edinburgh. 


. {Thorburn, Rev. David, M.A. 1 John’s-place, Leith. 

. t{Thorburn, Rey. William Reid, M.A. Starkies, Bury, Lancashire. 
) ’ p y> 

. {Thornton, James. Edwalton, Nottingham. 


*Thornton, Samuel. Oakfield, Moseley, near Birmingham. 


. {Thornton, Thomas. Dundee. 
. {Thorp, Dr. Disney. Suffolk Laun, Cheltenham. 
. {Thorp, Henry. Briarleigh, Sale, near Manchester. 


*Tuorp, The Venerable Tuomas, B.D., F.G.S., Archdeacon of 
Bristol. Kemerton, near Tewkesbury. 


. *THorp, WititaM, B.Sc., F.C.S. 39 Sandringham-road, Kingsland, 


London, E. 


. §Tuorrr, T. E., Ph.D., F.R.S.E., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry 


in the Yorkshire College of Science, Leeds. 


. {Thuillier, Colonel, R.A., C.S.1., Surveyor-General of India, 46 


Park-street, Calcutta. 
Thurnham, John, M.D. Devizes. 


. {Tichborne, Charles R. C., F.C.S. Apothecaries’ Hall of Ireland, 


Dublin. 
*TippemaN, R. H., M.A., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London, 8.W. 


. §Tilden, William A., D.Sc., F.C.8. Clifton College, Bristol. 
. {Tilghman, B. C. Philadelphia, United States. 


§Timmins, Samuel, J.P., F.S.A.  Elvetham-road, Edgbaston, Bir- 
mingham. 
Tinker, Ebenezer. Mealhill, near Huddersfield. 
*Tinné, Joun A., F.R.G.S.  Briarly, Aigburth, Liverpool. 


. *TopHunter, Isaac, M.A., F.R.S., Principal Mathematical Lecturer 


at St. John’s College, Cambridge. Brookside, Cambridge. 
Todhunter, J. 3 College-green, Dublin. 


. {Tombe, Rev. H. J. Ballyfree, Ashford, Co. Wicklow. 
. tTomes, Robert Fisher. Welford, Stratford-on-Avon. 
. *Tomiryson, Crarces, F.R.S.,F.C.S. 3 Ridgmount-terrace, High- 


gate, London, N. 


. t{Tone, John F. Jesmond-yillas, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
. §Tonks, Edmund, B.C.L. Packwood Grange, Knowle, Warwick- 


shire. 


1865. §Tonks, William Henry. The Rookery, Sutton Coldfield. 

1873. *Tookey, Charles, F.C.S. Royal School of Mines, Jermyn-street, 
London, 8S. W. 

1861. *Topham, John, A.LC.E. High Elms, 265 Mare-street, Hackney, 
London, E : 

1872. *Tortey, Wiiit1am, F.G.S., A.I.C.E. Geological Survey Office, 
Jermyn-street, London, 8.W. 

1875. §Torr, Charles Hawley. Victoria-street, Nottingham. 

1863. {Torrens, Colonel Sir R. R., K.C.M.G. 2 Gloucester-place, Hyde 


Park, London, W. 


74 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 


Year of 
Election. 


1859. 


1873. 
1875. 
1860. 
1857. 


1861. 
1854. 


1859. 
1870. 


1875. 
1868. 


1865. 
1868, 


1869. 
1870. 


1871. 
1871. 
1860. 
1869. 
1864, 
1869. 
1847. 


1871. 
1867, 


1854. 


1855. 
1856. 


1871. 
1878. 


1875. 
1865. 


1842. 
1847. 


1865. 


Homy, m4 Rey. John, Dean of St. Andrews. Coupar Angus, 


Towgood, Edward. St. Neot’s, Huntingdonshire. 

tTownend, W. H. Heaton Hall, Bradford, Yorkshire. 

§Townsend, Charles. Avenue House, Cotham Park, Bristol. 

t Townsend, John. 

t{TownseEnp, Rey. Rtcwarp, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Natural Philo- 
sophy in the University of Dublin. Trinity College, Dublin. 

{Townsend, William. Attleborough Hall, near Nuneaton. 

tTowson, Joun Tuomas, F.R.G.S. 47 Upper Parliament-street, 
Liverpool; and Local Marine Board, Liverpool. 

tTrail, Samuel, D.D., LL.D. 

{Traitt, Wurm A., M.R.I.A. Geological Survey of Ireland, 14 
Hume-street, Dublin. 

§Trapnell, Caleb. Severnleigh, Stoke pe 

tTraquatr, Ramsay H., M.D., Professor of Zoology, Royal College 
of Science, Dublin. 

{Travers, William, F.R.C.S. 1 Bath-place, Kensington, London, 
W. 


Tregelles, Nathaniel. Neath Abbey, Glamorganshire. 
{Trehane, John. Exe View Lawn, Exeter. 
{Trehane, John, jun. Bedford-circus, Exeter. 
fTrench, Dr. Municipal Offices, Dale-street, Liverpool. 
Trench, F. A. Newlands House, Clondalkin, Ireland. 
*TREVELYAN, ArTHUR, J.P. Tyneholm, Pencaitland, N.B. 
TREVELYAN, Sir WALTER CALVERLEY, Bart., M.A., F.R.S.E. F.G.S., 
¥.S.A., F.R.G.S. Atheneum Club, London, 8.W.; Wallington, 
Northumberland; and Nettlecombe, Somerset. ‘ 
§Trisk, AurreD, F.C.S. 73 Artesian-road, Bayswater, London, 
W. 


{Trmen, Roxanp, F.L.S., F.Z.8. Colonial Secretary’s Office, Cape 
Town, Cape of Good Hope. 

§TristrRAM, Rey. Henry Baxenr, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Canon 
of Durham. The College, Durham. 

{Troyte, C. A. W. Huntsham Court, Bampton, Devon. 

{Truell, Robert. Ballyhenry, Ashford, Co. Wicklow. 

tTucker, Charles. Marlands, Exeter. 

*Tuckett, Francis Fox. 10 Baldwin-street, Bristol. 

Tuke, James H. Bank, Hitchen. 
tTuke, J. Batty, M.D. Cupar, Fifeshire. 

{Tulloch, The Very Rey. Principal, D.D. St. Andrews, Fife- 
shire. 

{TurNBULL, JAMES, M.D. 86 Rodney-street, Liverpool. 

§Turnbull, John. 387 West George-street, Glascow. 

t{Turnbull, Rev. J.C. 8 Bays-hill-villas, Cheltenham. 

*TURNBULL, Rey. Tuomas Smitu, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S, 
Blofield, Norfolk. 

§Turnbull, William. 14 Lansdowne-crescent, Edinburgh. 

*Turner, George. Horton Grange, Bradford, Yorkshire. 

Turner, Thomas, M.D. 31 Curzon-street, Mayfair, London, W. 
§Turner, Thomas, F.S.S. Ashley House, Kingsdown, Bristol. 
*TurNER, WitL1Am, M.B., F.R.S.E., Professor of Anatomy in the 

University of Edinbugh. 6 Eton-terrace, Edinburgh. 

Twamley, Charles, F.G.S._ 11 Regent’s Park-road, London, N.W. 

{Twiss, Sir Travers, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 3 Paper-buildings, 
Temple, London, E.C. ~ 
§TyLor, Epwarp Burnett, F.R.S. Linden, Wellington, Somerset. 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 75 


Year of 
Election. 


1858. 


1861, 
1872. 
1855. 
1859. 
1859. 


1866, 


1873. 


1870. 


1863. 


1854. 
1868. 


1865. 


1870. 


1869. 
1875. 


1863. 


1849, 
1873. 
1866. 


1854. 


1864. 
1868. 
1875. 


1856. 


1856. 


1875. 
1875. 


1875. 
1860. 


1859. 
1870. 
1855. 
1873. 


*TYNDALL, Joun, D.C.L., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of 
Natural Philosophy in the Royal Institution. Royal Institution, 
Albemarle-street, London, W. 

*Tysoe, John, Seedley-road, Pendleton, near Manchester, 


tUpward, Alfred. 11 Great Queen-street, Westminster, London, 
S.W. 


t Ure, John. 

} Urquhart, Rev. Alexander. 

{tUrquhart, W. Pollard. Craigsten Castle, N.B.; and Castlepollard, 
Treland. 

§Urquhart, William W. Rosebay, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee. 

§Uttley, Hiram. Burnley. 


fVale, H. H. 42 Prospect-vale, Fairfield, Liverpool. 

*Vance, Rey. Robert. 24 Blackhall-street, Dublin. 

{Vandoni, le Commandeur Comte de, Chargé d’Affaires de 8. M. 
Tunisienne, Geneva. 

tVarley, Cromwell F., F.R.S. Fleetwood House, Beckenham,-Kent. 

§Varley, Frederick H., F.R.A.S. Mildmay Park Works, Mildmay 
Avenue, Stoke Newington, London, N. 

*VarueEy,S. Atrrep. Hatfield, Herts. 

fVarley, Mrs. S. A. Hatfield, Herts. 

{Varwell, P. Alphington-street, Exeter. 

§Vaughan, Miss. Burlton Hall, Shrewsbury. 

t Vauvert, de Mean A., Vice-Consul for France. Tynemouth. 

*Vaux, Frederick. Central Telegraph Office, Adelaide, South Aus- 
tralia. 

*Verney, Captain Edmund H., R.N. Rhianva, Bangor, North Wales. 

Verney, Sir Harry, Bart. Lower Claydon, Buckinghamshire. 

fVernon, Rey. E. H. Harcourt. Cotgrave Rectory, near Notting- 
ham. 

Vernon, George John, Lord. 82 Curzon-street, London, W.; and 
Sudbury Hall, Derbyshire. 

*VreRNon, GeorcE V., F.R.A.S. 1 Osborne-place, Old Trafford, 
Manchester. 

*Vicary, Witx1aM, F.G.8. The Priory, Colleton-cresent, Exeter. 

tVincent, Rey. William. Postwick Rectory, near Norwich. 

§Vines, David, F.R.A.S. Observatory House, Somerset-street, Kings- 
down, Bristol. 

{Vivian, Epwarp, B.A. Woodfield, Torquay. 

*Vivian, H. Hussry, M.P., F.G.S. Park Wern, Swansea; and 27 
Belgrave-square, London, 8.W. 

§Vortcker, J. Cu. Aveustus, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of 
Chemistry to the Royal Agricultural Society of England. 39 
Argyll-road, Kensington, London, W. 

§Volekman, Mrs. E.G. 43 Victoria-road, Kensington, London, W. 

§Volckman, William. 43 Victoria-road, Kensington, London, W. 

{Vose, Dr. James. Gambier-terrace, Liverpool. 


§ Wace, Rev. A. St. Paul’s, Maidstone, Kent. 

A et John. Guiting Grange, Winchcombe, Gloucester- 
shire. 

{Waddington, John. New Dock Works, Leeds. 

§Waxr, Cuartes Stanmanp. 70 Wright-street, Hull. 

*Waldegrave, The Hon. Granville. 26 Portland-place, London, W. 

t{ Wales, James. 4 Mount Royd, Manningham, Bradford, Yorkshire, 


76 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1869, 
1849, 


1866. 
1859, 
1855. 
1842. 
1866. 


1867. 
1866. 
1869, 


1869, 
1865. 


1859, 
1857. 
1862. 
1862. 
1857. 
1863. 
1863. 
1872, 
1874, 
1874. 
1857. 
1863. 
1867. 
1858. 
1865, 
1864, 
1872. 
1856. 
1875. 


1865. 
1869. 


1856. 


1875. 


1854. 
1870, 


*Walford, Cornelius. 86 Belsize-park-gardens, London, N.W. 
§WaLxker, Cuar.es V., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Fernside Villa, Redhill, 
near Reigate. : 
Walker, Sir Edward 8. Berry Hill, Mansfield. 
Walker, Frederick John. The Priory, Bathwick, Bath. 
tWalker, H. Westwood, Newport, by Dundee. 
t Walker, James. 
{Walker, John. 1 Exchange-court, Glasgow. 
*Walker, John. Thornclitfe, New Kenilworth-road, Leamington. 
*Watker, J. F., M.A., F.C.P.S., F.C.S., F.G.8., F.L.S. 16 Gilly- 
gate, York. 
*Walker, Peter G. 2 Airlie-place, Dundee. 
{Walker, 8. D. 38 Hampden-street, Nottingham. 
*Walker, Thomas F. W., M.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 3 Circus, Bath. 
Walker, William. 47 Northumberland-street, Edinburgh. 
{Walkey, J. E.C. High-street, Exeter. 
f}Wauxace, ALrreD RussExt, F.R.G.S., F.L.8, The Dell, Grays, 
Essex. 
tWattace, WiriiaM, Ph.D., F.C.S. Chemical Laboratory, 3 Bath- 
street, Glasgow. 
{Waller, Edward. Lisenderry, Aughnacloy, Ireland. 
{Wallich, George Charles, M.D., F.L.S. 60 Holland-road, Kensington, 
London, W. 
Wallinger, Rev. William. 
}Watpote, The Right Hon. Spencer Horarto, M.A., D.C.L., M.P. 
F.R.S. Ealing, London, W. 
{ Walsh, Albert Jasper, F.R.C.S.I. 89 Harcourt-street, Dublin. 
Walsh, John (Prussian Consul). 1 Sir John’s Quay, Dublin. 
{Walters, Robert. Eldon-square, Newcastle-on-'l'yne. 
Walton, Thomas Todd. Mortimer House, Clifton, Bristol. 
{Wanklyn, James Alfred, PRS LE., FCS. 
{Warburton, Benjamin. Leicester. 
§ Ward, F. D. 6 University-square, Belfast. 
§ Ward, John, F.R.G.S. Royal Ulster Works, Chlorine, Belfast. 
tWard, John 8. Prospect-hill, Lisburn, Ireland. 
Ward, Rey. Richard, M.A. 12 Eaton-place, London, S.W. 
{ Ward, Robert. Dean-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
ieee pe oe Sykes, F.C.S. 12 Bank-street, and Denison Hall, 
eeds. 
{Warden, Alexander J. Dundee. 
{Wardle, Thomas. Leek Brook, Leek, Staffordshire. 
a eae John, M.D., F.L.S8. 49 Clifton-gardens, Maida-vale, 
ondon, W. 
*Warner, Edward. 49 Grosvenor-place, London, S.W. 
*Warner, Thomas. 47 Sussex-square, Brighton. 
{Warner, Thomas H. Lee. Tiberton Court, Hereford. 
eres acasbige Naseby House, Pembroke-road, Clifton, 
ristol. 
“Warren, Edward P., L.D.S. 13 Old-square, Birmingham. 
{ Warren, James L. 
Warwick, William Atkinson. Wyddrington House, Cheltenham. 
}Washbourne, Buchanan, M.D. Gloucester. 
*WaTrErHouse, JouN, F.R.S.,F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Wellhead, Halifax, 
Yorkshire. 
*Waterhouse, Captain J. Surveyor-General’s Office, Calcutta. (Care 
of Messrs. Triibner & Co., Ludgate-hill, E.C.) 
{Waterhouse Nicholas. 5 Rake-lane, Liverpool. 
{Waters, A, T. H., M.D, 29 Hope-street, Liverpool. 


, 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 77 


Year of 
Election. 
1875. §Waters, Arthur W., F.G.8S. Woodbrook, Alderley Edge, near Bir- 


1875. 
1867. 
1855. 
1867. 


1873. 


1859. 


mingham. 
§ Watherston, Alexander Law, M.A., F.R.A.S. Brentwood, Essex. 
tWatson, Rev. Archibald, D.D. The Manse, Dundee. 
tWatson, Ebenezer. 16 Abercromby-place, Glasgow. 
{ Watson, Frederick Edwin. Thickthorn House, Cringleford, Norwich. 
*Wartson, Henry Hoven, F.C.8. 227 The Folds, Bolton-le-Moors. 
Watson, Hewett Corrrety. Thames Ditton, Surrey. 


§ Watson, Sir James (Lord Provost). Glasgow. 
tWarson, Joun Forsus, M.A., M.D., F.L.8. India Museum, Lon- 


don, S.W. 


. {Watson, Joseph. Bensham-grove, near Gateshead-on-Tyne. 

. {Watson, R.S. 101 Pilgrim-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

. [Watson, Thomas Donald. 41 Cross-street, Finsbury, London, E.C. 

. {Watt, Robert B. E., C. E., F.R.G.S. Ashley-avenue, Belfast. 

. [ Watts, Sir James. Abney Hall, Cheadle, near Manchester. 

. *Watts, John, D.Sc. 57 Baker-street, Portman-square, London, W. 
. §Watts, John King, F.R.G.S. Market-place, St. Ives, Hunts. 

. § Watts, William. Oldham Corporation Waterworks, Piethorn, near 


Rochdale. 


. *Warts, W. MarsHatt, D.Sc. Gigeleswick Grammar School, near 


Settle. 


. tWaud, Major E. Manston Hall, near Leeds. 


Waud, Rev. S. W., M.A., F.R.A.S., F.C.P.S.  Rettenden, near 
Wickford, Essex. 


. §Waveu, Major-General Sir ANDREW Scor7t, R.E., F.R.S., F.R.AS., 


F.R.G.S, 7 Petersham-terrace, Queen’s-gate-gardens, London, 


i tWaugh, Edwin. Sager-street, Manchester. 


*Waveney, Lord, F.R.S. 7 Audley-square, London, W. 
*Way, J. THomas, F.C.S. 9 Russell-road, Ken ‘ngton, London, 8. W. 


1869. {Way, Samuel James, Adelaide, South Aust: ia. 
1871. {Webb, Richard M. 72 Gre ; Brigh i: 
*Werss, Rev. Toomas Wiz! FP 3, Hardwick Vicar- 
age, Hay, South Wales 
1866. *Wess, Wirt1am FREDEr JS. Newstead Abbey, 
near Nottingham. 
1859. { Webster, John. 42 Ki & 
1862. {Webster, John Henry,-. on. 
1834, {Webster, Richard, F.R.A.S. ietoria-street, London, E.C. 
1845. {Wedgewood, Hensleigh. ~ ad-terrace, Regent’s Park, 
London, N.W. 
1854. { Weightman, William Henr, 1, Seaforth, Liverpool. 
1865. { Welch, Christopher, M.A. Un ‘lub, Pall Mall East, London, 
S.W. 
1867. §Weldon, Walter. Abbey L« Surrey. 
1850. {Wemyss, Alexander Watson, udrews, N.B. 
Wentworth, Frederick W. T. vy. Wentworth Castle, near 
Barnsley, Yorkshire. 
1864. *Were, Anthony Berwick. Whitehave Jumberland. 
1865. { Wesley, William Henry. 
1853. {West, Alfred. Holderness-road, Hull. 
1870. {West, Captain E.W. Bombay. 
1853. {West, Leonard. Summergangs Cottage, Hull. 
1873. tWest, Samuel H. 6 College-terrace West, London, W. 


. {West, Stephen. Hessle Grange, near Hull. 
. *Westery, Sir T. B., Bart. Felix Hall, Kelyedon, Essex. 


78 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1870. 
1342. 


1342. 
1857. 
1863. 
1860. 
1875. 
1864, 
1860. 


1853. 
1866, 


1847. 
1873. 


1853. 
1874. 
1859, 


1864, 
1837, 
18753. 


1859. 
1865, 
1869. 
1859, 
1861. 
1858. 
1861. 


1861. 


1855, 


1871. 


1866. 


1874. 
1852. 


1870. 
1857. 


1874. 
1863. 


1870. 
1865. 
1860. 
1855. 
1857. 


SV entgarth, William. 10 Bolton-gardens, South Kensington, London, 
W. 


Westhead, Edward. Chorlton-on-Medlock, near Manchester. 
Westhead, John. Manchester. 
*Westhead, Joshua Proctor Brown, Lea Castle, near Kidderminster. 
*Westley, William. 24 Regent-street, London, S.W. 
{Westmacott, Perey. Whickham, Gateshead, Durham. 
§ Weston, James Woods. Belmont House, Pendleton, Manchester. 
*Weston, Joseph D. Dorset House, Clifton Downs, Bristol. 
§Wesrropr, W. H.8., M.R.LA.  Lisdoonvarna, Co. Clare. 
{Wesrwoop, Joun O., M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology in the 
University of Oxford. Oxford, 
{ Wheatley, KE. B. Cote Wall, Mirfield, Yorkshire. 
{Wheatstone, Charles C, 19 Park-crescent, Regent’s Park, London, 
N.W. 
{Wheeler, Edmund, F.R.A.S, 48 Tollington-road, Holloway, 
London, N. 
sa hippls) George Matthew, B.Sc, F.R.A.S. The Observatory, 
ew, W. 
{Whitaker, Charles. Milton Hill, near Hull. 
§ Whitaker, H., M.D. 11 Clarence-place, Belfast. 
*Wurraker, Witi1AM, B.A., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, 28 
Jermyn-street, London, 8. W. 
{White, Edmund. Victoria Villa, Batheaston, Bath. 
{Wurrr, James, F.G.S. 14 Chichester-terrace, Kemp Town, Brighton. 
§White, John. Medina Docks, Cowes, Isle of Wight. 
White, John. 80 Wilson-street, Glasgow. 
{Wurre, Joun Forpes. 16 Bon Accord-square, Aberdeen. 
{White, Joseph. Regent’s-street, Nottingham. 
tWhite, Laban. Blandford, Dorset. 
{White, Thomas Henry. Tandragee, Ireland. 
{Whitehead, James, M.D. 87 Mosley-street, Manchester. 
{Whitehead, J. H. Southsyde, Saddleworth. 
*Whitehead, John B. Ashday Lea, Rawtenstall, Manchester. 
*Whitehead, Peter Ormerod. Belmont, Rawtenstall, Manchester. 
“Whitehouse, Wildeman W. 0. 12 Thurlow-road, Hampstead, 
London, N.W. 
Whitehouse, William. 10 Queen-street, Rhyl. 
{Whitelaw, Alexander. 1 Oakley-terrace, Glasgow. 
*Wurresipg, Jamus, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., Lord Chief Justice of Ire- 
land. 2 Mountjoy-square, Dublin. 
{Whittield, Samuel. Golden Hillock, Small Heath, Birmingham. 
{ Whitford, William. 5 Claremont-strect, Belfast. 
}Whitla, Valentine. Beneden, Belfast. 
Whitley, Rey. Charles Thomas, M.A., F.R.A.S. Bedlington, Morpeth. 
§Whittem, James Sibley. Walgrave, near Coventry. 
*Wuirry, Rey. Joun Irnwine, M.A., D.C.L., LUD. 94 Baggot- 
street, Dublin. 
*Whitwell, Mark. Redland House, Bristol. 
*Whitwell, Thomas. Thornaby Iron Works, Stockton-on-Tees. 
*Wuirworth, Sir Joseru, Bart., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. The Firs, 
Manchester; and Stancliffe Hall, Derbyshire. 
{Wuirworrts, Rey. W. ALLEN, M.A, 185 Islington, Liverpool, 
{Wiggin, Henry. Metchley Grange, Harbourne, Birmingham, 
t Wilde, Henry. 2 St. Ann’s-place, Manchester. 
tWilkie, John. 24 Blythwood-square, Glasgow. 
{ Wilkinson, George. Temple Hill, Killiney, Co. Dublin. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 79 


Year of 
Election. 


1861. 
1859. 
1872. 
1869, 
1873. 


1859. 
1872. 
1870. 


1861. 
1864. 
1861. 
1875. 
1857. 
1871. 
1870. 
1875. 
1869. 


1850. 


. § Wilson, Alexander 


*Wilkinson, M. A. Hason-, M.D. Greenheys, Manchester. 

§ Wilkinson, Robert. Lincoln Lodge, Totteridge, Hertfordshire. 

§ Wilkinson, William. 168 North-street, Brighton. 

§ Wilks, George Augustus Frederick, M.D. Stanbury, Torquay. 

§ Willcock, J. W., Q.C. Clievion, Dinas Mawddwy, Merioneth. 

*Willert, Alderman Paul Ferdinand. Town Hall, Manchester. 

{Willet, John, C.E. 85 Albyn-place, Aberdeen. 

§Wittett, Henry, F.G.S. Arnold House, Brighton. 

{William, G. F. Copley Mount, Springfield, Liverpool. 

Wiu14ams, Cuartes James B., M.D., F.R.S. 47 Upper Brook- 
street, Grosyenor-square, London, W. 

*Williams, Charles Theodore, M.A., M.B. 47 Upper Brook-street, 
Grosvenor-square, London, W. 

*WituiaMs, Sir F'reprrick M., Bart., M.P., F.G.S. | Goonvrea, 
Perranarworthal, Cornwall. 

*Wilkams, Harry Samuel, M.A. 37 Bedford-row, London, W.C. 

*Williams, Herbert A., B.A. 91 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol. 

{Williams, Rey. James. Llanfairinghornwy, Holyhead. 

{ Williams, James, M.D. 

§Wittrams, Joun. 14 Buckingham-street, London, W.C. 

*Williams, M. B. Uplands, Swansea. 

Williams, Robert, M.A. Bridehead, Dorset. 

HOV: am Rey. StrpHen. Stonyhurst College, Whalley, Black- 

urn. 

*WILLIAMSON, ALEXANDER WiL11AM, Ph.D., For. Sec. R.S., F.C.S., 
Corresponding Member of the French Academy, Professor of 
Chemistry, and of Practical Chemistry, University College, 
London. (GENERAL TREASURER.) University College, London, 
W.C 


Williamson, Benjamin, M.A. Trinity College, Dublin. 


: Williamson, John. South Shields. 


Wituramson, Witiram C., F.R.S., Professor of Natural History in 
Owens College, Manchester. 4 Egerton-road, Fallowfield, 
Manchester. 


. *Willmott, Henry. Hatherley Lawn, Cheltenham. 

. {Willock, Rev. W. N., D.D, Cleenish, Enniskillen, Ireland. 

. *Wills, Alfred, Q.C. 12 King’s Bench-walk, Inner Temple, E.C. 
. {Wills, Arthur W. Edgbaston, Birmingham, 

. §Wri1s, THomas. Royal Naval College, Greenwich, 8.E. 


Wux4s, W. R. Pe pee Birmingham. 
tephen, C.K. North Kinmundy, Summerhill 
by Aberdeen. 


. §Winson, Major C. W., R.E., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., Director of the Topo- 


graphical Department of the Army. Adair House, St. James’s- 
square, London, S.W. 


. {Wilson, Dr. Daniel. Toronto, Upper Canada. 
. { Wilson, Frederic R. Alnwick, Northumberland. 
. *Wilson, Frederick. 73 Newman-street, Oxford-street, London, W. 


Wilson, George. 40 Ardwick-green, Manchester. 


. Wilson, George Daniel. 24 Ardwick-green, Manchester. 
. §Wilson, George Fergusson, F.R.8., F.C.S., F.L.S. Heatherbank, 


Weybridge Heath, Surrey. 


. *Wilson, George Orr, Dunardagh, Blackrock, Co. Dublin. 

. [Wilson, George W. Teron-hill, Hawick, N.B. 

. {Wilson, Hugh. 75 Glassford-street, Glasgow. 

. { Wilson, James Moncrieff. Queen Insurance Company, Liverpool. 
. {Wisow, James M., M.A. Hillmorton-road, Rugby. 


80 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1858. 


1847. 


1863. 
1861. 
1867. 
1871. 
1870. 
1861. 


1866. 
1868. 


1872. 
1863. 


*Wilson, John. Seacroft Hall, near Leeds. 
Witson, Joun, F.G.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of Agriculture in the 

University of Edinburgh. The University, Edinburgh. 

*Wilson, Rey. Sumner. Preston Candover Vicarage, Basingstoke. 

*Wilson, Thomas, M.A. 3 Hilary-place, Leeds. 

*Wilson, Thomas. Shotley Hall, Shotley Bridge, Northumberland. 

{Wilson, Thomas Bright. 24 Ardwick-green, Manchester. 

{Wilson, Rey. William. Free St. Paul’s, Dundee. 

*Wilson, William E. Daramona House, Rathowen, Ireland. 

{ Wilson, William Henry, 31 Grove-park, Liverpool. 

*WitsHire, Rey. THomas, M.A., EGS. F.LS.,F.R.A.S. 25 Gran- 
ville-park, Lewisham, London, 8.E. 

*Windley, W. Mapperley Plains, Nottingham. 

*Winsor, F. A. 60 A Gilegl a sdthastickdes London, W.C. 

Winter, C. J. W. 22 Bethel-street, Norwich. 

t Winter, G. K. 

*Winwoop, Rey. H. H., M.A., F.G.S. 11 Cavendish-crescent, 
Bath. 

*WoLLaAsTon, THomMAS VERNON, M.A., F.L.S. 1 Barnepark-terrace, 
Teignmouth. 


. *Wood, Collingwood L. Freeland, Bridge of Earn, N.B. 

. { Woed, C. H. 

. [Woop, Epwanp, J.P., F.G.S. Richmond, Yorkshire. 

. *Wood, Edward T. Blackhurst, Brinscall, Chorley, Lancashire. 

. *Wood, George B., M.D. 1117 Arch-street, Philadelphia, United 


States. 


. *Wood, George 8. 20 Lord-street, Liverpool. 
. § Wood, George William Rayner. Singleton, Manchester. 
. *Woop, Rey. H. H., M.A., F.G.S. Holwell Rectory, Sherborne, 


Dorset. 


. t{Wood, Richard, M.D. Driffield, Yorkshire. 

. §Wood, Samuel, F.'S.A. St. Mary’s Court, Shrewsbury. 
. tWood, Provost T. Barleyfield, Portobello, Edinburgh. 
. TWood, Rev. Walter. Elie, Fife. 


Wood, William. Edge-lane, Liverpool. 


. *Wood, William, M.D. 99 Harley-street, London, W. 
. §Wood, W. R. Carlisle House, Brighton. 
. {Wood, William Rayner. Singleton Lodge, near Manchester. 


*Wood, Rey. William Spicer, M.A., D.D. Higham, Rochester. 


. *Woopatt, Major Joun Woopatt, M.A., F.G.8. St. Nicholas House, 


Scarborough. 


. tWoodburn, Thomas. Rock Ferry, Liverpool. 
. *Woodd, Charles H. L., F.G.S. Roslyn, Hampstead, London, N.W. 
. fWoodhill, J. C. Pakenham House, Chasicties aia Edgbaston, 


Birmingham. 


. *Woodhouse, John Thomas, C.E., F.G.S. Midland-road, Derby. 
. {Woodiwis, James. 51 Back George-street, Manchester. 

. §Woodman, James. 26 Albany-villas, Hove, Sussex. 

. | Woodman, William Robert, M.D. Ford House, Exeter. 


*Woops, Epwarp. 38 Great George-street, Westminster, London, 


Woons, Samven. 5 Austin Friars, Old Broad-street, London, 


; *Woodward, C. J. 4 Warwick-place, Francis-road, Edgbaston, 


Birmingham. 


: SOc EER», Henry, F.R.S., F.G.S, British Museum, London, 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 81 


Year of 
Election. 


1870. 


t Woodward, Horaee B., F.G,S, Geological Museum, Jermyn-street, 
London, 8.W. 
Woolgar, J. W., F.R,A,S. Lewes, Sussex. 
Woolley, John. Staleybridge, Manchester. 


6. {Woolley, Thomas Smith, jun. South Collingham, Newark. 
. TWoolmer, Shirley. 6 Park-crescent, Brighton. 


Worcester, The Right Rey. Henry Philpott, D.D., Lord Bishop of. 
Worcester. 


. TWorkman, Charles. Ceara, Windsor, Belfast. 
. *Worsley, iy - 1 Codrington-place, Clifton, Bristol. 


*Worthington, Rey. Alfred William, B.A. Old Meeting Parsonage 
Mansfield. 

Worthington, Archibald. Whitchurch, Salop. 

Worthington, James. Sale Hall, Ashton-on-Mersey. 

Worthington, William. Brockhurst Hall, Northwich, Cheshire. 


. [Worthy, George S. 2 Arlington-terrace, Mornington-crescent, Hamp- 


stead-road, London, N.W. 
§Wrieut, C. R. A., D.Sc., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry in St. 
Mary’s Hospital Medical School, Paddington, London, W. 


. tWright, Edward, LL.D, 23 The Boltons, West Brompton, London 
S.W. 


*Wright, E. Abbot. Castle Park, Frodsham, Cheshire. 

{Wrieut, E, Percevar, A.M., M.D., F.L.S., M.R.LA., Professor 
of Botany, and Director of the Museum, Dublin University. 
5 Trinity College, Dublin. 

tWright,G. H. Heanor Hall, near Derby. 

tWright, Joseph. Cliftonville, Belfast. 

TWright, J.S. 168 Brearley-street West, Birmingham. 

*Wright, Robert Francis. Hinton Blewett, Temple-Cloud, near Bristol, 


. |Wricut, THomas, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. St. Margaret’s-terrace, 


Cheltenham. 
Wright, T. G., M.D. Milnes House, Wakefield. 
t Wrightson, Francis, Ph.D. Ivy House, Kingsnorton. 
§Wrightson, Thomas. Norton Hall, Stockton-on-Tees. 
}Wiinsch, Edward Alfred. 3 Eaton-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow. 


. §Wratt, James, F.G.S. St. Peter’s Green, Bedford. 


Wyld, James, F.R.G.S. Charing Cross, London, W.C. 
*Wyley, Andrew. 21 Barker-street, Handsworth, Birmingham. 


. TWylie, Andrew. Prinlaws, Fifeshire. 
. §Wynn, Mrs. Williams. Cefn, St. Asaph. 
. {Wynnz, ArtHUR BeeEvor, F.G.S., of the Geological Survey of 


India. Bombay. 


. §Yabbicom, Thomas Henry, C.E. Ross Villa, Cotham-road, Bristol. 


*Yarborough, George Cook. Camp’s Mount, Doncaster. 


. {Yates, Edwin. Stonebury, Edgbaston, Birmingham, 


Yates, James. Carr House, Rotherham, Yorkshire. 


. TYeaman, James. Dundee. 
. t Yeats, John, LL.D.,F.R.G.S. Clayton-place, Peckham, London,8.E. 
. *Youne, James, F.R.S, F.C.S. Kelly, Wemyss Bay, by Greenock. 


Young, John. Taunton, Somersetshire. 

Young, John. Hope Villa, Woodhouse-lane, Leeds. 

Younge, Robert, F.L.S. Greystones, near Sheffield. 
tYoungs, John. Richmond Hill, Norwich. 


. {Yvzx, Colonel Henry, C.B. East India United Service Club, St 


James’s-square, London, 8,W, 


CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 


Year of 
E£lection. 


1871. 
1868. 
1866. 


1870. 
1872. 
1861. 


1857. 
1846. 
1874. 
1868. 
1864. 


1861. 
1864. 
1871. 
1875. 
1870. 
1855. 
1872. 
1874. 
1866. 
1862. 
1872. 
1870. 
1845, 


HIS IMPERIAL MAJESTY toe EMPEROR or THE BRAZILS. 

M. D’Avesac, Mem de l'Institut de France. 42 Rue du Bac, Paris. 

Captain I. Belavenetz, R.LN., F.R.LG.S., M.S.C.M.A., Superin- 
tendent of the Compass Observatory, Cronstadt, Russia. 

Professor Van Beneden, LL.D: Louvain, Belgium. 

Ch. Bergeron, C.K. 26 Rue des Penthievre, Paris. 

Dr. Bergsma, Director of the Magnetic Survey of the Indian Archi- 
pelago. Utrecht, Holland. , 

Professor Dr. T. Bolzani. Kasan, Russia. 

M. Boutigny (d’Evreux). Paris. 

M. A. Niaudet Breguet. 89 Quai de l’Horloge, Paris. 

Professor Broca. Paris. 

Dr. H. D. Buys-Ballot, Superintendent of the Royal Meteorological 
Institute of the Netherlands. Utrecht, Holland. 

Dr. Carus. Leipzig. 

M. Des Cloizeaux. Paris. 

Professor Dr, Colding. Copenhagen. 

Signor Guido Cora. 

J. M. Crafts, M.D. 

Dr. Ferdinand Cohn. Breslau, Prussia. 

Professor M. Croullebois. 18 Rue Sorbonne, Paris. 

M. Ch. D’Almeida. 31 Rue Bonaparte, Paris. 

Dr. Geheimrath yon Dechen. Bonn. 

Wilhelm Deltfs, Professorof Chemistry in the University of Heidelberg. 

Professor G. Devalque. Liége, Belgium. 

Dr. Anton Dohrn. Naples. 

Heinrich Dove, Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of 
Berlin. 

Professor Dumas. Paris. 

Professor Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg, M.D., Secretary of the Royal 
Academy, Berlin. 


. Dr. Eisenlohr. Carlsruhe, Baden. 

. Prof. A. Erman. 122 Friedrichstrasse, Berlin. 
. Professor Esmark. Christiania. 

. Professor A. Fayre. Geneva. 

. Dr. W. Feddersen. Lei 

. W. de Fonvielle. Rue ps 
. Professor E. Frémy. Paris. 

. M. Frisiani. 

. Dr. Gaudry, Pres. Geol. Soc. of France. Paris. 

. Dr. Geinitz, Professor of Mineralogy and Geology. Dresden. 

. Professor Paul Gervais. Museum de Paris. 

. Governor Gilpin. Colorado, United States. 

. Professor Asa Gray. Cambridge, U.S. 

66. Professor Edward Grube, Ph.D. Breslau. 

. Dr. Paul Giissfeldt of the University of Bonn. 3:3 Meckenheimer- 


zig. 
es Abbesse, Paris. 


street, Bonn, Prussia. 


. Dr. D. Bierens de Haan, Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences, 


Amsterdam. Leiden, Holland. 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 83 


Year of 
Election. 


1872. 


1864. 


1868, 
1872. 
1861. 
1842. 


1867. 


1862, 


1862. Aug. Kekulé, 
. Dr. Henry Kiepert, Professor of Geography. Berlin. 
. M. Khanikof. 11 Rue de Condé, Paris. 


Professor James Hall. Albany, State of New York. 

M. Hébert, Professor of Geology in the Sorbonne, Paris. 

Professor Henry. Washington, U.S. 

A. Heynsius. Leyden. 

J. E. Hilgard, Assist.-Supt. U.S. Coast Survey. Washington. 

Dr. Hochstetter. Vienna. 

M. Jacobi, Member of the Imperial Academy of St. Petersburg. 

Dr. Janssen. 21 Rue Labat (18° Arrondissement), Paris. 

Charles Jessen, Med. et Phil. Dr., Professor of Botany in the Univer- 
sity of Greifswald, and Lecturer of Natural History and Librarian 
at the a Agricultural Academy, Eldena, Prussia. 

rofessor of Chemistry. Ghent, Belgium. 


Dr. Felix Klein. Munich, Bavaria. 


. Dr. Knoblauch. Halle, Germany. 

. Professor Karl Koch. Berlin. 

. Professor A. Kélliker. Wurzburg, Bavaria. 

. Laurent-Guillaume De Koninck, M.D., Professor of Chemistry and 


Paleontology in the University of Liége, Belgium. 
Dr. Lamont. Munich. 


. Georges Lemoine. 19 Rue du Sommerard, Paris. 

. Baron de Selys-Longchamps. Liége, Belgium. 

. Professur Elias Loomis. Yale College, New Haven, United States. 

. Professor Jacob Liiroth. Carlsruhe, Baden. 

. Dr. Liitken. Copenhagen. 

. Professor C.S. Lyman. Yale College, New Haven, United States. 

. Professor Mannheim. Paris. 

. Professor Ch. Martins, Director of the Jardin des Plantes. Montpellier, 


France. 


. Professor P. Merian. Bale, Switzerland. 

. Professor von Middendorff. St. Petersburg. 

. Professor J. Milne-Edwards. Paris. 

. M. Abbé Moigno. Paris. 

. Dr. Arnold Moritz. Tiflis, Russia. 

. Edouard Morren, Professeur de Botanique &1’Université de Liége, Bel- 


um. 
. Dr. T. Nachtigal. Berlin. 
. Chevalier C. Negri, President of the Italian Geographical Society, 


Turin, Italy. 


. Herr Neumayer. The Admiralty, Leipzirger Platz, 12, Berlin. 

. Professor H. A. Newton. Yale College, New Haven, United States. 
. Professor Nilsson. Lund, Sweden. 

. Dr. Alphons Oppenheim. Berlin. 

. M. E. Peligot, Memb. de l'Institut, Paris. 

. Professor Benjamin Pierce. Washington, U.S. 

. Gustav Plarr. Strasburg. 

. Professor Felix Plateau. Place du Casino, 15, Gand, Belgium. 

. Professor L. Radlkofer. Professor of Botanyin the University of Munich, 
. Professor Victor von Richter. St. Petersburg. 

. Baron von Richthofen. Berlin. 


M. De la Rive. Geneva. 


. F. Roemer, Ph.D., Professor of Geology and Palzontology in the 


University of Breslau. Breslau, Prussia. 


. Professor W. B. Rogers. Boston, U.S. 
. Baron Herman de Schlagintweit-Sakiinliinski. Jaegersburg Castle, 


near Forchheim, Bavaria, 


- 


84 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1857. 
1874. 
1868. 
1872. 
1875. 
1861. 
1849. 
1873. 
1862. 


1864. 
1866. 
1845. 
1871. 
1870. 
1852. 


1864. 
1864. 


1848. 
1868. 


1842. 
1868. 
1864. 
1874. 
1872. 
1875. 


Professor Robert Schlagintweit. Giessen. 

Dr. G. Schweinfurth. rlin. 

Padre Secchi, Director of the Observatory at Rome. 

Professor Carl Semper. Wurtemburg, Bavaria. 

Dr. A. Shafarik.. Prague. 

M. Werner Siemens. Berlin. 

Dr. Siljestrom. Stockholm. 

Professor J. Lawrence Smith. Louisville, U.S. 

J. A. de Souza, Professor of Physics in the University of Coimbra, 
Portugal. 

Adolph Steen, Professor of Mathematics, Copenhagen, 

Professor Steenstrup. Copenhagen, 

Dr. Svanberg. Stockholm. 

Dr. Joseph Szabo. Pesth, Hungary. 

Professor Tchebichef. Membre de l’Academie de St. Petersburg, 

M. Pierre de Tchihatchef, Corresponding Member of the Institut de 
France. 1 Piazza degli Zuaai, Florence. 

Dr. Otto Torell. Prof. of Geology in theUniversity of Lund, Sweden. 

Arminius Vambéry, Professor of Oriental Languages in the University 
of Pesth, Hungary. 

M. Le Verrier. Paris. 

Professor Vogt. Geneva. 

Baron Sartorius von Waltershausen. Gottingen, Hanover, 

Professor Wartmann. Geneva. : 

Dr. H. A. Weddell. Poitiers, France. 

Dr. Frederick Welwitsch. Lisbon. 

Professor Wiedemann. Leipzig. 

Professor A. Wurtz. Paris. 

Dr. E. L. Youmans. New York, 


85 


LIST OF SOCIETIES AND PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS 


TO WHICH A COPY OF THE REPORT IS PRESENTED. 


GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 


Admiralty, Library of. 

Arts, Society of. 

Asiatic Society (Royal). 

Astronomical Society (Royal). 

Belfast, Queen’s College. 

Birmingham, Institute of Mechanical 
Engineers. 

—— Midland Institute. 

Bristol Philosophical Institution. 

Cambridge Philosophical Society. 

Chemical Society. 

Cornwall, Royal Geological Society of. 

Dublin Geological Society. 

——,, Royal Irish Academy. 

——,, Royal Society of. 

East India Library. 

Edinburgh, Royal Society of. 

—— Royal Medical Society of. 

——,, Scottish Society of Arts. 

Enniskillen, Public Library. 

Engineers, [Institute of Civil. 

Anthropological Institute. 

rola ee Memorial Museum. 
eographical Society (Royal). 

Bete rcal Society, ae 

Geology, Museum of Practical. 

Glasgow Philosophical Society. 

Greenwich, Royal Observatory. 

Kew Observatory. 

Leeds, Mechanics’ Institute. 


- 


Leeds, Philosophical and Literary So- 
ciety of. 

Linnean Society. 

Liverpool, Free Public Library and 
Museum. 

, Royal Institution. 

London Institution. 

Manchester Literary and Philosophical 
Society. 

—., Mechanics’ Institute. 

Neweastle-upon-Tyne Literary and 
Philosophical Society. 

Nottingham, The Free Library. 

Oxford, Ashmolean Society. 

——, Radcliffe Observatory. 

Plymouth Institution. 

Physicians, Royal College of. 

Royal Institution. 

Society. 

Salford Royal Museum and Library. 

Statistical Society. 

Stonyhurst College Observatory. 

Surgeons, Royal College of. 

Trade, Board of (Meteorological De- 
partment). 

United Service Institution. 

War Office, Library of the. 

Wales (South), Royal Institution of. 

Yorkshire Philosophical Society. 

Zoological Society. 


EUROPE. 
Alten, Lapland. Literary and Philoso- { Copenhagen ..Royal Society of 
phical Society, Sciences, 
a Der Kaiserlichen Ake- | Dorpat, Russia. Universit Library. 
demie der Wissen- | Frankfort ....Natural Hiviors So- 
chaften. ciety. 
ae ee Royal Academy of | Geneva ...... Natural History So- 
ciences, ciety. 
Breslan ...... Silesian Patriotic So- | Gottingen ... . University Library. 
ciety. Heidelberg .... University Library. 
POM 2. ae University Library. Helsingfors . . . . University Library. 
Brussels ...... Royal Academy of | Harlem ...... Société Hollandaise 
% Sciences. des Sciences. 
_ Charkow...... University Library. Kasan, Russia . University Library. 


H 


Inibpe TF... ): 
Lisbon .... 


Malan: -. scsi 


eee eee 


Munich .... 
Naples...... 


Nicolaieff 


Albany ... 
Boston... 


Cambridge ... 
New York ... 


eee wee 


... The Institute. 
.. American Academy of 


86 


. .Royal Observatory. Parise ones Geograpnical Society. 
.. University Library. | —— ........ Geological Society. 
....The Academy. ——_vesereee Royal Academy of 
.. University Library. ciences. 
. .University Library. ——seeaeeee School of Mines. 
..Academia Real des | Pulkova ...... Imperial Observatory. 
Sciences. HYOMMO.. wallets Academia dei Lyncei. 
. . The Institute. =e lpr Gl. eee Collegio Romano. 
..The Italian Society of | St. Petersburg. . University Library. 
Sciences, | nt eee Imperial Observatory. 
.. Royal Academy. Stockholm ....Royal Academy. 
. Society of Naturalists. | Turin ........ Royal Academy of 
. University Library. ciences. 
.. University Library. Wirecht..i.51. University Library. 
..Royal Academy of | Vienna........ The Imperial Library. 
Sciences. . YAW AW Bo General Swiss Society. 
..,. University Library. 
ASIA. 
. . The College. | Calcutta ......Hindoo College. 
. Elphinstone Institu- | —— ........ Hoogly College. 
LONI gard ASE eF Ufa aoe Sick adage Medical College. 
..Grant Medical Col- | Madras ....., The Observatory. 
lege, hs era 7s University Library. 
.. Asiatic Society. 
AFRICA. 
Cape of Good Hope ....The Observatory. 
AMERICA. 


Philadelphia .. American Philosophi- 
cal Society. 

Morontow eek The Observatory. 

Washington ..Smithsonian Institu- 


Arts and Sciences. 
.Harvard University 


Library. tion. 
.Lyceum of Natural | ———........ United States Geolo- 
History. gical Survey of the 
Territories. 
AUSTRALIA. 
Adelaide...... The Colonial Government. 
Victoria ...... The Colonial Government. 


Printed by TAYLOR and Francis Red Lion Court, Fleet Street. 


50A ALBEMARLE STREET, LONDON, 


October 1875. 


MR MURRAY'S 
LIST OF WORKS 


IN 


GENERAL LITERATURE, 


CONTAINING 


THE SPEAKER’S COMMENTARY ON THE BIBLE. 


History, ANCIENT & MODERN. 

BioGRAPHY, Memoirs, &c. 

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ScreNcE, NaTuraL History, 
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ART, ARCHITECTURE, AND AN- 


TIQUITIES. 


EDUCATIONAL WorRKS. 

POETRY, THE DRAMA, &c. 

NAVAL AND MILiTary WorRKS. 

PuiLosopuy, LAw, AND POoLI- 
TICS. 

RURAL AND Domestic Econo- 
MY, Sports, &c. 

MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE 

AND PHILOLOGY. 


HoME AND COLONIAL LIBRARY. 


Dr. Wm. SmituH’s ATLAS oF ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 


2 Mr. Murray's List of Works. 


THE SPEAKER’S COMMENTARY. 


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24 


Mr. Murray's List of Works 


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26 


Mr. Murray's List of Works 


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DICTIONARIES. 
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~ 


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tionary. Abridged from the above. 
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MURRAY’S 
STUDENT’S MANUALS. 


A Series of Historical Class Books. 
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an General Education. 


27 


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28 


Mr. Murray's List of 


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29 


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A Practical Hebrew Grammar ; 
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The Poems and Fragments of 
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Stories for Children. Selected 
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Esop’s Fables, A New Version, 


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Square 


30 


I. 
2. The Amber Witch. 


3. 


4. 


5. 


. French in Algiers. 


0 DID 


Io. 
II. 
12. 


13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 


17. 
18. 


19. 
20. 


. Livonian Tales. 
. Condé. By Lord Manon. 3s. 6d.” 


Mr. Murray's List of Works. 


The Home & Colonial Library. 


Class A—~BIOGRAPHY, HISTORY, &c. 


Drinkwater’s Gibraltar. 2s. 
2s. 
SoutTHEY’s Cromwell and Bun- 

yan. 2s. 
BARRoW’s Sir Francis Drake, 2s, 
British Army at Washington. 2s. 
25. 
2s. 


2s. 


Fall of the Jesuits. 


Sale’s Brigade in Affghanistan, 2s. 
Sieges of Vienna. 2s. 
MILMAN’s Wayside Cross. 2s. 
War of Liberation in Germany. 
s.f6d. 

GteEtIc’s Battle of Waterloo. ie 6d. 
STEFFENS’ Adventures. 1813-14. 
2s. 


CAMPBELL’S British Poets. 3s. 
Essays. By Lord MAHON. 3s. 
GueEIc’s Life of Lord Clive. 3s. 
Stokers and Pokers. By 
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Gueic’s Life of Munro. 3s. 


Class B—VOYAGES and TRAVELS. 


I. 
2. 


Borrow’s Bible in Spain. 3s. 6d. 
Borrow’s Gipsies of Spain. 3s. 6d. 


3, 4.. HEBER’S Journals in India. 

? S. 

5. Holy Land. By Irsy and MAN- 

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6. HaAy’s Western Barbary. 2s. 

7. Letters from the Baltic. 2s. 

8. MEREDITH’s New South Wales. 

: 2s. 

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16. ST. Joun’s Highland Sports. 
38. 6d. 

17. The Pampas. By Sir F. Heap. 
2s. 

18, Forp’s Gatherings from Spain. 
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19. EDWARDs’ River Amazon. 2s. 
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23. HAYGARTH’S Bush Life. 2s. 
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DR. WM. SMITH’S ANCIENT ATLAS. 


AN ATLAS OF ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY, BIBLICAL AND CLASSICAL. 
Intended to illustrate the ‘ Dictionary of the Bible,’ and the ‘ Dictionaries 


of Classical Antiquity.’ 


Compiled under the superintendence of Dr. 


WM. SMITH, and Mr. GEORGE GROVE. Folio, half-bound, £6 6s. 


. Geographical Systems of the Ancients. 


The World as known to the Ancients. 


. Empires of the Babylonians, Lydians, 


Medes, and Persians. 


. Empire of Alexander the Great. 


6. Kingdoms of the Successors of Alex- 
ander the Great. 

The Roman Empire in its greatest extent. 

The Roman Empire after its division 
into the Eastern and Western Empires. 


. Greek and Pheenician Colonies. 

. Britannia. 

. Hispania. 

. Gallia. 

. Germania, Rhetia, Noricum. 

. Pezonia, Thracia, Meesia, Illyria, Dacia. 
. Italy, Sardinia, and Corsica. 

. Italia Superior. 

. Italia Inferior. 

. Plan of Rome. 

. Environs of Rome. 

. Greece after the Doric Migration. 


I 
42, 


. Greece during the Persian Wars. 

. Greece during the Peloponnesian War. 
. Greece during the Achzan League. 

. Northern Greece. 

. Central Greece—Athens. 

. Peloponnesus.—With Plan of Sparta. 

. Shores and Islands of the A2gean Sea. 
. Historical Maps of Asia Minor. 

. Asia Minor. 

. Arabia. 

. India. 

. Northern Part of Africa. 

. Egypt and AXthiopia. 

. Historical Maps of the Holy Land. 


36. The Holy Land. North and South. 


. Jerusalem, Ancient and Modern. 
. Environs of Jerusalem. 


Sinai. 


. Asia, to illustrate the Old Testament. 
. Map, to illustrate the New Testament. 


43. Plans of Babylon, Nineveh, Troy, 
Alexandria, and Byzantium. 


Mr. Murray’s List of Works. 


ABERCROMBIE’s Works 
fEsop’s Fables = - 
Agricultural Journal 
Aids to Faith - 
Albert Durer- - 
Albert (The) Memorial 
— Speeches - 
Army Lists - - 
Arnold’s Architecture 
Art of Dining - 
Austin’s Jurisprudence 


BarBauLp’s Hymns - 
Barrow’s Autobiography 
Barry’s (Sir C.) Life - 
Bates’ River Amazon 
Bax’s Eastern Seas 
Beauclerk’s Norway 


Bees and Flowers - 
Belcher’s (Lady) ‘Bounty’ 
Bell’s Letters - - 
Belt’s Nicaragua - - 


Bertram’s Harvest of Se 
Bible Commentary - 
Birch’s Ancient Pottery 
Bird’s Sandwich Islands 
Bisset’s Commonwealth 
Sport in Africa - 
Blackstone’s Comments. 20, 
Blomfield’s (Bp.) Memoir 
Blunt’s Works - 
Borrow’s Works - 
Boswell’s Johnson 
Brace’s Ethnology 
Bray’s Stothard = - 
Cevennes - 
British Association 
Broughton’s Albania 
—— ta - - - 
Brownlow’s Reminiscences 
Brugsch’s Ancient Egypt 
Burckhardt’s Cicerone - 
Buckley’s Natural Science 
Burgon’s Tytler - - 
— Letters from Rome 
Burn’s Nay. & Mil. Terms 
Burrow’s Constitution - 
Buttmann’s Works - 
Buxton’s Memoirs, &c. - 
Byles’ on Religion- —- 
Byron’s Life - -  - 
— Poetical Works - 


Campeett’s Chancellors 
and Chief-Justices  - 
Lord Bacon - - 
— Napoleon - - 
Carnarvon’s Athens and 
Druses - - - 
Child’s Benedicite - 
Chisholm’s Polar Seas - 


Choice of a Dwelling 
Church and the Age 
Churton’s Poetical Works 


-| Conolly’s Life - 


INDEX. 


—_4—_ 


Clode’s Military Forces 
Martial Law - 
Colchester Papers - 
Coleridge’s Table-Talk 


Cookery - 
Cooke’s Sketches 
Cook’s Sermons 
Cooper’s China 
Cornwallis Papers 
Cowper’s Diary - 
Crabbe’s Life and Works 
Croker’s Geography - 
— Stories for Children 
Crowe’s Flemish Painter 7, 
— Painting in Italy - 
Cumming’s South Africa 
Cunynghame’s Caucasus 
Curtius’ Works - 
Curzon’s Monasteries - 


28, 


29 
Io 


Cust’s Annals of the Wars 5, 6 


Darwin’s Works - 
Davy’s Consolations 
— Salmonia - 
Derby’s Homer - 
De Ros’s Young Officer 
Deutsch’s Talmud 
Douglas’s Life - 
— Gunnery - 
—Bridges- - 
— Horse-Shoeing 
Ducange’s Dictionary 
Du Chaillu’s Africa - 
Dufferin’s High Latitudes 
Duncan’s Artillery - 
Dyers Modern Europe 


EASTLAKE’S Essays 
Eldon’s Life - - 
Elgin’s Letters = - 
Ellis’s Madagascar 
Memoir -  - 
Ellis’s Catullus 
Elphinstone’s India 
Turning - 
Elze’s Byron - - 
Essays on Cathedrals 


FrerGusson’s Architec- 


tural Works - = 
Forsyth’s Cicero - = 
Hortensius - - 


— Ancient Manuscripts 
Novels and Novelists 
Fortune’s China - - 
Foss’ Biographia Juridica 
Frere’s India & Africa - 


Gavton’s Art of Travel 
Geographical Journal - 
George’s Mosel & Loire 
Gibbon’s Roman Empire 
Giffard’s Naval Deeds - 
Gladstone’s Rome-— - 


2I 
21 


31 


Goldsmith’s Works 


- 23 
Grey’s Wm.IVth- - 7 

Reform - - = 2r 
Grote’s Histories - - 2,3 

Works - - - 20 
— Life SSE RN 4 (53 

Ary Scheffer-  - 7 
Guizot’s Christianity - 416 
HALtaw’s England - 4 
— Middle Ages - - 4 
— Literary History - 22 
— Remains - = 22 
Hall’s English Grammar 28 
— First Latin Book - 28 
Hamilton’s Guards Ege 3 


Handbooks for Travellers 12-14 
Hatherley on Scripture- 16 


Head’s Engineer - = 24 

Burgoyne - - 8 
—— Bubbles from Nassau 12 

Shall and Will - 23 
Heber’s Poetical Works 16, 23 
Herschel’s Memoir - 6 
Hollway’s Norway = rE 


Home and Col. Library - 
Hook’s Church Dictionary 
—— Life - - 


Hope’s Ahmedabad - is 
— Worship - .- 16 
Houghton’s Monographs 6 
—— Poetical Works - 24 
Hume’s England - - 4 
Hutchinson’s Dog-Break- 
ing ys, -) ee rome fore 
Hutton’s Principia Greca 29 
Jacosson’s Prayer Book 16 
Jameson’s Ital. Painters 7,19 
Jennings’ United States © ar 
Jervis’s Gallican Church 4 
Jesse’s Gleanings - - 18 
Johns’ Blind People - 22 
Johnson’s (Dr.) Life 7 
English Poets - 23 
Junius’ Handwriting - 22 
Ken’s Life - - - 6 
Apostle’s Creed - 15 
Kerr’s Country House - 20 
King Edward VIth’s 
Grammars - - = 29 
King’s Essays ise Var 
Kirk’s Charles the Bold 4 
Kirkes’ Physiology = 5 
Kugler’s Italian Schools 19 
— German Schools - 19 
Lane's Modern Egyptians 9 
Lawrence’s Reminiscences 8 
Layard’s Nineveh- = 
Leathes’ Heb. Grammar 29 
Leslie’s Handbook for 
Painters - - = a9 
Levi’s British Commerce 2 


Liddell’s Rome - - 


32 


Lindsay’s Etruscan In- 
scriptions - -  - 
Lispings from Low Lati- 
tudes - - - - 
Little Arthur’s England 
Livingstone’s Travels - 


Lloyd’s Sicily he iet Lay 
Loch’s China - - 5 
Lockhart’s Spanish Bal- 
lads - =A ee! cag 
Loudon’s Gardening - 25 
Lyell’s Works SAR t7; 
Lyttelton’s Ephemera - 22 
Lytton’s Julian Fane - a, 
M‘CiintTock’s Arctic 
case Sey ry 
Macdougall’s Warfare - 24 
Macgregor’s Rob Ray - 10 
Macpherson’s Life - 8 
Maetzner’s English Gram- 
bt 
Maine’s (Sir H.) Works 20 
Mansel’s Lectures - - 8, 16 
Manual, Admiralty i xe 
Marlborough Letters - 7 
Marco Polo's Travels - 8 
Markham’s Histories - 27 
Marryat’s Pottery = 30 
Matthie’s Greek Gram- 
Mare | =si un, = 29 
Mayne’s Columbia =), 
Mayo’s Sport in Abyssinia 9 
Meade’s New Zealand - 10 
Messiah (The) —Wi ins och 
Millington’s Land of Ham 15 
Mills’ Nablus - - 10 
Milman’s Histories wets 
— St. Paul’s - - 5 
— Christianity - - 16 
Horace - - = 7,23 
Poetical Work - 23 
Mivart’s Lessons from 
Nature - - - 21 
Mongredien’s Trees - 25 
Moore’s Clematis - - 25 
— Life of Byron - 7 
Mossman’s Japan - - 8 
Motley’s Histories - 4 
Mouhot’s Siam - - = 8 
Mozley’s Predestination 16 
Regeneration - = 26 
Muirhead’s Vaux-de-Vire 23 
Murchison’s Siluria - 7 
— Memoirs - - 6 
Music and Dress - - 25 
Musters’ Patagonians - 11 
Napier’s English Battles 5 
Nasmyth’s Moon - - 17 
Nautical Almanack - 24 
Navy List - - - 2 
New Testament - en 
Newth’s Natural Philo- 
sophy<) = y=) => 8 
Nichols’ Pilgrimages - 22 
Nicholls’ Poor Laws - ax 
5 


Nicolas’ Historic Peerage 
Nimrod - - - - 


Lndex. 


Nordhoff’s Communistic 
Societies - - - 


OtpLondon- - - 
Ormathwaite’s Astronomy 
Owen’s Modern Artillery 
Oxenham’s Latin Elegiacs 


PALGRAVE’s Taxation 
—— Banking- - 
Palliser’s Brittany - 
Monuments - 
Parkinan’s Great West 
Parkyns’ Abyssinia 
Peek Prize Essays 
Peel’s Memoirs” - 
Percy’s Metallurgy 
Phillip’s Wm. Smith 
Yorkshire - 
Philip’s Literary Essays 
Philosophy in Sport ~ - 
Pick’s French Dictionary 
Pope’s Works Sees 


Per (Eee eee ne en 


Porter’s Damascus - 
Prayer-Book - - - 
Principles at Stake - 
Privy Council Judgments 
Puss in Boots - - - 


QuARTERLY Review - 


Rae’s North Wind - 
Rambles; Syria - - 
Ranke’s Popes - - 
Rassam’s Abyssinia - 
Rawlinson’s Herodotus 
—,,Ancient monarchies 
— Russia in the East 
Reed’s Shipbuilding - 
Rejected Addresses - 
Rennie’s Peking, &c,  - 
Reynold’s Life - - 
Ricardo’s Works - - 
Robertson’s Church His- 
tory - = cS - 
Liturgy - - - 
Robson’s School Archi- 
tecture - - = 
Robinson’s Palestine - 
— Physical Geography 
— Alpine Flowers - 
—— Wild Garden - 
—— Sub-Tropical Garden 
Rowland’s Constitution 
— Laws of Nature - 


ScCHLIEMANN’s Troy” - 
Scott’s Architecture - 
—— University Sermons 
Scrope’s Central France 
Selwyn’s Colloquies = - 
Shadows of Sick Room 
Shah of Persia’s Diary - 
Shaw’s Tartary - ~ - 
Shirley's Parks - - 
Simmons’ Court Martial 
Sinclair’s Old Times - 
Smiles’ ‘Popular Biogra- 
phies = =) 9-5 = 
— Boy’s Voyage - 
Smith’s Bible Dictionaries 


Smith’s Class. Dictionaries3, 26 
—— Ancient Atlas - 
—— Educational Course (3) 
Smith’s Smaller histories 


30 
28 


27. 
— Ancient History - 3 
— Nile = fim aint aig) 
Somerville’s Life - - 6 


—— Physical Sciences, &c. 17 
Southey’s Book of Church 15 
Spalding’s Tale of Frithiof 22 


Stanhope’s Histories - 4, 5 
Belisarius -  - 7 
— Pitt - - - 7 
Miscellanies - - 25 
Stanley’s Sinai - - 10 
Bible in Holy Land 10 
Eastern Jewish and 
Scottish Church- - 5 
— Canterbury - ae, fai 
—— Westminster Abbey 5 
—— Sermonsin East - 16 
— Bp.,Memoir- - 6 
Arnold - - - 6 
— Corinthians - - 16 
Stephen’s St. Chrysostom 6 
Stories for Darlings - 29 
Street’s Architecture of 
Spain) =" go 0g 
Architecture in Italy 19 
Student’s Manuals 26, 27 
Styffe’s Iron and Steel - 18 
Swainson’s Creeds = 36 
Swifts Life - - - 7 
Sybel’s French Revolution 5 
Symonds’ Records of the 
Rocks- —— - Sy ae i) 
THIELMANN’s Caucasus _10 
Thoms’ Longevity- - 18 
Thomson’s Sermons eb" 26 
Tocqueville’s State of 
France - - - 5 
Tomlinson’s Sonnet - 23 
Tozer’s Turkey & Greece 10 
Tristram’s Land of Moab 10 
Twiselton’s Tongue - 18 
Tyler’s Primitive Culture 2x 
Tylor’s History of Man- 
kind - - - - ‘2% 
VamBeEry’s Travels - 8 
Van Lennep’s Asia Minor 9g 
— Bible Lands - my srg: 
Vatican Council - - 16 


WEIGALL’s Princess Char- 


lotte - - - - 7 
Wellington’s Despatches 5 
Whymper’s Alaska =) ae 
Wilberforce’s Essays - 21 
— Life - - - 7 
Wilkinson’s Egyptians - 3 
Wilson’s Life & Diary - 8 
Wood's Oxus - - - 8 
Words of Human Wisdom 22 
Wordsworth’s Athens - 9 

Greece - = Ji 1G 
Yuue’s Marco Polo - 8 
ZINCKE’s United States- 11 


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